UNINSURABLE NATION:
AUSTRALIA’S MOST
CLIMATE-VULNERABLE
PLACES

CLIMATECOUNCIL.ORG.AU

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Nicki Hutley© Climate Council of Australia Ltd 2022.
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Climate Councillor (Economics)

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CLIMATE COUNCIL

Contents
Key findings...................................................................................................................................................................................... ii
1.

Introduction...............................................................................................................................................................................1

2.

Methods ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 5

3.

4.

About the data

5

About the ranking

6

Ranking results ........................................................................................................................................................................7
Profiles of the top ten most at-risk federal electorates

9

Rankings by state and territory

22

Conclusion and recommendations................................................................................................................................. 26

References....................................................................................................................................................................................... 28
Image credits.................................................................................................................................................................................. 29i

ii

UNINSURABLE NATION:
AUSTRALIA’S MOST CLIMATE-VULNERABLE PLACES

Key findings
1
2
Climate change is creating an insurability crisis
in Australia due to worsening extreme weather
and sky-rocketing insurance premiums.

Climate change affects all Australians, butsome federal electorates face far greater risks
than others.

› Worsening extreme weather means increased
costs of maintenance, repair and replacement
to properties – our homes, workplaces andcommercial buildings. As the risk of being
affected by extreme weather events is increasing,insurers are raising premiums to cover theincreased cost of claims and reinsurance.

› The top 10 most at-risk federal electorates by 2030 are:

› The Climate Council has produced a ranking of the
top 10 most at-risk electorates from climate change
and extreme weather events (covering bushfires,extreme wind and different types of flooding),
based on the percentage of ‘high risk’ properties
in each federal electorate across Australia.
These properties have projected annual damage
costs equivalent to 1% or more of the property
replacement cost, and are referred to in this reportas uninsurable, as – whilst policies might still beavailable – premiums are expected to become too
expensive for people to afford.

› In these at-risk electorates, 15% of properties(165,646), or around one in every seven properties,
will be uninsurable this decade.

› Across Australia approximately 520,940 properties,
or one in every 25, will be ‘high risk’ anduninsurable. In addition, 9% of properties (1 in 11)
will reach the ‘medium risk’ classification by 2030,
with annual damage costs that equate to 0.2-1% of
the property replacement cost. These properties
are at risk of becoming underinsured.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Nicholls (Vic)
Richmond (NSW)
Maranoa (QLD)
Moncrieff (QLD),
Wright (QLD),

6. Brisbane (QLD),
7. Griffith (QLD),
8. Indi (Vic)
9. Page (NSW) and10. Hindmarsh (SA).

› In the electorate of Nicholls in Victoria, which
covers the Local Government Areas (LGAs) of
Campaspe, Greater Shepparton, Moira, and partsof Strathbogie and Mitchell, 26.5% properties will
be uninsurable by 2030. In the LGA of Greater
Shepparton, it is as many as half (56% of properties),and almost 90% in the locality of Shepparton.
› By 2030, 40 federal electorates across Australia will
have 4% of properties classified as uninsurable.
Eighteen of these electorates (or 45%) are in
Queensland. The top five most at-risk electorates
in Queensland are: Maranoa, Moncrieff, Wright,
Brisbane and Griffith.
› The percentage of properties that will beuninsurable by 2030 in each state and territory is
6.5% in Queensland; 3.3% in NSW; 3.2% in South
Australia; 2.6% in Victoria; 2.5% in the Northern
Territory; 2.4% in Western Australia; 2% in Tasmania
and 1.3% in the ACT.

KEY FINDINGS

3

4Riverine floods are the most
costly disaster in Australia.

Decisions and actions over this next term ofgovernment will influence the future impactsof climate change for generations to come.

› Riverine flooding poses the biggest risk toproperties. Of the properties classified as ‘high risk’by 2030, 80% of that risk is due to riverine flooding.
› Bushfires and surface water flooding (sometimes
called flash flooding) are the other majorworsening hazards causing properties tobecome uninsurable by 2030.
› The five most at-risk electorates for riverine
flooding are: Nicholls in Victoria, Richmond in
New South Wales (including the towns of Ballina,
Bangalow, Brunswick Heads, Byron Bay, Hastings
Point, Kingscliff, Lennox Head, Mullumbimby,
and Tweed Heads), and Maranoa (in rural
southwestern Queensland, including the townsof Roma, Stanthorpe, Winton and Warwick),
Brisbane, and Moncrieff in Queensland (part of
the Gold Coast).

iii› Unfortunately over the last eight years theFederal Government has failed to meaningfully
tackle climate change or prepare Australians forworsening extreme weather.
› A key test for all candidates in the upcoming
Federal Election is whether they are supporting
policies that drive deep emissions cuts now
through the 2020s, aligned with limiting the global
average temperature rise to well below 2°C.
› There is also an urgent need to upscale investment
in national adaptation and disaster risk reduction
to help Australians better prepare for worsening
extreme weather events.

› Across Australia, 2.5% of properties (360,691
properties) will be at ‘high risk’ of riverine
flooding by 2030, with a further 372,684 at‘medium risk’ of riverine flooding.

climatecouncil.org.au

1

UNINSURABLE NATION:
AUSTRALIA’S MOST CLIMATE-VULNERABLE PLACES

1.

Introduction
Climate Change, driven by theburning of coal, oil and gas issupercharging our weather systems.
Already, temperatures have risenaround 1.47°C in Australia since 1910,
leading to an increase in extreme
heat events (BoM 2022a).

Southern Australia is becoming drier – withdeclines in cool season (April - October)rainfall in southwest Western Australia andsoutheastern Australia over recent decades.
There has been an increase in the length of
the fire season and extreme fire weather overlarge areas of Australia, particularly southern
Australia, since around the 1950s. At thesame time, northern Australia has becomewetter – particularly during the monsoon,and there has been an observed increasein the proportion of rain falling as shortduration intense rainfall events, increasing
the risk of flooding (CSIRO and BoM 2020).
Rates of sea level rise around the Australiancontinent have been similar to the global
average around much of the coastline (~ 25
cm since 1880), with significantly higher
rates of sea level rise to the north andsoutheast of the continent (CSIRO and BoM2020). Coastal communities are alreadyexperiencing the impacts on properties andinfrastructure, including coastal inundation,
erosion and more damaging storm surges.
Worsening extreme weather meansincreased costs of maintenance, repair andreplacement to properties – our homes,
workplaces and commercial buildings.
As the risk of being affected by extreme
weather events increases, insurers will raise
premiums to cover the increased cost ofclaims and reinsurance.

Climate change, driven by the burning ofcoal, oil and gas, is leading to worsening
fires, floods, and heatwaves.

CHAPTER 01
INTRODUCTION

Figure 1: Bushfire rages close to properties in New South Wales during Black Summer. 2019. The Royal Commission Into
Natural Disaster Arrangements found that climate change is increasing the severity and frequency of extreme weather
events, like bushfires and floods.

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UNINSURABLE NATION:
AUSTRALIA’S MOST CLIMATE-VULNERABLE PLACES

Insurance will become increasingly
unaffordable or unavailable in large
parts of Australia due to worsening
extreme weather.
Australia’s general insurers paid out $5.47
billion from over 300,000 claims related
to the bushfires, floods and hailstorms inthe 2019-20 summer (ICA 2021). This led
Insurance Australia Group (IAG) and Suncorp
to draw on their reinsurance contracts andprompted Swiss Re to publicly criticise
the companies for consistently failing topredict the cost of natural disasters (The
Guardian 2021). The world’s second biggest
reinsurer, Swiss Re, has noted that climatechange is already resulting in a “new world”
of weather uncertainty, driving increased
losses from more local flooding, torrential
rain, prolonged drought, severe wildfires andother extreme weather events – and that
this will push up the cost of insurance inAustralia (AFR 2020; Swiss Re 2019).
Already, many Australians do not haveinsurance, or are underinsured (ICA 2021;
ACCC 2019). The rate of home building
non-insurance is about 20% in Northern
Australia and 11% across the rest of Australia,
and this is growing in Northern Australia
due largely to unaffordability (ACCC 2019).
Underinsurance is also widespread inAustralia (i.e. when the level of insurance
taken out by a policyholder doesn’t
fully cover the cost to rebuild or repair),though the extent of underinsurance is
not fully known (ICA 2021). High levelsof underinsurance, particularly amongst
businesses, was one of the major issues
revealed in the aftermath of the Black
Summer bushfires, and this has also been
apparent following the recent flooding
events in northern New South Wales andsoutheast Queensland. Being uninsured orunderinsured makes it much more difficult
to recover following extreme weather events(ICA 2021).
The availability of affordable insurance isparamount to the safety and well-beingof communities, as well as the broader
economic resilience of Australia. Households
and businesses rely on insurance to protect
them financially, to give them the confidence
to invest, and to rebuild when extreme
weather events strike. People who do nothave insurance, or are underinsured, aremore likely to experience homelessness
after an extreme weather event strikes.
Communities that have low levels of
insurance will take longer to recover, andmore of the financial burden of recovery
will fall on governments, and by extension,
taxpayers. This can also lead to broader
economic impacts, such as higher debt
levels and reduced economic productivity(Summerhayes 2020).
The affordability of insurance is particularly
relevant for financially vulnerable people,
and increasing premiums will exacerbate
existing inequities. Insurance companies
may also decide that offering policies
in some high-risk areas is not viable,
withdrawing the option of taking out
insurance entirely.
For high risk properties, banks may reduce
access to credit, and credit risk for existingloans may rise, leading to declining property
values. In some severe instances, areas may

CHAPTER 01
INTRODUCTION

While climate change affects all
Australians, the risks are not sharedequally. In the most extreme instances,areas may become uninhabitable.
even become uninhabitable as banks nolonger consider high-risk properties sensible
for lending (RBA 2021).
Although all Australians are affected byclimate change, certain areas are at greaterrisk. The factors that determine risk include
not only the probability of an extreme weather
event occurring (for example a bushfire),but also how exposed a property is to thatevent (for example how close a property is
to bushland), and how vulnerable it is (forexample what the building materials are).
The address level climate risk data used
for analysis in this report – provided to the
Climate Council by Climate Valuation –combine projections from climate models
with historical hazard data, and with data on
particular localities (for example elevationetc.) to determine where properties arelikely to be most severely affected by climatechange and extreme weather.
The report outlines the top 20 most at-riskfederal electorates to climate change-related
extreme weather events, providing a brief
profile of the top 10. The report also outlines
the most at-risk electorates for each state andterritory. The metric used for the ranking
is the percentage of ‘high risk’ properties,
which have annual damage costs equating
to 1% or more of the replacement cost of theproperty. These properties are referred tothroughout this report as being uninsurable.
Australia is one of most vulnerable developed
countries to climate impacts. The decisionsof the next Federal Government will influence

the future impacts of climate change forgenerations to come. Every fraction of adegree matters and will be measured in lost
lives and livelihoods. If every country in
the world was doing as Australia, the world
would be on a track for around 3°C to 4°C ofwarming (Climate Action Tracker 2021). This
would be catastrophic.
This report accompanies an interactive
online map, which allows users to explore
the percentage (and number) of mediumhigh risk properties in different electorates,
local government areas (LGAs), and suburbs
across Australia over different time periods(2030, 2050 and 2100) and under different
emissions scenarios. This report presents
a subset of these data and focuses only on‘high risk’ properties.

www

The map can be found here:
www.climatecouncil.org.au/resources/climate-risk-map

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UNINSURABLE NATION:
AUSTRALIA’S MOST CLIMATE-VULNERABLE PLACES

2. Methods
ABOUT THE DATA
The data used to develop this ranking were
provided by Climate Valuation.1 Climate
Valuation analyse climate risk in termsof the probability of property damage —specifically, the Maximum to Date Value at
Risk (MVAR) of extreme weather and climaterelated hazards. This has been done using
purpose-built ‘Climate Risk Engines’, which
compute the threshold at which the various
key components of a building would fail if
exposed to various hazards (such as riverine
flooding, coastal inundation and bushfires).
MVAR is a measure of the annual risk ofdamage to an asset. The MVAR captures thecosts of expected extreme weather and climaterelated damage, relative to the replacement costof the building. For example, an MVAR of 1% isequivalent to climate-related damage costs of$3,140 per year for a building that costs $314,000(a conservative estimate of the average homereplacement cost for many regions of Australia),
noting that this does not include the value ofthe land. Properties that have an MVAR thatis 1% or more of the replacement cost of thedwelling are considered ‘high risk’ consistent
with definitions used by the US Federal
Emergency Management Agency.
The ‘Climate Risk Engines’ combine longterm data from local meteorological stations
with information about the specific location,such as flood mapping and depths, elevation
above sea level, tides and waves, soil type,and forest cover; and data on the assumedbuilding at that address, such as age,construction materials and design.
The influence of future climate change isderived by extracting the changes in thestatistical distribution of key parameters such1

as heat, precipitation, wind and humidity fromglobal climate change models from agencies
such as CSIRO, University of New South Wales,
University of Queensland, and the US National
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration(NOAA). Models that predict a wetter future
are used to assess flood risks, models thatpredict a drier future are used to assessdrought risks etc. In this way, the models
are structured to provide a ‘stress test’ andalert property owners to the upper range ofpossible risks, rather than average projections.
To overcome the high levels of variability inclimate data a Maximum to Date approach isused, which shows the maximum amountof the Value at Risk up to and including theyear being quoted. This avoids a misleading
focus on a low impact year which may beanomalous with the trend.
All of these data are then processed to
calculate the probability of property damage
from climate change and extreme weather
for every address in Australia. The Climate
Risk Engines assume a standard modern
dwelling is located at each address, i.e. asingle story detached house which uses
design specifications and materials typicalof a recent building. The replacement cost ofeach dwelling is assumed to be $314,000. Thisis a very conservative estimate given thatthe average cost of building a new dwelling
across Australia was $320,000 in 2018-19
according to the ABS (last update) and that
construction costs have risen considerably
over the past two years (ABS 2020).

For more on the methodology used by
the Climate Risk Engines, visit: www.
climateriskengines.com/methodology.html

Climate Valuation are leaders in residential climate risk analysis. To find out information on the climate risks facing a particular residential
address, visit their website at: https://climatevaluation.com/

CHAPTER 02
METHODSABOUT THE RANKING
The ranking used in this report is basedon the percentage of properties in eachelectorate across Australia that are classified
as ‘high-risk’. These properties are referred
to in this report as uninsurable, as premiums
are expected to become so expensive that
insurance becomes inaccessible. This does
not necessarily mean that insurance policies
are not available, but in regions with a highpercentage of ‘high risk’ properties insurers
may decide to refuse to offer policies entirely.
For this report, Climate Valuation forecasted
an MVAR for each dwelling in Australia.
All properties with an MVAR of 1% or more
(i.e. all ‘high risk’ dwellings) were thenaggregated by federal electorates, providing
a standardised metric for comparing climate
risk. The percentage of ‘high risk’ properties
in each electorate was used (as opposedto the raw number), so the ranking is notbiassed towards electorates with a higher
number of dwellings.
The ranking used a timeframe of 2030
for comparing climate risks, and a highemissions scenario. Unfortunately, theimpacts of climate change in 2030 will be
driven by greenhouse gas emissions thathave already been released, so the emissions
scenario chosen essentially does not haveany bearing on the projected impacts.
The total risk from hazards that significantly
impact buildings are used in this report:
bushfires, riverine flooding, extreme wind,coastal inundation and surface water
flooding. The definitions for each of thesehazards are as follows:

Riverine flooding is when a river
exceeds its capacity, inundating
nearby areas.
Coastal inundation is when seawater
temporarily or permanently floods anarea due to a combination of sea levelrise, high tides, wind, low air pressure
and/or waves. This definition does
not include coastal erosion.
Extreme wind is high-wind conditions
that may exceed a building’s design
specifications (due to projectedchanges in sea surface temperature,
wind regimes and wind speeds).
Bushfires are destructive fires thatspread via trees, forests and groundcover. This definition does not include
grass fires.
Surface water flooding (sometimes
called pluvial flooding or flash flooding)is overland flooding. This occurs whensustained rainfall or short-duration
heavy rainfall events cause the groundto reach saturation point and drainage
systems to overflow, resulting in thebuild-up of excess water.
It should be emphasised that this ranking
is based on climate change impacts tobuildings. In some ways, this provides a
proxy for areas that are more at risk thanothers, but it does not fully reflect therisks of climate change to human health,ecosystems, and other sectors of theeconomy. For example, whilst extreme heathas killed more Australians than all othernatural hazards combined (Coates et al. 2014;
Coates et al. 2022), extreme heat does not
significantly affect the structural integrityof buildings. Likewise, although declining
rainfall in some parts of Australia will
significantly affect agricultural yields andecosystems, it will have a marginal impact
on the structural integrity of buildings.

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UNINSURABLE NATION:
AUSTRALIA’S MOST CLIMATE-VULNERABLE PLACES

3.

Ranking results
The top 10 most at-risk federal electorates by 2030 are:1.

Nicholls (Vic)2.

Richmond (NSW)

3.

Maranoa (Qld)4.

Moncrieff (Qld)5.

Wright (Qld)

6.

Brisbane (Qld)7.

Griffith (Qld)8.

Indi (Vic)9.

Page (NSW)

10. Hindmarsh (SA)In these 10 electorates alone 15% of properties(165,646 properties) or around one in sevenproperties will be uninsurable within 10 years.
Profiles of the top 10 electorates, including a
breakdown of the main hazards driving risk,
are in the following section.
The top 20 most at-risk electorates are shownin Table 1. In the top 20 most at-risk electorates
12% of properties (250,653 properties) either
already are, or will be classed as uninsurable
within ten years.

Table 1: Top 20 most at-risk federal electorates to climate extremes, 2030.

Total
properties

High risk
properties

Mediumrisk
properties

High risk
properties
(%)

Rank

Electorate

State

LGAs

1

Nicholls

VIC

Greater Shepparton, Moira, Campaspe,
Mitchell, parts of Strathbogie

94,28025,801

9,057

27.4

2

Richmond

NSW

Tweed, Byron, Ballina

106,445

22,27434,88420.9

132,078

19,551

13,212

14.8

3Maranoa

QLD

17 LGAs including Diamantina,
Longreach, Maranoa, Western Downs,
Winton, and parts of South Burnett,
Southern Downs and Toowoomba

4

Moncrieff

QLD

Part of Gold Coast

131,924

18,032

9,545

13.7

5

Wright

QLD

Lockyer Valley and parts of Gold Coast,
Ipswich, Logan, Scenic Rim and SouthernDowns

88,952

12,14028,502

13.6

6

Brisbane

QLD

Parts of Brisbane

145,103

19,355

22,461

13.3

7

Griffith

QLD

Parts of Brisbane

112,833

14,812

17,894

13.1

8

Indi

VIC

Wangaratta, Alpine Shire, Benalla,
Strabogie

99,086

11,215

10,991

11.3

9

Page

NSW

Parts of Ballina, Lismore, Richmond Valley,
Clarence Valley,

103,657

11,69133,17711.3

10Hindmarsh

SAPort Adelaide, parts of Port Adelaide
Enfield, Charles Sturt, parts of West
Torrens

97,274

10,775

10,50011.1

11Wide Bay

QLD

Fraser Coast, Noosa Shire, parts of Gympie

105,327

10,57532,626

10.0

12

Lyne

NSW

Mid-Coast, parts of Port MacquarieHastings, parts of Port Stephens, parts ofMaitland and Dungog

106,556

10,28333,607

9.7

109,767

10,251

7,450

9.3

13

Parkes

NSW

Parts of Western Plains Regional, Broken
Hill, Narrabri, Moree Plains, Gunnedah,
Warrumbungle Shire, Lachlan, Narromine,
Cobar, Walgett, Gwydir, Coonamble,
Gilgandra,Bourke, Warren, Bogan,Central
Darling, Brewarrina, Unincorporated NSW

14

Forde

QLD

Parts of Logan and parts of Gold Coast

91,5108,488

19,253

9.3

15

Ryan

QLD

Parts of Brisbane City

80,444

7,177

16,595

8.9

16

Moreton

QLD

Parts of Brisbane City87,161

7,667

9,027

8.8

17

Fairfax

QLD

Parts of Sunshine Coast

96,9008,225

13,842

8.5

107,668

9,035

4,969

8.4

18

Mallee

VIC

Mildura Rural City, Swan Hill Rural City,
Horsham Rural City, Central Goldfields,
Northern Grampians, Gannawarra,
Loddon, Yarriamback, parts of Pyrenees,
Buloke, Hindmarsh, West Wimmera

19

Tangney

WA

Parts of Gosnells, parts of Melville, parts ofCanning

85,401

6,334

3,771

7.4

20

Blair

QLD

Parts of Brisbane City, Ipswitch, Somerset

97,893

6,972

17,6107.1

2,080,259

250,653

348,973

12.0

Total

9

UNINSURABLE NATION:
AUSTRALIA’S MOST CLIMATE-VULNERABLE PLACESPROFILES OF THE TOP TEN MOST
AT-RISK FEDERAL ELECTORATESThe top 10 most at-risk electorates are
profiled below. Riverine flooding drives
most of the risk to properties in the top 10
riskiest electorates in 2030. Around 80% of
the ‘high risk’ properties in the top 10 riskiest
electorates are classified as such due to theprobability and impact of riverine flooding.
Bushfire and surface water flooding are themajor other hazards affecting ‘high risk’properties in 2030 (see Figure 2).

Riverine flooding poses thebiggest risk to properties.
Of the properties classified
as ‘high risk’ by 2030,
80% of that risk is due toriverine flooding.

Figure 2: Riverine flooding poses the biggest risk to properties. Of the properties classified as ‘high risk’ by 2030, 80% of thatrisk is due to riverine flooding.

TOP 10 MOST AT-RISK FEDERAL ELECTORATESTO CLIMATE EXTREMES BY 2030
#5#3

MARANOA (QLD)
14.8% of properties
at high risk (19,551
properties)

WRIGHT (QLD)#7

13.6% of properties athigh risk (12,140
properties)

13.1% of properties athigh risk (14,812
properties)

9% of properties athigh risk to bushfire

11.4% of properties
at high risk toriverine flooding

3.6% of properties
at high risk toriverine flooding

13.9% of properties
at high risk toriverine flooding

GRIFFITH (QLD)#6

13.3% of properties
at high risk (19,355
properties)

2.2% of properties athigh risk to surface
flooding water

12.5% of properties
at high risk toriverine flooding
3.3% of properties athigh risk to surface
flooding water

0.6% of properties athigh risk to bushfire#10 HINDMARSH (SA)#4

11.1% of properties
at high risk (10,775
properties)

MONCRIEFF (QLD)
13.7% of properties
at high risk (18,032
properties)

9.5% of properties
at high risk toriverine flooding

11.9% of properties
at high risk toriverine flooding

1.2% of properties athigh risk to surface
flooding water#1

BRISBANE (QLD)

1.7% of properties athigh risk to surface
flooding water

NICHOLLS (VIC)#2

27.4% of properties
at high risk (25,801
properties)
26.5% of properties
at high risk toriverine flooding
1.5% of properties athigh risk to surface
flooding water

RICHMOND (NSW)
20.9% of properties
at high risk (22,274
properties)#8

INDI (VIC)#9PAGE (NSW)

11.3% of properties
at high risk (11,215
properties)

11.3% of properties
at high risk (11,691
properties)

10.7% of properties athigh risk to riverine
flooding

5.4% of properties
at high risk toriverine flooding

1.1% of properties athigh risk to surface
flooding water

5.3% of properties athigh risk to bushfire

Hazards
Riverine Flooding

Bushfire

Coastal Inundation

Surface Water Flooding

Extreme Wind

14.5% of properties
at high risk toriverine flooding
5.2% of properties athigh risk to bushfire

11

UNINSURABLE NATION:
AUSTRALIA’S MOST CLIMATE-VULNERABLE PLACES#1NICHOLLS (VIC)
94,280 total property
count

27.4% of properties at highrisk (25,801 properties)

26.5% of properties at highrisk to riverine flooding
1.5% of properties at highrisk to surface water
flooding

The federal electorate of Nicholls replaced the electorate of Murrayin 2019 and covers over 14,000 square kilometres. It starts southof the township of Seymore in central Victoria and heads northpast Shepparton to the Murray River in Yarrawonga. It borders thefederal electorate of Indi to the east and Bendigo and Mallee to thewest. It’s home to prime agricultural land, dairy farms, orchards
and world class wineries. Agriculture, manufacturing, healthcare
and retail account for almost 50% of all employment in this area.
The rivers that support the agriculture industry in Nicholls alsopresent the greatest risk. The Goulburn River for example, just oneof the rivers that winds its way through Nicholls, has a long historyof flooding, with major floods occurring in 1916, 1917, 1939, 1956,
1958, 1974, 1993 and 2010/11/12 in the Shepparton, Mooroopna andMurchison areas.
A warmer atmosphere can hold more moisture and has more energy
to fuel storms. With climate change we are getting more of our rainin the form of intense downpours, raising the risk of flooding.
In 2030 there will be 24,976 properties in the electorate of Nicholls
at high risk – rendering them uninsurable – due to the risk ofriverine flooding. In some localities around the township ofShepparton (for example Shepparton, Shepparton North, Kialla, andKialla West), between 80% and 90% of homes will be uninsurable
by 2030. Around 6,000 homes in the electorate of Nicholls will alsoreach a ‘medium risk’ of riverine flooding by 2030.
In addition to riverine flooding, many properties in localities
around Shepparton are also at risk of surface water flooding due
to the flat topography, effectively meaning these properties havebeen built on floodplains. By 2030, there will be 1,607 properties in
Nicholls at high risk for surface water flooding and a further 2,140
properties at ‘medium risk’.
Demonstrating the multifaceted nature of climate change
supercharging extreme weather, in the same electorate, by 2030
there will also be 654 properties that will reach a medium risk ofbeing impacted by bushfires.

Figure 3: Broken River Pedestrian Bridge,
Shepparton, Victoria, during floods in 2010.
Up to 90% of properties in some localities
around the township of Shepparton will beuninsurable by 2030.

CHAPTER 03
RANKING RESULTS#2

RICHMOND (NSW)
106,445 total property
count

20.9% of properties at highrisk (22,274 properties)

14.5% of properties at highrisk to riverine flooding

5.2% of properties at highrisk to bushfire
0.4% of properties at highrisk to surface water
flooding

The federal electorate of Richmond sits in the far northeast cornerof New South Wales, bordering Queensland to the north andthe federal electorates of Page (9th on this list) and Wright (5th on
this list) to the west. The main towns include Ballina, Brunswick
Heads, Byron Bay, Hastings Point, Kingscliff, Lennox Head,
Mullumbimby and Tweed Heads.
Historically considered a rural seat, population growth in the area
is seeing the demographic shift towards more urban. Riverine
flooding, from the Richmond River and its tributaries, presents thegreatest risk in this electorate, particularly to homes and businesses
along the coast and near rivers. In coastal towns such as Ballina,
high tides compound the risk of riverine flooding. In early March
2022, a 1.8 metre king tide combined with record-breaking floods
and impacted roughly 6,000 homes in the Ballina area.
Bushfires are also a risk in this electorate, especially inland, withsuburbs like Main Arm, Mount Warning, Mullumbimby Creek,
Wilsons Creek and Coorbell all at significant risk.
Extreme weather events are very likely to become more severe
and destructive over the next couple of decades because pastgreenhouse gas emissions have “locked in” certain levels ofclimate change. However, we can still influence how muchworse things become.
What’s more, the latest available census data show median weekly
family and household incomes in Richmond are well below thenational average. Richmond workers are also overrepresented inpart time work and underrepresented in full time work comparedto national averages, demonstrating that climate impacts are being
felt by those who can least afford them.

Figure 4: Tiffany
Williamson walks
through her parent’s
burnt out property inTingha in northern
New South Wales. The
Tingha fire destroyed
13 houses and 44
outbuildings. Climatechange is increasing
extreme fire weather,and lengthening thebushfire season acrosslarge parts of Australia.

12

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UNINSURABLE NATION:
AUSTRALIA’S MOST CLIMATE-VULNERABLE PLACES#3

13.9% of properties at highrisk to riverine flooding

The electorate of Maranoa, named after the Maranoa River, is aregional electorate covering almost 750,000 square kilometres
and is located on the southwestern corner of Queensland. Towns
located in Maranoa include Charleville, Cunnamulla, Dalby, Roma,
Kingaroy, St George, Stanthorpe, Winton and Warwick. As wellas the Maranoa river, it’s also home to The Condamine-Balonne
river system, one of the major tributaries of the Murray-Darling
river system. The division is also home to the aptly named Culgoa
Floodplain National Park. In the regional town of St George, which
straddles the Balonne River and is home to around 3,000 people,
more than 70% of properties will be uninsurable due to flood riskby 2030.

0.6% of properties at highrisk to bushfire

By 2030, 40 federal electorates across Australia will have 4% ofproperties classified as ‘high risk.’ Eighteen of these electorates(or 45%) are in Queensland.

MARANOA (QLD)
132,078 total property
count

14.8% of properties at highrisk (19,551 properties)

Figure 5: A State Emergency Service (SES) crew motors past a flood gauge on the swollen Balonne river in St George,southwestern Queensland, Wednesday, February 26, 2020.

CHAPTER 03
RANKING RESULTS#4

MONCRIEFF (QLD)
131,924 total property
count

13.7% of properties at highrisk (18,032 properties)

11.9% of properties at highrisk to riverine flooding
1.7% of properties at highrisk to surface water
flooding
0.1% of properties at highrisk to bushfire

Moncrieff incorporates Surfers Paradise and the central portion of
the Gold Coast. The Nerang River, beginning near the McPherson
Ranges to the southeast, winds its way through the electorate andout to sea. The Gold Coast local government area has experienced
more than 20 floods since 1958 of varying degrees. Moncrief faces
the compounding risk of intense east coast lows, which cause
flooding when significant rain falls over catchment areas. Since
records began in 1920, there have been six floods which havecaused moderate to major flooding. Four of these, 1931, 1947, 1954
and 1974, were the result of either ex-tropical cyclones or deep
east coast lows. Depending on the flood situation, the Hinze Damstorage can reduce the severity of downstream flooding, althoughhigh rainfall can see the dam overflow.
Broadbeach Waters is at greatest risk and by 2030, 45% of properties
will be at high risk of riverine flooding; Mermaid Waters and
Surfers Paradise are next with around 25% of properties reaching‘high risk’ at the same time.

Figure 6: The Nerang River winds its way through Surfers Paradise.

14

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UNINSURABLE NATION:
AUSTRALIA’S MOST CLIMATE-VULNERABLE PLACES#5WRIGHT (QLD)
88,952 total property
count
13.6% of properties at highrisk (12,140 properties athigh risk)
9% of properties at highrisk to bushfire

The rural electorate of Wright spans roughly 7,500 square
kilometres of the Gold Coast hinterland, the area between Logan
and the New South Wales border and the Lockyer Valley westof Ipswich. This division includes the towns of Beaudesert,
Jimboomba, Boonah, Laidley, Hatton and Helidon while also
encompassing Springbrook and Lamington National Parks.
Historically, Wright has suffered from bushfires in its inland
coastal rainforests and river flooding. A high proportion ofproperties in the localities of Yarrabilba, Canungra, Greenbank,
Kairabah and Jimboomba will reach high risk by 2030 due to therisk of bushfire.

3.6% of properties at highrisk to riverine flooding
0.4% of properties at highrisk to surface water
flooding

Figure 7: Fire and Emergency crew battle a bushfire near a house in the rural town of Canungra, QLD, September 2019.
Dry and hot conditions, made worse by climate change, increased the severity and damage of the 2019/2020 fires.

CHAPTER 03
RANKING RESULTS#6

BRISBANE (QLD)
145,103 total property
count

13.3% of properties at highrisk (19,355 properties)

12.5% of properties at highrisk to riverine flooding
3.3% of properties at highrisk to surface water
flooding

The federal electorate of Brisbane is home to around 160,000
people who live and work in approximately 145,000 residences
and buildings. Of these, 19,355 will be at high risk by 2030 and
103,287 will be at medium risk. The Brisbane River acts as a border
between the divisions of Brisbane and Griffith (number 7 on thislist). Properties in the suburbs of Milton, Newstead, Albion andBrisbane City are at greatest risk in this electorate. The suburbs ofNewstead and Brisbane City also face the compounding risk of
surface water flooding.
Wivenhoe and Somerset dams, northeast of Brisbane, provide alimited safety net to riverine flooding as they only capture waterfrom the northern section of the Brisbane River catchment. The
dams have no control over run-off from the Lockyer Valley, Bremer
River or local catchments downstream from Wivenhoe. These
dams can also fill rapidly, evidenced by Wivenhoe dam reaching
187% capacity in early 2022, up from 40% just four months prior.
Exceptional rainfall in the last week of February 2022 saw many
rainfall records across Greater Brisbane. From 23 to 28 February,
Brisbane recorded 792.8 mm, which is 78% of the annual averageof 1011.5 mm. The previous 6-day record accumulation was 655.8
mm over 25-30 January 1974 (BoM 2022b).

Figure 8: In early 2022, Wivenhoe and Somerset dams filled rapidly and did not prevent the Brisbane River from flooding.

16

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UNINSURABLE NATION:
AUSTRALIA’S MOST CLIMATE-VULNERABLE PLACES#7

GRIFFITH (QLD)
112,833 total property
count

Griffith is an inner metropolitan area covering just 57 square
kilometres in Queensland. On the opposite side of the Brisbane
River sits the electorate of Brisbane (number 6 on this list). The
suburbs of West End, Fairfield and Yeronga are expected to face thegreatest risk, where up to 50% of properties will be considered highrisk by 2030.

13.1% of properties
are at high risk (14,812
properties)
11.4% of properties at highrisk to riverine flooding
2.2% of properties at highrisk to surface water
flooding

Figure 9: Residents inspect their neighbourhood during flooding in West End, Brisbane, March, 2022. Climate Change issupercharging extreme weather, increasing the likelihood of intense rainfall and floods.

CHAPTER 03
RANKING RESULTS#8

INDI (VIC)99,086 total property
count

11.3% of properties at highrisk (11,215 properties)

10.7% of properties at highrisk to riverine flooding
1.1% of properties at highrisk to surface water
flooding

The division of Indi is a roughly 30,000 square kilometre rural area
encompassing the towns of Wodonga, Wangaratta, Glenrowan,
Benalla, Bright and the Victorian snowfields and Lake Eildon. It runs
along part of the northeast New South Wales border and extends as
far south as Kinglake. This part of Victoria is home to many rivers
and comprises sections of the Murray-Darling Basin. Significant
rivers in the division include the Goulburn River, Broken River,King River, Buffalo River, Ovens River and the Kiewa River.
By 2030, up to 60% of properties in Wangaratta, where the KingRiver joins the Ovens River, will be considered high risk to riverine
flooding. Upstream of the Ovens River, in the picturesque tourist
town of Bright, almost 20% of properties will be considered highrisk by 2030.

Figure 10: The Ovens River floods in the rural town of Myrtleford in 2016.

18

19

UNINSURABLE NATION:
AUSTRALIA’S MOST CLIMATE-VULNERABLE PLACES#9PAGE (NSW)
103,657 total property
count
11.3% of properties
are at high risk (11,691
properties)
5.4% of properties at highrisk to riverine flooding

5.3% of properties at highrisk to bushfire

The electorate of Page covers an approximate 20,000 square
kilometres of rural and coastal New South Wales. This
encompasses the coastal area between Sapphire Beach (just northof Coffs Harbour) and Nimbin and from the inland Nymboida
region in the south to the Queensland border. It also includes thetowns of Lismore, Casino, Dunoon, Yamba, Evans Head, Grafton,
Iluka, Kyogle and Wooli. Due to its geography, Page’s greatest
climate threats are bushfire and riverine flooding. This electorate
saw record breaking floods in early 2022. The Wilsons River, inLismore, reached 14.37 metres, two metres above the 1954 and1974 levels. In the aftermath the town was said to resemble a war
zone; thousands of homes were destroyed completely or deemed
no longer safe for habitation. Just a few weeks later the flood
waters returned, topping the levee for the second time.
In Australia, extreme rainfall events are projected, with highconfidence, to increase in intensity.

0.4% of properties at highrisk to surface water
flooding

Figure 11: Rhonda, saved by her two boats, was fully prepared, many were not. Lismore, New South Wales. March. 2022.

CHAPTER 03
RANKING RESULTS

CASE STUDY: ELLY BIRD, COUNCILLOR, LISMORE COUNCIL
If we’re to learn a lesson from the catastrophic
flooding that we are now seeing happen inAustralia every few years, it’s that we are severely
underprepared. We urgently need to address
the root cause of the heightened storm threat –climate change.
Local governments, like Lismore City Council,
have been trying to work together with ourcommunities to take action against climatechange and build resilience. But we need more
support and we need it urgently.

Figure 12: Elly Bird, Councillor, Lismore City Council.

That’s why after the QLD/NSW floods in March
2022, I joined 31 other mayors and Councillors
from Logan City Council in Queensland throughto Eurobodalla Shire Council in New South Walesto call on our Federal leaders to immediately step
up and reduce the climate impacts that put ourcommunities in the firing line.
Now is the time for our Government to leadthe country in delivering on an ambitious
emissions reduction target this decade toprotect communities like ours from the futureclimate shocks that we know are coming andthat we are living every single day.

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21

UNINSURABLE NATION:
AUSTRALIA’S MOST CLIMATE-VULNERABLE PLACES#10HINDMARSH (SA)97,274 total property count

11.1% of properties athigh high risk (10,775
properties)

The division of Hindmarsh is an inner metropolitan electorate
encompassing approximately 100,000 properties in Adelaide’s
western suburbs within 122 square kilometres. It stretches along
the city’s northern beaches all the way to Outer Harbour andincludes river channels and both Adelaide Airport and Port
Adelaide. Its estuarine features have led to numerous cases ofhistorical flooding, which remains the electorate’s biggest threat.
The region’s relatively flat topography also results in surface water
flooding in the event of heavy or persistent rainfall. The suburbs ofPort Adelaide, West Lakes, Grange and Ethelton being most at risk.

9.5% of properties at highrisk to riverine flooding
1.2% of properties at highrisk to surface water
flooding
0.5% of properties at highrisk to coastal inundation

Figure 13: River Torrens boardwalk at night. October. 2021.

CHAPTER 03
RANKING RESULTS

RANKINGS BY STATE AND TERRITORY
The total number of properties (and percentage
of properties) that will be effectively uninsurable
by 2030 in each state and territory is shown in

Figure 14. The most at-risk electorates
in each state and territory are shown in
the tables on the following pages.

Figure 14: Percentage of homes in Australia that will be effectively uninsurable by 2030.

PERCENTAGE OF HOMES IN AUSTRALIA THAT WILL

BE EFFECTIVELY UNINSURABLE BY 2030
NORTHERN TERRITORY
2.5% of properties(2,783)QUEENSLAND
6.5% of properties(193,232)

WESTERN AUSTRALIA
2.4% of properties(35,277)

NEW SOUTH WALES
3.3% of properties(148,546)

ACT
1.3% of properties(3,071)

SOUTH AUSTRALIA
3.2% of properties(35,285)

VICTORIA
2.6% of properties(95,845)TASMANIA
2% of properties(6,905)

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23

UNINSURABLE NATION:
AUSTRALIA’S MOST CLIMATE-VULNERABLE PLACESNew South Wales
Electorate

Total properties

High risk properties

Medium risk properties

High risk properties (%)

Richmond

106,445

22,27434,884

20.9

Page

103,657

11,69133,177

11.3

Lyne

106,556

10,28333,607

9.7

Parkes109,767

10,2517,450

9.3

Farrer

114,512

7,745

6,009

6.8

Total

540,937

62,244

115,127

11.5

Electorate

Total properties

High risk properties

Medium risk properties

High risk properties (%)

Maranoa

132,078

19,551

13,212

14.8

Moncrieff

131,924

18,032

9,545

13.7

Wright88,952

12,14028,502

13.6

Brisbane

145,103

19,355

22,461

13.3

Griffith

112,833

14,812

17,894

13.1

TOTAL

610,890

83,89091,614

13.7

Queensland

Across all electorates in Australia,around 3.6% of properties (520,944)
or one in every 25 properties will
be uninsurable by 2030.

CHAPTER 03
RANKING RESULTS

South Australia
Electorate

Total properties

High risk properties

Medium risk properties

High risk properties (%)

Hindmarsh

97,274

10,775

10,500

11.1

Barker135,787

8,865

6,325

6.5

Mayo

110,680

4,217

20,029

3.8

Boothby

97,282

2,421

6,470

2.5

Makin

82,289

1,651

2,555

2.0

TOTAL

523,31227,92945,879

5.3

Electorate

Total properties

High risk properties

Medium risk properties

High risk properties (%)

Nicholls

94,28025,801

9,057

27.4

Indi

99,086

11,215

10,991

11.3

Mallee107,668

9,035

4,969

8.4

Macnamara

147,149

9,975

36,2886.8Isaacs94,361

3,958

12,095

4.2

TOTAL

542,544

59,98473,400

11.1

Victoria

Western Australia
Electorate

Total properties

High risk properties

Medium risk properties

High risk properties (%)

Tangney

85,401

6,334

3,771

7.4

Durack137,371

7,001

3,592

5.1

Canning

89,863

3,609

5,883

4.0

O'Connor

138,107

4,810

3,944

3.5

Forrest96,741

2,941

5,704

3.0

TOTAL

547,483

24,69522,894

4.5

24

25

UNINSURABLE NATION:
AUSTRALIA’S MOST CLIMATE-VULNERABLE PLACES

Tasmania
Note: There are only five electoral divisions in Tasmania.
Electorate

Total properties

High risk properties

Medium risk properties

High risk properties (%)

Bass67,320

2,463

2,027

3.7

Lyons

75,297

2,098

2,399

2.8

Braddon68,227

967

1,035

1.4

Franklin

60,933

698

942

1.1

Clark

65,747

679

780

1.0

TOTAL

337,524

6,905

7,183

2.0

The Northern Territory and Australian Capital Territory
Note: There are only two electoral divisions in the NT: Lingiari (4.5% properties at high risk) and Solomon (1% ofproperties at high risk). There are only three electoral divisions in the ACT.
Electorate

Total properties

High risk properties

Medium risk properties

High risk properties (%)

Canberra

86,905

1,443

2,944

1.7

Bean

74,077

1,008

323

1.4

Fenner

71,247

620

1,002

0.9

TOTAL

232,229

3,071

4,269

1.3

CHAPTER 04
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

4.

Conclusion andrecommendations
Australians are paying a high price forthe lack of meaningful national action
to tackle climate change, and prepare
for its impacts. Worsening disaster after
disaster – with fewer reprieves between– is frequently exceeding the capacityof communities to cope, and wemust work hard to avoid catastrophe.
Unless we rapidly and drastically cut
greenhouse gas emissions this decade– aligned with a path to limit the global
average temperature rise to well below
2°C – extreme weather will get much,
much worse.
To limit temperature rise to well below
2°C, global emissions need to be halved by
2030, and there is a need to get to net zeroby 2040 at the latest. Australia, amongst
other countries, must urgently escalate
efforts to reduce emissions before theend of this decade. Australia should aim
higher than the global average and adopt atarget of 75% emissions reductions by 2030
reaching net zero by 2035, given its distinct
advantages and the many social benefits
and economic opportunities associatedwith emissions reductions.

As a wealthy nation with a remarkable
abundance of renewable energy resources
and critical minerals, Australia hasboundless potential to become an economic
powerhouse in a world that is racing towards
net zero. If Australia moves quickly, we
have the opportunity to drastically reduce
emissions, save money through reduced fueland power bills, boost economic growth,
generate tens of thousands of additional jobs
and translate our renewable energy resources
into clean energy export industries worth
hundreds of billions per annum. Moving
away from fossil fuels would also translate
into tangible health benefits for Australians.
A key test for all candidates in the upcoming
Federal Election is whether they aresupporting policies that can drive deep
emissions cuts now through the 2020s,aligned with limiting the global averagetemperature rise to well below 2°C. Warming
avoided can be measured in lives, species
and ecosystems saved, as well as avoided
economic shocks. The decisions and actionsof governments this decade will determine
how much worse things get.

26

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UNINSURABLE NATION:
AUSTRALIA’S MOST CLIMATE-VULNERABLE PLACESThe Climate Council calls on all federal politicalparties and candidates to adopt policies that:1.

Enable swift and deep emissions
reductions across the whole of theAustralian economy

With a target of cutting emissions by 75%
below 2005 levels by 2030 and reaching net
zero emissions by 2035.

2.

Eliminate fossil
fuel subsidies

In 2021-22, Australian Federal and state
governments provided a total of $11.6 billion
worth of spending and tax breaks to assist
fossil fuel industries – 56 times the budget of
the National Recovery and Resilience Agency(TAI 2022). This is completely at odds withaddressing the risks from climate change
and extreme weather.

3.

Prioritise investment
in resilience

Investing in risk reduction and resilience
provides a ‘triple dividend’ of avoided loss
and suffering, reduced disaster costs andpotential economic and social benefits evenin the absence of hazards occurring. Thereis a need to upscale public investments inresilience and develop innovative financing
pathways. The process for allocating publicfunds towards resilience projects must be
independent and data driven, focusing on
the most vulnerable communities.

4.

Account for climate risks
in land use planning

Too many Australians live in dangerous
locations that put them at higher riskof being impacted by floods, bushfires,
cyclones and actions from the sea. Thisis because not enough consideration wasgiven to the risks from extreme weather– including worsening risks from climatechange – at the time that planning approval
was given. Improved policy settings are
required across all levels of government toprevent new buildings and infrastructure
being constructed in areas that are, or will be,highly exposed to climate change hazards.

5.

Improve building
standards and compliance

Embedding resilience into building codes isa key tool for reducing the risks associatedwith worsening extreme weather. The
National Construction Code should be
amended to ensure that buildings are able tobetter withstand the risks posed by climatechange and worsening extreme weather –whilst simultaneously improving the energy
efficiency and thermal comfort of buildings.
This should be accompanied by improved
compliance and enforcement.

6.

Support communities
to ‘build back better’

Towns, cities and communities must be
rebuilt – where appropriate to do so – in a
way that takes into account the inevitable
future changes in climate and makes themmore resilient. In some very high-risk
locations, this may mean not rebuilding at
all – managed relocations must be discussed
as an option for some of the most vulnerable
and exposed communities.

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ACCC (Australian Competition and Consumer
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au/system/files/Northern%20Australia%20Insurance%20
Inquiry%20second%20interim%20report%202019_0.PDF
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BoM (Bureau of Meteorology) (2022a) Annual climate
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State of the Climate 2020. Accessed: file:///Users/annika/
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ICA (Insurance Council of Australia) (2021) Insurance
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ICA008_CatastropheReport_6.5_FA1_online.pdf
RBA (Reserve Bank of Australia) (2021) Climate Change Risks
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Summerhayes G (2020) Executive Board Member Geoff
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Swiss Re (2019) Insurance in a World of Climate Extremes:
What Latest Science Tells Us. Accessed: https://www.
swissre.com/media/press-release/nr-20191219-globalcatastrophes-estimate.html
TAI (2022) Fossil fuel subsidies in Australia: Federal andstate government assistance to fossil fuel producers andmajor users in 2021-22. Accessed: https://australiainstitute.
org.au/wp-content/uploads/2022/03/P1198-Fossil-fuelsubsidies-2022-WEB.pdf
The Guardian (2021) ‘Fire and Flood’: Whole Areas ofAustralia will be Uninsurable by Royce Kurmelovs (2April). Accessed: https://www.theguardian.com/australianews/2021/apr/02/fire-and-flood-whole-areas-of-australiawill-be-uninsurable

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UNINSURABLE NATION:
AUSTRALIA’S MOST CLIMATE-VULNERABLE PLACESImage credits
Cover photo: Cassandra Scott-Finn. Kim & daughter.
Lismore, March, 2022. https://www.instagram.com/soft_urge__/
Page 2 - Figure 1: Ash Hogan. Bushfire, Crescent Head,
Forster, New South Wales. 2019.
Page 11 - Figure 3: Neville Larson for Greater Shepparton
City Council. Broken River Pedestrian Bridge. Shepparton,
Victoria. September, 2010.
Page 12 - Figure 4: Dave Hunt for AAP. Tiffany Williamson
walks through her parent’s burnt out property in Tingha innorthern New South Wales. February, 2019.
Page 13 - Figure 5: Dan Peled for AAP. A State Emergency
Service (SES) crew motors past a flood gauge on the swollen
Balonne river in St George, southwestern Queensland.
February, 2020.
Page 14 - Figure 6: Josh Withers for Unsplash. August,2020. https://www.instagram.com/hellojoshwithers
Page 15 - Figure 7: Regi Varghese for AAP. Fire andEmergency crew battle bushfire near a house in the rural
town of Canungra in the Scenic Rim region of southeast
Queensland. September 6, 2019.
Page 16 - Figure 8: Valley Guide for Unsplash. May 2022.
https://www.instagram.com/valleyguide/
Page 17 - Figure 9: Ruby Fletcher. Montague Road, corner
Ryan Street, West End. Queensland. February, 2022.
Page 18 - Figure 10: Facebook: Ness Leonard. Myrtleford
2016. Used with permission.
Page 19 - Figure 11: Cassandra Scott-Finn. Lismore, NewSouth Wales, March 2022.
Page 20 - Figure 12: Elly Bird, Councillor, Lismore City
Council.
Page 21 - Figure 13: Gilly Tanabose for Unsplash. October.
2021. https://www.instagram.com/gshakwon23/

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