2024

Indigenous and ecosystem-based solutions
in SEPLS management amid overlapping
predicaments in the Sundarbans,
Bangladesh

Rashed Al Mahmud Titumir, Md. Shah Paran, Bayezid Khan

Indigenous and ecosystem-based solutions in SEPLS
management amid overlapping predicaments in the
Sundarbans, Bangladesh

Unnayan Onneshan
16/2 Indira Road. Farmgate, Dhaka-1215
G.P.O Box #2251
Tel: (+88 02) 58150684, 9110636
Fax: (+88 02) 58155804
Mail: info@unnayan.org

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Indigenous and ecosystem-based solutions in SEPLS management
amid overlapping predicaments in the Sundarbans, Bangladesh
1. Introduction
The Sundarbans mangrove forest, identified as a world heritage site by the UNESCO, is the largest
single track contiguous mangrove forest in the world, totaling around 140,000 hectares. It issituated on the delta formed by the convergence of the Ganges, Brahmaputra, and Meghna rivers,
which is located on the Bay of Bengal. The overall land area is an estimated 10,000 square
kilometres, with approximately two-thirds of this region being within the borders of Bangladesh
and the remaining one-third situated in the state of West Bengal, India. The Sundarbans, locatedin Bangladesh, correspond to latitude 21°38'10.18" North and 22°29'51.65" North, and longitudes
89°02'22.87" East and 89°53'13.93" East. The geographical region under consideration extends
from the Harinbhanga and Raimangal Rivers in the Western boundary to the Baleswar River inthe Eastern boundary (Mondal et al., 2018).
The Sundarabans is a unique Socio Ecological Production Landscapes and Seascapes (SEPLS)
with a composite ecosystem combining forest, marine, coastal, and wetland environments (Titumir& Paran, 2022a). However, it is losing resources due to anthropogonic pressures and climaticchanges. Multiple crises like COVID-19 pandemic, cost of living is also posing unprecedented
challenges to the wellbeing of both the Sundarbans and IPLCs dependent on it (Titumir & Paran,
2022a; Titumir et al. 2019). IPLCs in the Sundarbans have adopted various innovative andparticipatory local approaches and actions to manage the SEPLS sustainably (Titumir et al. 2022b).
This multiple-evidence-based (MEB) participatory research aims to capture indigenous andecosystem-based solutions in SEPLS management amid overlapping crises of COVID-19, climatechange and increased cost of living. It is conducted in collaboration with Indigenous People andLocal Communities (IPLCs) in the Sundarbans—drawing Indigenous and Local Knowledge (ILC)
and traditional practices of two cooperatives - Koyra Bonojibi Bohumukhi Unnayan Samity andMunda Adivasi Bonojibi Bohumukhi Unnayan Samity. The two cooperatives have faced a plethoraof challenges due to overlapping crises and in response, they have taken various actions to adapt
to and mitigate these challenges. This study aims to explore whether indigenous and ecosystembased solutions in SEPLS management amid multiple crises lead to increased regenerative
capacity and well-being of ecosystems, increased income and standard of living, low-impact
lifestyles, and sustainable production and consumption by IPLCs. Based on the findings, this study
also provides an analysis presenting how indigenous and ecosystem-based solutions could
contribute to Global Biodiversity Framework (GBF) and Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).

2. Methodology
This study is designed adopting MEB approach. The researchers have carried out systematicconsultations to develop a methodological toolbox to identify vulnerability, regenerative capacity,
status of income and standard of living, low-impact lifestyles, and sustainable production andconsumption practices through workshops involving 30 IPLCs. The methodological toolbox2

identified includes participatory vulnerability assessment, preparing inventory of indigenous andecosystem-based solutions, identifying ILK-based best practices, and conducting validation
exercises. Throughout the chapters this study utilized situation analysis, analysis of the causes ofvulnerability, analysis of community action and capacity, and drawing action plans from analysis(Table 1).
Consultative workshops were conducted in two forest peoples ‘cooperatives- namely- Bonojibi
Bohumukhi Unnayan Samity and Munda Adivasi Bonojibi Bohumukhi Unnayan Samity. The
methodological toolbox identified in the consultations was utilized through one-on-one survey
with semi structured questionnaire and focus group discussions (FGDs). The FGDs was conductedin separate groups while male and female participants attended and provided their opinions basedon their experiences. The study utilized ILK collected through consultation with forest people andused data reservoir of Unnayan Onneshan (UO)- a multi-disciplinary research organization
working with IPLCS in the Sundarbans for more than decades. The participants of the study
perform their livelihood activities through wood collection (Bawalis), fishing (Jele), honey andwax collection (Mouals), and crab collection.
Table 1. Methods, tools, and analyses adopted in the study.
MethodConsultation
methodological toolbox

Tools
for • Participatory vulnerability
assessment• Preparing inventory ofindigenous
andecosystem-based solutions• Categorizing ILK-based
best practices• Validation exercise

Analysis• Situation analysis• Analysis of causes ofvulnerability• Analysis of community
action and capacity• Drawing action plan fromanalysis(Source: Compiled by authors)
The study focused on two specific unions (the lowest tier of the local government body) namely
Koyra and North Bedkashi which is in Koya sub-district of Khulna district, Bangladesh. Three
specific villages namely 4 no. Koyra, 5 no. Koyra, and 6 no. Koyra were selected from Koyra
union while, Sheikh Sardar Para (Ward No. 3), and Gazi Para (Ward No. 7) villages were
purposively selected from North Bedkash Union for data collection.

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.
Map 1. Study area- Koyra Sub-district, Khulna district, Bangladesh(Source: Authors)

3. Vulnerability Analysis: Livelihood Stress and Biodiversity Loss
This chapter illustrates the livelihood stress and vulnerability of the community people as well as
the vulnerability in the Sundarbans’ ecosystem- resulting to biodiversity loss. COVID -19, climatechange and cost of living has added extra burden to their livelihood. This chapter, using someindicators, will shed light on how their livelihood get strained due to multiple crises.

3.1 State of lives and livelihood

The impact of COVID-19 pandemic, associated with other challenges, caused livelihood distress
for IPLCs. Reduced income of the IPLCS led them to borrow loans with high interest rateplunging them into a vicious cycle of debt. IPLCs were not even able to bear their subsistence
during this period, which had multiple impacts including health and livelihood distress.
Dependency on loans for family expenses

The study found that above 90 per cent people were bound to take loan during COVID-19 to bear
their family expenses (Figure 1), which indicates their dependency on daily labor and limited
savings for emergency need. In other word, the livelihood resiliency of IPLCs in the Sundarbans
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is meagre. It is also found that IPLCs in the two cooperatives were borrowing loans mostly to meettheir subsistence. Most of the borrowers took a loan ranging from BDT 5-15 thousand (Figure 2).
This scenario implies that during COVID period majority of the IPLCS were not able to bear eventhe subsistence level of income for their families.

Figure 1. Taking Loan during COVID-19.

Figure 2. Amount of money borrowed.

(Source: Authors)
The popular sources of loans were non-governmental organizations (NGOs). A substantial amountof loans was also borrowed from government organizations and local moneylenders (Figure 3). It
is observed that the interest rate provided by NGOs and moneylenders were very high. Often IPLCs
have been found getting into vicious cycle of debt, which has multiplying and long impact on theirlivelihood security.

Figure 3. Source of loans. (Source: Authors)
Reduced expenditure during and after COVID-19

The affordability of IPLCs to buy new clothes is low. Many respondents cannot even buy new
clothing even once a year. Most of them can buy new clothes only once a year and a considerable
number of them can buy new clothing twice a year, presumably during festivals (Figure 4).

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Figure 4. Affordability to purchase new clothes in a year. (Source: Authors)
The study found that there had been has been a steep decline in the allocation of budget for
clothing following the COVID-19 pandemic (Figure 5). Almost all the respondents indicated thatbudget allocation for clothes were declined after the pandemic.

Figure 5. Budget allocation for clothing after COVID-19. (Source: Authors)
IPLCs also lowered their expenses for entertainment purpose during COVID-19 period (Figure 6).
Most of the respondents reported a large decrease in entertainment expenses during the pandemic,
which can be attributed to the fact that people were unable to travel to places due to lockdown that
kept the expenses low. But they argued reduced income during COVID-19 period had negative
impact on the overall expenses.

Figure 6. Entertainment expenses during COVID-19. (Source: Authors)

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Health-related difficulties and diseases burden

Almost all respondents argued that they had been suffering from various diseases (Figure 7),
indicating increased disease burden in the community as a common memory. The impact of
COVID-19 pandemic on their livelihood negatively affects their ability to seek healthcare services.
The COVID-19 and associated health difficulties may also be responsible for this (Titumir & Paran,
2022a).

Figure 7. Opinion poll on diseases suffering. (Source: Authors)

3.2 State of biodiversity and ecosystem

The Sundarbans has undergone negative changes due to both human intervention and naturalcalamities. Biodiversity loss induced by fragile ecosystem has far-reaching consequences on lifeand livelihood of IPLCs.
Decreasing trend of fish available in rivers
Availability of fish in the water bodies of Sundarbans has decreased (Titumir & Paran, 2022b).
Above half of the respondents agreed with the statement that the number of fish in rivers and canals
is less than before. Only 2 respondents strongly disagree about any noticeable change (Figure 8).

Figure 8. Decreasing trend of fish available in rivers than before. (Source: Authors)

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Decreasing trend of various trees available in forest

Figure 9. Decreasing trend of various trees available in forest. (Source: Authors)
Most of the respondents agree with the statement that various plants and trees are dying in the
Sundarbans (Figure 9). Availability different floral species has decreased over the years. As aresult, many parts inside the forest are becoming empty fallow lands.
Change in Sea levels
Most of the respondents have found noticeable rise in sea levels in recent years (Figure 10).
Climate change effects, such as sea-level rise and increased turbidity, may cause habitat loss andfragmentation in the Sundarbans. The intensity and frequency of these extreme weather events areexacerbated by climate change, increasing the vulnerability of the local population (Titumir et al.,2022a). The destruction caused by these events necessitates significant investments forreconstruction and recovery, further straining the cost of living.

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Figure 10. Change in Sea Levels. (Source: Authors)

Increasing salinity in rivers and ponds

Most of the respondents found increased salinity in rivers and ponds (Figure 11). 40 respondents
strongly agreed with the statement that the salinity of rivers has increased. At the same time, 30
respondents simply agreed to the statement, and only one respondent disagreed. Almost all
respondents unanimously agree that salinity of pond water has increased.

Figure 11. Increased salinity in rivers and ponds. (Source: Authors)
Migration or displacement during lifespan

The livelihood insecurity of IPLCs caused by double burden of climate change, bio-diversity
loss, and COVID-19 resulted in number of impacts. IPLCs in the Sundarbans experienced
displacement and migrated to one place to another place for living (Figure 12).

Figure 12: Displacement during lifespan (Source: Authors)
Change in lives and livelihoods
The lives and livelihoods of millions of people were adversely affected by numerous natural
disasters caused by climate change. Most of the respondents agreed that there has been a change
in their livelihoods and or they faced difficulties in earning an income (Figure 13). The agricultural9

productivity in the region can be affected by climate change, resulting in reduced crop yields andlimited availability of food, thereby leading to an increase in food prices (Titumir & Paran, 2022a).
This situation poses a challenge for the local population in affording an adequate diet.

Figure 13. Changes in livelihoods. (Source: Authors)
In the forthcoming years, the alterations in climate variables are predicted to have catastrophic
consequences. The displacement of communities residing in the Sundarbans due to climatechange-induced events such as sea-level rise and increased cyclone frequency can disrupt theirtraditional livelihoods, such as fishing and agriculture, leading to economic hardships and a rise in
the cost of living.
Limited options for alternative work
Above 90 per cent of the respondents reported that they have no alternative work other thancollecting honey, fish, wood, leaves, crabs from the forest (Figure 14). Shrinking livelihoods andincome are caused by limited options for alternative works.

Figure 14. Available alternative work for IPLCs. (Source: Authors)10

3.3 Participatory vulnerability analysis
The table 2 presents the indicators and sub-indicators for participatory vulnerability assessment
conducted in the community. The indicators show the level of impacts caused by poly crises
including COVID-19 stress, biodiversity loss and cost of living.
Table 2. Vulnerability indicators and sub-indicators.
Indicators of
COVID -19
vulnerability

ClimatechangeBiodiversity
loss

Cost of living

Impactslevel

Sub-indicators

Added extra
burden in basic
needs

Sea level rise

Decreasing
Trends of Crop
& harvesting

Strain in Food
expenses

Sub-indicators

Lost means of
livelihood

Change inrainfallDecreasing
Trends of Fish
Availability

Strain Clothing

Sub-indicators

No alternativework

Victim of
Displacement

Decreasing
Trends of Trees
Availability

Strain Health cost

Sub-indicators

Restriction toaccess to forest

Temperature
RisingDecreasing
Trends of Forest
Land Area

Spend out savings

Sub-indicators

CompromisedHigh Salinity

Decreasing
Trends ofVegetation Area

Unaffordability of
Educational expense(Source: Compiled by Authors)

The assessment of vulnerable condition of community people was conducted using both
vulnerability matrix and multi criteria decision aid (MCDA). This study fixed the variables into 5(almost all= more than 60%) to 1 (Very few= below 10%) matrix and calculated the result througha survey (Table 3). After analyzing the opinions found from the survey, it measured the overall
impact of three main indicators along with their sub-indicators.
Table 3. Variable matrix
Point Scale

Illustration

5 Almost allMore than 60% participant

4 Most of them

51%-60%3 Some of them

25%-50%2 Small of them

10%-25%

1 Very few

Below 10%

Table 4. Heat map sign of the vulnerability assessment.
Veryfew(1)

Small ofthem(2)

Some of them

Most of them

Almost all

11

(3)

(4)

(5)

Strongly
Disagree(1)

1

2

3

4

5

Disagree(2)

2

4

6

8

10

Neutral(3)

3

6

9

12

15

Agree(4)

4

8

12

16

20

Strongly Agree(5)

5

10

15

20

25
Critically endangered
Endangered
Fare
Very good(Source: Compiled by Authors)

Heat map of the vulnerability assessment suggests that climate change, biodiversity loss, cost ofliving are vulnerable conditions, with an overall impact of leaving the people and the Sundarbans
endangered (Table 5).
Table 5. Heat map illustrating the vulnerability assessment using both vulnerability matrix andMCDA methods, including overall three dimensions based on the field survey.
Indicator

ClimateChangeSub indicator

Variable based on people’s opinion found in field survey
Strongly
Agree

Agree

NeutralDisagreeStrongly
DisagreeSea level rise

15

12

6

2

3

Change in rainfall

10

8

3

6

2

Victim of
Displacement

10

12

6

2

1

Temperature
Rising

15

12

12

4

1

Salinity

15

12

3

6

3

Decreasing Trendsof Crop &harvesting

20

12

9

2

1

15

16

6

2

1

Biodiversity
loss
Decreasing Trendsof FishAvailability

vulnerable
condition

12

Cost oflivingDecreasing Trendsof Trees
Availability

15

12

12

10

1

Decreasing Trendsof Forest Land
Area

15

12

6

6

1

Decreasing Trendsof Vegetation Area

10

12

12

8

3

Fooding

5

12

3

6

1

Clothing

10

12

9

8

1

Health Issue

10

12

9

8

1

State of difficultyin earning

10

8

3

4

3

Education

10

12

9

4

1

Indicators

Vulnerable
Condition

Overall Impact

1. Climate Change

Endangered

2. Biodiversity loss

Endangered

3. Cost of living

Endangered(Source: Compiled by Authors)

4. Community based Innovation and traditional knowledge
IPLCs in the Sundarbans were compelled to change occupations to adjust to emerging situations
caused by climate change, such as nipa leaf collectors or honey hunters involved in fishing, which
can lead to overexploitation of fishing resources. Again, many intruders are illegally encroaching
to the forest and harm both ecological traits and livelihood options. Against vulnerability IPLCs
has been taking numerous actions following ILK and traditional practices.

4.1 Promotion of Traditional Knowledge and practices
Traditional knowledge practices that are important for the Sundarbans in the face of loss of
biodiversity, cost of living, and climate change include the utilization of non-timber forest products,
such as golpata (Nypa fruticans), honey, and fish, which are used by a significant percentage ofthe local population (Titumir et al., 2023). Local and indigenous people have been sustainably
utilizing their ILK in managing forest resources as they developed a strong harmonious
relationship with forest and acquired vast understanding through long experience. And thislearning continues to generation to generation leading them an expert of managing forest ecology
and resources. Titumir & Afrin (2022) showed how years of knowledge, practice and numerous
conventions have turned into conventional rules that people are following for generation to
generation without harming the resources to grow. Different community follow their respective

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community based innovative strategies and cultural beliefs to earn their breads including golpata(Nypa fruticans) cutters, mouals (honey/wax collectors) and bawalis (woodcutters) from theavailable resources in Sundarbans. Each group demonstrates unique and innovative methods toperform their activity.
Fishermen community in the Sundarbans articulated an indigenous technical knowledge (ITK)
including unique fishing methods where they respect natural fish breeding during sustainably
fishing. The fishermen also use indigenous knowledge and techniques for fishing, such as different
types of nets and traps (Raju et al., 2016). They allocate a single specific day for fishing which is
Fridays. They use locally designed tools for fishing such as locally made nets which are notharmful to carp variety of fishes. The rules that are in place traditionally prohibit the use of harmful
tools like current nets, bainjaal, etc (Titumir et al, 2019). They do not use any dangerous net or
chemicals while going for fishing. Again, fishermen use big-meshed nets for rivers and smallmeshed nets for closed water bodies. Mouals (honey collectors) consider the issues ofoverexploitation and regenerative process of honey storage in the honeycombs are ensured. Mouals
collect honey by cutting about two-thirds of the beehive and keeping the rest for bees to restore
honey. Bawalis (wood collectors) abide by some sustainable methods to harvest of wood from theforest. They cut woods in year-round process where they always refrain to cut wood from the same
compartment in same year to let the forest regrowth adequately. Golpata (Nypa fruticans)harvesters, as Titumir & Afrin (2022) showed in his study as well, collect golpata more than oncea year and keeping the flowers and fruits undamaged. Again, the collectors cut the leaves in a waythat the main leaf and the leaf next to it in each cluster are left behind for regrowth.
Table 6. Community based innovations

Community
based Innovation
Innovation inagriculture: ricecultivation in highplace to keep awayfrom salinity

Livelihood
insecurity
reduction
Plantation next tohouse

Integrated farming
crab and duck

Riverside plantation

Community-Based
Mangrove Agro
Aqua Silvi(CMAAS) Culture

Working andassisting with theforest department
against illegal
poaching

Regenerative capacityof Sundarbans andwellbeing

Biodiverse
adaptation
to climatechangeWellbeing of
nature andhuman being

Sediment deposition

CultivationofMangrove
Trees

Freedom of choice
and action

Prolific plant Life

MaintenanceofMangrove
Trees

Security

Land restoration

Restorationofmangroves

Good social
relations14Strengthening thecooperatives by
increased activities

Utilizing each inch
land for cultivation

Working to stop
illegal and stop
logging
Working to stop
illegal fishing withnets

Erosion minimizing

Steer clearof fishing indelicate
places.

Good healthDiverse species
interactions

Maintain theecosystem's
food webMulticultural
Tapestry(Source: Compiled by authors)

4.2 Community based innovations

IPLCs in the Sundarbans adopted several innovative practices following their ILK, which are
effective to adapt to and mitigate the impact of climate change and other shocks. In the face of
livelihood distress, their alternative practices are opening new windows for livelihood security.
Developing the culture of cultivation in each inch land
To cope up with the poly crises they are adopting culture of cultivation to each inch land and keep
no land uncultivated. This is why they are planting vegetables around their house. They also use
their rooftop of houses to grow vegetables.
Innovation in rice cultivation
Farmers cultivate rice in two steps while in one phase they sow seeds in higher areas away fromthe coast and after grown up the seedlings are transplanted to the main agricultural land to avoid
risk of increased salinity in the soil and water of coastal areas. Again, the farmers cultivate rice at
8–12 inches high from the ground level, to save the crop from rising salinity in both soil and water(Titumir et al., 2023).
Potential of integrated farming (Crab and Duck)
Community people are adopting integrated farming where they rear ducks and crab jointly in same
farmland which has been found more profitable.
Community-Based Mangrove Agro Aqua Silvi (CMAAS) Culture
CMAAS culture is innovated as a substitute to the commercial shrimp (CS) culture with andwithout adverse impact on the ecosystem. Titumir & Afrin (2022) also showed CMAAS culture isreferred to the practice of integrated cultivation of few mangrove faunal species such as crabs,
oyster, variety of fish like shrimps, bhetki (Latescal carifer), etc., and floral species like golpata(Nypa fruticans), keora (Sonerati_aapetala), goran (Ceriops_decandra), etc., at the same time on
available swampy land in brackish water.
Strengthening the cooperatives by increased activities
As community people are experiencing huge external pressure from outsiders, the cooperatives
and community people adopt increased cooperation and tolerance among their kins and members.
They work together and achieve anything by showing solidarity. Thus, they strengthened theactivities of cooperatives.

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Table 7. Livelihood insecurity matrix and innovation linking to GBF and SDG.
Means/
drivers
Business as
usual-The cost ofbuilding house
is increasing-Increasing theprice of foodproducts

Cost ofliving- CrabCollection-Fishing byusing engine operated trawler-Using harmful
current nets,
bainjaal, etc forfishing.
-Displacementof people

Climatechange-Hotter summer
and irregular
rainfall-Increased
frequency ofnatural storms-Food
insecurity

Biodiversity-Job insecurity
loss-Socialinsecurity

Means ofverification

Innovation

Link to wellbeing
GBF

SDG

-Raising houseabove normal
flood level- Adjusting crop
pattern to takeadvantage offloodwater

Traditionalrules-Traditional
Knowledge

15,16

12

Projectoriented-Nontraditional
Knowledge

12,18,20

Indirect

Project
Oriented-Nontraditional
Knowledge

2,4,10,11

15-Locally designed
fishing nets that
protects carps-Floodmanagement
scheme-Flood protection
and drainage
scheme-Coastalembankments
establishment-Comprehensive
disastermanagement-Coastal green
belt project(Source: Compiled by authors)

Adopting increased cooperation and tolerance among People as a means of risk reduction
strategy
Of late, the community people are experiencing huge external pressure from outsiders who are notoriginally from forest and forest areas. They are the people who are encroachers and opportunist
groups mostly extract more resources from forest inconsiderably. These outsiders always try to
popularize the practice of gher (enclosures) for shrimp cultivation. They also try to disturb thelong harmonious relationship among the existing cooperatives and kin groups. Community people
16see such aggression as a serious threat to their social and economic well-being. To raise voice
against such encroachment, the cooperatives and community people adopt increased cooperationand tolerance among their kins and members.

Figure 15. Cooperation and tolerance among People. (Source: Authors)
However, a positive change in the communities has been seen as there has been increased
cooperation and tolerance in the community (Figure 15). Most of the respondents felt anincreased cooperation/tolerance among the people in their communities, which implies thatpeople are helping each other in difficult times.

4.3 Regenerative capacity of Sundarbans and wellbeing: biodiversity restoration
The Sundarbans' rich biodiversity plays a crucial role in the lives of coastal communities in
Bangladesh, offering a range of ecosystem services and livelihood opportunities. Sundarbans’mangrove biodiversity also manifests a physiological adaptation to saline, water-saturated soils,
such as viviparous or crypto-viviparous seeds and specialized aerial roots for oxygenation (Titumir
et al., 2022a). Mangrove trees disperse their propagules by water and often reproduce throughvivipary or crypto-vivipary. Overall, the Sundarbans’s biodiversity is essential for the well-being
and economic development of coastal communities in Bangladesh. The forest's diverse species andabundance play a crucial role in ecosystem processes, such as pest regulation, pollination, timber
production, and freshwater fishing, benefiting both the environment and the local community(Chakma et al., 2021).
Mangrove as buffer against tidal surges, sea level rise and coastal erosion
Mangroves provide coastal protection by acting as a buffer against tidal surges, sea level rise,coastal erosion, and saltwater intrusion (Gevaña et al., 2019). It plays a crucial role in the global
carbon cycle and facilitate complex food webs and energy transfers, as confirmed by Kathiresan(2012).
Mangroves as natural carbon sequestration agent
Mangroves can be used to mitigate climate change through their ability to sequester carbon andprovide coastal protection. They can trap atmospheric carbon and accumulate more organic
material than other tropical forest types, making them important carbon sinks (Alongi, 2022).
Mangroves sequester up to five times more carbon per hectare than tropical rainforests, making

17them a significant contributor to carbon storage (Kumari et al., 2020; Ahmed et al., 2022). They
also serve as breeding and nursery grounds for various species of flora and fauna.

Unique physiological, ecological, and adaptive characteristics
The unique characteristics of mangrove biodiversity include their high productivity, intenseinteraction with other ecosystems, and their ability to immobilize heavy metals (Mitra, 2013).
Their unique three-dimensional root structure and the combination of aquatic and terrestrial
environments make them an attractive habitat for a diverse arra of species, many of which perform
vital functions such as pollination, seed dispersal, and nutrient recirculation, as noted by Saenger(2002). The roots, trunks, and branches of mangroves provide a habitat for epifaunal communities,
including bacteria, fungi, macroalgae, and invertebrates (Kathiresan et al., 2001). Moreover,mangroves contribute to biodiversity by providing shelter, food, and breeding grounds for a diverse
range of fauna, including aquatic and terrestrial vertebrates and invertebrates such as fish,
amphibians, reptiles, mammals, and birds.
Sundarbans as safeguarding of community people
The Sundarbans region served as a safeguarding barrier for the coastal communities during recent
cyclones namely Yaas (May 23-27, 2021), Amphan (May 15-21, 2020), Bulbul (October 28 toNovember 11, 2019), Fani (April 25 to May 4, 2019). Again, Bhowmik and Cabral (2013) also
showed how Sundarbans played role as natural wall at the time of emergency for the people ofcoastal regions during Sidr (November 17, 2007) and Aila (May 25, 2009). It elucidates how thisforest serves as an exemplary illustration of a natural ecosystem that acts as a protective barrier
against the effects of climate change. Consequently, it serves to highlight the significance of thisforest in addressing the climate-related challenges faced by Bangladesh.
Table 8. Regenerative capacity of Sundarbans and wellbeing.

Actionstaken
Loss ofbiodiversity

Cost oflivingCommunities
reliant on
nonsustainable
methods fish
breedingsites.

Climatechange-rising
temperature

Means ofverification

GBF

Gain ofbiodiversity- Honeybee
Farming- Ecotourism-increasespecies thatcan withstandsalt

Link to wellbeing of
nature and humanbeings(Target)SDG-providealternative
incomesources andempower
communities

Traditional
Knowledge

15,16- Preservation
andRehabilitationof Mangroves

Traditional
Knowledge

3,4,12,18,20 Indirect

1218

-decreasewater level-decrease
trees

Biodiversity -decrease
biotic life
loss
-decrease
Flora & fauna-increase
opportunistic
predators--CoastalProtection-Mangrove
Reforestation-Sanctuary
for
Biodiversity- Managementof
Sedimentation

Both
Traditional
Knowledge
and Nontraditional

2,4,10,1115Knowledge(Source: Compiled by authors)

Biodiverse Adaptation to Climate Change
The restoration process of Sundarbans to address the loss of biodiversity, cost of living, and climatechange involves several key actions. It is important to assess the impact of salinity on plant species
and their coping capacity with increased salinity. The capability of low-income individuals to
reduce climate change risks should be increased by vulnerability assessments and appropriate
adaptation measures that consider local knowledge and needs. Management interventions such as
co-management involving local communities can contribute to the protection and conservation of
Sundarbans. To protect and manage the ecosystem, it is imperative to address the issues such as
over-exploitation of resources, habitat degradation, invasive species, and pollution. Again, benefitsharing mechanisms must be incorporated into the governance and policies of sustainability andadaptation. The restoration of the Sundarbans can be achieved through community participationand involvement in mangrove reforestation projects (Ranjan., 2019). By supporting local
populations for ecological services, this strategy has the potential to have various positive effects
on the environment.
Table 9. Biodiverse adaptation to climate change

Climate change
vulnerability

Cost of living-Becomehomeless fornatural disaster-food shortage-heath problem

Actions taken

Means ofreduction ofvulnerability

Link to wellbeing of
nature and humanbeings
GBF

SDG

2,4,10,1115-Agri and/or social forestry(in some areas)- Conversion of wetlands
to crop land

Traditional
Approaches-Raising house above
normal flood level19

-problems intransportation andirrigation

Climatechange-sea level rise-salinity intrusion-Participatory strategy-uneven rainfall

Traditional
Approaches

13,21,22

Indirect

Traditional
Approaches

3,4,12,18,20

Indirect- Increasing species
breeding sites.

Biodiversity
loss-loss of mangrove
plant-loss fish species-extinct number of
species- biodiversity monitoring
network among
cooperative members-Assisting forest
department to monitor
vegetation management(Source: Compiled by authors)

5. Wellbeing of nature and human being: contribution to SDGs and
GBF
The various goods and services that ecosystems of Sundarbans provide, or "ecosystem services,"are what make ecosystems beneficial to human well-being (Titumir et al., 2022b; Titumir et al.,2022c). Supporting services refer to products and additional services that uphold several facets ofhuman welfare. Human well-being is impacted by regulatory functions in a variety of ways
(Titumir & Paran, 2022c). For example, they can regulate the spread and range of some diseases,
particularly vector-borne diseases, by purifying the air, freshwater, reducing flooding or drought,
stabilizing local and regional climate, and more. The aesthetic, recreational, educational, cultural,and spiritual facets of human existence are influenced by cultural services such as sacred groves,lakes, rivers, trees, totemic species, and picturesque landscapes. However, to maintain the three
additional services that have an indirect impact on people's well-being, supporting services are
required (Titumir et al., 2022c).

5.1 Wellbeing of nature and human beings and cost of living
One of the best examples of the complex relationship between human well-being and the natural
world is the Sundarbans, a massive mangrove forest ecosystem that borders both Bangladesh and.
In addition to supporting a great biodiversity, millions of people who live on its periphery make aliving. The environment of the Sundarbans is extremely important to many communities who
obtain their entire means of subsistence from it. Typically, they work in wood collecting, honey20

collection, and crab and shrimp farming for a living (Titumir et al., 2022b, Titumir et al., 2022c).
They face numerous obstacles in their line of employment. The cost of living there is extremely
detrimental to those issues. To address this, there is a model related to SDG, namely the KrunalMontreal Global Biodiversity Framework. The goal of these assessments is to evaluate thevulnerable conditions of the people living in the Sundarbans and identify solutions using the
Krunal-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework. The table (Table 10) below shows which GBF
values are suitable for the community that is considered vulnerable. Two goals (Targets 15 and16) are provided here that are ideal for raising the standard of the Sundarbans community's
stakeholders. The most crucial aspect is that these two goals are related to SDGs 12 and 15. These
GBF targets support lowering the rate of livelihood insecurity reduction and increasing thecommunity's capacity for regeneration in the Sundarbans for improving livelihood. It has
numerous aims that are appropriate for solving community problems by utilizing GBF (2,4,10,11),which is related to SDG15, to control bio-diverse adaptability to climate change.
Table 10. Addressing community problem utilizing GBF and SDGs
GBF

SDGs

Livelihood insecurity reduction

15, 16

12

Regenerative capacity

15, 1612Adaptation to climate change

2, 4, 10, 11

15(Source: Authors)

5.2 Wellbeing of nature and human beings and climate change
The health of the natural world, human well-being, and climate change are all highly dependent
upon one another. It is frequently observed in the Sundarbans that the environment treats the locals
quite harshly and harms their surroundings. They must take the required steps to escape their issues
and achieve a sustainable better way of life by modifying the Krunal-Montreal Global Biodiversity
Framework to lead a better existence. This chart illustrates how the elimination of livelihood
insecurity is achieved by working with targets 12, 18, and 20, and indirectly following the SDGs.
To meet those goals, the Krunal-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework is utilized to createknowledge, protect regions according to necessity, rebuild ecosystems, and practice sustainableproduction and consumption. To the Sundarbans' capacity, it collaborates with GBF 3, 4, 12, 18,
and 20, and indirectly with the SDGs. For Improving Bio-diverse adaptation to climate change, itneeds to follow GBF 2,4,10,11, and SDG 15.
Table 11. Improving bio-diverse adaptation to climate change.
GBF

SDGs

Livelihood insecurity reduction

12, 18, 20

Indirect

Regenerative capacity

3, 4, 12, 18, 20

Indirect

Adaptation to climate change

2, 4, 10, 11

15(Source: Authors)21

5.3 Wellbeing of nature and human beings and Biodiversity Loss
The Sundarbans are losing biodiversity daily, which poses a serious threat to both the community's
population and the components of biodiversity. Both land biodiversity and aquatic biodiversity are
declining as a result (Titumir & Paran, 2022a). It has caused a significant shift in the biotic andabiotic living styles, which is detrimental to the state. It must adhere to GBF targets 2, 4, 10, and11 for the decrease of livelihood insecurity to solve the issues. Additionally, it must adapt in thesame way to renew the Sundarbans' capacity. The final need is to indirectly follow SDGs andtargets 3, 4, 12, 18, and 20.
Table 12. Addressing bio-diversity loss utilizing GBF and SDGs.
GBF

SDGs

Livelihood insecurity reduction

2, 4, 10, 11

15

Regenerative capacity

2, 4, 10, 11

15Adaptation to climate change

3, 4, 12, 18, 20

Indirect(Source: Authors)

6. Conclusions
The Sundarbans act as a natural wall against climate change, protecting against storms, cyclones,
and other natural hazards. Protecting and restoring mangrove biodiversity can maximize theircapacity for carbon storage and enhance their ability to mitigate climate change. Preserving
mangroves is therefore essential for maintaining ecosystem health, protecting coastal communities,
and meeting climate mitigation goals. However, the changing climate has led to a reduction in theabundance of fish, fuel woods, honey, and other resources in the Sundarbans, affecting the
livelihoods of the mangrove resource users. To address these challenges, resilience-smart
adaptation measures are recommended, such as vulnerability assessments and appropriate
adaptation measures. Furthermore, the involvement of local communities in the management of
the Sundarbans through co-management approaches is crucial for its protection and conservation.
By implementing these strategies, the Sundarbans can enhance their resilience to climate change,
protect its biodiversity, and improve the livelihoods of the communities dependent on its resources.
The elimination of livelihood insecurity is achieved by working with targets 12, 18, and 20, andindirectly following the SDGs which also lead to achieving the targets Krunal-Montreal Global
Biodiversity Framework to lead a better life in the Sundarbans.

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25

ANNEX

Photo: Community people are explaining how they adopted mangrove restoration strategy

Photo: Focus Group Discussion (FGD) with Koyra Bonojibi Bohumukhi Unnayan Samit

Photo: Focus Group Discussion (FGD) with Munda Adivasi Bonojibi Bohumukhi Unnayan
Samity26