EUROGRAPHICS 2004 / M.-P. Cani and M. Slater(Guest Editors)

Volume 23 (2004), Number 3Synthesizing Sound from Turbulent Field using Sound
Textures for Interactive Fluid Simulation
Yoshinori Dobashi1

Tsuyoshi Yamamoto1

Tomoyuki Nishita2

1 Graduate School of Information Science and Technology, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
2 Graduate School of Frontier Science, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan{doba, yamamoto}@nis-ei.eng.hokudai.ac.jp, nis@is.s.u-tokyo.ac.jp

Abstract
Sound is an indispensable element for the simulation of a realistic virtual environment. Therefore, there has
been much recent research focused on the simulation of realistic sound effects. This paper proposes a method for
creating sound for turbulent phenomena such as fire. In a turbulent field, the complex motion of vortices leads to
the generation of sound. This type of sound is called a vortex sound. The proposed method simulates a vortex soundby computing vorticity distributions using computational fluid dynamics. Sound textures for the vortex sound are
first created in a pre-process step. The sound is then created at interactive rates by using these sound textures. The
usefulness of the proposed method is demonstrated by applying it to the simulation of the sound of fire and otherturbulent phenomena.
Categories and Subject Descriptors (according to ACM CCS): I.3.7 [Computer Graphics]: Three-Dimensional
Graphics and Realism - Animation; I.6.8 [Simulation and Modeling]: Types of Simulation - Animation; I.3.7[Computer Graphics]: Three-Dimensional Graphics and Realism; I.6.3 [Simulation and Modeling]: Applications;
H.5.5 [Information Interfaces and Presentation]: Sound and Music Computing - Methodologies and techniques,
Modeling.

1. Introduction
The simulation of sound effects for realistic virtual environments has become an important research field, evenin the computer graphics community. In the past decade,a lot of methods have been developed for creating soundeffects by simulating the source and propagation of sound[TH92][HGL∗ 95][OCE01][Coo02][DBJR∗ 02]. Several recent methods make it possible to simulate sound in real-time[FMC99][vdDKP01][TFNC01][OSG02][LSV∗ 02][DYN03].
These methods can create realistic sounds that relate toobjects in motion, and which depend on the geometric
relationship between the receiver and the sound source.
Most of the previous research into the sound synthesis
focused on the sounds generated by subtle oscillations ofsolid objects, such as the sound due to objects colliding.
In 2003, however, Dobashi et al. proposed an interesting
method for simulating the sound created by the motion of
fluids [DYN03]. Examples of sounds generated by fluids include the sound of wind, fire, water and so on. Dobashi et al.
c The Eurographics Association and Blackwell Publishing 2004. Published by Blackwell

Publishing, 9600 Garsington Road, Oxford OX4 2DQ, UK and 350 Main Street, Malden,
MA 02148, USA.

succeeded in a realistic simulation of the sound generated byswinging swords. This method can only simulate the sounds
that are generated when objects are present in a flow. However, even if no objects are in the fluids, sound is generated
from a turbulent field due to the motion of fluids itself. For
example, we can hear the sound from a fire or from a jetstream. This is caused by the motion of vortices in the fluid
and is called a vortex sound [How03].
The aim of this paper is to simulate vortex sounds corresponding to the motion of fluids obtained by the numerical simulation at interactive rates. There are two possible
approaches to simulate the sound. One of these approaches
analyzes a collection of recordings to extract the significant components for a real-time resynthesis. The other approach is based on a physically-based simulation to create
the sound. We employs the simulation-based approach since
the recording of the vortex sound is a difficult task. First, theproposed method creates sound textures for the vortex soundin a pre-process. We use the numerical fluid analysis to cre-

Dobashi, Yamamoto, Nishita/Sound from Turbulent Flow / Synthesizing Sound from Turbulent Field

receiver xΩvortexrv
yFigure 1: Principle of vortex sound.

ate the sound textures. This process can be considered as a
virtual recording process of the sound. Next, the sound textures are used for the fast rendering of the vortex sound corresponding to the motion of the fluids. We apply our method
to the simulation of the sound of fire. However, the soundof fire consists of many components other than the vortex
sound, such as the sound generated by the destruction anddeformation of objects due to combustion. Since simulating
all of those components is very difficult, we combined synthesized vortex sounds and recorded sounds to enhance thereality of the overall sound. By using the proposed method,
we can realize the interactive simulation of vortex sounds
corresponding to the motion of fluids.
This paper is organized as follows. First, in Section 2, previous methods that relate to our study are discussed. Next,
Section 3 describes the principles of vortex sound. The concepts behind the proposed method are explained in Section
4. Section 5 then proposes a method for the creation ofsound textures for the vortex sound. Section 6 proposes afast method for rendering vortex sound. Examples of the proposed method are demonstrated in Section 7. Finally, Section 8 concludes this paper.
2. Related Work
Research into the generation of sound can be classified into
the synthesis of sound (sound modeling) and simulations of
the propagation of sound (sound rendering). Since the purpose of this paper is to compute sound waves that represent
the vortex sound, let us now discuss previous methods relating to the modeling of sound.
In a pioneering work, Hahn et al. proposed a method for
creating sounds procedurally by controlling sound parameters so that the sound changes as a result of changes in theobject motion [HGL∗ 95]. In 1998, a method using a soundmap for synthesizing contact sound was proposed [vdDP98].
Recently, O’Brien et al. developed methods for computing
sound waves by numerical analysis of the subtle oscillation of objects taking into account their shape and material[OCE01][OSG02]. van den Doel et al. used modal resonancemodels calibrated to recorded sounds in order to simulate thesound of objects colliding, rolling and sliding [vdDKP01].
These methods realize the automatic generation of realistic

sound. In these methods, however, the sound of fluids, including vortex sounds, is not taken into account. These methods focus on the sound generated by the oscillation of solid
objects.
Dobashi et al. developed a method for the real-time rendering of aerodynamic sound as an example of a method forgenerating sounds due to the motion of fluids [DYN03]. Thismethod can simulate the sound that is generated when objects are placed in a flow. However, a turbulent field such as
fire can generate sound even if no objects are placed in thefluids. Therefore, we cannot apply the method to the simulation of vortex sounds. An alternative approach to synthesizing sound from a turbulent field is to use recorded sound.
Some methods synthesize sound waves from the recorded
sound waves [DBJR∗ 02][PS03]. The characteristics of thesynthesized sound are very similar to the recorded sound.
However, this approach cannot always create sound corresponding to the motion of fluids.
On the other hand, researchers in the field of computational fluid dynamics have developed methods for predicting the sound generated by fluids [Tam95][Lel97][How03].
The purpose of this research is to reduce the noise due tohigh-speed transportation facilities and air-conditioners etc.
However, a very complicated fluid simulation is required inthis field in order to predict the sound precisely. This results
in a large computational cost. Therefore, this approach is not
appropriate for real-time applications such as VR.
The method proposed in this paper realizes the rendering of vortex sounds almost in real-time by making use of
the predictive methods developed in the field of computation
fluid dynamics.

3. Theory of Vortex Sound
In a turbulent field such as a fire or a jet stream, sound isoften generated due to the complex motion of fluids. As
shown in Fig. 1, the main cause of this type of sound isconsidered to be the complex motion of the vortices thatare generated in fluids [How03]. Experimentally, the amplitude and frequency of the vortex sound is known to depend on the average speed of the turbulent flow [How03].
Lighthill established a theory that relates the fluid motion
to the resulting sound [Lig52]. This theory combines wave
equations with Navier-Stokes equations to explain the sourceof sound generated in fluids. Powell and Howe proved thatthe source of the sound is approximately represented by theterm ρ0 div(w × v) [Pow64][How03], where ρ0 is the standard sound pressure, w is the vorticity vector and v is thevelocity vector. By using this approximation and under anassumption that the size of the turbulent field is sufficiently
small relative to the wavelength of the sound, they solved
the wave equation and derived an analytical expression forthe sound pressure p at time t given by the following equac The Eurographics Association and Blackwell Publishing 2004.
Dobashi, Yamamoto, Nishita/Sound from Turbulent Flow / Synthesizing Sound from Turbulent Field

tions [How03].

4. Basic Concepts of Our Method
Fig. 2 shows the concepts of the proposed method. As
shown in Fig. 2(a), the turbulent field is simulated by using Nx × Ny × Nz voxels and the proposed method generates sound corresponding to the motion of fluids obtained bynumerical fluid analysis. The basic idea is to compute thevorticity distribution by fluid analysis and to calculate Eq. 1
in order to generate the vortex sound. However, in order to
use Eq. 1, the size of the turbulent field must be sufficiently
small relative to the wavelength of the sound. Therefore, as
indicated by the thick lines in Fig. 2(a), the analysis volume
is subdivided into smaller sub-volumes. The vortex sound iscomputed approximately by applying Eq. 1 to each of the
sub-volumes and by summing the resulting sound from each
sub-volume. This is equivalent to assuming that there are independent virtual point sound sources at the centers of each
sub-volume (Fig. 2(a)). In the following, we call the subvolume corresponding to each point sound source a soundsource volume. The above approach, however, cannot generate sound at interactive rates, since the time step in the fluid
analysis must be sufficiently short to capture the period of
the sound (generally, from 10−4 to 10−2 [s]). Furthermore, alarge number of voxels are required to simulate the complex
structure of the turbulent field. This results in a long computation time. To address this problem, sound textures for thevortex sound are created in a pre-process. Then the sound isgenerated at interactive rates using the sound textures.
First, in the pre-process for creating the sound textures,
we prepare a small analysis volume whose size is equivalent
to that of the sound source volume as shown in Fig. 2(a).
This volume is subdivided into finer voxels (nx ×ny ×nz ) anda turbulent flow with an average flow speed u is simulated
within this volume. The sound pressure is then computed using Eq. 1. The resulting sound waves are stored together withthe average speed u as a 1D sound texture. Each sound texture represents sound generated by the simulated turbulentc The Eurographics Association and Blackwell Publishing 2004.


nz
ny
nx

Nz
Ny
Nx

(flow speed u1)(flow speed u3)

time

amplitude(a) pre-process.
amplitude

where c0 is the speed of sound, x is the position of the receiver, Ω represents the turbulent field, y is a point in Ω,and r is the distance between y and the receiver (see Fig.
1). Since this model allows the movement of the receiver, its
position x is expressed as a function of t. The origin for x
and y is placed inside Ω (e.g., the center of Ω). As shown in
Eq. 1, the sound pressure is represented as the third derivative of a function related to the vorticity w. The vorticity
distribution can be computed from the velocity distribution.
Therefore, the sound pressure at the receiver is obtained if
we can compute the velocity distribution by using numerical
fluid analysis.

volume forpreprocess

point soundsourceamplitude

ρ0 c20 ∂3f (x(t), y)dy,(1)
12πr3 ∂t 3 Ω
f (x(t), y) = (x(t) · y)((y × w(y,t − r/c0 )) · x(t)), (2)p(t) =

sound source volume

time(flow speed u2)time(b) sound texture.

sound texture
mapping

receiver
+

Nz
Ny
Nx
(c) rendering sound.

Figure 2: Basic idea of our method.
flow with the average speed. As shown in Fig. 2(b), several
sound textures are created by simulating turbulent flows withvarious average flow speeds. These 1D textures are collected
into a single 2D texture. In the following, the sound texture
is denoted as Q(u,t) (0 < u ≤ U, 0 < t ≤ T ), where t is timeand U and T are the sizes of the texture.
Next, the vortex sound according to the fluid motion is
synthesized efficiently by mapping the sound textures to thepoint sound sources. The mapping process is as follows.
The motion of fluids is computed within the original volume Nx × Ny × Nz . Using the result of the fluid analysis, theaverage flow speed ui of each sound source volume i is computed. The average speed ui is used as a texture coordinate
to the sound texture. That is, the sound pressure due to eachpoint sound source i is obtained by referring to the soundtexture Q(ui ,t). The final sound pressure at the receiver isobtained by summing these pressures (see Fig. 2(c)).

Dobashi, Yamamoto, Nishita/Sound from Turbulent Flow / Synthesizing Sound from Turbulent Field

The following sections describe details of the creation ofsound textures and the fast rendering of the sounds.

1

virtual receiver2

natural boundaryj

5. Sound Texture for Vortex SoundAs described in the previous section, we simulate the turbulent flows by using an analysis volume (represented by
nx × ny × nz voxels) whose size is same as that of the soundsource volume. We assume that each voxel is a cube with itsedge length ∆h. Next, the vortex sound is computed using
Eq. 1, and the resulting sound waves are stored as the soundtexture. The following subsections describe the method forthe computation of the vortex sound by using Fig. 3. Notethat Fig. 3 shows the process in a two-dimensional representation for simplicity. The same idea can be applied to thethree-dimensional case in a straightforward manner.

r=1

periodic
boundary

flow (average speed u)(a) simulation condition.

voxel lintegral cellof voxel lyl
5.1. Simulation of Turbulent Field
We use a method developed by Fedkiw et al. for the numerical simulation of the turbulent flow [FSJ01]. As shown in
Fig. 3(a), we assume that the direction of the flow is perpendicular to the bottom face of the analysis volume ( seeSection 5.2 about the reason for this assumption). Under thisassumption, a natural boundary condition is applied to the
top of the analysis volume and a periodic boundary condition is applied to the sides of the volume. For the bottom of
the volume, an appropriate velocity is specified to generate aturbulent flow. However, a uniform flow is generated when auniform velocity is specified at the bottom, so no turbulence
exists in this case and no sound is generated. Therefore, thespeed of the input flow is perturbed randomly to generate
turbulence. The user specifies the average speed u of the input flow. Turbulent flows with various average speeds are
simulated by changing u.
At each time step in the simulation, the sound pressure
is obtained by computing Eq. 1 using the method describedin the next subsection. The sound waves and the speed u arethen stored as the sound texture. During the early steps, however, the simulation is numerically unstable. Therefore, computation of the sound pressure begins after the simulation
has reached a stable state. The simulation is considered to bestable if the continuity condition of the Navier-Stokes equations is satisfied within a specified accuracy (see [FSJ01] formore details). The time step for the simulation should be sufficiently short to capture the period of the vortex sound. For
example, the primary frequency of the sound of a fire is generally low and less than 1000 [Hz]. Therefore, in this case,the time step is set to 1/1000 [s].
5.2. Computation of Sound Texture
The result of the fluid analysis is used to compute Eq. 1 andthe resulting sound waves are stored as the sound texture.
For this computation, we place a virtual receiver at distancerkyk(b) Computation of sound pressureusing integration cell.
Figure 3: Computation of sound texture.
r = 1 from the center of the analysis volume. Strictly speaking, the vortex sound has directivity. However, we found experimentally that the directivity is very small and negligible.
This implies that the direction of the flow does not affectthe resulting sound very much. Therefore, as described previously, the direction of the flow is set to be perpendicular
to the bottom face of the analysis volume (see Fig. 3(a)).
Multiple virtual receivers are then placed around the analysis volume and the average of the sound pressures at thosereceivers is stored in the sound texture. That is, at each time
step of the fluid simulation, the sound pressures at the virtual
receivers are summed and the result is divided by the numberof the virtual receivers.
In the computation of Eq. 1, the origin for x and y is placed
inside the analysis volume. However, since y is nearly 0 near
the origin, the function f expressed by Eq. 2 is also nearlyzero. This implies that the sound due to the motion of the fluids around the origin is not taken into account. Furthermore,
the positional vector x of the receiver changes dependingon where the origin is placed and the resulting sound alsochanges.
To address this problem, we propose a computation
method using integral cells for the sound pressure. An integral cell is assigned to each voxel. The integral cell of voxel
l consists of voxel l and its neighboring voxels (27 voxels
in the three-dimensional case). Fig. 3(b) shows the integral
cell in the two-dimensional case. The integral cells of neighboring voxels overlap with each other. The sound pressurec The Eurographics Association and Blackwell Publishing 2004.
Dobashi, Yamamoto, Nishita/Sound from Turbulent Flow / Synthesizing Sound from Turbulent Field

due to the motion of fluids inside each integral cell is computed by using Eq. 1. The final sound pressure is obtained bysumming the pressures of all integral cells. Let us denote thesound pressure at each virtual receiver j due to the integral
cell of voxel l as ρ j,l . In the computation of ρ j,l , the origin
is placed at the center of voxel l. This means that voxel ldoes not affect the sound pressure ρ j,l . However, since theintegral cells overlap, the influence of voxel l is taken into
account in the computation of the integral cells of the neighboring voxels of voxel l. Therefore, all the voxels are taken
into account equally in the computation of the final soundpressure. For each virtual receiver j, the sound pressure ρ j,ldue to the integral cell of voxel l is computed by the following equation.
ρ j,l (t) =ρ0 c20 ∂3w(rk ) f (x j − yl , yk − yl )∆h2 ,12π ∂t 3 ∑k(3)where, x j is the position of virtual receiver j, yl is the centerof voxel l, and yk is the center of its neighboring voxel (seeFig. 3(b)). w is a weighting function to take into accountthe overlap and rk is the distance between yl and yk . It isreasonable that the weighting function should increase if the
distance between yl and yk becomes short. Therefore, we use
the following function as the weighting function w.
mw(rk ) = exp(−αrk )/ ∑ exp(−αrl  ),(4)l  =1

where α is specified by the user, rl  is the distance from yk tovoxel l  whose integral cell includes yk , and m is the numberof such voxels. The denominator in Eq. 4 is for normalization. We determined α experimentally and use 3.0 for α inthe examples shown in Section 7.
The sound waves obtained by the above method and theaverage speed of the turbulent flow are stored as the soundtexture Q(u,t).

renderSoundandImage() {Update flow field;for(k=0; k<N; k++) { /* N = Ts/∆t */ρv[k] = 0.0;
for(i=0; i<n; i++) {/* n: number of point sound sources */Compute average flow speed ui insidesound source volume i;
Compute distance ri from point soundsource i to receiver;ρv[k] += Q(ui, t+k∆t)/ri3;}}
Display an image;Send(ρv[0], ρv[1], ..., ρv[N-1]) to an audio device;t += Ts;}
Figure 4: Pseudo-code for rendering sound.

velocity distribution at time tk is computed by interpolating the velocity distributions at times t j and t j+1 wheret j ≤ tk < t j+1 . Next, the average velocity ui of the soundsource volume of the point sound source i is computed. Using the sound texture, the sound pressure due to this pointsound source is given by Q(ui ,tk ). Since the texture sizes U
and T are finite, the texture coordinates (ui ,tk ) are modified
as follows. If ui exceeds U, ui is truncated to U. If tk exceeds
T , the sound texture is used periodically and the ends of the
texture are blended to yield a smooth transition of the sound.
Next, the distance ri between point sound source i and thereceiver q is computed. The sound is delayed due to the distance ri and attenuated proportionally to 1/ri3 (see Eq. 1).
The final sound pressure at the receiver is obtained by summing the sound pressure due to each point sound source, i.e.,n1
Q(ui ,tk − ri /c0 ),
3
r
i=1 i

pv (q, tk ) = ∑6. Fast Rendering of Vortex SoundThe vortex sound is rendered at interactive rates by using
the sound texture Q(u,t) created in the previous section. The
motion of the fluids is computed by numerical fluid analysis
using the original voxel space of Nx × Ny × Nz (see Fig. 1).
Again, we use the method developed by Fedkiw et al. for thenumerical fluid analysis since the method is very efficientand suitable for interactive simulation [FSJ01]. The soundpressure at the receiver is efficiently computed by just referring to the sound texture. The velocity distribution obtainedby the fluid analysis is used to refer to the texture. Detailsof the method are described below. Let us assume that theprocess starts at t = 0. Computation of the sound pressure isrepeated at short intervals of time, ∆t. The velocity distribution and the image are updated at a different time interval Ts(∆t < Ts ). In the following, tk = k∆t and t j = jTs where k
and j are non-negative integers.
Let us consider the case where time t = tk . Firstly, thec The Eurographics Association and Blackwell Publishing 2004.


(5)

where n is the number of point sound sources.
Fig. 4 shows a pseudo-code for rendering the sound using the proposed method. We use a timer callback function
for interactive rendering of sounds and images. That is, thefunction of Fig. 4 is executed in a specified time interval Ts .
In Fig. 4, N = Ts /∆t, pv is an array for storing the soundpressure at the receiver and t is the time when the function iscalled. Initially, t is 0.
7. Results
This section shows several examples of sound effects createdby the proposed method. In the following examples, images
are created by using the method proposed by Dobashi et al[DKY∗ 00]. This method can render fuzzy objects such as
fire very fast. We used a desktop PC with a Pentium 4 (3.06

Dobashi, Yamamoto, Nishita/Sound from Turbulent Flow / Synthesizing Sound from Turbulent Field

GHz) processor and a NVIDIA Geforce4 as a video card.
The size of images is 400 × 400
First, the proposed method was applied to the simulationof the sound of fire, as shown in Fig. 5. Fig. 5 shows an image from the simulation and the corresponding sound waves.
In this example, we combined the vortex sound created byour method with a recorded sound to simulate sound due to
combustion of objects. We used a commercial sound libraryfor the recorded sound. The number of voxels in this simulation is 15 × 15 × 20. The temperature of the heat source
is randomly perturbed. The sound changes according to the
motion of the fire.
Next, Fig. 6 shows an example of rendering the soundfrom a flamethrower as an example of sound of a jet stream.
In this case, the main source of the sound was the vortex
sound, so we did not use any recorded sound. The numberof voxels in this simulation is 10 × 20 × 10.
Finally, the sound of an explosion was simulated as shownin Fig. 7. To simulate this, we specified velocities radially around the center of the explosion. After the simulation started, the magnitudes of the velocities were decreased
rapidly. This creates an explosive sound in the early stages ofthe simulation (see Fig. 7). After that, vertical flow is caused
due to the heat of the explosion. The vertical flow generates
the corresponding vortex sound. With this type of sound, we
encountered a serious problem. That is, the range of amplitudes of the sound waves is very wide. If we normalize thesound waves, the explosion looks as if it were very far away.
This problem is similar to the dynamic range problem in image synthesis [DM01]. Researchers in the audio engineering community have also discussed this problem and several
methods were proposed (e.g., [Cut98]). Here, we employ thesimplest approach. The sound waves are simply truncated asfollows. Most of the microphones have a maximum soundpressure that they can record. We specified the maximum
sound pressure and used it to truncate the amplitude. Thismethod can create a realistic sound of an explosion.
The frame rates of the simulations demonstrated in thissection are from 10 to 20 [fps]. The pre-process for creating the sound textures took several minutes. Our method canrender realistic sound and images almost in real-time.

used to render the vortex sound. The proposed method madeit possible to render the sounds of turbulent phenomena suchas fire at interactive rates. This enables us to achieve an interactive simulation of fluids including sounds.
A few things remain to be achieved in the future. We applied our method to the sounds of fire and explosions. However, in these phenomena, not only vortex sounds but also
sounds due to the rapid expansion of heated air are important. In particular, explosions often generate shock waves.
Moreover, we used recorded sound for the destruction of objects caused by the combustion. These elements should be
simulated to create more realistic sound effects.
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Please refer to the accompanying video for movies corresponding to the examples shown in this section.
8. Conclusion
In this paper, we have proposed a method for the realistic
simulation of sound from a turbulent field. In the method,
the sound texture for the vortex sound is created in a preprocess. We proposed a method for creating the sound texture by making use of vortex theory. The sound texture iscreated by computing the sound pressures due to turbulent
fields with various flow speeds. Next, the sound texture isc The Eurographics Association and Blackwell Publishing 2004.
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0.0s

2.5s

5.0s

7.5s

10.0s

Figure 6: Sound of flamethrower.

t = 0.4st = 0.8s

t = 1.2s

t = 1.6s

0.0s

0.5s

1.0s

1.5s

Figure 7: Sound of explosion.

c The Eurographics Association and Blackwell Publishing 2004.


10.0s

Figure 5: Sound of fire.

2.0s