The significance of swimming skills in Sweden

An analysis of Swedish Physical Education syllabi in regard to swimming
ability in compulsory and upper secondary schools

Simkunnighetens betydelse i Sverige

En diskursanalys av kursplaner för idrott och hälsa från och med 1962 när det
gäller simförmåga i grund- och gymnasieskolan

Kateryna Shulika

HT20

Examensarbete: Avancerad nivå, 15 hp
Huvudområde: Idrottsvetenskap,Ämneslärarprogrammet.
Institutionen för hälsovetenskaper, Örebro Universitet.
Handledare: Valeria Varea, Biträdande Lektor, Örebro Universitet.
Examinator: Mikael Quennerstedt, Professor, Örebro Universitet.

Table of Content
List of abbreviations…………...…………………………………………………………………………...4
Abstract……………………………………………………………………………………………………...5
Introduction ................................................................................................................................................... 6
Purpose ........................................................................................................................................................... 7
Background .................................................................................................................................................... 7
The concept of swimming proficiency ........................................................................................................ 8Drowning statistics ...................................................................................................................................... 8
Historical overview of swimming ability in the Swedish PEH subject and curriculum.............................. 9
Theoretical Framework .............................................................................................................................. 10
Materials and Methods ............................................................................................................................... 11
Materials .................................................................................................................................................... 11
Discourse Analysis .................................................................................................................................... 12
The analyzing steps ................................................................................................................................... 13
The researcher’s positionality ................................................................................................................... 14
Results .......................................................................................................................................................... 14
The analysis of the PE syllabi from 1962 onwards in relation to swimming ability ................................ 14
The 1962 curriculum for elementary school and the gymnastics subject syllabus ......................... 15
The 1965 upper secondary curriculum and the gymnastics subject syllabus .................................. 17
The 1969 curriculum for elementary school and the gymnastics subject Syllabus ......................... 17
The 1970 curriculum for upper secondary school and the gymnastics subject syllabus.................. 19
The 1980 curriculum for elementary school and the gymnastics syllabus ...................................... 19
The upper secondary education in the 1980s ................................................................................... 21
The 1994 curriculum for elementary school and the PEH syllabus ................................................. 21
The 1994 curriculum for upper secondary school and the PEH syllabus ........................................ 22
The analysis of the current 2011 PEH syllabi for compulsory school ...................................................... 23
The current 2011 curriculum for elementary school and the PEH syllabus .................................... 23
The current 2011 curriculum for upper secondary school and the PEH syllabus ............................ 26
Discussion ..................................................................................................................................................... 27
Results discussion ..................................................................................................................................... 27
The PE syllabi from 1962 onwards in relation to swimming ability .............................................. 27
The present 2011 PEH syllabus for compulsory school ................................................................. 31
The present 2011 PEH syllabus for upper secondary school .......................................................... 33
Methods discussion ......................................................................................................................... 34
Conclusion .................................................................................................................................................... 35
2

The study’s knowledge contribution.......................................................................................................... 37
Possible future research ............................................................................................................................. 37
References .................................................................................................................................................... 383

List of abbreviations
PE: Physical Education.
PEH: Physical Education and Health.
WHO: World Health Organization.
SSL: Svenska Livräddningskapet [the Swedish Life Saving Society].
DA: Discourse analysis.
CPR: Cardiopulmonary resuscitation.
Lpo 94: Läroplan för det obligatoriska skolväsendet [Curricula for compulsory school].
Lpf 94: Läroplan för de frivilliga skolformer [Curriculum for voluntary school forms].
Lgr 11: Läroplan för grundskola [curriculum for elementary school].
Lgy 11: Läroplan for gymnasieskola [curriculum for upper secondary school].

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Abstract

Introduction: In Sweden, it is vital that children acquire swimming ability at an early age
because of the easy access to the sea, rivers, lakes, and swimming pools. Swimming ability isa life skill necessary for conducting outdoor life safely and using nature as an arena forrecreation both near and in the water. Therefore, over the past century, swimming and watersafety have been an essential part of the Swedish Physical Education (PE) subject to increase
the likelihood that students will be able to save themselves and others from drowning.
Aims: The aim of this investigation is to provide a greater understanding of the ways in whichswimming ability has been described in Swedish PE syllabi for compulsory and upper
secondary schools from 1962 to 2020.
Materials and methods: Discourse analysis (DA) has been used to analyze the Swedish PE
syllabi from 1962 to 2020.
Theoretical framework: This study is inspired in a Foucauldian genealogy perspective.
Results: Two main result categories were constructed from the analysis.
(a) Swimming education has been present in all PE syllabi for compulsory school since 1962.
These syllabi note that outdoor life, lifesaving, and swimming skills overlap and reinforce one
another and suggest that swimming is an important part of Swedish culture. However, since
1994, the Physical Education and Health (PEH) syllabus for upper secondary school omits
swimming skills from its content.
(b) Swimming ability has a prominent position in the most recent (2011) PEH syllabus forelementary schools. Nevertheless, it is excluded from the 2011 PEH syllabus for upper
secondary schools.
Discussion Even though swimming ability is vital for safely conducting outdoor life and using
nature as an arena for physical activity, as shown in the latest PEH syllabus, it has been
excluded from current upper secondary education.
Conclusion: The exclusion of swimming ability from upper secondary school syllabi may
mean that some students, such as newly arrived students who migrate to Sweden, are denied
opportunities to learn to swim and be safe close to and in the water.
Keywords: swimming, lifesaving, physical education (PE), syllabus
5Introduction

It is vital to acquire swimming ability from an early age, especially in Sweden because of theeasy access to the sea, rivers, lakes, and many swimming pools. Swimming proficiency is notjust necessary for safety but also for cultural belonging, as Sweden is a country with a strong
swimming identity (Kraepelien-Strid, 2006). As a result, swimming has been part of theSwedish Physical Education (PE) syllabus since 1919 (Kraepelien-Strid, 2006). Swimming
instruction aims to promote swimming proficiency among students and improve their qualityof life by enabling children to conduct outdoor life safely and use nature as an arena forphysical activity both near and in the water. The aquatic environments near the sea, lakes,
rivers, and swimming pools positively impact human well-being (Cracknell et al., 2015).
However, along with the benefits, water can also bring danger to people who cannot swim.
According to the World Health Organization, drowning is the third leading cause ofunintentional injury deaths worldwide, after motor vehicle collisions and falls (World HealthOrganization [WHO], 2020). Since Sweden has become a multicultural society (Bunar, 2010),
swimming proficiency is equally valuable for both majority and minority cultures.
Today, swimming proficiency acquisition is clearly included as one of the main goals in the
Swedish compulsory school’s PE syllabus (Skolverket, 2011a). According to Skolverket(2011), students should be able to swim 200 m, 50 m of which should be on their back, toreach the lowest passing grade (E) in the PEH (physical education and health) subject incompulsory school (Skolverket, 2011a). Swimming proficiency is not mentioned in the
Swedish PEH syllabus for upper secondary schools (Skolverket, 2011c) because students are
expected to have already acquired swimming proficiency in compulsory school. However,many students migrate to Sweden when they are in, or about to start, upper secondary school.
The number of newly arrived students in Sweden has increased over the last few years, andthere are many indications that this number will continue to increase.
Previous research investigating swimming ability within PE has focused on identifying factorsthat might negatively impact children’s swimming acquisition, mostly in elementary school(Hällman & Kåström, 2014; Kraepelin-Stridh, 2006, 2011). Problematic issues related toswimming proficiency acquisition and instruction include the definition and interpretation ofswimming proficiency, appropriate assessment (Hällman & Kåstrom, 2014; Moran, 2008),
integration (Andersson, 2010; Eriksson et al., 2010; Huitfeldt, 2015; Moran, 2008;
6

Skolverket, 2014;), public health (Amateur Swimming Association, 2013; Hällman &Kåström, 2014; Moran, 2008;), and other factors that impact teaching swimming (Beale &Lynn, 2011; Hällman & Kågström, 2014; Redelius, 2004).
This study is, therefore, one of the few studies that investigates how swimming has been
historically reshaped and changed in the Swedish PE syllabus, and what are the possible
consequences of this for students’ future lives.

PurposeThe aim of this investigation is to provide a greater understanding of the ways in whichswimming ability has been described in Swedish PE syllabi for compulsory and upper
secondary schools from 1962 to 2020. The study was guided by two research questions:
1) How did the Swedish PE syllabi for compulsory and upper secondary education
change with respect to swimming ability from 1962 to 1994?
2) How is swimming portrayed, presented, and described in the most recent Swedish PE
syllabus, and what are the possible consequences of this?
By better understanding swimming skills’ significance in Sweden, a country rich on water
environment integrated into outdoor life culture, we will be able to improve swimming
conditions and ensure that all students, including newly-arrived children, are equipped withlife skills to live an active, safe, and diverse life.

Background

This section begins with a clarification of the definition of swimming proficiency, followed
by statistics about drowning accidents in recent years. Then, the section provides a historical
overview of how swimming came to be seen as a necessary skill in Sweden, followed by short
descriptions of the Swedish Life Saving Society (Svenska Livräddningssällskapet, SLS), andhow swimming became a part of PE.

7

The concept of swimming proficiency
Previous research and policy documents have shown that it is unclear what kind of swimming
performance (e.g., what swimming style and for how long) students must demonstrate to beconsidered able to swim (Kraepelien-Strid, 2006). This is likely due to disagreements between
PE educators regarding the quality and quantity of swimming skills needed. This confusion
can also be linked to the swimming requirements set for an early age (already in 4-6 grade),that a student should also perform a lifesaving technique to be considered swimming
proficient (Kraepelien-Strid, 2006).
In 1996, in cooperation with the Swedish Life Saving Society (Svenska
Livräddningssällskapet, SLS), the Swedish Swimming Association (SSA) and the National
Board of Education (Skolöverstyrelsen— known today as Skolverket), the Nordic countries
defined swimming proficiency as “swimming proficiency implies that a person can fall into
the water, get his head under the water, reach the surface and can swim 200 meters in a row,
50 meter of which on his back” (SLS, 2021). Following SLS, it is stated that “swimming
entails more than just being able to swim a certain distance.” It also entails “knowledge andskills addressing the risks associated with being near and in water and on ice” (SLS, 2021).

Drowning statistics
Drowning is the third most common cause of accidental death globally, and one person diesfrom drowning every third day. Between 2000 and 2010, 1204 people died in drowning
accidents in Sweden, which is around 120 people per year. In 2009, the number of drowning
deaths was the lowest on record, with fewer than 100 persons drowning. However, between
2013 and 2018, the death toll from drowning increased again to more than 120 people per
year. In light of these figures, it is very encouraging that only 68 people died from drowningin 2019 (SLS, 2019). However, statistics suggest that drowning rates remain unpredictable.
According to SLS, people drown during swimming, fishing, sailing, and other activities near
the water. Interestingly, there are clear tendencies that drowning accidents are more common
among men than among women (SLS, 2019).
Research also suggests that certain groups are more at risk of drowning than other groups.
Jansson et al. (2010) for example, examined the causes of children drowning in Sweden
between 1998 and 2007. The results showed that Middle East children are at higher risk of8

drowning than children from other nationalities; 35% of all drowned children were of Middle
Eastern descent. The explanation of this pattern may be that families from the Middle East
tend to have poor swimming skills and poor safety knowledge at the water (Jansson et al.
2010). Andersson’s (2010) survey also illustrated a clear link between the proportion ofdrowning accidents in high-income versus low-income countries. Higher-income countries
such as Sweden, Germany, Holland, Finland, Canada, and Norway tend to have higher
swimming proficiency and fewer drowning accidents than low-income (e.g., Syria, Iran, Iraq,
Afghanistan, and Somali) because of a higher average education level, fewer children in an
average family, and better conditions during swimming lessons (Andersson, 2010).
Historical overview of swimming ability in the Swedish PE subject and curriculum
A crucial step in the development of swimming proficiency in Sweden was the formation of
SLS in 1898. SLS aimed to prevent drowning by promoting Swedish citizens’ swimmingskills. In 1899, SLS conducted a statistical survey to map swimming proficiency among
Swedish school children. However, it was unclear what ‘swimming proficiency’ implied atthat time. 371,938 students participated in the survey throughout the country. The results
showed that less than one of ten children in elementary school could swim. The absence ofswimming skills among many school children made them a target group for the SLS toprovide them with swimming lessons, along with teachers, police, firefighters, and militarystaff (SLS, 1998, p. 14).
In 1911, mandatory swimming lessons were introduced in Västerås for the city’s elementary
school children. Teaching swimming skills began with ‘dry swimming’, that is working on
swimming technical movement in school gyms for a month. Then, the lessons continued withpractical exercises in the water. The SLS considered 10-11 years old (third grade) to be thebest age for learning to swim. Swimming lessons were free and led to 85% of elementary
school students’ learning how to swim (SLS, 1998, p. 18). However, it was not until the
1920s that the “gymnastics” subject (today’s PE) officially added swimming to its elementary
school curriculum (Kraepelien-Strid, 2006).
In 1955, the gymnastics’ subject introduced water habits acquisition as early as the first grade.
The required level of swimming skills was raised in subsequent school years, and by the
fourth grade, students were expected to undergo their first swimming proficiency test (Kungl.
Skolöverstyrelsen, 1955).
9

According to the school gymnastics’ syllabus from 1960, swimming lessons were taught
beginning in the first grade (as in previous syllabi). However, the first- and second-gradeswimming lessons focused on preparing students for the swimming proficiency test in thethird grade. The course syllabi included additional swimming proficiency test in the higher
grades of mandatory school (Kungl. Skolöverstyrelsen, 1960, p. 344-345).

Theoretical Framework
This study employs a Foucauldian genealogy perspective to present the argument that the PE
subject has a responsibility to equip all young people with vital skills (e.g., swimming), andknowledge to be able to live an active, safe and diverse life in Sweden. The inspiration for
applying a Foucauldian genealogy to this issue came from McCuaig and Tinning’s (2010)
study of the Australian Health and Physical Education (HPE) syllabus. The authors claim that
HPE has the capacity to operate as a mechanism of social and moral training. However,success depends on several dimensions, such as the deployment of subject matter, learning
environment, caring teachers, and governmental support (McCuaig & Tinning, 2010).
Similarly, I found it suitable to apply Foucauldian genealogy for this study. Like theAustralian HPE, Swedish Physical Education and Health (PEH) also has a responsibility to
prepare young people for a safe, active, and diverse lives. However, my study focuses mainlyon swimming skills within the PEH program, and whether the syllabus gives enough attention
to swimming proficiency acquisition, and successfully prepares students with different
backgrounds in Sweden.
Foucault’s last work aims to challenge a particular form of modern and western morality bymapping practices of diverse social contexts (Foucault, 1990). Morality plays a significant
role in identifying “ethics as being the techniques by which individuals constitute themselves
as moral subjects of the code” (McCuaig & Tinning, 2010, p. 40). According to Foucault,
ethics could be seen as a “field of self-constitution by subjects” (ibid.) divided into four key
parts with different analytical questions. One of those questions is especially relevant foranalyzing the Swedish PE syllabi’s treatment of swimming skills – “why should selves
engage in this work?” (Foucault, 1994). By exploring the discontinuities of the Swedish PE
syllabi in relation to swimming proficiency, it is possible to have a better understanding ofwhat is included/excluded in today’s PE syllabuses, and how that might affect Swedish
citizens.
10Materials and Method
Discourse analysis was used to answer the first research question (RQ1: ‘how the Swedish PE
syllabi for compulsory and upper secondary education have changed with respect toswimming skills from 1962 to 1994). RQ1 aims to understand better how swimming content
is presented in syllabi for compulsory and upper secondary schools from different years todetermine whether the aim, value, and importance of swimming instruction have changed
over the decades. Discourse analysis is an appropriate method for examining how swimming
content and its methods of instruction have changed and reshaped in Swedish syllabi in linewith changes in Swedish society. This method has been used for analyzing both the Aim of PE
Subject and The Central Content sections of the Swedish compulsory and upper secondary
syllabi.
Discourse analysis was also applied to answer the second research question (RQ2: ‘how isswimming portrayed, presented, and described in the latest Swedish PE syllabi, and what are
the possible consequences of this’). Here, the focus was narrowed down to the current
Swedish upper secondary and compulsory PEH syllabi.

Materials
The data were collected from the 1962, 1969, 1980, 1994, and 2011 curricula for compulsory
school, and from 1965, 1970(80), 1994, and 2011 curricula for upper secondary school inwhich a PE(H) subject syllabus was included. From the school year 1962/63, Grundskolan[elementary school] was introduced in Sweden. It included nine mandatory years. The
compulsory school has been divided into three stages: lågstadiet [primary stage] from first to
third grade, mellanstadiet [middle school] from fourth to sixth grade, and högstadiet [highschool], seventh to ninth grade. The formation of nine compulsory years in elementary school
led to upper secondary reformation. The new fackskolan and yrkesutbuldning [vocational
education] were introduced as non-mandatory education, which led to the emergence of a new
gymnasium [upper secondary school] in 1965. All the curricula analyzed in this study have thesame structure: They begin with overall goal and guidelines, followed by general instructions
for the school’s organization. The timetables are then presented, followed by the course plansor syllabi with instructions and comments for each subject. The 1969 and 1980 curricula for11

compulsory and 1970(80) curricula for upper secondary schools have supplements whichcontain additional instructions, comments and examples of course syllabi.
The 1994 curriculum for compulsory (Lpo 94) and upper secondary school (Lpf 94) containsyllabi and timetables for all subjects. In these syllabi, the teaching goals for each subject are
divided into goals to strive for, and goals to achieve. The syllabi are further divided into
teaching objectives and the main content. Each syllabus describes each subject character andstructure, naming the subject’s core, central concepts, central perspectives, areas ofknowledge, and theories.
The current 2011 curricula (Lgr 11 and Lgy 11) each consists of three parts: (1) the school’svalues and mission; (2) the overall goals and guidelines for the education; and (3) the syllabi
for different subjects, supplemented with knowledge requirements. The Lgy 11 curriculum
has a fourth section that includes syllabi for the mandatory subjects for all secondary
education programs. Both curricula (Lgr 11 and Lgy 11) provide a separate commentarymaterial for each subject.

Discourse analysis
According to Hall and Chambers (2012), discourse analysis (DA) is suitable for qualitative
text analysis because it allows one to analyze not only the way the language is used, but also
the social dimension of its use (p. 296). Furthermore, DA enables one to analyze “therelationships between texts and social practices” (Hall & Chambers, 2012, p. 297), making it
possible to describe, interpret and explain social phenomena or events. Discourses could beunderstood as different ways of behaving, doing, and being, and DA can make visible those
discourses that are otherwise taken for granted (Hall & Chambers, 2012). For instance, people
inside a certain discourse could represent a specific culture (e.g., Swedish) who may see theworld from a different angle than people outside of that discourse. The ways a certain groupof people inside of a discourse behave, think, and act could also be called common sense(Taylor, 2013). However, Taylor (2013) claims that “common sense … can be understood as
the shared possession of a whole society but does not provide a single coherent cultural
viewpoint for everyone in that society” (p. 55). Consequently, it is crucial to bear in mind thatevery group of people within a country or culture (e.g., each of the many ethnic groups living
in Sweden) is complex and divided.

12

Furthermore, Hall and Chambers (2012) remind us that discourses that have the status ofcommon sense are most taken for granted, which leads to the most potent forms ofdomination and influences because “language is never innocent or neutral” (p. 298).
Therefore, we should be aware that language “in describing the world, also creates it” (Hall &Chambers, 2012, p. 298). Jørgensen and Phillips (2002) note the difficulty of giving one
description of DA given that there are several approaches to its use. For instance, DA could
be used as “a critical approach to taken-for-granted knowledge” (Jørgensen & Phillips, 2002,p. 5), meaning that knowledge should not be treated as ‘objective truth’. Furthermore,
knowledge is also a “historical and cultural specificity,” meaning that our views of, andknowledge about the world are products of historically situated interchanges among people”(Jørgensen & Phillips, 2002, p. 5).
Accordingly, I found DA as a suitable method to analyzing the treatment of swimming skills
in PE syllabi from different years because all policy documents may imply an undisputed
status of “truth,” making it highly dominant and taken-for-granted.
The analyzing steps
The analysis of the PE syllabi involved five steps, which are presented as follows:
1. Highlighting with yellow color in the PE syllabi statements containing “swimming”
and “lifesaving skills” (livräddning).
2. Underlying with green color sections that contained “outdoor life” and “nature”.
3. Identifying in which context swimming and lifesaving are presented in the syllabi,
focusing on how swimming skills are described, what elements (e.g., breast-,
backstroke, freestyle, butterfly, diving) are included, and how it should be taught.
4. Re-reading the sections and identify which discourses reach a dominant position in thestatements, what they include and exclude.
5. Re-examining the data with theoretical lenses of the Foucauldian genealogy
perspective to identify which “discontinuities”, rather than “continuities”, emerge inthe text. Moreover, the Foucauldian analytical question of “selves constitution” (i.e.,“why should selves engage in this work”?) in relation to swimming skills was also
implemented in analysis.

13

The researcher’s positionality
Since I have a professional swimming background, I am aware of the bias that I bring to thisstudy. My background may have influenced the selection of my research topic, the way data
were analyzed and interpreted, and the significance that I give to the topic. In qualitative
studies, bias refers to predisposition when the researcher can be affected by personal values
and views in decisions around the research method, data collection, data interpretation, andfindings (Given, 2008). Researchers, like all other people, “are products of the social world”(Given, 2008, p. 60), and therefore it is impossible to ‘escape’ from this bias. Hence, it isimportant to be as transparent and objective as possible and be self-aware that my swimming
career could have influenced the perception of swimming proficiency in this study.

Results
This section contains two main parts. The first part presents the results after the analysis of thePE syllabi (compulsory and upper secondary school) from 1962 to 1994. The second partpresents the results of analyzing the most recent (2011) PEH (physical education and health)syllabi for compulsory and upper secondary schools. Each part contains two further subdivisions: (1) a description of the stated aim of the PE subject overall, and (2) the syllabus’s
comments and instruction regarding swimming skills.

The analysis of the PE syllabi from 1962 to 1994 in relation to swimming skills
In order to answer RQ1 (i.e., how Swedish PE syllabi for compulsory and upper secondary
schools changed between1962 and 1994 with respect to swimming content), the analysis of
Swedish PE syllabi from 1962 to 1994 has been conducted. The following sections explore
Swedish curricula and PE syllabi from 1962 (compulsory school) and from 1965 (upper
secondary school) to 1994.
The 1962 curriculum for elementary school and the Gymnastics’ syllabus

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The overall aim of the ‘Gymnastics’ (PE) subject in 1962
First, it is important to point out that subject that is today called “PE” was called“Gymnastics” in 1962. The subject’s aim was to satisfy students’ needs for body movement,
recreation, and contribute to their overall harmonious and aesthetic development. The
subject’s goals were to improve the student’s general performance and cooperation,
developing team spirit, self-discipline, helpfulness, and leadership skills. Gymnastics also
aimed to create a lasting interest in physical activity and an understanding of the need forphysical activity as a means of recreation and health (Kungl. Skolöverstyrelsen, 1962, p. 344).
The syllabus’s comments about swimming content
After the subject’s overall aim follows the main content for each stage of the compulsory
school, where swimming is mentioned among other activities. Swimming was introduced in
the first grade, where pupils begin with water habits exercises. Students took their firstswimming proficiency test at the end of third grade (Kungl. Skolöverstyrelsen, 1962, p. 344).
Furthermore, middle and high school swimming instruction covered the basic swimmingskills. It focused on breast- and backstroke, eventually leading to the development of different
swimming styles and preparing students for the swimming test.
The syllabus contains a section titled “The teaching of the subject’s content,” which provides
a detailed description of each activity in the main content list. There, it is mentioned that eachschool provide swimming lessons or find another suitable way to give students theopportunity to participate in swimming lessons either in their free time or during the summer
holidays (Kungl. Skolöverstyrelsen, 1962, p. 355). The syllabus also states that students inseventh through ninth grade should practice lifesaving techniques and prepare for theswimming test. Furthermore, the syllabus suggests that swimming and lifesaving practice
should occur during the school’s special outdoor recreation days (friluftslivdagar) (Kungl.
Skolöverstyrelsen, 1962, p. 355). Table 1 below illustrates the 1962 PE syllabus’s teaching
objectives and suggestions for how swimming lessons should be organized in the compulsory
schools. The first column presents the school grade, the second column describes swimming
content, and the last illustrates how the swimming content should be taught.

15

GradeThe main

The teaching comment

content
1-3

4-6

Water habit

They [students] should learn to be familiar with the water. Water

exercises;

exercises are, therefore, an essential part of swimming lessons in theswimming

third grade. Through the schools’ organization or in another suitable

test (thirdway, students should be given the opportunity to participate in a

grade)

swimming school in their free time or during the summer holidays.

The basic

The swimming lessons are focused on giving the students overallswimmingskill in the water. As a rule, the number of lessons is limited; thetraining/skil

time should be used for breast- and backstroke training because ofls;upcoming swimming proficiency tests. A school with its own

swimming

swimming pool should conduct all swimming training there.

test

Alternatively, a weekly swimming lesson should be arranged during
the fourth or fifth grade.

7-9

Different

The day or half of the school’s outdoor days recreation activities

swimming

should be allocated for swimming, swimming tests, and lifesavingstyles;exercises. If time permits, the practice breaststroke and back crawl

swimming

should be practiced as well. A leisure group for students interested

test

in swimming should be arranged by the school, if possible.

Table 1. 1962 compulsory gymnastics syllabus’ description of swimming content (Kungl.
Skoloverstyrelsen, 1962, p. 355).

The 1962 syllabus does not specify what precisely the swimming test involved – for example,
which swimming styles were allowed or required (breaststroke, backstroke, or other), howmany lines or meters, or whether the test should be performed in shallow or deep water, in thepool or the outdoor water (e.g., lake). The requirements to pass the swimming test are also
unclear, as is what happened to students who did not pass it. Furthermore, the syllabus does
not clarify what is meant by the concept of lifesaving. Nonetheless, swimming takes aprominent position in the gymnastics syllabus. It highlights that swimming training must startearly, in first grade, with regular swimming tests during all compulsory school stages.
The 1965 upper secondary curriculum and the Gymnastics’ syllabus

16

The overall aim of the Gymnastics’ (PE) subject in 1965
The subject aims to give students an opportunity for recreation, develop good physicalcondition, provide overall musculoskeletal system training, provide knowledge and skills forworking technique, and create understanding and interest for physical activity and awillingness to cooperate with others (Skolöverstyrelsen, 1965, p. 762).
The syllabus’s comments about swimming content
As in the compulsory school syllabus from 1962, swimming is mentioned in the syllabus’s
main content. The syllabus states that students were expected to perform swimming tests,
practice different swimming styles, dive, learn about lifesaving skills, including mouth-tomouth resuscitation technique. The upper secondary gymnastics syllabus also presents a
section with comments for each activity from the main content list. It is stated there that if aschool has a swimming pool, its students should be given the opportunity to practice different
swimming styles, preferably with the specialization in a particular style that promotes each
student’s fitness condition (Skolöverstyrelsen 1965, p. 764).
The 1965 syllabus’s recommendation to improve students’ particular swimming stylesuggests that swimming was seen as a means to prevent drowning, a form of training, and an
arena for recreation, thus promoting both students’ physical and mental well-being.
Furthermore, it was believed that swimming should be adjusted for students’ swimming skills,
and students with advanced swimming skills should be further motivated through more indepth practice of swimming technique and competition. “Lifesaving” is defined more
explicitly in this syllabus by the mention of the mouth-to-mouth breathing technique (whichshould be done for a person who stops breathing). Similarly, the syllabus specifies that aswimming test should be given in an upper secondary school as well (Skolöverstyrelsen 1965,
pp. 765-766). However, like the 1962 syllabus for compulsory school, the 1965 does not
specify how the swimming test should be performed or the consequences for students who do
not pass.
The 1969 elementary school curriculum and the Gymnastics’ subject syllabus
The overall aim of the Gymnastics’ (PE) subject in 1969
17

The teaching section in the 1969 syllabus is almost identical to the one in the 1962 syllabus.
However, two new teaching goals were added: (1) conveying knowledge about the function
and care of one’s body in connection with physical activity, and (2) allowing students topractice different forms of gymnastics and sports (Skolöverstyrelsen, 1969a, p. 166).
The syllabus’s comments about swimming content
The swimming lessons’ scope and the syllabus’s general instructions and comments are very
similar to those in the 1962 syllabus. However, the new 1969 curriculum is divided into twoparts: (1) the general, and (2) the supplement. The supplement clearly states the goal ofschools’ swimming lessons was that every student who did not have any physical or mental
disability became swimming proficient. For the first time, the syllabus mentions theswimming proficiency requirements in detail, such as the length and swimming style for each
grade (refer to Table 2). Furthermore, the syllabus also states that schools without a poolshould inform students where swimming lessons would occur during their leisure time orsummer holidays to get a swimming proficiency certificate (Skolöverstyrelsen, 1969, p. 12).
Grade

Swimming proficiency test requirements

3

25 m swimming in the shallow water4

25 m swimming, preferably in deep water5

50 m swimming

6

100 m swimming of which 25 m backstroke

7

150 m swimming of which 50 m backstroke

8

200 m swimming of which 100 m performing backstroke9

Performing swimming with either a) one-handed breaststroke grip b) arm gripc) the main grip or 200 m swimming of which 50 m backstroke

Table 2. Statements from the 1969 supplement part of the syllabus regarding the swimming
proficiency test (Skolöverstyrelsen 1969b, p. 12).

Moreover, the new 1969 syllabus mentions lifesaving skills in the middle school stage’s
swimming content, requiring instruction in the mouth-to-mouth breathing technique. In the18

last stage of compulsory school (grades 7-9), the students were required to take swimming
proficiency test and perform lifesaving techniques. The syllabus notes that good swimmingskills are vital for lifesaving performance. Moreover, the ninth-grade students were required
to practice the mouth-to-mouth breathing technique and practice an inhalation method using aface mask (Skolöverstyrelsen, 1969b, p. 12).
The 1970 upper secondary school curriculum and the Gymnastics’ syllabus
The overall aim of the Gymnastics (PE) subject in 1970
The 1970 syllabus’s description of the overall aim of gymnastics was nearly identical to theprevious description from 1965. The only difference is that the verbs skapa;[create/shape/establish]; främja [promote/encourage]) were replaced with förvärva [acquire/gain]; öka [increase/enhance) in the statement below:
The gymnastics’ subject aim is [...] att skapa/förvärva [create/gain] understanding andinterest for physical activity, and främja/öka [promote/increase] organizational skills
and ability to work together (Skolverstyrelsen, 1970, p. 166).
The syllabus’s comments about swimming content
The swimming content in the 1970 syllabus is identical to that in the 1965 syllabus, including
swimming proficiency test, training different swimming styles, diving, lifesaving techniques,
and mouth-to-mouth breathing technique (Skolöverstyrelsen, 1970, p. 138). As mentioned in
the 1965 gymnastics’ syllabus for upper secondary school, the swimming instruction aimed,on the one hand, to make all students swimming proficient and prevent drowning accidents,and on the other hand, to present swimming as the means to improve students’ fitness
condition and coordination. The 1970 gymnastics syllabus explicitly states what lifesaving
implies, noting that strong swimming skills are key for successful lifesaving(Skolöverstyrelsen, 1970, p. 138). However, like the syllabus from 1965, it does not specify
how the swimming test should be performed or what happens with those students who do notpass it.

The 1980 curriculum for elementary school and the Gymnastics’ syllabus
The overall aim of the Gymnastics’ (PE) subject in 1980
19

The PE subject begins with a motivation statement about why it is a compulsory school
subject. A more detailed description of the subject’s aim follows. All elements from the 1969subject syllabus are still present, with the exception of the goal that PE teaching should
increase students’ general physical performance ability. However, some new goals had been
added. The 1980 syllabus states that PE teaching should allow students to experience rhythm
and movement, provide knowledge and experience of different kinds of sport, including
outdoor activities, and allow students to gain insight into other cultures’ values and traditions
regarding physical activity. Moreover, students should have opportunities to use nature forrecreation and outdoor life respectfully and responsibly without damaging it. Also, PE should
be organized in a way so that all students, including students with various disabilities, canparticipate (Skolöverstyrelsen, 1980, p. 90). The 1980 PE syllabus’s description of the aim of
PE contains no statement that swimming proficiency should be achieved.
Syllabus’s comments about swimming content
The swimming content for each compulsory school stage is similar to that stated in the 1969syllabus. However, the 1980 syllabus lacks detailed instructions and comments for theswimming proficiency tests. Both breaststroke and backstroke should be practiced in primaryschool (grades 1-3). Students should also be informed about rules of behavior on a boat andwhile swimming (båt- och badvett). The syllabus points out that swimming proficiency tests
must take place for all three stages (in primary, middle, and high school stages of compulsory
school), including lifesaving tests for seventh- through ninth- grade students. Lifesaving
exercises are introduced in primary school and developed more in the later stages of school
than in the previous syllabi. The 1980 syllabus also includes more detailed descriptions of
exercises that concern lifesaving. The lifesaving content now includes diving into the water,
swimming while wearing clothes, exercises to pull someone from the water using rescue
equipment, and mouth-to-mouth breathing technique.
The 1980 curriculum does not develop further the swimming position in the subject’s syllabus
compared to previous syllabi but retains most of the same focus as the 1969 syllabus. On the
one hand, the syllabus does not explicitly state the swimming content goal, as in the 1969syllabus, and does not mention that swimming proficiency should be achieved. On the other
hand, the 1980 syllabus requires swimming proficiency tests during all compulsory school
stages. However, it does not provide clear instructions about the quality (swimming style) andquantity (distance) of the swimming test. By contrast, the lifesaving education has been20

developed considerably by clearly defining what elements it includes and how it should betaught.
Lastly, the syllabus also highlights that the swimming content should be adjusted according tostudents’ interests – namely, swimming as cardio training or recreation – by including
individually arranged training in one particular swimming style, water gymnastics, and ballgames.
The upper secondary education in the 1980s
In 1983, a third edition of the 1970 curriculum was published for upper secondary education.
However, the general instructions, teaching goals, and the main teaching content have notbeen revised, so the PE syllabus and its content remained the same as in 1970. Therefore, its
analysis is the same as that of the previous PE syllabus in 1970 (please refer to p. 20).
The 1994 curriculum for compulsory school and the PEH syllabus (Lpo 94)
The overall aim of the PEH subject in 1994
With the establishment of a new curriculum in 1994, the PE subject was renamed Idrott och
Hälsa [Physical Education and Health, PEH]. Like the previous syllabus in 1980, the 1994
syllabus begins with a statement of the PEH subject’s overall aim, describing the sorts ofphysical abilities, sports, and knowledge that should be covered and learned in PEH. The firstparagraph of the subject description states:
Sports, outdoor life and various forms of exercise and recreation are of great
importance for public health. Therefore, children and young people must gain
knowledge about how their own body works and how to through good eating
habits, regular physical activity and outdoor life they can improve their physicaland mental well-being”. (Lpo 94, p. 30)
This statement demonstrates that regular physical activity, good eating habits, and outdoor life
contribute to the physical and mental well-being required for living a healthy lifestyle.
Furthermore, the syllabus also states that PEH should be responsible for students who lackphysical or motor ability or have other difficulties in conducting physical activities andoutdoor life (Lpo 94, p. 30). However, the syllabus does not specify how precisely PEH
teachers should take students with physical or other disabilities or difficulties into account.
The subject goals decrease significantly in number between the 1980 syllabus and the 199421

syllabus, but the remaining goals are described in more depth. Outdoor activities retain theirprominent position in the 1994 syllabus as they are mentioned several times in the PEH
subject’s description. Among the goals listed to strive for, it is stated that students should
develop a positive self-image (Lpo 94, p. 30). This goal was not present in the previous
syllabi. However, like its predecessors, the 1994 PEH compulsory school’s syllabus does notstate that swimming proficiency should be achieved.
The syllabus’s comments about swimming content
Swimming is no longer present in the description of the main content of the subject. The
syllabus mentions swimming only among other abilities that students should achieve by theend of fifth grade, which include the ability to swim and handle emergencies in the water(Lpo 94, p. 31). The instruction and comments about swimming are entirely missing in Lpo
94. As a result, it is unclear what the ability to swim involves and what happens with thosestudents who cannot swim by the end of the fifth grade. Since swimming is not mentioned
among the goals to achieve by the end of ninth grade, the teachers are not obligated to include
swimming in their teaching content.
It is also unclear what skills and knowledge should be taught to prepare students for handlingemergencies in the water. On the one hand, the syllabus highlights the significance of outdoor
life as part of Swedish cultural traditions. On the other hand, it does not fully prepare students
to enjoy staying close to water since they may lack sufficient swimming and lifesaving skills
to safely conduct outdoor life activities. The syllabus does not make clear how long and underwhat circumstances the students are required to swim in order to save their own or someone
else’s life.
The 1994 curriculum for upper secondary school and the PEH syllabus (Lpf 94)
The overall aim of the PEH syllabus in 1994
As at the compulsory school level, the subject was renamed Idrott och hälsa [Physical
Education and Health, PEH]. The 1994 syllabus describes the subject as aiming to provide
students with increased knowledge of how their own body works and how to improve their
physical and mental well-being through good eating habits, regular activity, and outdoor life
(Lpf 94, p. 45). The upper secondary school syllabus points out that outdoor life should beseen as an arena for recreation and physical activities that students should develop throughtheir own experience of being in nature. Moreover, the syllabus states that students should22have basic knowledge and skills in providing first aid and lifesaving techniques (Lpf 94, p.
45).
The syllabus’s comments about swimming content
In the Lpf 94, swimming is not mentioned in the subject’s aim nor anywhere else in thesyllabus. However, the syllabus states that by the end of the PEH course, students should haveknowledge of different forms of outdoor life and have developed their ability to experience
shifts and diversity in nature during different seasons, and understand the importance ofcontinuity and regularity in physical training (Lpf 94, p. 45). Firstly, the syllabus emphasizes
outdoor life and its value during different seasons, including places close to the water during
warm times (spring, summer, and early autumn). However, it ignores the swimming skills
necessary for safely conducting outdoor life close to the water.
The PEH syllabus required education in basic knowledge about how to apply lifesaving
techniques and first aid. However, it does not specify what elements lifesaving and first aid
practices should contain. Different accidents (e.g. a fall, cut, drowning, or heart attack) may
need different lifesaving or first aid approaches.

Analysis of the current 2011 PEH syllabi for compulsory and upper secondary schools
To answer RQ2 (i.e. ‘how is swimming portrayed, presented, and described and whatconsequences it may bring for students with different cultural backgrounds?’), the analysis of
the most recent Swedish PEH syllabi (from 2011) for compulsory and upper secondary
schools has been conducted. The remainder of this section presents the results of this analysisof the 2011 PEH syllabi for compulsory and upper secondary school. The results section isorganized in the same way as the analysis of PE syllabi from 1962 to 1994 above. Thissection is organized in the same way as the previous section. For each syllabus, a descriptionof the overall aim of the PEH subject is presented first, followed by a summary of thesyllabus’s comments and instructions regarding swimming content.
The current 2011 curriculum for compulsory school and the PEH syllabus
The overall aim of the 2011 PEH subject

23

The 2011 PEH syllabus for compulsory school claims that positive experience in physicalactivity (movement) and outdoor life is fundamental for health and well-being over the courseof a human life. The syllabus provides a detailed description of the overall aim of the PEH
subject and later specifies four main points that PEH should allow students to develop:• all-round movement in different physical contexts,• to plan, practice, and evaluate sports and other physical activities from different points ofview about health, exercise, and lifestyle,• to implement and adapt outdoor activities and outdoor life under different conditions andenvironments, and• to prevent risks during physical activity and handle emergencies on the land and water(Skolverket, 2011a, p. 51).
In Lgr 11, swimming skills is not mentioned in the subject’s aim description. However, theability to handle emergencies on both land and in the water is pointed out. The current 2011
PEH syllabus also provides teachers with commentary material that contains PEH teaching
philosophies, the syllabus’ structure, and explanations of terms presented in the curriculumand syllabi.
The syllabus’s comments about swimming content
The syllabus’s commentary material clarifies that students live in a country with many coasts
and lakes. Therefore, the ability to swim is crucial for being able to use the sea, rivers, andlakes for recreation without accidents. The commentary adds that swimming is also a physicalactivity and a part of training form and movement (Skolverket, 2011b, p. 12). Therefore, theimportance of acquiring swimming proficiency is highlighted in the 2011 PEH syllabus andswimming lessons are introduced early (in primary school).
Swimming content is among other activities placed in the movement section. The swimming
content for first through third grade should cover “games and movements in the water,
including balancing, floating, and swimming on the stomach and back position” (Skolverket,
2011a, p. 52). The students in fourth through sixth grade should be able to “swim on thestomach/back position”, and later in seventh through ninth grade grades, they should becapable of “swimming different swimming styles” (Skolverket, 2011a, p. 52-53). However,the syllabus does not provide information about any specific swimming style being required.
24

Only the commentary materials explain that the students in fourth through sixth grade should
develop swimming skills sufficient to cope with different situations in and near the water.
Also, the commentary clarifies that different swimming styles include the crawl stroke,breaststroke, and butterfly, mentioning that training different swimming styles can help
improve students’ movement mobility and their ability to handle emergencies. In addition, thecommentary materials suggest that swimming lessons and water activities could be conducted
outdoors in a natural environment because the safety aspects connected to swimming are alsopart of ‘Outdoor Life’ content (Skolverket, 2011b, p. 13). The statement above suggests thatswimming and outdoor activities are an integral part of Swedish culture. The syllabus further
suggests that it is the school’s responsibility to prepare students for conducting indoor andoutdoor activities in and near the water safely, which requires swimming proficiency,
lifesaving skills, and knowledge about behavior near water during different seasons of theyear.
To reach a passing grade E by the end of the sixth and ninth grade in compulsory school,
students should be able to swim 200 meters, 50 of which on their back, and cope withemergencies in the water (Skolverket, 2011a, pp. 54-55). However, the syllabus does not
specify which swimming style (crawl, breaststroke, or butterfly) students should use for the
150 m on their stomach during the test.
Moreover, the 2011 PEH syllabus places considerably greater emphasis on developing theability to cope with emergencies, including lifesaving knowledge and skills, than all previous
syllabi. The ‘Outdoor Life’ content for fourth through sixth grade covers “knowledge about
behavior during swimming (bathing) and water safety in winter, mentioning the ability tocope with emergencies by the water with lifesaving equipment” (Skolverket, 2011a, p. 54).
The commentary material clarifies that lifesaving equipment includes “lifebuoy and lifeline”
available almost everywhere near water in Sweden (Skolverket, 2011b, p. 18).
The syllabus explicitly states that lifesaving skills involve first aid and cardiopulmonary
resuscitation (CPR), which is part of the central content for seventh through ninth grade(Skolverket, 2011a, p. 53). In the commentary materials, it is noted that “in outdoor andindoor physical activities involve risks that can cause injuries, such as a sprained foot, a
bleeding wound, or a respiratory arrest”. Therefore, first aid and cardiopulmonary
resuscitation are important life skills for students (Skolverket, 2011b, pp. 15-16).

25

In conclusion, the current PEH syllabus has developed swimming proficiency requirements
than to the previous Lpo 94 because it requires education in swimming skills during all nine
years of compulsory school.
The current 2011 curriculum for upper secondary school
The overall overview of the PEH subject
PEH offers two PEH courses (PEH 1 and 2) with the possibility for students to choose either ageneral course or a course with specialization in a selected sport. PEH 1 is built on
compulsory school knowledge, while the second course is a continuation of the PEH 1. The
PEH syllabus begins with the statement that sports, outdoor life, and different forms of
exercise and recreation are of great importance for both individual and public health, addingthat PEH nurtures a cultural heritage of physical activities and outdoor experiences(Skolverket, 2011c, p. 83). The subject’s overall aim is summarized with seven key points
that students should be given an opportunity to develop, and five of them (1-5) could require
swimming skills, which are presented below:
1) The ability to plan and carry out physical activities that consolidate a further developmentof physical ability and health.
2) The ability to carry out and adapt time spent outdoors to different conditions andenvironments.
3) Knowledge of the importance of physical activities and experiences from nature forphysical ability and health.
4) The ability to handle safety and emergencies related to physical activities.
5) Knowledge of cultural and social aspects of physical activities and experiences from nature(Skolverket, 2011c, pp. 83-84).
The PEH syllabus’s comments about swimming
In the PEH syllabi for upper secondary school, it is not stated that swimming proficiency
should be achieved. The core content for PEH 1 refers to “outdoor environments and nature as
arenas for physical activity, including the knowledge of safety connected to physical andoutdoor activities” (Skolverket, 2011c, p. 84). Swimming proficiency can therefore be seen as
particularly vital with respect to conducting outdoor or physical activities near water. The
26

syllabus explicitly states that “students should be prepared to cope with drowning incidents(Skolverket, 2011c, p. 85). This statement is the only reference to water and required
swimming in the Lgy 11.
Discussion
Results discussion
In this section, I first discuss the PE analysis results from 1962 (compulsory school) and 1965
(upper secondary school) to 1994 in order to answer RQ1. I then discuss the present 2011
PEH syllabi (for compulsory and upper secondary schools) results to answer the RQ2.

The PE syllabi from 1962 onwards in relation to swimming ability
The results show that swimming instruction has been present in almost all PE syllabi. The
most prominent position of swimming skills and the most diverse swimming content was seenin the PE syllabus from 1969 for compulsory school, and the 1965 and 1970 (80) syllabi forupper secondary school. However, the PE syllabi from different years presented different
discourses about swimming proficiency acquisition and the PE subject in general. A
physiological discourse mostly dominated in the PE subject in the 1960s and 1970s. This
discourse is visible even in relation to swimming, which is seen primarily as a way to improvestudents’ overall fitness condition. This is consistent with what previous research identified
during this period. The goal of PE was to ensure that students were as physically active as
possible during the lessons, which would promote their aerobic capacity and prevent a
sedentary lifestyle (Quennerstedt & Öhman, 2008).
In 1969, the swimming content for compulsory school was remarkably developed comparedto the previous syllabi. In the 1969 syllabus, it was explicitly mentioned that all students who
are not hindered by any physical and mental disability should become swimming proficient.
This statement presents both advantages and disadvantages. On the one hand, the discourse ofswimming proficiency became dominant. But on the other hand, there is an implicit
segregational discourse between ‘able’ and ‘disable’ students. Therefore, PE teachers may beleft without answers on how to treat students who were considered physically or mentally27‘disabled’, and how they can achieve swimming proficiency, which is also important for theirlives. Furthermore, a segregational discourse related to socio-economic status is apparent in
the 1969 syllabus’s statement that students should acquire swimming proficiency outside of
the school if their school did not provide this opportunity. In terms of Foucauldian
discontinuities, the syllabus does not consider that students with “disabilities” should develop
swimming skills.
Furthermore, and following a Foucauldian perspective, all syllabi stress the importance ofswimming proficiency as a means of risk management and as a form of physical activity forpromoting overall fitness condition. In so doing, the syllabi could be considered as agovernmental technology functioning as a “technical means for addressing an array of social
problems” (Hunter, 1994, p. 71), which in this case, is to promote fitness condition andprevent drowning. This also relates to the Foucauldian-inspired analytical question of “whyshould selves engage in this work?” in relation to swimming skills. The 1962/1969(compulsory school) and 1965/1970(80) (upper secondary school) PE syllabi stated that
schools without their own swimming pool should organize swimming lessons outside theschool curriculum. As not all schools in Sweden had their own swimming pool, students were
expected to get swimming lessons somewhere else outside of school time. As a result, thedrowning rates were extremely high - 340 drownings in the 1960s and 252 in the 1970s (SLS,2019).
The 1980 curriculum for compulsory school does not further develop the description ofswimming proficiency and retains most of the same focus as the 1969 syllabus. However, it is
no longer mentioned that the school is responsible for providing students with swimming
lessons or helping them to become proficient in swimming. It is worth underlining thefollowing statement in the subject’s aim description, which is particularly relevant for the
study: students should “gain insight about other cultures’ values and traditions in relation tophysical activity” (Skolöverstyrelsen, 1980, p. 90). This statement brings up other cultures’values and traditions for a good reason. In the 1980s, Sweden granted residence permits to97112 people from different parts of the world (Europe, Asia, Africa, and South America,(Swedish Migration, Agency, 2020). Probably as a consequence of this, the new requirement
about being aware of other cultures’ values and traditions was included. However, thesyllabus does not clarify how students with other cultural traditions and values should betaken into account, which is particularly problematic in relation to swimming proficiency.
28

The syllabus makes the situation even more complex by introducing some underlying
meanings, such as “we” (i.e., Swedish people) and “others” (i.e., immigrants). This isparticularly problematic when it comes to Muslim girls’ participation in swimming lessons,
where Islam values and traditions are visible as it is unacceptable for females to expose theirbodies in front of the opposite sex (Huitfeldt, 2015). Significantly, both male and female
students from those countries have low swimming ability (WHO, 2020), which may put themat risk close to water. At the same time, the 1980 PE syllabus highlights that “students should
be given opportunities to stay and use nature for recreation and outdoor life”(Skolöverstyrelsen, 1980, p. 90). This highlights some discontinuities and contradictory
discourses in relation to how recently-arrived students in Sweden can be given equal
opportunities to use nature if they do not learn swimming proficiency.
Since Sweden is rich in water environments, swimming or bathing activity is a popular formof recreation during the summer. However, for people with low swimming skills, swimming
could simultaneously involve fear and rejection and inspire curiosity to try it out. Therefore,
the PE subject has the capacity and a responsibility to teach students how to swim. This isbecause school has a pedagogical function to foster future citizens who would use Swedish
nature as an arena for recreation and physical activities. The PE subject should ensure that all
students (including those with different ethnic backgrounds) have the possibility to participate
in swimming lessons on their own terms to develop swimming skills. Moreover, it is also
important to point out that the students in the 1980s were given the possibility to practiceswimming skills both during both compulsory and upper secondary education, which meansthat before 1994 students could practice swimming skills during all stages in school.
The concept of health and outdoor life are strongly emphasized in the 1994 PEH syllabi forboth compulsory and upper secondary schools. Compared with the previous curricula, the Lpo
94 curriculum did not emphasize the importance of swimming skills. Instead, it did the
opposite. The 1994 syllabi shifted the focus of the PEH subject from physiology to healthpromotion, highlighting that different types of physical activities, food, outdoor life are thevital aspects of physical and mental well-being (Quennerstedt et al., 2008).
In Lpo 94, swimming is mentioned only among other abilities that students should achieve by
the end of fifth grade – specifically, “to be able to swim and handle emergencies in the water”(Lpo 94, p. 31). The absence of swimming skills requirements could suggest that the newer
PEH syllabus was more flexible than the previous syllabi, leaving teachers more room to29choose how the teaching content should be organized and taught. Nonetheless, this freedom
may have allowed some PEH content to receive more attention than others, depending onteachers’ and students’ preferences.
The 1994 PE syllabus for compulsory school refers to swimming proficiency and skills forcoping with emergencies in or near water. In contrast, the 1994 syllabus for upper secondary
school contains no references to swimming proficiency. However, the syllabus stresses that
outdoor life should be seen as an arena for recreation and physical activities that students
should develop through their own experience in nature (Lpf 94, p. 45). As mentioned earlier,swimming proficiency is vital for safely conducting outdoor life near water. However,according to the national evaluation of the PEH subject, the students can even receive highgrades in PEH without competence in outdoor activities, dance, and swimming (Quennerstedt
et al., 2008). Consequently, students could enter and graduate upper education with either
insufficient or no swimming skills, which put those students at risk near water because theymight not have been able to cope with the emergencies that could occur under different
circumstances. This can also be considered a discontinuity from the different syllabi, and acontradiction in discourses regarding how one can be safe in outdoor activities while lacking
swimming proficiency.
The immigration influx continued between 1980 and 1994, and the increased number ofpeople with different cultural and ethnic backgrounds is also evident in the 1994 PEH syllabi.
In particular, the PEH compulsory school syllabus notes that the subject “should aim tostrengthen the sense of community between immigrant children and Swedish children anddevelop an understanding and respect for the children's different backgrounds” (Lpo 94, p.
30). The statement demonstrates that Skolverket (Swedish National Agency for Education) isaware that school is a crucial arena for integrating newly arrived students. However, the PEH
syllabi take for granted that all students obtain swimming skills and safety knowledge of
behavior near water. The syllabi explicitly attempt to foster Swedish cultural value of seeing
nature as a means for recreation and physical and mental well-being. Although, Skolverket
does not require schools to fully provide students with vital skills, such as swimming, which
are required to feel confident in and enjoy Swedish nature. This also demonstrates thepresence of discontinuities in the 1994 PEH syllabi. In this vein, Kraepelin- Strid (2011)claims that newly arrived students’ swimming acquisition should be considered a matter ofgreat importance immediately when they start their schooling in Sweden.
30

The PEH syllabus notes the importance of regularity in physical training, which should also
apply to swimming skills, because confidence in any ability involves regular exercises.
Similarly, the Lpf 94 attempts to instill in students a sense of discipline and responsibility toengage in regular physical training. From a Foucauldian perspective, this can be understood as
an attempt to foster or form future, moral citizens with self-disciplinary ability. In doing so,
future citizens are more likely to live an active life and have the capacity to work and benefit
society for a long time. However, the syllabus does not apply the same weight to swimmingskills, and students who do not develop swimming proficiency are left unprepared for
unpredictable situations everywhere near to water.
Furthermore, the 1994 PEH syllabus covers basic knowledge about how to apply lifesaving
techniques and first aid. However, it does not specify what elements lifesaving and first aid
should contain. The syllabus assumes that all kinds of accidents (e.g., a fall, cut, drowning, orheart attack) may require the same lifesaving or first aid approach. In conclusion, swimmingis entirely excluded from PEH syllabus’s content for upper secondary school in Lpf 94,
potentially leading to fatal consequences for students with no swimming skills in the future.

The present 2011 PEH syllabus for compulsory school
Swimming was restored to its prominent position in the most recent PEH syllabus forcompulsory school (from 2011). My analysis has shown that swimming is part of thesubject’s core content and swimming instruction is present during all stages of compulsory
school (Skolverket, 2011a). Furthermore, Lgr 11 clearly emphasizes that in order to reach apassing grade E in the sixth and ninth grade, students should be able to swim 200 meters, 50
of which are on their back, and cope with emergencies near and in the water (Skolverket,
2011a, pp. 54-55). This also provides answers to the Foucauldian analytical question of why
selves should engage in this work – to get passing grade E and to be able to experience
outdoor life and use nature as an arena for recreation and physical activity. However, thesyllabus is not explicit enough in defining swimming proficiency because it is unclear whatswimming style (e.g., crawl, breaststroke, or butterfly) the students are expected to use to
swim 150 on their stomach. Previous research about swimming within the PEH program has
shown that teachers have a differing vision of how swimming tests should be designed,
performed, and assessed (Hällman & Kåström, 2014; Kraepelin-Strid, 2006).
31

Because neither Lgr 11nor the commentary materials clarify how the swimming test should be
performed, teachers may interpret swimming proficiency differently (Hällman & Kåström,
2014; Kraepelin-Strid, 2006. However, SLS explains that swimming tests should be
performed in deep water, since students should be able to fall into the water and quickly thesurface. Furthermore, SLS provides detailed information about all four swimming styles. SLS
emphasizes that a key factor in acquiring swimming proficiency is making swimming asconfident and efficient as possible. SLS also highlights that swimming is a skill that needs tobe constantly practiced and developed. In this regard, different studies show that many
students perform swimming tests with rest (e.g. Hällman & Kåström, 2014; Kraepelin-Strid,2006). This is a problem because if the students do not have the strength to swim 200m
without resting in a swimming pool, they may not survive a situation in which weather, wind,and other conditions may significantly impact even experienced swimmers.
Moreover, according to Skolverket’s (2014) report, 5% of Swedish sixth-grade students(around 4500) did not achieve the knowledge requirement in swimming, and 35 % of them
are newly arrived students. Half of the students did not meet the knowledge requirements inswimming did not get an opportunity to meet the requirements later (Skolverket, 2014). As aresult, those students are vulnerable near water and may be considered “at risk.” This mayhinder their participation in indoor and outdoor activities near water later in life. And in thecase of emergency, their poor swimming skills may be insufficient to save their own orsomeone else’s life. Consequently, many indoor and outdoor activities may not be accessibleor safe for these students.
In short, even though the 2011 PEH syllabus includes swimming in the core content for allnine years of compulsory school, many students, especially newly arrived or with different
cultural backgrounds, are not swimming proficient by the end of compulsory school(Skolverket, 2014). The explanation could be that swimming education conditions may differ
significantly depending on city, neighborhood, or school type, thus creating unequal
opportunities among students. The main factors that impact swimming lessons are a lack oftime, financial resources, staff availability in schools, and cooperation between district
coordinators, aquatic organizations, and schools (Beale & Lynn, 2011 Redelius, 2004;). In
this vein, Redelius’ (2004) study found that 70% of 677 students in the ninth grade stated thatthey have swimming activities – usually swimming tests – only one or two times per year.
Swedish schools and physical educators should thus provide students with sufficient32swimming possibilities to develop physical endurance in swimming and to increase theirconfidence in the water and chances for their survival if emergencies in or near water occur.
The present 2011 PEH syllabus for upper secondary schoolFirstly, the conducted analysis has shown that swimming ability is completely excluded from
PEH syllabi in Lgy 11. Therefore, the school has no obligation to include swimming into theteaching content. This may be due to an expectation that students have already developed
swimming proficiency in compulsory school, but according to previous research (Skolverket,2014), this is not always the case. However, the document refers to “outdoor environments
and nature as arenas for physical activity,” “the knowledge of safety connected to physicaland outdoor activities,” “the knowledge of cultural and social aspects of physical activities
and experiences from nature,” and “the ability to cope with drowning incidents” (Skolverket,
2011c, p. 85).
References to nature and outdoor life activities appear in all these statements, and because of
Sweden’s geographical position, the country is surrounded by water (seacoasts, rivers, andlakes). Therefore, swimming proficiency is required in most Swedish outdoor environments.
From a Foucauldian genealogical perspective, the discontinuities found in Lgy 11 are similar
those in Lpf 94. On the one hand, the PEH syllabus attempts to foster a decent and responsible
citizen who can cope with emergencies, love and care about nature and others, and see nature
as an arena for recreation and physical activity to promote physical and mental well-being.
But on the other hand, the syllabi take for granted that all students (including those withdiffering cultural backgrounds and those newly arrived in Sweden) enter secondary education
having already acquired the swimming skills required to conduct outdoor life near water.
Secondly, the most reliable safety method in outdoor life near water is having sufficientswimming proficiency and lifesaving ability. From a safety point of view, sufficientswimming skills involve more than the ability to stay on the water’s surface and move thebody forward using a special swimming style. Rather, as SLS highlights, swimming
proficiency also involves a sense of confidence and effectiveness in the water, which helps
one develop an ability to “feel” water and find a balance in it. Being in balance with water
could be understood as knowing or feeling when one should not try to strain or defy water bykicking as hard as possible (as it happens for many people when they panic). Lifesaving skills
alone, without swimming skills, will not be enough to save one’s own or someone else’ s life
when the shore is too far away to reach a person from the land. Therefore, swimming is33

crucial for being able to save others in the water, and swimming is a skill that needs to becontinuously practiced and developed (SLS, 2020).
According to previous research (Quennerstedt et. al., 2008; Redelius, 2004; Skolverket, 2014)
many students risk graduate upper secondary school without acquiring (at least to a sufficientdegree) the swimming skills that Lgy 11 explicitly highlights as vital for active, safe, anddiverse life in Sweden. As a result, students may not be able to safely participate in many
indoor and outdoor activities and use nature as an arena for recreation and movement. The
absence of swimming proficiency may significantly affect many students’ lives in the future.
Students may avoid environments near water, which would limit their chances of having afull, active, and rich life in Sweden. Students could also underestimate the importance ofswimming skills in conducting many indoor and outdoor activities, which unfortunately could
put them or their family at risk in and near water. Both of these scenarios have a negative
outcome, which should be prevented by including swimming skills in the PEH syllabus
content for upper secondary school.

Methods discussion
To better understand swimming skills’ significance for living an active, safe, and diverse life
in Sweden, discourse analysis was conducted of Swedish PEH syllabi. The primary interest
was to examine how swimming is portrayed, described, and presented in steering documents,
such as PEH syllabi. The focus was on identifying how values, beliefs, and assumptions inrelation to swimming ability are communicated and what consequences it might bring for all
students, including those with different cultural backgrounds. Discourse analysis proved to bean efficient tool to examine what is emphasized, what is omitted, and what is taken for
granted in the syllabi.
Furthermore, the study also employed a Foucauldian genealogical perspective to argue that
the PEH subject has a responsibility to equip all young people with vital skills (e.g.,swimming) and knowledge necessary to live in Sweden and make the most out of thecountry’s environment. The genealogical perspective provided tools to explore the“discontinuities” of the syllabi rather than the “continuities” in relation to swimming ability.
These discontinuities included for example, the qualities a desirable “moral citizen” ofcontemporary Sweden should have (e.g., to love and care of nature, to be able save people
34

from drowning). According to Hunter (1994), the PEH syllabi could be considered as agovernmental technology functioning as a “technical means for addressing an array of social
problems” (p. 71). Therefore, my study focused mainly on swimming skills within the PEH
program and considered whether the syllabi provide enough room, time, and attention for
swimming proficiency acquisition, and successfully prepares students for an active, safe, anddiverse lives in Sweden.
Conclusion
The aim of this investigation was to provide a greater understanding of the ways in whichswimming has been described in Swedish PE syllabi for compulsory and upper secondary
schools from 1962 to 2020. In order to do this, I conducted a discourse analysis of theSwedish PE syllabi of 1962, 1969, 1980, 1994 and 2011 for compulsory school, and 1965,
1970 (80), 1994 and 2011 for upper secondary school.
Results indicate that swimming instruction has been present in all PE syllabi for compulsory
school. These syllabi note that outdoor life, lifesaving, and swimming skills overlap andreinforce one another. Therefore, swimming could be seen as part of Swedish culture in
relation to physical activity and recreation. The analysis has revealed that the most prominent
position of swimming acquisition and the most diverse swimming content were seen in the1969 syllabus for compulsory school and, 1970 (80) syllabi for upper secondary school. The
main goal of swimming content in the previous syllabi was to prevent drowning and enable
students to use nature (sea, rivers, and lakes) as an arena for physical activity, outdoor life,and recreation. Therefore, swimming proficiency tests were given in the third grade, andrepeated in all subsequent years of compulsory school. All syllabi (1962, 1965, and 1980)
aimed to ensure that students become swimming proficient by the end of compulsory school.
Among the previous syllabi, only the 1969 PE for compulsory school document mentions
what the final swimming test involved (200 m of which 50 on the back in deep water) and still
it does not make clear what is required to pass and what happened with those who did notpass. However, the students continued to practice swimming skills in upper secondary school.
The PE syllabi for an upper secondary school in 1965 and 1970(80) include swimming tests,
practicing different swimming styles, diving, and learning about lifesaving, including themouth-to-mouth breathing technique (Kung. Skolöverstyrelsen, 1965, p. 764).

35

In 1994, the swimming content was not included in the PEH syllabi for either compulsory or
upper secondary schools. Swimming ability (specifically the ability to swim and handle
emergencies in water) is referenced only as one among many abilities that students should
achieve by the end of fifth grade. As a result, teachers had more flexibility in choosing how
the teaching content should be organized and taught during the year. This freedom led to thesome PEH activities receiving more attention than others, depending on teachers’ andstudents’ preferences, and left many students with high PEH grades without swimmingcompetency (Quennerstedt et al., 2008). Moreover, swimming was excluded from the PEH
syllabus for compulsory school in 1994, and many students entered and graduated from upper
secondary education with no or poor swimming skills.
This essay also aimed to understand how swimming is portrayed, presented, and described in
the current Swedish PEH syllabi for compulsory and upper secondary schools, and their
possible consequences. The analysis results have shown that swimming proficiency
acquisition has become one of the compulsory schools PEH syllabus’s main goals. Swimming
content is present during all nine years of compulsory school. However, many PEH teachers
do not provide students with enough swimming possibilities to practice and improveswimming skills (Redelius, 2004) to develop efficiency and confidence in swimming, which
are crucial for survival in the water if emergencies occur. The most vulnerable ones are newly
arrived students with different ethnical backgrounds who may not achieve the knowledge
requirements in swimming. This may put them at risk during participation in outdoor
activities close to and in the water (Skolverket, 2014).
Finally, the analysis has shown results that swimming is completely excluded from PEH
syllabi in Lgy 11. However, outdoor life and nature as arena for physical activity arehighlighted multiple times in the PEH syllabus. The exclusion of swimming content is
especially harmful to newly arrived students who have migrated to Sweden from Asian and
African regions, which have the world’s highest drowning rates (WHO, 2020). Skolverket(2020) claims that upper secondary school has no obligations to arrange swimming lessons forstudents who attend national programs because, unlike the compulsory school syllabus, thePEH 1 syllabus for upper secondary school does not set any specific swimming skills
requirements. As a result, many students risk graduating from upper secondary education witheither no or insufficient swimming skills, leading to the inability to safely conduct outdoor lifeand use nature as an arena for physical activity.
36

The study’s knowledge contribution
This study is one of the few investigating swimming in the PE(H) syllabus, from both acurrent and a historical perspective. This investigation provides Swedish policymakers and PE
educators with insights and reminders that swimming is a vital skill in Sweden that should becontinuously practiced during compulsory and upper secondary schooling and even later inlife. Since all PE(H) syllabi emphasize outdoor life and nature for recreation and physicalactivity, swimming skills should also be emphasized. Moreover, Sweden is a country with anincreasingly multicultural society; therefore, it should be a school’s responsibility to integrate
newly-arrived students into Swedish culture. Therefore, swimming should be included in thecurrent PEH content for upper secondary school.

Possible future research
Future research concerning swimming proficiency acquisition within Swedish PEH subject
could be conducted to determine how many upper secondary school students are swimming
proficient. Furthermore, it would be beneficial to identify how many of all students withinsufficient or no swimming skills are newly arrived or with different cultural backgrounds.
The results could be valuable information for the Swedish National Agency for Education(Skolverket) that could be used to better understand which interventions the school systems
should implement to ensure that all students obtain sufficient swimming skills.

37

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