Olympic Studies
Current Intellectual Crossroads

Prof. Dr. Lamartine P. DaCosta
Associated Contributors
Prof. Ms. Ana Maria Miragaya
Prof. Ms. Marta Gomes
Prof. Dr. Neise Abreu
Prof. Ms. Otavio TavaresGroup of Research on Olympic studies
University Gama Filho – PPGEF
Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. 2002 .

Ficha Catalográfica
Olympic Studies - Current Intellectual Crossroads:
Programa de Pós Graduação em Educação Física /Autor: Lamartine P. DaCosta
Rio de Janeiro: Editora Gama Filho, 2002.
380 p.
ISBN 85-7444-034-5
1.Olympic Games. 2. Olympism. 3. International Olympic
Committee. I
Título.
CDD:796.48
Any part of this book may be reproduced and distributed in any form
under the condition of being used in academic works. Reproduction must
be referred to authors and source. All rights reserved. Commercial use ofparts of this book only with permission of the publishers.

Reitor Sergio de Moraes Dias
Vice-Reitor Acadêmico Carlos Antonio Lopes PereiraVice-Reitor Administrativo Edmundo Vieites Novaes
Vice-Reitor de Desenvolvimento Sergio Norbert
Pró-Reitor de Assuntos Internacionais Manuel Soares Pinto Barbosa

Editor Dante Gastaldoni
Capa e projeto gráfico Évlen Joice Lauer Bispo
Supervisão dos textos Lamartine DaCosta© Editora Gama FilhoContents
7
A CKNOWLEDGEMENTSP ROLOGUE
13
C HAPTER 1
Olympic Legacy or Post-Olympism?
Tradition v. innovation
Legacy v. Post-Olympism
Conclusion: Olympism as a meta-narrative27
C HAPTER 2
The aporetic nature of Olympism:sport for all or sport for heroes?
39
C HAPTER 3
Questioning Olympism: pluralism,
multiculturalism or what else?

59
C HAPTER 4
Anchoring Olympism in eurhythmics: equilibrium
between extremes or conflict-resolution balance?
69
C HAPTER 5
Searching the optimum dimensions for the Games:
gigantism or sustainability?
91
C HAPTER 6
Olympic globalization in history:
sport geopolitics or IOC power politics?
107
C HAPTER 7
On Olympic commercialization: marketingfor business or social responsible marketing?
121
C HAPTER 8
Dialogue: mega-events technology
versus Olympic anthropology
131
C HAPTER 9
Towards an Olympic epistemology:
sport sciences or theory of sustainable sport?

153
CHAPTER 10
Visioning an Olympic culture:philosophical and aesthetic foundations
v. theatrical mass representation
177
CHAPTER 11
An inquiry on IOC crises: lack of ethics
or overestimated pragmatism?

EPILOGUERESEARCH REPORTS: ROOTING THE QUESTIONS
MORE DEEPLY IN THE EMPIRICAL SOIL

201
CHAPTER 12
Olympic multiculturalism:proclaimed universal values v. cultural relativism
Neise Abreu
255
CHAPTER 13
Olympic education: sameness versus
otherness in multicultural approaches
Marta Gomes

275
CHAPTER 14
The Olympic scholar: intellectual
purity or direct participation?
Lamartine P. DaCosta
307
CHAPTER 15
The female Olympian: tradition v. innovationin the quest for inclusion
Ana M. Miragaya
339
CHAPTER 16
The Olympic athlete: hero or mediator?
Otavio Tavares
375
NOTES ON THE A UTHOR AND CONTRIBUTORSAcknowledgements
This volume was written out of my teaching experience
with the students of Universidade Gama Filho - Rio de Janeiro, Brazil and International Olympic Academy (IOA) - Ancient
Olympia, Greece, and is an attempt to meet some of the
problems which were part of those experiences from the lastten years. The book attempts to steer a course between
Olympic legacies and speculative accounts derived frompostponements and crises faced by the International Olympic
Committee (IOC) in recent years when dealing with internaland external confrontations in sport matters.
It has also been my working assumption from the contacts
I had with students from many countries, that the Olympic
Movement and its affiliate institutions worldwide lack timely
and pertinent questions towards their proposals and problems.
In fact, those questions often refer to today’s intellectual.7.
OLYMPIC STUDIES
L. P. DaCosta, 2002 - Editora Gama Filho - Rio de Janeiro

. OLYMPIC STUDIES.

inquietudes far beyond domestic conflicts within the so-called
Olympic family. It is then clear that this book is a product ofscholarly discussions and of great exchange with other Olympic
scholars.
Thus, first and foremost I want to express my gratitude to
the IOA for providing the means and ambience for theillumination of my work. Without the frequent pilgrimage toAncient Olympia there would not be either motivation or
sensibility to investigate the roots and development of the
Olympic idea. Without the personal involvement of Nikos
Filaretos, the president of IOA; Kostas Georgiadis, the Dean;
and Nikolaos Yalouris, the vice president, it would have beendifficult to have the Greek legacy behind my perceptions ofpresent-day Olympism. Without Themis Lainis, Stella
Skaliaraki, Penelope Amelidis and other staff members, I would
not have felt at home either in Olympia or Athens. Without
the friendship of Byron Amelides - who passed away recently- I, as a Brazilian, could not have mirrored myself in the Greek
way of living to end up playing soccer.
The launching of this book is also an opportunity to express
my warmest thanks to my peers from Olympic Studies ininternational perspective, specially the 36 colleagues from fivecontinents who cared to respond a questionnaire prior to the
preparation for the book. I am particularly grateful to Hai
Hen (CHN), Holger Preuss (GER), Cesar Torres (ARG),
Martha MacIntosh (CAN) and Richard Cashman (AUS) for
their friendship and cooperation. A special thanks goes to
WADA Ethics & Education Committee - Montreal (Angela
Schneider et al.) into which I have shared my Olympic
commitments and angst. I am grateful too to the Olympic
Museum and the Olympic Studies Center - Lausanne (Francoise
Zweifel, Fernando Riba, Nuria Puig) for providing me with
cultural delight and scientific responsibility after joining the
Research Council of that institution as a member.
.8.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES.

A lot of inspiration for my commitment with Olympic
Studies came from Norbert Mueller, who personallyencouraged me to join this area of research. I hope that he andManfred Messing and Hoger Preuss, his associates in the
Olympic Research Team-University of Mainz (GER), find in
this book additional reasons to share with me and my students
peripatetic thinking on enigmas of Olympism. Also challenging
have been Gustavo Pires from the Technological Universityof Lisbon and Tony Mangan from Strathclyde University Scotland, the former by giving me new focus on sport politics
and management; the latter for setting my mind on the history
of IOC to reshape the global meaning of sport.
In Brazil, my home country, this book is more a matterof commitment than cooperation and exchange. Thus, I present
this volume as a result of an agreement with Dr. Carlos
Nuzman, IOC member and president of the National Olympic
Committee of Brazil, in order to bring our National Olympic
Academy to an international level. Moreover, similarcommitment I had with the Masters and Doctoral Program of
Physical Education of Universidade Gama Filho, located in
Rio de Janeiro, in respect to Olympic Studies Research Group.
In this case, the production of a volume such as this involved
the supervision of Prof. Dr. Helder Rezende, head of ourprogram, as well as of Prof. Dante Gastaldoni, coordinator of
Editora Gama Filho. Now, at the end of the international
project of this book, I want to express grateful recognition totheir collaborative work.
Finally, I am particularly grateful to my associate Prof.
Ms. Ana Miragaya and all the students who joined the Olympic
Studies over the years in Universidade Gama Filho and in six
more Brazilian universities. The contributions of four of thesestudents comprise the Epilogue. From all the students I had
stimulating, creative and friendly collaboration with intellectual
enjoyment. From them I learned how to illuminate innovations.9.

with ideas from the past. And from this mutual enlightenment
we conclude that Apolon - the ancient Greek sacred vision oflight and perfection - should be placed as the symbol of ouraccomplishment with Olympic Studies.

Prof. Dr. Lamartine P. DaCosta
Universidade Gama Filho - Rio de Janeiro
Olympic Studies Research Group, 2002

P ROLOGUECHAPTER 1

Olympic Legacy or
Post-Olympism?
The primary objective of this book is to contribute to thegrowing debate on how far Olympism, the Olympic Gamesand the Olympic Movement have moved beyond tradition.
Claims that we have entered a post-traditional period of the
Olympic idea have gained momentum in recent years. Nevertheless, these claims have been now more frequently exposed
to qualification inquiries, revision and even criticism.
For example, the so-called “IOC bribery scandal” madepublic at the beginning of 1999, “threatened the entire existence of the International Olympic Committee” for revealingthat “at least 5-7% of IOC members had taken or solicited
bribes from bid cities” 1. In consequence of this transgression,.13.
OLYMPIC STUDIES
L. P. DaCosta, 2002 - Editora Gama Filho - Rio de Janeiro

. OLYMPIC STUDIES.
Olympic Legacy or Post-Olympism?

several IOC members were expelled, a permanent “Ethics
Commission” was created and the “IOC 2000 Commission”
was charged with reforming the entire structure of the Olympic Movement.
The 1999 IOC crises also triggered off the foundationof the “Olympic Advocates Together Honorably - OATH”,
a non-governmental organization with the aim to “respondto the crises of values in the Olympic Movement” 2 . The
OATH first meeting took place in June 1999 in New Yorkwith the participation of 75 scholars, leaders, students andlay citizens who advocate the renewal of the values of sport
in today’s society.
During the 2000 Olympic Games, the impact of the IOC
crises continued and it was specially noted in scholarly events
also located in Sydney3. For instance, at the Fifth International
Symposium for Olympic Research (The University of Western Ontario, Canada & University of New South Wales, Australia), Angela Schneider reporting on the “Olympic Reform,
are we there yet?” concluded her presentation with the following remark 4.
“The IOC faced a crossroads – down one path
was a sports business extravaganza, a world-sizedcircus of sport complete with sideshow values
and ideals. The other path heads closer to theideals of the Movement’s founder, a vision of
the Olympics as a movement for social change.
The IOC has taken the first tentative steps in
the right direction, but the siren call of the circus is still strong. It is up to those who value
this movement, and the things it stands for tohelp them stay on the course”.

Again during the Sydney Games, some new accomplishments suggested indirect repercussions from the IOC crises,.14.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES.
Olympic Legacy or Post-Olympism?

such as the first election for the IOC Athletes Commission
and the start-up of the Independent Observers Program fromthe World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA), which aimed topromote open and transparent doping control. Summarizing,both initiatives reflected the IOC’s intentions of improving
accountability and transparency of its operations5.

Emerging Oppositions
Actually, neither crises nor reforms have been novelties
for the IOC since its creation in 1894. Given the conflicting
moral status between amateurism and professional sports, Pierrede Coubertin placed this opposition as the central theme when
he called upon the participants to the Paris 1894 International
Congress that re-established the Olympic Games and founded
the IOC as well 6. In short, the IOC emerged as a tool of reform in order to avoid corruption by means of athletes’ remuneration. Unsurprisingly, in 1893 Coubertin had written that“l’athlète dégénéra jusqu’à devenir le gladiateur misérable dontl’héroisme payé dut satisfaire la plus vile et la plus bestiale despassions populaires, la passion du sang”7.
Throughout its 100-year history, the IOC has been exposed
to both commercialization interests and political confrontations, and the Olympic Games have regularly faced crises andcriticisms. In this concern, questions were raised about the
future of the Games in 1936 and 1972 Olympiads, when it wasargued that the core meaning of Olympism – that is, to contribute to world peace – was seriously compromised.
Symptomatically, Coubertin in the same article written in1893 had drawn attention to the imbalance between the “marketplace and the temple” in elite-sport, a metaphor that should
be often used in his writings henceforth when comparing professional athletes’ deviations with the presupposed disinterest.15.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES.
Olympic Legacy or Post-Olympism?

edness and devotion of amateurism. In all, in this historicaltext Coubertin condemned the emphasis of money on sport,
calling it as “métal de corruption”8.
Tracing the circumstances in which the IOC was founded
and subsequently functioned, it becomes evident that the Olympic Movement has been historically searching for the limits of
immoderation in sport. One meaningful interpretation fromthis claim was simply put by Willi Daume in 1989, when addressing answers in the quest of a future for the Olympic Gamesand the Olympic Idea. Blending the condition of intellectualand IOC leader, Daume formulated a blueprint of survival
concerning today’s Olympic leadership which ought to “fullycomprehend and put into coordinated action the Coubertinbalance of idealism and realism, the perfect effort at intermingling new and old, of traditional and ultra-progressive ideas”9.
Tradition v. Innovation
In other words, Daume’s discourse was similar to the challenges posed by Schneider eleven years later. And both scholars met Coubertin’s retraditionalization of the Olympic ideal
as well instead of simply forwarding proposals of
detraditionalization of the Olympic Movement if we use properand helpful terms to compare past and present in the 100 yearsof the IOC’s life span10.
By contrast, Schneider’s claims of reform focused on the
structure and governance of the IOC11, an unprecedented intervention on account of modern Olympic traditions. By turning to OATH postulates, we can look more closely at thisargument as follows12.
“IOC members are representatives of the IOC
to their countries rather than representatives.16.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES.
Olympic Legacy or Post-Olympism?

of the countries to the IOC. The purpose ofthis arrangement is to ensure the independenceof the IOC from national politics. This
independence is extremely important (...) On
the other hand, however, the present structuremeans that the IOC is accountable to no one.
In the absence of democratic accountability noother method has been developed to ensure that
the IOC is responsible for its decisions toathletes other stakeholders, and the public it
ultimately serves”.

Seen in this way, the IOC crises throughout its existence
should represent a major result from the management style
adopted by the so-called “Olympic family”, and less from business concern related to athletes and events connected to theGames. Moreover, the democratic accountability prescribed
by OATH and Schneider should also stand as a real innovation in IOC’s governance in view of the inclusion of independent intervening actors in the “family”. As such, scholars, scientists, lawyers, technicians etc. might contribute with the IOC
for the “culture of accountability” development, which requires
specific reference to values and interests13.
The IOC first reaction to the 1999 crises was to seek openness in its internal affairs. In addition, independent advisers
and scholars were invited to participate both in the Ethics
Commission and in the IOC 2000 Commission. These facts inpractice brought up to discussion the topic of the IOC members as trustees of the Olympic Movement.
In Coubertin’s invented tradition, IOC’s members play
the role of “ambassadors” from the Olympic Movement totheir countries. So far they have not been elected but selected
to be nominated. In this regard, in an article written for the“Revue Olympique”, in 1913, Coubertin defended himself fromaccusations of preventing the IOC from following democratic.17.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES.
Olympic Legacy or Post-Olympism?

procedures. Summarizing his answer, independence and stability were key conditions to promote the Olympic ideal among
national sport bodies; conversely, the democratization of thisselection on account of Coubertin’s experience dealing withsport institutions would imply division not unity. Just as hehad led up to an appropriate structure for the IOC, so he proceeded beyond the structure by assertively saying that “nousne sommes pas un conseil de police technique; nous sommes
simplement les trustees de l’Idée Olympique”14.
Ironically, 86 years later, the OATH declaration would
use identical argument by making differences and updating theconception of trustee: “The IOC members are the guardians
not the shareholders. The owners of this social movement can
only know if their investment is being handled well if they
can structure the activities of the guardians”15.
However, the aforementioned OATH document recognizes positive effects from Coubertin’s choice for IOC’s structure in a worldwide perspective16.
“The IOC has had a significant impact on world
affairs: lessening cold war tension, contributing
to the demise of South African apartheid andopening up channels of communication andagreement between North and South Korea. It
may well have been impossible to accomplishthese goals without the kind of independence
IOC members currently enjoy”.

These considerations show that Coubertin and OATH’s
approaches are not contradictory but represent outcomes from
historically determined options, either idealistic or pragmatic(Daume preferred “realistic”) depending on the circumstances
faced by the IOC’s process of decision. As a hypothesis it might
additionally be said that the IOC and the Olympic Movement’s.18.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES.
Olympic Legacy or Post-Olympism?

crises would be a product of either excess or accommodation
to a particular focus on idealistic or pragmatic options.
The oscillation between those focuses would also explain
the common change of political positions in the grounds of
Coubertin’s lifetime. And this would rather rest upon the conception of pendulum for historical processes to which
Coubertin often gave explicit emphasis: “The law of the pendulum applies to everything”17.

Traveling along the continuum
Apart from Coubertin’s complicity with historicism, theobsession with balance in all walks of life is a mark of his memoirs, as detected by Bernd Wirkus in 1987 18. In effect, “harmony”,“balance”, “eurhythmics”, “equilibrium” etc are recurrent expressions in Coubertin’s interpretations, overall when redefining Olympism as a “spiritual attitude resulting from a double
worship: that for physical effort and that for harmony”19.
Empirically speaking, both the oscillation in choices andthe search for balance were also commonly detected in a
research aiming to acknowledge Olympic Scholars’ evaluative
perspectives towards a moral crises in the Olympic Movement
in its 1999 version.
Yet, this inquiry was carried on in 2000 by the author ofthis book in order to include its preliminary fact-findings in
the debates of the Panel of Olympic Scholars, one of theacademic events that took place during the Sydney 2000
Olympic Games, under the co-ordination of Richard Cashmanfrom the Center for Olympic Studies – University of New
South Wales.
Thus far, the sort of binary or oppositional logic that may
identify Coubertin, Daume and Schneider’s approaches toidealism versus pragmatism has also become apparent from.19.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES.
Olympic Legacy or Post-Olympism?

the assessment of the Olympic Scholars’ responses. Indeed, itshould be more precise to synthesize those respondents’opinions as an apparent opposition between tradition andinnovation. And in this general context most of the otherdouble-bind interpretations might remain ancillary.
Implicit in all this is an inherent opposition as referred to
tradition when facing shifts from identity and authority, and inparticular, social changes or crises. Though theories on the
opposition between old and new ideas lie in the core of
Enlightenment, only recently has “detraditionalization” become
an expressive and important topic of research in social sciences20.
And then, of course, we could rather address the IOC crises
from recent extraction to this new specialized area of knowledge,
putting in the right measure contingent explanations such as
corruption, professionalism, commercialization, etc.
By definition, detraditionalization implies a detraditionalizing
process, which occurs jointly with retraditionalization, traditionmaintenance and tradition-construction. This working conception
is basically acknowledgeable in terms of oppositions, as seen in
the example of idealism v. pragmatism from the Olympic
Movement story. Paul Heelas describing this formulation remarksthat in each opposition one term is replaced by another when
detraditionalization occurs as informed by a basic “past topresent/future dynamic”. The sense of this change is from“closed” (cold, repetitive, ritualized) to “open” (hot, experimental, revisable) terms21.
Arguably, Heelas attributes a key role to post-modernity
and globalization for the growing concern about the
detraditionalization theory22. After all, these cultural conditions
have been stressing the new without losing the value andpermanence of the old. By extension, it should be otherwise
noted that the Olympic Movement is a pioneer institution
dealing with globalization. And sport mega-events – Olympic
Games included – are typical post-modern manifestations, too23.
.20.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES.
Olympic Legacy or Post-Olympism?

From this point of view, to quote Peter McIntosh is
pertinent in order to introduce the conception of continuum,
which is a natural link between oppositions with somemutual relationship of dependence. This theoretical linkage
is often discerned in social phenomena. It had already been
detected by McIntosh in the sport area when Sport for All
development in England was scrutinized from 1966 to 1984.
Here follows a conclusive statement of this research as
referred to a new social function to be fulfilled by Sport for
All from a national perspective 24:“Sport as a means and sport as an end are notmutually exclusive. There is a continuum ofemphasis from extrinsic to intrinsic rewards andfrom sport as useless enjoyment to sport as social machinery. Our suggestion is that Sport for
All has traveled too far along this continuum
towards social machinery. The next stage forSport for All might be to travel back and tobase both research and promotion on enjoyment
rather than on social function”.

Of course, the generalization of these findings should beconsidered accidental since not all sport relationships have thesame property of Sport for All in the location and time reported
by McIntosh. Nevertheless, there is sufficient evidence foundin the IOC’s 100-year history suggesting a prevailing continuum
between tradition and innovation as well as other subsidiary
oppositions presenting similar relationship and oscillation.

Legacy v. Post-Olympism
This presupposition became the starting point of this bookstill in 2000, when 35 out of a total of 50 Olympic Scholars.21.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES.
Olympic Legacy or Post-Olympism?

forwarded their opinions on the 1999 IOC moral crises. This
non-expected response to the investigation conducted by theauthor of this book reinforced not only the search of in-depth
interpretations involving “closed” (tradition) and “open”(reform) statements but also the continuation of the study.
The former accomplishment has been completed and it is about
to be published elsewhere in another book, having Richard
Cashman as editor. The latter has progressed with a lively
treatment that now embodies this book in some of its parts.
Other contributions to the making of this book wereindirectly forwarded by two scholarly events scheduled to theend of 2002: (1) the international seminar “Post-Olympism?
Questioning Sport in the 21 st Century”, Aarhus University,
Denmark; (2) the symposium on “The Legacy of the Olympic
Games: 1984-2000”, Olympic Museum, Lausanne. Selfevidently in significant ways these academic activities fit in
our line of reasoning for the elaboration of this book. And
although their central topics have not been announced in termsof opposition, they raise an interrogative readiness whatever
the accidental or deliberate variations.
In a nutshell, this book is an intellectual construction thatnarrowly discerns tradition – we might say also “legacy” – andinnovation as key words for the development of Olympic Studies
in years to come. To the extent that both expressions prevail asparts of a continuum or reveal themselves as dilemmas per se,they will stand as crossroads for Olympic Scholars, researchers,
specialists and students in their academic commitments.
As the reader becomes aware of the gap in theory between
legacy and post-Olympism, more appropriate questions arelikely to come up in research projects in Olympic Studies.
Summing up, the aim of this book is to acquaint the researcher
and the student with questions and analyses that will help themselect their own directions at the crossroads of the developmentsof today’s Olympic ideas.
.22.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES.
Olympic Legacy or Post-Olympism?

However, this book is not designed primarily to be readsequentially but rather as an invitation to intellectual
experience for those who love sport or those who have aninterest in issues raised by engagements and pitfalls of the
Olympic Movement. In taking this stance, we are making apoint on the common understanding of many facets of sportsciences thereby strengthening the field of Olympic Studies
as a whole. The result, we hope, is a book that is unmatchedin raising questions for debate.

Conclusion: Olympism as a meta-narrative
It is important to mention at this point that this book does
not follow a singular academic discipline. Each chapter refers
to different contributions from various fields of research suchas philosophy, sport history, anthropology, sociology,
management sciences, etc. We felt we ought to pay special
attention to the mainstream topics and substantive issues
emerging during the 1990s as preceding the IOC crises and its
consequences.
It has been a privilege to write this book as well as to include
in its last part some of my associates’ empirical contributions.
While retaining interdisciplinary perspectives, we haveconstantly endeavored to view Olympic Studies as a vigorous
field that will achieve success if we could discern a unifying
paradigm or elaborate a sound working definition for
Olympism.
In large part, the key to acknowledge Olympism is toconsider it as a meta-narrative25. The overall conclusion ofthis book enhances plural narratives of the Olympic accounts
that are built cumulatively and collectively as a celebration
besides their scientific, historical and philosophicalinterpretation. This celebration of sport is one missing link.23.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES.
Olympic Legacy or Post-Olympism?

between Coubertin’s exegesis and today’s critical assessmentof Olympic Studies. And this sharing spirit distinguishes the
Olympic intellectual from others also dedicated to the sportsciences. It is our hope that through the next chapters of thisbook, we all renew our motives to share the spirit and keep
the celebration alive.
Lamartine P. DaCosta
Olympic Studies Group of Research
University Gama Filho - Rio de Janeiro

Notes
1. Quoted in Mallon, B. The Olympic Bribery Scandal, Journal of
Olympic History, vol. 8, no. 2, May 2000, p. 11.
2. See OATH Promotional Brochure, Sydney, 2000.
3. An academic event in which there was a debate on the topic of the
IOC reform. It was the International Panel of Olympic Scholars
promoted by the University of New South Wales located in Sydney
during the 2000 Olympic Games (September, 2000).
4. Schneider, A. Olympic reform are we there yet? Paper presented at the Fifth International Symposium for Olympic Research, September 2000, Sydney, Proceedings, pp. 225-232.
5. For WADA event in Sydney see “Independent Observers Report– Olympic Games 2000”, Lausanne, 2000, p.9.
6. Coubertin, P. Conférence du Secretaire Général à l’Assemblée
Générale de l’Union, Les Sports Athlétiques, 13 Juillet 1893, no.
172, pp. 2-4. In Mueller, N. Pierre de Coubertin – Textes Choisis,
Tome II – Olympisme, Weidmann, Zurich, 1986, pp. 99-103.
7. Ibidem, p.101.
.24.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES.
Olympic Legacy or Post-Olympism?

8. Ibidem, p.102.
9. Quoted in Lucas, J.A. Future of the Olympic Games, Human
Kinetics, Champaign, Illinois, 1992, p. 7
10. For the different focus on interpretation of tradition see Adam,
B. Detraditionalization and the Certainty of Uncertain Futures.
In Heelas, P., Lash, S. & Morris, P. Detraditionalization.
Blackwell, Oxford, 1996, pp. 134-148.
11. Schneider, A. op. cit., p. 225.
12. OATH, Proposals for Reform of the IOC, OATH Report, New
York, 1999, pp. 1-2.
13. Ibidem, p. 2.
14. Coubertin, P. L’Oeuvre Olympique et ses Rouages, Revue Olympic, Juillet 1913, pp. 136-140. In Textes Choisis, p. 610.
15. OATH Report, p. 2
16. OATH Report, p. 2
17. For the conception of pendulum adopted by Coubertin, see
Wirkus, B. Pierre de Coubertin’s Philosophical; Eclecticism as
the Essence of Olympism. In Mueller, N. (ed), The Relevanceof Pierre de Coubertin today. Schors-Verlag, Niedernhausen,
1987, pp. 179-190. The quotation from Coubertin is originallyfound in his book “The Olympic Idea”, Hofmann, Schorndorf,
1966, p. 11.
18. Wirkus, B. Op. Cit., pp. 185-186.
19. Quoted in Mueller, N. & Messing M. Coubertin’s PhilosophicalConcept of ‘Eurhythmie’ and German Tourists’ Balance of Sportand Art Interests in the Barcelona and Atlanta Olympic Games.
Paper presented at the Fifth International Symposium for Olympic Research, Sydney September, 2000, Proceedings, pp. 185-194.
20. The theory of detraditionalization is described by Heelas, P. in.25.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES.
Olympic Legacy or Post-Olympism?

the Introduction of “Detraditionalization”, Heelas, P., Lash, S.
and Morris, P. (eds). Op. Cit., pp. 1-20.
21. Ibidem, pp. 2-3
22. Ibidem, pp. 6-8
23. See Welsch, W. Esporte-Visto Esteticamente e mesmo como Arte?
In Rosenfield, D. (ed.). Ética e Estética, Zahar Editor, Rio deJaneiro, 2001, pp. 142-165.
24. McIntosh, P. & Charlton, V. The Impact of Sport for All
Policy, 1966-1984. The Sport Council, June 1985, London, p.
193.
25. Meta-narrative is a teleological collective reference which subordinates, organizes and accounts for other narratives either in termsof emancipation or speculation. As such, sport entities in generaland the Olympic Games in particular stand as significant examplesof this assumption as far as they create typically heroes, build
values and celebrate victories and accomplishments. The issue ofmeta-narrative has been otherwise discussed since the 1970s in thecontext of post-modern condition in which scientific rationality
rejects - and even substitute - the grand narratives while affirmative actions use them as a legitimacy of their humanistic claims.
For more in the matter see Rorty, R. Habermas and Lyotard on
Postmodernity. In Bernstein, R.J. (Ed), Habermas and Modernity, The MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1988, pp. 161 175; Rorty, R. Objectivity, relativism, and truth - PhilosophicalPapers Volume 1. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1994,
pp.197 - 2002.

.26.

CHAPTER 2

The aporetic nature of
Olympism: sport for allor sport for heroes?
Writing of the philosophical foundation of modern
Olympism in 1935, Pierre de Coubertin notes that “célébrer
les Jeux Olympiques, c’est se reclamer de l’histoire” 1. Our
times are clearly very different. All those sport academics who
claim for more precise definitions of Olympism, surely havegood grounds for doing so. But, only a few of them have been
making use of adequate historical accounts in order to support
their arguments.
There are some attempts to move beyond this epistemologicalchallenge. Hans Lenk aimed to relate Olympism to a social.27.
OLYMPIC STUDIES
L. P. DaCosta, 2002 - Editora Gama Filho - Rio de Janeiro

. OLYMPIC STUDIES.
The aporetic nature of Olympism: sport for all or sport for heroes?

philosophy. Nobert Mueller takes another view since thisphilosophy should be educational. Jim Parry in turn proposesa philosophical anthropology. Lamartine DaCosta forwards a“process philosophy” in the sense of an ongoing developmentof Coubertin’s traditional conception of “philosophy of life”
embodied by the Olympic Charter 2 . But are we right inunderstanding Olympism in an ought-to-be framework? Aren’t
we simply applying intersecting viewpoints from different disciplines of knowledge to construct Olympism?
Yet at this point it may rightly be retorted that the way inwhich we all have stated the problem is misleading. Perhaps mostof the efforts to define Olympism have been unhistorical in theirnature, that is, in observing its qualities in practical circunstances.
And to solve an epistemological problem, historical standpoints
are still one the best preferred option among philosophers. Afterall, history is often considered the locus classicus of epistemology 3.
Following the suggestion pointed out in Chapter 1 that
Olympism is mostly a composition of narratives on Olympic
ethos created and celebrated by its adherents, let us in the lightof such assumption search the subject-matter of the actual
Olympic past. Doing so, we aim to disclose core meanings ofOlympism in the overall historical process of the Olympic
idea development. To begin, it is convenient to proceed toanother presupposition raised in the Prologue of this book, i.
e. the experiences of Olympism involve characteristicallytensions originated by oppositions when shifting from a social
or cultural situation to another.

The Socratic foundation of Olympism
This initial hypothesis has as an argumentative ally thenarrative of Socrates’ judgement that lies in the foundational
thinking of western thought, including Olympism as far as.28.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
The aporetic nature of Olympism: sport for all or sport for heroes?

Coubertin had reshaped the Olympic idea from ancient Greek
culture. Thus far, in the famous judgment against Socrates in
399 B.C. a reference was made to Olympic athletes that is stillthought-provoking to contemporary observers. As Plato
describes in his Apologia, Socrates appealed to his judges forthe same treatment meted out by tradition to Olympic Games
heroes, if fraternity in the polis was the point at issue rather
than public accusations. The verdict has remained an important
issue in moral discussions ever since. Socrates was condemnedto death for alleged corruption of youth, despite a life dedicatedto making his fellow citizens good and wise.
In fact, the philosopher and forefather of ethics suggested
his own condemnation for the sake of the Athenian city-state,giving no alternative to the judges, who had to obey the law
when the accusations were acknowledge as truthful. It was
equally clear that the institution which provided justice should
be preserved even when doing wrong.
This Socratic decision remains, for skeptics, an instance of
ethical relativism, an ambivalence expressed and defined in an
Aristotelian epigram: “Fire burns both in Hellas and in Persia;
but men’s ideas of right and wrong vary from place do place”.
It is no coincidence that Olympic athletes were referred to by
Socrates when he called for recognition of his efforts to improvethe citizens’ social and political relations.
As depicted inter alia by W.K.C. Guthrie, by the 5th century
BC the Olympic Games were a gathering of poets, musicians
and sophists as well as athletes, all of them competing in public
performances 4. This peculiar spirit of competition was incontradiction with the ideal of Socrates, in his search for thetruth, as he proposes an exchange of arguments without
winners or losers, in exact opposition to the sophist teaching.
This contradiction explains the skepticism and relativism withwhich Socrates was interpreted by Protagoras and Gorgias,
eminent sophists of Ancient Greece.
.29.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES.
The aporetic nature of Olympism: sport for all or sport for heroes?

Judging Olympism as an aporia
By contrast, the far-reaching repercussions of Socratic
conduct on western philosophy are due primarily to the factthat justice and fairness are more easily recognized by theiropposites. Socrates played on this in order to sacrifice himself
as a moral lesson to the polis. This historical hint has, eventually,
been followed up by modern institutions which encourage
ethical attitudes, including the Olympic Movement of our time.
As a result, Olympism is primarily bound up in paradoxical
choices, namely how to curb corruption in sports competition
and management and preserve sports organizations – usually
the source or agents of misconduct – while pursuing purely
educational and pedagogical goals (the so-called Kalos Kagathos).
For their part, sports leaders today raise objections andquestions about unfairness in athletic behavior, without
necessarily putting forward any answers.
The emphasis on the educational purposes of Olympism
can thus be seen as a source of the contradiction which exists
within sport, namely the attempt to keep institutions alive
while pointing our their mistakes and defects. But if Socrates’
ethical philosophy is fully taken for granted otherwise, his
dramatic moral attitudes imply a real impossibility of finding
answers. Among philosophers this situation has then beencalled aporia, the Greek word of puzzlement, meaning the
cognitive perplexity posed by statements in opposition. Thisnatural outcome eventually brought out by interrogations
seems furthermore to be at the heart of the practical problems
of present-days top sport.
Coubertin himself became “aporetic” when he began to
criticize the misconduct of sports practice shortly before his deathin 1937. If we review a variety of contributions to theInternational Olympic Academy in recent years, we can also
identify a regular pattern of aporetic interpretation, in which a.30.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
The aporetic nature of Olympism: sport for all or sport for heroes?

harmony can be found between new problems and oldprescriptive positions. So far, the question put by Fernand
Landry in the 1980 Session - “Sport, education and Olympism:towards a break or great harmony?” - might still constitute a
synthesis of the persistence of objections without satisfactory
answers, as it is equivalent to Coubertin’s demands without reply.
In this instance, the ethical questioning of Olympism should
not be about choices, as usually stated, but about how toreconcile opposing attitudes. In other words, the supposed
opposition will become real if Olympism decides to treat its
difficulties in the context of a crisis, a choice similar to that of
Socrates at his judgment. Conversely, however, assuming thatsports conflicts are a natural risk, the Olympic Movement will
be dealing with aporias, implying a constant exchange ofarguments and solutions, as the early Socratic basic thinking
suggested for those seeking a virtuous life in the polis.
On the basis of these facts and speculations, it is possible
to contend that sport, in seeking aretê (excellence), is naturally
aporetic. Paraphrasing Alasdair MacIntyre when he discusses
excellence, sport involves rules as well as achievements so far
we cannot reach the latter without accepting the former.
Although this interplay justifies competition - de justus est
disputandum -, individual’s achievements in sport usually put
aside external authority5. In short, according to MacIntyre, thisapparent contradiction has to be understood historicallybecause “the sequences of development find their point andpurpose in a progress towards and beyond a variety of types
and modes of excellence” 6.
Then, skeptics of former times as well as many sports
scientists and philosophers of the present day apart, historicalexperience should be ahead of knowledge production, favoringan attitude which perceives sport in terms of its contradictions.
Indeed, alongside proposals for education, self-realization andcooperation based on modern Olympic ideals unresolved.31.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES.
The aporetic nature of Olympism: sport for all or sport for heroes?

conflicts have emerged persistently over the years since the first
Olympiad of modern times in 1896. Experience is therefore likely
to reveal that Olympic ethics lags behind the ongoing process ofcultural, economic and political change in many societies.
Of course, spectacle, professionalism, nationalism andsectarianism are factors which have played a historical role in
the weakening of the humanistic values of sport, but whenfacts are compared with updated interpretations of Olympism,
an element of incompatibility still remains. On the other hand,
the reactions of sports institutions and leaders have beencharacteristically reductionist and contingent, expressing theinside view of sport, as concluded by Jorge Bento in his studyof European fair-play campaigns7.
For this ethicist, a dependable ethics for top sport should
be related to contextual factors so as to fit in with the pluralityof values on which today’s sports practice is based. In short,
the gap in sports ethics is primarily due to the mistaken isolationof top sports organizations - with the inclusion of IOC - fromthe external social environment. This solipsism is often
criticized by philosophers because it represents an attempt to
avoid refutations, a rationale of many religions and movements
supported by ethical codes or principles. Such isolation wasenvisaged by Coubertin, as reported by Juergen Moltmann ina past IOA session, where he defined Olympism as a modern
religion (religio athletae is an expression commonly found in
the writings of Pierre de Coubertin but in the sense of conscious
and full dedication to sport)8.
Now, if Olympism is to be seen in the context of broad
cultural relations its radical reliance on ethical principles simply
does not make sense, given the so-called “moral crisis” of
nowadays which levels down all social conventions in any
country or region. This argument is in itself sufficient toconfirm the applicability of the notion of aporia as a prima
facie interpretation of high - performance sport in general and.32.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
The aporetic nature of Olympism: sport for all or sport for heroes?

of the Olympic Movement in particular, alongside their
historical and philosophical foundational approaches.
Moreover, a comparison of sports with art can shed lighton the aporetic meaning of sport both on the competition
ground and in its management. As continually emphasized byanalysts of current trends, the fragmentation of social relations,the prevalence of individualism and commercial attitudes, theincreasing domination of the mass media and even the
breakdown of values have given rise to insurmountable conflicts
in cultural production of many kinds. Steven Connor, for one,referred to this phenomenon as “self-dissolution” or“renunciation” of the arts, and used the expression “postmodernism” in the interpretation of the contemporary scene
9. Actually, post-modernism may be seen as an opposition tomodernism rather than a reform of it. It is therefore not easy
to define what post-modernism might be. Much of this new
trend generates questions without answers, both in sports andin various other spheres of culture. Here, post-modernism
should be the aporetic context for analysis of sport and its
ethical conventions.

Solving Olympic aporias
Again, rather than simply arguing “for” or “against”
supposed distortions of sport, debates concerning thedevelopment of Olympism should take the reconciliation of
opposites as an introductory step, adopting an aporetic line ofreasoning. And on account of post-modern changes this choice
is valid either in addressing social or cultural interrogations ofpresent times. For that, the old Greek philosophy is still helpful
since the Aristotelian tradition attempted to solve aporias byintroducing them initially into a higher totality as a means of
reducing their problematic content.
.33.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES.
The aporetic nature of Olympism: sport for all or sport for heroes?

As Otto Szymiczek, one of the IOA’s most distinguisheddeans, understood Olympism, this higher totality was alreadyaccountable in 1980. In his words10: “The Olympic Movement,
is open to all; its purpose is not to allow a limited few to collectgold meals. On the contrary, it seeks to provide the opportunity
for all men, regardless of age and sex, to practise sports, for theslogan which can now be heard the world over is: Sport forAll”. Missing from Szymiczek account, however, is an accountof what plays the role of opposition to this overall mobilization.
Let us then make the Szymiczek’s statement a working
hypothesis and evaluate briefly rival accounts taken from thehistory of Sport for All within the Olympic Movement.
The idea of mass commitment to sport effectively beganwith Coubertin, who was deeply involved in sport as a meansof collective education. According to DaCosta & Miragaya (2002)
this proposal has had limited impact in day-to-day practices of
top sport institutions 11. Symptomatically, the IOC officiallyadopted the concept of Sport for All (SFA) in 1985, despiteprevious initiatives by Coubertin started in 191912. Despite theindifference of the IOC to Coubertin’s claim to bringdemocracy to sport practices, SFA initiatives in many countries
was successful in promoting types of sport events without
winners or losers but just participants in health or leisure activities
provided by institutions or community initiatives.
It is noteworthy that DaCosta & Miragaya’s survey had
remarked upon an agreement joining the IOC with YMCA
during the 1920s that might be interpreted as a basis for 1960s
onwards successful SFA accomplishments worldwide. But, theIOC became unhistorical in relation to SFA only rediscovering
Coubertin’s “sport pour tous” conception in the 1980s withouteven mentioning its own past experiences13. Such oscillation
may be seen then as a rejection of Szymiczek’s totality as wellas the confirmation that elite sport is actually the centered social grounding of the Olympic Games, the Olympic Movement.34.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
The aporetic nature of Olympism: sport for all or sport for heroes?

and by extension of Olympism as well. However, Szymiczek’s
words may find their legitimacy in the meta-narrative thatusually portrays Olympic discourses since Coubertin’s days.
Generally speaking, the conciliation between SFA and top
sport failed because the envisaged high totality has been assumed
by the later, therefore dissolving the former. Most
comprehensively formulated, the aporetic inconsistency thatmarks both kinds of sport activities has been overcome bygiving up one of theses involved in the inconsistency. Perhaps,
most of the IOC conflict-resolution actions has led to abandon
the reconciliation enterprise, preferring cognitive vacuity torisk of error. One significant exception to this traditional IOC’s
reaction is the ongoing adaptation of Olympic Games’ sites toenvironmental requirements in recent years, which has been
progressing by means of dialog between contradictory interests.
A considerable support to the thesis of conciliation regarding
natural oppositions embedded in today’s Olympism is wellformulated by Hans Lenk As he puts it, “the multicompatibility
and multiidentifiability of the Olympic idea and Olympic
movement have to tie in”14. Focusing on other contexts without
direct connections to the nexus of aporia, Lenk has been
advocating a new “Olympic Philosophy” since 1964, showing
no hesitation in giving the right measure to the common critiques to Olympism as he provided an explanation in 199415:“In this, even ambiguity and vagueness of many
components within the Olympic Idea can anddid lead to a social gathering and uniting impact
and toward a real social effect ofmulticompability and multiidentifiability of the
Olympic movement. A somewhat more concise
definition of the term ‘Olympic Idea’ would
necessarily comprise this pluralistic structure ofvalues, norms and basic features of the Olympic
movement.”.35.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES.
The aporetic nature of Olympism: sport for all or sport for heroes?

The oscillatory nature of sport as referred to social andcultural adaptation is already acceptable to Lenk but mostly
regulated by characteristic traits of human beings. Arguably forhim, “if life is creative action, achieving and performance, homo
creator, homo movens and homo performator are necessarily
connected with one another”16. Rather, if it is not acknowledged
his and her “many essential traits (...) a theory of man seems to
be doomed to one-sidedness and, thus, failure”17.
Notwithstanding, according to Hans Lenk the “Olympicman” is the essence - or subject-matter, in our analysis - of
Olympism. And for him or her there is no irreconcilable
positions between different kinds of achievement in sport.
Once again, this is a Socratic representation in which there
will be no winners or losers, but a heroic and dramatic narrative
after all, one that can solve the intrinsic aporia of Olympismand guarantee a virtuous life for sport.

Notes
1. Coubertin, P., Les assises philosophiques de l’ Olympism moderne.
Le Sport Suisse, 7 août 1935, p.1. In Mueller, N. (ed), Pierre de
Coubertin - Textes Choisis, Tome II, Weidemann, Zurich, 1986,
p. 439.
2.

See Lenk H., Toward a Social Philosophy of the Olympics:
Values, Aims and Reality of the Modern Olympic Movement. In
Graham, P.J. & Ueberhorst, H. (eds.) The Modern Olympics.
Leisure Press, West Point ,1976, p.109-169; Mueller N., Après unsiècle d’ Olympism: regards sur le congrès du Havre 1897. In
Mueller, N. (ed) Coubertin et l ‘ Olympism - Questions pour l’avenir. Comité International Pierre de Coubertin, Lausanne, 1998,
pp.44 - 54; Parry, J., Ethical Aspects of the Olympic Idea. Paper
presented at the 3rd International Session for Educationists and.36.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
The aporetic nature of Olympism: sport for all or sport for heroes?

Staff of Higher Institutes of Physical Education, Ancient Olympia, International Olympic Academy, May 1997; DaCosta L. P.,
O Olimpismo e o Equilibrio do Homem. In: Tavares O. &DaCosta, L.P. (eds.) Estudos Olímpicos. Editora Gama Filho, Riode Janeiro, 1999, pp. 50-69.
3. On the role of history for critical evaluation of epistemologicalproblems see Bachelard, G., La formation de l’esprit scientifique.
Vrin, Paris, 1938, p. 109, 235, 251.
4. Guthrie, W.K.C., Les Sophistes. Payot, Paris, 1976, p. 50ff.
5. MacIntyre, A., After Virtue. A study on moral theory. University of Notre Dame Press, Notre Dame - Indiana, 1984, p. 190.
6. Ibidem, p. 189.
7. Bento, J.O., A Procura de Referências para uma Ética do Desporto.
In “Desporto, Ética, Sociedade”, University of Porto, 1990, pp.
23-39.
8. Moltmann, J., Olympism and Religion. International Olympic
thAcademy, 20 Session Report, Ancient Olympia, 1980, pp. 8188.
9. Connors, S., Postmodernist Culture. Basil Blackwell, New York,
1989, pp. 103-198.
10. Szymiczek, O., Olympism, Olympic, Movement, Olympic
thGames, IOA, 20 Session, Ancient Olympia, 1980, pp. 59-67.
11. DaCosta, L.P. & Miragaya, A., Worldwide Experiences andTrends of Sport for All. Meyer & Meyer Sport, Aachen - Germany, 2002, pp. 751 - 785. For further comments in this theme
see DaCosta, L.P., How can the Olympic Movement promotestSport for All?, IOA Report, 31 Session, Ancient Olympia, 1991,th
pp.149 - 153; Müller, N., Olympism and Sport for All, IOA, 29
Session, Ancient Olympia, 1988, pp. 188-200; Costa, L.P., The
Uniqueness of Non-formal Sports in Different Countries and.37.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES.
The aporetic nature of Olympism: sport for all or sport for heroes?

Regions. International Symposium on Sport for Everyone, Proceedings, University of Illinois, Champaign, 1986, pp. 16 - 29.
12. See the introductory speech of Juan Antonio Samaranch, president of IOC, under the title of “The bases of Sport for All”, presented at Sport for All International Congress, Frankfurt, DSB /IOC, 1986. It is also relevant in this theme the comments ofBrisson, J. F., Olympic sport equals Sport for All. Olympic Message, no. 16, December 1986, p. 9. In addition, see in the same
number of Olympic Message, a review of the 1986 address in
DaCosta, L. P., Sport for All, past, present and future, pp.17 - 23.
13. DaCosta, L.P. & Miragaya, A., Op. Cit. pp. 28 - 29, note no. 1.
14. Lenk, H., The essence of Olympic man - Towards a philosophical anthropology of Olympism. In Nissiotis, N. A., Religion,
philosophy and sport in dialogue. In memorian collection of papers, Athens, 1994, p. 339.
15. Ibidem, p. 340.
16. Ibidem, p. 338.
17. Ibidem, p. 336.

.38.

CHAPTER 3

Questioning Olympism:
pluralism,
multiculturalism
or what else?
Most histories of the Olympic Movement are
methodologically naive. In their usual form the focus is onparticular descriptions with less attention to the context.
Therefore, omissions of reactions from cultures hardly known
by analysts lead to mask controversies and ambivalence.
Intellectual disputes, otherwise, become less visible without
contextual recognition. This is particular true when the French
cultural milieu is not taken into account in historical studiesof the Olympic idea’s initial stages.
.39.
OLYMPIC STUDIES
L. P. DaCosta, 2002 - Editora Gama Filho - Rio de Janeiro

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
Questioning Olympism: pluralism, multiculturalism or what else?

A substantial support to this thesis is a critical review of
the Le Havre Olympic Congress that took place in 1897. This
event succeeded the Congress of Sorbone which inaugurated
the Olympic Movement in 1894. Indeed, it was in Le Havre
that IOC members, Coubertin included, and some intellectuals
interested in sports raised interrogations and reflected upon
the Olympic idea. It was also there that typical oppositions
emerged from Olympism’s proposals and played a meaningfulrole. There the point of the question was that two distinguishedparticipants, Dr. Philippe Tissié and Father Henri Didon,
engaged in a “courteous” dispute on “distinct pedagogic claims,
even in opposition”, as reported diplomatically by Pierre de
Coubertin himself 1.
This confrontation may be seen as a discourse of “making
sport serious” as opposed to “reflexive cultural practices such as
theory, literature and art”. The suggestion came from a recent
Douglas Brown’s study on Coubertin’s oeuvre in regard of
French intellectual interpretations on sport and physical culture
at the end of the 19th century2. Generally speaking, then, thedispute Tissié ( serious sport ) versus Didon ( cultural reflection) would be a result from different approaches to humanism whichhave also remained constant throughout the history of the
Olympic idea. Consequently, the Le Havre controversy should
be seen as the earliest intellectual crossroad of the developmentof Olympism which has not clear definition until today.
To put the matter straightforward: Olympism sought for
one century to realize its humanistic narrative of placing“everywhere sport at the service of the harmonious
development of man”, as the Olympic Charter enshrines today.
This principle of equilibrium is somewhat compatible withthe attempt of define Olympism found again in the Olympic
Chart as “a philosophy of life, exalting and combining in abalanced whole the qualities of body, will and mind” 3 .
However have these humanistic claims been given a direction.40.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
Questioning Olympism: pluralism, multiculturalism or what else?

to Olympism historically accounted by oppositions ? Rather,
repeating an authoritative question posed in1994 by Yves Pierre
Boulongne, the French author of a critical history of Cobertin’slife: “was Olympism ever transparent or unequivocal? “ 4.
This Chapter has grown out of the conviction that muchof the debate about Coubertin´s humanism and its
corresponding Olympism is rooted in presuppositions that need
to be questioned. The refusal to take it on as final devotional
discourses or criticisms of the Olympic ethos rehabilitated thefoundational approach in order to place Olympism within its
original context as well as the contemporary one, making it
less obscure and therefore more feasible.
We will argue at greater length in forthcoming analysis
that by stressing the roots from which Olympism springs, theprima facie notion of equilibrium between oppositions becomes
central in Olympism. In short, our aim is to open possibilities
for thought and suggest descriptions in which we can recognize
contemporary Olympism, and so undermine other pastinterpretations and future perspectives whose plausibility
depends on working from a more limited set of underlying
basis. To help in exploring this strategy, we use Coubertin´swritings as guides and take issue with his interpreters in orderto draw new meanings and to redefine distinctions.

Reading Coubertin
The voluminous writings from Coubertin´s intellectual life
were often suited for the occasion, as the French intellectual
Bernard Jeu once remarked5. So far, one cannot expect conceptual
rigour at first sight and much less scientific or philosophicalcoherence from the 60 thousand printed pages which represent
the literary work of Olympism´s founder6. Undoubtedly thislimitation concerns to present-day reviewers, as Coubertin´s works.41.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
Questioning Olympism: pluralism, multiculturalism or what else?

also answer to questions that motivated his texts in different
historical situation. This hermeneutic understanding should thenbe elaborated by a reconstruction of the traditions in which
Coubertin´s literary production originated.
Despite the simplicity of this methodological claim, only a
few interpreters have been capable of setting aside his or her
horizons of understanding in researching Coubertin´s historicity.
The lack of interplay between the past and the present isfurthermore criticized by other French sport historian Jean
Durry (September 2nd, 1937 is the date of Coubertin’s death):“Depuis le 2 september 1937, le monde a changé. Comme ont
pu changer la perception et l’analyse de Coubertin et de son
oeuvre. Elles se bornérent d’abord à l’affirmation et latransmission quasi-automatique d’un certain nombre de clichés,et l’on en demeure encore souvent a ce premier niveau”7.
Indeed, from today’s point of view the unsystematic
writings of Coubertin are likely to be seen as superficial,intensely diversified and even contradictory. However, if
eclecticism is the interpretative focus to these supposed
relativistic statements and loose relationships of knowledge,
the significance of the texts cannot be called on to articulate
conceptions in an unequivocal manner but preferably toreconciliate diverse ideas for appropriate selections and options.
This has been the general comprehension of the so-called“eclectic philosophy” since Pico dela Mirandola’s Renaissancebook “Oratio de Hominis Dignitate” 8.
Again, eclecticism was an important direction of thought
during the eighteenth century, with Diderot being celebrated
as an “eclectic philosopher”, a portrait similar to that of a
freethinker of the French Enlightenment 9. In nineteenth
century Britain the same designation frequently identified John
Stuart Mill for his insights into Enlightenment andRomanticism, both of which subscribed to what he called the“school of experience and association” 10. But the culmination.42.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
Questioning Olympism: pluralism, multiculturalism or what else?

of eclecticism occurred in nineteenth century France with the
emergence of an explicit line of thought delimitated by Victor
Cousin (1792 - 1867) as a development from Maine de Biran(1766 - 1824) psychological stoicism.
For contemporary philosophers Cousin’s views remained
as a reinterpretation of humanism in contrast to August
Comte’s (1798 - 1857) positivism. Both tendencies of thought
thereafter revealed more points of similarity than differences,in addition to equally providing sources of social salvation. In
all, French eclecticism experienced the tension between thesciences and humanities and, as a result, it was progressively
dissolved after Cousin’s death in the mid-nineteenth century
11. Nevertheless, the philosophical positions of eclecticism
continued to compound with pragmatism and otherenlightened and evolutionary humanism which typified
western thought henceforth12.
When we read Coubertin’s writings in comparison to
Cousin’s proposals, we may find more than analogies. In fact,
there is a common identity shared by both intellectuals who
were equally social reformers. For instance, Cousin in his
leading book “Du Vrai, Du Beau et du Bien” (1853)
demonstrated that systematic thinking proceeds from doctrine
to facts, while the eclectic approach follows the opposite
procedure legitimized by experience. The same text also favors“a doctrine that conciliates all systems, integrating all facts
which consolidate them”13.
Should these rationales be inserted into a critical frameworkof Coubertin’s life-contexts as those elaborated by today’s
Olympic scholars such as Boulongne 14 , Hoberman 15 or
MacAloon 16 , the striking mixtures of influences from which
Olympism emerged might become a model of eclectic thinking
and behavior. This clear-cut symmetry is precisely the originof either acclamations or rejections from those interpreters fromboth French and Anglo-Saxon intellectual extractions. This is.43.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
Questioning Olympism: pluralism, multiculturalism or what else?

why Coubertin stands as “honnête homme”17 and Olympism
as “a cult of reconciliation” 18; or he acts as an “homme delettre” 19 and Olympism is seen as a “paradox” because theOlympic Games “generate completely contrary experiences”20.
Not surprisingly only few investigations have grasped theeclectic meaning of Coubertin´s texts. For example, Bernd
Wirkus pointed to Cousin’s “école écletique” as a basis of
Coubertin’s method of thinking as well as labeled Olympism
an eclectic “prescription”21. For this interpretation, Coubertin
considered himself as a follower of Cousin and Jules Simon(1814 - 1896), the latter being another adherent of eclecticism
and famous politician 22. Nikos Nissiotis was more accurate
when he recognized Coubertinian eclecticism as a strategy ofrenovation. The consequence of this “non-systematic
philosophy” was to stress the proportions, the balance and theaesthetic experiences between extremes23. In turn, Paiko Petrov
suggests that being an “idealistic protagonist” of his time,
Coubertin “preferred to pick out eclectically only the ideasthat best suited his own thesis, rather than tie himself in witha definite school of philosophy”24.
These comments suggest that Coubertin’s “lack ofepistemological order”, once mentioned by Landry25, was more
apparent than most of his interpreters could have assessed.
Certainly, he possessed a method and a philosophy behind it,
usually replacing synthesis with analytical procedures to reacha deductive approach recommended by eclecticism 26 .
Notwithstanding, very often his interpreters have been seeking
synthesis to explain Olympism and other Coubertinian
constructions through inductive reasoning. This opposition
should explain the reason that most interpreters choose personal
influences on Coubertin’s thought and behavior to survey his
fundamentals.
Summarizing, Coubertin’s intellectual works may beinaccessible to many present-day interpreters, except if they.44.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
Questioning Olympism: pluralism, multiculturalism or what else?

are familiar to the French tradition established in the lastcentury by a combination of evolutionary epistemology,
positivism, eclecticism and utilitarian humanism, blended with
the idea of progress already reshaped by the enlightenment.
Of course, matters become more complicated if thoseinterpreters lack of a unified perspective. To confront thisdifficult it is worth mentioning a description elaborated byRobert Nisbet:“The great objective of social philosophers andof naturalist too was the discovery of a unified
law of progress. Condorcet, Saint-Simon,
Comte, Hegel, Spencer, and Marx were among
those who featured their respective ‘laws’ of
progress. Progress, declared Spencer in his ‘Social Statics’ , ‘is not an accident, but a necessity’.
What Spencer called the law of progress meant
exactly in his mind what others might call alaw of evolution or of development. Spencer
himself used the words interchangeably “ 27 .

Could we suggest, facing a broader context than the
educational reform in France and the renovation of the Games,that Olympism is primarily a “law” of unification? Did theeclectic Coubertin participate in the dispute between theutilitarian humanism (Dr. Tissié) and the ethical humanism(Father Didon) of his time, attempting to frame them in a
unified conception (equilibrium of man)?

Eclecticism alive
Following Coubertin I will use historical facts in a deductive
analysis to ground primary answers to the questions previously
raised. Since experience gives the necessary meaning to potential.45.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
Questioning Olympism: pluralism, multiculturalism or what else?

answers in terms of eclecticism, my intention is to highlightthe Latin America context of last century’s intellectual life.
Being historically a “laboratory” for European ideas, in thiscontinent positivism reached an even greater influence than inFrance, especially in Mexico, Brazil, Argentina and Chile. Also
the idea of progress penetrated with more strength the hearts
and minds of élites , becoming a powerful myth among Latin
Americans from any country. By the mid-nineteenth century
eclecticism in particular had immigrated to Brazil embodied in
Cousin’s disciples, soon becoming the official philosophy of
the Brazilian Empire.
The contradiction in terms of an “official” line of thoughtsignalizes the importance of Brazilian eclecticism which had
been incorporated to educational curricula in the country.
The books of Cousin and Jules Simon were translated toPortuguese and during the second half of the century
eclecticism was the major interest of Brazilian thinkers fromseveral academic areas of knowledge. Medicine and Law were
specializations from which original philosophical works
emerged, such as those of Domingos Goncalves de Magalhaes(1811-1882) and Antonio Pedro de Figueiredo (1814-1859).
According to Antonio Paim, a contemporary analyst of the“escola ecletica”, the experience of eclecticism in Brazil finallyencountered the philosophical problems left behind by Cousin
and Simon and was forced to search for pertinent answers 28.
In sum, the seminal philosophers of French eclecticism
supported the idea that the moral was influenced by thesensitivity of individuals during voluntary physical efforts. In
other words, there was a distinguishable physical component
in moral judgment. Although difficult to be accepted byscientists, Maine de Biran’s original conception marked mostof the great thinkers of eighteenth century France, including
the prestigious philosopher Henri Bergson (1859-1941).
Coubertin also shared this belief, recognizing the “moral of.46.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
Questioning Olympism: pluralism, multiculturalism or what else?

the will” (Biran) as well as the “creative nature of the experience”(Bergson). These latter remarks appeared in the Georges Rioux’s
preface to the major collection of Coubetin’s papers edited up
to the present29.
However this point of view represented one of the weakest
fundamentals of Biran-Cousin’s eclecticism, because critics
argued the arbitrary assemblage of different phenomena
without convincing analysis. In Brazil, the medical doctor andphilosopher Eduardo Ferreira Franca (1809-1857) had tried tosolve this central problem earlier, giving more importance tosingular characterizations of each phenomenon in relation toexperience30. By the end of the century, the Brazilian eclectic
school was favoring historical legitimization to suchphenomena. At that time eclecticism had been defined as “thephilosophy of conciliation and reconstruction as opposed toskepticism”31. After this stage, the Brazilian eclectic school had
been gradually dissolved.
However, the specific outcome of these reflections is, in
effect, a process philosophy, incorporating an “epochal” viewof time. So eclecticism in Brazil — most likely the positivism
in Latin America — is still alive and coexisting with othercurrents of thought. The peculiarity of a “living museum” ofideas and cultural manifestations was analyzed by Roberto Da
Matta in a recent anthropological study on the so-called“Brazilian Puzzle”. For the eminent Brazilian scholar, theunderlying logic behind contradictory ideas hierarchicallyarranged an different planes, as identified in many sectors of
the Brazilian society by past and present observers, refers to
the principle “the virtue lies in between”. This expression is
not only a motto, but a state of mind, a fundamental elementof Brazilian culture and of most parts of Latin America 32.
We could again find here an experience not transferable toother countries and cultures but we reinforce the assumptionthat eclecticism was a process philosophy in France and kept.47.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
Questioning Olympism: pluralism, multiculturalism or what else?

this condition in Brazil. From this point of view, we reach inphilosophical grounds the conception that if changes occur
many descriptions can be made without contradictions.
Ultimately, Cousin’s eclecticism was a work in progress,
both in France and in its South American sanctuary. In thisregard, further investigations are needed in order to ascertain
the survival of eclecticism as embedded in today’s post-modern
culture. The hypothesis in this case is referred to a global trendof eclectic understanding encompassing any intellectual context
which would possibly include Olympism. Here the updated
quest for Olympism conception should be found in past
discernment still being reshaped today, as occurs in many otherpost-modern judgment.
Moreover the dynamic interplay of Coubertin with his
historical context gains significance. He was deeply involved ina work in progress, to which interpreters attributed to changes
in the focus of his interests over the years 33. Since Olympism
remained a recurring theme during all of Coubertin’s intellectuallife-time, as ascertained by Mueller and Schantz 34, it follows
that the process adaptation proposal might represent the basisof a possible unification. Trusting Boulongne’s overviews,
Coubertin’s constant evocation of Olympism was consciously
assumed in accordance to what he called “central clarity” in acondition defined by universalism, that is “the great sets that
one categorize along two very precise axes. On the one hand,
the material world and the living conditions. On the other, theachievements of man throughout the centuries”35.
In retrospect, the apparent confusion of Coubertin’s
writings can be seen as a result of his eclecticism which
presupposes a unified conception for his analytic compositions.
According to the traditions of nineteenth century Frenchthinking, this suggested unity should be a “law” based on theidea of progress. A comparative review of eclecticism in France
and in Brazil indicates that this tendency had been a process.48.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
Questioning Olympism: pluralism, multiculturalism or what else?

philosophy, which finally explains the changing pattern of
Coubertin’s works and his conscious search of a universal value
for Olympism.
From these conjectures we may consider acceptable byhistorical observation the hypothesis that Olympism stands asa pretentious claim of unification and, by argument, as an individual achievement by means of progressive effort. At thispoint it may be worthwhile to consider again Olympism as ameta-narrative and an aporetic construct in which the eternal
mythology of unification of oppositions finds its energy and
impetus (see Chapters 1 and 2).

Eclecticism and eurhythmy
The eclectic assemblage that gave origin to Olympism
might otherwise have validation by quoting Coubertin
when he approached to Olympism as a “state of mind
instead of a system” introducing a statement of 1918 in his
style of narrative:“L’Olympisme est un état d’sprit issu d’un double
culte: celui de l’effort et celui de l’eurythmie. Etvoyez combien conforme à l’humaine natureapparait l’association de ces deux éleménts — legoût de l’excès et le goût de la mesure — qui,d’aspect contradictoire, se trouvent pourtant à labase de toute virilité complète” 36.

This declaration was selected by Jean Durry in 1994 todemonstrate the relevance of the oeuvre 37 and it is here used asa key for mapping the conceptual framework of Olympism in
Coubertin’s horizon of understanding. Arguably, the thesis
concerns to the primary relation between effort and.49.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
Questioning Olympism: pluralism, multiculturalism or what else?

eurhythmy, the latter expression grounded by Coubertin as a“proportion” 38 (see Chapter 4 ).
In short, eurhythmy is presumably a “law” of equilibrium
applied to individual achievements in sport, naturally submitted
to excess. Not surprisingly, the quest of this supposed “law”
finds an answer in the present-day definition of Olympism:
whether “a philosophy of life” or not, the “balanced whole” ofbody, will and mind, is a central condition of the “harmonious
development of man”.
However, in terms of philosophical argument, thecondition of equilibrium is necessary but not sufficient, because
Olympism deals with the individual’s autonomous and creative
sport actions. Here lies an historical dispute of eclecticism andother sorts of humanism: to what extent harmonious control
of actions (eurhythmy) should prevail over free-will (sport)?
This question can be posed to the conceptual frameworkof Olympism and, by extension, to find a new meaning for
Coubertin’s reconciliation of opposed tendencies. Then it isquite understandable that Coubertin’s alternative to frame
Olympism in a desirable concept of unification was to appeal
for an association of control of actions and free-will. Thiseclectic assemblage was vaguely referred to as a “state of mind”(“état d’esprit”) that was never submitted to clarifications.
Symptomatically enough, Coubertin proceeded like hiscontemporaries Brazilian eclectics, spending most of his lifetime analyzing in-depth “ the great sets that categorize theOlympism” 39; or seeking legitimacy of his proposals in history;or, last but not least, selecting combinations between extremes.
Another coincidence to be taken into account is the Antonio Paim’s finding that was Hyppolite Taine — one of
Coubertin’s “maîtres-a-penser” — who severely criticized theeclectic school. The fact marked the decline of Victor Cousin
and Jules Simon in French philosophy and also the beginningof a confrontation with positivism’s adepts in Brazil as well 40.
.50.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
Questioning Olympism: pluralism, multiculturalism or what else?

Of course, in France, Coubertin somehow managed bothviews, but future investigations are needed to evaluate of Jules
Simon’s true role in the theoretical construction of Olympism.
In sum, Olympism as an eclectic narrative was ultimately aprocess philosophy during Coubertin’s life-span. In spite of thisongoing process of development, the notion of eurhythmy gavea direction to Olympism but not the necessary internal coherence.
It follows that Olympism cannot be held as a philosophy but
rather one of the several versions of humanism, a philosophicalposition which over the ages became a pluralistic construction.
Yet these forms of humanism are currently identified by acomplement that connotes their doctrinal directions. In thiscontext Thomas Munro 41 gives a significant example that could
be applied to Olympism. This is the case of naturalistic
humanism, in which the adjective is an account of all values
that incorporate physical and cultural capacity for goodexperiences in life. The resultant equilibrium of thiscombination tends to favor harmony, moderation, justice,
freedom and rationality. In this sense, Munro’s humanism is
an updated version of the preceding “effort” and “measure”
from the last century’s mixture, to which the necessary
condition of effectiveness is harmony and other categories of
equilibrium.
Thus far, are we, at the outset of the twenty-first century,
arriving at one more humanism by shaping a pluralistic
Olympism?

Toward a pluralistic Olympism
As a result of the diversified versions of humanism,
Coubertin and eclecticism may reach a new level of assessment,
nevertheless the challenge of transferring Olympism to practicestill remains. This failure must now be placed in a new.51.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
Questioning Olympism: pluralism, multiculturalism or what else?

humanistic scenario: that of pluralism, which is primarily
concerned into a multi-faceted world with many genuine views
and interpretations. Philosophers of this new kind of legitimacy
are re-evaluating man’s relations to others, himself and to theenvironment 42.
What should be at stake in Olympism is that of a properbalance between its traditions and the new pluralistic
humanism. Similarly, sport has already been surpassed thisnecessity. Indeed, a few scholars are reshaping a new humanism
for sport activities by tracing their institutional and scientificdomination in contrast to the growing search for autonomy
by participants43. For Jose Maria Cagigal, early in 1980, thisdichotomy between control and self-determinism should becontended in terms of macro-relations and micro-relations: theformer as barriers to humanism and the latter as developmentof human values44.
To date, pluralist forms of humanism are prevailing. The
characteristic dichotomy of present-day sport should be seen
as a moral dilemma, here understood by a choice between
domination and autonomy. In a broader context these opposites
are pervasive and involve many of today’s social relations,becoming contradictory in many ways. But to traditional
institutions and lines of thought, that opposition often becomesa paradox or any other interpretation. Ellen Paul et al.,reviewers of pluralism as an issue of philosophy andepistemology, assert:“The (western science) tradition acknowledges
pluralism in the positive sense, but rejects it in
the normative sense: it acknowledges the existenceof a diversity of cultures and moral beliefs, butdenies that the validity of beliefs and practices
can vary across cultures” 45.

.52.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
Questioning Olympism: pluralism, multiculturalism or what else?

Placing the focus on the historical search for universal truths
as a distinctive cultural tradition of the West, the same authors
make a conclusion also suggestive to the debate on Olympism
issue: “as societies become more pluralistic, and as cultural issues
become increasingly divisive, moral philosophy needs to takeaccount of the diversity of cultural traditions”46.
This assertion refers to Olympism as well, as far as recent
studies presented to the International Olympic Academy
scrutinize dilemmas, oppositions, paradoxes and otherconstraints of the Olympic Movement worldwide 47. Then,philosophically the practical meaning of Olympism is moreconcerned with cultural claims than with scientific or
pedagogical prescriptions. This argument morever may befurther re-elaborated by the productive metaphors of homoathleticus and homo symbolicus in order to explain the cultural pitfalls of Olympism. In principle, while athleticism requires
control in macro-relations, the symbolic identity of man in
his pluralistic environment comprises values and contingent
experiences in micro-relations, demanding after all a new
approach to equilibrium.
At the outset of Olympism, eurhythmy aimed at providing
harmony and prudence to excess, passion, autonomous andcreative body actions or individual free-will embodied by homoathleticus everywhere in this world. Today, homo symbolicus , onbehalf of a pluralistic version of Olympism, should master andcontrol his or her sport involvements by measure, wisdom or
harmony in actions. Summarizing, for a new Olympism the notionof eurhythmy should be primarily addressed to homo symbolicus, with less attention to the long-admired homo athleticus.
While eclecticism can be seen as the missing link in thehistory of the idea of Olympism, eurhythmy presupposes
holding the unitary and central foundation of Olympism at
the same measure that equilibrium of man can be set inregarding each specific cultural identity. Overall, the right.53.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
Questioning Olympism: pluralism, multiculturalism or what else?

measure is the local measure. Under such condition,
pluricultural Olympism is a viable humanism. However, theself-circumscription adopted by Olympic leaders and scientistsof sport in putting the Olympic idea into practice does notmatch such a theoretical construction.
Here, again, we might encounter an inspirational path in
Coubertin’s writings in order to solve the problem of local
measure. Following there is one of his most meaningfulstatement regarding the multiple views of Olympism:“L’ Olympism n’est point un système, c’est
un état d’sprit. Le formule les plus diverses
peuvent s’en pénétrer et il n’ appartient ni à
une race ni à une époque de s’en attribuer
le monopole exclusive”48.

On account of this position we may finally return to French
cultural milieu. In the past, much of the project of Olympism
was articulated by the “sprit de geometrie” with which French
intellectuals comprehended the world in the eighteenth
century. By 1897, during the Le Havre Congress, Coubertin
used the “sprit de finesse” — another typical French creation— to reconcile opposites. Should this strategy becontemporarily employed to build a pluricultural Olympism?

Notes
1. Coubertin, P., Les Opinions du C.I.O. Revue Olympique, Juillet
1902, Paris, pp. 4647. In Pierre de Coubertin - Texts Choisis, Tome II, Norbert Müller
(ed), Weidmann, Zurich, 1986, page 694.
2. Brown, D., Sport performance: Anchoring Pierre de Coubertin’s
sport theory in French cultural discourse. Paper presented at the.54.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
Questioning Olympism: pluralism, multiculturalism or what else?
th

5 International Symposium for Olympic Research, Sydney, September 2000, Proceedings, pp. 51 - 58.
3. Olympic Charter, Fundamental Principle nos. 3 and 2, I.O.C.
Lausanne (in force as
from 23rd July 1992), page 11.
4. Boulongne, Y.P., Values and Significations of Modern Olympics.
In For a Humanism of Sport , CNOSF - Ed. Revue EP.S, Paris,
1994, pp. 29-41.
5. Jeu, B., Values and Signification of Historical Olympism. In For a
Humanism of sport, Op. Cit., pp. 59-65.
6. See Landry, F., L’Actualité de Pierre de Pierre de Coubertin: De laPedagogie et de l’Education Physique Appliquee a l’Amerique duNord. In L’Actualité de Pierre de Coubertin, N. Mueller (ed ),Schors-Verlag, Niedernhausen, 1987, p. 90.
7. Durry, J., Le Vrai Pierre de Coubertin - La Vie, l’Ouvre, les Textesclés, Comité Francais Pierre de Coubertin, Paris, 1994.
8. The history of eclecticism is found in Holzhey, H., Philosophie
Als Eklektik, Stud. Leibniz, vol. 15, 1983, pp. 19-29.
9. See Casini, P., Diderot et le Portrait du Philosophie Eclectique.
Revue Internationale de Philosophie, vol. 38, 1984, pp. 35-45.
10. See Halliday, R.J., John Stuart Mill. Barnes and Noble, New
York, 1976.
11. For an interesting discussion of Cousin and Comte tensions see
Simon, W.M., The Two Cultures in 19th Century France: Victor
Cousin and August Comte. Journal of History of Ideals, vol. 26,
1965, pp. 45-58.
12. The subsistence of eclecticism’s categories as one of the
Enlightenment’s Fundamentals is discussed by Kelly, D., What isHappening to the History of ideas? Journal of History of Ideas,
vol. 51, 1990, pp. 3-25.
.55.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
Questioning Olympism: pluralism, multiculturalism or what else?

13. Cousin, V., Du Vrai, Du beau e du Bien . Didier Libraire Editeur,
Paris, 1853, pp. 360-392 (the textual citation is from page 392).
14. Boulongne, Y.P., Origins of the Olympic Idea in the WesternWorld (pp.7-10) and Humanism of Coubertinian Neo-Olympism(pp.11-27). In For a Humanism of Sport, Op. Cit., 1994.
15. Hoberman, J., Playing the Chameleon: The Moral Bankruptcyof the Olympic Movement. In The Olympic Crisis, Aristides
Caratzas Publisher, New Rochelle, New York, 1986.
16. MacAloon, J.J., This Great Symbol: Pierre de Coubertin and theOrigins of the Modern Olympic Games, University of Chicago
Press, Chicago, 1981.
17. Boulongne, Y.P., La Vie et l’Oeuvre Pédagogique de Pierre de
Coubertin - 1863/1937, Éditions Leméac INC, Quebec, 1975, p.
382.
18. Hoberman, J., Op. Cit., p. 31.
19. Mac Aloon, J.J., Pierre de Coubertin and Contemporary Social
Science. In The Relevance of Pierre de Coubertin Today, Op.
Cit., p. 200.
20. Hoberman, J., Op. Cit., p. 125.
21. Wirkus, B., Pierre de Coubertin’s Philosophical Eclecticism as
the Essence of Olimpism. In The Relevance of Pierre de Coubertin
Today, Op. Cit., pp. 179-190.
22. Ibidem, p. 181.
23. Nissiotis, N., L’Actualité de Pierre de Coubertin du Point de
Vue Philosophique. In The Relevance of Pierre de Coubertin
Today, Op. Cit., pp. 125-161.
24. Petrov, P., Pierre de Coubertin’s Ideative and Ethic Heritage. In
Topicals of the International Olympic Movement, Sofia Press,
Bulgaria, 198, pp. 31-46. The quotation is from page 38.

.56.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
Questioning Olympism: pluralism, multiculturalism or what else?

25. Laundry, F., Op. Cit. p. 195.
26. See for this methodological prescription: Boulongne, Y.P., Humanism of Coubertinian Neo-Olympism, Op. Cit., p. 19. The
connection between Olympism and eclecticism is a clarification
not used by this author.
27. Nisbet, R., History of the Idea of Progress. Transaction Publishers, New Brunswick-NJ, 1994, p.xv.
28. Paim, A., A Escola Ecletica, Editora da Universidade de Londrina,
Londrina - Brasil, 1996, pp. 349-415.
29. Rioux, G., Introduction Générale. In Pierre de Coubertin - Textes
Choisis, Mueller, N. ( ed ), Tome I, Op. Cit., page 18 for thequotations and page 32 for the remarks.
30. Ferreira Franca, E., Investigacoes de Psicologia, Tipografia E.
Pedroza, Salvador, 1854, p. 80.
31. See Goncalves de Magalhaes, D. E., Fatos do Espirito Humano.
Garnier, Rio de Janeiro, 1865, p. 36.
32. Da Matta, R., For an Anthropology of the Brazilian Tradition.
In Hess, D. J. and DaMatta, R. (eds), The Brazilian Puzzle. Columbia University Press, New York, 1995, pp. 270-291.
33. See, for example, Hoberman, Op. Cit., p. 33.
34. Mueller, N. and Schantz, O., Text Choisis, Op. Cit., Tome II,
pp. 359-441. This source put together 20 texts related directly to
Olympism, issued from 1894 to 1936.
35. Boulongne, Y. P., Humanism of Coubertinian Neo-Olympism,
Op. Cit., p. 19.
36. Coubertin, P., Lettres Olympiques. In Textes Choisis, Op. Cit.,
tome II, p 385.
37. Durry. J., Op. Cit., p. 39.

.57.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
Questioning Olympism: pluralism, multiculturalism or what else?

38. Coubertin. P., Les Sources et les Limites du Progrès sportive.
Olympische Rundschau, Berlin, avril 1939, nº 5, pp. 1-2. In Texts
Choisis, Op. Cit., Tome II, p. 76.
39. Boulongne, Y.P., Humanism of Coubertinian Neo-Olympism,
Op. Cit., p.19.
40. See Paim, A., Op. Cit., pp.6-25
41. Munro, T., A Note on the Aesthetics of Naturalistic Humanism,
Journal of Aesthetic and Art Critique, vol. 28, fall 1969, pp. 45-47.
42. See, for instance, Barral. M. R., Can Humanism Survive Technology? In Proceedings of the XVth World Congress of
Phylosophy, Varna, 1974, pp. 177-180 (vol. III).
43. This tendency was identified by Sage, G., Humanism and Sport.
In Sport and American Society: Selected Readings. AddisonWesley, Reading-Mass., 1980, pp. 353-368.
44. Cagigal, J.M. Valeur Humaniste du Sport. Consejo Nacional delDeporte, Madrid, 1980 (unpublished paper).
45. Paul, E., Miller, F. and Paul, J. (eds), Cultural Pluralism and
Moral Knowledge. Cambridge University Press, New York, 1994,
p. vii (Introduction).
46. Ibidem, p.xiii.
47. The reference here is the 33rd Session of the International Olympic Academy in which the central theme was “The Different Applications of Olympism in the Major Cultural Zones of theWorld”. See I.O.A. Report, 33rd Session, Ancient Olympia, 1993.
48. This Coubertin’s statement is found in the walls of the Olympic
Museum in Lausanne.

.58.

CHAPTER 4

Anchoring Olympism ineurhythmics: equilibrium
between extremes orbalanced conflictresolution?
The unity of proposals concerning to the Olympic idea isan original formulation either in terms of Olympism orOlympic Movement, since the Pierre de Coubertin’s early
writings from the late 19th century. The “Final Document”
issued by the Centennial Olympic Congress (Paris, September
3rd, 1994) reflected this tradition when declaring that event as.59.
OLYMPIC STUDIES
L. P. DaCosta, 2002 - Editora Gama Filho - Rio de Janeiro

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .

Anchoring Olympism in eurhythmics:
equilibrium between extremes or conflict-resolution balance?

“the Congress of Unity” 1 . However, for Coubertin, “unity”
might be understood as playing a regulatory role jointly withjustice and beauty. This foundational option was exposed in
one of his texts from 1914:“La justice dénonce l’excès, à ses yeux cause
initiale de tous les maux. L’unité applique laclassification qui conduit, croi-elle, à lacoordination si désirable. La beauté compte surun esthétisme foundamental qui existerait enpuissance au fond de chacun de nous et qu’il
suffirait de réveiller” 2 .

Coubertin was right of course in his contention that theconception of unity stood in need of enlargement. The broader
and interchangeable meaning of “unity” was finally forwarded
by him in the context of equilibrium of man facing the complexity
and challenges of life 3. This particular notion of equilibrium isstill embedded in present-days Olympic Charter to which theessential goal of Olympism is to place “everywhere sport at theservice of the harmonious development of man” 4. Moreover, theCharter defines Olympism as “a philosophy of life, exalting andcombining in a balance whole the qualities of body, will and mind”
5, as emphasized in previous Chapters of this book.
To have understood the polymorphous character of
Olympism is presumptively to have rendered the Charter’s
principles useless for utilitarian purposes. Conversely, as wehave demonstrated elsewhere 6 , the prima facie notion ofequilibrium of man was adopted by Coubertin as a result of
the philosophy of eclecticism followed by him last century inaddition to the conception of eurhythmy as the framework ofOlympism, also found extensively in his writings.
Hence when we project the use of Olympism into practicallife, it is always necessary to invoke a reference to equilibrium.60.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
Anchoring Olympism in eurhythmics:
equilibrium between extremes or conflict-resolution balance?

facing the tensions naturally originated from a process ofadaptation to the “balance whole”. In this Chapter, we will
briefly re-elaborate the notion of eurhythmy giving more
substance to those earlier standpoints referred to Olympism.
This clarification will pretentiously make a distinction between
two modes of treating eurhythmy concerning its key role in
Olympism: (1) as a social and environmental integration and(2) as an eclectic composition.

The functionalist eurhythmics
The first approach to eurhythmics then may hang on the
funcionalist sociology of Talcott Parsons, supported additionallyby norms and values. This proposal was primarily forward by
Messing and Mueller 7 in 1999 and then consolidated in the 5thInternational Symposium for Olympic Research ( Sydney, 2000) 8.
For these Olympic scholars from the Research Team
Olympia - University of Mainz, eurhythmy according to
Coubertin was a “spiritual attitude” into which the pleasurefrom excess - typical of sports competitions - would comply
with the pleasure from measure 9 . By extension, as alsointerpreted by Messing & Mueller introducing theirinvestigation in this theme 10, although this definition“does not regard Olympism as a system but aspiritual attitude, his thoughts on eurhythmics
expressed in numerous works can besystematically arranged and amplified. To thisend four components of eurhythmics will be
distinguished following Parsons’ classification ofsociety in a cultural, social, personal and organic
system of action, which are embedded in a‘physical environment’ as a fifth component”.

.61.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .

Anchoring Olympism in eurhythmics:
equilibrium between extremes or conflict-resolution balance?

Effectively, the argument of a multifaceted eurhythmy seeking
for order, balance and harmony in different walks of life, turnout to be convincing through the review made by Messing &Mueller with the texts from Coubertin’s life-time 11. Despite thedifference of purposes from Parsons’ categories, Coubertin’s allencompassing views of the world apparently lead to a systemperspective allied to a primacy of norms and values. Even in
empirical terms, Messing & Mueller have confirmed the adequacyof eurhythmy to the Cultural Programs from contemporary
Olympic Games, again using a functionalist approach12.
Perhaps, this overall adequacy may be explained by the
opposites binary often envisaged by Coubertin in his writings,
that is, “tension-balance” and “soft balance of powers”, also
described by Messing & Mueller by means of quotations 13.
The former category is frequently recognized today byenvironmentalists as a conflict-resolution composition 14 ; thelatter is ascribed by Coubertin to human matters that “resemble
a pendulum, which strives after a balance, buy which it reaches
only momentarily on its untiringly followed way from one
extreme to the other”15.
Here the metaphor of pendulum represents the link with
the interpretation of eurhythmy as a philosophical eclectic
composition. This second path of searching an explanation tothat Coubertin’s notion has been developed by DaCosta since1997 by the way of exploring the idea of equilibrium of man16.
Then in 2000 this author consolidate his arguments favoring
the close relationship between eurhythmy and eclecticism 17.

The eclectic eurhythmy
Certainly, the French eclecticism was an important
direction of thought in early 19th century, being understood as“a doctrine that conciliates all systems, integrating all facts.62.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
Anchoring Olympism in eurhythmics:
equilibrium between extremes or conflict-resolution balance?

which consolidate them” 18. Of course, matters become more
complicated if eclectic interpreters lack of a unified perspective.
But Coubertin, as an adherent of eclecticism, searched thatmuch-needed unification in terms of eurhythmy, grounded byhim as a “proportion” 19 :“L’emploie ce terme proportion mais ce n’est pas
celui que je voudrais employer. Le terme venantde soi-même sous ma plume serait celuid’eurythmie. Mais à cet égard nous entendons mal
entre Français et Allemand. Les Allemands
considèrent que, dans le mot grec “eurythmie”,
cést l’idée de rythme que domine. En français,on prête surtout attention à la premiére syllabe.
On évoque d’abord l’idée de beau, de parfait. Est
eurythmique tout ce qui est bien proportionné.
L’Hellénisme a, par excellence, préconisé lamesure, la proportion créatice de beauté, de grâce
et de force associées. Il nous faut sous ce rapport
revenir vers les conceptions helléniques pourcontrebalancer les effrayantes laideurs de l’âge
industriel que nous venos de traverser”.

The emphasis, therefore, should be put on the contrast
between “excess” and “measure” also asserted by Messing &Mueller in their review. As Coubertin wrote, “sport moves
towards excesses... that is the core of the problem but at thesame time it is nobility and even its poetic charm” 20. In anothermeaningful account he declared that excess is the sport’s
premiére raison d’être because sport is a passion, worthy of
being controlled by wisdom 21. If reviewed today, these lack ofmeasure might be ultimately addressed to the extreme of acontinuum in which eurhythmy should stand in the opposite
side. Of course, there should be eclectic combinations playing
the mediation role between those extremes.
.63.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .

Anchoring Olympism in eurhythmics:
equilibrium between extremes or conflict-resolution balance?

So, by all means, eurhythmy is presumably a “law” ofequilibrium applied to achievements in sport, naturally
submitted to excess. However, in terms of philosophicalargument, the condition of equilibrium is necessary but not
sufficient, because Olympism deals with individual’sautonomous and creative sport actions. Then it is quite
understandable that Coubertin’s alternative to frame
Olympism in a desirable framework of unification was toappeal for an eclectic assemblage of excess and eurhythmy.
Interestedly enough, Coubertin spent most of his life-timeseeking legitimacy of his proposals in history; or, last but notleast, selecting combinations between extremes 22.

The Janus-faced eurhythmy
Overall, in spite of this on-going process of conceptual
development, the nexus of eurhythmy gave a direction to
Olympism but not necessarily internal coherence. Whileeclecticism can be seen today as the missing link in the historyof the idea of Olympism, eurhythmy presupposes holding
the unification meaning of the Olympic credo since
Coubertin’s times.
As such, one could finally endorse the understanding thatboth approaches to eurhythmy are valid in terms of outcome:integration, as rendering balanced conflict-resolution solutions;and composition, as representing an equilibrium between
contrasting components. Indeed, these approaches in today’s
state of knowledge are apparently contradictory and evensometimes complementary. In brief, Olympism may beanchored in both focus of eurhythmy which aims to integrate(direction) and make compositions (state of balance).
Historically speaking, there are evidences of the Janus-faced
interpretation of eurhythmy. Actually, the ancient Olympic.64.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
Anchoring Olympism in eurhythmics:
equilibrium between extremes or conflict-resolution balance?

Games in Greece when analyzed by the category of ekeicheria(truce) had its focus put on integration. In turn, those Games
when reviewed by its cosmopolitarian roots become a case ofcomposition.
In a recent study, we have demonstrate that the interplay
between the traditional order and the diversity of adhesions
characterized Olympia in Ancient Greece as a pilgrim’s locus ofreference, as seem today in Mecca, Jerusalem and Santiago deCompostela 23. Furthermore, these genius loci act historically as
a dramatization of cultural or religious identity. Concerning toOlympia, Nikos Yalouris have mapped several preconditions
to establish a panhellenic consciousness in that remote part ofGreek peninsula, being the Olympic Games the main feature 24.
Furthermore, Yalouris discloses the fact that the Olympic
Games had acquired an ecumenical character after 212 a.d.,during the Roman domination in Greece 25 :“Now not only Greeks or Italians were declared
Olympic victors, but also Egyptians, Spaniards,
Armenians and others, all those who wereRoman citizens and recipients of Greek
education. The Olympiads now belonged to thewhole world.”

In all, the cosmopolitanism of the Games joined different
cities-state based in the panhellenic appeal. Then the pax romana proved its effectiveness gathering different ethnic group as
well as keeping the traditional Greek rituals. Summarizing,
the cultural identity firstly developed by the ancient Olympiads
was referred to similitude and afterwards by difference.
Though the inconsistency between transmission andreception of Olympic values is often disclosed by researchers as Manfred Messing did when investigating discrepancies ofcultural Olympiads of Barcelona and Atlanta 26 - the same.65.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .

Anchoring Olympism in eurhythmics:
equilibrium between extremes or conflict-resolution balance?

cannot be said in relation to similitude and difference. Perhaps,
the former contrast is more discernible as detected bycommunication oscillations, while the latter seems to be amutual adaptation of elements, that is, the Coubertin’s premiéreraison d’être of Olympism.
Could we, by means of conclusion, suggest for Olympism
sake that the integration approach to define eurhythmy is asearch of sameness and the composition approach otherwise isa search of the otherness?

Notes
1. International Olympic Committee, Final Document - Centennialrd
Olympic Congress, Paris, September 3 , 1994, page 1.
2. Coubertin, P., Les Pourvoyeuers du Royaume d’Utopie, Revue
Olympic, mai 1914, pp. 75-77. In Müller, N. (Ed), Pierre de
Coubertin - Textes Choisis, Tome I - Revelation. Weidmann,
Zurich, 1986, p. 610.
3. See Coubertin’s texts included in Chapter 7 - Au Fil desEvenements. In Müller, N., Ibidem, pp. 541- 652.
4. International Olympic Committee , Olympic Charter, 1992, page11.
5. Ibidem, Fundamental Principle no. 2, page 11.
6. Da Costa, L.P. , Olympism and the Equilibrium of Man. In Müller,
N. (ed.), Coubertin and Olympism - Questions for the Future,
CIPC – Schors, Niedernhansen, 1998, pp. 188 – 199.
7. Messing, M. and Mueller, N., Coubertin’s Concept of Eurhythmics. Paper presented at the Symposium on Olympic Education,
Sept. 1999, International Olympic Academy, Ancient Olympia.

.66.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
Anchoring Olympism in eurhythmics:
equilibrium between extremes or conflict-resolution balance?

8. Messing, M. and Mueller, N., Coubertin’s Philosophical Conceptof Eurhythmics and German Tourists’ Balance of Sport and Art
thInterests in Barcelona and Atlanta Olympic Games. 5 International Symposium for Olympic Research, Sydney, Sept. 2000.
Proceedings, pp. 185 - 194.
9. Ibidem, p. 185.
10. Ibidem, p. 185.
11. Ibidem, pp. 186 - 187.
12. Ibidem, pp. 188 - 193.
13. Ibidem, p. 186.
14. DaCosta, L.P. (ed) , Environment and Sport - an International
Overview. University of Porto / IOC, Porto - Portugal, 1987,
pp. 235 - 287.
15. Messing, M. and Mueller, N., 2000, Op. Cit., p. 186.
16. DaCosta, L.P., 1998, pp. 194 - 195. This text was presented firstly
at the Congress Le Havre 1897 - 1997, Sept. 1997, Le Havre.
17. DaCosta, L. P. , Olympism and Equilibrium of Man: Visions forAthens 2004. In M. Messing & N. Mueller ( eds), Blickpunkt
Olympia: Entdeckungen, Erkenntnisse, Impulse. Agon
Sportverlag, Kassel, 2000, pp.116 -121.
18. DaCosta, L.P., 1998, Op.Cit., p. 195.
19. Coubertin. P., Les Sources et les Limites du Progrés Sportive,
Olympische Rundschau, Berlin, avril 1939, n° 5, pp. 1 – 2. In
Texts Choisis , Op. Cit., Tome II, p. 76.
20. Quoted in Mueller, N., One Hundred Years of Olympic Congresses 1894 – 1994 , I.O.C., Lausanne, 1994, p. 81.
21. Coubertin, P., La Bataille Continue..., Bulletin du B.I.P.S., Lausanne,
n° 5, 1931, pp. 5 – 7. In Textes Choisis, Op. Cit., Tome II, p. 294.

.67.

22. See DaCosta, L.P., 1998, Op.Cit., p. 196.
23. Da Costa, L.P., Identidade Cultural: Semelhança ou Diferença;
Ritual ou Comunicação?, Logos n° 8, 1998, pp. 6 – 10.
24. Yalouris, N., Ancient Elis – Cradle of the Olympic Games, Adam
Editions, Athens, 1996, pp. 70 – 80.
25. Ibidem, p. 85.
26. Messing, M., The Cultural Olympiads of Barcelona and Atlanta
from German Tourists’ Point of View. In Müller, N. (ed), 1998,
Op. Cit., pp. 276 – 280.

CHAPTER 5

Searching the optimum
dimensions for thegames: gigantism or
sustainability?
In 2002, in the aftermath of 1999 - 2000 IOC moral crisis,
the Olympic scholars Barney, Wenn and Martyn published
the book “Selling the Five Rings” 1, just after the new presidentof IOC, Jacques Rogge, took the office. From this broad
assessment of “the rise of Olympic commercialism”, thoseauthors have forwarded in their conclusions key questions tobe answered by the new IOC leader, such as 2: will he confront
the doping problem effectively? Will he ensure equity for.69.
OLYMPIC STUDIES
L. P. DaCosta, 2002 - Editora Gama Filho - Rio de Janeiro

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
Searching the optimum dimensions for the Games: gigantism or sustainability?

women in Olympic decision-making? To whom the Gamesare for - the athletes or the world of business? Will he limit thegrowth and/or reduce the size of the Games? Will he give due
regard to environmental concerns at prospective Olympic sites?
Having the two last questions as points of departure, this
Chapter traces the circumstances in which the gigantism of
the Games has been setting up against the sustainability
principle - one of the pillars of today’s Olympism -, and explores how these opposites may find a balanced composition. In
this particular overview it is important to make initially known
that the Olympic Games is an outstanding business opportunity
since each monetary unit invested in this mega-event has amultiplier effect of of one hundred units (ROI = 100:1) 3. This
figure was consolidated in the 2000 Sydney Games as a resultof two decades of financial and marketing improvements carriedon by the IOC and the OCOGs from Summer and WinterGames in their stage of gigantism already 4.
Although the case of Sydney Games cannot be generalized,
there is a growing concern on the wealthy economic benefitsof the Olympic mega-events despite the claims against theirdimensions, which bring negative impacts on local culture,society and environment. Arguably, it may be identified inrecent years a vicious circle as defined by the Olympic
Movement’s worldwide management that is supported by therevenues from the Games, which in turn represent hidden costsin terms of ecological harassment of many kinds.
Holger Preuss, a Olympic scholar specialized in the bidding
process of Olympic Games host cities, facing the accusations
against gigantism in economic terms has pointed out more
precisely the IOC option in order to avoid ambivalence 5:“There is a public perception that it is the IOC
itself who fuels the ‘over-commercialization’ of
the Games. In point of fact, the IOC is the.70.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
Searching the optimum dimensions for the Games: gigantism or sustainability?

superordinate system that regulates thecommercialization. It is not only aware of thethreat posed by ‘over-commercializing’ theGames but is also effectively fighting the issue.
The measures taken to control the financing
sources reflect the IOC efforts to fight overcommercialization”

In sum, here it is another example of a continuum
between opposites from which the optimum dimensions ofGames are still understated and unrest with negative
repercussion towards cultural, social and natural environment.
Let’s then pursue the connections between environmental issues
and Olympism matters.
For most International Federations, National Olympic
Committees and National Olympic Academies, supposedly theword “environment” represents a new responsible concern
either as highlighted in the Centennial Olympic Congress (Paris, 1994) or by the inclusion of an eco-friendly
recommendation in the Olympic Chart (Rule 2, paragraph 13
of 1996 version). Most participants of the Olympic Family,
too, might have heard of “sustainable development” as well asof the call for actions referred to this concept conducted by
the International Olympic Committee – IOC In fact, thesesharing responsibilities have been putting forward forconsideration since 1992 then becoming more visible among
candidate cities in the Olympic Games bidding.
In 1997, the book “Environment and Sport - anInternational Overview” (L.P. DaCosta, editor) was launchedcontaining historical and epistemological links between
Olympic leaders and institutions and environmental knowledge
production 6. In this case, Olympism stood up as the ultimate
set of principles and values that goes beyond instrumental
conceptions or actions developed by the Olympic community.71.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
Searching the optimum dimensions for the Games: gigantism or sustainability?

at large. Moreover, the IOC was seen in this collective book aswell promoting environmental issues, but the desirable
educational content of these interventions was yet lacking invalue judgement, which typifies both educational processes andethical claims.
In short, the green innovations should be complete if they
could be encapsulated by value commitments in equal
conditions of technological solutions as those promoted by
IOC environmental agenda during the 1990s decade. It follows
from this, then, that when education narrows its scope by giving
priority to instrumentalism, it reduces the accumulation ofculturally relevant knowledge 7.
Not surprisingly, the “Manual on Sport and theEnvironment” published by the IOC also in 1997 proposed“three pillars” for giving significance to Olympism: sport, culture
and environment (pages 9 and 69), suggesting theacknowledgement of cultural values as a basis for righteousintervention but without noting the much-needed call for actions.
More specifically, the “Manual” favored environmental policy
and management instead of ethical values as the backdrop ofnatural resources protection when focusing the Olympic Games.
Theoretically speaking, in the grounds of environmentalism
there are current philosophical studies, otherwise, that attempts
to identify value building as a matter of experience added tolife’s achievements when natural things are concerned 8. In otherwords, without practice the environmental values are of limited
applicability in any cultural setting. So Holmes Rolston, who
defines ecology as an “ethical science”, expresses suggestively:“We found value holders defending their values
and fitted into the larger narratives of life. Natural facts of this kind are storied doings (Latin:
factum, a deed) with their value (Latin: valere, tobe worth) integral to their having managed to.72.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
Searching the optimum dimensions for the Games: gigantism or sustainability?

happen. In such a story every achievement is tobe viewed intrinsically and instrumentally” 9.

By these accounts, the main presupposition of this Chapter
is that the Olympic Games are becoming a model ofenvironment and sport interplay and under this condition thevalue of sustainability might be a central one for educational,
ethical and environmental friendly purposes as well as for future
redefinition of Olympism. Moreover, the suggested interplay
may also be a narrative, which brings more meaning to place
claims and deeds in the meta-narrative of Olympism, similarly
to previous accounts of the present book.

Ethics into action
In the 100-year history of the modern Olympic Games,
the idea and the institutions committed to them have been injeopardy, when submitted to internal excesses or external
attacks. Today, the Coubertins’s legacy still strives forexcellence in sport associated to peace-bringing and other cardinal points of civility. Conversely, the Olympic institutions
promote excellence but with hesitation and uncompromisingefforts. Thus, moral values and pedagogy are in short supply
contrasting to an ever-expanding Olympic Movement inworldwide scale. This portrays Coubertinian proposals in acontemplative ethics in oppositions to an active and pragmatic
ideology assumed by most of his followers.
Indeed, the Olympic ambiguity of nowadays is mainlyreferred to a supposedly mixture of idealism and pragmatic
decision making 10 . As the Olympic Movement remains
attached to the success of the Games, the criticism of theirdeviations seem to go hand in hand. In fact, the future of the
Olympic idea depends on the integrity of everyone involved.73.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
Searching the optimum dimensions for the Games: gigantism or sustainability?

as much as the skills required to balance innovations andtraditions 11. The involvement with environmentalism in thelast decade put to the test the adaptability of the Olympic
family, having as a central protagonist the IOC, in view ofkeeping new compromises without losing essential principles.
In retrospect, the 1992 Winter Games in Albertville had anegative environmental impact in their host prized alpine
region: landslides, road building, deforestation, disruption ofnatural habitat, permanent facilities without post-event use,
non-recyclable waste and other largely uncounted costs. As aresult, the Albertville Games were the first ever to have their
opening ceremony preceded by a local community’s protest
march on behalf of their natural surroundings and quality oflife. Yet in 1992, the Council of Europe voted for a resolution
favoring ecologically concerned sports and condemning therepetitions of Albertville environmental abuses 12.
These rejections later on became milestones of the newquest usually coined “environmental friendly sport” which
includes necessarily the greening of the Games. Moreover, theyear 1992 was a seminal one both for sport and global
environmental concerns: the Earth Summit (United Nations
Conference on Environment and Development) was held in
Rio de Janeiro as well as the President of IOC, Juan Antonio
Samaranch, publicly recognized the priority of anenvironmental agenda for preservations of the Olympic
heritage 13. Shortly after this declaration, the IOC adopted the“sustained development “ concept which is referred to as thedesirable balance between expending and conserving natural
resources at any level of organization of life on Earth 14.
The call for sustainability
The sustained development proposal for the IOC
represented a link with the final declaration from the Earth.74.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
Searching the optimum dimensions for the Games: gigantism or sustainability?

Summit, subscribed by over one hundred countries. In otherwords, the IOC since that event has been in line with the global plan that aims at providing productive and healthy life inharmony with nature. This comprehensive blueprint forhumanity - a set of objectives often named as “Agenda 21” proposes first and foremost the “reduction and elimination of
non-sustainable production and consumption patterns”15. For
this guideline, since 1993 the elected sites for the Olympic
Games became focuses to sustainability in conforming to
specific recommendations issued by IOC 16.
Actually, Lillehammer 1994 and Sydney 2000 showcased
the Olympic Games with the green profile envisaged by IOC.
Both cities coincided in calling upon a redefinition of sportmanagement and facilities with contracts of sustainability.
Lillehammer, prior to 1992, opened a process of negotiation after
initial demonstrations and protest against the Games. Sydney
followed the lead during the year 2000 Games bid, establishingpreviously partnerships with environmentalist movements.
In all, the experience of Lillehammer promoted
environmental awareness and innovative techniques ofenvironmental protection by practical examples. The 2000 Sydney Olympic Games adopted similar core principles developedin association with the Greenpeace Movement 17. Significantly,
Lillehammer and Sydney stand today as narratives of the new
Olympic mystique based in ecological values and achievements.
However, only in the bid for the 2004 Games thesustainability requirement were performed by all candidatecities in spite of the prevailing diversity of interpretations infulfilling the IOC criteria of eligibility. In this concern, Table
1 shows a brake-down analysis of the IOC Evaluation
Commission’s assessment completed in 1997 for hosting the2004 Games. Referred to theme no.4 of the evaluation system,
namely “Environmental Protection”, the planned scrutiny
selected three perceived categories of approach as assumed by.75.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
Searching the optimum dimensions for the Games: gigantism or sustainability?

the eleven candidate-cities: overall, point-specific andpreliminary engagement in the concept and technology ofsustainability 18.
This reappraisal of the IOC Evaluation Commission’s factfinding, also included central rationales followed by thecandidate-cities as perceived in each item of the assessment
related to theme no.4 by means of successive comparisons.
Therefore, Table 1 transfers to a quantitative review theprevious qualitative descriptions of the Evaluation
Commission’s methodology in order to identify status-trends
instead of situational features. In this new meaningfularrangement the detected rationales are merely indications ofmodes of interpreting sustainability in the bidding process,
implying so far in the methodology of benchmarking.
Summarizing, the analysis of Table 1 emphasized as adominating approach the “overall actions and principles” foundin nearly half of the facts chartered by the IOC assessment. To
a lesser extent “point-specific interventions” encompassed
ongoing environmental projects for 2004, if excluded the themeof “cooperation with NGOs” which presupposes a
decentralized focus to be implemented. The “preliminary
studies and initiatives” represented the bottom-line of theassessment what had been stressed by a major quantitative
participation of waste, sewage and energy in this item of Table
1 assemblage. Conclusively, “environmental programme”,“awareness programme” and “cooperation with NGOs” bytheir identified central rationales were likely to be supportive
to “impact assessment” and the other four direct thematic
involvements with sustainability of the Games: transportation,
waste, sewage and energy.
Table 2 is also significant to review the 132 facts collectedfrom the assessment, once the same three approaches totechnical implementation of sustainability are now framed ina benchmarking of each candidate-city, including their.76.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
Searching the optimum dimensions for the Games: gigantism or sustainability?

classification as finalist or not during the 1997 process of
selection. Again the overall actions and principles are confirmed
in addition to define the best candidates’ profile: Athens (thewinner to host the 2004 Games), Cape Town, Rome andStockholm, all of them with less point-specific or preliminary
environmental engagements.
Table 1
Bidding for the Olimpic Games - 2004 (1997)
Environmental fact-finding assessment (n = 132)

Items

Broad actions
and principles

Point-specificinterventions

Preliminary
studies andinitiatives

Centralrationales

ImpactAssessment

12

6

4

MinimalDamageEnvironmental
Programme

16

6

-

Integrated
Management

Awareness
Programme

65-

PublicInformation

Cooperation
with NGO’s

8

10

4

Consultation
Process

Transportation

10

8

4

Technology
Development

Waste

3

2

6

Recycling andRe-useSewage335Water Save,
Clean and Reuse

Energy344Minimization ofConsumption

TOTAL
PERCENTAGE

61
46.2

44
33.3

27
20.04

132
100

.77.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
Searching the optimum dimensions for the Games: gigantism or sustainability?

Table 2
Bidding For The Olympic Games - 2004 (1997)
Environmental Fact-Finding Assessment (N = 132)
Candidate-Cities Approaches
CitiesBroad actions
and principles

Point-specificinterventions

Preliminary
studies andinitiatives

Finalists
yes/noAthens8

3

1Y

Buenos Aires

4

5

3

Y

Cape Town

8

4

-

Y

Istanbul

7

3

2

N

Lille

5

5

2

N

Rio de Janeiro

7

3

2

N

Rome

6

2

4

Y

San Juan

4

4

4

N

Seville

3

7

2

N

Stockholm

7

3

2

Y

St. Petersburg

2

5

5

N

TOTAL
PERCENTAGE

61
46,2

44
33,3

27
20,4

132
100

Buenos Aires, as also a finalist, remained as an exception
for trusting in an already existing “corridor of eco-friendly
facilities” from which the bidding proposal was adapted by
specific interventions 19.
Actually, Tables 1 and 2 reviews delineate the importancegiven by the IOC to social contract as a means of developing
sustainability. This desirable mutual understanding between
parties directly of indirectly involved in environmental
achievements of candidate-city is even part of the assessmentwith 22 facts particularly chartered by the Evaluation
Commission. As such, the urban reform planning elaborated.78.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
Searching the optimum dimensions for the Games: gigantism or sustainability?

in 2001 for the City of Florianopolis, located in southern Brazil,
turn out to be an example of developing an “Olympic city”
for using the social contract methodology 20.
Therefore, at least for the bidding to host the 2004 Olympic
Games, the IOC adopted an idealistic role typical of the Agenda 21 recommendations, blended with a somewhat pragmatic
sharing approach. This role does not correspond to the
traditions of the Olympic Movement, as far as the IOC isadvocating and promoting a new ethics for the Olympic Gamesand sport in general.
The underlying issue of this proactive positioning of IOC isthat ecological contract associated to eco-efficiency is playing amajor role in the bidding process. In effect, the Evaluation
Commission for the 2004 Games declared explicitly its main
criterion as “the best conditions for the best athletes of the worldin environmentally friendly venues” 21. Such ethically-based
innovation and shift of values took only five years to beconsolidate in terms of Olympic bid, accounting the reference
year of 1992 for the adoption of sustained development proposal
as well as Agenda 21 recommendations. Thus far, for the sake of
this Chapter’s interrogations, the IOC has been giving due regard
to environmental concerns at prospective Olympic sites.

Toward a sustained Olympism
This successful result may be compared either in analyticalor explanatory terms with the long-standing discussion onamateurism, which persisted in Olympic family for almost one
century. Or even on women participation and on the gigantismof the Games, both subsisting since the 1910s. In a more directly
assumption, the unusual response from IOC to theenvironmentalism quest proved the capacity-building of the
Olympic Movement when exposed to external pressures, but.79.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
Searching the optimum dimensions for the Games: gigantism or sustainability?

it did not disprove the possibility of existing internal resistance tochange or to update traditions and values. Rather, thisretraditionalization drive would explain the successive delay incontrolling the gigantism of the quadrennial Olympic celebration.
Whatever we consider the present IOC context, theconsequences of the short term and preliminary adherence tosustainability may be identified in two explanatory positions.
The first, manageable by the Olympic family, is referred toredefinition of sport and Olympism similarly to all other walksof life in the upcoming sustainable world. The second, lesstractable, links the Olympic Movement to the global meaningand progress of environmental protection. So far, at presentdays both positions have been recurring from conceptions tonormative statements and intervention directions and standards.
Let’s then ascertain the influence of these trends on the muchneeded control of the gigantism of the Games.
Unlike well-established traditions of progress anddevelopment, environmentalism has been seeking for balanced
proportions in all life’s expectations. This should be particularly
true to modern sport and the Olympic Games; both emerged
from the idea of progress so influential in last century’s socialchanges 22. But, despite the recent ecology-oriented advances,
the Olympic family is far from the environmental responsibility
either as a “key tenant” of the Olympic Movement or as a “fundamental principle” of the Olympic Charter, in conformity withthe 1994 Centennial Olympic Congress recommendations.
When environmental trials are acknowledged by Olympic
institutions traditional paradoxes of Olympism reappear.
Because ever upward is the Olympic creed - that is citius, altius,
fortius - the ecological awareness of recent Olympic Games
experiences have enlighten the excess of sport as much asrevisited its necessary limits.
With less exaltation, the paradox of “bigger is better, smaller
is perfect” related to contemporary sport may be reshaped in.80.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
Searching the optimum dimensions for the Games: gigantism or sustainability?

an ecological argument. Actually, the increasing participationin sport availed by intensive use of technology, either in leisure
or in top sport practices, is not being followed by ecologically
responsible limits. Conversely, mass participation and evensome top-level athletes are becoming driving forces ofenvironmentally correct sport in reason of closer contact withnature. Though in these cases a balance between healthy
practices and unhealthy impacts seems to be difficult toestablish, sport for all - another Coubertin’s legacy - should beallowed to continue to increase up to a point that will lead toa level of impact 23.
The key to resolving the paradox, then, is answering thequestion “how much participation increase and technology are
too much?”. Here lie the fundamentals to build a concept of“sustainable sport”. Again, this dependable redefinition should
disregard the antagonist role eventually played by sports
embedded in natural sites. Given such a resource-oriented viewfor establishing limits on sport’s unacceptable impacts it isobvious that this framework must be augmented by theconsideration of human values. Despite the reservations about
Olympism concept itself, concerns on the sustainability
required by sport can be made with regard to that set of ideals
and moral values.
The judgment of a desired Olympism rooted inenvironmental principles can be appropriately made in the
Olympic Charter context in which “Olympism is a philosophyof life, exalting and combining in a balanced whole the qualities
of body, will and mind” 24. Should the “balanced whole” bescrutinized by and ecological mind-set, the interpretation would
naturally refer to sustainability. Similarly, the goals of
Olympism as proposed by the Charter, fit quite well in the
Olympic family’s adaptations to environmental guidelines here
previously described. Thus, if “Olympism seeks to create away of life based on the joy in effort, the educational value of.81.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
Searching the optimum dimensions for the Games: gigantism or sustainability?

good example and respect for universal fundamental ethicalprinciples”, then the IOC with its sustainable compromise, in
addition to Olympic Games sites’ new ecological approaches,
are in line with both Olympism and environmentalism.
Therefore, for the modification of Olympic Charter as
mentioned before, a suitable suggestion is to introduce theexpression “balanced and sustainable whole” in the present
definition of Olympism.
Nevertheless, these recommendations are ineffective interms of seeking a binding definition of Olympism or given
more clarification to its philosophy 25. Notwithstanding, similar limitations are detected in environmentalism, which is stillsearching deeper knowledge content and actual philosophicalfoundations. In this sense, the advances identified in the issueof ecology is explained by the social contract approach assumed
by individuals, groups and institutions dealing in urgency withwidely spread environmental threats 26.
Conclusively, the agreements of partnership have typified
most of the environmental relationships, including the alreadyreported examples of Lillehammer and Sydney. As far as thiscontractual solution may link social actors and institutional
bodies in local, national and international levels, the IOC isentitled to raise its global responsibilities in terms ofenvironmental protection.

Sustained Olympism v. gigantism of the Games
Hypothetically, the gigantism of Games remained
untouched even during the 2000 IOC reform as referred to thefollowing main reasons: (1) the Olympic Games are still keeping
the strong support from by the public opinion despite theconcern that “they lost their original ideals” after the 1999
scandal; (2) the environmental claims have met a balanced.82.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
Searching the optimum dimensions for the Games: gigantism or sustainability?

position with technological contributions for greening theGames, consequently reshaping the IOC traditional
pragmatism and avoidance of radical changes.
With respect to public opinion, an international survey
sponsored by the IOC after the 1999 crisis had revealed that
66% of respondents from eleven countries agreed with thestatement “Nothing brings the world together like theOlympics”. Conversely, 43% of the respondents had agreed
with the lost of ideals, while 35% disagreed and 22% did notknow the answer 27, therefore confirming the widely accepted
image of the Games. Concerning the empowerment of the IOCled decision-making after the conflicting relationships withenvironmentalists in the 1990s, a short review of the Olympic
family status trends in terms of eco-friendly sport policies may
illuminate the problem of the Games’ uncontrolled growth.
Now the source of information is the World Conferenceon Sport and the Environment held in Rio de Janeiro (October1999) and promoted by the IOC. In this event the major focus
of interest was forwarded as the commitments searched by the
Agenda 21 descriptive procedures and by the prescriptive
statements favouring environmental sound sport practices.
Table 3 depicts the preferred themes of presentations of that
1999 Conference within which the values-led themes occupied
the 4th, 5th and 6th positions, while the 1st, 2nd and 3rd positions
were related to instrumental interventions in the environment.

.83.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
Searching the optimum dimensions for the Games: gigantism or sustainability?

Table 33 World Conference On Sport andthe Environment - 1999
Preferred Themes Of Presentations (N = 37)
rd

ORDER

NUMBERPERCENTAGEX TOTAL

PAPERSFirst

Institutional reports / future
perspectives

SecondForthManagement, Procedures andStandards
Agenda 21 implementation andgovernance
Ethics, behavior and governance

5

13.5

Fifth
Sixth

Events and promotion
Education and culture

5
2

13.5
5.4

Third

10 ( * )

27.0

9

24.3

6

16.2

(*) Mostly IOC, National Olympic Committees, International Federations
and UNDP

The low engagement with sustainable values reflects
thereby the gradual development of a technological mainstream
on the issue of sport and environment since 1992. In retrospect,that year marks the signature of the Earth Pledge by the IOC,
the National Olympic Committees - NOC and theInternational Federations- FI. And key issues on sport andenvironment in international grounds began henceforth toaddress the institutional commitments, the development of
norms and standards in addition to educational improvements
and legacy enhancement. The 1999 Conference finally joined
representatives of 93 NOC and of 19 International Federations,an unprecedented participation taking into account theinternational sport level of relationships with the environment.
However, on account of hypothesis no. 2 presented above,the success of the IOC environmental agenda in terms of
Olympic family adherence might be understood also as a.84.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
Searching the optimum dimensions for the Games: gigantism or sustainability?

balanced position obtained with external pressures fromenvironmentalist movement. A rethinking of this stalemate
position then may be made by comparing the IOC involvementwith worldwide management trends in the scope ofsustainability. After all, the environmental stewardship thathas been exhibited by the IOC and its affiliates since 1992 hascorrespondences with the overall international challenges andachievements.
For this purpose, the source of information is a survey
developed in 1999 joining experts, environmental institutes andthe United Nations Agencies. The United Nations
Environment Programme - UNDP, the main influential
partner of IOC for environmental visions and actions, aiming
to tackle existing problems and to point out serious new threats,
implemented this investigation. Following there is a summaryof the “Global Environmental Outlook- 2000”, the reportpublished by the UNDP, putting forward the major issues
identified in the study with percentage of respondents
mentioning issue: 28(1st) Freshwater scarcity and pollution - 57 %(2nd) Climate change - 51 %(3rd) Deforestation and desertification - 28 %(4th) Poor governance - 27 %(5th) Loss of biodiversity - 23 %(6th) Population growth and movement - 22 %(7th) Changing social values - 21 %(8th) Waste disposal - 20 %(9th) Air pollution - 20 %(10th) Soil deterioration - 18 %.
Summing up, “poor governance” was detected as the 4th
choice among 36 critical environmental issues, most of themwith less than 18 % citations from a total of 200 environmental.85.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
Searching the optimum dimensions for the Games: gigantism or sustainability?

experts from 50 countries. This selected issue related to both
Agenda 21 requirements and environmental ethics claims may
be certainly included among those problems that exist now
but which are not receiving enough policy attention. Therefore,
the previous suggested change of international main sport
institutions in their central approaches to the environment
protection and legacy may be matched with the “poorgovernance” problem detected in the more encompassing
perspectives of environmental matters.
Notwithstanding, most of the threats listed in hierarchicalorder by the UNDP outlook for the 21 st century have been
acknowledged since the eloquent warnings for “saving the
Earth” of the 1970s. The novelty here is the lack of adequate
governance, often dependent of operational appropriatenessand ethical basis. Another feature revealed by the governancefactor put now in such high importance among other historicalproblems, is the weakness of the Agenda 21 when dealing withpowerful partners in the transition to environmental sounduse of resources. The recent overthrow of the Kyoto Protocol
for the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions is strongly
confirming the key importance of poor governance in addition
to the lack of eco-friendly policies 29.
Should “poor governance” be equally related to thelongstanding delayed decision in order to limit the growth or
reduce the size of the Games, finally we would conclude that
the IOC must develop a new leadership and values-led profile
in its commitments with sustainability. This proactive initiative
would also imply in giving the right measure to sustainable
technology’s contributions, reinforcing so far the idea ofsustainable Olympism. After all, as we have learned from Ecophilosophy, in environmental narratives every achievement is
to be viewed intrinsically and instrumentally.

.86.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
Searching the optimum dimensions for the Games: gigantism or sustainability?

Notes
1. Barney, R. K., Wen, SR & Marten, S.G., Selling the Five Rings The International Olympic Committee and the Rise of Olympic
Commercialism. The University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City,
2002.
2. Ibidem, p. 288.
3. For the investment return rate of Sydney Games, see Faulks, D.,
Impacto Social, Economico e Ambiental dos Jogos Olimpicos. In
Seminario sobre Candidatura para Jogos Olimpicos no Brasil,
Olympic Games Knowledge Services-OGKS / NOC of Brazil,
Rio de Janeiro, 2002, p. 15.
4. The IOC-led stable growth of finance and marketing functions in
the Olympic Games since 1980s is analyzed in depth by Barney etal., Op.Cit. , pp. 275 - 288. For the gigantism of the Winter Games,
see Jean-Loup Chappelet, From Lake Placid to Salt Lake City:
the incredible growth of the Olympic Winter Games since 1980,
IDHEAP, Lausanne, 2002 (unpublished paper).
5. Preuss, H., Economics of the Olympic Games - Hosting the Games
1972-2000. Walla Walla Press, Sydney, 2000, p. 257.
6. Da Costa L. P. (ed), Environment and Sport - an International
Overview, University of Porto-Portugal, 1997, pp. 57-76.
7. See Bruner, J., The Culture of Education, Harvard University
Press, 1996, pp. 13-43.
8. Rolston, H., Philosophy Gone Wild – Environmental Ethics,
Prometeus Book, New York, pp. 128-133.
9. Ibidem, p. 133.
10. Da Costa, L. P., The Central Problems of Olympism in the Faceof the Constraints of Commercialization, I.O.A., Report of 32nd
Session, July 1992, Ancient Olympia, pp. 77-84.
.87.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
Searching the optimum dimensions for the Games: gigantism or sustainability?

11. Ibidem, p.78.
12. Da Costa, L. P., The Olympic Movement Today and the Envithronment Protection, IOA, 37 Session Report, July 1997, Ancient Olympia.
13. Da Costa L. P., “Environment and Sport”, p. 66.
14. See Pound, R.W., The IOC. and The Environment. Olympic
Message, no. 35, March 1993, p. 14.
15. United Nations, The Rio Declaration on Environment and Development. Rio de Janeiro, 1992.
16. Pound, R.W., Op. Cit., pp.14-21.
17. See SOCOG, Environment Report, Sydney, July 1999, p.25.
18. International Olympic Committee, Report of the I.O.C. Evaluation Commission for the Games of the XXVIII Olympiad in
2004, Thomas Bach (Chairman), Lausanne, 20 th January 1997.
The Theme no. 4 of the “Report” from the Evaluation Commission, as published in 1997, has 165 facts described in a matrix with
15 items of assessment related to 11 candidate-cities. Besides 132
facts analyzed in Tables 1 and 2, there are 22 referred to endorsement by government agencies and to guarantees from competentauthorities. Also eleven “other projects” fact-finding descriptions
were not included in the present re-evaluation. The theme no. 4
matrix is located in pages 106-113 of the “Report”.
19. See in Sabbattini, R., “Candidate-Cities Round Table - Buenos
Aires”, Olympic Studies Forum, Rio de Janeiro, 7 th August 1997.
20. See Kieling, A. , Anatocles, M., Antunes, E. & DaCosta, L. P.,
Florianopolis: in Search of a New Model for Urban Planning Basedthin Large-Scale Sport Events and Leisure Sport Activities. 6 Annual Congress of the European College of Sport Science, Cologne,
24-28 July 2001, Book of Abstracts, J. Mester (ed), p. 920.
21. International Olympic Committee - Op. Cit., p. 8.
.88.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
Searching the optimum dimensions for the Games: gigantism or sustainability?

22. For further acnowledgements on the idea of progress and therestoration of the Olympic Games, see Carvalhedo, A., Travel
and Tourism as Cultural Legacies of Ancient and Modern Olympic Games. University Gama Filho – Rio de Janeiro, Olympic
Studies Research Group, 2002 ( Paper presented at IOA Post
Graduation Seminar, Ancient Olympia, 2002).
23. For a review on Sport for All expansion and limits in international perpectives see DaCosta, L.P. & Miragaya, A., Worldwide
Experiences and Trends of Sport for All. Meyer & Meyer Sport,
Oxford, 2002, pp. 751 - 785.
24. IOC, Olympic Charter, no. 2 of Fundamental Principles. In
force as from 5th September 1994.
25. For the lack of consensus on Olympic principles and definitions,see Lucas, J.A., Future of the Olympic Games. Human Kinetics,
Champaign - USA 1992, pp. 14-15.
26. For the discussion on social contract in environment issues, see
DaCosta, L.P., The Green Dream: the Olympic Movement andthe Environment. National Olympic Academy of Singapore Seminar, Singapore, 1997.
27. See IOC - Edgar, Dunn & Company, Olympic Brand Imagery,
Lausanne, 1999. This survey was made with 5500 interviews ineleven countries from Sept. 11 to Oct. 5, 1999.
28. UNEP - SCOPE , Emerging Environmental Issues for the 21 st
Century: Study for GEO-2000. Global Environmental Outlook
2000, Earthscan Publications, London, 1999, pp.339 - 345.
29. For the key importance of poor governance on environment
matters see DaCosta, L. P., International Trends of Sport andEnvironment - a 2001 Overview. Keynote Presentation at the ECSS
Congress, Cologne 24 - 28, July 2001.

.89.

CHAPTER 6

Olympic globalization:
sport geopolitics or IOC
power politics?
Speaking in the opening session of the “Sport... The Third
Millenium” International Symposium (IOC and Quebec City)in 1990, John MacAloon advised that, in the future, Olympic
leaders and scholars would have to give a higher priority toboth diplomacy and mutual respect when international sport
relationships were involved. This distinguished anthropologist
in his statement argued that1
Undoubtedly sport, both international anddomestic, must remain vigilant against political“.91.
OLYMPIC STUDIES
L. P. DaCosta, 2002 - Editora Gama Filho - Rio de Janeiro

. OLYMPIC STUDIES.
Olympic globalization: sport geopolitics or IOC power politics?

interventions and interferences which do notserve the goals of Olympism. But neither thiscause nor public appreciation for the positive
world impact of sport today will any longer beserved by maintaining a discourse of necessary
and categorical antagonisms and separations
between sport and politics”.

Although MacAloon’s focus referred to present-days, it isimportant to point out that Pierre de Coubertin, back in 1911,
had already proposed a “géographie sportive qui peut differer
parfois d’avec la géographie politique”2. In more precise terms,
Coubertin’s sport geography was contextualized in the “allgames, all nations” doctrine, in which sports practiced bydifferent cultures prevail over national boundaries3.
Coubertin’s perspective, therefore, approached a more
recent interpretation of geography related to sport, in whichsport sociologists and historians consider both space andlocation as focal points of their studies4. MacAloon, on theother hand, drew on a geopolitics based on cultural relativism
when he set up future perspectives for both sport andOlympism. In his analysis, the “world culture” expression
becomes relevant once the “deepest commitment of Olympism
to intercultural understanding and mutual respect to proceed
in the 21st century”5 is enhanced.
Assuming that MacAloon’s Olympic geopolitics is similar
to Coubertin’s sport geography in respect to the agglutinativerole of politics, we might otherwise presuppose that there has
been a duality in terms of the IOC political maneuvers while
treating different cultures and geographical spaces in worldwide
perspectives. In other words, this conjecture stands as an IOC
sport geopolitics that would have been mostly developed as a
global expansion of the Committee’s influential power rather
than a diplomatic means to improve the relationships among.92.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES.
Olympic globalization: sport geopolitics or IOC power politics?

sport organizations from different cultures additionally to local sport developments.
This chapter aims at providing a historical revision on
IOC’s interventions in practice regarding its global politicalinterests. As an empirical support to this analysis, we intend
to, at first, focus briefly on South America as a case study,
starting from Pierre de Coubertin’s interpretations and resulting
interventions on the sport politics of that continent during
the first half of the 20th century.

Coubertin - historian and geographer
The initial idea of Olympism as conceived by Coubertin
had some undeniable influences from the history of sport, as
the restorer of the Modern Olympic Games himself
emphasized in his 1915 writings 6 . When Coubertin, thehistorian, adopted a geographer’s point of view, cultural
singularities from a certain region or country were exploredthrough sport.
From Coubertin’s extensive published work, therefore,
Boulongne et al. (1998) listed forty articles on history and world
perspectives, related to countries such as Ethiopia, Bulgaria,
Australia, South Africa, Finland, Russia, etc. 7. Also in thisgroup, regions such as Europe, Oceania, Africa, Mediterranean,
Arab world, German empire, Hispanic world and SouthAmerica were included, the latter deserving from Coubertin a
27-page-brochure called “A travers l’Histoire Sud-Américaine”(Plon-Nourrit, Paris, 1916)8.
In this context, we might as well forward the assumptionthat Coubertin was strategically and culturally interested inSouth America, which may be seen by the insertions found in
his writings when considering IOC’s continental relationships.
To begin with, this is what Coubertin states in his opening.93.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES.
Olympic globalization: sport geopolitics or IOC power politics?

speech at the International Olympic Committee Annual
Session, held in Rome on April 6th, 19239:“On the other hand, one of us had been granted
the honor to preside the first celebration of theLatin American Games, in Rio de Janeiro,
September 1922. The Olympic Embassy spent
six months working on it, going from La Plata
to Mexico, from the Andes to Cuba, and thishas brought to us the best of superb perspectives
through which such a universality of the Gamesis confirmed – and this is what I consider as oneof the most promising guarantees in terms of
the future.”

Coubertin’s auspicious comments are based on the theneffective IOC policy that would make the Olympic
movement become universal through Regional Games. But
he also continued to pay individually attention to affiliate
countries as formalized by Coubertin himself in an article hewrote for the ‘Revue Olympique’ (IOC official magazine) in
January 1913. In this article he evaluates the Olympic
movement after the Olympic Games held in Stockholm in1912 10. In another article, ‘Le Projet de Olympie Moderne etl’Avenir de Lausanne’, a brochure from 1918, Coubertin
includes the South American continent as part of his
expansion plans, naming it as ‘Les Etats de Amerique du Sud’11.
The same designation may be found in ‘L’Amateurisme au
Congrés de Prague’, a 1925 writing which makes a cultural
distinction between the ‘Latin’ sport and the one practiced
by those countries which have had an English influence12.
Aside from the controversy between ‘Latin America’ and‘South America’, the Baron was often somehow connected withthat continent either by celebrating people or judging values,
as it may be seen in the following notes: in 1894 he refers to.94.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES.
Olympic globalization: sport geopolitics or IOC power politics?

‘Dr. Zubiaur’ as being the representative of ‘South America’
among the 79 delegates from 13 countries responsible for the
IOC creation13 ; in 1901 he pays a homage to Santos Dumont,
who had Brazilian nationality, for the first Olympic Certificate
granted to Olympic sport personalities14; in 1904, writing abouta shooting competition held in Lyon, France, he makes anapologia for one of the participant countries: ‘Très sportivel’Argentine’ 15 ; in 1909, as far as how the Olympism is
promoted, he mentions Mexico and Argentina, praising their‘intelligent ecletism’ 16 ; in 1912 he emphasizes the good
perspectives presented when Chile joined the Olympic
movement, stating that ‘Du Chile on ne peut dire encore qu’unechose, c’est que la question l’agite’ 17 .
Those expressive comments, very typical of Coubertin’s‘sprit de finesse’, achieved their highest level during the 1914
Congress in Paris, when the five entwined rings in five different
colors were presented as the Symbol of the Movement. On
this occasion, after he had presented the Olympic rings,
Coubertin talked over some geographical distribution which
revealed his universal purposes18: “The blue and yellow from
Sweden, the blue and white from Greece, the three-colored
French, British, American, German, Belgian, Italian,
Hungarian, the yellow and red from Spain, close to theinnovations from Brazil and Australia and close to the old Japanand the young China. This is indeed an international badge”.

The geopolitics of regional GamesIn retrospective, the Latin American Games, held in
September 1922, were actually a South American sport event
included in the International Exhibition of Rio de Janeiro ofthat year. As such, those Games may have their impact assessed
through two sources of information from local archives: the.95.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES.
Olympic globalization: sport geopolitics or IOC power politics?

programs of the 1922 Exhibition events filed in Rio’s Historicaland Geographic Institute19 and the report from the Physical
Education National Commission of Uruguay, published in the‘Uruguay Sport’, its official magazine, in October 192220. In
both documents, the period which was given most emphasis
goes from September 6 through September 16, 1922.
By cross comparisons, it was acknowledged that Argentina, Brazil, Chile and Uruguay attended the event as
representatives of the Latin American continent to compete
for different types of sports such as athletics, boxing, tennis,
fencing, swimming, springboard diving, water polo, equestrian,shooting and rowing. There was also a soccer competition
associated with the Exhibition, not the Games, which included
Paraguay among the other countries mentioned above.
The Fluminense Stadium, the largest sport facility found in
Rio de Janeiro, was rebuilt in order to host the main competitions
included in the Games’ program. Besides this location, otherprivileged places, such as Botafogo Bay and Derby Club, heldrowing and equestrian competitions, respectively. Other
competititons were also held in the Brazilian Army premises,
and there was a cross country competition all the way on Corcovado Hill - the city’s most visited place - which anyone
interested in could join. In all, in today’s review this availability
suggests that the Games were not marginal on account of the
Exhibition’s structure, as often ascribed to Paris (1900) and SaintLouis (1904) similar jointly events.
The attendees of the Games were invited by the then Brazilian
Sports Confederation, including athletes and sport clubs according
to the ‘Uruguay Sport’ 21. Through diplomatic channels, however,the Brazilian Government invited the Latin American
governments, thus legitimating national representations.
Therefore, the lack of international eligibility criteria for callingupon athletes in Latin America was compensated by a direct andexplicit Governmental intervention.
.96.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES.
Olympic globalization: sport geopolitics or IOC power politics?

Out of the fifty events included in the Exhibition Program,ten were sports events, a figure only equal to that of receptions
and balls, which shows the outstanding importance of theGames and other sport activities during the 1922 IndependenceCentennial Festivities of the host country. The Exhibition
Executive Commission also appointed an ‘Athletic Games
Commission’, as opposed to the other activities which weregrouped by segments and whose hierarchy followed decisions
from the management executive group.

Geopolitics versus power politics
In the following year, another issue of the ‘Uruguay Sport’published the verbatim report written by the Count of BailletLatour, who had come to Rio de Janeiro as the IOC official
representative for the Games22. The Count, who would become
the IOC President in 1925, begins his narrative by stating how
honored he was for having substituted for the then president in
his visit to Latin America, thus disclosing that it was Coubertin
himself who would have come. Baillet-Latour, then, summarizes
his impressions about the mission he was in charge of 23:“The Games in Rio, as a whole, were not perfect;
however, the criticism made to them wasextremely exaggerated... The Games in Rio werealso responsible for giving birth to a true wish
to maintain the Latin American Games,
considered to be the best way to prepare for the
Olympic Games”.

Before what the report classifies as “the Steering
Committees’s lack of organization”, it praises ‘Dr. Trampowski’,the Brazilian organizer of the Games who passed away during.97.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES.
Olympic globalization: sport geopolitics or IOC power politics?

the event, as well as “Messrs. Jess Hopkins and F. Brow, Y.M.C.A
Physical Education directors in Montevideo and Rio,
respectively” 24. Even so, “despite the competency of the Centennial
Festivities”, Baillet-Latour presents a brief plan to “introduce
the Olympic idea in Latin American peoples because although withvery few exceptions, their ignorance was absolute... before trying
to fix the deficiencies which were not taken into account by theGames”. He thus suggests “the creation of a National Olympic
Committee... and a Steering Committee for the Latin-American
Games” as a complement for both national and international
affiliations of each type of sport25.
The IOC representative also announced the call of a Congressin Buenos Aires, which would still be held in 1923, to reinforce adeal with respect to the Latin-American Games consolidation,
including “Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Paraguay, Peru andUruguay”, and bringing forward Peru’s surely and Bolivia’s possible
inclusions. The Games would take place every four years“sponsored by the IOC” and directed by the “Sports Confederationof the country where the Games will be held”. Among other guidelines(the plan was unfolded into Articles), there would be a “technicalcounselor appointed by the IOC... and elected by the YMCA Physical
Education Directors”. This confirms the narrator’s excellent
impression of the latter international organization both during
the Games in Rio and the physical education developed inMontevideo (directed by the YMCA in South America), this one“being superior to those of almost all countries in the world” 26.
It should be noted that Baillet-Latour’s main concern was
related to the affiliation of each sport to their confederations
and federations, and simultaneously, to the IOC, thus presenting
a double-management problem which resulted in a conflict in
the 1921 Congress in Lausanne, and which still occurs thesedays27. Therefore, the “under the IOC sponsorship” expression
had a more reactive than hegemonic meaning in the years of1921, 1922 and 1923.
.98.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES.
Olympic globalization: sport geopolitics or IOC power politics?

Moreover, Baillet-Latour recommends that the Regional
Games be maintained in order to give “the young people thesportive education they lack and prepare them to intervene in the
Olympic Games in the short run”, as well as get the necessary
support from local governments and local press, “the latter being
more interested in sports than the European one”. According to
the report, such an orientation would request a double
representation of the IOC in the South-American countries: alocal one and another in Europe so as to prevent “the IOC
influence from escaping completely as a result from the absence of
its representatives”. In the report, such a solution is consideredappropriate to Brazil, Mexico and Argentina, countries inwhich the IOC local representatives would already deserve
more support and attention, just like “a child who has been raised,
has grown up, and now claims for a tutor” 28 .
Ultimately, Baillet-Latour’s report reinforces the historicalimportance of the 1922 Exhibition Games, mainly because they
became a milestone which has strengthened the past and built
up the future. Besides, as the 1922 Games turned out to be a
successful experience by having the IOC directly involved, andpresenting the opportunity for contacts among countries they
led to the formal creation of National Olympic Committees(NOC) in the Latin American continent. The NOCs replaced
those representatives considered unstable and who were notalways recognized by the local governments.
This being settled, Argentina, Uruguay and Mexico
created their NOCs in 1923; Peru, in 1924; Bolivia, Chile,
Brazil, Venezuela and Colombia, between 1932 and 1936
successively; and Ecuador and Paraguay, after the II WorldWar 29. As a result, there was an increase in the number ofSouth American nations in the Olympic Games held in the
1920s and 1930s. Their former problem had been solved: therepresentations were made official by their governments andlegitimated by the international organizations responsible for.99.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES.
Olympic globalization: sport geopolitics or IOC power politics?

sports, as it could be seen in the formation of national
representations for the 1922 Games.

Allies and rebels with a cause
Such a successful intervention of the IOC in South America
meant, at the end, a simple expansion of new National Olympic
Committees in that continent. Looking more closely, theexpansion occurred as having the side effect of reducing locally
far reaching sport developments as the YMCA internal
documents suggested. Historically speaking, Coubertin had
officially set up an agreement with the YMCA in 1920 in orderto promote the values of the Olympism in worldwide terms aswell as the organization of Regional Games. Before that, in
1913, the YMCA had organized the Asian Regional Games in
Manila, Philippines, and later, in 1922, the Games became
official in South America (Rio de Janeiro, Brazil)30. However,when the creation of the NOCs was given priority, the SouthAmerican national sport relationships with the IOC became
direct, with no intermediaries.
Nevertheless, Da Costa & Miragaya (2002) found primarysources in the YMCA headquarters in Montevideo, showingthat this organization not only still disseminated the Olympic
Ideal by the end of 1920s, but also insisted on the creation ofan educational base which would reach its peak with the Games.
At this point, it is worthwhile quoting an excerpt from the“YMCA Physical Education Program in South America” aspublished in 192731:“According to the IOC, the ‘Games for All’ still
exist, and therefore, the Association is somehow
morally responsible for promoting futureGames in this continent. However, these Games.100.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES.
Olympic globalization: sport geopolitics or IOC power politics?

should not be imposed in South America too
early; they must appear as a logical consequenceof a physical participation in all kinds ofcompetition.”

And right below that statement, a justification comes
between quotes32:“The ancient Greek Olympic idea was based on
the fact that every man should always bephysically able. The Olympic Games occurredin order to direct people’s attention to themagnificence of the human body and the needfor it to be taken care of and exercised, as
opposed to demonstrations of professionalism
and improper glorification of the winners.”

Before IOC’s hesitation regarding their objective to give
the Olympic Movement worldwide dimensions and quit
promoting the Olympism in favor of its expansion, we
should consider it as a trade-off, that is to say, theMovement would have to grow in its earliest phase in orderto survive; however, it should, simultaneously, givepriority to making the Olympism universal for coherence
purposes. Under such circumstances, historical records ofthat time suggest that the IOC’s option was pragmatic. In
other words, they opted for both growth and control of
the affiliations even though jeopardizing the disseminationof the Olympic Ideal.
Again, the above hypothesis may be verified in the SouthAmerican scenario where the matter of the affiliations had beena conflicting status since the creation of the IOC in 1894. SouthAmerica had turned itself into a laboratory not only for IOC’s
conflicts, when an institutional order was imposed, but also
for the difficulties in promoting the Olympic Ideal.
.101.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES.
Olympic globalization: sport geopolitics or IOC power politics?

As a matter of fact, the South American geopolitical
approach in the sportive area was launched with Coubertin
when he included Jose B. Zubiaur in the original 1894 governing
council of the IOC. In accordance with a recent revision written
by Argentinian sport historian Cesar Torres, Zubiaur was
selected because of arrangements which would give support tothe different regions of the world as well as meet the
expectations that the educator “would advocate the Olympic
Ideal in South America”33.
However, due to further events, Coubertin and the othermembers of the IOC became disappointed during the two
decades following the creation of the International Olympic
Movement. To begin, Zubiaur was always absent from theIOC’s meetings, and never took the initiative in disseminating
the Olympism either in his country or in South America34.
On the other hand, Argentina and Chile showed great
initiative in organizing the “South American Olympic Games”
in 1910 and 1920 without the IOC appointment. With respect
to the 1910 Games, Coubertin himself strongly opposed themand the IOC reacted favorably to the dismissal of theArgentinian member, who happened to be Zubiaur’s substitute.
The 1920 Games made Coubertin insist on forbidding the useof the “Olympic Games” expression and rethink the practicewhere the South American Regional Games were associatedwith the YMCA, as previously reported here35.
In summary, the pendular movement between idealism andpragmatism appears to be a natural and typical characteristicof an organization such as the IOC, which had always worked
through globalizing developments and geographical areas for
its actions. Apparently, however, the IOC’s faults come up in
the long run when radical decisions are originally made,favoring practice or maintenance of power.
In this context, the lessons recovered from the IOC’s actions
in South America at the beginning of the last century are.102.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES.
Olympic globalization: sport geopolitics or IOC power politics?

symptomatic and still meaningful nowadays. Therefore, we
agree with Mueller & Tuttas (2000) when they state that the
YMCA “was the driving force for the success of the Olympic
Movement”. Together with these two researchers, we also
understand that “the role of the YMCA was much moresignificant than scholars had thought”36.
In final remark, during the political actions which took
place in South America in the 1920s, the IOC lacked aperception of a “sport geography”, as figured by Coubertin
in his early intellectual conceptions. And considering the
aforementioned MacAloon’s advice, such a perception stilllacks today – when the world is becoming a single place withmultiple cultures.

Notes
1. MacAloon, J. J., The turn of two centuries: sport and the politics
of intercultural relations. In Landry, F., Landry. M. & Yerlès(eds) , Sport...The third millenium. Les Presses de l’ Université
Laval, Sainte-Foy, Québec, 1991, p.36.
2. Coubertin, P., Géographie Sportive, Revue Olympique, avril 1911,
pp. 51 - 52. In Mueller, N. (ed), Pierre de Coubertin. Textes
Choisis, Tome II - Olympisme. Weidmann, Zurich, 1986, p. 452.
3. Coubertin in this text emphasized that even the IOC had no authority to surpass the fundamental rule of “all games, all nations”.
4. Perhaps the best known text in this respect is the John Bale’s
volume “Sport , Space and the City”, Blackburn Press, London,
1993.
5. MacAloon, J.J., Op.Cit., p. 38.
6. See Boulongne, Y., et al., Mieux Connaître... Pierre de Coubertin.
Comité Français Pierre de Coubertin, Paris, 1998, p. 12.
.103.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES.
Olympic globalization: sport geopolitics or IOC power politics?

7. Ibidem, p. 4.
8. Besides Boulongne’s list, a reference on this brochure is found in
Textes Choisis - Tome III, Op. Cit., p. 808.
9. Textes Choisis - Tome II, Op.Cit., p.400.
10. Ibidem, p. 663.
11. Ibidem, p. 740.
12. Ibidem, p. 589.
13. Ibidem, p. 327.
14. Ibidem, p. 210.
15. Ibidem, p. 658.
16. Ibidem, p. 209.
17. Ibidem, p. 664.
18. Ibidem, p. 460.
19. Instituto Histórico e Geográfico Brasileiro, “Programa deComemoração e Regulamento Geral da Exposição de 1922”,
Arquivo - Centenário da Independência 1922, Rio de Janeiro.
20. Uruguay Sport, Juegos Atleticos Latino - Americanos a Efectuarse
en Rio de Janeiro en Setiembre de 1922, Montevideo, octobre
1922 (identification of author and pages not available in thissource).
21. Ibidem, first page of the magazine, under the title “Antecedentes
de la Intervención del Uruguay en Ellos”.
22. Uruguay Sport, Informe Presentado por el Conde de BailletLatour sobre la Missión que se Cometiera el C.I.O. en América,
Montevideo, agosto 1923, pp. 1-7.
23. Ibidem, pp. 1 - 2.

.104.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES.
Olympic globalization: sport geopolitics or IOC power politics?

24. Ibidem, p. 1.
25. Ibidem, p. 2.
26. Ibidem, pp. 3 - 4.
27. See Mueller, N., One hundred years of Olympic Congresses,
1894 - 1994. IOC, Lausanne, 1994, pp. 103 - 109 (for the 1921
Congress); pp.191 - 192 (present-days situation).
28. Uruguay Sport, Op. Cit., pp. 5 - 6.
29. See “Repertoire du Movement Olympique”, CIO, Lausanne,1995,
pp. 111 - 176.
30. On the YMCA impact on Olympic Movement expansion see
Mueller, N. & Tuttas, R., The role of the YMCA: especially thatof Elwood S. Brown, Secretary of physical education of the YMCA.
In the worldwide expansion of the Olympic Movement duringthPierre de Coubertin’s presidency. Paper presented at the 5 International Symposium for Olympic Research, Sydney, 2000, Proceedings pp. 127 - 134.
31. Hopkins, J.T., Quince anos de educación física en las asociaciones deAmerica del Sur. Editorial Mundo Nuevo - Asociacion Cristiana deJovenes, Montevideo, 1927, pp. 41 - 42.
32. Ibidem, p. 42.
33. Torres, C. T., Tribulations and achievements: the early historyof Olympism in Argentina. In Mangan, J. A. & DaCosta, L.P.
(eds), Sport in Latin American Society - Past and Present. Frank
Cass, London, 2002, p. 60.
34. Ibidem, p. 64.
35. Ibidem, p. 70.
36. Ibidem, p. 127.

.105.

CHAPTER 7

On Olympic
commercialization:marketing for businessor social responsible
marketing?
Much of the critical and theoretical interpretation inmarketing applied to the Olympic Games over the past three
decades gives us reason to wonder whether business and public
interest may be joined in a continuum of fundamental choices
for the Olympic Movement survival. Indeed, the very
relationship in which the increasingly unwieldy size of the.107.
OLYMPIC STUDIES
L. P. DaCosta, 2002 - Editora Gama Filho - Rio de Janeiro

. OLYMPIC STUDIES.

On Olympic commercialization:marketing for business or social responsible marketing?

Games, and the expanded Olympic image of global
understanding are taken to stand may also be a reflex of theshift of values that confronts researchers today when the subjectof commercialism in sport is focused upon.
It is in these grounds that IOC leaders’ recent statements
on marketing positioning became sensitive to Olympic Studies
researchers. For example, says Michael Payne, IOC Marketing
Director in a pragmatic and conclusive tone that “with thesheer size and complexity of today’s Olympic Games, it hasreached the point where if there were no sponsors, there would
be no Games” 1. From Richard Pound, IOC Executive Board
member and candidate to succeed Antonio Samaranch as the
President of IOC in the aftermath of 1999-2000 crisis, a more
perceptive interpretation came out: “Take away sponsorshipand commercialism from sport today and what is left? A large,
sophisticated, finely tuned engine developed over a period of
100 years - with no fuel” 2.
In spite of the matter-of-fact sense of these explanatory
addresses, there has been a historical contention on the value ofcommercialism involving the Olympic Games. Pierre de
Coubertin, himself, had often alerted in the dangers of side-effects
from commercialization of sport as he did assertively in 1927:“We have not worked, my friends and I, to giveyou back the Olympic Games that you could
turn them into a museum piece or
cinematographic play, nor to have them
exploited by commercial or electoral interests.
By reviving a 25-century-old institution we
wanted to make you the initiates of the religionof sport as our great ancestors had conceived it.
In our modern world, so full of potential, butwhich is also threatened by dangerous
degeneration, Olympism could become a school.108.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES.
On Olympic commercialization:marketing for business or social responsible marketing?

of moral purity and nobility, as well as ofphysical activity and endurance” 3.

From Greece, another similar alert was prompted by
Nikos Filaretos, President of the International Olympic
Academy (IOA), later in 1992, when he identified “the crisis
resulting from the commercialization of sport”:“The reasons for the change in the values of
Olympism are often a result of conscious efforts
to exploit the Olympic Games for nationalistic
and economic purposes. There is no concrete
definition of the methodological and objective
value of Olympism (...) The Olympic idea has
been used for commercial ends. The effects ofthis cannot yet be predicted, since the economy
has exceeded its natural limits and has now
become product-centered and overconsuming inall sectors, with a direct impact on the Olympic
Games as well” 4.

Again, in 1999, John MacAloon, member of the IOC 2000
Reform Commission 5 , addressing to an international
symposium on the theme of volunteers and the Olympic
Movement, recovered the tension earlier expressed by
Coubertin facing the rise of commercialism in Olympic sports:“I must report that I did not hear Olympic
volunteers mentioned during the deliberationsof the Reform Commission. To me, this fact isfirst of all ironic, second of all pragmaticallyworrisome, and thirdly indicative of everythingthat will remain to be done, after the December
IOC Extraordinary Session, to re-balance thesport industry and humanistic dimensions of the.109.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES.

On Olympic commercialization:marketing for business or social responsible marketing?

contemporary Olympic phenomenon. As the late
Don German Rieckehoff pointed out in astatement I have chosen for my epigraph(‘Everyday more and more people are interested
in making Olympic sport, and fewer and fewer
in making the Olympic Movement’), the scales
everyday tip more toward the sport professionals
and against the partisans of Olympism” 5.

As one might expect, there have not been answers to thelong-time questions posed by the steady increase in Olympic
commercialism. Contrariwise, Barney et al. in the book “Selling
the Five Rings” launched in 2002, favor the thesis that despite
concerns about the prevalence of commercialism, the Olympic
Games remain widely attractive to national audiences
everywhere 6. Moreover, marketing specialists directly involved
with IOC, IFs and OCOGs have apparently been taking totask their critics in order to give them solutions not onlyaccusations. Michael Payne, for instance, addressing to theparticipants of the IOA 37th Session, in 1997, came to the heartof the matter when asking: “Is IOC Marketing compatible with
Olympic principles? As I said earlier, it is up you to judge” 7.
In this Chapter there will be an attempt of judging thiscompatibility framed in the opposition between marketing forbusiness and social responsible marketing. This analytic choice isconcerned to avoiding radical positions when dealing withcommercialization in Olympic issues. If in one hand, overcommercialization is a real threat to the Games, in the other handcontrolled marketing seems to be able to keeping the intrinsic
identity of sports , as recently proposed by Holger Preuss 8.
This line of reasoning might seem to take us well beyondof the Olympic commercialism, anchoring the debate in thechanging role of sport in the present-days culture everywhere.
Actually, along with the variety of status of modern sports.110.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES.
On Olympic commercialization:marketing for business or social responsible marketing?

practice, organization and leadership, one dominant aspect isthe rejection of business intervention but with new forms ofcommerce increasingly being accepted, namely marketing,media coverage, promotion, etc. This apparent contradiction
was epitomized by John Kelly in 1989 already with thestatement that “sport, also amateur sport, is big business” 9.
The result of this is a changing pattern often identified
among sport institutions worldwide. Overall, the reasons forthe shift are not fully acknowledged, however, these supposed
ambiguous changes have resulted in the growth of a sport
environment which is complex and full of novelty.
The contradiction, whether apparent or real, is central toan understanding of relations between sport and commerce.
Accordingly, commercialism is the point of convergence ofinterpretative interactions involving constraints in ancient orcontemporary elite sports, as observed in competition
deviations, spectacle overexposures or political unfair disputes
10. Regardless of their specificity, in traditional sport deviations,such as violence, cheating or narcissism, a similar core ofinterpretation is historically evident when material gains subdue
spiritual values in games and competitions.
Perhaps the centrality of material and trade values incoercive situations is inherent to normative and ethicalpropositions in sport. This is in fact a major argument of Kurt
Weis when he advocates that the increase in sport deviations is
a direct consequence of the growing importance of sport intoday’s society 11. More persuasive was Christopher Lasch, forwhom the vast audiences of modern sport have destroyed thevalue of athletics 12.
In short, according to this thesis Olympism will always be
facing contradictions arising from its own propositions, as apermanent and inseparable quality 13 . Thus sportcommercialization presupposes a search for a foundation inhistory as much as on value assessment. In other words,.111.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES.

On Olympic commercialization:marketing for business or social responsible marketing?

appropriate questions of this debate can be formulated asfollows: where are the adequate and topical meanings ofcommercialization in sport? Is there an accurate and updated
position of Olympism in relation to commercialization?
Initial answers to these questions are thrown up with arecognition of the ambivalence of competition and games,
originally associated with swings between emancipation andrepression 14 . A recent and outstanding example of thisoscillation is provided by the Olympic Games themselves:
recreated by Coubertin as an emancipation movement, they
have been giving rise to various sorts of constraint since thevery beginning, one hundred years ago.
To summarize this critical interpretation of sport, it might
be claimed that the model of emancipation and repression has
been applied to modernity as a whole 15. On this account, sportshould stand as a historical category which emerged last century
perfectly able to adapt itself to “good” or bad” versions ofmodern life. In turn, the Olympic Games and Olympism
progressed by means of harsh experiences, finally adopting a
profile kept constantly up to date, represented by a stablenormative discourse and a flexible pragmatism towards its
actions. Not surprisingly, the IOC is often regarded as the mostexperienced global organization of present times, maintaining
tradition and introducing innovations in equal part.
Another relevant consequence of the suggested ambiguityin sport is its attribute of being totalizing and reductionist at
the same time, as pointed out by Michel Delaunay 16. Even inthis case, sport appears to be culturally correct by today’s
standards, given that society and individuality are the basic
perspectives for social relations 17. In all, classical sporting
characteristics correspond to the idiosyncrasies ofcontemporary society, confirming an observation of Ommo
Gupe that “sport not only became part of cultural life, but
furthermore a sportization of culture as a whole took place” 18.
.112.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES.
On Olympic commercialization:marketing for business or social responsible marketing?

Actually the mutual identification of culture and sport has
its roots in ancient Greece, where the emphasis was on athleticcompetition as an expression of aretê (excellence and virtue).
The quest for excellence represented the essential meaning of
Kalokagathia, the quality of good and beauty or the
combination of ethics, politics and aesthetics. From thisintegration of attitudes to and perceptions of life, only the
pursuit of excellence remains today in Western civilization,although it is seen as a part rather than the whole of the aim.
Besides, this fragmentation of the world of life is peculiar topost-modern culture, a condition loosely defined but now
prevailing in social relations.
If it is accepted that post-modern culture and sport became
an integrated unity, as Grupe is suggesting, then it might beadmitted also that this wholeness pertains to singular andautonomous parts. On this view, instrumental rationality isapproached, as commonly happens in much recent
philosophical debate. For those who argue the post-modern
condition, instrumentality explains the full integration of all
walks of life, sport being a significant example 19. Here lies thedifference between the classical Greek conception of totality
and the global culture of today: on the one hand, the whole
fixes the boundaries of parts harmoniously; on the other hand,the parts fix the boundaries of the whole by synergism.
Summarizing, the technological and instrumental culture
is necessarily global and dependent on individuals and groups
to guarantee the effectiveness of the whole and efficiency ofthe parts. As a corollary, the pursuit of excellence became an
individual or group concern, either for personal development
or to improve quality on an institutional level. The attributeof being total and reductionist should therefore be implicatedin all social relations, and not only in sport.
These arguments help to clarify the sense of relatedness
between self and others, reported by Glen Watkins when.113.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES.

On Olympic commercialization:marketing for business or social responsible marketing?

describing on-going sport recreation activities, or thesimultaneous loose-tight properties ascertained by Peters andWaterman among successful industrial and commercial
enterprises. And, more importantly, in both cases excellence
has been considered as part of an effort towards development
20. Ultimately, post-modernity disregards ambiguity andambivalence, and is therefore in agreement with its discourse
which seems to be indefinite in nature, character and form.
For contemporary French philosophers, like Jean-François
Lyotard, this unexpected cultural turn of today represents a realmanifestation of individuality as cause and effect of instrumental
reason. To this suggestion, Felix Guattari adds a more factualinterpretation emphasizing singularity as the common quest of
individuals and groups, especially youngsters. Being singular,
Gattari says, is a reaction to a loss of identity in a fragmented
society. Whereas singularity is now reappearing as a constructive
awareness, in opposition to the traditional Greek ideal ofcompleteness, it is worth noting Michel Maffesoli’s propositionof reconsidering ambiguity as a source of imaginative solutions 21.
Each one of these claims is exactly parallel to the farreaching collective proposal of “identity in diversity”, adopted
by the Council of Europe to protect local culture and equallystrengthen the unity of European countries in the coming years
22. But, apart from the controversial debate involving postmodernity, there is a growing concern among European
intellectuals that understanding the present culture is the mostreliable way to anticipate the future 23 . Furthermore, thisprospective role has not yet been played by the IOC and, ofcourse, not originally set by Olympism principles 24.
These simply stated cultural approaches to sport may
illuminate the puzzle of commercialization in understanding
how its pieces fit together. To digress, as far as a value
assessment is concerned, business in sport is mainly
disapproved of because it stimulates corruption. Nevertheless,.114.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES.
On Olympic commercialization:marketing for business or social responsible marketing?

commercialization pertaining to a cultural framework, thatis, occurring in a synergistic whole, encourages the buildingof partnerships and the pursuit of excellence. After all, as
learned from the tradition of arts patronage,
commercialization is not “bad” or “good” in itself; thisdepends on how it is managed and what its purposes are 25.
To clarify these fundamental distinctions, the following
diagrams depict two different roles of the IOC and Olympism
in the face of commercialization: firstly, at present, in which
Olympism is an implicit counterbalance to marketing; secondly,
at a projected future stage considering the major cultural trendsof globalization and singularity. Despite the simplification ofreality in both models, solutions to the constraints ofcommercialization are provided taking into account that:a) Marketing may be a linkage between Olympism and the
new cultural trends, so that the IOC does not have toturn its back on the deservedly influential ideas of thepast or keep the ethics of Olympism as the sole factor
making it legitimate. Currently, marketing andOlympism are separate undertakings in the Olympic
Movement’s internal relations, perhaps reflecting ahesitation to deal with presupposed contradictions.
b) By means of the IOC’s present procedures, Olympism
helps to provide the necessary foundations for principles,
norms and controls to prevent or restrain sport
deviations. But outside the IOC, Olympism is generally
seen as an educational movement, promoting ideals andtraditions. In turn, internal IOC marketing is strictly
commercial where the media is concerned; for external
effects, marketing is much more concentrated on
Olympic imagery, building a reputation to guarantee
business advantages and financial support.
c) At this stage, given that Olympism and marketing are
not integrated, commercialization is naturally related to.115.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES.

On Olympic commercialization:marketing for business or social responsible marketing?

constraints and much less to a constructive participationin the Olympic initiatives as a whole.
d) If globalization and singularity become the mainreferences for future IOC procedures, then the
educational role of Olympism might be reinforced bypromoting a combination of excellence and image toreach the common target of individuals and groups:
conversely, networking is the necessary solution todeveloping Olympism in a global relationship, as themedia is the key to meeting this fundamental aim.
e) If globalization and singularity prevail in sport relations
and in the social environment to governing IOC
initiatives, then there will be an integration of major
references and targets to both Olympism and marketingwith positive gains for the pledge of “identity indiversity”.
f) Moving towards a culturally adapted model of focusing
and fusing traditions and innovations, the IOC will begiving the highest priority to education and thepromotion of Olympic principles. This shift will also
indicate that less importance should be granted tonormative and control roles which have already proved
to be less effective.

.116.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES.
On Olympic commercialization:marketing for business or social responsible marketing?

In conclusion, Olympism needs socially responsible
marketing, as marketing needs an explicit and effective
commitment to educational aims in order to improve excellencein sport. In terms of taking a position, commercialization will
be appropriate if the choices are able to live up to requirements
for excellence. As far as Olympism is concerned, the proper
position is to continuously redefine excellence and ethicalpatterns in the context of a changing cultural environment.
Far from being less realistic, these solutions should represent
an evolution of IOC pragmatism towards recent advances in
sport theory. This knowledge might prompt us to recall Nobert.117.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES.

On Olympic commercialization:marketing for business or social responsible marketing?

Elias’ famous argument 26 that commercialization constraints
and other deviation effects are not likely to disappear in sport:
their emergence reflects an existing civilizing process, as inancient Greece.

Notes
1. Quoted in Barney, R.K., Wenn, S.R. & Martyn, S.G., Selling The
Five Rings - The International Olympic Committee and the Riseof Olympic Commercialism. The University of Utah Press, Salt
Lake City, 2002, p. 278.
2. Ibidem, p. 278.
3. Quoted in Filaretos, N., The Olympic Games: Idealism and Realthity. IOA 37 Session Report, Ancient Olympia, 1997, p. 44.
4. Filaretos, N., The Educational Requirements of Olympism in its
Present Philosophical Dimension and Commercialization in Sport.
nd
IOA 32 Session Report, Ancient Olympia, 1992, p. 46.
5. MacAloon, J., Volunteers, Global Society and the Olympic Movement. Paper presented at the International Symposium Volunteers, Global Society and the Olympic Movement, Proceedings,
Lausanne, 1999, p. 17.
6. Barney, R.K., Wenn, S.R. & Martyn, S.G., Op. Cit., p. 281.
7. Payne, M., The Sponsoring and Marketing of the Atlanta Olympic
thGames. IOA 37 Session Report, Ancient Olympia, 1997, p. 63.
8. Preuss, H., Economics of the Olympic Games. Walla Walla Press,
Sydney, 2000, pp. 148 - 149.
9. Kelly’s assertion is emphasized in Kamphorst & Robert’s, Trendsin Sports – A Multinational Perspective. Giordano Bruno Publishers, Voorthuizen, 1989, p.396.

.118.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES.
On Olympic commercialization:marketing for business or social responsible marketing?

10. Inter alia, John Stewart in “Amateurism and Professionalism in Athletics”, 1984 Olympic Scientific Congress, Eugene, gives support tothis position, declaring: “For the ancients as well as the moderns, thenemesis of sport is professionalism and commercialism”.
11. Weis, K.G. & Luschen, G. Die Soziologie des Sports. H.
Luchterhaid Verlag, Darmstadt, 1976, pp. 252-267 in Spanish version (Minon, Valladolid, 1979).
12. Lasch, C., The Degradation of Sport. In “Philosophic Inquiry inSport”, Morgan & Meier (eds.), Human Kinetics Publishers,
Champaign, 1988, pp. 403-404.
13. Bernard Jeu in many texts favors this thesis for sport in general.
For example, in La Contre-Société Sportive et ses Contradictions,
Esprit no. 428, Octobre 1973, Paris, pp. 391-416, he argues: “Lesport se présente à la fois comme un divertissement qui réunit etune violence qui sépare. Le sport se situe conceptuellement entre
le jeu et la guerre”.
14. See, for example, the essay of Dunning, E., El Dilema de losPlanteamientos Teoricos en la Sociologia del Deporte. In Luschen& Weis (eds.), Op. Cit., pp. 24-35 (original text in German).
15. Particularly significant on this subject is the “Introduction” ofBernstein, R.J. (ed.) in Habermas and Modernity. The MIT Press,
Cambridge, 1985, pp. 1-32.
16. Delaunay, M., Voyage au Centre de la Sociologie du Sport. Loisirs
et Santé, no. 10, Juin 1984, pp. 10-13.
17. See, among others, Bonny, Y., L’individualisme aujourd’hui?
Critique de Dumont, Gauchet et Lipovetsky. Société, no. 3, été1988, Québec, pp. 125-157.
18. Grupe, O., Identity, Legitimacy, Sense and Non-Sense of Modern
Sport as a Cultural Phenomenon. Paper presented at the International Symposium Sport… the Third Millennium, May 1990, Québec.

.119.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES.

On Olympic commercialization:marketing for business or social responsible marketing?

19. For further discussion on post-modernity see Rail, G., The Diffusion of Polarities as a Megatrend in Post-modern Sport. International
Symposium Sport… The Third Millenium, May 1990, Québec.
20. Watkins, G., Parks and Recreation – A Changing Community
Service. World Leisure & Recreation, June 1986, pp. 20-36; Peters, T. & Waterman, R., “In Search of Excellence”. Harpers andRow, New York, 1984, p. 15. Additionally the key role of excellence in societies today is discussed by Ehrenberg, A., Le Culte dela Performance. Calmann-Levy, Paris, 1991, pp. 99-168.
21. Lyotard. J.F., La Condition Postmoderne. Editions de Minuit,
Paris, 1979, passim; Guattari, F., As Tres Ecologias. Papirus,
Campinas, 1990 (original French version of 1989), p. 15; Maffesoli,M., O Conhecimento comum. Brasiliense, Sao Paulo, 1988 (French
version of 1985), pp. 129-154. For discussion of individuality in the
future of sport, see Bento, J.O., Novas Motivações, Modelos e
Concepções para a Prática Desportiva, Universidade do Porto, 1991.
22. A more detailed analysis of identity in diversity is to be found inMorin, E., Cultural Identity in a Global Culture. Forum, no. 2,
1989, Strasbourg, pp. 33-36.
23. See Brison, D., Strasbourg: Premier Festival Européen desÉcrivains. Forum, no. 3, 1987, Strasbourg.
24. The difficulties of the IOC in interpreting the cultural environment are presented by MacAloon, J.J., The Turn of Two Centuries: Sport and the Politics of Intercultural Relations. International
Symposium Sport… The Third Millennium, May 1990, Québec.
25. In Rail, G., Op. Cit., there is an explicit remark about this phenomenon of values equalization: “Drawing on recent events observed in the world of sport, it is argued that, within the latter,
there is an impulse toward the defusing of polarities”.
26. Elias, N., Sport et Violence. Actes de la Recherche en Sciences
Sociales, no. 6, Décembre 1976, Paris, pp. 2-21.
.120.

CHAPTER 8

Dialogue: mega-events
technology versus
Olympic anthropology
In 1987, it was held in Seoul, Korea, “truly the firstinternational conference devoted exclusively to the possibilities
and limitations of intercultural exchange in the present world
system, as exemplified and inscribed in the Olympics”,
according to John MacAloon’s address in the opening sessionof that event formally dedicated to “Olympics and East / Westand South / North Cultural Exchange in the World System” 1.
From that pioneer academic gathering’s contributions, abook was produced having as editors Kang Shin-pyo ( Korea ),John MacAloon ( USA ) and Roberto DaMatta ( Brazil ) under.121.
OLYMPIC STUDIES
L. P. DaCosta, 2002 - Editora Gama Filho - Rio de Janeiro

. OLYMPIC STUDIES.
Dialogue: mega-events technology versus Olympic anthropology

the title “The Olympics and Cultural Exchange” ( Hanyang
University ) 2. The volume was launched during the 1988 Seoul
Olympic Games and it might be considered today a cornerstoneof the Olympic Studies.
In fact, anthropological points of view henceforth became aleading approach among Olympic scholars. So far, in theInternational Symposium “Sport... The Third Millenium” , heldin Quebec, in 1990, MacAloon again set the tone of cultural
relativism and respect to differences jointly with Bernard Jeu(France) who brought explanations from cultural understandingof the Olympics, and with Miquel de Moragas ( Spain ) who
contributed with international comparative studies on the
television coverage of the Olympic Games Opening ceremony.
In the latter contribution there was an international group of
researchers behind, including Kang Shin-pyo from Korea 3.
The Quebec’s Symposium proceedings also became afamous book among adherents of the Olympic Studies
worldwide. And finally in 1999, a new volume enriched thenarrative and self-reflection of the anthropologicalunderstanding of the modern Olympic celebration from thelast 15 years: the Arne Klausen’s book on the Olympic Games
as a “public event” 4.
Given the purpose of acknowledging further advances in
the anthropological focus of the Games, this Chapter aims toreview Klausen’s interpretations as far as they refer to similar
categories approached by Kang’s et al. elaboration, despite ofbeing centrally concerned to Norwegian culture. Furthermore,throughout the present book we have attempted to take amulticultural perspective of the diverse issues and approaches
pertaining to Olympic Studies. And in this context, themethodological path adopted was the systematic interrogationof oppositions as related to Olympic controversies. Here“public event” review will have a primary comparison withmega-events theory which goes beyond anthropological.122.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES.
Dialogue: mega-events technology versus Olympic anthropology

assumptions. Let’s then overview Klausen’s collective book in
the form of dialog with its texts.
To begin, to do justice to Klausen’s work, it must be remarked
that in this provocative collection of contributions we see thefuture of Olympic Studies, or at least one future. Olympic
anthropology is what Klausen’s book is all about. The manner inwhich he negotiates this new field of study will appear reckless tomany in the other sport sciences professions. But the book layssome of the groundwork or at least breaks the ground for a timely
specialization within the old discipline of anthropology as related
to the uncontrolled diversification of sport knowledge in general,and in Olympic Studies in particular.
Klausen’s thematic approach 5 allows him to highlight the
key developments which John MacAloon has been making in
the anthropology of the Olympic Games since the 1980s 6.
Actually, the adjective “Olympic” was added to “anthropology”
by MacAloon 7, after he set out critiques on the predominantfocuses of anthropology to which “had rarely applied its
considerable talent to the direct ethnographic study of the elites, especially cosmopolitan elites necessarily associated withlarge, international, mass-mediated, prestigious and expensive
public works and projects like the Olympic Games” 8. In short,
MacAloon’s claim for breaking down anthropology in a
specialization defined as a bottom-up social science waswelcome by Klausen, who edited his book with a MacAloon’s
overview and texts from four more social anthropologists withexperience in Olympic Games stages.
All these authors participated in fieldwork observations in
the 1994 Winter Olympic Games of Lillehammer - Norway,
and two of them also researched in situ the 1992 WinterOlympic Games of Albertville - France. In Klausen’s short
but very efficient introduction, the aims of the empiricalinvestigation carried on in Lillehammer were described as those
focusing “on culture in the two main senses of the word: firstly,.123.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES.
Dialogue: mega-events technology versus Olympic anthropology

culture as an art and other aesthetic expressions, and, secondly,
culture as a group identity and way of life” 9.
Summarising, the Lillehammer - Albertville research project
during its five years of duration (1991 - 1995) formally exploredthe 1994 Games’ impact on the Norwegian society and culturedrawn from anthropological views and interpretations. These
theoretical and methodological choices were then explicitly
supported by MacAloon’s analysis found in his 1984 book “Rite,
Drama, Festival, Spectacle”. Nevertheless, Klausen’s book edited
four years after the final report of that research has alreadyembodied Don Handelman’s theories from his 1990 book “Models
and Mirrors: Towards an Anthropology of Public Events” 10.
In other words, the comparison of these latter books’
themes suggests that the authors evolved from categories ofanalysis to a multisemic conceptual framework. Not
surprisingly, Klausen’s book reinforced the idea of a more
specialized view for anthropology facing the Olympic Games,
when the editorial work searched for a synthesis after reviewing
its central thematic issue.
The editor and all other authors have referred to Handelman’sconception of public event as consisting of a combination ofpresentation (mirror existing order), representation (indirect
presentation of existing order) and modelling (affect order forchange). These three functional modes, as depicted by Klausen 11,
more or less explicitly gave meanings to the Lillehammer’s Gamesand to reactions from Norwegian society and culture, as illustrated
by each of the authors.
In all, the new field of knowledge presupposed by both
MacAloon and Handelman is loosely encompassing the socalled mega-events, one of the most meaningful representationsof today’s global society. Therefore, while the anthropology
tailored to Olympic or public event carries a rich load of rituals
and drama, the mega-events are preferably related to sports
and international exhibitions. Although both types of events.124.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES.
Dialogue: mega-events technology versus Olympic anthropology

are cultural and social manifestations , mega-event are mostly
recognized as a “media event” production with political,
economic and technological impacts, on account of Maurice
Roche’s recent overview 12.
As a result, all authors transitioned from the typical conflictresolution accounts of the Olympic event’s gigantism to moresignificant heights by focusing primarily on the Games’
dramatization. The third Chapter, so far, brings an
exemplification from Klausen to this twofold arrangement
when he discusses the socio-cultural and political tensions
before and during Lillehammer’s Games 13.
In a nutshell, the realpolitik practiced by the International
Olympic Committee - IOC had confronted with theNorwegian ethos, which is historically reluctant to join themodern political developments in Europe. But paradoxically
the Winter Games at Lillehammer in a post hoc assessment hasrevitalized the national identity, besides being a showcase ofmodern technology and marketing. With this conclusion,
Klausen could not avoid a patriotic hyperbole: “And as always,
Norwegians did it their way!” 14.
Chapter four deals with hyperbole, too, but as a means ofarticulation in terms of Olympic ideology, on account of Odd
Are Berkaak interpretations. His analysis also demonstrated
that the symbolic repertoire detected in Olympic narratives
fits in the marketing logic. And for the first time in Norwegian
cultural history, there was an adaptation of local discourses tothe ideology of the market. In sum, Lilehammer Games
mirrored in the narrative style of Olympic texts despite internal
conflicts in Norway during the decision-making process on
the options to be taken by the event’s preparation 15.
Conversely, Chapter five deals with external conflicts asilluminated again by a text elaborated by Klausen. In thisempirical approach, a confrontation between Norway and
Greece was analyzed by focusing on the ritual of the Olympic.125.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES.
Dialogue: mega-events technology versus Olympic anthropology

flame. Summing up, this conflicting context involved the IOC
normative status, financial commitments from sponsors andlast, but not least, the public images of two countries. As amega-event, the 1994 Winter Games experienced the natural
overlapping of distinct interests, traditions and innovations.
After a dispute for the control of the Olympic torch relay
starting in Ancient Olympia - Greece and arriving at
Lillehammer for the Games’ opening ceremony, anotheragreement between parties was made. And again an adaptation
emerged in order to preserve the national culture and to meetglobalization requirements 16.
In Chapter six, Roel Puijk describes the planning process
and the accomplishment of the opening ceremony in theperspective of both a media event and a spectacle for theaudience present in the Lillehammer arena. This author using
Handelman’s functional modes demonstrated that the imageof Norway, as interpreted abroad, was in the presentationalmode, whereas in the national context the ceremony wasinterpreted either as a representation or a modelling factor 17.
In his conclusions, Piijk suggestively remarks : “These kindsof differences - where the meaning of an event depends on an
ability to see the differences and on identification - are probablyquite common in our age of global media. This implies that
global-media products can function simultaneously as rich andreflexive and as simple stereotypes” 18.
In the three last Chapters, the adaptation of local andidiosyncratic features to global requirements and trends continues by different categorical approaches. In Chapter seven,
Berkaak analyses the transformation of Lillehammer landscapeand farms in an alpine venue, as a more acceptable setting for
an Olympic global event. In Chapter eight, Ingrid Rudie, using
gender discourses analysis, describes how the Games promote
global homogenization and simultaneously develop sport local traditions. Finally, in Chapter nine, Eduardo Archetti.126.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES.
Dialogue: mega-events technology versus Olympic anthropology

pursues equally the gender perspective from which hedemonstrates that athletes deploy their maleness in contexts
conditioned by values conveyed by Olympic narratives, media preferred focus and adoring spectators 19.
Interestingly, the search of global meanings in contrast to
local idiosyncrasies or scenarios to host dramas and rituals are
the common grounds in which Klausen and associates apply
their Olympic anthropology. These research directions areopposed to mega-events theorization at least in trusting Maurice
Roche to whom sociological and anthropological concerns areframed in “hubs” , “networks” and “switches” as promoted byinformation technology 20. Moreover, similarly to marketing
distinct tools for Olympic Games accomplishments - businessversus social responsibility - Klausen’s and Roche’s approaches
are not mutually exclusive. In order to clarify this compatibility
between “public event” and “mega-event” in theoretical terms,
following there is a concluding remark from the latter specialistin popular culture:“The ‘event-as-hub’ - as both a temporary spatial
hub and a more broadly temporal-historic hub can be argued to act as a ‘switching centre’ in a
number of ways. First, various event producergroups and their associated political, economic
and cultural networks meet to consume the event
together ( and thus constitute shared cultural
memories and cultural capital together) and/or
use the event for more instrumental sorts ofmeetings and interactions to further their individual, group or network interests (...) In the ‘eventas-hub’ on the one hand, masses of people aretemporarily co-opted and mobilized into being
active members of international cultural
movements. On the other hand, during the event,the elite organizers of such movements see them.127.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES.
Dialogue: mega-events technology versus Olympic anthropology

temporarily take on some of the substance andscale of more explicitly political and enduring
international social movements” 21.

In conclusion, Roche advises that “ hub imagery is also usefulto understanding mega-events because it helps to clarify theirtemporal and spacial character” 22. From this conception, it isappropriate to see mega-events as macro organizations supported
by technological frameworks into which micro relationships
between human beings take place. “To understand mega-events
better “ he argues, “ is thus to understand something more
broadly about the nature and fate of human agency” 23.
Reflecting upon these comments from the point of viewof equilibrium between contrasting directions so often
identified in Olympic Movement history, it is worthwhile toconsolidate the Olympic anthropology. But it is also relevant
to cope with advanced technology mainstream. In this tradeoff, like many others reviewed in this book, the right measureis the respect of human nature. And to find out what humannature is we could follow the first Olympic anthropologists
who in 1987, in Korea, try “to encounter our others” 24.

Notes
1. See MacAloon, J., Encountering our Others: Social Sciences and Olympic Sport. In Kang, S., MacAloon, J. & DaMatta, R. (eds), The Olympics and Cultural Exchange, Hanyang University, Seoul, 1987, p. 28.
2. Ibidem, Introduction, Kang, S., MacAloon, J. & DaMatta, R., p. 3.
3. See Landry, F., Landry, M. & Yerlès, M., Sport ... The Third
Millenium. Les Presses de L’ Université Laval, Saint-Foy, Quebec, 1991, pp. 21 - 99. Opening addresses: Sport, Culture andSociety.

.128.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES.
Dialogue: mega-events technology versus Olympic anthropology

4. Klausen, A. M. (ed), Olympic Games as Performance and Public
Event. Berghahn Books, New York, 1999.
5. Ibidem, pp. 1 - 8; Chapter 1: “Introduction” by A. Klausen.
6. Ibidem, pp. 9 - 26; Chapter 2: “Anthropology at the Olympic
Games: an Overview” by J. MacAloon.
7. Ibidem, p. 14.
8. Ibidem, p. 12.
9. Klausen, A. , „Introduction“, p. 2.
10. Ibidem, p. 5.
11. Ibidem, p. 5.
12. See Roche, M., Mega-Events Modernity - Olympics and Expos in
the Growth of Global Culture. Routledge, London, 2000, pp. 1 - 29.
13. Klausen, A., „Norwegian Culture and Olympism: Confrontations and Adaptations „ , pp. 27 - 48.
14. Ibidem, p. 46.
15. Berkaak, O. D., „In the Heart of the Volcano: the Olympic Games
as a Mega Drama“, pp. 49 - 74.
16. Klausen, A., „The Torch Relay: Reinvention of Tradition andConflict with the Greeks“, pp. 75 - 95.
17. Puijk, R., „Producing Norwegian Culture for Domestic andForeigh Gazes: the Lillehammer Olympic Opening Ceremony“,
pp. 97 - 136.
18. Ibidem, p. 132.
19. See Klausen, A. M. (ed), Olympic Games as Performance andPublic Event, pp. 137 - 219.
20. Roche, M., Op. Cit. , p. 233.
21. Ibidem, p. 234.
.129.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES.
Dialogue: mega-events technology versus Olympic anthropology

22. Ibidem, p. 234.
23. Ibidem, p.235.
24. This expression is found in the heading of MacAloon’s paper
present in the 1987 Conference in Seoul as reported by note no. 1
above.

.130.

CHAPTER 9

Towards an Olympic
epistemology: sportsciences or theory ofsustainable sport?
In 1990, Fernand Landry in the opening address of theInternational Seminar “Sport ... The third Millenium”, inQuebec, made a point on the complexity of contemporary
sport knowledge which “consequently overlaps into the worldof education, health and well-being, work and leisure,marketing and publicity, communications and business, artsand culture, as well as international relations and politics” 1. In
the same event - often understood today as a milestone of the.131.
OLYMPIC STUDIES
L. P. DaCosta, 2002 - Editora Gama Filho - Rio de Janeiro

. OLYMPIC STUDIES.

Towards an Olympic epistemology:
sport sciences or theory of sustainable sport?

Olympic Studies - Yves-Pierre Boulongne emphasized thismultifaceted knowledge when making an overview of Pierrede Coubertin’s intellectual involvement. For the founder of
the Olympic Movement, at the end of 19th century, the socalled “neo-Olympism” was then “characterized by a pursuitof wisdom through a global conception of the world” 2.
For this Chapter concerns, the overlapping of distinct disciplines of knowledge that has typified Olympism for the past
100 years poses a epistemological problem, reflected byimportant difficulties in extracting unequivocal definitions in
Olympic Studies area. However, yet in the 1990s there was anopportunity to find a new epistemic understanding ofOlympism due to the adaptation of the Olympic Movement
principles and procedures to environmental claims. Certainly,
scientific knowledge - sport sciences included - had and still
has a challenge in searching adequate compatibility withenvironmental requirements in theory and practice.
In this changing context, this Chapter aims at ascertain theapplicability of an Olympic epistemology in parallel with similar efforts already proposed to encompass sport sciences atlarge 3. For this task it is here presupposed that the Olympic
sport has historical foundations connected with the naturalenvironment that goes beyond other versions of sport in a
broad perspective of analysis. In sum, the option discussed here
is concerned to a part (Olympic sport knowledge) that may be
a reference for its whole ( sport sciences).
To appreciate historic and philosophical accounts on thepossibility of an Olympic epistemology, in the next sections
there will be a recollection of theoretical dimensions of bothsport and environment. Additionally, by extending thisrecovery to the nexus of naturalized epistemology 4 , whichframes the social relationships with environment, it isintended to legitimate a narrative approach to Olympism as
also attempted in previous Chapters. In this way, narrative.132.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES.
Towards an Olympic epistemology:
sport sciences or theory of sustainable sport?

provides a form of understanding alternative to scientificexplanation 5.

Coubertin, Gaia and Olympia
In terms of Olympism and the Olympic Movement, thetradition of sport and nature has its original source in thewritings of Pierre de Coubertin himself. As early as 1907, the“Revue Olympique” published a Coubertin’s article, “A Proposde Rallyes” 6 in which “sportmen” were urged to keep clean
sport practice sites. For the founder of Olympism, probably
for the first time in modern sport history, sport people wereintended to become defenders of nature. Regarding values, thearticle proposed the development of the beau public (public
beauty) in addition to bien public (public patrimony),
combining aesthetic experience with ethical justification.
This typical pedagogic claim of Coubertin had, however,a previous motive. Accouting to Don Anthony’s declarations
during the International Congress“Hosting the Olympic
Games, the Physical Impacts” (Olympia-Greece, June 1994),
the Baron visited the Much Wenlock Olympian Society in
England, by 1890, when he planted a named tree. This
ceremonial planting was at that time a tradition of the Society,since its roots were originally found in the Wenlock
Agricultural Reading Society, on off spring of the Royal Societyof Arts which included tree planting schemes in its nationalparks as early as 1754. As such, Anthony deduced that “themodern Olympic idea was revived in on environmental friendly
atmosphere by people who saw sport as part of an all-roundeducation and cultural experience”.
Thus, in large measure, past developments of sport
environmentalism imply an intrinsic value understood as a senseof belonging recently described by Risto Telama as follows: 7.133.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES.

Towards an Olympic epistemology:
sport sciences or theory of sustainable sport?

“For physical activity, the symbolic value of nature means, forinstance, the possibility to feel that one is part of nature, nature
is part of life. This possibility is also related to the observationof changes in physical activity in nature is appealing because it
is possible to observe changes in nature: growth and decay”.
Such interpretation may be significantly met by anemerging fact: in symbolic terms nature and sport have acommon origin, a singular identity to be shared. This statement
has support in Pausanias’ text, Hellados Periegesis, written insecond century A.D. In this “Description of Greece” the alterof godess Gaia is located on the slope of Kronos hill at Olympia,
north of the Temple of Hera. 8
In Ancient Olympia this sacred area was called Gaion. It
was found directly opposite the equally sacred Olympic Gamespremises. During that period, the setting of Gaion becamefamous in Greece for the beauty of the landscape and speciallyfor the river Alpheios, where waters flowed down into earth.9
The myth of Gaia, therefore, might have originated as arelationship for the Alpheios’ geological break and theestablished religious rituals, since Gaia was acknowledged as“mother earth” as well as a goddess among Olympian gods. It
is worth noting that Gregory Bateson when discussing theanalogy between the system by which social groups arerecognizes as parts of the larger ecological system, proposedthat fantasy becomes morphogenetic, that is, it turn out adeterminant of the shape of the society. 10
For the most part then the sacred area of Olympia should
represent a self-validation example of a cultural identity,
involving nature and religion from former Greek civilization.
And the “actions that the fantasy dictates”, still reviewing
Bateson words, seems to refer to Altis valley where worship,
art and agonistic contests – Olympic Games included - were
integrated in celebrations.

.134.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES.
Towards an Olympic epistemology:
sport sciences or theory of sustainable sport?

In sum, totemism is the best description for the ancient
Olympic Games if anthropological terminology is adopted inorder to define the relationship of the natural world and social
systems. Such interpretation is reinforced by recalling a H.W.
Pleket text: 11“Olympia was a function of an increasingly
urbanized world but was itself not the productof an important city… Elis, that is the region inwhich Olympia was situated, was an agrarian
district and the city of Elis was a relatively late,rather artificial town… Olympia just was andremained all through antiquity the top of thevast iceberg of crown-games”.

It follows that a sound explanation for choosing Olympia
to stand as the locus classicus of Olympic Games, relates to thevitality of local forests and rivers, the natural elements thatgave birth to Gaia symbolism. Nikolas Yalouris, Greek
archeologist and historian, favours this interpretation too,following his decades of excavating the different sites of the
Eleia region. 12 In his description of this region into which
Olympia was located, he states that 13“the territory of Eleia was then, as it is now, themost verdant and the most intensively cultivatedin southern Greece; even in its mountainous
regions (Acroreia), there are fertile valleys andforests. This vegetation survives in part to thisday (oak wood at Kapeli ). The area of fertile
soil was sufficient to supply not only the needsof the inhabitants of Eleia but also those of theneighboring islands, who pastured theirlivestock there.”.135.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES.

Towards an Olympic epistemology:
sport sciences or theory of sustainable sport?

Notice that Yalouris refers additionally to Eleia as“completed by the countless sanctuaries and groves throughout
the land (..) being situated in sacred precincts that are generally
full of flowers because of the abundance of water”. “Eleia”
concedes Yalouris, “was the cradle of some of the most fundamental myths and important cults in Greek religion, with
panhellenic appeal” 14. Unsurprisingly, one of the shrines
identified in Olympia was dedicated to Gaia. And furthermore
Gaia is being today rehabilitated as a central symbol for many
ecological minded scientists and activists as well.15 In turn, theOlympic mythological narrative was restored one hundredyears ago by Coubertin through new representations fromthe original Greek meanings, but Olympia remained mostly
as a symbol of the Olympic Games.

Sport in nature v. sport in culture
Indeed, the relationship between environment and athletic
activities has become an intensely topical theme to sport
practice in recent years. As yet, both the Gaia’s foundational
symbolism for environment and sport and the rehabilitationof Olympia as also the birth place of environmentalism did
not completely occur. As such, based on Jorge Bento’s
interpretations, the pervasiveness of this environmentalist
theme may be primarily regarded as the restoration of an
historical relationship between sport and nature rather than anewly articulated phenomenon of modern sport. 16
The re-infusion of self-expression in physical activities within
natural contexts – brought about at large by environmentalism– might however be one of the distinctive approach tocontemporary sport. A good illustration of this current
interpretation is provided by Fernand Landry when nothingthat “self-realization and self-expression aimed at personal well.136.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES.
Towards an Olympic epistemology:
sport sciences or theory of sustainable sport?

being, health and adaptation to one’s environment” seems to be
the completion of the globalization process of sport, as early
perceived by Coubertin as a fact of cosmopolitanism. 17
Although its foundations have been on individuals, thedistinctiveness of sports interdependence with nature will likely
to be more clearly contextualized in the new global culture. In
other words, sport might be understood comprehensively inpresent days by a twofold statement, that is by means of the
ontological argument of sport as a being-in-it-self in natural
circumstances and by the explanation of cultural identity of sport.
Significantly, Hans Lenk already in 1985 defined sport as a“cultural phenomenon on a natural biological basis” and more
recently Ommo Grupe pointed out boldly: 18 “Sport as a cultural phenomenon reaches far beyond the traditionalboundaries of sport itself, it is the expression of a newunderstanding of culture”.
These interchangeable definitions are otherwise apart fromthe conception of sport as independent of things, in which thetraditional view of universals is applied, similarly to the theory ofplay as elaborated by Johan Huizinga and others. 19 Actually, sport
as an entity of nature presupposes universals as existing within
particulars (universalis in re) while the cultural meaning of sportrefers to universals derived from particulars (universalia post res).
But this universality cannot be regard as a basis for principles
of judgement if the so called naturalistic fallacy is accepted as aphilosophical criterion. Significantly this fallacy reduces fromnatural characteristics a nonnatural property. Nevertheless,distinguished philosophers such as Jürgen Habermas(foundationist) and Richard Rorty (antifoundationist) have been
rejecting the naturalistic fallacy validity. 20 Thus, whether inuniversalist or in relativist points of view, sport in nature expresses values and sport in culture represents facts. As yet bothinterpretations are claiming universalizability although playing
independent roles, not mutually exclusives.
.137.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES.

Towards an Olympic epistemology:
sport sciences or theory of sustainable sport?

The ambivalence towards sports is furthermore similar to
the ambivalence of globalization whish corresponds to diverse
claims of universality. Milton Santos sees this controversy in
the grounds of the universal dominance of man in
postmodernity, contrasting with separate and disperse damages
to life everywhere on Earth. 21 For Michel Serres, this selfdegradation of society induced by technology is mainly referred
to a demand of natural contract instead of social contract
which formerly typified modernity 22 besides the Olympism
proclaimed by Coubertin.

Sustainability and ethics
At this point of reasoning on environment and sport, thecurrent proposition of sustainable development can illuminate
the potential of natural contract. To enhance a sustainable
society is to arrange development and environmental protection
as complementary forces rather than antagonists. That is tosay, increasingly high standards of any sort ought to beconsistent with the needs and constraints of nature. 23
This reconciliation constituted the common challenge ofboth the Stockholm (1972) and Rio de Janeiro (1992) United
Nations Conferences on Environment and Development. As
historical milestones for environmentalism these conferences
focused on promoting the union of single-minded forces ofinternational society as a global agreement. The attempt tohave such natural contract in a planetary scope, among successes
and failures, proved the importance of a harmonious
combination of political actions and environmental ethics. Putanother way, this global agreement took the denomination of“Agenda 21” for its perspectives towards the 21th century. 24
However, the challenge of sustainability gained more
visibility on local levels where politics and ethics become a.138.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES.
Towards an Olympic epistemology:
sport sciences or theory of sustainable sport?

combination of instrumental values with intrinsic values
seeking for environment preservation. This conception in spiteof variety of forms, is commonly shared by leading thinkers
of environmentalism, such as Hargrove, Rolston, Fox,
Lovelock, Turner, etc. 25
Drawing primarily on the propositions of thesephilosophers and scientists, sustained development is
specifically the ethical instrumentalization of nature, respecting
its intrinsic values. Or, more pointedly for sport concerns:
physical activities, games and competitions are sustained when
their instrumentalization respects the intrinsic values of natureand sport. From this point of view there should be a sustained
sport and even more appropriate a sustained Olympism.
Moreover, the best way to lead into a discussion onsustainability in sport is to be aware of Arne Naess’ ontologicalargument. For this Norwegian philosopher, proponent of Deep
Ecology in the 1990s, intrinsic values derive from richness anddiversity of life forms which “contribute to the realization ofthese values and are also values in themselves (11) Arne Naessalso calls attention to the typical attitude of frilufsliv (free airlife) when arguing the roots of Deep Ecology: 26 “Norwegians
walk, run, creep into nature to get rid of whatever represses
them and contaminates the air not only the atmosphere. They
don’t talk about going out, but in and into nature”.
This life-based approach warrants a sport, culture andnature trait to Scandinavian people. “The people, human bodyand nature”, as asserted H. Meinander, in 1998, “constitutethereby a unity in the Nordic mind” 27 . This “physicalpilgrimage back to nature” follows the tradition set by Fridtjof
Nansen, a well-known nineteenth century explorer. His
influence, still alive in Scandinavian countries, is characterized28“by an appraisal of simple ‘antitechnological’ways of life and by and emphasis on the struggle.139.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES.

Towards an Olympic epistemology:
sport sciences or theory of sustainable sport?

with nature as a means to develop individual
courage, daring and determination. These
examples are an indication of the fact thatphysical activity in nature is culture bound”.

The Lillehammer and Sydney’s narratives
The interplay between environment claims and narratives
is actually a peculiarity of Ecology in its associations with otherareas of knowledge, 29 going far beyond Gaia and Olympia
aspirations and needs. In this sense, Felix Guattari had proposeda new “Ecosophy” and Warwick Fox mentions an“Ecophilosophy”, both giving emphasis to the role ofsubjectivity in human relations with environment. 30
On the other hand, symbolic narrative is an essential
characteristic of sport that is often overlooked. So, the Olympic
Movement and Olympism, by their very nature, may havesustained sport as a mode symbolic production. But in thiscourse of actions innovative claims were included already in
Coubertin’s era, being marked by some cities that hosted theGames which became milestones of modern Olympic history.
That was the case of Lillehammer and later of Sydney .
In fact, there was a convergence during the 1994 WinterOlympic Games in which the meaning and identity of culture,
nature and sport had an interface with a contract of sustainability
calling for a redefinition of sport management and facilities. Earlyon, in Norway, a democratic process of negotiations took placeshortly after the initial demonstrations and protests against theGames. In effect, the environmental damage occurred during
the 1992 Winter Olympics of Albertville brought forth strong
reactions from governments and environmentalists. 31
The Lillehammer Olympic Organizing Committee(LOOC) consequently forged a partnership with local.140.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES.
Towards an Olympic epistemology:
sport sciences or theory of sustainable sport?

environmental groups, injecting a new sensibility into the
Olympics. This became the first time in history that the
Olympic Games assumed a positive pseudonym, “the Green
Games”. 32 Further, the phrase “environmental showcase”
was officially coined by the Norwegian Government that alsobrought together local technological private enterprises to join
the reformed project.
The LOOC proceeded to develop a “green profile” bymeans of coordinated project for the management of theenvironment and sport under the auspices of sustainability as
an unified concept for the Games. 33 The improvement wasevident at virtually all athletic venues in Lillehammer. As aresult, the expressions “the greening of sports”, “the third
dimension of the Olympics” and even “eco-correct sports” 34
become synonymous with the Lillehammer experience besides
contributing to a values-led narrative.
The case of 2000 Sydney Games may be also seen as ahistoric one either by the environmental technology involved
or by the typical Olympic narrative accomplished. On accountof the Olympic scholars Cashman & Hughes as an early source
35, “the Green Games has extended public debate on green
issues and sport and, even the bad new stories had made thepublic more aware of this nexus”. On one hand, opinion leadersstressed positive aspects of the Green Games; on the other handactivists “were dissatisfied with the inadequate remediation
procedures and public consultation at Homebush Bay”. Finally,at its 1998 stage “the Green Games is a focus for continuingdebate. It is an ideal worth pursuing from an environmental
perspective. It also represents Sydney’s unique contribution
to the Olympic Movement”.
By 1999, the narrative continued in the same tone as ascertainedby an official statement delivered by Peter Ottensen, Program
Manager Environment in Sydney Organizing Committee for the
Olympic Games (SOCOG) 36: “With 12 months to go, Sydney.141.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES.

Towards an Olympic epistemology:
sport sciences or theory of sustainable sport?

organizers are well advanced against all measures in meeting thegoal of setting a new standard of environmental excellence instaging an Olympic Games or any other large sporting event”. In
the end, even the early critics of the Games’ negative impacts
adopted the hyperbole of “the best Games ever”, as can be admitted
by this public statement issued by the Greenpeace movement
during the 2000 Games 37 : “Since 1992, Greenpeace, the world’s
leading environmental organization, has been campaigning toensure that the Sydney 2000 Olympic Games are a global showcase
for environmental solutions”.
Summarizing, it might be said that the so often criticized
gigantism of the Olympic Games is able to transform a tradeoff into a symbiosis of opposites, as defined by sustainablevalues versus economic, technological and political interests.
This harmonic association purportedly makes reference equally
to observable entities, i.e. from science & technology, and tocollective aspirations and believes (values, myths andnarratives). Naturally, Lillehammer and Sydney Games may
ensure the acknowledgement of this interplay by future
epistemological sport researches.
In the Olympic sport context, it is appropriate to say a few
additional words about the meanings and visions which havebeen unfolding throughout this text. The construction ofdescriptive and explanatory concepts is legitimized by theabsence of a tightly articulated theory, in addition to restrictions
imposed by traditional disciplinary domain. This requirement
is not sufficient managed yet by scholars when dealing withmultidisciplinary and interdisciplinary investigations. But, anaturalized epistemology - as proposed before in this Chapter- in this case should correspond theoretically to a twofold
Olympic epistemology which could balance eco-friendly
technology with values-led Olympism. The reconciliation
possibility had support at least in the IOC institutional
discourse on environmental issues in the early 1990s.
.142.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES.
Towards an Olympic epistemology:
sport sciences or theory of sustainable sport?

To quote Richard W. Pound, member of the International
Olympic Committee Executive Board during the 1990s, seems
to be significant now because from his statements the roots of
the IOC involvement with sustainability can be traced. In 1993,
sport institutions were still seeking to respond only to baseline demands imposed by environmental challenges, what
required a straightforward demand, as follows: 38“It is natural that the International Olympic
Committee, as the leader of a worldwide
humanistic Movement, should be concernedwith the integration of the activities of the
Olympic Movement with the well-being of theworld in which we live. Indeed, the Olympic
Movement is predicated on holistic principles
of balance between body and mind, between
action and contemplation, between sport andculture. It would be unconceivable for the IOC
to divorce itself from recognition of the desirable
balance between the needs of the present andthose of the future”.

In 2002, coherently with his environmental legacy’s pledge,
Richard Pound, as chairman of the World Anti-doping Agency,
when urging the Olympic athletes to preserve themselves fromperformance-enhancing drugs 39 , declared vehemently insymbolic terms that “we want heroes, not just winners!”. The
expectation of the Olympic athlete as playing the role of herois analyzed in depth in Chapter 16 of this book, but here thismythological entity is primarily considered a value holder as
properly defined by Nikos Yaloures 40:“Myth is the language of the spirit. Unlike
history, it does not refer to ephemeral eventsand incidents, to ever-changing external factors.143.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES.

Towards an Olympic epistemology:
sport sciences or theory of sustainable sport?

and phenomena of human life. Myth is theembodiment of man’s earliest memories of his
own origin, his “god-given origin”, as Pindar says
(Frg. 137a). Inseparably linked with religion, it
formed its very roots and ramifications in thelife of the Hellenes … As “immanent reason”
myth is expressed in the fine arts, in poetry,music and danse - all of which lead to beauty
and the attainment of man’s true nature”.

In a nutshell, both statements frame coded indication ofdesirable values to be found in Olympism and , of course, theyencounter one basic requirement of modern epistemology, thatis, they try to answer on how human beings can arrive at
believes about the world around them. As the philosophicaland scientific dialectics on the environment and sport relations
continue, the meanings and visions as presented in former
sections may be here presuppose the validity of both sportsciences and Olympism proposals. While the former course
concentrates its efforts in fragmented and inductive approaches
the latter might be able to adopt deductive and in-depth
theoretical advancements, as seen in Nansen, Coubertin, Naessand other cornerstones.

The symbiosis of knowledge
In developing epistemic principles for Olympism fromenvironment and sport theory, the descriptions andexplanations of the preliminary sections of this Chapter were
overviewed in Table 1. In this exhibition, the all-inclusive
epistemic justification of Olympism are focused by the validity
criterion expressively called “symbiosis” by Arne Naess in his.144.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES.
Towards an Olympic epistemology:
sport sciences or theory of sustainable sport?

Deep Ecology. In other words, meanings, visions and myths& narratives may combine in knowledge structures as basic
and significant as foundations 41.

Table 1
Environment and sport theory Olympic Epistemology
MEANINGSVISIONSMYTHS &NARRATIVES

Ontological Identity

Universal Value

Gaia

Culture of Sport

Universal Fact

Coubertin

Natural Contract

Ecological Conscious
Society

Lillehammer andSydneyCulture-Nature-Sport
ValuesSustainable Olympism

Olympia

Eco-friendly Technology

Sustained Olympism

Green Games

In conclusion, these relationships must be attached tolimitation first and foremost related to science & technology
approaches for being reductionist in their nature. Secondly,
taking into account the environmental knowledge which has
a fact-value multidisciplinary bottom-line implying often
acceptance of the on-going process of theory building. Overall,ecological conscious philosophers interpret these limits in termsof mutual adaptation , as did Eugene Hargrove when endorsing
the reconciliation thesis by explaining the peculiarities of theso-called environmental science: 42“Humans have most successfully manipulated
nature by applying principles from physical.145.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES.

Towards an Olympic epistemology:
sport sciences or theory of sustainable sport?

sciences… No comparable degree ofmanipulative ability has as yet been developedin the environmental or natural history
sciences. Although it is sometimes suggested
that complete technological mastery of theenvironment might be possible ifenvironmental science could somehow be
reduced to physics and chemistry, it isimportant to recognize that these sciences are
based on a reductionist method that may be
only partially appropriate to environmental
science, thereby making this possibility very
unlikely”.

Notwithstanding, Holmes Rolston summarizes the option
usually taken by environmentalist thinkers: 43“Still a philosopher ought to hope for someveridical unity in the mind, whatever its
divisions, and to try to make explicit rationallywhat is so often tacit…Our upsets follow fromour mindsets, and we are aroused to act in accord
with what we believe. It is a blending of thought,
affection and willing that the epistemic powersof the mind lie, and we need accordingly aphilosophical account of a suitable emotional
response to nature”.

Now the final words belong to Gregory Bateson who inspires us the proposal of developing a sustained Olympism
ascribed to this Chapter. Already in 1958, dealing withenvironment and culture, he came up to the conclusion that
“explanation means to put frames of knowledge together” 44.
That was the main task throughout this text which focuses on
how the cultural meaning is encoded in all aspects of.146.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES.
Towards an Olympic epistemology:
sport sciences or theory of sustainable sport?

contemporary life, including sport and , of course, a renewed
Olympism.

Notes
1. See in the proceedings of the 1990 event: Landry, F., Landry, M.
& Yerlès, M. (eds), Sport...The Third Millenium. Les Presses de
L’ Univerisité Laval, Quebec, 1991, p. xxxii.
2. Boulongne, Y.P., Pierre de Coubertin: un Regard Neuf Sur Son Humanism, Ses Croyances et Son Attitude à l’Égard du Sport Feminin.
In Landry, Landry and Yerlès (eds), Op. Cit. pp. 366 - 382.
3. A in-depth analysis on this theme is found in DaCosta, L.P. (ed),Environment and Sport-An International Overview. University ofPorto / International Olympic Committee, Porto - Portugal, 1997.
4. See Dancy, J. & Sosa, E. (eds), A Companion to Epistemology.
Blackwell, Oxford, 1996, p. 297.
5. Ibidem, p. 178.
6. Coubertin, P. (1907) A Propos des Rallyes. Revue Olympic, mars,
pp. 238-240. In Pierre de Coubertin-Textes Choisies, Tome III –Pratique Sportive, Müller, N. et
Schantz, O. (eds.), Weidman,
Zurich, 1986.
7. Telama, R. , Nature as Motivation for Physical Activity. In Oja, P. &Telama, R. (eds) Sport for All, Elsevier Amsterdam, 1991, p. 609.
8. Pausanias , Pausanias Hellados Periegesis. N. Papaxangis (ed.),Messnniaka, Athina, 1965, p. 293: V, 14, 10. (original text ofPausanias and comments from the editor). See also in Latin version of the Greek text: Pausanias Descriptio Graeciae , Ludovicus
Dindorfius (ed.). Editore Ambrosio Firmin Didot, Paris, 1845,
pp. 249-250.

.147.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES.

Towards an Olympic epistemology:
sport sciences or theory of sustainable sport?

9. Personal communication of Nikos Yalouris and field observationsin 1992 and 1993. Actually, the Rivers Alpheios and Kladeos converge in southwest area of Olympia, producing in the past frequent floods in part of the sanctuary. Flooding and earthquakes
covered the location of the supposed geological break with silt,
nearby Kronos hill. Apparently the instability of water, earthand stone is peculiar to the locality, washing away the area between the plain (where religious and civic monuments were built)
and the slopes of Kronos hill. As a result the myth of Gaia madea connection with the flowing of water, if the text of Pausanias istaken into account.
10. Bateson, G., Mind and Nature – A Necessary Unity. Bantam
Books, New York, pp. 150-151. In addition to this explanation
see Morgan, C., Athletes and Oracles – The Transformation of
Olympia and Delphi in the Eighth Century B.C., Cambridge University Press, 1992, p.43: “It is possible that Gaia and Themis presence at Olympia may be the result of mythological family ties also,
yet it is perhaps more likely that these cults are genuinely early,
and if so, their chthonic and rustic attibutes are sugestive at a rural
shrine, Judith Swaddling wishes go further still, and have the early
Olympiads primarily as agricultural thanks givings”.
11. Pleket, H.W., The Olympic Games and Their Decline. Report
stof the 1 Joint International Session of I.O.A., 20-27 May 1992,
Ancient Olympia, pp. 19-24.
12. Personal communication in 1993.
13. Yalouris, N. Ancient Elis - Cradle of the Olympic Games. Adam
Editions, 1996, 132- 133.
14. Ibidem, p. 132.
15. See Thompson, W.I., Gaia Emergence: the New Science of Becoming. Lindisfarne Press, New York, 1991, pp. 11-29.
16. Bento, J., Desporto para Todos: os Novos Desafios. In Os Espaços.148.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES.
Towards an Olympic epistemology:
sport sciences or theory of sustainable sport?

e os Equipamentos Desportivos, J. M. Constantino (ed), Camara
Municipal de Oeiras, p. 248.
17. Landry, F., Preface. In Sport… The Third Millennium, Op. Cit.,
p. xxxiv.
18. Both Hans Lenk and Ommo Grupe quotations are from Grupe,O., The Sport Culture and the Sportization of Culture. In Sport…
The Third Millennium, Op. Cit., pp. 135- 145.
19. See for further analysis in this matter, Fink, E., Le Jeu comme Symbole
du Monde. Les Éditions de Minuit, Paris, 1966, pp. 205-240.
20. Rorty, R., Habermas and Lyotard on postmodernity. In
Habermas and Modernity, R.J. Bernstein (ed.), The MIT Press
Cambridge, 1988, pp. 161-175.
21. Santos, M., 1992: a Descoberta da Natureza. Estudos Avançados,
6 (14) , Sao Paulo, 1992, pp. 95-106.
22. Serres, M., O Contato Natural. Nova Fronteira Editora, Rio deJaneiro, 1991, pp.21-29.
23. This concept is accounted to Reilly, W., Economic Growth andEnvironmental Gain, Dialogue, September – 1991, pp. 3-8
24. The Agenda 21 approaches from Stockholm to Rio’s experiencesin contrast with other international declarations on environmentand sport are analysed in DaCosta, L.P., Desporto e Natureza:
Tendencias Globais e Novos Significados. Simposio “Cidadania,
Desporto e Natureza” – Universidade do Porto, Junho 1993.
25. Among several contributions from these Authors the following
works approach to politics, ethics and enviroment: Hargrove,
E.C. , Foundations of Environmental Ethics. Prentice Hall,Englewood Cliffs, 1998; Rolston, H. , Philosophy Gone WildEnvironmental Ethics. Prometeus Books, Buffalo, 1989; Fox, W.,
Toward a Transpersonal Ecology-Developing New Foundations
for Environmentalism, Shambhala, Boston, 1990; Lovelock, J.;.149.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES.

Towards an Olympic epistemology:
sport sciences or theory of sustainable sport?

Turner, F.; Botkin, D.B.; Foreman. D., Man and Nature: a Symposium. Dialogue, September, 1991.
26. Naess, A. , The Norwegian Roots of Deep Ecology, In Nature –The True Home of Culture, Dahle, B. (ed.). Norges
Idrettshogskole, Oslo, p.18.
27. Meinander, H. and Mangan, J. A. (eds), The Nordic World. Frank
Cass, London,1998, p. 6.
28. The quotation is from Vuolle, P., Nature and Environments for
Physical Activity. In Sport for All, Oja, P. and Telama, R. (eds.),
Op. Cit., pp. 597-606. In addition, the philosophy of Fridtjof
Nansen is described by himself in FRILUFTSLIV. In Nature, The True Home of Culture, op. cit. pp. 6-7 (text written in 1921).
29. The narrative connection is analysed in historical and philosophical concerns by DaCosta, L.P., O Olhar e o Pensar Ambientalista.
In Soares, A. (org.), Ecologia e Literatura, Tempo Brasileiro, Riode Janeiro, 1992, pp.35-40.
30. Guattari, F., As Três Ecologias. Papirus, Campinas (French original version: 1989).
31. See the editorial, Le Parlement Européen Critique Fermement
l’impact Ecologique des Jeux Olympiques d’Albertville. Lettre del’Économie du Sport, no. 160, mai 1992, Editions Sportune, Paris.
32. For more on this, see The Greening of Sport – The Third Dimensionof the Olympics, elaborated by Ministry of Environment – Norway.
In “Green Issues” (Special issue), Oslo, February, 1994, pp. 5 - 10.
33. Personal communication with Sigmund Haugsjaa in 1993 andthe paper Haugsjaa, S. “Lillehammer: Do Desafio às
Oportunidades”. Simposio “Cidadania, Desporto e Natureza”,
Universidade do Porto, junho 1993.
34. See Star, M., Now, the Green Games. Newsweek special issue,
February, New York, 1994, pp. 46-47.
.150.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES.
Towards an Olympic epistemology:
sport sciences or theory of sustainable sport?

35. Cashman, R. & Hugues, A. (eds), The Green Games - A Golden
Opportunity. Seminar on Sydney’s Green Games, University of
New South Wales. Proceedings, Illustrations Publishers, 1998 (Introduction).
36. Ottesen, P., Environment and Sydney 2000. Paper presented at
the IOC World Conference Sport and Environment, Rio deJaneiro, Oct. 1999, p. 11.
37. Greenpeace Australia, The Greenpeace Green Olympics Campaign. Institutional pamphlet distributed during the 2000 Sydney’s
Olympic Games.
38. Pound, R. W., The IOC and the Environment. Olympic Message, no. 35, March, 1993, p. 14.
39. Pound, R. W., We Want Heroes, not just Winners!. WADA
news, no. 2, June 2002, p. 1.
40. Yalouris, N., Pegasus: The Art the Legend. Westerham Press,
London, 1977, p. vii.
41. For “symbiosis” concerns in epistemology see Naess, A., Ecology, Community and Lifestyle. The Ecologist, 1989, no. 19, pp.
196 – 197.
42. Hargrove. E.C. , Op. Cit., p. 159.
43. Rolston, H., Op. Cit., pp. 249-250.
44. Bateson, G., Naven. Einaudi, Turim, 1998, p. 264 (English original version from 1958).

.151.

CHAPTER 10

Visioning an Olympic
culture: philosophical andaesthetic foundations
v. theatrical massrepresentation
The Olympic Movement’s historic contrasting
directions as analyzed in previous chapters may have acultural understanding when sharpening the global focus
of interpretation. Indeed, “globalization as a concept refers
both to the compression of the world and theintensification of consciousness of the world as a whole”
as it has been assuming by Robertson, a leading interpreter.153.
OLYMPIC STUDIES
L. P. DaCosta, 2002 - Editora Gama Filho - Rio de Janeiro

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .

Visioning an Olympic culture:philosophical and aesthetic foundations v. theatrical mass representationof this today’s geographic and somewhat cultural
phenomenon 1 .
Much more than other forms of culture, the Olympic
Games may be regarded as part of the so-called global culture(consciousness of the world) in addition to a cultural meaning
in themselves (compression of the world) on account of theirancient Greek roots. This far-reaching interpretation mightalso include the 2004 Athens Olympic Games in view of theopportunity of staging the Games in the place in which theystand simultaneously as reality and memory (lieu de memoire).
Although the Olympic Games’ restoration had already took
place in 1896 Athens, to rethink the Games in 2004 would
imply in portraying the worldwide and multicultural audience
provided by television and other global media as a Greek legacy
on the 21st century outset.
This Chapter grew out of evidences that there is an Olympic
culture now admitted as global but which has been passing
through different epochs and places due to a typically universal appeal. And the appealing element of this contemporary
globally accepted culture is the Olympic Games. “Despite all
criticism the Olympic Games remain immensely popular”,
concedes Barney, Wenn & Martyn, adding that “a record
audience of 3.7 million people watched Olympic television
coverage from Sydney” 2 . This statement was made in 2002,
but by many accounts the universality of the Games has been
inherently taking part in the Olympic meta-narrative started
earlier by Pierre de Coubertin.
A simple demonstration of this modern and evenpostmodern mythological discourse is seen in the Olympic
Museum, in Lausanne. In that electronic temple of today’s
Olympism key historic statements from former IOC presidents
are displayed in the walls, representing the state of guidancein different stages of the Olympic Movement development.
Particularly, words from Coubertin’s memories were enshrined.154.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
Visioning an Olympic culture:philosophical and aesthetic foundations v. theatrical mass representationin the Museum’s main space praising the all-encompassing
meaning of Olympism: “L’ Olympism a une mission universelleet séculaire. Il est ambitieux. Il lui faut tout l’espace et tout letemps”. In the same space a statement from Lord Killanin IOC president in 1972/1980 period - also focus the universals
derived from particulars as seen in the cultural approaches of
Olympism: “The Olympic Movement is not only the allocation
and ruling of the Olympic Games. It is something through of
the world; which exists for 24 hours a day for every day of theyear. It is something that can be good to all”.
Given this universal appeal that permeates Olympism, theprimary purpose of this Chapter is to review the vision of theworld as a category of analysis that is able to re-interpretculturally the Olympic Games. Together with the scrutiny of
the Olympic Movement’s universality, an approach on therole of Greece, Athens and Ancient Olympia as lieux dememoire of the Olympic Games and the sports em general will
follows. As such, the cultural meaning of this quadrennial
multisport festival may be observed as a celebration of athleticcompetitions embedded in one single community vision, firstly
bounding up the ancient Hellenic world and finally marking
the global culture of present-day sport.
Summarizing, this Chapter offers an account of world-views
as constructed by pre-Socratic philosophers in Ancient Greece
and later restored in Italian Renaissance, reinvented in 19th century
European Olympic restoration and now it has been representing
one of the globalization direction in which the world is heading.

Philosophy and visions of the world
One of the most common interpretation of philosophy ‘sorigin relies on the Greek pre-Socratic thinkers from the sixth
century BC, for their creation of speculative reasoning. In short,.155.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .

Visioning an Olympic culture:philosophical and aesthetic foundations v. theatrical mass representationthese founders of philosophy tied their theories to theobservable natural world. They also constructed argumentsfrom basic uniformity of behaviors associated to naturalenvironment’s properties and changes. Explanations of theuniverse as a whole were then what the predecessors of Socrates
elaborated, as the sixth-century Milesians: Thales,
Anaximander, and Anaximenes.
In today’s language these first western philosophers weremuch concerned with cosmology. Indeed, their vision of theworld dealt with the origin and uniqueness of the universe. Froma primordial principle (arkhe) they had brought into
comprehensive statements the multiplicity of things thatapparently constitute the world. In this sense, another pre-Socratic
philosopher, Heraclitus from Ephesus (c. 540 - 470 BC), claimed
that the world is a unity-in-opposites within an implicit harmony3.
As the impact of these and further interpretations fromthe first philosophers of Ancient Greece cannot be told here
in its full complexity , it is intended to capture merely some of
the more fascinating aspects of the successive construction ofworld’s views. Contemplating today that cosmological universe
built by primordial philosophy can help us to identify the next
exploratory efforts to be placed on record. Thus far, Socrates,
himself, in his life-time was in conscious rebellion against theprevailing cosmogonies. Living in the fifth century BC already,
Socrates maintained that men must know how themselves
ought to live, not how nature works. Therefore, what shouldbe needed to consider first and foremost are moral questions.
Despite the contradictions between Socrates and his
predecessors, behind both views there was the prevalence of asupreme order (ananke) historically sought by the Greeks either
as a mythological belief or as a philosophical or artistic
elaboration. According to H. Kitto, in Homer’s narratives even
the Gods were many times submitted to this universal order;
also, famous dramatists as Aeschylus and Sophocles discussed.156.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
Visioning an Olympic culture:philosophical and aesthetic foundations v. theatrical mass representation

the universal laws that rule men’s life 4. Plato in Timaeus set
out the demiurge as the maker of the universe imposing order
into the world’s chaotic matter5 .
To many analysts of the Greek thought, the dimiurge
represents the anthropomorphic version of ananke and a linkto the search of perfection (arete), another cultural,philosophical, artistic and communal pursuit of Ancient
Greece. For instance, following is a meaningful interpretation
quoted in John Passmore:“ The dimurge is not, it should be observed,
omnipotent. That is why not all men are in fact
godlike (...) But as a result of the Demiurge’s
desire that all things should be as far as possible
like himself (...), every man has within him a ‘
guiding genius’ (...) Man has a divine elementin himself; he perfects that divine element bycontemplating the ordered glory of the universe;
in so doing he becomes ‘godlike’ “ 6.

Such accomplishment of making order combined with thesearch of perfection should have as a symptomatic example theOlympic Games, which notably congregated the ancient Hellenicworld located in different parts of the Mediterranean for morethan one thousand years. As we have demonstrated elsewhere bymeans of comparison with the Roman Peace (Pax Romana), theOlympic Games was also an explicit instrument of imposing order
or truce (ekeicheria ) among the ever-lasting belligerent status of
Greek cities. But as opposed to the Roman cultural traditions, thecommunal pledge of the Olympiads was only headed to Hellenic
ethnic groups for their need of contemplating themselves in aglorified and ordered ritual. Foreigners, i. e. barbarians, belonged
to the chaos and the hostile variety of the world’s parts still
untouched by demiurgic interventions. In sum, Roman.157.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .

Visioning an Olympic culture:philosophical and aesthetic foundations v. theatrical mass representation

civilization exerted peace control by leveling down differences
while Greeks by praising similarities. Suggestively, both
approaches remain today as modes of promoting cultural
identity in international perspective7.
Philosophically speaking, the observation of the Greeks asorder seekers is just an evidence of their overall reflection on natureand man as common grounds of the universal knowledge (logos),
as early proposed by Heraclitus. This latter connection is discussed
in contemporary terms by Werner Jaeger in his classic book
Paidea. As a result, Jaeger demonstrates the existence of a peculiar
style and vision developed by the ancient Greeks founded inaesthetic values. So far, philosophical reasoning is closely related
to art and poetry , and man’s political participation and education
are encompassed by the “ image of a totality which renders aposition and a sense as parts of a whole”. Jaeger additionallyconcludes that the spiritual principle of ancient Greek civilization
does not favor the individuality of men, reaching the ideal later
denominated by Roman thinkers as humanitas, “an image of thegeneric man in his universal and normative validity”8.
The Jaeger’s approach is indisputable today whencomparing similar interpretations derived from Greek legacies
throughout different categories and disciplines of knowledge.
In Olympic Studies area, for instance, we have discussed this
topic following the Pierre de Coubertin’s conception ofequilibrium of man facing the complexity and challenges oflife. Inspired in the Hellenic vision of the world, Coubertin
reinvented the modern Olympic Games and outlined thedoctrine of Olympism having as one main point of departure
the unity as defined as playing a regulatory role jointly withjustice and beauty. Additionally, Coubertin adopted the ancient
Greek nexus of eurhythmy (proportion, measure, harmony)for grounding sport participation and competition. Therefore,
eurhythmy should be the content needed by sport to masterits efforts in harmony and prudence9.
.158.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
Visioning an Olympic culture:philosophical and aesthetic foundations v. theatrical mass representation

Overall, philosophical approaches to pre-Socratic views of
the world as assumed afterwards by Plato , Aristotle and otherancient Greek thinkers, remained faithful to the notion of logos, inherited from Heraclitus. Similar apology was later madeby modern philosophers as Hegel, Nietzsche and Heidegger
10. The Hellenistic humanism survived in Cicero (106 - 43 BC)
and other Roman writers as well as among leading protagonistsof the Italian Renaissance during the 14th and 15th centuries
AD 11. Today’s fine arts and social sciences as taught in most
universities worldwide are still reflecting both Hellenic andEuropean Renaissance’s legacies. Actually, nowadays
expressions such as universal, totality, equilibrium, harmony
and unity become synonymous of order when they arehistorically and culturally mediated by Greek traditions. In
philosophy’s jargon, the German expression Weltanschauung(world-view) currently stands as a general vision of the universeand man’s place in it which affects one’s conduct, implying
again in a surviving Greek holistic conception from antiquity.
Concerning to the modern Olympic Games and thepretentious philosophy of Olympism, Coubertin’s legacy has
been assuring the acknowledgement of their ancient Greek
culture, art and philosophy bases. But, of course, successive
adaptations to international conflicts, commercial interests,
moral deviations, new technologies and other updated pressuresand advancements have been diminishing the traditional
meanings of the Games12.

The renaissance revival
The vision of the world centered in the universe, thehumanity, and the equilibrium of man emerged again in theEuropean Renaissance having the ancient Hellenic images,
behavior and thinking as inspiration. Pico della Mirandola,.159.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .

Visioning an Olympic culture:philosophical and aesthetic foundations v. theatrical mass representation

author of “ On the Dignity of Man” ( De Hominis Dignitate ),published in fifteenth-century Italy, is often mentioned as a modelof the ancient Greek rediscovery for his exaltation of men seenas the core meaning of history, arts and knowledge production.
In fact, Renaissance’s thinkers and artists in addition to
the flourishing scientists of that time, had displaced the Middle
Age concept that considered humanity as being opposed todivinity. An authoritative synthesis of this much deeper
significant turn is found in Erwin Panofsky:“ Thus the Renaissance conception of humanitas
had a two-fold aspect from the outset. The newinterest in the human being was based both ona revival of the classical antithesis between
humanitas and barbaritas, or feritas, and on asurvival of the medieval antithesis between
humanitas and divinitas. When Marsilio Ficino
defines man as a ‘rational soul participating in
the intellect of God, but operating as a body’,
he defines him as the one being that is bothautonomous and finite. And Pico’s famous‘speach’, ‘On the Dignity of Man’, is anything
but a document of paganism. Pico says that God
placed man in the center of the universe so thathe might be conscious of where he stands, andtherefore free to decide ‘where to turn’ “ 13.

Arguably, the Renaissance man preceded the Renaissanceartist and indeed the chief idealizations of man adopted atheatrical approach accounting on an interpretation of PaulFrankl on this particular re-creation. This held particularly
true in regard of Renaissance’s architecture to which spatialconceptions became a reflection of man’s corporeal
dimensions. In other words, to the golden mean of ancient
Greek art it was added spatial relationships originated from.160.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
Visioning an Olympic culture:philosophical and aesthetic foundations v. theatrical mass representation

perspective techniques that were at that time mathematized,
making the visual world objective and measurable in different
artistic expressions14.
As icons of this Renaissance achievement, it is significant
to mention the “Proportion of the Human Figure” (c. 1492), a
popular drawing redone by Leonardo Da Vinci to represent
the “universal man” (uomo universale); and the public spaces
and buildings designed by Felipo Brunelleschi (c. 1415) in
Florence, where the “human measure” (misura umana) became
central aesthetic and functional references of urban
development in Europe 15. Unsurprisingly, the theatrical visionof the world (theatrum mundi) from Renaissance transformed
citizens in spectators of themselves when bringing city centers’
spaces to their measures and perspectives. It is remarkable toothat the notion of eurhythmy reappear explicitly among
Renaissance’s architects in their development projects.
Suggestively enough, a similar conception of the theatrum
mundi made appearance in first-century AD Greece as a Stoic
proposal of education. In the Enchiridion, Epitectus introducesanother role for the traditional theater, giving opportunity tospectators to discuss moral-political arguments. He also presents
a dramatic conception of the world able to be transferred tothe stage. Thus, theatricality could provide a practice ofcommon men in order to improve their societal participation.
Once Stoicism understood also the world as a ordered whole,says Epitectus when indicating acceptance of misfortune
without complaint: “Remember that you are an actor in a drama of such a sort as the author chooses - if short, then in ashort time; if long, then in a long one”16.
Undoubtedly, the theatrum mundi conception from
Ancient Greece to Renaissance change its pedagogic sense andcontent by raising the narrative to the broader theme of visual
meaning in a spectacular relationship with audiences. The
baroque style in the 15th and 16th centuries-European painting.161.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .

Visioning an Olympic culture:philosophical and aesthetic foundations v. theatrical mass representation

and architecture had ultimately brought this visual interplay
with spectators to the limits of its aesthetic appraisal. The
example of the Venetian painter Giambattista Tiepolo (1696 1770) is particularly appreciative to analysts of contemporary
global culture.
Travelling and working in different regions of Europe,
Tiepolo covered palaces and churches’ ceilings and walls with
fresco decorations depicting worldly scenarios and religious
glorification by architectural arrangements and perspective
compositions. The world-view was represented by a variety ofhuman ethnic types in different levels and situations between
landscapes and heavenly clouds. In addition, the spectacularbaroque art of Tiepolo included paintings of normal dimensions
portraying communal events in urbanite everyday life into which
acrobats and dancers are often protagonists17. In a nutshell,
Tiepolo’s visions somewhat earlier had catched on theforthcoming two-fold standpoint of the global and the local,
currently recognized by analysts of today’s cultural practices.

The nineteenth - century rediscovery
In the century that science consolidated its fundamentalrole in social, cultural and economic relationships of the socalled modern world, Ancient Greece came again into focus
among intellectuals and academic circles pertained to European
traditions. The 19th century was also the epoch that historicaland cultural knowledge had expanded their influence forreinforcing national identities and setting tone to international
understanding. In this context, cosmopolitanism and tourism
became part of modernity and a symptom of capitalistic wealthin many countries.
The internationalization drive that coincided with that
century of nationalistic endeavors everywhere in the world,.162.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
Visioning an Olympic culture:philosophical and aesthetic foundations v. theatrical mass representation

had corresponded to archeological initiatives that restored many
historical sites in Greece. Unsurprisingly, philhelenism wasthen openly assumed by some European , North and SouthAmerican intellectuals, specially during the Greek war for
independence. Moreover, for Olympic Studies concerns,
Greece, Athens and Ancient Olympia gained referential
visibility as landmarks of western culture in contrast toRenaissance’s nostalgic revivals and theatrical participation
provided to city’s dwellers.
Under these circumstances, the role of Pierre de Coubertin
was not only attained to the reinvention of the Olympic Games,
reflecting similar attempts previously occurred . Overall, the
Coubertinian philhelenism recreated a world-view centered inAncient Greece’s values having selected athletic competitions
as support for international visibility . Notwithstanding,
Coubertin trusted in the universal significance of sport, acondition broadly accepted by social sciences in present days.
In all, he had renewed the Olympic Games reproducing the
successful experience of international exhibitions, anothernineteenth-century invention. These events were proposed tocreate spectacular views towards national commercial and industrial developments associated to the promotion of hostnation or city images during a certain period of time.
The world’s exhibitions, festivals and fairs as a means ofinternational insertion of new technologies, scientificknowledge or life-styles had their emergence and impact
coincidentally with the surge of multinational corporations
and institutions after mid-nineteenth century. Thus, to trace
the Olympic Movement evolution has frequently the meaningof an identification of intersections with international andnational exhibitions. Coubertin improved his Olympic Games’
project with meetings and contacts during the 1889 Paris Fair18.
The second Olympic Games of modern era took place jointlywith the 1900 Paris Exhibition and the third in a merge with.163.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .

Visioning an Olympic culture:philosophical and aesthetic foundations v. theatrical mass representation

1904 Saint Louis World Fair. The regional Olympic Games of1922 in Rio de Janeiro was held taking advantage of theinternational fair promoted in that city in the same year 19.
The size and importance of both the 1932 Los Angeles andthe 1936 Berlin Games nevertheless proved that the Olympiads
would have no need of support from another world class event.
But, the influence of international exhibition according to its
19 th century style remained henceforth in the Games.
Conclusively, the contemporary Olympic Games have been
representing a spectacle and an insertion of a particular hostcity in the world-view of sports audience, additionally to cultural and technological acknowledgements. The continuous
update of media support to the Games has been giving stability
to this composition of fixed scenarios (stadia and facilities forthe competitions) with changing places to host the celebration.
Again, the heroic role of the Olympic athletes has been proved
to be a necessary dramatization of this spectacular arrangement,
confirming the Coubertin’s timely restoration.

The 20th century celebration
Therefore, putting the focus on visions of the world,
today’s Olympic Games are still keeping the core meaning
originated in Ancient Greece. Essentially they are a ritual tocelebrate humanity as present in this life-world. This
interpretation is convergent with the following words fromYves Pierre Boulongne when describing Olympism today:“ By the call to excellence, to the shared gift, it
is a trial and communion. By rhythm andpurification, it is mystical, approach andsanctification: it is one of the last tribal.164.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
Visioning an Olympic culture:philosophical and aesthetic foundations v. theatrical mass representation

celebration of humanity. It is offering andrevelation. Because it chooses to believe in atranscendental order, in links between man andthe cosmos, Olympism is an active culture.
Thus it really is about man” 20.

Should the celebration of humanity constitute historicallythe unchanged implicit and primordial element of the Olympic
Games, then there are parts of the grand narrative related to
Olympism that we may now re-write as follows:( i ) Man in equilibrium with the order of cosmos was a ritual representation that had madethe Olympic Games a theatrical view of theworld in the ancient Greek culture.
( ii ) Ancient Olympia as the sanctuary of theGames was a fixed stage in a fixed location,
creating a lieu de memoire in Greek and westerncultures.
( iii ) Man as an actor in the social order of thecity was an artistic expression originated in
Renaissance that transform the theatrical viewof the world in local and accessible spectacle,
and then producing lieux de memoire.
( iv ) International exhibitions reinforced theRenaissance tradition of the theatrical view ofthe world during the late 19th century and theearly 20 th century, but emphasizing more thespectacle than the memory of participation andperformances due to the changing of host sites.
( v ) Man as a performer framed in fixed stages
located in different cities was a dramatic actor in
the early versions of the Olympic Games, which
has made him or her the center of the spectacle.
( vi ) Man as a dramatic and heroic athlete framedin fixed stages of the Olympic Games in different.165.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .

Visioning an Olympic culture:philosophical and aesthetic foundations v. theatrical mass representation

locations during the 20th century, participatedin the spectacular view of the world promoted
by mass media.

These provocative statements poses a demanding question
related to this Chapter’s aim: if the celebration of man necessarily added to woman in today’s global society - andhumanity survived through different views of the world since
the Greek antiquity, are man/woman the dramatis personae(main acting protagonists) of the Olympic Games? For
Boulongne , the humanism that places man/woman in timeand space “ to be better positioned in the world to face theGods” is inspired in paganism 21 . Moreover, this French
researcher of Coubertin’s life and work classifies the
Coubertinian man/woman as a pagan entity although thefounder of Olympism preferred the epithet of “religio athletae”, for his obsessive cult of surpassing oneself 22. This is acontentious topic of discussion among Olympic scholars today,
however it is consensual the acceptance of the ritual nature of
the Games as centered in their praised athletes23.
Furthermore, whether as an expression of modern paganism
or not, the celebration of the heroically athletic man/woman
may explain the close connection of the secular mass media of
nowadays with the Olympic Games. And the vision of the world
is mostly adapted to the narrative of athletes’ deeds in terms of
television, newspaper, radio and other media news and reports.

Towards a global celebration
The theatrical interpretation of the Games may beapproached by reading Plato’s “The Republic” when he calls
for a prudent use of the theater as a pedagogic tool. In
opposition to Epitectus, Plato detected a paradoxical effect in.166.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
Visioning an Olympic culture:philosophical and aesthetic foundations v. theatrical mass representation

the theatrum mundi which could also teach vicious and unjust
deeds to youth24.
The ambiguity of the theatrical view of the world has been
sharing by the mass media in present days 25. As yet, theemphasis in the spectacle is not a deviation but a limitation of
mimetic learning as already depicted by Plato in his time. As aresult, the dramatic revelation of the world should not berejected as Plato did, or emphasized as Epitectus did, but
recommended with additional examples from history as Jean
Jacques Rousseau suggested in his “Emile” , written in 1762 26.
In effect, the Rousseau’s educational advise coincides withthose adopted by the Olympic Games Organizing Committees( OCOGs ) in recent years as a development from their own
experience. Given the need of promoting the host city of theGames and its country, the respective OCOGs have beencreating locally appropriate communication policies generally
proposed to give support to the Games’ opening ceremony aswell as the cultural program. In this respect, the present days
OCOGs work in a two-fold approach, opening channels tointernational media enterprises for meeting the spectaculardimensions of the Games, and generating concepts andnarratives bridging the local culture with the outside world.
For the 1988 Seoul Games, for example, it was produced a“Dae-dae cultural grammar” that Kang Shin-Pyo described as“the backbone in the management of the
Olympic event from conception to completion.
This is not to suggest that the Olympic spectacle
witnessed in Seoul was not without powerfulconstitutive elements best understood by cultural grammars imported from outside Korea.
Indeed, the Olympic institution itself
represented unfamiliar territory for Koreans.
However, the Olympic games took on uniquesignificance after being placed on Korean soil. The.167.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .

Visioning an Olympic culture:philosophical and aesthetic foundations v. theatrical mass representation

key to grasping this significance is found by
understanding Dae-dae cultural grammar, whichitself is not to be taken as something static but isalways in a creative process of becoming” 27.

In the terminology here previously adopted theaforementioned “ cultural grammar” equals to “world-view”
or to “narrative” as well . Thus, Seoul’s motto for the opening
ceremony “Bring the World to Seoul, Send Seoul out into theWorld” had the following codification:“In Dae-dae grammar, going and coming, bringing
and sending are not opposed but two aspects ofthe same dialectical process. In the Olympic andhistorical context, the Seoul/World pair is
associated with further oppositions seeking
mediation in the new order of things” 28.

Other examples for drawing attention to nationally andlocally adapted narratives are 1992 Barcelona and 2000 Sydney
Olympic Games. The former for recovering in the opening
ceremony the universal appeal of Ulysses’ legendary voyages
across the Mediterranean. The latter for presenting a new nation
to the world, again in the opening ceremony, having as pointof departure the long-time aboriginal culture still surviving in
the Australian continental area. In both cases, contextual studies
were made to select the appropriate approaches in order tomeet universal understanding29.
In the case of Athens - 2004, a narrative for the adaptation
to outside world is in readiness since Coubertin’s days.
Differently from all last century previous sites that hosted the
Olympic Games, this narrative shall be the original one. Simply
put, in Athens’ Olympiad the ritual will celebrate the initiation
not the passage. Moreover, Ancient Greece is a foundational.168.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
Visioning an Olympic culture:philosophical and aesthetic foundations v. theatrical mass representation

symbol of the world in many dimensions of today’s life
everywhere. The examples of science, philosophy, history andart are significant in terms of knowledge development’s origins
since their long-standing fundaments had passed from Greek
and western traditions to the rest of the world.
Certainly, only foundational elements of Ancient Greece
make sense in the so-called globalization since they alreadybecame of universal usage. The theme of globalization is also
controversial and an obvious object for ideological suspicion
as long as it often justifies the dominance of western culture.
Conversely, accounting on Malcon Walters “ globalization
has been in process since the dawn of history (...) , it has
increased in its effects since that time, but there has been asudden and recent acceleration”30.
Indeed, holding these statements as historically reliable, thevision of Ancient Greece as related to knowledge construction
may represent the vision of present days’ world. And thiscomprehensive bridge between the past and the present of
humanity is commonly conceptualized as a knowledge-oriented
single unit. On this argument, Robertson and Garrett suggest
to apprehend the whole as “one place” for being more
understandable in its variety of approaches31.

The Olympic culture
To conclude, let us come back to the issue of lieux dememoire initially proposed in this Chapter. This conception
has been circulating among historians since the 1990s after being
introduced by Pierre Nora. In short, historical accounts are
more meaningful when preferably attached to concretereferences (monuments, buildings, cities, regions, festivities,
books, works of art etc.) instead of events. The general senseof this kind of account is the location, the place in which the.169.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .

Visioning an Olympic culture:philosophical and aesthetic foundations v. theatrical mass representationreferences gain identification, coordinates and directions,
resulting in narratives connected to changes occurred in theplace as a whole. Therefore, Nora’s methodological proposition
coincides with Robertson & Garrett’ s overview, being both
attempts updated means of preservation of memory32.
To the extent that Olympic Studies have been progressing
in recent decades, the Olympic Games should stand as a typicalinstance of lieu de memoire . In fact, Olympic historians havebeen focusing the modern version of this celebration mostly interms of evolution and comparisons since the 1896 Games. But
they also produces narratives when scrutinizing circumstances
respecting to a particular host city and its country. In the former
approach, historians are concerned with the diachronic meaningsof the Games, while in the latter the option is to make synchronicinterpretations of the same event. Once the sites of the modern
Games are movable, the memory of the celebration has mostly
become a result of diachronic studies.
Although these two distinct methodological definitions are
traditional categories of historical interpretations, Pierre Nora
has been calling upon the fact that synchronic approaches
produced specialized memories in France (e.g. protestants,
women, workers etc.) in addition to a few overall themes ofnational meaning. In summary, this experience is showing thatthe most important memory is the diachronic one whenreferred to a broad view of reality33.
Trusting in the suitability of the lieux de memoire thesis inorder to appreciate narratives derived from the Olympic Games
as well as meeting the Olympic culture as presupposed in the
beginning of this Chapter, we are able to present the following
theoretical and concluding statements:• The vision of the world is an Ancient Greek philosophical speculation that became later a cultural invention which has been reshaped successively in different ages and places.
.170.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
Visioning an Olympic culture:philosophical and aesthetic foundations v. theatrical mass representation• Ancient Greece, Athens, Ancient Olympia, sport and Olympic Games
have close historical intersections that may jointly represent a visionof the world in terms of one place with universal meanings.
• There is also an aesthetic foundation in the world-vision’s tradition in sport that has rather been adapting to electronic media
technical needs jointly to dramatization of the athletes’ role in
Olympic venues. In this concern, the theatrical dimension emerges
as the core meaning of the Olympic Games, past and present.
• The Olympic narratives are then cultural representation of themain elements of the Olympic Games’ rituals and theatrical accounts into the scenario of their lieux de memoire. The Olympic
athlete, he or she, then gives the dramatization content to theintercultural communication, the ultimate link between the Gamesand the globalization trend.

This collection of statements draws together the insight ofOlympism as a meta-narrative already described in Chapter 1of this book. Of course, narratives should be concerned tomicro or locally situated accounts of the Olympic Games.
Moreover, to take these representation references tocomparison with practices, it is recommended to consult global spectacle’s theorization and intercultural communication’s
approaches , as they have been respectively elaborated by John
MacAloon (USA) and Miquel de Moragas (Spain) in the sphereof Olympic Studies. This new area of knowledge has been
active since the 1970s, researching the intercultural dynamics
of the Games and of its opening ceremony in specific34.
Finally, by way of introducing MacAloon’s and Moragas’
widely elaborated approaches, it remains to spell out the radical universalistic theories that reject local culturallyinterpretations of sports. “These theories ignore a crucial
discovery of the anthropological experience”, says Roberto da
Matta ( Brazil) in a book edited jointly by him, MacAloon and.171.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .

Visioning an Olympic culture:philosophical and aesthetic foundations v. theatrical mass representation

Kang (Korea), “the fact that the same event can be appropriatedand thus socially and politically redefined in different societies”35.
Overall, these academic positions were able to balance theOlympic universal meanings with the cultural relativism fromthe late 1980s supported by MacAloon and other Olympic
anthropologists. But today’s global trends seems to emphasize
the mediation role of the Olympic culture and other similar
specific or/and local cultural manifestations. After all, as thedistinguished sport historian J. A. Mangan (UK) recently
remarked “As yet there is no such thing as a global society,but societies are increasingly global”36.

Notes
1. Robertson , R. , Globalization. Sage, London, 1992, p.8. For the
relationships between globalization and the 2004 Athens Olympic Games, see DaCosta, L. P., Visions for Athens 2004. Paper
presented in the International Olympic Academy, 5th Joint International Session for Educators & Officials of Higher Institutesof Physical Education, 20th to 27th July 2001, Ancient Olympia.
2. Barney, R.K., Wenn, S. R. and Martyn, S. G., Selling the Five
Rings - The International Olympic Committee and the Rise of
Olympic Commercialism. The University of Utah Press, Salt Lake
City, 2002, p. 278.
3. For an overview of Heraclitus’ thinking see Heraclito de Efeso Fragmentos. In Pre-Socraticos, Abril Cultural, Sao Paulo, 1978,
pp. 79-91.
4.

Kitto, H.D.F., The Greeks, Penguin Books, Harmondsworth,
1980, pp. 281-321 (Portuguese translation).

5. The reference on Plato’s Timaeus was quoted in Passmore, J., The
Perfectibility of Man, Scribner’s Sons, New York, 1970, p. 44.

.172.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
Visioning an Olympic culture:philosophical and aesthetic foundations v. theatrical mass representation

6. Ibidem, p. 45.
7. DaCosta, L. P., Identidade Cultural: Semelhanca ou Diferenca?.
Logos, no.8, 1998, pp. 8 - 13.
8. Jaeger, W. , Paideia - A Formacao do Homem Grego. Martins
Font
es, Sao Paulo, 1989, pp.10 - 11.
9. See DaCosta, L. P., Olympism and Equilibrium of Man: Visions
for Athens 2004. In Messing, M. & Mueller, N. (eds), Blickpunkt
Olympia - Focus on Olympism. Agon Sportverlag, Kassel, 2000,
pp. 116 -121.
10. See selection of texts on Heraclitus’ philosophy in Pre-Socraticos,
Op. Cit., pp. 92 - 123.
11. The Hellenistic matrix of the Roman humanistic thinkers is discussed by Tarnas, R., The Passion of the Western Mind. Ballantine
Books, New York, 1993, pp. 84 -88.
12. The historical condition of crisis experienced by the IOC is analyzed by DaCosta, L. P., Taking Ourselves to Task: Olympic
Scholars in Face of Moral Crisis of the Olympic Movement. In
Cashman, R., Panel of Olympic Scholars, University of New
South Wales, Sydney, 2000 (in print).
13. Panofsky, E. Meaning in the Visual Arts. Princeton University
Press, Garden City, 1955, pp.1 -25.
14. Frankl, P. Principles of Architectural History. In Fernie, E. (ed), Art
History and its Methods, Phaidon, London, 1995, pp. 154 - 156.
15. See for further acknowledgements Comar, P. , La Perspective enJeu, Gallimard, Paris , 1992, pp. 100 - 103.
16. Epitectus, Enchiridon. Bobbs-Merrill, Indianapolis, 1948, p. 23.
17. For Tiepolo’s life and work see Pacciani, R. , Baroque and Rococo. In The History of Art, Gallery Books, New York, 1989,.173.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .

Visioning an Olympic culture:philosophical and aesthetic foundations v. theatrical mass representation

pp. 272 - 281.
18. For a full account on the theme of world’s fair, see Quanz, D. ,th
The World Fairs of the 19 Century and the Olympic Games as
Manifestations of Western Industrial Cultures. In Kang, S.,
MacAloon, J. and DaMatta, R. (eds), The Olympics and Cultural
Exchange, Hanyang University, Ansan, 1989, pp. 483 - 491.
19. Compare with DaCosta, L. P., Exposicao Internacional do Rio
de Janeiro- 1922: um Marco Historico do Movimento Olimpico,Coletanea do Encontro Nacional de Historia do Esporte, Belo
Horizonte - Brasil, 1996, pp. 411 - 416.
20. Boulongne, Y. P., Values and Signification of Modern Olympism.
In For a Humanism of Sport, Op. Cit., p. 30.
21. Boulongne, Y. P., Humanism of Coubertinian Neo - Olympism.
In For a Humanism of Sport, Op. Cit., p. 14.
22. Ibidem, pp. 14 - 15.
23. The theme of rituals in sport is treated by Masterson, D. W.,
Sport, Theatre and Art in Performance. In Lenk, H. ( ed ), Topical Problems of Sport Philosophy, Verlag Karl Hofmann,
Schorndorf, 1983, pp. 169 - 183.
24. Plato, The Republic, Hackett Publishing, Indianapolis, 1974, 386cd, 387b.
25. For the discussion on media see, Tomlinson, J. , Cultural Imperialism, The John Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, 1991, pp.
34 - 67.
26. The relations of Rousseau with the theater are analyzed by
Eisenberg, J., The Theater and Political Theory in Rousseau andDiderot. Kriterion, no. 101, 2000, pp. 86 - 108.
27. Shin-pyo, Kang, The Seoul Olympic Games and Dae-Dae Cultural Grammar. In Landry, F. et al. (eds), Sport. The Third Millennium, Las Presses de L’ Universite Laval, Sainte - Foy, Que.174.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
Visioning an Olympic culture:philosophical and aesthetic foundations v. theatrical mass representationbec, 1991, p. 50.
28. Ibidem, p.53.
29. Examples of the studies on cultural programs for the Olympics
are found in Garcia, B., Comparative Analysis of the Olympic
Cultural Programs and Management of Barcelona 1992 and Sydneyth2000, 5 International Symposium for Olympic Research, Sept.
2000, The University of Western Ontario, London - Canada, pp.
153 -158.
30. Waters, M. , Globalization. Routledge, London, 1995, p.4.
31. Robertson, R. and Garrett, W. (eds), Religion and Global Order. Paragon, New York, 1991, p. ix.
32. Nora, P., Les Lieux de Memoire. In Ruano-Borbalan, J. (ed ), L’
Histoire Aujourd’hui, Editions Sciences Humaines, Auxerre France, 1999, pp. 343 - 348.
33. Ibidem, pp. 346 - 347.
34. See MacAloon, J. , Anthropology at the Olympic Games: an
Overview. In Klausen, A. M. (ed), Olympic Games as Performance and Public Event, Berghahn Books, New York, 1999, pp.
9 - 26.
35. DaMatta, R., Hierarchy and Equality in Anthropology and WorldSport: a Perspective from Brazil. In Kang, MacAloon & DaMatta,
Op. Cit., pp. 43 - 66.
36. Mangan, J. A. (ed), Europe, Sport, World. Shaping Global Societies. Frank Cass, London, 2001, p. 268.

.175.

CHAPTER 11

An inquiry on IOC
crises: lack of ethics
or overestimatedpragmatism?
Complex systems can only exceed a certain minimum size
if they can do without solid, continuous connections between
all their elements, and are internally able to organize theresulting instability. This can be achieved by selecting allowableconnections or the system can work with temporally unstablelinks, seeking to achieve order through controlled succession.
If the focus of attention is upon the Olympic Movement’complexity then Pierre de Coubertin’s early efforts to manage.177.
OLYMPIC STUDIES
L. P. DaCosta, 2002 - Editora Gama Filho - Rio de Janeiro

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
An inquiry on IOC crises: lack of ethics or overestimated pragmatism?

internal and external conflicting relationships may perhaps be
considered a significant example of how to deal successfully
with institutional instability.
Moreover, conflicts and crises that have been challenging
the International Olympic Committee - IOC since its creationin the 1890s, were primarily rooted in international power
disputes then evolving to the gigantism of the Games and tovarious forms of harassment such as discrimination against
women, false amateurism, nationalism, drug abuse, terrorism
and more recently over-commercialization in addition tocorruption among IOC members (see Chapter 14).
Nevertheless, there can be little doubt that the IOC survival
amidst such deviation impacts is due to the continuous highpriority given to pragmatic choices concerning its power
maintenance 1.
This allowable connection can be traced back to Coubertin
who had explicitly modeled upon historical members of IOC- Colonel Viktor Balck ( Sweden ) and Professor William
Sloane ( USA ) - the conciliation of two temporally unstablelinks that could achieve order in the Olympic Movement
through controlled succession: pragmatic actions and historiccultural based directions. Significantly enough, Coubertin
praised this constructive combination, according to his view,by a synthetic statement in his refined French language: “Balck, c’était l’action, et Sloane, intellectualism au service del’Olympism rénové” 2.
However, this successful doctrine set back just aftermarking its 100-year subsistence. The testimony of the IOC
Director-General, François Carrard, in the United States Houseof Representatives’ hearing on the IOC members bribery issue
in 1999, is rather significant to comprehend the suggested
turning point 3 :.178.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
An inquiry on IOC crises: lack of ethics or overestimated pragmatism?

“ Unfortunately, while the Games evolved, ourorganizational structure did not keep up withthe pace of change. In effect, we did not realize
we were going through a growth crisis. The
result of an old-fashioned structure managing
modern Games was not corruption, but asituation in which some of the less responsible
members - a small minority - showed poor
judgment and abused the system. Our problems
were caused by weak people, structures, andprocedures.”

Under such conditions, it might be primarily assumed that
the IOC pragmatism has been overestimated in recent years
and the consequent hubris is now demanding a balance withethical dimensions of Olympic sport issues. The creation ofreform commissions with independent members in 1999-2000
by the IOC as a result of its moral crisis 4 , signalized theinclusion of advisors with a desirable constructive criticism
and an adequate academic background. In view of this change
in the IOC decision-making process, a research was designed
yet in 2000 on account of the following point question: Are
the intellectuals with academic involvement with the Olympic
Movement consciously prepared to adapt or create ethicalprinciples as well as to theorize on their roles facing their
possible inclusion in IOC organizational bodies?
Arguably, given the need of evaluative perspectives towards
the reconciliation drive, if any, it appeared significant to placeon record the preliminary judgements, convictions and valuesof the intellectuals themselves. Indeed, this initial approach toindividuals and group identification is necessary - but not
sufficient - to acknowledge moral stands that should be pointed
out for the future IOC conducts. Besides, the argument continues, as scholars this group of respondents is potentially able

.179.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
An inquiry on IOC crises: lack of ethics or overestimated pragmatism?

to develop moral discernment once this task is part of theirprofessional life. This presupposition also stood as a support
to the planned inquiry in terms of fact-findings and assessment
to the ongoing IOC reform.

Framing the investigation
The previous assumptions had been formulated in the
beginning of 2000 in view of the “International Panel of
Olympic Scholars - University of New South Wales - UNSW”
planned to be held during Sydney’s Olympic Games in thesame year. By June , 2000, in response to the Panel’s initial
proposals, the survey was then designed “aiming to provide
an overall identification of moral principled stands or values
from Olympic scholars according to their perceived social
responsibilities in the face of IOC recent immoral issues”.
To be precise, this survey’s purpose pertained to the desirable
position of Olympic scholars whether giving sanctions to theongoing IOC reform. Furthermore, Olympic scholars qua
intellectuals was a prerequisite set for the inquiry to observe
their willingness to endorse theoretically and practically thetask of IOC renovation.
Accordingly, an in-depth questionnaire was preparedtextually proposing “ to survey the views of selected
respondents on the recent moral crisis within the Olympic
Movement and on the judgments of the Olympic Scholars
themselves” and then distributed to 50 selected targets, from
June to November, 2000. The profile of these potential
respondents was outlined as a professor with a Ph.D. degree
dedicated to Olympic Studies and found among ( 1 st )participants of the UNSW Panel of Olympic Scholars in Sydney Games, ( 2nd ) lectures of International Olympic Academy- IOA sessions, ( 3rd ) members from centers and research.180.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
An inquiry on IOC crises: lack of ethics or overestimated pragmatism?

groups on Olympic Studies and (4th ) authors of books andarticles on Olympic Movement history with academic
reputation.
The data-gathering instrument was composed by two setsof proposition statements (Group “A “ and Group “B”
questions) to be checked in terms of frequency of agreements
as well as to avoid individual identification. The second blockincluded 14 items with directions regarding the ongoing IOC
reforms, which should be checked as proposals considered boththeoretically valid and appropriate as endorsements from
Olympic Scholars. Most acknowledged authors or declarations
from issues related to both blocks identified each item of thequestionnaire. The Group “A “ statements encompassed 12
items describing institutional and social roles of intellectuals
in general, either in terms of desirable, condemned or
unattached attitudes, has resulted in a more detailed study now
being published by Richard Cashman , director of the Center
for Olympic Studies - UNSW 5.
The contents of either propositions ( block “A” ) or directions( block “B”) were not mutually exclusive in their construction
since the respective intellectuals’ roles and Olympic Scholars
endorsements should be placed in hierarchical order of choices.
This receiver’s end was due to the investigation’s theme in itself.
The delimitation intended by this procedure was to aptly expressendorsements from the Olympic Scholars in terms of Olympic
Movement’s internal criticism. In other words , the chosen moral
demarcations for questionnaire’s block “B” statements were
submitted to meanings and trustworthiness assessment in viewof sport and Olympic traditions and knowledge. Corrections
did not comprise block “A” items since the theme of intellectualswith self - appointed social responsibility was prior consideredsomewhat ambiguous and often overlapping in its
interpretations, as mentioned above. Coherently, thequestionnaire’s final form was admittedly a free-response (open.181.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
An inquiry on IOC crises: lack of ethics or overestimated pragmatism?

- ended) descriptive instrument that might prove valuable inbroadening perspective and in calling attention to the novel
presupposed role of the Olympic Scholars dealing with IOC
problems.
In terms of respondents, the delimitation was planned toinclude Olympic Scholars from all continents, both sexes andwith Ph. D. degrees conferred in less than ten years (<10 yr)
and before 1990 ( >10 yr ). Assuming that in Africa , Asia andLatin America there are few scholars with the profile requiredby the survey , five Ph. D. candidates from these continental
areas were selected as targets following the criteria of Olympic
Studies themes as options for their dissertations’ research. The
source for this selective process was the students from the IOA
Post Graduation Seminar’ s on Olympic Studies held every
year in Ancient Olympia - Greece.

Interpreting the returns
The percentage of returns from the total of 50
questionnaires distributed by Internet and mail was 72%,
totaling 36 respondents being 8 ( 22,2%) women and 28 ( 77,8%)
men. The group with more than 10 years of Ph.D. status totaled
20 (55%) respondents and the younger group , 16 ( 45%). In
this latter group are included 4 (11,1%) Ph.D. candidates.
The continental distribution of respondents were: Europe- 13 (36,1%); North America - 11 (30,5%); Asia - 6 ( 16,6%);
Latin America - 5 (13,8%); Africa - 1 (2,7%). By countries, major
sources of respondents were Canada - 6 (16,6%); Germany - 6(16,6%); USA - 5 (13,8%); UK - 4 (11,1%). Thus, these four
countries alone totaled 58,3% of respondents with English
speaking nations dominance.
The group of 36 Olympic Scholars declared 16
specialization involvement beside Olympic Studies such as :.182.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
An inquiry on IOC crises: lack of ethics or overestimated pragmatism?

history - 38% ; sport sciences - 27%; education - 13,8%;
philosophy - 8,3%; ethics - 5,5% and others with 7,4%.
Moreover, 30,5% of these respondents had consultant or
executive functions in Olympic Movement’s different bodies(IOC commissions, Sydney’s OCOG, National Olympic
Academies etc.).
In addition to the returns’ summary, the choices from
respondents put in rank order are presented below with thefrequency obtained by each item (percentage over 36
respondents in selecting one or more items) , discriminated bytime of experience in Ph. D. concerns. Also, remarks from
respondents , if any, are placed on record in each item, identified
by his/her continent of origin. This hierarchy may be seenas the intellectuals’ views regarding the ongoing IOC reform:
1st - One pressing need is to educate the leaderships and thememberships of the IOC , the IFs, the NOCs and themass media about the broad, developmental
responsibilities of sports [ B. Kidd, 1997 ] = 72,2%
choices ( <10yr - 14 + >10yr - 12 = 26 ).
Remarks : “ To educate the IOC members and the mass
media is hubris. You can only inform and propagate” (Europe ). “ ... ‘inform’ should be better. ‘ Education ‘sounds too hard “ ( Europe ). “It is not a matter of education,
but to promote a new cultural policy which could
recuperate leadership in world’s perspectives now
dominated by sponsorship and television” ( Europe ).
1st - The Olympic Movement’s organizational bodies must
exhibit governance and structures that are responsible,
inclusive, transparent, accountable and democratic [OATH Symposium, 1999 ] = 72,2% choices ( <10yr- 13 +>10yr - 13 = 26 ).
.183.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
An inquiry on IOC crises: lack of ethics or overestimated pragmatism?

Remarks: “But not too much democratic: the amateurism
in the Olympic Games was cancelled by democratic vote”( Europe ). “ Coubertin was right when saying that it should
not take every decision by democratic vote as , for instance,
to abandon the democracy or the Olympic Games” (Europe). “In the context of IOC reform, a new policy for
sports is subject to claim in view of the growing trend of
considering this area apart from other walks of life. Worldclass sponsors enforce this separation with their strictly
commercial interests. Nevertheless, the recent conflicts
between some FIs and the European Union - football, forinstance - suggest that sport is becoming part of the welfare
state in its conceptions today” ( Europe ).
2nd - The IOC are the guardians of the Olympic Movement
and the Olympic Games, not the shareholders . To
know that guardianship is being handled well impliesin scrutinizing IOC activities in order to open themto public accountability [ OATH Symposium, 1999 ]= 63,8% choices ( <10yr - 8 + >10yr - 15 = 23 ) .
3 rd - The choice is not to abandon the larger aims of
Olympic-style sport and the Olympic Movement , itis time to stop piously repeating them and to startworking toward them [ J. J. MacAloon, 1986 ] = 58,3%
choices ( <10yr - 10 +>10yr - 11 = 21 ).
Remarks : “American pragmatism: just do it “ ( Europe ).
“Since long time we are working on some of those aims.
So, we do not need to start them again, but make themhigher, faster, stronger” ( Europe ). “In fact, all those aims
are basically ‘good’ , so far any result shall be good either.
Coubertin was much wiser. He confessed that in the future
if the body would be emphasized too much, he could work.184.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
An inquiry on IOC crises: lack of ethics or overestimated pragmatism?

against sport! “ ( Europe). “If the IOC believes in theseaims - Olympic Education, for instance - it should stop
paying lip service and in conjunction with specialists , itshould start to make the aims highly visible “ ( Europe ).
3rd - There is a need to encourage an explicit discussion of
the universal proclaimed values by Olympism as
related to concepts of each culture and its autonomy [N. Abreu, 1999 ] = 58,3% choices ( <10yr - 10 +>10yr - 11 = 21 ).
Remarks : “I fully agree. Better than piously repeating theaims is to ascertain if they fit to humanistic values or tohelp to realize them” ( Europe ).
“This does not say much” ( North America).
4th - A genuine cultural and ethical shift must occur in IOC
governance, with a movement away from exclusivenessand control and towards openness and accountability[ A . J. Schneider, 2000 ] = 55,5% choices ( <10yr - 10
+ >10yr - 10 = 20 ).
Remarks : “ Away from exclusiveness: yes; away fromcontrol: no. The IOC must be controlled by a control
organ” ( Europe ). “ IOC has to promote culture as a shiftof focus of its policies” ( Europe ).
5 th - The IOC must include in its decision – making
independent members to offer constructive criticism ,with nominations drawn from the world of sports andarts, sport academe, sport politics , sport business [OATH Symposium, 1999 ] = 47,2% choices ( <10yr- 9 +>10yr - 8 = 17 ).

.185.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
An inquiry on IOC crises: lack of ethics or overestimated pragmatism?

Remarks : “The constructive criticism exists , but the IOC
has to act instead of waiting for proposals and counterproposals “ ( Europe ).
6th - Athletes should be at the center of the Olympism andthe Olympic Movement. So far, they need to be at thetable at all levels of decision-making in IOC, IFs ,NOCs [ OATH Symposium, 1999 ] = 41,6% choices( <10yr - 8 +>10yr - 7 = 15 ).
Remarks : “I agree but not in relation to the proposition
that athletes are the pure good and thus they will save theorganization. There are corrupted athletes as much as
corrupted leaders” ( Europe ). “ ... they would be part, but
I argue against them being at ‘the center’ “ ( North
America). “At the table , yes. In complete control , no” (North America). “ Athletes must have access to decision making process in order to defend their interests as well as
to guarantee the institutions stronger positions in face ofmedia and sponsorship power, which has not a sustained
approach to sport” ( Europe ). “Third World nations are
beginning to believe that the Olympic Games are irrelevantto the majority of their citizen - athletes. When countries
cannot afford. to train athletes or provide international
competition for the ones who have high Olympic hopes ,then the Games are not ‘competitions for all nations ‘ justcompetitions for the economically-advantaged countries”( North America ).
6th - Just as the IOC led the way in its opposition to theracism of apartheid , it must now lead the way in its
opposition to sexism that pervades modern sports [OATH Symposium, 1999 ] = 41,6 choices ( <10yr - 6+ >10yr - 9 = 15 ).
.186.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
An inquiry on IOC crises: lack of ethics or overestimated pragmatism?

Remarks : “ The proposition is too general but what is
concrete should be done “ ( Europe ). “ I agree 100% “ (North America). “ Concerning to a new cultural focus tobe taken by the Olympic Movement, it should be valuable
to make a reinterpretation of the ‘Olympic Truce’. In the
grounds of a ‘culture for peace’ , the oppositions to racism
and sexism should be core values of a renovated Olympic
Movement”( Europe ).
6th - The IOC Ethics Commission is set up as a watchdog
monitoring and reporting on the honesty and integrityof Olympic family members and actions , especially
focussing on human rights and social inequalities [Proposals for the Reform of IOC, 2000 ] = 41,6%
choices ( <10yr - 10 + >10yr - 5 = 15 ).
Remarks : “ Again, self-monitoring will not work thisgroup” ( Asia ). “... but a tendency to be the fox guarding
the chicken house” ( Asia ).
7th - Doping is rather a crisis of sport ethics and values.
The solution is not just ever tougher punishment andcontrol ( although both are needed ) but rather a shift
in attitudes [ OATH Symposium. 1999 ] = 36,1%
choices ( <10yr - 7 + >10yr - 6 = 13 ).
Remarks : “ Punishment and control are the only way to
overcome the prisoner’s dilemma” ( Europe ). “Shift in attitudes?
But how? This proposal is too idealistic” (Europe). “Disagreecompletely - both are needed “ (North America).
7th - The fuction of Ombudsperson is to allow a safe methodof complaint or review that is. independent of thenormal organizational structures. The IOC needs an.187.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
An inquiry on IOC crises: lack of ethics or overestimated pragmatism?

Ombudsperson [ OATH Symposium, 1999 ] = 36,1%
choices ( <10yr - 5 + >10yr - 8 = 13 ).
Remarks : “... outside the influence of IOC, preferred “(Asia). “I am skeptical of this being useful” (Asia).
8th - The IOC Ethics Commission must draw at least 50%
of its membership from professionally educated ( i.e.
Ph. D. in Ethics ) ethicists [ OATH Symposium, 1999]= 30,5% choices ( <10yr -6 + >10yr - 5 = 11).
Remarks : “No. Who? How select? “ ( Asia). “No. Ethicists
are not the only people who understand ethics” ( North
America). “ I disagree. Professional educated andprogressively practicing are two different things” ( North
America). “ 50% is a good idea if includes besides ethicists
specialists from sociology, economy, politics etc. “ (Europe).
“ I think there should be some representation of experts inethics, but it needs not be as high as 50%. Also in the US atleast, most people working in bioethics do not have Ph. D.
in Ethics per se , but in a variety of relevant fields”( North
America).
9th - The IOC Ethics Commission does not make directinterventions , acting only with observation andfollow-up in order to suggest and to avoid judgement[ Proposals for Reform of the IOC, 2000 ] = 19,4%
choices ( <10yr - 2 + >10yr - 5 = 7).
Remarks : “ True “ ( Asia). “They have to be kidding” (Asia). “I would need to know more about the intended
mission and composition of this Commission in order toanswer this question intelligently” ( North America). “IOCcommissions have powerful titles but their members often.188.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
An inquiry on IOC crises: lack of ethics or overestimated pragmatism?

lack expertise. It seems some are appointed just to ‘givethem something to do between games’ “ ( Europe ).

Endorsements and critiques
The most preferred choice of Group “ B “ statements
has put together 72,2% of respondents and apparently
constitutes an endorsement of the educational role of
Olympic Scholars yet probably focusing their primary
professional mission. Noteworthy, some respondents havedemanded more accuracy to the expression “to educate” once
it is theoretically but not practically feasible. Perhaps, assuggested by one remark to this item , influence with moral
demarcation should be the best way “ to educate theleaderships and the memberships of the IOC, the IFs, theNOCs and the mass media”. This interpretation also meetsa remark which indicates that “ scholars’ relationships with
IOC are essentially a matter of inquiry addressed toresearchers”. Indeed, this task is often embodied by social
scientists when sharing the participant observation withsubjects of their investigations.
Also with 72,2% of choices has emerged the item “ The
Olympic Movement’s organizational bodies must exhibit
governance and structures that are responsible, inclusive,transparent, accountable and democratic”, which had notunbalanced views between old and young groups as much as
the previous statement. Remarks in this case are concentrated
on the recommendation of a democratic governance andstructure for the IOC, recalling that since Coubertin’s days
excesses have been avoided in the theme of Olympic
Movement’s democratization. Again, a right measure isneeded and it seems that the endorsement may be put in “
the responsible, inclusive, transparent, accountable” as.189.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
An inquiry on IOC crises: lack of ethics or overestimated pragmatism?

desirable qualities for the IOC, while the search for democratic
solutions should be placed in a step-by-step basis.
The 2 nd preferred statement is concerned withaccountability to be developed by IOC as a “guardian” of the
Olympic Movement and the Olympic Games. This item has
marked 63,8% of choices which is a high frequency as comparedto others already appreciated above. As an explanation of thisacceptability, the statement now being presented now may beunderstood as complementary to the preceding one.
Notwithstanding, in this item the old group of Olympic
Scholars surpasses the young group with almost double of the
choices. This result is apparently connected to idea of“guardian” which might be more meaningful to the formergroup than the latter.
Considering the profile here previously outlined for theeducational role to be played by Olympic Scholars, “guardian”
may stand as a representational image of the desirable
intervention blended with mediation and criticism. The words
quoted in John Daly - as wrote in the aftermath of the recent
IOC crises - are symptomatic for confirming the supposed
representation, since he has a long Australian - based experience
as an Olympic Scholar 6 :“ I am committed to the philosophy ofOlympism. The Olympics are a showcase ofagonistic competition in an arena of honor andmutual respect. They exemplify the principles
of fair play - or should - and vicariously display
what it is to be human and excellent... excellent
and yet human. They have provided the model
for sporting behaviors and should be retained
for this reason. However, if they become an
arena for gladiatorial display and egotisticalbehaviors by a commodified professional athlete.190.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
An inquiry on IOC crises: lack of ethics or overestimated pragmatism?

using drugs , then they have no value place any
more in our society”.

Such vivid maintenance of Olympic values is again
productive to interpret the 3rd preferred statement regarding
the IOC ongoing reform. Actually, “ the choice is not to abandon
the larger aims... and start to work toward them” totaled 58,3%of the supportive marks with an equilibrium between old andyoung scholars’ selections. And the “guardian” logical pattern
may be matched with the remarks placed in this statement . To
be sure, these overviews from respondents suggest that the
Olympic Movement’s larger aims were not abandoned but only
have been loosing their priority. Endorsement in this case would
have the meaning of an empowerment to be applied to traditional
values and aims of Olympism.
With the same quantitative support of 58,3% and also wellbalanced in old and young groups’ responses, the statement
referred to the need of “an explicit discussion of the universal
proclaimed values by Olympism as related to concepts of each
culture and its autonomy” was classified equally in the 3rd
position of the ranking. Though presenting a high frequency,
this item has mutually exclusive remarks which suggest amisleading understanding of the cultural relativism as concerned
to Olympism. Therefore, the endorsement given to thisstatement may have the meaning of a support to be obtained
towards the respect to each culture encompassed by the
Olympic Movement.
The 4 th position in the rank - with 55,5% of choices belongs to the statement that claims for less control and for ashift towards openness and accountability in IOC governance.
This time, old and young groups of respondents in terms of
Ph. D. careers are in fully agreement. However, remarks tothis item express contradictory positions. Similarly to theprevious item appreciation, these remarks exhibit.191.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
An inquiry on IOC crises: lack of ethics or overestimated pragmatism?

misunderstandings on control applicability. Public control (openness and accountability) is a recommendation of thestatement which differs from management control focussed
by remarks. In brief, endorsement as might as well be put on
the cultural shift of IOC when submitted to public control.
The 5th position has reached 47,2% of choices, with a balance between old and young groups of respondents. The statementof this position concerns to the inclusion of independent
members in the decision - making processes of IOC in order tooffer constructive criticism. Remarks of this item are similar to
the recommendation on aims from the 3rd position: the criticism
exists but as a reactive approach to some demanding issues. The
endorsement then might be properly given to criticism as aproactive manifestation provided by independent members’
initiatives and participation.
Totaling 41,6% of choices, the 6th position proposes theincorporation of athletes in the decision- making process of
IOC and other branches of the Olympic Movement. Old andyoung groups of respondents are in total agreement with thisitem of IOC reform. Although the statement regarding thisposition has gained significant support from Olympic Scholars,
their remarks mostly define limits to that desirable
participation. In short, the endorsement to this item can be
granted if athletes are partially involved in the IOC decisions,
without privileges.
Another two statements also occupied the 6th position in
the ranking, both with 41,6% of choices. That is the case of
the IOC leading an opposition to sexism, as it seems to havebeen done before in relation to racism . For this presupposition, there is not important difference between old and young
respondents. Conversely, remarks reveal a diversity of
approaches together with the acceptability of the proposal.
Overall , endorsement may be established by putting the focus
on the opposition to sexism without further demands.
.192.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
An inquiry on IOC crises: lack of ethics or overestimated pragmatism?

Equally marking 41,6% of choices, came out the statement
referred to the IOC Ethics Commission which has purposely
been set up “as a watchdog monitoring and reporting on thehonesty and integrity of Olympic family members and actions”.
Facing this proposal, the young group of Olympic Scholars
has forwarded double the choices in comparison to the oldgroup defined by the survey. This difference can be explainedby a possible skeptical attitude assumed by the old groupconcerning to the IOC commissions’ effectiveness. The tworemarks of this statement belong to the old group’s respondents,
reflecting otherwise the pessimistic perspectives of thesescholars. However, the frequency displayed by the item issufficient to endorse the monitoring proposal.
The 7th position ( 36,1 % choices ) is occupied by the doping
issue, stressing the solution of shifting attitudes towards ethicalrequirements instead of punishment and control. As occurredin most of the items, both old and young groups of respondents
assumed similar positions. Nevertheless, remarks argue theattitudes shift in practical terms then urge for limits in thestatement. Endorsement in this case requires an adequate focus:
the shift is the solution according to respondents but not inradical terms.
The issue of the Ombusdsperson as a need for the IOC
reform marked also 36,1%, equally occupying the 7th position.
Neither important difference between old and young groupsof respondents emerged nor remarks putting limits to thestatement made appearance. Endorsement to this suggestion is
simply recommended despite the usual skepticism upon IOC
organizational devices reinforced by remarks to this item.
The statement on the IOC Ethics Commission and its 50%
membership at least drawn from professionally educatedethicists, had 30,5% choices ( 8th position in the hierarchicalorder) as a support to IOC ongoing reform. Old and younggroups of respondents presented equal results but remarks put.193.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
An inquiry on IOC crises: lack of ethics or overestimated pragmatism?

forward strong arguments against the recommendation. In
all, respondents have advised on the inadequacy of“professionally educated ethicists” as a requirement forparticipation in that Commission. So far, endorsement may
be rightly granted with a support simply on “somerepresentation of experts in ethics...not as high as 50%”, assuggested in one more detailed remark.
The 9 th and last position in the ranking order concerns
also to IOC Ethics Commission, marking 19,4% choices withmajor participation of the old group of Olympic Scholars.
As yet, remarks to this item confirm the skepticism of
respondents to IOC organizational procedures since thestatement takes out from that Commission the prerogativeof making direct interventions. Thus, to choose this item had
apparently the meaning of to give less power to IOC, which
coherently explains the predominance of the old group in
the selection. Finally, the low frequency of choices in face of
this statement suggests that the issue has not much importanceto respondents.

Conclusions
From the non-quantitative data collected, the hierarchicalorder of statements indicates the general direction of the groupof respondents’ options and the chosen endorsements provide
the form of the Olympic scholars’ intervention roles. Taking
into account the constituent elements of this inquiry’s
problem, lack of ethics and overestimated pragmatism wereselected as central categories of interpretation of data. For
the sake of explanation, the latter category is historicallydemonstrated as already seem in this Chapter, and the former
represents the most relevant and immediate claim resulted
from 1999 IOC crisis.
.194.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
An inquiry on IOC crises: lack of ethics or overestimated pragmatism?

Hypothetically, the lack of ethics / overestimatedpragmatism binary plays out as a continuum since they are
extremes in a exchange of mutual influences particularly related
to the aforementioned crisis. Summarizing the fact-findings ofthe research, most of respondents’ concerns were connectedto lack of ethics as observed in questions number 1, 3, 4, 5, 9,
10, 11, 13 and 14. For the overestimated pragmatism theconnections discerned were originated from questions number
2, 6,7, 8 and 12. In short, the major focus in ethics confirms
the rejection of excesses from IOC when exerting its power.
Accounting the form of intervention roles as expected for
the Olympic scholars, responses classified in the lack of ethics
category stood mostly as reactive attitudes to be developed
within the IOC, then representing a tradition-maintenance. In
regard of the overestimated pragmatism, the major trend of
responses was connected to proactive attitudes, that is aninnovative shift in IOC management. Thus, educational and“guardian” role is the emblematic form of Olympic scholars’participation in IOC structure as much as responsible
governance synthesizes their expectations for a traditionconstruction of the Olympic Movement henceforth.
Such is the outcome to turn to the core questions posed by
the survey , to which one should admit a conditional answer
to the perspective of a new role for Olympic scholars in the
Olympic Movement after the IOC reform. This condition relies
upon the willing acceptance of these intellectuals to the novelrole for themselves , as researchers and equally as educators ,voluntarily defending the Olympic traditional values as well.
Though this willingness was impressively described in thesurvey, perceptions of this academic and at the same time
activist compromise are yet fragmented and often biased byskepticism and radical criticism.
In conclusion, the growing international concern with the“guardian” role of intellectuals as preservers of universal human.195.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
An inquiry on IOC crises: lack of ethics or overestimated pragmatism?

and environmental values, might be helpful to provide a mutualadjustment between IOC and Olympic scholars in a new key
to understand themselves. In another context of analysis, the“Research Team Olympia at Mainz University” from
Germany, has been advising that there will be “ no new
Olympic order without a joint understanding on a universal
sporting ethics” on behalf of the past IOC reform discussions7. Of course, onto the present investigation’s perspectives thisclaim is indirectly suggesting that the crisis can play a catalystrole for merging IOC and Olympic scholars interests andcompromises.

Notes
1. See Chapter 6 of this book “Olympic globalization in history:
sport geopolitics or IOC power politics?” , in which the IOC’s
politics of pragmatism is analyzed by historical accounts.
2. The last president of the IOC himself has praised this controlled
sucession as follows: “ After a century of existence, the IOC, which
since that evening in June 1894 has been maintained and strengthened by seven successive presidents and four hundred and fourteen
members - citizens of every continent - can be proud of its achievements “ . Quoted in Samaranch, J. A , Tribute to Greece and to
Pierre de Coubertin, Olympic Review, vol. 25, no. 8, 1996, p.3.
3. Quoted in www.olympic.org, IOC Home Page, in December 1999.
4. See Mallon, B. , The Olympic Bribery Scandal, Journal of Olympic History, vol. 8, no. 2, May 2000, pp. 11 - 27. The quotation isfrom p. 18.
5. See Lamartine DaCosta, “Taking ourselves to task: Olympic scholars in face of moral crisis in the Olympic Movement”. In: Cashman,
R. (ed.) Keys to Success. Sydney: UNSW Press (in print).

.196.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
An inquiry on IOC crises: lack of ethics or overestimated pragmatism?

6. John Daly makes this point in his text for the OATH Symposium, 1999. See “The OATH Report - 1999 “ , p. 58.
7. For an insightful discussion on universal sporting ethics as related
to IOC reform, see Mueller, N. , Messing, M., Emrich, E. and
Press, H., Thoughts on the Structural Reform of the International
Olympic Committee. In Messing, M. and Mueller. N. (eds) .
Blickpunkt Olympia, Agon Sport Verlag, Kassel, 2000, pp. 353 363. The declaration was quoted in p. 355.

.197.

EPILOGUECHAPTER 12

Olympic
multiculturalism:proclaimed universal
values versus cultural
relativism
Neise Abreu
The multiculturalism as advocated in this book (Chapter3) harks back to Coubertin’s basic principle of international
understanding. As yet, considering the present-day worldwide
trend towards the promotion of cultural exchange, the Olympic.201.
OLYMPIC STUDIES
L. P. DaCosta, 2002 - Editora Gama Filho - Rio de Janeiro

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
Olympic multiculturalism: proclaimed universal values versus cultural relativism

Movement is one of the most representative attempts to create
universal accepted values.
In retrospect, Baron Pierre de Coubertin, with his principles
of Enlightenment, began this Movement with the modern
version of the Olympic Games. He was successful in leading aninternational congress in Paris 1894, to call upon participant
nations in order to accomplish this restoration. After controversy
and negotiations, it was decided by a group of 10 nations to reestablish the Games, beginning in from 1896. Henceforth,Modern Olympism appeared, and Coubertin conceived it tomeet a “philosophy of life” based on proclaimed universal values.
This pretension of universality is one of the primordial
characteristics of both the Olympic Movement as well as the
Olympic Games, as far as they were grounded in thepresupposed philosophical principles of Olympism. As theinitiator of Olympic Movement, Coubertin developed, after
1894, a renewed doctrine based on the Ancient Olympic Gamesand oriented to a social pedagogy, which supposedly could be
adapted to any ethnic group or culture. In this sense, one of
the main historians of Coubertin’s life, Yves Pierre Boulougne,
divulges in one of his writings:“The Olympic Congress Le Havre (1897),
Brussels (1905) and Budapest (1911), as well as
the Sport Psychology Congress of Lausanne(1912) and the Proceedings of the Congress ofthe 20 th Anniversary of Foundation of the
Olympic Movement in Paris (1914) defined thedoctrine and promoted Olympism as an universal value. However, serious divergences havealready been occurring between the official speech
and reality. Falseness, mercantile, chauvinism andattacks to dignity of athletes have already becomecommon within sports sphere” (p. 22).

.202.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
Olympic multiculturalism: proclaimed universal values versus cultural relativism

Nevertheless, the cultural relations established within the
Olympic Movement led to an international understanding
implied meaning without explicitly promoting a discussionof the universal acceptance of the values of Olympism as
related to the particular values of each culture. In other words,
sports activities are taught and experienced in different ways
in each society, according to the interpretations of the specificlocal culture.
Anyway, Coubertin’s multicultural vision of Olympism hada specific construction based on the pretense of the universalityof the Games and the Olympic Movement. In one of his texts
from 1920 it was recorded that in the Olympic Games of London
1908, there was a “resolution of include not only all the nations
but also all the games. All games, all nations” (p. 10).
In the Olympic Games of Athens (1896) there was abaptism of Olympism; in the second Olympiad (1900) in Paris, the modern character of the Games was revealed; and in
the third Olympiad (Saint Louis, 1904) “it was clear the universal trend of the Movement” (p.10). This baptism was finallycompleted in London, four years later. Thus, the expression“All games, all nations”, is representative of the Olympic
ideology and for this investigation presupposes, as suggested
in several texts including one from 1924, “Autour des Jeux de la
VIII eme Olympiade” when Coubertin says: “Our Society of
Nations is complete. It can not be eliminated from the Games,
some modalities such as fencing or rowing. All games, all nations:
essential and fundamental formula” (pp. 262-269).
In another primary source from 1911, Coubertin has
precisely reinforced the all games, all nations doctrine, depicting
for the first time a multicultural trait:“The fundamental rule of Modern Olympic
Games is linked with two expressions: all games,
all nations, it is not from the International.203.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
Olympic multiculturalism: proclaimed universal values versus cultural relativism

Olympic Committee power to change. I would
add to this explanation that a nation is necessarily
an independent State and that exists a sport
geography that can differentiate sometimes fromthe political geography” (pp. 51-52).

In other words, a multiple cultural approach for Coubertin
was an implicit universal construction, but clearly founded on
the distinction between nation and culture, according to thebeliefs of that period. Again, a reexamination of the texts showsthat the period between 1908 to 1924 can be considered by andlarge as the period when Coubertin approximated the conceptof multiculturalism . This latter term, by the way, is from recent
extraction, and it will be examined later on. The assumption ofmulticulturalism could end in the deflection of Olympic universal proclaimed values since different cultures are being exposed
to proclaimed values conjectured as universal to all.
The all games, all nations doctrine seems to have dissolved
when Coubertin withdrew from the presidency of theInternational Olympic Committee - IOC, in 1925. However,the universal claim was kept up to present day under several
rationales of the IOC, including the option that it should beincorporated into the Olympic Charter. For instance, thePrinciples of the Olympic Charter of 1997 clearly proclaim
values. The second principle refers to the definition of
Olympism as a movement which “seeks to create a way of life
based on the joy found in effort, the educational value of good
example and respect for universal fundamental ethical principles”(p.8). The seventh principle also demonstrates an assumptionof universal values:“The activity of the Olympic Movement
symbolized by five interlaced rings, is universal
and permanent. It covers the five continents. It.204.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
Olympic multiculturalism: proclaimed universal values versus cultural relativism

reaches its peak with the bringing together ofathletes of the world at the great sports festival,
the Olympic Games” (p. 9).

In retrospective terms, a multicultural focus was also
apparent in Berlin Olympic Games (1936). This new approach
was a different version from Coubertin’s, although generalized
in its contents.
An evidence can be ascertained in the movie “Olympia” byLeni Riefenstahl in which the first part constitutes a consecrationof the Olympic athlete under an esthetic body shape perspective,
where different kinds of races, based on a Greek athletic paradigm– the discobolo - are shown. The scenes of this official Berlin
1936 Olympic Games’ documentary film have naturally been
submitted to several interpretations, however the revelation of
the Olympic athlete is unquestionable in terms of uniquenessdepicted by differentiation. It is also proper to mention that inthis same Olympiad event, there was an explicit racism as it
pertained to the Nazi political system. An example of this was
the case of Jesse Owens, a Black athlete, upon whom Hitler
refused to deliver a gold medal.
In short, there was an apparent ambiguity in Berlin Games
once from one side athletic multiculturalism was praised by
the official movie of the Games, but on other hand the samekind of diversity was rejected as a consequence of the supposed
supremacy of the Nazi movement. Nevertheless, this kind ofambivalence seems to be common in fascist versions of sports
activities, as was interpreted by DaCosta (2000), who also
analyzed the esthetic setting for staging the Berlin Games.
In sum, the motto “all sports, all nations” in the decadeof 30’s was under a different interpretation key than
Coubertin’s Olympism, as passed from an eclectic concept
to an outlined understanding based on limited ideological andpolitical confrontations.
.205.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
Olympic multiculturalism: proclaimed universal values versus cultural relativism

Again, during the “33 rd International Main Session for
Young Participants” of the International Olympic Academy IOA in July 1993, the theme “Different Applications of
Olympism in the Major Cultural Zones of the World” wasdebated. Not surprisingly, a declared and explicit preoccupation
with multiculturalism related to Olympism was noted.
Thereafter, the systematization of topics listed by the Academy
included intercultural relations with an international
connotation. In addition, specific issues related to cultural
particularities in reference to Olympism’s values, which havea pretense sense of universality, began to be discussed.
According to historical background, sports activities aretaught and experienced in different ways, being interpreted
according to the culture of each society. Based on this remark,at the “33rd Main Session”, some representatives from the African
continent questioned the fact that modern Olympism only values
the practice of sports that are characteristic of the European
continent. In the same session, a discussion emerged about theviability to commend universal human values of sport practiceupon societies still full of racial, social and political conflicts. In
keeping with these debates, some principles proposed by
Olympism continue to be distant conditions, since theseprinciples are far from representing a singular sports culture.
The question of multiculturalism is not being derived from thesame concept on the elapsing of history. Nevertheless, it was often
present in cultural manifestations related to the Olympic Movement,
whether in the sense of individual nations and cultures throughideological reasons or as a consequence of a globalized world.
Furthermore, in the 100-year history of Olympism, theconcept of multiculturalism with an approach to cultural diversity
has not been a constant. By coincidence, the issues of amateurism,
gender prejudice, and gigantism of the Olympic Games developed
internal conflict in the Olympic Movement. In all, these facts areassembled to frame the investigation of multicultural responses.206.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
Olympic multiculturalism: proclaimed universal values versus cultural relativism

to Olympism now being introduced with the aim to understandand interpret the meaning of actions of a multicultural group
toward Olympism and its main components: the Olympic
Movement, Olympic Education, and the Olympic Games.
Another aim is to detect main trends in terms of
convergence or deviations when a multicultural group is
exposed to universal values commended by the Olympic
philosophy, namely the Olympism. The oscillations andcontradictions found from the research group members’interactions will be described and interpreted. The meanings
obtained through these descriptions will be confronted towards
Olympism’s proclaimed universal values.
My main concern in the present report is the behavior,
attitudes, and actions of a multicultural group, when exposed
to a system of values, which is founded upon the assumptionof common values. This assemblage also poses the relevanceof the aforementioned research, since its thematic implications
have potential impacts far beyond sport or Olympic issues.
Furthermore, the subjects of the investigation were
submitted to knowledge of universal pretensions, under similar day-to-day living conditions, which is the International
Olympic Academy (IOA) setting. In other words, these
conditions set a common infrastructure and support to theparticipants and the same learning and teaching opportunities.
In addition, the presupposed theoretic relationships ofOlympism with multiculturalism referred to IOA setting
implied in choosing ethnography as an appropriate method
for the enquiry which is reported henceforth.
Building the methodology path
Another reason that guided me to choose the ethnographic
research is some particular IOA’s assemblages in which persons.207.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
Olympic multiculturalism: proclaimed universal values versus cultural relativism

coming from different cultural backgrounds become social
actors. Through the description of the many situations lived
by those grouping procedures, it is possible to unattached andinterpret a web of meanings. Although I complement myresearch by interviewing the participants, fact that move themto change from social actors to informers, the ethnographic
social data collected during the whole time of the field research
was crucial to interpret and analyze the connections. If only
the responses were used, it would have been less precise, thatis why came up the decision to privilege ethnographic social
data to bring up reactions of actors involved related to
Olympism and its values. This resolution emerged with theconstantly reading of researches adopted by both Clifford
Geertz (1989) and Gilberto Velho (1986 and 1994).
The main difficulty found was to describe in detail all
situations without choosing from a banal one from a relevant
one. Even that, under this kind of research approach what is
considered to be trivial can enclose significance that brings
up surprising meanings when analyzed inside a specificcontext. Thus far, the research elaboration focus theethnographic work. As a tool of ethnomethodology, theethnography seeks to describe, comprehend, and interpretthe attitudes and answers of a specific multicultural group
who met in Ancient Olympia, Greece, for a two-monthseminar on Olympic studies.
In order to comprehend the influence of Olympic
values on a multicultural group, having the same academic
and social life, concrete conditions were analyzed in which
unravels the day-by-day educational process. Factors suchas, social class, race, age, and professional experience wereshown throughout several situations among theparticipants. The Academy’s infrastructure was also
analyzed, in order to evaluate the students’ attitudes inaccordance to what is being offered.
.208.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
Olympic multiculturalism: proclaimed universal values versus cultural relativism

Group Profile
The group was composed of students from the “Third Post
Graduate Seminar on Olympic Studies” offered by theInternational Olympic Academy, who came from different
countries and were selected by the International Olympic
Academy based on recommendations from their advisers aswell as curricular assessments. These students, mostly, belonged
to post graduate courses, either masters or doctorate from avariety of disciplines but concerned somehow to sport andissues related to this field in which they study, research, orwork within sport theory or practice. Experts in the field fromseveral universities selected the components of thismulticultural group. They come from different countries byoffer not by request. The group is multicultural, however, it
does not represent necessarily multiculturalism because it is anindicated group, not a picked and balanced one. Even though
the group is multicultural, was not randomly sampled, but
selected. It was not chosen purposely to fit a certain numberof countries. Nevertheless, the group has a multicultural profile.
More specifically, the group under scrutiny was composedof 29 individuals, 16 women and 13 men, coming from 24
different countries, as follows: Australia (two women), Argentina (one man), Belarus (one man), Brazil (myself), Canada (oneman), China (one woman), Czech Republic (one woman),France (one woman), Germany (two men), Great Britain (onewoman from England and one woman from Scotland), Greece(two women), Hungary (one woman), India (one man), Japan(one man and one woman), Norway (one man), Poland (oneman), Russia (one woman), South Korea (one man), Spain (onewoman), Tanzania (one man), Taiwan (one man), Thailand(one woman), United States of America (one woman) and Zaire(one man). The average age group ranged from 20 to 43 andthe professional occupations included Elementary Teachers,.209.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
Olympic multiculturalism: proclaimed universal values versus cultural relativism

Physical Education Teachers, Businesspeople, Anthropologists,
and Journalists.
In addition to these participants, others also produced the
local social interactions, such as professors, staff and,coordinators. The administrative staff was mostly Greek, who
lived near Olympia. Some specific roles, such as librarian,secretary, operator, and cookers were attributed to more
specialized supporters brought from Athens.
On the “Third International Post Graduate Seminar on
Olympic Studies” there were two professors from Germany,
two from the United States of America, five from Greece, one
from Australia, one from Canada and one from Great Britain,
all of them males. Altogether, professors and supportive staff
were considered for this research organization the web of
meanings, according to Geertz’s (1989) that sets his definition
based on an essentially semiotic concept of culture in which
he believes “man is an animal tied to web of meanings that hehimself wove, assuming culture as being these webs and its analysis;thus, not as experimental science searching for laws, but as aninterpretative science looking for meanings” (p. 15). Velho (1994)
also made use of the concept of web of meanings to describe,
analyze, and interpret situations. According to this Brazilian
anthropologist, “besides the descriptions itself the most difficult
thing when narrating an event is the maintenance of theatmosphere and the shape of what is being written” (p. 13).

Data Gathering Procedures
Taking into account that ethnomethodology allows
simultaneous utilization of different methodological
techniques, the ethnographic social data and interviews shapea unified information ensemble, which helped me to clear
the web of meanings.
.210.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
Olympic multiculturalism: proclaimed universal values versus cultural relativism

The data gathering instruments chosen are composed by
the field report to better understand the interrelations andinteractions among staff, professors, and students. The fieldreport made use of all situations that either called attention or
surprised me. Classroom situations, sport activities, trips, dailytasks, meals, and cultural events were included. The description
also covered social life, weekends, free time, and non-academic
activities in order to describe the largest number of possible
situations during the field research. These events consist in thegroup’s routine that is being studied. It was utilized a field
diary with observations about the practice and the way of life
we were living in the Academy.
To describe the participants’ perceptions of the Seminaron Olympism issues, a semi-structure interview was used inwhich five categories were selected: Sportsmanship or Fair Play,Sport for All or Mass Participation, Sport as Education, Culture
Exchange in Sports and International Understanding. The
categories were presented to the participants one by one.
The source that I was firstly inspired to choose thecategories was based on an international comparative study
directed by MacAloon (1991) about communication
technologies and cultural exchange. For the panel presentation,
MacAloon, Kang (Korea), Moragas (Spain) and Larson (USA)made use of 1988 Seoul Olympic Games’ opening ceremony.
The television coverage’s study “selected episodes from theOpening Ceremony telecast in three nations, to explore the mannerin which culture is presented, interpreted and translated throughglobally televised multicultural performances” (p.46). Although
I opted to outline main trends instead of content analysis andverbal discourse, MacAloon’s study helped me to build myown style of study. As a matter of fact, Dr. MacAloon as oneof the professors during the “Post Graduate Seminar on
Olympic Studies” helped me to polish and refine my first datagathering instrument.
.211.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
Olympic multiculturalism: proclaimed universal values versus cultural relativism

Moreover, these five categories were selected to identify
trends of Olympism in terms of group attitudes. To reach thisaim interviews were taped to identify the students’ opinions
about the five categories previously mentioned. The aim wasto let them talk about their understanding about the five topics.
Given that I conduct myself, as both a participant and an
observer, this fact could impose a limitation to the naturalness
and spontaneity of the students. Nevertheless, this arrangement
did not interfered at all, since notes were taken in concordancewith the interactions. Events that had occurred during the day
were usually written down with the objective of keeping an
up-to-date follow up of the happening and interactions.

Understanding the formation of amulticultural group
When dealing with a multicultural group, it is essential todiscuss culture and research in this field. The concept of culturethat Geertz (1989) proposes is essentially semiotic. In agreementwith Max Weber, Geertz believes that a Human Being is an animal linked to web of meanings, composed of social actors. He
assumes culture as a product of these webs and its analysis - ascience of interpretations searching for meanings. Culture
ultimately is what culture realizes. Still, according to Geertz, culture
is public because meaning is also public. One can not do anything
without knowing what that thing is considered to be. He does
not consider culture as being a power system or something thatcan be attributed occasionally to social events, behaviors,
institutions, or processes. Culture for him is a context- somethinginside, in which these facts can be described in a detailed way that is, described in a thick way - described with density.
To become engaged in the semiotic concept of culture andinto the interpretative approach is to become engaged with an.212.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
Olympic multiculturalism: proclaimed universal values versus cultural relativism

ethnographic expression quoted from W.B.Gallie by Geertz,
which is essentially contestable. Interpretative anthropology isa science that deals much more with refining debates insteadof achieving perfect consensus.
The essence of interpretative anthropology is to look into
the symbolic dimensions of social action – art, religion,
ideology, science, law, and morality - searching for in-depth
meanings. It does not answer our deepest questions, but puts
at our disposal the answers to other questions. In this way, we
do not retreat from life existential dilemmas and we can use
those answers to think while observing or studying othergroups, other tribes, other villages or other islands.
The important approach within anthropologists’ findings
is the specificity and circumstantially. With this elaborated
material produced from field work, mainly qualitative, highly
participatory, and realized within limited contexts, the broadconcepts afflicting contemporary social science can obtain all
kinds of possibilities to concretely think “about” them and“with” them, in a creative and imaginative way. These broadconcepts are legitimacy, modernity, integration, conflict,charisma, structures, and meaning. This is the difference
between a superficial description and a thick description (Ryle,
quoted by Geertz, 1989).
In order to study a multicultural group in action, it is necessary
to take an internal look at the term “multiculturalism” and its
origins. It is also advantageous to establish relations between
multiculturalism and education, that is, multicultural education.
The plural reasons for this are the intense concerns that the
Olympic Movement devotes to Olympic Education and Olympic
studies towards multicultural groups. Most of these studies areoffered within the International Olympic Academy setting.
Multiculturalism as a term appeared very recently.
According to the paper “Curadoria e Transculturalidade”(1996), this word emerged in the United States of America,.213.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
Olympic multiculturalism: proclaimed universal values versus cultural relativism

in the beginning of the 1980’s, as a code to hide the word
“race”. It became linked with the appearance of the language
considered “politically correct” established in that country
to fit the social-economic minorities discriminated against by
the First World market. Within this context this expression
began to be used, for that reason, multiculturalism often gives
the impression of a cultural mixture or cultural diversity, but
carries a politically correct statement.
In another interpretation given to multiculturalism, Eller(1997) presents the one in his article about the concerns ofMulticulturalism and Anti-Multiculturalism. He makes use of theexpression created by Geertz in his paper, Anti Anti-Relativism(1981/1998) which he adapted to Anti-Anti-Multiculturalism. This
text introduces the similarities of multiple perspective notions
pertaining to multiculturalism and anthropology, as well as therejection of the idea that only one answer exists that everyone
should accepts. Within this worldview of global complexity, Eller
and Geertz have in common the cognitive principles based on an
open-ended understanding of the world without truths established.
Nevertheless, Eller emphasizes the distinction between
anthropology and multiculturalism, where the former is a global
science and the latter is a typical problem concerning the UnitedStates’ minorities. Eller considers multiculturalism, “an activism,
a social movement, a demand for certain types of social change”,
directed specifically to “America, especially American minority
groups”. For him, “The debates between multiculturalism and antimulticulturalism are really about which groups and interests will holdpower and shape the production and reproduction of society in suchdomains as education, government, institutions, and art”. (p. 251).
Eller’s focus is the initial concept of multiculturalism that
seems to be similar to a concept of Anthropology, both terms
contradict when they are treated under the concept of culture.
Otherwise, paraphrasing Cardoso (1995), in his paper “Antropologia e Multiculturalismo”, multiculturalism, under political.214.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
Olympic multiculturalism: proclaimed universal values versus cultural relativism

and practical conceptualization in several domains, has formed,
in some Western countries, debates and endless polemics.
Multiculturalism was confronted to different philosophies
related to the way to promote equal opportunities. From thesedebates, concepts from several areas, like Biology, Sociology
and Anthropology emerged. Above all, the multiculturalism
found its roots and its theoretical stems in anthropology.
Culture and cultural relativism concepts are indications of amulticultural approach although with different usage andideological implications. Anthropology as a social science, has beenbrought into relation with the development of multiculturalism
and also influencing it. Yet, according to Eller, in a certain way
multiculturalism is an applied Anthropology. But in spite of thisproximity, the dialogue between both areas of knowledge has notbeen intense and sometimes their influences can not be seen.
The increasingly growth of heterogeneous societies fromthe intensification of migrations, ethnic interactions, globalizedintercultural relations, and movements in favor of Human
Rights, guide approaches that can not stem from traditional
cultural concepts and traditional cultural relativism concepts.
Facing these realities, becomes indispensable the problematicof culture concept and considers it a collective elaboration, in
continuous transformation.
Within this scenario, how are Olympic values going to bebrought into discussion and being fit into an Olympic
educational project? How are proclaimed universal values going
to be attached to cultural diversity? Epistemologically, to what
future is it possible to guide these values? In this context, anattempt is needed to find solutions for economic and social
inequality, including concepts such multiculturalism, post
modernity, ethnic and gender issues.
Eller’s concern (1997) towards this topic is related to thedebate around the dangers of either adopting a multiculturalist’s
point of view or an anti-multiculturalist’s point of view.
.215.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
Olympic multiculturalism: proclaimed universal values versus cultural relativism

First of all, multiculturalists’ conception about
multiculturalism is that several cultures living together can either
destroy a country’s national identity or enhance the power of anation with cultural diversities. According to Eller (1997):“Multiculturalists worry that certain
constituencies in the American population are
excluded from such important cultural domains
as knowledge and scholarship, arts, and politics.
They express the problem as a centering ofintellectual and cultural attention on theEuropean or European-derived elements ofAmerica. (...) For them knowledge, value, andculture are political and perspectival and mustbe treated as such. (...) Culture or scholarship isthus not entirely a disinterested process of values
or knowledge production but a negotiation forthe means of signification and legitimation in asociety. (...). Multiculturalists warns white or
European-descendent people to beware that they
too are merely one group in the American
multiculture” (p. 249).

Universal values are old attempts from Human Beings ofcreating values accepted, absorbed and reproduced among all
cultures - a kind of knowledge that is valid to any situation.
While trying to relate multiculturalism with universalism an
adjoining line between the preservation of culture’s
characteristics and the good use of all the traditional and classic
values stored by mankind is being established.
The impact of the civilization toward the rearrangementof the world order settles a collision between power and culture
as well as the tendency of establishes universal concepts. The
political structure of some civilizations reacts against Western
universalized concepts and transfers the presupposed established.216.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
Olympic multiculturalism: proclaimed universal values versus cultural relativism

power to other representative issues such as: the necessity ofinternational understanding, preservation, inclusion andvalorization of non-Western cultures. It does not mean that
we have to get rid of philosophies that proclaim universal
values, but we have to consider the world conflicts and examine if certain paradigms do not have eternal validity.
Thus, Olympism has to take multiculturalism inconsideration and it is significant to take into account that a
focus that was adequate in a certain period of time does notmean that it would be likewise in another period. A growing
number of institutions, organizations, research centers andteachers are debating now about multiculturalism and its
influence in everyone’s life. Several channels are being used tomake these groups meet, including schools, Internet, and theInternational Olympic Academy.
Nowadays a multicultural group can be considered as suchwhen a group of people of different nationalities meet and discuss
issues related to international interests or specific benefits. Someof these groups are exposed to proclaimed universal values andeither reject, accept or question them. Some groups are
considered being multicultural even when they are not named
as such. Others though, are truly called multicultural.
In this context, it is found the International Olympic
Academy, located in Ancient Olympia, Greece, which has been
trying to provide a variety of courses on Olympic studies,offered throughout the year. Multicultural groups compose
95% of these courses. Students come from all around the world
to participate and study Olympic subjects. Besides being a
multicultural group - which per se presents a peculiar situation- participants, in their majority, stay thousands miles away fromtheir homes, cohabiting during days, weeks or months undera different and special situation.
Despite some contradictions about the term multiculturalism,
either used in the sense of cultural diversity or based on.217.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
Olympic multiculturalism: proclaimed universal values versus cultural relativism

anthropological meaning towards relativism, the International
Olympic Academy have been using this term related to
Olympism, which presupposing universal values. The Academy
has been successful in reaching this desirable enterprise that is
the appreciation of diverse cultures and peoples. It is structured,both in content and process allowing participants not only to
study but also question the proclaimed universal values,
prejudices, discriminations, questions related to amateurism,
doping, gigantism, media, commercialization, and politics.
These issues have individual reactions to each culture andnation. Notwithstanding, the Academy is adopting Olympism’s
theory and trying to act and create ideals and proposals, as forthe case of Olympic education. During the seminar where
Olympism is presented to the students, it is difficult to imagine that in those audiences there is a confluence of diverse culture
heritages, experiences, perspectives, and various types ofdiversity being exposed to the Olympic philosophy. Although,at first glance it seems like everyone is quite familiar with
Olympic issues and speech, some concepts are misinterpreted
and ambiguous to some cultures. Their representatives try toadapt the official discourse, but sometimes can not avoid theirdissatisfaction toward their non-participation in the building
process of the Olympic Movement. A lack of a bridge appears
when making meaningful connections between the abstractionsof Olympism and sport ethnically and culturally different.
Some representatives from Asia and African countries claim
participation in both content and process in the Olympic
Movement. For them, it should include changes to reflect cultural diversity.
In retrospect of the already mentioned “33rd IOA Session
for Young Participants”, it is worth to emphasize theinterpretations from Marius Francisco (1993), Benin, to whom
the Modern Olympism is being incorporated by the African
culture and expanding its roots within African society.
.218.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
Olympic multiculturalism: proclaimed universal values versus cultural relativism

Considering sport and Olympism as a social phenomenon
worldwide to the African culture, the combination of
Olympism and culture means a re-appropriation of its universal Humanism. The flourish of the sports heritage is interactingwith Olympism. Nevertheless, Marius Francisco questions thefact that there is a risk of loosing African culture’s soul. The
culture’s interference follows universal laws of History andcan lead either to domination or disappearance, but also tosynthesis. In sports, this conflict embraces the Olympic Games,
especially, and the Olympic sports that have almost exclusively
Western origins. On his speech, Marius Francisco emphasizes
the fact that Europe had been the birthplace of the Olympic
Games and this brings advantages and precedents over theothers. To him, the Olympic Games were a historical accident
without property of or race. No one can monopolize them.
The Games belong to the world. The hegemonic culture ofsport should be temporary and can not hide the real proposalthat Coubertin established for the Games. He asserts that thedevelopment of the Olympic program of the Games grows
with a number of events and sports that are constantly included.
Sports, however, being a social phenomenon, can grow or die,abandoned by the public or banished by moral or technicalreasons. He suggests that with all these frequent readjustments,
the program would be able to include sports that are considered
to be typical from African countries.
Despite the apparent legitimacy of Marius Francisco’s claims,
this issue has been proved to be a very polemic one, since theinclusion of a new sport depends on the number of countries inwhich that sport has been practiced, the number of continents
involved and if its practice include men and women.

.219.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
Olympic multiculturalism: proclaimed universal values versus cultural relativism

Building up olympism throughout the 20th century
Many people and institutions have been trying to define
and establish a concrete meaning to Olympism. This term andconcept in fact started with Pierre de Coubertin, the founderof the modern Olympic Movement, while looking for a
supporting philosophy to his proposal of all nations coming
together to participate in games under the Ancient Olympic
Games model. The concept of Olympism for Coubertin
clarified in his article “The Philosophical Foundations of Modern
Olympism”(1935) quoted by Parry (1998), embraces thereligiosity of sport and athlete:“I was right to create from the outset, aroundthe renewed Olympism, a religious sentiment(transformed and widened by Internationalism,
Democracy and Science)... This is the origin of
all the rites which go to make the ceremonies ofthe modern Games” (p.131).

It is noticed that the religiosity, which is seen at Coubertin’s
proposal, is not the same as the Ancient Greeks had consideredthrough the Games making use in name of Gods – atranscendental meaning. Even though the emotion brought bya religious feeling is stimulated to be the same. This concern ofadapting ancient rituals and symbols helps to keep the equitablebounds between Ancient Times and Western societies.
The conflicts and contradictions increase as the years goby, since some values are not suitable to our times. Moreover,
all of these definitions and Olympism’s follow-ups indicate
the amount of ideas that come together with Olympism’s origin
as well as with factual Olympism. The factual Olympism,
which has been transformed throughout these past years
according to political and social contexts, is being built based.220.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
Olympic multiculturalism: proclaimed universal values versus cultural relativism

on an abstract basis rather than on social world changes.
Olympism’s concepts are being discussed in the International
Olympic Academy - IOA and among International Olympic
Committee members. Although many people consider
Olympism a dogmatic theory and criticize it for its doctrinaire
discourses, Olympism has changed its profile thanks to somescholars that advocate for an applicable Olympism. Lining up
with this model, Parry (1998) suggests that the philosophicalanthropology of Olympism promote the ideal of:• individual all round harmonious human development• towards excellence and achievement• through effort in competitive sporting activity• under conditions of mutual respect, fairness, justice and equality• with a view to creating lasting personal human relationship offriendship;• international relationships of peace, toleration and understanding;• and cultural alliances with the arts

With this proposal, Olympism embraces a variety ofcontemporary issues that cover some basic required conditions
to be adjusted to our present world. In this concern, DaCosta(1998) understands Olympism as an ongoing process ofdevelopment in philosophical grounds when facing practicalexperiences. Thus, this conception has been coined as a “process
philosophy” which also fits in the search of an equilibrium
between extremes of conflict-resolution circumstances as thosethat the IOC has been dealing since Coubertin’s time..
A good example in which Olympism values were put
into practice was the one related to the apartheid. The
International Olympic Committee pressured African.221.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
Olympic multiculturalism: proclaimed universal values versus cultural relativism

countries, which adopted racism to give up this practice under
the risk of being banished from the Games. That is why the
Olympic philosophy should take into account the ethicalapproach and enforce it on a daily basis.
It is necessary to reinforce here that Olympism, Olympic
Education, the Olympic Movement, the International Olympic
Academy, and the Olympic Solidarity are not necessarily linked
exclusively to the Olympic Games. Even though, the Gamesare the main manifestation of the Olympic Movement.
New perspectives of Olympism or Olympism in progress
A valuable source that helped to compose my own
Olympism constructor was all my experiences throughout
the last six years in close contact with the International
Olympic Academy. I had the opportunity to participate inthree different ways in the Academy.
When I was first introduced to Olympism and its studies,
I was in Olympia for the 33rd International Main Session for
Young Participants , whose main subject was “The Different
Applications of Olympism in the Major Cultural Zones of theWorld”. As referred to this Main Session of 1993, as opposed
to customary ideas about the contribution of sport to thesocial and cultural progress of the world, some lectures
examined the meaning of Olympism at the present time inwhich social and economic inequalities still exist. Theirconcern registered that sport activity is taught and lived in adifferent way in each society, being interpreted according tosingular values of a specific local culture.
It is easy to see the complexity of this issue that keeps
traditional concepts transmitted by general society and, atthe same time, presents polemical positions referred tocontemporary matters.
So far, by the occasion of Seoul Olympic Games, Shinpyo-Kang pronounced about the singularity of thoseGames, in which Koreans, as hosts, had attributed a profile.222.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
Olympic multiculturalism: proclaimed universal values versus cultural relativism

to the Games that reflects their place on the world scenario.
Although he pointed out the fact that Koreans found it
difficult to understand the Western world, he admitted thatthe more they understand and are able to reproduce it, themore they value their own singular traditions. Comparing
Seoul Games with other ones, he noticed that they
represent a balanced between an international event and anational event, synthesizing universal culture code withparticular culture code. Those outsiders’ values were able
to build a setting in which the world could situate the 1988
Olympic Games as an international event organized inSouth Korea.
At the center of this context of consensus and conflict,modern Olympism’s debates grow and develop looking forunanimous world acceptance. Olympism’s definition is not
as controversial as it is voiced. Actually, its challenge is thecoexistence between Olympism’s values and codes towards
each specific local culture. These cultures are inserted in theirautonomy and particular concepts and when these proclaimed
universal values from Olympism are confronted to each singular code of culture, a voice in the emptiness can be felt. Of
course, the generalization adopted by the official definition
can not be avoided, once it faces the need of broad inclusion
in following Coubertin’s traditions.
The desire of different sport systems living together,and the survival of sport traditions and singular sports,
animates the discussions between firmly incorporated
values and specific culture codes. These so-called adaptablevalues are presented and immersed in different cultures andshowed in different ways of facing omnipresent dilemmas
such as racism, gender issues, doping, and sportscommercialization.
Retaining these facts I returned in Olympia in 1995 as a
student of the Post-Graduated Seminar for Olympic Studies.223.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
Olympic multiculturalism: proclaimed universal values versus cultural relativism

with a project to be developed. The contents addressed by
the seminar were deeper in terms of expanding the subjects
to either analyze or suggest other forms of approach. Projects
and papers were presented in an attempt to reach and analyze
the panorama in which Olympism and its branches areinserted. At present, Olympism is examined not only
considering History, but also Sociology, Philosophy,
Anthropology, and Education. These approaches help tointersect polemic and controversial issues into an equitable
look towards culture.
From that distinct look I could see how Olympism
discussions were outgrowing and still far from being
homogeneously understood by different cultures.
Nevertheless, it was still attained to universal proclaimed
values commended by the official belief. Based upon my
Olympic Studies’ new approaches, courses and my field
experiences related previously, I selected the five categories
as they should represent values of Olympism.
The way I selected the categories and authors was
inspired after reading Tavares (1998), in which he presents
several Olympism’s interpretations. In order to emphasize
the relevance of the categories chosen I introduce them withthe main authors who had included these subjects into
concepts, definitions, or classifications. Chart number one(parts a, b and c) displays the authors and the concepts categories - they have been concerned and linked withdefinition.

.224.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
Olympic multiculturalism: proclaimed universal values versus cultural relativism

Chart 1
Olympism’s Meanings, Values, Aims and Terminology
Authors and Categories Selected(a)Sportsmanship/
Fair Play
Lenk (1964)
fair-play

Sport for All/Sport
Mass Participation As Education
Lenk (1964)
Religiouscultural import

Culture Exchangein Sports
Lenk (1964)
Religious-cultural
import;Festive, artistic
and spiritualplanning of theGames;
Desire to give theGames the characterof the host country;
Ancient meaning of
the Games in relation
to their modern form.

Samaranch(1995)
generosity;
solidarity;
friendship

Samaranch(1995)
friendship;
non-discrimination

Samaranch(1995)
generosity;
solidarity;
friendship.

Samaranch(1995)
tolerance;
generosity;
solidarity;
friendship;nondiscrimination;
respect for others.

.225.

International
Understanding
Lenk (1964)
Ancient idea ofan unarmed
truce and the
movement’s
peaceful
mission;Making the
movement
international andindependent;
Sweeping aside allcultural, racial,national, religious
and social barriers
Samaranch(1995)
tolerance;solidarity;
friendship;nondiscrimination;
respect for others

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
Olympic multiculturalism: proclaimed universal values versus cultural relativism

Chart 1 (b)Sportsmanship/
Fair Play
Brundage(1963)
fair play and goodsportsmanship

Parry(1998)
Mutual respect,fairness, justice andequalitySport for all/Massparticipation
Brundage(1963)(...) sport isfor fun andenjoyment (...)

Sport as
Education

CultureExchange

International
Understanding

Brundage(1963)
teach that sport isfor fun andenjoyment(...)
a national programof physical training
and competitive
sport(...) will makebetter citizens(...).

Brundage(1963)
stimulate interestin the fine arts
through exhibitions
and demonstrations,and thus contributeto a broader andmore rounded life.

Brundage(1963)
create international
amity and good will,thus leading to ahappier and morepeaceful world.

Parry(1998)
view of creating
lasting personal
humanrelationships offriendship

Parry(1998)
Parry(1998)
Cultural alliances
through effort incompetitive sporting with the arts
activity

Parry(1998)
International
relationships of peace,toleration andunderstanding.

Segrave(1998)
same
opportunities

Segrave(1998)
education

Segrave(1998)
international
understanding.226.

Segrave(1998)
cultural expression

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
Olympic multiculturalism: proclaimed universal values versus cultural relativism

Chart 1 (c)Sportsmanship/
Fair Play
Brundage(1963)
fair play and goodsportsmanship

Parry(1998)
Mutual respect,fairness, justiceand equality

Sport for all/Massparticipation
Brundage(1963)(...) sport isfor fun andenjoyment (...)

Sport as
Education

CultureExchange

International
Understanding

Brundage(1963)
teach that sport isfor fun andenjoyment(...)
a national programof physical training
and competitive
sport(...) will makebetter citizens(...).

Brundage(1963)
stimulate interestin the fine arts
through exhibitions
and demonstrations,and thus contributeto a broader andmore rounded life.

Brundage(1963)
create international
amity and good will,thus leading to ahappier and morepeaceful world.

Parry(1998)
view ofcreating
lasting
personal
human
relationships
of friendship

Parry(1998)
Parry(1998)
Cultural alliances
through effort incompetitive sporting with the arts
activity

Segrave
Segrave(1998)(1998)
same
education
opportunities

Segrave(1998)
cultural expression

Parry(1998)
International
relationships ofpeace,
toleration andunderstanding.

Segrave(1998)
international
understanding

As it can be seen, the categories selected are matters
historically approached by trends of thoughts, desires and values
proposed and required by leaders and scholars who suggested
directions for the Olympic Movement.
“Fair Play” and “Sportsmanship” supported by the
Philosophical Anthropology of Olympism, proposed by Parry(1998), are a great and exciting source for research which could
include schools, colleges and other kinds of educational
programs which desire to expand the ideal of sports ethics.
“Sport for All” and “Mass Participation” are polemic.
There are countries that decide to put the short budget
destined to sports into elite sports, which makes the.227.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
Olympic multiculturalism: proclaimed universal values versus cultural relativism

development of mass sports fail. In the other hand, they could
get eminence in elite sports to bring political prominence inother fields. The Olympic Movement through theInternational Olympic Committee is entitled to promotemechanisms to organize and develop mass sports as an incentive to encourage social benefit.
The International Olympic Committee took a very
distinguished procedure with the inclusion in the Olympic
Charter’s Fundamental Principle the statement where it states
that, “The practice of sport is a human right. Every individual
must have the possibility of practicing sport in accordance withhis or her needs”. As a matter of fact with this measure, theIOC highlighted and recommended the developing of mass
participation in sports, therefore, encouraging “Sport for All”
programs. Moreover, on account of DaCosta & Miragaya(2002) research on worldwide experiences of Sport for All,the IOC’s involvement with such promotion started in 1919
with Coubertin himself.
“Sport as Education” is known to be part of an educational
program. Since the majority of my informers are linked with
Education within their jobs, I found it would be primordial
and relevant to establish a dialogue where they could express
their opinions about this wide subject. Besides, Olympic
Education is one of primary concerns in the history of
Olympic Movement.
“Cultural Exchange in Sports” is one of the most cultivatedcharacteristics of the Modern Olympism because it embraces allnations since its beginning. The former concepts of superior
and inferior cultures are being extinguished little by little as soon
as human beings know more, understand and, therefore, respect
the other cultures to a great extent. The idea of exchanging cultural knowledge came as a necessity of entrance in the third
millenium and the wave of globalization as a consequence of amore integrated - not necessary consensual - world.
.228.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
Olympic multiculturalism: proclaimed universal values versus cultural relativism

As a consequence of inter knowledge and priority to world
peace, the “International Understanding” as a concept is much
more than a goal, it is a constantly effort shown by many
institutions that claim to improve quality of life, environment
and a better world understanding. MacAloon (1991) requires
more studies under global interconnection and culturaldifferentiation field. According to him the lack of these themes
contrasting to biomedical and sports technical fields needs tobe overcome in order to provide opportunities to reflect on
global and cultural matters. In all, this category stands of acore value of the Olympic Movement since its very beginning.

Unraveling the web
As far as the presupposition of the original research isconcerned, the claims for universality represented the macroreferences of the ethnographic interpretations developed inAncient Olympia. In turn, the macro level descriptions carriedon with the multicultural group were referred interchangeably
with proclaimed universal values of Olympism. As a result, trends
have been identified when Geertz and Velho’s methodologicalrecommendations were associated. These ethnographic
observations combined with the interview data set were included
in details in my Doctoral dissertation (Abreu, 1999).
However, productive assemblage of descriptions and crossappreciation of categories is here additionally included to complete the ethnographic interpretations as well as to meet theaims of this Chapter in terms of conclusions. As such, fivematrices were elaborated in order to identify main trends ofthe multicultural group under scrutiny, as may be seen in the
appendix A of this report.
These trends as primarily admitted as expressions ofconvergence or deviations from Olympism’s proclaimed uni.229.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
Olympic multiculturalism: proclaimed universal values versus cultural relativism

versal values, do not encompass quantitative break down
analysis. Instead, only meaningful declarations were drawn
from the interviews made as yet with the multicultural group.
Let me present the matrices by title and short clarifyingcomments in the following paragraphs.

Fair Play/SportsmanshipThis category was divided in four blocks of responses inorder to accurate the search of trends. The first block denotes
fair play as following rules with the reasonable statement that
it will be difficult to take part in a game without rules being
settled. In addition, the drug-taking behavior came up as an
unfair advantage.
The second block considers fair play by going beyond therules. This vision is illustrated by attitudes towards the opponents,
such as respect, interaction, cooperation, help, and friendship toothers. Besides, it is indicated as being a good sportsman, attitudes
belonging to one’s own. These attitudes are the acceptance of
opponent’s apologies, the hard working to achieve excellence,
the fairness attitude beyond sports field, the recognition of one’own mistakes, the acceptance of defeat and the enjoyment ofplaying by the sake of the game. It is also presented situations inwhich the coach exerts an important role in pushing the athletes
to act according to his/her philosophy of winning at all cost or
accepting victory and defeat in a good way.
Block three concentrates the responses in fair play concepts
such as the use of the term sportsmanship as a sexist
terminology. Fair play is also considered to be an abstract
concept. However, the concern established between culture
and fair play concept was raised under the desire to consider
the differences among cultures to improve and enlarge othercultures beliefs.
.230.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
Olympic multiculturalism: proclaimed universal values versus cultural relativism

The last block of responses shows some scattered thoughts
related to economic aspects. As to develop sports practice it
was required equal conditions to its occurrence. It was
mentioned the role sports marketing plays upon athletes’ image.
The sportsmanship which is demonstrated by top level athletes
on TV during international Games are seen as insincere due tothe maintenance of the exemplary image to be used as individual marketing. This statement is brought up by one of theinformers and seemed to be a singular affirmation. Although
this response does not show any dominant trend I consider asa contemporary approach to be further studied. In fact, sport
image has been often considered an extraordinary financial
source to make money as an individual in addition to the one
obtained by professional sport sponsoring.
In spite of the fact that there is an immediate and strong
tendency to define fair play as following the rules, there is aunanimous trend that demonstrates fair play denoting attitudes
that goes beyond the rules. Besides, general behavior is presented
linked with fair play and sportsmanship on a sport field.
It is important to note that the same person could have
respond with a sort of statements from the four different blocks.
This flexibility of view reveals a search to sharp and accurate
fair play concept in favor of embracing general logical concept.
As a result, a wide variety of ideas will fit and please to a
multicultural approach.
Sport for All/ Mass Participation
Although Olympic Charter states in principle eight thatsport practice is a human right that every single person shouldbe allowed to practice, I did not see from the responses anintense link between the Olympic Movement and the proposalof Sport for All. The reason for this lack of association is.231.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
Olympic multiculturalism: proclaimed universal values versus cultural relativism

probably connected to the only recent inclusion of principle
eight belonging to the Fundamental Principles of the Olympic
Charter. This revision was decided in 1997 during theInternational Olympic Committee meeting in Lausanne,
Switzerland. However, Sport for All was suggested in the
responses as integration between elite sport and school sport
as well as a feeder system for top-level sports, meeting an
academic definition of non-formal versions of sport as foundin DaCosta (1991),“Nevertheless, to many of its interpreters, sport
for all was also a result of non-formal games andexercises combined with media motivation
involving sports practice. With its emphasis on
identity in pluralism and its association with themass media, sport for all has recently been seen
as atypical product of contemporary life. Thisnaturally applies to many other public activities
in both rich and poor societies”. (p. 152).

Anyway, according with their own views, informers
emphasized the aims that should be focused on a Sport for All
program. The goals highlighted were comparable to theenjoyment and pleasure of the activity provided, longevity andbody awareness promotion, and the development of friendshipand equality. Issues associated to the removal of youth fromdrugs and bad habits were also cited. There is a solid concern
to include all kind of people within a mass sport program,
especially women, children, and old people. Watching big
sports events was included as mass participation program,nevertheless, countries with a huge gap in social inequality see
this fact as an excuse to retard the implementation of ademocratic sport program. While the educational system wassuggested as one initiator to provide the development of a mass
sport program, it was mentioned a preference to deal with top.232.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
Olympic multiculturalism: proclaimed universal values versus cultural relativism

athletes in order to obtain more prestige. It was also brought
up an assumption that government puts more money in toplevel athletes program.
There is an impressive tendency to consider sport as
education, an excellent tool to achieve social understanding aswell as specific abilities linked to motor development and healthimprovement. Moral values and physical abilities concentrate
the majority of incidences which still show the significancerole and hope society lies on the educational system. Even
though sometimes this system is questioned, it is yet considered
to be a mechanism to cultivate good habits, improve life quality,
and learn values that can be transferred to every day life
situations. The group emphasizes that especially through games
and sport situation, teachers can lead kids on how to work
together, interact with others and develop body abilities inorder to reach human well being and establish a wellness
education program. None of the informers deny the importanceand special role Physical Education exerts towards sports
education, nonetheless, responses indicated that the obligationof being involved in sport practice is harmful.

Culture Exchange in Sports
In general there are more positive aspects indicated by thegroup within Culture Exchange in Sports category rather
than negative, however, there are important concerns
considered to be a discouraging inclination. Mainly, these
directions go towards the influence Western countries put forth
upon others. Cultural exchange is discreditable because it is
not seen any real exchange within a Movement that only
Western patterns put over others. The lack of tolerance amongcultures and the interference of political issues in culture
exchange are also influenced points.
.233.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
Olympic multiculturalism: proclaimed universal values versus cultural relativism

The fact that competitions do not promote culture exchange
is also thought over. Nevertheless, the advantages that culture
exchange in sports exerts over negative aspects is immense. Thereis a clear view that sports promote culture exchange evenconsidering the existing tension among countries, the groupstill recognizes the greater achievement sport events have beenexerting to put down prejudices, providing athletes andspectators to see, learn and accept other cultures. Media’s roleis distinguished in being either attentive to promote culture
exchange or negligent. Its action will depend on financial andmarketing interests. Most of them conceive culture principles
as being caught through sports attitudes, admitting the factthat top athletes usually belong to a select group and fortunate
social class. Elite athletes are consider to be representatives of
their own national culture, even if sometimes they train andlive in other cultures. According to the group point of view,
these athletes do show signs of their national identity. These
marks are not a stereotyped profile they are indeed, culture
characteristics delineated throughout its individuals.
It is never too much to highlight within this type ofapproach that one can consider sports as being used to increase
antagonism and that same person, however, can also
demonstrate the possibility to achieve culture exchange throughsports. This interpretation shall not be considered as acontradiction but certainly a wide variety of approaches thatwill depend on several circumstances. These contexts can bepolitical, social or economic conditions. Parallel to theseelements, Olympic education plays a crucial and pertinent partin promoting basic knowledge to comprehend and tolerate
other culture’s values.
There is evidence from the increasing number of mixed
nationalities cohabiting, educators, sociologist, anthropologists,
and independent discussions groups that the best way to respect
one another and consider cultural differences is group self.234.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
Olympic multiculturalism: proclaimed universal values versus cultural relativism

knowledge. This difficult and challenging task we are facing
can help to improve mutual understanding among cultures.

International Understanding
Western’s patterns and its controversial supremacy is again
blamed by some informers in this category. They accuse
powerful countries to domain and block the expansion ofothers’ culture influence as well as to impede mutual
understanding by imposing their own values. Notwithstanding,on the whole, there is optimist estimation mixed with an
idealistic view rather than a pessimistic one. This scene is shown
due to the amount of occurrence over the consideration thatsports events collaborate to international understanding.
Several aspects are considered to be relevant to make this particular meaning happen. These aspects are related to political,
economic, and educational spheres, besides media and culture
understanding, which are also recommended to improve
international understanding. However, the finest faith relieson sport, suggested as a valuable direction to collaborate to theunderstanding. Although, sport can promote life quality, it
has to be connected with a social, political and educational
program, otherwise it would be naïve to think that sport acts
independently from other spheres of societies.
An additional remark ought to be made on theemergence of group self-knowledge and equal opportunities.
Actually, these attitudes were pervasive in interviews since
they were not presented in the scope of Olympism. In
retrospect, both emerged interpretations seem to beconnected to friendship as far as ethnographic social data
are interpreted.
Symptomatically, the friendship bond demonstrated by theinteractions was not externally imposed. It was constantly built.235.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
Olympic multiculturalism: proclaimed universal values versus cultural relativism

on daily basis’ connections. As such, two different situations
were often manifested: when equal conditions were provided
the multicultural group had not internal conflicts. On the other
hand, when this group faced financial personal problems thefriendship bond became elusive.
Situations such as the ones on non-historical visits in which
participants had to pay for their own ticket, demonstrated thatthe group was cohesive under equal circumstances until getting
to a point that inequality made opinions and actions be divided.
While the Academy was paying all the expenses, everyone wasbeing exposed to all facilities, actives, benefits, and services.
When the Academy did not cover the expenses, the groupstrongly disagrees and became detached under a nonhomogeneous structure. Associating the short visit to the island
episode, in which two people from the group had to pay a fineand the other group’s component decided to share the penalty,
is possible to see that both situations were managed under an
opposite way, with the same multicultural group involved.
A common reason was noted to determine the act of findinga fairness solution. Comparing situations involving money,
the reason, which guided the difference among them, wasfriendship. That specific sub group - the one who traveled tothe island - had developed a profound friendship relation,
therefore they care for each other. It is important to notice,
however, that friendship bond was built among those social
actors. Actually, several circumstances were surrounding thosesituations and the sub groups did not act under the same values
because friendship was one the most important point todistinguish attitudes.
The other situation with money involved happened with
the idea of collecting money to buy cake for the person having
a birthday. This episode stress the problem that conflicts starts
to appear whenever involves expenses not covered by the
Academy. Financial issues did not interfere in the group.236.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
Olympic multiculturalism: proclaimed universal values versus cultural relativism

relationship if it remains steady. While if external constraints
affect its stability the harmony would be influenced.
Summarizing, cultural differences seem to be more accepted
and tolerated when basic needs are equally provided.

Conclusion
In conclusion, friendship was one of the most importantvalues detected at Ancient Olympia’s experience of 1995,
however delimited by the existence of equal opportunities.
Besides, this relationship may be more meaningful whenputting in the same focus friendship and group self-knowledge,
another main trend depicted by the matrices. Again, theethnographic method here faces its key attributions: to know
the other and to deal with the differences. Notwithstanding,knowing the other means to recognize ourselves as much asothers’ singularities.
Conversely, equal opportunities and group self-knowledge
are built-up outcomes determined from the field research,which were respectively developed by the IOA-Olympia andthe multicultural group by itself. In this concern, bothoutcomes stood as tools not values, having in mind they were
supportive to friendship. By the way, the friendship values
appeared before in chart one, as a component of all categories
selected not as a clear prescribed value for Olympism. Thus,
friendship is ultimately a micro development in the scrutinizedgroup, but according to its declarations, it acts as a macroreference. This is particular true because friendship permeates
all values interactions.
Worth to mention, in this sense, is DaCosta’s (1998)
argument when approaching to dilemmas, paradoxes andoverall constraints of the Olympic Movement worldwide atnowadays:.237.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
Olympic multiculturalism: proclaimed universal values versus cultural relativism“Then philosophically, the practical meaning ofOlympism is more concerned with culturalclaims than with scientific or pedagogicalprescriptions. This argument moreover may befurther re-elaborated by the productive
metaphors of ‘homo athleticus’ and ‘homo
symbolicus’ in order to explain the cultural
pitfalls of Olympism. In principle, whileathleticism requires control in macro-relations,the symbolic identity of man in his pluralistic
environment comprises values and contingent
experiences in micro-relations, demanding a new
approach to equilibrium after all” (p.198).

Regarding this interpretation, a concluding remark of thepresent investigation concerns to the two-level differentiationof Olympism While DaCosta had recommended a codification– “control” - to the former and a pluralistic adaptation –“contingent experiences” - to the latter, MacAloon (1991)
proposes in the same context of analysis “global
interconnections” and “cultural differentiation” both mutuallyadapted. Equivalent approach has Müller (1990), to whom
Olympism progresses keeping “immutable values” from its
historical foundations and developing “updated values” as wellto contingent adaptations. Coincidentally, Liponski (1987)
envisages present-day “Olympic Universalism” as opposed to“Olympic Pluralism”, prescribing a long-lasting process of
introducing “to Olympism the cultural and philosophicalexperience of societies other than Western” (p.517).
On behalf of the conclusions illuminated by the present
investigation, I propose core values as an appropriate
denomination to macro level relationships once they constituteuniversally accepted values. Moreover, core values may also
express those values able to be developed either globally or
locally, since they are referred to practice. That is the case of.238.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
Olympic multiculturalism: proclaimed universal values versus cultural relativism

friendship and international understanding if this Ancient
Olympia 1995 research is concerned. Of course, being corevalues defined by macro perspectives they should be naturally
hosted in Olympic Charter what is now occurring withenvironmental values. As a consequence, core values become
proclaimed as much as accepted.
As corollary, cultural values follow straightforward corevalues once the former represent in my view local belonging
developments, either independent or adapted from the latter.
Therefore, cultural values can not be embraced by the Olympic
Charter although this code might give legitimacy to them.
In short, this ethnographic study when combiningprescriptive focuses from Geertz and Velho allows me toconsolidate international understanding and friendship as corevalues of Olympism. In addition, a third core value has been
recently disclosed in the Olympic grounds by means of a stepby-step agreement, that is the environment protection. For thislate development, as reported by DaCosta (1996), it was adopted
for the first time in the IOC’s history a contractual solution forbuilding up values. In my view, this case not only disclosed a
new value of Olympism but also essentially established themethod of producing similar collective compromise.
In another context, the contractual solution was the optionof Liponski (1987), that namely proposed “an international cooperative pluralism” for Olympism’s adaptation to nonWestern cultures. This proposal had emerged after he witnesses
facts that deserve a full textual quotation as follows:“During the Session of the International
Olympic Academy, held in Ancient Olympia
in July 1983, a secret meeting took place. About
30 representatives from Asian and Africancountries discussed some political and culturalproblems connected with the Olympic.239.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
Olympic multiculturalism: proclaimed universal values versus cultural relativism

Movement. Not all of these questions areinteresting for us here. One of them, however,is certainly worth of our attention. It was a
problem of allegiance to basic Olympic
principles. With one exception from India, therest of the Olympic activists, intellectuals andscholars from African and Asia countries,
declared, that Olympism is basically a Europeanidea, unacceptable for non-Europeans in its
present form. They each asserted that the
Olympic Games have been latterly a very
convenient political form of national expression
and should be used now and in the near futurefor helping the political integration of the Third
World. But after achieving this goal they must
be abandoned as an undesirable form of neocolonialism. The only person from India who
tried to defend Olympism against rest of thegathering, was openly warned: “Be with us, notwith Europeans and Euro-Americans. If not,you wake up some day at a.vacated post, left
alone by your own countrymen. Beware ofthat”. I was informed about this meeting several
days later probably because I had a short paper
in Olympia. In this paper I called upon more
respect for the cultural and sportingachievements of Asian and African countries
within the Olympic Movement and especiallywithin its intellectual principles. This is why I
had been admitted to their unofficial conspiracy.
I would like to emphasize this word:“unofficial”. Officially representatives of thesesame countries display a totally different
attitude. I do not know to what extent it is akind of deliberate yet unofficial stand, and towhat extent it is transitory resentment as a result.240.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
Olympic multiculturalism: proclaimed universal values versus cultural relativism

of decades or even hundreds of years ofEuropean colonial domination over thosecountries. In both cases, however, the principal
component of such a negative attitude seems tobe obvious: it consists in the differences between
the concept of Olympism- which is basically a
product of European thought- and the nonEuropean understanding of fundamental ways ofliving typical of particular nations, ethnical,
religious or geographical areas. Let us examine
the Olympic Idea from the perspective of thisgrowing and not so distant conflict” (pp. 513-514).

Yet, Liponski reinforced his cultural compromise proposal here
already mentioned making a fundamental question: “what kindof values, now so essential for Olympism should be kept, andwhat should be limited or eliminated if any in order to respect
non-Western societies?” (pp. 517-518).
In my perspective, the present investigation, concluded in
1999, was an initial answer to similar interrogations. Further
developments shall come up with new research projects on
the theme of Olympism’s values and mainly by means ofinternational agreements, as recently observed in environmental
conflict-resolution area. But substantial changes in Olympic
Movement respectively to proclaimed values can be only
expected if Olympic Education adopts multiculturalism as oneof its basic rationales.
The absence of significant interactions over cultural issues
may reinforce stereotypes and cause individuals to be skepticaland untrustworthy of any kind of universal proposals. In thevery beginning of the third millenium, it is necessary to know
how to avoid being succumbed to false homogeneous proposals,
proclaimed as universals. Some of them obtains undervalue
because they do not embrace world differences whether
economical, cultural, political or religious.
.241.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
Olympic multiculturalism: proclaimed universal values versus cultural relativism

An Olympic Education under a multicultural focus
should help youth learns the value of cultural diversity. This
new focus is a necessity for the long-term survival of the
Olympic Movement. After studying a multicultural groupin action and knowing that there is a construction concern
devoted from the Olympic Movement to Olympic Education,
I would suggest the adoption of a multicultural approach in
key initiatives of the International Olympic Academy as wellas in educational and cultural events promoted by theInternational Olympic Committee.
Should this approach finally represent the making of theso much expected Olympic multiculturalism? Should we all
be finally able to find a balance between the need of universal
values and the respect to particular cultural identities?

References
Multiculturalism
BANKS, James (1997). Educating Citizens in a Multicultural
Society. Distinguished Lecture, [on-line]. Available:
www.ascd.org/vr/banks.htm
CANTON, Katia, MAMI, Lorenzo & HOPTMAM, Laura(1996). Curadoria eTransculturalidade. ANPAP-Anais, [on-line]. Available:
www.unb.br/vis/anpap/canton.htm
CARDOSO, Carlos M.N. (1995). Antropologia eMulticulturalismo . CIOE # 5. Escola Superior de Educação
de Setúbal, Portugal, [on-line]. Available: esetbl@mail.telepac.pt
CICERO, Antonio & SALOMÃO, Waly (1989). O
Relativismo Enquanto Visão do Mundo. Banco Nacionalde Idéias. São Paulo: Francisco Alves.
.242.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
Olympic multiculturalism: proclaimed universal values versus cultural relativism

ELLER, Jack D. (1997). Forum. Anti-Anti-Multiculturalism.
Denver: American Anthropologist Association, 99, n o 2,
249-260.
GAY, Geneva (1997). A Synthesis of Scholarship in Multicultural
Education. Seattle: Urban Education Program, [on-line].
Available: altavista search network/Geneva Gay/page 7, 67.
GEERTZ, Clifford (1998). Anti Anti-Relativismo. RBCS, no8, vol. 3, pp. 5-19 (ed. and trans.). Distinguished Lecture:
Anti Anti-Relativism (vol. 86, no 2) Princeton: American
Anthropologist. (Original work published 1981).
HUNTINGTON, Samuel. O Choque de Civilizações e a Recomposição da Ordem Mundial. Editora Objetiva, [on-line].
Available: www.objetiva.com/servico/choque.htm
NATIONAL MULTICULTURAL INSTITUTE (1997).
NMCI AmeriCorps Diversity Training Series, [on-line].
Available: www.nmci.org/amercop.htm
SESC (1990). Multiculturalismo, democratização cultural e cidadania. São Paulo: [on-line]. Available: webmaster@sescsp.com.br
SIETAR (1996). The International society for intercultural
education, training and research. [on-line]. Available:
www.sietarinternational.org/
SCHULTZ, Fred (1998). Annual editions: Multicultural
Education 98/99. University of Akron, [on-line].
Available:webmaster@mhhe.com
VEIGA-NETO, Alfredo (1995). Culturas e Currículo. Rio
Grande do Sul, Sertão, [on-line]. Available:
sertao.htmemorion.ufrgs.br.243.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
Olympic multiculturalism: proclaimed universal values versus cultural relativism

Olympism
ABREU, Neíse Gaudencio (1995). Olimpismo eMulticulturalismo. Revista Olímpica Brasileira. Rio de Janeiro, COB Ano 4 – Vol. 4 . no 7, 34-37.
ABREU, Neíse Gaudencio (1995). Olimpismo eMulticulturalismo(II). Revista Olímpica Brasileira. Rio deJaneiro, COB Ano 4 – Vol. 4 . no 8, , 34-39.
ABREU, Neíse Gaudencio (1999). Multicultural responses to
Olympism - an ethnographic research in Ancient Olympia,
Greece. Doctoral thesis, University Gama Filho - Rio deJaneiro (unpublished).
BOULONGNE, Yves P. (1994). Origins of the Olympic Idea
in the Western World. In B. Jeu & Y.P. Boulongne (eds).
For a Humanism of Sport, (pp.22-23) Paris, CNOSFEditions Reune, EPS.
COUBERTIN, Pierre (1911, avril). Geographie Sportive Revue Olympique (pp.51-52). In N. Müller (1986) Pierrede Coubertin – Textes Choisis, Tome II, p.452, Zurich:
Weidmann.
COUBERTIN, Pierre (1920). L’Apport de la VIIeme
Olympiade, La Revue Sportive Illustrée, no 3, p.10. In N.
Müller (1986) Pierre de Coubertin – Textes
Choisis, Tome II, p.265, Zurich: Weidmann.
COUBERTIN, Pierre (1924, sept). Autour de Jeux de la
VIIIeme Olympiade, La Revue de Genève, 5, (pp. 262269) In N. Müller, (1986) Pierre de Coubertin – Textes
Choisis, Tome II, p.284, Zurich: Weidmann.
CZULA, Roman (1978). Sport and Olympic Idealism. Irss, 2,
no 13, 62-77.

.244.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
Olympic multiculturalism: proclaimed universal values versus cultural relativism

DACOSTA, Lamartine P. (1992). How can the Olympic
Movement promote sport for all? IOA Book Report 31st
session, 1991 (pp.149-153). Ancient Olympia: IOA/IOC.
DACOSTA, Lamartine P. (1996). The Green Dream: The
Olympic Movement and the Environment.. Position Paper.
Singapore: Singapore Olympic Academy.
DACOSTA, Lamartine P. (1997). Environment and Sport- An
International Overview. Portugal: University of Porto –International Olympic Committee.
DACOSTA, Lamartine P. (1998). Olympism and theEquilibrium of Man. In N. Müller (ed.) Coubertin andOlympism questions for the future (p.198). Germany:
Schors Niederhansen.
DACOSTA, Lamartine P. & LABRIOLA, Plinio (2000). The
Bodies from Brazil – The Making of Fascist Aesthetics, 1930
– 1945 (pp. 163 -180). In J.A. Mangan (editor) - Fascist Body
as Political Icon, London: Frank Cass Publishers.
DACOSTA, Lamartine P. & MIRAGAYA, A. M. (2002).
Worldwide Experiences and Trends of Sport for All.
Germany: Meyer & Meyer Sport.
INTERNATIONAL OLYMPIC ACADEMY (1990). Reportof the 29th session. Ancient Olympia: IOC.
INTERNATIONAL OLYMPIC ACADEMY (1991). Reportof the 30th session. Ancient Olympia: IOC.
INTERNATIONAL OLYMPIC ACADEMY (1992). Reportof the 31st session. Ancient Olympia: IOC.
INTERNATIONAL OLYMPIC ACADEMY (1993). Reportof the 32nd session. Ancient Olympia: IOC.
INTERNATIONAL OLYMPIC ACADEMY (1994). Reportof the 33rd session. Ancient Olympia: IOC.
.245.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
Olympic multiculturalism: proclaimed universal values versus cultural relativism

INTERNATIONAL OLYMPIC ACADEMY (1995). Reportof the 34th session. Ancient Olympia: IOC.
INTERNATIONAL OLYMPIC ACADEMY (1997). Reportof the 35th session. Ancient Olympia: IOC.
INTERNATIONAL OLYMPIC ACADEMY (1998). Reportof the 36th session. Ancient Olympia: IOC.
INTERNATIONAL OLYMPIC ACADEMY (1999). Reportof the 37th session. Ancient Olympia: IOC.
INTERNATIONAL OLYMPIC COMMITTE (1994).
Olympic Charter, Lausanne: IOC.
INTERNATIONAL OLYMPIC COMMITTE (1997).
Olympic Charter, Lausanne: IOC.
KANG Shin-pyo, MACALOON John & DAMATTA
Roberto (1987) (eds). The Olympics and East/West andSouth/North Cultural Exchange. Seoul: The Institute forEthnological Studies, Hanyang University.
LANDRY Fernand, LANDRY Marc & YERLÈS Magdeleine(1991.) (eds.). Sport... The Third Millennium. Canada: Les
Presses De L’Université Laval.
LENK, Hans (1976). Toward a Social Philosophy of the Olympics:
Values, Aims, and Reality of the Modern Olympic Movement.
In P.J. GRAHAM & H. VEBERHORST (eds). The Modern
Olympics (pp. 109-169). West Point: Leisure Press.
LIPONSKI Wojciech (1987). Olympic Universalism vsOlympic Pluralism: Problems of Eurocentrism. In S.
KANG, J. MACALOON, R.DAMATTA (eds). The
Olympics and East/West and South/North Cultural
Exchange (pp. 513-528). Seoul: The Institute forEthnological Studies, Hanyang University.

.246.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
Olympic multiculturalism: proclaimed universal values versus cultural relativism

MACALOON John (1991). The Turn of Two Centuries:
Sport and the Politics of Intercultural Relations. In
F.LANDRY, M.LANDRY & M.YERLÈS (eds).
Sport...The Third Millennium (pp.31-44). Canada: Les
Presses De L’Université Laval.
MÜLLER, Norbert (1990). Olympism and Sport for All. IOABook Report 29 th session, 1991 (pp.188-200). Ancient
Olympia: IOA/IOC.
MÜLLER, N. (ed). (1998). Coubertin and Olympism
Questions for the Future. Le Havre Congress (1897-1997).
Germany in cooperation with Sidney: Walla Walla Press.
MÜLLER, Norbert (1998, May). Olympism and Olympic
Education. Position Paper presented at the 4 th joint
International Session for Directors of NOAs, members andstaff of NOCs and IFs. Ancient Olympia: IOA.
PARRY, Jim (1998, May). The Values of Olympism andSports Education for Tomorrow. Position Paper prepared
for the 4 th joint International Session for Directors of
NOAs, members and staff of NOCs and IFs. Ancient
Olympia: IOA.
PREUSS, Holger (1995). Macro-micro-economic effects ofOlympic Games. Minutes of the Third International
PostGraduate Seminar on Olympic Studies (pp. 61-65).
Ancient Olympia: IOA.
RAO, Ven Kat (1998). Award of Centenary Games: An
Analysis of the Bids of Athens 1996 and Atlanta 1996. IOABook Report 36 th session, 1996 (pp.126-136). Ancient
Olympia: IOA & IOC.
RIEFENSTHAL, L. (1938). Olympia. Film produced by theOrganisationskomitees Olympischen Spiele 1936.

.247.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
Olympic multiculturalism: proclaimed universal values versus cultural relativism

SEGRAVE, Jeffrey O. (1998).Toward a Definition of
Olympism. In J.O. SEGRAVE & D.B.CHU (editors)(pp.149-161). The Olympic Games in Transition.
Champaing: Human Kinetics.
TAVARES, Otávio.G. (1998). Mens fervida in corpore
lacertoso? As atitudes dos atletas olímpicos brasileiros frente ao Olimpismo. Unpublished master’s thesis, Universidade Gama Filho, RJ, Rio de Janeiro, Brasil.
YOUNG, David C. (1984). The Olympic Myth of Greek
Amateur Athletics. Chicago: Ares Publishers.
Methodology
ALEXANDER, Jeffrey C. & SEIDMAN, Steven (1990).
Culture and Society. New York: Cambridge University
Press.
AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION (1994).
Publication manual of the American Psychological
Association (4th edition). Washington, DC: Author.
BIANCO, Bela Feldman (org.) (1976).Antropologia da Sociedades Contemporâneas-Métodos (rev.ed.). Mexico: Global
Universitária.
BLIENSENER, Ulrich (1998). La Enseñanza de Lenguas
Extrangeras en Alemania . Ciencia y Educación, n.4, pp. 231. Bonn: Inter Nationes.
BURGESS, Robert (1985). Issues in Educational Research:
Qualitative Methods. London: The Falmer Press.
CONNOR, Steven (1994). Teoria e Valor Cultural.. São Paulo: Loyola.
COULON, Alain (1995). Etnometodologia. Petrópolis: Vozes.

.248.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
Olympic multiculturalism: proclaimed universal values versus cultural relativism

GEERTZ, Clifford (1989). A Interpretação das Culturas. Riode Janeiro: LTC.
KANG, Shin-pyo (1991). The Seoul Olympic Games and DaeDae Cultural Grammar. In F. LANDRY, M. LANDRY &M. YERLÈS (eds). Sport...The Third Millennium (pp. 4963). Canada: Les Presses De L’Université Laval.
LARSON James F.(1991).Commercial Imperatives NBC’s
Construction of the Seoul Olympic Games Opening
Ceremony. In F. LANDRY, M. LANDRY & M. YERLÈS(eds). Sport...The Third Millennium (pp. 73-78). Canada:
Les Presses De L’Université Laval.
MACALOON, John and editors (1991). The Olympic Games,
Communications Technologies and Cultural Exchange. In
F. LANDRY, M. LANDRY & M. YERLÈS (eds).
Sport...The Third Millennium (pp. 45-47). Canada: Les
Presses De L’Université Laval.
MORAGAS i SPÀ Miquel (1991). Spanish Television (TVE)and the coverage of the Opening Ceremony of the 1988
Seoul Olympic Games. In F. LANDRY, M. LANDRY &M. YERLÈS (eds). Sport...The Third Millennium (pp.6571). Canada: Les Presses De L’Université Laval, 1991.
SEBRANEK Patrick, MEYER Verner & KEMPER Dave(1996). Writers. Massachussets: Great Source Educationan
Group.
VELHO, Gilberto (1986). Subjetividade e Sociedade – uma
experiência de geração. Rio de Janeiro: Zahar.
VELHO, Gilberto (1994). Projeto Metamorfose. Antropologia das Sociedades Complexas. Rio de Janeiro:
Zahar.

.249.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
Olympic multiculturalism: proclaimed universal values versus cultural relativism

Appendix A
Matrix no 1
Multicultural group responses to universal values
Sportsmanship /Fair play – Main Trends
Informers
Categories
Follow rules
Go beyond rules
Respect others
Do not run up thescore
Interact with others
Fake withinInternational Games
Sexist Term
Deny “ winning at allcost”
Do not use drugs
Go beyond sport field
Linked with generalbehavior
Recognize mistakes
Accept opponent’s
apologies
Enjoy playing
Help the opponent
Do not cheatWork hard to achieve
excellence
Different concepts
according to cultures
Accept culture behind
sport
Moral constraint
Accept defeat
Friendship
Opponent is not
enemy
Abstract concept
Coach exerts animportant role
Cooperation
Take win and loss in agood way
Equal conditions

1
*
*

2 3 4

5

6 7 8

*
*

*

*
*
*

*
*
*

*

*

*
*

*

9 10

11

12

13

*
*

*

*

*

*

*
*

14

15

16

*

*

17

18

19

*

*

20

21

22

*

*
*

*

*

*

*
*
*
*
*

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

*
*
*

*

*
*

*
*

*

*

*

*
*

*

*

*
*
*
*
*
*

*

*
*

*

*

*
*

*

*

*
*

*
*
*

.250.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
Olympic multiculturalism: proclaimed universal values versus cultural relativism

Matrix no 2
Multicultural group responses to universal values
Sport for All/Mass Participation – Main Trends
Informers
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8Categories
Government should
promote it
Schools’ initiative*
Teachers’ initiative*
Olympic committees
should be in charge
Everybody included
* * *
* * *
Especially children** *Especially old people*
Include more women
Pleasure, leisure time,** * * * *enjoyment
Develops friendship*
It should promote**
body awarenessImproves longevity**
Integration between*
elite and school sport
Top level athletes do
not represent their*country sport life
Mass participation also
include to watch big*
sports events
No programs are*being develop
It should notemphasize top level** *sportsGovernment spends
more money with top*
level sports
It is a feeder system*
for top level sports
Work with top levelathletes give more*prestige
It do not need any big*
financial support
Facilities should be
provided either atschool or at work
Keeps youth away ofdrugs and bad habits
Countries have notachieved equal
opportunities
Do not force people
to participate
Equality throughsportsPeople have toincorporate it into life

9

10 11

12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22

*

*
*
*

*
*

*

*
*

*

*

*

*

*

*
*

*
*

*
*
*

*

*

*

*

*

*
*

*
*
*
*
*
*

.251.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
Olympic multiculturalism: proclaimed universal values versus cultural relativism

Matrix no 3
Multicultural group responses to universal values
Sport as Education – Main Trends
Informers
Categories
Both positive andnegative aspects
Should be attended by
States andGovernment
Teaches ethical, moral
and social
understanding
Values learned withinsport situation can betransferred to everyday-life
Teaches specificabilities linked to
motor development
Sports should havemore time at school
Sport should not be
the only tool of PE.
PE teachers plays aspecial role towards
sports education
Teaches how to growup through games
Parents should takepartIncludes every kid
Sport is part of life
Sport by itself iseducation
Sport cultivates souland spirit
Teachers should be
more interested in
sport pedagogy
Teachers should notforce everyone to do
sportsOlympic education isan abstract concept
Media does not careabout Sport education
Teaches how to work
together
Improves health1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22
*

*

*

*
*

* * *

*

*

* * * * *

*

*

*

*

*
*

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

*
*

*

*

*

*
*
*
*

*
*
*
*

*
*
*
*
*

* *

*
*

*

*

* *

People enjoy more if
they go by their own
choiceIt’s not showed withininternational level

*
*

.252.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
Olympic multiculturalism: proclaimed universal values versus cultural relativism

Matrix no 4
Multicultural group responses to universal values
Culture Exchange in Sports – Main Trends
Informers
Categories
Sport events canhave both positiveor negative aspects
Top athletes do not
represent culture
identity
There are no
exchange amongcultures
There are lack oftolerance amongcultures
Political issues
interfere on culture
exchange
Competition do not
result on culture
exchange
Western patterns
are too emphasizedWestern countries
are less tolerant
than should be
Modern Olympic
sports is culture
imperialism
Media is notinterested inpromoting
Coaches only thinkin win the opponent
There are only
exchange among
athletes andcoaches
Education
programs promoteit
There areinfluences of new
sports from west
Media plays animportant role inpromoting
Helps to put downsome prejudicesInternational events
provide to see,learn and accept
other cultures
Includes national
and international
exchange
Through sport
practice you get toknow more aboutothersCulture principles
can be seen throughsports attitudes
Sports can promoteculture exchange

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

21

22

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

*
*

*
*

*

*
*

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

*
*

* *

*

*

*

*

* *

* *

*
* *

* *

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

.253.

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
Olympic multiculturalism: proclaimed universal values versus cultural relativism

Matrix no 5
Multicultural group responses to universal values
International Understanding – Main Trends
Informers
1 2 3 4
Categories
It’s related topolitical decisions
It’s related to
EducationIt’s needed a culture*
understanding
It’s needed to talkto others
Abstract and vague
concept
Idealistic view*
Other sport cultures
should be included
to promote it
Modern sports are
not able to achieve*itWestern culture
impedes the*understanding
Internationalism
conflicts with
* *nationalism
Sport provides
struggle amongculturesMedia helps to*promote it
Technology helps topromote it
Truce can bereachedIt happens byplaying rather thantalking
The understanding
only lasts during thetournament
Knowledge aboutothers wipe out
prejudices
Understanding ofwhat you are andwhat others are
Sports events
collaborate to the* * *understanding

5 6 7 8 9 10 11
* *

*

*

*

*
*

12 13 14 15

16 17 18

19 20 21

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

*
*
*

*

*

*

*
*

*

*

*
*

*

*
*
*

*
*
*

*
*
*
*
*

*

*

.254.

*

*

*

*

22

CHAPTER 13

Olympic education:sameness versus otherness
in multicultural
approaches
Marta C. Gomes
The aim of this Chapter is to critically analyze the superficial way in which Olympic Education has been dealing withmulticulturalism, as well as to suggest alternatives for future
developments. Moreover this report refers to an empirical andpreliminary investigation which has used teaching materials
from diferent countries as the object of observation. The
theoretical focus for this scrutiny is the opposition between.255.
OLYMPIC STUDIES
L. P. DaCosta, 2002 - Editora Gama Filho - Rio de Janeiro

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
Olympic education: sameness versus otherness in multicultural approaches

ethnic similarities and differences that hypothetically lies behind
the Olympic Education when universal propositions aretransfered into pedagogic processes and instruments.
The interest in developing a theme comprising Olympic
Education in the context of multiculturalism is mainly basedon a theoretical concern on the cultural approach to Olympism,
which has became a central focus for leading Brazilian Olympic
scholars1 . However, the stagnant theoretical concern about its
practical repercussions is innocuous to the Olympic Movement,
since we are addressing questions brought by socioculturalcontexts produced by the differences that become manifest evenin the practice of sports.
These differences of culture, race or gender are not often
perceived in our daily school activities because we are used toseeing the world through generalizing categories 2 . Thus, thepeculiarities go unnoticed and, even though unintentionally,
we end up reproducing discriminatory values and practices.
We just need to be more perceptive and, within certain
generalizations, look for the slight differences that result fromthe construction of a cultural identity and form small
fragmented islands motivated by distinct reasons. The absenceof this perception may lead to a lack of adequate information
as well as to behaviors neither in accordance with History itself
nor with the sense of respect and valorization of the differences.
A good example is the young neonazis from industrial areasin the city of Sao Paulo, in the southern region of Brazil, who
are children of proletarians; most of them are half-breed, in spiteof belonging to an apparently white racial class. The neonazis
are contradictory and ignore a great part of history and theirown background, persecuting Negroes, Jews and homosexuals.
Based on this, Abreu (1999) has emphasized that “Educational
programs cannot ignore the differences (...). On the other hand,
they can not underestimate common dimensions among culturesand contribute to a discriminated and separated practice” (p.44).
.256.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
Olympic education: sameness versus otherness in multicultural approaches

Chapter 12 of this book otherwise reviews multiculturalism within-depth details, so mostly addressing the present analysis to
educational considerations.
Thus far, I confirm primarily what Binder (2000) has
proposed for a multicultural Education: that it contains more
adequate and clear information about the issue of differences;that it has a critical outlook and, above all, that it be acontinuous process permeating educational curricula in a horizontal and vertical way.
However, if on the one hand the objectives of the Olympic
Movement are to contribute for peace among people andmutual understanding, condemning the discriminatory
practices and stimulating friendship 3 , on the other it seems
that such a principle has been forgotten in the Olympic
Education teaching materials. While the academic discussions
about culture and multiculturalism are becoming more andmore sophisticated, the knowledge developed in these areas is
not being sufficiently applied in the teaching materials. These
aspects should really be more present in the daily school agenda and the information should not be so superficial.
MacAloon (1986) recalls that in the declared objectives aswell as in the sporting practice the Olympic Movement isjustified as the promoter of intercultural understanding.
However, after analyzing the total lack of attention given sothat this cultural exchange, comprehension and valorizationof other cultures really happen among the Olympics athletes,
MacAloon concludes that the careless manner in which thistheme is addressed in the sport of elite ends up in justifying
its practice in itself. The question he raises in relation to
Olympic sports is the same that I have in relation to Olympic
Education for children and young people in school: “Why,in a movement supposedly dedicated to it, have there been
so few concerted efforts towards cross-cultural learning andunderstanding?” (p.11).257.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
Olympic education: sameness versus otherness in multicultural approaches

Such negligence is shown in the teaching materials that I
am analyzing in this report regarding the superficial way thatthe themes of culture and multiculturalism are approached.
Inclusion and participation are the pillars of the Olympic
Education, which makes even worse the lack of attention thatis given to this area.
For a comparative analysis and approach of the theme infocus, I have selected the four teaching materials most known
by those who work in Olympic Education in Brazil: 1) Keep the
Spirit Alive: you and the Olympic Games. IOC, 1995. 2) Learn
and Play Olympic Sports, Amateur Athletic Foundation of Los
Angeles, 1992 (USA). 3) Educação Olímpica na Escola. Manual
do Educador Olímpico. Cristiano M. Belem. Adapted from Keep
the Spirit Alive: you and the Olympic Games. Poços de Caldas,
1999 (Brazil). 4) Be a Champion in Life, A project of theFoundation of Olympic and Sport Education, 2000 (Greece).

The multiculturalism approachWith reference to the multiculturalism approach, what one
observes is an almost blank space reserved for this subject,
except in Be a Champion in Life, which dedicates a full chapter
to the students, including texts and activities on
multiculturalism and human rights.
The material is analyzed according to some categories thatin my opinion are the most significant: 1) The Meaning ofCulture, 2) The Eurocentrism, and 3) Race and Culture.

1) The Meaning of Culture
It is interesting that after more than one hundred years
Tylor’s (1832-1917) ideas about culture still constitute the main
way to approach this issue in the teaching materials. The.258.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
Olympic education: sameness versus otherness in multicultural approaches

meaning of culture has changed and developed together withthe anthropologic knowledge and, although it may seem
illegitimate and indifferent, it leads to a line of thought thatcrosses all the three topics chosen for this analysis.
Tylor defined Culture as: “taken in its comprehensive
ethnographic sense, it is this whole complex that includes
knowledge, beliefs, art, moral, laws, customs, or any othercapacity or habits acquired by man as member of a society”4 . In
addition to this concept of culture as a mass of overlaid aspects,
Tylor developed his theories based on the evolutionist principle,
in which man was considered a single species – a psychic andbiological unity, and the cultural differences were related todiscrepancies in the stages of civilization’s development.
Although beginning a rupture between the cultural and thebiological aspects, this trend defined a starting point in a
progressive and linear development scale, and a peak, an end, as
were the European societies at the end of the 19th century.
According to Tylor and his contemporaries such as Morgan andFrazer, the primitive societies were an initial stage of acivilization’s morals and customs that all societies should
experience or should have experienced, including the Europeans.
Comparison was the methodological basis of evolutionism,
in which a single aspect of a given culture was taken and isolated
from its context and totality and compared with the “same”
aspect of other more “civilized” cultures, albeit according toprinciples based on the investigator’s culture. We can mention
an example given by DaMatta (1987) on the structure of thefamily’s relationship and conception: studying the “family” as
an isolated category, Morgan highlighted the custom of children
in some cultures of calling “father” all those belonging to thesame generation of their father, who in our culture would be
the “uncles”. Attached to the classificatory nomenclature of
his own culture, Frazer considered this custom as a “proof ofthe past when marriages were promiscuous” (p. 92), since.259.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
Olympic education: sameness versus otherness in multicultural approaches

apparently the biological father was not recognized. Therefore,
in the evolutionist scale of civilization, such a past would be
the opposite of the final civilized society where marriages wereindividualized and nuclear.
The approach to culture in the teaching materials seems tobe the same one pointed out by these authors. What one observes in the chapters or themes related to multiculturalism
and to the “knowledge” of other cultures is exactly thisoverlaying of aspects of other cultures, which are taken fromtheir context with no criteria and treated as pieces of folklore,
compared among themselves and isolated from a meaningfulcontext, like it occurs in museums.
In the teaching material Keep the Spirit Alive, module 4 “Global Spirit”, the main objective is the knowledge of othercountries and cultures. However, their activities are limited tolocate in a map the cities where summer and winter Olympic
Games took place, to choose one of them and identify theirlocation concerning continent, frontiers, rivers, time zone, main
language, most famous athletes, climate and customs (including
typical food and dance, and religion). For that culture themeaning of the background history of these customs and theirsymbolic aspect is completely neglected. Thus, the objective ofintercultural education is far from being reached and what ismost acquired is some knowledge on physical geography.
We may place the teaching material Educação Olímpica na
Escola and Learn and Play Olympic Sports in the same level ofapproach since the first is an adaptation of Keep the Spirit Aliveand adds to its activities mentioned above a research on dance,
food, craftsmanship and language of three countries
participating in the Games, and suggests a presentation for theclass of “one of the most curious characteristics” found in oneof these countries.
The second teaching material, which suggests interdisciplinary
activities separating them according to each specific matter,.260.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
Olympic education: sameness versus otherness in multicultural approaches

proposes for the geography classes the same exercise mentioned
above: to select two countries and identify their location in the
globe, their continent, geography, climate, types of people, food,arts, music, religion and education. We should emphasize,
however, that within these activities there is a quite interesting
proposed discussion that leads the students to reflect on theathletes’ intercultural contact: “Why athletes from all over theworld, speaking different languages, and having different cultures,
would be happy to meet with each other to pursue sports?”
Finally, Be a Champion in Life, unlike the others, presents
throughout the material exercises and texts that seek for theorigin of sports and the meaning of the activities and sports ineach culture, as the story about Roger Milla, a football playerfrom Cameroon who is considered a hero in Africa. This story
starts placing sports within the culture, although it erroneously
mentions Africa as a global and single culture: “In Africa,
football (soccer) is more than just a sport. It is a celebration oflife. If your national team wins a major international competition,
the next day is a holiday for everyone (...)” (p.B14). We may
mention another example of cultural context in the sub-item“What is Beautiful? Body Image”, where the text starts as:“Different cultures and different communities have different ideas
about what the beautiful boy or girl looks like (...)”. (p.D12)
Although there are activities that include the location of
cities and the main aspects of cultural habits, Be a Champion inLife also offers many other exercises on the understanding of
moral values and on the meaning of activities in other cultures.
It dedicates a chapter to the multicultural issue only, whichcentralizes the approach on the matter of social inclusion,respect and valorization of differences and citizenship practice,including many exercises on rights, obligations and social
responsibilities. It seems that this material is developing towards
the maturation process of the questions related to the teachingof multiculturalism.
.261.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
Olympic education: sameness versus otherness in multicultural approaches

This maturation process is in fact important and fundamental because although there are modern theories of culturethat develop different perspectives, the idea of “multiple
conceptions of life” proclaimed by MacAloon (1986) is sharedby the community of social scientists and historians of ourdays, always in the sense of meaning.
As a matter of fact, this debate on the culture concept
generated an attempt of the modern anthropologists toreconstruct this concept, to make it become more intelligible
and “theoretically more powerful” (Geertz, p.14, 1989).
However, the coexistence of different theoretical tendencies andconcepts about a culture still mark our time, one communicatingwith the other. As mentioned by Geertz, anthropology is ascience “of which progress is highlighted less by a perfection ofconsensus than by a refinement of debate”. (p. 39)
Geertz supports the concept of culture as semiotics, i.e., as“systems interlaced with interpretative signs” (1986, p.24).
Therefore, I share with this author the idea that the study ofcultures should not be linked to the “ontologic status” of agiven custom or behavior: “What we should question is what
is its importance: what is being transmitted by its occurrence
and through its action (…)” (p.20). Finally, what should beraised in the teaching materials on the multiculturalism
approach are the meanings of the aspects of a given culture for
its agents, and not these aspects separately. This conceptual
distinction is fundamental for the ethnocentric points of view
to be put out of focus from the evolutionist perspective, which
has followed history and has left residues to this day.

2) The Eurocentrism
The eurocentrism issue presented in the teaching materials
seems to be a consequence of this evolutionary vision ofculture and a remainder of imperialism, where the economic.262.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
Olympic education: sameness versus otherness in multicultural approaches

rush for conquest and control of land in the planet led theworld to be divided into “strong” and “weak”, “developed”
and “underdeveloped”, “civilized” and “not civilized”,“westerns” and “exotics”.
We noticed in Hobsbawn (1988) that the idea of a civilizing
superiority of the powerful countries over the colonies wasprevailing in those days, when the “lack of evolution” of thenatives also emphasized the attempts to convert pagans into theChristian faith, in a solid missionary effort. The news of the
19th century was that “(…) the non-Europeans and their societies
were increasingly and generally treated as inferiors, undesirables,
weak and progress delayed, or even childish” (p. 118).
The exotic and the western were constantly mixed in thenovels and fairy tales; however, the stereotypes were always
the eastern villains, Latin or Africans with the intention toideologically reinforce the superiority of the “civilized” inrelation to the “primitive”. Hobsbawm reinforces the idea thatsuch approaches did not have a documentary aspect, but animperialist one, because “(…) the central link between the exotic
and the everyday worlds was the formal or informal penetrationof the Western World in the Third World” (p. 120).
The multicultural approach in the teaching materials
analyzed is affected by this influence, although I do not want toaccuse them of imperialists and ethnocentric. On the contrary,from the interpretation of Geertz’s culture it becomes evident
that the focus is on the socio-cultural context of the one whosees. Therefore, although the attempts to value diversity as ahuman possibility for giving sense to the world through thesocial integration are more and more disseminated, those whowrite the history always leave records of their bias, with theirstories, their tradition. Similarly, those who read will have a
different point of view if they do not belong to the same ethos.
In Be a Champion in Life, which is proposed as a resource
for teachers worldwide, this question remains quite evident in.263.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
Olympic education: sameness versus otherness in multicultural approaches

the stories of those who are considered the “others”: minorities,
foreigners, refugees or immigrants in a strange country. The
names of the characters who are “the others” are completely
different from the standard European or North Americannames: Sungee, Margarita, Sibongila, Fatima, Vladimir andTika, among others. The last two names are linked to problemsof disability and obesity, respectively. This also reinforces anattempt to remove the focus from the characters alreadyincluded as citizens in a social process, i.e., can’t we find aJohn on a wheel chair or an overweight Katherine?
If these materials are meant to be multicultural andresources for Olympic Education worldwide, they should
modify the sameness approach and the otherness, which only
depends on where they are read, or, then, all materials withthese characteristics should undergo many adaptations. In
Brazil, for example, at least with reference to names, Fatima,
Margarita and Vladimir would not be “the others” but the “I’s”.
The issues “European” and “exotic” appear in Keep the Spirit
Alive, where we attempt to culturally characterize the coldand hot weather countries when we refer to Winter andSummer Olympic Games. To describe cold countries, a story
is told on the daily life of a young girl who ice-skates and plays
all possibilities offered by the snowy winter days. The words
that introduce that page are: “Olympic Winter Sports are basedon activities that young people have enjoyed for hundreds ofyears in countries that have cold winter climates” (p.52).
On the other hand, a Jamaican poem (“Jamaica Market”)
was chosen to describe hot weather countries; it mentions the“exotic” and unknown side of rhythms, fruits, animals andplants that can be found there. Just to illustrate, the poem starts
this way: “Honey, pepper, leaf-green limes, Pagan fruit whosenames are rhymes, Mangoes, breadfruit, ginger-roots....”. In
the introduction of that page it is mentioned “The poet, aJamaican, describes the colors, the variety and the bustle that.264.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
Olympic education: sameness versus otherness in multicultural approaches

you would see in markets in many hot weather countries”(p.53). The tradition of cold weather countries (“for hundredsof years”) is set against the distinct, the primitive, the wild, andtheir hundreds of years of culture are set against the proximityof hot weather countries.

3) Race and Culture
This is an issue that would generate a long discussion andhistorical development about the conceptualization of race,
culture, and of race as culture. However, what is importantfor us is to reaffirm that the multiculturalism movement, as
well as the term itself, first appeared in the former colonial
countries, where immigration and the mixture of races andcultures were big in order to fight for the rights of thoseminorities. 5
Although the racial issue was linked to the multiculturalism
movement referent to discrepancies, race as a social category
was not sustained neither as a classifying basis of the different
peoples nor a determinant of cultural discrepancies. However,even in common sense we tend to mix race and culture whenin our day-to-day life we hear the term “black or Africanmusic”, when we know that there are non-African blacks who
produce other musical styles and a diversity of African culturesthat produce a great number of rhythms and musical styles.
The generalization found in the materials in relation tothese aspects points to a need to call attention to some specificaspects of these categories. In the topics that deal with themutual understanding its is understandable to find the problemof race mixed to cultural issues, since the central focus is therespect and valuation of the differences. However, it is necessary
to make clear that the multiculturalism movement ismulticultural and anti-racial and that, as Levi-Strauss (1952)affirms: “There are many more human cultures than human.265.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
Olympic education: sameness versus otherness in multicultural approaches

races, since while some are counted by thousands, others arecounted by units (…)” (p. 10).
As in Be a Champion in Life the multiculturalism questions
were more comprehensively discussed, and the questions ofrace and culture, seeming to belong to a same classification,
were more frequent. For example, when exhibiting the teachers’
challenge in multicultural societies, the initial text of the chapter
on multiculturalism reads as: “Their task is to develop
communities of learners who accept and respect people fromother cultures. In South Africa, for example, with the end ofapartheid, South Africans have to work together to create a
new society, one in which there is acceptance and respect forpeople of all races. (...)” (p. C-4)6 .
In this same chapter of Be a Champion in Life we find asentence that seems to present the same confusion between raceand culture: “Margarita is a student who comes from a different
race than the other children in the class” (p.C-13). Margarita is a
Latin name that suggests that she comes from a Latin culture;
however, she may belong to any different race. So, then, what
would her race be? In this case, the question becomes more
complex because there is a classification according to race, mainlyin the North American countries, that includes the Latin race as
the ideal type, confirming Malik’s (1996) idea that even theclassification of race under biological terms may suffer withvariations and manipulations, depending on the background of
the defining place. For him the classification of population inraces is not a natural division, but a cultural and historical use of
the meanings of human physiological variations.
However, today there is an academic world consensus
recognized by UNESCO that separates concepts of race andculture, placing the first in the biological scope (although there
are different classifications) and the second in the scope of a setof common cultural characteristics with proper meanings for
those individuals who belong to the same ethnic group.
.266.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
Olympic education: sameness versus otherness in multicultural approaches

In the beginning of the 20 th century the anthropologist
Franz Boas started the rupture of the biological determination
for the understanding of the cultural differences and culture
development level. Analyzing the evolution of the race concept
for culture and population, Santos (1996) shows that in 1949,
in the UNESCO First Declaration on Race, Boas’s influenceis clear in the final text, which article 10 reads as follows:“10. The scientific data now available do notconfirm the theory that says that inherited genetic
differences would be of utmost importanceamong the reasons for the differences shownwithin cultures and the work done by many
civilizations of ethnic groups. On the contrary,
they show that these differences are first explainedby the cultural history of each group (…)”7 .

However, the various reactions on the part of geneticists
and biologists led to a second meeting to formalize a morebiological and less emphatic text in relation to cultural
determinism. The major conclusions of the First Declaration
were maintained and the “race” concept was replaced as
biologically valid according to genetics.
Nowadays, as Laraia (1992) affirms, “The anthropologists
are fully convinced that the genetic differences are notdetermined by cultural differences” (p. 17). The most recent
document by UNESCO, the 1982 Declaration of Race andRace Prejudice8 is clear on this issue. In Article 1 – paragraphs
3 and 5, we find the following texts:“3. Identity of origin in no way affects the fact thathuman beings can and may live differently, nor doesit preclude the existence of differences based on cultural, environmental and historical diversity nor theright to maintain cultural identity.
.267.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
Olympic education: sameness versus otherness in multicultural approaches

5. The differences between the achievements ofthe different people are entirely attributable togeographical, historical, political, economic,
social and cultural factors. Such differences canin no case serve as a pretext for any rank-orderedclassification of nations or people”.

Therefore, what must be clear for a multicultural approachthat considers racial differences and takes up the struggle against
prejudice as a challenge is the awareness that all individuals of
all races have the same intellectual capacity and faculty. The
differences that exist among cultures are the fruit of the humancapacity to give different meanings to actions and to things in
the social relation dynamics, and not the fruit of a mental or
physical incapacity for being more or less developed.

Conclusion and Final Considerations
The objective of this Chapter was to analyze the superficial way the Olympic Education teaching materials have been
dealing with the multiculturalism issue, in order to provide
realistic approaches for the educational proposal born with
Coubertin but still searching universal validation after onehundred years of modern Olympic history.
Four Olympic Education teaching materials, well known
among those who work in Olympic Education in Brazil, wereselected. The main concern was the concept of culture and all
implications that it may bring to educational reference texts andactivities suggested for the students. Therefore, the analysis of thematerials was made considering three main categories: 1) The
Meaning of Culture; 2) Eurocentrism and 3) Race and Culture,
which are intrinsically linked.

.268.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
Olympic education: sameness versus otherness in multicultural approaches

The main conclusions are the following:1) The Meaning of Culture: It was noticed that in general,
except in Be a Champion in Life, the proposed activities for theknowledge of other cultures transmit a “tylorian” idea of the
19 th century culture, with a concept close to a pile ofdisconnected aspects, free of a contextual meaning and of asymbolic articulation for those belonging to that culture. I
suggest an approach more in accordance with the tendencies
of modern anthropology, sharing with Geertz the conceptionof culture as a web of meanings to be interpreted, and thatemphasis would be given not to the isolated aspects, per se, but
to the importance that they have for each culture.
2) The Eurocentrism: Considered as a consequence of the“tylorian” vision that also developed the cultural evolutionist
theory, which resulted in the separation of the peoples under
the categories of civilized and non-civilized, developed andunderdeveloped, western and exotics. Even if this vision does
not seem intentionally ethnocentric and imperialist, it is evident
in the teaching materials, in the characterization of hot andcold weather countries and under the circumstances where therelation between “I” and “other” always translates the “others”
with names belonging to countries out of the European andNorth American continents. Since at least two of thesematerials are considered sources for teachers around the world,
I suggest that a change be made in the “sameness” and“otherness” approach, which is intrinsically linked to thereference to the sociocultural place where it is read, or that a
local adaptation of names and texts be made.
3) Race and Culture: Although this issue was notcomprehensively approached in the teaching materials, I
noticed the tendency to place the race problem mixed to the.269.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
Olympic education: sameness versus otherness in multicultural approaches

cultural questions, since the central focus of multiculturalismis the respect and valuation of differences. However, I am awareof the fact that the conceptual mixtures may lead to amisunderstanding of the race concept as culture or of race as
determining culture and behaviors. Thus, I suggest that themulticultural approaches emphasize the discussion about race
not as a cultural determinant and that people of all races areborn with the same intellectual capacity, and that the issue of
cultural differences is the fruit of the multiple meanings thatthe groups may give in their interrelations.
The knowledge of the social sciences and of history should
not be disconsidered from such an important issue as
multiculturalism. The debate on culture and identity is
becoming so sophisticated that Olympic Education cannot failto follow it. Although nowadays there are many globalizing
institutions and movements, there is a counter-movement tosave identities. When fighting for the respect to disparities wemay run the risk of helping the construction of identities that
do not communicate among themselves.
The act of just respecting may be restricted to not touching,
not getting involved, not understanding and not liking.
Tolerance is a principle of civilization, which prevents manfrom invading the space of the other – the one who is different
in his or in others societies. Therefore, the multicultural
education, besides fighting for the preservation of and therespect to differences, should also reinforce the valuation of
the differences as an opening of esthetic values, as well as other
legitimate ways of being and of looking at life and at the world.

References
ABREU, Neíse G. Multicultural Responses to Olympism - An
Ethnographic Research in Ancient Olympia, Greece.
.270.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
Olympic education: sameness versus otherness in multicultural approaches

Unpublished doctorate‘s thesis, Universidade Gama Filho,
RJ, Rio de Janeiro, 1999.
DACOSTA. Olympism and the equilibrium of man. In: N.
Muller (ed.) Coubertin and Olympism questions for the
future. p.188-199, 1998.
DAMATTA, Roberto. Relativizando: uma introdução à antropologia social. Rio de Janeiro: Rocco, 1987.
GEERTZ, Clifford. A interpretação das culturas. Rio de janeiro: LTC, 1989.
GOMES, Marta C.. Solidariedade e Honestidade - os fundamentos do fair play entre adolescentes escolares. In: Tavares
e DaCosta: Estudos Olímpicos, p. 207-222, 1999.
————————— Corpo e Adolescência: no cru é que estão asproteínas . Unpublished master´s thesis, Rio de Janeiro,
Universidade Gama Filho, 1998.
HOBSBAWM, Eric. A era dos impérios, 1875-1914. Rio deJaneiro: Paz e Terra, 1988.
INTERNACIONAL OLYMPIC COMMITTE . Olympic
Charter. Lausanne: IOC, 1994.
LARAIA, Roque de Barros. Cultura: um conceito antropológico. Rio de Janeiro: Jorge Zahar Editor, 1992.
LÉVI-STRAUSS, Claude. Raça e História. Lisboa: Editorial
Presença, 1952.
MACLOON, John. Intercultural Education and Olympic
Sport. Olympic Academy of Canada, 1986.
MALIK, Kenan. The meaning of Race: Race, History andCulture in Western Society. London: Macmillan Press LTD,
1996.

.271.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
Olympic education: sameness versus otherness in multicultural approaches

SANTOS, Ricardo V. Da morfologia às moléculas, de raça àpopulação: Trajetórias conceituais em antropologia física
no século XX. In: Raça, Ciência e Sociedade. (Org. Marcos Schar), Rio de Janeiro, Editora Fio Cruz, 1996.
Olympic education teaching materials
AMATEUR ATHLETIC FOUNDATION OF LOSANGELES. (1992 ) Learn and play Olympic Sports .
Curriculum Guide for Teachers. Developed by Cosetta
Moore. (USA)BELEN, Cristiano M.. (1999). Educação Olímpica na Escola.
Manual do Educador Olímpico. Adapted from Keep the
Spirit Alive: you and the Olympic Games. Poços de Caldas(Brasil).
IOC COMISSION FOR THE INTERNATIONAL
OLYMPIC ACADEMY AND OLYMPIC EDUCATION.
(1995). Keep the Spirit Alive: you and the Olympic Games.
A Handbook for Educators. Written by Deanna Binder.
FOUNDATIONOF
OLYMPIC
AND
SPORT
Life!
A
EDUCATION. (2000). Be a Champion inBook of Activities for Young People Based on the Joy ofParticipation and on the Important Messages of the
Olympic Philosophy . An International Teachear‘s
Reasource Book for Schools. Lead Writer: Deanna Binder.
(Greece).272.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
Olympic education: sameness versus otherness in multicultural approaches

Notes
1 In this respect, we may cite DACOSTA. Olympism and the equilibrium of man. In: N. Muller (ed.) Coubertin and Olympism
questions for the future (p.188-199), 1998 and Gomes. Solidariedadee Honestidade - os fundamentos do fair play entre adolescentes escolares.
In: Tavares e DaCosta: Estudos Olímpicos, 1999, that gathers many
articles and questions on the Olympic issue.
2 This issue was very clear in my research “Corpo e Adolescência: no cru
é que estão as proteínas” (1994), where the category adolescent, althoughhaving been created within a specific context of historical development of the European middle-class, now includes all young people
belonging to a given age group. However, the feeling of adolescenceand the limits of the beginning and end of this phase of life are quitedistinct, depending on the sociocultural context of the adolescent inquestion.
3 These are ideas contained in the fundamental principle no. 6 of the
Olympic Charter.
4 Edward TYLOR, 1871. Chap.1, p.1, cited by LARAIA (1986 p.25).
5 To check Kenan MALIK, The Meaning of Race: Race, History
and Culture in Western Societies, 1996.
6 Highlight made by myself.
7 UNESCO Declaration on Race (1951), mentioned by LARAIA:
In Cultura: um conceito Antropológico, 1992.
8 Adopted and proclaimed by the General Conference of the United
Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization at its
Twentieth Session, on 27 November, 1972. Available: http://
www1.umn.edu/humanrts/instree/d2drp.htm
or:
http://
unesdoc.unesco.org/ulis/ged.html.

.273.

CHAPTER 14

The Olympic scholar:
intellectual purity or
direct participation?
Lamartine P. DaCosta

If the focus of attention is upon the Olympic Movement
and the International Olympic Committee - IOC, then conflictand crisis might be central categories for a historical inquiry
on those major sport initiatives. Symptomatically, since Pierrede Coubertin’s early efforts to re-create the Olympic Games,
conflicting relationships had characterized conceptions,institutions, personalities and international affairs involved inthis one of the pioneer events of globalization1.
.275.
OLYMPIC STUDIES
L. P. DaCosta, 2002 - Editora Gama Filho - Rio de Janeiro

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
The Olympic scholar: intellectual purity or direct participation?

Briefly, the history of the Olympic Movement’s conflicts
and crises primarily had the motive of an international power
dispute during the Games revival in the 1890s. From the
beginning of 20th century until today, the sequence of motives
has been encompassing amateurism deviations; discrimination
against women; nationalism-based confrontations; fascist
ideological pressures during the 1936 Olympiad; the cold war
between communist and capitalist nations; gigantism of theGames; media dominance; overcommercialization constraints;
environmental harassment in the Games’ sites; drug abuses; andmore recently, corruption among IOC members2.

The moral crisis
The last motive, in the 1999 version, has provoked a deep
impact in the cohesion and credibility of IOC’s from within,in an unprecedented manner. Actually, since Coubertin’s days
the organizational core delimited by IOC members hasremained untouched3. But, as referred in the IOC leaders publicstatements, the one hundred years’ old stage of creative
responses to external challenges has apparently shifted to aperiod of decline and self-indulgence, as suggested by the IOC
Director-General, François Carrard, in a statement issued at
the end of the 1990s4.
The public recognition was naturally followed by initiativesof internal reform, beginning in mid-1999. So far, the so-called“IOC 2000 Commission” was charged with “reforming theentire structure of the Olympic Movement into the next
millennium to help prevent such ethical breaches in the
future”5. This ad hoc consulting group in addition to the alreadyexisting “Ethics Commission” consisted of independent members
besides those assigned from IOC operational functions, Executive
Board and members. Most probably, this composition had.276.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
The Olympic scholar: intellectual purity or direct participation?

represented a break in the tradition of corporatism inaugurated
by Coubertin in order to prevent the IOC from nationalisticpressures during the heroic phase of IOC6.
Apart from the IOC ongoing process of operational changes
which still prevail today, the social, cultural and public interest
sanctioning are likely to be the appropriate focus to evaluate
the intended reform. This requirement can be presumptively
met by those independent members with a desirable
constructive criticism and an adequate educational background.
After all, if the last IOC crises was a moral one, actions for abetter control of affairs are necessary but not sufficient. Behind
this assumption lies a question that may synthesize an unsolved
contradiction remotely related to Coubertin’s times: to what
extent should pragmatic control and actions prevail overhistorical and philosophical - based directions?7.

The triumph of pragmatism
In retrospect, by means of Coubertin’s intellectual
perspectives the prevalence either of action or of humanistic
values represents much more than organizational strategic
solutions for the IOC. In fact, as a result of his explicit
adoption of eclecticism and eurhythmy, the opposition
identified here should imply in the search of equilibrium
between contrasting views 8. And in terms of the Olympic
Movement’s conflicting evolution, common opposition wasoften concerned with scientific thinking versus humanistic
values during the Olympic congresses, or to practicalmanagement measures versus intellectual arguments as
frequently occurred during the IOC meetings.
The evolution of the Olympic Congresses per se, as
acknowledged by Coubertin himself, had repercussions outsideof the Olympic Movement, represented by new supportive.277.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
The Olympic scholar: intellectual purity or direct participation?

improvements in Physical Education in some European
countries9. Nevertheless, the event had lost its momentum alongwith the increasing strength of pragmatism that proved toguarantee the survival of the renewed Olympic ideal constantly
surrounded by conflicts and crises10. In short, the Olympic
Movement after Coubertin and until today has become an
activist and instrumental assemblage of sports’ leaders in which
ethics, education and humanistic values exert minor influences.

The return of intellectuals
Of course, the IOC is not an exception among otherequivalent gigantic enterprises of today. But the very nature ofsport competitions demands a legitimacy mostly attained by
ethical and educational values 11. Thus, the well-establishedmanagerial power of IOC interventions was caught by surprisewhen conflictive situation created by its own lack of ethicalstandards was brought up.
This was particularly true in relation to environmental
protection when the 1992 Winter Olympic Games ofAlbertville brought forth strong reactions from bothgovernments and environmentalists. As reported before here
in this book, since then the IOC has been undertaking a
conflict-resolution profile. And partnerships with independent
expertise and positive action groups came about in order toprovide a “green profile” to the Games. Finally, in 1996, theprinciple of sustainability was included in the Olympic Charterin order to encourage the Olympic Movement “to takemeasures to reflect such concern in its activities and educate all
those connected with the Olympic Movement as to theimportance of sustainable development”12.
It seems safe to say then in reference to recent years’
experiences of IOC in maneuvering important crises, that the.278.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
The Olympic scholar: intellectual purity or direct participation?

Olympic Movement becomes more open to association withindependent players - mostly public intellectuals - as well as tolead consensus building operations. Furthermore, during theearly 1990’s the IOC demonstrated an unprecedented sensitivity
to social criticism despite keeping its close relationships withlarge-scale commercial enterprises. This ongoing process ofadaptation to external social forces even encompasses thepossibility of educating the so-called “Olympic family “to newvalues requirements.
The context of reconciliation has also been substantiallylevered up by the far reaching repercussions of the IOC bribery
scandal , starting at the end of 1998. In practical terms, themoral crisis implied in ethical compliance withrecommendations from either the IOC 2000 Commission or
the Ethics Commission, both including a majority of
independent membership. In these circumstances, a numberof scholars dedicated to Olympic Studies area have joined theefforts to carry out a deep reform in the IOC basic structure
and its leaders’ attitudes.
In addition to these intervention procedures, since 1999 the
IOC Internet home page has commenced the initial steps of adesirable accountability from within this institution by providing
public proceedings and position papers from the reform process.
Also, the creation of the World Anti - Doping Agency - WADA
along with the IOC changes, brought another group of scholars
with international reputation into that process. With less impact
but influential in its recent repercussions was the group of
intellectuals adherent to the Olympic Museum’s culturalactivities. In all, these measures corresponded to starting up again
the reconciliation of intellectuals taking part effectively in thedevelopment of the Olympic Movement as a cultural, socialand educational accomplishment, which has been underminedby the companions who have shared Coubertin’ beliefs in
the past and present.
.279.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
The Olympic scholar: intellectual purity or direct participation?

The evaluative perspectives
However, respectively to this presupposed context ofreconciliation a few timely and straight to the point questions
should be addressed: is this adhesion of some intellectuals to IOC
reform a construction of a new tradition or an updated version of
IOC corporatist and pragmatic mentality? Are there still the risksof co-optation of independent consultants in order to hold thecriticism from external sources and to absorb the moral crises’
initial impacts? Will there be a new role to intellectuals in the
Olympic Movement or will they be discarded after the reformgains stability? Are the intellectuals with academic involvementwith the Olympic Movement consciously prepared to adapt orcreate ethical principles as well as to theorize on their roles facing
their possible inclusion in IOC organizational bodies?
Far from being a result of a conspiracy model of thinking,these questions are historically based statements taken from theone hundred year evolution of the Olympic Movement and theIOC, in addition to the long-standing issue of intellectuals’
relationships with institutional and political powers13. Arguably,
the taken-for-grantedness that one might imply from these key
questions is not valid, once the deterministic use of history tocondemn IOC deviations is so much arbitrary than managerial
decisions without ethical positioning.
Indeed, given the need of evaluative perspectives towards
the reconciliation drive, if any, it seems significant to place on
record the preliminary judgements, convictions and values of
the intellectuals themselves. This general approach ofindividuals and group identification is necessary - otherwise
not sufficient - to establish an ought-to-be framework fromwhich desirable and ethical principles should be pointed out
for the future IOC conducts.
Conversely, putting the focus in present status trends of
IOC in order to answer the aforementioned key questions, it.280.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
The Olympic scholar: intellectual purity or direct participation?

would represent an argumentum ad hominem since datacollected from IOC leaders and officials should not be logicallyplausible on the grounds that they were not yet compromised
with ethical evaluative terms when the moral crises made its
appearance. So far, it seems more appropriate for the scrutiny
to keep in mind the adoption of the argument from ethos which
would represent a survey joining intellectuals with the scholarly
experience in studying IOC modes of intervention. Besides,
the argument continues, as scholars this group of respondents
is potentially able to develop moral discernment once this task
is part of their professional life.

The survey
As such, the previous assumptions had been formulated in
the beginning of 2000 in view of the “International Panel of
Olympic Scholars - University of New South Wales - UNSW”
planned to be held during Sydney’s Olympic Games in thesame year. The Panel’s project was coordinated by Richard
Cashman , director of the Center for Olympic Studies - UNSW,
who proposed the event to help facilitate research works on
Olympic issues by scholars individually or in joint projects. In
September, prior to the Games, the Panel took place with 23
invited Olympic Scholars. And one of the research project
discussed in that opportunity was the present investigation
already in phase of collecting date.
By June, 2000, in response to the Panel’s initial proposals,
the survey was then designed aiming to provide an overall
identification of moral principled stands or values from
Olympic scholars according to their perceived social
responsibilities in the face of IOC recent immoral issues. To
be precise, this survey’s purpose pertained to the desirable
position of Olympic scholars whether giving sanctions to the.281.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
The Olympic scholar: intellectual purity or direct participation?

ongoing IOC reform, as noted above. Moreover, Olympic
scholars qua intellectuals was a prerequisite set for theinvestigation to observe their willingness to endorse
theoretically and practically the task of IOC renovation.
Accordingly, an in-depth questionnaire was preparedtextually proposing “to survey the views of selected respondents
on the recent moral crisis within the Olympic Movement andon the judgments of the Olympic Scholars themselves” andthen distributed to 50 selected targets, from June to November,2000. The profile of these potential respondents was outlined
as a professor with a Ph.D. degree dedicated to Olympic Studies
and found among (1 st) participants of the UNSW Panel of
Olympic Scholars in Sydney Games, (2 nd ) lectures ofInternational Olympic Academy - IOA sessions, (3rd) members
from centers and research groups on Olympic Studies and (4th)authors of books and articles on Olympic Movement history
with academic reputation.
The data-gathering instrument was composed by two setsof proposition statements (Group “A” and Group “B” questions)
to be checked in terms of frequency of agreements as well as to
avoid individual identification. The questionnaire encompassed
12 items in Group “A” describing institutional and social rolesof intellectuals in general, either in terms of desirable, condemnedor unattached attitudes. These items were constructed with broad
views which might give support to an interpretation to be madeof Olympic Scholars as intellectuals in present days. The Group“B” focused on the IOC ongoing reform, which has resulted inanother study published elsewhere14.

The research delimitation
The contents of the 12 items were not mutually exclusive
in their construction since the respective intellectuals’ roles.282.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
The Olympic scholar: intellectual purity or direct participation?

and Olympic Scholars endorsements should be placed inhierarchical order of choices. This receiver’s end was due tothe investigation’s theme in itself. In fact, intellectuals’ role insocial interventions by definition treats of issues on which
researchers disagree when working at the intersection between
overlapping claims of different sources15 . So far, the state ofknowledge for meeting the demands of the questionnaire would
not offer a complete account of intellectuals’ roles and choicesof intervention, but rather a heuristic device to identify theirappropriate options. At the very least, the proposed survey
might suggest minimal standards for ethical conduct andgenerate discussion concerning future roles of Olympic
Scholars. Corrections did not comprise the 12 items since thetheme of intellectuals with self - appointed social responsibility
was prior considered somewhat ambiguous and often
overlapping in its interpretations, as mentioned above.
In terms of respondents, the delimitation was planned toinclude Olympic Scholars from all continents, both sexes andwith Ph. D. degrees conferred in less than ten years (<10 yr)
and before 1990 (>10 yr). Assuming that in Africa , Asia andLatin America there are few scholars with the profile requiredby the survey , five Ph. D. candidates from these continental
areas were selected as targets following the criteria of Olympic
Studies themes as options for their dissertations’ research. The
source for this selective process was the students from the IOA
Post Graduation Seminar’s on Olympic Studies held every year
in Ancient Olympia - Greece.
Coherently, the questionnaire’s final form was admittedly
a free-response (open - ended) descriptive instrument thatmight prove valuable in broadening perspective and in calling
attention to the novel presupposed role of the Olympic
Scholars dealing with IOC problems. This proposal had
became an introductory remark when presenting the form
to potentials respondents.
.283.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
The Olympic scholar: intellectual purity or direct participation?

Non-quantitative data and discussion
The percentage of returns from the total of 50
questionnaires distributed by Internet and mail was 72%,
totaling 36 respondents being 8 (22,2%) women and 28 (77,8%)
men. The group with more than 10 years of Ph.D. status totaled
20 (55%) respondents and the younger group , 16 (45%). Thislatter group includes 4 (11,1%) Ph.D. candidates.
The continental distribution of respondents were: Europe- 13 (36,1%); North America - 11 (30,5%); Asia - 6 (16,6%);
Latin America - 5 (13,8%); Africa - 1 (2,7%). By countries, major
sources of respondents were Canada - 6 (16,6%); Germany - 6(16,6%); USA - 5 (13,8%); UK - 4 (11,1%). Thus, these four
countries alone totaled 58,3% of respondents with English
speaking nations dominance.
The group of 36 Olympic Scholars declared 16 specialization
involvements beside Olympic Studies such as : history - 38% ;sport sciences - 27%; education - 13,8%; philosophy - 8,3%; ethics- 5,5% and others with 7,4%. Moreover, 30,5% of these
respondents had consultant or executive functions in Olympic
Movement’s different bodies (IOC commissions, Sydney’s
OCOG, National Olympic Academies etc.).
In addition to the returns’ summary, the choices from
respondents put in rank order are presented below with thefrequency obtained by each item (percentage over 36
respondents in selecting one or more items) , discriminated bytime of experience in Ph. D. concerns. Also, remarks from
respondents , if any, are placed on record in each item, identified
by his / her continent of origin. This hierarchy may be seen as
the intellectuals’ engagement with institutional and social orderin contrast with his or her detachment :1st - Intellectuals are the conscience of society. They foster
tolerance, struggle against evil and violence, promote human.284.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
The Olympic scholar: intellectual purity or direct participation?

rights, and argue for their indivisibility. They also work as
independent critics , holding up a much-needed mirror topolitics and power or are directly involved in politics [Bertrand
Russell, J. P. Sartre, Vaclav Havel , 1960s – 1990s] = 61,1%
choices (<10yr - 11 + >10yr - 11 = 22).
Remarks : “Not all intellectuals foster tolerance.
Some of them struggle against evil but notagainst violence - apud Karl Marx” (Europe).
“Overall, I agree with this statement as compare to others in this section” (North America).

2nd - Intellectuals are a distinct social group with a selfappointed responsibility for guiding justice and development
both in particular social settings and in culture areastranscending national boundaries [Saint-Simon, Emile Zola,
Durkheim – 19th and early 20 th centuries] = 58,3% choices(<10yr - 8 + >10yr - 13 = 21).
Remarks: “... but ‘self - appointed’ subject tosome sense of peer review and social
accountability, however difficult to define”(North America). “Intellectuals are not judges
but knowledge producers. To create ‘public’knowledge with free access is one of the main
roles of this group today, to avoid major
corporations’ dominance. In Olympic and sportarea this risk is observed in the preference of
medical and marketing sciences over social andcultural sciences” (Europe).

3rd - An intellectual is a person playing the role of a thinker
or writer who engages in public discussion of issues of public
policy, in politics in the broadest sense, while not deliberately.285.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
The Olympic scholar: intellectual purity or direct participation?

engaging in the pursuit of political power [T. Garton Ash,1995] = 50% choices (>10yr - 6 + >10yr - 12 = 18).
Remarks : “... but not always true or desirable”(North America).

4 th - Without political and public commitments social
theory is in danger of becoming an esoteric, elitist and eccentricinterest of marginal academics [B. S. Turner, 1996] = 38,8%
choices (<10yr - 6 + >10yr - 8 = 14).
Remarks : “ The opposite is also true: social
theory with political and public commitments
is in danger for its short term interests”(Europe).

5th - Intellectuals must be condemned for their readiness toserve particular social and political causes and to betray theirtrue commitment : the disinterested pursuit of universal justice[J. Benda, La Trahison des Clercs, 1920s] = 27,7% choices(<10yr - 4 + > 10yr - 6 = 10).
Remarks: “Not all, but some intellectuals”(Europe).

5 th - During the 20 th century, intellectuals have been
submitted to mechanisms of absorption and co-optation fromuniversities becoming prisoners of academic policies andrequirements: they lost contact with the real world [C. Buarque,2000] = 27,7% choices (<10yr - 6 + >10yr - 4 = 10).
Remarks : “... but what is the real world?
“(North America). “Centers for Olympic
Studies are terribly ambiguous concept,
academically. By their very nature - at least thosethat have emerged in the last ten years - lucid.286.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
The Olympic scholar: intellectual purity or direct participation?

criticism of the IOC is impossible” (North
America). “The academic climate in western
European - based societies does not permit
scholars of being both academic and activist.
Therefore, we are most effective if we pursue
these two streams of work separately, distinctly
and at the highest vital level” (North America).

6th - The new liberal and technological intelligentsia discards
truth and morality in favor of specialization and power [ N.
Chomsky, 1960s ] = 25% choices (<10yr - 5 + >10yr - 4 = 9).
Remarks: “Does Intelligentsia determine
attitudes?” (Europe).

7th - The public intellectuals were left behind in favor of
the growing number of specialists [C. Wright Mills, White
Collar, 1950s] = 19,4% choices (<10yr - 4 + >10yr - 3 = 7).
Remarks: “The reverse could be worse. It is not
only a matter of the number of intellectuals butwhat they stand for” (Europe).

8th - Free – floating intelligentsia is relatively detached from
economic processes and provides synthesis of the varying
viewpoints represented in the modern world [K. Mannheim,
Ideology and Utopia, 1930s] = 16,6% choices (<10yr - 1 +>10yr - 5 = 6).
Remarks: “Scholars first need to distancethemselves from the Olympic Movement inorder to more clearly understand and evaluate
the social and cultural function of thisphenomenon “ (North America).

.287.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
The Olympic scholar: intellectual purity or direct participation?

8th - Intellectuals as social critics have disappeared as they
became dependents of academic or governmental bureaucratic
structures [R. Jacoby, 1980s] = 16,6% choices (<10yr - 4 +>10yr - 2 = 6).
Remarks: “This statement is too general”(Europe).

9th – Organic intellectuals have the organizational functionof creating a web of beliefs and institutional and social relations
which is called hegemony [A. Gramsci, Quaderni del Carcere,
1920s – 1930s] = 13,8% choices (<10yr - 3 + >10yr - 2 = 5).
Remarks: “The Olympic Scholars should not
be ‘organic intellectuals’ , instead they should
keep distance from the IOC to avoid ‘blind
spots’ ” (Europe).

10 th - The modern intellectual no longer represents thebearer of universal values, once it is not at all necessary to
relate ethical problems to scientific knowledge [M. Foucault,
1986]= 8,3% choices (<10yr - 2 + >10yr - 1 = 3).
Remarks: “The increase of knowledge is also
creating ethical problems which cannot be solve by knowledge itself, but rather by building
consensus on values” (Europe).

Having selected the choices in rank order, the respondents
also forwarded in the questionnaire their position statements
concerning IOC moral crises:
Olympic Scholars - “I have focused on what I think it shouldbe, not what it currently is because I don’t think enough.288.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
The Olympic scholar: intellectual purity or direct participation?

scholars speak out critically or strongly” (North America). “I
do not think intellectuals have specific duties. People have
duties: some intellectuals are intelligent and well informed, butthat does not give them a greater duty to inform ethical opinions
than anyone else, nor does it make their ethical opinions any
more likely to be valid. After all, everyone has the duty to
inform his/her conscience. But, the few of us who write about
the Olympics do have a duty to decide and discuss how serious
the recent events are and the extent to which they requirechanges in the organization of the Movement, in the
responsibilities of IOC, etc. Here there are areas where specialist
knowledge is essential “ (Europe). “Olympic scholars should
participate directly in the IOC reform with their expertise,jointly with athletes, members, managers, etc” (Europe). “TheIOC does not have good relationships with the academic world.
Moreover, the contact areas have different reactions according
to specialization. Historians, for instance, are more reliable
than educators among IOC leaders” (Europe). “On one hand,
we must participate in the reform but the point is whether
they will ignore us. On the other hand, we have to learn how
to change the Olympic Movement but the question is how todeal with its instability. In short, dialogue and mutual changesof IOC leaders and intellectuals from the Olympic Movement
are the solution” (Europe). “The IOC has recently created or
improved three channels of contacts with Olympic Scholars :2000 Commission, Research Council of Olympic Studies andthe Olympic Museum. So, isolation is not the right expression
to describe IOC relationships with the academic world”(Europe). “Scholars’ relationships with IOC are essentially amatter of inquiry addressed to researchers “ (North America).
“Critical issues for scholars demand involvement; more
involvement with IOC is knowledge dissemination” (North
America). “The relationship IOC - Olympic Scholars is adialectic one” (Europe). “The experience of scholars’.289.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
The Olympic scholar: intellectual purity or direct participation?

participation in IOC commissions reveals cases of manipulation
executed by their executive members” (Europe). “Just as thereis tenure in university, Olympic Scholars need access to freedom
to pursue pressing issues with a sense of independence” (North
America).
Role of the intellectuals - “Most of these statements aregross oversimplifications of a much more complicated truth”(North America). “Each of these statements is a broad and allencompassing generalization. None of them are true or
supportable in their particularities - for everyone, everywhere”(North America). “Intellectuals cannot be put into single
categories. There are as many motives, pressures and outcomesas there are individuals” (Asia). “The problem concerning
intellectuals is that they are not ready to select statements perse, but instead, they elaborate lengthy comments which bringdifficulties to a qualitative content analysis” (Europe). “In order
to appreciate in-depth each statement it is necessary to go backto the context from which it originates” (Latin America).
Olympic Morality and Values - “I think the best way tostart a program which tries to solve problems is: first to collectdata, and second to analyze them. For me, as a historian, it isalso very important to realize that human beings have twodimensions. One shows us mankind as it is, as it was and as it
will be in future (I would call it the anthropological component;
for instance: homo ludens). And another aspect shows elements
which undergo changes during the times. Therefore, a special
task of historical research should be the constant and variable
elements. Thus, focussing on Group “A” questions, as a sporthistorian I am mainly interested in explaining andunderstanding the development of the Olympic Games. I think
it is not the historian’s task to promote ideals besides the idealof truth. I am critical of an ‘esoteric’ and ‘sectarian’ Olympic.290.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
The Olympic scholar: intellectual purity or direct participation?

morality; I would rather foster certain universal values such as
the Human Rights and fairness in all spheres and at all levels oflife . As for Group “B” questions, my first and utmost proposal
is a thoroughgoing democratization of the IOC, which until
today has a quasi-gerontocratic nature. Athletes should be
integrated. From a historical perspective, the organizational
structure is out of date. I surely admire the idealism andcommitment of people trying to solve the problem of doping
by education. Having studied the history of sports all my life,
however, I have severe doubts that the problems of cheating
can be solved in this way. As a historian, I think that there aremany arguments that contradict the widespread opinion that
there is a decline in the values of sport. Things are not getting
worse” (Europe). “Corruption is commonly found in today’s
institutions. Thus, a code of ethics for the Olympic Movement
is urgently needed, otherwise we will all be playing cynicalroles” (Europe). “Coubertin was not a model of ethical conduct
since he became powerful in politics. But power, in this case,cannot be identified as corruption. Scholars also use power intheir relations with society” (Europe). “The risk of corruption
grows with the increase of commercialization in sport. As such,to reduce business activities in IOC means preventing
wrongdoings” (Europe).
IOC Crises’ Motives - “I have always thought that the rulersof the Olympic Movement had an exaggerated idea of theirown importance. In my view, sport is good for people,
competition is good for some people, the health and well-beingthat come from sports are of obvious importance. But, thoseare not reasons for the big people to regard themselves asimportant, and it is that self-regard that leads them to succumb
to temptation” (Europe). “The IOC is in disarray. It is widely
regarded throughout the world as corrupted, self-seeking,unaccountable and replete with cronyism, nepotism, bribery.291.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
The Olympic scholar: intellectual purity or direct participation?

and corruption. It represents the ugliest face of modern sport.
It lacks credibility, dignity and above all, democracy. It is global totalitarianism in sports” (Europe). “ Coubertin saw threeclasses of IOC members: the nucleus ones, who joined thosecommitted to the cause; the nursery ones, with those who could
be educated to the cause; the façade ones, who included those
whose influence could be useful (e.g. aristocracy). The danger
is to see the façade members pretend they are nucleus without
ever setting foot in the nursery” (Europe).
Scholars as Educators - “Corruption is not an occasional
event in the IOC under business pressures and power
influences, therefore it will be potentially present if regulations
and pedagogical initiatives cannot prevail. Scholars above all
have to promote interventions of educational content insteadof direct confrontations with the IOC bureaucratic structures.
In addition, scholars have capabilities to act as role models interms of ethical attitudes. In summary, scholars are potentiallyable to educate Olympic Movement adherents by means ofinterventions and examples” (Europe). “Scholars must be
careful not to reproduce the very cronyism that IOC members
have recently been accused of. Olympic Scholars should not
be positioned as an elitist class of academics with luxury trips
and other perks but ,instead, they should be leading intellectual
debates about theory, method, application of knowledge in
the Olympic Movement and advocacy where appropriate”(North America).

Limits and controversies
Certainly, in order to review more subtle fundamentals ofstands and values of Olympic Scholars for the survey results
discussion, it is necessary to re-exam briefly the intellectuals as.292.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
The Olympic scholar: intellectual purity or direct participation?

a distinct social group. Methodologically speaking, additional
remarks from respondents suggest that Olympic Scholars
mostly disagree with the abstract and contradictory conceptionsof their social and cultural roles. In fact, their contentions may
be illuminated by the dispute of the sociology of knowledge
validity beginning in the late nineteenth century. This
presupposed branch of social sciences primarily had the supportof Max Weber, Durkheim, Max Scheler, Mannheim and otheroutstanding social scientists from the early twentieth century16.
The defenders of sociology of knowledge argued that allknowledge is , by definition, a social construction. However,these broad terms of approaching the intersubjective creationof knowledge by social groups were dismissed by thesociological thinking after the Second World War. In 1959,
Thomas Merton, for instance, reflecting on the North
American sociological production, wrote that “the sociologyof knowledge remains largely a subject of meditation rather
than a field of sustained methodological investigation”17. Later,in the 1980s, the renowned German philosopher, Juergen
Habermas, rejecting both the relativism of the humanists andthe scientism of the positivists has absorbed the sociology ofknowledge into the broader concerns of his Critical Theory18.
Today, sociology of knowledge is seriously discredited in spiteof eventual attempts made to re-examine its basis.
Historically speaking, the topic of intellectuals as an
unattached social stratum was reinforced in the 1930s by Karl
Mannheim, when he had used the rise of intelligentsia, in many
European countries, as an evidence taken from the sociologyof knowledge’s explanations. Within this context ofunderstanding, the intellectuals as individuals with a common
consciousness of their distinctive social responsibilities had
appeared in early nineteenth century with Saint - Simon’s
notion of avant-garde. Most of the aforementioned assertions
submitted to respondents have their roots on Saint - Simon’s.293.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
The Olympic scholar: intellectual purity or direct participation?

heritage which seems to be alive today, at least amongcontemporary writers and artists19.
Theoretically speaking, the conception of intellectuals as agroup of social reformers is complex and contradictory by its
relativist content and the loosely definition of either social classor social stratum 20. Although this sociological construction
represents a tension in present days, the moral claims issued
by intellectuals as a positive action group or even as intervention
agents remain socially legitimate. Again, the questionnaire’s
assertions incorporate both approaches.

Moral stands and values
Giving the initial assessment of the survey outcomes, thediscussion turns again to choices where ultimately lie key
insights to search the desirable hierarchy of moral stands andvalues. From the three preferred statements from Group “A”,
a profile required for Olympic Scholars may be outlined as
intellectuals representing the conscience of society (61,1 % of
choices), acting as a distinct social group with a self-appointed
responsibility for guiding justice (58,3%) and engaged in public
discussion of issues of public policy (50%).
Apart from individual idiosyncrasies, these character traits
and abilities, however, are not absolute requisites in face ofdifficulties of giving legitimacy to “self - appointed” position
and to justice distribution as well. Moreover, the engagementin public discussions should not be always desirable in theperspective of this particular assemblage of intellectuals.
In developing these abilities, Olympic Scholars should keep
the tradition of the intellectuals as mediators as well as following
the intervention role with prudence. As long as the choices
related to these issues had balanced results , old (<10 yr) andyoung (>10 yr) scholars are apparently in agreement, except.294.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
The Olympic scholar: intellectual purity or direct participation?

in terms of the public engagement requisite to which the lattergroup marked 50% less choices than the former.
Other concentration of choices from Group “A” statements
had discrete results depicting some unaccountable
generalizations. The forth preferred choice of this group (38,8%) is also referred to political and public commitments, but
not as a moral demarcation. Instead, this statement emphasizes
the social theory behind the scholars’ positioning, therefore
becoming a relativist assumption as pointed out by respondents.
Again, old and young scholars had a balanced distribution of
choices in this item, to which must be added the high frequencyof acceptance. In other words, this outcome might beinterpreted as a support to the chosen intervention role fromformer preferred statements.
The 5th, 6th and 7th most preferred statements embody thecommon and already traditional accusation of intellectuals’
involvement with praiseworthy corporatism advantages.
Choices in these cases totaled respectively 27,7% , 25% and19,4% without unbalanced positions between old and young
scholars. In all, respondents have rejected generalizations
implied by these items. But in relation to the 5th statement in
the ranking order there were suggestions of mechanisms of cooptation existing in academic initiatives directly linked to the
Olympic Movement .
Consequently, according to this latter view, the academic
and activist senses expected to shape the mediation andintervention roles of the Olympic Scholars simply do not arise.
Thus, the second recommended position for the Olympic
Scholar regards carefully wrong or undesirable attitudes as
opposed to the most preferred choices widely concerned withmoral intervention role models.
In the context of these contrasting positions , the 8 th
preferred statement (16,6%) brings into the discussion the
famous conception of “free - floating intelligentsia”, developed.295.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
The Olympic scholar: intellectual purity or direct participation?

by Karl Mannheim, which here implies having a detachedobservation of IOC crises for a better assessment of its impacts.
This advice is assumed by a respondent’s remark, being
somewhat contradictory to the mainstream, formed by direct
engagement petitioners. But, unlike other statements from thesurvey, it was marked by 5 members from the old group against
one single selection from the young group. Hypothetically,
the difference is explained by a minor group of Olympic
Scholars who trust in their moral role and in critics but not in
direct interventions in IOC issues.
Coincidentally, the 8th (same frequency of previous item,
but different content) , 9th and 10th statements of the rank order
extracted from Group “A “ items, also focus on particular roles attainable by Olympic Scholars. Now, the hierarchy isestablished respectively by 16,6%, 13,8% and 8,3% of choices.
Furthermore, there are not discrepancies between old andyoung groups surveyed while respondents continue to put
limits or to argue the statements. Thus, the generalization from
8th and 10th items are criticized as well as the relativism of 9thitem is stressed as compared to the previous proposed
detachment to assess IOC deviations. Finally, the low frequency
attributed to the 10th statement signalizes a rejection of the “endof intellectual” thesis, coherently with the mainstream detectedby the preceding items.

Conclusions
Even while recognizing the important role played by theintellectuals in today’s societies and cultures, methodologicalchallenges persist in order to produce appropriate
generalizations about this group. Whatever their contours,
intellectuals are not wholly defined by means of current
scientific research. The multiplicity of approaches for having.296.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
The Olympic scholar: intellectual purity or direct participation?

point-specific understanding of this peculiar assemblage usuallycorrespond to segmentation without unification. As such, thepresent investigation can only envisage an identification of
moral and values traits.
Overall, intellectuals as a topic of research is inconsistentin theory but effective in practice. More precisely, intellectuals
are a historical category still insufficiently explained bysociology. Such assertion is better acknowledged whenintellectuals organize themselves for social and politicalinterventions21. Recalling the 12 items of discussions, Olympic
scholars apparently recognize themselves in the latter direction.
Also, this self-fulfilling defines the intelligentsia from thenineteenth century and this is one main assumption behindthe manifest “Les Intellectuels et les Pouvoirs”, signed in Paris,
1973, by renowed intellectuals from 13 countries, when it declares in the closing paragraph22:“Wherever the place in the world he is found,
whatever are the reasons for his engagement, totell the truth - by all possible means andaccording to his beliefs - is the primary task of
the intellectual. He must do it without messianic
pride and with independence from all powers and against them, whatever names and modes
they are recognized. For him, there is notjustification to change from criticism toapologetics. The ideal of a just society does notconcern itself with a society without conflicts there is not such an end of history - but to asociety where those who criticize may besubmitted to critics when they are in power; toa society where criticism equals freedom andapologetics has no utility at all”.

.297.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
The Olympic scholar: intellectual purity or direct participation?

From these points of view, intellectuals take themselves totask in the events of social injustice or in contingencies ofserious wrongdoings before him or her. This contingent
intervention is especially enlightening to meet the relativismof theoretical explanations on their public positions. In
addition, the other- directedness of the eventually engaged
intellectual presupposes a social identity mainly governed by
the social, cultural or political context where s/he emerges withcollective and peer approvals23.
In stressing the importance of the context, it means that the
influence of intellectuals depends on the cultural setting in whichs/he makes interventions. In France and Latin America, forinstance, intellectuals often become national heroes while in
English - speaking countries they are frequently seen as civil-rights
activists. During the 1950s , the international arena turn out to bea widely recognized context for intellectuals’ interventions asproved by the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament. The
involvement of European prominent intellectuals in 1990s Iraq
and Yugoslavia wars’ debates is also a clear evidence of the reformation of an international intelligentsia, now acting as guardiansof universal human values24.
Mutatis mutandis Coubertin’s efforts to engage intellectuals
in the Olympic Movement might be considered a foresight ofeither cosmopolitan or universal values approached as a means
to overcome nationalist, ethnic and cultural confrontations.
To be sure, a description of the “Consultative Conference on
Art, Letters and Sports”, Paris, Comédie Française, 1906,
organized and reported by Coubertin himself 25, emphasized
the role of invited intellectuals. In brief, the 60 artists and writers
of note who attended the event were expected to “study towhat extent and what way art and literature could be includedin the celebration of the modern Olympiads and be associatedwith the practice of sport in general so as not only to benefit
from it but at the same time ennoble it”.
.298.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
The Olympic scholar: intellectual purity or direct participation?

Although the results of this desirable association neverreached a much needed continuity as reported before, Paul
Hazard by the early 1930s was advocating a close connectionof the namely “sport intellectuals” with universal human values.
For this French writer, physical educators as well as sport
leaders and coaches should be trustees and promoters of thosevalues. At this juncture, Hazard had recuperated also the Latin
expression “Ludus pro patria, pro humanitate ludus” (Games for
the Fatherland, Games for Humanity), as a label in order to
identify intellectuals dedicated to sport matters26.
In recent years, with the now vastly expanded higher
education and the increase of university’s sport-related
programs and specialization as well, scholars have been recasting
light on the intellectual perspectives of sports development.
The so-called Olympic Scholars can be considered an extractionof this academic elite in the name of Coubertin’s invented
traditions. But, as a distinction from other sport specialists with
doctoral degrees, the Olympic Scholar is supposed to take thetask of interpreter and mediator of the Olympic values despite
not being very clearly in the articulation of these roles.
This interpretation and its foregoing preliminary
assumptions can yield theoretical disputes that cannot be
developed in a single study. And the purpose of the present
research is merely to capture elements to discern present andfuture roles and conducts of those particular scholars, facing asituational crisis. Moreover, it is then assumed that the historicalreconstruction of the Olympic Scholars went far enough to
respond to the questions addressed throughout this study.
With this understanding, the moral stands and values fromthe survey’s statements are presumably able to constitute theminimum repertory of roles and conducts as proposed by theinvestigation. Still regarding this objective, benchmarking
assessments can be made through the repertory and also
generate future discussions. The selected treatment of the.299.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
The Olympic scholar: intellectual purity or direct participation?

survey’s results had as a model a similar option taken by
Françoise Baylis in dealing with knowledge, abilities andcharacter traits requisites for bioethics professionals27.
Thus, for future assessments benchmarking is henceforth
understood as a comparative ongoing search of moral demarcations
and standards that lead to successive and superior practices withintegrity - preserving compromises28. Correspondingly, for putting
this method to work one might suggest a review in the hierarchicalorder of Group “A” adjusted statements, in order to eliminate the
8th (Jacoby), the 9th (Gramsci) and the 10th (Foucault) positions
since they focus on uncompromising roles and practices according
to the survey’s findings.
Finally, turning to the core questions posed by the survey,
one should admit a conditional answer to the perspective of a
new role for Olympic scholars in the Olympic Movement,
after the IOC reform. According to “A” repertory re-establishedorder and respective discussions, Olympic scholars are callingfor actions with their direct participation and the re-elaborationof sport and Olympic priority values. This condition relies
upon the willing acceptance of these intellectuals to the novelrole for themselves, as researchers and equally as educators,
voluntarily defending the Olympic traditional values as well.
Though this willingness became self - evident in the survey,
perceptions of this academic and at the same time activist
compromise are yet fragmented and rather biased by skepticism
and radical criticism. In other words, during the IOC crises
scholars involved with Olympic issues might have been acting
according to a continuum in which there is an oscillation
between intellectual purity and a direct involvement with theOlympic Movement’s problems.
Ultimately, the trend towards common efforts to change
the IOC and Olympic Movement internal values hierarchy
may possibly progress as a renew emphasis in the Olympic
scholars’ responsibilities. The IOC contemporary crisis.300.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
The Olympic scholar: intellectual purity or direct participation?

situation also may have the meaning of a break in the traditionof intellectuals’ indirect influence on Olympic Movement’s
issues. In taking on the responsibilities they are outlining tothemselves, Olympic scholars will benefit from the IOC crisis
and will become really intellectuals pro humanitate ludus.

Notes
1. For a recent overview of the conflicting relationships of the IOC
and the Olympic Games, see Schaffer, K. and Smith, S. (eds), The
Olympics at the Milleninium : Power, Politics and the Games Introduction. Rutgers University Press, New Brunswick, 2000,
pp. 1 -16.
2. A historical account on the meaning of sport competition’ s deviations as related to Olympic Movement is found in DaCosta, L. ,The Central Problems of Olympism in the Face of the Constraints
ndof Commercialization and Possible Solutions, IOA Report, 32
Session, 1992, pp. 77 - 84.
3. The president of the IOC himself has praised this continuity as
follows: “ After a century of existence, the IOC , which since thatevening in June 1894 has been maintained and strengthened byseven successive presidents and four hundred and fourteen members - citizens of every continent - can be proud of its achievements “ . Quoted in Samaranch, J. A , Tribute to Greece and to
Pierre de Coubertin, Olympic Review, vol. 25, no. 8, 1996, p.3.
4. Quoted in www.olympic.org, IOC Home Page, in December
1999.
5. See Mallon, B. , The Olympic Bribery Scandal, Journal of Olympic History, vol. 8, no. 2, May 2000, pp. 11 - 27. The quotation isfrom p. 18.

.301.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
The Olympic scholar: intellectual purity or direct participation?

6. A report on the adoption of a permanent membership structureby the IOC was included in Coubertin, P., L’ Organisation Olympic, Revue Olympic, juillet 1903, pp.35 - 38. In Mueller, N. (Ed)
Textes Choisis - Tome II - Olympism, Weidmann, Zurich, 1986,
pp. 598 - 601.
7. For further information on this opposition , see DaCosta, L. ,Olympism and the Equilibrium of Man. In Mueller, N. (Ed)Coubertin and Olympism - Questions for the Future, Schors,Niedernhausen, 1998, pp. 188 - 199.
8. Ibidem, pp.190 - 191.
9. A review of these repercussions was made, inter alia, by Naul, R. ,The Impact of the Le Havre Congress on Physical Education in
Selected European Countries. In Mueller, N., Schors, pp. 141 - 153.
10. For an account on the influence of the present days achievingsociety over the Olympic Ideals, see Lenk, H., Towards a Philosophical Anthropology of the Olympic Athlete and / as The
Achieving Being. In Messing M. and Mueller, N. (eds), Blickpunkt
Olympia, Agon Sport Verlag, Kassel, pp. 150 -164.
11. The topic of the legitimacy of sport practices has been discussed,
for instance, by DaCosta, L. P., The Image of Sport in SouthAmerica. In Mester, J. (ed), The Image of Sport in the World,
German Sport University Cologne, 1995, pp. 93 - 94.
12. The Albertville crisis in addition to its further consequences on
Lillehammer Games and the Olympic Games host city bidding,are fully analyzed by DaCosta, L. P., Toward a Theory of Environment and Sport. In DaCosta, L.P. (ed), Enviroment and Sport- An International Overview, University of Porto / IOC, Porto Portugal, 1997, pp. 40 - 59. The sustainability principle in theversion of Olympic Charter was quoted in the “Manual on Sportand the Environment”, IOC, Lausanne, 1997, p. 72, as referred toRule 2, paragraph 13.

.302.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
The Olympic scholar: intellectual purity or direct participation?

13. For the issue of Coubertin and IOC hesitation in providing the
Olympic Movement an intellectual base, see Mueller, N. , One
Hundred years of Olympic Congresses - 1894 / 1994, IOC,
Lausanne, 1994, p. 90. Accordingly, for the intellectuals’ conflicting relationship with political and institutional powers, see
Paramio, L. , L’ Intellectuel, un Malentendu Historique, Lettre
Internationale, nº 1, Autonne 1999, pp. 45 - 46.
14. See Lamartine DaCosta, “Taking ourselves to task: Olympic scholars in face of moral crisis in the Olympic Movement”. In: Cashman,
R. (ed.) Keys to Success. Sydney: UNSW Press (in print).
15. Quoted in Rorty, A . , The Advantages of Moral Diversity. In
Frankel Paul, E. , Miller, Jr. , F. D. and Paul, J. (eds), The GoodLife and the Human Good, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1992, p. 43.
16. There were many instances of elaboration on the sociology ofknowledge’s pitfalls, but it is particularly recommended in this
topic to consult Hekman, S. J., Hermeneutics and the Sociologyof Knowledge, Polity Press, Cambrigde, 1986. See an historicalreview of this discipline in pp. 13 - 49.
17. Merton, T. , Social Conflict over Styles of Sociological Work. In
Curtis, J. E. and Petras, J. W. (eds), The Sociology of Knowledge,
Duckworth, London, 1970, p. 507.
18. See Habermas, J., Kowledge and Human Interests, Beacon Press,
Boston, 1971, p. 308 ff.
19. On this point see Howard, D., Les Intellectuels Français et leMarxisme, Lettre Internacionalle nº 1, Autonne 1999, pp. 51 - 56.
20. It should be noted that there was a growing agreement on thisassumption in the 1970s already, as discussed by Gouldner, A.,
The Future of Intellectuals and the Rise of a New Class, Macmillan,
London, passim.

.303.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
The Olympic scholar: intellectual purity or direct participation?

21. This theoretically - grounded assumption has been giving support to several researches on the history of intelligentsia in many
countries. For a description of this methodological option, see
DaCosta, L. P. , Intellectuels de France et du Brésil, Cahiers
Caravelle - Université de Toulouse, nº 57, Toulouse, 1991, pp.
161 - 170. Another study on the same line of research was madecomparing intellectuals from Germany and Brazil in DaCosta, L.
P., A Transfiguracao da Historia pela Cutura do Dever - ser na
Alemanha e no Brasil, Memoria e Cultura, vol. 3, no. 1, 1993, pp.
5 - 10.
22. The Manifest “The Intellectuals and the Powers” was publishedin a special edition of the newspaper Le Monde, Paris, 4 juillet
1973. The translation from French was made by the author ofthis investigation.
23. The complexity of intellectuals’ relations with social, cultural orpolitical contexts has been conducting social scientists to makestudy cases of intellectuals by means of historical records and comparative analysis. For an extensive account of this approach, see
Winock, M. , Le Siécle des Intellectuels, Éditions du Seuil, Paris,
1999. In this book, it is particularly interesting the chapter “La
Fin des Intellectuels?”, pp. 755 - 773.
24. See, for an extended account of this trend, Danner, M. , The US
and the Yugoslav Catastrophe, The New York Review of Books,
vol. XLIV, no. 18, 1997, pp. 56 - 64.
25. Coubertin, P. , Olympic Memoirs, International Olympic Committee, Lausanne, 1997, pp. 90 - 91 (original edition 1931).
26. Hazard, P., A Educacao Fisica e os Intelectuais, Revista de
Educacao Fisica, vol. 1, no. 1, maio de 1932, pp. 16 - 17 (translated
from an original article in French). In spite of this text does not
mention the original use of the Latin expression, apparently it
was taken from Coubertin’ s writings. In fact, “Ludus pro Patria”
was chosen by Coubertin as a motto for the symbol of the Union.304.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
The Olympic scholar: intellectual purity or direct participation?

des Sociétés Françaises des Sport Athlétiques - U.S.F.S.A. in 1890,
accounting on Mueller, N., Pierre de Coubertin Textes Choisis,
Tome II. Weidmann, Zurich, 1986, p. 460.
27. Baylis, F. , Heroes in Bioethics, The Hastings Center Report,
vol. 30, no. 3, 2000, pp. 34 - 39.
28. Ibidem, 35 - 36. The methodology of benchmarking is suggestedby the referred source.

.305.

CHAPTER 15

The female Olympian:tradition versus
innovation in the quest
for inclusion
Ana Miragaya
The Olympic Games of the modern era started officiallyon April 6,1896, in Athens Greece, with the participation of
245 male athletes from 14 nations of the western world. The
main proponent of the Games, Baron Pierre de Coubertin(1863-1937), a typical man of his time, chose to follow thetradition of the Ancient Games keeping women out of courts,
fields and other sports arenas and revering the figure of the.307.
OLYMPIC STUDIES
L. P. DaCosta, 2002 - Editora Gama Filho - Rio de Janeiro

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
The female Olympian: tradition versus innovation in the quest for inclusion

ancient hero with his own extraordinary physical and moral
virtues. The first modern Olympics did not have any womenathletes, excluding therefore 51% of humanity. However, it ispossible to observe a gradual increase in the number of female
Olympians from 1900 to 2000 (from 1.9% in 1900 to 38.3% in2000 of the total number of athletes)1 and a very small numberof women taking up administrative and management positionsin the Olympic Committees after 1981.
This Chapter aims to review and discuss the evolution of
the participation of women in the modern Olympic Games:from total exclusion (0.0% participation) and passivity prescribedby traditional values and beliefs at the very beginning, in 1896,
to partial inclusion (38.3% participation) pressured by innovation
and a change in gender roles brought about by transformations
that occurred during the course of the 20th century. Empiricalcontributions will illustrate this theme, which is here primarily
seen as an interplay between oppositions.
The inclusion of women in the Olympics came to being
done gradually by the women themselves as a result of theirdevelopment and awareness of the new active role they werebeginning to play in the new industrialized society of the second
half of the 19 th century and during the whole 20 th century.
Women were conquering new positions in their countries,
becoming more active, especially struggling to become fullcitizens with the right to vote. If women were increasingly callingfor a place in the social order, it was not different in the sport
sphere. Slowly women started to get into a realm that did notbelong to them in the first place and they were beginning toenjoy it. They were streaming from a passive to an active position.
Sport had always been a male construct in which very rarely did
women take part. Traditional beliefs had always held thatphysical exertion and competition were contrary to a woman’snature. Besides, it was believed that the place of the woman wasin the home, taking care of the house and the children, (indoors).308.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
The female Olympian: tradition versus innovation in the quest for inclusion

and that the place of the man was outside the home, working as
the sole breadwinner of the family (outdoors) 2.
The history of the inclusion of women in sport is identified
by some researchers 3, 4, 5 not only as a history of power andmale domination over women but also as a history of
inequalities where women always played roles of submission,
not being allowed to search for respect and equality. Other
researchers have qualified it as a product of European and North
American colonialism, a mirror of the games of these regions
and not representative of indigenous peoples of the rest of theworld 6. It was a history based on tradition where changes andinnovation played a very minor role. However, with theadvancements of society itself in face of new technology andinformation, women began to realize that their history had tobe retaken from another perspective: that of innovation,
participation, activity and inclusion. The situation of womenin the Olympic Games evolved then from total exclusion at
the very beginning, in 1896, to some inclusion along the years.
Women’s advancement and awareness of their new positioningpressured society to come to a point where the next quest was
not whether women should participate but how women should
participate. In what sports and events and in what otherpositions, including as officials in international and national
Olympic bodies, were women to participate actively. The‘permission’ and the extension of this participation are still
being prescribed by the International Olympic Committee(IOC) members, the majority of whom are men.

The Tradition of Ancient Olympic Games
Back in Greek times, at the root of all western tradition,
Athenians believed that women should be covered up and notseen; therefore, they were not allowed to take part in athletic.309.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
The female Olympian: tradition versus innovation in the quest for inclusioncompetitions because they would have to expose themselves.
Moreover, female bodies were to be conditioned for childbirth.
At the same time, the Games of the Goddess Hera, whose firstrecords date back to 200 B.C., were games that included young,adolescent, and unmarried women athletes in competitions held
every four years 7.
The first recorded information of the Ancient Olympic
Games dates back to 776 B.C. They were actually religious
festivals in which competitive sports were believed to entertain
the spirits of the dead. Therefore, a period of peace was
supposed to happen during the Games. The tribes and cities
constantly at war with one another welcomed the month oftruce every four years for the Olympics. It was a welcome
recess for everyone, especially because it was thought to please
the gods. Although only men were allowed to take part in thecompetitions that were held in honor of Zeus, certain women
were allowed to watch the Games. These were young
unmarried women in search of a husband. They were there towatch the beautiful bodies and talk with their brothers or father
about the one man each wanted as their mate. However,married women were prohibited from attending the Olympics
on penalty of death. The only married woman allowed to watch
the games was the Priestess of Demeter 8.
Women, who had been prizes to the winners in the chariot
races, were allowed to participate indirectly as unofficial
competitors in the Olympic Games some centuries later in thecondition of horse owners. For instance, the Spartan princess
Kyniska entered her horse in the chariot race in 392 B.C. andwon it. It is interesting to observe that the first women athletescame from Sparta especially because Spartans believed that fit
and healthy women that exercised regularly would have healthy
children. At first this could seem a radically different thought
than that held by the Athenians, who preferred their womencovered up and left to their own passive household routines 8.
.310.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
The female Olympian: tradition versus innovation in the quest for inclusion

Actually the Spartans were putting physical activity to theservice of women’s old function of procreation. Women did
not play any role model of heroines in the condition of being
active and athletes. Women’s participation was considered
unimportant especially because the ancient Greeks were highly
competitive and believed strongly in the nexus of ‘agon’ orcompetition for excellence.
The ultimate Greek goal was to be the best by means ofcomparative conducts and celebrations. All aspects of life,
especially athletics, were centered on this cultural belief. They
valued physical strength, agility, speed, and other physicalqualities believed to be inherent to men only. Because Olympic
champions were considered victors, they enjoyed great honors
and were entitled to receive several privileges such as (i) being
given a crown made from olive leaves (the ‘cotinus’); (ii) having
statues made of themselves placed at Olympia; (iii) having all
their meals paid for at the public’s expense; (iv) getting frontrow seats at theaters and (v) occupying high offices.
Furthermore, because they were believed to bring their cities
into favor with the Greek gods, their compatriots pulled downpart of the walls of their original cities for them to enter upon
their return. The culture of the victor developed into the cultureof the male hero, which has been carried on throughout thetimes from the tradition of the past to the inherited traditionof today’s society7,8.
On the other hand, women were valued for the quality ofchildren they produced; therefore, they could not compete orparticipate in similar physical activities or competitions as they
had been thought of for being very delicate. Women were notheroines because they did not fulfill the same pre-requisites of
Olympic heroes related to size, physical strength, abilities andskills. On the contrary, seen as weak individuals, women were
supposed to stay at home, leading a very passive life. This belief
had been cultivated throughout the centuries and still existed.311.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
The female Olympian: tradition versus innovation in the quest for inclusion

when the Olympic Games were revived by Coubertin. It wasthen gradually modified as science evolved to prove that women
could follow the same paths men did and still have children
The Ancient Olympic Games lasted for almost 12 centuries,
being abolished only in 394 A.D. by the Christian Emperor
Theodosius II not only because of the bitterness of the relations
between Greeks and Romans or the brutality and corruptionthat reigned during the Games but also because he believedthat the festivals were pagan. Some years later, the Stadium of
Olympia, where those events were held, was razed and the
Olympic fields pulled down 8.

The Revival of the Games: Tradition Maintained
During centuries the places where the competitions were
held continued to be empty and prey to floods, earthquakes
and thieves. It is possible to say that athletic celebrations
disappeared almost entirely for more than a thousand years
until some enthusiasts of the Ancient Olympic Games
considered reviving them for the first time around 1793, butthey were unsuccessful. There seemed to be little funding andinternational coordination to back it up. Then, in 1881, Ernst
Curtius, a German archaeologist, directing a research group,
uncovered the ruins of the Stadium of Olympia.
Inspired by the German discovery, Baron Pierre de
Coubertin took a personal interest in the archeological siteand specially in the celebration that it evoked due to French
educational and nationalistic claims. His vague proposal for
an international sports festival and competition was initiallygreeted by blank stares, but in his capacity as general secretaryof the Union of French Societies of Athletic Sports, he visitedcolleges, universities, and private sports clubs, talking to anyone
who would listen. Then in 1894, speaking at the Sorbonne in.312.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
The female Olympian: tradition versus innovation in the quest for inclusion

Paris to a gathering of representatives from nine nations—
including the United States and Russia—he argued for andproposed that the Ancient Games be revived on an international
scale. With his hearers’ approval, he formed the IOC to organize the Olympic Games and make the rules9.
Following tradition, the IOC declared that all competing
athletes had to be amateurs, not professionals and decided tohold the first modern Olympic Games in Athens, the original
home of that celebration. Money was raised with personal andpublic donations and the sale of eight different Olympic postage
stamps. However, with the same enthusiasm that he hailed thearchaeological finding in Greece and with the same energy that
he pushed the revival of the Olympic Games, Pierre de
Coubertin completely kept his coherence with the old Greek
tradition when he excluded the women from the Games. He
was completely against the practice of sports and physicalactivities by women as most men of his times. According tohim, women only had the function of bearing children: “awoman’s glory would come through the number and qualityof children she produced. As far as sports were concerned
women’s role was to encourage their sons to excel. She was
not to seek records for herself “. The Games were “the solemn
periodic manifestation of male sport based on internationalism,on loyalty as a means, on arts as a background and the applauseof women as a recompense” 3. As Lunzenfichter 10 reports,
Coubertin still claimed that a “female Olympiad would be
impractical, uninteresting, unaesthetic and incorrect” just after
receiving the support of Pope Pius XI, who had seriously
condemned the playing of sport by women.
By ruling women out and still keeping traditional valuesof other people from another era, it is possible that Coubertin
fired up the ancient Olympic spirit of the male hero, which
has inspired athletes around the world along decades. It is
important to observe that the figure of the male hero was.313.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
The female Olympian: tradition versus innovation in the quest for inclusion

rescued with the revival of the Games and at the expense of
the exclusion of the women. There was no rescue of the figureof the heroine once it did not exist in the Ancient Olympic
Games. Neither did Coubertin want to develop the new rolemodel of the heroine. The only role model that wasreconstructed was that of the male hero.

The Response of the Women: the Olympian
female in the very first Olympic GamesIn spite of Coubertin’s efforts to keep women out of thecompetitions, there was an unofficial competitor in the 1896
marathon, a poor Greek woman who became known as‘Melpomene’, whose real name was Stamati Revithi. She was
not allowed to compete in the men’s race, but ran by herself
the next day. The final lap was completed outside the stadium
as she had her entry denied. After her marathon run, athletics
officials could not remember her name so they labeled her‘Melpomene’, who is the Greek muse of Tragedy. Looking at
Stamata Revithi, they could see only tragedy, not her
extraordinary feat 11. She had finished less than two hours after
the winner (in four and a half hours) and had beaten some ofher male competitors 3. She was the first innovator to face thebarriers of tradition.
The first modern Olympic Games took place at the very
end of the 19 th century, at a time when the western world
was harvesting years of new inventions, hard work andtechnology that would change the face of the 20 th century.
Industrialization and social reform were essential indetermining which direction the richest countries such as theUnited States and European nations would take from thenon. With the evolution of technology and new inventions
being added to the industries that started to flourish, more.314.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
The female Olympian: tradition versus innovation in the quest for inclusion

labor had been necessary to move the different economies
ahead. Women had already started gradually to work outside
their home and join the labor force; therefore, they were taking
on new roles. As they began to participate more in the economyof their countries, they wanted to be heard as citizens. They
also wanted to vote. Many women organizations were founded
to strive for citizenship. Slowly women were going from a
passive to an active position. The end of the 19th century andespecially the beginning of the 20th century saw the changes
that also motivated women’s actions in sports.
Although the International Olympic Committee, foundedin 1894 in Paris, regulated over the Olympic activities, National
Olympic Committees (NOCs) had to be created in the different
nations that wanted to participate in the Games. In the very
beginning, the local national committees were the ones thatorganized the Games in their host sites. The Games of 1900
and 1904 were connected with World Fairs; therefore, theselection of events to be included in the Olympic program
was mainly in the hands of the fairs’ organizing committees
and thus to a large extent beyond the control of the IOC 12. Infact the Olympics were slow to catch on. The following Games
held in Paris in 1900, in Saint Louis in 1904 and in London in1908 were sparsely attended and badly organized. That madethe inclusion of women in these Games a little less difficult.
However, since the admission of women to these Games did
not have the official consent of the IOC, they did not havetheir status recognized. As a result, women competitors wereawarded diplomas instead of medals and olive branches 5, whichwere supposed to only go to the male heroes. The role modelof the female Olympian was still to be constructed.
Golf and tennis, elite sports, were open to women in the
Olympic Games of 1900 in Paris: 12 women from five countries
participated in these two sports or disciplines, in a total ofthree events. The Olympic Games of 1904 in Saint Louis only.315.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
The female Olympian: tradition versus innovation in the quest for inclusion

had six female Olympians, all American, who participated inarchery because the other international female athletes did nothave the financial conditions to buy their way across the ocean
to participate in the Games. Women’s gymnastics wasdemonstrated but was not considered to be an official event.
The Olympic Games of 1908 in London had 36 womencompeting in four sports: tennis, sailing, ice-skating and archery,
all of which sports of high social prestige. The participation of
women was beginning to grow. Although the Olympics of1912 in Stockholm had 55 women athletes (2.2% of allcompetitors) from 11 countries participating in six events of
two sports, including swimming, women’s sports remained amarginal phenomenon and were still not officially recognizedby the IOC. According to Pfister 12, it was the ‘feminist’ Swedes
who introduced the swimming competitions in the Olympics,
the first battle of female Olympians for meters and seconds.
Swimming was a very popular sport at that time andconsiderably contributed to the participation of a greaternumber of women in the Games.
It is important to mention that financing has always
been an important factor for the participation of women in
the Games. Not all women have the credibility and the
support they need from the local committees or fromsponsors; therefore, it becomes very hard for many womenathletes to travel on their own to the places of competition.
Most of them do not work and when they do work, theirremuneration tends to be lower than men’s pay. Male athletes,on the other hand, have more credibility because of tradition;
as a result, it is easier for them to be offered more
opportunities. Besides, their income tends to be higher thanthat of women, which permits them to make up for travelinginvestments. The number of women athletes started toincrease as it can be seen in Table 1.

.316.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
The female Olympian: tradition versus innovation in the quest for inclusion

Table 1
Participation of women athletes in themodern Olympic Games3
Year

SportsEventsCountries

Participants

Year

SportsEventsCountries

Participants

1896

-

-

-

-

1956

6

26

39

384

1900

2

3

5

12

1960

6

29

45

610

1904

1

2

1

6

1964

7

33

53

683

1908

2

3

4

36

1968

7

39

54

781

1912

2

6

11

57

1972

8

43

65

1058

1920

2

6

13

77

1976

11

49

66

1247

1924

3

11

20

136

1980

12

50

54

1125

1928

4

14

25

290

1984

14

62

94

1567

1932

3

14

18

127

1988

17

86

117

2186

1936

4

15

26

328

1992

19

98

136

2708

1948

5

19

33

385

1996

21

108

169

3626

1952

6

25

41

518

2000

25

300

199

4069

The Inclusion of Women:
Different Periods, Different Readingsa. From 1896 to 1928
Hargreaves4 identifies three periods of women’s participationin the modern Olympic Games: (1) from 1896 to 1928; (2)from 1928 to 1952 and (3) from 1952 to today.
The first period is characterized by a tradition of exclusionand some efforts to resist these practices. It was also the time
when women were searching for jobs, getting access to
education, fighting to have the right to vote and trying to get
adjusted to constant changes of the new society that required
new gender roles. This period includes the twenties, when,according to Théberge 5, there was some struggle over the.317.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
The female Olympian: tradition versus innovation in the quest for inclusion

control of women’s international sport and the form anddefinition of women’s participation. As progress pushed theindustrialized countries ahead it also went for a change inwomen’s international sport. Since the IOC refused to include
women’s athletics (American track and field) in the Olympic
Games, the Frenchwoman Alice de Milliatt defied the statusquo, founded the Fédération Sportive Féminine Internationale(FSFI) and organized the first Women’s Olympics in 1922.
They were so successful that the Games were held again in
1926, 1930 and 1934 as the Women’s World Games. They
became visible to the IOC especially because of the public
interest women sports received. The Women’s Games were so
successful that they not only pressured the IOC to eventually
incorporate them permanently to the Olympic Games after
extensive negotiations and maneuvers13 but also influenced
Women’s Games in Brazil in 193314 and in 194915.
Women were beginning to win their battles for inclusion.
This can be observed in Coubertin’s words when he left the
IOC presidency in 1925: “I remain hostile to the participationof women in the Games. They have been admitted to a growing
number of events against my wishes”10.
It was still during the period 1896-1928 that two main debates about women’s involvement in sport came up. They
would influence the view over women’s sport and women’s
participation in the Olympics for a long time. The first one,still based on tradition and then related to the poor and limited
medical wisdom of the time, with no evidence that could prove it, promoted beliefs in women’s natural frailty andcondemned vigorous physical activity as dangerous to women’s
health and well being. As a result, along the editions of theGames, women’s participation in athletics and other sports
was done on a limited basis according to a model of what wasconsidered the ideal of female frailty prescribed by male doctors.
As winds of the past were still blowing, women were excluded.318.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
The female Olympian: tradition versus innovation in the quest for inclusionfrom the strength events in athletics and only gradually were
women’s team events introduced into the Games.
The second debate was about the control of women’s sport,
which was new to society and to the women themselves.
According to tradition, the active positions of command should
belong to men and not to women, who were supposed to obey
and be passive. Struggles were waged over who would control
women’s national and international sport and what would be
the form and definition of women’s participation. To follow
tradition, women continued to have no control of their own
participation in national or international sport.
Summing up, it is possible to say that the events of the
1920s and then of the 1930s had two essential meanings whichwere both cultural and social: (1) definition and meaning of
women’s sports based on biological differences and (2) thecontrol of the organization of women’s sports as an Olympic
male dominant function.

b. From 1928 to 1952
The two meanings above were carried on throughout thesecond phase. Hargreaves4 identified the period between 1928
and 1952 as one of consolidation and struggle. It was exactly
during this period that women fought to be seen and to
consolidate their position as sportswomen. This was a newconcept not only to women but to society as a whole. Women
were in a very complex situation that demanded thedevelopment of role models for women who practiced sports
and that went to the Olympic Games. Their only role models
had been male heroes. They were then in a crossroads which
pointed to two different directions. They were either to follow
previously established models or to construct new female rolemodels from scratch. Due to the limited basis of access to.319.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
The female Olympian: tradition versus innovation in the quest for inclusion

Olympic sports that had been set by the IOC in 1928, women
seemed to have chosen the first alternative.
Even though women had taken another little step, theywanted to guarantee their role as active participants in sport
and in society. This positioning was strengthened during the
40s as women had be mobilized to take up posts left by men
who had to go to the battlefields in Europe. As a result of theWorld War II, there were no Olympic Games in 1940 or 1944.
The massive direct and indirect participation and more
inclusion of women in the economy of their countries at war
greatly contributed for women’s new positioning in theirsociety and their awareness of the place they occupied.
During this time, the model of women’s sport based on
biological differences between the sexes which had been
constructed in the thirties was also taken to school sport programsand ended up limiting the way women looked at their own
athleticism. At the end of this period, female participation in
the Olympic Games became a fact, but the gains women had
made were conservative because the model of women’s sportthat had been adopted conformed to the ideal of feminine
athleticism and its cultural significance was still to reinforce themyth of female frailty 5. It is then possible to observe society’s
maintenance of women’s traditional functions.

c. After 1952
However, according to Hargreaves4, 1952 starts a periodof challenge to male and masculine hegemony in Olympic sport
especially because of two events. This fact did not mean thatgender relations would be reconstructed to make up for pastinequalities. It meant rather that women found other ways tofight exclusion, tradition, passivity, and the chores imposedby society to then try to reach their objectives of inclusion,.320.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
The female Olympian: tradition versus innovation in the quest for inclusion

innovation, activity, and design of new roles in the fast changing
world. Let us, then, analyze the recent past and the changes
detected in the 2000 Olympiad.

( i ) Two events
The first event was the entry of the Soviet Union and othercountries of the east bloc as new participants in the expansionof the Games that took place in Helsinki, Finland, in this post
World War II era. These countries were gender blind. They had
culturally different traditions as well as objectives. They had
included women their own way a long time ago. Since theyplaced a premium on athletic success with little attention to thegender of the winners, they had made a large material and social
investment on the training of their athletes for the Games. As aresult, the number of participating women athletes went from
385 in 1948 to 518 in 1952 (see Table 1) and the new womenathletes became visible because they had had training for that. It
was part of their education in schools and colleges16. The numberof medals was the most important thing for them. Table 2 shows
the number of medals the U.S.S.R. got from 1912 to 1960. Even
when the countries that made up the former U.S.S.R. started
competing individually in the Olympic Games, the number of
medals was still more important than the gender of the athletes
who earned them, as seen in Table 3.
Whenever an athlete regardless of gender was a gold winner,
the national anthem of his or her country was played and theflag was raised, making that visible to the world6. It was alreadythe Cold War. The number of medals meant how many times
these countries were honored with victories. Once the easternworld had discovered a new way of becoming visible and of
making political propaganda, the western countries were forcedout of concern for their own Olympic standing to pay greater.321.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
The female Olympian: tradition versus innovation in the quest for inclusion

attention to the participation and performance of women andto invest on their training and preparation. Women benefited
from the situation, became innovators, and started increasing
their participation numbers.

Table 2
Medals won by the U.S.S.R. in Olympic Games16
Year

Location

MedalsGold

SilverBronze TOTAL Classification

1912

Stockholm

0

2

3

5

16

1952

Helsinki

22

30

19

71

2

1956

Melbourne

37

29

32

98

1

1960

Rome

43

29

31

103

1

Obs. The U.S.S.R. did not participate in the Olympic Games of 1920, 1924, 1928,
1932, 1936 and 1948.

Table 3
Medals won by countries of the former U.S.S.R. in the
Olympic Games, Sydney 200016
Country

Number of medals
Gold

SilverBronzeCountries of the former U.S.S.R.

48

48

67

163

1

U.S.A.

39

25

33

97

2

Russia

32

28

28

88

3

.322.

TOTAL Classification

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
The female Olympian: tradition versus innovation in the quest for inclusion

The second event took place in the 1960s: the women’s
movement in North America and Europe as a consequence of
scientific and technological development not only because of
the need for more accurate training and specialized nutrition
but also because of the invention of the birth-control pill, which
helped women fight traditional approaches, control their own
sexual life, and plan their families. The new roles played by
women during and after the World War II added to the scienceadvances and produced a re-thinking of women’s position insociety and a challenge to traditional ideas about gender roles.
As a result of this new positioning, it was possible to observe
an increase in the participation of the women in sports andsoon enough concern with gender inequality in sport gained
prominence.

(ii) The Sydney Games
There has been a steady increase in the number of female
Olympians. It might seem that women have achieved positionsof equality in relation to representation in terms of numbers.
The 2000 Games women athletes (4,069) were 38.3% of thetotal number of athletes (10,651)1. If the objective is to reach
52.0% as proposed by Lucas17, there is still a long way ahead.
It is also important to look at the different types of events
that have been added to the Games in recent years. They showthat there still is some sort of ambivalence about the meaningof women’s sport. On the one hand, events such as women’s
distance events (marathon and 10000-meter race), multiple
events that combine running, jumping, and throwing
competitions and team sports (volleyball, basketball, field
hockey) have been added in recent years, challenging the mythof female frailty, but still following the traditional model ofthe male hero. On the other hand, sports such as synchronized.323.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
The female Olympian: tradition versus innovation in the quest for inclusion

swimming, rhythmic gymnastics and artistic gymnastics, whichemphasize traditionally feminine desirable qualities andcharacteristics, maintaining the myth of female frailty havebeen included. There are no male Olympians in these disciplines as they reinforce the supposed traditional feminine qualities.
As a result, the public gets an ambiguous message. At the sametime that Olympic sports and events emphasize theperformances of the female Olympian as a product ofremarkable skill and ability, they also provide symbolic
confirmation of the special nature of women’s sport due totheir emphasis on beauty, form, and appearance5.
This tendency is reflected in some countries. In Taiwan,
for instance, women athletes as role models prove that feminine
grace, intelligence, focus, power and perseverance blend
perfectly together to achieve brawn, brain and beauty. In
Hungary, at the same time women participated in competitions
and in the “women’s sport day”, they received beautician advice
and could test the latest beauty products16. In Korea, all theyneed is for men to have a powerful physique and well-developed
muscle and, for women, a slender and glamorous figure16.
Although women have come a long way from the exclusion
due to tradition and to partial inclusion because of innovation,
they have come short of their objectives to reach equality inspite of their differences. They are still striving to be respected
and to have equal footing by being biologically different.
Women are still under-represented and have fewer
opportunities as far as the Olympic Games are concerned. In
the Sydney Olympics, although there were nine countries thatsent teams with no women athletes and 42 countries that sent
teams with just one woman, 13 small delegations had more
female than male Olympians and 36 countries sent the same
number of female and male athletes (Table 4), but no country
sent only women. All of the 199 nations and the athletes ofOriental Timor had male athletes.
.324.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
The female Olympian: tradition versus innovation in the quest for inclusion

Table 4Olympian females in the 27th Olympics in Sydney, 2000
No
femaleathletes

Same number of One woman
male and female
athleteathletesMore female
than maleathletes

Africa

2

14

19

3

America

1

6

7

3

Asia

6

10

7

4

Europe0331Oceania

0

3

6

2

Total

9

36

42

13

Source: The International Olympic Committee

9This still under-representation of women seen in the Sydney Games (6,582 males and 4,069 female Olympians) can also
be observed in the fact that countries tend to invest on the
preparation of the female Olympians only at the disciplinesthat will be up for competition during the Games, leaving out
possibilities of new sports and new disciplines 6. This can bereflected in the society and in the daily habits of the populationof those countries. As the different nations and cultures increase
the number of sports open to women, there will be more
women engaged in a variety of sports and disciplines, and moredisciplines will then become available to women worldwide.
Women in administrative positions
Women are also under-represented in the administrationof Olympic affairs. The first women were appointed to the.325.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
The female Olympian: tradition versus innovation in the quest for inclusion

IOC only in 1981. Currently the IOC includes five womenand 89 men. Similar patterns hold on the NOCs 11, 5. Still due
to traditional beliefs that women should have a very low profile,should play a role of passivity and submission, and should notshare positions of power with men, women very seldom occupy
leadership positions in their workplaces and in the political
lives of their countries. As a result, there tends to be fewer
women in administrative positions, especially when these
positions are related to power.
However, it is important to point out that some countries
have been trying to adopt different policies in relation toadmitting women to positions of command. As an example,
in 1998, the Taiwan’s NOC was reorganized with an increased
number of female members to meet the IOC regulation by theend of December of 2000. At least ten percent of positions in
the NOC decision-making structures have been reserved for
women in order to allow them to make a sufficient contribution
to the evolution of sport and the Olympic movement. In
addition, this NOC sends women delegates at every
opportunity to take part in the IOC-endorsed international
conferences and seminars for the development of sports for
women with a view to enriching our experience in developing
the role of women in sport fields16.
According to Schneider 18 and following the parallel she
drew between women in Plato’s Republic and women in the
Olympics, women have moved in to the position of warriors
or athletes and are now trying to become guardians or rulers.
As Schneider 18 explains it, even being aware of the biologicaldifferences between men and women, Plato proposed that both
men and women can and should follow the same range ofoccupations and perform the same functions. “What is thenrequired as much for men as it is for women is an educationthat fosters aptitudes and encourages all people to strive forexcellence. If women are to be guardians they must be educated.326.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
The female Olympian: tradition versus innovation in the quest for inclusion

as guardians – in exactly the same way as men. This is theenvironment we currently lack. While women often have thenatural aptitude to pursue excellence in sports and politics(men’s world), they are often denied access to education andmodels they need to see their dreams can become real. It isclear that for Plato, to not have women guardians oradministrators, and to not have women warriors or athletes, isharmful to us as human beings and is therefore shameful” 18.
With the technology that has been developed in these last
decades, people around the world tend to have access to
information through the availability of mass media. As athletes
tend to be more visible than administrators, it may be hard forsocieties, especially women in many countries, to realize that
it is possible for a woman to become a ruler in sports as well.
This is one more argument to reinforce Plato’s theory ofeducation, which emphasizes that for society to get the mostfrom both men and women, it should offer the same education
to enable them to perform the same functions. Therefore, newrole models for women will then be constructed, adapted to
the reality of the 21st century, enabling women to get to thecrossroads and empowering them to choose the road not taken.

Women in Sport for All
The number of women who participate in the Olympic
Games can also be explained by the number of women whopractice some sport and the kind of sport they practice in thefive continents 16. The following approach exposes empiricalcontribution to the debate on account of an international
comparative research developed by Lamartine DaCosta and I
involving 36 countries.
The very recent book Worldwide Experiences and Trendsin Sport for All 16 is the final result of this cross-national study,.327.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
The female Olympian: tradition versus innovation in the quest for inclusion

which displays data related to countries that privilege womenin sport activities (Table 5) and offer programs that encourage
sports practice through NOCs (Table 6).

Table 5
Number of countries in SFA that privilege women16
Continents andTotal number ofcountries

Countries withsports programs
for women

Countries withno sports for
women

Number ofcountries that do
not evenmention women

Asia (8)611Africa (2)

1

-

1

Europe (17)

12

2

2

Latin America (7)

-

2

5

North America (2)

2

-

-

Total

21

5

9

The data above clearly shows that from the 36 countries
that took part in the research project, more than half (21=58%)
offer programs of sports for women, while 5 nations mention
women and 9 countries do not offer programs for women(Table 5). Some countries have contributed with specific datasuch as Spain (Table 6) and Denmark (Table 7) .

.328.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
The female Olympian: tradition versus innovation in the quest for inclusion

Table 6% of Sport Participation in Spain: 1968 – 199516
Years

1968

1974

1980

1985

1990

1995

Total

%

12.3

17.7

25

34

35

39

Sex

Men

18.3

22.7

33

46

42

48

Women

6.8

12.8

17

23

26

32

Table 7
Proportion of Danish population (age 16-74)
actively involved in sport or exercise (%)
in 1964, 1975, 1987, 1993 and 199816
1964

1975

1987

1993

1998

All

15

29

42

47

51

Men

21

31

43

47

51

Women

11

27

42

47

51

16-19

53

52

61

67

67

20–29

27

41

48

56

59

30-39

17

41

46

49

51

40-49

10

25

44

49

51

50-59

5

21

31

42

46

60-69

3

11

30

36

47

70-74

2

13

24

30

37

.329.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
The female Olympian: tradition versus innovation in the quest for inclusion

Other countries that support sports for women are (1)Hungary, with the first “women’s sport day” organized in 1997;(2) Singapore, with the annual National Sports Carnival for
Women, the International Folk and Recreation Dance Night,
and the first ever Women and Sport Conference in March 1999
to discuss issues pertaining to women and sports; (3) Israel,
where there are very successful walking events exclusively for
women; (4) Australia, where nearly 60% of women between
18 and 54 years of age now engage in some form of regularphysical activity; and (5) France, which developed the French
Federation of Physical Education and Voluntary Gymnastics(FFEPGV), mostly managed in national scope and locallydeveloped by women, successfully reaching the number of 5
million participants, bringing the French Sport for All to thedesired approach of the Council of Europe16.
Significantly enough, the continents that sent the most
women to the 2000 Olympics in terms of proportions were
Oceania (44.96%), Asia (40.26%) and Europe (36.96%).
The number of women involved in sports also depends
directly on the incentive each country gives to the preparationof athletes to the Olympic Games. It is possible to observe theinfluence of NOCs in the SFA initiative. Table 8 displays
information related to the nations that encourage participation
in SFA via Olympic Games. 16 out of the 36 countries thatparticipated in the project Worldwide Experiences and Trends
in SFA 16 promote and encourage participation in the Olympic
movement through SFA.

.330.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
The female Olympian: tradition versus innovation in the quest for inclusion

Table 8
Number of countries that encourage
Sport for All through Olympism16
Continents andTotal number ofcountries

Countries with
Olympic
incentives

Countries withsome work doneby the NOCsCountries with
no Olympic
activity

Asia (8)414Africa (2)

-

1

1

Europe (17)

8

4

5

Latin America (7)

2

2

3

North America (2)

2

-

-

Total

16

8

13

Countries such as Belgium, Finland, Mexico, Spain,
Germany, Taiwan, France and Korea have had several
initiatives to promote Olympism through SFA 16. The Belgian
Olympic Committee (BOIC) also adopted the Sport for All
philosophy. Based on Olympic ideas and values, it promoted
SFA in a strange mixture of principles and aims we refer to as‘Allympism’: the combination of Sport for All and Olympism,
the two major but contrasting sport ideologies, performanceand excellence on the one hand and participation and inclusionon the other, trying to capitalize on each other’s success,thereby creating the mixed concept of ‘Allympism’16.
Another example is Taiwan, whose Olympic Committee
has been placing equal emphasis on Sport for All in its role asa National Olympic Committee (NOC) to promote people’s
good health and physical fitness. The Chinese Taipei Olympic
Committee (CTOC) by taking the advantage of its publication,
Olympic Quarterly, arouses women’s interest in participating.331.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
The female Olympian: tradition versus innovation in the quest for inclusionin Sport for All activities and encourages the civilian
organizations to organize more sport activities for women 16.
In the case of France, it was only in 1972, under the
influence of the programs that had been set up by the
Scandinavian countries, that the French National Olympic andSporting Committee (CNOSF) decided for the establishmentof the first Sport for All program, initiated by Martin
Grünenwald, a physical education teacher16.
In Korea, the 88 Seoul Olympics Organizing Committee
originated the Seoul Olympic Sports Promotion Foundation,
which has implemented many projects to develop and publicize
Sport for All programs, sponsored the National Council of Sport
for All, and developed programs to promote national fitness16.
When top sport is connected with SFA, it is usually forthe purpose of recruiting future top sport talent, spectators orrecreational participants. For example, the U.S. National
Olympic Committee is totally focused on top sport and on
Sport for All activities that attract young talent. Organizations
associated with the U.S. Olympic Committee do have sport
programs for more general populations16.
At the same time that the social limitations of women in
their original countries and the roles they play in theirsocieties, very much based on traditions and ancient beliefs
of exclusion and complete separated and pre-defined tasks,
block their access to sports and physical activities in general,
this exclusion also contributes to the creation of some idealof the female Olympian of the future. This virtual image has
become clearer for women every four years as the media makefemale Olympians visible and encourage young girls andwomen to develop role model figures in sports and to fightfor some sports ideal. Technology, and especially, television
have made this possible for women around the world. The
tradition of exclusion is becoming the innovation of inclusion
in a variety of sports.
.332.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
The female Olympian: tradition versus innovation in the quest for inclusion

Summing up, the more encouragement women have fromnational and international programs related or not related to thepractices of the IOC and the NOCs through availability of resources,
political incentives, women-friendly policies and strong examplesof leadership, the more girls and women will feel compelled toadhere to sports and to Olympic sports. As a result, the levels ofparticipation will rise and probably reach the so much desired 52%.

The Future
While biological and physiological contexts can offer
conditions to better interpret the differences between the sexes,
adding more sports and events to women athletes’ agendas,
cultural and social contexts continue to show the differences
and inequalities between the genders.
It is questionable that Britain, Germany, Australia, theUnited States, and Russia increase their numbers of women
representatives without, at the same time, Central and SouthAmerica, Africa and all Islamic nations also sending female
athletes. As the world of sport reflects society, it may take somemore time before Islamic societies, economically underdeveloped
areas of the world, and a certain small number of countries inwhich the Catholic Church has traditionally compartmentalizedboys and girls to play out very specific roles open up space for
equality in sports and positions linked to sports. Ancient culture
and customs must be respected; deep-rooted beliefs cannot bedisregarded. Tradition in the sense of exclusion should be reanalyzed by the different leaderships to be dealt with differently.
It is essential to consider that sport is a birthright as it belongs to
all human beings, men and women, boys and girls. Biologicaldifferences have to be respected for human kind to achieve social equality, especially in sport. Physical activity and sports arepart of human rights and should be included in all practices.
.333.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
The female Olympian: tradition versus innovation in the quest for inclusion

The elusive goal of Olympic leadership is for women fromevery country to participate in the Olympic Games as athletes,
coaches and administrators and also as representative officesin the NOCs, in the sport federations, and in the IOC.
Increasing the number of female administrators in theworldwide movement is an even challenging task as each nation
moves at its own speed toward equal opportunities for both
sexes according to each individual context. Somehow moretalented women must find their way into local, national, andinternational administrative sporting positions and, exactly as
men do, over time, move up the ladder.
According to Schneider 18, “any organization that claims
human development as one of its principal goals must support
the full representation of women at all levels of theorganization. To deny women our proper place – alongside
men as equals and partners is wrong and shameful”.
New policies of encouragement for sportswomen will havea very positive impact on the profile of the female Olympian
and her role model in society. For the first time women in the
sports areas will be able to make their choices at the crossroads.
They will either choose and follow the male hero pathways ordevelop their own female constructs as a heroines and leadersregardless of their position in the world of sports as
sportswomen, administrators, managers, NOCs officers, IOCmembers or even IOC president. They will be aware of thatthey also have the right to sport and physical activity and will
feel empowered to take any of the roads.

Conclusion
Looking back to 1896, it is possible to observe that women
have progressed a lot in their challenges and struggles. They
fought very bravely to enter men’s sphere and have succeeded.334.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
The female Olympian: tradition versus innovation in the quest for inclusion

in many aspects. They have conquered their citizenship andtheir inclusion in the Olympic Games but have not yet reachedequality in terms of numbers. Have they become heroes,
heroines or mediators19? Have they achieved the position ofequilibrium yet?
It would have been unthinkable a few years ago that women
would compete in the marathon and the 10000-meter race orplay basketball with the skill, dedication and power of women
Olympians of the 2000s. At the same time, it would be vary
hard to imagine that women would sit on the IOC or head a
National Olympic Committee although the extent of change
in the administrative and organizational levels has not been so
dramatic as among participants. There are still some barriers
to overcome, the most crucial of which is to share the powerwith the male figures that represent the traditions of sport.
Women have questioned traditional roles and become moreaware of their place in the third millennium. They have comea long way to thinking of their biological differences as part ofthemselves that would allow them to compete in their own
terms but having the same opportunities as men.
It is important to mention that the innovation brought
about by the inclusion of women in the modern Olympic
Games pressured science and technology for research and new
discoveries that have shown that women can in fact do morethan they had thought they could: not only in terms of thoseathletes who participate in the Olympics but also for thecommon women in terms of exercising and taking up any kindof physical activity to practice. The pressure women have madeto have the right to participate in the Olympics as human beings
has greatly contributed for the right women have now toparticipate in sports and physical activity.
More female role models would be needed to provide
encouragement for girls in sport, and this means there will be
the role models in all domains: in the family and school, high.335.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
The female Olympian: tradition versus innovation in the quest for inclusionlevel coaching, Olympic committees, government officials
concerned with sport, athletics and so on.
The female Olympian is a model. The future challenges
become clearer because they will contrast against this model.
It is necessary to consolidate equality of rights and differencesin the practices and education for all seems to be the only way
out. Women will then feel they have the same rights and willknow which road to take. Will this stance represent a significant
example of how to search a balanced conflict-resolution when
dealing with oppositions in the Olympic Movement?

Notes
1. Carvalho, A. (2002). A Participação Feminina nos Jogos Olímpicos– unpublished paper presented at the Fórum Olímpico,
Universidade Gama Filho, July 2002.
2. Miragaya, A & DaCosta, L. (1997). Atividades físicas sistemáticas
e a mulher: inclusão no lazer, na família e no trabalho (unpublished paper).
3. DeFrantz, A. (1997). The Changing Role of Women in the Olymth
pic Games. Paper presented at the 37 International Session for
Young Participants - IOA Report, Ancient Olympia.
4. Hargreaves, J. (1894). Women and the Olympic phenomenon. In
Tomlinson A, Whannel G (eds) Five Ring Circus. London: Pluto
Press, pp 53-70.
5. Théberge, N. (1991). Women and the Olympic Games: a consideration of gender, sport and social change. In Landry, F., Landry,
M. & Yerlès, M. ( eds), Sport ... The Third Millenium, Les Presses
de l’ Université Laval, Sainte - Foy - Canada, pp. 385 - 396.
6. Boutilier, M. & Giovanni, L. (1991) Ideology, Public Policy andFemale Olympic Achievement: a Cross-National Analysis of the.336.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
The female Olympian: tradition versus innovation in the quest for inclusion

Seoul Olympic Games. In Landry, F., Landry, M. & Yerlès,M.(eds), Op. Cit., pp. 397 - 412.
7.

The Real Story of the Ancient Olympic Games. Recovered on
May 14, 2002 from the Internet at (www.upenn.edu/museum/
Olympics/olympicsexism.html).

8.

The Olympic Games in the Ancient Hellenic World: A VirtualMuseum. Recovered on May 14, 2002 from the Internet at (http://minbar.cs.dartmouth.edu/greecom/olympics/).

9.

The International Olympic Committee. Recovered on May 14,
2002 from the Internet (www.olympic.org/uk/index_uk.asp).

10. Luzenfichter, A. (1996). Women and Olympism. InternationalthOlympic Academy. Paper presented at the 36 International Session for Young Participants - IOA Report, Ancient Olympia.
11. Olympic Women. Recovered on May 14, 2002 from the Internet(www.olympicwomen.co.uk/).
12. Pfister, G. Journal of the International Council for Health, Physio.
cal Education, Recreation, Sport and Dance 32 (1996), N 4, pp.
20-26.
13. DeFrantz, A. (1991). Progress Made, Pitfalls and Conditions for
Further Advancement of Women in the Olympic Movement. In
Landry, F., Landry, M. & Yerlès, M. ( eds), Op. Cit., pp. 413 418.
14. Tavares, O. Women’s Games in Brazil in 1933 (research inprogress).
15. Mourão, L. & Soares, A. (1999). 1949 – 1972 Duração das
Olimpíadas Femininas no Brasil via Jornal dos Sports - Rio deJaneiro. In Tavares, O & DaCosta, L. (eds) Estudos Olímpicos,
Editora Gama Filho, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: pp.98-107.
16. DaCosta, L. & Miragaya, A. (2002). Worldwide Experiences andTrends in Sport for All. Aachen: Meyer & Meyer, passim.
.337.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
The female Olympian: tradition versus innovation in the quest for inclusion

17. Lucas, J. (1999). The Future of the Olympic Games. Champaign:
Human Kinetics, pp. 133 - 143.
18. Schneider, A. (1996). Women in the Republic and the OlympicthMovement. Paper presented at the 36 International Session for
Young Participants - IOA Report, Ancient Olympia.
19. See Tavares, O. (2002). The Olympic Athlete: Hero or Mediator?, Chapter 16 of this book.

.338.

CHAPTER 16

The Olympic Athlete:hero or mediator?
Otavio Tavares
The concept of equilibrium is one of necessary conditionsof Olympism. According to Lamartine DaCosta, the Olympic
Idea, in Coubertin’s belief, represented the proposition of aratio between excess - the sport première raison d’être - andmeasurement (wisdom) in search of an association of free willwith control of actions, which was never clearly defined1. As aresult, Olympism itself has always been resistant to definitions.
The reactions to the IOC moral crisis in 1999 ended up by
considering the Olympic athlete as a central player in a renewed
power structure. This pretentious claim assumes that the
Olympic athlete - he or she - is able to symbolize and preserve.339.
OLYMPIC STUDIES
L. P. DaCosta, 2002 - Editora Gama Filho - Rio de Janeiro

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
The Olympic Athlete: hero or mediator?

the proclaimed values of Olympism. However, trying toovercome the dichotomy between excess and measurement,
Coubertin’s intellectual work was developed as an eclectic
construction, which means that the challenge to translate
Olympism into practice remains. If such a thesis is true, therelationship between the athletes and Olympism is not either
evident or unmistakable for it is involved in a set of complex
relations. This means that its empowerment as a way ofpreserving the Olympic values may be just a delusion. At any
rate, due to the athlete’s renewed role in the midst of the
Olympic Movement, it seems to be more productive if the
focus of the investigations gets a little farther from him or her
as a homo athleticus and closer to him as a homo simbolicus.

The IOC Crisis and the Athletes’ Empowerment
Since its creation, the Olympic Movement has been throughseveral crises and challenges which have put its survival capacity
at stake. Although the IOC has already been described as “asecret and clandestine organization, similar to the mafia [...]and its members as depraved and disgusting persons”2, almost
all the crises it has gone through took place at the level ofgovernmental relations, social movements and international
sport organizations. Such conflicts were related to the factthat the ‘visibility’ of the Games makes them an attractive target
for political, social, and lately, economical causes and objectives.
The 1999 ‘IOC bribery scandal’ had an unprecedented
impact over the credibility of that institution. The main reason
for that impact is based on the Olympic Games and the
Olympic Movement being officially related, in a peculiar way,
to an ideology of sport practice. Such ideology also proposes
itself to reform both individuals and societies. Therefore, theself-attributed mission of sport development as a morally good.340.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
The Olympic Athlete: hero or mediator?

social practice does not give the IOC and its members anyother alternative but appointing themselves as the “moral
authority for world sport”3.
The IOC members’ distinctive character of being formallyindependent was the core of the whole problem. It seemedobvious that, as independent agents with an unlimited mandate
to represent the Committee in the whole world, their conception
had become incompatible with the increasing net of institutional,
corporate and financial interests in which the Olympic activity
was involved. If the principle which made the IOC members
ambassadors of the Olympic Movement in their own countries
helped it assure its independence and universality, one of its
logical consequences was that the Committee and its members
became exempt from responsibilities regarding any otherinstitution or person. It was thus understood that the only way
to get around the risks to the IOC credibility was through theintroduction of democratic procedures which assured its
accountability, transparency, representativeness and, at the sametime, preserved the IOC independence.
In search of such goals, the IOC undertook a reform, which
established a more aggressive policy regarding public relations
as well as mechanisms for controlling and sanctioning its
members. Besides, it would make use of different ways of its
stakeholders’ democratic representation. The direct electionsof part of the members from the IOC Athletes’ Commission,
the promotion of such members to the category ofrepresentatives of their pairs in the different Committee’scommissions, and their right to become IOC members,
represent important steps to increase the athletes’ participationin the directive instances of the Olympic Movement. However,the search for the fragile equilibrium between larger
representations and the maintenance of independence, resultsin characterizing the IOC Athletes’ Commission as a delegation
once the election of the IOC members is processed on an indi.341.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
The Olympic Athlete: hero or mediator?

vidual basis. It became evident, therefore, that the Olympic
athletes turned out to be, more than ever, also responsible for
the Olympic legacy.
The process of athletes’ empowerment is more than a power
redistribution. The OATH Symposium Final Document 4
and the Report of the IOC 2000 Commission illustrate, likeany other, that much of this process is directed through thebelief in the athlete as the Olympic Idea depositary, which
would justify his central role in the renewal of the IOC. In
this context, the athlete’s figure goes through a process ofreification once his image is processed as a non-representative
datum of the problem. If the eclectic characteristic of
Olympism is understood as an attempt for equilibrium between
two opposite sides, the idea of a one-sided and clear relationshipbetween the athletes and the Olympic values is somethingwhich must be questioned.
Although the Olympic athletes are the reason for the wholesystem to exist, there are very few empirical works in the areaof Olympic studies whose main topic is related to his or her
values, senses and attitudes toward Olympism. Once theathletes’ renewed role in the midst of the Olympic Movement
presents a net of complex relationships between the universal
and the specific and/or between control and self-determinism,
this study intends to identify how such relations articulate witheach other by having the athletes as their main reference. We
will thus examine the attitudes of Olympic athletes from Brazil
and Germany (Sydney 2000) toward the proclaimed values of
Olympism through a comparative analysis.

Some Notes on Olympic Cultural Comparisons
Following a previous study on the attitudes of Brazilian
Olympic athletes in reference to the proclaimed values of.342.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
The Olympic Athlete: hero or mediator?

Olympism 5 , the present research has been conducted toinvestigate the attitudes of Olympic athletes from different
countries toward Olympism. Despite being based on acomparison, this investigation does not present thecharacteristics of a typical cross-cultural study. Social Sciences
are, by nature, comparative; however, the studies we havecompared here present epistemological, theoretical andmethodological specifications which are crucial for the present
investigation 6.
To begin with, on behalf of our analysis, the “Olympic
athlete” symbolizes a boundary which has acquired a concrete
meaning and dimension from the evidence that he and she aresubject to a unique experience built up from their own directive
values which are organized in different levels. This study,
therefore, does not aim at understanding and explaining
similarities and differences on how the Olympic ideology isinterpreted in different cultures - we would hardly classify our
respondents as typical representatives of such cultures. Our
objective is to try to describe and explain how similar anddifferent attitudes of Olympic athletes toward Olympism are
related to different interaction levels and social values in acomplex way. In this study, such levels are provided by thetype of sport as a sub-culture, the high performance sport as asystem, the Olympic ideology, and cultures in a broad sense.
Having referred to the problem identified by the researchand the epistemological inferences mentioned previously, thisinvestigation was held in a theoretical context which was restricted
to: (a) the corpus of the values of Olympism seen as an ideology of
the Olympic Movement and a meta-theory of sport practice; (b)Kalevi Heinilä’s theory of totalization of top sport7; (c) the conceptof types of sport as a sub-culture resulting from the specificarrangement of their technical, ethical and esthetical values asproposed by Hugo Lovisolo8; and (d) Sergio B. de Holanda’s andNorbert Elias’ work on socio-cultural interpretations of Brazil.343.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
The Olympic Athlete: hero or mediator?

and Germany, respectively9. If one aim of comparative researches
is to verify social theories10 the proposition to be tested consists of
the acceptance of Olympism as a directive value of sport practiceand ideology of the Olympic Movement by the Olympic athletes.
Those protagonists should also be mediated by intervening valuesof the sport sub-culture, the sport system and culture. Furthermore,this mediation would indicate ambiguity among maintenance andchange, and opportunities for new possibilities.
Finally, we must have in mind that the problems related
to variance and equivalence are always crucial in comparative
studies, and “any set of categories will create biases inobservations”11. An observational flexibility thus becomes animportant requirement for the creation of a credible
equivalence, especially in attitudinal comparisons. According
to Teune, even the instruments mostly used in international
comparisons, such as questionnaires, are evidently limited whencontextualization is at stake. Still in Teune’s opinion, “in any
event, the strategies for assessing equivalent properties havebecome pragmatically flexible, adapting to context”12. We, thus,
tried to use a methodological approach which combines
quantitative and qualitative techniques through the use ofdifferent instruments for data collection. Then, throughsuccessive approaches, the different levels of influence andrelationship, theoretically set up for this case, are accountedfor. The combined use of questionnaires, Likert scales,interviews and ethnographical observation techniques has
proven adequate to this study.

Framing Athletes in the System of Competition
and in the Olympic Ideology
Two joint forces place the athlete in the Olympic
dimension: the high performance sport system and the Olympic.344.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
The Olympic Athlete: hero or mediator?

ideology. Despite being related, they are both distinct fromeach other. As a whole, the high performance sport system isa phenomenon which goes beyond the Olympic Games,
reaching other dimensions of the contemporaneous sport.
Conversely, the Olympic ideology is also a reference to the
top sport. As the perspective of this study is the athletes’
empowerment in the midst of the Olympic Movement,
Olympism will be given more attention as it is an important
ideological component for keeping the Movement itself alive.
In general terms, the high performance sport system may
be characterized by the search of excellency within a structure
dominated by intense competitiveness and absorbing
involvement. It requires larger and larger shares of aptitude,
dedication, effort, motivation, persistence and self-sacrifice inorder to achieve an even better performance. As Heinilä
proposed in his seminal work “The Totalization Process inInternational Sport”, this increasing demand, working as a central determinant for the development of the high performancesport, generates three interrelated factors: the spiral ofcompetition, the overvaluation of success and the totalizationof competition. However, if we focus on the Olympic athlete,
the association of individual potentialities, wishes and abilities
with the scientific, economical and political resourcesintervening in the system will achieve a certain level of meaning
in the individual plan. According to philosopher Gunter
Gebauer, “high performance sports constitutes a system of
innerly sharing in the achievements of athletes; conversely, it
is also a process of sharing in the morals of athletics”13. Froman interdisciplinary perspective, typical of the Olympic studies,
Gebauer’s definition seems to confirm that Heinilä statements
are closer to the macro level than to the micro level.
On the other hand, because Olympism is an eclectic and apolysemous construction, it has never had an unmistakableidentity. Several writers have already defined it as a philosophy.345.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
The Olympic Athlete: hero or mediator?

of life14, a social philosophy15, an educational philosophy16, aphilosophical anthropology 17 , a pluralist philosophicalattitude18, an ideology19, or even a pedagogical intuition20. Thesevarious interpretations have one characteristic in common: theysee Olympism through its possibilities of social application.
Nevertheless, we propose that Olympism may be understood
not only as a sport practice ideology, but also, andsimultaneously, as a true articulator of the Olympic Movement.
It seems necessary, therefore, that we withdraw ourselves alittle from the Marxist idea of ideology as domination in favorof the concept of integration, as proposed by Paul Ricoeur21.
According to Paul Ricoeur, ideology may be understood as
responsible for certain functions such as the construction of selfimage and the cohesion of social groups. When ideology grants
the individual or group an image, it becomes part of its ‘project’
once it justifies actions and raises bonds among individuals whoare part of that group. In summary, in Ricoeur’s opinion,
ideology carries out such functions based on five characteristics.
At first, it (a) eternizes an early founding act, lengthening it andmaking it possible for the group and individuals to explain theirstory through a positive model. In accordance with thisinterpretation, it is also (b) motivating and dynamic, as the belief
in its founding power grants it the fair character which is claimed
for its legitimacy. Ideology, therefore, (c) presents itself as an
idealized, simplified and schematic self-representation, making
use of rhetoric and clichés. It becomes, then, (d) intolerant andinactive once it cannot allow for contradictions from facts whichmight not fit in. It is, thus, resistant to social transformations,
tending to preserve the existing structures. Finally, ideology (e)is operating: instead of thinking about it, it is the starting pointfrom which we think.
As a matter of fact, being the distinctive element of the
Olympic Movement, Olympism approaches the concept ofideology in which the dogmatic element shows its strongest sense.
.346.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
The Olympic Athlete: hero or mediator?

In retrospect, the Movement benefits “from benign myths oforigin rooted in reverential attitudes toward the personal qualities
of his founding father and the salvational doctrine he created”22.
In accordance with such interpretation, when presenting itself
as a social cause, Olympism provides the necessary orientationand internal cohesion of the Olympic Movement, cheering up
its members toward an objective. As a result, and within theinternal sphere of Olympism, its set of ideas has been subject toa greater number of interpretations than of criticisms. Also,
especially during the Avery Brundage years as the IOC chairman,
Olympism was promoted to the category of doctrine and dogma,
which led the majority of scholars who study it to place
themselves in the surrounding area of the Movement 23.
Similarly, the fact that Coubertin and his followers had insistedon the dogma of separating politics and sports – the IOC type oforganization and the Olympic ideology itself being included inthis context – made political mediations invisible to the eyes
outside the Movement and, sometimes, they were evenconsidered a taboo. Therefore, it is valid to think that, at manytimes, Olympism has been evoked as a myth which would
overcome the inherent contradictions of such an organization
as the IOC, a cooperation system (as there is a set of objectives
to achieve) and a competition system (as there is power, hierarchy,
and a set of unequal interests, eventually) simultaneously.
However, if the examination of the Olympic Idea has resulted
in contradictory interpretations, the understanding of Olympism
as an ideology anchored in the eclectic philosophy allows us to
set up a construct as we will see next.

Olympism as a Construct
A great number of writers have been trying to overcome
the obstacles to the understanding of Olympism through the.347.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
The Olympic Athlete: hero or mediator?

agglutination of ideas, which they consider crucial in
Coubertin’s production, by providing constructs from themapping of ‘values’, ‘fundamentals’, or ‘aspirations’. Suchprocedures, despite being deprived of understanding theexistence of a possible theoretical reference which would work
as a basis for the foundation of Olympism, end byreconstructing the eclectic course of its founder. According to
DaCosta24, “spending most of his lifetime analyzing in- depth
the great sets that categorize the Olympism; or seeking
legitimation of his proposals in history; or, last but not least,
selecting combinations between extremes”. The intended
construct was set up by starting with “The Philosophic
Foundations of Modern Olympism” presented by Pierre de
Coubertin and interpreters such as Grupe, Lenk, Parry and
Segrave25. Through an examination of such references, we may
notice that many of these elements, labeled in different ways,
refer to equivalent ideas, showing that they could be grouped
in a more concise and synthetic way as presented in Table 1.
Table 1
Summary of values, aspirations and objectives of Olympism
according to bibliographical sources.
Coubertin

Grupe

Lenk

Parry

Segrave

1

Religio athletae; Quasi-religious
function

Yes

No

Yes

No

No

2

Excellency; elite;
The individual adult male

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

3

Mutual respect; mutual
understanding; truce; peace

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

4

Harmonious physical andintellectual development; culture;
education; beauty; rhythm

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Fair play; chivalrousness; nobility

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Sport Development

No

No

Yes

No

No

Independence of the
Olympic Moviment

No

No

No

No

Yes

5
6
7

.348.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
The Olympic Athlete: hero or mediator?

From the initial outline above, elements 1, 2, 6 and 7 were
excluded. Although Coubertin had never explained themeaning of his religio athletae precisely, this expression should
not be misinterpreted as an inappropriate approach to the ideaof religious life. Even though we may say that he had
consciously tried to build up a ‘religious’ dimension for the
Games, they should not be analyzed beyond their secularmeaning. Besides, they are not at all related to any magicalelements or extraordinary beings once this “religious sentiment[was] transformed and expanded by the internationalism anddemocracy”26. As a result, Olympic ceremonies and symbols
should be understood as quasi-religious function elements,
meant to create a feeling of involvement and commitment
which makes the Games a unique kind of experience to all of
their participants, but not a value in itself.
We also excluded the ‘excellency and elite’ element
because questioning the idea of excellency to an Olympic
athlete does not seem logical once it is one of the most fundamental and everlasting views of the modern highperformance sport. Therefore, after examining the literatureused for this study, we set up a construct of Olympism
consisting of an outline of three general ideas which apply
to the assembly of instruments for data collection: Olympic
Internationalism 27 ; Harmonious Physical and Intellectual
Development 28 ; Fair Play 29.

Sample and Method
644 athletes from Brazil (n = 202) and Germany (n = 442)
took part in Sydney Olympic Games. For methodologicalreasons we considered only the athletes who participated in
sports which were common to both groups. The total number,then, consists of 548 athletes (Brazil = 184; Germany = 364).
.349.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
The Olympic Athlete: hero or mediator?

From this universe 42 Brazilian athletes and 125 German
athletes took part in this study.

Table 2Shows the sample based on sex, sport,
and best performance in Sydney30
BrazilGermany*

Sex
Male
Female
N
%
N
%
21
50
21
50
61
48,8
61
48,8

Sport
Individual
Team
N
%
N
%
20
47,6
22 52,4
74
59
41
33

1st / 3rdN%
8
19
41 36,3

Performance
4th / 8th
9th →
N
%
N
%
13
31
21
50
39 34,5 33 29,2

*In Germany, 3 respondents did not inform about sex, 10 did not inform
about type of sport, and 12 did not inform about their best performancein the Games.

Due to the variance and equivalence problems mentioned
previously, the methodological approach was developed inseveral steps. A questionnaire was mailed to the athletes
containing 3 five point Likert scales ranging from “strongly
agree” to “strongly disagree” so that the athletes’ attitudes
toward the construct of Olympism could be evaluated 31. Inorder to avoid a tendency to stereotyping, positive and negative
statements related to the Olympic values were distributed at
random and presented in each scale. On the same questionnaire,some open questions tried to gather opinions about the
Olympic Games and the Olympic Movement. A third set ofdata was surveyed through 20 in-depth interviews (11 inGermany and 9 in Brazil) meant to catch nuances and build up
a more detailed image of the athletes’ opinion about the topicsof this research. The open questions on the questionnaire, as
well as the interviews, were submitted to content analysis
techniques. These data were completed with ethnographicalobservations which were developed before and during the.350.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
The Olympic Athlete: hero or mediator?

Games, especially about the athletes’ presence and participationin the cultural and social events held outside the Olympic
Village. Finally, during the data collection in Germany, daily
aspects of the local life were also carefully observed in order toincrease the interpretation perspectives of the study.

Data and Discussion
The idea that the Games should create, as widely as possible,
a mutual respect and equality environment through the accessand sociability among all races, cultures and countries is
accepted by both Brazilians and Germans despite the significant
difference between them (BRA: 3,64; GER: 4,07; p<0,000).
If, in general terms, the values of the Olympic Internationalism
do not seem hard to accept, when put into practice, they reveal
certain dualities which are always hard to articulate, therefore
bringing forth some differences.
The data show that the idea of sociability with norestrictions in the Olympic Village is highly appreciated (GER:
98.3%; BRA: 95.2%). Although several respondents recognize
that, for practical purposes, language may be a limiting factor
and the Olympic Village - a place not too much appreciatedsometimes because of its noise and movement - the Olympic
experience is, for the great majority, “fantastic because you areable to mingle with other peoples, other athletes from other typesof sport. I think such an exchange is extremely important, andthis is what makes the Olympics something magic” (BRA). In
fact, almost the totality of respondents from both countries
considers the meeting of peoples, races and cultures a positive
point which helps make the Games a unique event. On theother hand, the “selection x participation” dilemma is undermore sharp appraisals. In the opinion of 57.5% Brazilians and32.2% Germans, the Games are still a place where only the.351.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
The Olympic Athlete: hero or mediator?

best ones go even though this might result in the nonparticipation of some countries. This suggests that theconcept of excellency is an intervening value in the Olympic
athletes’ attitudes.
Since there is no internationalism without the idea ofnation, another important effect may be found in the different
relationships between the athletes and their national image.
From German respondents we could notice a feeling of
discomfort relative to both their national past and its limiting
effect over demonstrations of national pride which could nolonger exist (“We are proud of Germany but we are not reallyallowed to show it. We started two World Wars and we havelearned from it since the beginning” GER) 32 . Many German
athletes feel they should not celebrate their victory as a
German victory even wishing to do so. Such celebration
would be seen, sometimes by the Germans themselves, as anundesired manifestation of national pride. Comparatively,
Brazilians are free to feel they represent their country, and,as a matter of fact, are much more encouraged than their
German pairs to feel this way 33. Those features support thefact that 52.3% Brazilians believe the sport may reflect asuperiority of a society/culture while only 17.8% Germans
agree with it. Although both Brazilians and Germans statethat they compete for themselves, the link between
competition and national representation is still much morefragile among the German athletes For them, the idea ofnation is just painfully disconnected from their past ofnationalism and war-like attitude (“Heritage is a heavy burden.
I have a hard time thinking of me as German. I see myself either
as European or an athlete” GER), which makes them more
willing to appreciate the Olympic Internationalism as it wasevidenced here 34.
If the relationship with the national image makes the twogroups different, the distinction between nationalism and.352.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
The Olympic Athlete: hero or mediator?

patriotism established by Coubertin, on the other hand, ishardly understood by any of them. The data showed that‘patriotism’ and ‘nationalism’ are frequently used in analmost indistinct way; most of the times, aiming at a positive
behavior toward the country, or even some differences
toward a loving attitude for their motherland (“To be anationalist is a country thing. You are Brazilian, you represent
your country. The thing is that not everybody is actually
patriot” BRA). This is particularly present in the Brazilians’
speech since they really feel they are “defending their nationand going after their victory through sport” while among theGerman athletes, this kind of identification is extremely
restricted because of their own private characteristics. At
any rate, it is common to find problems which present more
precise definitions as well as the lack of knowledge regarding
Coubertin’s ideas with respect to this issue. As cognition isextremely important for the development of attitudes
toward an object or situation, we may state that the lack ofknowledge regarding the distinction between nationalism
and patriotism proposed by Coubertin has also had an
important effect on the results.
Through their multiple contrasts (Figure 1), there have beenno differences by sex in the German sample while the result
achieved by women is higher among Brazilians (3.82 female;
3.46 male), which may be explained by the women’s educational
level in this sub-group which is slightly higher. In reference tothe results presented by sport, there is also a low variance insideeach group and a relevant difference between the two groups(min. 3.63 individual BRA, max. 4.07 individual GER,
p<0,000), which shows that the type of sport which is practiced
is not important for the development of attitudes toward thiscomponent of Olympism.

.353.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
The Olympic Athlete: hero or mediator?

Figure 1
Likert scale results on internationalism for
Brazilian and German athletes

Scale 1 - Internationalism
5
4
3
2
1

Brazil

h.

..

.
9t

/..
h

...

4t

t/
1s

am
te

...
di
in

al
m
fe

m

al

e

e

Germany

However, if we examine the athletes’ performance in the
Games, the medallists are those who present the lowest results(GER: 3.95; BRA: 2.95). Among the Brazilians, the differenceis significant (asymptotic p = 0,010), which suggests that thecompetition level of an athlete in the Olympic Games, as wellas cognition and excellency values, may lead to less positive
attitudes toward such proclaimed value of Olympism. This
general result may be explained as a manifestation whose
meaning approaches what Heinilä calls the ethos of effectiveness.
Under pressure to win, the humanistic dimension of the Games
may be particularly affected by the norms of effectiveness whichallow for, if not actually demand, a greater concentration on
the results35. If this score is presented in a different way between
Brazilians and Germans, it may be related not to the latter’s
smaller wish to win, but to the socio-cultural effects from theGerman past onto its citizens. The Brazilian athletes do nothave anything compared to that.
The data relative to the Olympic athletes’ attitudes toward
the idea that culture and education are crucial elements either to.354.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
The Olympic Athlete: hero or mediator?

the Olympic Movement or the athlete himself prove that there isa pragmatic inconsistency between values and practical reasoning.
In general, the ideas implied in this value of Olympism arewidely accepted for this sample (BRA: 3,82; GER: 3,89), which
agrees with the tendency to realize that education and culture
are more and more accepted values in universal terms. It is
important to notice that this result may also relate to the factthat a significant percentage of subjects in the sample has either
an intermediary level of education (GER: 55;3% Abitur; BRA:
45.3% high school/incomplete undergraduate studies) or a highlevel of education (GER: 17.9% Abgeschl. Hochschulstudium;
BRA: 21.4% undergraduate studies), which definitely causes
some effects on the results of this kind of question.

Figure 2
Likert scale results on harmonious physical and intellectual
development for Brazilian and German athletes

Scale 2 - Harmonious dev elopment
5
4
3
2
1

Brazil

h.

..

.
9t

...

/..
h
4t

t/
1s

am
te

...

al

di
in

m
fe

m

al

e

e

Germany

If we exclusively take the ‘education versus sport’ duality
into account, 65.8% Brazilians do not agree upon the idea that
their studies should be interrupted so that they may dedicate
themselves more to sports. For the Germans, however, the.355.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
The Olympic Athlete: hero or mediator?

percentage is 77.8%, which, at first sight, does not seem toconfirm Heinilä’s statement that “success in top sport demands
from the athletes increasing stakes and more total devotion to asports career”. These data, face-to-face with the results of thescale, which were stratified by performance, clearly show apolarization between values and practical reasoning provided
by both balanced high esteem of the educational value and theabsorbing needs of the top sport. In both groups, the medal
winners have the lowest results for this scale (GER: 3.84; BRA:
2.77), with a significant difference among Brazilians (asymptotic
p= 0,006), which shows that excellency and competitiveness are,once again, important intervening factors for these athletes. The
fact that only 25% Brazilian medallists have an intermediate orhigh educational level supports the conclusions we have come to.
The differences we found also reflect the qualitative
differences which exist in both social and sport systems of thetwo countries studied here. In Brazil there is a lack of institutional
support programs to athletes who study (or work), which makes
both activities incompatible most of the times (“The Brazilian
school does not worry much about a conciliation with sport. In
fact, there is a competition between them. We have conflicts between
practice schedules and class schedules, and we do not feel that theschool is willing to solve this problem” BRA). As the sport is also
seen as a means for moving up socially36 by a considerable numberof people in this country, it is obvious that a large number ofathletes decide to quit their studies and believe this is the rightdecision to make. In Germany, the more balanced social
structure and higher educational levels consider the sport careera ‘social elevator’ more uncertain and less attractive37.
At any rate, although in Germany (as opposed to Brazil)
many schools offer the athletes special schedules for practiceand there are support programs for them, the athletes have theopinion that the problem between studies and the sport career
being compatible remains an important issue. According.356.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
The Olympic Athlete: hero or mediator?

mainly to university students, many times it is “too hard” tomanage both activities. That is the reason why the athletes
who are still studying informed they had to stop their school
activities during the Olympic year so that they would totally
dedicate themselves to sport. Also among those who alreadywork, we found, in both groups, the same difficulties and theprevailing attitude of interrupting any activity other than sport
in order to dedicate themselves exclusively to their practice38.
The athletes’ attitudes toward the cultural dimension of
the Games reinforce the presence of a duality between values
and practice which is similar in both groups. The specificnumerical data show that a high percentage of athletes agrees
upon the statement that “the artistic and cultural activities are
extremely important for the Olympic Games to be held” (GER:
82.1%; BRA: 70%), which also helps explain the general resultsof the scale itself. Nevertheless, even though the culturalactivities are important, they are always considered secondary
if compared to the competition itself. They are secondary
either in the individual plan, which is perfectly logical oncethe main objective of all athletes in the Games is theirperformance in the competition (“we did not go anywhere
because they were places to go at night, and we had to get up early
the following morning to practice; so, we did not go” BRA), or in
the plan of the Olympic program itself (“the sport is the core,
but there must be some cultural activities” GER). Culturalactivities, considered theoretically important, are seen as
something not so important, just a complement to the program,being directed mainly to the audience, not the athletes 39.
On the other hand, it also seems that, in the athletes’
opinion, one of the main purposes of the cultural events in
Sydney was fun and relax.
“... these activities which are parallel to thecompetitions are extremely important because.357.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
The Olympic Athlete: hero or mediator?

they make the athletes think about something else
other than the competitions. Those cause stressand a great anxiety. So, it is important that theathletes have activities outside their area” (BRA).

Even when defined this way, activities such as shopping,sightseeing or attending other kinds of competition come in
the first place in the quotations extracted from interviews andquestionnaires. In fact, as the Olympic competitions in Sydney were in progress (particularly from the second week on),the number of athletes on the streets became larger and larger.
However, it was much easier to find them strolling in Darling
Harbour, The Rocks, Bondi Beach or at flea market than at
Leonardo da Vinci’s exhibitions, Australian aboriginal art,
ancient Olympic Games, or Sydney Opera House. It is, thus,
symptomatic that the cultural activities had been completely
ignored on a list of positive points of the Games while theirpartying characteristic is appreciated. In other words, German
and Brazilian Olympic athletes do not believe that, during theGames, there is any kind of motivation directly aimed at
improving their intellect through art, as Coubertin intendedto (“The athletes, in their majority, are not worried about it, but
only about the competitions” GER). Such attitudes suggest that
the Fundamental Principle of Olympism, that of “blending
sport with culture and education”40 is not well known among
the respondents.
In more precise terms, the Olympic Idea itself is not wellknown among the athletes, particularly among the Brazilians,
who have very little contact with Olympism (“If I am to try toanalyze the word, it is a movement in favor of the Olympics. It isan analysis without any background knowledge... Did I guess itright?” BRA). Among the German athletes, even though 58.7%
declared having had some kind of information about the
Olympic Idea and the Olympic Movement, they do not seem.358.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
The Olympic Athlete: hero or mediator?

to have enough knowledge about them (“We do not know what
Olympism means”. GER) 41 . In other words, understanding
Olympism is rather shallow and idealized (“Gather people. Make
them equal”. GER; “It’s the super-appreciation of what the
Olympiads are, the feeling of playing fair. I don’t know.” BRA).
In summary, a pragmatic inconsistency between values andpractice comes up when this value of Olympism is dealt with,not being influenced by the contrasts by sex and type of sport.
However, while the excellency value and the different
characteristics of both social and sport systems shape the ‘sport
x education’ distinction, the excellency and knowledge of the
Olympic Idea are factors which intervene in the attitudes
toward the cultural dimension of the Olympic Movement.
As for the fair play item, as shown on the figure below,
this sample attitude is highly positive toward the general idea
(BRA: 3,88; GER: 3,94), sometimes presenting a strong
idealization (“For me, fair play does not take place in practice
only; it must be present in the spirit, in the soul” BRA; “It is a
hard and very good thing to achieve.” GER).
Figure 3
Likert scale results on fair play for Brazilian
and German athletes

Scale 3 - Fair Play
5
4
3
2
1

Brazil

h.

..

.

.359.

9t

/..
4t

h

...
t/
1s

am
te

...
di
in

al
m
fe

m

al

e

e

Germany

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
The Olympic Athlete: hero or mediator?

The results show that female German athletes have aslightly more positive attitude toward fair play (female: 4.0;
male: 3.89), which is similar to the results obtained in otherstudies where different items, methods and target groups wereanalyzed 42 . However, through the interviews, it was notpossible to identify a specific pattern which would make therespondents’ attitudes different toward sex.
The respondents would disagree more with the statements
which indicated a negative attitude toward fair play (e.g.., “myadversary is my enemy”) than would agree with those which
presented a positive attitude (i.g., “my adversary is my
opponent”), which suggests that a reactive kind of attitude
prevails over a proactive position regarding this element of
Olympism. The distinction between ‘positive’ and ‘negative’issues made the contrast by sex more striking among theGerman athletes (female: 4.06%; male: 3.90%; p=0,044); by
performance among the Brazilians (asymptotic p=0,001) andby sport among the Germans (individual: 4.01; team: 3.85;
p=0,012), thus confirming the hypothesis mentioned above.
The concept of formal and informal dimensions of fair play
may be the key to explain the existence of more reactive thanproactive attitudes in both groups. As several writers havealready mentioned 43, the acceptance of rules consists of aprevious agreement which is essential to the nature of the gameitself. The formal dimension of fair play, based on norms andprocedures, presents evident and delimited references ofconduct in sport. When the rules themselves determine
different kinds of sanctions for different kinds of violation,
they provide the necessary reference for decision-making.
Therefore, it does not seem surprising that the idea of respecting
both rules and adversaries, even in defeats, has been acceptedby 100% respondents. On the other hand, when the informal
dimension of fair play presents itself as “a way of thinking,and not merely a behavior” 44, it becomes an extremely wide.360.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
The Olympic Athlete: hero or mediator?

and generic concept which may have a subjective meaning. It,
thus, seems harder to have an attitude toward this informal
dimension of fair play. The interviews support suchinterpretation. In the athletes’ opinion, fair play was, above
anything else, “obey the rules” and “no doping”.
As previously observed, the athletes of individual sports
from both countries had higher results than those of team sports(BRA – Individual: 4.01; Team: 3.38 / GER – Individual: 4.03;
Team: 3.75). An explanation for such results may be found in
the assumption that in the individual sports, except for fighting
sports, the feelings of antagonism related to the adversaries are
partially determined by the level of physical contact between
them. Even though the levels of violence among theparticipants are determined by rules in the team types of sport,
where there is also physical contact, the dispute presents a larger
margin for opposite feelings related to the adversaries. Anotherimportant aspect is that most individual sports are characterized
by a comparison of performance through the accomplishmentof fairly patterned and pre-determined tasks, which accounts
for a more controlled and predictable sport action. Most of
the referees’ deeds consist of the objective application ofpenalties and bonuses determined by the rules. In the teamsports, particularly, but not exclusively, in those ball games, amore dynamic and less patterned action presents a certain doseof freedom and complexity which, at many times, demands
from the referee an interpretation of the players’ action sothat the rules may be applied. In summary, it seems obviousthat if there are more possibilities for the referee to interpretthe competitors’ actions, his decisions will also have morechances to be polemic and unsatisfactory (“There [in Sailing]
we have the dubious part. Why? Because this limit is subjective
and interpreted by referees. And what we notice nowadays is thatthe referee applies such limit in many different ways, dependingon the athlete” BRA).
.361.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
The Olympic Athlete: hero or mediator?

Regarding performance, the results show that the athletes
who won medals in Sydney present a less positive attitude thanthose who did not get any in both groups (BRA: 1st / 3rd: 3.32;
4th / 8th: 3.88; 9th and on: 4.09, asymptotic p=0,002; GER: 1st/
3rd: 3.85; 4th / 8th: 4.05; 9th and on: 3.91, asymptotic p= 0,062).
However, the gathered data do not allow us to state that bothspiral of competition and overvaluation of success mean a neweffectiveness ethics in the way it was proposed by Heinilä. In
fact, the results may be interpreted as a demonstration of how
the quest for one’s chance helps the respondents of this study
define the game45. In this sense, as opposed to the effectivenessof the “common bad” trend, the practitioner’s “internal
perspective”, the sport social morals, excellency andcompetition are part of a complex relationship which is, atmany times, instrumental (“if I react and try to irritate myadversary, I am going to get stressed to the point of loosing control, and this would not be what I am here for” BRA). Almost always,
there is a search for a fair measurement of fair play both as avalue and practice (“It is there where you fight against yourself.
You fight against your moral values. It is the angel and the little
devil inside you. It is hard to deal with it” BRA. “Keeping thecompetition only within the limits of the competition” GER).
This attitude in search of an equilibrium between thecommends of fair play and both logic and demands of the top
sport is more clearly noticed in the statements which attempt
to test the athletes’ attitudes toward propositions of an altruistic
kind of behavior47. The discordance to ideas such as “a victory
conquered due to the referee’s mistakes is a victory like anyother” or “a victory with no merits” (GER: 49.1% and 40.1%/ BRA: 57.5% and 47.5%) suggests that, in the athletes’
perspective, the sport technical values (i.g., defense) andesthetical values (i.g., a more aggressive, cool or “artistic” style)are not disregarded in favor of the ethical value but at sametime they do not abolish it either48.
.362.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
The Olympic Athlete: hero or mediator?

In the fair play area, doping deserves a special attention
from us. Brazilians and Germans have fairly high levels of
rejection to the use of doping (92.3% and 98.3%, respectively).
Regarding the German athletes, the results still reflect the
problems caused by the discovery of doping development
programs in former East Germany (“Since 1991 one has notheard much about doping in Germany” GER), while for theBrazilians, the results represent a great change if compared tothe study conducted with the athletes who participated in the
Olympic Games in Atlanta (1996), which showed that only
63.3% respondents rejected the use of doping49. This growthis probably related to an increase in the anti-doping control
policies in both national and international scopes. The data of
the scale are consistent with doping being frequently mentioned
as one of the negative points of the Games and something whichmostly threatens their future.

Table 3
Factors which mostly threaten the future of the Olympic
Games (in percentage of given answers)
Factors
Doping
Overcommercialization
Terrorism

Brazil33,33%
12,35%
32,10%

Germany
37,87%
27,21%
15,07%The data of the questionnaires (Table 3) also support theconnection which is frequently made between thecommercialization of the Games, the overvaluation of victories,
and consequently, the existence of doping (“Today, ‘theimportant thing is to compete’ principle, as the Baron of Coubertin
used to say, no longer exists; doping is always there, and both media and money command the show” BRA. “It is not possible to.363.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
The Olympic Athlete: hero or mediator?

compete and win in top sport without using drugs. There is toomuch money involved” GER).
The interviews show that, besides condemning doping, therespondents of this study have an attitude which could be
defined as a process of self-exclusion. Such process reveals itself
in the belief that doping is a general practice but “not in mysport” and/or “not by me” which is very common in issues
regarding more sensitive and intimate topics. (“I am the live
evidence of that [it is possible to win without the use of doping]
BRA”; “I am lucky that in our sport doping is not very important”
GER; “In some types of sport it is very difficult to win without theuse of drugs. In rowing I can only talk by myself” GER).
This apparently contradictory picture between a generalbelief in the use of doping (“I only know a clean athlete in thewhole sport, and that’s me” GER) and an equally high reproof
rate (“doping destroys the sport” GER) shown by the Likert scale
is outlined in a clearer way when it is related to the Games
Theory. The use of such theory by Breivik50, aiming at theanalysis of what he called “Doping Game” 51 showed that,theoretically speaking, there is a tendency toward the use of
doping as a rational strategy even when the athletes’ values
and goals are not objectively directed to it. Although this study
has not included Breivik’s assumptions, we recognize that thetheory of the games may present a convincing explanation for
the apparently evident contradiction.

Conclusions
Based on the analysis and discussion of the results of thisstudy, we may come to the conclusion that there is a general
positive attitude toward the values of Olympism proclaimed
among the Olympic athletes. Nevertheless, such consistency
is not absolute as it is submitted to mediations carried out by.364.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
The Olympic Athlete: hero or mediator?

the subjects among different values in order to establish a fairmeasurement between the Olympic Idea and practicalreasoning. In more precise terms, the basic elements whichintervene in the relationship between the Olympic athletes
and the values of Olympism are excellence, competitivenessand cognition; despite being also important, the sport subcultures and sport systems are considered secondary. Althoughsome influences provided by cultural differences have been
identified, their explanatory power over the results at this levelof analysis is little.
Therefore, the whole process of articulating and conciliating
is developed through the generation of tensions anduncertainties in a continuum basis between the macro level(values/systems/controls) and the micro level (values/
individuals/self-determinism) which went through all theelements surveyed in this study either in a higher or a lower
level. This suggests that, just like Olympism, which has always
been resistant to definitions, the relationship between the
Olympic athletes and the proclaimed values of Olympism is
not unmistakable for it is assumed by the movements in favorof the renewal of IOC and the preservation of the Olympic
Idea. The Olympic athlete, in his role as a social actor,
reproduces the conflict between control of actions and free
will searching for mediations, which was foreseen already by
Coubertin.
If the knowledge of the values of Olympism among theathletes is only asleep, thus suggesting the importance of a
specific educational action for them, the relevance given to theexcellence and competitiveness values shows that thepractitioner’s internal perspective points at a new meaning of
the basis of Olympism. The athletes’ empowerment in the
IOC could thus allow for more changes than stability.
Ultimately, since Coubertin’s times, the idea of the‘Olympic athlete’ has always been a prescription resulting from.365.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
The Olympic Athlete: hero or mediator?

the Olympic Idea rather than a description of how the Olympic
values are understood by the practitioners. Their renewedrole in the midst of the Olympic Movement invites us to leave
the object aside and get to know the subject better.

Notes
1. For a discussion on Olympism as an eclectic elaboration based on
the notion of equilibrium see Lamartine P. DaCosta, “O
Olimpismo e o Equilíbrio do Homem”. In: Tavares O. & DaCosta,
L.P. (eds.) Estudos Olímpicos. Rio de Janeiro: Editora Gama Filho,
1999. p. 50-69.
2. John Hoberman d’après ‘IOC criminal action against Vyv Simson
and Andrew Jennings’, in: John Hoberman, “Toward a Theory
of Olympic Internationalism”. Journal of Sport History, vol. 22,
n. 1, 1995. p. 1-37. The quotation is concerned to p. 5.
th

3. IOC, Report by the IOC 2000 Comission to the 110 IOC Sesththsion. Lausanne, 11 and 12 December 1999 [online].
www.olympic.org . The textual citation is from p. 5.
4. As one of the main external forces during the reforms of the IOC,
the Olympic Advocates Together Honorably (OATH) was also
an important defender of both the preservation of the Olympic
Values and the athletes’ greater involvement in the Olympic
Movement administration. Cf. OATH, Proposals for Reform of
the IOC. OATH Symposium, New York, June 1999.
5. Otávio Tavares, Mens Fervida in Corpore Lacertoso? As atitudes
dos atletas olímpicos brasileiros diante do Olimpismo. (Master
Dissertation in Physical Education). Rio de Janeiro: University
Gama Filho, 1998, 138p. (unpublished).
6. Else Oyen, “The imperfection of comparisons”. In: Oyen, E. (ed.)
Comparative Methodology: Theory and Practice in International.366.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
The Olympic Athlete: hero or mediator?

Social Research. Londres: SAGE Publications, 1992 (Sage studies
in international sociology; v. 40), p. 1-18.
7. Kalevi Heinilä, “The Totalization Process in International Sport”.
In: Sportwissenschaft. 1982/2, p. 235-253.
8. Hugo Lovisolo, Educação Física: A Arte da Mediação. Rio deJaneiro: Sprint, 1995.
9. Sergio B. de Holanda, Raízes do Brasil. São Paulo: Companhia das
Letras, 1995; Norbert Elias, Os Alemães. Rio de Janeiro: Jorge
Zahar Editor, 1997.
10. Else Oyen, op. cit.
11. Henry Teune, “Comparing Countries: Lessons Learned”. In:
Oyen, E. (ed.) Comparative Methodology: Theory and Practicein International Social Research. Londres: SAGE Publications,1992 (Sage studies in international sociology; v. 40), p. 38-62. The
textual citation is from p. 48.
12. ibid., p. 54.
13. Gunter Gebauer, “Citius-Altius-Fortius and the Problem of Sports
Ethics: a Philosopher’s Viewpoint”. In: Landry, F., Landry, M. e
Yerlès, M. (eds.) Sport… The Third Milenium. Quebec: Les Presses
de l’Université Laval, 1991, p. 467-473.
14. IOC, Olympic Charter. Fundamental Principle no. 2. In force as
from 14th July 2001, including amendments approved by the 112th
IOC Session.
15. Hans Lenk, “Toward a Social Philosophy of the Olympics: Values, Aims and Reality of the Modern Olympic Movement”. In:
Graham, P.J. & Ueberhorst, H. (eds.) The Modern Olympics.
West Point: Leisure Press, 1976. p. 109-169.
16. Norbert Müller, “Coubertin’s Olympism”. In: Norbert Müller
(Ed. Dir.) Pierre de Coubertin. Olympism: Selected Writings.
Lausanne: IOC, 2000, p.33-48.
.367.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
The Olympic Athlete: hero or mediator?

17. Jim Parry, Ethical Aspects of the Olympic Idea. 3rd International Session for Educationists and Staff of Higher Institutes ofPhysical Education, Ancient Olympia, International Olympic
Academy, May 1997.
18. Lamartine DaCosta, op. cit.
19. Sigmund Loland, “Coubertin’s ideology of Olympism from the
Perspective of the History of Ideas”. Olympika: The International
Journal of Olympic Studies. Vol. IV, 1995, p. 49-78.
20. José M. Cagigal, “The Pedagogic Evaluation of the Olympic
Games: A Survey”. FIEP Bulletin, 45(4), p. 48-56, 1975.
21. Paul Ricoeur, Interpretação e Ideologias. São Paulo: Francisco
Alves, 1977.
22. John Hoberman, op. cit., p. 3.
23. For a discussion on the role of intellectuals in the Olympic Movement see: Lamartine DaCosta “Taking ourselves to task: Olympic
scholars in face of moral crisis in the Olympic Movement”. In:
Cashman, R. (ed.) Keys to Success. Sydney: UNSW Press. (in print).
24. Lamartine DaCosta, 1999, p. 61.
25. Pierre de Coubertin, “Philosophic Foundation of Modern
Olympism” [Les assises philosophiques de l’Olympisme moderne],
in: Le Sport Suisse, Vol. 31, 1935. In: Müller, N. (ed. dir.) 2000, p.
580-583; Ommo Grupe, “The Sport Culture and the Sportizationof Culture: Identity, Legitimacy, Sense and Nonsense of Modern
Sports as a Cultural Phenomenon”. In: Landry, F., Landry, M. e
Yerlès, M. (eds.), op. cit., p. 135-145; Hans Lenk, “Toward a Social Philosophy of the Olympics: Values, Aims and Reality of theModern Olympic Movement”. In: Graham, P.J. & Ueberhorst,
H. (eds.) The Modern Olympics. West Point: Leisure Press, 1976,
p. 109-169; Jim Parry, 1997; Jeffrey O. Segrave, “Toward a Definition of Olympism”. In: Segrave, J.O. & Chu, D.B. (eds.), The
Olympic Games in Transition. Champaign: Human Kinetics,.368.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
The Olympic Athlete: hero or mediator?

1988, p. 149-161. For a lengthy review of Olympism for theseauthors and its synthesis as a construct see: Otávio Tavares,“Referenciais Teóricos para o Conceito de Olimpismo”. In: Tavares
O. & DaCosta, L.P. (eds.) 1999, p. 15-49.
26. Pierre de Coubertin, “Philosophic Foundation of Modern
Olympism”. In: Müller, N. (Ed. Dir.) 2000, p. 580-583.
27. Understood as the idea of knowledge and relationship between
the youngsters from different creeds, races and cultures in orderto promote the development of personal relations of knowledge
and friendship among the participants during the Olympic Games
in an environment which respects the differences and the celebration of diversity.
28. Understood as the principle through which the Olympic Games
must promote not only sport competitions, but also artistic manifestations in an environment of perfect integration between physical culture and artistic culture inside and outside the Olympic
Village. The Olympic athlete must also be a citizen who searches
for the optimal combination of physical abilities and intellectual
development.
29. If the double dimension of fair play (formal and informal) istaken into account, the sport must be practiced through the respect to the rules, referees and adversaries, and the refusal to unjustified advantages and illegitimate means. In other words, theOlympic athlete now has the moral obligation to show that victory may only be achieved through honesty and justice, to accept
defeats, and to respect adversaries and referees.
30. For analysis purposes, two categories were considered for datacollection: “individual sports” and “team sports”. A special emphasis was given to the “individual effort x team effort” duality as
it could have a possible effect on the interpretation of the gathered data.

.369.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
The Olympic Athlete: hero or mediator?

31. The scales were validated by a panel of judges. In order to assure
the semantic equivalence of both versions, the original one in Portuguese was translated into German by a German-speaking scholar
in Brazil. In Germany, this translation was translated back into
Portuguese by a Portuguese-speaking scholar. The two Portuguese
versions were then compared, and the semantic adjustment in theGerman version was finally made. The data analysis were carriedout using the SPSS for Windows at the Federal University of Espirito
Santo (Brazil). Two tests were used to compare average scores: theMann-Whitney test, used between two groups, and the KruskalWallis test, used between more than two groups. The different
groups were identified through multiple comparison test, being
considered a significance level of 5%. The cases which were analyzed consisted of only those in which the respondent answered all
the questions included in the corresponding scale.
32. The disturbing Nazi legacy within the German society sometimes reveals itself in small details. For example, with a sticker, astreet bookseller in Mainz covered up a little Nazi badge which
decorated the official book of the Berlin Olympic Games – thebook was being sold in his stand. On the other hand, the feelingthat their past does not belong to them arises (“If I won, I would
like to show the German flag. That [Nazism] happened a long timeago. Another generation. It is over.”), which makes that legacy seem
unfair. However, it is respected in German terms based on thesense of duty and discipline toward the constituted authority which
Norbert Elias (op. cit.) emphasizes as being part of the German
habitus. In this aspect, the Americans’ attitude toward manifestations of national pride and particularly their flag, consists of areference and a counterpoint which were always quoted.
33. As opposed to the German athletes, who did not even have theircountry flag on their uniform, each Brazilian athlete received anational flag to be used in case of medals ceremony. In Brazil, as
shown by Sergio B. de Hollanda (op. cit.), the separation between.370.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
The Olympic Athlete: hero or mediator?

state and society resulting from the dominance of patrimonialism
over the state functions makes it easier to establish personal anddirect relations between the citizens and the nation. In this scenario, the sport is a highly personalized field for national representation as well as a real source of patriotism. Although the relationship between sport and nation consists of something which iscommon to almost all the peoples in the world, the “Brazil haswon” expression prevailing over the “I have won” expression
among Brazilian athletes suggests the existence of an element whichmakes the difference.
34. According to Norbert Elias (op. cit., p. 362), “We must showthat we are a new and human Germany. In order to accomplish
it, it is necessary to put an end to several kinds of hostility, and tofight against some of the old attitudes which were expressed amongus through the violence of national-socialism; they all must be
eradicated even from inside the families, kindergartens and schools.
We must consciously develop new and decent kinds of attitudes
of mutual respect to all human beings, no matter their age, social
position or political party.”
35. Kalevi Heinilä’s concept of ethos of effectiveness (theses 17, 18
and 19) is used in this text as a tool to enhance both excellence
and competitiveness values to top athletes since his mechanistic
and pessimistic concepts, if considered retrospectively, have had alimited empirical validation besides denying the vis-à-vis individuality toward the system.
36. See: Mara Cristan, Esporte e Sociedade. Vitória, ES: SPDC/UFES,
1995, p. 33-52 passim.
37. See: Dieter Hackfort, Eike Emrich, Vassilios Papathanassiou,
Nachsportliche Karriereverläufe. Schorndorf: Hofmann, 1997.
38. Except for those German athletes who are army officers and,
therefore, have their own supportive structure to sport life, whichallows 70% of service time to an exclusively sport practice. This
.371.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
The Olympic Athlete: hero or mediator?

makes the German army “one of the greatest top level sport promoters of the Federal Republic of Germany.” NOK für
Deutschland, Sydney 2000. Die deutsche Olympiamannschaft /The German Olympic Team. Deutscher Sportbund: Frankfurt
am Main, 2000, p. 404.
39. A research on similar topic with 1996 German Olympic athletes(n=55) found a lower figure (33,5%) to the same question. Cf.
Manfred Messing, “The Cultural Olympiads of Barcelona andAtlanta from German Tourists’ Point of View. In: Müller, N.
(ed. dir.) Coubertin and Olympism. Questions for the Future.
thth
Report of the Congress 17 to 20 September 1997 at the University of Le Havre. Lausanne: CIPC, 1998, p. 276-280.
40. IOC, Olympic Charter. Fundamental Principle no. 2. In force as
from 14th July 2001, including amendments approved by the 112th
IOC Session.
41. Similar figures were found in a study with physical education
undergraduates from Germany and Austria suggesting a widespread ignorance on Olympic Ideals. Cf. Holger Preuss, “Olympic Ideals as Seen by German and Austrian P. E. Students”. In:
Müller, N. (ed. dir.) Coubertin and Olympism. Questions for thethth
Future. Report of the Congress 17 to 20 September 1997 at the
University of Le Havre. Lausanne: CIPC, 1998, p. 281-286.
42. For example, see: Marta Gomes, “Solidariedade e Honestidade:Os fundamentos do Fair play entre adolescentes escolares”. In:
Tavares O. & DaCosta, L.P. (eds.), 1999. p. 207-222. And Roland
Naul, “The Olympic Ideal of Fair play: Moral dissonance between
vision and practice?” In: ICSSPE Bulletin, No. 30, September 2000,
p. 42-43.
43. Cf. Mike J. McNamee e Jim S. Parry, (eds.) Ethics & Sport. London / New York: E & FN Spon, 1998.
44. Código de Ética Esportiva / Conselho da Europa, 1992, p. 6.

.372.

. OLYMPIC STUDIES .
The Olympic Athlete: hero or mediator?

45. For Gunther Gebauer (op. cit.), the quest for one’s chance is themain characteristic of what he called “internal perspective”, theindividualistic morals of achieving distinction through action.
46. Kalevi Heinilä, op. cit., p. 248.
47. The situation of referees’ errors as an unjustified advantage wasassumed by this study as being one of the few test situations ofaltruistic behavior, if not the only one, which is likely to be applied to all Olympic sports.
48. Here we are dealing with Hugo Lovisolo´s concepts of technical,
ethical and aesthetical values as references to identify and characterize different sports as specific sub-cultures.
49. Otávio Tavares, 1998.
50. Gunnar Breivik, “Doping Games. A Game Theoretical Exploration of Doping”. In: Int. Rev. for Soc. of Sport 27/3 (1992).
51. According to Jan Ove Tangen e Gunnar Breivik, “a ‘doping game’is a game where the involved athletes have to decide in a strategicinteraction with others whether they will use doping means ornot. […] and assume that athletes in such situation consciously
decide what to do, being aware of alternatives and possibilities ofvarious outcomes”. SpW 31. Jg., 2001, Nr. 2, p. 188-198.

.373.

Notes on the Author
and Contributors
Dr. Lamartine P. DaCosta is full professor at the Master’sand Doctorate Programs on Physical Education of the Universidade Gama Filho - Rio de Janeiro, and author and editorof numerous books and articles on sport, culture and society.
He is the vice president of the National Olympic Academy ofBrazil, member of the World Anti-Doping Agency - WADA,
Ethics and Education Commission (Montreal), and memberof the Research Council of the Olympic Studies Centre,
Olympic Museum (Lausanne) . He is also Commissioner ofTrim and Fitness International Sport for All Association TAFISA for the coordination of international research policy.
His last book published is “Worldwide Experiences and Trendsof Sport for All”, DaCosta & Miragaya (eds), Meyer & Meyer
Sport, Oxford, 2002. Email: lamartine@terra.com.br; Tel: +55 21 99 64 04 97.
Neise Gaudencio Abreu - Doctor in Olympism andCulture-1999/Master in Pedagogy of Human Movement-1990;
Athletic Director of The American School of Rio de Janeiro;.375.

Head of the Physical Education Department of the American
School of Rio de Janeiro;
Experiential Learning Coordinator/High School Teacher;Key-speaker of the International Olympic Academy in the
Conference for Directors of National Olympic Academies2001; Worshop in the Kieve Leadership Institute, Maine-USA2000; Coordinator of the Young Session at the International
Olympic Academy - 1996; Post Graduate Seminar on Olympic
Studies - 1995; Professor of History of Physical Education andResearch Methodology at the Gama Filho University/Castelo
Branco University-College and Post Graduate Programs - 19871994. Address: Rua do Humaitá 58 casa 12 apto 101 - Humaitá- 22261-001; tel: + 55 21 22462631 / 99595234; email:
Neise.Abreu@earj.com.br
Otavio Tavares is lecturer of physical education at the
Universidade Federal do Espírito Santo (Vitória, ES - Brazil).
Postgraduated on Olympic Studies at the International
Olympic Academy (1997). He is finishing his doctorate inphysical education at the University Gama Filho (Rio de Janeiro – Brazil). Tavares is the co-editor of two books on
Olympic Studies and Sport, Olympism and Environment andpublished numerous scholarly articles on history of sport,
Olympic Movement and school physical education. He also
coordinated a national physical education teachers’ training
program in 1993 and 1994. His Master dissertation on values,
beliefs and attitudes of Brazilian Olympic Athletes toward
Olympism was awarded Brazil Sport Literature silver medalby the Ministry of Sport in 1999. Member of the Brazilian
Olympic Academy, Otávio Tavares lives in Vitória, Espírito
Santo. Address: Rua Renato N. D. Carneiro, 780/303, Ed.
Cezanne. Vitória, ES.
29052-730, Brazil. Email:otavares@uol.com.br.376.

Ana Miragaya holds two B.A.’s in languages, an M.A. inlinguistics from the University of Washington (Seattle, Washington), a certificate of post-graduate studies in international
management from the American Graduate School ofInternational Management (Glendale, Arizona), an M.S. inphysical education from Universidade Gama Filho (Rio deJaneiro, Brazil) and is currently working on her Ph.D. inphysical education at the same institution. She is assistant professor of English at Universidade Gama Filho. She has edited
the book “Worldwide Experiences and Trends in Sport forAll” together with Dr.Lamartine DaCosta from 1999 to 2001.
She has also participated in various conferences and seminars
in Brazil and abroad and published several articles. Her maininterests are women and sports, sport for all, exercise
physiology and Olympism. Address: Av. Jornalista Ricardo
Marinho, 150 apt. 106 Barra da Tijuca , Rio de Janeiro, RJ
22631-040 , Brazil. Telephone numbers: + 55 21 2431-2652 /
9986-2738. E-mail: anamariamiragaya@wnetrj.com.br
Marta Correa Gomes has Master Degree in Physical
Education - Gama Filho University – RJ - 1992/1994 (Area ofstudy: Physical Education and Culture - Social representationof the body). 1st Degree in Physical Education - Gama Filho
University - 1987/1990. 2nd Degree in Social Sciences -Federal University of Rio de Janeiro – 1997/2002. Assistant Professor of Methodology of Teaching in Physical Education atGama Filho University / Physical Education Departure.
Assistant Professor of Theory of Sport at Gama Filho
University / Physical Education Departure. Physical Education
Teacher at FAETEC (Support Foundation to Technical
School). She is a member of the Group of Research on Olympic
Studies in her university. Articles: Body and Adolescence: “In
the Raw food lie the proteins of life...”Motus Corporis - UGF (1994); Profile Of Cultural And Sporting Preferences of the.377.

Students Of Pedro II School. Artus - Journal of Physical
Education and Sports. Rio de Janeiro: Gama Filho Publisher,
1996; Solidarity and Honesty: The Principles of Fair play among
School Teenagers. Olympic Studies: Post-graduate Program in
Physical Education. Rio de Janeiro: Gama Filho Publisher,
1999. The Contribution of International Olympic Academy tothe discussion and diffusion of Olympism. Olympic Studies: Postgraduate Program in Physical Education. Rio de Janeiro: Gama
Filho Publisher, 1999 . Address: Rua Sao Clemente, 373 - Apt.
602 - Botafogo – Rio de Janeiro – RJ – 22260-001 - BRAZIL.
Tel/Fax : + 55 21 2535-6597. Email: mgomes.rlk@terra.com.br.378.