Rikkyo University
June 27, 2015

Organisers: Rikkyo University, Meiji University and International University of Japan
Human Resource Development Program for International Cooperation

Rwanda, DRC, South Sudan, Uganda, Somalia, Darfur,

to solve conflicts?
Before we discuss how the ‘international community’Central Africa Republic, Nigeria, Mali.…Africa has beencan stop these atrocities to bring peace, it is important torepeatedly‘ethnic

have a correct understanding of the nature of the conflicts

cleansing’ and ‘wars on terror’, especially since the 1990s.

in Africa. Based on his extensive investigation, Mr. Pierre

As a result, millions of innocent people have been

Péan, a renowned investigative journalist specialised in

victimized through death, displacement, sexual violenceinternational politics, will analyse this. In particular, he will

and kidnapping etc.

reveal superpowers’ roles and intervention, whose aspects

Why has Africa remained unstable for a lengthy periodof African conflicts remain mostly unknown in Japan.

experiencing‘wars’,‘genocide’,despite various efforts made by ‘international community’*‘Conflict’ used in this symposium signifies ‘armed conflict’.

Difference between conflict and war
Conflict refers to all the clash or fight from individual level to state level regardless of use of force. The domain ofarmed conflict, which indicates armed clash between opponent forces, is wide and includes from civil war tointer-state war.

Cover photo(left) : Congolese army preparing for the battle in eastern Democratic Republic of Congo（photo：Yasuyoshi Chiba）(right) : Local residents fleeing from conflict zone in eastern Democratic Republic of Congo（photo：Masako Yonekawa）

Contents
Message from Rikkyo University and Human Resource Development Program forInternational Cooperation1

Objective of organising the symposium2

Main actors/organisations, glossary

4

Chronology on conflicts in Africa

7

Map of African continent

9

Summary of keynote speech by Pierre Péan

10

Keynote lecture by Pierre Péan

11

Comment by Masako Yonekawa

19

Comment by Makoto Katsumata

23

Comment by Pierre Péan

27

Q&A

28

Closing remarks by moderator Sukehiro Hasegawa

33

Comment by participating student

34

Comment by participants (questionnaire)

35

Annex
Annex１ List of reports on human rights violation

36

Annex 2 Manuscript note of keynote speech (in French)37

Annex 3 Names of cooperators

47

Message from Rikkyo University, and Human Resource Development Program forInternational Cooperation
Hisashi Harada, Vice President, Rikkyo University
This international symposium ‘Why are Conflicts in
AfricaProlonging?

―From

the

PerspectivesofSuperpowers’ Roles―’ was hosted by the Human Resource
Development Program for International Cooperation at
Rikkyo University. This program was co-hosted by six
international agencies and three universities (namely
Rikkyo University, Meiji University, and International
University of Japan) aiming to train university students toacquire the skills, knowledge, and perspectives necessary
to tackle world-level problems dealt with by theinternational community.
Masako Yonekawa, the coordinator of the symposium, is
responsible for courses such as conflict and peace, forced
migration and displacement, and humanitarian aid. And
based on her extensive working experience with refugees
in countries such as the Democratic Republic of Congo(DRC), Rwanda, South Sudan, and Tanzania etc, she
focuses her research and education on conflict and peace.
This symposium, which gave an opportunity to explore
both deeply and critically the views on conflict and peace,
which is an important component of international
cooperation, turned out to be a highly valuable
opportunity, meeting the objectives of the Human
Resource

Development

ProgramforInternational

Cooperation.
I would like to offer my gratitude to Mr. Pierre Péan for
coming to Japan for this occasion, as well as Mr. Sukehiro
Hasegawa and Mr. Makoto Katsumata. Let me also offer
my sincere appreciation to the supporter organisations,
namely the Japan Association for African Studies andGlobal Peace Academy, for their cooperation over publicity
for the symposium.

1

Objective of Organising the Symposium
Masako Yonekawa, Specially Appointed Associate Professor, Rikkyo University
The International Symposium ‘Why are Conflicts in
AfricaProlonging?

―From

the

Perspectives

My second motivation for organising this conference isofthat now, more than ever, an understanding ofSuperpowers’ Roles―’ was organised with the aim ofcontemporary conflict is indispensable for the Japanese

promoting greater understanding of the nature of conflicts

people. This is because understanding the nature of

in Africa.

On a more personal level, there are two

conflicts in Africa is not unrelated to the security bill,

motives for why I have decided to organise this symposium.

which was discussed at Japan’s Diet in June 2015, at theFirst, in my previous work with the United Nations Hightime of this symposium.

Commissioner for Refugees office (UNHCR) in countries

Currently, there is growing concern that the Abe

including Rwanda and DRC, I was engaged in protecting

administration, in the name of international engagement

refugees and internally displaced persons (IDPs), who are

and making a proactive contribution to peace andthe victims of conflicts. This led me to explore how wecollective self-defence, is thinking about sending the

could stop conflicts, rather than just managing their effects.

Japanese Self Defence Force abroad ― including to Africa

Using this experience, I am now conducting research on― in order to support the U.S. military with force andconflict and peacebuilding, in which the so-called

logistics. Many citizens are opposing war, and expressing‘international community’ including governments, thetheir resolve to not repeat the same war which took place

United Nations (UN) and NGOs are expected to stop and70 years ago.

prevent conflict in (post-) conflict areas. Through thisWith these motives, in order to promote ourprocess, I have realised that there is little understanding,understanding of the whole context of conflict and theincluding on my own part, of the nature of conflict. Indeed,

relationship between conflict and superpower, I had

it is important to understand the root causes of conflict atrequested Mr. Pierre Péan to give the keynote lecture. The

the micro level, such as ethnic tensions, and local

work of Mr. Péan, a renowned and highly experienced

competition for land, power, and natural resources, but atinvestigative journalist, has enormously inspired me andthe same time, it is essential to analyse the conflict at the

many other people in the world. It was truly an honour tomacro level, across the regions and continents, andbe able to invite him from France.

identify the larger trends.

In addition to Mr. Péan, Mr. Sukehiro Hasegawa, theIt is thanks to Mr. Pierre Péan’s Carnage: Les guerres

moderator, who has worked with UN for a long time as asecrètes des grandes puissances en Afrique, that I became

senior manager in the field of development andaware of the importance of analysing conflict at the macro

peacebuilding in Africa and Asia, has an extensive

level. I encountered this book in 2010 when it was

experience. Mr. Makoto Katsumata, the commentator, haspublished. I myself do not have a strong comprehension inforFrench, yet I fully understood that the superpowers aredevelopment economics, politics and peace in Africa. They

waging conflicts at their convenience, and it was indeed ancooperated with this symposium and also meticulously

eye-opening experience. Through this book, I wanted tocorrected their manuscripts of the symposium. Let me

deepen my understanding of the relationship between

take this opportunity to offer my gratitude.

conflict and the superpowers, and for years, I have been

many

years

conducted

valuable

research on

Without Ms. Seiko Takano’s excellent interpretation inthinking about inviting him to Japan.

French, this symposium could not have taken place. I
2would like to express my sincere appreciation to her. Let
me also offer my gratitude to the supporter organisations
which contributed in attracting participants, as well as
those people who checked the translation and proofread
this proceeding report.

Finally, I would also express

my appreciation to the management and to my colleagues
at the Center for Global Human Resource Development
and the Media Center of Rikkyo University for theirunderstanding and cooperation, as well as to somestudents and others who helped by acting as the MC,serving as receptionists, summarising questionnaires, andaudio-typing.
One participant, a practitioner who has worked in Africa
for years, was fascinated with the content of thesymposium, which was never heard in other seminars. At
the same time, she was concerned that the undergraduate
students, who may be unfamiliar with global debate, may
not have truly understood the importance of this
symposium. I totally agreed with her as it is highly rare to
hold seminars focused on the roles of superpowers. It isregrettable that, as Mr. Péan’s book Carnage is nottranslated even into English, his valuable knowledge is notwidespread in Japan. Therefore, I hope that thisproceeding report will help to diffuse his research andprovide an opportunity for the participants to review thismaterial in the future.

3

Main Actors and Organisations, Glossary
U.S.A.
 Bill Clinton
Former President （1991-1998）.

 Defense Intelligence Agency (DIA)
An intelligence service of the U.S. Department of Defence,
specialised in collecting defence and military information.

 Madeline Albright
Former U.S. Ambassador to the UN （ 1993-1996 ） 、
former Secretary of State（1997-2001）.

 National Security Agency (NSA)
An intelligence organisation of the U.S. Department of
Defence. While CIA specialises in human-source
intelligence gathering, NSA specialises in intelligencegathering by interception of signals.

 Susan Rice
Current National Security Advisor (2013-). Former Director
for international organisations and peacekeeping (19931995), Special Assistant to the president and seniordirector for African affairs（1995-1997）, former U.S.
Ambassador to the UNs（2009-2013）.

 United States Agency for International
Development (USAID)
U.S. Government agency
primarily responsible for administering almost all nonmilitary foreign aid.

 Roger WinterFormer Director of US Committee of Refugees, former
American State Department envoy to Sudan.
 Central Intelligence Agency (CIA)An intelligence service that gathers and analyses national
security information of other countries, monitors anti-U.S.
organisations, and provides information to National
Security Council.

Israel● Six Day War
Israel launched preemptive airstrikes against Egypt on 5
June 1967, and completed its final offensive on 10 June.
Israel seized Sinai Peninsula, Gaza strip, West Bank and theGolan Heights. Many Palestinian refugees were produced.

 Avi Dichter
Minister of Interior Security (2006-2009).
 Israel Security Agency (‘Shabak’)An internal security service, known as Shin Bet before
1960.

 Likud
Israel’s ruling political party. Its fifth leader today is Mr.
Benjamin Netanyahu.

Institute for Intelligence and Special Operations(‘Mossad’)An external intelligence agency responsible for
information collection by Jewish scattered in the world.

4

Uganda Yoweri Museveni
Current President (1986-). As the leader of NRM, he wasinvolved in rebellions that toppled Ugandan leaders Idi
Amin (1971-1979) and Milton Obote (1980–1985).

 National Resistance Movement/Army(NRM/A)
Former rebel group established by the current President
Museveni in 1981, which seized power in 1986. One of
NRM’s deputy was Mr. Kagame of Rwanda（current
Rwandan president).

(Eastern) Democratic Republic of Congo Joseph Kabila
Current President (2001-). He took office ten days after theassassination of his father, President Laurent-Désiré Kabila.
He internally led the AFDL together with Rwandan official
in 1996-1997 in eastern DRC.



 Laurent Désiré Kabila
Former spokesperson of AFDL who self-declared as
President(1997-2001). Former leader of rebel group since
1960s.

 Rally for Congolese Democracy (RCD)A ‘Congolese’ rebel group which was active during theSecond Congo War in 1998-2003.

National Congress for the Defence of the People(CNDP)A ‘Congolese’ rebel group which was active in 2006-2009.
 M23（March 23 Movement)
A ‘Congolese’ rebel group which was active in 2012-2013.

＊AFDL (1996-1997), RCD (1998-2006), CNDP (2006-2009)
and M23 (2012-2013) were all created by the Rwanda
government army, often assisted by the Uganda
government army.



Alliance of Democratic Forces for the Liberation ofCongo (AFDL)A ‘Congolese’ rebel group which overthrew the Mobutu
regime in 1996-1997.

Sudan
 Omar al-Bashir
Current President (1989-) In 2009, he became the firstsitting president to be indicted by the International
Criminal Court, for allegedly directing a campaign of mass
killing against civilians in Darfur.

 Hassan al-Turabi
A religious and Islamist political leader, who may havebeen instrumental in institutionalising sharia Islamic law inthe northern part of the country.

South Sudan
 John Garang
Chairperson of SPLM (1983-2005). Died from helicopter
crash.

(SPLM/A)
Former rebel group established by non-Arab Secularists in
1983. Since South Sudan became independent in 2011,
the SPLM/A is the ruling party and national army.

Sudan People's Liberation Movement / Army

Rwanda Paul Kagame
Current President (2000-), and former Vice President andMinistry of Defense (1994-2000). Following the 1959

Social Revolution, he had lived in Uganda as a refugee for30 years. Former General of RPF who is said to havestopped the genocide in 1994.
5 Interahamwe
It means ‘those who stand together’ in Kinyarwandan
language, mother language of Rwanda). A Hutu radical
militia organisation which instigated Rwandan genocide in
1994, rebel group Democratic Forces for the Liberation of
Rwanda (FDLR). They and the former Rwanda army fled toeastern DRC after the genocide and established the FDLR.
Due to this background, Interahamwe is sometimes used
to refer to the FDLR.

 International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR)
An international court established in November 1994 by
the United Nations Security Council Resolution 955,
prosecuting those considered most responsible for thegravest crimes committed in Rwanda.
*Rwandan ethnic or social group are divided into majority
Hutu, minority Tutsi and the remaining Twa.

 Rwandan Patriotic Front/Army (RPF/A)
A political movement established in 1987 by the second
generation of Rwandan refugees who fled to Uganda in
1959-early 1960s. Led by Tutsi, the RPF seized power
during the Rwandan genocide in 1994.

Others Apartheid（South Africa）
A policy of racial segregation regulating the relation
between whites and non-whites in South Africa.

adopted ten principles for peace including national
independence, and respect for fundamental human rights.

 African Great Lakes region
It includes Burundi, the Democratic Republic of Congo,
Rwanda, Tanzania and Uganda.

 Waffen-SS（Nazi Germany）
Nazi armed organisation established to protect Adolf Hitlerfrom the treason of Army or domestic riot after he seized
power.
 Boko Haram （West Africa）
An Islamic extremist group based in northeastern Nigeria,also active in Chad, Niger and Cameroon.

 Operation Restore Hope （Somalia）
The first US military-led operation in the United Nations
Operation in Somalia II, which took place in 1992–1993.
 International Criminal Court （ICC）
An intergovernmental international tribunal that sits in
The Hague and has the jurisdiction to prosecuteindividuals for the international crimes of genocide, crimes
against humanity, and war crimes, consideringinternational law.

 Cold War
A state of political and military tension after World War II
between powers in the Western Bloc as capitalism andliberalism camp (U.S., its NATO allies and others) andpowers in the Eastern Bloc as communism and socialism
camp (the Soviet Union and its allies in the Warsaw Pact).
Berlin Wall which was constructed by German Democratic
Republic (East Germany) in 1961 became the symbol ofGerman division and of Cold War.

 Bandung Conference (Asian-African or AfroAsian Conference)
A conference, which took place in 1955 in Bandung,Indonesia, participated by 29 Asian and African states. It

6Chronology on conflicts in Africa
PM=Prime Minister, MFA= Minister of Foreign Affairs, VP=Vice President, Sec=Secretary, Amb=Ambassador, SG=Secretary General, Rep=Representative,

DRCongoRwandaUganda1950s(South) Sudan

55~72

Administration

1st Sudan civil war

59 Social Revolution/outflux of massive refugees
64 H. al-Turabi named himself SG of
National Islamic Front

1960s
65~97 Pres. Mobutu Sese Seko
1970s

73~94 Pres. J. Habyarimana

71~79 Pres. I..Amin

1980s

80~85 Pres. M.Obote

86~ NRM seize power Pres.
Y.Museveni

89~ Pres. O.Al-Bashir, Ｓpeaker of
the National Assembly al-Turabi

ReaganAdm 81-9

87 some Rwandan refugees form
RPF

Carter Admin 77-81

81 Some Rwandan refugees,
including Kagame, join the Museveni83~05 2nd Sudan civil war・SPLM
led NRM. Civil war
leader J. Garang

End of Cold War （89/11 fall of Berlin Wall）
GHW
Bush 8993

90/10 RPF's invasion into Rwanda, RPF leader F.
Rwigema killed

1990s

90～94 civil war
92~3 J.Gasana Min of Defense
93 Arusha peace accord

1st Clinton Adm 93-97

1994
4/6 Shooting down of presidential plane;assasination of Pres. Habyarimana and BurundianPres. C. Ntaryamira
4/7～ genocide for 100 days
Interahamwe and ex-government
soliders who are involved in Rwandan
genocide crossed into DRC withmassive refugees

7/3 capital Kigali falls under RPF

7/19~

VP/Min of Defense P.Kagame

97-01 AFDL spokesperson L.Kabila
declared Pres
98/8 Occupaton of eastern DRC by
Rw/Ugandan armies & RCD (2ndCongo War)99-02 Rwandan/Ugandan armies
clashed in Kisangani
01 Assasination of Pres. L. Kabila.
Pres.J.Kabila

00~ Pres. P.Kagame
03~ Darfur conflict
04 AU sent Rwandan troops to Darfur
05 1st VP of SSudan Garang

06-12 Rebellion in Kivu by rebel CNDP

07 AU sent Ugandan troops toSomalia

09/3 Pres Bashir indicted by ICC

2010s
12～3 rebellion by rebel M23

11 Independence of SSudan
14/1 ex-intelligence chief Karegeya assasinatedin Safrica

13/12 civil war in Ssudan

14/3 attempted assasination of ex-RPF chief ofstaff Kayumba in SAfrica
14/11 ex-RPF sergeant E. Garifita dissappears in
Kenya

7

Obama Adm. 09～

05/7 death of VP Garang fromhelicopter crash

G.W. Bush 01~09

2000s

98/8 US destroys a pharmaceuticalmanufacturing facility in Khartoum

2nd Clinton Adm. 97-01

96/10 invasion of Rwandan/Ugandanarmies & rebel AFDL in Kivu

Chronology on conflicts in Africanames are underlined＝conflict, bombing and shooting=those assasinated

U.S.A
Key persons and main events--------→regime
Other countries and United Nations

Roger WinterFranceAngola, Burundi, Egypt, Eritrea,
Ethiopia, Ghana, S.Africa

Israel54~8 PM/Pres. G.A.Nasser（EG）
57~66 PM/Pres. K.Nkrumah(GH)56~66 外務大臣 MFA G.Meir

67/6 Six-Day War
69~74 PM G.Meir
30～74 Emperor H. Selassie(ET)73~ Likud ruling party

81~ Director, US Committee
for Refugee

81~95 Pres. F.Mitterrand

88 supports World Congress on
Rwandan refugees in
Washington D.C

87~93 I. Afewerki SG of EPLF（ER）

End of Cold War （89/11 fall of Berlin Wall）
92~96 UNSG B.B. Ghali

92~3 Operation Restore Hope in Somalia

93/2

93 Pres. Ndadaye assasinated (BR)Bombing of World Trade Center

93~

Pres. I.Awewerki(ER)Sec of State C. Warren

48~94 （ZA）End of apartheid

UN Amb M.Albright94-99 Pres. N. Mandela (ZA)

Asst Sec. of State for African Affairs G. Moose
6/22-8/21 France's
Operation Turquoise in
RwandaDirector for intl orgs& peacekeeping, special
assistant to the pres. and senior director for African
affairs (at National Security Council) S. Rice

95-07 Pres. J.Chirac95~12 PM M.Zanawi(ET)2012died inSec. of State M. Albright

UN Amb. G.Moose

Asst Secretary of Stae for African Affairs S. Rice

98/8 Bombing of US Embassy in Kenya & Tanzania

01/9/11 September 11 attacks

08 establishment of AFRICOM (US Africa
Command)
09-13

UN Amb S.Rice

11/5

US killed Bin Laden

12

01 Director of Foreign Disaster,USAID

02 rebel UNITA leader J. Savimbi
killed (AN)04 Special Rep of State of
Department for thenegoatiation Khartoum - SPLM

00 Director of Security Agency(=Shin Bet) A. Dichter

08/09 Minister of Interior Security
A. Dichter08 Honory Advisor ofgovernment of SSudan

US troops sent to Uganda

13~ National Security Advisor S.Rice8

Map of African continent

Great Lake region9Summary of Keynote Speech by Pierre Péan
After the end of Cold War, African Great Lakes region

President Kagame also received support from Eritrea andhas become a region of death and tragedies amidst theEthiopia as well as other rebel groups. Eventually, theseworld's indifference. Millions of Rwandan, Congolese,heads of states, all former warlords, were named as the

Sudanese, Ugandans and Angolans have been killed‘new generation of African leaders’ by the US. Boosted

alongside four heads of state as well as hundreds ofwith impunity from their responsibility in atrocities in their

Ministers and officials. This region has had the misfortune

respective wars, these African leaders mobilised the blacktocontinent under the name of Pan-Africanism to ‘counter

have

experienced

moredamage

than

those

accumulated by all the wars the world has gone through

the

Islam

subversion’.

Particularly,

Ugandawassince the end of World War II. In general, it is known thatgeostrategically important, especially for Israel, as it shares

many Tutsi became victims during the genocide in Rwanda,

a lengthy common borderline with Sudan, which was used

but in fact, many Hutus also became victims, and this fact

as the entry point to Khartoum. This is partially why

remains largely unnoticed. In the story of Rwanda, most of

Uganda also hosted the ultimate base for South Sudanesethe media focuses only on the Tutsi victims, while

rebels (Chairperson John Garang’s SPLM). Sudan, being thedenouncing the Hutu as the only directly responsible

largest country on the African continent and an Islamic

actors of massacre, with the accomplice of France. Whatregional power, has been a threat to Israel, due to its

can explain the selective silence and double-standard ofpotential support to Israel’s enemies. Therefore, Israel was

this story?

obliged to constantly destabilise Sudan so that it would

In fact, Rwandan President Paul Kagame bears a heavy

not become influential among other African and Islamic

responsibility for the successive massacres and genocide incountries. The Bill Clinton administration also became

Rwanda and Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) in theinterested in the importance of Sudan from the

1990s, but thanks to the support provided by his Anglo-

perspective of the Middle East conflicts. In addition to

Saxon protectors, he has become the idol of the West,

Uganda, Israel has been a strong ally to mineral-rich DRC,

especially the United States (US), which has a strategic

and an arms-supplier to South Africa.

interest in central Africa. In order to overturn the

Behind all these conflicts and the rebellions in the

Habyarimana regime in Rwanda in 1994, then Major

region, Roger Winter, officially the Director of US

Kagame, a former rebel RPF leader who had worked with

Committee of Refugees was constantly present on thethe then Ugandan rebel leader Yoweri Museveni since theground since the 1980s. He planned and coordinated the1970s, received enormous support from Uganda. Since

logistics of various operations with the Rwandan Tutsi

Museveni became the president in 1986, he had thediaspora in the US, leaders of RPF, SPLM and Congo, as

ambition to conquer the Great Lakes region, which waswell as with his close friend, a Mossad chief.

gradually implemented since the early 1990s with thenIn sum, after the end of the Cold War, the US and its

Major Kagame playing a crucial role. The Rwandanallies decided to remodel the African continent in order togenocide led to then General Kagame and his RPF

counter the influence of Islamist nations and that ofaccession to power in Rwanda. Then in the mid-1990s, anFrance. Thus, the US politics in the Great Lakes region isinvasion, disguised as a rebellion, was launched in the

directly linked to that in the Middle East, and in addition, aeastern part of the DRC by then Vice President Kagame.

secret war between France and the US has been ongoing

Both the Rwandan and Ugandan armies have been

since 1993. In order for the US to restructure the continent,

occupying eastern DRC until now, where unprecedented

parts of rebels, African states, mercenaries, multinational

death tolls have been recorded.

companies, NGOs, human rights organisations and media

Turning to the network behind the Great Lakes'

were used in different strategic and economic operations,tragedies, it should be mentioned that since the 1994

including the conquest of Congo and its rich natural

Rwandan genocide, apart from Uganda, then Vice

resources.
10Keynote Speech by Pierre Péan
Pierre Péan
He published more than 30 books in the fields of international politics, security andconflicts (Africa, Gulf and Kosovo). His main publication includes Carnage: Les guerressecrètes des grandes puissances en Afrique (2010) (‘Carnage: Secret War ofSuperpower in Africa’), Noires fureurs, blancs menteurs (2005) (‘Black Furies, White
Liars’). He studied political science at Institute d’études politiques de Paris. Frenchnational.
It is a great pleasure to give this lecture today.

1947. Therefore, during the Cold War, although the so-

To introduce myself briefly, my name is Péan, I am 77

called allies shared the common objective of confronting

years old, and I went to Africa for the first time in 1962

the Soviet Union, thus although there was competition

when I was the attaché of cabinet at the Ministry ofamong the so-called allies, they avoided waging major

Finance in Gabon. I have always had a strong interest in

conflicts in Africa. This kept the conflicts in Africa at a1

relatively low intensity, even though they sometimes

which continue to have strong influence with France.

erupted, such as during the independence movements ofToday, I would like to talk about how I got interested in

the Portuguese colonies, in particular the conflict inAfrica’s Great Lakes region, and in particular, Rwanda.

Angola.

Africa, but especially those 14 former colonies of France,

The second key, which is one of the most important
Two Keys in Understanding Post-Cold War Africa

points in my research, is the reintroduction of Israel as an

It has been 25 years since the fall of the Berlin Wall, andessential actor in Africa. In order to understand what is

I would like to speak about what has happened in Africa

taking place in African continent, it is important to explore

during this time. I will begin by mentioning two keys tothe agendas ―secret or not―of certain powers－France,

understanding this period, but of course, these are only

United Kingdom (UK), US, Israel, Belgium and sometimes

two among many.

Germany.

The first key is that, after the fall of Berlin Wall, thestructureofgeopoliticalinfluenceinAfricaMy research started when I noticed theincredible scale of chaos that began taking place in Africa

wasafter the fall of Berlin Wall.

remodelled, and the US started to possess more power.

There are two other major incidents which took place at

Before World War II, President Roosevelt had decided tothe end of Cold War period in 1989-1990. First, Mr. Omar

put an end to the colonial empires of France and Britain.

al-Bashir became President of Sudan in 1989, and Mr.

Obviously, the US wanted to eliminate those countries’

Hassan al Turabi, a key person, became his adviser. Let me

influence against Africa. However, one major incident took

speak about this later. Second, Non-Governmental

place, which halted the US’ wish; it was the Cold War after

Organisations (NGOs) started to play a major role as theproxies of the superpowers. The major actors in the‘international community’ before the end of Cold War

1

These countries include Benin, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Central
African Republic, Chad, Republic of the Congo, Equatorial Guinea,
Gabon, Guinea-Bissau, Ivory Coast, Mali, Niger, Senegal, Togo inWest and Central Africa, which all use CFA currency. Guinea-Bissau
and in Equatorial Guinea were not formerly French colonies. CFA
stands for ‘African Financial Community’ and ‘Financial Cooperationin Central Africa’.

were states. When states did not wish to be directly
involved on the ground, so-called ‘proxies’ which areeither state or mercenaries were mobilised to implement
their policies. NGOs, which include human rights defence
11organisations, started to play major role as proxies. Due to

President Kagame as a savoir. This political admiration by

this change, the situation on the African continent became

the media is based on the claim that President Kagame

more problematic.

stopped the genocide in Rwanda.
In order to explore in depth the reason why this chaos

Tragedy in the Great Lakes region

has taken place, I proceeded with my investigation. It is

Today, I would like to speak in particular about the Greatnot sufficient to understand this chaos only with theLakes region, the tragedy of Rwanda, the genocide of Tutsi,

software which many people, including myself, had been

its victims, which is said to be about 1 million people, andprogrammed with in relation to Africa. It is important to

the death of 100,000 or 1 million in eastern Congo inremind you that the fall of Berlin led to many ruptures in

1996-1997. In addition to this dreadful number, hundreds

international relations ―in the world and in Africa. Toof thousands of people were also killed in Sudan, Uganda

analyse one of the main factors, for example, globalisation

and Angola, and millions more were forcefully displaced.

and IT has rapidly advanced after the end of Cold War. This

Moreover, in this region, four heads of states

2andadvancement of IT not only led to production of

hundreds of Ministers were assassinated, tens oftransparency, as many people believe, but also allowed forthousands of women were sexually abused, and many

the easier manipulation of information.

lootings took place. This region has experienced moredamage than those accumulated by all the wars the world

Shooting down of the presidential jet

has gone through since the end of World War II.

Now, let me speak about some of my investigations on

Yet, the majority of the media reported and highlighted

the shooting down of the presidential jet of Habyarimana.

only about the Tutsi who were killed, implying that theAs other citizens of the world, I was shocked to watch the

only directly responsible actors of the genocide were Hutu.

images of genocide appear after 6 April, 1994. The

Has the media been silent due to the difficulty of obtaining

Rwandan Prime Minister Agathe Uwilingiyimana, who was

information? No. Since 1994, many reports have beenassassinated, became the first victim of the Rwandan

3

published. The latest of these reports include the UN‘Mapping Report’,4

tragedy, and as a world citizen, I was involved in saving her

which cited the possibility thatchildren.

Rwanda (RPF) was involved in another crime of ‘genocide’

Due to my frequent travels to Africa, I have madein eastern DRC. In fact, former U.S. Ambassador to the UN,

friends from various sectors. In 1996, one Rwandan friend

Susan Rice, attempted to prevent this report from beingof mine told me about the shooting down of the Rwandan

published.

presidential plane without thinking about being disclosed.

The typical media narrative portrays President Bashir of

Before I began my investigation in 2004, I had spoken with

Sudan as a monster, France as an accomplice in the

many friends of mine, some of whom are Pan African

Rwandan genocide, former French President Mitterrand as

revolutionists and some who are close to the RPF which

someone similar to Hitler, and the French army as theseized power.

equivalent of the Waffen-SS of Hitler. On the other hand,

As everyone agrees, the shooting down of the Rwandan

President Kagame of Rwanda, who is the darling of thepresidential plane was the trigger of the genocide, andmedia, is characterised as a knight on a white horse in thethus it is important to know who shot the missiles. This

Great Lakes region, and receives honorary doctorates fromcan have an enormous impact on the whole analysis.

universities. Many heads of states including former Prime

According to the extensive campaign organised by the

Minister Blaire and former President Clinton consider

media at that time, the perpetrators of the genocide were
the Hutu extremists, those who shot down the2

President Ndadaye of Burundi in 1993, Presidents Habyarimana of
Rwanda and Ntaryamira of Burundi in 1994, and President Laurent
Désiré Kabila of DRC in 2001 were assassinated.
3
See Annex 1.
4
See Annex 1.

presidential jet was Hutu, and France was an accomplice. I
became tired of this campaign, and asked myself whether
it could be correct, but I did not start my full investigation
12

yet. I decided first to investigate only the shooting down ofof which use terms like ‘revisionist’ and ‘negationist’ tothe plane and to publish my results.

describe their detractors. Naturally, anyone rejecting

As I proceeded with my investigation, however, it

Kagame’s version of events (such as shooting down theextended to the whole problem of Rwanda, and led topresidential jet and genocide in 1994) is accused of anti-

many surprises. After some months, I ended up with a

Semitism and holocaust denial.

totally different analysis from what was reported in the

When my book Noires fureurs, blancs menteurs wasmedia. I realised that in order to understand the whole

published in 2005, I experienced how violent these terms

context, it was important to explain the civil war of

were, which were used to oppose my views and to attack

Rwanda in 1990-1994, caused by the Rwandan Tutsi. In

me personally. Most of the mass media and French media

fact, these Tutsi who was in exile in Uganda since theused these terms to slander me, and I was sued in court

1960s, returned to Rwanda in 1990 with the intention tounder the pretence of being a racist and anti-Tutsi. Among

seize regime.

those who sued I was an organisation called SOS Racisme,5The civil war started in October 1990, and the leaders ofof which I was one of the founders, and a French Jewish

the RPF already understood the growing importance of thestudent union. Apart from them, I was also criticised byhuman rights organisations and NGOs since the year

Elie Wiesle, the Nobel Peace laureate, who was very

before, 1989. Before the civil war even began, the RPF

important person in the ‘international community’. I went

was able to convince these organisations that the Tutsi

through what can be described as a violent trial that lasted

were not aggressors but victims. Although the RPF wasfor five years. The trial had three steps, from the county

about to attack, they manipulated the situation, andcourt, to the district court, to the highest court of appeal,

portrayed themselves as victims. Indeed, by using theand I won them all. In order to deepen the understandingNGOs, the Tutsi succeeded in this effort.

of my lawyers and of my own, I had to further pursue myThis realisation led me to challenge the view of theinvestigation, particularly in order to understand why I had

mainstream media that ‘Tutsi are the good people andbeen criticised even by the Jewish community.

Hutu, the genocidaires, are the bad people.’ As most of
war has shown, it is hardly the case to be able to

Cover up of US

distinguish between good and evil. As time went on, I

The US, assisted by its ally, the UK, was in the middle ofstarted to gradually understand the important role played

deploying various operations, and I realised that thereby Ugandan President Museveni. He provided arms towere many facts related to these that were not being

Rwandan Tutsi who were in exile in Uganda, and assisted

disclosed. In particular, this became clear with thethem to repatriate to Rwanda in order to seize power. In

International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR). Two

addition, I was able to trace the presence of US’ secretprosecutors revealed crimes committed by Hutus, as wellservice.

as crimes committed by Tutsi, when the RPF seized power

What shocked me most was the discovery of theand Mr. Kagame became the president. When Chiefincredible disinformation that surrounded the seizure of

Prosecutor Carla del Ponte decided to investigate crimes

power by RPF, led by Mr. Kagame. I myself was used tocommitted by the Tutsi, the RPF objected, and when she

investigating sensitive and complicated cases in whichattempted to indict the RPF suspects, she was removed

organisations such as the secret services were involved.

from her post.6 The US further prevented the ICTR from

But this was the first time I was faced with such ainvestigating the RPF and Mr. Kagame.

sophisticated manipulation of information. The RPF’s
5

actions were so cunning that they deserve to be studied in

A NGO which was first founded in 1984 in France in order to fightracial discrimination.
6
The ICTR had hoped to hand down the ﬁrst indictments against
RPF suspects in 2002 but the ICTR Prosecutor was replaced by the
UN Security Council under heavy pressure from the US and the UK,that were strong allies of Rwanda. Carla Del Ponte, Madame

military schools.
Eventually, I was able to learn how difficult it is to oppose
the mainstream view of President Kagame, the proponents13

To explain briefly, the U.S. has been assisting the RPF

things so that the Great Lakes region would be under theirsince

influence.

the

1990s,

especially

when

the

Clintonadministration started in 1993. This is when the then UN
Ambassador Madeline Albright and the then Director forRole of Roger Winterinternational organisations and peacekeeping Susan RiceI will later discuss the response of the U.S. in more

became in charge of this issue. This is also when the US

detail, but here let me focus on one person, that even thesecret service strengthened its aid to Mr. Kagame.

Western nations do not speak about: Mr. Roger Winter, an

American involvement was reinforced in 1995, and in

American, who was working for US Committee forparticular in 1996. Mr. Kagame and the RPF repatriatedRefugees in the 1980s. He started to show up in Uganda infrom Uganda to Rwanda in 1990 and took power in 1994.

1980s when Mr. Museveni, the then rebel leader of NRM

Then, one million Hutu escaped to eastern Zaire (present(National Resistance Army), and who became theDRC). Among them were the so-called ‘genocidaires’ who

President in 1986, overturned the then President Milton

ran away from the Kagame regime. With the pretext of

Obote. The top management of NRM was occupied byfinding them, then Vice President Kagame, together with

Tutsis who were in exile from Rwanda, and since the early

Uganda, decided to intervene in eastern Zaire.

phase, Mr. Winter approached both Mr. Museveni and the

The Rwandan Patriotic Army, the military wing of the RPF,

Rwandan Tutsis. And both Mr. Museveni and Rwandan

invaded Kivu in eastern Congo in October 1996, and a

Tutsi attempted to assist John Garang, the leader of themassacre took place. France gathered information on thisrebel SPLM in South Sudan. As Uganda and Sudan (themassacre through various secret services, satellite images,present South Sudan) share a common border of 435km,

aerial photographs and local informants, and considered

Uganda was able to use its geostrategic position, and its

intervening to stop the massacre. However, France

connections with the Rwandan Tutsi to assist SPLM in

instantly understood the highly complicated situation,

South Sudan.

because it was then clear that any unilateral French

I learned that Mr. Winter accompanied Mr. Kagame sinceintervention would lead to an inevitable confrontation

his repatriation to Rwanda in 1990 until his seizure ofwith the RPF, Uganda, and American Special Forces. Thenpower. And after Mr. Kagame’s victory in 1994, Uganda

Frenchtheand Rwanda designated the Congolese Mr. Laurent Désiré

establishment of a multinational intervention in order to（L.D.）Kabila to accomplish a duty to extend their powerstop the massacres. Given the geopolitics involved, he wellto Kivu in eastern Congo and to overthrow Congolese

understood that the French could not lead thePresident Mobutu. The fact that Mr. Winter againintervention and proposed that the American Generalaccompanied Mr. Kabila was also confirmed.

head the multinational troops.

Mr. Winter had worked officially with the NGO for a long

According to a document written by the French military,time, but at the same time, I was able to confirm that hewhich was preparing the multinational troops at that time,

had been very close with the American secret service andFrench, American, and British troops toured around

Dani Yantom, who later became the head of the Israeli

Rwanda and Uganda together. The document suggests

Mossad. I also gradually confirmed Israel’s intervention

that the US had no will to undertake the intervention andnext to Mr. Kagame and Israel’s involvement everywhere in

instead left the work (clearing the massacre) to Uganda

the Great Lakes region.

President

JacquesChiracproposed

and then Vice President Kagame, and that the US troops
undervalued completely the humanitarian tragedy in the

Israel’s enemy, Sudan

Great Lakes region. It is also clear that the US arranged

As I previously said, Mr. Bashir became President of
Sudan in 1989, and Mr. al Turabi, a key person, became his
adviser. Since then, various Islamic fundamentalists －Prosecutor: Confrontations with Humanity’s Worst Criminals andCulture of Impunity, (New York : Other Press, 2009) 231.

14

especially Al Qaida, the terrorist Carlos 7 and other

History of Israel and Africa

extremist movements－were invited to Khartoum, theTo briefly explain the history, let us begin with thecapital of Sudan, and Sudan became close to Iran andviolent confrontation between Israel and Egypt under theHamas. As this Islamic extremist influence was emerging,

Gamal Abdel Nasser administration (1956-1970). President

there emerged throughout the whole of east Africa andNasser blocked Israel’s access to the Strait of Tiran, which

the Great Lakes region, a sort of substitute of the Cold War

was the entry point of the Suez Canal and a strategic point

relationship, and a clash of civilisations started to takeof access to Africa from the Gulf of Aqaba. If this strait

place. Israel was quick to react to these events, as were

were blocked, Israel would lose its important access tothe surrounding countries of Sudan dominated by

Africa through the Red Sea. This is why Israel had some

Christians and the US.

conflicts little by little, and in 1956 a big war against Egypt

Often without understanding much, I had no choice but

erupted (Second Middle East War). It is generally known

to imagine the presence of Israel and the presence ofthat Israel, which associated with Britain and France, lost

something like Front Khartoum around Khartoum. Due tothe war. This is because the U.S. and the Soviet Union

fluid information, I decided to go to Sudan to meet withintervened and prevented the victory of Israel, Britain andthe adviser of President Bashir in Khartoum.

France, which attempted to overthrow President Nasser.

During the meeting with the adviser of President Bashir,

However, in reality, it was a victory for Israel, as it gained

we talked about Israel and Uganda. I was given documents

freedom to access the Strait of Tiran, and ensured its

in Arabic on Israel. It was a speech given by Israeli Minister

access to eastern Africa through the Gulf of Aqaba and theof Interior Security Avi Dichter at a conference in

Red Sea.

September 2008. Minister Dichter explained that Israel
regarded Sudan as a dangerous country because of its
potential assistance to Palestine. Therefore, Israel was
obliged to destabilise Sudan by maintaining the conflict for
30 years in South Sudan, which extended to western
Sudan. This intervention of Israel was necessary so that
Sudan would not become a regional power in Africa andthe Arab world.
Since then, I renewed my reading in order to update myunderstanding of the events occurring in Africa, and I haverealised that since its creation in 1947, Israel has always
been a very important actor in Africa. I was able tounderstand this first thanks to the document on Israel
shared with me by the adviser of President Bashir. For
Israel, Africa is a ‘matter of life and death’, a position thathas also been mentioned for years by various Israeli

Source:U.S.Central Intelligence Agency

leaders. Since its creation, Israel has had a global andconsistent policy in Africa, which is very rare.

Similarly,

Israelrenewedits

extremely

intimate

relationship with France, which was the superpower inAfrica. At the time, France still had its colonial empire andhad been implanted in Maghreb countries for a long time.
Another reason that Israel and France associated with

7

He is a Venezuelan terrorist with his real name Ilich Ramírez
Sánchez. He achieved notoriety for the 1975 raid on the
Organisation of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC)
headquarters in Vienna.

each other was that they both had a common enemy, the15Egyptian President Nasser, who had assisted the Algerian

President Nasser. Back then, many African nations were in

rebels against the French.

contact with each other through various communications

Therefore, Israeli Prime Minister David Ben Gurion

networks. From Israel’s point of view, African countries（ 1948-1954, 1955-1963 ） did everything to convince

could potentially and totally fall under the influence ofFrench General Charles de Gaulle ―who became thePresident Nasser, who was their main enemy.

Prime Minister in 1958, and then served as the President

Regarding the security issue, Israel tried to ensure thatfrom 1959-1969― not to abandon Algeria. In contrary,

the new African states and its leaders remained close to

Israel decided finally to divide Algeria into two, leaving theIsrael so that these leaders would not vote against Israel atsouthern part of Algeria to Algerians, and inviting one

the UN as much as possible. However, the priority for

million of French to implant themselves in the northern

Israel was to keep its eyes on Khartoum, and on Kampala,part. Therefore, Israel tried to influence the French policy

the capital of Uganda. The most important actions against

towards Algeria.

Khartoum, notably the covert actions, took place fromIn 1956, Sudan became independent from Anglo-Egyptian

Kampala. Israel ensured that Mr. Museveni seized power in

Sudan. Soon after, Israel considered that Sudan would

Uganda, assisted by the Rwandan Tutsi and John Garang,

potentially become an important enemy, so Israel

the SPLM’s leader. That’s why Israel has been constantly

encouraged the South Sudanese rebels to create aaround these people and involved in all the military

permanent

revoltactions and all the harassment against Khartoum.

establishing

its

in

south

diplomatic

Sudan.

Israelstartedrelations

with

all

the

neighbouring countries of Sudan, starting with Ethiopia

Israel’s Security Policy

8

under the Haile Mariam Mengistu regime, and Uganda,

Regarding the Middle East, Israel always establishes thewhich shares the same borderline of 435km with Sudan.

so-called ‘peripheral pact’ 9 among the neighbouring

Gradually, Israel established its relationship with almost all

countries, in order to guarantee its security. Hence, Israel

the African nations. One of the often ignored details is that

attempted to renew its relations with Iran, Kuwait which

Israel was one of the most important －if not the mostdestabilises Iraq, Lebanon’s Druze,10 and all those which

important— supporters for President Mobutu of Zaire, andcould also destabilise the potential enemies around Israel.

became an extraordinarily close ally to South Africa underThis is really an essential key in understanding what is

the apartheid regime.

largely taking place in Africa, since Africa is an integral part

This development of Israel establishing its closein this peripheral pact. This has a consequence whenrelations with the surrounding countries of Sudan

analysing what is taking place in the Great Lakes region.

coincided with the independence movement of African

Israel’s security policy was restored, supported by the US

nations since the 1960s. During this independence era,and is being gradually reinforced by the US, which

African leaders turned their eyes to Israel’s principal

completely adopted the Israeli’s vision after September 11,

enemy, President Nasser. It required an important

2001. This has led to an important policy, which is the war

diplomatic action in order to block the influence ofagainst the terrorism, led by the US and Israel.
To get into details, after the emergence of the Bashir
regime in Sudan and his demonstration of radical

8‘Ethiopia was the first country on the African continent, save forSouth Africa, to set up diplomatic ties with Israel (in 1956). Both
Emperor Haile Selassie (overthrown in 1974), who had an affinity
with the Jewish state and regarded it as a key pro-Western ally in theCold War politics of the region, and the Marxist Mengistu(overthrown in 1991) were interested in Israel's common concern incountering the political influence and/or military power of Ethiopia's
Arab League neighbors, who, with the exceptions of Libya and South
Yemen, gave continued support to the Eritreans in their fight forindependence and to Somalia over its claim to the Ogaden region.’
Michael B. Bishku, ‘Israel and Ethiopia: From a Special to a Pragmatic
Relationship,’ Conflict Quarterly, spring 1994.

engagement, the anti-Islamist Front around Sudan was set
up with the Christian leaders, supported by Israel and the
US. These leaders are from Eritrea, Ethiopia and Uganda,

9The objective of this policy is to strengthen the cooperation with
Middle Eastern countries.
10
Druze is a religious sect living mostly in Lebanon, with smaller
communities in Syria, Israel and Jordan.

16

and have the objective to overthrow Khartoum so that

DRC, L.D. Kabila had other security concerns, so the front

Sudan will not become superpower and will always remain

did not function. Therefore, Israel and the U.S. relaunchedoccupied with domestic issues. Furthermore, again with

Darfur and South Sudan. This is why South Sudan became

the same logic, Israel and the US, which figured out thatindependent in 2011, while Darfur remained a troubled

the SPLM rebellion was not enough to weaken Sudan,zone for Khartoum.

decided in 2003 to create another front, apart from that ofRegarding Darfur, it was presented as genocide toSouth Sudan, in western Sudan, which is Darfur.

mobilise the world opinion. Thus, as soon as the term

There are two regional leaders who completely oppose

genocide was used, the question on the US’ obligation to

the Islamist movement and who are completely supported

intervene was raised and all the NGOs prepared for theirby Israel and by Washington. These two leaders,work. The Darfur problem was launched by the pro-Israeli

Presidents Museveni and Kagame when the latter seized

lobbying associations in US such as AIPAC (American Israel

the regime in Kigali (capital in Rwanda), are playing the

Public Affairs Committee) and other major organisations.

role of military proxy. These two replaced the former

In order to push the intervention, major demonstrations

military proxy ―important or small― who were President

stared to take place since 2006-2007 led by the Jewish

Mobutu, whose government was largely created by theorganisations.

CIA, and President Habyarimana, at a lower level.

I am saying this based on the source from Israel, as

Presidents Museveni and Kagame are indeed the key

explained by Minister of Interior Security Avi Dichter, that

persons in a new vision against Khartoum.

the Darfur problem was an operation planned by Israel.

To have a flashback, Kagame and the Rwandan Tutsi
supported Museveni to seize power, and they also

A Third key in Understanding Post-Cold War Africa

supported Museveni to launch the action against SouthI am perfectly aware about two things which are

Sudan. Museveni, South Sudan, Israel and the U.S. helped

contradictory. On one hand, I have only given a slightto strengthen the anti-Islamist Front, and they also

overview of this history, and at the same time, thesupported Kagame to seize power. To analyse the situation

overview is very complicated.

since 1994, it is important to keep in mind these factors,

Since many of the audience today are students or

although this is only part of the story.

researchers, I would like to share my third essential key for

After September 11, the importance of Neoconservative

the comprehension of post-Cold War Africa, which should

factions around President George W. Bush became clear.

be kept in mind. After the fall of Berlin Wall, in the African

Theories held by these factions reinforced the security

continent, more than anywhere else, one should not trust

strategy, which I just explained. Especially, the question of

merely from the appearance. Try to go behind to find out

security in Israel, which is presently essential as I earlier

the secret agenda, which is not obvious. It is even more

explained. This brought a new front in Iraq, but also innecessary to look behind the appearances whenever the

Africa in terms of Sudan, particularly in Darfur in 2003. In

term ‘genocide’ is involved. Even if the genocide is a reality,

the meantime, events accelerated with the assassination

the use of this term can prevent in-depth research, sinceplan of President Bashir being provisionally abandonedsome people can exploit this term for a political or

since the failure of US’ Operation Restore Hope in Somalia

strategic purpose; making it hard to uncover the truth.

in 1992-1993.

11

At the same time, the US strategy ofHence, the use of this terrible word may prevent

asking its friends to do the work was questioned, andresearchers from advancing further.

therefore, the plan to overthrow Bashir was provisionally

There was one phrase which I did not mention. The

halted and the Anti-Islamist front was winded down. Also,

Rwandan tragedy and its extension into the DRC, which

Ethiopia and Eritrea were in war, and the new leader in thehas produced millions of death in 1996-1997, and sincethen until today, where terrible things continue, cannot be

11

The US led a UN multinational force in Somalia between 19921993 with the objective of humanitarian intervention.

understood without looking at its links with another secret17

war, aimed at Khartoum. So it is terrible to say that theseThank you for your attention.

tragedies are actually the collateral damage of a strategy
designed by some invisible hands.

18

Comments by Masako Yonekawa
Masako Yonekawa
After having worked with UNHCR in several countries in Africa, including Rwanda,
DRCongo, Sudan etc, she joined JICA and Utsunomiya University. She holds a M.Sc ininternational relations from University of Cape Town. Her main publication includes A
Critical Analysis of South African Peacemaking: how can deadly conflict in the African
Great Lakes region be prevented in the future? (2011).

like they pretend. I have seen the gold and coltan12 mining

I would like to share three comments: nature of conflict,variety of actors, and influence of impunity

they do here, we see how they rob the population. These
are the reasons for their being here. The RPA come andNature of conflictshoot in the air and raid the villagers’ houses but they

Although this does not necessarily apply to all the

don’t attack us anymore. If you are lucky, and you have aconflicts, conflict, as is generally believed, is not

big brother in the RPA, he might be able to get you somenecessarily a battle between enemies －in other words,

food and ammunition.’ 13

between government army and rebels, or between rebels,

It was also reported that the ‘Congolese’ rebel group

who are recognised as enemies. The relationship between

M23 (March 23 Movement)14 which was said to receive

actors who are recognised as enemies is, in fact, very

support from the RPF, recruited FDLR ex-combatants who

ambiguous.

are recognised as the RPF’s enemy.15 Moreover, it is also

To give the example of Rwanda and the DRC, theofficially said that FDLR and the Congolese army are

Rwandan army and the Rwandan rebel group (FDLR) havefighting each other, but they are in fact cooperating with

been recognised as enemies for many years. In the 1990s,

each other through looting natural resources and sharing

the Rwandan army used the reason of security ―FDLR’sarms.16

threat― to intervene in eastern DRC, however, thisSo have these actors been in such relationship from therationale has faded. And the Rwandan army, using the

beginning? Although the actors may have been enemy atexcuse of FDLR’s presence, has often intervened into

the initial phase, it can be said that this relationship haseastern DRC, and thanks to that, has been able to take dechanged as time passed by. Even if the actors are not allies

facto control of eastern DRC. This has become known from
12

Coltan is a rare metal dispensable for electronic devices such as
mobile phones, computers, gaming hardware, digital cameras andvideo cameras etc. It is said that 80% of its reserve worldwide islocated in eastern DRC.
13
UN Group of Experts, S/2002/1146, 16 October 2002, para. 68.
14
It is said that M23 was ‘defeated’ by the Congolese army in
November 2013, and many combatants are still seeking refuge inRwanda and Uganda. Human Rights Watch, ‘DR Congo: War Crimesby M23, Congolese Army: Response to Crisis in East Should
Emphasize Justice’, 5 February 2013.
15
UNSC, S/2012/843, 15 November 2012, para. 16.
16
UNSC, S/2008/773, 12 December 2008, para. 27, 29, 30, 102.

the following testimony of an Interahamwe combatant(FDLR) :‘We haven’t fought much with the RPA (Rwandan army) in
the last 2 years. We think they are tired of this war, like weare. In any case, they aren’t here in the Congo to chase us,19politically, they can use each other’s presence to their

The fact that the humanitarian aid offered by NGOs canmutual benefit, or even cooperate for economic reasons.

promote the possibility of a war economy 19 has been

Some superpowers and leaders have prolonged thepointed out many times.20 In addition, especially afterstate of confusion intentionally in order to attain political

September 11, NGOs have a higher tendency to act onand economic objectives such as controlling land andbehalf of the governments.21 For example, when humanresidents, and looting natural resources. And to attainrights NGOs condemn the perpetrators of conflict, if thosethese objectives, various actors have often played ‘farce.’

perpetrators happen to be influential actors supported bySuperpowers have supported different actors and waged

superpowers, these perpetrators will not be condemned,

conflicts through different means such as providing arms

which can mislead the public. It is not clear whether thisand manipulating information. The prolonged ‘conflict’ inaction is done intentionally or otherwise, but as a result,eastern DRC is indeed a farce, and some Congolese evenNGOs are supporting the superpowers.22

call it a ‘comedy’. Researchers such as Professor DavidHow do the PKO and UNSC contribute to theKeen, who is specialised in the conflicts of Sierra Leone

prolongation of conflicts? To use the example of the PKO inand Sudan, points out that the nature of conflict is ‘sell-eastern DRC, it was reported that the Indian peacekeepers

game’―a football match that had been fixed in advance.

17

did not demobilise the Rwandan rebel FDLR and insteadIn other words, it refers to ‘the image of war and a contest

exchanged gold and UN food rations.23 Thanks to such

between two sides which seemed to serve as a smoke-‘cooperation’ by the PKO, the FDLR has been able toscreen for the emergence of a wartime political economy

continue surviving and the conflict has been prolonged. Infrom which rebels and even government-affiliated groups

2009, the Congolese army led an infamous military

18

were benefiting’.

operation intended to neutralise the FDLR. This PKOsupported operation was led by Congolese army General

Use of various actors by superpowers
Second, as Mr. Péan pointed out, one of the means to

19

Philippe Le Billon describes a war economy as ‘the production,
mobilisation and allocation of economic resources to sustain aconflict (eg. taxation, commerce or looting).’ UN and NGOs working
for humanitarian assistance deal with a large amount of aid
materials in order to save refugees etc., but these aid materials
could be looted by armed groups. Through its illegal sale, armed
groups could purchase more arms, which helps to prolong conflict.
Philippe Le Billion, ‘The Political Economy of War: What Relief
Agencies Need to Know,’ Humanitarian Practice Network, July 2000,
1.
20
Jean François, ‘Aide Humanitaire et Économie de Guerre’, Jean
François and Jean-Christophe Rufin eds., Économie des guerres
civiles (Paris: Hachette, 1996); Sarah Kenyon Lischer, Dangerous
Sanctuaries: Refugee Camps, Civil War, and the Dilemmas of
Humanitarian Aid (Cornell: Cornell University Press, 2005).
21
In October 2001 following the September 11 and US’sintervention into Afghanistan, the then US Secretary of State Powellcalled the NGOs ‘who are such a force multiplier for us, such animportant part of our combat team.’ He instructed the government
officials to make every effort to work with NGOs, and the intentionof this cooperation became clear that the NGOs were to collectinformation on behalf of the government.
http://avalon.law.yale.edu/sept11/powell_brief31.asp
22David Hulme and Michael Edwards (eds.) in association with Save
the Children, NGOs, States and Donors: Too Close for Comfort?
(Hampshire: Macmillan Press, 1997).
23
Martin Plaut, ‘Congo spotlight on India and Pakistan’, BBC, 28
April 2008.

prolong conflicts by the superpowers is the use of many
actors. Today, I would like to highlight in particular the
roles

of

humanitarian

and

human

rightsNGOs,peacekeeping operations (PKOs), the UN Security Council(UNSC), and the South African government.
These days, when we discuss security bills in Japan, someof us tend to compare the situation of 70 years ago andtoday, but it is important to note that the actors in theconflict area have been multiplied today. 70 years ago,
there was no presence of PKO and there were only a few
NGOs, but in the post-Cold War era, the number of theseNGOs and PKOs has drastically increased, and the scope of
the activities of both organisations have expanded.

17

David Keen, Useful Enemies: When Waging Wars is More
Important than Winning them (New Haven: Yale University Press,2012), 12.
18David Keen, Complex Emergencies (Cambridge: Polity, 2008), 32.

20

Bosco Ntaganda（UN report）,24 who had been indicted

Ugandan army battled in the DRC, and when the rebel

by the International Criminal Court（ICC）in 2006 for the

CNDP, which was supported by the Rwandan army,

war crimes of enlisting and conscripting children.25 The

invaded Goma, the provincial town in eastern DRC, in 2008,

PKO denies the fact the military operation was led byboth the PKO and the UNSC never condemned these

Ntaganda, as this would mean that the PKO was indeed

countries by naming and shaming.30 Since this silence bycooperating with a war criminal. This was reported as a

PKO and UNSC continued, the Rwandan and Ugandanscandal.26

armies were able to continue committing their crimes.31

As stated above, in the first place, the FDLR and theSouth Africa, which is the proxy of superpowers, since

Congolese army are not enemies, but cooperating with1990s after apartheid, intervened in conflict areas in Africa,

each other through the looting of natural resources andincluding DRC, as a peacemaker, and deployed multiple

the sharing of arms. Therefore, this military operation led

PKOs. On the other hand, South Africa sold arms toby the Congolese army against the FDLR is indeed a

Rwanda and Uganda, provided mercenaries, and nevermeaningless action. At one time in 2009, the Rwandan

condemned the two countries. The ceasefire agreement inarmy also participated in this military operation against

the DRC in 1999 was a legal ‘trap’ in order to weaken thethe FDLR, but if the FDLR were actually neutralised, theauthority of President L.D. Kabila who was inconvenient

Rwandan army could have lost its excuse to invade eastern

for the U.S.32 In fact, this agreement was drafted by the

DRC as mentioned above. Therefore, the Rwandan army

South African government under the instruction of the

had to perform a military operation in order not to

U.S.33neutralise the FDLR. The PKO also cooperated in thisIn other words, both NGOs and PKOs, which are underoperation, though it was not clear whether they truly

heavy influence of the superpowers, lack neutrality, andunderstood its significance. The PKO will continue its
30

In 2000, when Rwanda and Uganda were fighting in the Congo’s
third largest city Kisangani, before the UNSC demanded that Rwanda
and Uganda withdraw their forces from Kisangani, the UNSC was
unwilling to name those two countries for few months. UNSC,S/RES/1304, 14 June 2000, para.3; UNSC, S/RES/1332, para. 10.
31
Human Rights Watch, DRC, Reluctant Recruits: Children and
Adults Forcibly Recruited for Military Service in North Kivu, May
2001; UNSC, S/RES/2076, November 20, 2012, para.8.
32
During the First Congo’s War in 1996-1997, companies such as
Americans and South Africans made a deal with L.D. Kabila, thenspokesperson of AFDL. American Mineral Field was one of those,
whose headquarter is located in Arkansas where then President
Clinton was from. L.D. Kabila gave a monopoly of diamonds to thesecompanies in exchange of providing fund for the war. However, as
L.D. Kabila later changed his status from spokesperson of rebel
group to a President, he attempted to remake legal contracts withthese companies but American companies rejected. Therefore,
President L.D. Kabila abolished these contracts, and made a deal
with Asian countries such as Malaysia and China. It was not clear
whether North Korea was also included, but North Korean army
certainly provided military training to the Congolese army andreceived minerals in return. The US, which has been utilizing Africa,
was betrayed by President L.D. Kabila. It is not clear whether his
assassination in 2001 was coincidental.
33
International Crisis Group, ‘Storm Clouds over Sun City: The
Urgent Need to Recast the Congolese Peace Process’ 14 May, 2002;
Mark Malan and Henri Boshoff, ‘A 90-day plan to bring peace to the
DRC? An analysis of the Pretoria Agreement of 30 July 2002’,
Institute for Security Studies, 2002; Ludo Martens, Kabila et larévolution congolaise: Panafricanisme ou néocolonialisme?
(Kinshasa: EPO, 2002).

cooperation, which is clear from the fact that the first-ever‘offensive’ combat force, ‘intervention brigade’, wascreated within the PKO in 2013 to carry out targeted
operations to neutralise and disarm the armed groups.27
In the middle of this confusion, a large number of civilians
have become victims.28
The state of conflict in eastern DRC has been revealed
several times by the UN Group of Experts since the early
2000s,29 however, serious crimes committed during thisconflict have never been discussed at the UNSC led by the
U.S. and the U.K. When the Rwandan army and the24

UNSC, S/2009/603, 23 November 2009, para.183.
In 2012, the ICC issued a second warrant of arrest for Ntaganda
due to his charge of war crimes and crimes against humanity. The
arrest warrant stated that Ntaganda ‘was believed to be “Rwandan”’.
In March 2013, Ntaganda fled to Rwanda and surrendered himself tothe ICC possibly for his own protection.
26
BBC, ‘Congo Ex-Rebel “Working with UN”,’ April 29, 2009.
27
The UNSC adopted with its Resolution 2098 in March 2013.
28
Human Rights Watch, “You Will Be Punished” Attacks on Civilians
in Eastern Congo, 2009.
29
See Annex 1.
25

21

there is a need to sufficiently analyse the roles played by

the

power

of

leaders,which

prolong

conflicts.

each organisation and government.

Superpowers, the donor countries, do not only give funds
for peace processes and peacebuilding as peacemakers,
but also play a contradictory role of selling arms to conflict

Impact of Impunity

actors.

The third aspect of conflict that I would like to draw
attention to is the long-term influence of impunity. Due tothe silence of the ‘international community’ for many
years, serious criminals were not punished. In that case,what will happen then?
Since 1996, the influential ‘Congolese’ rebel groups
AFDL (Alliance of Democratic Forces for the Liberation ofCongo), RCD (Rally for Congolese Democracy), CNDP
(National Congress for the Defence of the Congolese
People) and M23, were all created, led and supported by
RPF, one after another in eastern DRC. And although thefifthnewly-created

rebel

group

MCRC

(ChristianMovement for the Reconstruction of the Congo) justintervened in eastern DRC this April-May, which wascondemned by the local governor, the PKO still remains
silent. As a result, the local innocent people will be more
and more victimised.
According to a Canadian journalist, RPF officers who
were involved in death squads and massacres during andafter the genocide in Rwanda in 1994 were deployed to
Darfur and Mali as PKO commanders;34 one of them wasarrested in London on June 23.35 Can someone with suchbackground really be engaged in ‘peace’ keeping? In otherwords, impunity has a negative impact not only locally, butalso elsewhere that PKO troops are deployed.
In summary, conflict and peace cannot be distinguished.
Enemies which are believed to be battling are in factcooperating; ‘peace’ keeping operations, humanitarianand human rights NGOs do not maintain neutrality; andsuperpowers keep silent on serious human rights
violations committed by influential leaders supported bysuperpowers. Furthermore, ‘peace’ agreements reinforce
34

Judi Rever, ‘Rwandan Generals Accused of War Crimes in UN
Employ’, Foreign Policy Journal, 10 December, 2013.
35
BBC, ‘Rwandan spy chief Karenzi Karake arrested in London’, 23
June 201522

Comment by Makoto Katsumata
Makoto Katsumata
After having worked at Université Paris 3, Dakar University, École des hautesétudes en sciences sociales and Montreal University, he joined Meiji Gakuin
Univeristy as Professor. He holds a Ph.D from Université Paris 1 PanthéonSorbonne. His main publication includes ‘Rewriting contemporary Africa’s Place inthe world: An Afro-Asia Perspective’, JCAS Symposium Series 14, National
Museum of Ethnology (2001)

I am a former professor at the Faculty of Internationaltaught us.

Studies of Meiji Gakuin University, and am currently a

Decipher rather than solution, and observing fromresearch fellow of the International Peace Researchvarious angles

Institute at the same university.

There are many young participants today who arethinking about how Japan can contribute in international

When media and university waver

armed conflicts in order to bring peace. Therefore, as

When I was asked to be a commentator at today's

someone who has been associating with Africa, I would

symposium ‘Why are Conflicts in Africa Prolonging?

like to humbly point out few methodologies which should―From the Perspectives of Superpowers’ Roles―’, I was

be known.

not certain whether I was the appropriate person. As weFirst, ‘decipher’ rather than ‘solution’, which is generally

have heard in the keynote speech, there is so much that

said. Today's keynote speech by Mr. Péan was quite

we are not aware of. However, I have decided to undertake

fascinating, but when we speak about conflict resolution in

it as I felt honoured to be part of such a discussion at thegeneral, there is a tendency to make manuals on conflictuniversity.

resolution based on activities in conflict areas. Of course it

I happened to teach at a university, and I believe thatis essential to work in the field, but before that,the most important thing is to think and to get to know

deciphering the types of problems that exist, and thewhat the truth is and what is happening. For this, there arecontext whereby conflict is produced and prolonged, is

two important systems that modern society has

necessary. Deciphering work is an intellectual work.

established. One is media. What Mr. Péan discussed today‘Veritas liberabit vos’ which seems to be the words of The

is the result of his investigation. I believe that lack of

Bible means that ‘truth liberates you’; in other words, wefreedom of speech is the most dangerous thing. Equally,should not be afraid of truth, and it is not good not to face

the second system, the university, should be the same,the inconvenient truth. When I was working at Meiji

where freedom of studies, free education, free curriculum,

Gakuin University, the Rector made one paragraph of theliberal remarks by professors, and discussion with students

Bible ‘serve for others’ as the motto of the university. But

should be guaranteed. When media and universities lose

before we serve for others, I think that it is indispensable

independence, then public opinion is wavered. Whento have an ability to decipher what is happening, which

public opinion is wavered, it can be politically used. Whatcan be called as intellect or intellectual power.

happens afterwards is what lessons from the history have

Second is ‘deciphering from plural dimensions’. Don’t
23

look at things only from where you can see the most, butcannot be left only to the experts. As Mr. Péan said, we

as Mr. Péan said at the end of his lecture, think what isshould always take into consideration that eastern DRC

behind there. It will be limitless if you doubt everything,cannot even identity a death toll, although many human

but I believe it is very necessary to think deeply and more

beings have died, and genocide has possibly taken place

deeply. And try to connect with various factors. Just

there.

because your speciality is one certain area or field, it does

Second is external intervention―today, we had thenot mean that you can only focus on it, but try to connect

example of PKO―. Instead of speaking merely about

it in a multidisciplinary manner.

techniques on how to react in the field, we should

Third, ‘listen humbly to the opinions of the persons

decipher why such a background helps to prolong armed

concerned.’ Today, there were not any persons concerned,

conflicts in Africa. As Ms. Yonekawa briefly said, it isfor example, from the Great Lakes region―Rwanda andimportant to keep in mind that the will of superpowers

neighboring countries which have been involved in armed

function well. What the permanent members of the UN

conflicts―, but at least the journalist Mr. Péan is speaking

Security Council wish to do the most appears on the top of

today. It is necessary to listen humbly to the opinions andtheir agenda, but those with the least will appears on thethe research conducted by these people. Speaking withoutbottom of their agenda, in spite of a resolution.

the presence of persons concerned is similar to what
European countries had done at Berlin Conference in36

1884-1885,

Africa and UN Security Council

when they decided to rule the local area

Despite the fact some UNSC resolutions were adopted

without consulting with the local residents in Africa.

on conflicts in Africa, conflicts have prolonged in somecountries and region in Africa, but the UNSC resolutions

Reading context and knowing motives of international

have not been implemented. That is the Western Sahara

politics

conflict.

It will be a repetition to what I have just said, but I

The homepage (HP) of United Nations Information

would like to make three more comments on the lecture

Center37 has a page of ‘Non-Self-Governing Territories’,of Mr. Péan.

and Western Sahara appears on the ‘Territories to whichFirst, as Ms. Yonekawa already said, it is highly

the Declaration on the Granting of Independence tonecessary to read the context of the conflicts in Africa.

Colonial Countries continues to apply’.

Reading context will not be understood with the so-called
short phrases. It is a tiresome work as it requires anamount of intelligence. You must know the local, regional
and international dimension of the context or complexityof the conflict area. Unfortunately, in the present Japanesesociety, the efforts to read the context has been omitted inmany cases, and intellectual deterioration is taking place
whereby a situation is explained in high speed with plain
words. What university students should do is to raise
intellectual confusion, and then to think why armed
西サハラ紛争の地図 Map of West Sahara conflict
出典/source :Special Warfare Net

conflicts have been prolonging. Armed conflict which
destroys human lives is such an important issue, which
37

In English, it is available on United Nations Department of PublicInformation, Basic Facts About the United Nations, (New York:
United Nations Publication, 2014), 113.

36

This conference regulated European colonisation and trade in
Africa during the New Imperialism period.

24Morocco. Such attitude to ask the Western Sahara people
Western Sahara is the last colony in Africa, which needs

to remain quiet in refugee camps for 40 years is

to ask residents’ intention through referendum on

incomprehensible to me as a citizen of Japan, whose

whether it should be independent or not, though it does

country has supported the UN. Because of such

not have to be independent. Curiously, ‘administrative

background, it is important to know the official and formal

38

country’ of Western Sahara remains blank.

position and the hidden agenda which motivates of the

Why is it? This is because the neighbouring Morocco

real international politics on why conflicts are soillegally occupies it in defiance of the UNSC Resolution.

prolonged.

This was same as the long-time illegal occupation by

Finally, I have a question to Mr. Péan. Why are African

Indonesia of the former Portugal colony East Timor in spitestateseasilybombardedbysuperpowers?

Beingof a UNSC Resolution. The Personal Envoy from the US for

independent means that nationals make decisions of their

Western Sahara has been dispatched until now by the UN

own country. Governments of the political parties chosen

Secretary General. However, the Kingdom of Morocco

democratically are to demonstrate what they want or they

does not yet have the intention to withdraw and the

do not want through international negotiations, but theirpermanent members of UNSC consider that West Sahara isnegotiation ability do not seem to be strong enough.

not an urgent problem for the time being. Therefore, there

Therefore, what kind of condition is required in order tois a note saying that:avoid the superpowers’ bombarding into the armed
conflicts in Africa?

‘On 26 February 1976, Spain informed the SecretaryGeneral that as of that date it had terminated its

Let’s read materials to learn morepresence in the Territory of the Sahara, and deemed it

Finally, let me introduce four materials for those who

necessary to place on record that Spain considered itself

wish to study more including the junior and high school

thenceforth

students.

exemptfromanyinternational

responsibility in connection with its administration, inFirst is the UN Information Center, whose documents

view of the cessation of its participation in thecan be easily downloaded in Japanese. There is precious

temporary administration established for the Territory.

information in this HP (http://www.unic.or.jp/), and I

In 1990, the General Assembly reaffirmed that themyself read it in order to reconfirm in Japanese.

question of Western Sahara was a question ofSecond is International Committee of the Red Cross

decolonization which remained to be completed by the(ICRC), which has a branch office in Japan as well as a web

39site in Japanese. I visited for the first time this year thepeople of Western Sahara.’

hospital and museum in Switzerland of Henry Dunant
UN General Assembly Resolution 2229 in 1966 had(1828-1910) who founded the ICRC. After having seen thecalled on Spain to hold a referendum on self-

reality of the battlefield in Europe, he himself said that thedetermination and immediately after 1975 when Spainsituation was terrible, and saved the wounded of bothabandoned

self-armies together with the villagers. How can we react when

determination had to be organized for the people of thekillings which are not supposed to occur, take place? We

Western Sahara. However, the UNSC permanent members

must imagine this kind of vivid scene. To put it briefly, after

have not yet seriously pressed this implementation tohaving seen this inhuman reality, he asked himself how

38

this could happen, and founded ICRC at least to ‘humanize’

thecolony,thereferendumofSee
http://www.un.org/en/events/nonselfgoverning/nonselfgoverning.s
html
39
Basic Facts About the United Nations, 114

war. Mr. Durant received the first Nobel Peace prize in1901 after having founded the ICRC.
25

Third is Ms. Yonekawa’s translation of God Sleeps in
Rwanda: A Journey of Transformation by Joseph Sebarenzi
with Laura-Anne Mullane, which deserves reading. The
author is a Rwandan Tutsi who could not remain in his
country, and was the Speaker of Parliament in the 1990s,
the third position in Rwanda after President and Vice
President. He wrote not only about the dictatorship in thepresent regime but also about how to forgive. I read thisbook at a breath, and would like to recommend it the mostto the students.
Finally, regarding my book New Introduction toContemporary Africa: Continent whose People Change (inJapanese; 2013), it has a chapter ‘war and peace’ where I
did not write anything new. As an African researcher who
has been watching Africa, I only intended to write
something normal, which should be understood as an
introductory

book.

Why

conflicts

prolong,whybusinessmen and private companies who get an exorbitant
profit survive thanks to prolonged conflicts, and how
uncertain truces, ceasefires, and peace are all written, so
please have a look as the most basic of basic.

26

Comments by Pierre Péan
First, let me appreciate Ms. Yonekawa as I did not mention

the shooting down of Presidential jet in 1994). One wasmany things during my keynote speech, including thePatrick Karegeya, who was strangled in South Africa before

importance of wealth in Kivu in eastern DRC, and the role

his arrival in France. 40 Another Rwandan was to giveof the RPF to capture this wealth. I spoke about the chaos

testimony some months ago, but hours before his

but not one of the main reasons, which are to have amovement to France from Kenya where he was in exile, hestronghold on the natural resources in Kivu.

disappeared and may be dead now.41 So it is very difficult.

Regarding the ambiguous role of NGOs, which can act to

I would also like to add the fact that there exists anfuel and further extend the conflict, let me read one note

incredibly industry of false testimony as well.

dated 19 August 1994 written by the secret service:‘The report notably mentions a quadrangulartraffic of arms delivered in Entebbe (whereinternational airport is located in Uganda) by
one Swedish humanitarian aid organisation
based in Uganda. ….This Swedish humanitarianorganisation transported the cannon from
Entebbe to Umulu, where four of its members,
three Israelis and one American, put them into
action to strike the Sudanese military.’
Next, Professor Katsumata was right in pointing out theimportance of freedom of expression. I was pleased about
this possibility in Japan, as it is not obvious that this typeof symposium can be organised in France. Even if theuniversity president agreed to hold the symposium, it canbe disrupted by the Rwandans or their friends who are
French. To give you one example, I was invited at one
symposium in Berlin two years ago but it eventually did
not take place because of the pressure.

40

Former chief of external security, Colonel Karegeya was founddead on 31 December 2013 in a hotel in the Johannesburg area,
where he had gone to attend a meeting. He grew up in Uganda as a
refugee, and joined the NRM in 1980s with other Rwandan refugees,
including the current President Kagame. After being twice thrown injail over alleged indiscipline, he was stripped of his rank of Colonel
by a military tribunal in 2006. In 2007, he went into exile in South
Africa, where he co-founded a new political organisation, theRwanda National Congress (RNC).
41
Mr. Emile Gafirita, a former bodyguard of President Kagame,
helped transport missiles that were used to shoot down thepresidential plane of Habyarimana, He was seized on 13 November
2014 in Nairobi where he was hiding, by a group of unknown
individuals. Judi Rever, ‘Witness in French inquiry into 1994 Rwanda
plane crash disappears’, Digital Journal, 20 November 2014.

What I keep emphasising to everybody is that foranalysis, one needs to doubt, doubt and doubt. To
remember that most situations, which were true before
and remains so now, are even more complex now. I earlier
gave you some simple keys as a tool. To explain briefly, thedifficulty to reveal the truth is the near impossibility forwitness to appear in courts such as ICTR or even a French
court. To give you two examples, there were two persons
who were supposed to give testimony in France (related to27Questions and Answers
Q: Position of residents

Péan pointed out how important Sudan and South Sudan

International NGOs and superpowers were raised asprioritised the deployment of the Self Defence Forces toconflict actors, but I think residents in conflict areas alsoSouth Sudan? There is also a high concentration ofhave an important role in prolonging conflict. How doJapanese NGOs in South Sudan; part of these NGOs andthese residents position in this situation?

the Self Defence Forces are launching a joint development

Péan: You are absolutely right to raise question about the

project called the ‘All Japan Approach’.42 Students need topeople, which I did not mention during my keynote speech

think why this is taking place.

are for the U.S. Then what is the reason that Japanbecause my lecture was not to cover the internal causes

So what can Japan do? Since today’s symposium is

but rather the external causes. However, the role oforganised by the Human Resource Development Program

people on the ground is clearly important.

for International Cooperation, I would like to speak from

Regarding the question of Rwanda, even if there was

the perspective of international cooperation. In general,external intervention, there has been historical conflicts

the

image

of

international

cooperation

is

that

between the Hutu and the Tutsi for the past four hundred

superpowers and rich countries provide aid materials andyears. For a long time, Tutsi has been the cattle owners

technical assistance to poor countries, but I believe that

whereas the Hutu were farmers. Since the early 1960s,

exploring truth as Mr. Péan is doing is also an importantfollowing the independence of Rwanda, the politicalaspect of international cooperation. Mr. Péan said that heenvironment became favourable for the majority Hutu

was sued and criticised by various organisations andwhich consist of 85% of the whole population. The UN

people, but in fact, he is a hero among the victims such as

introduced the electoral system with one vote, so during

refugees, internally displaced persons, residents andthe free election, it was the Hutu who won. Since thisfamilies of the deceased. The reason why the residents instarted to take place, you can imagine that all the conflict(post-) conflict areas suffer is not only because they have

which existed between the Hutu and Tutsi, which waslost their families and belongings, but also because theyethnic-based, did not cease, even if there was external

can not speak any controversial fact, such as ‘those peoplechange. The first matrix is clearly the tribal antagonism.

who are believed to be victims are in fact perpetrators’ etc.
If you do speak out, you can be killed; this is what has
been reportedly happening with some Rwandans and

Q: Role of Japanforeigners. Mr. Péan is advocating on behalf of theseToday’s lecture highlighted the superpowers’ role,voiceless, and I hope that the importance of this type ofand we have learned at university that Japan is highly42

In 2003, following the then Prime Minister Koizumi's far-fetchedargument on 'humanitarian and reconstruction assistance' of
deployment of Self-Defense to Iraq, humanitarian andreconstruction assistance was adopted locally in partnership with
Official Development Assistance. Since then, reconstruction
development assistance which Government of Japan, Self-Defense,
enterprises and NGOs are integrated under the so called 'All Japan
Approach' has been implemented in East Timor, Haiti and currently
in South Sudan. The objective of this Approach is said to 'raise
visibility of Japan'. Yuji Uesugi, ‘All-Japan Approach to International
Peace Operations’, Journal of International Peacekeeping, Vol. 18,
Issues 3-4, 214 – 235.

involved in Africa in terms of the amount of foreign
aid provided. How can Japan deal with conflict issues
in Africa through the provision of aid in the future?


The security bill is being discussed in Japan today. Do
you have any opinion on the deployment of the Self
Defence Forces to Africa?

Yonekawa: Instead of answering these questions, I would
like the students to think about the following points. Mr.
28

international cooperation will be more understood andnew attempts to conquer South Sudan, and afterwards,

promoted.

we did not hear his name much until 1995-1996 when hebecame a key person to fight against Khartoum thanks to
Roger Winter and his entourage. Garang is like Museveni,

Q: Role of U.K.

protected by Tanzanian President Nyerere (1964-1985),

I always thought that U.K. was behind the genocide in

and Garang was close to Nyerere.

Rwanda, and I would like to ask you about it. Since the

How did Garang die? He died in 2005 in a helicopter

death of British General Charles Gordon in 1885, it took 10

crash, which belonged to Museveni which flew him to

years for U.K. to build Kampala, then U.K. built Kenya as its

South Sudan from Uganda. I do not have the definitive

support base, Christianised residents and provided money

version, but what I can say is that there is a version of thein South Sudan, and took control of Khartoum. I think this

accident that supports the idea that it was Museveni or his

is totally the same operation as the genocide, and I wasgroup who exploded the helicopter. However, I do not

not amused to see Rwanda and Mozambique joining thehave the certainty.

Commonwealth. What do you think of the role of UK?
Péan: Not highlighting the role of U.K. can be a serious
mistake. It is true that U.K. played an important role in

Q: Internal factors of DRC conflictcreating Kenya. The reason why I did not speak about U.K.

You pointed out the external factors, namely theis because both the Americans and the British are included

masterminds (Anglo Saxon group) in the war in the Greatas Anglo Saxon in my mind. Certainly, Museveni has been

Lakes region, including the Ugandan government andassisted by Israel, but he has also been assisted by U.K. on

Kagame’s group in Rwanda. However, there is also internal

the run. Since he seized power in 1986, Museveni wasfactor, in other words, the endogenous people who are on

cherished by U.K., including their aid to Rwanda. One

the ground. You also highlighted the connection with

French military who was involved in the (defense)

wealth in the Kivus. So what is the role and responsibility

operation of Habyarimana told me that with a pair ofof the Congolese in contributing to this chaos?

binoculars, he was able to see the presence of the Special

Péan: Regarding the internal factor, Ms. Yonekawa spoke

Air Service (SAS) of U.K. in Rwanda. Therefore, it is clear

about role of the Congolese army, associations andthat U.K. also played a strong role in South Sudan and in

multiple actors, participation of looting etc. I just want tothis region. U.K.’s presence is heavy in East Africa― Sudan,

inform you that Kagame and Museveni found a puppet

Kenya, Rwanda etc. where they played a clear role―,

called L.D. Kabila. They created a fictitious movement, thehowever, its presence is not visible in the Kivus in eastern

AFDL, to conquer eastern Congo, and went up to Kinshasa

DRC.

to seize the power and overthrow Mobutu. Since that time,
DRC had become the product of Rwanda because even the

Q: Death of SPLA leader

Chief of Staff of the Congolese army in 1997-1998 was

Who killed John Garang, the leader of SPLA?

Rwandan, James Kabarebe (present Rwandan Minster of

Péan: Garang is essentially important, having been the

Defense). So the whole structure of the state in the DRC isleader of the most important rebel SPLA in South Sudan,

composed of Rwandans. Therefore, today, it is complicatedwhich also has other acronyms. In his life, he was often

to analyse the state structure in the DRC, due to thewell regarded, but in other times, he was not. In the 1980s,

impact and power of Rwanda.

after Museveni’s victory, aided by the Rwandan Tutsi

Regarding L.D. Kabila, before the conquest of Kivu, he(refugees), the Rwandan Tutsi supported Garang toprobably signed an agreement with the Rwandans to giveconquer South Sudan. In the 1980s and 1990s, there werethe latter the Provinces Kivu and (northern) Oriental in29eastern DRC. Due to his personal reasons, which I do notgovernance, democracy, and ways to avoid corruption soknow well, L.D. Kabila stopped acting as a puppet, rebelledthat Presidents will focus not on their own profit but theagainst Rwanda and he chased the Rwandans from theprogress of their people. It is a vast area but I am perfectly

Congolese territory. This is how he invited his own death.

conscious that it is essential.

Even if it was probably not done by the Rwandans,
Rwandans played an important role to assassinate Kabila.
By some ingenious manipulation, the successor of L.D.

Q: Shooting down of presidential jet of Habyarimana

Kabila was Joseph Kabila, who is in fact the adopted child

Who shot the presidential jet FALCON?

of L.D. Kabila, and in addition, a Rwandan in reality. This

Péan: Not only with conviction but also with certainty, I

fact is not well known, and it is not the official version. I

can assure you that it is Kagame who was the mastermind

myself met the former RPF officer who engaged in thefor the shooting. The so called the ‘white liars’, who aretraining of Joseph Kabila in Rwanda. After Joseph Kabila

the defence of Kagame’s military has made attempts tobecame the head of state, it became very difficult tohide this fact. I have been very interested in this issue

follow the politics in DRC because it keeps changing

because I had met those who directly participated in thissignificantly.

shooting down. In particular, I became close to Kagame’s

In 2008, President Sassou Nguesso of the Republic ofimmediate entourage who gave me as many of the details

Congo revealed something to me. When Presidents

as possible.

Kagame and Joseph Kabila were together in an official
meeting at UN, they pretended as if they did not know

Q: Expansion of China

each other well. However, in the evening, participants

China’s expansion is getting highly visible, especially in thewere surprised to witness that these two became very

natural resources area such as in DRC. What is yourintimate. President Sassou Nguesso said that it is the nightprospect in this regard?

time which is important in Africa. In brief, in all the

Péan: When I almost completed writing my book Carnage

administration in the DRC, there are relatives andto deal with the external factors, I could not avoid

personnel who are Rwandan, and even if I cannot say the

including one small chapter on China, otherwise people

level of influence, the Congolese also participate in thewould criticise me that I have forgotten somethingchaos in eastern DRC.

important. When analysing Africa, one needs to get used

Q: Leadership of African statesto integrate this actor (China) which is becoming more andmore essential. For a long time, Chinese intervention was

According to your keynote speech, the conflicts seem tostrictly limited to commerce, however, since some years

concentrate only in Central and East Africa, but in Westago, they became interested in politics, particularly in

Africa, there is Liberia, Sierra Leone and Mali etc. As you

Sudan where China has been playing an important role tosaid, African problems can be understood in darkness. It is

defend Bashir by helping him with the possibility of

not easy to understand in the daytime. I want to know

resuming his country’s economy using oil revenues. The

what the interest of international actors is, the so called

Chinese are also interested in countries which have great‘development partners’? What is their role and interest?

resources ―minerals or oil― particularly in DRC, andWhat is the role of African presidents to protect Africans?

especially Katanga Province 43 where they signed huge

Péan: It is a remarkable question to raise the role of
African leaders and presidents in protecting their own

43

Katanga Province, which is situated in southeast in the DRC, isrich with uranium and cobalt. The nuclear bomb dropped in
Hiroshima contained uranium, 80% of which was mined in Katanga.

nationals, although I did not take this point of view to deal
with this issue. That deserves to speak about the30contracts in exchange of infrastructure development.

Fashoda Incident.44 France’s growing influence in Nigeria

China is also interested in Gabon, and they areis true but one needs to look at the statistics. France was a

extraordinarily active in all the countries. One sees thepowerful colonial power. In 1957, 40% of France’s external

traces of their construction, such as the number of footballcommerce was exported to Africa. Today, it is 0.5%. Yes,

stadiums, presidential palaces, and parliaments. So theFrance still has the influence in those 14 countries in Africa,

nature of the relationship that China creates with the local

but it is not equivalent to the claims of media and that ofelites is very clear.

military.
We can refer this French influence to the Middle East,
Libya and the peripheral pact. Especially the pressure of

Q: Evolution of Boko HaramFrance with the back support of U.S., had overthrown

Boko Haram has been active in north-eastern Nigeria, andKaddafi. Concretely, we exploded Libya. Today, the same

as soon as the regime changed recently from President

French are obliged to do ‘after-sales service’ as a

Jonathan to a Muslim, the suicidal terrorism has reduced.

consequence of this explosion in Libya, Sahel, Mali etc.

This is because, according to the media, Boko Haram has
escaped to Cameroon to wait and see. I am concerned
how they will evolve in the future. As you pointed out the

Q: PKOs in Africa

conflict between U.S. and France in Africa, there is also

I would like to ask you about the neutrality of the PKO. You

same conflict in Nigeria. Since 10 years ago, France has

mentioned that the PKO personnel in the DRC are in reality

had intention to make Nigeria a francophone country, andworking with the objective of business, and the UN has

reportedly French education was introduced in some parts

supported military operation led by a Congolese generalof the country. Moreover, according to the press, French

who was indicted by the ICC. I understand that Africa hosts

arms were discovered from the area where Boko Haramthe largest number of PKOs, but does this problem of UN’s

was attacked and escaped.

neutrality apply only in Africa, and not in whole?

Péan: You seem to have information which I do not have.

Yonekawa: As I am not conducting research on PKO out of

My children and my grandchildren live in Cameroon, so I

the DRC, I cannot reply this question, but I think there is

am interested in this country, and I heard that Boko Haramhigh possibility.45

has taken hostage in Cameroon but I have not heard about
the arms. You said that the power of Boko Haram has been

Final comments

weakened because of the intervention of President

Katsumata: Let me point out two issues.

Jonathan but this still needs time to be proven. Until

First, today's symposium was held in French, and byrecently, the Nigerians army was unable to attack Bokochance I used to work in Dakar University in Senegal, aHaram whereas the Chadian intervention seemed to be

Francophone country in West Africa. Whenever I said that

efficient while Boko Haram operated a kamikaze-style in

I had conducted research in Francophone countries, I have

Chad. I have not studied much about Boko Haram but I

been regarded as a French connection who cannot detect

believe their presence is still very strong as Boko Haramthe conspiracy of France. And when you go to East Africa

has been active in hostage incidents. Unfortunately I

where U.K., U.S., and English’s influence is strong due tocannot foresee the future of Boko Haram. They are super
44

This was the climax of imperial territorial disputes between
Britain and France, which took place in the present South Sudan in1898.
45
Similar incidents were reported in West Africa. Barbara Crossett,‘UN Chief Faults Reluctance of U.S. to Help in Africa’, New York Times,
13 May, 2000.

powerful, and nobody seems to know how to reduce theiraggressiveness.
The tension between France and the Anglo-Saxons has
been going on for a long time. The well-known incident is31being former colonies of British Empire, you are told to be

242 of 22 November 1967 since I was a university student.

careful due to U.K. and U.S.’s involvement. Certainly, it is

At the time of Six-Day War of 1967, the UNSC had a plan tonecessary to investigate the motives of superpowers

bring peace between Israel and Palestine. However, theincluding former colonial powers and the U.S. However, aseffort to implement this kept postponing due to the

Ms. Yonekawa said today, if you wish to know the

motives of superpowers.

truth―at least to know Africa―, it is important to study

And what I have rethought after having listened to Mr.

both French and English so that you can analyse bothPéan’s lecture is that Israel may be doing according to theirworlds and grasp the situation more, although it may be

wish. What is taking place in Palestine is virtually apartheid.

challenging to learn the local language. If you understandIsrael built the wall of 8 meter height in the occupied

Portuguese, it can be more beneficial in some countries.

territory, preventing Palestinians from moving and working.

With these plural languages, we should require text

This incident reminds us of the previous night of thereading ability and communication ability so that we willapartheid. What is happening behind this is the obvious

not be twisted with simple foreign conspiracy theories.

fact that the UN resolution has not been implemented.

Second, what I have relearned from Mr. Péan today isThis implementation is not easy. However, as a citizen andthat the UN should be given more power for peacea researcher, I have felt the need to move the government

mediation, and I think that Japan has such influence. Whatso that superpowers’ motives can be returned to thedoes it mean? Let me provide one example of Israel.

original peaceful principle of the UN charter.

Israel’s present territory map looks abnormal no matterhow you look at it. I have been knowing UNSC Resolution32Moderator’s closing remarks (Sukehiro Hasegawa)Sukehiro Hasegawa
He served with United Nations for more than 30 years, including the UN Resident
Coordinator in Rwanda, and Director of Policy and Planning in UNOSOM II in Somalia.
Visiting professor of United Nations University and Hosei University. He holds a Ph.D. ininternational relations from Washington University. His main publication includes
Primordial Leadership: Peacebuilding and National Ownership in Timor-Leste (2013).

Thank you. Although I should normally summarise

not be dragged about by former colonies andthe discussion, due to shortage of time, I would like tosuperpowers. I hope you can build your own country

point out two factors.

andFirst, as Ms. Yonekawa and others spoke, how to takeaprosperous

continentinAfricawithindependence.’

into account of truth? There is no such objective truth.

Since then, President Kagame through Rwandan

Western philosophy started with the objective truth

embassy in Tokyo has been inviting me several times tomentioned by Socrates, Platon and Aristotélēs. This

return and see today’s Rwanda. I have not been there

research has been conducted for 2000 years, and whatyet. I have heard so much about Rwanda that it has

all the philosophers agree these days is that there is nobuilt a modern nation, and it is a dictatorial state. So

objective truth, and each and every individual merely

what is the truth there? Today I learned a lot, and I wish

apprehend the phenomenon in their own way saying

to go there and confirm with my own eyes. I would also

this is what happened. Therefore, if such truth happens

kindly ask the audience to go to Africa and see what is

to exist, many of us tend to think that one thing has

taking place on the ground.

happened, and we only share that this is the kind of

I think African leaders with their independence aretruth which has taken place after compromising. This is

gradually using the US, France, UK and others, insteadwhat had been said all by Descartes from France,of being twisted around by them, are working for their

Emmanuel Kant from Germany and De Spinoza.

interest. I think African leaders have begun to realize

Therefore, what is important for us is to have an openthat they have responsibility to build their country andmind suggested by Dogen, who started Zen in Japan,

protect their interests and people. And I am very

and to confirm the truth.

pleased that some of them, one of them is my friend

Second, regarding how Africa will become in theand my former UN colleague, Ellen Johnson Sirleaf of

future, I think this is what is missing in today’s

Liberia. She is making progress but having a lot of

symposium. I used to work in Somalia and Rwanda forchallenges. But I think we have now more African

three years in total, and I also met President Kagame.

leaders who care about their countries and their people.

Before I left Rwanda, I told him the following: ‘African

We learned a lot today from Mr. Péan. Let us applaud

leaders, as Asian leaders had accomplished, you should

and thank him. Thank you.

33

Student’s comment
Kosuke Inoue, freshmen, Department of Law, Rikkyo University
I participated in the symposium due to its appealingfrom governments and will be the actor of New Civil

sub-title of ‘superpowers’ roles’ and my interest inSociety, but some NGOs are not independent frominternational relations. Throughout the event, I wasgovernments. To make it worse, the fact that humanitarianshocked several times, and I would like to point out three

aid promotes a war economy demonstrates the difficulty

points among them.

to solve conflicts in Africa and the darkness of conflicts.

First, regarding the Rwandan Genocide, Mr. Péan

Even the UN cannot solve the conflicts due to the motives

mentioned that we can not generalize that Tutsi areof superpowers. I think NGOs should play a more

victims and Hutu are evils. I recall watching the Hollywood

important role in conflict resolution and the maintenancemovie ‘Hotel Rwanda’ during my junior high school days,of security Africa. Therefore, I have decided to study thewhich made me hurt by the massacring scene of thefunction of NGOs.

minority Tutsi. It was shocking to learn that the RPF

One participant questioned whether undergraduate(Rwandan Patriotic Front) mostly consisted of Tutsi, killed

students were able to understand the importance of thisat least 20,000-40,000 Hutu during the genocide (UNsymposium. Indeed, I, unlike the graduate students,

report), and the mass media manipulated the information

researchers and practitioners who have longer experiencethat Tutsi are victims. As Mr. Péan described thisin this issue as an undergraduate student, do not havemanipulation in his own book, he has received criticism

deep knowledge on African issues, and therefore did noteven from Jewish, but it was not clear why Israel wasunderstand how innovative Mr. Péan’s lecture was. His

related with this problem. This Rwandan Genocide is justresearch and engagement in the conflicts in Africa,

one of the few examples, but the fact that superpowers

however, gave me a new viewpoint of the conflicts in thehave strong connection to conflicts in Africa was wellGreat Lakes region. Moreover, his journalistic attitude tounderstood; and Mr. Péan’s statement ‘we need to takeseek truth despite of being constantly indicted, as well as

into account these problems not only from thehis action and courage to disseminate his message, whose

appearance but also from behind’ was convincing.

theme is so sensitive that it can be blocked in France, gave

Second, I was surprised to learn about the involvement

me courage to struggle against power.

of the US, France, and even Israel in the conflicts in Africa.

Finally, it should be noted that citizens continue to

Their interference is to seek their own benefits, which

receive tremendous damage by the conflicts that are

makes the conflicts prolonged. And the people in the

prolonged by the motives and manipulation of African

world lose their sight of the nature of the problem due togovernments, capitalists and superpowers. While keeping

the manipulation of information. How disgusting! Afterin mind the comments made by Mr. Péan and otherlistening to Mr. Péan’s lecture, I tried to think how Africa

speakers, I said to myself that I should make efforts to save

can avoid the intervention and instability brought bysuch people. I am grateful for the speakers who gave me

superpowers but almost nothing came into my head due

this idea and for the organisation of this symposium. Next

to multiple actors involved with the conflicts andtime, as a continuation of this symposium, I would like tocomplication of the problem.

organise an event with the students to explore solutions

Third, I was very interested in the ambiguity of thefor the conflicts in Africa.

independent role of NGOs, pointed out by Mr. Péan and
Ms. Yonekawa. In principle, NGOs are to be independent
34

What the participants learned at the symposium(based on the 68 sheets of questionnaires and interview)
Motives of superpowers behind conflicts in Africa

Meaning of organising in Japan(many opinions)・Very precious to organise such a symposium in Japan・One cannot understand the conflicts in Africa with thethanks to the fact Japan has not intervened in conflicts inknowledge of only one country due to implication of

Africa.

several countries.

・Impressive to learn about the difficulty organise such a・ Important to look at the whole context such as

symposium in France. Very meaningful to organise it insuperpowers’ motives and agendas though there isJapan (undergraduate student).

tendency to expect that conflict means relationshipbetween two actors. It is equally important to understand

Othersthe view of France.

・ I felt a strong courage and inquisitive mind in this・Very alarming that NGOs which need independence andsymposium which cannot be observed in other seminars.

neutrality work under motives of superpowers.

Highly appreciated (retiree).
・Wondered whether the undergraduate students, who are

Role of Israel (many opinions)

not yet exposed to global debate on the conflicts in Africa,

・The fact that African leaders are creating and prolonging

truly understood the significance of the symposium, whichconflicts with the motive of Israel (graduate student).

is very rare in Japan (practitioner).

・Fascinating to learn the relationship between Israel andAfrica, which is very rare. This lecture gave me opportunity
to look at the conflict from the perspective of in and out of
Israel (NGO responsible for Palestine).
Mr. Péan’s experience and investigation (many opinions)・Need the capacity to assess the truth and comprehensive
view for conflict resolution. Very convincing lecture.
・In spite of being sued and harassed, he investigated andwrote sufficiently. He is a real journalist.
Truth on Rwanda and South Sudan
・First time to hear about the genocide in Rwanda andindependence of South Sudan from the superpower’s
perspective.
・Fresh to listen to analysis on superpowers’ role andhuman network of Rwanda which tend to stress on
successful stories only.

35Annex 1
Main UN/NGO Reports and Indictments which Point out Serious Crimes in Rwanda and DRC

Year
1994

SourceUNHCR

Response by ConcernedContent of report(Gersony

Report)StatesThe RPF army killed 20,000-40,000 people during theThe

genocide.

embargoed by the UN.

Some of alleged massacres committed by the
1998

UN Investigative Team

Rwandan army and AFDL in 1996-1997 could(Garreton Report)

constitute acts of genocide. Many of 210,000-230.000
Rwandan refugees were assumed to have been killed.

2002
20012003

Human Rights Watch

and Congolese rebel groups illegally exploited natural

Kagame, accused of shooting down the presidential

An indictment was issued for 40 RPF members for
Spanish Judgecrimes against humanity and terrorism in Rwanda andCongo.

2008

UN Group of Experts

interrupted due to US and
Rwandan pressure.

allegations.

plane in 1994, thereby triggering the massive killings.

2008

The accused states denied
the allegations.
Rwandadeniedtheallegations and cut off
diplomatic relations withFrance.
Rwandadeniedtheallegations.

Rwanda supports the Congolese rebel CNDP in DRC,

Rwanda and DRC denied

and DRC supports Rwandan rebel FDLR in DRC.

the allegations.
Prior

2010

was

killing 1,200 civilian in 1999-2002.

resources.

French Judge

investigation

Both states denied theIndictment issued for 9 RPF members, including
2006

was

The RPF and Ugandan armies clashed in Kisangani,
Government armies in Congo’s neighboring countries

UN Group of Experts

The

reporttoitsleakedOHCHR

RPA and AFDL were involved in an act in Congo in

publication,

Rwanda(Mapping Report)

1996-1997 that can be characterized as genocide.

threatened to withdraw its
peacekeepers from Darfur.

2012

UN Group of Experts

Rwanda,assistedbyCongolese rebel M23.

Uganda,commands

theRwandaand

Ugandadenied this allegations.
(compiled by Masako Yonekawa)

36

Annex 2
Manuscript note of keynote speech (in French)« Carnages »Quelques clés pour mieux comprendre guerres, massacres et génocide qui endeuillent l’Afrique…
Mr. Pierre Péan
Depuis la fin de la guerre froide, la région des Grands

ans…

Lacs est devenue celle de la mort et du malheur dans une

Une situation extravaganteindifférence quasi générale. Avec deux millions deJusqu’à Soljenitsyne et L’archipel du Goulag, beaucoup

Rwandais exterminés en 1994, à l’intérieur du Rwanda,

croyaient au paradis soviétique, intoxiqués par une

plus de six millions de morts rwandais et congolais dans

propagande moscovite relayée en Occident par desl’ex-Zaïre, des centaines de milliers de Soudanais tués, de« idiots utiles ».Mutatis mutandi, la storytelling sur lesnombreuses victimes ougandaises, plus d’un demi-million

changements intervenus au Rwanda depuis une vingtaine

de morts angolais, des millions de déplacés, quatre chefs

d’années et par ricochets dans les Grands Lacs est, pourd’État et des centaines de ministres et autres dirigeants

une bonne partie de la communauté internationale, duassassinés, des dizaines de milliers de femmes violées, desmême type. Les médias louent le paradis rwandais et son

pillages éhontés, cette zone a le triste privilège d’avoir subi

« dieu » Paul Kagame, devenue la coqueluche deplus de dommages que ceux additionnés de toutes lesl’Occident.

guerres intervenues de par le monde depuis la fin de lasuccinctement décrite au début de mon intervention

Seconde Guerre mondiale. Et pourtant les médias, danstrouve son origine ,en octobre 1990,avec l’intervention

leur très grande majorité, n’ont parlé, ne parlent et nearmée de Paul Kagame contre le Rwanda pour conquérir lepleurent que les centaines de milliers de victimes tutsi dupouvoir. Et, alors qu’il porte donc une responsabilité trèsRwanda, dénoncent les Hutu comme seuls responsables

lourde dans les massacres et génocides qui se sontdirects de ces boucheries. Ce silence s’explique-t-il par lasuccédés, il a, grâce au soutien sans failles, de sesdifficulté à obtenir des informations ?Nenni. Les rapports

protecteurs anglo-saxons, imposé une version officielle desde l’ONU se succèdent depuis vingt ans pour dénoncer leévènements qui l’exempte complètement .Cette version

rôle du Rwanda et de l’Ouganda dans le Kivu. Le pré-qui fait des Hutus un peuple de génocidaires et les

rapport du dernier, dénommé « Mapping »,connu en

Français, les complices de leur horrible besogne.

octobre 2010,décrit les crimes commis en RDC entre 1993

Transformant

et 2003 et évoque ,comme déjà 1998,un probableréincarnation de Hitler, et les soldats français, en Waffen

génocide. Sous la pression de Susan Rice, alors

SS.

Et

pourtant

ainsi

la

François

situation

apocalyptique

Mitterrand

en

une

ambassadrice des Etats-Unis auprès du conseil de

Extravagant et extrêmement troublant de constater que

sécurité, « Mapping » ne fut pas publié. Et, avec ses

Paul Kagame soit devenu « l’enfant chéri de l’Occident »,ymercenaires du M23,Kagame continuait la déstabilisation

compris de nombreuses et importantes organisations dedu Kivu, sans que la communauté internationale

défense des droits de l’homme. Il s’est vu décernén’intervienne vigoureusement. Toujours grâce à lanombreux prix honorifiques, genre doctorat honoris causa

protection de Susan Rice, qui, comme en remerciement

de l’Université de Glasgow, de l’Université du Pacific aux

des actions de son protégé, a imposé le Rwanda comme

Etats-Unis, de l’Université Catholique d’Oklahoma, le prix

membre permanent du conseil de sécurité pendant deux

« Andrew Young Medal for Capitalism and Social » de37

l’Université de Géorgie, le prix « Global leadership »,le prix

armes de destruction massive: grâce à une analogie

de la solidarité des femmes africaines, celui deabusive entre le génocide des Tutsi et la Shoah, lesl’abolitionniste de l’année 2007,celui de la citoyenneté

gardiens de la vérité officielle traitent les contrevenants deglobale, décernée par la Fondation Clinton…Extravagant denégationnistes, de révisionnistes, de racistes, voire

constater que la presse ne fasse pas ses unes, ne lance pas

d’antisémites. En dépit de cette menace, je continuai monde campagnes virulentes contre un régime qui utilise desenquête et exposai en 2005 dans Noires fureurs, blancs

méthodes dignes de la Corée du Nord, et n’hésite pas àmenteurs que la tragédie rwandaise s’analysait d’abord

tuer ceux qui veulent témoigner devant la justice…A titrecomme une guerre lancée par le Front patriotiqued’exemples récents, ce qui est arrivé à deux Rwandais avec

rwandais (FPR), composé quasi exclusivement de Tutsiqui j’avais noué des liens amicaux. Patrick Karegeya,

recrutés dans la diaspora en exil, soutenu par l’arméel’ancien chef du renseignement extérieur, qui voulait

ougandaise et protégé par les services secrets américains

témoigner à Paris dans l’instruction judiciaire sur l’attentat

contre le gouvernement régulier du Rwanda. Lequel avait

du 6 avril 1994, a été étranglé dans la nuit du premier deété aidé par la France jusqu’en 1993.Constatais également

l’an 2013 et le général Kayumba, ancien chef d’état-major

qu’il n’y avait ni bons ni méchants dans cette tragiquedu Rwanda a fait l’objet de trous tentatives d’attentat en

histoire traversée par des massacres de masse de Hutu et

Afrique du Sud. Ou encore ce qui est arrivé à Emile Gafirita,

un génocide des Tutsi.

un ancien caporal rwandais qui ,après avoir décidé detémoigner à Paris, a été enlevé le jour de la réception deDeuxième enquête plus approfondie

sa convocation. Je pourrais continuer à dérouler la liste

Dès la sortie du livre, et pendant quatre ans, j’ai été

des manquements les plus élémentaires aux règles

l’objet d’attaques d’une rare violence dans la presse etdémocratiques jusqu’à la fin du temps qui m’est imparti

devant la justice. Plutôt que de me consacrer à la seulepour cette intervention…

préparation d’un très lourd procès, je décidais deExtravagant aussi de constater que les protecteurs dereprendre mon enquête et de l’étendre en l’insérant dansPaul Kagame sont souvent récompensés. Susan Rice n’a-t-l’histoire de la région des Grands Lacs et de l’Afriqueelle pas, le 1er janvier 2013,été nommé à la tête du conseil

centrale, pour comprendre comment et pourquoi avait pu

de sécurité nationale des Etats-Unis, un poste stratégiqueainsi s’installer une version tronquée de l’histoire de ladans la définition de la politique étrangère américaine ?

tragédie rwandaise. Au début, j’ai essayé de retracer etAprès avoir été ambassadrice des Etats-Unis au Conseil ded’analyser les manœuvres destinées à empêcher l’ONU desécurité de l’ONU…

mener une enquête sur l’attentat contre le Falcon 50 duprésident rwandais Habyarimana et à bloquer lesPremière enquête sur le drame rwandais

tentatives du TPIR de poursuivre les crimes commis par le

En 2004, déjà convaincu que Paul Kagame avait

FPR1. Il m’est vite apparu que Washington avait été le chefcommandité l’attentat qui, le 6 avril 1994,avait coûté la vie

d’orchestre de cette conspiration du silence. À partir deà deux présidents dont Juvénal Habyarimana, soncette constatation, je me suis efforcé de comprendre

prédécesseur, et qui déclencha le génocide des Tutsis et

pourquoi l’administration américaine déploya une telle

des massacres de Hutus, je décidais de mener une grosseénergie, depuis 1994, pour organiser l’impunité du soldatenquête sur le drame rwandais. Je découvris rapidement

Kagame. Il m’a alors sauté aux yeux que ces manœuvresl’incroyable désinformation qui avait accompagné las’inscrivaient simplement dans une logique de protection

conquête du pouvoir par Paul Kagame, et les moyens mis

des «intérêts stratégiques» des États-Unis en Afriqueen œuvre pour décourager ceux qui tenteraient decentrale. Dès lors, j’ai travaillé à mettre au jour les actions

s’opposer à la doxa. Des moyens qui ressemblent fort à des–« ouvertes et clandestines »– des États-Unis, depuis les38

années 1980, dans la région des Grands Lacs, visant à un

sacrifie les Rwandais.» J’avais bien lu cette affirmation

nouveau partage des zones d’influence sur le continent

dans le livre de James Gasana, ancien ministre rwandais deafricain, et le «scandale géologique» que constitue lela Défense, quand je travaillais à l’enquête pour Noires

fabuleux sous-sol du Zaïre, redevenu aujourd’hui Congo et

fureurs, blancs menteurs, mais je n’en avais pas tiré toutes

convoité par tous. Et à l’éviction de la France de ce qu’on

les conséquences. L’œil rivé sur Washington, je n’avais pas

appelait son « pré carré ».De grandes personnalitésassez regardé vers Khartoum. À partir du moment où j’ai

politique françaises s’étaient déjà posé ces questions-là.

découvert que les Israéliens avaient eux aussi aidé Kagame

Édouard Balladur, premier ministre de 1993 à 1995, avait

à conquérir le pouvoir, mon champ de vision s’élargit

fait remarquer que la question se posait de savoir qui avait

soudain et je compris que le Soudan, allié du Hamas et devoulu évincer la France de cette zone géographique, et aul’Iran, était un ennemi important de l’État hébreu et desprofit de qui. François Léotard, ancien ministre de laEtats-unis. Gasana n’affirmait-il pas aussi qu’Habyarimana

Défense,dénigrement

allait être remplacé «par quelqu’un qui scellerait une

scandaleuse dont il réclama que les tenants etalliance anti-islamiste avec Museveni», et que le soutien

aboutissants soient dégagés et éclairés afin de débusquer

militaire et diplomatique au FPR, via l’Ouganda, faisait

qui en étaient les véritables bénéficiaires. Alain Juppé,

partie de la stratégie globale de soutien au SPLA de John

ancien ministre des Affaires étrangères (1993-1995), après

Garang, intime de Museveni; que l’Ouganda servait deavoir confirmé la réalité de l’implication américaine,

tremplin aux covert actions dans le Sud-Soudan et que

estimait que la France avait peut-être sous-estimé laMuseveni était le seul allié stable contre l’intégrisme

volonté de certains d’agir autrement que par la voie

islamiste?

parla

d’une

campagnedepolitique et diplomatique, c’est-à-dire en recourant à la

Pour développer sa thèse Gasana s’appuyait notamment

force.

aussi sur un article de Marc Yared datant de 1994: «Sous leD’emblée, mon enquête fut difficile, car, à notre époqueleadership vigoureux du président Yoweri Museveni, au–celle qui a débuté après la chute du Mur de Berlin, le 9

pouvoir depuis 1986, l’Ouganda est redevenu un “acteur”

novembre 1989–, qu’on dit à tort plus «transparente», lesincontournable en Afrique orientale. Museveni, qui fut unfaits les plus importants sont escamotés: traduisant descamarade d’université de John Garang à Dar es Salam

stratégies plus ou moins avouables qu’il importe de cacher,(Tanzanie), a fait de l’Ouganda l’ultime base desils relèvent bien souvent du domaine du clandestin, dansmaquisards sud-soudanais qu’il entraîne et qu’il alimente

la mesure où ils sont l’œuvre de Forces spéciales, d’agents

en armes et munitions. [...] Issus d’ethnies chrétiennes

de services secrets, d’États agissant pour le compte

dans des pays où l’islam ne cesse de recruter desd’autres États, de mercenaires... Ces jeux de l’ombre sont,nouveaux adeptes, Aferwerki, Zenawi et Museveni –ainside surcroît, encore obscurcis par des agences spécialisées,que John Garang– tentent de mobiliser le continent noir,

publiques ou privées, qui produisent à jet continu de la

au nom du panafricanisme, pour “contrer la subversion

désinformation, puisque la guerre est désormais continuéeislamiste”.

par des batailles de communication. Même quand ils ne

A partir de ce début d’analyse mettant en avant lasont pas emprisonnés dans un militantisme trop

constitution d’une Sainte alliance anti-islamiste, composéscontraignant, les journalistes, coincés par les exigences dede trois leaders africains parrainés par Washington et Telproductivité et donc par le manque de temps, ont de plus

Aviv,j’ai orienté mon enquête en réintégrant Israël commeen plus de mal à approcher la vérité.

acteur très important en Afrique depuis sa constitution en
1947.

Une Sainte Alliance contre Khartoum ?

Alors que je commençais à réunir une documentation«La stratégie américaine contre l’islamisme soudanais

importante sur les liaisons entre la question soudanaise et39

les tragédies des Grands Lacs, j’apprenais par la presse

Dichter expose longuement l’importance du Soudan, qui

qu’Israël venait de bombarder un convoi d’armes auconfère à l’Égypte sa «profondeur stratégique». «Il fautSoudan. Le Time du 30 mars 2009 rapportait en effet que,jouer sur les conflits ethniques et confessionnels età la mi-janvier, des F15 et des F16 avaient attaqué dans leprolonger ainsi la profondeur stratégique d’Israël. C’est ce

désert soudanais un convoi de 23 camions transportantqu’a résumé Golda Meir quand elle s’est saisie du dossier

des roquettes et des explosifs en provenance d’Iran eten 1967: “Il faut affaiblir les pays arabes dans leursdestinés au Hamas. Bombes sur les chargements

potentialités.”» Pour y parvenir, le patron de la Sécurité

d’explosifs, l’opération avait fait de nombreux morts.

intérieure explique qu’il convient d’alterner les moyens,

L’article soulignait que «l’attaque était un avertissement à«tantôt la force, tantôt la diplomatie, tantôt les moyens del’Iran et aux autres adversaires, montrant la capacité desla guerre secrète». La nouveauté, c’est le déplacement deservices secrets israéliens et leur volonté de monter desla zone du Sud-Soudan au Darfour: les troubles dans cetteopérations bien au-delà de leurs frontières pour se

région doivent empêcher toute stabilisation du Soudan

défendre contre toutes les menaces». Ce succès aérien

désormais, et ce pendant une bonne trentaine d’années,monté à plus de 1800 kilomètres de Tel-Aviv montrait, s’ilcomme cela fut fait au Sud- Soudan. La façade politique deen était encore besoin, l’importance du Soudan dans lacette guerre: soutenir le droit à l’autodétermination desvision stratégique de l’État hébreu.Je décidais d’aller à

Darfouris. La société israélienne et les ONG doivent êtreKhartoum. Le conseiller de Bachir me remettait unmobilisées, la condamnation du génocide doit être relayée

document en arabe qui se présente comme la traduction

à tous les niveaux: «Il faut que nous parvenions à ancrer

d’un discours qu’aurait tenu en hébreu Avi Dichter,

l’idée que le Darfour, comme le Sud-Soudan, a droit à

ministre israélien de la Sécurité intérieure, débutl’indépendance, ou du moins à l’autonomie; et ainsi

septembre 2008, lors d’une conférence à l’Institut de lamettre un terme à la capacité d’influence de Khartoum.

Sécurité, qu’il me résumait: « Israël considère le Soudan

Nous devons à cet égard mettre à profit le rôle des États-comme très dangereux, parce que potentiellement trèsUnis, lesquels exercent une influence efficace.»

fort et capable de soutenir ses ennemis; et il faisait dire à
Dichter: «Nous devons faire en sorte que le Soudan soit

L’Afrique,une question de vie ou de mort pour Israël

constamment préoccupé par ses problèmes intérieurs.»

Depuis sa création, l’État hébreu porte une très grande
attention à l’Afrique, laquelle lui confère la profondeur« Il faut déstabiliser le Soudan »stratégique qu’il n’a pas au Moyen-Orient, entouré qu’il

J’ai fait ensuite traduire ce texte qui avait déjà trouvé

est par des pays hostiles à l’est. Et qu’Israël est le seul Étatdes échos dans plusieurs journaux arabes. Dans leà avoir une vision globale, cohérente et stable de l’Afrique,septième point Avi Dichter explique l’intérêt de l’État

vision qui assure à sa politique africaine – sujet très

hébreu pour le Soudan, plus précisément pour le Sud-méconnu – une grande continuité.

Soudan et pour le Darfour. «Pourquoi cette ingérence?»

Un rapide flash back permet d’appuyer cette affirmation.

interroge l’ancien patron du Shin Bet. «Parce qu’il y a un

L’étroitesse de son territoire dans un environnement

lien avec la question palestinienne», dit-il d’emblée. «Il est

hostile a conduit ses dirigeants à chercher à compenser

important que le Soudan n’arrive pas à se stabiliser

cette faiblesse existentielle à la fois par une quête

durablement. Important qu’Israël ait maintenu le conflit

d’alliance militaire avec la France, elle- même puissance

au Sud-Soudan pendant trois décennies, et qu’il leafricaine, et par une recherche d’alliances politiques enmaintienne maintenant à l’ouest du Soudan. Il faut éviter

Afrique, visant à créer artificiellement la «profondeur

que le Soudan devienne une puissance régionale exerçant

stratégique» qui lui fait si cruellement défaut par ailleurs,

une influence en Afrique et dans le monde arabe.» Avi

et à l’aider dans sa lutte contre ses ennemis arabes. Ainsi,
40

dès les années qui ont suivi sa naissance, Israël a-t-il tout

géographique au sud de l’Égypte et du fait de ses 716

mis en œuvre pour devenir une puissance nucléaire, d’une

kilomètres de côtes sur la mer Rouge, constitue pour Israël

part, et, de l’autre, pour faire du continent africain cetteun allié potentiel, dans le cadre du «pacte périphérique»,réserve d’espace essentiel à sa survie –deux objectifs

mais aussi bien une grave menace; et qu’il est donc

intimement liés pendant longtemps. Il faut se rappeler que

important d’avoir constamment les yeux rivés sur ce paysl’Égypte, puissance arabe et africaine, devint sous Nasser à

dont la séparation d’avec l’Égypte est récente: ellela fois l’ennemi n°1 d’Israël et la figure emblématique de laremonte à 1956…. Dans le but d’aider les rebelles sud-lutte anti-colonialiste et anti- impérialiste.

soudanais, Israël porte une attention soutenue à tous les

Les stratèges israéliens vont progressivement dégager

pays limitrophes de la zone: l’Éthiopie, l’Ouganda, le Congo

plusieurs lignes de force destinées à construire une(futur Zaïre), la Centrafrique et le Tchad, à partir desquels

ceinture de sécurité autour de leur pays: contrecarrer lale Mossad et les forces spéciales pourront acheminer

politique arabe en Afrique, retarder l’unité politique arabe

armes et conseillers.La percée africaine d’Israël ne seen luttant contre la décolonisation du Maghreb et dulimite pas à l’Afrique de l’Est; dès le début elle vise aussi

Proche-Orient, sécuriser d’abord la mer Rouge, son accès àl’Afrique noire, à commencer par le Ghana de Kwame

l’Afrique, et s’allier avec les nouveaux et futurs États

N’krumah, qui est, dans les années 1950, la figure

africains. Le continent africain va ainsi faire partie

emblématique du continent. Israël va devenir également leintégrante de la stratégie géopolitique de survie élaborée,premier soutien de Mobutu.

qui prend le nom de «pacte périphérique» ou «stratégie
de la périphérie». L’idée principale de ce plan consiste àIsraël soutient le pays de l’apartheid

nouer des alliances avec les nations non arabes situées surAprès la guerre des Six Jours ,quand le général de Gaulle

les flancs ou à la périphérie du Proche et du Moyen-Orient.

parle du «peuple d’élite, sûr de lui-même et dominateur»,Israël va ainsi chercher à nouer des rapports étroits avec

et interdit l’exportation de matériel militaire versl’Iran et la Turquie, mais aussi, en Afrique, avec l’ÉthiopieIsraël,l’état hébreu se tourne vers l’Afrique du sud. Cetteet l’Ouganda.

dernière devient alors une alliée déterminante, à la fois

Les succès africains d’Israël vont être marqués du sceau

pour l’aider à construire le volet le plus important de sa

de l’ambiguïté. Les dirigeants de l’État hébreu sesécurité, la bombe, et pour renforcer sa position dans lerapprochent des Africains, en train de se libérer du joug

conflit qui l’oppose aux États arabes et à tous ceux qui lescolonial, en mettant en avant la communauté desoutiennent, pays et mouvements progressistes. Unesouffrance entre Juifs et Noirs, tout en formant avec laassociation qui va être maudite par toutes les bonnes

France impériale, puis néo-coloniale, une «alliance tacite»,

consciences de la planète, mais qui constituera le fer deavant de faire front avec les États-Unis, Israël devenantlance de l’Occident en Afrique contre l’URSS et ses affidés.

progressivement le fer de lance de l’Occident et donc de la

Cette nouvelle alliance avec Pretoria est cependant peu

lutte anti-communiste en Afrique.

compatible avec les valeurs affirmées par Israël. Et il

Après l’échec de Bandung, la fin du blocus des détroits

faudra attendre l’arrivée du Likoud au pouvoir pour que lede Tiran et l’entrée du golfe d’Aqaba dans les eauxgouvernement israélien l’assume ouvertement; pour qu’auinternationales, c’est vers l’empereur Hailé Sélassié, roi desnom de la realpolitik Israël accepte de s’allier avec un pays

Rois, Lion de Juda et, selon la légende, descendant directqui prône l’apartheid. Les deux États avaient conscience dede la reine de Saba et de Salomon, que diplomates etla similitude de leur destin. Israël, face à l’hostilité arabe;espions israéliens se tournent pour compléter leurl’Afrique du Sud, face à celle des Noirs. Et cettesécurisation de la mer Rouge.

convergence de vues était plus forte que tout.

Il appert déjà que le Soudan, de par sa position
41

Ouganda, l’allié africain privilégié d’Israël

de la Grande- Bretagne et d’Israël, alors que la chute deMais c’est surtout l’Ouganda qui va faire l’objet deMobutu paraissait inéluctable... Et il devint également letoutes les sollicitudes d’Israël à cause de sa grande«parrain» de la conquête de Kigali par les rebelles tutsi:

frontière avec le Sud-Soudan, lui permettant de harcelersans les armes et les soldats de l’armée ougandaise, Fred

Khartoum. Sans remonter aux origines, relevons que l’état

Rwigema puis Paul Kagame ne se seraient en effet pas

hébreu a été longtemps un allié très fidèle du sanguinaire

lancés dans cette guerre.L’Ouganda est devenu à la fin desIdi Amine Dada, avant de devenir celui de Yoweri

années 80,la base arrière des guerres de conquête duMuseveni. Il n’a cessé de faire la guerre depuis plus deSoudan et du Rwanda.Les différents acteurs du front anti-

trente ans, d’abord pour prendre le pouvoir en

Khartoum estimèrent qu’un changement de régime à

Ouganda.Et,c’est très important pour la suite de notre

Kigali était nécessaire pour le rendre plus cohérent et plus

propos, son succès est largement dû aux exilés tutsi

fort.

rwandais qui étaient à ses côtés. L’importance de ceux-ci
se traduira par les postes officiels que ces derniers auront

L’Homme-orchestre des Grands Lacs pour Washington etdans le nouveau régime. Fred Rwigema sera le ministre

Tel aviv

ougandais de la Défense,et Paul Kagame,le patron duPour mieux comprendre les trames secrètes de ces

Renseignement militaire. Les Rwandais s’engageront

bouleversements il est intéressant de suivre Roger Winterd’autant qu’ils projetaient d’aller ensuite prendre lequi a été à l’articulation de tous les conflits et de toutes lespouvoir à Kigali grâce à l’aide de l’armée ougandaise.

rébellions de la région. Dès le début des années 1980,

Museveni était proche de John Garang qui lui-aussi voulait

sous la casquette officielle de directeur de l’US Committee

prendre le pouvoir à Khartoum.Il mit ainsi la Nationalof Refugees ,on le trouve dans le maquis aux côtés de

Resistance Army,y compris les rebelles tutsis,pour aider

Yoweri Museveni, qui se bat aux côtés des Tutsis exilés

Garang à conquérir dans un premier temps le Sud-pour renverser Milton Obote,le président ougandais; il

Soudan.Les Israéliens et les Britanniques aidèrent

devient très proche desdits des rebelles tutsi qui seégalement Museveni dans ces combats.

préparent à partir à la conquête militaire du Rwanda, trèsEnsuite pour étendre son influence au-delà desproche également de John Garang, le leader de la rébellion

frontières ougandaises, qu’il trouve manifestement trop

au Sud-Soudan, dans sa lutte contre Khartoum. Il devientétroites. Après Kampala, ses yeux se sont portés sur Juba,également très proche de Paul Kagame et il est à ses côtés

capitale du Sud-Soudan, puis sur Kigali, ensuite surquand celui-ci livre ses derniers combats pour prendre leKinshasa et bientôt sur Khartoum.

pouvoir; enfin, il accompagnera Laurent-Désiré Kabila dès

Dès la fin des années 80,Museveni commença à revêtir

que Museveni, la CIA et Paul Kagame décidèrent de faireles oripeaux du «croisé africain» qui, avec ses chevaliersde l’ancien chef rebelle leur cheval de Troie pour renverser

tutsi, défendait l’Occident chrétien contre les impies; et

Mobutu au Zaïre. Un ancien acteur de l’affaire Contragate

qu’importent ses mises à sac sanguinaires, il lui serait

me révéla que Roger Winter avait été l’homme-orchestre

pardonné, comme à ceux qui avaient défendu le Saint-de tout ce qui s’était déroulé dans la région des Grands

Sépulcre.

Lacs à partir du milieu des années 1980, et que ledit

Une

fois

parvenu

Museveni,admirateur

à
du

la

tête

Che,de

de

son

pays,

Winter, ami de Dani Yatom, qui serait plus tard patron du

BismarcketMossad, coordonnait sur place les actions des services

d’Hitler,estima que l’Ouganda était trop petit pour sesaméricains et israéliens.

ambitions et s’était mis à rêver tout haut d’un Lebensraum
englobant le Rwanda, le Burundi et la région congolaise duDéstabilisation du Soudan, conquête du Rwanda etKivu... Un Museveni devenu le «chouchou» des États-Unis,

remodelage de la carte des influences sur le du continent
42

noir au détriment de la France

sur l’opportunité de renverser le régime Bachir/Tourabi au

Dans un premier temps, Washington et ses alliés ont
aidé

prudemment

les’engager

immédiat, un tel changement à la tête de l’État soudanais

complètement à ses côtés au cours de l’année 1993; son

sécuriserait la politique de pression exercée sur lesoffensive visant à contrôler le Rwanda coïncida alors

Palestiniens. La politique américaine dans la région desparfaitement avec les visées américaines sur l’AfriqueGrands Lacs va désormais se trouver directement liée àcentrale. Après la chute du Mur de Berlin, les États-Unis etcelle menée au Proche-Orient. C’est dans cette optiqueleurs alliés avaient en effet décidé de remodeler la carte

que le «soutien de basse intensité» à Paul Kagame va se

du continent noir afin d’y réduire notamment l’influencetransformer avec Clinton en engagement ferme pourde la France. Guerre secrète par procuration, par proxies

l’aider à prendre le pouvoir et, de la sorte, faire plaisir à(«mandataires»), puisque les parties en cause ne

Museveni, plus que jamais l’homme-clé du système qui se

pouvaient s’affronter directement, trop liées qu’elles

met en place, et rendre par là plus cohérente l’associationétaient au sein d’alliances multiples, dont l’OTAN.

des «guerriers» africains chrétiens autour de John Garang.

Mouvements

mercenaires,

Deux événements contribuent encore à accélérer lasociétés multinationales ont été largement utilisés dansconstitution du front anti-islamiste destiné à en finir avec

ces différents combats stratégiques et économiques, laKhartoum. Le premier survient peu de temps après

conquête du Congo et de ses inestimables richesses étant

l’attentat contre le World Trade Center de New Yorkle corollaire évident de la guerre menée au Rwanda.

perpétré le 26 février 1993, qui avait pour objectif de fairerebelles,

FPR,

États

avant

africains,deprofit d’un gouvernement Garang. Le bénéfice serait

En janvier1993, l’arrivée de Bill Clinton à la Maison-basculer la tour nord sur la tour sud et de tuer des milliers

Blanche raidit en effet les positions américaines dans lade civils. La bombe tua 6 personnes et en blessa 1042. La

région. La nouvelle administration épouse la conception

National Security Agency (NSA) réussit rapidement à

géostratégique israélienne sur le Soudan, ce qui creusedécrypter les écoutes téléphoniques entre la Mission

plus encore le fossé avec Paris. Clinton a placé en tête desoudanaise à l’ONU et le ministère des Affaires étrangèresses priorités, dans son agenda, le règlement de la questionà Khartoum. Le 24 juin 1993, le FBI arrête huit personnes,

palestinienne, et il n’entend pas être gêné par quelques

dont cinq possédant un passeport soudanais. Lesinterférences qui pourraient venir de Khartoum, c’est-à-interceptions indiquent clairement que Khartoum est

dire par le soutien du régime soudanais aux Palestiniens,derrière l’attentat...

et notamment au Hamas. Le 18 août 1993, leLe fiasco de l’opération Restore Hope,début octobre

Département d’État inscrit le Soudan sur la liste des États

1993 (18 Rangers et des centaines de Somaliens meurent à

soutenant le terrorisme, ce qui fait de lui un «État-voyou».

Mogadiscio), pousse Washington à ne plus vouloir engager

Le plus grand pays africain fait son apparition dans

directement ses boys dans des conflits africains; lal’inventaire des pays qui s’opposent frontalement à Israël

deuxième est la mise en place de voies et de moyens pourdepuis sa création; il trouve ainsi sa place parmi les États

continuer à exercer une forte pression sur Khartoum. Les

du champ proche-oriental.

États-Unis, la Grande-Bretagne et Israël interviendront par

Samuel Huntington remarque dans son fameux livre, Le

procuration sur le terrain, par proxies interposés: ces États

choc des civilisations, que, après la prise de fonctions de«mandataires», il faudra les choyer, les conseiller et leurl’administration Clinton, un front anti-islamiste s’est formé

fournir de quoi. Un pont aérien est organisé entre

et que, dès le début, Madeleine Albright, nouvelle

Mogadiscio et Entebbe (Ouganda) pour transférer de très

représentante des États-Unis auprès des Nations unies,

grandes quantités d’armes qui seront mises à la disposition

s’est intéressée à l’importance du Soudan dans lade Museveni. Pour protéger Kampala contre Hassan al-

perspective du conflit moyen-oriental. Celle-ci s’interroge

Tourabi…
43«Un des signes précurseurs d’un changement depolitiquefut

ledésintérêt

grandissantpour

Pour les Trois et leurs proxies, dans le plan qu’ils ont

laformé, il n’y a donc que la France pour poser problème dudémocratisation en Afrique centrale et de l’Est. En effet,

fait de son rapprochement avec Khartoum et de sonune pression sur Khartoum ne pourrait s’exercer que parsoutien de Habyarimana. Début 1994, George Moose, ledes États entourant le Soudan. Or ces États avaient tout

«Monsieur Afrique» américain, fait part de son irritation3

intérêt à maintenir leurs régimes militaires qui se basaient

aux autorités françaises. Le départ des soldats français du

sur des minorités ethniques. Une sorte de deal fut conclu.

Rwanda, en décembre 1993, a certes été une bonne

Contre l’abandon de la pression démocratique [...], lesnouvelle, car il laisse le champ libre à Kagame et à ceux qui

chefs d’État se déclarèrent prêts à exercer une pression sur

l’aident: il n’y aura plus de témoin embarrassant,Khartoum.» Les responsables américains attribuent à ces

notamment«seigneurs de la guerre» le titre honorifique de «new

Habyarimana, qui donnera le signal de la phase finale de lageneration of African leaders». Et le conflit au Sud-Soudanconquête du pouvoir.

del’attentat

enpréparation

contredevient le terrain d’essai de la nouvelle alliance dirigée par

Pour comprendre ce qui s’est passé au cours de cette

Yoweri Museveni. Ce sont ses membres qui aident Paulpériode en Afrique centrale, d’Addis-Abeba à Kinshasa, il

Kagame dans la phase finale de sa conquête du pouvoir.

faut donc garder constamment à l’esprit les visées deL’ambassade américaine à Addis-Abeba recrute même desl’alliance contre Khartoum, mais aussi les ambitions desoldats en provenance de Somalie, d’Érythrée, d’Éthiopie

Museveni, nouvel homme fort africain soutenu par

et du Sud-Soudan pour appuyer le FPR après le 6 avril

Washington, ainsi que le projet de l’administration Clinton

19942.

d’en finir avec le pré carré français et avec le partage dePour aider Paul Kagame, l’administration Clinton,l’Afrique en zones d’influence. Il y a bien eu, à partir deparfaitement au courant de ce qui se passe au Rwanda par1993, une guerre secrète entre Paris et Washington.

les «sources humaines2», par la CIA, la DIA et la NSA,

Concrètement, Washington ne voulait plus entendre parler

décide de faire évacuer les Casques bleus aprèsde Mobutu, qui avait pendant longtemps endossé lal’assassinat de dix d’entre eux, le 7 avril 1994, le lendemain

fonction de «gendarme» de l’Occident pour défendre ses

de l’attentat qui a coûté la vie à Juvénal Habyarimana.

intérêts. Devant la commision des Affaires étrangères duBoutros-Ghali, secrétaire général de l’ONU, a prévenu à

Sénat, le nouveau secrétaire d’État américain, Christopher

plusieurs reprises Bill Clinton des risques de génocide; laWarren, affirme tout de go: «Le Président et moi-même

Maison-Blanche, ajoutait Boutros-Ghali, en était d’ailleurssommes d’accord: Mobutu au Zaïre, cela ne peut

parfaitement informée par ses services secrets: «Si lescontinuer.» Parfaitement conscient de cette évolution, lesatellites-espions américains peuvent lire les plaquesvieux «Guide» va donc renforcer ses liens avec Khartoum

d’immatriculation des voitures, ils savaient certainement

et tenter de renouer avec Paris pour contrer le nouveau

ce qui se passait au Rwanda.» La NSA avait même fourni

cours de l’Histoire.

un téléphone crypté à Paul Kagame, qui lui permettait

Depuis la fin des années 1980, Mobutu est mis à l’indexd’échanger en toute discrétion avec des responsables

par la troïka constituée des États-Unis, de la Belgique et deaméricains. Le code de ce téléphone aurait d’ailleurs été

la France. Le Zaïre est sous embargo et tente de renouer

décrypté par les services français4. Bref, les États-Unis

avec Paris qui entrouvre la porte. Cette agitation indispose

portent une lourde responsabilité dans le génocide desWashington et ses alliés, qui soutiennent Kagame, àTutsi et dans les massacres de masse d’Hutu pour avoir

l’heure où le génocide fait rage et alors que le FPR entre

privilégié la victoire de Paul Kagame.

dans la phase finale de sa conquête du pouvoir. Honoré
Ngbanda, ancien ministre de la Défense de Mobutu,

Une guerre secrète entre Washington et Paris

affirme qu’elle déclenche l’alerte rouge au sein des44

services secrets américains pour «contrer ce qu’ils

membres,l’Erythrée et l’Ethiopie, entrent en guerre etappelaient le “Front français”, qui venait de se constituer

Laurent-Désiré Kabila se retourne contre ses parrains

dans la région et qui, à leurs yeux, était composé de laougandais et rwandais. Plus question d’expédier desFrance, du Zaïre, du Soudan et du Hutu Power [entendez,

supplétifs africains jusqu’à Khartoum. Faute d’aller

les ex-FAR et les Interahamwe]. En effet, les experts desrenverser Omar al- Bachir, Susan Rice obtient qu’unservices spéciaux américains opérant dans la région

sérieux avertissement lui soit adressé. Après les explosions

avaient reçu mission d’étudier les voies et moyens desanglantes, le 7 août 1998, de voitures piégées encontrer par anticipation toutes les actions menées par la

Tanzanie et au Kenya, attribuées à al- Qaida, la Maison-France».

Blanche décide de frapper, le 20Þaoût 1998, l’usine

Dans ce contexte, la décision française, mi-juin 1994, depharmaceutique Al-Shifa avec des missiles de croisière,

lancer l’opération Turquoise est perçue comme uneprétextant que cette usine fabrique des armes chimiques

véritable déclaration de guerre. Les protecteurs dede destruction massive, et que sa direction est liée à

Kagame sont tout à fait convaincus que Paris a décidé

Oussamad’intervenir à nouveau au Rwanda pour empêcher le chef

montreront rapidement que cette usine fabriquait

du FPR de prendre le pouvoir et pour sauver le «régime

vraiment des médicaments. Et le clan Winter cherche

Habyarimana». «L’opération Turquoise sera surveillée à ladésormais d’autres voies pour harceler Khartoum. En 2001,

loupe par tous les services secrets américains engagésl’arrivée de Bush junior à la Maison-Blanche ne ralentit pas

dans la grande bataille de la région des Grands Lacs: la CIA,le combat de Roger Winter, ni ne réduit son entregent. Le

la DIA et le NSC», affirme encore Honoré Ngbanda.

6 juin, Winter intègre l’USAID au poste de directeur deBen

Laden.

De

nombreuxtémoignages

Alors que, au lendemain de l’attentat contre l’avion

l’Office of Foreign Disaster et pénètre un peu plus dans lesd’Habyarimana, le génocide des Tutsi et des Hutu modérésrouages officiels de l’administration américaine, puisquebat son plein, que Paul Kagame ne fait rien pour l’arrêter2l’USAID maintient «une étroite relation de travail avec laet que ses soldats se livrent à des massacres de masse surCIA, dont les agents opèrent souvent à l’étranger avec lala population civile hutu des zones qu’ils traversent,

couverture de l’USAID»…

nombre de combattants de l’alliance en cours deformation contre le Soudan(érythréens, éthiopiens, sud-

Après le 11 septembre

africains et évidemment ougandais) se trouvent dans lesAprès le 11-Septembre, la nouvelle administration Bushrangs de l’APR pour la phase ultime de la conquête: la prisea fait de la lutte contre le terrorisme sa principale prioritéde Kigali. La capitale tombera aux mains de l’armée du FPR

stratégique, un terrorisme défini comme visant nonle 3 juillet 1994.

seulement l’Amérique, mais embrassant aussi les actions

Dès lors Rwandais et Ougandais ont les mains libres

et manifestations hostiles à Israël. Déjà perçue comme lepour piller le Kivu,tuer par centaines de milliers ceux qu’ils

réservoir vital de matières premières nécessaires à son

appellentetdéveloppement, l’Afrique est devenue un champ deinstaller Laurent-Désiré Kabila. La France va tenter à deux

bataille crucial dans la lutte contre les nouveaux ennemis

reprises à l’automne 1996 et au printemps 1997,de lancer

de l’hyperpuissance américaine. Dans ce contexte,

une opération militaire pour arrêter les massacres deWashington a fait totalement sienne la vision israélienne

Hutus dans le Kivu. Washington va réussir à briser ces deux

du monde, et notamment sa conception géostratégique detentatives. Grâce à une incroyable désinformation, lal’Afrique, acceptant par là qu’une partie du continent soit

communauté internationale ne réagit pas à ces pillages etintégrée dans le champ de la confrontation moyen-

massacres.

orientale. Les stratèges US ont ainsi inclus le harcèlement

les« génocidaires »,renverser

MobutuMais le front anti-Khartoum explose parce que deux desdu régime de Khartoum (ou le renversement de son
45

régime) et l’éclatement du Soudan dans leurs propres

frontières, le Sud Soudan fait sécession le 9 juillet

objectifs. Pendant la guerre froide, Israël avait déjà servi

2011.Khartoum est désormais très affaibli…

de gendarme de l’Occident en Afrique; la nouvelle donne

Le génocide des Tutsi, les massacres de masse de Hutu

géopolitique a conduit Washington à réinstaller l’État

et de Congolais sont en quelque sorte les dégâts

hébreu dans son ancien rôle, persuadé que les Israéliens

collatéraux des menées de ces apprentis sorciers dans desdisposaient des meilleurs spécialistes en matière depays où les tensions ethniques étaient déjà très fortes. Et

contre-terrorisme.

ceux-ci ne tiennent évidemment pas à ce que soit dénoué

Avec l’aide des lobbies pro-israéliens, Roger Winter val’écheveau de leurs agissements dans la région des Grands

non seulement mener son combat pour faire éclater leLacs. Ils ont tout mis en œuvre pour désigner les Hutu etSoudan, mais aussi ouvrir un deuxième front contre

leurs alliés français comme étant les seuls responsables duKhartoum avec le Darfour. Une campagne de propagande

génocide des Tutsi, et se sont efforcés d’inscrire lesmonstrueuse est menée contre Omar al-Bachir ,lemassacres du Congo dans le cadre d’actions légitimes,

président soudanais, qui aboutit à sa mise au ban de laperpétrées contre les Interhamwe, les génocidaires hutu.

communauté internationale. Faisant d’un des grands
principes des relations internationales, l’intangibilité des46

Annex 3
Names of Cooperators for Organising the Symposium and Publishing the Report

MC : Heena Yang (Meiji University Student）
Preparation of handout materials : Mannon Nakayama, Akiho Sonoda (Rikkyo University students)
Receptionist : Kosuke Inoue, Shizuka Iwabuchi, Mannon Nakayama (Rikkyo University students)
Questionnaire : Natsumi Kurihara (Rikkyo University student)
Audio-typing: Shoko Tanaka
Proofreading: Ross Ryan etc.
Editing footage : Media Center (Rikkyo University)
Administration in whole : Center for Global Human Resource Development (Rikkyo University)
Coordinator / Editor-in-charge: Masako Yonekawa (Rikkyo University)
Publication of proceeding report / February 2016

This symposium was organised as part of Project Selected for the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science andTechnology FY2012 Program for Promoting Inter-University Collaborative Education.

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