名城アジア研究2019.03Vol.9 No.1

3 THE TRANSFORMATION OF JAPANESEELECTRONIC INDUSTRY– THE IMPACT OF SHARP FOXCONN MERGER 21 PROBLEM ANALYSIS AND REFORM OF HIGHER EDUCATION IN MYANMARFROM THE CASE OF JAPANESE HIGHER EDUCATIONAL REFORM
41 インドにおけるミルク増産の要因
55 名城大学農学部・農学研究科のキングモンクット工科大学トンブリ校生物資源
工学研究科 (タイ) との 2017 年度国際交流を振り返って
61 SAMURAI REVOLUTION
65 北東アジアの中の日本「名城アジア研究」投稿規則

Ye Tun Min

Meijo Asian Research Journal
2019.03Vol.9 No.1
● CONTENTS

Articles3 THE TRANSFORMATION OF JAPANESEELECTRONIC INDUSTRY– THE IMPACT OF SHARP FOXCONN MERGER -Chia Chen WU

21 PROBLEM ANALYSIS AND REFORM OF HIGHER EDUCATION IN MYANMARFROM THE CASE OF JAPANESE HIGHER EDUCATIONAL REFORM

Ye Tun Min

Research
Note

41 CAUSES OF RISE IN INDIA’S MILK PRODUCTION

Daizo SUGIMOTO

Report55 INTERNATIONAL EXCHANGE ACTIVITIES IN 2017 OF FACULTY AND
GRADUATE SCHOOL OF AGRICULTURE,MEIJO UNIVERSITY WITHSCHOOL OF BIORESOURCES AND TECHNOLOGY,KING MONGKUT'S
UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY THONBURI,THAILAND

Hiroki OKUMURA

Book Review

61 SAMURAI REVOLUTION

Philip BEECH

Lecture65 JAPAN IN NORTHEAST ASIA

Yasushi AKASHI

Meijo Asian Research Journal Contribution Rules

学術論文
ArticlesMeijo Asian Research Journal Vol.9 No.1

2

Articles

The transformation of Japanese electronic industry– the impact of Sharp Foxconn merger –CHIA-CHEN WU
Faculty of Economics, Meijo University
Abstract
The development of Taiwan's TFT-LCD industry began in the 1990s and has grown rapidly. After 20 years of development, Taiwan’s TFT-LCD
industry is now one of the two core industries in Taiwan the other one been semi-conductor industry. It has been influenced by Japan fromthe beginning. Most know-how and technology came to Taiwan through technology transfer by Japanese manufacturers. It has grownstronger by relying on imports from facilities and raw materials from Japan. In 2016, Foxconn in Taiwan acquired SHARP, a well-establishedJapanese TFT-LCD manufacturer. This study aimed to show the potential in synergistic effects with these diverse Japan-Taiwan alliance.
Vertical integration of upstream companies often faces great difficulties. Especially in the consumer electronic industry which requires technological strength and high efficiency, acquisitions led by top manufacturers just taking advantage of their own financial superiority have always led to failure. For example, a Chinese manufacturer acquired Pioneer’s TFT-LCD brand in 2009, and released various original productsin the Chinese market including flat-panel TVs, digital cameras and smart-phones under Pioneer brand, without success.
Foxconn is different from conventional electronics manufacturers, in that they have been developing an integrated production system with
Sharp for new 8K TFT-LCD TVs by linking Kansai district in Japan, Hsinchu Science Park area in Taiwan, and Guangzhou Longhua industrial
area. By developing this“ upgraded framework for the new strategic vertical integration” beyond regions, Foxconn, whose investments in
TFT-LCD business have been unfruitful, is now likely to stand a chance to challenge Samsung Electronics, the global leader of the TFT-LCD
industry. On the other hand, Foxconn, aiming to produce high added-value parts, is expanding its electronics manufacturing service areas,
while expanding into new business areas with the help of Sharp.
Also Foxconn expand their new business by capital market restructuring and trade incentive negotiations. It is interesting because Foxconn’s
new business and Sharp's business can complement each other create better synergy. Foxconn Industrial Internet (FII) is Foxconn new
business about combine the Cloud business. Networking equipment business and Apple's supply chain management vendors. Taiwan is amajor Apple's supply chain vendors and Foxconn is the single largest employer in Taiwan and now, Foxconn attempt to become largest
employer in mainland China now rank the 10th in China. Following the changes in Foxconn Group, shifting major focus on business innovation and business policy. These resulted in accelerating investments in USA and China. Sharp have more opportunities to play a major rolein the new Foxconn electronic component empire.

KEY WORDS : Foxconn, Sharp, LCD TV, Japanese TFT-LCD manufacturer, Synergistic, Taiwan

1. Introduction
The rapid growth of the TFT-LCD industry since late

1990s has prompted electronics manufacturers in East

Asia to enter this new industry. However, a drop in TFTLCD’s values starting in mid-2000s, and the financial

crisis of 2008 have forced many TFT-LCD manufacturers
to withdraw. By 2015, only four big TFT-LCD manufac-

turers were still alive: two of them were AU Optronics
Corporation (hereinafter referred to as AUO) and Innolux,

Taiwanese manufacturers, and the others were Japan

Display Inc. (hereinafter referred to as JDI) and Sharp,
whose businesses had been integrated by the Innovation
Network Corporation of Japan.

Foxconn has always been pursuing advanced manu-

facturing technologies, and is showing its full competi-

tive edges in today’s manufacturing where the businessprocess redesign and modulation of electrical equipment

is taking place rapidly. Its revenue is fully reflective of

Smiling Curve, which describes the correlations between
manufacturing processes and their added values in theelectronics industry. In order to achieve further profit

growth, Foxconn, with its competitive edges in tech-

nology and capital, placed joint task force with Sharpfor various types of co-operation for more than 5 years,
which had the best business linkage with Foxconn. Nowa brand-new Japan-Taiwan alliance model is going to be
put to the test.

In March 2016, Foxconn was given the opportunities
to acquire Sharp, becoming the first case of a prestige
Japanese electronics manufacturer coming under thecontrol of a foreign company. When this acquisition hap-

pened, many were skeptic about Sharp’s reconstructing,3

Meijo Asian Research Journal Vol.9 No.1

but it turned out that Foxconn’s reconstructing plan en-

abled Sharp to reduce its loss to 24.8 billion yen for the

fiscal year of 2016, about one tenth of what it was theprevious year, according to their announcement in April,2017. Thus they made the first successful step toward
profitability.

This study focused on Sharp’s reform led by Foxconn
from 2016 and the changes in the TFT-LCD industry inJapan and Taiwan, and explores how Sharp’s performance recovered. At the same time, it examines themeanings and influences of developments such as thenext generation panel investment project by Sharp in

Guangzhou, announced at the end of 2016, and the cur-rently discussed investment project in the US, in line with
developments in Foxconn today.

Many of the preceding studies on this field focus on

the Academia Sinica’s involvement in Taiwanese TFT-

LCD industry during the period after 2002 when thisindustry’s growth was part of Taiwan’s national policy.

While few studies were conducted on TFT-LCD after thedevelopment of the Taiwanese TFT-LCD industry was
mainly led by corporations, there are many researches
focused on Foxconn in Taiwan. Among them, Hu yu
Hu (Tiger and Fox) a 2008 book by Dianwen Zhang,introduces Foxconn’s evolution from an OEM assembly

provider to an EMS provider and the development ofInnolux up to 2007 under the Foxconn group flag. After
Sharp’s acquisition was confirmed in 2016, more andmore case studies were conducted in Japan on Foxconn
and Sharp, with many of them focused on their execu-

tives. Among them, Ambition － Biography of Terry Gou(2016) by Minetoshi Yasuda and Foxconn and Terry Gou－ Sharp’s Truth (2016) published by the Mainichi News-

papers both elaborate on the acquisition negotiation
processes by Foxconn and Sharp from the viewpointsof their executives. Yukihiko Nakata, a Japanese researcher on the TFT-LCD industry, explained the reasonsfor Sharp’s rapid deficit expansion in 2014 in his book
Depths of Sharp’s Defeat (2016) .

However, there have still been few studies shedding
light on the connection between the rapid development
by Foxconn of Sharp’s investment project and its brandreconstruction, and the linkage of three regions in Japan,

Taiwan and China. Thus previous studies can hardly

explain the reasons why Foxconn, an EMS provider, cansingle-handedly sustain a TFT-LCD TV brand. My previous study Japan- Taiwan Industrial Alliance and Inno-

vation (2017) discusses recent cases of Japan-Taiwan
cooperation in the electrical equipment and electronic4

manufacturing industries, and thoroughly clarifies thechanges in Japan-Taiwan alliances from a Taiwanese
viewpoint.

Recently, the theory of Smiling Curve, which has often

been cited to discuss the characteristics of the electronics industry in Taiwan, has also been applied to theelectronic manufacturing industry including electronics

and telecommunications. Foxconn, which makes full useof the electronic manufacturing industry’s advantages bycombining its established brand as an advanced manufacturer, product design, sales channels and dedicatedservices, and successfully maintains its competitiveedge and operating profit, is now creating a new model of Japan-Taiwan alliance through the acquisition of

Sharp. To provide more detailed explanations as to thechanges in the TFT-LCD industry structure in Japan andTaiwan due to Foxconn’s acquisition of Sharp, it is nec-

essary to focus on the ever-changing situation of Sharp’s
business integration in East Asia before mid-2017 tohave a better understanding of the status quo.

From the viewpoint of manufacturing technology, in

addition to meeting the needs for multi-functional consumer electronic products and high performance, theconcept of “Heterogeneous Integration” has become
main stream in mobile device production. As mobile
devices become widespread, the TFT-LCD industry has
shifted its focus from up-sizing to diversification, withtwo panel models currently produced: large panels for

TVs and small and medium-sized panels with high performance. Foxconn is working on integrating their TFT-

LCD business with Sharp, in an attempt to step out frombehind the scenes by handling everything from electronics manufacturing, high added-value parts production to
final products.

In order to respond to the rise of protectionism world-

wide Foxconn is planning to reduced 20% of the total

investment amount at 2018. Foxconn changed its business model to accelerated the development of overseas

investment to continue to generate profits. In addition tostart construction of the U.S. factory, Foxconn had setup

new affiliated company in China - Foxconn Industrial
Internet (FII) (Established on March 6, 2015). Foxconn

applied listing FII in Shanghai Stock Exchange on March2018 and approved for listing on May this year. FII now

listed on the SHSX. Foxconn has new company objective regarding capital flows, funds operation and tradenegotiations become new company initiative and drive.

THE TRANSFORMATION OF JAPANESE ELECTRONIC INDUSTRY– THE IMPACT OF SHARP FOXCONN MERGER –2. Situations of TFT-LCD Industry in Japan andTaiwan before Sharp’s Acquisition
This section will look at the changes in the global

TFT-LCD market due to rapid growth of small and medium-sized devices such as smart-phones and tablets,
and the directions in which Japanese and Taiwanese
TFT-LCD manufacturers are moving.

(1)Expanding Market Size for Small and Medium-Sized
Mobile Devices

According to “White Paper 2015 – Information andCommunications in Japan” by the Ministry of Internal

Affairs and Communications, Japan, the total shipmentof smart-phones in 2014 increased to about 1.3 billion

units, and this rapid growth rate was expected to continue (Figure 1). The analysis by region showed that annual
growth rates in advanced countries in North America andWest Europe were expected to slow down to less than
5% on average, which matches the status quo. Today

growth remains stable in India, the Middle East, Africa

and emerging countries in East Asia. High growth rates

are expected to continue in these regions as smartphones become more and more widespread there,
which will pull the global market along.

ment, including Xiaomi and Huawei, have been achieving
dramatic growth. The prices of small and medium-sizedmobile devices are going down, with Chinese smart-phones sold at about half price of, but offering the same
specifications as, ones by well-known manufactures.

This pricing advantage accounts for Chinese manu-

facturers’ dominant share in the global Smart-phonemarket, which in 2014 reached 66% (Figure 2). Just as
Chinese Smart-phone manufacturers strengthen theirtechnologies, Chinese TFT-LCD manufacturers drasti-cally enhance their competitive edges in cooperation
with foreign manufacturers. However, even though
Xiaomi has the biggest market share in android smart-phones, defeating Samsung, small and medium-sizedhigh-resolution panels for mobile devices have to beimported from Japan, Taiwan, and Korea since it is largesized panels that are mainly produced in China.

Even a lot of Japanese people still using old style flip

phone at this age, but the smartphone’s market shareis growing very fast. Especially since 2010 to 2014 itshowed exponential growth for Smart-phone market

share. Until 2016, the Market share of smartphone’s

and the market share of flip phone in Japan is closer togetting within level playing field. Overall, the influence ofJapan’s Smart-phone maker and Japan’s TFT-LCD maker is getting weaker globally.

Figure 1 Smart-phone Market Size by Region

Figure 2 Smart-phone Vendors’ Market Share in Chinese Market (Second Half of 2014)(Source) IHS Technology
Cited from：“White Paper 2015 – Information andCommunications in Japan” by the
Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications,Japan
http://www.soumu.go.jp/johotsusintokei/whitepaper/ja/h27/pdf/n5200000.pdf(Source) IHS Technology
Cited from：“White Paper 2015 – Information and Communications in Japan” by the
Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications, Japan
http://www.soumu.go.jp/johotsusintokei/whitepaper/ja/h27/pdf/n5200000.pdf

Today, China is where mobile devices such as cost-the spread of smart-phones. Small and medium-sized

down smart-phones and tablets are mainly produced.

Since 2012, manufactures partly owned by the govern-

The TFT-LCD industry has entered a new era withpanels’ continuous evolution through the developmentof high-resolution panels and improvements in touch5

Meijo Asian Research Journal Vol.9 No.1

panels is the main characteristic of the recent TFT-LCD
industry. TFT-LCD manufactures are faced with more
and more fierce competition, mass-producing new small

and medium-sized panels one after another, and differ-ent small and medium-sized panel manufacturers takethe top three places almost every year (Figure 3). Thesechanges in the TFT-LCD supply system has strongly
influenced the growth of the TFT-LCD industry in Japanand Taiwan for the past five years. Recent developments

and characteristics of the TFT-LCD industry in Japan andTaiwan are organized below.

Sharp's sales performance continues to improve from2016. At Sharp 2018 Annual report. Point out that con-solidated profit rose 44.3% to 90.1 billion Japanese yen(about 8 billion USD) This is the first time Sharp to makethe company profitable from 2014. This figure consolidated profit has shy away from the 95billion reported
estimate from Nikke financial news. Sharp’s Advance

Display Systems department,（Sharp branded LCD TV,

large plasma TV and medium to small LCD display panels）revenue increased by 29%,2017 huge gross profit
increase to 37 billion Yen.

power was integrated as the result of the reorganizationof the TFT-LCD industry led by the Japanese govern-

ment. In 2012, a new brand JDI was formed through theconsolidation of the display panel businesses of Sony,
Hitachi and Toshiba led by the Innovation Network Corporation of Japan, to put an emphasis on the develop-

ment of small and medium-sized high-performance pan-els. In order to integrate their small and medium-sizedpanel businesses, Toshiba and Hitachi stopped produc-tion of large-sized panels while maintaining their brands.
However, this development has made Sharp and JDI

arch-rivals. Japanese manufacturers had hoped for thegrowth of mobile devices, as Taiwanese and Korean
manufacturers surpassed them in investments in largesized panels, and this single focus on the developmentof small and medium-sized has brought fundamental

changes to the structure of the TFT-LCD industry in Japan.

(3) Case of Taiwanese TFT-LCD Manufacturers

Taiwanese TFT-LCD manufacturers have actively

expanded their investments in China while fostering
the growth of TFT-LCD parts manufacturers in Taiwan(2) Case of Japanese TFT-LCD Manufacturers

Many Japanese TFT-LCD manufacturers withdrew

from the market after the financial crisis of 2008, withthe remaining big TFT-LCD manufacturers shifting
their focus of development to small and medium-sizedhigh-resolution panels to maintain their competitiveness.
Even today Japanese TFT-LCD manufacturers meet theworld’s top standards in small and medium-sized panel

production. Among them, Sharp is a TFT-LCD manufacturer which has been part of Apple’s supply chain fromthe very beginning, and is still supplying panels to Apple
today. Since it was selected as a display supplier for iPhones, Sharp has been supplying panels to Apple while
producing its own brand of TFT-LCD products.

Other Japanese TFT-LCD manufacturers had not

produced as good results in the development of small
and medium-sized panels as Sharp, and their dispersed

since late 2000s. AUO, once the largest TFT-LCD man-ufacturer in Taiwan, submitted an investment plan of a
new-generation pre-process panel plant in China to the
Ministry of Economic Affairs of the Republic of China in2008 , and immediately after that, it also announced aplan to set up a 7.5th-generation TFT-LCD panel plant in
Kunshan, Suzhou Prefecture, one of their bases in China.

Later, AUO, together with Infovision Optelectronics, aChinese TFT-LCD manufacturer, and a financial institutein Kunshan City, made an investment of about 334,113
million yen in a new plant.

On the other hand, Foxconn took advantage of thisfavorable trend as an EMS provider to expand its sales

and TFT-LCD businesses. In 2010, Foxconn acquired,by share exchange, CMO, Taiwan’s then second-big-gest TFT-LCD manufacturer, which had suffered frombad performance, and founded “New CMO”. (1) Even

Figure 3 Top Three Small and Medium-Sized Panel Manufacturers’ Market Share from 2009 to 2015
Year

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

No. 1

Sharp
16.5%

Sharp
14.8%

Sharp
14.8%

JDI
19.9%

JDI
16.2%

LGD
17%

Samsung
23%

No. 2

Samsung
12.8%

CMI
11.7%

Samsung
11.9%

Sharp
15.8%

Sharp
15.1%

JDI
15%

JDI
16%

No. 3

CMI
11.4%

Toshiba
9.2%

Toshiba
9.2%

CMI
11.1%

LGD
14.2%

Sharp
15%

LGD
14%

Created by the author based on websites and news articles

6

THE TRANSFORMATION OF JAPANESE ELECTRONIC INDUSTRY– THE IMPACT OF SHARP FOXCONN MERGER –though it had been receiving Apple’s orders since thefirst generation of iPhone, Foxconn was not able to produce TFT-LCD panels which accounted for 30% of thetotal production costs of iPhones, so its profit margin

had been squeezed. Foxconn expected to be chosen asan iPhone display supplier with the help of IPS technologies by CMO, which inherited DNA from a Japanese
TFT-LCD manufacturer, but in the end failed to do so.

As a result, Innolux, under the Foxconn group flag,

merged with CMO, and Foxconn started to ask Japa-

nese manufacturers for cooperation. Sharp got into thefirst financial crisis in 2012, due to the low capacity utilization of its 10th-generation panel plant constructedwith massive investments in Sakai. By then, Sharp’s

loan amount had increased to 362.5 billion yen. In severe repayment difficulties, Sharp chose Foxconn as abusiness partner and sold 9.9% of its shares to Foxconn, making it the largest shareholder of Sharp. Terry
Gou also personally (2) purchased 46.5% of Sharp’s

10th-generation plant in Sakai for 66 billion yen, chang-

ing the plant’s name to Sakai Display Product (SDP).
Sharp has positioned this new partnership with Taiwan

as “evolution into the framework of a new strategic vertical integration”.

turer, Sharp founded a new TFT-LCD enterprise Nanjing
CEC Panda FPD Technology together with Nanjing City
and Nanjing CEC Panda group, which marked the startof Sharp’s full-fledged TFT-LCD panels in China to keep
up with Taiwanese and Korean competitors. As a result,an integrated production line from TFT-LCD modules
to TVs and “TFT-LCD R&D Center” were established in
Nanjing City by duplicating the “Mie Prefecture Crystal
Valley” model mainly developed in Sharp’s Kameyama

Plant before. However, in 2012, Sharp, faced with deficits, opted to reduce its investment burden by allotting

part of technical guidance fees received from CEC Panda to its capital investment, instead of giving priority tofurther investment.

In 2013, Sharp also announced a new partnership planin TFT-LCD panels with CEC Panda. This announcement
was about a plan to found a joint venture to operate an
8.5th-generation TFT-LCD plant in Nanjing City with acapital of about 278.1 billion yen (investment ratio: CEC
Panda 92%, Sharp 8%) in partnership with CEC Panda

group. Sharp provided its energy-saving TFT-LCD technology IGZO to this new plant in Nanjing City, and started making prototypes of the 8.5th generation of IGZO.

These efforts by Sharp to reduce deficits by selling its
patents to China and Samsung accelerated its collapse.

3. Factors of Sharp’s Failure and its Reorganization Plan by Foxconn(2) Competition between Sharp and JDI

Sharp was eventually acquired by Foxconn due tocrease in Sharp’s deficit in 2014: the bankruptcy of Win-such problems as failure in its large-sized panel development plan in China and a rapid decrease in its salesof small and medium-sized panels with its market share

lost to JDI. Even after it had new management, Sharp isstill faced with several problems in terms of the industry
and management, including a turnaround in technolog-

ical development, rights to use its brand for the US andEuropean markets, and its sales plan for Asia. The firsthalf of this section analyzes the causes of Sharp’s failure,

and the second half organizes Sharp’s reorganization

by Foxconn and the current directions in which Sharp isgoing.

(1) Sharp’s Investment in China and its Failure

Sharp’s plan for investment in China was only toconstruct an TFT-LCD assembly plant in Nanjing City,

Jiangsu province. In 2010, with the strategy of sellingthe 6th-generation production facilities in its Kameyama
Plant No. 1 to CEC Panda, a Chinese TFT-LCD manufac-

Yukihiko Nakata, in his book Depths of Sharp’s Defeat,pointed out one of the important reasons for the rapid in-tek, the then-second-biggest touch panel manufacturer
in Taiwan. Wintek was a small and medium-sized TFT-

LCD manufacturer founded in 1990 in Taiwan. It started
off by producing STN and TFT-LCD panels, but from2008 on, its business shifted to the production of touch

panels with success. By joining Apple’s supply chain,
Wintek’s sales expanded rapidly until 2011.

The speed of technological progress in touch panels

for smart-phones is faster in Taiwanese manufacturers
than in Japanese ones, so Sharp’s Smart-phone pan-els were first sent to Wintek in Taiwan, before finally
exported to China with touch panels mounted. Wintek

constructed a new plant in Dongguan, China, by spending 50 billion NTD, forecasting that demands for Smart-phone touch panels would continue to grow. However,Apple, during the process of adopting a new touch panel

technology, decided to switch to capacitive touch pan-els with low power consumption, from glass capacitive

touch panels. Losing its most important customer Apple,

7

Meijo Asian Research Journal Vol.9 No.1

Wintek was forced into bankruptcy within a short period(4) Sharp’s Reform by Foxconn

Sharp, which suddenly lost a business partner.

name recognition in Asia as one of the top EMS provid-of time. Its bankruptcy also made a serious impact on
While Sharp was unable to deliver panels in time, JDI,

another Japanese manufacturer started to take its place
to provide small and medium-sized panels to China. In
contrast to Sharp’s massive deficit in 2014, JDI’s sales
substantially expanded in the fiscal year of 2015, grab-bing the world’s biggest market share in small and medium-sized panels.

Foxconn had already achieved a certain degree of

ers in the world, but it was not until it was in charge of
producing Apple’s products that it made its presence

truly felt in the world. Therefore, it was Foxconn’s firstand foremost task not only to achieve cost reduction

by producing panels by themselves, but also to seek amore solid relationship with Apple by making itself more

important to Apple. Since April 2016, Foxconn has been(3) Sharp’s Acquisition by Foxconn

Sharp’s situation was temporarily improved when it

received capital from Samsung in 2012, but still got intoanother financial crisis due to heavily discounted sellingof panels and to competition with JDI. At this moment,

Foxconn made another proposal for partnership. Partly
in consideration of good results from the joint operationof SDP, Sharp decided to choose Foxconn as sponsor

for its management reconstruction on February 25,
2016. Sharp announced a capital increase plan of about
489 billion yen underwritten by Foxconn, but the final

agreement was delayed until April, partly due to debt

risks notified by Sharp later. Eventually, Foxconn ob-

tained 66% of Sharp’s shares for a capital investment of
about 388.8 billion yen，obtaining its management rights

as of April 2016 (Figure 4).

marketing itself to Apple by making good use of the resources available from Sharp to provide parts with evenhigher added value. The technologies Foxconn is currently working on after Sharp’s acquisition is as follows.
① Panel Production

Currently, Foxconn is working in two directions: im-provement of TFT-LCDs with IGZO technology anddevelopment of organic electroluminescence (OEL) pan-els. At this moment, TFT-LCDs, with such advantages
as low power consumption, a longer lifespan, and lesspanel color loss, are more competitive than OEL panels

because the current notebooks and iPads particularly
prefer using TFT-LCDs. Sharp has continuously beenemphasizing the advantages of TFT-LCDs, as the LTPS

technology owned by Sharp is an essential part of competition in developing OEL panels. On the other hand,
JDI is working on development of JOLED, its original

equipment for manufacturing OEL panel by printing, but
Figure 4 Timetable of agreement over Sharp’s acquisition by Foxconn
Time

Event

June, 2011

Foxconn’s investment was approved in Sharp’s shareholders’ meeting.

July, 2011

Agreement was reached over mutual supply of TFT-LCD panels for TVs.

March, 2012

Agreement was reached over investments into Sharp’s headquarters and Sakai Plant’s
operating company.

July, 2012

Foxconn invested 66 billion yen in Sakai Plant’s operating company.

August, 2012

Foxconn announced agreement to review investments in Sharp’s headquarters.

March, 2013

Agreement on investments in Sharp’s headquarters expired.

October, 2015

Sharp announced that it was negotiating with multiple parties to sell its TFT-LCD business.

January 30, 2016

Chairman Terry Gou explained their support plans including investments in Sharp’s headquarters.

February 4, 2016

Foxconn got the preferential negotiation rights.

February 25, 2016

Sharp decided to accept external capital investments. Foxconn put the contract on hold.

March 30, 2016

Sharp and Foxconn made decisions about investments respectively.

April 2, 2016

Both parties officially reached agreement and had a press conference.
Created by the author

8

THE TRANSFORMATION OF JAPANESE ELECTRONIC INDUSTRY– THE IMPACT OF SHARP FOXCONN MERGER –it seems very difficult for it to make large-scale investments in OEL panels due to financial restrictions.

Despite their various disadvantages, the developmentof OEL panels was to be accelerated when it was con-firmed that OEL panels would be adopted for iPhone’s
10th anniversary model in 2017. OEL panels will be thefocus of R&D for each TFT-LCD manufacturer for the
future. Currently, Sharp does not have the capability tomass produce OEL panels. So far Apple has always had
two or three panel suppliers at the same time, but only
two Korean TFT-LCD manufacturers, Samsung and LG,

can mass produce OEL panels on a large scale, as they
have put a lot of effort into OEL technologies from thevery beginning. In 2018, only Samsung and LG is readyto supply OEL panels to Apple. Considering the poten-

tially enormous business opportunity brought by OEL
panels, Apple, in an effort to avoid depending on Samsung, its competitor in the Smart-phone market, for OEL

panels for a long time, has been working on developing

OEL panels by themselves, and is poised for cooperation with other panel manufacturers. Since the spring of

2017, rumors have been floating about in the market,
suggesting that Apple is going to construct an OEL panel
plant with Foxconn. If Apple works on OEL panels in

Taiwan with all its might, this will be a big momentum for
Foxconn to develop them.

Incidentally, it is true that Samsung is the world’s

most advanced manufacturer of OEL panels, but it has

still been purchasing their manufacturing equipmentfrom a Japanese manufacturer. Canon Tokki, a production facility manufacturer which was the leading TFT-

LCD manufacturer before, almost monopolizes the OEL
panel manufacturing equipment market.

ever-expanding camera lens market, big camera lensmanufacturers in Japan and Taiwan have embarked on

facility reinforcement. Largan Precision, a Taiwanesemanufacturer, announced plans for plant expansion, andKantatsu, a Japanese manufacturer, is planning to con-struct plants in China, in addition to expanding businessin Japan. Foxconn, which is continuously looking for op-

portunities to manufacture new parts with its advanced
technologies to enhance its profitability, has been ac-

tively examining chances to enter camera lens businesssince 2016.

Today, almost all the Smart-phone manufacturers

outsource camera lenses except for Samsung. Camera

lenses for iPhones are now supplied mainly by Lar-gan, and by others including Genius Electronic Optical (GSEO) and Sunny Optical Technology, a Chinese
manufacturer. Largan, a Taiwanese parts manufacturer,

accounts for 30% of the world’s share in the productionof Smart-phone camera lenses, and is one of Apple’s

main suppliers. The only Japanese company which ispart of Apple’s camera lens supply chain is Kantatsu,

a big camera lens manufacturer. After acquiring Sharp,

Foxconn has been more motivated to expand businesswith Kantatsu, whose largest shareholder is Sharp, andincrease orders from Apple.

Kantatsu, a Japanese camera lens manufacturer

which has attracted Foxconn’s attention after Sharp’s

acquisition, is an independently run company (Sharp’s
investment ratio is 44.4%). In addition to support given
to Kantatsu by Apple itself (Kantatsu has received capitalfrom Apple, increasing its monthly production capacity
to 25 million units), a reinforced relationship between
Foxconn and Kantatsu would bring changes to Apple’s

camera lens supply chain under Foxconn’s initiative.

② Camera Lenses

Camera lenses have become more and more import-

ant since 2016. Some of the high-end smart-phones

have now begun to adopt a dual-lens camera system,and the demand for camera lenses amounts to 100

million units just in the Chinese market, which sug-gests a good chance of further growth. Faced with theOn the other hand, Foxconn is trying to strengthen its
camera lens business in Taiwan. In 2016, it decided to

put more emphasis on camera lens production, invest-

ing capital in Zhong Yang Technology, the third biggest
lens manufacturer in Taiwan. After that, Zhong Yangpurchased a plant disposed of by Newmax Technology,

another Taiwanese lens manufacturer for about 975 mil-Figure 5 Status Quo of OEL Production
Manufacturer
Samsung

Production Status
Producing 4th,5th and 6th generations of OEL

LGD

Producing 4th,5th and 6th generations of OEL, only in small volume

AUO

Producing OEL panels that support 3.5 and 4.5 Smart-phone AR
Created by the author

9

Meijo Asian Research Journal Vol.9 No.1

lion yen. Foxconn has clearly shown its willingness todevelop lens business in Taiwan through the expansion
and reinforcement of Zhong Yang (Figure 6).

Foxconn will increase its competitive advantage if it

can also provide multiple technologies and high precision parts for TFT-LDC panels and camera lenses, beyond iPhone assembly.

supply of TFT-LCD panels to outside customers includ-ing Samsung, LGD, Hisense, a Chinese home applianc-es manufacturer, which has led to a lawsuit against
Samsung.

There are a few reasons for Foxconn’s restriction of

its TFT-LCD panel supply. The first reason is to secure

SDP’s panel production. After Foxconn got back Sharp

brand from UMC in Europe in July, 2016, TFT-LCD pan-(5) Development of Vertical Integration of Panel Production across Regions

Before it was acquired by Foxconn, Sharp closed

some of its plants in Japan to reduce its deficit, but was
not able to fundamentally solve the high cost problem

of its TFT-LCD TVs. To make the matters worse, Sharp’s
international competitiveness declined due to a smaller
product portfolio after selling its plant in Mexico. In orderto overcome these adversities, Foxconn has strengthened the link between Sharp and Innolux, making adjustments to their business outline since Q2 of 2017.
① Sharp Focused on Technological Development

Through business outline adjustments by Foxconn,

Sharp remains poised to develop new technologies andproduce high-end models, which Japanese manufactur-ers are generally good at, but the trend is now going tochange. Currently, Sharp is trying to shift its development focus to mass production of OEL panels, while

making its plants in Japan dedicated to production of
TFT-LCD panels over 80 inches. At the same time, Fox-

conn is expanding its involvement in SDP and Sharp,
pursuing further cost reduction. One of the problems

Sharp has been faced with is that it has supplied TFTLCD panels to Korean and Chinese manufacturers at
discounted prices to reduce its deficit. In order to solve

this, Foxconn made an additional capital investment of
52 billion yen in total in SDP, which it operates in part-nership with Sharp, in December, 2016. As the result of
this investment, Foxconn’s investment ratio exceeded
50%, making SDP a subsidiary. Since 2017, in an effort
to improve Sharp’s profitability, Foxconn restricted its

els made in Europe have been provided by Sharp Japan.

In order to secure a stable position in the European mar-ket, it is necessary to maintain a certain level of produc-tion capacity, which can additionally be used to increase
panel supply to Asia. Sharp is now shifting its policy to

expanding its sales in the Asian market. As demands
for large-sized TVs are growing in China and emerging
countries in South East Asia, Foxconn is pushing for thisexpansion by investing capital, while expanding the production under its own brand.

Furthermore, in an effort to fundamentally solve thehigh cost problem of Sharp’s made-in-Japan TFT-LCD

TVs, Foxconn is transferring SDP’s panels directly to
Sharp in Sakai City to compensate for a lack of Sharp’s
production capacity in Japan. Through this parts sup-ply inside the group, Sharp’s production cost in Japan
has been reduced. Of course, large-scale investments
involve risks. Foxconn’s net deficit for December 2016

amounted to 59.2 billion yen, apparently due not only toan additional capital investment in SDP, but mainly to adrop in the prices of large-sized TFT-LCD panels.

② Innolux Starting Production of TFT-LCD TVs under
Sharp Brand

Innolux, a Taiwanese TFT-LCD manufacturer under the

Foxconn group, plays different roles from Sharp’s, butboth of them have cost reduction as a common target.
While Sharp’s emphasis is on development, Innolux isfocused on innovation in production methods and im-provement in technological integration. Making good useof the experiences Foxconn has accumulated of producing TVs and developing fully automated plants, Innolux istrying various methods with an ambition to invent a new

Figure 6 Main Camera Lens Manufacturers
Manufacturer

Monthly Production (units)

Customers

Largan (Taiwan)

100 million

Huawei, Xiaomi, Sony

Sunny Optical (China)

30 million

Huawei, Lenovo, OPPO, Samsung

Kantatsu(Japan)

25 million

Sony and other Japanese Smart-phone manufacturers
Created by the author

10

THE TRANSFORMATION OF JAPANESE ELECTRONIC INDUSTRY– THE IMPACT OF SHARP FOXCONN MERGER –TV production method.

The vertical integration in the TFT-LCD industry inJapan had been stable up to early 2000s. In those days,
each Japanese TFT-LCD TV manufacturer, with its own

panel production technologies and parts manufactur-

ers, conducted by itself everything from manufacturing,branding to sales of TFT-LCD TVs, for example AQUOS
series by Sharp. However, after 2009, those surviving

capabilities now, but have already achieved some progress in other components and corporate integration.

4. Integration of Sharp Brand and Expansion into
Global Market
Sharp, lost in competition against Samsung and JDI,

Japanese manufacturers started to mainly adopt “Openwas forced into a situation where its technological edg-

TFT-LCD manufacturers and TV manufacturers without

expand into the global market with the help of Foxconn,

resulted in separation of panel production and branding,sales channels. After recovering the rights to use its own

idly declined. Faced with this trend, Foxconn is trying toment Plan for the fiscal years from 2017 to 2019 in Julyto sales on its own again, based on the synergistic effectsales and 150 billion yen of operating profit for the fiscal

Innolux’s production capacity. Innolux, under the Fox-

targets will be met, Sharp established “8K Ecosystem

LCD TVs would start to be produced locally in a new

Strategy Office”, showing that its future business outline

Sharp has limited-time special offer for the artificial

ness. “8K Ecosystem” and “Human Friendly IoT” are theat (1111) 11th November 2016, the sales promotionof this section will organize the status and progress of60inch LCD free, Sharp generated 3 billion NTD sales

2016. The second half will explain Sharp’s future 8K in-

Cell” method of selling TFT-LCD panels to Chinese

es did not lead to profitability, but is now trying again to

sufficient production capacity, to increase sales. This

which has reorganized Sharp’s business and secured

and the vertical integration in the TFT-LCD industry rap-

brand, Sharp announced a new Medium-Term Manage-

realize vertical integration from manufacturing, branding

2017, aiming to achieve 3 trillion 250 billion yen of totalof Sharp’s technological development and brand, andyear of 2019 as “One SHARP”. To ensure that theseconn group, announced that part of Sharp brand’s TFT-

Business Strategy Office” and “AIoT(AI+IoT) Businessproduction line in Taiwan in Q2 of 2017.

will be focused on 8K TFT-LCD panels and IoT busi-

Chinese singles festival, for single male and females

two important pillars of the reborn Sharp. The first halfof RMB$14000 ($65000NTD), buy 70inch 4K LCD getbrand rights recovery by Foxconn since the summer of(about 100 million U.S. Dollars) a day. This was huge

vestment plan and its IoT business directions.

offer included 40inch 4K LCD in Taiwan sells for $8000(1) Recovering Rights to Use Brand and Related Prob-

success for Sharp and Foxconn. These promotional
NTD $270 USD leads to top sales volume or number 1

lemscompetitive pricing online and retails shops resulted in

nologically underdeveloped countries strengthen theircusation point out that sharp segmented the market by

establish their own brand, they are not very competi-of the market because of their new LCD use Innolux andovercome this weakness in a short time, some emerg-

LCD selling at high-end, use sharp's panel only made inof their customers through corporate acquisition andthe market for sales in different regions and meet thehome appliance manufacturers, which have become

Foxconn, which has actively enhanced its competi-

quiring Japanese home appliance manufacturers. In theits unique business development plan in the industry.

ing white goods business of Sanyo Electric, under thetion, the whole TFT-LCD industry is evolving into the next

appliance manufacturer, in 2011, after Panasonic hadgoals in the development of OEL panels, as they have nofor two consecutive years. In another example, Chinese

in Taiwan retail market and online shops. Sharp set up

Even if electronics-machinery manufacturers in tech-huge success in Taiwan and Chinese market. Some ac-

production capabilities as subcontractors, and later

using cheaper price panels to compete on the lower end

tive because of their relatively short history. In order to

Infocus, corporation panels. As for Japanese market or

ing manufacturers make efforts to increase the number

Japan. This is purely marketing strategy to segmented

by obtaining the rights to use famous brands. Chinese

customer demands.

mature particularly after late 2000s, are now mainly ac-

tiveness partly by making good use of acquisitions, hascase of Japanese white goods business, the long-last-

Two year into the start of Sharp’s business reorganiza-

Panasonic group, was sold to Haier, a big Chinese home

stage. Neither Foxconn nor Sharp has achieved theirrecorded a massive deficit of more than 700 billion yen

11Meijo Asian Research Journal Vol.9 No.1

Midea group obtained rights to use Toshiba brand for 40

years for business purposes all over the world in 2016.
Foxconn is now faced with similar types of problems,

aiming to sell Sharp’s TVs to the global market just by

before Sharp’s acquisition, by offering to share the profits generated from technology transfers with it.

recovering rights to use the brand.

③ US Business

Plan to Integrate TFT-LCD TV Brandsmoothly in Europe and Asia, the rights recovery is im-

Currently, Sharp brand is controlled by multiple

manufacturers in different areas of the world, making

the situation very complex. Sharp’s new management
inaugurated in July 2016, under Foxconn’s initiative,
proposed a policy of integrating its TFT-LCD brands.
Aiming to make Sharp a global brand in fields including
AV business in the US and European markets, Foxconn

has examined various measures, with different developments of recovering rights to use brands depending on
the region.

① Restart of European BusinessIn 2015, Sharp withdrew from the TV market in Eu-

rope because of poor performance, transferring Sharp
brand to Universal Media Corporation /Slovakia/ s.r.o.

(hereinafter referred to as UMC). But Sharp restarted TV

business in Europe by purchasing 56.7% of the sharesof Skytec Group Limited (hereinafter referred to as Skytec), a medium-sized Slovakian home appliances manufacturer and UMC’s parent company, for about 10.5

billion yen under Foxconn’s initiative. Sharp embarked
on partnership with Skytec in Sharp brand developmentin the European market in January, 2017. As Sharp also

provides components such as TFT-LCD panels to UMC,
sales channels of components are already secured for it.

② Asian Business and Problems Related to Technology
Transfer

Sharp’s expansion into Asia has mainly been throughinvestments its subsidiaries made in various Asian
countries, and the process of recovering brand rights isgoing well in China, India, Taiwan and Singapore. Be-fore its acquisition, Sharp had two subsidiaries in Tai-wan: Sharp Electronic Components in charge of TFTLCD parts and business, and Sharp Corporation in

charge of selling electrical equipment. But the merger
process between the parent company and Taiwanesesubsidiaries started after Foxconn announced the integration of Sharp brands. In Asia, Sharp is faced with theresults of technology transfers. Currently, Samsung in
Korea and CEC Panda, Sharp’s Chinese partner, own
Sharp’s TFT-LCD technologies. Foxconn opted to ap-

12proach CEC Panda, which had become Sharp’s partner

While Sharp brand rights recovery process is goingpossible in the US. The owner of Sharp brand in the US
is Hisense, a big Chinese home appliances manufactur-

er. Trying to sell the same products to the global market,
Hisense acquired Sharp’s TFT-LCD plant in Mexico andthe rights to use Sharp brand in the entire North andSouth Americas except for Brazil for 237 billion dollars.
Now Sharp brand’s TVs are sold in the US market byHisense. In this situation, Foxconn, with production lines

only in Mexico in American continents, is having difficulty
getting into the US market. Faced with difficulties re-covering its TV brand rights in the US, Sharp has shownwillingness to get back into the US market on its own,
announcing in July 2017 that it was going to set up a
new brand there from 2018 on.

(2) Significance of Guangzhou TFT-LCD Panel Plant andDevelopment of Next Generation TVs

Foxconn has been reconstructing its global strate-gy, restarting competition with Samsung in large-sizedpanels through Japan-Taiwan alliance. Aiming to expand
its share in the TV market, Sharp has been putting asignificant effort on TVs. For the moment, SDP in Sakai

City, Osaka Prefecture, is the only plant in the world

which can produce 8th to 10th-generation panels thatcan support 8K technologies. Foxconn is now working
on construction plans of new-generation panel plants in

China and the US, as Samsung and other competitors
have already preceded Foxconn in the production of thecurrent 4K TVs.

The decisive event in Foxconn’s shift to taking ag-

gressive action in new-generation panel production

was the construction of a new plant in Guangzhou. On

December 30, 2016, Foxconn formally announced theconstruction of one of the world’s largest plants with
Guangzhou City government. The Guangzhou plant,

now under construction, will be the world’s most ad-vanced “10.5th-generation” plant which surpasses SDP,
with the investment amount of 1 trillion 20 billion yen

shared by both parties. The Guangzhou plant is plan-ning to produce TFT-LCD panels with the world’s largest
glass substrates (2,940mm×3,370mm), even larger thanthose of the current 10th generation (2,880mm×3,130mm)

THE TRANSFORMATION OF JAPANESE ELECTRONIC INDUSTRY– THE IMPACT OF SHARP FOXCONN MERGER –in SDP’s Sakai Plant in Sakai City, Osaka Prefecture.

Guangzhou was chosen mainly for two reasons: because the first assembly plant Foxconn established in

China was in Guangzhou Longhua area, and because
this is one of the biggest-scale industrial areas.

Back when Foxconn set up the plant, Guangzhou

had not created this industrial area, and Foxconn wasable to purchase the land for its Longhua plant at anextremely low price. Now Foxconn has two industrial
areas in Guangzhou, including a new Huating plant. They

are equipped with large capital and industrial scales andsubstantial labor force, so they are more conveniently
situated than inland Chongqing in terms of panel trans-

portation, with some more advantages including theshort distances to Kansai district and Taiwan. Therefore,
with the presence of these areas, Foxconn can make aneven better use of its manufacturing abilities.

Foxconn is aiming to get back the leading position in

the global market, by setting up the manufacturing sys-

tem of the next-generation 8K TVs, which have 16 times
higher resolution than Full High Definition. This construc-tion plan was criticized by some investors for possible

technology leakage, but has clearly shown that Foxconn

is poised to compete against Korean TFT-LCD manufacturers by manufacturing large-sized glass substrates.
(3) Foxconn’s Plan to Invest in US TFT-LCD Industry

On July 26, 2017, Foxconn’s Chairman Terry Gou andthe US President Donald Trump announced an investment plan in Wisconsin in White House. In the press conference, Trump told the media that Foxconn would makean investment of about 3.3 trillion yen in total to start theconstruction of a state-of-the-art plant, creating 13,000
local jobs. Trump, who aims to bring back manufacturing jobs to the US, is trying to attract investments in the

US from all manufacturers. This investment in the US
by Foxconn, a subcontractor of Apple and many othercompanies, is compatible with Trump’s “Made in America” policy. More importantly, in this investment plan,
Foxconn would not only construct an 8K panel plant in
Wisconsin, but also lay the basis for the “ecosystem”

for industries related to the 5th Generation of WirelessCommunication Systems in six US states in total.

Foxconn already repatriated construction funds of 60

million U.S. dollars to the United States at October 2017

and starting construction of the new plant in Wisconsin

at January 2018.In response to Trump's National Policy
made in America, Foxconn's U.S. investment policy ismoving very fast. However recent Nikkei Asian Review,

said Foxconn is considering producing smaller screensat the Wisconsin plant than originally planned in order tolower initial costs at its proposed $10 billion campus in

Mount Pleasant. The article cited industry sources andpeople familiar with the matter.

Indeed, there are various difficulties for Foxconn’s

shift of its TFT-LCD business to the US. Even though
the place of investment was chosen in Wisconsin, which

has rich water resources with the convenience of watertransportation through the Great Lakes, one possible
task for Foxconn is how to apply its past experiences oftechnological transfers mainly in Asia to building up the
TFT-LCD industrial system in the US over a long distancefrom Japan. However, it should still be Gou’s earnest
wish to let Foxconn make further progress by creating a
new base in the US through this plant investment plan.

Apple, realizing the limitations of hardware sales, hasstarted to get into the media industry, working seriously

on producing and purchasing original programs, andlook for other manufacturing partner than Foxconn.

For example, Apple chose Wistron, a Taiwanese EMS
provider, as its partner and set up an iPhone development center in India, which Foxconn feels threatened.

Foxconn recorded the first sales drop in 2016 since
it got listed in 1991, not only because it made SDP a
subsidiary, but also because it received less orders fromApple due to a slump in iPhone sales. Foxconn is now

looking into new possibilities for expanding its power,
while maintaining business with its current Japanese andChinese partners. Forced to review its global strategy,

Foxconn expects to use the technological edges broughtby Sharp, which it acquired last year, to make a breakthrough. However, it seems to be a long shot for Fox-

conn to try to get out of Apple dependent EMS modeland make enormous investments to introduce IoT into its
products, while strengthening ties to its manufacturingbusiness. Behind this lies Foxconn’s aspiration to evolveout of EMS.

The relationship between Apple and Foxconn has

been strengthened since Foxconn was chosen as a main
contract manufacturer of iMacs in 2000. So far Foxconn

has not only ensured good supply of Apple’s products,
but also helped Apple generate profits by constantly

meeting the quality standards and by realizing a shorterproduction time with the help of massive labor force androbots. However, their partnership has been graduallychanging, with the recent slow-down in iPhone sales
and the shrinking Chinese market this forced Foxconn

to regroup and refocus its core business units and major

13

Meijo Asian Research Journal Vol.9 No.1

investment objectives.

business model.

(4)Foxconn’s new business at 2018- Foxconn Industrial

2015 and listed in May 2018 on Shanghai Stock Ex-

Foxconn held a press conference at May 11, 2018

ing for listing. Foxconn FII include group's cloud server

Foxconn Industrial Internet (FII) established 6th Marchchange, this is special case for a new company apply-

Internet (FII)

production department, advanced central processing

and announce that Foxconn group’s decision to reduce

technology department, router and switches production

the 20 percent of listed share capital（34.657 billion NT）

department, cyber security equipment production de-in 2018. Even Foxconn announced the financial report

partment, and iPhone production department. Also fo-

for the first quarter of this year at March 2018. Due tocus on unmanned factory system's developing Foxconn

appreciation of $NTD and increased operating costs, theR&D for many years FII also makes FOXBOT. They

gross margin, profitability and net profit set a new low

made 40000 automation manufacturing robots for thethis year compare to the past 5 years. But appreciation

whole FOXCONN Group. The main reason is an auto-of NTD offsets the increased in customer and sales inmation specialist Mr. Dai from MIT who is vice general

combined mobile phone handset, LCD TV, networking

manager for Foxconn FII automation department who

products. The introduction of new products pushes up

help Foxconn advanced into the new era of internet in-sales growth and volume also increased the cost of op-

dustrial manufacturing 4.0.

erating expenses.

In Chinese market the development of Virtual econ-

Another reason due to iPhone X recent slowdown insales also this leads to that Foxconn speed up chang-

omy is very rapid. Foxconn Industrial Internet (FII) has

with re-positioning itself for the tough competition timeand other network telecommunication components andthree target segments, 1. mobile phone components

es in the business model at 2018 for itself and Sharp

equipment, 2.Cloud services and equipment 3. Precisionahead. The foreign investment fund has advantage com-machinery and automation robot .(Figure 8) The biggest

pare to the domestic funds investors. This is the biggest

feature of Foxconn Industrial Internet (FII) in the prospec-

issue about Foxconn’s valuation due to foreign funds

tus for listing, the title has no association or link to orig-

linking its performance to Apple sales because of iPhone

inal equipment manufacturer OEM business. It shows

is a real cash cow for past ten years for Apple Inc. andFoxconn actively seeking to move towards next-gener-

the foreign funds always treat the Foxconn and Apple

ation technology, Foxconn FII is getting rid off the OEM

Inc. as one or highly correlated. Also Foxconn businessimage which was the intrinsic value of Foxcoon Ltd.

group and operations are not limited only to hardware
manufacturing, but expand to software and platform

Figure 8 Foxconn Industrial Internet’s Subsidiary company
Company Title

Mainly Business

CITY

AREA

Ingrasys Technology Inc.

Embedded network System

Tao-yuan

TAIWAN

Foxconn Cloud Network Technology.LTD.

Cloud network business

Republic ofSingapore

Singapore

Ambit Micro-systems

ADSL,modem, modulator

Huizhou

CHINA

Foxconn Precision Industry

iPhone Components

Zhengzhou

CHINA

Foxcoon Precision Industry

Communication equipment

Xiaoping

CHINA

Foxconn Precision Industry

Smart-phone Components,
Smart-phone manufacture

Jincheng

CHINA

Hong Fujin Precision Industry

Server equipment

TianjinCHINA

FU YI Precision Industry

Solar power

Dongguan

CHINA

Tong He electronic

Network equipment

Hangzhou

CHINA

Precision Industry

Network communicationequipment

Nam Ding

CHINA

Bu Zang Precision Technology

Cell phone Components,
Cell phone manufacture

Henan

CHINA
Created by the author

14

THE TRANSFORMATION OF JAPANESE ELECTRONIC INDUSTRY– THE IMPACT OF SHARP FOXCONN MERGER –Also under the merger of Sharp and Foxconn, plus

Foxconn’s FII listing development can give Sharp new

synergy and possibilities of greater influences in the
global electronic business as it focused on R&D andFoxconn on manufacturing and distribution of Sharp
products and components.

a completely private company with limited financial andpolicy support from the government.

An attempt by an unknown manufacturer to acquirea famous brand using its financial strength without fully
understanding the acquired company’s business andsimply put the brand name to its own products doesn’tnecessarily work. Foxconn, which aims to make further
progress by handling everything from modal manufac-

5. Conclusion

turing, high added-value parts production to final prod-“Upgraded Framework for New Strategic Vertical Integration” by Sharp and Foxconn alliance
Foxconn has evolved in the opposite way to Japanese

consumer electronic manufacturers such as Toshiba andSharp, which first developed technologies in semicon-

ductor and TFT-LCD fields, and later started to manufacture electrical equipment. Foxconn has been attracting

the world’s attention partly because it has expanded into
the development field through its service was originally

dedicated to manufacturing only and manufacturing has
declined. In the East Asia, Samsung is also an example

of upgrading its business outline through expansionof electronics manufacturing business. But in contrast

to Samsung, which has expanded its business scale
through systematic cooperation with Japanese man-ufacturers in the semiconductor and TFT-LCD fields,
tapping into national resources since 1980s, Foxconn isucts, in addition to targeting brands, adopts a strategy
of changing its business model from the conventional

horizontal specialization to a new vertical integration.
The new vertical integration differs from the existing “onebrand for one country” type of vertical integration, in that
Foxconn is aiming to create an integrated production
system across regions by linking Sharp’s headquarters

in Sakai, Osaka, Innolux in Zhunan outside the Hsinchu

Science Park, and the electronics equipment plant inGuangzhou Longhua area. One and a half years after

Sharp’s acquisition, the current situation of the TFT-LCD
business integration by Foxconn and Sharp is as follows(Figure 9).

This paper examined the factors that made Sharp’s

reform successful and the methods used for its restructuring into Foxconn group, clarifying Foxconn’s characteristics. As the global specialization system developers,

Figure 9 TFT-LCD Business Integration by Sharp and Foxconn Alliance
Large-Sized Panel
Business

TV Business

Smart-phone Business

Sharp(Sakai City, Osaka)

Production of TVs anddevelopment of newtechnologies for the Japanese market in Kameyama plant. The biggest
large-sized TV production center in Japan.

Restarting Aquos business in Europe.
Considering getting into
the US market under a
new brand.

Sales of Sharp brandsmart-phones in Japan.
Also starting overseas
sales.

Japan

SDP(Sakai City, Osaka)

All the outsourced production will end by theend of 2017. Produces
and provides panels to
Sharp’s headquarters in
Sakai.

N/A

N/A

TaiwanChina

Foxconn(Neihu, Taipei)(Guangzhou Longhua)(Guangzhou Huating)Innolux(Zhunan, Miaoli)

Foxconn’s Innolux produces small and medium-sized panels as wellas large-sized panels.

Produces part of Aquos
brand TFT-LCD TVs.

Manufactures iPhones
and its own Smartphone brand INFOCUS.

RegionJapan

Manufacturer / Location

Created by the author

15

Meijo Asian Research Journal Vol.9 No.1

changes in the power relationships in the electronics

role in the new Foxconn electronic component empire

2012. Though there are more and more cases of foreign

merging between branded consumer electronic compa-

equipment industry have become even more fierce sinceelectronics manufacturers with their financial superiority
acquiring Japanese manufacturers with better techno-

logical strength and brand recognition now, there haveinternationally. This is the most successful case of
ny with OEM company also cross national merger withgreat synergistic effect.

been few such cases of very close partnership as one

Notes:

between Sharp and Foxconn, which matched closely
together from manufacturing to brand sales. Their coop-eration this time, from the viewpoint of the positioning(1)

about CMO after 2009, it was referred to as “Newto as the leading example by a Japanese manufacturer

CMO” for ease of differentiation.

with its superiority in development and technology, anda Taiwanese manufacturer with its superiority in original
equipment manufacturing. (Figure 10).

Foxconn expanded their new business by capital

market restructuring and trade incentive negotiations. It

is interesting because Foxconn’s new business and

CMO did not immediately change its name after it was

acquired by Foxconn, but when the media reportedof the global electronics industry today, can be referred(2)

There are mainly two views as to why he invested in

SDP under his own name. One is that he aimed to
avoid impacts on Foxconn’s performance and shareprice even if SDP continued to be in deficit or resulted

in even bigger losses; the other is that he wanted toshow his passion for Sharp.

Sharp's business can complement each other to create

better synergy. Foxconn Industrial Internet (FII) is Fox-

conn new business about combine the Cloud business、References

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Following the changes in Foxconn Group, shifting major

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January 8, 2017

00C17A1TJC000/

Starting after 2018. Sankei WEST. July 24, 201722) Foxconn Reaches Basic Agreement with City Gov-

11) Canon Tokki Influences OEL Market by Doublingernment to Construct SmartphonePlant in Nanjing,of Unit Production Subcontracted to Canon Group.

https://www.nikkei.com/article/DGXLASDX13H1B_

Production of Vacuum Deposition Equipment – Part
March 22, 2017

http://newswitch.jp/p/8391

12) Foxconn Turns TFT-LCD Joint Venture with Sharp

China. The Nikkei. September 13, 2017
T10C17A9FFE000/

23) Foxconn and Sharp Formally Announce Constructionof 1-Trillion-Yen Largest Panel Plant in Guangzhou,

into Subsidiary with Additional Investment of 52 Bil-

China. The Nikkei. December 30, 2016

http://www.nikkei.com/article/DGXLASFK29H0I_

Q6A231C1TJC000/

lion Yen. The Nikkei. December 29, 2016
Z21C16A2000000/

13) Samsung’s Damage Compensation Claim against
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http://www.nikkei.com/article/DGXLASDZ20HO8_
Q7A120C1TJC000/

https://www.nikkei.com/article/DGXLASDZ30H2Q_
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http://www.asahi.com/articles/ASK7W2CCKK7WUHBI002.html

25) Foxconn Bets on Massive Investment in USA with

14) Foxconn and Sharp Alliance Faces 60 Billion Yen

Partnership with Sharp for TV Production to Reduceof New Plant Plans in China and USA? Key is Expan-

http://www.nikkei.com/article/DGKKASDZ02I35_

Deficit in TFT-LCD Joint Venture-What Will Become

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S7A800C1FFE000/

bun. April 3, 2017

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26) Foxconn refutes report that it will cut back initial investment in Wisconsin plant May 23, 201817

Meijo Asian Research Journal Vol.9 No.1

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govt-and-politics/election-matters/report-fox-conn-could-scale-back-initial-investment-in-wiscon-sin-facility/article_2f0886aa-87eb-588b-9635-c07172b7b0e1.html

27) Apple Goes Head to Head with Amazon and Netflix!
1 Billion Dollars to Create and Purchase Original
Programs. iPhone-mania. August 20, 2017
http://iphone-mania.jp/news-178269/

28) Apple to Reduce Latest iPhone Production by 30%
from January to March, Blow to Parts Suppliers. The
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V00C16A1MM8000/

to Canon Group. March 22, 2017 http://newswitch.
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41) Foxconn and Sharp Alliance Faces 60 Billion Yen

Deficit in TFT-LCD Joint Venture-What Will Becomeof New Plant Plans in China and USA? Key is Expansion of Sharp’s TV Business. Nikkan Kogyo Shimbun. April 3, 2017

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42) Foxconn and Sharp Formally Announce Constructionof 1-Trillion-Yen Largest Panel Plant in Guangzhou,
China. The Nikkei. December 30, 2016

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Q6A231C1TJC000/

29) Consolidater Financial Results For the Year Ended

43) Foxconn and Terry Gou30) The stock price of FII is expected to exceed 50044) Foxconn Bets on Massive Investment in USA with

March 31,2018 for FOXXCON P1

billion RMB Economic Daily May 12, 2018 https://money.udn.com/money/story/5641/3138711

31) Apple Goes Head to Head with Amazon and Netflix!
1 Billion Dollars to Create and Purchase Original
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32) Apple to Reduce Latest iPhone Production by 30%
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33) AUO’s Capital Investment in Infovision Optelectronics Approved: Taiwan’s first 8.5th Line Overseas Will
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35) Consolidater Financial Results For the Year Ended
March 31,2018 for FOXXCON P1

36) Consolidater Financial Results For the Year Ended
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37) Canon Tokki Influences OEL Market by Doubling
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38) Dianwen Zhang (2008). Hu yu Hu (Tiger and Fox).
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into Bankruptcy in Five Years. Global Views Monthly.
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1840) Equipment – Part of Unit Production Subcontracted

Mainichi Newspapers－ Sharp’s Truth (2016).

Partnership with Sharp for TV Production to Reduce
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http://www.nikkei.com/article/DGKKASDZ02I35_
S7A800C1FFE000/45) Foxconn Invests 1 Trillion Yen in New US Plant –Trump: “Great Day”. The Asahi Shimbun Digital. July27, 2017

http://www.asahi.com/articles/ASK7W2CCKK7WUHBI002.html

46) Foxconn Reaches Basic Agreement with City Government to Construct SmartphonePlant in Nanjing,
China. The Nikkei. September 13, 2017https://www.nikkei.com/article/DGXLASDX13H1B_
T10C17A9FFE000/47) Foxconn refutes report that it will cut back initial in-vestment in Wisconsin plant May23,2018 http://host.
madison.com/ct/news/local/govt-and-politics/elec-tion-matters/report-foxconn-could-scale-back-ini-tial-investment-in-wisconsin-facility/article_
2f0886aa-87eb-588b-9635-c07172b7b0e1.html48) Foxconn Turns TFT-LCD Joint Venture with Sharp
into Subsidiary with Additional Investment of 52 Billion Yen. The Nikkei. December 29, 2016

http://www.nikkei.com/article/DGXLASFK29H0I_
Z21C16A2000000/

49) FY2017-2019 Medium-Term Management Plan by
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ONLINE. November 1, 2012

http://techon.nikkeibp.co.jp/article/NEWS/20121101/248791/?rt=nocnt

THE TRANSFORMATION OF JAPANESE ELECTRONIC INDUSTRY– THE IMPACT OF SHARP FOXCONN MERGER –51) Japan Display to Record Extraordinary Loss of 170

Billion Yen for Q1, 2018. Tokyo Shoko Research.
August 16, 2017

http://www.tsr-net.co.jp/news/analysis/20170816_01.html

52) Minetoshi Yasuda(2016). Ambition － Biography of
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Mainichi Newspapers Economic Department(2016).

53) OEL Panel Plant by Foxconn and Sharp under con-sideration in Henan Province, China.TheNikkei.

65) The stock price of FII is expected to exceed 500

billion RMB Economic Daily May 12, 2018 https://money.udn.com/money/story/5641/3138711

66) Wu(2017). From Alliance to Partnership. Japan-Taiwan Industrial Partnership and Innovation. SOSEISHA Co.,Ltd.

67) Yukihiko Nakata(2016). Depths of Sharp’s Defeat.
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January8,2017 http://www.nikkei.com/article/DGXLZO11450070X00C17A1TJC000/

54) Sharp Announced Partnership in TFT-LCD Panelswith CEC Panda. The Nikkei. July 27, 201355) Sams31.Sharp’s Comeback to North American TV

Business under New Brand – Unable to Use Aquos－ Sales Starting after 2018. Sankei WEST. July 24,
2017

http://www.sankei.com/west/news/170724/wst1707240031-n1.html

56) Samsung’s Damage Compensation Claim against
Sharp for Suspended Panel Supply. The Nikkei. January 20, 2017

http://www.nikkei.com/article/DGXLASDZ20HO8_
Q7A120C1TJC000/

57) Sharp’s Fall – Reorganization under Foxconn Group.
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Business to Haier. The Nikkei. October 18, 2011

http://www.nikkei.com/article/DGXNASDD180GN_
Y1A011C1000000/

59) Sharp’s limited-time special offer for the artifi-

cial Chinese singles festival, sales promotion of
RMB$14000 Apple daily November 13, 2016

https://tw.appledaily.com/new/realtime/20161113/987908/

60) Sharp’s Overseas Affiliated Companies

http://www.sharp.co.jp/corporate/info/outline/consolidated/oversea.html

61) Summary of Sharp’s Financial Results in FY 2011, p 11
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62). Sharp to Jointly Operate TCD-LCD Panel Plant with
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Profitable in FY 2017 under Midea Group. The Nikkei. August 8, 2016

http://www.nikkei.com/article/DGXLASDZ08HW2_
Y6A800C1000000/

64) Terry Gou Tells Us All, The Weekly Toyo Keizai. June21, 2014, p 34

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Meijo Asian Research Journal Vol.9 No.1

20

Articles

Problem Analysis and Reform of Higher Education in Myanmar fromthe Case of Japanese Higher Educational Reform
By Ye Tun Min
Faculty of Economics, Meijo University

Abstract
This paper spotlights the main weaknesses in Myanmar higher education and reveals the best ways for the governmental policymakers
of Myanmar to reform higher education, with a Japanese higher-education-reform case study as a model. After over 50 years of isolation,
Myanmar's higher education system is in need of intensive renovation in order to meet global standards. Therefore, this study attempts topresent the major obstacles in higher education that have hindered the process of economic and social development in Myanmar for somany years. Moreover, this study looks at the best ways to overcome these obstacles. The purpose of this study, using the framework ofJapanese reform of higher education, is to show that Myanmar’s higher education can apply its strong points to establish the right direction
for providing huge vision and breakthroughs in Myanmar’s industrial development, thus changing a poor nation into a rich nation rapidly.

Key words : Myanmar, Japan, policy, higher education, universities

1. Introduction
In the modern economy, it is very important for adeveloping country to build quality and capacity in universities to produce a skilled work force that creates a

middle-income country. Moreover, fundamental capacity building in a developing country must be practiced

through good universities that place a large focus on
STEM — science, technology, engineering and math-ematics — and specific growth industries. To build
these fundamental capacities, universities in developing
countries seriously need to apply a vital resource, brain-

power, rather than money (MacGregor, 2015; Ramphele& Rosovsky, 2015). Additionally, to catch up with themodern knowledge-based economy or participate in the
globalised environment of higher education, a develop-

ing country urgently needs to open more research uni-

versities. Thus, research universities play a critical rolein producing many high-quality academic professionals
and experts, high-level scientists and researchers need-

ed by the economy (The World Bank, 2000; University
World News, 2013).

In Japan, universities play a central role in advanced

educational and research activities. Japanese univer-sities contribute to social and economic development
through wide-ranging education and the cultivation ofhuman resources with expert knowledge and skills invarious academic disciplines and high-level research.

For higher education (HE) development, the Japaneseministry of education guarantees the quality of universities, oversees the the internationalisation of universities,
deals with social issues, and ensures financial assistance for students (MEXT, retrieved: 2018).

The major challenges for the developing country of

Myanmar are having a strong financial services sector,
an infrastructure sector and an education sector. Build-ing a competitive HE system plays a very important role,
because Myanmar needs a better educated and skilled
young population to dramatically move the economy for-ward. The problem is that, after over 50 years of isolation
military rule, Myanmar’s HE system is a complete failure,
making it difficult to find skilled workers today. Absent a

dramatic change in higher education policy over the next
several years, Myanmar’s human capital in all sectors

will endure a serious decline due to the very outdated
management of the education system.

Therefore, the purpose of this study is to reveal themain issues surrounding the development of Myanmar’s
HE system in recent times. Moreover, this study is aimed

at examining the best ways for Myanmar’s HE policy-

makers to reform this currently poor system more effec-

tively and systematically, by comparing it to the reform of
the Japanese higher education system, for the purposeof enabling economic change. Under this framework,

Myanmar’s HE can apply its strong points to establishinga strategic model that points in the right direction forproviding strong vision and breakthroughs in Myanmar’s

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Meijo Asian Research Journal Vol.9 No.1

industrial development; changing a poor nation into amy. In line with this economic policy decision, the role offul for those in charge of HE policies, as well as prospec-

the 1990s. The author describes that now, Finland'srich one, rapidly. Additionally, these findings will be use-

tive students and professors who are considering doing
further research on Myanmar’s HE development.

This research asks the following two questions:(1) What are the solutions to the major problems faced by
Myanmar’s HE?

(2) How can Myanmar’s HE policymakers reform Myanmar’s poor HE system more effectively?

To answer the research questions, data was collectedfrom experts' opinions (e.g., rectors and professors, andheads of universities).

This study is divided into five sections. Section 1

serves as a general introduction to the study. It presents
the background and the purpose of the study. Section

2 discusses some theoretical issues set out by various

government has started to invest in education generally,

and in HE in particular. In addition, the state invests
substantially in research and development (R&D) spending. Finland’s national objective is ‘sustainable and bal-

anced social and economic development.’ High em-

ployment, productivity and competitiveness are key
factors. High-quality HE systems, as well as measures

to increase research and technological development,
play a significant part in attempts to attain the country’s

national development goals. Beyond primary and secondary schooling, HE is necessary for building technicaland professional capacity, as well as for producing qualified teachers at every level (OECD 2000; Jongsma 2016).

Developing countries risk being further marginalised inscholars and researchers. Section 3 reports the histor-

the competitive world economy if their tertiary education

conducted by providing information about the subjects

the creation and utilisation of knowledge and respondical background. Section 4 describes how to study isof the study, instruments used in collecting data and thedata collection procedure. Section 5 illustrates the anal-

ysis of the collected data. Finally, Section 6 provides theconclusion for this study.

2. Literature Review
Currently, HE continues to play a key role in economic

development because our world economy has become

knowledge- and network-based, and high-quality re-search and technology are increasingly important for
maintaining innovations in a new economy (Pillay 2011;
The World Bank 2002; Pinheiro & Pillay 2016; Varghese
2009 Powell, & Snellman 2004). The World Bank's 2002

study found that the international community is now re-examining the importance of HE for increasing a country’s intellectual capacity development because partici-

pation in an increasingly knowledge-based world
economy has become essential for progress (Asian De-

velopment Bank 2007; Watkins 2015; Arvanitidis & Petrakos 2011; University of Oxford 2015; Kruss, Mcgrath,Petersen, & Gastrow 2015). For example, Pillay (2011)highlights how Finland’s economy was dramatically diversified over the past two decades. In the face of economic crisis, the government made two important policy

decisions. The first one was to further develop the Nor-dic welfare model, and the second was to invest sub(1)stantially in the development of the knowledge econo-

22

higher education assumed much greater importance insystems are not adequately prepared to capitalise on

to changing labour market requirements for advanced
human capital (OECD 2000; The World Bank 2002; Gas-

trow, & Lorentzen 2012). Therefore, developing coun-tries should effectively prepare very good HE policy forincreasing capacity-building programmes for teachingskills and techniques, research and technological development, innovations, and advanced human capitalthrough a high-quality HE system.

2.1. Capacity-building Programmes for Teaching Skills
and Techniques

It is very necessary to do more capacity-building

activities for HE in developing countries (Stig 2006;

Deuren 2013; Lancrin 2004; The World Bank 2000).
Teacher training is an important matter of national ca-

pacity development in any country in the world, because
high-quality teacher education for teaching future citizens contributes to the reduction of poverty in a longrun (OECD 2000; Barnes, Berendt,m Csirik, Hares, Haar,
Jones, Kashoki, Kearney, Maamouri, McDonald et al.
(1994); CHET 2006). However, capacity building for HE
in developing countries is a complicated and on-goingprocess that needs to be deeply focused on historical,

cultural and academic contexts (Stig 2006; Quinlan
2011; Jackson 2016).

2.2. Capacity-Building Programmes for Research andTechnological Development

As universities in every country take on entrepre-

PROBLEM ANALYSIS AND REFORM OF HIGHER EDUCATION IN MYANMAR FROMTHE CASE OF JAPANESE HIGHER EDUCATIONAL REFORM

neurial roles, industries are able to organise academic
education and research, and public–private relationships

between industries. As a result, governments can be

redefined in the light of new technological options inuniversities (Leydesdorff 2018; Dezure 2002; Lall 1992).

Developing countries must provide an opportunity for
quality academic research in HE, because academic

research is a major source of knowledge and innovation at national, regional and international levels (Meek,& Davies 2009; The Group of Eight 2013). Most of theindustrialised countries are trying to invest in high-levelresearch of HE, and their governments continue to build

world-class systems of universities as research-oriented
institutions (Salmi 2009; Altbach & Salmi 2011; Fernate,
Surikova, Kalnina, & Romero 2009). With the rise of theknowledge-based, creative economy, universities are

increasingly seen as a source of knowledge, innovation,and technological progress that companies desire (Kim,
Ryoo, & Ahn, 2017; Department for Business Innovationand Skills 2009; OECD 2000; The Higher Education Authority 2002). It can be said that many of the economic

benefits of academic research comes from inventionsin the private sector that build on the scientific and engineering base created by university researchers (Henderson, Jaffe, & Trajtenberg, 1998; Poyago-Theotoky,

Beath, & Siegel ,2002). However, most of the universities

in developing countries are trying to produce knowledge
workers rather than innovators (Bell and Pavitt 1997; &Gereffi 1995). A few developing countries are interested

in having a systematic national structure for R&D, andtheir universities are providing advanced innovation

courses because of the following factors (Arocena andSutz 2002):(1) Developing countries borrowed technology so that

HE in most of the developing countries is evidenced by
the fact that they are impressed with the HE systems ofdeveloped countries. They try to copy, exactly, the richcountries' HE policies and ideas to upgrade their own HE
system. Zgaga (2014) notes that there is an hypothesisthat HE systems of peripheral countries basically follow

the systems of central countries in their attempts tomodernise their systems. Zgaga mentions that these de-veloping countries can be very fast, and even careless,in assuming the role of an experimental laboratory forthe great ideas that come from the great world. However,

Zgaga thinks that this is only half the story; the other half

is internal. The question is whether the policy development processes of developing countries are determinedby the same principles and conditions as in the developed countries – or perhaps in some ways they fundamentally diverge from them. Zgaga states that copying

generalised policy recommendations, regardless of theparticular national context, cannot lead to success. Ap-

plying the general principles of HE policies in the specificcircumstances of a given country necessitates a deeper

insight into those policies’ historical, cultural and academic contexts. Doing so can directly assist the knowledge transfer between universities and enterprises.

E-learning does not require regular class attendance,

and it can reduce the time constraints of working people
and industry (Becker and Eube 2018). It is useful to havesome e-learning instruments to overcome the gap be-

tween the two stakeholders, business and university, ona micro-level More countries are seeing the significanceof HE and its role in providing economic growth and reducing poverty in developing countries (Bloom, Canningand Chan 2006; Varghese 2008).

their R&D is less significant for the production process.

2.3. Capacity-Building Programmes for Innovations

weak, so local industries and universities have little

more emphasis on cognitive effects as a model of prob-(2) Market demand for expensive, high-tech products is
incentive for investing in R&D activities.

(3) Most technology-transfer arrangements are sophisticated.
(4) Local firms have low human resource power for absorbing innovation.

(5) Limited financial resources cause the majority of universities to lack technological innovation.

Thus, it is obvious that technology absorption is

not simply a process of copying, but rather, involves

a considerable amount of additional work to adapt it
to a different practical environment and assimilate it incommercial production for the conditions of an emerging market (Malecki 1991). That there is a problem with

Universities can differentiate their roles by placing

lem-solving ability that emerges as innovative behaviour
through the opportunity of university entrepreneurshipeducation (Kim, Choi, Sung & Park 2018; Brennan, Ryan,

Ranga, Broek, Durazzi & Kamphuis 2014). Today’s economy can be called a ‘creative’ economy, and the university has the important role of providing a support system

and a good environment for fostering creativity. This
helps students obtain results and profit through experi-mentation, as well as gain experience in each step of theprocess of performing innovation, as they develop theirideas through the utilisation of self-directed informationand knowledge (Kim, Ryoo, & Ahn, 2017).

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Meijo Asian Research Journal Vol.9 No.1

Therefore, developing countries must well-organise

their HE policies for increasing capacity-building programmes, research and technological development,

innovations, and advancing human capital through ahigh-quality HE system.

This section provides a contextual understanding of

Myanmar’s and Japan’s HE reforms. It looks briefly at thehistory of HE reforms in Myanmar.

(2) The Universities Central Council (UCC)(3) The Council of University Academic Bodies (CUAB)

Policies and administrative guidance on educationtee chaired by the Union Minister for Education. The

committee was organised by the new government. The

committee facilitates the development of an education

system that is compatible with the traditional, culturaland social values of the nation and that stays current
with the economic and political aspirations of the nation.

In 2017, the government’s main reform goals for HE

3.1. Overview of Myanmar’s Past Higher Education Policy and Its Development Plans for Reform

According to the Myanmar University Education Law

of 1973, academic and administrative policy matters re-lating to higher education are organised by the two
councils chaired by the Minister of Education (MOE).
These are Universities Central Council and Council of
University Academic Bodies. All institutions of higher

education are state-run, and financing of these institutions is totally dependent on funds provided by the gov-

ernment. Allocation of the budget of these institutions isundertaken by the Department of Higher Education. The
amount allocated to each institution is based on its size
(2)

3.2. Overview of Recent Higher Education and Its New
Policy and Strategic Reforms

This section provides a brief look at Myanmar’s recent

HE sector, and the laws and policies that have tried towere to develop a world-class HE system, where univer-sities have autonomy over their own curriculum and governance. These goals included establishing HE systems

with the ability to conduct independent research; develop a technical and vocational education and training
system equal in status to other universities; establishingeffective education services that did not burden parents

and communities; ensuring the effective, efficient andtransparent allocation and use of government, private
sector, other domestic and international funding; andimplementing effective educational reforms, as well as
management and monitoring programmes, based on
accurate information and data (MOE 2016).

According to the National Education Strategic Plan

(2016)(4) , the following three complementary and linked
strategies and programmes will be implemented toachieve the transformational shift for higher education(Tables 1–3).

Tables 1–3 show that the new government is trying

steer the improvement of the quality of HE for all Myan-to support social and economic development by em-

According to the National Education Strategic Planknowledge production and effectively developing high-mar students and citizens.

(2016), there are 171 higher education institutions (HEIs)(colleges, degree colleges and universities), which arebarking on education reforms such as allowing greaterly-skilled research centres.

Many international investors say that it is still very dif-

overseen by eight ministries. In the 2015 academic year,

ficult to find skilled workers in Myanmar, particularly

under the responsibility of the MoE, while an additional

been pointed out that the problem of the shortage ofthere were 225,178 students studying full-time in HEIs

411,164 students were accessing HE through Distance
Education Universities. (3)Myanmar’s HE system consists of a 4–1–3 structure:

four years for a bachelor’s degree, one year for a qual-

outside of the big cities, Yangon and Mandalay. It has

skilled workers in Myanmar is the result of Myanmar’s

HE system’s lack of academic achievements, student
participation and high quality graduates. (5)ifying class and two years for a master’s degree. The

3.3. Japanese National University Reform Plan

tration Structure and Academic Structure.

and Technology (MEXT) has undertaken many efforts to

education structure of Myanmar is divided into Adminis-

There are three main government organisations super-

24(1) The National Education Committee (NEC)are fully supervised by the National Education Commit-

3. Historical Background of Higher Education
Reforms

and the nature of courses offered.

vising the higher education subsector:

The Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science

reform universities in a competitive environment, with the

PROBLEM ANALYSIS AND REFORM OF HIGHER EDUCATION IN MYANMAR FROMTHE CASE OF JAPANESE HIGHER EDUCATIONAL REFORM

Table 1 The relationship between Strategy 1 and its programme of higher education.
Strategy 1: Strengthen higher education governance and management capacity
Programme:nstitutional capacity development program
Programme Component 1: Undertake overseas study tours to document best practices and establish partnerships with international universities, research centres and other higher education institutions.
Programme Component 2: Establish a National Institute for Higher Education Development (NIHED) to improve
higher education governance and management, build individual skills and strengthen institutional capabilities.
Programme Component 3: Strengthen governance of HEIs through university charters and university councils.
Programme Component 4: Strengthen autonomy and accountability of HEIs to realise more efficient and effective
management, better value for money and significant improvements in access to quality higher education.
Programme Component 5: Establish a Higher Education Quality Assurance Agency to lead the development of
national quality standards for higher education and undertake quality assurance (QA) assessments of all HEIs.
End Outcome (by 2021): Strengthened governance and management by officials from the MOE and line ministries
and managers of HEIs improves access to quality higher
Source: The Government of the Republic of the Union of Myanmar Ministry of Education(National Education Strategic Plan 2016–2021 Summary
Table 2. The relationship between Strategy 2 and its programme of higher education.
Strategy 2: Improve the quality and relevance of higher education
Programme: Higher education quality and career-relevance
Programme Component 1: Establish a National Research and Innovation Fundand Research and Development Centres at HEIs to benefit university teaching and learning, and develop university-managed income streams.
Programme Component 2: Develop a policy and strategy for world-class national universities and comprehensive universities.
Programme Component 3: Upgrade facilities at selected HEIs.
Programme Component 4: Enhance the status of e-learning centres and e-libraries in HEIs.
Programme Component 5: Improve the effectiveness of the distance education system.
Programme Component 6: Undertake professional development for faculty and laboratory technicians.
End Outcome (by 2021):Non-academic staff deliver effective administration; academic staff deliver effective
teaching and undertake quality research.
Source: The Government of the Republic of the Union of Myanmar Ministry of Education(National Education Strategic Plan 2016–2021 Summary)Table 3. The relationship between Strategy 3 and its programme of higher education.
Strategy 3: Expand equitable access to higher education
Programme:Equitable access to higher education programme
Programme Component 1: Create good teaching and learning environments at HEIs.
Programme Component 2: Promote student support programmes.
End Outcome (by 2021):Equitable access for students to HEIs, regardless of their socio-economic backgrounds.
Source: The Government of the Republic of the Union of Myanmar Ministry of Education(NationalEducation Strategic Plan 2016–2021 Summary)objective of invigorating higher education and encouraging excellent education and research activities.

MEXT created the National University Reform Plan to

4. Methodology

boost higher education in Japan. Figures 1 and 2 are

4.1. Research Design

will be implemented to achieve a more transformational

depth individual interviews were conducted with thesummaries of the National University Reform Plan thatshift for HE in Japan.

Qualitative research design is used in this study. In-

Department of Higher Education of Myanmar, Mandalay

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Meijo Asian Research Journal Vol.9 No.1

Figure 1. The National University Reform Plan (Summary).
Source: Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology

Figure 2. The National University Reform Plan (Summary)— Measures to strengthen functions of national universities.
Source: Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology

26

PROBLEM ANALYSIS AND REFORM OF HIGHER EDUCATION IN MYANMAR FROMTHE CASE OF JAPANESE HIGHER EDUCATIONAL REFORM

University and Mandalay Technological University to

Question (3) for Strategy 3: Expand equitable accesssystem during the policy reform period. This section also

What are the main problems and challenges of ex-

closely analyse the main weak points of the Myanmar HE

provides details of the methods and procedures that are
employed in carrying out this study.
4.2. Research Question

After briefly reviewing Japanese HE reform, two re-search questions were set, as follows:(1) What are the solutions to the major problems of
Myanmar’s HE?

(2) How can Myanmar’s HE policymakers more effectively reform Myanmar’s HE system?

to higher education

panding equitable access to higher education by ap-

plying two equitable accesses to higher education programmes as a higher education policy-maker?

To examine the best solutions for Myanmar’s HE pol-icymakers to reform the HE system effectively, thesequestions were included in the semi-structured questionnaire:(1)What do you think about the purposes and objectivesof your university?

(2)What do you think about some requirements of thefaculty in your university?

4.3. Sampling Method(3)What do you think about autonomous quality assur-

opinions (e.g., important high-ranking government(4)What do you think about your strategies for the inter-

The sample was selected from academic experts'

officers or policymakers of the Department of Higher

Education, rectors and professors, and heads of univer-sities) in Mandalay and Nay Pyi Taw. The data collectedfrom Mandalay University and Mandalay Technological

University and the Department of Higher Education wasance activities in your university?
nationalisation of universities?

◦ Introducing classes in English◦ Inviting international students to study in Myanmar◦ Developing universities as centres of internationalisation

sufficient to efficiently obtain meaningful results..

(5)What activities does your university apply for solving

4.4. Data Collection(6)What have you done as an educator to promote higher

questionnaire that served as an interview guide. Certain(7)What are the improvements that your university should

The data collection procedure used a semi-structured

questions were prepared in reference to three complementary and linked strategies, and programmes of the

Myanmar Ministry of Education. Some additional questions arose during the interviews.

Firstly, to ascertain the current major problems

with Myanmar’s HE, the following questions from thesemi-structured questionnaire were asked:

Question (1) for Strategy 1: Strengthen higher education governance and management capacity

What are the main problems and challenges of strength-

ening higher education governance and management
capacity by using five institutional capacity development
programmes as a higher education policy-maker?

Question (2) for Strategy 2: Improve the quality andrelevance of higher education

What are the main problems and challenges of im-proving the quality and relevance of higher education byusing six higher education quality and career-relevance
programmes as a higher education policy-maker?

the problems of human resource development?
education? Were your activities effective?

make in order to increase its efficiency and promote
higher education more effectively?

(8)What do you think about the role of private universities
in terms of quality for developing Myanmar’s higher
education?

4.5. Classification for Data Analysis

Based on the review of the interview results, the main

problems with Myanmar’s HE system were extracted.

The groups in this analysis are drawn from three complementary and linked strategies and programmes of Myan-mar Ministry of Education, broken into three groups.
They are:Category (A): Current Situation (Governance and Management Capacity)

Category (B): Current Situation (Quality)

Category (C): Current Situation (Equitable Access)

The data comparing Myanmar’s and Japan’s HE re-form plans was analysed through interviews with HE
administrators. The categories in this analysis weredrawn from the comparison of Myanmar’s and Japan’s
HE reform plans and divided into three categories:

27

Meijo Asian Research Journal Vol.9 No.1

Category (A): Current Situation (Governance and Management Capacity)

Category (B): Current Situation (Quality)

Category (C): Current Situation (Equitable Access)5. Data Analysis
5.1. The Main Problems That Higher Education Faces in

Myanmar5.1.1. Category (A): Current Situation (Governance andManagement Capacity)

5.1.1.1 Strategy 1: Strengthen higher education gov-

ernance and management capacity

What are the main problems and challenges ofstrengthening higher education governance and man-agement capacity by using five institutional capacity

development programmes as a higher education policy-maker?

Programme Component 1: Undertake overseas
study tours to document best practices and establish
partnerships with international universities, research
centres and other higher education institutions.
Interviewee (S1)(6)

: All Memorandums of Understanding(MOU) are proposed by other foreign universities and wehave never been able to ask for it ourselves. Moreover,
we don't have enough budgets or funds to send lecturers to study abroad.

Programme Component 4: Strengthen autonomy
and accountability of HEIs to realise more efficientand effective management, better value for money
spent and significantly improve access to quality
higher education.
Interviewee (S2)(10) : Our higher education organisations
are not autonomous and lack budgets.

Interviewee (S3): Quality assurance is a challenge without full autonomy, because even small things that arenecessary for QA cost money. With autonomy, we canmake budgets ourselves for hiring good office staff andqualified lecturers.

Interviewee (S1): Autonomy is still limited. But deciding
what subjects to teach each year is not controlled by thegovernment.

Interviewee (S2): Openly expressed that autonomy andbudgeting for HE in Myanmar has a long way to go.

Interviewee (S3): Without autonomy, it would be very
hard to perform QA in Myanmar’s HE development.

Interviewee (S4): There is no autonomy at all in the university, except for the curriculum.

Interviewee (S6)(11) : There is no autonomy for budget-

ing for the university and the library has grown little
since 2015, with around 1,800 USD provided by thegovernment for buying books. This is because Myan-

mar’s new government has increased spending educa-tion spending from the national budget from 1% of GDP
to 11% of GDP in 2013.

Therefore, in Myanmar, there is very little autonomy forInterviewee (S3)(7) : The International Relationship de-all universities, because all are state-owned. The previ-

weak, with no experience, no funds, and no clear policy

my, budgets, and funds in all universities in Myanmar.

partment was founded six months ago and it is still very
(interview on 11/11/2017).

Interviewee (S4) (8) : We are weak in international competency and we need a lot of training and experience tocatch up.

Interviewee (S7) (9) : Accreditation shows that most of thelecturers are still weak in English, so international relationships are sometimes not very effective.

Although the Department of Higher Education has

recently realised that strategies for internationalisationof universities in Myanmar (Programme Component 1)
play important roles in the process of higher education
reform, in reality, there is not enough money to send lec-

turers to study in foreign countries, no adequate experience for international relationships and competency, nostrong English language proficiency and insufficient funds
to strengthen HE governance and management capacity.

ous data shows the recent conditions of lack of autonoInterviewee (S1): Our university has ISO 9001:2008,

but it needs to be updated. QA and accreditation systemwere just proposed at my university.

Programme Component 5: Establish a Higher Education Quality Assurance Agency to lead the development of national quality standards for higher education and undertake QA assessments of all HEIs.
Interviewee (S2): Our ministry of education is starting to

ask us to set up an internal QA System (IQA) and QA, but
external QA (EQA) might take around 1–5 years.

Interviewee (S3): A university that has ISO and QA isdifferent from a university that has no ISO and QA. The

problem is finding the budget to have them, because
there is less support from the government.

Interviewee (S4): Our university has an IQA team forthe whole university and also a QA team for each de-partment, and we are also a member of the ASEAN QA
network. But we don't have system, so we are trying to28

PROBLEM ANALYSIS AND REFORM OF HIGHER EDUCATION IN MYANMAR FROMTHE CASE OF JAPANESE HIGHER EDUCATIONAL REFORM

encourage university members to be systemic. No EQAteam has come to check yet. But our IQA team is readyto show them our reports.

Interviewee (S5)(12) : We are recently starting to engage

Programme Component 1: Establish a National
Research and Innovation Fund and Research andDevelopment Centres at HEIs to benefit university
teaching and learning, and develop university-managed income streams.

with EQA teams in seven departments out of 21 depart-

Interviewee (S1): Centralisation is still going on because

Interviewee (S7): QA without full autonomy is very chal-

our faculty, they never give us the right ones; we always

ments.

lenging, because we need to spend money, even on

small things, to fulfill the needs of quality assurance.
With autonomy, we can make our own budgets for hiring
good office staff and qualified lecturers.

These interview answers show that, despite the in-disputable fact that Myanmar’s HE authority is trying toestablish a Higher Education Quality Assurance Agency
to lead the development of national quality standards
for HE, there has always been the argument over wheth-er the government will contribue enough budget andprovide full autonomy to universities to make their own

when we ask them to buy good brands of lab tools for

get low-quality tools from different brands. Therefore, wecannot conduct quality research. Most of our curriculums are helped by The Japan International Cooperation
Agency (JICA) to update students' equipment. There is
no research support for lecturers.

Interviewee (S4): We do research without enough budget.
Interviewee (S7): The Department of Human Resources(HR) in universities is very weak and we cannot hire many

new teachers, and universities are also weak in researchand campus facilities.

The previous answers illustrate that, in spite of the HE

decisions.

authority wanting to establish a National Research andTable 4 shows the annual library budget allocation of
Mandalay Technological University.

tres at HEIs to benefit university teaching and learning,

Table 4. Annual library budget allocation of Mandalay
Technological University (MTU).
Year

Budget Allocation (USD)

2005-2006844

2006-2007

968

2007-2008

1,153

2008-2009

1,615

2009-2010

2,454

2010-2011

1,474

2011-2012

18,411

2012-2013

1,989

2013-2014

2,000

2014-2015

1,800

2015-2016

1,800

2016-2017

1,800

Source: Responses of the Librarian of MTU (09/11/2017)
5.1.2. Category (B): Current Situation (Quality)

Innovation Fund and Research and Development Cen-and develop university-managed income streams, thecurrent situation shows the struggle with government

centralisation. The result is poor-quality research, no
support research by university lecturers, no budget for
research, and no adequate research facilities at the universities.

Programme Component 2: Develop a policy andstrategy for world-class national universities andcomprehensive universities.
Interviewee (S3): The whole system of HE is very con-fusing; all the requirements need to have a clear policy,
autonomy and budgets.

Interviewee (S2): Our HE organisations have no autono-

my and no budgets. Our Ministry of Education is starting

to ask us to set up an IQA System and QA, but EQA
might take around 1–5 years.

Interviewee (S4): We need competency training for all

our lecturers and we also need exposure to the world,
because a lecturer who has been to foreign countries

5.1.2.1 Question (2) for Strategy 2: Improve the quality

thinks differently.

What are the main problems and challenges of im-of Education is trying to develop a policy and strategy

using six higher education quality and career-relevance

universities, the main problem is that they still mustand relevance of higher education

These answers demonstrate that, while the Ministry

proving the quality and relevance of higher education by

for world-class national universities and comprehensive

programmes as a higher education policy-maker?

reduce ambiguous policy within the entire HE system.
Moreover, they still do not provide to any universities

the full autonomy or large-enough budgets to become
world-class national universities. Additionally, com-29

Meijo Asian Research Journal Vol.9 No.1

petency training is desperately required for almost all

Programme Component 4: Enhance the status ofe-learning centres and e-libraries in HEIs.

nationally qualified teachers.

Interviewee (S6): The library is very important for HE

Programme Component 3: Upgrade facilities at selected HEIs.

development. But in our university's library, we are still

Interviewee (S1): There are no funds from the gov-

using manual system to find books and are not yet able

to develop an online library. Our library is weak because

universities lecturers in order for them to become inter-ernment and they cannot support the purchase of lab

equipment. Therefore, our lab facilities are very poor
now. Moreover, we are very weak in research and campus facilities.

Interviewee (S4): Most students don't use critical thinking in class and they never read ahead; perhaps our

we do not have much support or a budget from the government. We can get a small fund each year. We have noauthority to buy books ourselves; we need to submit our

entire book requirement list to the Ministry of Education.
International e-librarian training is very necessary.

While the government would like to enhance the sta-culture does not foster challenging classes. Therefore,tus of e-learning centres and e-libraries in HEIs, the ma-

culture first. To change these cultures, we need actual

standardised e-libraries.

we should start to change our teaching and learning

support, especially for facilities (materials and tools), andso on. We are facing time problems, financial problems,

jor problem is the shortage of qualified e-librarians andProgramme Component 6: Undertake professional
development for faculty and laboratory technicians.

and problems with students' participation. Those are my

Interviewee (S1): Centralisation is still happening, be-

Although the government wants to upgrade facili-

for our faculty, they never give us the right ones, and wefunds to buy the latest lab equipment, useful high-tech

Interviewee (S2): The quality of all the faculties at myadvanced campuses.

because of the large budget that is needed.

challenges.

cause when we ask them to buy good brands of lab tools

ties at selected HEIs, they still cannot provide enoughalways get low-quality tools from different brands.

materials and tools, standardised research centres, or

university is poor in terms of infrastructure and facilities
Interviewee (S3): There are promotion transfers of lec-

Figure 3. The Annual Numbers of Lecturers in Mandalay Technological University (2010–2017)

Source: Department of Administration (15/11/2017)30

PROBLEM ANALYSIS AND REFORM OF HIGHER EDUCATION IN MYANMAR FROMTHE CASE OF JAPANESE HIGHER EDUCATIONAL REFORM

Figure 4. The Annual Growth of Number of Students in Mandalay Technological University (2010-2017)

Source: Department of Student Affair (16/11/2017)
turers to other universities in difference cities around theteachers, many of whom are posted to universities far

for teaching.

hibited from teaching the same subjects in their new

country and a shortage of classroom materials needed
Figures 3 and 4 provide information about the annualchanges in the number of lectures and students in MTU.

It is clear from the charts that the annual number of stu-

dents is growing each year, from 61 students in 2011 tofrom their families; some lecturers are sometimes prouniversities(14) ; and some places are still experiencing

fights between the Myanmar government and ethnic
groups in Myanmar.

1541 students in 2017 (over a 25% increase). However

5.1.3. Category (C): Current Situation (Equitable Access)

The number of students is increasing year by year, due

access to higher education

degrees to be reopened at MTU in 2012. At the same

panding equitable access to higher education by ap-

transfer order policy (13) is reducing the number of educa-

grammes as a higher education policy-maker?

the percentage of lecturers' decreased by about 30%.

to a change in government policy allowing bachelor’stime, the unstable policy of moving lecturers through thetors over time.

The previous answers show that, although Myanmar’s

HE authorities are trying to undertake professional development for faculty and laboratory technicians as part5.1.3.1 Question (3) for Strategy 3: Expand equitable

What are the main problems and challenges of ex-

plying two equitable accesses to higher education proProgramme Component 1: Create a good teaching
and learning environment at HEIs.
Programme Component 2: Promote student-support programmes.

of their national HE reform, all universities’ faculties inInterviewee (S1): There are no exchange programmes

tional centralised model; a lack of autonomy, budgets

rooms here for international students who can study atratio of teachers to students. The teacher shortage islosing to Thailand and other neighbouring countries. All

policy, which is reducing the number of educators overwhile we have never been able to ask for one ourselves

Myamar are still facing the problem of using the tradi-for students to study in other countries and there are no

and funds for faculty development; and an inequitable

our universities. That's why our education markets are

the result of the instability caused by the transfer order

the MOU’s are proposed by other foreign universities,

time. The transfer order policy has created hardships forbecause we don't have the funds. Moreover, we don't

31

Meijo Asian Research Journal Vol.9 No.1

have the budget or enough funds to send lecturers to
study abroad.

Interviewee (S3): HR is more important than everythingelse, and the capacity to build a teaching staff requires paying good salaries and the support of funds and budgets.

Interviewee (S4): Most students don't use critical thinking in class and they never read ahead; perhaps ourculture does not foster challenging classes. Therefore,
we should start to change our teaching and learning

culture first. To change these cultures, we actually needsupport, especially for facilities (materials and tools), andso on. We are facing time problems, financial problems,and problems with students' participation. Those are mychallenges.

Interviewee (S7): Having private universities in Myan-mar is very important for HE development. But we stillneed strong national universities because students withfinancial problems are able to afford studying at national

universities. Although private universities cost a lot, they
have a good quality return. It is really useful to have private universities.

As observed in these answers, while Myanmar’s HE

policymakers are trying to create good teaching andlearning environments and promote student-support

programmes at HEIs, the major problems are: a lackof official private HE institutes; availability of very goodsalaries for a teacher capacity-building programme; theneed for supporting funds and budgets for students’exchange programmes for studying in foreign countries;

and a lack of rooms for international students to study at
Myanmar universities.

In conclusion, based on the data analysis, the solu-

tions to the main problems of HE reform in Myanmar are:Firstly, to strengthen HE governance and management

capacity, it is seriously necessary for all universities in

Myanmar to have large enough budgets to send lectur-

ers to study in foreign countries; adequate experience
in international relationships and competency; strong
English language proficiencies; and sufficient funds tostrengthen HE governance and management capacity.

Moreover, universities must have funding for travel to theother countries to propose and sign MOUs. Because theuniversities are all state-owned, they have never been

given full autonomy, budgets, and the necessary funding
to make their own decisions.

Secondly, to improve the quality of HE, decentralisa-

tion is required, along with strong budgets and fundingfor qualified research and world-class national univer-sities, the purchase of the latest lab equipment, useful32

high-tech materials and tools, the standardisation ofresearch centres and the building of advanced campus-

es. HE government authority must reduce ambiguous

policy throughout the entire HE system. Additionally,
competency training is desperately required for almost

all universities’ lecturers in order for them to become
internationally qualified teachers.

Thirdly, to improve career-relevance (research quality),

the government must immediately acquire many qualified e-librarians, and standardise e-libraries. Policymak-

ers must retreat from the traditional centralised modeland solve the problem of the poor teacher–student ratio
resulting from the transfer policy.

Finally, to be able to expand equitable access to high-er education, the government must officially open private

HE institutes as soon as possible, provide very goodsalaries for a teacher capacity-building programme,

and support the funding and budgeting for students’exchange programmes and the housing of international
students wishingto study at Myanmar’s universities.

5.2. Comparative analysis of Myanmar and Japan higher
education reforms plans

5.2.1. Category (A): Current Situation (Governance andManagement Capacity)

Table 5 shows that policymakers believe that sending

Myanmar’s students abroad to study is a first priority forestablishing partnerships with international universities,
research centres and other HE institutions. But, Japan’sreform plan shows that their first step is to invite educational units from foreign universities to Japan, establish

joint graduate schools, actively employ foreign faculty
and increase the number of courses carried out in En-

glish. After that, they worked to establish a new systemof government–industry collaboration, which assists

Japanese students studying overseas. Myanmar’s policymakers should adjust their plan to consider sending

Myanmar’s students abroad to study, and invite foreign
universities to open useful programmes within Myanmar.

Myanmar’s very basic ideas for strengthening gov-

ernance and management capacity cannot effectively
solve the problems with Myanmar’s HE, because thefactors of autonomy, accountability, and quality assurance are consistently repeated year after year in Myanmar’s HE development process. Japanese programmecomponents for strengthening management capacity
based on the needs of regional and international com-munities, and the creation of future technicians andmanagers who will play a leadership role in Asia, should

PROBLEM ANALYSIS AND REFORM OF HIGHER EDUCATION IN MYANMAR FROMTHE CASE OF JAPANESE HIGHER EDUCATIONAL REFORM

Table 5. Myanmar Higher Education Reform Plan & Japanese Higher Education Reform(Governance and Management Capacity)

Plan for their Current Situation

Myanmar Higher Education Reform Plan

Japanese Higher Education Reform Plan

◦ Undertake overseas study tours to document bestpractices and establish partnerships with international universities, research centres and otherhigher education institutions◦ Focus on supporting universities by resolutely
proceeding with internationalisation by inviting
educational units from foreign universities, establishing joint graduate schools, actively employing
foreign faculty, increasing courses carried out inEnglish◦ Establish a National Institute for Higher Education
Development (NIHED) to improve higher education governance and management, build individual skills and strengthen institutional capabilities◦ Establish a new system of government-industry
collaboration which assists Japanese students
studying overseas◦ Strengthen governance of HEIs through university
charters and university councils◦ Create human resource development bases corresponding to the needs of regional communities◦ Strengthen autonomy and accountability of HEIs
to realise more efficient and effective management, better value for money and significant improvements in access to quality higher education◦ Create educational bases open to the international
community◦ Establish a Higher Education Quality Assurance
Agency to lead the development of national quality standards for higher education and undertake
quality assurance assessments of all HEIs

◦ Foster technicians and managers who will play aleadership role in Asia

be of interest to Myanmar. Myanmar’s policymakers

conditions. Because Myanmar is a developing country,

istic and effective.

funds, develop a policy and strategy for world-classmust modify their basic ideas so that they are more real-

5.2.2. Category (B): Current Situation (Quality)

In this comparison of Myanmar’s and Japan’s HE re-form plans (Table 6), each side of the programme com-ponents is suited to its country’s social and economy

it needs to strengthen its basic research and innovation
national universities and comprehensive universities,

enhance the status of e-learning centres and e-libraries
in HEIs, etc. Japan is a developed country, so it requires

the development of international-level educational andresearch bases, where excellent educators compete andTable 6. Myanmar Higher Education Reform Plan & Japanese Higher Education Reform
Plan for their Current Situation (Quality)
Myanmar Higher Education Reform Plan

Japanese Higher Education Reform Plan

◦ Establish a National Research and Innovation
Fund and Research and Development Centres at
HEIs to benefit university teaching and learning,and develop university-managed income streams◦ Develop international-level educational and research bases in which excellent educators compete and foster human resources◦ Develop a policy and strategy for world-class national universities and comprehensive universities◦ Create Japan’s top research bases through thecreation of interdisciplinary programmes and inter-university collaborations◦ Upgrade facilities at selected HEIs

◦ Create innovation through implementation of cutting-edge research developed within universities◦ Enhance the status of e-learning centres and e-libraries in HEIs

◦ Establish a community revitalisation organisation
which serves as the community’s think tank tosolve various issues◦ Improve the effectiveness of the distance education system◦ Create a system that allows national universities to invest in companies supporting university-launched venture businesses◦ Undertake professional development for faculty
and laboratory technicians◦ Formulate a ‘Strategy for Developing Human Resources in Science and Technology’◦ Universities receiving priority assistance for advancing reform must secure an annual salarysystem and appropriate performance assessment
system33

Meijo Asian Research Journal Vol.9 No.1

foster human resources, and the creation of top researchbases through the establishment of interdisciplinary programmes and inter-university collaborations, etc.,

5.2.3. Category (C): Current Situation (Equitable Access)To expand equitable access to higher education,

Myanmar’s policymakers must deeply consider the roleof foreign students with very high standards of education
who wish to study in Myanmar, as demonstrated in Japan’s reform plan (Table 7).

travel to other countries. Additionally, universities, eventhose that are state–owned, must be given full autono-my, budgets, and the necessary funding to make theirown decisions.

Secondly, it is a significant requirement that all of

Myanmar’s universities apply decentralisation, andmaintain strong budgets and funds to conduct qualified

research and support world-class national universities;
buy the latest lab equipment, useful high-tech materials
and tools; standardize their research centres and build

advanced campuses. HE government authority must

6. Conclusion
The purpose of this study is to reveal solutions for themain issues surrounding the development of Myanmar’s

HE in recent times. Moreover, this study is aimed at
examining the best ideas for reforming Myanmar’s HE
system effectively and systematically, using Japan’s HE

reform as a comparison. This study shows that Myan-

mar’s HE can apply its strong points in order to establish
the right direction for the generation of huge vision andbreakthroughs in Myanmar’s industrial development;
thereby changing a poor nation into a rich one, rapidly.
These findings will be useful for those in charge of higher

education policies, as well as prospective students andprofessors who are considering doing further research
on Myanmar HE development.

These results highlight that: it is seriously necessary

for all universities in Myanmar to have large enoughbudgets to send lecturers to study in foreign countries;
there must be adequate experience in international rela-tionships and competency; there must be strong English
language proficiencies; and there must be sufficient

funds to strengthen HE governance and management
capacity. Moreover, universities must have funds for

reduce ambiguous policies throughout the entire HE
system. Competency training is desperately required foralmost all of the universities’ lecturers, in order for them

to become international qualified teachers. Thirdly, thegovernment must immediately acquire many qualified

e-librarians, and create standardised e-libraries. Policymakers must retreat from the traditional centralisedmodel and solve the problem of the poor teacher–student ratio resulting from the teacher transfer policy. The
government must open more private HE institutes assoon as possible, provide very good salaries for a teach-er capacity-building programme, and support funding
and budgeting for students’ exchange programmes andcreating housing for international students who wish to
study at Myanmar universities.

Finally, Myanmar’s policymakers should adjust theirreform plan to consider sending Myanmar’s students
abroad to study, while also inviting foreign universities
to open useful programmes within Myanmar. Myanmar’s

policymakers must modify their basic ideas by focusing on Japan’s interesting programme components

for strengthening management capacity based on theneeds of regional and international communities, thereby
creating future technicians and managers who will playa leadership role in Asia. Myanmar’s policymakers must

Table 7. Myanmar Higher Education Reform Plan & Japanese Higher Education Reform
Plan for their Current Situation (Equitable Access)
Myanmar Higher Education Reform Plan

Japanese Higher Education Reform Plan

◦ Create a good teaching and learning environment
at HEIs◦ Strategically accept foreign students by defining
priority regions◦ Promote student-support programmes◦ Build a system which promotes the local selectionof students by utilizing overseas bases, approvalof admission before students’ arrival in Japan◦ Active assistance for the transfer of posts fromsenior faculty to younger, foreign faculty by introduction of an annual salary system and combined
wages using funds from external parties, such asprivate companies for 10,000 faculty members,
and aim to adopt a policy which secures full-time
faculty positions for about 1,500 young and foreign faculty members

34

PROBLEM ANALYSIS AND REFORM OF HIGHER EDUCATION IN MYANMAR FROMTHE CASE OF JAPANESE HIGHER EDUCATIONAL REFORM

deeply consider the role of foreign students with very highstandards of education who wish to study in Myanmar, as
demonstrated in Japan’s universities reform plan.

Notes
(1)

The Nordic model refers to the economic and social

policies common to the Nordic countries (Denmark,Finland, Norway, Iceland, the Faroe Islands and Sweden). This includes a combination of free market capitalism with a comprehensive welfare state, and col-lective bargaining at the national level, with a highpercentage of workers belonging to a labour unionand state provision of free education and free healthcare, as well as generous, guaranteed pension payments for retirees funded by taxation.
(2)

International Conference on Education 43rd session,
Geneva, 1992, UNESCO: IBE 1993

(3)
(4)

National Education Strategic Plan 2016–2021 Summary.
The Government of the Republic of the Union of

Myanmar Ministry of Education (National Education
Strategic Plan 2016–2021 Summary)(5)

Myanmar Business Today is Myanmar’s largest circulating business publication. It is Myanmar's first andonly bilingual (English–Myanmar) business newspaper, distributed in Myanmar and Thailand.

S1: Professor and Head of IR Department at Manda-(6)l a y Te c h n o l o g i c a l U n i v e r s i t y ( i n t e r v i e w o n
11/11/2017).

S3: Professor and Head of Administration Department(7)

at Mandalay Technological University (interview on
11/11/2017).

S4: Professor and Head of Economics Department at(8)Mandalay University (interview on 09/12/2017).
(9)

S7 = Very important high-ranking governmental policymaker in the Department of Higher Education in
Nay Phyi Taw (interview on 03/04/2018).

(10)

S2 = The Rector of Mandalay Technological University (interview on 05/10/2017).

(11)

S6: Head of Library in Mandalay Technological University (interview on 09/11/2017).

(12)

S5: Professor and Head Quality Management Representative at MTU (interview on 08/11/2017).

(13)

Under the Ministry of Education’s policy, all universities’ lecturers and staff (sometimes including rectors)

have moved from one university to another university
within the same or different regions or states every
three to five years.

(14)

This is because his or her subject might be taken overby old lecturers.

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Zgaga2/publication/282943117_The_role_o _higher_education_centres_in_research_and_policy_A_case_from_a_European_periphe y/links/56235d8608aed8dd19461e90/The-role-ofhigher-education-centres-in-research and-policy-A-case-from-a-European-periphery.pdf?origin=publication_detailResearch Note

Meijo Asian Research Journal Vol.9 No.1

40

Research Note

インドにおけるミルク増産の要因
Causes of Rise in India’s Milk Production
杉本大三

By Daizo SUGIMOTO

名城大学経済学部 , Faculty of Economics

21 世紀に入って以来，インドではミルクの大幅な増産が続いている。本稿ではその原因を，インドの乳畜頭数や種類，ミルクの生産性，
酪農経営規模の分析等を通じて明らかにする。分析に際しては，インドにおける農業経営の多くが作物栽培と家畜飼育から構成される小規模な混合農業であり，家畜飼育のための飼料生産が耕種農業の規模に制約されることに注目した。分析の結果，ミルクの生産量の増加には，搾乳中の牛・水牛の頭数の増加と 1 頭当たりのミルク生産量の増加がともに貢献したことが明らかになった。また飼料供給の制約にもかかわらず搾乳中の牛・水牛が増加した理由の 1 つは，耕耘作業や地下水の揚水など従来役畜によって行われていた農作業がトラクターや動力ポンプによって機械化され，在来種のオス牛を中心とする役畜が減少したことにあった。
: インド，混合農業，酪農，牛，水牛

1.

はじめに

ンド各地で実施された酪農振興政策である。オペレー
ション・フラッドでは，農村のミルク生産者と都市消費者とを結びつけることを目的として，酪農協同組合等が

図 1 は主要ミルク生産国における 1990 年から 2016 年

ミルクの集荷施設や大規模な加工工場を整備した。このまでのミルク生産量の推移を示したグラフである。なん事業によって酪農発展の 1 つのモデルが提示されたことと言っても目を引くのはインドにおけるミルクの増産のを契機として，インドの酪農は大きく発展したといって鮮やかさである。1997 年にアメリカを追い抜いて世界第よい1）。しかし本論で指摘するように，酪農協同組合によ1 位となってからも生産量の拡大は続き，2016 年には 1 億る酪農家の組織化は現在においても一部の地域にとど6000 万トンに達した。第 2 位のアメリカとの差は実に 6000

まっており，近年のミルク生産の主要な拡大要因と考え万トンである。本稿ではインドにおいてなぜこうしたミることは難しい。この他，インドのミルク生産に関する

ルクの増産が実現したのかを検討する。

最近の論考としては，Kurup（2001），Birthal，Joshi and

インドのミルクの生産について，先行研究ではオペ

Gulati（2005），Birthal and Negi（2012）などがあるが，レーション・フラッドが注目されてきた。オペレーショ

いずれの研究においても中心的な論点とされたのは，いン・フラッドとはグジャラート州アナンド県での酪農協

かにしてミルク生産を拡大させるか，それをいかにして同組合の取り組みを母体として 1970 年から 30 年近くイ

所得向上に結び付けるか，酪農経営の発展をいかにして41

Meijo Asian Research Journal Vol.9 No.1

貧困緩和に役立てるかといったことであった2）。インドのもしくは水牛のミルクであり，残りはヤギ・ヒツジ等の社会的経済的課題に即してこうした研究課題が設定されミルクである6）。牛と水牛のミルクが圧倒的なシェアを占ていることは十分理解できるが，その一方でなぜミルク

めていることから，以下では牛と水牛によるミルクの生生産量が増えているのかという基本的な問題にはあまり産のみを検討の対象とする。なお，インドにおいて牛と注意が向けられてこなかったといってよい。

水牛は，宗教的な意味でも飼育目的の点でも全く異なる

そこで本稿では，牛の頭数や種類，ミルクの生産性，家畜であり，以下それらを区別して考察を進める。

酪農経営の規模などを分析することによって，インドに牛は，在来種，外国種，交雑種の 3 種類に分けられる。

おけるミルク増産の要因を明らかにする。それはまた，

在来種はゼブ牛といわれ，肩の上のコブ（肩峰）と，首現在のミルク生産の拡大がどのような条件の下で可能とから胸にかけての肉のひだ（胸垂）を外観上の特徴とすなっているのか，制約要因があるとすればそれがどこにる。ゼブ牛には多数の品種があるが，機能的には役用専あるのか，といったことを明らかにするのにも役立つは用種，乳用専用種，乳役兼用種に分けられる。本章第 4ずである。分析に際しては，インドの酪農が混合農業経節で述べる通り，インドで牛が食用を目的として飼育さ営の一部として作物栽培と共に営まれている点を重視すれることはない。また，水牛も牛と同様，基本的に食用る。これは本論で示されるように，家畜飼育の目的や規目的では飼育されていない。ただし様々なルートを通じ模が，作物栽培のありようと深くかかわるからである。

て牛・水牛肉は一定程度流通しており，消費もされてい分析の基礎資料とするのは以下の統計である。まずミる。イスラム教徒が牛肉を食するほか，貧困層で消費量

ルクの生産量や搾乳中の牛・水牛の頭数についてはインが多くなる傾向がある7）。

ド政府農業・農民福祉省が発行する「畜産・漁業基本統

役用専用種としてはカルナータカ州原産のアムリト計」を3），家畜頭数の詳細な分析には同省が基本的に 5 年

マハル（Amritmahal）種や，マハラシュトラ州原産のに 1 度実施している「家畜センサス」の結果を4），それぞ

キッラリ（Khillari）種などがある。乳用専用種としては，れ使用する。また，農村部の経営規模別農家構成等につパキスタンのカラチ付近原産のレッド・スィンディ（Redいてはインド政府統計・計画実施省の全国標本調査機構

Sindhi）種やパキスタンのモントゴメリ地域原産のサヒが毎年実施している「全国標本調査（National Sample

ワル（Sahiwal）種がある。乳役兼用種としては，ハリSurvey，以下 NSS と略）」のうちの第 70 次調査の結果をヤナ州原産のハリヤナ（Haryana）種や，グジャラート

使用する5）。第 70 次 NSS は 2013/14 年に実施され，イン州およびラージャスタン州原産のカンクレジ（Kankrej）

ド全土から抽出された 3 万 5000 の標本世帯に対して，土種がある。もとより実際には，品種のはっきりしない在地所有や農業経営，家畜飼育について調査が行われた。

来種の牛が多数飼育されている。

本稿ではその個票データを再集計して，先行研究で十分

外国種はヨーロッパから輸入された品種であり，日本には示されてこなかった酪農経営の規模や，作物栽培とでもよく知られるジャージー種やホルスタイン・フリー

酪農との結びつきを検討する。

ジア種等である。外国種は乳用種であり，基本的に役用本稿の構成は以下の通りである。第 2 章では家畜のには用いられない。

種類，作物栽培と家畜飼育から構成される混合農業の規交雑種は，在来種と外国種を交配した牛である。イン模，飼料の供給とミルクの生産性，屠畜の制約，ミルクのドでは 1960 年代初めに，ミルクの生産性向上のために，自家消費と流通・加工について順に検討を行い，インド酪

純血在来種の選抜と繁殖が取り組まれたが，芳しい成果

農の特徴を明らかにする。第 3 章では前章での分析をは得られなかった。そこで 1960 年後半から，輸入した外受けて，インドにおいてミルク増産を促進する要因が国種と在来種とを交配して交雑種を増やしていく方針が意外に少ないことを指摘したうえで，それにも拘わら打ち出された。交配する外国種のほとんどは，ホルスタ

ず近年ミルクの生産量が増加している理由を，乳畜頭

イン・フリージア種かジャージー種である8）。こうして得数と乳畜 1 頭当たり乳量の変化から検討する。第 4 章られる交雑種は，在来種の頑健さや耐病性をある程度備では前章までの分析で得られた結論と今後の検討課題

えているうえに，在来種よりもミルクの生産能力が高い。

を述べる。

牛の総頭数に占める外国種・交雑種の割合は 1992 年の7.4% から，1997 年の 14.5% ，2012 年の 27.7% へと上昇

2.

インドの酪農の特徴

している9）。
水牛は通常，乳用を目的として飼育する。役用に飼育することはあまりない。水牛のミルクは牛に比べて乳脂

42（1） 在来種及び外国種・交雑種の牛と在来種の水牛に率が高く，高値で取引される。インドは在来種の水牛のよって成り立つ酪農

種類が豊富であり，特にハリヤナ州近辺を原産地とする

2016/17 年にインドで生産されたミルクは 1 億 6540 万

ムラー（Murrah）種はミルク生産能力が高いことで知らトンと推計されている。生産されたミルクの 96.5% は牛れている。牛と異なり水牛の場合，外国種を輸入して使

C

R

I

M

P

用したり，在来種と交配させたりすることはあまり行わが少ないことと，そうした小規模な農家が農家全体の中れていない。したがって，特にそれと示されていなくてで多数を占めていることが示されるのみであった。以下

も水牛は在来種と考えてよい。

では家畜飼育頭数別の農家構成を示すことによって，よ

各種の牛・水牛の利用方法の相違は，それらの用途別

り直接的に酪農経営の規模を明らかにする。

の頭数に反映されている。本論文で用途別とは，繁殖用標本調査からの推計値なので目安にすぎないが，NSSか，役用か，搾乳用か，あるいはまだそれらの役割を果によると 2013/14 年における農村部の総世帯数は約 1 億たすに至らない子牛かという区別を指す。後掲の表 3 に5000 万戸である。表 1 に示す通り，そのうち非耕作世帯

よって 2012 年における役用のオスと搾乳中のメスの割は 40%，自作地や小作地で耕作を行っている耕作世帯は合を見ると，外国種・交雑種の牛及び水牛では役用のオ60% であった。非耕作世帯の多くは農業労働や土木・建スの割合が非常に低く，搾乳中のメスの割合が高い。し築労働等に従事して 生計を立てているとみてよい。酪農

たがってこれらの家畜ではメスをミルク生産のために飼経営を行っている世帯には，耕作世帯も非耕作世帯も含育しており，オスは繁殖のために必要な限りで飼育してまれる。

いるとみてよい。これに対して在来種の牛では役用のオでは次に酪農経営の規模を飼育頭数の点から検討し

スと搾乳中のメスの割合がともに高く，オスを農作業等てみよう。表 1 には経営農地面積規模別・飼育総頭数規のために，メスをミルク生産のために，それぞれ飼育し模別に世帯数の構成比が示されている。牛・水牛の飼育ていることがわかる。

総頭数には役用，搾乳中，乾乳期，子牛等を含むすべて同表によると 2012 年における外国種・交雑種の牛の総の牛・水牛が含まれている。

頭数は 3973 万頭，在来種の牛は 1 億 5117 万頭，水牛はまず耕作世帯に焦点を当てると，牛・水牛を飼育して

1 億 870 万頭，合計 3 億頭弱であり，構成比は順に 13%，いる世帯は 63% である。このうち飼育総頭数が 2~3 頭の50%，36% となっている。外国種・交雑種の牛はほかに世帯がもっとも多く 51% を占め，これに続いて 4~5 頭の比べて格段に頭数が少なく，交雑種の普及は限定的であ世帯が 19% を占めている。飼育総頭数が 5 頭以下の世帯ることが確認できる。在来種の牛はもっとも頭数が多い

は 89% に及ぶ。同表の注に示す通り，飼育総頭数 2~3 頭が，これは第 3 章で述べるようにオスとメスの成畜を両の世帯が飼育している搾乳中の牛・水牛の頭数は 1.0 頭方とも利用するからであろう。水牛は基本的に乳畜としであり，4~5 頭の世帯では 1.8 頭である。後継表 4 に示てしか飼育されていないが、それでも頭数が多い。

す平均乳量を考慮すると，搾乳中の牛・水牛が 1 頭であれば 1 日にとれるミルクの量は平均して 2kg 弱，2 頭で（2）小規模混合農業の一環として営まれる酪農あれば 4kg 弱である。酪農経営の零細性は明らかであろ

次にインドにおける酪農経営の規模を検討する。先行う。また表掲は略すが，役用のオスの頭数は搾乳中の牛・研究ではインドの酪農の小規模性が繰り返し指摘されて水牛の頭数よりも少なく，飼育総頭数 2~3 頭の世帯で 0.6

いるが，統計データとしては，NSS の報告書に記載され頭，4~5 頭の世帯で 0.9 頭である10）。このようにミルク生ている経営農地面積規模別の平均家畜飼育頭数に基づい産を主たる目的として 1~2 頭の搾乳牛・水牛を飼育してて，農地経営面積の小規模な農家ほど平均家畜飼育頭数

1 日 2~4kg のミルクを得る一方で，場合によってはそれ

表1

経営農地面積規模別・飼育頭数規模別の世帯数構成（2013/14 年，農村部）
牛・水牛の飼育総頭数規模
経営耕地面積規 経営農地面積規 牛・水牛を飼育 牛・水牛を飼育 牛・水牛を飼育
経営農地面積模別世帯構成模別世帯計 していない世帯 している世帯 している世帯計
1頭
2 ～ 3 頭 4 ～ 5 頭 6 ～ 10 頭 11 頭以上

農村世帯計

100.0%

100.0%

53.9%

46.1%

100.0%

21.6%

50.4%

17.8%

8.8%

1.4%

非耕作世帯

39.6%

100.0%

79.5%

20.5%

100.0%

37.1%

48.3%

10.7%

3.7%

0.3%

耕作世帯計

60.4%

100.0%

37.2%

62.8%

100.0%

18.3%

50.9%

19.4%

9.9%

1.6%

～ 0.5ha30.0%

100.0%

46.6%

53.4%

100.0%

28.1%

54.2%

14.0%

3.5%

0.2%

0.5 ～ 1.0ha

13.9%

100.0%

32.5%

67.5%

100.0%

12.0%

56.8%

18.8%

9.9%

2.4%

1.0 ～ 2.0ha

9.7%

100.0%

26.4%

73.6%

100.0%

13.0%

46.7%

25.8%

13.2%

1.4%

2.0 ～ 4.0ha

4.9%

100.0%

23.8%

76.2%

100.0%

8.8%

39.3%

26.3%

23.0%

2.7%

4.0～10.0ha

1.8%

100.0%

15.8%

84.2%

100.0%

3.8%

31.0%

30.9%

26.4%

7.8%

10.0ha 以上

0.2%

100.0%

4.1%

95.9%

100.0%

0.5%

18.4%

28.2%

35.8%

17.1%

注）搾乳中の牛・水牛の平均頭数は，飼育総頭数 1 頭で 0.7 頭，2 ～ 3 頭で 1.0 頭，4 ～ 5 頭で 1.8 頭，6 ～ 10 頭で 2.9
頭，11 頭以上で 9.1 頭である。
出所）National Sample Survey Organisation, Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation, Government of In
dia, Unit-Level NSS Data provided in the form of CD-ROM: 70th National Sample Survey (2013/14), Schedule 18.1, Land
Holding. より筆者作成。

43

Meijo Asian Research Journal Vol.9 No.1

らの乳畜とともに役用のオス牛を飼育する零細な家畜飼

面積規模別・飼育総頭数規模別分布を示した表 2 によっ

育が農村部で広く行われている。これらの農家では，自てこの点を検討してみよう。表頭は牛・水牛の飼育総頭分の経営する農地で飼料を生産して家畜に与える一方数だが，集計されているのは総頭数のうちのメスの牛・で，家畜の排せつ物のうち，調理用燃料等として使用し水牛頭数（成畜）のみである。

なかった部分を厩肥として農地に投入している。零細な同表によると，経営農地面積 2ha 未満かつ飼育総頭数

作物栽培と家畜飼育が有機的なつながりを保ちながら営

5 頭以下の世帯（非耕作世帯を含む）に，メスの牛・水まれているという点で，インド農業の中心に位置するの牛（成畜）の 64% が集中していることがわかる。また，

は零細な混合農業といってよい。Thornton，P. K.，R. L.

経営農地面積を考慮せず，飼育総頭数のみに注目すると，

Krushka，N. Henninger，et al.（2002）は，インドの土地

飼育総頭数 5 頭以下の酪農経営が，メスの牛・水牛（成の 83% において混合農業（mixed system）が行われてい畜）の 72% に集中している。したがって，小規模な酪農ると推測している11）。

経営，なかでも小規模な混合農業経営がインドのミルク

次に非耕作世帯についてみてみよう。興味深いこと

生産の中核を担っているといってよい。

に，非耕作世帯の 21% が，牛・水牛を飼育している。飼もちろん大規模な専門的酪農経営の存在を忘れてよい

育総頭数規模別の世帯構成が示す通り，非耕作世帯の酪

訳ではない。NSS の結果によると，所得の半分以上を酪

農経営は耕作世帯よりも小規模である。非耕作世帯は自農経営から得ている世帯は農村世帯の 1.8% であった13）。

家で飼料を生産できないので，その多くは共有地での放この中には専門的で大規模な酪農経営が含まれていると牧や道端，刈跡地などでの雑草等の収集に頼って乳畜を考えられる。また，表 1 によると，飼育総頭数 11 頭以上飼育し，わずかな量のミルクを生産している。耕耘作業の世帯は農村世帯全体の 0.6% を占めるに過ぎないがを行わないので役用のオスを飼育する必要はなく，基本（46.1% × 1.4%

的に乳畜のみを飼育しているとみてよい。

スの牛・水牛（成畜）の 9.2% が集中している。メスの0.6%），表 2 によるとそうした世帯にメ

次に耕作世帯における経営農地面積規模と牛・水牛の牛・水牛（成畜）の平均飼養頭数は 9.1 頭である。さら飼育総頭数との関係を見ると，経営面積の大きな耕作世に，筆者が 2017 年 3 月にパンジャーブ州農村部で実施し帯ほど，飼育総頭数が大きくなる傾向を読み取ることがた調査では，飼養頭数 200 頭を上回り，先進諸国と比べできる。経営農地面積 0.5ha 未満層では，飼育総頭数 3ても何らそん色のない酪農経営を展開する農家が存在す

頭以下の農家が 8 割以上を占めているが，10ha 以上層にることも確認された（1）。しかし，そうした大規模な酪農なると 3 頭以下の農家は 2 割弱しか存在せず，6 頭以上

経営はインドの酪農経営全体に占めるシェアの点でも，の農家が半数以上を占めている。次項で指摘するように，

ミルク生産に占めるシェアの点でも今のところ点的な存飼料の供給量が，穀物（ワラが飼料として利用される）在である。

の作付面積や，飼料作物の作付面積に制約されるために，
経営農地面積が大きい農家ほど飼育総頭数を増やすこと（3）飼料の供給の不足と低い 1 頭当たり乳量が可能になると考えられる12）。

飼料は粗飼料と濃厚飼料からなる。このうち粗飼料とでは，インドにおけるミルク生産の中核を担っている

しては，乾燥飼料（dry fodder）と青刈り飼料（greenのはどのような規模の農家なのだろうか。経営規模別の

fodder）が与えられている。乾燥飼料はほとんどが麦わ

ミルク生産量を知ることはできないので，ミルクの生産らや稲わらを細断して乾燥させたものである。また青刈量に直接かかわるメスの牛・水牛（成畜）頭数の経営農地

り飼料としては，酪農家が農地で栽培したトウジンビエ，

表2

経営農地面積規模別・飼育頭数規模別のメス牛・水牛（成畜）の構成（2013/14 年，農村部）

経営農地面積牛・水牛の飼育総頭数
1頭

2～3頭

4～5頭

6 ～ 10 頭

11 頭以上

合計

非耕作世帯

3.5%

6.6%

3.1%

1.6%

0.4%

15.2%

～ 0.5ha

4.7%

14.4%

6.5%

2.4%

0.3%

28.3%

0.5 ～ 1.0ha

1.1%

7.6%

4.4%

3.9%

4.0%

20.9%

1.0 ～ 2.0ha

1.1%

5.2%

5.3%

4.4%

1.2%

17.3%

2.0 ～ 4.0ha

0.4%

2.4%

2.9%

4.4%

1.3%

11.4%

4.0 ～ 10.0ha

0.1%

0.7%

1.4%

1.9%

1.5%

5.6%

10.0ha 以上

0.0%

0.1%

0.2%

0.4%

0.5%

1.2%

合計

10.9%

37.0%

23.8%

19.1%

9.2%

100.0%

出 所 ）National Sample Survey Organisation, Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation, Government ofIndia, Unit-Level NSS Data provided in the form of CD-ROM: 70th National Sample Survey (2013/14), Schedule 18.1, Land
Holding. より筆者作成。

44

C

R

I

M

P

アワ，エジプト・クローバーなどの飼料作物が与えられ落ちたメス牛などは，給餌量を減らすなどの手段で意図るほか ，耕地・非耕地を問わずあらゆるところで農家的に短命に終わるよう仕向けられることも多い。また，が集めた草や雑草，木の葉も与えられる。村の共有地やそうした家畜が収容される慈善施設が開設されている地刈り跡地で行われる放牧も家畜に青切り飼料を与える重域もある20）。このような手段によって牛・水牛の寿命が要な方法の 1 つである。濃厚飼料としては，穀物の他，

人為的にコントロールされていることは，それらの性比

綿実やナタネなどの油糧作物の搾油後の残渣などが与えを見れば明らかである。動物の性比は自然状態であればられている。Diksit and Birthal（2010）はインド全体をほぼ 1 対 1 であるが，表 3 によって 2012 年におけるオス対象とするサンプル調査に基づいて搾乳牛の 1 日のエサの割合をみると，オスがあまり経済的価値を持たない外の消費量を，青刈り飼料 5.9kg，乾燥飼料 5.5kg，濃厚飼

国種・交雑種と水牛では 15%，オスを役用に使用する在料 0.6kg と推計している。放牧の割合は青刈り飼料全体

来種では 41% であった。

（2）の 25% とされている14）。

このように，経済的に価値の低い家畜の人為的淘汰

農村での筆者の観察によると，農家は乾燥飼料と青刈

は，宗教的禁忌の存在にもかかわらずある程度行われてり飼料を基本的に自分の経営する農地で生産しており，いるが，不十分とならざるを得ない。このため 1960 年代

消費しきれなかった場合は販売し，不足した場合は購入からインドでは牛の「過剰」について激しい議論が戦わしている。農家が家畜飼育のために生産できる飼料の量されてきた。牛の「過剰」を問題視する V.M. ダンデカー

は，経営農地面積や作物構成に依存している。したがっルらは，年老いた役用のオス牛や，ミルクを生産する能て，飼育可能な牛・水牛の頭数もまたそれらに依存す力が落ちたメス牛など，経済的に価値の低い牛・水牛がる。濃厚飼料は農家が自ら生産するケースもあれば，飼大量に飼育されているために，経済的に価値の高い家畜料製造企業が販売しているタブレット状のものを購入すに与えるべき飼料までもが不足し，その結果生ずる栄養るケースもある。

不良が家畜の生産性をさらに落とすと主張した21）。牛のBirthal and Taneja（2006）によると，エサは不足基調「過剰」をどのような状態として理解し，その状況をどこにある。1972/73 年における乾燥飼料の不足率（飼料のまで許容するかという問題はおくとしても，ダンデカー

必要量に対する給餌量の不足分の割合）の推計値は 49%，

ルが指摘した事実自体は現在においても存在し続けてい青刈り飼料は 53%，濃厚飼料は 43% であった。こうしたるといってよい。

飼料の大幅な不足傾向は近年緩和しつつあるとはいえ，2003 年においても青刈り飼料の不足率は 9%，乾燥飼料
50%，濃厚飼料 27% であった15）。

（5）自家消費比率の高さと近代的流通機構の未発達
インドのミルクの大半を生産しているのは，すでに述このように給餌量が不十分であることと，交雑種の普べたように混合農業の一環として営まれる小規模な酪農及が進まず在来種が多数飼育されていることから，イン経営である。そうした経営におけるミルク生産の一義的ドにおける牛・水牛の 1 頭当たり年間乳量は先進国と比

目的は世帯内での消費であり，販売に向けられるのはそ較すると非常に低い。FAOSTAT によると 2016/17 年のの後に残る余剰分である。生産されるミルクのうち，ど

1 頭当たり年間乳量は，インドの 1.5 トンに対して，アメれくらいの割合が自家消費に向けられるのかということ

リカ 10 トン，日本 8.5 トン，フランス 6.7 トン，ドイツについては見解が分かれるが，例えば Kurup（2001）は

7.7 トンであった 。

30% 強とし22），Birthal and and Taneja（2006）は 55% と16）している。いずれにしてもかなりの割合のミルクが自家（4）屠畜の制約と家畜の「過剰」問題

消費されているとみてよい。農家は紅茶などに混ぜてミ人口の 79.8% を占めるヒンドゥー教徒，1.7% を占める

ルクを飲むほか，保存性を高めるために自家でヨーグル

スィク教徒，0.4% を占めるジャイナ教徒は ，宗教上のト（ダヒ），バター（マカン），精製バター（ギー）など

理由から，在来種，外国種，交雑種の別を問わず，牛をにミルクを加工する23）。酪農家の大半を占める，搾乳中

殺さず，また食さない。このことから，多くの州においの牛・水牛を 1~2 頭飼育する農家（飼育総頭数にして 5て牛の屠畜は法律で禁じられている18）。他方水牛は，牛頭以下）は生産されたミルクのかなりの部分をまず家族

17）ほど聖性を帯びた存在とはみなされず，宗教上食するこで消費し，余剰部分を販売していると考えてよい。杉本とも許されている。とはいえ水牛も，屠畜されることは（2015）によると，農村世帯のミルク自給率（ミルク消費あまりない。このため総頭数に対する屠畜頭数の割合は量に対する自家生産部分の割合）は 59% であり，農家のヒツジが 40%，ヤギが 46%，豚が 80% であるのに対し場合は 81% に達する24）。乳畜を飼育しているほとんどのて，牛と水牛は 2% に過ぎない19）。

農民にとってミルク生産の主な目的は自家消費にあると

しかし酪農経営を行う上で，経済的な価値が低下した

いってよい。

家畜を飼育し続けることは不合理である。このため，イ

次にミルクの販売について検討してみよう。Kurup

ンドにおいても役用として使用しないオス牛や，性能の（2001）の見解に従うと，生産されたミルクの 20% が乳45

Meijo Asian Research Journal Vol.9 No.1

業関連事業体（酪農組合，政府系加工業者，比較的大規

フォーマル・セクターにミルクを販売するとは，具体的模な民間の加工業者）に販売され，50% がインフォーマには，毎日庭先にやってくる小規模な集乳業者にミルクル・セクターに販売される。前者の乳業関連事業体のうを販売することであり，購入した販売業者はそのミルク

ち，取扱量がもっとも大きいのは酪農組合である 。

を顧客に販売する。販売業者の顧客とは，都市部の個人

25）

酪農組合はいくつかの系統に分かれるが，加盟単組数

宅や菓子店（いわゆるミターイ・ショップ）である。イがもっとも大きいのは全国酪農開発委員会（National

ンドの菓子の多くは，乳製品といっても過言ではないほ

Dairy Development Board，以下 NDDB と略）が統括す

ど多くのミルクを使って作られるので，菓子店はミルクる酪農組合のネットワークである。NDDB の傘下にはの需要先として重要である28）。このほか生産農家が個人

2016 年現在で 17 万 7314 の単組と 1628 万 2000 人の組合

宅や菓子店に直接販売することも多い。

員が組織されており，乳加工工場や流通関連施設，小売り会社等が設立されている26）。NDDB を中心とする酪農

3.

組合の活動は，その本部が所在するグジャラート州におインド酪農の成長要因

いて特に活発であり，酪農組合が集荷するミルクの割合
は生産量の 52% に及ぶ。しかしインド全体を見渡すと，ここまでの検討の結果，インド酪農の特徴として，混NDDB が乳業全体に占める地位が高いとは言えない。

合農業の一環として営まれる小規模経営を中核とするこ2016 年における NDDB の年間集乳量約 1560 万トンは，と，飼料が不足基調にあること，屠畜に制約があることか

インドのミルク生産量 1 億 5937 万トンの 1 割程度に過ぎ

ら交雑種の普及が進んでいないこと，飼料の不足と交雑ないからである。前途の Kurup（2001）によると乳業関種の普及の遅れによりミルクの生産性が低位にとどまっ

連事業体への販売量は生産量の 20% とされるので，酪農ていることが示された。また，ミルクを農村部から都市組合はその半分程度を取り扱っており，残りの半分は政部へと大量に移送するための，コールド・チェーンを備

府系加工業者と民間の比較的大規模な加工業者が取りえた流通販売網は一部の農家をカバーするのみであるこ

扱っていると考えてよい。

とが明らかになった。一言でいうと，乳業発展の条件がしたがって，近年注目されることの多いネスレ等の多整っているとはいいがたい。しかしそれにもかかわらず，

国籍アグリビジネスや国内乳業メーカーによるミルクの

インドにおける牛・水牛ミルク生産量は 1999/2000 年の契約生産は，都市部への乳製品の供給や，個々の企業の7490 万トンから 2016/17 年の 1 億 5937 万トンへと，17

事業展開にとって大きな意義をもつ可能性はあるもの

年間で 2 倍以上増加した。本章ではこの乳業発展の原因の，インドの酪農全体を見渡せばそのプレゼンスは今のを検討する。

ところ限定的である 。コールド・チェーンの確立を前

ミルク生産量の増加をもたらした要因のひとつは，搾提とする近代的な流通販売網でカバーされているのは，乳中の牛と水牛の頭数が増加したことである。表 3 によ酪農協同組合や民間乳業メーカーが活発に活動している

ると，1997 年から 2012 年にかけて，搾乳中の外国種・一部の地域に限られるといってよい。

交雑種の牛は 838 万頭，在来種の牛は 229 万頭，水牛は

27）

このように乳業の近代的加工・流通機構は未発達であ

816 万頭増加した。またメスの子牛も外国種・交雑種がり，生産されるミルクの 50% 程度は，インフォーマル・

708 万頭，在来種が 30 万頭，水牛が 1149 万頭増加した。

セクターに販売されているとみてよい。農家がイン

ミルクを泌乳中の牛・水牛と，しばらく後にそれを泌乳

表3

品種別・機能別の牛・水牛頭数の変化
1997 年の家畜頭数

オス

子牛
繁殖用
役用
繁殖・役用兼用
その他
オス計
子牛
搾乳中
乾乳期
非経産
メス計
合計

（単位：1000 頭）
2012 年の家畜頭数

メス

外国種・
在来種
交雑種

水牛

2,617 24,210
209 11,296
2,009 50,170
231 3,351
278 1,177
5,344 90,202
5,412 33,503
5,924 27,361
2,432 22,513
778 4,393
14,756 88,580
20,100 178,782

10,679 37,506
791 12,296
4,819 56,998
1,983 5,565
353 1,808
18,625 114,171
24,524 63,439
28,410 61,695
14,322 39,267
3,329 8,500
71,292 174,628
89,917 288,799

合計

外国種・
在来種
交雑種

水牛

品種毎の構成比 (2012 年 )合計

3,839 15,205 10,805 29,849
318 2,084
836 3,238
1,424 39,854 3,468 44,746
222 2,981
621 3,823
169 1,825
374 2,367
5,971 61,949 16,103 84,023
12,492 33,807 36,013 82,312
14,305 29,649 36,572 80,526
5,115 18,475 14,482 38,071
1,565 6,031 4,538 12,135
33,760 89,224 92,599 215,583
39,732 151,172 108,702 299,606

外国種・
在来種
交雑種

水牛

合計

10%
1%
4%
1%
0%
15%
31%
36%
13%
4%
85%
100%

10%
1%
3%
1%
0%
15%
33%
34%
13%
4%
85%
100%

10%
1%
15%
1%
1%
28%
27%
27%
13%
4%
72%
100%

10%
1%
26%
2%
1%
41%
22%
20%
12%
4%
59%
100%

総頭数に対する構成比 (2012 年 )1997 年から 2012 年にかけての増減

外国種・
在来種
交雑種
1%
0%
0%
0%
0%
2%
4%
5%
2%
1%
11%
13%

5%
1%
13%
1%
1%
21%
11%
10%
6%
2%
30%
50%

水牛

合計

外国種・
在来種
交雑種

4%
0%
1%
0%
0%
5%
12%
12%
5%
2%
31%
36%

10%
1%
15%
1%
1%
28%
27%
27%
13%
4%
72%
100%

1,222
109
▲ 585
▲9
▲ 109
627
7,080
8,381
2,683
787
19,004
19,632

水牛

合計▲9,005126 ▲7,657▲9,21245 ▲9,058▲10,316 ▲1,351 ▲12,252▲ 370 ▲1,362 ▲1,742
648
21
559
▲28,253 ▲2,522 ▲30,148
304 11,489 18,873
2,288 8,162 18,831▲4,038160 ▲1,196
1,638 1,209 3,635
644 21,307 40,955▲27,610 18,785 10,807

出 所 ）Department of Animal Husbandry，Dairying and Fisheries，Ministry of Agriculture，Government of India(2003)，16th Livestock
Census，Summary Report，All India，Vol. I A，Livestock and Poultry 1997，p.7，Department of Animal Husbandry，Dairying and Fisheries，
Ministry of Agriculture，Government of India(2014)，19th Livestock Census-2012，All India Report，p.13. より筆者作成。

46

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する子牛が，合計で 3770 万頭増加したのである。注目さもうひとつは飼料基盤の制約である。牛・水牛の総頭れるのは，この乳畜の増加が役用のオス牛の減少を伴っ数はこの 15 年間で 1080 万頭，3.7% 増えたに過ぎず，あていたことである。同じ期間に在来種の役用牛（オス）

まり変化していない。総頭数が大きくは増えないマクロ・は 1032 万頭，在来種オスの子牛は 901 万頭，在来種オスレベルの理由は，飼料基盤の制約であろう。乳畜の飼育の繁殖牛は 920 万頭減少した。減少頭数は合計で 2850 万

頭数の増加が，役畜頭数の減少をあまり上回ることがで頭に及んだ 。こうした頭数の変化は，牛・水牛の構成

きないのはこのためであると推察される。役畜をある程比にも反映されており，牛と水牛の総頭数に占める搾乳

度飼育しなければならないという条件と，飼料基盤が不中の牛・水牛とメスの子牛・水牛のシェアは 1997 年の十分であるという条件に制約されながら，役畜の減少と43% から 2012 年の 54% に上昇したが，役用牛・水牛と乳畜の増加が今のところゆっくりと進行しつつあるとみ

オスの子牛のシェアは 33% から 25% へと低下した。

てよい。

29）

かつてインドで牛を飼育する最大の目的は，役用のオ

ミルクの増産を可能にしたもう一つの要因は，1 頭当ス牛を耕耘作業や地下水の揚水作業に用いることにあったり乳量の増加である。表 4 に示されているように，牛・た。したがって，
メス牛を飼育する第 1 の目的はオス牛の水牛合計の 1 頭あたり平均年間乳量は，2000 年の 1.22 ト

再生産であり，
ミルクの生産には二義的な意義しか付与さンから 2015 年の 1.70 トンへと 15 年間で 38.9% 増加した。

れていなかった30）。しかしパンジャーブ州などの農業先進

年率にすると 2.21% となる。すでに述べたように飼料の州では 1960 年代から，その他の州においても遅くとも不足がやや緩和していることは，乳量の増加をもたらし

1980 年代から，トラクターや揚水用の動力ポンプが普及た要因であろう。また，同じ期間における搾乳牛の頭数

31）

し，役畜として牛・水牛を飼育する意義は薄らいでいる 。

の年平均増加率は 2.29%，ミルク生産量のそれは 4.55%

他方で，ミルクの消費量は増加しており，農家は乳畜の飼であった。「ミルク生産量の年平均成長率 = 家畜頭数の育をより重視するようになっている。したがって，役畜の年平均成長率 +1 頭当たり年間乳量の年平均成長率」と減少と乳畜の増加という牛・水牛の構成の変化は農業生産いう関係がおおむね成立することから，メス牛の頭数のの変化と消費市場の変化とを反映している。

増加と，1 頭当たりミルク生産量の増加は，ミルク生産

しかしそうした変化が急激に進展しているとも言い難い。表 3 に示されているように，2012 年において種類量の増加に対して同じくらいずつ貢献したということができる。

別・機能別に見てもっとも頭数が多いのは，牛・水牛のもっとも，ミルク生産量の増加率や，増加を促した要

総頭数の 13% を占める在来種の役用牛である。また種類

因は，家畜の種類ごとに異なる。表 4 によると，まず外別に見てもっとも多いのは在来種の牛で，50% を占めて

国種・交雑種の牛は，1 頭あたり乳量は比較的高いものいる。すなわち，役畜が急減して乳畜に代替されているの，その増加率は低く，ミルク生産の増加要因は主としわけでもない。考えうる理由として 2 点を指摘しておきて頭数の増加にあった。ミルク生産量の増加に対する外たい。ひとつはトラクター等によって役畜を代替するこ

国種・交雑種の牛の寄与率は 36% であり，かなり大きいとが容易ではないという農業の現実である。例えば排水といってよい。次に水牛は 1 頭当たり乳量と頭数の両方

施設の整備が不十分で過湿となりやすい圃場が多い地域

が穏やかに上昇している。比較的乳量が高い上に頑健ででは依然として役畜の活躍の場が多く，トラクターやト

酷暑にも強いことが頭数の増加につながったと考えられラックの導入が容易ではないと推察される。

る。ミルクの増産への増加寄与率は 46% と約半分に及ん

表4

牛・水牛の種類別のミルク生産量，搾乳牛頭数，1 頭当たり年間乳量の推移
外国種・交雑種
在来種

水牛

合計

ミルク生産量(1000 トン）

2000 年

14323

19047

43699

77069

2015 年

40883

31840

77478

150201

搾乳牛の頭数(1000 頭）2000 年

6096

27376

29639

63110

2015 年

15174

32240

41162

88575

1 頭当たり乳量（トン / 年）

2000 年

2.35

0.70

1.47

1.22

2015 年
搾乳牛の頭数

年平均増加率1 頭当たり乳量（2000 ～ 2015 年）
ミルク生産量
ミルク生産量への増加寄与率

2.69

0.99

1.88

1.70

6.27%

1.10%

2.21%

2.29%

0.92%

2.36%

1.64%

2.21%

7.24%

3.48%

3.89%

4.55%

36%

17%

46%

100%

注）2000 年は 1999 年から 2001 年までの 3 年間の平均値，2015 年は 2014 年から 2016 年までの 3 年間の平均値。
出所）Department of Animal Husbandry, Dairying and Fisheries, Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India, Basic
Animal Husbandry & Fisheries Statistics , Various Issues. より筆者作成。

47

Meijo Asian Research Journal Vol.9 No.1

だ。最後に在来種の牛は頭数の増加が小さかったが，1営を行っている。飼育総頭数のうち 100 頭弱が搾乳中の頭当たり乳量の伸びが比較的大きかった。在来種の牛はメス牛で，残りは子牛等である。純血種の精液を用い

1 頭当たり乳量が極めて低く，上昇の余地が大きかったて交配を重ねているので，飼育している牛はほぼ純血と考えられる。とはいえ，もともとの生産性が格段に低種といえる。乳量は平均して 1 日 1 頭 40~50 リットルいことから，ミルク生産の増加そのものは小さく，増加であり，搾乳期間 1 期で 1 頭当たり約 7000 リットルを寄与率は 17% にとどまった。

生産する。経営農地面積は 50ha であり，10ha が所有
地，40ha が借入地であった。この農地のうち 28ha でコ

4.

結び

メ・馬鈴薯・メイズの輪作を行い，残りの 22ha で飼料作物を栽培している。配合内容が異なる 5 種類の飼料を農場内で製造しており，牛の生育段階や搾乳牛の乳

インドにおける近年のミルク増産の要因は，搾乳牛・量に応じて異なる飼料を与えている。出荷先は先進的

水牛の頭数と 1 頭当たりのミルク生産量が共に増加したな酪農家が加入する独立系の酪農組合であり，S 氏もそことにある。搾乳牛・水牛の頭数を増加させることが可のメンバーである。バイパス・ファットやバイパス・プ

能になったもっとも大きな要因は，耕耘作業や地下水のロテインの飼料への添加，ホルモン剤を使った繁殖時揚水作業が機械化され，在来種のオスを中心に役畜の頭期の管理など，先進的な技術を活用して生産性の高い数が減少したことにある。飼料供給の制約から牛・水牛の飼育総頭数があまり増加しない状況において，乳畜の増加頭数は基本的に，役畜の減少頭数から大きくは乖離

酪農経営を行っている。
エジプト・クローバーは英語名 Egyptian Clover，学名（2）Trifolium alexandrinum である。

しないとみられる。
また本稿では，作物栽培と家畜飼育の両面から農業経営の規模を明らかにしたうえで乳蓄の分布を検討した。

参考文献

その結果によると，メスの牛・水牛（成畜）の 64% は経営面積 2ha 未満かつ，牛・水牛の飼育総頭数 5 頭以下

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15）Birthal P.S. and V.K. Taneja（2006），Livestock

暮らしの変化と社会変動』日本経済評論社。

sector in India: Opportunities and Challenges for8）Kurup，M. P. G.（2001），“Smallholder Dairy Pro-

Smallholders，in P.S. Birthal，V.K.Taneja and W.

duction and Marketing in India: Constraints andThorpe（ED.），Smallholder Livestock Production

Opportunities，” in D. Rangnekar and W. Thorpe

in India: Opportunities and Challenges（Proceed-（ED.），Smallholder Dairy Production and Market-

ings of an ICAR-ILRI international workshop），

ing –Opportunities and Constraints（Proceedings of

NCAP（National Centre for Agricultural Econom-

a South-South workshop held at National Dairy Devel-ics and Policy Research）– ICAR（Indian Council

opment Board（NDDB），Anand，India，13 – 16 March,of Agricultural Research），New Delhi，India and2001），NDDB, Australian Centre for International

ILRI（International Livestock Research Institute），

Agricultural Research，International Livestock Re-

Nairobi，Kenya. また，岡通太郎（2004），「インドに

search Institute，pp.70-71.

おける改良牛普及格差の要因分析―グジャラート

9）Department of Animal Husbandry，Dairying and

州中部村落内の社会経済関係からの考察―」『アジFisheries，Ministry of Agriculture，Government

ア経済』第 45 巻，第 4 号では，エサが不足する背景

of India（2003），16th Livestock Census，Summary

が農家の家畜飼養の実態に即して紹介されている。

Report，All India，Vol. IA，Livestock and Poultry

16）
FAOSTAT ウェブサイトhttp://www.fao.org/faostat/en/

1997 ，p.7，Department of Animal Husbandry，（2018 年 9 月 11 日閲覧）

Dairying and Fisheries，Ministry of Agriculture，

17）2011 年人口センサスの結果による。http://www.

Government of India（2014），19th Livestock Cen-censusindia.gov.in/2011census/C-01.html （2018 年

sus - 2012，All India Report，p.13.

9 月 21 日閲覧）。

10）National Sample Survey Organisation，Ministry of18）Birthal P.S. and V.K. Taneja（2006），Livestock Sector

Statistics and Programme Implementation，Gov-

in India: Opportunities and Challenges for Smallhold-ernment of India，Unit-Level NSS Data provided in

ers，in P.S. Birthal，V.K.Taneja and W. Thorpe（ED.），

the form of CD-ROM: 70th National Sample Survey

Smallholder Livestock Production in India: Opportu-（2013/14），Schedule 18.1，Land Holding. を筆者がnities and Challenges（Proceedings of an ICAR-ILRI

集計した結果で，役用牛と役用水牛の合計頭数であinternational workshop），NCAP（National Centre forる。役用牛のみの頭数は順に 0.5 頭，0.8 頭であった。

Agricultural Economics and Policy Research）– ICAR

11）
Thornton，P.K.，R.L. Krushka，N. Henninger，et al.

（Indian Council of Agricultural Research），New Del-（2002），Mapping Poverty and Livestock in the De-

hi，India and ILRI（International Livestock Researchveloping World，International Livestock ResearchInstitute），Nairobi，Kenya，p.29.

Institute; Nairobi，Kenya，p.19.

19）Birthal P.S. and V.K. Taneja（2006），Livestock12）岡通太郎（2004），「インドにおける改良牛普及格差

Sector in India: Opportunities and Challenges forの要因分析―グジャラート州中部村落内の社会経

Smallholders，in P.S. Birthal，V.K.Taneja and W.

済関係からの考察―」『アジア経済』第 45 巻，第 4

Thorpe（ED.），Smallholder Livestock Production in

号において，岡氏は，グジャラート州での村落調査

India: Opportunities and Challenges（Proceedingsに基づいて，酪農の経営規模が，所有農地面積に規of an ICAR-ILRI international workshop）
，NCAP

49

Meijo Asian Research Journal Vol.9 No.1

（National Centre for Agricultural Economics andOpportunities，” in D. Rangnekar and W. Thorpe

Policy Research）– ICAR（Indian Council of Agri-（ED.），Smallholder Dairy Production and Market-

cultural Research），New Delhi，India and ILRI（In-ing –Opportunities and Constraints（Proceedings

ternational Livestock Research Institute），Nairobi，

of a South-South workshop held at National Dairy

Kenya，p.29.

Development Board（NDDB），Anand，India，1320）篠田隆（2015 年）『インド農村の家畜経済長期変動分– 16 March 2001），NDDB，Australian Centre for析 : グジャラート州調査村の家畜飼養と農業経営』

International Agricultural Research，International
Livestock Research Institute，p. 78.

日本評論社，79 ページ。
21）Dandekar，V. M.（1988），“Bovine Economics:
Review of Bovine Economy in India by A. Vaidy-

Report 2016/17 ，pp.72-75.

anathan; Oxford and IBH，Bombay，and Center

27）Birthal P. S.，P. K. Joshi，and Ashok Gulati（2005），

for Development Studies，Trivandrum，1988”，

Vertical Coordination in High-Value Food Com-

Economic and Political Weekly ，Vol. 23，No. 50，

modities: Implications for Smallholders， MTID

Decemder 10.

Discussion Paper No. 85，International Food Policy22）Kurup，M.P.G.（2001），“Smallholder Dariy Production and Marketing in India: Constraints andResearch Institute; Washington, DC はインドにおける乳業の契約生産を検討している。

Opportunities，” in D. Rangnekar and W. Thorpe28）杉本大三（2018），「乳製品」杉本良男編集委員長・（ED.），Smallholder Dairy Production and Market-

インド文化事典編集委員会編『インド文化事典』丸

ing –Opportunities and Constraints（Proceedings

善出版。

of a South-South workshop held at National Dairy

29）在来種の繁殖用オスの減少が大きかったのは，在来

Development Board（NDDB），Anand，India，13

種に外国種を交配させて交雑種を得ようとする農– 16 March 2001），NDDB，Australian Centre for

家が増えた結果であると推察される。

International Agricultural Research，Internation-30）篠田隆（2015 年）『インド農村の家畜経済長期変動分

al Livestock Research Institute，p. 78，Birthal析 : グジャラート州調査村の家畜飼養と農業経営』

P.S. and V.K. Taneja（2006），Livestock Sector in日本評論社，vi ページ。

India: Opportunities and Challenges for Smallhold-31）杉本大三（2011），「農業」石上悦郎，佐藤隆広編

ers，in P.S. Birthal，V.K.Taneja and W. Thorpe『現代インド・南アジア経済論』ミネルヴァ書房。

（ED.），Smallholder Livestock Production in India:

Opportunities and Challenges （Proceedings ofan ICAR-ILRI international workshop），NCAP（National Centre for Agricultural Economics andPolicy Research）– ICAR（Indian Council of Agricultural Research），New Delhi，India and ILRI
（International Livestock Research Institure），Nairobi，Kenya，p.29.
23）杉本大三（2018 年），「乳製品」杉本良男編集委員
長・インド文化事典編集委員会編『インド文化事典』
丸善出版。
24）杉本大三（2017 年），「経済成長下のインドにおける低所得層の食料消費」『現代インドの消費変動と社会システム』（日本学術振興会・科学研究費補助金・基盤研究（B）2013-16 年度「インドにおける都市生
活消費市場の構造と農村・都市間の物的人的循環―
生活文化の視点から―」（課題番号 : 25285109

研究代表 : 杉本大三）研究成果報告書），29 ページ。数値
は 2009 年に実施された NSS 消費調査の結果を，筆者が集計して得たものである。
25）Kurup，M. P. G.（2001），“Smallholder Dairy Production and Marketing in India: Constraints and5026）National Dairy Development Board（2017），Annual

C

R

I

M

P

Causes of Rise in India’s Milk Production
By Daizo SUGIMOTO
Faculty of Economics, Meijo University

Abstract
Since the inception of 21st century, we have been witnessing a significant rise in milk production in India. This study examines the backgroundof it through the analysis on number of animals, productivity of milk production, and scale of individual dairy farmings. The author noted thatmost Indian farmers are engaged in small mixed farming consisting of crop production and animal husbandry in which small size of the farmland tends to constrain the availability of fodder for animals. The result of the investigation indicates that the substantial increase in milk
production in recent India was brought about by increased number of cow and she-buffalo as well as improvement in milk productivity. It isalso suggested that the increase in the number of female bovines under the condition of limited supply of fodder could be attributable todecline in that of male bovines against the background of agricultural mechanization.

KEY WORDS : India, mixed farming, dairy farming, cattle, buffalo

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ReportMeijo Asian Research Journal Vol.9 No.1

54

Report

名城大学農学部・農学研究科のキングモンクット工科大学トンブリ校
生物資源工学研究科（タイ）との 2017 年度国際交流を振り返ってInternational Exchange Activities in 2017 of Faculty and Graduate
School of Agriculture,Meijo University with School of Bioresources
and Technology,King Mongkut's University of Technology
Thonburi,Thailand
奥村裕紀 by Hiroki Okumura
名城大学農学部 , Faculty of Agriculture

名城大学農学部・農学研究科は，タイのキングモンクット工科大学トンブリ校（King Mongkut's University of Technology Thonburi;
KMUTT）生物資源工学研究科（School of Bioresources and Technology）との間に学術交流協定を締結している。当協定に基づき，2017
年 8 月，第 4 回目となる国際共同シンポジウムを名城大学天白キャンパスにおいて開催した。当シンポジウムでは，名城大学と KMUTT，および KMUTT 生物資源工学研究科と関係の深いタイのタクシン大学（Thaksin University）から教員と大学院生が，また同じく名城大学
農学部と学術交流協定を締結しているオーストラリアのボンド大学（Bond University）から教員が講演者として参加し，英語で研究発表を行った。シンポジウム終了後の日程では，タイとオーストラリアからの講演者とともに近隣の農学関連施設や名城大学農学部附属農場などを訪問し，名古屋市と名古屋市近郊の農畜産業や生物資源利用などに関する知見を深めた。本報告書では，当国際交流の活動内容を紹介し，その成果，および名城大学農学部と KMUTT 生物資源工学研究科との学術交流の将来について考察する。
: 生物資源科学，ポストハーベスト

1.

はじめに

たテーマは，両校の学術交流の今後の発展を見据えて"Bioresource Sciences for Sustainable Development ofJapan and Thailand（日本とタイの持続的発展に向けた

タイの首都バンコクに位置するキングモンクット工

生物資源科学）"とした。当シンポジウムの第 1 回は 2012

科大学トンブリ校（King Mongkut's University of Tech-

年 8 月に KMUTT にて，第 2 回は 2013 年 8 月に名城大nology Thonburi; KMUTT，以下 KMUTT と記す）は，学にて，第 3 回は 2014 年 8 月にタクシン大学（Thaksin

1960 年 に 設 立 さ れ た タ イ 国 立 ト ン ブ リ 技 術 大 学

University）にて，第 4 回は 2017 年 8 月に再び名城大学（Thonburi Technology Institute）を母体とする，タイにて開催された。

有数の工科大学である1）。KMUTT 生物資源工学研究科

次項では，最近開催された第 4 回シンポジウム，およ（School of Bioresources and Technology）と名城大学

び講演者との交流活動を取り上げ，その内容の概要を報（以下本学と記す）農学部・農学研究科は，KMUTT 生

告する。

物資源工学研究科ポストハーベストテクノロジー部門（Division of Postharvest Technology）の Sirichai Kanlaynarat 教授から本学農学部の道山弘康教授への打診を

2.

活動報告

発端にして，当時の農学部国際交流委員会（村山重俊教授（当時），平児慎太郎准教授，奥村裕紀准教授）および本学国際交流センター（当時）による入念な準備のもと，2010 年 6 月に学術交流協定を締結した。

シンポジウムの開催
2017 年 8 月 28 日，本学天白キャンパス共通講義棟北の N202 講義室を会場として，本学農学部・農学研究科

当協定に基づく学術交流が初めて実地に移されたのと KMUTT 生物資源工学研究科 との学術交流協定に基は，2012 年 3 月，本学農学部の奥村准教授と指導大学院

づく第 4 回国際シンポジウム "Bioresource Sciences for

生が KMUTT を訪問して実施した，研究発表会であっ

Sustainable Development of Japan and Thailand" が開た。この KMUTT 訪問で得られた経験を踏まえ，本学催された（図 1）。本学農学部の奥村准教授と鈴木康生 准

農学部・農学研究科は，当学術交流協定に基づく国際教授が交代で座長を務めた。小原章裕 農学部・農学研究

シンポジウムを 1 〜 3 年間隔で KMUTT 生物資源工学

科長による開会の挨拶（図 2）に続けて，農学部の学部研究科と共同開催している。当シンポジウムの一貫し生 2 名により名城大学の概要が英語で紹介された。

55

Meijo Asian Research Journal Vol.9 No.1

当シンポジウムでは，日本，タイやオーストラリアにおける農産物の品質管理や鮮度保持に関する最新の研究動向について，活発な意見交換がなされた。会場に訪れた聴衆の延べ人数は，56 名（教職員 12 名，学生 44 名）であった。なお，昼食の時間を利用して，タイから講演者として参加した大学院生と本学の学生とが交流する場を設けたところ，会場に訪れた学生のほとんどが参加し，互いに交流を深めた（図 4）。

図 1.

第 4 回シンポジウム集合写真

図 4.

学生交流会の様子

本学近隣の農学関連施設などの見学
当シンポジウム終了後，タイとオーストラリアから
図 2.

小原農学部長による開会の挨拶の講演者が日本を出国するまでの日程を利用して，名古屋市と名古屋市近郊の農畜産業や生物資源利用などに関

その後，KMUTT 生物資源工学研究科，助教（Assis-

する知見を深める目的で，本学近隣の農学関連施設など

tant Professor） の Panida Boonyaritthongchai 博 士 とを見学した。8 月 29 日には，名古屋市天白区の名古屋

Nutthachai Pongprasert 博士，および博士課程在学中

市 農 業 セ ン タ ー <http://www.city.nagoya.jp/kurashi/の Surisa Phornvillay さ ん と Chalida Chimvaree さ ん，

category/19-8-4-2-2-0-0-0-0-0.html> および中川区の飯田

タ ク シ ン 大 学， 助 教（Assistant Professor） の Samak

農 園 <https://iida-farm.jimdo.com/>，8 月 30 日 に は，

Kaewsuksaeng 博士，および修士課程在学中の Nurainee

守山区の東谷山フルーツパーク <http://www.fruitpark.

Salaemae さん，ボンド大学（Bond University），助教

org/> を訪問した。

（Assistant Professor）の Anna Lohning 博士，本学農学

名古屋市農業センターでは，センターの職員から直接部・農学研究科，湊健一郎准教授，近藤歩准教授，森田説明を受け，名古屋市の農業や名古屋コーチンに代表さ裕将准教授，および修士課程在学中の糀谷紗季さんと松れる養鶏業の実態，および名古屋市農業センターが市民

村直哉さんの計 12 名により，研究テーマの紹介と研究成の農業学習の場として果たしている役割などについて，果の報告が英語で行われた（図 3）。

詳細な説明を受けた。飯田農園は，個人が経営している
ミニトマト農園であるが，糖度を高めるために独自に開発した肥料や栽培法を用いており，収穫したミニトマトを使用した加工食品を自ら開発するなど，ブランド力を高めることで独自の販路を開拓している。その他にも , 経営の理念など，経営者から直接貴重なお話を伺うことができ，都市部における農業のあり方を模索していく上で重要な知見を得た。東谷山フルーツパークでは，タイでも馴染みの深い熱帯果樹の数々が温室内で栽培され，市民が自由に見学できるように展示されており，日本国内における熱帯果実の普及に貢献するユニークな施設であることを紹介した。

図 3.

56

シンポジウムでの発表の様子

なお，8 月 29 日には名古屋城本丸御殿も訪問し，重要

I

E

A

F

G

S

A

M

U

S

T

M

U

T

T

T

な生物資源のひとつである木材を主な資材として用いる学の進歩に協力して取り組むための研究基盤を形成する

日本の伝統的な建築技法と伝統文化，および名古屋地域

足がかりを得ることが主な目的である。また，本学農学の歴史を学んだ。

部・農学研究科の学生に対しては，英語でのプレゼンテー
ション，質疑応答や協定校の教員，研究者との交流を経験

本学農学部附属農場の見学させることによって，国際的に通用する研究活動に対す

8 月 30 日には，さらに本学春日井キャンパスの農学部る意欲を芽生えさせ，科学研究における異文化間コミュ

附属農場を訪問した。今回の訪問では，特に 2016 年に新ニケーションの重要性を実感させる狙いがある。以上の設された教育研究館を中心に見学し，リニューアルされ目的や狙いを達成するため，今後も当国際交流を地道にた食品加工実習施設や農学部フィールドサイエンス研究継続することが重要であると考えられる。また，当シン

室の充実した研究環境など，本学農学部における教育・

ポジウムは，生物資源科学やポストハーベストといった，研究活動の一端を紹介した（図 5）。

農学部の 3 学科，すなわち生物資源学科，応用生物化学科，生物環境科学科および附属農場に属する全ての研究室が遂行しているほとんどの研究に関係があると考えられるテーマを掲げていることから，本学農学部・農学研
究科が一丸となって取り組む国際交流活動として相応し
いと思われる。
当シンポジウムが，本学農学部・農学研究科の国際交流をさらに進展させるための端緒のひとつとなることを願い，本報告書を終了する。
謝辞：本紀要に記した 2017 年度の農学部国際交流は，名城大学アジア研究センターのアジア研究公募型プロジェ

図 5.

附属農場の食品加工実習施設にて本学国際化推進センターの訪問
同じく 8 月 30 日，本学天白キャンパスの国際化推進センターを訪問した。センターの職員から，本学の概要とクト経費を使用して実施されたものであり，ここに深く感謝いたします。
当国際交流を実施するにあたり，本学農学部山口秀明教授から多大なご支援をいただきました。ここに深く感謝いたします。

国際交流に関する取り組みの詳細が紹介され，留学生に対する支援など，今後本学との国際交流を発展させるために必要な情報が交換された（図 6）。

参考文献
1）キングモンクット工科大学トンブリ校パンフレット
（英語版）

図 6.

3.

国際化推進センター訪問にて考察とまとめ当シンポジウムおよび施設訪問は，日本とタイの持続的発展にとって生物資源科学がいかに重要であるかを再確認するとともに，参加校の教員と研究者が生物資源科

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Meijo Asian Research Journal Vol.9 No.1

58

Book Review

Meijo Asian Research Journal Vol.9 No.1

60

Book Review

Samurai Revolution
Romulus HillsboroughTuttle Publishing
ISBN:9784805312353
Hardcover, 608 pages
Published: 20142018 marks the 150th anniversary of the Meiji Resto-

ration so it is timely to review a fairly recent book on thesubject in English. The Meiji Restoration and World War

II are arguably the two most important events in what

could be classed as Japan’s “modern period” with somescholars seeing a direct link between the two events.

Samurai Revolution: The Dawn of Modern Japan Seen

Through the Eyes of the Shogun’s Last Samurai by theAmerican scholar of Japanese history, Romulus Hillsbor-ough, is the story of the Meiji Restoration seen throughthe eyes of one of its major protagonists, Katsu Kaishu.

Kaishu was a leading samurai official in the Tokugawa

shogunate at the time but was also close to several ofthe men trying to overthrow the shogun and “restore” theEmperor to a central place in Japanese politics. Kaishu’s

closeness to and often sympathy for men such as Saigo

Takamori and Sakamoto Ryoma give his insights into theevents a balanced perspective.

Hillsborough has painstakingly translated Kaishu’s

memoirs and uses them as the basis for his book. Bornin Edo (now Tokyo) Kaishu rose to become commis-

sioner in the Tokugawa navy after studying under Dutch

naval engineers in Nagasaki. He was the captain of aJapanese warship (built by the Dutch) that sailed to the

USA in 1860. He later became a negotiator between
the shogunate and opposition forces and is creditedwith the relatively smooth transfer of power to the new

Meiji government in 1868. He was later to serve in thatgovernment as a minister in the new Imperial JapaneseNavy.

The book traces the complex and labyrinthine twists

and turns of the end of the Tokugawa shogunate fromthe shogun. Kaishu spends his early youth frequenting

both the fencing school and the pleasure quarters, be-fore experiencing something of an epiphany to becomea dedicated of rangaku (Dutch studies) and western

military technology. His abilities in these fields led to him
being afford a job in the Tokugawa civil service and laterat the new Naval Academy opened in Nagasaki.

Samurai Revolution is divided into two main parts:

the fall of the Tokugawa Bakufu and the Rise of Imperial
Japan. Of the 37 chapters in the book, Katsu is direct-

ly and personally involved in just less than a third ofthem. In the other chapters he is describing the events

that occurred but was not personally active in. These

include the making of the alliance of Choshu, Satsuma
and Tosa that would go on to defeat the Tokugawa, theactual “Restoration” of Imperial Rule in 1868 in Kyoto
when the shogun Yoshinobu stood down and the Battleof Toba-Fushimi (a few kilometres outside central Kyoto)
when the Tokugawa forces were decisively defeated.

Katsu comes more to the fore in the events following

defeat at Toba-Fushimi when he is appointed minister of
the Tokugawa army in Edo. He uses this position to ba-

sically capitulate to the advancing Imperial forces under
the command of Saigo thus avoiding much unnecessary
bloodshed. Ever the loyal samurai, Katsu also ensuresthrough clever negotiation that his lord, Yoshinobu, isspared his life and honor.

Katsu’s two meetings with Saigo - the so-called“Meetings of the Two Heroes” - to reach a general agree-

ment between the two sides before Imperial forces entered Edo, are seen as Katsu’s greatest achievement.

Katsu’s surrender of the majority of Tokugawa forces

the arrival of Perry’s “Black Ships” in 1853 to the final

and military material to

shu’s journal and memoirs (translated by the author) are

cution and retire with his dignity and some of his wealthdefeat of Tokugawa diehards in Hokkaido in 1868. Kai-

quoted at length describing his thoughts and actions
during this tumultuous period in Japanese history. The

opening few chapters detail Kaishu’s early life and upbringing in Edo, the son of a minor and poor retainer of

Saigo meant the last shogun was able to avoid exe-

intact. Katsu had thus fulfilled his duty as a loyal samurai
retainer to his master.

The book, overall, can be enjoyed by both the generalleader and the specialist, though the literally hundreds of61

Meijo Asian Research Journal Vol.9 No.1

participants in the events may become confusing after

a while. Notes on sources are given on every page andthere is a glossary at the end to help the reader.

Some caveats are in order, however. The title Samurai

Revolution may be slightly misleading.

The Meiji Restoration was not a revolution in the way

the Russian and French revolutions were in terms ofclass struggle. The ruling family was not slaughtered.

Katsu’s clever diplomacy saw to that. Tokugawa rule
was ended but by men of the same social class as they

overthrew – namely the samurai. Japanese historianKawashima Shin sees the events as an “internal power

struggle” as one conservative regime was overthrown byanother.

All in all, though, Samurai Revolution is an excellent

work of high scholarship. For those wishing to under-

stand the Japan of today, we need to look back and re-appraise those dramatic events that came to a head 150
years ago.

62

LectureMeijo Asian Research Journal Vol.9 No.1

64

Lecture

北東アジアの中の日本Japan in Northeast Asia
明石 康
名城大学アジア研究センター 名誉センター長 ,Honorary Directon of MARC

名城大学アジア研究センターは名誉センター長の明石康氏（元国連事務次長）をお招きして１１月１４日、天白キャンパス共通講義棟北Ｎ１０６講義室で講演会を開催しました。今回のテーマは「北東アジアの中の日本」で、学内外から約１５０人が受講しました。講演内容の要約は次の通り。※文中の注釈は、「連続シンポジウム

日本の立ち位置を考える」（２０１３年、明石康編、株式会社岩波書店）、「カン

ボジアＰＫＯ日記」（２０１７年、明石康著、株式会社岩波書店）他を参照。

私は秋田県の出身で、よく言うのですが自分にとってました。1991 年に、フランスのパリで停戦協定（カンボ

最初の外国語は “ 標準語 ” でした。東京で大学に通っていジア和平パリ国際会議）がまとまり、これを機に、1992

るときに下宿のおばさんに寒いので「おばさん “ 火 ” を

年から 93 年にかけて、国連を代表して軍隊と警察官と民ください」と言ったつもりが、おばさんが笑い出しまし間人が約 2 万 2 千人、カンボジアへ派遣されました。私た。どうも私の発音では「おばさん “ へ ” をください」とはそのトップとして（国際連合カンボジア暫定統治機構

言ったらしく非常に恥ずかしい思いをしました。とはいUNTAC の国連事務総長特別代表）派遣され、1993 年に

え東北弁は非常に豊かな発音があり、東北弁の ” い “ と ”

国連の監視のもとで総選挙を実施しました。一年間で準え “ の中間音で英語をしゃべると “It is….” がやわらかい

備してすべてを終えるのは無理である、明石は現地の情発音になる。また、鼻にかかった音もあるのでフランス勢を見つつ安定した時期に選挙をすべきという慎重な声

語も話せる。しかし、“ 標準語 ” だけは話せないという。

もありました。日本を含め世界中の新聞社は、国連が無今日は、「北東アジアの中の日本」という題をつけま理にやり通そうとしている選挙はうまくいかない、ポルした。アジアは非常に広大な地域で、たとえば、中東地

ポト派が武力行使でもって失敗に終わらせるだろうと予域とアジア地域の境界線はどこか、アフガニスタンをア言しました。

ジアに含めるなら隣国のパキスタンはどうか、といった

実際にポルポト派は不気味な存在でした。ポルポト派

問題が起こりがちです。アジアの一角である北東アジアの実勢力を推測し、諸説がたてられましたが、本当のこととは、我が国をはじめ中国、韓国、北朝鮮、この 4 か国

は誰も知らない。そういう状況の下で、国連は選挙のみの他に、ロシア、モンゴリア（モンゴル）、国ではありまならず、選挙の前提である自由な雰囲気を作り上げるこ

せんが台湾、香港を含む地域と “ だいたい ” 定義できるとに尽力しました。日本国内からトランジスターラジオ

かと思います。“ だいたい ” といいますのは、本当に地理を寄付してもらい、国連初の試みであった “ 国連放送局 ”

的な区別で線を引くと、この “ 線を引く ” 行為自体が一が、カンボジアの津々浦々に届くよう環境を整えました。

つの大きな政治問題、外交問題に発展することもあるた

放送では、「民主主義とは何か」「自由選挙とは何か」「一め、慎重である必要があります。

票を投じるとはどういう意味があるか」を、カンボジアの
人々に理解してもらうことに努めました。投票所の数も、

今から 25 年前の 1993 年、ここにおられる学生の皆さ

はじめは 2 万ほど設置する計画でしたが、ポルポト派の攻んの大半が生まれる前、第二次大戦後の世界を二分した撃の危険性があることから、最終段階では 1 万 3 千くらい

米ソ冷戦の終結（1988-1989 年）からソビエト連邦の崩壊に数を絞り防御に努めつつ、1993 年 5 月に総選挙を行い（1991 年）、ポスト冷戦期（1991 年 ~）へと世界情勢が向ました。蓋を開けてみるまで、
カンボジアの有権者の動向

かう中、カンボジアでも 20 数年続いた国内紛争が終結

は誰もわかりませんでした。
ともかく我々はカンボジアのしました。当時、カンボジアでは 4 つの党派が武力に訴人たちが、自分の一票をきちんと投票してくれることを信える、血なまぐさい内紛を続けていました。このカンボ

じながら投票所を守っておりました。

ジア紛争の終結という難問が国連の安全保障理事会に持

93 年 5 月 23 日、幸いにもカンボジアの至る所で、ポち込まれ、国連が停戦のアンパイヤを務めることとなりルポト派の勢力が強い村でさえも、人々が嬉々として投票

65

Meijo Asian Research Journal Vol.9 No.1

所に向かいました。
女性は一番の晴れ着を着て出かけておまた、平和友好条約の覇権条項を巡って日本国内で反り、私はそれを見て本当に感動しました。5 日間の投票日対する意見がありました。“ 覇権 ” 英語では “hegemony”

を終えて、有権者の投票率は約 90% となりました。選挙という表現が、当時、中国とソ連の対立があったことと、の結果は、カンボジアの国王シアヌーク殿下も私もカンボ

この条約を締結することにより日本のソ連外交に悪影響

ジア人民党と予測していましたが、カンボジアの人たちが出ることが懸念されたためです。これに対し、鄧副首相

は、王党派のフンシンペック党を第一党にしました。

は「この覇権条項は、対ロシア、対アメリカを想定した

民主主義の国では、一番投票数を得た政党が政権を担ものではない。今後、中国が日本よりも強い覇権を持ち当します。しかし、当時のカンボジアで、軍隊と行政機関

うる国になった時、日本はこの条項を逆手にとって中国と警察を掌握する人民党の存在を無視するわけにはいきを批判することもできる。中国に対して使われる可能性ませんでした。そこで、得票数で第一党のフンシンペッもあると考えてほしい。だから、この条項は日本にとっク党と第二党の人民党による連立政権を立ち上げることて守りになる」という趣旨の発言をしました。このようとなりました。アメリカや国連本部からは得票数で第一に言ってのける、大した人物でした。

党になった政党が政権を取るべきという意見もありまし2010 年には、中国は日本を追い越してアメリカに次ぐたが、現地に駐在している各国大使たちはこぞって、名世界第 2 位の経済大国となりました。日本と中国は 2 番

目上の第一党と実力の第二党の連立政権という考えに賛

目と 3 番目と順序が翻って今後、日中の関係はどうなっ同してくれました。こうして、国連の平和維持活動（PKOていくでしょうか。今年の 10 月に東京で、民間の立場か:Peacekeeping Operations）の下、民主主義の新生カンボ

ら日中間の相互理解を深めることを目的としたフォーラ

ジアが誕生しました。日本も戦後、国連に加盟してから、ムが開催されました。このフォーラムは、過去 14 年間

自衛隊にとって初の PKO となりました。このとき、日本

にわたって北京と東京で交互に実施しているもので、政は高田晴行警部補（文民警察官）と中田厚仁さん（国連

治外交、経済、安全保障、メディア、それから新たに環

ボランティア）という 2 人の殉職者を出しました。近年、

境と IT その他のテクノロジーといった 5 つの分野で意

カンボジアの PKO 活動から 25 年という節目にあたって、見を交わしました（東京 - 北京フォーラム http://tokyo-

NHK などで（NHK スペシャル「ある文民警察官の死 ~beijingforum.net/）。このフォーラムで我々は率直でありカンボジア PKO 23 年目の告白」2016 年放送など）2 人

ながらも冷静に討議し、まだまだ語り続ける必要があるの死の意味を検証する TV 番組が制作されましたので、という共通の認識で別れました。このフォーラムで得たご覧になった方もおられるかと思います。

感触は、日中関係はよい方向に向かいつつあるが油断してはならないというものです。

今年は日中平和友好条約締結の 40 周年に当たります。
1972 年に日本と中国の国交正常化が図られ、1978 年に平これから北東アジア全体はどうなっていくべきか。ま

和友好条約が結ばれました。このとき、共産党ナンバー

ず、北東アジアの経済を考えてみますと、日本、中国、韓2、実力は第一人者の鄧小平副首相が平和友好条約の批准

国、北朝鮮、ロシア、モンゴルが経済的な協力を現在よ

書をもって来日しました。小柄で地味ではありますが、りも一段と高いレベルへとひき上げることができれば、非常に頭の切れる、中国の将来を懸命に考えた人でした。

この地域の平和と繁栄につながると考えます。国際競争

1978 年の鄧副首相の来日は、日本にとっても非常に意

力の点では、日本、中国、韓国がほぼトップラインに並味のあるものでした。この時、鄧副首相は中国の指導者

66

んでおります。

としては初めて昭和天皇と会見しました。2 人はお互い2010 年 に は、 日 本 は GDP（Growth Domestic Prodの政府が準備したシナリオを離れて、自分の本当の気持uct）で中国に抜かれ、2 番手となりました。さらに貿ちを語り合ったそうです。

易、直接投資額をみると日本の順位はもっと下ります。

日本と中国の間の困難な課題の一つとして、東シナ海

OECD（経済協力開発機構、Organization for Economicの尖閣列島領有権問題があります。鄧副首相の来日中に

Co-operation and Development）加盟の 36 カ国中、日本も、記者会見でこの問題が質問されました。このとき鄧とアメリカは経済力では上位にあるにもかかわらず、貿副首相は「非常に難しい。お互いが権利を主張している。

易額では日本は最下位から 2 番目、最下位はアメリカで

ただし、これからの若い人たちが知恵を出し合えば解決す。貿易・直接投資では、日本は自分のもっている総力できるかもしれない。我々の世代で無理やり解決しよう

以下の力しか示しておりません。しかし、うれしいこととすると戦争になってしまうかもしれなので、これをに旅行収支は最近、事態が改善しています。観光で来日

いったん棚上げにしようではないか」と言いました。残

する外国人旅行者の数は、第一位が中国、次いで韓国、

念ながら鄧副首相の言った未来はまだ実現しておりませ台湾、香港、その後にアメリカとなります。中国での世んが、このように妥協の可能性を考えるのは大事なこと

論調査では、日本を訪ねた中国人の大半が日本によい印だと思います。

象、治安がよく、清潔で人が親切といった好印象をもっ

J

N

A

て帰国する結果が出ています。しかし、残念なことに、す。韓国では積極的に受け入れているが、日本は消極的、

日本から中国や韓国に観光にいく人は昔と比べると増え

へっぴり腰の慎重さがみられます。国会では、与党と野てはいるものの、大きく増加傾向にはありません。日本

党の間で論戦を繰り広げているが、私は長い目で見るとに比べて、中国や韓国は清潔度、安全度でやや劣る印象

日本は優秀な労働力を外からも求める必要があると思いがあり、若い日本人が興味をもたないのは残念です。例ます。例えば、ドイツは、名古屋市のように自動車製造

えば貧しい国であっても、それぞれの国でさまざまな生業が有名ですが、フォルクスワーゲンやメルセデスベン

き方があり、そこに自分にとって興味のあること、楽し

ツでは、トルコから来た移民が 50~60 年かけてドイツにいことを発見するのは不可能でありません。特に若い人

根付き、優秀な労働者となってモノづくりに励んでいまには、たくさんの発見があると思います。

す。日本もこういった経験から学び、日本的なきめの細わたしは大学、高校の若者を対象とした国際交流に関かさを生かしながら、外国からの移民が無理のない形でわっており、毎年 7 月末から 8 月初めにかけて 2 週間ほ

日本社会に溶け込ませ、また、移民が日本のために尽力

ど、泊まり込みで国内外の高校生と一緒に過ごします。

してくれるような方策を今から考えるべきではないかと共通言語は英語ですが、日本人学生が日本訛りの英語を思います。

使い、元気に交流する様を見てとてもうれしく思います。

海外からの技能実習生の受入れ体制をきちんとすべ

使う単語の数は少なくとも、一生懸命話せばお互いにかきという意見はもっともだと思いますが、3~5 年程度でなり分かり合うことができます。マレーシアからは毎回、実習を終えて自国にお帰りくださいというのは、人間的マハティール首相が参加しています。

にも、社会の安定からいってもどうかという感じがしま

ところで、彼は何歳かご存知ですか。93 歳です。同じす。例えば 5 年間、日本で働いてもらってうまく機能し93 歳で、現役裁判官である奥さんと一緒に日本に来るのたのであれば更に 5 年延長する、ないしはもっと進めてを無常の楽しみにしています。今年、彼は首相に再選さ

日本国籍の取得まで考慮するなど、より外向きでダイナれたので忙しいだろうと思っていましたが、40 人以上のミックな日本を作っていかなくては、外国との対比で競随員を引率して来日し、日本政府も驚いていました。

争力を失ってしまうことになりかねません。将来的には日本を訪れる外国人が増えていることは、日本経済の移民庁のような機関も作る必要があるのではないかと思

みならず、日本人にとってもよい刺激を与え、アジアのいます。いつまでも現状に少し色を変えただけの弥縫策一員であるという意識を高める結果につながると思いま（びぼうさく）でもってやっていくのは、大国日本らしくす。しかし、観光収入は政治や外交問題が絡むと急激にないと思います。

落ちることもあるため、こればかりに依存しないよう気を付ける必要があります。

日本、中国、韓国、その他の北東アジアの国々はこれか
らもバラバラに生きていくのではなく協力し合うことが日本では、高齢化と少子化が進行しています。韓国や求められると思います。日中韓の 3 か国は北東アジア地

中国でも同じ問題がおこっています。日本の場合、幸い域でも比較的発展しているグループになりますので、こにして今のところ仕事に従事する労働者の数はだいたいの日中韓が先導者になってロシア、北朝鮮、モンゴルを安定しています。これは一つに女性の就業者数が増えてけん引し、地域全体をより活性化していく。具体的には、いること、次に日本人の健康寿命が長くなり働きたいと

日中韓を中心とした FTA（広域自由貿易協定）、これはいうシニアが労働人口を支えていることに因ります。しすでに懸案として出されており締結に向けて一層の努力

かし、いずれは減っていくのは明らかで、私はできれば、をすべきだと思います。それから RCEP（Regional Comp

日本はもっと子供を産むような社会になる必要があるとrehensive Economic Partnership 東アジア地域包括的経思います。現在の合計特殊出生率、女性が一生の間に産済連携）、これはアセアン諸国（10 か国）に日本、中国、む子供の数ですが、1.43%、これが 2.07%、2 人弱まで増

韓国、オーストラリア、ニュージーランド、インドの 6

えると一定した人口を保てるようになります。とはいえ、か国が入る自由貿易協定として進められています。現時すでに出生率は減少しており、日本の人口が一億二千万点でインドが少し難色を示しているようで、時間はかかまで回復するには、おおよそ 50 年くらいかかるだろうとりそうですが実現にむかって努力する価値は十分にあるいうことです。一度減少した人口を再び元に戻すというと思います。

のは極めて難しく、長い時間がかかります。フランスやそれから地域全体のインフラ整備、アジア全体ないしスウェーデンのように人口を減らさない努力をしている

は北東アジア諸国間での共同作業という課題が目の前に先進国を参考にしつつ、自然な形で人口が少しずつ増えあります。インフラビジネスは、非常に長期的で、関係てほしいと思います。

国同士の努力がいるものです。日本と中国との対立が報

最近、新聞やテレビで取り上げられる移民の問題で道されておりましたが、最近はお互いに一生懸命話し合す。日本で不足する労働力を外から補うという意見でうように雰囲気が変わってきていると思います。中国は、

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Meijo Asian Research Journal Vol.9 No.1

アジアインフラ投資銀行 “AIIB”（Asia Infrastructure Inv

tional Atomic Energy Agency）の長は今、日本人が務

estment Bank 2013 年中国が提唱、2015 年発足）を推進めており、IAEA の専門家からも有益な意見が出せるとしていますが、すでに日本、アメリカその他先進国が参思います。

加しているアジア開発銀行 “ADB”（Asian Development

また、日本の経済力も北朝鮮が貧困から脱却する上でBank）がフィリピンのマニラにあります。“ADB” の総裁

大変重要な役割を果たしうると思います。おそらく北朝

は中尾さんという日本人です（中尾武彦 2013 年 ~）。中

鮮も本心を明かせば日本の経済協力に対する期待は大き

尾さんは、数十年の実績と経験・ノウハウをもった ADB

いと思います。しかし、日本と北朝鮮の間には、拉致そと、規模は大きいが発足して 2~3 年の AIIB とが互いに補の他、人権に関連する問題が横たわっております。日本

い合うような協力すれば、本当に力のある活動ができるは

は、経済支援のための現実的な要件を提示し、北朝鮮がずだと言っています。
競争ではなく協力することがアジア

それをクリアしなければ日本からの経済支援は困難であ全体にとって有益なのは明らかで、
すでにそういう方向にると知らしめる必要があります。

向かって進み始めている気配があります。
私はこの動きがもっと進んでいけばと思います。

日本は今後、政治力、外交力が問われる局面もあるでしょう。日本、アメリカ、中国、韓国など、関連する国々

北朝鮮は北東アジアの大きな不確定要素として、我々の皆が満足する形で、複雑なパズルのような課題を一つの前に立ちふさがっております。ご承知の通り、北朝鮮

ひとつ解決していくことで、北東アジアが本当の平和をは今や核戦力と長距離ミサイルを持つに至りました。北築くことができ、繁栄するアジア地域へと向かうことが朝鮮をきちんとした国際協力の枠組みの中にいれないできます。名城大学で学んでおられる皆さんの一人ひとと、とんでもないことになるのは火を見るより明らかで

りが、より幅広く大事な仕事に従事できるような、そうす。しかし、北朝鮮は、自分たちは核戦力を捨てる用意いうアジア地域が創生される日が来ると思います。決しがあるといい、また、アメリカを攻撃しうる長距離ミサて夢物語ではない一方で、かならずやそういう世界が実

イルも破壊する用意があると言っていますが、これを信現される確信もありません。対国家、対国内、対個人、

じてよいものか。今までのところ、北朝鮮は一度した約

いずれの関係も長い時間をかけて築きあげた信頼の上に束を翻すことが何回もありました。

成り立ちます。しかし、信頼は脆く壊れやすいものです。

トランプ米大統領と北朝鮮の若い国家主席とがお互

これを少しくらいでは壊せないものにするには、気の遠いに美しい言葉で同意できると言っても、アメリカの専くなるようなプロセスを経る必要がありますが、それは、門家たちは信用していませんし、アジアの人たちも信用

一足飛びに戦争に訴えて全ての問題解決を図るよりも、していないと思います。アメリカをはじめとした専門家

より現実的な、地味ではあるがやりがいのある仕事だとが一番疑問視するのは査察の問題です。ほんとうに核戦考えます。

力とミサイルを言葉通り破壊するかどうか、これを確認する必要があります。核戦力を全部ゼロにするというのはどういうことか。核戦力を作った科学者は存在します

質疑応答

から、この人たちを外国に移住させるか、殺してしまうことがなければ武器を破壊しても、彼らの頭脳が残っていれば再生産が可能です。このような悩ましい問題に我々

Q 明石先生は長く国連の事務次長を務められましたが、事務次長とはどのようなものでしょうか。

はどう対処すればよいでしょうか。完璧な、可逆性のない検証可能な査察制度を作るという大きな宿題がありま

1979 年に広報担当の事務次長になりまして、それからす。同時にまったくできないとあきらめることも時期早18 年間、事務次長の資格で様々な仕事をやりました。国尚だと思います。

際公務員の資格で仕事をしますので、日本国籍はずっと

北朝鮮、アメリカ、そのほか関係各国が言い争うので持ち続けておりますが、日本の政治に関わることはできはなく、まずはお互いの主張のタイムテーブルを提示し、ません。しかも私はニューヨークの国連本部を中心に仕

そこからどの程度シンクロナイズできるか。お互いの主事をしてきましたので、日本で選挙権を行使することも張が 100% 到達する地点を共同作業で決めるのは難しい

しておりませんでした。帰国してから日本国市民としてことではありますが、不可能ではないと思います。中国、行動しております。

ロシア、韓国からよいアドバイスが提供されるかもしれません。中国を議長とする六者協議（2003~2007 年）もかなりよい仕事をしましたが道半ばです。日本の貢献もQ 日本は国際社会の一員として、国連と今後どのような関わり方をすべきでしょうか。

期待もされます。日本の査察技術という点では、オース
トリアのウィーンにある国際原子力機関 IAEA（Interna

68

ご承知のとおり、国連の安保理の常任理事国は 5 か国

J

N

A

あります。アメリカ、中国、ロシア、イギリスとフランを聞く機会がありました。結論から申し上げますと、私スです。日本よりも GDP が低く、通常の軍事力においは哲学者の話に興味を持ちました。AI がいかに複雑になても日本ほどでないイギリスとフランスが常任理事国でり、人間の処理能力をはるかに超えていこうとも、それあるのは納得がいかないという人もおりますが、17~18を作り、使うのは人間であると思います。AI を新しい可世紀にかけて、フランスはアフリカ大陸で、イギリスは能性をもたらすものとして前向きにとらえ、より豊かなアジア大陸において巨大な植民地帝国を築きました。そ生活を送るための一つの手段として活用していくことがのときに蓄えた知識と見識が安保理事会で物を言ってい肝要と思います。

ると思います。2005 年に日本とインドとドイツ、ブラジ
ル 4 か国が共同で、安保理の新しい常任理事国になるべ
く強烈な運動をしました。支持してくれる国もありまし
たが、とくに中国とアメリカが反対にまわり実現しませんでした。
近年、日本にとって一番大事なことは常任理事国入り
よりも、途切れず安保理事会の審議に参加できることですので、それが実現できれば拒否権は不要と考える向きもあります。そういう新しいカテゴリーのメンバーを安保理に作るという動きもあり、このアイデアに賛同する
国は、先の日本・インド・ブラジルの共同提案国よりも多いかもしれません。こういった新しい発想で提案し続け、日本らしい真面目で建設的な国連参加の仕方を続けていけば、事態は変化するかもしれません。私は率直に申し上げて、日本が南スーダンの国連平和維持活動に参加しつつも事態が深刻になったからと撤収してしまったのは非常に残念だと思います。日本には憲法 9 条があり
ますが、国連の PKO に参加することと戦争に参加することは違います。むしろ、戦争にならないように平和を確保し、紛争地帯で困窮する人たちをさまざまな形で助けることが PKO です。自衛隊が国連のためにする活動と戦争とを混同するのではなく、国民の一人ひとりが PKO
活動に対する正しい理解をもって行動してほしいと思います。私は、自衛隊を軍と認めて、国連旗のもとに PKOへ参加するのがなぜ悪いのかという感じがします。これについては、国民全体が議論しあい、日本にとってもアジアにとっても、また、世界の国々にも祝福される形を見つける必要があります。
Q ヒトの仕事が AI に置き換えられ雇用の在り方も多様化しています。この現状をどのように考えますか。
おっしゃる通り、日本には終身雇用と年功序列という、世界に注目される制度があったわけですが、いろんな形で崩れつつあると言えます。今の若い人たち、これから学校を卒業していく人たちは本当に一生同じ職場で働き続けるのか、みなさんの意思と意向は分かれてくると思います。今の若い人たちは、インターンシップ等で、学生でありながらも、よりダイナミックで複雑な社会経
験、経済活動に参加する機会が今後ますます増えていくと思います。
最近、AI について研究している科学者と哲学者から話69Meijo Asian Research Journal Vol.9 No.1

70

Meijo Asian Research Journal
Contribution Rules

「名城アジア研究」投稿規則

１ ．投稿資格
投稿資格は、名城大学アジア研究センター（以下アジア研究センター）の所員および研究員、または所員の推薦を受けた者とする。
２ ．投稿原稿の種類
投稿原稿はアジア研究センターの目的に即したテーマで、研究論文（招待論文、投稿学術論文）、研究ノー
ト、書評、その他の種類とする。投稿学術論文は所定の査読審査を経て採用された論文が掲載される。
３ ．使用言語
使用言語は、和文または英文とする。
４ ．執筆要領
原稿の書き方については、「名城アジア研究」執筆要領に従うものとする。
５ ．提出先原稿の提出先はアジア研究センターとする。そこで受理した日を原稿の受付日とする。
６ ．提出期限
その年度により定める。
７ ．提出方法「名城アジア研究」の原稿を提出される際は、下記のようにお願いします。
（１）アジア研究センター投稿提出票（２）執筆原稿提出部数
原稿１部（レイアウト見本用）。また、投稿学術論文の場合は査読用として、コピー２部もご提出ください。
（３）執筆者が入力した原稿全体のWordデータファイル
８ ．採否
投稿された学術論文の採否は、アジア研究センター編集委員または編集委員が委嘱した査読者の最低 ２ 名の審査に基づき、アジア研究センター編集委員会が決定し、ただちに投稿者に通知する。編集委員会は投稿者に査読者の推薦を求めることができる。また、すべての投稿原稿について、編集委員会は投稿者に原稿の修正を求めることができる。また、原稿は採否にかかわらず返却しない。
９ ．校正
投稿原稿の執筆者による校正は、原則として初校のみとする。
１０．原稿の責任と権利掲載された論文等の内容についての責任は一切著者が負うものとする。また、その著作権は著者に属する。編集
出版権はアジア研究センターに属する。

72

Meijo Asian Research Journal — Contribution Rules

1 . Qualifications of contributors

Contributors should be members or research fellows of the Meijo Asian Research Center, Meijo University (hereinafter referred to as “MARC”), or researchers recommended by MARC members.

2 . Acceptable types of articles

Types of articles include research papers (invited papers, papers submitted for publication), short notes, review
and other articles on topics that are in line with the objectives of MARC. The journal will publish papers submitted
for publication that have been accepted after undergoing the prescribed review process.

3 . Acceptable languages

Manuscripts should be written in either Japanese or English.

4 . Writing instructions

Manuscripts should meet the requirements specified by the “Journal of the Meijo Asian Research Center — Instructions to Authors”

5. Where to submit

Manuscripts should be submitted to MARC. The date MARC receives the manuscript will be considered the dateof receipt.

6 . Submission deadline

Varies according to the academic year

7 . Method of submission

Authors are requested to submit the following items:(1) MARC manuscript submission form
(2) Hard copy of the manuscript

One hard copy of the manuscript should be submitted (for a sample layout). For papers submitted for publication, two printed copies of the manuscript should also be submitted for the peer review process.

(3) CD-R/RW, floppy disk or other medium containing the entire manuscript in Microsoft Word format* Submission on a CD-R/RW is recommended.

8 . Acceptance/Rejection

Acceptance or rejection of submitted papers will be determined by the MARC Editorial Board after peer review

by at least two reviewers comprising journal editors and/or expert(s) commissioned by the journal editor(s). Upon
their decision, the result will be notified to the authors. The Editorial Board may request authors to recommend

experts as possible reviewers of their papers. For all submissions, the Editorial Board may request authors to makecorrections to their manuscripts. Whether accepted or rejected, manuscripts will not be returned to the authors.
9 . Proofreading

In principle, authors will read only the first proofs of their manuscripts.

10. Responsibility and rights to manuscripts

Authors shall bear all responsibility for the contents of their papers, articles, or the like published in the journal. The

copyrights to such published manuscripts shall belong to the authors. MARC shall reserve editing and publishingrights.

73

名城大学アジア研究センター紀要編集委員

Editorial board, Meijo Asian Research Journal

委員長 佐土井 有里（経済学部）
委 員 澤田 貴之（経営学部）
李 秀澈（経済学部）
長澤 崇雄（理工学部）
近藤 歩（農学部）
雑賀 憲彦（都市情報学部）

Yuri SADOI (Faculty of Economics)
Takayuki SAWADA(Faculty of Business Management)
Soocheol LEE(Faculty of Economics)
Takao NAGASAWA(Faculty of Science and Technology)
Ayumu KONDO(Faculty of Agriculture)
Norihiko SAIGA(Faculty of Urban Science)

名城大学アジア研究センター

Meijo Asian Research Center

発行日／2019年3月31日
編集・発行／名城大学アジア研究センター〒468-8502 愛知県天白区塩釜口1-501
TEL:052-838-2529 FAX:052-832-1410
ホームページアドレス：http://marc.meijo-u.ac.jp/

Meijo University, JAPAN

Date of issue / March 31, 2019
Edit / Meijo Asian Research Center
1-501 Shiogamaguchi, Tempaku-ku, Nagoya 468-8502 JAPAN
TEL:+81-52-838-2529 FAX:+81-52-832-1410
http://marc.meijo-u.ac.jp/