Optical Observations of Supernovae
Current Status and Future
超新星爆発：可視光観測の現状とこれから
HST, optical

Masaomi Tanaka
田中 雅臣（国立天文台）Chandra, X-ray

Science with CTA
Cosmic ray acceleration by SNR
Optical observations

astro-ph.HE] 4 Sep 2012

Gamma-ray signatures of cosmic ray acceleration,
propagation, and confinement in the era of CTA
F. Aceroe , A. Bambah , S. Casanovaa,b,c,∗∗, E. de Ceaf , E. de Oña Wilhelmib ,S. Gabicia,∗, Y. Gallante , D. Hadaschf , A. Marcowithe , G. Pedalettif , O.
Reimerd,∗∗, M. Renaude , D. F. Torresf,g , F. Volpeb , for the CTA
collaboration.
aAstroparticule et Cosmologie (APC), CNRS, Université Paris 7 Denis Diderot, 10 rue
some level, duringCR
acceleration.
If F-75205
SNRsParis
indeedAlice Domonet Leonie Duquet,
Cedex 13,areFrancethe sources of CRs,
Max-Planck-Institutfür Kernphysik,
Saupfercheckweg
1, 69117
Heidelberg,
Germany
they have to bconvert
∼
10%
of
their
explosionenergyintoaccelerated parc
Unit for Space Physics, North-West University, Potchefstroom 2520, South Africa
für Astro- und Teilchenphysik,
A-6020ticles. Since dInstitut
the explosion
energy ofLeopold-Franzens-Universitäta supernova is aInnsbruckremarkably
constant
Innsbruck, Austria
51
quantity closeeLUPM
to 10- UMR5299,
erg, Universitéa roughestimateof theexpectedflux
de Montpellier
II, Place
EugèneBataillon - CCgamma-ray
72,34095 Montpellier Cédex 05 FRANCE
from a givenfInstitut
SNRde canbeobtained
if oneknows
theC5,densityof the ambientCiències de l’Espai (IEEC-CSIC),
Campus
UAB, Torre
2a planta, 08193
Barcelona,Spainmedium, and the SNR
distance.
Suchestimates
fall within the capabilities
g
Institució Catalana de Recerca i Estudis Avançats (ICREA)h
College of Scienceand Engineering,
Aoyama Gakuin[5,University,
5-10-1
Fuchinobe,of currently operating
Cherenkov
telescopes6]. Inagreementwith these

Chuo-ku,
Sagamihara,
Kanagawa,
252-5258, JapanPhysics (arXiv:1209.0582)
Acero
et al.
Astroparticle

Optical Observations of Supernovae
Current Status and Future
超新星爆発：可視光観測の現状とこれから• Supernova rate and kinetic energy• SNR type and distance• Future opportunities
Thanks to many of you!
(@ banquet)Chandra, X-ray

HST, optical• Extra-galactic (point source) • Galactic and LMC/SMC• ~300-500 / yr

• ~200 in our Galaxy•• R >~ pc, v < 3,000 km/s
• Luminosity <= radioactivity • Luminosity <= shock• Optical• Radio-Opt-X-Gamma
R ~ 1015 cm, v ~ 10,000 km/s•

Lopt ~ 1042 erg/s• absorption-line spectrum=> emission-line spectrum(thick => thin)•

Lx ~ 1037 erg/s• Synchrotron+ brems + emission line

Discovery of extragalactic SNe

Before

1 deg
After
KISS:
Kiso supernova survey
東京大学木曽観測所
シュミット望遠鏡

Discovery of extragalactic SNe

Ref

New

Sub

1 deg
KISS:
Kiso supernova survey
東京大学木曽観測所
シュミット望遠鏡

thin

Optical spectra

thickH
Relative flux + const

II
Type II: Hydrogen
Type I: No hydrogen

Si

Ia

He

Ib
Ic

3000

4000

5000
6000
7000
Rest wavelength (Å)

8000

Ia: Strong Si
Ib: Strong He
Ic: No strong Si/HeIa

II/Ib/Ic(C: Essay Web)

1.2

Observational Properties of Supernovae

Optical light curve

9
10 Lsun7
10 Lsunγ-ray
optical-18

Bolometric magnitude

108 LsunSN Ic 1998bw
SN Ic 1994I
SN Ia 1992A
SN II 1999em
56
Ni decay (0.1Msun)-16

radioactive decay
56Ni

-14

-12

3 months
1 year

-10
0

50

100

150

200

250

Days after the explosion

300

350

400

Core-collapse SN rate
Initial massfunction� Mmax,SN

ψ(M)dM
Mmin,SN
RSN (z) = ρ∗ (z) � Mmax
M
ψ(M
)dM
Mmin
Star formation rate
1 (Msun/yr)

0.01 (/Msun)

Galactic SN rate
~ 0.01 SN/yr (= 1 SN / 100 yr)

Core-collapse
SN rate (10-4 yr-1 Mpc-3)

10

1 SN/100 yr/Gal

1

Expectation from SFR
Dahlen+04 (HST/GOODS)
Botticella+08 (STRESS)
Bazin+09 (SNLS)
Li+10 (LOSS)
0

0.2

0.4
0.6
Redshift

SN rate ~ 1/2 x expectation
Dust extinction?
Luminosity function?
(Type Ia rate ~ 1/3 x core-collapse rate)

0.8

1Dahlen et al. 2004
Botticella et al. 2008
Bazin et al. 2009
Li et al. 2011see also Horiuchi et al. 2011

Kinetic energy

ate phase as well as at early phase. In the figure we
maximum of SN 2005hk occurs 17 days after the
2
E
=
(1/2)
M
v
ich gives the best fit of the LC (see also Phillips
56
The mass of Ni derived from the model is someHST, opticalhan 0.24 M! derived by Phillips et al. (2007). This56
may be caused by a different distribution of Ni
Since 56 Ni in the model in Phillips et al. (2007) is
e outer layers, a part of 56 Ni does not contribute to
ht. In this paper we call our scaled, less energetic

The postmaxi
is presented in Ftion are quite difffrom
Figure11.
T
Chandra, X-ray
that of SN 2002c
2006). The spect
Na i, and Ca ii alines may contrib
2004). The photby day +10. Th
cline steadily, anor of Massthe model E03 LC
is understoodby simple Intensity
Diffusiontime
low 4500 8. Thi
opacity is assumed to be constant, the timescale
to Fe ii lines. T
ric LC (!LC ) is scaled as !LC / Mej3/4 EK"1/4 (Arnett
is
Mej is the mass of the ejecta. Therefore, if Mejproperday+10 to day
motionDopplerv a slow de-Doppler
asekharmass),
thelowerenergygives
Thev spectrum
Velocity(free
expansion)
maximum. The late-phaseevolutionof LC is mainly
except for the n(decelerated)the optical depth to "-rays. Since the optical depth is
6500Y6800 8, id
2"1

Sedov solution needs n(ISM)Type Ia: Observational test

Si III

Ca II

OI

Si II

S II S II
Si II
Si II

Abundance strat

0

4000

6000

8000

Rest wavelength (Å)

10000[Fe II][Ni II][Fe II]

3

Na I

2

[Fe II]

SN 2003du +376.9
model
w/o 56Ni hole

4

[S II]Fe II, Fe III

Flux (10−17 erg s−1 cm−2 Å−1)

1

Ca II

2

S II S II
Si II
Si II

3

SN 2003du +1.2
model

OI

Ca II

OI

Si II
O I Si II
Ca IIRest wavelength(Å) (Å)Rest wavelength4(d)
Co II, Co III

Si Co
III IIICo II,Ca II
Si II S II Fe II, Fe III
Si II
Si IIISi II
Si II
Fe II, Fe III
S
II
S II

Si II

0
4000 4000
6000 6000
8000 8000
1000010000

10000

1

0

[Fe III]

0

8000

Rest wavelength (Å)

Flux (10−14 erg s−1 cm−2 Å−1)

2

1

Mg II, Fe III
Co IIISi II, Fe III
S II

4

2

Mg II

6

3

Ca II

8

Flux (10−14 erg s−1 cm−2 Å−1)10(c) SN 2003duSN−10.9
2003du +0
4
model model

Fe II, Co III
Ni II, Co II

Flux (10−15 erg s−1 cm−2 Å−1)

000

12

(b)

6000

4000

Rest wavelength (Å)
14

thick

Mg II, Fe III
Co IIISi II, Fe III
S II

1
0

10000

Fe II, Fe III

Co II, Co III
Ca II

2

SN 2003du −1.9
model

Si III

8000

3

(b)

Si II

OI

6000

Ca II

Si II
Si II

Fe II, Fe III

S II S II

4000

4

Mg II, Fe III
Co IIISi II, Fe III
S II

0Flux (10−14 erg s−1 cm−2 Å−1)

1

thick
Mg II, Fe III
Co IIISi II, Fe III
S II

2

Si II

3

SN 2003du −4.0
model

Ca II

(a)

Si III4

Co II, Co III
Ca II

Flux (10−14 erg s−1 cm−2 Å−1)

Type Ia tenthSupernovae - III:
SN 2003du 5
A few daysAbundance stratification
Ainfew
days
1 yr~ 100 AU
~ 1000 AU ~ 0.01pc~ 10 AU
thin
thin
thin

4000

6000

8000

Rest wavelength (Å)

5. The nebular spectrum of SN 2003du (+376.9 daFigure 3. Same as Fig. 2 but at the maximum epochs. Panels (a) - (d) show the spectra at −4.0, −1.9, 0 and +1.2 days from Figure
B

0.1

1

0.7

0.9

1.1

1.3

Mass (M )Kinetic energy(b)SNW7
Abundance stratification in SN Ia - III.
2003du0.1

10

Velocity (103 km s−1)

510Mass fraction

0.1

0.01

0.001
0.0

0

Mass fraction

•
•

0.2

0.4

5000

0.6

0.8

10000
Mass (M )

1.0

1.2

15000

10(km s−1)
Velocity
1
Nuclearenergy production0

Velocity (103 km s−1)

5

9

15 20

(a) SN 2003du

.01

001

0.3 0.5

1.4

C
O
Mg
Si
S
Ca
Fe
56Ni
Ni

MT+11
MNRAS,
410, 1725

20000

25000

15 20

(b) W7•56Ni) +1.74M(Fe) +1.24M(Si)] x 1051
E(nuclear)=[1.56M(
Figure8. Same as Fig. 7 but in the velocity coordinate.
0.1~ (1.56x0.6+ 1.74x0.3 + 1.24x0.3) x 1051
51 erg
~
1.8
x
10
0.01
C
O
Mg
Si
S
Ca
Fe
56
Ni
Ni

00–000 Kinetic energy = Nuclear - binding energy
0.001
0.0

•

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.0

1.2

1.4

Mass (M ) - E(binding energy of WD)
E(kinetic) = E(nuclear)
51 Ni”
51 - 0.5
51 ~ 1.3
ndance distribution in the mass coordinate
derivedx
fromthe spectral
modelling(a) comparedwith that
W7 (b). “ erg
~ 1.8
10
x 10
xof 1056

mass fraction of 56 Ni at texp = 0 and “Fe” and “Ni” only represent mass fractions of stable Fe and stable Ni, respectively.

Figure 7. Absolute V-band light curves for our Gold SNe Ibc and literaturesample, before correcting for host galaxy extinction. The light curves for enginedriven SNe 1998bw, 2006aj, and 2009bb are indicated by gray star symbols andthe peak magnitudes are labeled by gray bars.
(A color version of this figure is available in the online journal.)

Core-collapse supernovae
Type Ib/Ic

Figure 9. We extracted t
and in the R band for
estimates for SNe Ib (thdashed lines) assuming G
distributions to unity (thdifferential distributions∆m15 distributions are
sub-classes.
(A color version of thisused them to infersample. To this end,
the P60 sample andTable 1). We interp
the respective valu
Gold SNe and (V −residual color exce
extinction, we deriv
As shown in Fig
curves for our P60
template curves cohost galaxy extinc
the associated unc
deviation of the t
R-band maxima. T
Figure 8. Absolute R-band light curves for our Gold and Silver SNe Ibc andDrout
et curvesal. 2011,sample
ApJ, extinction
741, 97 eliterature sample, before correcting for host galaxy extinction.
The light
extinction law for t

Kinetic
energyType WITH
II/Ib/Ic
TYPE Ib SUPERNOVA 2008D ASSOCIATED
THE L

No. 2, 2009
100

7
03dh

1052
02ap
06aj

1051 93J
1

87A

94I

0.1

10

1

)

(b)

15

5
05bf
99br
Faint SN Branch

20
25
30
35
40
Main Sequence Mass (M )!! biased 03dh
sample !!
06aj

6Hypernova Branch

97D

1050

03lw

97ef

08D

10

98bw

45

50

Relative Flux + const

51

Kinetic Energy (10 ergs)

(a)

4

3

2

03lw ApJ, 692. 1131 1
see98bw
eg., MT+09

97D

87A

99br
10

Type II

0.1

0.01

Hamuy 2003, ApJ, 582, 905

0.001
1

1051 erg

101052 erg

Not very biased sample

Fig. 6.—Envelope mass and nickel mass of SNe II, as a function of
explosion energy. Filled circles represent the 13 SNe IIP for which I wasable to apply the technique of LN85. The three crosses correspond to SN
1987A, SN 1997D, and SN 1999br, which have been modeled in detail by
CAVEAT:function?
Arnett (1996)
and Zampieri luminosity
et al. (2002). The nickel
yield for SN 1999br(Li etal. 2011,
comes from this paper(Table2). MNRAS, 412, 1441)

is de
explo
to di
the e
early
56 Ni
Addi
Dopp
declin
the r
being
degre
(2000
hydr
ion, a
lope
assum
mari
seven
Fig
funct
with
that

Galactic SN rate
~ 1 SN / 100 yr ??
Type Ia SN
51
E = 1.0-1.5 x 10 erg
Core-collapse SN
E = 1050 - 1052 erg
51<E> = 10 erg ??
Overall picture of CR acceleration?

Optical Observations of Supernovae
Current Status and Future
超新星爆発：可視光観測の現状とこれから• Supernova rate and kinetic energy• SNR type and distance• Future opportunities

C: MPIAThe discovery of light echoes from historic Galactic superno
type Ia supernova in the Milky Way . The proximity of the SN 1572
remnant has allowed detailed studies, such as the possible idendue to both scattering and absorption/re-emission of the outgo
tification of the binary companion6, and provides a unique oppor- supernova flash by the interstellar dust near the remnant14,15, ratunity to test theories of the explosion mechanism and the nature of the opportunity of conducting spectroscopic ‘post mortems’ of
7–9
the progenitor. The determination of the REST
hithertoETunknown
toric Galactic supernovae. Such a precise determinationof theAL.
Vol. REST
681 ET
L82
ALsp
spectroscopic type of this supernova is crucial in relating these tral type long after the original explosion has recently been perform
results to the diverse population of type Ia supernovae10. Here wefor the Cassiopeia A supernova16 and a supernova in the L
4 arcminreport an optical spectrum of Tycho’s supernova near maximum
Magellanic Cloud17.
brightness, obtained from a scattered-light echo more than four
We obtained Johnson R-band images of the recently identifi
centuries after the direct light from the explosion swept past the light-echo fields of SN 1572 using the 2.2-m and 3.5-m telescope
Earth. We find that SN 1572 belongs to the majority class of normal the Calar Alto Astronomical Observatory, Spain, on 23 August 2
2 arcmintype Ia supernovae.
and 2 September 2008. One of the fields observed on 2 September 2
at an angular distance of d 5 3.15u and position angle of 62u fromThe supernova of 1572 marked a milestone in the history of science.
Danish astronomer Tycho Brahe concluded from his accurate obser- SN 1572 remnant, showed a bright and extended nebulosity with a pvations of the ‘new star’ in the constellation of Cassiopeia that it must surface brightness of R 5 23.6 6 0.2 mag arcsec22 (Fig. 1a). The p
be located far beyond the Moon11. This contradiction to the tion of this new emission feature, relative to the previously repo
Aristotelian concept, that a change on the sky can only occur in the light-echo detection, has shifted away from the SN 1572 remnant.
Restet Objectal. 2008
sublunar regime, ultimately led to the abandonment of the notion of
The region was re-observed using
the Faint
Camera A
Fig. 1.—Light echo arclets associated with Tycho from field 4821. The
the immutability of the heavens. The classification of SN 1572 hasorientation
Spectrograph(FOCAS)
telescopeon Mauna
is north up
and eastattothe
theSubaru
left and8.2-m
the images
are 325!
# 250!KHow to find echoes
Vol 456 | 4 December 2008 | doi:10.1038/nature07608

LETTERS

Tycho Brahe’s 1572 supernova as a standard type Ia
as revealed by its light-echo spectrum
Oliver Krause1, Masaomi Tanaka2,3, Tomonori Usuda4, Takashi Hattori4, Miwa Goto1, Stephan Birkmann1,5& Ken’ichi Nomoto2,3

Type Ia supernovae are thermonuclear explosions of white dwarf
stars in close binary systems1. They play an important role as cosmological distance indicators and have led to the discovery of theaccelerated expansion of the Universe2,3. Among the most important unsolved questions4 about supernovae are how the explosion
actually proceeds and whether accretion occurs from a companion
or by the merging of two white dwarfs. Tycho Brahe’s supernova of
1572 (SN 1572) is thought to be one of the best candidates for a
type Ia supernova in the Milky Way5. The proximity of the SN 1572
remnant has allowed detailed studies, such as the possible identification of the binary companion6, and provides a unique opportunity to test theories of the explosion mechanism and the nature of
the progenitor. The determination of the hitherto unknown7–9
spectroscopic type of this supernova is crucial in relating theseresults to the diverse population of type Ia supernovae10. Here we
report an optical spectrum of Tycho’s supernova near maximum
brightness, obtained from a scattered-light echo more than four
centuries after the direct light from the explosion swept past the
Earth. We find that SN 1572 belongs to the majority class of normal
type Ia supernovae.
The supernova of 1572 marked a milestone in the history of science.
Danish astronomer Tycho Brahe concluded from his accurate observations of the ‘new star’ in the constellation of Cassiopeia that it must
be located far beyond the Moon11. This contradiction to the
Aristotelian concept, that a change on the sky can only occur in the
sublunar regime, ultimately led to the abandonment of the notion of
the immutability of the heavens. The classification of SN 1572 has

Declination
65° 28′ 00′′ 65° 28′ 30′′ 65° 29′ 00′′ 65° 29′ 30′′a2 September 2008bbeen controversial. On the basis of historical records of the light curveand colour evolution, it has been interpreted as a type Ia supernova ofeither a normal or somewhat overluminous type7 or of a subluminous
type8. Core-collapse supernovae of type Ib9 or II-L12 have also beensuggested to be compatible with the light curve. Support for the interpretation as a type Ia has been inferred from X-ray studies of the ejecta
composition13, but the determination of the exact supernova type has
not been possible without spectroscopic information.
The discovery of light echoes from historic Galactic supernovae,due to both scattering and absorption/re-emission of the outgoingsupernova flash by the interstellar dust near the remnant14,15, raised
the opportunity of conducting spectroscopic ‘post mortems’ of historic Galactic supernovae. Such a precise determination of the spectral type long after the original explosion has recently been performed
for the Cassiopeia A supernova16 and a supernova in the Large
Magellanic Cloud17.
We obtained Johnson R-band images of the recently identified15
light-echo fields of SN 1572 using the 2.2-m and 3.5-m telescopes at
the Calar Alto Astronomical Observatory, Spain, on 23 August 2008
and 2 September 2008. One of the fields observed on 2 September 2008,at an angular distance of d 5 3.15u and position angle of 62u from the
SN 1572 remnant, showed a bright and extended nebulosity with a peaksurface brightness of R 5 23.6 6 0.2 mag arcsec22 (Fig. 1a). The position of this new emission feature, relative to the previously reported
light-echo detection, has shifted away from the SN 1572 remnant.
The region was re-observed using the Faint Object Camera And
Spectrograph (FOCAS) at the Subaru 8.2-m telescope on Mauna Kea,
24 September 2008

Towards
remnant

Figure 1 | Optical images of the SN 1572 lightecho. a, b, R-band images of the same 120 3 120arcsec2 area. The corresponding observing
epochs are labelled. The position of thebrightness peak in the first epoch is marked forreference (red cross). The rectangle shown in
a indicates the location of a previous light-echo
detection15. The vector towards the remnant of
SN 1572 is indicated (arrow). The respective
seeings for a and b were 1.5 and 0.9 arcsec, fullwidth at half-maximum. The integration times of
the two images were 20 and 12 min, respectively.
Image reduction was performed using standard
methods with the Image Reduction and Analysis
Facility software.

00:52:18 00:52:14 00:52:10 00:52:06
00:52:18 00:52:14 00:52:10 00:52:06
Right ascension, J2000 (h:min:s)

1
Max-Planck-Institut für Astronomie, Königstuhl 17, 69117 Heidelberg, Germany. 2Institute for the Physics and Mathematics of the Universe, University of Tokyo, Kashiwanoha 5-1-5,
Kashiwa, Chiba 277-8568, Japan. 3Department of Astronomy, Graduate School of Science, University of Tokyo, Hongo 7-3-1, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan. 4SUBARU Telescope,
National Astronomical Observatory of Japan, 650 North A’ohoku Place, Hilo, Hawaii, USA. 5European Space Agency, Space Science Department, Keplerlaan 1, 2200 AG Noordwijk,
The Netherlands.

617©2008 Macmillan Publishers Limited. All rights reserved-=

Declination
65° 28′ 00′′ 65° 28′ 30′′ 65° 29′ 00′′ 65° 29′ 30′′

The top panels show the first-epoch image from 2006 October 20 (left) and
Figure1 | OpticaltheSN 1572ligh
the second-epoch
imagefrom 2007
December
13 images(right). ofThe
bottomimagesab
2 September 2008
24 September
2008, b, R-band
imagesof the
same
120 3
echo.
are the difference images between
the atwo
top images
where
white
represents
2
the later (2006 October) image andblack
the Theearlier
October image.
Saturatedarea.
corresponding
observingarcsecbright stars are masked gray. Inepochs
the bottom
panels, theimageofis therepeated
are labelled.
Theleftpositionin the right panel with the motion
vectorspeakplotted.
Red
represents
straighbrightness
in thefirst
epoch is amarked
line fit to the arclet, yellow representsthe(redapparentof the arclet,referencecross).motion
The rectangle
shownandinblue shows
reversevector withVR
surfacein theadirection.
indicates
thelocationof a brightness
previous
light-ec
Fig. 1.—Lightecho thearclets
associatedTychoThe
from
field
4821.
The
!2
Light echo arclets associated with Tycho from field 4821. The
15
brighterarclets
iseastroughly24
magarcsec. Thewidths
the
are
. The
vector
towards
theechoes
remnant
detectionorientation
is
north
up
and
to
the
left
and
the
images
are
325!
# of
250!.
is north up and east to the left and the images are 325! # 250!.
resolved,
10!imageacross.
SN
1572
is indicated(arrow).
The respective
The top panels
showandthetypicallyfirst-epoch
from
2006
October 20(left) andnels show the first-epoch image from 2006 October 20 (left) andthe second-epoch image from 2007 December
13 (right).
Thebbottom
imageswere 1.5
and 0.9 arcsec, fseeings
for a andepoch image from 2007 December 13 (right). The bottom images
tober 21–23,
2006 theDecember
2007white
October
12–15, timeandare the difference
images between
two topimageswhere
represents
width
at16,
half-maximum.
The integration
erence images between the two top images where white represents
the later (2006
image andblack Exposure
theOctober
image.
Saturatedtheearlier
two images
20 and12 min,120
respectiv
2007October)
December
13–15.
timeswere
were
betweenand006 October) image and black the earlier October image. Saturated
bright stars are masked gray. In the bottomImagepanels,reduction
the left image
is repeatedusing standwas performed
are masked gray. In the bottom panels, the left image is repeated
150
s.
The
interval
betweenthetwoepochsfora given field
in
the
right
panel
with
the
motionvectors
plotted.
Red
representsastraight
methods
with
the
Image
ReductionandechoAnapanel with the motion vectors plotted. Red represents a straight
is at
least
53 representsdays andtheasapparent
muchmotion
as 2 ofyears.
We andexpectline fit to thearclet,yellow
thearclet,Facility software.
he arclet, yellow represents the apparent
motion of the arclet, and!1
Towards
blue shows
the reverse
vectordirection.
The VRmotions
surface brightness
in thearcletstohavetypicalapparentof
20!–40!
yr, meanthe reverse vector direction. The VRremnant
surface brightness in the!2
Figbrighterarclets
isvectorroughly
24baselinemagarcsec.sufficientThewidthsofthe echoes
are
!2
Fig.
2.—Arcletmotionsintheregion
of
the
Cas
A
and
Tycho
suing
a
3
month
is
to
resolvetheirapparen
5 arcminpernolets is roughly 24 mag arcsec . The widths of the echoes areresolved, The
and vectors
typicallyare
10!plotted
across.on30
pernovae.
an
image
reconstructed
from
IRAS
data aligned
arcminnd typically 10! across.
motion. Imaging data were
kernel- and flux-matched,
at 10
at 100 mm(Miville-Deschênes& Lagache 2005). The panels are 44! # 25!
00:52:18 00:52:14 00:52:10 00:52:06
00:52:18
00:52:14
00:52:10 00:52:06
subtracted,
andright.
masked
using
the
SMSN
pipeline(Rest etwithal
tober
21–23,
2006
December
16,
2007
October
12–15,
and
with
north
up
and
east
to
the
The
green
squaresshow
themosaicfieldsRightascension,
J2000(h:min:s)–23, 2006 December 16, 2007 October 12–15, andwheraboutsupernovae aretant unsolved
questions ofsupernovae
differentlu
a width of 9,000 km s at half maximum. The absorption minimum actually proceeds and whether accretion occurs
type
Ia supernovae,
suchasB
by themergingof two white dwarfs.
Tycho
of the line corresponds to a velocity of 12,000 km s21, typical for or
1572 (SN 1572) is thought to be one of the be
10,18
peculiarities in theinormal type Ia supernovae at maximum brightness . Other strong type Iashowedsupernova in the Milky Way5. The proxi
remnant
has allowed
detailed studies, suchlackeda well-defined
Si IIas6tification of the binary companion , and provid
althoughthe mechanis
subseqtunitylight,
to test theoriesof the explosion
the progenitor.
The determinationTheof thehi
type Ia supernovae.
lackspectroscopic type of this supernova is crucia
time-averaged
spectru
resultsin
tothe
the diverse
population of typeIa supreportinanour
opticalspectrum of of
Tycho’s
supernospectrumSN
1572
brightness, obtained from a scattered-light ec
characteristic
deep
centuries
after the direct lightfromabsorp
the explos
Earth. We find that SN 1572 belongs to the majo
type Iaattributed
supernovae. to Ti II (ref. 20)
Thenotsupernova
a milestone
in th
seenof 1572
for marked
SN 1572.
Thes
Danish astronomer Tycho Brahe concluded fromininthesame way
Nugent vationsobtainedof the ‘new star’
the constellationof Ca
11
far beyond
the Moon . This conormal type Ia be locatedavailableat
http://supernova!"#$%&'&()*+,&-./0)%*1++
Aristotelianconcept, that a change on the sky ca
23+40()//*+5/0((0%)&'+6,0%)#7+899:;
donota togoodmatc
sublunar regime,provide
ultimately led
the abandonm
the immutabilityof the8.6classificat
and xtive values
ofheavens.
x2 5 The

21

Ca II

OI

Si II

Si II
Mg II
Si IIIFe II
Si II
Fe IIIS II
S II
Na I +Si II

Tycho’s SN = Type Ia

SN 1994D

SN 1572(Tycho)SN 2001el

Krause, MT+2008 Nature, 456, 617
4,000 4,500 5,000 5,500 6,000 6,500 7,000 7,500 8,000 8,500 9,000
Rest wavelength (Å)

aDeclination
65° 28′ 00′′ 65° 28′ 30′′ 65° 29′ 00′′ 65° 29′ 30′′

High-velocity
Ca II

1572
A well-established corr
2 September 2008

Dm15(B) of the supernova B

Overluminous type Ia–1 Hz–1)

Flux (erg cm–2 s–1 Hz–1)

Si

Towards
remnant

2008

00:52:18 00:52:14 00:52:10 00:52:06
Right ascension,

Cas A = Type IIb(thin H layer)
H

Krause et al. 2008

More typing (future)
72+/2489%"$$)

%$&)
%$&'

!"$

-./.,01,%,23024
%$&(
*+,

563
%$

%"$

!$&(
!$&'
M. Tanaka

%#

!#

=>,?@

%$
%#

:4.<
%$
*+,

!#

!"$

:.5%;

!"#

%"$

*+,

Counts s-1 keV-1

Region 1 Region 4

(a)

(b)

Distance to Tycho’s SNR

10

10-1

1

distance modulus= [m(obs) - extinction] - M(abs)= (-4.0 ~ -4.5 mag)Tycho Brahe (1603)- (1.86 +- 0.2 mag) Extinction toward SNR- (-19.0 +- 0.3 mag) Standard luminosity of
10-2

10-1

χ

10-3

10-2
5
0
-5

5
0
-5

2

3

4

5

5

6

Energy (keV)

78Energy (keV)

Type Ia SNe

Figure 5. (a) 1.7–5 keV and (b) 5–8 keV spectra of regions 1 (black) and 4 (red) with the best-fit double Gaussian models.

d = 3.8 (+1.5 -0.9) kpc

1980

Schwarz et al.

Chevalier et al.

HI absorption
Shock wave model
Companion star
Peak luminosity
TeV gamma-ray

Albinson et al.

1990
Smith et al.

Year

mited photon statistics. We fixed the ratio of δE1 /δE4
4 following Table 2. The widths and intensities of theblueshifted lines in regions 1 and 4 were all linked toer. Figure 5 shows the individual components of themodels. The reduced χ 2 s and dof were 1.47 (1430) for
V and 0.96 (415) for 5–8 keV band spectra.
econd step, we have also fitted all the spectra of regions
and 4 at the same time in exactly the same manner justd. Here, our aim was to verify that the model was valid
ur regions and also to improve the photon statistics. Theenergy difference among regions 1, 2, 3 and 4 were fixed
E2 :δE3 :δE4 = C1 :C2 :C3 :C4 . The parameters obtained
fits are consistent with those obtained for regions 1 andithin the systematical errors. The reduced χ 2 s and dof
5 (3028) and 1.06 (970) for 1.7–5 HayatokeV and 5–8et
keVal.
band
2010
respectively. The best-fit parameters are summarized in

Schwarz et al.

2000

Ghavamian et al.
Ruiz-Lapuente et al.
Ruiz-Lapuente

Krause et al.

2010

..

Volk et al.

This work
1

2

3

4
Distance (kpc)

56

revealedby its light-echo spectru
sheet is inclined or warped, then the tangent toasthe
light
arc may rotate with respect to the perpendicular direction
A promising
method(future)e remnant position.
Provided thatthe inclinationsof dustments in azimuth and in distance are not correlated, theagevector will still point in the direction of the SNR. For
Polarizationlightecho cluster, we calculate the average vector (seemaximume 1), as shown in Figure 2b. The estimated positions forθpoints of origin for the two echo complexes are given ine 2 as calculated by the average of all pairs of vector
sings (clipped at 3 j). The Tycho and Cas A SNR positions
Depth
z=0 deviationz
withinthe standardof the points of origin andθ
in 3 j of the average position. ρ = D sin αDeclination
65° 28′ 00′′ 65° 28′ 30′′ 65° 29′ 00′′ 65° 29′ 30′′

tunity to test theories of the explosion mechanism and the nature of
the opportunity of conducting spectros
the progenitor. The determination of the hitherto unknown7–9 toric Galactic supernovae. Such a precis
spectroscopic type of this supernova
is crucial in relating
thesetral type long
4 after the original explosion
OliverKrause1of, Masaomi
Tanaka102,3, Tomonori, Takashi
Hattori416, Miw. Hereweandresults to the diverse
population
type Ia supernovae
for Usuda
the Cassiopeia
A supernova
2,317
report an optical&spectrum
Tycho’s supernova near maximum
Magellanic Cloud .
Ken’ichiofNomotobrightness, obtained from a scattered-light echo more than four
We obtained Johnson R-band image
centuries after the direct light from the explosion swept past the light-echo fields of SN 1572 using the 2
Earth. We find that SN 1572 belongs to the majority class of normal the Calar Alto Astronomical ObservatorType Ia supernovae are thermonuclear explosions ofand
whitedwarf 2008.
been controversial.
Onotype Ia supernovae.
2 September
One of the fields
1and colour
Theyplayofanscience.
importantatrole
as cos- distancein marked
close binary
systems
an angularof d 5evolution,
3.15u and pi
The supernovastarsof 1572
a milestone
in .thehistorymological
distance
indicators
led obserto the discovery
the either
a normalsom
SN 1572ofremnant,showeda brightor
andexDanish astronomer
Tycho Braheconcluded
fromandhis haveaccurate
8Core-collapsesu. Among
most imporaccelerated
of oftheCassiopeia
Universe2,3
brightnesstypeof R. 523.6 6 0.2 magvations of the ‘newstar’ in theexpansion
constellation
that
it mustthe surface
4
11
suggestedfeature,
to be compaabout
supernovaetoarethe
how thetant unsolved
questionstionexplosionof this new emission
relati. Thiscontradiction
be located far beyond
the Moonpretation
as a typeIafrohaactually
whetheraccretion
occursfrom alight-echo
companion
detection,
has shiftedaway
Aristotelian concept,that proceeds
a change andon thesky canonly occur
in the13
but theby the merging
of abandonment
two white dwarfs.
Tycho
Brahe’sof wascomposition
sublunar regime, orultimately
led to theof thenotionof supernova
The region
re-observed ,usingth
not beenpossiblewith(SN1572) isThethought
to be oneof thefor a (FOCAS)
the immutability1572
of theheavens.
classificationof SN
1572best
has candidates
Spectrographat theSubaru8.2
5
The discovery of lig
type Ia supernova in the Milky Way . The proximity of the SN 1572
remnant has allowed detailed studies,such as the possible idendue to Figureboth scattering
1 | Opticalab 6
2 September 2008
24 September 2008
tification of the binary companion , and provides a unique oppor- supernova
the
R-ban
echo.flash
a, b, by2
tunity to test theories of the explosion mechanism and the nature of
the opportunity
ofThe
con
arcsec area.
7–9
epochs arelabellethe progenitor. The determination of the hitherto unknown
toric Galactic
supernobrightness
spectroscopic type of this supernova is crucial in relating thesetral typelong afterpeak
theio(red cro
results to the diverse population of type Ia supernovae10. Here wefor thereference
CassiopeiaA
17 lo
a indicates
thereport an optical spectrum of Tycho’s supernova near maximum.
Magellanic
Cloud
15. The vbrightness, obtained from a scattered-light echo more than four
We detection
obtained Johnso
SN 1572 is indica
centuries after the direct light from the explosion swept past the light-echo
fieldsofSNseeings for a andEarth. We find that SN 1572 belongs to the majority class of normal the Calar
Alto
Astronowidth
at half-max
type Ia supernovae.
and 2 September
2008.w
the two images
at an angulardistance o
The supernova of 1572 marked a milestone in the history of science.
Image reduction
methodswiththeremnant,
show
Danish astronomer Tycho Brahe concluded from his accurate obser- SN 1572
software.
brightnessof R
vations ofTowards
the ‘new star’ in the constellation of Cassiopeia that it must surfaceFacility
remnanttion of this new emiss
be locatedfar beyond the Moon11. This contradiction to the
Aristotelian concept, that a change on the sky can only occur in the light-echo detection, haultimately
abandonmentof thenotion00:52:06
of
The region was re-o
00:52:18sublunar
00:52:14regime,
00:52:10
00:52:06 led to the 00:52:18
00:52:14
00:52:10
the immutability Rightof theheavens.
The(h:min:s)classification of SN 1572 has Spectrograph (FOCAS
ascension,
J2000

Declination
65° 28′ 00′′ 65° 28′ 30′′ 65° 29′ 00′′ 65° 29′ 30′′

1
Max-Planck-Institut für Astronomie, Königstuhl 17, 69117 Heidelberg, Germany. 2Institute for the Physics and Mathematics of the Universe, Unab
2 September 2008
24 September 2008
Kashiwa, Chiba 277-8568, Japan. 3Department of Astronomy, Graduate School of Science, University of Tokyo, Hongo 7-3-1, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 11
National Astronomical Observatory of Japan, 650 North A’ohoku Place, Hilo, Hawaii, USA. 5European Space Agency, Space Science Departmen
The Netherlands.

4. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONSDistance!

he light echo equation (Couderc 1939)©2008 Macmillan Publishers Limited. All rights reserved

Towards
remnant

00:52:18 00:52:14 00:52:10 00:52:06
00:52:18 00:52:14 00:52:10 00:52:06
Right ascension, J2000 (h:min:s)

1
Max-Planck-Institut für Astronomie, Königstuhl 17, 69117 Heidelberg, Germany. 2Institute for the Physics and Mathemati
Kashiwa, Chiba 277-8568, Japan. 3Department of Astronomy, Graduate School of Science, University of Tokyo, Hongo 7-3National Astronomical Observatory of Japan, 650 North A’ohoku Place, Hilo, Hawaii, USA. 5European Space Agency, Spa
The Netherlands.

©2008 Macmillan Publishers Limited. All rights reserved

2

r
ct
zp
!
2ct 2

(1)

No. 2, 2008

614

GEOMETRIC DISTANCE FOR V838 MON

611

SPARKS E

Sparks et al. 2008

Figure 7. Color rendition of the V838 Mon light echo on 2002 December 17,
prepared from the HST B, V , and I images listed in Tables 1 and 2. Note theprevalence of blue outer edges and red inner ones, which arise as a consequenceof the echo geometry and the time behavior of the outburst light, as describedin the text. The image is 90!! high and has north at the top and east on the left.
(A color version of this figure is available in the online journal)

Figure 12. Linear polarization degree plotted as a function of scattering angle,
as derived for the 2002 December data and assumed distances of 8 kpc (innercurve), 6 kpc (middle noisy curve), and 4 kpc (outer curve). If V838 Mon lies
at a distance of 4 kpc, peak linear polarization occurs at a scattering angle of∼110◦ . If it is at a distance of 8 kpc, the peak is at an angle of ∼75◦ . For
reference the smooth curve shows a standard Rayleigh polarization curve given
2 θ),
Figure8. Source
functionsfor the
V838
Mon
light
echo,
for peaksa= (1 −
cos2 θ)/(1
+ cos
with
pmax
= illustrated
0.5, which
at abyp/pmax◦particularstellardistance
(6.1
kpc)
and
epoch
(2002
December
17).
In
each
scattering angle of 90 .

V838 Mon
d
=
6.2
+1.2
kpc
Figure 6 shows that, for almost any assumed distribution ofclumpy dust, the LOS at a larger projected separation x from thestar corresponds to light emitted earlier in the outburst. Thus,

panel the source functions are represented by brightness as functions of the
projected x distance from the star, and z depth in the line of sight on a linear

Chandra, X-ray

HST, optical

Light echo

SNR typing- Tycho- Cas A
FutureMore typing (Kepler, Crab, ...)
Geometric distanceOptical Observations of Supernovae
Current Status and Future
超新星爆発：可視光観測の現状とこれから• Supernova rate and kinetic energy• SNR type and distance• Future opportunities

します

Space

Opt/IR surveyor(1-2m class)
Euclid (2017-) 0.5-2 um
WFIRST (?-) 0.7-2.5 um
WISH (?-) 1-5 um

従来

2017

SPICA (2022?-)5-200 um「SP

新たな「宇宙史」を拓く、圧倒的な高感度・高分解能

SPICAの主鏡口径(Oᴐᴯᴕ)は、あのハッブル宇宙望遠鏡(O)をも上回る大口径。これがさらに全冷却望遠鏡となることで、圧倒的なミッシ

高感度・高空間分解能の観測が可能になります。これにより、より遠望遠鏡

くの天体の、より詳細な観測が実現し、まったく新しい宇宙の姿が明望遠鏡らかになると期待されます

総質量
軌道

国際協力ミッション
欧州宇宙機構 (ESA) 等との本格的な国際協力ミッションとして

JWST (?-)
0.7-25 um
SPICAはᲬᲪᲫᲲ࠰ࡇの打上げを目指します。

打上げ

詳しくは

http:/

宇宙航空研究開発機構 広報部〒100-8260 東京都千代田区丸の内1-6-5
丸の内北口ビルディング
Phone: 03-6266-6400 Fax: 03-6266-6910

2010
8-10m telescope
Hyper Suprime-Cam
2013- (Urata-san)GroundJAXAウェブサイトJAXAメールサービス
宇宙科学研究本部ウ

2020>30m telescope
TMT (2021?-)
GMT, E-ELT

64

TMT:
Thirty meter telescope

TMT計画説明書より

10-29(erg/s/cm2/Hz)

図 5.2:)、TMT+ AO()、TMT AO なし、すばる望遠鏡
図 5.2: TMT + AO(補償光学
TMT
AO補償光学なし、すばる望遠鏡並びにJWST点源に対する撮像、(b) 点源に対する分光、(c) 広がった天体に点源に対する撮像、(b) 点源に対する分光、(c) 広がった天体に対する撮像、((e)arcsec
点源に対する輝線撮像、(f) 広がった天体に対する輝線分光の0.01
resolution!
@
NIR(e) 点源に対する輝線撮像、(f) 広がった天体に対する輝線分光の場合の観測感
で S/N=10となる場合の天体の明るさを示しており、図中で下に(better than JWST)
で S/N=10 となる場合の天体の明るさを示しており、図中で下に行くほどより応している。

KPNO

No. 2, 2010HST

RESOLVED SHOCK STRUCTURE IN TYCHO’S SNR

H alpha filament inTycho’s SNR

L147

64◦ 10" 00""64◦ 11"

cut 0140

0.5-1
arcsec64◦ 10"

δ2000

δ2000

Lee et al. 2010, ApJ, 715, L146""

At 4 kpc
1 arcsec = 6 x 1016 cm
0.1 arcsec = 6 x 1015 cm
14 cm
0.01
arcsec
=
6
x
10
L148

cut 0220""

64◦ 09"0h 26m 00s

α2000

cut 0350s

0h 25m 40s

64◦ 09" 00""
cut 04

Figure 1. HST image of the Balmer-dominated filaments in the northeasternpart of Tycho’s SNR. The WFPC2 detector with F656N filter was used. The
inset shows an Hα image toward Tycho’s SNR from a ground-based telescope(KPNO). The area observed by the HST is marked.
64◦ 08" 40""

Hα Surface Brightness

the filaments (between δ = 64◦ 08" 40"" and δ = 64◦ 09" 20"" ). Thisextension is more clearly demonstrated by the Hα brightness
profiles from the cuts along the shock normals as seen in
Figure 3. The profiles show a bright emission peak of thickness!0."" 5, which is the emission from neutral hydrogen excited in
the postshock area. The small bumps around offsets −1."" 8 and
0."" 7 are likely due to the projection of fainter tangencies of therippled SF to the line of sight. The Hα emission slowly
falls off
precursor
not only toward the downstream but also toward the upstream
direction. In the downstream, the Hα emission is emitted withina very narrow region behind the shock as neutral hydrogen is
rapidly ionized. Thus, we consider that the downstream emission
is likely a projection of the curved SFs. Some of the upstream
emission couldbe, in principle,
attributed to a similar projection
Shock
Directioneffect. However, Figure 2 shows that the SF in this region does
not show any significant curvature, and it is difficult to devise
a shock geometry that explains both upstream and downstream
emission. Figure 4 shows emission profiles along different cuts,and the upstream emission components are similarly seen. The
upstream emission is also seen faintly in the profile of cut 01
where the shock surface is apparently convex (see Figure 2),
and a projection effect is not likely to explain the upstream
emission. Therefore, we propose that the faint emission fromthe upstream region represents the emission mostly from theneutral hydrogen atoms excited in a shock precursor, and the−8 geometry makes−6 only a minor−4 contribution.
−2effect of shock

56s

54s
α2000

0h 25m 52s

56s

54s
α2000

0h 25m 52s

LEE ET AL.
Figure 2. (a) Hα image of knot g, one of the brightest Balmer-dominatedfilaments in Tycho, taken by KPNO 2.1 m telescope. (b) HST image of the same
region. The black rectangles are regions from which the brightness profiles are
extracted.
(A color version of this figure is available in the online journal.)

HST
postshock0.18 arcsec
Table 1
Fit Parameters from the Toy Precursor Model

RegionCut 01
Cut 02
Cut 03
Cut 04f

L ("" )

w ("" )

χ 2 /dof

1.4+0.3−0.2

2.5+0.7−0.5

0.42+0.06−0.05

206/170

0.72+0.06−0.06
0.57+0.04−0.03
0.93+0.04−0.03

1.2+0.1−0.1
0.70+0.06−0.05
0.87+0.05−0.05

0.31+0.02−0.02
0.35+0.01−0.01
0.39+0.02−0.02

170/182258/182
220/182

where F is the total Hα flux from the postshock region,
L is the precursor length scale, and f is the flux ratio of
the precursor to the postshock region. The variation in thedownstream region could be modeled with a curved geometryof the shock. However, we find that the observed variation
cannot be adequately fit by shocks of a simple geometry.
Instead of introducing arbitrary fit parameters to describe thestructure along the line of sight, we simply assume planeparallel shocks and ignore the data where the model deviates
2 As long as L is4sufficiently smaller
6 than thefrom0the observation.
local curvature radii!! of the shocks, the plane-parallel assumption
Distance
from
the
peak
[
] affect the estimated precursor parameters.
will not significantly
3. MODELING THE PRECURSOR EMISSION
As evident from Figure 2, the profiles require multiple shock

1 arcsec

Optical Observations of Supernovae
Current Status and Future
超新星爆発：可視光観測の現状とこれから• Supernova rate and kinetic energy• SNR type and distance• Future opportunities