Research Report on International Cooperationin the Recovery Process of Disaster-affected Cultural Heritage
March 2010
Japan Consortium for International Cooperation in Cultural Heritage

Research Report on International Cooperation in the Recovery Process of Disaster-affected Cultural Heritage
March 2010

Edited and published by
Japan Consortium for International Cooperation in Cultural Heritage
13-43 Ueno Koen, Taito-ku, Tokyo, 110-8713 JAPAN
Tel: +81-3-3823-4841 Fax: +81-3-3823-4027
URL: http://www.jcic-heritage.jp/

Foreword
In recent years, cultural heritage has been affected by a series of natural and man-made disasters so interest in cultural heritage disaster prevention measures and restoration has heightened. It is considered that climate change on a global scale is one of the contributing factors
in natural disasters, and irreplaceable cultural heritage damage can lead to an irredeemable
loss for people. Therefore, it is important to take measures routinely to prevent disasters affecting cultural heritage as well as to carry out restoration to cultural heritage swiftly andappropriately after a disaster has struck. Appeals to Japan from overseas for cooperation in
the recovery process of disaster-affected cultural heritage have increased. Providing swift andeffective post-disaster support is difficult so that it has become necessary to grasp what kindof contribution is feasible and to take cooperative action together with the host country.
With a background like that, the Japan Consortium for International Cooperation in Cultural Heritage was commissioned in fiscal year ending March 2010 by the Agency of Cultural
Affairs to carry out a study of disaster prevention systems, disaster-time recovery initiatives
and the role of international cooperation. Based on consultations in Subcommittee meetingfor Planning, five countries centered in Asia (China, Thailand, Indonesia, Iran and Greece)that have been assisted by Japan were chosen as a case study of how cultural heritage has
been affected by major natural disasters over the past ten years. The purpose of this report isto compile information relating to these case studies.
We would like to express our gratitude to all those who cooperated while conducting thisstudy

Shinʼichi Shimizu,
Director
Japan Center for International Cooperation in Conservation
Independent Administrative Institution, National ResearchInstitute for Cultural Properties, Tokyo

Preface
1. This report documents studies on international cooperation in the recovery process of disaster-affected cultural heritage inthe countries of China, Thailand, Indonesia, Iran and Greece. It is published as a part of a project carried out by the Japan
Consortium for International Cooperation in Cultural Heritage which was commissioned by the Agency of Cultural Affairs.

2. Reports and studies carried out in Iran and Greece, which are detailed in Chapter 2, were re-commissioned by the Japan
Consortium for International Cooperation in Cultural Heritage to the Kokushikan University and Ritsumeikan-Global Innovation Research Organization, Ritsumeikan University.

3. Those responsible for editing and writing this report are listed as follows. In addition, Ms. Yumi Sugahara (Lecturer, Faculty of International Culture Studies, Department of Asian Studies, Tenri University) supervised wording used in the Indonesian case study report included in Chapter 2.

Editor Japan Consortium for International Cooperation in Cultural Heritage
Author
Chapter 1 Rei Harada, Research Fellow, Japan Consortium for International Cooperation in Cultural Heritage
Chapter 2 China
Ken Okada, Head, Resource and Systems Research Section) Japan Center for International Cooperation in Conservation, National Research Institute for Cultural Properties, Tokyo
Hisano Koseki, Visiting Researcher, Shimane Prefecture
Thailand
Yoko Futagami, Senior Researcher, Japan Center for International Cooperation in Conservation, National ResearchInstitute for Cultural Properties, Tokyo
Yutaka Nakamura, Visiting Professor, Tokyo Institute of Technology
Tomomi Haramoto, Research Fellow, Japan Consortium for International Cooperation in Cultural Heritage
Indonesia
Akiko Tashiro, Research Fellow, Japan Consortium for International Cooperation in Cultural Heritage
Iran
Yasuyoshi Okada, Professor, Institute for Cultural Studies of Ancient Iraq, Kokushikan University
GreeceKanefusa Masuda, Professor, Ritsumeikan Global Innovation Research Organization, Ritsumeikan University(Research Center for Disaster Mitigation of Urban Cultural Heritage, Ritsumeikan University)
Kenzo Toki, Professor, Ritsumeikan Global Innovation Research Organization, Ritsumei kanUniversity(Director, Research Center for Disaster Mitigation of Urban Cultural Heritage, Ritsumeikan University)
Yozo Goto, Project Researcher, Earthquake Research Institute of the University of Tokyo
Minsuk Kim, Postdoctoral Fellow, Ritsumeikan Global Innovation Research Organization, Ritsumeikan University(Research Center for Disaster Mitigation of Urban Cultural Heritage, Ritsumeikan University)
Chapter 3 Rei Harada

Contents

Foreword
Preface

Chapter 1

Introduction

Chapter 2

Case Study

1

1. China

7

2. Thailand27

3. Indonesia

77

4. Iran105

5. Greece

117

Chapter 3

Assignments for the Future

159

Bibliography

165

List of Figures, Tables, and Pictures

169

List of Interviewees

175

Appendix179

Chapter 1

Introduction

Chapter 1 Introduction

When considering cultural heritage protection, one of the pressing problems is how to tackle the threat of natural disasters. Disasters
such as earthquakes, tsunamis, landslides and fires have caused catastrophes on countless occasions in the past, and on each occasion
we are reminded of the diverse dangers by nature. Unfortunately, it is difficult to predict when natural disasters happen, but if one looks
at earthquakes, for example, research on earthquake zones has enabled us to respond by identifying measures to be taken for certain regions. This thinking could also extend to formulating measures to protect cultural heritage against earthquake disasters, and could argue
that the main consideration should be the locational relationship between the distribution of earthquake zones and cultural heritage sites.

Fig.1 World Heritage Sites (June 2008) Located in the Earthquake Zones by Research Center for Disaster Mitigation of Urban Cultural Heritage,
Ritsumeikan University, Kyoto, Japan

Since a large number of World Cultural Heritage and Mixed Heritage are located in earthquake zones, it could be assumed that othercultural heritage might similarly be located in earthquake zones, and which means a large number of them are also potentially vulnerable
to earthquake damage. This problem is particularly prominent in regions located in earthquake zones including Southeast Asia, Southwest China, Western Asia, the Mediterranean coast, and Latin America.
The Japan Consortium for International Cooperation in Cultural Heritage has worked to provide active international cooperation fordisaster-affected cultural heritage through research and support since its inauguration. Its first workshop held on July, 2007, titled “Emergency Support for Cultural Heritage Affected by Natural Disasters”, considered the current status of and issues surrounding emergency
international support to preserve cultural heritage affected by natural disasters. Further, it studied extensive damage caused to cultural
heritage by flooding that occurred in the Hadhramaut region of the Republic of Yemen in October, 2008, and compiled information in
February, 2009, to examine how the Japanese government could cooperate. The report of this study, “Investigation of the Flood Situationin Yemen”, was published in February, 2009.
Thus, since its establishment, the Japan Consortium for International Cooperation in Cultural Heritage has consistently focused on issues relating to the restoration of disaster-affected cultural heritage. However, as the number of appeals for cooperation from overseas toJapan and actual cooperation cases provided by Japanese experts continues to rise, deciding what measures are required to ensure swift
and appropriate international cooperation responding to disaster-affected cultural heritage is still a major issue. Providing swift and effec-

1

Chapter 1 Introduction

tive post-disaster support is difficult so it has become necessary to grasp what kind of contribution is feasible and to carry out cooperative
action together with the host country. Accordingly, carrying out comprehensive studies of the current status of and issues facing international cooperation in these areas has become increasingly important.

With a background like that, the Japan Consortium for International Cooperation in Cultural Heritage was commissioned by the Agency of Cultural Affairs in fiscal year ending March 2010 to carry out case studies looking at the restoration of disaster-affected cultural
heritage. Five countries centered in Asia (China, Thailand, Indonesia, Iran and Greece) that have been assisted by Japan were chosen as
actual cases of how cultural heritage has been affected by major natural disasters over the past ten years (Fig. 2).

GreeceChina
IranThailandIndonesia

Case Study Area
Boundary Line

Fig.2 Case study area

Asia is vulnerable to a wide diversity of disasters such as flooding, landslides and wildfires but the disaster case studies reported here
predominately relate to earthquake damage. This could be seen as an indication of the significantly large scale of earthquake related damage over the last few years. Further, although the case studies are centered on earthquake damage, earthquakes simultaneously trigger
other disasters such as fires, landslides and tsunamis. Then, it could be argued that as a result our study succeeded in studying the restoration of disaster-affected cultural heritage from multiple angles. This report consolidated these case studies into one book and is published
as a comprehensive report document.
With regard to the composition of this report, the field studies of the five aforementioned countries make up Chapter 2. Specifically,
these studies examined the characteristics of the countriesʼ natural disasters and cultural heritage, as well as cultural heritage disaster prevention systems and restoration initiatives operated in those countries. Further, using specific examples of disaster-affected cultural heritage, we outlined the disasters experienced in those countries, described the damage incurred and the status of restoration, and discussed
future issues. In addition, we shed light on what kind of of international cooperation is required for the above examples. In Chapter 3,
we compared examples of international cooperation in relation to cultural heritage restoration carried out in the case study countries, andexamined the required contribution of international cooperation. In this regard, we identified what role Japan should play in the realm of
cooperation in disaster-affected cultural heritage.
2

Chapter 1 Introduction

Foreign countries place great hope in the support and cooperation of Japan - a country prone to earthquakes and with an abundance ofprior earthquake damage experience - and it would not be an exaggeration to say that Japan has a duty to cooperate in the restoration ofdisaster-affected cultural heritage. We hope that in this time of persistent disasters, this report will be used widely, and that it will contribute to future systems of international cooperation in cultural heritage.

3

Chapter 2

Case Study

Chapter 2 Case Study

1. China(Based on the Sichuan Earthquake Case-Study)
1. Research Overview

similar disasters. However, when it comes to cultural heritage,

1-1 Research Objective

each country is vastly different and has protection philosophies

In recent years, ethnic disputes within regions and/or

and systems that differ largely to our own country. There is,between regions across the globe become has become more

therefore, a possibility that we could be carrying out support

prominent and large-scale disasters have been occurring withactivities without knowing if they are effective or not.

great frequency. This has led to increased cases of significant

So what kind systems need to be developed to prepare fordamages to cultural heritage. Indeed cultural heritage over apotential disasters in the future?

long period has repeatedly suffered man-made disasters andWhat kind of cooperation and support can we give foreigncountries suffering natural disasters?

losses brought about by natural changes and natural disasters,
the current cultural heritage protection framework is inadequate

To answer these questions, The Agency for Culturalfrom a technical, systematic or preventive viewpoint, and we are

Affairs decided to carry out research looking at post-disaster

constantly compelled to feel remorse about this time after time

circumstances and responses in countries whose cultural heritage

when a large disaster strikes. As a result of the Great Hanshin

has been recently damaged by natural disasters, and assigned thisAwaji Earthquake our country suffered in 1995, we have been

project to the Japan Consortium for International Cooperation inable to improve prevention, repair and maintenance strategies

Cultural Heritage in 2009.

relating to the impact of natural disasters on cultural heritage.

Focusing on the experiences of the Peopleʼs Republic ofAlso, experiencing this major tragedy has meant that we have

China (hereinafter referred to as “China”) which was carried out

increasingly become involved with supporting the culturalby the National Research Institute for Cultural Properties, Tokyo,

heritage restoration activities of other countries inflicted bythis report takes up the case study of the Sichuan Earthquake

Figure 1 Research country and overview of regions used for the research

7Chapter 2 Case Study

which occurred in May, 2008 (Fig. 1).

Tokyo, National Institute for Cultural

This research was mainly conducted by interviews and data

Heritage, Independent Administrativecollections. To clarify how Chinaʼs multilayered administrative

Institution

agencies shown in Fig.2 co-worked on recovery process while

KOSEKI, Hisano

Visiting Researcher, Shimane Prefecture

distinguishing every partyʼs respective roles, we chose to
1-3 Research Scheduleinterview to the organizations below:-

The State Administration of Cultural Heritage, which

July 8 (Weds)

presides over the administration of cultural heritage
protection activities for the whole nation.
-

The Cultural Relics Bureau of Sichuan province; the-

The Chengdu Municipal Bureau of Culture and theNH905 flight from Narita (10.35) to Beijing(13.25)same day

CA1425 ﬂight from Beijing (17.00) to Chengdu(19.30)region most affected by the earthquake.

July 9 (Thurs.)

The Cultural Relics Bureau of Sichuan Province

Cultural Relics Bureau of Dujiangyan; agencies

July 10 (Fri.)The Cultural Relics Bureau of Chengdu Prov-

July 11 (Sat.)

Cultural Relics Bureau of Dujiangyan

July 12 (Sun.)

Chengdu Jinsha Site Museum; visit Chengdu

operating below the province at municipal andince

prefectural levels.
Further, to ascertain whether Sichuanʼs response could beviewed as a standard response method in China, we also

city and data collection
July 13 (Mon.)

interviewed targets from the Shaanxi province that had

CA4201 ﬂight from Chengdu (14.50) to Xiʼan/
Xianyang (15:55)

similarly experienced damages and had provided restoration
July 14 (Tues.)

assistance to Sichuan province.

The Cultural Relics Bureau of Shaanxi Province

In the subsequent Section 2, we look at natural disasterdamage in China. In Section 3, we will provide an overview ofJuly 15 (Weds.) MU10:50 ﬂight from Xiʼan (10:50) to Beijing

disaster protection and restoration systems in China relating to(12:50)cultural heritage. In Section 4, as part of our case study analysis,

Chinese Academy of Cultural Heritage

we will focus on Sichuan Earthquake and report the minutes

July 16 (Thurs.) State Administration of Cultural Heritageof post disaster recovery process, as well as the situation ofJuly 17 (Fri.)

NH956 flight from Beijing (08:80) to Narita(13:00)international cooperation on cultural heritage. Finally, a general
overview of the case study and recommendations are included in

2. Typical Disaster-affected Cultural Heritage Sites in China

Section 5.

2-1 Typical Disaster-affected China
Located in the east of the Eurasian Continent, China boasts
the fourth largest land area in the world, throughout which it ishome to diverse climate zones as well as various geological andtopographical conditions. Due to this, natural disasters are wideranging and typical disaster characteristics differ from region toregion.
The region extending from the west to the center of China
has a dry climate and soil erosion that accompanies drought
and bare land as well as eroded sediment which have brought

Figure 2 Frame format of Chinese administrative organizations
engaged in cultural heritage protection

about sediment disasters and river disasters. The Inner Mongolia
Autonomous Region located in the Inner Mongolian Plateau

1-2 Members of the Research

has suffered yellow sand sandstorms. In the southeast region,

The below listed members carried out the research in China

typhoons and heavy rain occur with increasing regularity,

OKADA, Ken

Head, Resource and Systems Researchbringing with them damage such as sediment disasters andSection, Japan Center for International

flooding in recent years. Further, China is composed of three

Cooperation in Conservation, National

crustal blocks and many earthquakes have been caused by active

Research Institute for Cultural Properties,

faults scattered in the vicinity of the Tibetan Plateau margin and
8Chapter 2 Case Study

the Qinling Mountains area which border these blocks.

point here is the existence of a line of command per division

In addition, some regions are vulnerable to locally-occurringconforming to Chinaʼs own political make-up. Governmental

disasters such as landslides and flooding while forest firesorganizations respond to urgent situations not only at acaused by lightning and aridity can be witnessed in othermunicipal level as we know in Japan, but they work according

locations. In this sense, China very much resembles Japan in thatto a vertical line of authority operating downwards from therisk is lurking in various places from a wide variety of natural

National Government to subordinate provincial, municipal anddisasters.

prefectural related bureaus. Developing emergency systems

With regard to earthquakes, a number of earthquakes causing

according to such vertical management is largely stipulated bywidespread damage have occurred over the past 100 years. Theselaw and in cultural heritage protection area, concrete measures

include the 1920 Haiyuan earthquake, Gangsu Province (8.5

are to be taken by each administrative level under the direction

magnitude; 200,000 casualties); the 1927 Gulang earthquake,of the State Administration of Cultural Heritage.

Gansu Province (8 magnitude; 41,000 casualties); an earthquake

In addition, cultural relic bureaus at each administrativein 1975 striking off the Liaoning Province coast (7.5 magnitude);level seek ratiﬁcation or approval from the responsible peopleʼsthe 1976 Tangshan earthquake, Hebei Province (7.8 magnitude;

government - or what we might call a municipal government in

240,000 casualties). Examining the distribution of these

Japan - to measures formulated by each branch of command. For

earthquakes and other large ones in the past, a large proportion is

example, the Cultural Relics Bureau of Sichuan Province who

concentrated in the areas bordering the crustal blocks within theparticipated in this research formulated an emergency measures

1

plan in 2000 under a policy aiming to “establish command teams

Eurasian plate .

to carry out emergency measures required in the event of a
2-2 Previous Disaster Damage at Cultural Heritage Sites inmajor disaster or incident” and, for this, obtained the ratiﬁcation

Chinaof the Sichuan Provincial Peopleʼs Government. Further, theDuring this research, we were unable to discover data

Cultural Relics Bureau of Dujiangyan has also devised planscomprehensively documenting past natural disaster damage

for emergency measures based on the approval of the National

to cultural heritage sites in China. While Sichuan province is

Disaster Reduction Committee and the ofﬁce of the Dujiangyan

located in an earthquake zone, fortunately there have been no

Provincial Peopleʼs Government. Cultural heritage protection

reports of large earthquake damage affecting cultural heritage

divisions at each administrative level, therefore, devise measuressites over the last 40 years or so. Instead, reports of damage

based on the idea of - carry out operations while receiving

caused by flooding and landslides are more common. Since

instructions from the chain of command, gain the approval ofthen, the building of cultural relic offices and museums has

peopleʼs government ofﬁces at various levels, and manage risks.

been centered in areas with geographical conditions resistantFollowing the Sichuan earthquake of May 12th, 2008,

to flooding and/or landslide disasters. Main natural disasters

which will be examined in Section 4 of this report, a more

affecting the Shaanxi province are landslides and ﬂooding, andcomprehensive system equipped to address similar sudden

grottoes located in the north still show traces of ﬂooding. The

disasters and incidents was required, and a new system is being

Chenghuang-miao shrine situated in Ningshaan prefecture had

developed under the initiative of the national government. Twoto be relocated to a safer area due to potential exposure to ﬂood

laws; namely the “Disaster Prevention and Reduction Law ofdamage. It is said that disaster measures, such as site relocation,

the Peopleʼs Republic of China” and the “Emergency Response

are extremely rare.

Law of the Peopleʼs Republic of China”; and a regulation
entitled “The Regulations on the Handling of Destructive

3. Cultural Heritage Disaster Prevention and Restoration -Earthquake Emergencies” are currently in place and systems

Chinese Systems and Initiatives

have been developed so that each administrative division acts

3-1 Disaster Prevention Systems and Initiatives

according to the command system of that division in line withIn China, the government of China has formulated plans tothe contents of these laws and regulation. The development ofaddress critical situations such as natural disasters and sudden

even more concrete action plans under the framework of these

events. This not only applies to cultural heritage protection, butlaws and regulation is needed in the future, and the command

it also aims to devise risk management and emergency plans

system inherent in cultural heritage protection activities has

equipped to encompass problems arising in all administrative

been strengthened by a system in which requests are passed

branches such as education and transport. The important key

down from the State Administration of Cultural Heritage to9Chapter 2 Case Study

subordinate provincial, municipal and prefectural cultural relicmake-up. An hour and thirty minutes after the earthquake struck,bureaus. Thus, the political make-up of the national government

Premier WEN Jiabao headed to his airﬁeld and established theon a normal basis has been exploited in times of crisis. Action“Wenchuan Earthquake Relief Command Team” while flying

taken by each branch of command to combat critical situations

to the scene. However, without waiting for the commandis hard to imagine due to the vastly different emergency systems

teams established by the national government, command

operated in China and Japan but our Sichuan earthquake caseteams were formed at each site in accordance with their own

study outlined in Section 4 will provide a concrete example ofauthorized emergency plans. These teams set about gathering

Chinaʼs post-disaster response methods.

information to report to the nation and taking appropriate

At the present time, central storages enabling the concentrated

emergency measures. With regard to divisions responsible formanagement of cultural relics are being built in China.

cultural heritage protection, the State Administration of Cultural

Because of the vast geographical expanse of China, storages

Heritage entered the site a mere two days after the disaster andand museums have not been established in all provinces, cities

started to give speciﬁc instructions but at that time informationand prefectures and, it is also difficult for the government torelating to the post-disaster situation gathered by cultural relicintroduce temperature and humidity control features to suchofﬁces was already being distributed to the State Administration

facilities. Therefore, the key to establishing efficient andof Cultural Heritage. This information greatly contributed toeffective cultural heritage protection in the future lies in thethe decision-making processes of the State Administration ofdevelopment of central storages enabling the comprehensive

Cultural Heritage. It could be argued that this rapid responsemanagement of relics from surrounding regions. It is said thatand information-gathering at the scene enabled the Statethe Sichuan earthquake which we are going to discuss here also

Administration of Cultural Heritage to take positive and precise

had an impact on this project. This is said to be evident in anti-

action and to distribute information.

seismic measures that were considered when deciding where

However, many cultural relic offices assigned to the day-to build these central storages and when setting earthquake-

to-day management of the cultural heritage sites in Chengdu

resistance standards and storage methods. Every central storage

and Dujiangyan were unable to respond fully to the Sichuan

and museum constructed in the future will be required to have its

disaster in accordance with existing response plans. This wasown standard and Chengdu has built a museum able to withstandbecause existing plans had centered on predicted disasters such

earthquakes with a magnitude of up to eight.

as flooding, landslides, fire and theft. Of course earthquake

While museums and storages are being constructed andmeasures were included there too, but the size of themodified with anti-seismic features in mind, the next problem

earthquake and the extent of the damage caused had surpassed

lies with the protection of historical buildings. China has a

all predictions because this region had not suffered a major

principal to avoid a regular overhaul or an active anti-seismic

earthquake since 1933. Significant problems that arose were

reinforcement of its historical buildings from an authenticity

that the total destruction of lifestyle related facilities had not

and integrity perspective and it is said that such repairs are

been predicted; ensuring the physical safety of staff; and a lacknot carried out unless they are completely necessary. Further,of preparation such as storage of daily essentials. All cultural

historical buildings that permit the entry of sightseers have beenrelic ofﬁces are revising emergency measure plans based on theprotected mainly by cultural relic protection laws rather thanessential lessons learned from this earthquake.

construction laws arguably contributing to the complexity of
establishing anti-seismic measures for such buildings 2. Under

4. Case Study Analysis

such circumstances, future studies and research need to examine

4-1 Overview of the Earthquake and Its Damages
The Sichuan earthquake which struck on May 12th, 2008,

how to secure the safety of people using historical buildings as

occurred at the Longmenshan fault zone bordering the Tibetanwell as how to promote anti-seismic measures.

Plateau and the Sichuan Basin (Fig. 3). The scale of the
3-2 Systems and Initiatives Operated when Disaster-affectedearthquake was a magnitude of eight (as announced by theaffect Cultural Heritage Sites

China Seismological Bureau), and its hypocenter was situatedWhen the Sichuan earthquake struck, emergency measuresin the Yingxiu area of Wenchuan Prefecture at a depth of 10

were carried out effectively, plans had already been put in place

to 14 km. Damage included the loss of approximately 70,000

within cultural relic ofﬁces at all administrative levels based on

lives, the disappearance of approximately 18,000 people and thea line of command per division reﬂecting Chinaʼs own political

economic loss is estimated to extend to 845.1 billion yuan RMB
10Chapter 2 Case Study(approximately 13 trillion yen) (as announced by the Chinese
Government in September, 2008). Because the earthquake hit
mountainous regions, characteristics of the damage caused
included the collapse of buildings and the destruction of lifelines
such as roads as well as landslide, mudﬂows and the formationof dammed lakes.
Sichuan Province is located on the border of the two Tibetan
Plateau and Yangzi crustal blocks. Its terrain rises to the west
and lowers to the east, reaching a maximum height differenceof approximately 7,000 m. The Qingzang Plateau and Yungui
Plateau which cover almost two thirds of the Sichuan area ismainly an orogenic belt that continues to grow even now. Due to
Image 2 The post-disaster condition of Tielong-dian hall and
Jidangpu-dian hall (obtained from National Research Institute forCultural Properties, Tokyo (Ed.), 2009)

this, many active faults ﬂank the Longmenshan Mountains whichborder these plateaus and the Sichuan basin, and looking backto the 20th century for evidence of two earthquakes exceeding amagnitude of seven occurring at the Longmenshan fault (1933
Maoxian Diexi earthquake and 1976 Songpan earthquake). We

Image 3 The post-disaster condition of Yunyan-si temple (obtained
from National Research Institute for Cultural Properties, Tokyo (Ed.),2009)

Figure 3 Topography and seismic center of Sichuan province(superimposed on an image obtained from Google earth)

Image 4 Disaster-affected class one cultural relics in Wenchuanprovince (obtained from National Research Institute for Cultural
Properties, Tokyo (Ed.), 2009)

Image 1 Overlooking the Longmenshan Mountains from Dujiangyan

11Chapter 2 Case Study

can also add the 2008 Sichuan earthquake to the list of recent
earthquakes centered in this region. Based on this data, it can besaid that earthquakes occurring at the Longmenshan fault strike
once every 30 years. Further, the frequency of natural disasters
is extremely high because gorges crisscross the high mountain
range. Looking at Sichuanʼs history of disasters, including
earthquakes, ﬂoods, mudﬂows and landslides, one could call it
the disaster capital of China.
4-2 Status of Damages on Cultural Heritage
In Sichuan Province, where the earthquake was centered,
there were signiﬁcant damages to 83 Historical Monuments andCultural Relics under State Protection 3; 174 monuments andImage 5 Damaged roof tiles of Wuziguan shrine in Xixiang, Shaanxi
province (photograph taken by ZHAO Qiang) (photograph supplied by
the Cultural Relics Bureau of Shaanxi Province)

cultural relics under provincial protection; and 814 monuments
and cultural relics under city and prefectural protection (Images
2 and 3). This not only applied to immovable heritages, 83

Image 6 Post-disaster condition of Wuyunlou building andZhangliang-miao shrine in Liuba prefecture, Shaanxi province(photograph taken by ZHAO Qiang) (photograph supplied by the
Cultural Relics Bureau of Shaanxi Province)

Image 8 Part of Erwang-miao Shrine damaged by the disaster

Image 7 Post-disaster condition of Cultural Relics Bureau of
Chencang, Baoji, Shaanxi province (photograph taken by Baoji
Cultural Relics Bureau) (photograph supplied by the Cultural Relics
Bureau of Shaanxi Province)

Image 9 Plastic sheets covering the roof of the disaster-affected
Fulongguan Shrine

12Chapter 2 Case Study

museums and cultural heritage storage facilities were also
affected, and 220 important relics stored at these places weredamaged (Image 4). Also, not only Sichuan Province, but
the earthquake also affected neighboring provinces. A totalof 35 Historical Monuments and Cultural Relics under State
Protection, 35 monuments and cultural relics under provincial
protection and 16 under prefectural protection in Shaanxi
Province were affected by damage such as cracks and collapsed
walls and 307 relics deposited with museum storages also weredamaged (Images 5, 6 and 7). Further, reports were made ofdamages such as cracked statues in the famous tourist location ofMaijishan Grottoes in the Gangsu Province4.
Image 10 Disaster-affected Wenxing tower, An prefecture

At the “Japan-China Workshop on Earthquake Resistance
Measures for Cultural Heritage” that was jointly held by theJapanese Agency for Cultural Affairs and the Chinese State
Administration of Cultural Heritage in February, 2009, theCultural Relics Bureau of Sichuan Province Vice Director,
WANG Jing, provided a detailed report of the damage affecting
Sichuan Province. According to this report, Sichuanʼs damage,which outweighed that of other provinces, largely included
damage to wooden buildings and 186 national and provincial

Image 11 Post-disaster condition of Qiang village, Taoping (obtained
from National Research Institute for Cultural Properties, Tokyo (Ed.),2009)

Image 13 Collapsed cultural relics bureau of Hanyuan prefecture(obtained from National Research Institute for Cultural Properties,
Tokyo (Ed.), 2009)

Image 12 Post-disaster condition of watchtowers in Taoping Qiang
village (obtained from National Research Institute for Cultural
Properties, Tokyo (Ed.), 2009)
Image 14 Ceramics damaged in cultural relic offices (obtained from
National Research Institute for Cultural Properties, Tokyo (Ed.), 2009)13

Chapter 2 Case Studylevel cultural relic protection units alone were affected. Among

4-3 Recovery of Disaster-affected Cultural Heritage Sites

these disasters, it is said that the Erwang-miao Shrine and4-3-1 Movements in Sichuan Province

Fulongguan Shrine in Dujiangyan (Images 8 and 9) were most

Post-disaster emergency response at the scene

affected. As for masonry, 45 building relics incurred damage

Even though the Cultural Relics Bureau of Sichuan Province5

particularly the Bi tower in Yanting prefecture and Wenxing

itself did not incur major damage at the time of the earthquake,

tower in An prefecture (Image 10). Ethnic minority buildings

all staff had moved to the courtyard to escape aftershock damage

were also impacted with damage affecting 12 cultural relicand they gathered information and continued to work while

protection units. Traditional masonry construction living

listening to news updates on the car radio. Then, approximately

residences, particularly Qiangdiao belvedere towers, were

one hour later, the “Sichuan Wenchuan Earthquake Cultural

heavily damaged (Images 11 and 12).

Heritage Rescue and Protection Command Team” was organized

Damage inflicted on museum collections of cultural relics

and it started to take practical action the following day. This

reached a total of 3,167 cases. Since there were no museums inorganization was established in line with emergency measure

the districts of Beichuan, Qingchuan and Wenchuan, where theplans devised by the Cultural Relics Bureau of Sichuan

force of the earthquake was strongest, there was no large-scale

Province in 2000. At the time, both ﬁxed and cellular telephones

damage. However, the Cultural Relics Bureau of Beichuan whichwere disconnected but thankfully cell-phone texting was still

manages the storage of relics completely collapsed resulting infunctioning so information about cultural heritage damage was

the loss of Qiang folklore garments, costumes and embroidery. In

obtained by exchanging text messages with staff at the scene

other regions, the buildings of a number of cultural relic bureausof the earthquake. Even so, contact was not made with staff at

without anti-seismic measures were damaged and collections

Mao prefecture – the place most affected – until 5 days after thewere affected, particularly ceramics (Images 13 and 14). The

earthquake on May, 17th.

buildings of large-scale museums such as the Sichuan ProvinceMuseum, the Jinsha Site Museum and Sanxingdui Museum
were fortunately spared any damage and it is said that theircollections were mostly unharmed. As stated in Section 3, China
is currently building central storages and, as for pilot project inSichuan, it was built in Mianyang City. Centralized managementof important relics including ﬁrst, second and third class relics
had also just got underway in the neighboring prefectures of
Jiangyou, Beichuan and Pingwu. Thanks to this operation, theserelics fortunately escaped damage. However, due to the collapseof the Tangjiashan dammed lake formed upstream of the Peijian
river which flows through Mianyang City, this central storage

Image 16 Interviews at the Cultural Relics Bureau of Dujiangyan

was threatened by ﬂooding so its relics were urgently sheltered
One of the regional cultural relic bureaus most affected wasin the Sanxingdui Museum following the earthquake.

the Cultural Relics Bureau of Dujiangyan6. There, total staffs
of about 20 people were assembled in government buildings
and after they were all taken account for, they divided into 3
teams and one moved paintings from the affected relics ofﬁces
to places of safety. The other two teams spread to east and west,

Image 17 Report of damage statussurvey compiled by the Cultural
Relics Bureau of Sichuan Province(obtained from the website of the State
Administration of Cultural Heritage)

Image 15 The Cultural Relics Bureau of Dujiangyan is located in acorner of the Dujiangyan World Heritage Site

14

Chapter 2 Case Studyand started on identifying the state of damage to all the buildings

On May 14th, the Cultural Relics Bureau of Sichuan Province

in the park. Even when the day came to close, the staff did notcooperated with staff from cultural relic protection units ingo home and tightly guarded the cultural relic offices without

Chengdu city and started to deliver necessary living supplies to

conﬁrming the safety of their families. Since all of the cultural

the affected regions. Specifically, directors from the Chengdu

relic officeʼs ceilings had collapsed, they made a temporary

Municipal Bureau of Culture and cultural relic ofﬁces delivered

roof with plastic sheets. This action was necessary to protect

gas canisters and stove burners as well as vegetables and otherthe relics from rain which started to fall from the night of May

foodstuffs to all affected sites. This enabled workers at the

12th. The staff themselves built improvised barracks with plastic

scene to carry out recovery processes while ﬁnally being able tosheets on small, level land next to the cultural relic ofﬁce andhave a hot meal. It is claimed that such living assistance within

kept night watch. At that time in Dujiangyan City, water, gasorganizational units is not only to cultural heritage protectionand electricity were all out of service so night watch had to bedivisions, but also common for all the divisions in China.
At the same time, the Cultural Relics Bureau of Sichuancarried out by using a torch, and the staff relied on dry instantnoodles and mineral water for food and drink.

Province notified all museums and cultural relic offices ofOn the following day of May 13th, three directors fromaction to be taken for post-earthquake clear-up, shielding,

the Cultural Relics Bureau of Sichuan Province took charge

disinfection, reinforcement and so on. Some of the relics

and formed ranks of two to three people. Those ranks thenunder the jurisdiction of the Cultural Relics Bureau of Sichuanentered the disaster-affected areas and got to work. Although

Province included places that were tourist destinations. Because

they were unable to reach some areas where transport links

many buildings had collapsed in these areas, there were somehad been completely cut off, the staff went to cultural relictourist casualties. On May 15th, once all the dead and wounded

protection units, cultural relic offices and museums where

had been transported out of all cultural relic protection units,

still accessible, and checked up on people working in cultural

the ﬁrst job was to organize the site and thoroughly disinfect it.

heritage protection divisions and confirmed the damage status

Next, wooden buildings that had collapsed and were in a stateand collected information. The information these staff walkedof ruin were instructed to be shielded and protected from rain.

around and collected themselves was soon submitted to the

Further, workers were advised to speedily reinforce buildings

State Administration of Cultural Heritage enabling that officethat had not collapsed but were leaning and displayed cracks

to compile a dossier of information. Regions that could not

by inserting some kind of support. While delivering such

be surveyed due to cut-off transport links included Beichuan

instructions to subordinate offices, the Cultural Relics Bureau

prefecture, Wenchuan, Mao prefecture and Li prefecture.

of Sichuan Province started working towards to prepare funds
7

Meanwhile, Chengdu Municipal Bureau of Culture had

to cover the costs of carrying out post-disaster clear-up work,

similarly organized three teams and set about visually inspecting

shielding, disinfection and reinforcement incurred by all ofﬁces

the status of damage to cultural heritage in the city. These teams

under its jurisdiction, as well as the enforcement of post-disastereach contained leaders with specialist knowledge who oversaw

reconstruction systems.
The Chengdu Municipal Bureau of Culture, which was closer

emergency measures and cultural heritage protection while
carrying out a visual inspection.

to the scene, organized two emergency measure teams and madea start on restoration work. One was the “Cultural Relic Disaster
Reduction Command Team” established to administratively
supervise subordinate municipal, prefectural and district ofﬁces.
The other was the “Expert Advisory Team”, set up to provide
technical advice and leadership. The Expert Advisory Team wascomposed of Sichuan and Chengdu-origin experts in the ﬁeldsof historical architecture, building construction, economics,
geology, historical studies, heritage management, historic siteplanning and archaeology. In addition to giving advice on
emergency measures, they travelled to sites to examine thevalidity of restoration plans that had been subsequently drawn
up, and provided advice and recommendations for these plans.

Image 18 Interviews at the Chengdu Municipal Bureau of Culture

On the same day these multi-leveled organizations at the15

Chapter 2 Case Study

scene were each taking action, the Vice Director of the State

meeting regarding the earthquake relief between cultural heritage

Administration of Cultural Heritage, Mr. DONG Mingkang,protection divisions. On the following May 29th, the Sichuanentered the affected site. After arriving in Chengdu, he visited

Earthquake Disaster Relief and Protection Technical Research

Dujiangyan and on the following 15th visited with Mianzhu,

Conference were held again by the State Administration of

Shifang and Mianyang while calling on those affected by

Cultural Heritage. The conference was attended and conducted

the disaster. When it was pointed out at a debriefing session

by Vice Director Dong, and 19 institutions from scientificconducted after his inspection of Dujiangyan that there wereresearch groups and graduate schools within China participated

not enough makeshift tents, it was immediately decided thatsuch as the Chinese Academy of Cultural Heritage, China

the State Administration of Cultural Heritage would supply 100

Architecture Design and Research Group, Qinghua University,

tents.

Beijing Research Institute of Ancient Architecture, Hebei

On May 19th, CHAN Jixiang, the Director of the State

Province Ancient Architecture Protection and Research Institute,

Administration of Cultural Heritage, inspected Dujiangyan

and Zhejiang Province Ancient Architecture Design andand he also visited some affected sites at Mianyang andResearch Institute. At this conference, the State Administration

Jiangyou. Thus, top-ranking officials in cultural heritageof Cultural Heritage made plans to tackle three issues. These

protection administration visited affected sites one after thewere, first, to visually inspect the affected areas firsthand andother within an extremely short time of the disaster, and theaccurately grasp the status of damage. Second, to promptly

interviewees that participated in this research were unanimous

instruct workers what emergency measures they should takein stressing how important it was that people involved at theto protect items in a perilous state, particularly buildings. And

scene received encouragement and restoration leadership. For

Third, to take the initiative and put in place a work system forexample, the interviewees stated that the support of the nation
helped keep their spirits up and the leadership provided by theState Administration of Cultural Heritage, while facing thedilemma between saving peoplesʼ lives and carrying out their
duty to protect cultural heritage, was extremely instrumental in
overcoming the sadness and difﬁculty of achieving their mission.
On May 16th, 100 tents acquired by the State Administrationof Cultural Heritage were delivered to Chengdu city. The
Cultural Relics Bureau of Sichuan Province took possessionof these tents, loaded them together with makeshift beds andfutons onto cars, and distributed them to areas that had incurred
extensive damage. This enabled an average of at least 3 tents to

Image 20 Erwang-miao Shrine construction signs. Organizations
giving donations and carrying out planning, supervising andconstruction were each different, and organizations selected by theState Administration of Cultural Heritage are in charge.

be distributed to each cultural relic ofﬁce.
Cultural heritage restoration movements

Image 19 General earthquake damage
restoration plan created by the State
Administration of Cultural Heritage(obtained from the website of the State
Administration of Cultural Heritage)

On May 19th, one week after the earthquake, the State
Administration of Cultural Heritage Director, CHAN Jixiang,
visited affected areas, and on the night of the 20th, a Disaster
Relief Mobilization Assembly addressing cultural relic matters

Image 21 Staff from Guangxi Cultural Relic Protection Centerengaged in restoration work of Fulongguan Shrine

was held at Wuhouci Shrine in Chengdu city. This was the ﬁrst
16

Chapter 2 Case Study

disaster site recovery. Of all these issues, the third one wasis fortunate enough to be close to a city so it is well-situated to

crucial to getting future cultural heritage recovery processes off

transport materials and machines needed for restoration work.

the ground. This is because it was considered that if a system

Not only that, under the leadership of the State Administration

for creating recovery and budget plans was not in place, thenof Cultural Heritage Sichuan province, Chengdu city andplanning work and obtaining funds would be delayed resulting

Dujiangyan city received full support in pulling in utilities fromin delayed recovery. Since this disaster had been so extensive

the Dujiangyan urban district, such as water and electricity

and unforeseen by the State Administration of Cultural Heritage

needed for construction. Due to such factors, relief work was

and the ﬁndings of quick damage estimations showed that many

able to be started as early as June 30th. Thus, in accordance withbuildings over a wide area were affected, it was decided that itsuch priorities and work conditions, restoration maintenancewould be impossible for Sichuan province alone to undertake

systems for all regions are established and now underway.

cultural heritage restoration. In response to this difficult

On the other hand, even in some regions with poor transort

situation, the State Administration of Cultural Heritage proposed

infrastructure, work was hurried along due to a need to protect

a plan to select experts from across the nation to take on

and secure the culture heritage of ethnic minority groups.

cultural heritage restoration duties, and actually by pooling theirEmergency construction work commenced as soon as Julyexpertise into a support role at this very Conference, a concrete

15th at Taoping Qiang village; the home of the Chinese ethnic

system was instantly established. Thus, a national project tominority Qiang group. Some of the buildings of this village;embark on the full-scale restoration of cultural heritage underwhich include traditional Qiang buildings with distinctive stone

the leadership of the State Administration of Cultural Heritage

towers called Diaolou; had been damaged by the earthquake.

was born. The results of the conference were that each institution

Damage included the complete collapse of some buildings,

fulﬁlled their relief restoration duties towards disaster-affectedcracked walls in others, and some buildings had open walls

Historical Monuments and Cultural Relics under State Protection

with collapsed roofs. Considering that ethnic minorities werein approximately 20 places located in Sichuan province andseen to be the biggest casualties since so many lived in thecooperated in drawing up design and execution plans for theregion most affected by the earthquake, calls to carry out speedy

restoration of these cultural relics. It was also decided that

relief work in their areas were made by ethnic group research

restoration work must be completed within 3 years.

experts. It could, thus, be argued that such a speedy response

On August 1st, the second Technical Research Conference

was realized because central government leaders were deeply

was held and additional organizations were invited to join theconcerned by this situation and prioritized the safety of theprevious conference participants to help with relief restoration

Qiang people. Subsequently in October, the restoration work ofwork. These organizations included the Guangxi Cultural Relictraditional dwellings also got underway in the Tibetan districts

Protection Center, Beijing University of Civil Engineering atof Maerkang, and Zhibo with its stone watchtowers.
When carrying out restoration work on these Taoping Qiang

Technology, Shaanxi Research Institute of Ancient Architecture,
Henan Research Institute of Ancient Architecture, Jiangxi

village and Zhibo watchtower buildings, the construction tech-

Cultural Relic Protection Center, Shandong Cultural Relicniques of local artisans were employed to preserve the authentic-

Protection Center, Liaoning Cultural Relic Protection Center andity and integrity of ethnic minority cultural heritage. In addition,

the Xian Centre for the Conservation and Restoration of Cultural

these local artisans also received training on the philosophy andHeritage. Thus, organizations were added to the relief restoration

methods of cultural heritage conservation with the cooperation

work program in a top-down manner by the state. As of July,of ICOMOS China. In the cases of Taoping and Zhibo, for ex-

2009, support institutions have submitted planning proposals forample, training courses were held both for Qiang and Tibetan

150 out of 250 cultural relics requiring restoration assistance.

artisans. These courses aimed to clearly explain the international

Planning proposals submitted by supporting institutions are

philosophy behind cultural heritage restoration to local artisans,ﬁrst reviewed by the Cultural Relics Bureau of Sichuan Province

and were conducted with the participation of Mr. GUO Zhan

and converted into action after ratiﬁcation. Priorities for speciﬁcfrom ICOMOS China and the China Architecture Design &tasks were decided according to the importance of the cultural

Research Group who was in charge of the earthquake disaster

heritage and the operating status of surrounding utilities. For

restoration program for Tapoing.

example, Dujiangyan is a world cultural heritage site that as well

The above displays cultural heritage restoration movements

as being a site of importance and at the same time an importantfocusing on Historical Monuments and Cultural Relics undertourist resource so restoration was hurried. Also, Dujiangyan

State Protection. With regard to provincial, city and prefectural
17

Chapter 2 Case Studylevel relics, staff from each administrative levels began to rank

Work for this is apparently due to commence according to a set

and classify them according to the status of damage immediately

schedule. The Cultural Relics Bureau of Sichuan Province isafter the disaster. Provincial level relics were handled by the

not carrying out this relic restoration and facility construction

Cultural Relics Bureau of Sichuan Province while city level

work alone. Other provincial governments across the nation

relics were overseen by staff from Chengdu Municipal Bureau

including those of Hebei, Beijing, Shaanxi, Shanxi, and Jiangxiof Culture. The classiﬁcation was essential to the tidy operation

are also providing help and, as of now, there are no plans to seekof subsequent restoration work. It helped to iron out budget

international assistance.

concerns such as the calculation of restoration costs - problems

The item receiving the most attention among these restorationthat needed to be dealt with accurately and promptly. These

plans is the building of central storages. Because the central

multi-level bureaus were able to complete the work between

storage established in Mianyang city contributed greatly to theapproximately one and two months.

protection of its relics from the earthquake, the effectivenessAll management and supervision of actual budgets for nationalof using such buildings as an anti-seismic measure has beenlevel cultural heritage are actually undertaken by the city andreappraised and is now heavily promoted. Further, based on

prefectural level cultural relic bureaus. Therefore, as one of thethe lessons learned from this earthquake, other anti-seismicofﬁces at the scene, the Cultural Relics Bureau of Dujiangyan

measures are also being reviewed. This includes anti-seismic

was ceaselessly engaged in post-disaster restoration work.

building design as well as the preparation of earthquake-resistantstorages helves, and locking away and storing cultural heritage

Movements towards restoration of museum collections

items in storage boxes.
Systems of providing financial aid for restoration support
projects
Since it was necessary to take rapid action after the earthquake
before it was possible to determine budget ﬁgures for restoration
support, the Cultural Relics Bureau of Sichuan Province had totake urgent measures such as apply for a loan of 20 million yuan
RMB from Dujiangyan city. To gain costs for cultural heritage
clear-up, shielding, disinfection and reinforcement work, theCultural Relics Bureau of Sichuan Province made a direct reportto the State Council since the State Administration of Cultural

Image 22 Interviews at the Chengdu Jinsha Site Museum

Heritage had been very supportive and was allocated 30 million
yuan RMB from a fund provided by the Premier of the StateThe Cultural Relics Bureau of Sichuan Province grasped

Council of the Peopleʼs Republic of China.

the status of earthquake damage to museum collections via
subordinate cultural relic bureaus and offices, and categorized

Costs for the restoration of Historical Monuments and Cultural

the 3,167 damaged relics according to the extent of damage.

Relics under State Protection were initially scheduled to be

Level 1 referred to relics beyond repair such as items

born by the various nationwide institutions providing the design

irretrievably buried under the devastation of a collapsed culturaland construction work. However, a cultural heritage restoration

relics ofﬁce. Level 2 was items with major damage and level 3

budget was later allocated by the State so projects are now being

was items with minor damage. The total number of level 2 andreimbursed by this fund. An example of this can be seen withlevel 3 relics was 2,053 items. Sequential restoration plans were

Erwang-miao Shrine and Fulongguan Shrine in Dujiangyan

drawn up for these restorable 2,053 items and restoration workcity. Reconstruction design of these shrines was overseen by the

got underway. For ceramics damaged at Sanxingdui Museum,

Qinghua University in Beijing and estimated costs for restoration

restoration work had already been completed due to ﬁnancial aid

were calculated at approximately 100 million yuan RMB. Costs

granted by Beijing and damaged relics at Chengdu Jinsha Site

were initially scheduled to be born by Qinghua University andMuseum had also been repaired by an independent budget. The

institutions responsible for construction work but Dujiangyan

next task for the Cultural Relics Bureau of Sichuan Province wascity was subsequently able to finance all institutions from theto attempt to secure funds to not only restore damaged museum

100 million yuan RMB reconstruction budget that was latercollections but also to build central storages and museums.

allocated by the State.
18

Chapter 2 Case Study

apparently 30 minutes passed before they learned that a major
earthquake had struck the Sichuan province. At that time, bureau
staff organized teams to call subordinate bureaus and instructed
them to gather basic information about the status of damage
in all cities. According to the interview, this system of linkup between province and city often takes place so when urgent
matters arise a line of command is already determined, ensuringsystematic cooperation between the bureaus.
Image 23 Interviews at the Cultural Relics Bureau of Shaanxi
Province

Aside from these public funds, a large number of donations
Image 24 General Shaanxi province
cultural relics rescue and protection
plan created by The Cultural Relics
Bureau of Shaanxi Province (obtained
from the State Administration ofCultural Heritage website)were also made by individuals and institutions within China. The
calligrapher and director of Cultural Relics Press, SU Shishu,
arranged a sale of his own works and he donated the entire two
million yuan RMB he made from the sale to the restoration of
the Zhibo watchtowers. Also, the GUO group of Guagzhou

The following day, it was conﬁrmed that up to 20 people fromprovided three million yuan RMB for the restoration of Kaishan-

Shaanxi province were lost. The Cultural Relics Bureau ofsi Temple in Yaan, Rongjin prefecture and the Macao fund

Shaanxi Province organized two teams with experts to survey

donated 100 million yuan RMB for the reconstruction of thethe status of the damage to cultural heritage and for the next

Beichuan Qiang Folk Museum. Individuals and institutions thatten days those teams surveyed the extent of damage to cultural

donate money are esteemed in China so the financial amount

heritage items within the province. The experts that took part inthey donate is used for the cause of their choice.

the survey were a combination of cultural relic bureau ofﬁcers

For provincial and city level cultural heritage restorationand local university specialists in the fields of architecture,

costs, the relevant administrative level of the cultural relic ofﬁce

engineering, cultural heritage protection and geology. The survey

request funds by each making a report to national, provincial andchecked off damage to cultural heritage items one-by-one andmunicipal governments based on their drafted disaster damage

assessed the urgency of restoration work. The ﬁndings showed

reports and restoration costs calculations. Once the damage statusthat 86 cultural relic protected units and 307 museum collectionof cultural heritage items had been ranked accorded to damage

items had been damaged. These results were incorporated

extent, the Chengdu Municipal Bureau of Culture swiftly drew

into a report document which was then submitted to the Stateup restoration plans and reported them to the Chengdu Municipal

Administration of Cultural Heritage. During this process, theCommittee and the municipal government. As a result, cultural

Bureau staff state that it was extremely difﬁcult to assess when

heritage restoration was deemed to be extremely important andto switch their operation from humanitarian relief to cultural

51 million yuan RMB was contributed from the 2009 budget.

heritage relief activities. This difficult situation was alleviated

The Chengdu Municipal Bureau of Culture was then able to planby the State Administration of Cultural Heritage who gave

the order of restoration work as well as budget allocation and get

instructions to switch operations which, as far as people at theon with its work. These funds have been used to restore ancientscene were concerned, was an extremely important directive.

architecture, improve museums and cultural relic ofﬁce facilities

Once the above report had been submitted, the next task

and restore museum collections.

was to estimate costs needed to cover restoration of these

4-3-2 Movements in Shaanxi Province

Province delegated this task to experts who conducted more

Post-disaster emergency measures and restoration process

detailed surveys of the damage status and produced estimates

cultural heritage items. The Cultural Relics Bureau of Shaanxi

When the earthquake struck, people at the Cultural Relicsof restoration costs. Damage status was then classiﬁed into four

Bureau of Shaanxi Province8 also felt large tremors, and there

categories based on the extent of damage as assessed by thesewas damage such as falling furniture and dropped light ﬁttings.

expert groups. Then, based on the report made by the experts,

While it was clear that an earthquake had occurred, information

the planning division of the Xian Centre for the Conservation

relating to the earthquake epicenter could not be obtained, andand Restoration of Cultural Heritage estimated costs in
19

Chapter 2 Case Study

accordance with the calculated base amount of restoration costs
for each damage level. Based on the amount of work carried out
over six months, it was discovered that the amount of damages(combined amount of labor and material costs) for cultural
heritage items in Shaanxi province rose to a total amount of
196 million yuan RMB. Costs incurred for cultural heritage
restoration were covered in principal by the national governmentfor Historical Monuments and Cultural Relics under State
Protection; provincial government for provincial level relics;
and the municipal government for city level relics but due to theenormity of this earthquake, exceptions were apparently madeImage 25 Lingbaoxiu-yuan before the disaster (obtained from theState Administration of Cultural Heritage website)

such as the province chipping in to cover costs of damage tonational level relics.
After such work and budget planning was completed, Cultural
Relics Bureau of Shaanxi Province entrusted the Xian Centre for
the Conservation and Restoration of Cultural Heritage and the
Shaanxi Research Institute of Ancient Architecture to formulate
the “Shaanxi Cultural Relic Rescue and Protection Program”(Image 23), which stipulates that all cultural heritage restoration
work will completed in a three year period. Restoration work
is currently being carried out by the province and city inaccordance with this plan.
Movements to support the restoration of cultural heritage in
Sichuan province
Shaanxi provinceʼs place in history as the cradle ofChinese civilization for thousands of years is illustrated by
its inexhaustible supply of cultural heritage items, and theprovince is also well-known as a beehive of scientiﬁc research
relating to cultural heritage protection. Due to this background,

Image 26 Lingbaoxiu-yuan before the disaster (obtained from theState Administration of Cultural Heritage website)

Shaanxi is home to two of Chinaʼs most prominent specialist
cultural heritage protection institutions - the Xian Centre for
the Conservation and Restoration of Cultural Heritage and the
Shaanxi Research Institute of Ancient Architecture.
As stated previously, the restoration work of 45 Historical
Monuments and Cultural Relics under State Protection affectedby the disaster in Sichuan province had been carried out under
the initiative of the State Administration of Cultural Heritage
who had gained support for this work by exploiting the firstclass skills of cultural heritage protection institutions all overthe nation. The two Shaanxi institutions mentioned above wereboth selected to join the cooperation, which provided restoration
assistance with seven sites including Qingcheng-shan hill andsix other Historical Monuments and Cultural Relics under

Image 27 Lingbaoxiu-yuan after the disaster (obtained from the State
Administration of Cultural Heritage website)State Protection. It is said that both institutions formulated arestoration program over three to four months and are currently
carrying out restoration work in line with that program.
20

Chapter 2 Case Study

In China, because the State Administration of Cultural
Heritage has requested provincial cultural relic offices tooptimize risk management, all provinces have apparently
been developing risk management systems. Further, it is also
maintained that it is common for related institutions to provide
reciprocal support in times of crisis such as when a disasterstrikes in an external province. It is stated that such reciprocity
enabled Shaanxi province to swiftly respond to both the
emergency situation within its own borders as well as provide
support to other provinces
Image 28 Lingbaoxiu-yuan after the disaster (obtained from the State
Administration of Cultural Heritage website)

4-4 International Cooperation
Although offers of post-disaster support were obtained fromsome of overseas countries and international institutions, only
the offers of three nations/institutions were actually taken up.
These were UNESCO, French governments and Japanese
governments.
UNESCO contributed 1.5 million yuan RMB via its Beijing
ofﬁce to the restoration of the world heritage site, Qingchengshan hill. Due to these funds, restoration work on this site has
already started.
Further, the French government through its Consulate
General in Chengdu offered to provide technical assistancefor the reconstruction of Lingbaoxiu-yuan (Figures 25 to 28)
in Pengzhou. This building, which is situated in the outskirtsof Chengdu city, is a Christian monastery built by a French
missionary in 1908, hence the interest of the French Consulate

Image 29 The workshop between Chinese and Japaneseexperts regarding anti-seismic measures for cultural property
buildings

General. However, because the monastery building was a brick
and wooden construction, it was severely damaged by theearthquake and mostly collapsed. The French government started
by sending their own historical architecture experts and history
experts in August and, to date, have carried out a total of threevisual inspections. Offers to carry out inspections are always
made via the French embassy and a report has been submitted
to the relevant staff for each operation. While China itself has
ultimately carried out restoration planning work and born costs
for the monastery, France has provided technical assistance by
way of advice from its experts in relation to restoration plans.
In the case of Japanese cooperation, the Japanese government
presented a list of possible items for which it could provide
assistance during talks between Japanese Prime Minister Fukuda
and the Chinese President HU Jintao who was visiting Japan toattend G8 Hokkaido Toyako Summit on July 9. . This list placed

Image 30 Visual inspection of Dujiangyan conducted during theworkshop

stress on post-earthquake experience, knowledge and technicalskills based on an overall plan drawing on knowledge gained
from the restoration program of the Hanshin Awaji earthquake.
One item included in this comprehensive list included cultural
21

Chapter 2 Case Study

heritage restoration support so the outcome of subsequent

must also obey this law, if they try to become involved withdeliberations between related parties from both countries was

Chinese cultural heritage, even if it only means to carry out ato arrange a workshop for experts based on themes including

research study, they will naturally be subject to strict reviewsbuilding protection and restoration and anti-seismic measuresand restrictions, and directly carrying out restoration work on

as well as anti-seismic measures for museum facilities and theircultural heritage sites is prohibited in principle. Conversely,

collections. This workshop, entitled “Japan-China Workshop

this can be easily understood considering that we, Japan, also

on Earthquake Resistance Measures for Cultural Heritage”

prohibit foreign nations from participating in the restoration of

was held in February, 2009 and was attended by 76 experts

our own cultural heritage. Therefore, it is required for overseas

from Japan and China. It was a very worthwhile workshop that

institutions to provide cooperation, even in the event of ancovered ground not usually discussed in Japan and, and throughemergency, that falls in line with the fundaments of Chinese law.

presentations and on-site inspections that took place over four

Secondly, the difference between the notion of protection anddays, cross-disciplinary issues relating to cultural heritage andtechnology presents an even greater problem. This issue wasanti-seismic measures were discussed (Images 29 and 30). LI

often raised during the previously introduced February, 2009,

Pei, the Director of the Museum Center of the Cultural Relics“Japan-China Workshop on Earthquake Resistance Measures for

Bureau of Sichuan Province and the person who organized

Cultural Heritage”, and showed that even between neighboring

Chinese preparations for the workshop, commented that althoughcountries with similar cultural heritage, technology and ideas

the workshop fell at a very busy period just before restorationof how to manage cultural heritage greatly differ. When nations

plans were due to get underway, useful opinions were needed onbring in their own ideas and technologies without understanding

a number of matters at the time so it was opportune that valuable

the restoration philosophies and technologies of the other nation,ideas between Chinese and Japanese experts were able to bethen that can no longer be called “restoration”. For Japan to
become directly involved in the repair work of Chinese culturalshared.

heritage would at the present time be difficult for the reasonsstated above but just trying to introduce its ideas and methods
alone would in reality invite considerable trouble. Accordingly,
irrespective of the urgency of the situation, if both parties areunable to develop a common understanding of the issues athand or ﬁnd a solution during normal times, then international
cooperation is a problematic issue that requires caution. One
could argue that this policy of the State Administration ofCultural Heritage explains why international cooperation for thisearthquake was limited to ﬁnancial aid provision, technologicalexchange and offers of advice.
5. Conclusion and Recommendations

Image 31 Interviews at the State Administration of Cultural Heritage

5-1 Conclusion
A disaster response system based on Chinaʼs social order

In addition to this, inspection groups few countries visited andpledges of support were made but, apart from the examples

The Sichuan earthquake, which occurred on May 12th

noted above, none materialized into deﬁnite action. The Chinese

2008, not only claimed irreplaceable lives and property, itState Administration of Cultural Heritage argue that there

also inflicted extensive damage on a considerable number ofare two aspects that need to be examined when considering

precious cultural heritage. What was most noticeable from thisemergency support on cultural heritage from overseas countries

case study of cultural heritage restoration initiatives responding

and institutions. These two aspects are regulatory restrictions

to this unprecedented disaster was the speed and precision ofand technical issues. Firstly, in China there exists a “Cultural

the response to cultural heritage protection problems shown

Relics Protection Law” to protect Chinese cultural heritage and,by cultural relics bureaus within the Chinese government. One

based on the framework of that law, cultural heritage protection

could argue this was primarily due to the Chinese social orderprocedures are determined. This law has ﬁrst and foremost been

based emergency response system being equipped to function

prescribed for the people of China and, while foreign nationals

when faced with an actual cultural heritage protection problem.
22

Chapter 2 Case Study

In China, organizations at various levels had formulated

disaster not only brought related workers in Sichuan together but

response plans to address sudden and critical incidents suchalso strengthened bonds with a diversity of institutions acrossas natural disasters, fire and theft and had installed systems

the nation, and led to a concerted national cultural heritage

encouraging action even before the current disaster occurred.

restoration effort.

For the current Sichuan earthquake, municipal and prefecturallevel cultural relic bureaus entrusted with the affected sites, ﬁrst,

The reality of international cooperation

arrived at the scene and then fully grasped the situation throughDespite the extensive damage suffered, only three cases of

initial surveys. In addition, cultural relic bureaus overseeinginternational cooperation on cultural heritage were identified

municipal and prefectural activities provided logistical support

and those three cases, which consisted of ﬁnancial aid, technicalto bureaus at the scene in the form of supplying everyday goods,

advice and technological exchange, did not include a single

and from the information they gathered, they provided prompt

example of practical restoration activities.

reports to State Administration of Cultural Heritage. These

The reason for this could primarily be attributed to the fact

movements had already been swiftly initiated by the culturalthat China had already developed a restoration system underrelic bureaus even before receiving instructions from the Statethe initiative of the State Administration of Cultural Heritage so

Administration of Cultural Heritage. Moreover, based on this

there was no need to wait for international support, and it was

speedily collected information, the State Administration of

estimated that restoration efforts could be covered by domestic

Cultural Heritage was able to assess the situation, draw up plans,

experts and funds. However, there were also a number of crucial

assemble the required specialists and head to inspect the scene

hurdles facing cultural heritage protection between different

despite the response strategy being in its very early stages. For

nations. Such hurdles included legal restrictions relating toregional government and central cultural heritage protection

cultural heritage protection not to mention differences between

divisions to be able to link-up so impressively under one line

philosophies and methods. It could be said that, in this case, noneof command and demonstrate action to speedily restore theof the countries that provided international cooperation fully

situation, is arguably a system that could only be found in China.

comprehended these hurdles and were inadequately prepared toSuch speedy information gathering and decision-making

provide active cooperation.

enabled bureaus to secure the funds and manpower needed to
5-2 Recommendations

crystallize continuing restoration projects. It can be assumed

In conclusion, we will now provide some recommendations

that this accurate information-gathering is a major reason forbased on the ﬁndings of this research.

cultural heritage restoration being added to budget requirements
and dealt with almost as fast as other emergency assistanceand restoration for areas such as lifesaving, transport, public

What must be done to establish a solid disaster system?

facilities, and utilities.

Needless to say, the subject of this study, the Peopleʼs

In addition, it could be argued that the State Administration

Republic of China, is a socialist state built in 1949 that, despiteof Cultural Heritage visiting the scene of the earthquake atwitnessing dramatic social changes in recent years due to its

such an early stage in its capacity as the top administrativereform and open-door policies, has a vastly different regime toorgan of Chinese cultural heritage protection and taking chargethat of Japanʼs. At the beginning of this report, it was pointed outof restoration was also one of a major feature of these post-that one of the objectives of this research was to raise the theme

disaster activities. Having to buckle down to the task of rescuingof “what system must be developed to tackle disasters that may

cultural heritage while many people are losing their lives andoccur in the future?” The system shown by the Sichuan example

without knowing the whereabouts of their loved ones must

here; which not only encompassed grasping the post-earthquake

have been extremely difﬁcult. Despite this harrowing dilemma,

disaster status through the cultural relic ofﬁcesʼ vertical line of

the Director of the State Administration of Cultural Heritagecommand, but also confirming the safety of affiliated staff ashimself visited the scene of the disaster and in addition towell as supplying food, clothing and shelter; very much reﬂected

providing encouragement took swift action to secure funds andthe social order of China, and for our nation to directly intervene

manpower needed for restoration. According to many related

in such activities would be very difficult. While there is often

workers, such actions inspired them to take action themselves. In

a tendency to place emphasis on “tangible” improvements

addition, one could say that the sight of national leaders leading

such as building earthquake proof and resistance structuresand cooperating to help a single province struck down by awhen discussing anti-seismic measures, the system presented
23

Chapter 2 Case Study

here in which peopleʼs hearts and minds were led strongly andThis research also showed that despite having a neighboring

uniformly in the midst of a disaster and, as a result, enabled thecountry like Japan, which originally learned from China anddevelopment of a system including the deployment of staff tocontinues to this day to treasure cultural heritage such as

swiftly grasp the post-disaster status and get to work on relief

traditional wooden houses, China is very distanced from Japan

activities, should not be explained away by regime differencesin terms of current philosophies towards wooden building

but rather it is something we should learn from. The following

protection as well as technological methods. This makes it very

4 points are matters that our nation could apply to our own

difficult for Japan to participate in protection and restoration

systems.

processes even if we were inclined to do so. This does not mean

･ Establishment of a communication system for upper-levelof course that China is using such differences as an excuse to
spurn exchange with Japan. Rather, it could be that while thesecultural property divisions from each region

differences exist, there is nothing we can introduce into China,･ Clarification of a command system from upper-level toand Chinese experts are starting to objectively divert theirregional institutions

attention towards this problem. This is exemplified by praise･ Budget allocation system that supports speedy action･ Establishment of a communication system linking specialistof the February, 2009 workshop by the Dujiangyan restoration

state-level institutions and experts that can respond swiftlyplanning division of Qinghua Universityʼs and that institutionʼs

to disasters

seeking of cooperative research with Japan.
Cultural exchange between Japan and China has been

To deal with the introduction and application of new cultural
heritage ideas such as how to excavate large amounts of cultural

conducted frequently since diplomatic normalization but there

heritage relics while carrying out building work in line withhave not been many meetings in a true sense in which experts

recent economic and urban development, Chinese experts areexchange frank technical discussion and ideas. In this respect,

now discussing culture heritage protection philosophies andalso, it will become necessary to engage in discussions tomethods as well as technological development issues. On thisovercome this common distance between Japan and China. If wepoint, Chinese experts are more enthusiastic than their Japanese

can learn from each other and pick each otherʼs brains throughcounterparts. With a social order characterized by top-downsuch measures, maybe this would lead to the creation of a newcommunication, it is the vital responsibility of higher-ranking

culture of exchange. Inauspicious happenings such as earthquake

persons to communicate strong ideas about cultural heritage

disaster could provide a crucial opportunity for this.

protection to subordinates. Such a system fulfills an effective

This point not only applies to China, it could also be extendedrole in lifting peopleʼs spirits deflated by disasters such as

to a wide number of nations. If there are groups of experts thatearthquake and in providing strong leadership. Daily activities

fully comprehend the cultural heritage protection procedures

such as communicating the value of cultural heritage andof other nations as stipulated by their laws, understand theirsigniﬁcance of protecting it serve to consolidate such a system.

philosophies about restoration and technology, can plan

Cultural heritage is a precious thing and, founded on this truth, it

restoration projects while working together with the responsible

is our duty to continue talking about cultural heritage.

people from other countries in times of emergency; thencommunication between experts can be carried out swiftly
when a major disaster occurs in another country or at home, andRevitalization of routine exchangethat can then be developed into international cultural heritage

It has been pointed out that one of the objectives of thiscooperation while undertaking concrete restoration activities.

research was to raise the question: “how can we support andhelp overseas nations when they suffer a disaster?” Help fromoverseas nations towards the May 12th Sichuan earthquake
may have been surprisingly minor but the two results achieved;1.

namely French advice provided for the restoration of a

Sasada, Masakatsu. “Geological context for the Wenchuanmonastery built by a Frenchman in the early twentieth century

earthquake in 2008,” Oyo technical report 28 (2008), 1-14.

and the workshop held by the Japanese to encourage debate

2.

This is applied to non-registered historic buildings.

about technical issues facing cultural heritage rescue and3.

In China, so-called cultural properties in Japan are called

restoration; both provide food for thought about how to support“cultural relics（ 文 物 ）.” “monuments and cultural relics（ 文nations that have efficient social orders and are economically

物保護単位）” mean cultural tangible heritage. Moreover,strong enough to respond to disasters

nationally important “monuments and cultural relics” are24

Chapter 2 Case Study“Historical Monuments and Cultural Relics（全国重点文物保護単位）.” However, recently, the idea of “cultural heritage（文化遺産）” has been widely spilled over since the idea of “World
Heritage（世界遺産）” was introduced, especially in a tentative
list of the World Heritage and in a Chinese cultural heritage list
for that tentative list. Although the registered cultural properties
are still called cultural relics, Chinese state administration
for cultural properties is the State Administration of Cultural
Heritage in English. Chinese Academy of Cultural Heritage
changed its name from national research institute for culturalproperties, which would be corresponding National ResearchInstitute for Cultural Properties, Tokyo as well as Nara National
Research Institute for Cultural Properties in Japan. The way ofdifference between properties and heritage are same in China
and Japan.
4.

A part of the speciﬁc damage was on the State Administrationof Cultural Heritage website. http://www.sach.gov.cn/tabid/294/
InfoID/9036/Default.aspx
5.

It is a public administration for cultural relics. 15 staff work foradministrations for cultural properties in cities and prefectures inSinshuan Province.
6.

It is a bureau for preserving cultural properties, located in

Dujiangyan in Chengdu, Sinshuan Province. It maintains andmanages cultural properties in Dujiangyan, which include
the World Heritage Site of Dujiangyan as well as Qingchengshan hill. 107 staff are specialists of archaeology, history
and language. Some of them work in the safety management
department as well. Another bureau with 500 staff is in charge of
tourism as well as organizing and managing cultural properties.
It cooperates with the Cultural Relics Bureau of Sichuanprovince for tourism management and maintenance of culturalproperties.
7.

An organization for protecting cultural properties in Chengdu

in the City of Sinshuan province. It oversees cultural properties
in cites and relics in Chengdu with 22 staff.
8.

It is a public organization for cultural relics in Shaanxi

province. It oversees cultural properties in cites and provinces in
Shaanxi province.

25

Chapter 2 Case Study

2. Thailand

1. Overview of the Studying helped to launch the pooling of information resources on

1-1 Objective

responses to damage from disasters inﬂicted on cultural heritage

Cultural heritage is an inheritance belonging to all mankind,sites in Southeast Asian countries, including Thailand.

and safeguarding it to pass onto future generations is said to

It is well-known that flood damage frequently occurs inbe the duty of those presently living. However, a great deal of

Thailand, caused by heavy rain during the rainy season and bycultural heritage has been damaged and lost due to man-madetyphoons. However, in the northern regions, cultural heritage isdisasters such as ﬁre, theft and war, or natural disasters such asalso prone to damage from earthquakes. Adopting as a case study

typhoons and earthquakes. Damage caused by natural disasters

the earthquake damage sustained in May 2007 by the Chom Kitti

in particular occurs despite manʼs best efforts to protect against

Pagoda, located in Chiang Saen in the Chiang Rai Province, weit. Ideally measures would be in place that provides the best

conducted interviews and a ﬁeld study of disaster-response mea-

protection for all cultural heritage, however limits to the budgets

sures undertaken by public institutions, primarily the FAD, asand human resources available to public institutions make it nec-

well as a study of actual damage and restoration work. Throughessary to carefully allocate resources in order to maximize efﬁ-

such research, we examined what contribution Japan could makeciency in conducting cultural property disaster prevention activi-

in this area.

ties. Understandably, saving lives and restoring infrastructure are
1-2 Schedulethe immediate priorities following a major disaster, so personnel
are unlikely to be available to rescue cultural heritage at first;

The study was conducted over three separate occasions be-even then, the mental condition of personnel who have survived

tween July and November, 2009. The first two studies were

the disaster needs to be taken into consideration. Consequently

funded by NRICPT project grants for Southeast Asian studies,

it is preferable to focus on measures that can be undertaken to

and consisted of interviews, data collection, and meetings inprotect and prevent damage to cultural heritage from disasters,

Bangkok. Towards the end of November, we carried out field

reducing the need for action once disaster has struck. On thisstudies of damage sustained at cultural heritage sites, and con-point, one could argue that many overseas countries are looking

ducted interviews with local agencies. In addition to this, for theto Japan, a country that has witnessed many natural disasters, to

NRICPT project-funded Southeast Asian studies, we conductedshare its expertise in such matters.

preliminary meetings in early June and met again in mid-De-

At the behest of the Japan Consortium for International Coop-

cember to conﬁrm facts. The study schedule and destinations are

eration in Cultural Heritage, we have completed a study on theshown in the tables, diagrams, and photographs below:

restoration of disaster-affected cultural heritage. Since the 1970s,
the National Research Institute for Cultural Properties, Tokyo

1st Mission (July 2009)
Date
29
July

(NRICPT) has cooperated with other researchers and the Thai
Ministry of Cultureʼs Fine Arts Department (FAD), a national organization that primarily concerns itself with the protection of its
cultural heritage. After entering into an agreement with other organizations in 1992, the NRICPT has been conducting collabora-

30
July

tive ﬁeldwork research on cultural heritage conservation, both inJapan and Thailand. The collaboration between the NRICPT and
the FAD has also been responsible for the “Expert Meeting on
Cultural Heritage: Restoration and conservation of immovable
heritage damaged by natural disasters” in Bangkok. This meet-

27

Destination / Mission Details
Bangkok: Office of Archaeology, Fine
Arts Department (FAD), Thailand Ministry of Culture /Study explanation; meeting concerning
procedures
As above /Interviews (re: Cultural heritage GIS database)

Interviewees and Field Respondents
Mr. Tharapong Surischat (Director, Ofﬁce of Archaeology,
Fine Arts Department)

Mr. Sitthichai Pooddee (Archaeologist);
Ms. Wirayar Chamnanpol(Computer technical ofﬁcer)
Bangkok: Office of Archaeology, Fine Ms. Wirayar Chamnanpol
Arts Department (FAD), Thailand Ministry of Culture /Interviews (re: web-based Cultural Heritage database)As above /Mr. Sudchai Phansuwan (Civil
Interviews (re: two case studies - Chom engineer);
Kitti Pagoda and Wat Phrathat Doi Su- Ms. Manatchaya Wajvisootthep); general information flow; progress- (Architect);
ing repair procedures; budget etc.
Mr. Surayoot Wiriyadamrong(Architect);
Mr. Patiwat Tul-on (Architect)Chapter 2 Case Study
2nd Mission (September 2009)
Date

Destination / Mission Details

Supplemental Mission (December 2009) * NRICPT-fundedInterviewees and Field Respondents

Date

Destination / Mission Details

Interviewees and Field Respondents

17
Bangkok: Office of Archaeology, Fine Ms. Manatchaya Wajvisoot
Septem- Arts Department (FAD), Thailand Ministry of Culture /berConfirm facts obtained from previous
study; meeting concerning next field study

18
Bangkok: Office of Archaeology, Fine Ms. Manatchaya Wajvisoot;D e - Arts Department (FAD), Thailand Minis- Mr. Vasu Poshyanandana
cember try of Culture /Confirming facts in study records

Bangkok: Department of Mineral Re- Ms. Manatchaya Wajvisoot18
Septem- sources, Ministry of Natural Resources
and Environment /ber
Data collection

Department of Mineral Resources, Ministry Mr. Somjai Yensabaiof Natural Resources and Environment /Compilation of information concerning
disaster (landslide) prevention

3rd Mission (November 2009)
Date

Destination / Mission Details

1-3 Members

Interviewees and Field Respondents

Mission members are as follows:

22
Chiang Saen: Chom Kitti Pagoda /Mr. Sudchai Phansuwan;
Novem- Field study (confirmation of damage sta- Ms. Manatchaya Wajvisoottus and interviews about situation whenberdisaster occurred; microtremor measurement)
Chiang Mai: Wat Phrathat Doi Suthep /23
Novem- Field study (microtremor measurement)
ber

Name

Mr. Sudchai Phansuwan;
Ms. Manatchaya Wajvisoot

Yoko
Futagami

Chiang Mai: 8th Regional Ofﬁce of Fine Mr. Sahawat Maenna (Di24
Novem- Arts, Chiang Mai Museum /rector, 8th Regional Office ofInterviews (re: regional office response)
Fine Arts);
ber
Mr. Sudchai Phansuwan;
Ms. Manatchaya Wajvisoot
Chiang Mai /Mr. Sudchai Phansuwan;
Inspection of Wat Chedi Luang (the upper Ms. Manatchaya Wajvisootpart collapsed due to a previous earthquake);
Inspection of Wat Phra Singh (an inscription documenting an earthquake isengraved on the upper part of the of thepagoda)Chiang Mai /Mr. Sudchai Phansuwan;
25
Novem- Inspection of Wiang Kum Kam (affected Ms. Manatchaya Wajvisootby flooding and raised groundwater levber
els)
Chiang Mai: 8th Regional Ofﬁce of Fine Mr. Sudchai Phansuwan;Arts, Chiang Mai Museum /Ms. Manatchaya Wajvisoot
Data collection

Figure 1-1-1: Wide area map of study destinations

28

Afﬁliation

Missions
1st 2nd 3rd

Senior Researcher, Japan Center for International Coop- ✓ ✓ ✓eration in Conservation, National Research Institute forCultural Properties, Tokyo

YutakaVisiting Professor, Tokyo Institute of Technology
Nakamura✓

TomomiResearch Fellow, Japan Center for International Coopera- ✓Haramoto tion in Conservation, National Research Institute for Cultural Properties, Tokyo;
Japan Consortium for International Cooperation in Cultural Heritage✓

Chapter 2 Case Study

Figure 1-1-2: Detailed map of study destinations

29

Chapter 2 Case Study

Bangkok: Fine Arts Department, Ministry of Culture

Chiang Saen: Chom Kitti Pagoda

Chiang Mai: Wat Chedi Luang

Chiang Mai: 8th Regional Office of Fine Arts

Chiang Mai: Wat Phra Singh

Chiang Mai: Wat Phrathat Doi Suthep
Image 1-1: Photographs of mission destinations

30

Chapter 2 Case Study

2-1-1 Floods

2. Disasters affecting Thailand and its Cultural Heritage
2-1 Typical Disasters affecting Thailand

Thailandʼs climate is inﬂuenced by seasonal winds, and domi-

2

Thailand has a total area of 513,115km . It lies within the trop-

nated by the southwest and northeast monsoons. The southwest

ical zone, between the geographic coordinates of 5°37ʼ N - 20°

monsoon (from mid-May to mid-October) carries hot air from27ʼ N and 97 °22 ʼE- 105 °37ʼ E., The countryʼs 75 provinces

the Indian Ocean and generates heavy precipitation, although(Thai translation: Changwat) and the Bangkok metropolitan area

rainfall during this period is also attributable to typhoons andare grouped into five regions according to meteorological and

Thailandʼs location in the Intertropical Convergence Zone

climatic conditions, namely the Northern, Northeastern, Central,(ITCZ). While the northeast monsoon (from mid-October toEastern and Southern regions. The total population is approxi-

mid-February) produces dry, cold air, particularly in the high-mately 65 million people

latitude areas of the north and east, it also brings heavy rain to
the southern east coastal areas.

Table 2-1: Thai geographical divisions
RegionCharacteristics

Table 2-2: Thailand's seasonal divisions

North- 15 provinces (Chiang Mai, Chiang Rai, Kamphaeng Phet, Lampang, Lamern
phun, Mae Hong Son, Nan, Phayao, Phetchabun, Phichit, Phitsanulok,
Phrae, Sukhothai, Tak, and Uttaradit).
Most regions are mountainous, and are the location of the headwaters ofmany major rivers. Mountains running north-south divide Chiang Mai,
Chiang Rai and Nan from several nearby valleys. Thailandʼs highest peak,Doi Inthanon (2,595m altitude), is located in Chiang Mai. The border between the Northeastern region and the east of the country is marked by acentral plateau. The area that lies between the west-side mountain ranges
and the central plateau is a central basin.
North- 19 provinces (Amnat Charoen, Bua Lam Phu, Buri Ram, Chaiyaphum,
eastern Kaen, Kalasin, Khon, Loei, Maha Sarakham, Mukdahan, Nakhon Phanom, Nakhon Ratchasima, Nong, Nong Khai, Roi Et, Sakon Nakhon, Sri
Sa Ket, Surin, Ubon Ratchathani, Udon Thani, and Yasothon).
The Northeastern region is mainly plateaux and is indeed known as thenortheastern plateau. The Phu Phan mountains, which extend from thenorthwest to the southeast, divide the region into two basins.
CentralEastern

SeasonPeriodOverview

Rainy

Mid-May to
mid-October

All areas are affected by heavy rain. The wettest
period is from August to September, except for thesouthern east coastal areas, which continue to experience heavy rains from the northeast monsoon until theend of the year.

Winter

Mid-October tomid-February

The climate is generally mild during this period, but it
is cold in the north from December to January. Thereis heavy rain from October to November in the southern east coastal areas.

Summer

Mid-February to This period falls between the northeast and southwest
mid-May
monsoons. Temperatures peak in April.

The annual precipitation for most regions ranges between

18 provinces (Ang Thong, Ayutthaya, Bangkok Metropolis, Chai Nat,Kanchanaburi, Lop Buri, Nakhon Pathom, Nakhon Sawan, Nonthaburi,
Pathum Thani, Ratchaburi, Samut Prakan, Samut Sakhon, Samut Songkhram, Sara Buri, Sing Buri, Suphan Buri, and Uthai Thani).
This region is formed of vast lowland through which several tributaries
ﬂow into the Chao Phraya river. Mountains in the north border the Western region.

1,200 and 1,600 mm. Nevertheless, some upwind areas, such as
Trat in the south, and Ranong on the southern east coast, experience rainfall in excess of 4,000 mm, whilst other areas in thecentral basin and the uppermost areas of the south receive less8 provinces (Chachoeng Sao, Chanthaburi, Chon Buri, Nakhon Nayok,
Prachin Buri, Rayong, Sra Kaeo, and Trat).
The south and south-west areas face the Gulf of Thailand. Most provincesconsist of plains and valleys, but there are some small hills to thenorth and east.

than 1,200 mm per annum.
The following table indicates annual precipitation levels according to region and season:

South- East coast: 10 provinces (Chumphon, Khiri Khan, Nakhon Si Thammarat,ern
Narathiwat, Pattani, Phatthalung, Phetchaburi, Prachuap, Songkhla, Surat
Thani, and Yala).
West coast: 6 provinces (Krabi, Phang Nga, Phuket, Ranong, Satun, andTrang)The region is sandwiched between the Andaman Sea to the west, and theSouth China Sea to the east. Thailandʼs western mountain range runs fromthe north to the south of this region: the Phuket mountains on the west
coast, and the Nakhon Si Thammarat mountains in the center, form theregionʼs mountainous backbone.

The ﬁgures indicate that the annual precipitation levels for all
regions are not particularly large compared to Japan. However,the precipitation is not evenly distributed throughout the year:
there is a clear distinction between the dry and rainy seasons,and all regions tend to experience ﬂooding during the rainy season due to the concentrated rainfall.

The most common natural disasters to affect Thailand include
weather-related disasters, such as lightning and rainy season
ﬂooding and associated landslides. Heavy rain and strong winds

Table 2-3: Seasonal precipitation levels according to region (units arein mm, unless otherwise indicated)caused by tropical cyclones ensure that these occur almost every

Regionyear to varying degrees. The Northern and Western regions close

North

105.5

to the Myanmar and Laos national borders are also susceptible

Northeast

71.9

to earthquakes, since they lie on an active fault (Fig. 2-4). The

Central
East

Southern region suffered tsunami damage in December 2004, toRainy Season

Annual precipitation (days)

182.5

952.1

123

214.2

1,085.8

117

124.4

187.1

903.3

113

187.9

250.9

1,417.6

131

East coast

759.3

249.6

707.3

148

West coast

445.9

383.7

1,895.7

176

WinterSummerSouth

the wave triggered by an earthquake centered on the plate below
the offshore areas of the Indonesian island of Sumatra and the

Average ﬁgures from 1971 to 2000 (Source: Thai Meteorological Department)

Andaman Sea.

31

Chapter 2 Case Study

300
242.7

250
187.5

200

189.7

252.7

201.6
184

150
103.5

86.6

100

46

40.7

50
16.7

20.3

Jan

Feb

0
Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Figure 2-1: Average monthly precipitation levels from 1971 to 2000
(Source: Thai Meteorological Department)

Tropical cyclones in Thailand usually originate in the North
Pacific Ocean to the west, or in the South China Sea. Inland

Image 2-1: Flooding in Sukhothai, Thailand (September 2002)

and mountainous areas are affected by tropical depressions

2-1-2 Earthquakes(with maximum wind speeds of between 17.2 m/s and 32.7 m/

The Thai Meteorological Department has been measurings), whilst southern areas are heavily exposed to typhoons (withearthquakes in Thailand since 1912. These records do not reveal

maximum wind speeds of 32.7 m/s and above). Tropical cy-

any earthquakes centered on the country with a magnitude of 6.5

clones make landfall in Thailand on average three to four times aor greater (Table 2-6; Fig. 2-2), nor are there any recorded inci-

year; the season starts in April, although September and Octoberdents of ground surface displacement in the past 700 years. Con-are the peak months for typhoons to make landfall. Figures forsequently Thailand is not considered to be a tectonically active

January to March are unavailable.

region, and its largest envisaged earthquake – a MM VIII (JMA
intensity scale: 6-lower) – is not particularly large compared toTable 2-4: Tropical cyclone landfall in Thailand over a 54 year period(1951-2004)
RegionJan Feb Mar Apr May Jun

Japan (Fig. 2-4). However, studies carried out over the last 20

Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Total

years have verified large Holocene displacements. Relatively

North

-

-

-

-

5

2

9

17

23

15

1

-

72

Northeast

-

-

-

-

1

6

4

17

28

22

4

-

82

Central

-

-

-

-

2

1

1

-

7

9

2

-

22

East

-

-

-

-

1

1

1

-

3

12

2

-

20

2-3), and seismic risk research carried out by the United States

South

-

-

-

1

-

-

-

-

3

14

24

8

50

Geological Study (Appendix 1) concluded that there are faults

large-scale, active faults, some exceeding 100 km, are locatedbeneath Thailandʼs Northern and Western regions (Figs. 2-2 and(Source: Thai Meteorological Department)with the potential to cause M 7-class earthquakes, with recur-

Flooding occurs in all regions every year, affecting large num-

rence intervals spanning from thousands of years to hundreds

bers of people and causing damage that can run into hundreds ofof thousands of years. It is possible, therefore, to argue thatmillions of dollars.

an earthquake larger than any previously recorded in Thailand
could strike at any time.
In addition, Thailand is also affected by earthquakes gener-

Table 2-5: Flood damage between 2001 to 2007
Year

No. ofﬂooding incidents

No. ofcasualties

2007

13（54 provinces）

2006
2005
2004

6（48 provinces）

2003
2002

ated at the plate boundary that lies between the offshore area of

No. of people
directly affected

Damages(U.S. dollars)

36

2,326,179

48,224,742

6（−）

446

6,050,674

475,069,103

12（57 provinces）

75

2,874,673

1,692,238

on 26th December, 2004, claimed the lives of over 5,000 Thai

27−

117,502,50017（66 provinces）

53−

51,652,000

citizens (Fig. 2-5), and caused considerable damage to Phuket−（72 provinces）

216−

334,632,750

2001

14（60 provinces）

244−

91,657,000

In fact, inscriptions about earthquake damage can be found in

2000

12（62 provinces）

120−

250,823,500

chronicles dating back hundreds of years or more. For instance,

the Indonesian island of Sumatra and the Andaman Sea. The tsunami created by the M 9.0 Indian Ocean earthquake that struck

and Khaolak in the south.

(Source: Thai Meteorological Department. Damages prior to 2004 were calculated at aratio of 40 Thai baht to 1 U.S. dollar)

the Wat Chedi Luang pagoda in Chiang Mai was originally 86
m high, but the upper part is reported to have collapsed due toan earthquake that occurred in 1545, shortening its height to 60
m. Further, there is a legend that the town of No Yot (spelling
32

Chapter 2 Case Study

unclear), near the Chom Kitti Pagoda in Chiang Saen where weTable 2-6-2: Earthquakes felt in Thailand (magnitude of five and over**)

conducted a study for this report, submerged beneath the sea dueTimeto an earthquake that struck in the year 460. In recent years, anunderwater archaeological study was made at Chiang Saen Lake
where the town was believed to have been located. Although
no remains were discovered, a study of the sedimentary layers

Hypocenter

Magnitude

Regions that felt tremors

13 Dec. 2006 Mae Rim, Chiang(00:02)Mai
18.91N, 98.93 E

5.1

Shaking felt in Maerim, Sansai,
Chiang Mai and Chiang Rai.

21 Dec. 1995 Phrao, Chiang Mai(23:30)19.7 N, 99 E

5.2

Shaking felt in Muang, Chiang
Mai, Chiang Rai, Lamphun, Lampang, Phayao, Mae Hong Son.
Slight damage near the epicenter.
1 fatality.

9 Dec. 1995
(20:26)

Rongkwang, Phrae
18.2 N, 99.8 E

5.1

Shaking felt in Chiang Mai,
Chiang Rai, Lamphun, Lampang,
Phayao, Phrae, Uttaradit, Nan.
Slight damage in Phrae.

11 Sep. 1994
(8:31)

Saruai, Phan
19.46 N, 99.6 E

5.1

Shaking felt in Saruai, Phan,
Chiang Rai. Buildings had slightdamage near epicenter, including
the hospital, school, and temple in
Phan, Chiang Rai.

20 Jan. 1999 Laos, Hongsawadi,(03:59)
Saiburi
19.90 N 100.78 E

5.9

Shaking felt in Muang, Tawangpha, Thungchang, Nan, Phrae,
Phyao, Chiang Rai. Slight damage
in Northern areas, Nan and Phrae.

18 Jul. 2002 Myanmar(16:50)20.1 N 97.5 E

5.0

Shaking felt in Chiang Rai

2 Nov. 2002
(08:26)

7.5

Shaking felt in Hatyai, Sonkhla

22 Jan. 2003 Near Off-shore Suma(10:00)
tra5.9 N 95.6 E

7.0

Shaking felt on upper ﬂoor insome high rise buildings in Bahgkok and almost all parts of thesouth.

revealed indications of habitation at one time, according to Mr.
Sahawat of the 8th Regional Ofﬁce of Fine Arts.
Table 2-6-1:

Earthquakes felt in Thailand (magnitude of five and over*)

Date(Local Time)
23 May 1922
(09:24)
5 May 1930
(20:46)
4 Dec. 1930
(01:52)16 May 1933
(08:12)

Hypocenter

Burma
21.0 N, 97.0 E
Burma
17.0 N, 96.5 E
Burma
18.2 N, 96.5 E
Northern Sumatra
Islands
7.0 N, 96.5 E
22 Sep. 1965 Burma
20.75 N, 99.26 E(18:25)14 Feb. 1967 Andaman Sea(08:36)13.7 N, 96.5 E
12 Apr. 1967 Northern Sumatra(11:52)Islands
5.16 N, 96.31 E
28 Apr. 1971 Burma-China Border(22:32)22.98, 101.02
17 Feb. 1975 Ta Song Yang district,(10:18)Tak
17.6, 97.9
2 Aug. 1978 Thai-Laos Border(14:46)
20.5, 100.7
4 Apr. 1983
Northern Sumatra(16:24)Islands
5.7, 94.7
15 Apr. 1983 Si Sawat District,(16:24)
Kanchanaburi
14.95, 99.14
22 Apr. 1983 Sj Sawat District,(07:38)Kanchanaburi
14.95, 99.07
22 Apr. 1983 Si Sawat District,(10:22)Kanchanaburi
14.96, 99.06
24 Apr. 1984 Burma-China Border(05:30)22.1, 99.1
15 July 1985 Burma(17:39)6 Aug. 1988 Burma-India Border(07:36)25.1, 95.1
6 Nov. 1988 Burma-China(20:03)22.79, 99.61
1 Mar. 1989 Laos
(10:25)21.73, 97.74
Laos
8 Apr. 1989
20.58, 100.48(04:40)27 Aug. 1989 Burma-Thai Border(22:21)20.30 N, 98.77 E
29 Sep. 1989 Burma-Thai Border(04:52)20.29 N, 98.77 E
1 Oct. 1989
Burma- Thai Border(01:19)20.27 N, 98.85 E
9 Jan. 1990
Andaman sea
11.59 N, 95.02 E(22:35)15 Nov. 1990 Northern Sumatra(09:34)
3.91 N, 97.46 E
5 Jan. 1991
Burma
(21:57)23.61 N,95.90 E
1 April 1991 Burma(10:53)15.65 N, 95.69 E
12 June 1991 Andaman Sea(10:05)14.85 N, 96.31 E
23 April 1992 Burma(21:18)22.34 N, 98.84 E
15 June 1992 Burma(09:48)23.98 N, 95.89 E
28 Oct. 1992 Burma(14:02)
18.3 N, 96.8 E

Magni- Regions that felt tremors (Modiﬁed
tude mercalli intensity)
7.9
Bangkok (IV)
7.3
7.3
6.5
5.3

Northern and Central parts, Bangkok (V)Northern and Central parts, Bangkok (V)Surat Thani, Stoon, Phangnga (V)

5.6

Chiang Mai, Chiang Rai, Lampang,
Lamphun, Mae Hon Son (V)Bangkok (IV)

6.1

Sonkla, Stoon, Phuket (V)

5.6

Chiang Mai (V)5.6

Northern and Central Parts (V-VI)

14 Sep. 2003 Sumatra
North Sumatra area

5.0

Phuket5.1

Chiang Rai (IV)

5.5

Chiang Rai

6.6

Bangkok (IV)

5.3

Kanchanaburi and Bangkok

5.9

Western, Northern and Central
parts (V-VII)

18 Sep. 2003 Laos-Myanmar
border;according to measurements by Earthquake
Department, 130 km
northeast of Chiang
Mai
20.50 N 100.9 E

Kanchanaburi and Bangkok

22 Sep. 2003 Myanmar(01:21)345 km north of
Yangon19.91 N 95.75 E

6.7

5.2

Chiang Dao, Chiang Mai. Highrise buildings in Bangkok wereslightly damaged.

5.9

Chiang Rai (IV)

5.0

Chiang Rai (IV)

6.8 Mb
7.2 Ms
6.1 Mb
7.3 Ms
5.1Ml
5.2
4.4 Mb
5.0 Ml5.4 Mb
5.5 Ml5.3 Mb
6.0 Ml**Data relating to earthquakes with a magnitude of 5 and over was extracted fromthe Department of Mineral Resourcesʼ website (http://www.dmr.go.th/main.
php?ﬁlename=Thaifelt and http://www.dmr.go.th/dmr_data/geohazard/earthquake/
Homep/Thaifelt.htm)

Bangkok (in high rise buildings)(III)
Chiang Rai, Chiang Mai & Bangkok (in high-rise buildings) (V-VI)
Upper northern part (V)
Chiang Rai (V)Upper northern part (V)Upper northern part (VI)

Upper northern part: Minor damage in non-structural brick walls insome taller buildings (VI)
5.2 Mb Ranong
6.1 Mb Phuket, Songkla and Bangkok (inhigh-rise buildings)
6.2 Mb Northern part and Bangkok (inhigh-rise buildings)
6.5 Mb Bangkok (in high-rise buildings)

5.0 Mb Bangkok (in high-rise buildings)
6.0 MlChiang Rai, Chiang Mai & Phayao

5.7 Mb Bangkok (in high-rise buildings)
6.0 MlSouth Sumatra
3.02 N 96.18 E

Chiang Rai, Chiang Mai, Mae
Hong Son & Bangkok (in high-risebuildings)* Compiled by Sumalee Prachuab, Geophysical Sub-division, Meteorological Department

33

Chapter 2 Case Study

Figure 2-2: Active faults, and the hypocenter and scale of past earthquakes in Thailand (Source: Department of Mineral Resources)

34

Chapter 2 Case Study

Figure 2-4: Seismic hazard map of Thailand (Source: Department ofMineral Resources). The 4 zones are divided according to estimates ofmodified mercalli (MM) intensity.

Figure 2-3: Map of active faults in Thailand(Source: Department of Mineral Resources)

Figure 2-5: Past interplate earthquakes occurring in the vicinity of Thailand (Source: Department of Mineral Resources)

35

Chapter 2 Case Study

2-2 Previous Disaster Damage sustained by Cultural

ground level, whilst seepage also stems from the relatively high

Heritage Sites

water table, estimated to be approximately 2 m below ground

According to the Act on Ancient Monuments, Antiques, Ob-level (Mr. Sahawat) (Image 2-2).

jects of Art and National Museums B.E. (Buddhist Era) 2504

In another example, a river lies on the periphery of the World(1961) (Appendix 4), “ ʻancient monumentsʼ refer to tangible

Heritage-inscribed Ayutthaya National Historical Park, leading

property belonging to the fields of art, history or archaeology

to frequent ﬂooding and subsequent water seepage. As shown inwhich have architectural traits or historical proof of that era, and

the Wat Chaiwattanaram photograph below, a waterproof barrier

includes places such as archaeological sites, historic sites andhistorical parks.” Approximately 2,000 registered monuments
are afforded national protection. At the present time, monuments
built up to 50 years previously are eligible for registration, but
this criterion is apparently under review. Approximately 95 %of currently existing traditional buildings are temple buildings.
While there are differences between regions, Khmer and Lopburi
era buildings used sandstone and laterite while Sukhothai and
Ayutthaya era buildings used brick and laterite. In the Sukhothaiand Ayutthaya eras, plaster was used not only as mortar, but also
for decorative purposes to cover building surfaces, and some of
Image 2-2-1: The Ku Pa Dom site. The roof is set up to protect theplaster covered on the floor of the remains.

the decorations still exist today. It is believed that wood and tiles
were also used, however most evidence of this has been lost. In
the case of more recently-built temples, wooden elements, tiles
and mural wall paintings can still be found.
In addition to this, village ruins, building foundations, gravesand kilns have all been discovered by archaeological excavations
after years buried below the earthʼs surface.
There are three World Heritage sites in Thailand: the historic
town of Sukhothai and associated historic towns, recognised in
1991, are mainly composed of buildings built from brick andlaterite; the historic city of Ayutthaya and associated historic
towns, recognised in 1991; and the Ban Chiang archaeologicalsite, recognised in 1992, which contains prehistoric age remains.

Image 2-2-2: The Ku Pa Dom site. The soil is wet and muddy because
the rainy season has just finished. Those portions of the roof pillars thatwere submerged in water are discolored, and algae are clearly thriving in the remains of the brick wall. Efflorescence is evident near theboundary of the water seepage areas.

Some of the main causes of natural disaster damage to cultural heritage sites can be attributed to water seepage, caused byrainy season ﬂooding, losses arising from strong winds such as
typhoons, and landslides. Water seeps from rising groundwater
during the rainy season, or ﬂows into remains or foundations thatexist below ground level, as shown by an excavation study. The
water, often mixed with sediment and wood, causes surface erosion. Water penetration can also be an indirect cause of damage:accompanying outbreaks of moss and algae generate harmful
dirt and biodeterioration, whilst the elution and recrystallizationof the constituent elements of cement (used in bricks, plaster andrestoration materials) that can occur when materials are left for along time in wet conditions, can lead to salt weathering. The Wiang Kum Kam site in Chiang Mai is a good example: the site is
located close to a river, and when remains previously covered by
sediment are excavated, water can ﬂow into plots that are below

Image 2-3-1: Ayutthaya: Wat Chaiwattanaram

36

Chapter 2 Case Study

Image 2-3-2: Ayutthaya: Wat Chaiwattanaram. The difference in elevation, between the river on the right and the grounds of the temple, isevident. A laterite fence has been built as a flood-prevention measure.

Image 2-3-5: Ayutthaya: Wat Chaiwattanaram. A mobile, shield-likewaterproof apparatus. It can be folded-up when not in use.

to prevent water seepage from the nearby river was being built

Image 2-3-3: Ayutthaya: Wat Chaiwattanaram. Flood-prevention measures under construction.

when we visited in January 2009, as well as shield-like, mobile
waterproof apparatus that blend in with the surroundings (Fig.
2-3).
Records of past earthquakes describe the damage done bythese natural disasters, and the physical effects are still visible inmany buildings today. As noted previously, for example, the upper part of Wat Chedi Luang collapsed in an earthquake in 1545,
yet traces of the damage can still be seen post-restoration (Image2-4). Another report, this time documented on a plant leaf andstill in existence today, states that the ﬁnial from the upper tier ofthe Wat Phra Singh Pagoda fell due to an earthquake in 1801 (Mr.
Sahawat).
To maintain up-to-date records on the status of cultural heritage sites that have incurred damage in natural disasters, the GIS
database was created by the FAD; this is intended to correlate

Image 2-3-4: Ayutthaya: Wat Chaiwattanaram. Waterproof barrier madefrom concrete.

disaster history information from various sources (explained
below), however it is yet to be fully realized and some statistical information remains elusive. Due to recent organizational
reform, the Regional Office, which was once a subdivision of37

Chapter 2 Case Study

the FADʼs Ofﬁce of Archaeology, now operates at the same or-ogy when they decide that it is necessary to bill for repair ex-

ganizational level (see organizational chart in Fig. 3-8), with thepenses or to assign specialists. Owing to this, we were only able

result that it has become more time-consuming to accumulate

to obtain ﬂood damage information for 2007 (Table 2-7) on thisdisaster-related information. The Regional Offices now only

occasion.

transmits disaster damage information to the Ofﬁce of Archaeol-

Image 2-4: Chiang Mai: Wat Chedi Luang. The upper part has largely
collapsed as a result of earthquake damage, and was not reconstructed during restoration work in 1992.

Image 2-5: Ayutthaya: Pom Phet Fort. .repair, including the introduction of anti-flood measures (January 2009).

Table 2-7-1: List of Cultural Heritage sites in all regions affected byflooding in 2007 (Source: Office of Archaeology)
Location Name

Assigned budget (baht)

Implementation Details

A l l o w - Equipment, Totala n c e t o s u p p l i e s , amountstaff
service fees
4,289,000 111,614,000 115,903,000
Ofﬁce of Archaeology(Central)

150,000 21,832,000

21,982,000

1

150,000 21,832,000

21,982,000 Repairs to the eastside of the main
fort building.
Maintenance to thesurroundings.
Development offlood prevention
system.

Pon-Petch Fort,
Ayutthaya

2nd Regional Ofﬁce ofFine Arts (Suphanburi)

360,000

2-11
3rd Regional Ofﬁce of 1,630,000 13,675,000
Fine Arts (Ayutthaya)

15,305,000

12-14
Ayutthaya National 1,050,000 38,521,000
Historical Park

39,571,000

15-35
Sukhothai National
Historical Park-3,599,000

3,599,000

16,0001,484,000

1,500,000

280,000

4,540,000

4,820,000

619,000

9,081,000

9,700,000

184,000

2,336,000

2,520,000

36
Si Satchanalai National Historical Park37
7th Regional Ofﬁce ofFine Arts (Nan)38-40
8th Regional Officeof Fine Arts (ChiangMai)
41
11th Regional Officeof Fine Arts (Ubon
Ratchathani)
42

38

Chapter 2 Case Study

Table 2-7-2: List of Cultural Heritage sites in all regions affected by flooding in 2007 (Source: Office of Archaeology) (Original document: 3 pages)

39

Chapter 2 Case Study

40

Chapter 2 Case Study

41

Chapter 2 Case Study

42

Chapter 2 Case Study

3. Cultural Heritage Disaster Prevention and Damage

when the precipitation reaches a certain level, they are instructed

Restoration: Thai Systems and Initiatives

to notify the village chief, who then visits the residents of re-

3-1 Disaster Prevention Systems and Initiatives

gions in danger by car, informing them of what action to take.

3-1-1 Disaster Prevention Systems

Different levels of precipitation are linked to particular courses

3-1-1-1 Disaster Manegement Systemof action. For instance, guidelines state that when the accumu-

Thailand Country Report 2008 on Asian Disaster Reduction

lated amount of precipitation reaches 100 mm, preparations must

Center（ADRC）website has good resource to understand Thai-be made for evacuation, and if it reaches 150 mm, then people

landʼs comprehensive effort on disaster prevention (Appendix 2)

must be evacuated. Similar information initiatives, including
brochures and seminars, have been introduced to approximately
26 provinces that are particularly vulnerable to landslides, andabout 3,000 precipitation gauges have been distributed.
The Department of Mineral Resources continues to seek ways
to improve these region-based observation and communication
systems. Selected personnel in the department monitor a rain
cloud radar every day, and when a region is expected to receive
heavy rainfall, they telephone volunteers there who have precipitation gauges to warn them of impending rain.

Figure 3-1: The disaster-period system of command(Asian Disaster Reduction Center (ADRC))

3-1-1-2 Actual disaster response examples
In this section, we will brieﬂy introduce examples of landslidedisaster responses implemented by the Department of Mineral
Resources, based on interviews with the Departmentʼs geologist,
Mr. Somjai Yensabai.
The Department of Mineral Resources carries out researchstudies such as the organization of national and provincial landslide hazard maps, as well as disaster prevention activities within
the community. The landslide hazard maps indicate that hazard levels vary according to vegetation, geological conditions,
topography, and precipitation levels. Hazard levels increasesigniﬁcantly in regions with notable granite deposits and heavy

Figure 3-2: Landslide-response materials aimed at local authorities in
Phetchaburiprovince (Source: Department of Mineral Resources).

rainfall (Figs. 3-3 and 3-4).
Local disaster prevention measures include the developmentof response manuals (Fig. 3-2) aimed at local authorities andIn addition, the Department of Mineral Resources has createdlocal residents, as well as educational seminars on how regions

a general brochure (distributed in printed form, and available asshould respond when a disaster is imminent. Literature and pre-a PDF ﬁle via the internet) urging caution about dangers othersentation materials are tailored to each region. Another initiative

than landslides.

has seen precipitation gauges installed in volunteer households;
43

Chapter 2 Case Study

Figure 3-3: Nationwide landslide hazard map of Thailand (Source: Department of Mineral Resources, 2004). Lower hazard levels are indicated ingreen; red are the highest.

44Chapter 2 Case Study

Figure 3-4: Landslide hazard map (Nan Province, Northern Region) (Source: Department of Mineral Resources, 2005)

45

Chapter 2 Case Study

Figure 3-5: Regional communication system and response when a landslide hazard is anticipated (Source: Department of Mineral Resources)

46

Chapter 2 Case Study

cultural properties, such as museums, archives, libraries, history,
literature and the performing arts. The diagram below illustrates

Figure 3-6: Brochure about tsunamis (Source: Department of Mineral
Resources)

Figure 3-8: Ministry of Culture, Fine Arts Department organizational
chart. (Produced by Mr. Surayoot Wiriyadamrong, Fine Arts Department, Office of Archaeology.

the organizational structure of the FAD.
Whilst cultural heritage conservation, protection and management is ofﬁcially under the jurisdiction of the FAD, a signiﬁcantamount of general day-to-day management is actually handled
by a sub-department, the Ofﬁce of Archaeology. The Regional
Ofﬁce of Fine Arts is another FAD organization (one might callit a local agency), with 15 ofﬁces located across the country that
directly handle cultural heritage affairs in the provinces. In terms

Figure 3-7: Brochure about natural disasters (Source: Department ofMineral Resources)of general management, one could say that the protection of national registered monuments is carried out jointly by the Ofﬁceof Archaeology and the Regional Ofﬁce of Fine Arts. Special-

3-1-2 Organizations and systems involved in culturalists also play a role, including university researchers afﬁliatedheritage disaster prevention

to ICOMOS Thailand, whilst conservation work is also carried

The national body responsible for administering cultural heri-out through funding from other organizations such as the Crown

tage conservation in Thailand is the Fine Arts Department (FAD).

Property Bureau.

The FAD was established in 1911 and currently falls under the

Only registered monuments are afforded national protection.

jurisdiction of the Ministry of Culture. In addition to overseeing

The day-to-day management of these monuments is generally

historical monuments and structures, the FAD is also involved

undertaken by the owners (in many cases, the temples). Whenin the conservation, protection, management, promotion andrepair work is necessary, the Regional Ofﬁce of Fine Arts devis-

study of other tangible and intangible, movable and immovablees a repair plan for submission to the FAD Director. A committee
47

Chapter 2 Case Studyorganized by the Ofﬁce of Archaeology assesses the planʼs validity. Those approved by the committee and the FAD Director arethen allocated a repair budget. If the repairs are not large enoughto warrant national funding, the regional ofﬁce may coordinate
the work without the need for a committee review. Whilst theRegional Ofﬁce of Fine Arts does have experts in archaeology
and architecture, their number and their ﬁelds of specialization
are limited (for example, there are no engineering specialists). It
is therefore sometimes necessary for the Regional Ofﬁce of Fine
Arts to apply for specialist help from the FAD when planningand conducting repairs and construction work.
The department does not have a team dedicated to disaster
response, nor are there specific provisions in the budget forinvestment in disaster prevention. However, the repairs budget

Figure 3-9-1: Monument GIS database screen. It is possible to search
for and display a monument from the map by selecting the monument
type.

includes a category entitled “landscape management”, which
actually includes work carried out to prevent disasters, such as
anti-ﬂooding measures.
3-1-2-2 Cultural heritage disaster prevention initiatives:
Hazard anticipation efforts utilizing GIS
Efforts are under way to use GIS to anticipate hazards facing
Thailandʼs cultural heritage (Fig. 3-9). This has been achievedby updating a cultural heritage database, originally developed by
FAD, with current disaster-related information
The FAD cultural heritage database contains two systems –GIS (Geographical Information System) and MIS (Management
Information System). At the time of the July interviews, a totalof approximately 8,800 entries had been loaded into the database, including 2,098 registered monuments and roughly 6,700
non-registered monuments. Movable cultural properties are also

Figure 3-9-2: Monument GIS database screen. Here, Wat Phrathat Doi
Suthep has been selected. It is also possible to display the attributesof a momument in list form, and to download visual data such as photographs.

registered in the MIS.
The database was first created using Microsoft Access in
1999, but at the time there was limited understanding of how the
database would be used or developed in the future. The databasehas since been transferred to the SQL Server platform. After the
database was uploaded and tested via an intranet in 2006, it wasmade available for general use from 2008. Even members of thegeneral public can access the database via the Internet as a guest
user (without editing privileges) from a portal on the FAD website (http://www.ﬁnearts.go.th/).
Monument attributes recorded in the databse include: name;location (regional division, latitudinal and longitudinal coordinates, UTM and location acquisition methods); construction
period (periodization, era, history); type; usage; materials used;
and repair history (period, repairer, details). Where available,
photographs, maps and diagrams have also been included.

Image 3-1: Database training session for Regional Office of Fine Arts’representatives, carried out at the FAD.

Maps and satellite images used in the database were provided
48

Chapter 2 Case Studyby the government organization, GISTDA

participate as engineering advisors. In addition, representatives, thefrom three or four regional ofﬁces located in Zone 2 (Fig. 2-4)

Geo-Informatics and Space Technology Development Agency).

- the zone shown by the earthquake hazard map to be most vul-

The FAD is doing its utmost to secure data at no additional cost,

nerable to earthquakes - also took part in the ﬁrst meeting. The

but ﬂood maps must be obtained for a fee from the Royal Irriga-

meeting focused on data relating to the overlay of the monumenttion Department (GIS database on the natural disaster map (Fig. 3-10). In particu-(). Other maps relating to earth-quakes, active faults and landslides, are provided free of chargelar, the group reviewed the number of monuments per provinceby the Department of Mineral Resources (located within 5, 10 and 20 km of active faults, as well as allof the names and locations of monuments within 5 and 10 km) within the Ministry of
Natural Resources and Environment (of active faults. Incidentally, the number of monuments located). Thewithin 5 km of active faults is 44, spread over 8 provinces; thefree, mutually beneﬁcial sharing of information has been madenumber within 10 km is 75, spread over 10 provinces; and thepossible because the Department of Mineral Resources needs

number within 20 km is 178, spread over 14 provinces.

cultural heritage spatial information to regulate mine develop-

After its ﬁrst and only meeting on 1st June, 2009, this orga-

ment in cultural heritage locations.

nization was dissolved to make way for a new committee. The

The user account available to representatives of the FADʼs 15

committeeʼs goals now are to provide information about required

regional ofﬁces only permits users to edit information relating

disaster-time action and to focus on disasters aside from earth-

to their own region. It is also possible to enter data ofﬂine. FAD

quakes, such as landslides, heavy rainfall, storms and floods.

representatives monitor the data entries from the relevant depart-

Since the committee will be focusing on other disasters, it hasmentʼs inventory room, and if any pieces of data are missing, thebeen decided that the participation of representatives from all

director of the affected Regional Ofﬁce of Fine Arts is notiﬁedof the Regional Ofﬁces of Fine Arts will be necessary, althoughby telephone or other means of communication. Once the direc-

details such as speciﬁc personnel selection are apparently yet totor has conﬁrmed and approved the details, the data is formally

be decided.

registered. Notebook computers and ArcGIS software are provided to the regional ofﬁce, although some of their own computers do not meet the specifications needed to use the program.
Reports suggest that the FAD representative responsible for thescheme is considering ways to improve this situation. A databasetraining session for participating regional ofﬁce personnel was
carried out at the FAD during our ﬁrst study visit in July. Two
representatives from each regional office participated (Image
3-1).
Overlays illustrating earthquakes, active faults, landslides,
and floods are used with the disaster map. Although the webbased database allows online data input, certain analytical tasks
must be done using the ArcGIS stand-alone program; these tasks
include buffer creation and using overlays with satellite images
and other thematic maps, including disaster maps.
3-1-2-3 Disaster response committee
Following the 16th May, 2007 earthquake, which inflicteddamage in northern Thailand, a disaster response committee
was set up by the FAD, and in June 2009, it held its inaugural
meeting. Its membership is composed of 7 or 8 civil engineers
belonging to the Ofﬁce of Archaeology and the Ofﬁce of Architecture; the Head of the Registration Section, Ms. Manatchaya;
and also former Ofﬁce Directors, Mr. Arak and Mr. Suwitt, who49Chapter 2 Case Study

Figure 3-10: Map showing overlay of active fault information on monument locations (produced by FAD).

50

Chapter 2 Case Study

3-2 Systems and Initiatives employed when Disasters affect

1. Following this forum, East Asian countries should organize

Cultural Heritage Sites

national workshops and apply the concept of risk preparedness

When a disaster that could impact a cultural heritage site isto their own measures for the conservation of cultural heritage.

anticipated, representatives from the Office of Archaeology

2. East Asian countries should promote and exploit their network

gather information from media sources and then, if required,of ties to improve cooperation on risk preparedness in the East

immediately make contact with Regional Ofﬁce of Fine Arts of-

Asian region.

ﬁces by telephone or other means to ascertain the situation. If a

3. East Asian countries should promote certain documents pro-study is deemed necessary, it is carried out within 2 to 3 days of

duced by countries that have particular experience and expertisethe disaster. Urgent repairs are ﬁnanced from the “Archaeologi-

in certain types of disaster. For example, Thailand could do acal Fund.” This is a reserve fund set aside by the FAD for emer-case study of risk preparedness for flooding, whilst Myanmar

gency action, and it is made up of cultural heritage site entrance

and Indonesia could jointly produce a case study on earthquakes.

fees and contributions from private institutions. The purpose

Each country could volunteer to prepare a document on the typeof the Fund is deﬁned under Article 28 of the “Act on Ancientof disaster situation that it has been working on, and that it has

Monuments, Antiques, Objects of Art and Nations Museums B.E.

some experience of conservation in.

2504 (1961)” (Appendix 4).

4. East Asian countries should consider establishing a common

Action is iniated when a director from one of the Regional Of-

communication channel, such as a website, in order to dissemi-ﬁces of Fine Arts requests assistance from the FAD, whose Di-

nate the documents prepared in accordance with recommenda-

rector then instructs the Ofﬁce of Archaeology Director to sendtion no.3, as well as to exchange and share experiences among

the appropriate specialists.

participating states.

Full-scale repairs are generally planned in advance and budgeted for. In such cases, the Regional Ofﬁce of Fine Arts devises

It has been proposed that, since the Ministry of Culture repre-

a repair plan, which is reviewed by the FAD committee and, if

sented Thailand at this Forum, it could become a contact point

approved, is allocated a budget. This process is a generalized

for such matters. At the current time, however, Ms. Manatchaya

version of the response to the Chiang Saen earthquake (detailed

Wajvisoot from the FADʼs Ofﬁce of Archeology reports that they

below), which the FAD indicates is typical of the action taken inhave yet to see any concrete results in response to the recom-

response to disasters.

mendations of the Forum.

3-3 International Cooperation
While this may not represent a concrete example of international cooperation during periods of disaster, there have beeninternational movements to promote preventative measures toprotect cultural heritage. One such movement is the Forum on
Risk Preparedness for the Preservation of Cultural Heritage,
held in Laos and Thailand by ASEAN+3 (Japan, South Korea,
and China), between 12th to 19th January, 2009. Country reportpresentations were given and inspection tours were made tosites such as Ayutthaya, Chiang Mai, Champasak and Wat Phou.
Forum participants included Brunei, Cambodia, Laos, Malaysia,
Myanmar, the Philippines, Thailand, Vietnam, China and the international institution, SPAFA.
Conclusions and recommendations made at the Forum aredetailed below.
---------The delegates discussed and agreed on the following recommendations for future cooperation among East Asian countries,
including the ASEAN member states as well as the Peopleʼs Republic of China, Korea and Japan:
51

Chapter 2 Case Study

4. Case Study

2007, a two-storey building in Mae Rim being used as a tourist

4-1 Overview of Sustained Damage

information ofﬁce collapsed, due to suspected damage sustainedThis case study will review the Chiang Saen earthquake, also

in the earthquake. Fortunately the building had been declaredcalled the Nam Ma Earthquake after the name of the fault. The

off-limits, so there were no casualties. Tremors were felt as far

United States Geological Study (USGS) event ID is us2007ckan.

as 800 km away in the capital Bangkok, causing the upper parts

At 8.56 GMT (15.56 local time) on 16th May, 2007, a 6.3

of high-rise buildings such as ofﬁce blocks and shops to shake,(Mw) magnitude earthquake occurred, centered on a locationand some panic as people ran out into the streets. Even though

13.2 km east-south-east of Laosʼ western region of Ban Mone

Bangkok was far from the hypocenter, the soft ground ampliﬁed(20.483 degrees north latitude; 100.763 degrees east latitude).

the tremors. Tremors were similarly felt in the Vietnam capital,

The hypocenter depth was 38 km (USGS). At the epicenter, four

Hanoi, reportedly provoking people to ﬂee buildings and run out

foreshocks were observed the day before the earthquake, and up

into the street there too.
Fortunately no casualties were reported as a result of thisuntil July 31st, 2007, 88 aftershocks at magnitudes of 2.5 to 4.5
were recorded. This earthquake is presumed to have been caused

earthquake.

by Nam Ma fault activity.
Tremors were particularly strong in western Laos, and thatfour temples and two stupas were reported to have sustained
damage.

Figure 4-1-2: The 16th May 2007 earthquake epicenter and tremors.
Figures show modified mercalli intensity and supplementary data. (Mapcreated by the United States Geological Study KML file).

4-2 Reports of Damage inflicted on Cultural Heritage by
Disasters
The following earthquake damage was sustained by Chom
Kitti Pagoda, located in the Laos border town of Chiang Saen.
The earthquake caused the metallic ﬁnial attached to the upper

Figure 4-1-1: The 16th May 2007 earthquake hypocenter, and instrumental seismic intensity (modified mercalli intensity) (USGS).

part of the pagoda building to fall to the ground, and to lose two
embedded jewels. In addition, the base and plaster surface of thesoutheast corner of the building were cracked.

The epicenter was 61 km from the Thai border. The size ofAt first, it appeared that the pagodaʼs upper level, which

tremors in Chiang Saen were measured at VII, according to mod-has a core of brick and cement and is covered with plaster andiﬁed mercalli intensity. (This is equivalent to approximately ﬁve

metal plate, had also collapsed (Image 4-1-3). However, sinceon the JMA intensity scale.) Large tremors were felt in Chiang

it was necessary to remove this in order to reset the ﬁnial after

Rai, Chiang Mai and Nan, and items placed on walls in Chiang

it had fallen (the ﬁnialʼs stem had to be deeply embedded in the

Rai were knocked to the ground, whilst unsecured articles fell

pagodaʼs upper level, and this could not be achieved with whatfrom shelves in Mae Rim. Although exact ﬁgures are not known,

remained), it transpired that the upper level had been removed

further damage such as cracks in walls and falling roof tiles

after, rather than fallen because of, the earthquake.
According to Director Sahawat of the 8th Regional Ofﬁce ofalso occurred in these northern Thailand regions. On 27th May
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Chapter 2 Case Study

Fine Arts in Chiang Mai, the ofﬁce responsible for this region,

scale work, such as defects repairs, was undertaken. Some com-

the Chom Kitti Pagoda was the only cultural heritage site ap-

paratively small-scale repairs were also carried out in 1976 andparently affected by this earthquake. Although one other temple

2006, prior to the earthquake. The 1976 repairs included using

claimed for repair expenses due to losses sustained in the earth-a hydraulic jack to prevent the leaning building from collaps-

quake, it was not clear whether this damage actually pre-dated

ing. Since the upper part had not deviated more than 1/3 fromthe earthquake. Damage repair costs were allocated, neverthe-centre, work to correct the pagodaʼs lean was postponed in favorless, because of the templeʼs high proﬁle.

of measures to prevent the building from tilting any further. In
addition, the apex was covered with concrete, some metal plates

4-2-1 Chom Kitti Pagoda

were attached, and the ﬁnial was ﬁtted.

Chom Kitti Pagoda belongs to the Chom Kitti Temple, located

The pagoda has sustained repeated damage from past earth-at coordinates of 100.08 °E, 20.28 °N in Wieng, Chiang Saen

quakes (refer to Image 4-1-4). Legend also says that this region

City, Chian Rai Province. Legend says that it was built in B.E.

has suffered earthquakes in the past. Although no earthquake ob-

1483 (940). According to the FAD database, it was constructedservation records exist for this region before observations com-in B.E. 2030 (1487), and belongs to the Lanna Period. It became

menced approximately 20 years ago, it is known that repairs fora national registered monument on 8th March, B.E. 2478 (1935).

earthquake damage have been carried out in the past: evidence is

2

The physical area of this cultural property is 2,800 km . It is cur-available through historical records claiming that eathquakes had

rently managed by the Chom Kitti Temple, and is still used as aoccurred, and from signs of earthquake-related damage to thetemple and an object of worship. It has a brick structure, and its

pagoda.
A study carried out by the FAD in 1995 clariﬁed that the main

surface is covered by plaster and metal plates.
Chom Kitti is located on low hills (Figs. 4-2 and 4-3) that

pagoda building had amplified cracks due to earthquakes; thatslope gently towards the river from the southeast side of the pa-

parts of the upper pagoda building and plaster have fallen away;

goda (Images 4-1-2 and 4-1-3). The soilʼs movement has caused

and that the buildingʼs tilt was deteriorating. An further analysis

the pagoda to lean ever since it was newly-built.

of the pagodaʼs construction and damage sustained was carried

The temple maintains a record of repairs, with some records

out by the FAD in 1995. As well as studying the quality anddating back to B.E. (1684). Repairs have continuously been

behavior of the surrounding areaʼs soil, the analysis sought tocarried out by the FAD, and in 1957 and 1968 relatively small-clarify the cause of the damage.
Based on these results, and because repairs to secure the safety of the pagodaʼs base were previously postponed, the integrityof the base area was improved, and large-scale repairs were undertaken in 2006 to prevent soil ﬂuidization (Figs. 4-4 and 4-5).
This repair work required drilling a cylindrical hole in the soil
at a distanced of 1.5 m from the outer edge of the terrace, ﬁlling
it with concrete to create a concrete pile, and then reinforcing
the soil around the pagoda with Portland cement after ensuringthat it was tightly packed with no gaps. Deep cracks in the main
pagoda building were ﬁlled with epoxy resin, while the surface
was covered with plaster. The repair costs were funded by a government contribution of 7,000,000 baht, and the decoration repair costs of 4,000,000 baht were covered by contributions fromprivate institutions.
This cultural heritage site only represents one example ofmeasures being taken against earthquakes damage in Thailand. A
drilling survey is currently being carried out at the other site wevisited for this study - Wat Phrathat Doi Suthep at Chiang Mai- as a measure against anticipated landslides caused by earth-Figure 4-2: Location of the Chom Kitti Pagoda, marked by an encircled
triangle. It lies on a hill overlooking the river. (Source: FAD's GIS database of monuments)

quakes and other disasters.

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Chapter 2 Case Study

Figure 4-3: A two-dimensional diagram of Chom Kitti (Source: Mr. Sudchai).

Image 4-1-1: Chom Kitti Pagoda

Image 4-1-3: The apex of the pagoda was removed for repairs in 2007.
It now decorates the front face of the east side.

Image 4-1-2: The south face of the pagoda. This photograph was taken
after confirming the horizontal level. The large tilt to the east is evident.

Image 4-1-4: The pagoda terrace. This picture illustrates the structure's
tilt due to past earthquakes and soil movement, as well as repeatedrepairs.

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Chapter 2 Case Study

Figure 4-4: Repair plan drawing for Chom Kitti pagoda in 2006 (elevational view).

Figure 4-5: Repair plan drawing for Chom Kitti pagoda in 2006 (two-dimensional diagram).

55

Chapter 2 Case Study

4-3 Restoration of Disaster-Stricken Cultural Heritage Sites

intended to coincide with the scheduled visit of Princess Sirind-

Information about jewels falling from the ﬁnial of the Chomhorn in February, 2008.

Kitti Pagoda was gathered from reports submitted by thoseAs previously noted, the FAD carried out work in 2006 to

personnel from the 8th Regional Office of Fine Arts who had

prevent subsidence by reinforcing the surrounding soil embed-

headed to the scene straight after the earthquake. According toding a concrete pile nearby. This was done in consideration of

the ofﬁce, the site was immediately sealed off with the coopera-

the fact that this particular cultural heritage site had experienced

tion of local police whilst personnel searched for the jewels. The

earthquake damage previously, and that the building was tilting

8th Regional Office of Fine Arts then asked the FAD to send

due to soil ﬂuidization. The FAD believes these measures to be

their construction expert, Mr. Sudchai, who carried out a post-

effective in restricting damage caused by earthquakes, some-disaster ﬁeld study 2 to 3 days later. Photographs taken show thething that seems to be conﬁrmed by a microtremor study of the

post-earthquake scene (Image 4-1-2 - provided by Mr. Sudchai,soil surrounding Chom Kitti Pagoda and of the pagoda itself.

8th Regional Ofﬁce of Fine Arts).

A theodolite study is currently being carried out once a year toRepairs carried out included recreating the ﬁnial. To support

monitor the buildingʼs tilt.

the ﬁnial, the pagodaʼs upper section was removed and rebuilt,
and epoxy resin and plaster was used to ﬁll in cracks in the basearea (Figs. 4-7 and 4-8). The time taken to create the damage report was about 3 to 4 months, whilst restoration work took about
8 months. It should be noted, however, that this timeframe was

Figure 4-6: Features photographed in Images 4-2-1 to 4.2.6, below.

56

Chapter 2 Case Study

Image 4-2-1: This photograph shows that the finial part of the pagoda's
upper section is missing, after it was toppled by an earthquake (No.1of Fig. 4-6).

Image 4-2-3: Severed surface of the finial's stem (No.1 of Fig. 4-6).

Image 4-2-2: The fallen finial (No.1 of Fig. 4-6).

Image 4-2-4: Severed surface of the finial’s stem (No.1 of Fig. 4-6).

Image 4-2-5: Cracks in the surface of the pagoda wall, caused byearthquakes (southeast corner) (No.2 of Fig. 4-6).

57

Chapter 2 Case Study

Image 4-2-6: Cracks close to the southeast corner terrace (No.3 ofFig. 4-6).

Image 4-2-8: Cracks in the plastered coving.

Image 4-2-7: Cracks in the surface of the pagoda wall, caused byearthquakes (plastered area).

Image 4-2-9: Cracks in the plaster.

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Chapter 2 Case Study

Figure 4-7: Post-earthquake repair areas and details (Source: Mr. Sudchai Phansuwan).

Figure 4-8: Specification of repairs to pagoda's apical parts (Source: Mr. Sudchai Phansuwan).

59

Chapter 2 Case Study

4-4 Microtremor Survey of Chom Kitti Pagoda and Wat
Phrathat Doi Suthep
4-4-1 Overview
The third study carried out in November 2009 examined microtremor activity at the two locations stated above. This study
aimed to clarify the effect of repairs and current problems bymeasuring microtremors at the two sites. For Chom Kitti Pagoda,
this study was undertaken after soil reinforcement and repairs aswell as post-earthquake repair work had been carried out. In thecase of Wat Phrathat Doi Suthep, it was undertaken before fullscale soil improvement work had been carried out at cliff faceand surrounding areas
Chom Kitti pagoda has already been introduced so now we

Image 4-3-1: Wat Phrathat Doi Suthep.

will provide an outline of Wat Phrathat Doi Suthep details. Wat
Phrathat Doi Suthep is located at 98.92 °E,18.8 °N in the Suthep district, Chiang Mai City, Chiang Mai Province, and sitson Suthep mountain at an altitude of 1,053m. According to the
FAD database, it was built in the B.E. 20th century (sometime
between the 14-15th centuries), and belongs to Chiang Saen /Lanna Period. The structure is made from brick and covered
with plaster, and the surface is covered with metal plates withadded gold leaf. The the day-to-day management is undertaken
by Phrathat Doi Suthep Temple.
Because this temple sustained damage due to seismic tremors
and, as stated above, is located on a mountain top as well as
being surrounded by cliffs, there are fears of landslide damage
being caused by earthquakes. Ground improvement work at theareas surrounding temple and cliffs is, therefore, currently being
planned and implemented.
This study was carried out by Yutaka Nakamura, a Visiting
Professor at the Tokyo Institute of Technology. Professor Nakamura's report is published below.

Image 4-3-2: Looking out over an urban area from Wat Phrathat Doi Suthep. It is evident from this photograph that Wat Phrathat Doi Suthep sitson a clifftop.

60

Chapter 2 Case Study

Figure 4-9: Location of Wat Phrathat Doi Suthep (Source: FAD GIS database of monuments). Its position at
the top of a mountain is evident.

Figure 4-10: Two-dimensional diagram of Wat Phrathat Doi Suthep (Source: FAD GIS database of monuments).

61

Chapter 2 Case Study

4-4-2 Report of a Microtremor Survey conducted at the Thai

within the surface layers. In other words, the horizontal spec-

Cultural Properties of Chom Kitti Pagoda and Wat Phrathat

trum will be divided by a vertical spectrum where the frequency

Doi Suthep

spectrum of the three-direction component microtremor ismeasured at a certain point, and try to estimate the ground moYutaka Nakamuration ampliﬁcation factor of each component. This is commonly

Department of Built Environment, Interdisciplinary Graduate

known as the H/V method, and has become the standard method

School of Science and Engineering,to estimate the ground motion characteristics of surface layers.

Tokyo Institute of Technology

Speciﬁc microtremor measurement and analytical methods are(System and Data Research Co., Ltd.)

detailed as follows.
Measurement method: microtremor was observed three times

1. Introduction

for 40.96 seconds at each measuring site.

This report outlines results of a microtremor survey carried

Analytical method: frequency analysis is performed per meas-out for two cultural properties located in Thailand.

urement and per directional component, and the spectral ratio

The two cultural properties are listed as follows.

between horizontal and vertical components is calculated. Taking① Chom Kitti

the average of each directional spectrum and H/V spectral ratio② Wat Phrathat Doi Suthep

calculated from the three measurements, and then after calculat-

Both sites have a history of earthquake damage and it is con-ing predominant frequency F and ampliﬁcation factor A as thesidered that they have a high possible of sustaining earthquake

measurement amount of each measuring site, analysis is carrieddamage sometime in the future. It is also thought that they areout. However, when calculating the average, items that appear tohighly exposed to landslide damage. Particularly with regard tobe heavily inﬂuenced by adjacent noise, such as passers-by, were

the former, the 2007 earthquake caused the ﬁnial of the pagoda

omitted so for several locations the analysis results are for theapex to fall, and damaged the southern end of the earth retain-

one-time 40.96 second measurements. Assuming that the shear

ing wall in the southeast side causing the discharge of sediment.

wave velocity of the base Vb is 600 m/s based on the estimatedWith regard to the latter, soil improvement work is currently

predominant frequency F and amplification factor A, the basebeing carried out to prevent landslides. The locations of the cul-depth h taken from formula (1) is estimated and surface layer

tural properties where the microtremor surveys were carried out

fragility index Kg is calculated according to (2).

are shown in Figure 0.
h ＝ Vb/(4AF)This report is based on a microtremor measurement survey

2

Kg ＝ A /F(measurement dates: 22nd and 23rd November, 2009) of the

(1)
(2)

ground surrounding the cultural properties, and states the resultsof the estimated ground motion characteristics of the surround-

3. Measurement results and analysis

ing ground.

3.1 Distribution of measuring sites
Distribution of measuring sites per location is shown in both

2. Microtremor measurement and analytical methods

Figures 1 and 2.

A microtremor is an extremely small vibration measurable
anywhere and at any time, and possible causes can be attributed

For Chom Kitti, microtremors were measured at a total of

to natural activities (weather and ocean waves etc.) and the

30 places including 29 places within the area centered on thesocial activities of humans (roads, railroads and construction

pagoda and within the pagoda terrace together with one ground-work etc.). The idea of using this micro vibration to estimate thebased place outside the area. Measuring sites were placed taking

ground motion characteristics of surface layers and structures

into account the direction the pagoda is tilting and the parts thatis not a new one. However, microtremors reﬂect a diversity of

had collapsed within the area.

possible causes and their micro vibrations contain a wide range
In the case of Doi Suthep, we distributed measuring sites

of information so extracting the information necessary for our
purposes will become crucial.

across the length and breadth of the region centering on theHere, our analysis aims to estimate the ground motion char-area where ground improvement work has been carried out. We

acteristics (natural frequency and amplification factor etc.) of

measured microtremors at a total of 15 places including 4 places

soil deposits occurring due to multiple reﬂections of shear waves

within the pagoda grounds and 5 places within the ground im62

Chapter 2 Case Study

provement work area, and then 6 places around the periphery of

the terrace area for both the spectrum and spectral ratio. This

those areas.

shows that there were no vibration sources caused by nearby
disturbances so microtremor conditions were stable. Further, it

3.2 Measurement results

showed that low-frequency H/V converges to a value slightly

Both regions have a lot of tourists so people passing nearby

higher than one at many measuring sites and vertical motion

the measuring sites were unavoidable. The locations inﬂuenced

is relatively small. It is believed this shows the influence ofby disturbances, such as passers-by, during measurement time

the surface pavement, and suggests that the amplification fac-

are as follows.

tor is slightly overestimated. Looking at H/V, the predominantfrequency is in the 2.5 Hz range and the ampliﬁcation factor is

Chom Kitti: Compared to measurements taken within the ter-around 10 times. It was acknowledged that two predominantrace (B measuring site group) where people do not pass nearby,

frequencies were clearly adjacent in the X-direction. There wasmeasurements taken outside the terrace were heavily inﬂuenced

generally only one Y-direction predominant frequency. Further,by disturbances such as passers-by, and G3 and G9 measure-the trough decline acknowledged after the H/V peak was not as

ments were particularly noticeable. At G3, in addition to passers-

large. This shows that the inﬂuence of surface waves is not large.

by, particularly large vertical motion was measured, and it is
Reading the predominant frequency and ampliﬁcation factor

feared that air gaps have formed between the nearby pavement
and ground. A more detailed survey is recommended.

from the H/V spectral ratio, the frequency and ampliﬁcation factor of directional components with a large Kg value and the Kg

Doi Suthep: The influence of people circling and saying

value then calculated together with the estimate value of sedi-

prayers within the terrace area was strikingly evident in G4

mentary layers are shown in Table 1 and the mapped version ismeasurements. Aside from that, inﬂuences on G8, G14 and G3

shown in Figure 7. The diagrams visually display the measure-measurements were also noticeable. G9 to G13 were within thement results in a two-dimensional form centering on the pagoda

ground improvement work area but this had no inﬂuence con-building, and they show graphs, compiled per survey line, ofsidering that work was temporarily halted for us while measure-measuring site groups placed on the grid around the pagoda.

ments were being taken.
Looking at these diagrams, while the predominant frequency
The inﬂuence of noise created by people passing-by, as noted

is generally constant between 2.5 Hz to 2.8 Hz, the ampliﬁca-

above, was evidenced by the peak section of the H/V spectraltion factor fluctuates greatly between 3 to 15 times depending

ratio being shifted downward, which could have lead to an un-on the measuring site. Together with this, sedimentary layer

derestimated ampliﬁcation factor. At measuring sites where theestimated results also ﬂuctuate greatly according to location, andinfluence of traffic noise was acknowledged (Chom Kitti: G3

results show that the layer becomes shallow at the area outside

and G9; Doi Suthep: G3, G4, G8 and G14), noise inﬂuence wasthe corner of the pagoda side where it is tilting. It is consideredadjusted by estimating the amplification factor using pre-peakthat because it is concrete coated, the ground motion at the sur-trough as a criteria when the shift was large.

face would not change greatly according to place. Thus, it ispresumed that shear strain occurring in soil deposits will greatly

3.3 Analytical results and analysis

increase where sedimentary layers are thin so the Kg value in-

A spectral analysis of the measured microtremor waveform

creases at the southern area around the corner. When above 45

was performed, and the Fourier spectrum per directional compo-(10-6 / Gal, Gal=cm/s2) the Kg value is large so it is considerednent (X, Y, Z) of each measuring site and H/V spectral ratio (X/that some form of ground displacement will occur at a ground

Z, Y/Z) are shown in Figures 3 to 6 per location. The analysis re-motion of about 20 Gal and over (just able to withstand an earth-sults of measured microtremor waveform for each location willquake measuring four or above on the Japanese intensity scale,be stated below.

or seven or above on the MMI, Modiﬁed Mercalli Intensity).

3.3.1 Chom Kitti

3.3.2 Doi Suthep

Here we will show the spectrum and spectral ratio for loca-

Perhaps attributable to the large amount of tourists, compared

tions divided between the terrace area (B measuring site group)to Chom Kitti, H/V spectral ratio variations estimated from theand its periphery area (G measuring site group). As shown by themeasurement results are large. Their H/V peak, which is lessdiagrams, little variation can be seen per measuring site withinthan 10 times and in the range of 3 Hz, is smaller than Chom63

Chapter 2 Case Study

Kittiʼs. The post-peak trough is slightly predominant, showing

seven on MMI).

the existence of surface waves. Although the low-frequency H/Vhere also is slightly large, it is around the one Hz, and it is pre-Currently, it is considered that since ground piles have been

sumed that valid estimate values have been given for predomi-

continuously formed to surround the terrace and the groundnant frequency and ampliﬁcation factor.

surface have been covered by concrete pavement as a counter-

Reading the peak frequency and ampliﬁcation factor from themeasure, the possibility of the pagoda subsiding despite soil

spectral ratio, directional components with a large Kg value are

ﬂuidization is small. However, it is thought that an examination

shown as a predominant frequency and their ampliﬁcation fac-

is required in the event of soil liquefaction occurring due to large

tors are shown in Table 2. The Kg value estimated from theseground motion and the soil surfaceʼs concrete coating becoming

values and the basement depth as a reference value (sedimentarydamaged. At the G3 measuring site, because abnormal verticallayer) are also shown in this Table. Figure 8 relates these val-

motion was observed and air gaps may have formed under theues to each survey point and is a visual display of these values

concrete coating surface, it is considered that a survey is neces-

centered on the pagoda building. The diagram also providessary.

a graphical rendering of horizontal and vertical survey lines
2) Doi Suthep

around the periphery of this area.

1. The natural frequency of surface layers is an amplification

According to these diagrams, the predominant frequency
barely fluctuates at around the 3 Hz mark. The amplification

factor of approximately 3 to 6.5 times at about 3 Hz.

factor ﬂuctuation between 3 and 6.5 is minor. Places where sedi-

2. Predominant frequency ﬂuctuations are minor and ampliﬁca-

mentary layers are thin or the Kg value is small corresponds withtion factor only ﬂuctuated to around the two times mark.

places where soil improvement work was carried out, meaning

3. Estimated sedimentary layers became thinner on the west

it will correspond to places judged to be highly-exposed to land-side, and estimated Kg value results increased at the periphery ofslide hazards. However, the Kg value was small when below thethis area.

9 mark so it is presumed that ground displacement will occur at

4. The Kg value was approximately 9 and below, and becomesa ground motion of well in excess of 100 Gal (able to withstandsmaller than Chom Kitti, which had a considerable number ofan earthquake measuring ﬁve or above on the Japanese intensity

measuring sites exceeding 10.

scale, or eight on MMI).

5. Places with larger Kg values largely correspond to places
which are carrying out landslide measures, and it is presumed

3.4 Summarythat large level ground motions far exceeding 100 Gal (able to

The results of the survey of microtremors in Chom Kitti andwithstand a earthquake measuring ﬁve or above on the Japaneseintensity scale, or eight on MMI) could cause some form of

Doi Suthep revealed the following.

transformation.
1) Chom Kitti
4. Conclusion

1. It is estimated that the natural frequency of surface layers is

The above outlined the results of our mictrotremor survey.

about 2.5 Hz and an amplification factor of approximately 10
times

Although the results reviewed here do not touch on nonlinear

2. While predominant frequency ﬂuctuations within the temple

characteristics at all, gaining results consistent with physicalgrounds are not as large as that, ampliﬁcation factor variations

inspections of deformities and hazards, showed that microtremor

are large. And sedimentary layer and Kg value estimated results

research greatly contributes to securing the seismic and healthvary according to the site.

assessment of cultural properties.

3. A tendency for Kg values at the circumference of the cornerIn the event of a large earthquake exceeding ﬁve on the Japa-of the leaning pagoda to increase when above approximately

nese intensity scale, the physical properties of surface layers-6

50 (10 / Gal) was shown, and if the pagodaʼs tilt is due to anchange greatly due to strain, causing phenomena such as reduced

earthquake, it is presumed that this is attributable to foundation

natural frequency. This may be a nonlinear characteristic but

ground ﬂuidization.

such changes generally cause greater soil displacement, leading

4. It is presumed that fluidization occurred at ground motion

to increased ground hazards. We would be very pleased if suf-

greatly exceeding 20 Gal (just able to withstand an earthquakeﬁcient attention was paid to such issues.
There were several other interesting phenomena thrown up

measuring four or above on the Japanese intensity scale, or64Chapter 2 Case Studyby this microtremor survey but these issues should be examinedfurther in future research.
Lastly, when carrying out the measurement work, I received
the cooperation and support of Yoko Futagami, Senior Researcher, and Tomomi Haramoto, Research Fellow, both of the
National Research Institute for Cultural Properties, Tokyo; andMr. Sudchai Phansuwan, civil engineer, and Ms. Manatchaya
Wajvisoot, architect, both of the Thailand Ministry of Culture. I
would like to express my gratitude here in writing.

	
  

	
  

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4-5 International Support

the planʼs validity. On the other hand, cultural heritage earth-

The aforementioned cultural heritage sites have never re-quake disaster prevention initiatives in Thailand, such as earth-ceived any assistance through international cooperation for post-

quake resistance measures and hazard assessment, are in theirdisaster restoration and renovation. Articles in some guidebooks

infancy. One reason for this could be the fact that the frequency

do state that UNESCO and Japanese donations funded work on

and scale of earthquakes in Thailand over the past 100 years do

the upper section of Wat Chedi Luang in Chiang, carried out innot match those experienced in Japan. Nevertheless, the real

1992 to repair damage caused by an earthquake over 400 years

possibility of an M7 class major earthquake striking at any time,ago (1545). However, no confirmation of this could be foundas indicated by past records and active fault surveys, makes theamongst UNESCO budget records, and the FAD could not verify

installation of cultural heritage site earthquake countermeasures

its authenticity either because they had no record of the details,

crucial.
As stated at the beginning of this report, post-natural disasterand the staff who worked in the Chian Mai regional ofﬁce at that

rescue activities have to prioritize competing demands such as

time had apparently either left or retired.
When interviewing FAD specialists about what kind of help

lifesaving operations and infrastructure restoration. Therefore,

they can expect from Japan in the future, the subject of post-

attempting to organize domestic operations (or even more so,disaster rescue did not come up: instead, the FAD is hoping tointernational teams), to enter affected regions just after a disasterlearn from Japanese earthquake disaster prevention case studies.

in order to rescue cultural heritage sites is not only impractical,

In particular, they would like to learn speciﬁc earthquake resist-it could also generate hostility. What is needed, instead, is a “dis-ance techniques, methods of studying cultural heritage sitesʼ

aster prevention” perspective that minimizes the action required

vulnerability to earthquakes, and the formulation of maintenancewhen a disaster strikes. Therefore, implementing joint researchplans, together with the development of public systems such as

projects before a problem occurs, even if it calls for international

the coordination of organizations involved in cultural property

cooperation to implement effective operations, is desirable. Suchdisaster prevention and information distribution. Current earth-prevention relates fundamentally to antiseismic reinforcement,

quake resistance standards in Thailand are only speciﬁed in laws

seismic diagnosis and microtremor measurement as carried out

related to building standards. None of these laws specificallyby this study, to assess structure fragility. It also includes devel-target cultural heritage sites, and it appears that there are no an-

oping systems such as cultural heritage conservation schemes

tiseismic reinforcement guidelines speciﬁed for cultural heritage

founded on damage anticipation assessment, the examinationsites.

of such schemes, disaster-period information distribution, andOther Japanese initiatives that interest the FAD include the in-concrete rescue operations methods. It is also necessary to com-ventory of information relating to the disaster history of culturalmunicate the signiﬁcance of cultural heritage and its protection

heritage sites, and the utilization of databases to support culturalto those physically closest to the sites, such as owners and local

heritage site disaster prevention activities, such as hazard assess-residents. Such groups could help to protect cultural heritage

ment through the use of overlays with hazard maps similar tosites when it is impossible for specialists to enter the scene soon

those used for earthquakes and ﬂooding. With regard to the for-after a disaster, in which case methods of educating and commu-

mulation of disaster prevention schemes utilizing GIS databases,

nicating with such groups needs to be examined. It is believedsince Japan has also just started developing such initiatives, itthat Japan, which experienced a major earthquake of its own inis hoped that mutually beneﬁcial insights can be gained through1995, has a lot to offer in terms of disaster prevention initiatives

collaborative research with Thailand.

that address a wide range of matters.

5. Conclusion and Recommendations

It was clear from this study that, due to the similar sizes ofDuring times of disaster, cultural heritage rescue operations in

our nations, and Japanʼs abundant experience in dealing withThailand are carried out by a collaborative system underpinned

major earthquake damage, Thailand Ministry of Cultureʼs Fineby the Ministry of Cultureʼs Fine Arts Department (particularly

Arts Department seeks joint research opportunities with Japan.

the Ofﬁce of Archaeology), and 15 regional ofﬁces who directly

After collaborating with specialists from various ﬁelds, we be-handle cultural heritage affairs across the country. Expenditure

lieve there is great deal that Japan can contribute to Thailand inand procedure plans for completing urgent post-disaster repairs,

this ﬁeld, and that our contribution would be highly signiﬁcant.

as well as pre-determined full-scale repairs, are submitted by

In addition, while it is acknowledged that cultural heritage inregional ofﬁces for review by an FAD committee, who examine

Thailand possesses its own particular problems, it is believed
74Chapter 2 Case Studythat since we share a number of similar concerns, such as theapplication of databases, Japan will also beneﬁt from feedback
obtained during joint research in this field between our two
countries.
Lastly, we would like to thank all those who cooperated inthis study from the Office of Archaeology, Fine Arts Department, Ministry of Culture; the 8th Regional Ofﬁce of Fine Arts;
and the Department of Mineral Resources, Ministry of Natural
Resources and Environment; as well as friends at the Ministry ofForeign Affairs, Kingdom of Thailand, who greatly encouraged
the author.

75

Chapter 2 Case Study

3. Indonesia(Case studies of the Tsunami Disaster Triggered by the Sumatra
Earthquake, the Central Java Earthquake, and the Padang Earthquake)
1. Research Overview

post-disaster cultural heritage restoration and international coop-

In recent years, we are seeing growing concern about damage

eration, based on a number of case examples. The ﬁnal section

to cultural heritage, as we witness increasing examples of suchpresents a summary conclusion of the study and proposals.

damage caused by both natural and human-induced disasters.
To safeguard irreplaceable cultural heritage, routine disaster

Research Scheduleprevention measures are strongly sought, but initiatives against

Duration Phase 1: November 1 (Sun) – 6 (Thu), 2009

disasters vary widely according to country. In many cases, full-Phase 2: November 18 (Wed)ﬂedged disaster prevention schemes for preservation of cultural– December 1 (Tue), 2009

heritage are established for the first time only after invaluableassets have received catastrophic damage from a natural disaster.

[Phase 1 Survey]

However, based on a growing awareness that recovery process

Nov 1 (Sun)of disaster-affected cultural heritage requires prompt and effec-

Nov 2 (Mon) Depart Bali, arrive in Jogjakarta

Depart Japan, arrive in Balitive action, foreign countries are increasingly seeking Japanʼs

Prambanan Temple Compounds (Loro Jonggrang,

cooperation, and Japanese experts are finding themselves pro-

Sewu, Asu), Ratu Bokoviding cooperation more frequently than ever. Yet even so, once

Nov 3 (Tue)Participation in a UNESCO expertsʼ site visit

a disaster occurs, it is difﬁcult to respond in a fully prompt andBorobudur Temple, Pawon Temple, Mendut

effective manner. Therefore, we must always be prepared with a

Temple, Sewu Temple, Loro Jonggrang Temple

clear assessment of how it may contribute to disaster relief, andNov 4 (Wed) International experts meeting on Borobudurshould consistently maintain a cooperative relationship with po-

Temple and the Prambanan Temple Compounds

tential beneﬁciary countries.

(hosted by UNESCO)
Nov 5 (Thu)

Under this circumstance, the Japan Consortium for Interna-International experts meeting on Borobudur Temple and the Prambanan Temple Compounds

tional Cooperation in Cultural Heritage (JCIC-Heritage) was requested by the Japanese Agency for Cultural Affairs to conduct a

Depart Jogjakarta

research on international cooperation in the recovery process of

Nov 6 (Fri)Arrive in Japandisaster-affected cultural heritage. The main focus of the study
was to examine disaster prevention and response frameworks in[Phase 2 Survey]

Indonesia in relation to cultural heritage, and to assess the reality

Nov 18 (Wed) (Tashiro) Depart Japan, arrive in Jakarta

of international cooperation in the recovery process of disaster-Nov 19 (Thu) Depart Jakarta, arrive in Padang
Participation in damage assessment survey onaffected cultural heritage through specific examples of post-

historic buildings

disaster international cooperation in ﬁve countries including In-

Nov 20 (Fri) Meeting with Prof. Eko of Bung Hatta University

donesia. For Indonesia, the examples we selected were the Aceh

Participation in an urban planning survey

tsunami disaster that resulted from the Sumatra Earthquake,(Sugahara) Depart Japan, arrive in Jakarta

the Central Java Earthquake, and the most recent West Sumatra

Nov 21 (Sat) Inspection of the Pariaman area

Earthquake, which struck Padang in September 2009.
This present section provides an overview of the survey, and

Nov 22 (Sun) Depart Padang, arrive in Banda Aceh

Section 2 describes the characteristics of natural disasters in In-

Meeting

donesia and to cultural heritage. Section 3 discusses disaster pre-Nov 23 (Mon) Meeting

vention and restoration frameworks related to cultural heritage,

Visit to the Harun residence (Pak. Harun Kuchik

and Section 4 provides a general understanding of the reality ofLeumiek)

77

Chapter 2 Case Study

Ali Hasjmi Education Foundation (Yayasan Pen-try of Culture and Tourism.

didikan Ali Hasjmi)

Nov 30 (Mon) West Sumatra Provincial Museum

Bureau of Culture and Tourism of Aceh Provin-West Sumatra Provincial Librarycial Government

Local archives

Archives (Badan Arsip)

Sugahara and Tashiro depart Padang (12:30)

International Centre for Aceh and Indian Ocean

Dec 1 (Tue)

Arrive in Japan

Studies (ICAIOS)
Members of the Mission

Nov 24 (Tue) Archives (Badan Arsip)
Aceh Provincial Museum (Museum Negeri

Yumi Sugahara (Lecturer, Department of Asian Studies, Faculty

Propinsi)

of International Culture Studies, Tenri University), Phase 2

Aceh Documentation and Information Center

survey(PDIA)

Akiko Tashiro (Research Fellow, Japan Consortium for Interna-

Tsunami Museum, Dutch Cemetery (exterior

tional Cooperation in Cultural Heritage), Phase 1 and 2 sur-

only)

veys

Research Center for the Study of History andTraditional Values (Balai Kjian Sejarah dan Nilai

Indonesian experts

Traditional)

Dr. Oman Fathurahman (Researcher, Islamic Society ResearchCenter, Islamic University of Indonesia Jakarta Campus), Par-

Nov 25 (Wed) Meeting

ticipation in the Padang survey

Taman Sari Gunongan Monument

Pramono (Lecturer, Faculty of Letters, Andalas University), Par-

Depart Banda Aceh, arrive in Jakarta

ticipation in the Padang survey

Nov 26 (Thu) UNESCO Jakarta Ofﬁce
National Library of Indonesia (Perpustakaan National)

2. Characteristics of Disaster Damage to Cultural Heritage

Directorate General of History and Archaeology,

in Indonesia

Ministry of Culture and Tourism

This section provides a general overview of natural disasters

Nov 27 (Fri) Meeting with Dr. Titik Pudjiastutithat have occurred in Indonesia in the past and the types of cul-

Depart Jakarta, arrive in Padangtural heritage assets that have been damaged in those disasters.

Meeting at Andalas University
2-1 Natural Disasters in Indonesia

Nov 28 (Sat) (Dr. Oman Fathurahman) Arrive in Padang

Indonesia, like Japan, is a volcanic earthquake country situ-(08:00)ated within a zone of high seismic activity known as the “Paciﬁc

Manuscript survey (destinations listed below)
Mesjid Raya Mudiak Padang / Surau Tandikek

Ring of Fire.” For this reason, it is frequently subject to such

(Padang Pariaman)

natural disasters as earthquakes, tsunamis triggered by earth-

Mesjid Raya VII Koto Ampalu (Padang Paria-

quakes, and volcanic eruptions, in addition to water disasters

man)such as floods and landslides. In December 2004, a massive

Surau Ampalu Tinggi (Padang Pariaman)

earthquake occurred and shifted more than 1,000 km of Indo-

Surau Baru Bintungan Tinggi (Padang Pariaman)

nesiaʼs plate boundary from the coast of Sumatra to the Indian

Surau Paseban (Padang)

Ocean. The resulting large tsunami claimed more than 170,000

Nov 29 (Sun) Manuscript survey (destinations listed below)

lives. Volcanic activities are also prominent in the country. On

Surau Darussalam (Agam)Java Island alone, where the capital city of Jakarta is located,

Surau Syattariah (Batusangkar, Tanah Datar)

small eruptions frequently still occur today from a number of ac-(Dr. Oman Fathurahman) Depart Padang (19:00)

tive volcanoes including Mount Guntur, Mount Merapi, Mount* Tashiro to follow a separate schedule to meet with Mr. Fitra

Buromo and Mount Semeru. Every year, regions throughout

Arda, head of the local archaeological heritage preservation of-Indonesia experience mudslides and sudden floods caused byﬁce for West Sumatra and Riau (known as BP3 Batusangkar),heavy seasonal rains. Particularly in the capital city of Jakarta,

an organization based in Batusangkar under the Directorate

annual ﬂoods virtually sweep away entire slum communities inGeneral of History and Archaeology of the Indonesian Minis-areas near river basins that are vulnerable to ﬂoods, and cause
78Chapter 2 Case Study

extensive damage. Newspapers broadcast that the main causes

Here, let us simply present a list of tangible and immovableof these frequent floods are deforestation and urban develop-

cultural heritage assets that have suffered disaster damage in thement based on inadequate city planning. In the large ﬂood thatpast ﬁve years and that appear to have had an inﬂuence on the

struck Jakarta in February 2007, close to 340,000 local residents

framework of recovery process of disaster-affected cultural heri-were urged to evacuate, but the city nevertheless suffered many

tage in Indonesia.

casualties. In Borneo near the Malaysian border, large-scale
mountain ﬁres frequently break out every year due to the burn-December 2004 Acehʼs written cultural heritage—damaged ining of ﬁelds especially during the dry season, and affect even thethe Sumatra Earthquake and resulting tsunami
March 2005

neighboring countries.

Historical wooden buildings—damaged in the
Nias Island Earthquake

2-2 Overview of Disaster Damage to Cultural Heritage in the

May 2006

Past

Monuments, royal palaces, and townscapesin Central Java and Jogjakarta, including theIndonesia is a multi-ethnic nation made up of more than 300

World Heritage site of the Prambanan Temple

ethnic groups. It is also an island nation with the worldʼs larg-

Compounds—damaged in the Central Java

est number of islands, including the islands of Java, where theEarthquake

capital city of Jakarta is located, Sumatra, Borneo (Kalimantan),

September 2009 Historical buildings in Padang—damaged in

Sulawesi, Bali, and many other islands of various sizes. While

the West Sumatra Earthquake

respecting this diversity in ethnic groups and regional cultures,Indonesia aims to achieve “unity within diversity,” as well as

3. Disaster Preparedness and Recovery of Cultural Heritage:

wishes to integrate the diversity as the nation of Indonesia. Con-

Structural Framework and Measuressequently, cultural policies play an extremely important role inIndonesia has experienced numerous natural disasters through-Indonesia. The Law on Cultural Property was issued in 1992

out its history, given the severe conditions of its natural environ-and remains in force today. There are more than 8,000 registered

ment. This section discusses the framework and initiatives whicharchaeological heritage sites in Indonesia, although the distribu-

Indonesia has taken to protect its cultural heritage from natural

1

tion naturally varies widely among the regions. Three cultural

disasters and to effectively respond to the occurrence of such

assets—Borobudur Temple, the Prambanan Temple Compounds,

disasters.

and Sangiran Early Man Site—and four natural assets have
3-1 Disaster Preparedness

been inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List (as of December 2009). To global society, the most well-known cultural

The Indonesian government, based on its reflections of theheritage in Indonesia is the large-scale stone structures in Java,

2004 tsunami disaster, is promoting studies regarding hazards

as represented by the Borobudur Temple and the Prambanansuch as earthquakes, tsunamis, and volcanic eruptions and theirTemple Compounds. However, many other historical structurescountermeasures, with support from various countries. For

also exist in Indonesia, including the traditional wooden build-

Japanʼs part, the Earthquake Research Institute of University

ings of Toraja, Nias, and Bukit Tinggi, colonial-style buildings,of Tokyo and the Indonesian Institute of Sciences (LIPI) have

Hindu temples such as the Pura Besakih in Bali, and the numer-commenced a project on “Multi-disciplinary Hazard Reduction

ous mosques and religious buildings that are found through thefrom Earthquakes and Volcanoes in Indonesia.” The project willcountry.

be implemented over a period of three years, from 2009 to 2011,
under the “Science and Technology Research Partnership for

It is difficult to assess past disaster damage to Indonesiaʼscultural heritage based on a broad understanding of its diversity,

Sustainable Development (SATREPS)” program of the Japan

but we were unable to find any historical materials containing

Science and Technology Agency (JST) and Japan International

relevant information during this research. The local archaeologi-

Cooperation Agency (JICA).2 In addition to the above two Japa-

cal heritage preservation ofﬁce holds reports on the restorationnese and Indonesian academic institutions, participants to theof monuments mainly in Java dating back to the period of Dutch

project also include ministries and agencies of the Indonesian

rule, including a report on the restoration of the Prambanan

government, such as the Survey and Map Agency; Agency ofTemple Compounds compiled in the early 1900s, but historical

Meteorological, Climate, and Earth Physics; National Disastermaterials that speciﬁcally focus on disaster damage to cultural

Prevention Agency; Ministry of Internal Affairs; Ministry of

heritage have not been found.

National Education; and Ministry of Public Works. The project79

Chapter 2 Case Study

speciﬁcally focuses on research activities in the following areas:

widely invited to share their views and provide their input to theelucidation and estimation of the mechanisms of earthquake andformulation of restoration policies and plans. The policies andtsunami occurrence; hazard countermeasures such as volcanic

plans that are formulated in this manner are implemented by theactivity prediction and activity evaluation methods; develop-

central government, local governments, cultural property own-

ment of social infrastructures that build anti-disaster capacities;

ers, NGOs, and universities4, under the guidance of experts.

disaster response systems and measures for overcoming social

The above restoration process differs between times of disas-

weaknesses during the reconstruction process; promotion of di-

ter and non-disaster times.

saster prevention education and awareness-raising activities; andEmergency countermeasures include the following activities:

cooperation with the government to ensure the effective applica-(1) Organization of a disaster assessment survey teamtion of research results.

(2) Preparation of a disaster assessment survey report after

Since the 2004 tsunami damage, progress has been made in

implementation of the survey

the establishment of frameworks for tsunami and earthquake pre-(3) Clean-up and implementation of measures for protection

vention. However, disaster prevention framework for disaster-of damaged cultural heritage

affected cultural heritage has not been planned or implemented(4) Implementation of measures for preventing secondary
damageespecially at provincial level.

(5) Establishment of a cultural heritage restoration committee
3-2 Strucutural Framework and Measures in Time ofand management teamDisaster
4. Case Studies

Disaster assessment surveys are conducted by the central
government, local governments, cultural property owners, andThis section spotlights the damage caused by the large earth-international agencies such as UNESCO. Article 3 of the 1992

quake that struck off the coast of Sumatra on December 26, 2004

Law on Cultural Property3 prescribes the obligation of the cen-and the resulting great Indian Ocean tsunami, as well as thetral government to conduct an assessment survey following a di-damage inﬂicted by the earthquake that hit Central Java on May

saster, but the central government may delegate the task to local

26, 2006, and analyzes these examples in relation to Indonesiaʼsgovernments. Cultural property owners are allowed to take part

response and support frameworks for cultural heritage assets thatin the survey. In the case of properties inscribed on the UNESCO

have suffered damage in the natural disasters. These two natural

World Heritage List, such as the Prambanan Temple Compounds

disasters not only captured widespread attention of global soci-and Borobudur Temple, UNESCO is also required to conduct aety, but they also played a signiﬁcant role in triggering reforms

survey.

of disaster-related frameworks in Indonesia. Furthermore, since

The funding for restoration work is paid out from the national

Japan was deeply involved in providing cooperation and recov-

budget by the central government in the case of national cultural

ery efforts for cultural heritage damaged in the two disasters, weheritage assets, and additional funds are accepted from local

can analyze the process of cooperation and recovery in the two

governments, NGOs, UNESCO and other international agencies,

cases in detail. This, we believe, is indispensable to establishingand cultural property owners. The formulation of restoration pol-frameworks related to the recovery of disaster-affected culturalicies and plans is placed in the hands of the central government.

heritage in Indonesia, as well as to examining Japanʼs future

However, if the damage is due to a natural disaster, experts arepolicies for international cooperation in cultural heritage preser-

Recovery process in times of disaster

Restoration process in non-disaster times

80Chapter 2 Case Study

4-1 Tsunami Damage Triggered by the Sumatra Earthquake

vation.

4-1-1 Overall Picture of the Disaster Concerned

During the planning phase of this study, the West Sumatra
Earthquake of September 30, 2009 occurred off the coast of

The major earthquake that occurred off the coast of Sumatra

Padang, West Sumatra. With a magnitude of 6, it wrought ex-

on December 26, 2004 and the resulting Indian Ocean tsunami

tensive damage to a large area centered on Padang, the capitalcaused great damage not only in Aceh, Indonesia, but also incity of West Sumatra, also generated concern about damage toThailand, Malaysia, Myanmar, Bangladesh, India, Sri Lanka, thecultural heritage. At the request of the UNESCO Jakarta Ofﬁce

Maldives, Somalia, Kenya, Tanzania, and the Seychelles, andand the Indonesian government, a survey team composed mainly

left more than 300,000 people dead or missing (Fig. 1).

of members from the National Research Institute for Cultural

The tsunami dealt such a devastating blow to economic andProperties, Tokyo was sent to Padang to conduct a disaster as-social infrastructures in various areas that even today, after ﬁve

sessment survey, with support from the Japan Consortium foryears, a great deal of effort is still directed to the restoration ofInternational Cooperation in Cultural Heritage (November 11

those destroyed infrastructures.

to 25, 2009). Given this turn of events, we hastily decided toDamage in Aceh

include this survey of cultural heritage damaged in the Padang
earthquake as our third casestudy. By examining the situation

The tsunami originated at the epicenter of the earthquake off

and issues concerning the recovery process of disaster-affected

the coast of Sumatra and came ashore along the northern tip ofcultural heritage in three different sites—Aceh ﬁve years after

Sumatra, where it caused great damage to Banda Aceh, the capi-

its disaster, Central Java three years after its earthquake, andtal and largest city of the coastal province of Aceh (Map 1). As

Padang in the immediate aftermath of its earthquake—we be-

many as 167,000 people are said to have lost their lives in thelieve we can pinpoint the type of assistance that is necessary at

disaster and more than 500,000 people left homeless in Bandaeach post-disaster stage.

Aceh alone.

Fig.1 Tsunami-affected areas[Source: http://www.fao.org/geonetwork/]

81

Chapter 2 Case Studytime, but these manuscripts have been lost in the disaster, along

Ｎ

SABANG↑

BEUEH I.
●

with many precious lives. Let us discuss the extent of damage

BANDA ACEH

KA
LA
MA

in Aceh from the perspective of Acehʼs written cultural heritage

IT
RA
ST

and other cultural assets.
Aceh was established at the mouth of the Aceh River in the

AN
DI
IN

late 15th century. It developed as a port city-state, and a central-

N
EA
OC

ized administrative system centered on the sultan emerged in theearly 17th century. Aceh reached its height of prosperity during
the reign of Sultan Iskandar Muda (reigned 1607-1636) and thefollowing Iskandar Thani (reigned 1636-1641). Taman Sari Gunongan, a monument that Sultan Iskandar Muda is said to have

NORTH SUMATRA

built for his wife Putroe Phang (Putri Pahang), still exists in

SIMEULE IS.
BANYAK IS.

Banda Aceh (Photo 1). As a representative architecture that dates
back to Acehʼs prosperous period, it was included in the UNESCO World Heritage Tentative List in 1995. The 2004 tsunami
reached up to this monument, but did not leave any conspicu-

Map.1 Map of Acheous signs of damage. The many burial markers that are found
4-1-2 Ditails of Disaster Damage to Cultural Heritagein Aceh also bespeak of the prosperous trade period, as well as

The tsunami not only destroyed institutions and facilities, but

provide valuable information on people who lived in Aceh in theit also deprived the country of the cultural heritage that embod-

past. One such example is the Dutch Cemetery, where Dutch sol-ies its social history, as well as many intellectual ﬁgures. This

diers who died during the Aceh War (1873-1912) and during thewas true also in Aceh, which was most severely affected by thesubsequent period are buried (Photo 2). The cemetery is locatedrecent disaster. Aceh ﬂourished as a gateway to Islam in South-

next to the Tsunami Museum that was built in 2009. Many of theeast Asia. Numerous manuscripts were produced during thisburial markers were washed away by the tsunami, but we understand that a search was launched immediately and the markers have been returned to their places with assistance from theDutch. Because the battle with the Dutch was especially intensein Aceh, there are few historical buildings in Aceh that were built
during the period of colonial rule under the Dutch, comparedto Java. The only building in Banda Aceh that we were able to
conﬁrm in our survey was the present Bank Indonesia buildingthat was built in 1916 as De Javasche Bank (Photo 3). We wereunable to check whether the building sustained any damage fromthe tsunami.
As seen above, tangible and immovable cultural heritage as-

Photo 1 Taman Sari Gunongan

Photo 2 Dutch CemeteryPhoto 3 Bank Indonesia (formerly De Javasche Bank)

82

Chapter 2 Case Study

sets are limited, and although a government inventory exists,(TUFS). The survey results were immediately presented to re-we were unable to confirm the content and details. Addition-

searchers in various countries including Japan, accompanied byally, before the Free Aceh Movement came to a tentative end ina video documentation of the damage.5

2005, it was difﬁcult to enter Aceh prior to the tsunami due to

The tsunami damage to the written cultural heritage can bepolitical reasons, so it is difﬁcult to say that an adequate survey

summarized as follows. (1) On the whole, the written culturalof cultural heritage has ever been conducted to date. Under thisheritage either received irreversible damage or hardly any dam-situation, the tsunami drew widespread attention to the historicalage from the tsunami. For instance, when buildings collapsed inmanuscripts that embody the written cultural heritage of Aceh.

the tsunami, documents that were housed on the ﬁrst ﬂoor were
swept away and unable to be salvaged, but in contrast, those thatAcehʼs Manuscripts: A Written Cultural Heritage

were housed on the second ﬂoor and above were mostly left un-

Aceh is where Islam was first established in Southeast Asia

disturbed. Damage at the Ali Hasjmi Education Foundation wasin the 13th century. It is a well-known fact that vestiges of thisan exception. The building was inundated, but with only about

history can be seen particularly on gravestones. Around the 16th

5 cm of water. Yet many books and documents were damaged,

to 17th centuries, Aceh became the center of Islamic learning

because shelves fell over in the earthquake, scattering materials

in Southeast Asia through interactions with the Middle East.

on the ﬂoor and leaving them to get soaked. (2) Acehʼs written

Religious scholars who were active in Aceh, such as ʼAbd al-Raʼ

cultural heritage needed assistance not so much for post-disasteruf al-Singkili (commonly known as Syiah Kuala) and Nur al-

restoration, but more for enhancement of regular management

Din al-Raniri, translated Arabic literatures into Malay, the local

capacities, such as for inventorying and cataloguing of materials

language, and greatly contributed to the advancement of Islamic

and for improving storage conditions. As there was hardly any

studies in Southeast Asia. These religious scholars wrote basic

information about Acehʼs written cultural heritage prior to thetexts such as Tafseer (Koran interpretation) and Fiqh (study ofdisaster, it was ﬁrstly necessary to compile inventories and cata-

Islamic law), as well as books on Suﬁsm (Islamic mysticism).

logs of the materials. Additionally, damage assessment surveys

These texts and books also provide invaluable resources for un-

exposed problems in the manner of preserving manuscripts. (3)derstanding the history of the Tariqah, a school of Islamic mysti-

Reﬂecting the salient characteristic of the Aceh region, many ofcism which came to have strong inﬂuence in Sumatra, Java, andthe manuscripts in Aceh were related to Islam. Therefore, aid

throughout Southeast Asia thereafter.

workers were also required to possess knowledge of Islamic

Some of the books that were written in the past by religious

manuscripts.

scholars in Aceh are still being published in Southeast Asia today. Manuscripts of Aceh that are in existence today are mostly

4-1-3 Current Condition of Written Cultural Heritage infrom the 18th to 19th centuries, and the majority of them are

Acheheld by libraries in the Netherlands and other foreign research

December 26, 2009 marked the fifth year since the tsunami

institutions. Information on their origin has been lost in mosthit Aceh. To assess post-disaster conditions, we conducted ancases, however, as they have changed hands many times during

inspection and interview survey mainly in areas where disasterthe colonial period. Manuscripts that still remain in Aceh areassessment surveys have been implemented after the tsunami

kept by Islamic religious schools called dayah or by individuals.
Some are now also owned by individual collectors and museums, as a result of being frequently traded, especially after theearthquake. The manuscripts that are kept by old dayah such as
Tanoh Abee and Awee Geutah, in particular, have captured theattention of experts as important materials for the research ofscriptoriums in Aceh, because their origins are relatively clear.
Damage to Acehʼs Written Cultural Heritage
Within a month of the tsunami, a team of researchers fromthe Islamic University of Indonesia gathered in Aceh and commenced a survey of damage to the written cultural heritage of

Photo 4 The newly rebuilt Aceh Documentation and Information
Center (PDIA)

Aceh in cooperation with Tokyo University of Foreign Studies
83Chapter 2 Case Study

MALAKA STRAIT

▲5
▲6

▲2

▲7

▲1
▲4
▲8
9▲
10▲

▲3

▲1 Pusat Dokumentasi dan Informasi Ache (PDIA)▲2 Balai Kajian Sejarah dan Nilai Traditional▲3 Yayasan Pendidikan Ali Hasjmi▲4 Museum Propinsi▲5 Badan Arsip▲6 Pusat Kajian Pendidikan dan Masyarakat (PKPM)▲7 Dinas Kebudayaan dan Pariwisata▲8 Museum Tsunami▲9 The Dutch Cemetery▲10 Taman Sari Gunongan

Map2 Map of Banda Ache and Investigated Places(Map 2), in cooperation with the TUFS Aceh Project for thecal Heritage Preservation Office (BP3 Aceh), a government

Preservation of Cultural Heritage and with support from PKPM

institution in charge of the preservation of archaeological(Pusat Kajian Pendidikan dan Masyarakat), a private organiza-

monuments. The ﬁrst research center was founded in 1995, buttion which works for the preservation of Aceh manuscripts as

there are now eleven such centers throughout Indonesia undera part of their activities. Below is a description of the sites wethe management of the Ministry of Culture and Tourism. With

visited, in the same order as the disaster assessment surveys.

the aim of researching and disseminating regional cultures andfolklore, the centers issue quarterly essays and publish annual(1) Aceh Documentation and Information Center (Pusat

journals, and distribute them to schools and governmental insti-

Dokumentasi dan Informasi Aceh: PDIA)

tutions in Aceh. The research center based in Aceh is in charge

PDIA was established and operated by Syiah Kuala Universityof the Aceh and North Sumatra area. The tsunami damaged thein Aceh and the Aceh provincial government, and was an institu-

building and deprived the center of its collection of books andtion widely utilized by university students. It was destroyed inmaterials that were kept on the ﬁrst ﬂoor. Books that were stored

the tsunami but was rebuilt in 2009 (Photo 4). The centerʼs entire

on the second ﬂoor survived the disaster, but were lost in a ﬁrecollection of close to 70 manuscripts was completed swept awaythat occurred six days later. Prior to the tsunami, the building

by the tsunami. The newly rebuilt building now holds books

had housed 6,000 books and 42 manuscripts (15, according tothat were received as gifts from the Netherlands. Manuscripts

a post-tsunami disaster assessment survey). The building was

are also desired, but are difﬁcult to obtain. The director of therebuilt in 2006 with funding from the Reconstruction Agency

center is also a lecturer at Syiah Kuala University, and has 18

for Aceh and Nias (Photo 5). The center had requested both

employees working under him. Although the building has beenrebuilding assistance and book aid, but received ﬁnancial assis-

rebuilt, the center has lost its entire collection of materials in thetance only. However, it now has a collection of 2,000 materials,

tsunami, so its immediate goal is to collect and amass books andthanks to book donations from the Royal Netherlands Institute ofmaterials anew.

Southeast Asian and Caribbean Studies (KITLV) Jakarta Ofﬁce,
National Library of Australia, and École Française dʼExtrême

(2) Research Center for the Study of History and Traditional

Orient (EFEO) Jakarta Ofﬁce. It also has two manuscripts that

Values (Balai Kajian Sejarah dan Nilai Traditional)

have been donated by the local community.

The Research Center for the Study of History and Traditional
Values is an institution under the Ministry of Culture and Tourism, on the same level as the Aceh-North Sumatra Archaeologi84

Chapter 2 Case Study

Photo 6 Manuscript preserved in an envelope

Photo 5 The newly rebuilt Research Center for the Study of History
and Traditional Values(3) Ali Hasjmi Education Foundation (Yayasan Pendidikan
Ali Hasjmi)
Ali Hasjmi Education Foundation is a library established by
Ali Hasjmi, the late chairman of the Council of Indonesian Muslim Associations, and has amassed books related to Islam. As
mentioned earlier, shelves fell over in the earthquake, scatteringbooks and materials on the ﬂoor and causing them to get soaked
when the tsunami hit and inundated the ﬂoor of the library with
about 5 cm of water. After the tsunami, Tokyo University of Foreign Studies compiled a catalog of materials in 2005. The libraryused to have about 300 manuscripts, but now has around 400,

Photo 7 Manuscript room

owing to donations from throughout the local community. With
support from PKPM (Pusat Kajian Pendidikan dan Masyarakat),(Photo 8), but no silica gel or other desiccant appears to be used.

100 or so manuscripts have been restored. The restored manu-

As only one member of the library staff is engaging in the digiti-

scripts have been placed in individual envelopes along withzation task, only three materials can be processed per day at thecloves for careful preservation (Photo 6). An inspection team

most. The University of Leipzig is currently supporting the digi-from Turkey had also come to survey the damage, but its visit

tization task, but as it is scheduled to leave Aceh in December

did not lead to concrete assistance. Following the cataloguing2009 to provide its assistance in the digitization of manuscripts

task by Tokyo University of Foreign Studies, members from thein Jogjakarta, the camera and other equipment that the library is

University of Leipzig in Germany arrived with photographic

currently borrowing from Germany will not be available for use

equipment and began to digitize the materials. So far, 146 ma-thereafter. Knowing this, the staff member has been undertaking

terials have been digitized, but this corresponds to less than half

the task in haste, but there is still a limit to how much a single

the total number of materials. The library is run by Mr.Suruya,

person can accomplish alone. In the end, the equipment will be

who is director of the library and Ali Hasjmiʼs son, and three em-

returned without completing the digitization of all manuscripts.

ployees. Two of them are helping with the sorting of materials,
and one is working as a digitization specialist.

(4) Aceh Provincial Museum (Museum Negeri Propinsi)

Manuscripts and other important materials are kept in a sepa-

The Aceh Provincial Museum was not directly affected by therate air-conditioned room located next to the directorʼs officetsunami, but because it houses a large collection of manuscripts,(Photo 7). However, the air conditioner is turned off when no-

the TUFS Aceh Project for the Preservation of Cultural Heritage

body is present, and the room is not necessarily maintained at a

has been working in partnership with the Provincial Museum

constant temperature. Manuscripts that have been reinforced or

to preserve the written materials of Aceh that are kept by theotherwise repaired are kept in individual envelopes with cloves,museum. The museum boasts a collection of 2,000 manuscripts.

but others are simply stacked as they are one atop the other.

In a restoration ofﬁce located inside the museum, workers who

Moreover, molds have appeared on a number of manuscripts

have participated in a paper restoration workshop hosted by To85

Chapter 2 Case Study

Photo 9 Restoration Laboratory

Photo 8 Mold discovered on a manuscript

kyo University of Foreign Studies engage in restoration activities (mainly reinforcement) (Photo 9). The Japanese paper that isbeing used to back manuscripts is provided by Japanʼs National
Diet Library. A number of materials employed in the restoration
process have also been contributed by Japan previously. The
manuscripts are not catalogued, but those that have been restored
in the restoration ofﬁce are placed in an envelope and sent to adigital scanning room also located inside the museum, where
they are scanned using a dedicated book scanner (Photo 10).
After scanning, information about each manuscript is enteredin a search system screen via the Internet, and the manuscript is

Photo 10 Book scanningstored in the museumʼs repository (Photo 11).
Through this study, a number of issues regarding the museum
have become apparent. The ﬁrst issue concerns the digitizationof manuscripts. The digitization project is being implemented by
the University of Leipzig of Germany, and the dedicated scanner and personal computer have been provided by the university.
However, as with the Ali Hasjmi Education Foundation, thedigitization task will be terminated in mid-course, because theportion of the project in Aceh is scheduled to be completed in
December 2009, and the project will be moving on to Jogjakarta
thereafter. The dedicated equipment that the museum has beenusing will also be transferred to Jogjakarta, so the museum will
have no wherewithal to continue with the digitization.
The second issue concerns the museumʼs manuscript reposi-

Photo 11 Museum repository

tory. Manuscripts that have been restored and digitized are

86

Chapter 2 Case Study

stored in a repository located inside the museum speciﬁcally for

who possess deep specialized knowledge, and the development

the storage of manuscripts, ancient cloths, metal objects, andof younger workers by those experts. At the same time, whenother such precious items. However, the air-conditioning facil-

considering the fact that the Provincial Museum presently relies

ity has been out of order for a long time, and the room is not

on Japanʼs assistance in acquiring Japanese paper and chemical

maintained at the proper temperature and humidity levels. In theagents used for paper restoration, other forms of assistance also

Aceh region, both temperature and humidity vary considerably

need to be examined in regard to restoration materials in order tobetween the dry season and rainy season. This large temperaturedevelop sustainable restoration efforts.

difference and high humidity are certain to have an adverse ef(5) Dayah Tanoh Abee

fect on the manuscripts as well as other art objects in safekeeping. During the ﬁve years since the tsunami, restoration efforts

Dayah Tanoh Abee is an Islamic boarding school locatedhave mostly been directed to social and economic infrastruc-about 50 km from Banda Aceh. It is said to have the largest col-tures in Aceh, such as houses, public institutions, and disaster

lection of manuscripts in Indonesia. We were unable to visit theprevention facilities, and there is no denying the sense that theschool during this study, but we understand that it remained un-

cultural aspect has been a low priority in Acehʼs Action plan for

affected by the earthquake and tsunami disaster. Tokyo Universi-

recovery. Amid this situation, aid was extended to the museum,ty of Foreign Studies conducted a survey and compiled a catalog

and a building was constructed on the grounds of the museumof the collection from 2005 to 2008, and thereafter, a new library

two years ago with funding from the Rehabilitation and Recon-

for storing the manuscript collection was constructed with subsi-

structions Executing Agency for Aceh and Nias. The three-story

dies from the Prince Claus Fund for Culture and Development inbuilding with a large open interior was designed to function as a

the Netherlands.

gallery, but it was deemed unﬁt to be used as a museum facility,and has remained closed and abandoned since it was completed(6) Provincial Archives (Badan Arsip)

two years ago. It is a typical example of massive infrastructure(7) Provincial Library (Perpustakaan Daerah)
Today, the provincial archives and library are merged together.

assistance that has been implemented without gauging local
needs.

The merged institution does not possess manuscripts, but it has

The last issue is in regard to restoration technologies for writ-

a collection of ofﬁcial documents mainly from after Indonesiaʼsten cultural heritage. The TUFS Aceh Project for the Preserva-

independence. It is said that there are documents among themtion of Cultural Heritage has offered training programs on athat date back to the 1920s. The tsunami swept away the ma-number of occasions, including programs on historical document

terials that were kept on the first floor of the building, but therestoration techniques (May 2005, Jakarta), document manage-

majority of materials were stored on the second ﬂoor and above

ment techniques (December 2005, Aceh), and material organiza-

and remained intact. With the assistance of Japan Internationaltion and preservation techniques (2006, Aceh). Additionally, two

Cooperation Agency (JICA), land register documents were sal-members involved in the preservation of Acehʼs written cultural

vaged and a number of them were taken to Jakarta for restora-

heritage have been invited to attend a three-month training pro-tion after the tsunami. The National Archives in Jakarta provided

gram in Japan. The local programs were open to Aceh Provincial

post-tsunami aid to the local archives, and the National LibraryMuseum personnel, as well as to people from the local archives,in Jakarta provided aid to the local library. However, in addition

the Ali Hasjmi Education Foundation, and Dayah Tanoh Abee.

to there being no archive specialists, there are no restoration ex-

Largely owing to these training programs, initiatives for theperts either, and no restoration work is presently underway. The

restoration of manuscripts, which did not exist prior to the tsu-

need for restoration is not acknowledged at present, probablynami, have begun to be implemented mainly by the Provincial

because the library/archives houses relatively new materials andMuseum and other relevant institutions. However, people whodoes not have any manuscripts. Still, it recognizes the need forare undertaking the restoration task today are those who haverestoration experts in the future, and expressed an interest in par-learned restoration techniques for the ﬁrst time after the tsunami.

ticipating in a workshop if offered.

Five years have passed since then, and they now require even(8) Harun Residence (Pak. Harun Keuchik Leumiek)

more specialized knowledge concerning paper restoration, butthey have no opportunity to do so, nor is there anyone who has

The post-tsunami survey did not cover the Harun residence,the capacity to provide that kind of knowledge. Most necessary

but PKPM provided assistance for the restoration of manuscripts

at the present stage is the development of restoration experts

in 2008. Mr. Harun Keuchik Leumiek is known for his collec87

Chapter 2 Case Study

tion of manuscripts and other antiquities, and is also an antique
art dealer. He has 28 manuscripts and 9 copies of the Koran in
his possession (Photo 12). Fortunately, the manuscripts he has
been collecting since before the tsunami saw no damage. Thanks
to PKPM, the entire collection of manuscripts and copies of theKoran have ﬁnished being photographed. At the same time, themanuscripts have been partially reinforced and placed in separate envelopes along with cloves. Packets of silica gel are placedon the shelves holding the manuscripts, but the room itself seems
to be maintained at a constant temperatureAs a discerning collector of manuscripts, Mr. Harun offers his views and judgmentto the Ali Hasjmi Education Foundation regarding manuscripts

Photo 13 A packet of silica gel placed next to a manuscriptthat are frequently brought to the foundation. Compared to otherand its total destruction of cities in Aceh in effect triggered therepositories, manuscripts at the Harun residence are preserved inopportunity to thrust open the doors of Acehʼs closed society to

an excellent environment with careful attention to small details

the world. The Indonesian government initially allowed foreign

such as placing packets of silica gel near the manuscripts (Photo

government teams and NGOs to provide relief in Aceh only as a

13).

provisional measure in the wake of the tsunami, but it thereafter
acknowledged the necessity of international cooperation for re-

4-1-4 International Cooperation

construction of Aceh. Today, it has even become possible for for-Since even before the tsunami hit Aceh, political issues ineign organizations to establish a direct cooperation framework

Aceh had been attracting widespread concern from the interna-with Aceh, without involving the central government in Jakarta.

tional community, especially because the region uniquely re-Especially since the Free Aceh Movement and the Indonesian

mained closed off from important information compared to othergovernment signed a peace agreement in 2005, it has become

regions in Indonesia. The Free Aceh Movement, which beganeasier for foreigners to step foot into Aceh, compared to before

ﬁghting for Acehʼs independence ever since Indonesia gained its

2004.

independence, continued to be active even after the collapse of

Below, let us focus on foreign assistance for Acehʼs cultural

the Suharto administration in 1998. However, the 2004 tsunami

heritage in response to the Aceh tsunami, and discuss the role ofJapanʼs assistance.
Japanʼs Cooperation
Many Japanese institutions have provided diverse assistancein response to the Aceh tsunami, ranging from emergency aid
immediately after the tsunami to housing reconstruction efforts
much later. In contrast, there has hardly been any assistance forcultural heritage, except for the assistance for Acehʼs written
cultural heritage by Tokyo University of Foreign Studies. Herelet us take a brief look at Japanʼs assistance and particularly theactivities of Tokyo University of Foreign Studies from the perspective of international cooperation.
The university was able to take prompt action in response to
the tsunami damage to Acehʼs written cultural heritage, because
it had already established a foundation for survey and research
and achieved certain results in Indonesia before the disaster. The
Centre for Documentation and Area-Transcultural Studies (CDATS) project, which was launched in the university in fiscal
2002, two years before the tsunami, was the first core. Focus-

Photo 12 Manuscripts on display

88Chapter 2 Case Studying on the fact that many Asian and African language materials

Affairs and the bestowment of diverse funds including grants

on local regions have not been fully appreciated and are at risk

from the Toyota Foundation. Moreover, through frequent visits

of widespread dispersion and loss, the project aims to preserve

made for whatever purpose, the continuity of the project hasthese materials in an accessible digital format and provide them

deepened the relationship of trust between the two sides.

for research purposes, without removing them from where they

The last characteristic is that assistance via the project isoriginally belong. Under this project, the university has been

implemented from the standpoint of how Acehʼs manuscripts

undertaking the cataloguing and digitization of local documents

should be preserved in the future, and not from the short-termin Palembang and Padang in Sumatra since ﬁscal 2003 in col-perspective of how to deal with manuscripts that have been dam-laboration with local Indonesian researchers. As an extension of

aged. Full details of the manuscripts were unknown at the plan-

this undertaking, it planned to work on documents in Aceh fromning stage of assistance, so assistance was ﬁrstly deemed neces-ﬁscal 2005.

sary for their documentation, namely inventorying, cataloguing,

However, on December 26, 2004 the Sumatra Earthquake tookand digitizing of the manuscripts. Issues concerning restoration,

its toll on numerous lives and wrought devastating damage topreservation, and management emerged after that. The project is

Acehʼs historical documents. Archives, libraries, and universities

being implemented in phases according to the manuscript reposi-in Indonesia requested the cooperation from Tokyo University

tory and its condition, and workshops on manuscript restorationof Foreign Studies in the restoration and preservation of histori-

have been held with the cooperation of National Research Insti-

cal documents and other written cultural heritage in Aceh. Intute for Cultural Properties, Tokyo and Gangoji Institute for Re-

response to this request and the seriousness of the situation, thesearch of Cultural Property. On the Japanese side, a framework

university decided to direct part of its C-DAT activities to Aceh

has been established for the appraisal of the value of manuscripts

and to apply its efforts to surveying and digitizing what histori-

by experts on Middle East and Islam studies, and for the resto-

6

cal documents survived the disaster.

ration of the manuscripts themselves. On the Indonesian side,

Tokyo University of Foreign Studies is still continuing with its

liaison conferences are being held among the National Library,activities in Aceh as of 2009 today, as detailed in the reference

National Archives, the Islamic University of Indonesia, and the7Indonesian Association for Nusantara Manuscripts (MANASSA),

material. Here let us focus on the characteristics of the universityʼs assistance project for Aceh. Firstly, the Aceh project was

and Indonesian assistance is being implemented in consideration

made possible owing to the relationship that the university hasof the views of all institutions concerned.

established with Indonesian researchers since before the tsunami
disaster. That relationship of trust led to the prompt provision

Foreign Assistanceof information immediately following the tsunami and to the

University of Leipzig (Germany)
The University of Leipzig in Germany commenced its manu-

request for assistance from the Indonesian Association for Nus-

script digitization project in Aceh in 2007. It has digitized manu-

antara Manuscripts (MANASSA) and other researchers.
Secondly, even amid the post-disaster turmoil, substantive in-scripts kept by the Ali Hasjmi Education Foundation and theformation was relayed to the Japanese side through its relation-

Aceh Provincial Museum, and completed its work in Aceh inship of trust with the Indonesian side, and that information was

December 2009. The scope of the project includes manuscripts

also provided to the Japan International Cooperation Agency

not only in Aceh but also throughout the Middle East and Asia,(JICA), as it was planning to extend its assistance to disaster-and from after December 2009, it plans to transfer to Jogjakarta,

affected areas. Upon careful consideration, JICA decided toalong with all digitizing equipment, to embark on the digitization

concentrate its assistance in the restoration of land register docu-

of manuscripts that are stored in the Royal Palace. However, as

ments.

mentioned earlier, this has raised a problem, because the project

The third characteristic is the projectʼs continuity. Compared

and all its equipment have moved on to the next location evento emergency aid, which is provided intensively short term,

though the digitization of manuscripts in Aceh has not been fully

long-term assistance is dependent particularly on the availability

completed.

of funds. However, particularly noteworthy about this project

The project is partly funded by the German Ministry of For-is that it has been steadily ongoing and is now into its ﬁfth year

eign Affairs, but the University of Leipzig places main emphasis

owing to its implementation as a COE (Centers-of-Excellence)of its assistance on academic purposes, which are to digitize theproject under the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science

manuscripts and to create a database. Its attention is not directed

and Technology, with the sponsorship of the Agency for Culturalto the restoration and preservation of manuscripts.
89

Chapter 2 Case Study

École Française dʼExtrême-Orient (EFEO) and the Dutch

ter. Below is a summary of the post-disaster restoration of Acehʼ

Royal Institute of Southeast Asian and Caribbean Studies ins written cultural heritage based on activity reports of the Tokyo

Leiden (KITLV)

University of Foreign Studies and ﬁndings of this study.

The École Française dʼExtrême-Orient (EFEO) and the Dutch
Royal Institute of Southeast Asian and Caribbean Studies in

Characteristics of the tsunami damage: The manuscripts, mate-

Leiden (KITLV) both have an ofﬁce in Jakarta. They are provid-

rials, books, and other such written cultural heritage that were

ing assistance in the form of donating books to the Research

swept away by the tsunami were able to be divided into twoCenter for the Study of History and Traditional Values, whichtypes: those that were damaged to the point they are unsalvage-

has lost many of its books in the tsunami.

able, and those that were not damaged but whose preservation

KITLV has also digitized library books about Aceh after thecondition needs to be improved. In other words, it was necessary

tsunami, and has made them available for access via the Internet,

to determine what remained and what did not remain after thewith funding from the Dutch Ministry of Education and undertsunami, and to assess the identity of what remained. In somethe supervision of the Royal Library of the Netherlands in The

cases, books that were only slightly damaged when they got

8Hague.

soaked in water were later dried out, but ultimately they wereunable to be salvaged, because there was no prior knowledge

International Centre for Aceh and Indian Ocean Studies

that soaked books should not be dried in the sun.

(ICAIOS)The International Centre for Aceh and Indian Ocean Studies

Emergent Assistance: With respect to the written cultural heri-(ICAIOS) was established in cooperation by three universities

tage of Aceh, there was hardly any information before the tsu-

in Aceh and foreign academic institutions. The concept was an-nami on the type, location, and quantity of materials that existed.

nounced in 2007, and the research center was established on the

However, in less than a month after the tsunami, the extent ofcampus of Syiah Kuala University in the beginning of 2009.

damage to the written cultural heritage of Banda Aceh was madeThe primary objectives of ICAIOS are to support regional, do-widely known, thanks to the network of the Indonesian Asso-mestic, and international level surveys conducted in Aceh, seek

ciation for Nusantara Manuscripts (MANASSA). The prompta sustainable future for Aceh based on studies and research, andresponse of researchers based in Jakarta (i.e. regions that were

promote an understanding of the past. The current director of

not affected by the disaster) and their connection to researchers

the center is a Finnish cultural anthropologist, and the steering

overseas helped substantiate the information on damage condi-

committee is composed of members and professors from EFEO,

tions and identify the types of assistance that were needed. At

KITLV, Tokyo University of Foreign Studies, the British Li-

the same time, however, there were views worth considering,brary, Harvard University, and other such institutions. Funds arethat a mere month after a disaster might have been too early toprovided mainly by AusAID, the Australian governmentʼs aid

conduct a local survey in Banda Aceh, where human damage

program, and the United Nations Development Program (UNDP).

was overwhelming.

The University of Melbourne in Australia has also recently begun to provide its cooperation in research activities. ICAIOS

Phased assistance: There are two processes through which thefunctions as a center of Aceh studies for foreign researchers, asultimate goal of preserving Acehʼs written cultural heritage

well as plays an important role in invigorating academic activi-

must be preserved: one involves the documentation of written

ties in Aceh, but it does not necessarily assume a role in coordi-

materials, including the inventorying, cataloguing and digitiza-

nating international cooperation.

tion of those materials, and the other deals with the preservation
condition of manuscripts, such as their restoration, storage, and

4-1-5 Conclusion

management. None of the relevant institutions in Aceh had everFive years have passed since the tsunami struck Aceh. Al-

systematically planned such processes, before or after the tsu-

though Banda Aceh was most severely devastated, reconstruc-nami. This oversight needs to be corrected.

tion efforts have made such remarkable progress that hardly

As emergency assistance, transferring manuscript restora-

any traces of the disaster can be seen in the city today. Yet,tion techniques and supplying Japanese paper and chemical

abandoned buildings, wasteland, boats washed inland and left

agents for use in restoration work is easy enough to do and at

abandoned in residential areas, and townscapes made up entirely

times highly effective over the short term. However, from theof new buildings still offer glimpses of the severity of the disas-

perspective of continuity, it is also necessary to provide phased
90

Chapter 2 Case Study

assistance to relevant institutions from a long-term standpoint incultural heritage. Moreover, the building added to the Provincial

consideration of the issues confronting each institution, and to

Museum has no practical use, and has remained abandoned forestablish a mechanism that allows restoration materials to be do-

two years, as mentioned earlier.

mestically purchased on a continual basis. It might also be pos-Aceh is the only province where foreign institutions can in-sible to strategically support a speciﬁc institution only and countteract with the provincial government to ensure the effective andon it to disseminate the technologies and knowledge of a certain

prompt implementation of international aid without involving

process to other institutions, but this requires continuous long-the central government in Jakarta. Furthermore, even ﬁve years

term training.

since the tsunami, the severity of its damage continues to stirconcern in the international community today, along with the

NGO activities in Aceh and their signiﬁcance: After the tsunami,

fate of the peace agreement that was thereafter signed between

foreign assistance poured into Aceh through NGOs, making

the Free Aceh Movement and the Indonesian government. Aceh

NGOs an extremely important component of international co-may therefore be a unique case, but the Aceh experience has cer-

operation in Aceh. The NGO PKPM (Pusat Kajian Pendidikan

tainly proven invaluable in the subsequent Central Java Earth-dan Masyarakat), which works in cooperation with Tokyo

quake of 2006 and the West Sumatra Earthquake of 2009.

University of Foreign Studies and the University of Leipzig,
was established in 2003 under the leadership of lecturers from

4-2 Central Java Earthquake (Bantul Earthquake)

Syiah Kuala University and the National Institute of Islamic

4-2-1 Overall Picture of the Disaster Concerned

Studies (IAIN) Ar Raniry. Before the tsunami, PKPM engaged

On May 27, 2006, a magnitude 6.3 earthquake struck the cen-in projects concerning education and gender issues, but 40% of

tral region of Java. According to reports, more than 3,000 people

its activities are now related to manuscripts, partly owing to its

were killed, and as many as 50,000 people were injured. With ancooperative relationship with the two foreign universities. It is aepicenter located inland, the earthquake wrought extensive dam-precious entity, because it naturally possesses deep knowledge

age in the regency of Bantul (Fig. 2).

of Islam and has members who are well-versed in the Jawi and4-2-2 Details of Disaster Damage to Cultural Heritage

Arabic languages in which manuscripts are written. PKPM also
cooperates in various ways in regard to manuscripts held byThere are many historical stone-made buildings and wooden

institutions that tend to be overlooked by the central and provin-buildings in Java, primarily in Central Java and Jogjakarta. The

cial governments, such as the Ali Hasjmi Education Foundation,

UNESCO World Heritage sites of Borobudur Temple and the

Dayah Tanoh Abee, and the Harun residence. When considering

Prambanan Temple Compounds are located near the ancient cap-

the fact that much about the written cultural heritage of Bandaital of Jogjakarta, close to the epicenter of the earthquake (Maps

Aceh and the entire Aceh province still remains unknown, roles

3). There is a Royal Palace in Jakarta, and the city features many

fulﬁlled by NGOs like PKPM are particularly signiﬁcant.

wooden and brick-made historical buildings related to the pal-Regional characteristics of Aceh: The reconstruction of Aceh
was the first case to be undertaken by the Rehabilitation andReconstructions Executing Agency for Aceh and Nias (Baran
Rehabilitasi and Rekonstraksi NAD-Nias: BRR), which theIndonesian government launched after the tsunami to deal withdisaster recovery. The agency is now in its ﬁfth year, and is presently focusing its efforts on coordinating international aid fromvarious foreign countries and implementing activities in linewith the reconstruction plan for Aceh and Nias. In the area ofcultural assistance, the agency has added a new building to theAceh Provincial Museum and has constructed the Tsunami Museum. However, these are strictly infrastructure assistance, andthe agency has not implemented any projects related to written
Fig 2 Epicenter and disaster assessment[Source: http://unosat.web.cern.ch/unosat/]

91

Chapter 2 Case StudyN↑

JAVA SEASEMARANG●

Dieng Plateu

WEST JAVA▲ Mt.Merbabu
Magelamg●▲ Mt.Merapi● Surakarta①② ③

EAST JAVA

⑥
⑤
⑦ ④
⑨
⑧
⑩

NUSAKAMEANGAN IS.

YOGYAKARTAINDIAN OCEAN

Monuments① Boroburur② Candi Pawon③ Candi Mendut④ Prambanan⑤ Candi Sewu

⑥ Candi Plaosan⑦ Candi Sari
⑧ Cabdi Kalasan⑨ Candi Sajiwan⑩ Ratu Boko

Map3 Map of Main Monuments in Central Java and around Jogjakarta

ace.
Damage to the Prambanan Temple Compounds was widely
covered by media reports from an early stage, particularly because President Yudhoyono visited the temple compounds during
his tour of disaster-affected areas on the day after the earthquake(Photo 14). The Indonesian government sought the cooperation of Dr. Giorgio Croci, an Italian expert in historical building
structures, in conducting a damage assessment survey of the
Prambanan and Borobudur World Heritage sites. Dr. Croci, who
had been attending a conference in Angkor, Cambodia changed
his schedule on short notice and ﬂew directly to Jogjakarta from
Cambodia to conduct the survey. This was ten days after theearthquake. The damage assessment survey was implemented
Photo 14 Visit to earthquake-affected areas by President
Yudhoyono (Antara News , May 31, 2006)

with the cooperation of the Jogjakarta and Central Java Archaeological Heritage Preservation Ofﬁces under the Directorate General of History and Archaeology in the Indonesian Ministry of
Culture and Tourism, and provided important information on theextent of damage to the two World Heritage sites. According to
the survey, some of the severest damage were sustained by Loro
Jonggrang, a temple complex in the Prambanan Temple Compounds which features a temple dedicated to Siva and ﬁve othertemples (Photo 15), and Sewu Temple, a temple located in thesame historical park (Photo 16). Damage was also conﬁrmed at
Plaosan Temple located near Prambanan (Photo 17) and Sojiwan
Temple, which was under restoration at the time of the earthquake (Photo 18).

Photo 15 Full view of Loro Jonggrang Temple (July 2006)

92

Chapter 2 Case Study

4-2-3 Recovery of Disaster-Damaged Cultural Heritage

Meanwhile, information on cultural heritage sites aside from theWorld Heritage sites was provided by Jogja Heritage Society.

From the disaster assessment survey, it was known from an

These included the Royal Palace located in the city, wooden

early stage that, of the two World Heritage sites located in Cen-architectures built in Javaʼs traditional joglo style, the Taman

tral Java, Borobudur Temple was unaffected by the earthquake.

Sari water castle, the old townscape of Kota Gede, and the royal

In contrast, the Prambanan Temple Compounds suffered great

cemetery in Imogiri outside the city. Jogja Heritage Society wasdamage, and drew considerable attention from inside and outside

established under the leadership of a professor at Gadjah Mada

the country. Particularly because the Prambanan historical park

University. It launched a website after the earthquake as a means

is an important tourist site supporting Central Javaʼs tourism

for communicating information to the world about the damage

industry, its restoration was a potential symbol of the local com-

to the cultural heritage of Jogjakarta. At the Royal Palace, one

munityʼs efforts to recover from the disaster.

of the wooden buildings collapsed completely in the earthquake,

The main sanctuary of the Prambanan Temple Compounds

and Taman Sari and other brick buildings also suffered greatis the Hindu temple of Loro Jonggrang. Damage to Loro Jong-

damage (Photo 19).

grang was surveyed and an assessment report prepared under thesupervision of the Jogjakarta Archaeological Heritage Preservation Ofﬁce, with cooperation from the Borobudur Conservation
Ofﬁce, Gadjah Mada University, and other relevant institutions.
Even while the assessment survey was underway, fallen ratna
pieces were removed and cracks in walls were temporarily repaired. Restoration work began with the Garuda temple, which
was most severely damaged, followed by Nandi, Hansa, Brahma,
and Visnu temples, in this order. As of November 2009, resto-

Photo 16 Sewu Temple (July 2006)

Photo 18 Sojiwan Temple under restoration (July 2006)

Photo 19 Collapsed wooden building of the Royal Palace in Jogjakarta
City (June 2006, Jogja Heritage Society)Photo 17 Plaosan Temple (July 2006)

93

Chapter 2 Case Studyration has been completed up to the Hansa temple. The entire

have been implemented with funding by the central govern-

restoration process is financed by the central government andment, the Central Java provincial government, NGOs, and the

Jogjakarta provincial government, and scaffolds were provided

government of the United Arab Emirates. Total restoration fee isby UNESCO and by the Japanese governmentʼs 2007 grant aid

estimated as 1.5 million USD. The scaffolds have been provided

for cultural grassroots projects. The inner compound was tempo-

by UNESCO after the earthquake, but bamboo and wooden scaf-

rarily closed off to tourists to ensure their safety, but it has beenfolds are also being used to cover for whatever shortage there

reopened in part thereafter. The greatest issue in regard to thewas (Photo 20). The restoration work is mainly concentrated on

restoration work, which is currently ongoing, lies in the restora-

the central temple, but some of the apit temples surrounding thetion of the Siva temple, located in the center of the inner com-

central temple are also being restored in part.

pound. It is the tallest of the six temples in the compound, rising
to a height of 47 meters. The central main chamber is dedicated

4-2-4 International Cooperation

to the deity Siva, and the southern, western, and northern side

Japanʼs Cooperationchambers are dedicated to Augustia, Ganesa, and Durga, respec-

After the disaster, the only country which acted promptly totively. At a glance, the Siva temple shows no apparent damage,provide speciﬁc assistance such as by sending a survey team toand unlike other temples, ratna pieces and balustrades havethe Prambanan Temple Compounds was Japan, aside from Saudi

remained intact. However, results of the damage assessment

Arabia, which provided ﬁnancial assistance. In the wake of thesurvey have indicated large cracks throughout areas around theearthquake, the Law on the Promotion of International Coopera-

inner corners of the platform and toward the bottom of the nave,

tion for Protection of Cultural Heritage Abroad was enacted inand that the western gate is tilted to the west as though the lintelJapan on June 16, 2006. The Japan Consortium for International

above the gate and entrance stairs were pushed outward, accom-

Cooperation in Cultural Heritage (JCIC-Heritage) was estab-panying the displacement of the rear side of the nave (National

lished soon thereafter, and Japan had just begun to take steadyResearch Institute for Cultural Properties, Tokyo, 2007, p. 107).

steps toward creating a framework for coordinating JapaneseThus, the question arises as to whether the Siva temple, which atinstitutions and specialists involved in international cooperation

least appears to have no damage, should be partially dismantled

for cultural heritage and for ensuring effective and ﬂexible inter-or completely dismantled for restoration. Needless to say, evennational cooperation in that area. With the situation being as it

if no damage is apparent from the outside, damage that has oc-

was in Japan, providing assistance for cultural heritage affectedcurred in inconspicuous areas puts the entire structure at risk ofby the Central Java Earthquake became the ﬁrst activity of thecollapse. Additionally, the Siva temple was restored once aroundjust-established consortium.

1918, before Indonesiaʼs independence, by the then Dutch East

In response to the Indonesian governmentʼs request for coop-

Indies Oudheidkundige Dienst (archaeological agency), but theIndonesian side does not possess the materials related to the restoration. For this reason, unlike the other ﬁve temples, it is notknown what types of restoration materials were used or how the
inner structure has been built. As current technologies are not yetcapable of scanning a buildingʼs interior using nondestructivemeans, the pros and cons of resorting to partial dismantlement
to ascertain the inner structure and extent of damage are beingargued.
Sewu Temple is located in the same historical park as Loro
Jonggrang, but comes under the jurisdiction of Central Java
province, and not Jogjakarta province. It is a Buddhist temple
complex with 8 apit temples and 240 perwara temples around acentral temple. After Indonesiaʼs independence, it was restored
in 1980 and 1992 and designated a national heritage under the
1992 Cultural Heritage Law. Sewu Temple is also a World Heritage, as it is part of the World Heritage site of the Prambanan
Temple Compounds. Emergency aid and subsequent restoration

Photo 20 Scaffolding of the central temple (Nov 2009)94

Chapter 2 Case Study

eration, Japanʼs assistance was planned by the consortium andber 2006, the “International Expert Meeting for Rehabilitation

carried out on commission by the National Research Institute forof Prambanan World Heritage Site and Taman Sari Water Castle

Cultural Properties, Tokyo. As members of the consortium, thein Jogjakarta and Central Java, Indonesia” in March 2007, andMinistry of Foreign Affairs and the Japan Foundation also pro-the “Technical Meeting on Rehabilitation of Prambanan Temple

vided their cooperation. A team of Japanese specialists were thusComplex, Sewu Temple Complex and Taman Sari Water Castle”

sent to Indonesia in July 2006, two months after the earthquake

in June 2007, to discuss technical issues in the restoration of(leader: Prof. Satoshi Yamato). The survey team did not restrict

those cultural heritage sites. Members of Japanʼs expert survey

its survey to World Heritage sites, but aimed to assess the extent

team also participated in those meetings and reported the resultsof damage to cultural heritage assets in Jogjakarta as a whole.

of their surveys. In November 2009, the progress of restoration

Based on the findings of the first survey, the focus of Japanʼs

at the Prambanan Temple Compounds and Sewu Temple wereassistance was decided to be placed on providing technical coop-

reported at the “International Coordinating Meeting for Safe-

eration for the restoration of the six temples of Loro Jonggrang,

guarding Borobudur and Prambanan World Heritage Sites.”among the other temples of the Prambanan Temple Compounds.
Saudi Arabia

The second survey (Feb. 20 – March 10, 2007) and third survey(Oct. 21 – Nov. 4, 2007) mainly assessed the damage in greater

In the wake of the earthquake disaster, Saudi Arabia pledged

detail, analyzed architectural structures and geographical charac-

to provide ﬁnancial assistance to Indonesia, and the assistanceteristics, and collected relevant reference materials and histori-

was implemented through UNESCO, instead of as bilateral co-cal documentation of past restoration work. Ultimately, throughoperation. UNESCO convened its ﬁrst conference in regard to

discussions with relevant institutions on the Indonesian side, a

the funds it has collected, and has allotted a part of the funds torestoration design proposal was formulated, giving due consid-

the restoration of Sewu Temple.

eration to earthquake countermeasures. A report of the survey
teamʼs ﬁndings has been prepared in Japanese and English andPrince Claus Fund for Culture and Development (Thedelivered to the Indonesian government and UNESCO.

Netherlands)
The Prince Claus Fund of the Netherlands is an NGO provid-

In addition to the above-mentioned technical proposal, Japan
has also supplied the scaffolds that are currently being used ining assistance throughout the world, including Aceh and Padang.

the restoration work (Photo 21). They were provided in response

In Imogiri, it has rebuilt a severely damaged batik factory in co-to a strong request from the Indonesian side during the ﬁrst sur-operation with the Jogja Heritage Society. Thanks to the recon-

vey, through Japanʼs grant aid for cultural grassroots projects in2007. The first through third surveys have been implemented
entirely on commission by the National Research Institute forCultural Properties, Tokyo, as a project of the Agency for Cultural Affairs. In April 2008, Tsukuba University took over the
implementation of the project, with funding by the Grant-in-Aid
for Scientiﬁc Research provided by the Ministry of Education,
Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT), and will be
continuing the project under its leadership until March 2011.
Foreign Assistance
UNESCOAs mentioned earlier, UNESCO took quick action to assess
the situation at the Prambanan and Borobudur World Heritage
sites. It called on Dr. Giorgio Croci, an internationally-renown
expert, to survey the sites and prepare a disaster assessment report. It also provided scaffolds as requested by the Indonesianside, around the time the Japanese survey team was sent to Indonesia. It hosted the “Consultative Meeting on Preservation ofCultural Heritage in the Aftermath of the Earthquake” in Novem-

Photo 21 Scaffolds provided by the Japanese government

95

Chapter 2 Case Study

struction of the factory, the production and sales of Jogjakartaʼs

local expenses, while the Ministry of Foreign Affairs facilitatedtraditional craft resumed quickly, and batik makers were able tolocal activities through the local embassy of Japan. This style of

return to their workplace without losing their job.

information coordination was also applied to subsequent earth-

The Prince Claus Fund was established for the purpose of cul-quake cases in Sichuan and Padang.

ture and development on September 6, 1996 in commemorationof the 70th birthday of Prince Claus of the Netherlands. Its objec-

International Cooperation and Joint Research: The Indonesiantive is to focus on various cultures and promote the relationshipsside requested Japanʼs cooperation in conducting an earthquake

between culture and development, but in response to the looting

resistance survey of buildings and a geographical survey atof the Iraq National Museum in April 2003, the Fund establishedPrambanan, in light of Japanʼs accumulation of studies as an

9a Cultural Emergency Response project in September 2003.

earthquake nation. The ground survey was conducted with coop-

Through this project, the Fund provides emergency support foreration from Oyo International Corporation, a private stock com-

culture that has been damaged in man-made and natural disasters

pany, and a materials test for earthquake resistance was conduct-in various countries throughout the world. Examples include theed with cooperation from Gadjah Mada University and Bandung

Citadel of Bam in Iran damaged in an earthquake (2003), Nablus

Institute of Technology. Earthquake measurement, however,damaged in conﬂict in Palestine (2004, 2005), and the restora-

could only begin after installing the necessary equipment, and istion of a mosque damages in an earthquake in northern Morocco

still ongoing under the study taken over by Tsukuba University(2004). The Fund not only assists national governments, but alsowith funding by the MEXT Grant-in-Aid for Scientiﬁc Research.

local research institutions, providing emergency ﬁnancial assis-

Japan is certainly advanced in the study of earthquake resistancetance where the locals play the main part in operations.

of historical buildings, and the results of those studies can beprovided in the form of technical cooperation. However, such

4-2-5 Conclusion

cooperation should be implemented from a long-range per-Three and a half years have passed since the earthquake disas-

spective, and is difﬁcult to provide as a short-term emergency

ter, and the affected areas are steadily recovering, owing to inter-

assistance measure. In fact, Japanʼs assistance for Prambanannational aid from various foreign countries and NGOs. In regard

consisted of a dispatch of three survey teams and nothing moreto cultural heritage, restoration is underway at the Prambanan

under its emergency framework, and was continued as a study

World Heritage site and Sewu Temple, but compared to these

funded by the MEXT Grant-in-Aid for Scientiﬁc Research. The

two, other temples that are found throughout the region haveassistance it is providing today for cultural heritage damaged inbeen so severely affected that restoration work cannot even be

the disaster will necessarily focus on short-term emergency as-

launched. Below, let us make a few observations in view of thesistance, but in order to respond to the needs of the aid-receiving

fact that disaster assistance focused on tangible and immovablecountry, the ﬁrst survey must present short-term, medium-term,

cultural heritage assets.

and long-term cooperation plans and frameworks based on

New Style of International Cooperation by Japan: Providing

include academic elements, it is necessary to coordinate efforts

assistance to the Prambanan Temple Compounds was the firstand maintain a long-term relationship with universities and othercase to be addressed by the Japan Consortium for International

academic institutions in the recipient country.

careful consideration. At the same time, if assistance measures

Cooperation in Cultural Heritage after its establishment. The
Indonesian side provided information to the consortium via the

4-3 Padang Earthquake (West Sumatra Earthquake)Japanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs, and the consortium relayed

4-3-1 Overall Picture of the Disaster Concernedthat information to the Agency for Cultural Affairs, the JapanThe earthquake that occurred on September 30, 2009 off theFoundation, and other institutions and experts. The collected

coast of Padang is thought to have occurred deep inside a sub-information was carefully examined by the consortium and used

ducting plate, and no tsunami was caused by the earthquake.

to select survey team members mainly from among various

The epicenter was roughly 45 km northwest of Padang, off thearchitectural experts, such as specialists in Indonesiaʼs histori-

coast of Sumatra, at a depth of 81 km. The earthquakeʼs magni-

cal buildings and structural specialists of historical buildings.

tude was 7.6, and damage was centered on Padang (population

The Agency for Cultural Affairs provided the dispatch fee as anroughly 840,000), Pariaman (population roughly 70,000) Padang

emergency aid expense, and the Japan Foundation assumed thePariaman Regency (population roughly 380,000) and Agam
Regency (population roughly 420,000) and surrounding areas.
96Chapter 2 Case Study

In particular, Padang is the state capital of West Sumatra, andsite to many mid-high rise government facilities and commercial
buildings. In particular large public facilities over three stories
tall constructed with reinforced concrete received major damage
during this earthquake (Photo 22). According to data released by
the Indonesian Government (as of October 15 2009), the numberof dead or missing is 1,117.
4-3-2 Damage Assessment of Cultural Heritage
Padang serves as the capital of West Sumatra Province andcontains many public facilities related to government and education, in addition to being recognized for numerous historical

Photo 22 A large facility that collapsedbuildings constructed under the influence of the Dutch whobuildings in Pariaman to the north of Padang, and 23 in Padang

entered the region in the 17th century. Whereas many of the

Pariaman regency. An emergency disaster report on these histori-buildings influenced by the Dutch are constructed from brick,cal buildings was conducted by BP3 Batusangkar four days after

there are also many wooden structures using a format unique tothe earthquake occurred. A disaster study covering a broader

the Minangkabau in the highlands inland from the coast. This

range of historical buildings not limited to those registered onearthquake did not cause damage to wooden structures located in

BP3 Batusangkarʼs list was conducted by the Indonesia Heritage

such inland areas, but many of the structures in Padang, which is

Trust over a period of 15 days from October 10, with the cooper-

near the sea, were damaged.

ation of BP3 Batusangkar and the ﬁnancial support of the Dutch

There are 73 historical buildings in Padang registered by

Prince Claus Fund. Furthermore, as mentioned below, Japanese

the Batusangkar Archeological Service (BP3 Batusangkar), 52

experts conducted a disaster survey on historical buildings andFig.3 Epicenter of the Earthquake[Source: United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA)]

97

Chapter 2 Case Studyurban planning over a period of 24 days from November 11 ata catalog prepared by Andalas University and the Tokyo Univer-

the request of UNESCOʼs Jakarta ofﬁce and the Indonesian gov-

sity of Foreign Studies, but no steps such as desiccant or insect

ernment. Refer to the report [NRICPT 2010] for detailed infor-

repellant have been implemented. It has not been converted into

mation on the damage to these buildings and urban planning.

digital data.

Damage to Written Cultural Heritage in Padang(2) Mesjid Raya VII Koto Ampalu (Padang Pariaman)

As mentioned above, most of the earthquake damage to build-This is a mosque located in Kec. Sungai Sarik in Padang

ings in Padang city was to large-scale public facilities. This

Pariaman. A landslide occurred on the entry road to the village,

includes the museum, library and public archives, responsible

and for some time after the earthquake the road was impass-

for storing much of the regionʼs important records. The 4-sto-able. At the time of our survey, the villagers were carrying out

ry library building, for example, had ﬂoors 1 – 3 collapse in theworks, and bikes and pedestrians were able to pass. The mosque

earthquake. In additionally, the 100,000 books and documents

itself has been damaged and we noted cracks not only on thestored in the building were exposed to the rain that fell after thewalls and columns, but also on the floor. However, the dam-earthquake. These books were collected and moved to the public

aged part is still being used for worship services. According toarchives. As this written cultural heritage stored by public facili-

Andalas University, at the time of the previous ceremony 23

ties is under the jurisdiction of the central or state government,

manuscripts were conﬁrmed, and all of these had been moved tothe books and documents had been moved and efforts made to

the state library for restoration. However, the state library wascreate a catalog at the time of our survey – i.e. two months after

completely destroyed, leaving the manuscripts buried in bricks,

the earthquake.

and 17 of these were sent to the National Library in Jakarta to be

After the earthquake, a survey of damage to written cultural

restored again. There were also several other manuscripts placed

heritage was conducted on manuscripts stored in villages by ain boxes, which are stored in a wooden residence to the east ofresearch team from Andalas University, which had been focusing

the mosque. Desiccant agents and insect repellent are not being

on studying the regions manuscripts since before the earthquake.

used, and even though the manuscripts are being stored inside,

The state of damage identified in the surveys conducted using

they are not in a case with glass doors, but instead in one box on

the networks and information developed to date was partially re-

top of a cabinet against the wall.

ported to academics (including foreign researchers) through the(3) Surau Ampalu Tinggi (Padang Pariaman)

Indonesian Association for Nusantara Manuscripts (MANASSA).
Public institutions such as museums do not seem to have de-This is a house of worship in Padang Pariaman regency. Con-

tailed information on the location of manuscripts dispersed overstruction of a new mosque has been in progress since before

a broad region in the way that Andalas University does.

the earthquake, and only the first floor is complete. This new

The damage to written cultural heritage revealed in this sur-mosque is currently used for worship services. The old mosque

vey is shown in the order of the sites visited, but(1) to (7) are

was badly damaged by the earthquake and people are not al-

the results of surveys conducted with the cooperation of Andalaslowed in. There is a dwelling located next to the old mosque,

University on manuscripts stored in private and religious facili-

and the manuscripts are stored there. 26 manuscripts are storedties dispersed throughout the region. UNESCOʼs cooperation

there, and according to Andalas University, cataloging and digi-

was obtained for public archives. (See APPENDIX 6 for photos)

talization of the manuscripts was completed before the earthquake. In contrast with the previous two sites, manuscripts werePrivate-sector / Religious Facilities, etc.

stored in individual envelopes and stored in a glass cabinet in a(1) Mesjid Raya Mudiak Padang / Surau Tandikek (Padangﬁle-box. However, desiccant agents and insect repellent are not

Pariaman)being used. When we visited, the manuscripts were in the ﬁle-This is a mosque in Kec. Patamuan in Padang Pariaman thatbox vertically, but this places too much stress on one edge of thewas damaged by the earthquake. Many cracks were noted on

manuscript, so we suggested that they store them laid down ﬂat.

the walls and columns of the mosque, but it is still being used
(4) Surau Baru Bintungan Tinggi (Padang Pariaman)

for worship services. A building attached to the mosque is used

This is a place of worship in Kec. Nan Sabaris in Padang

as an ofﬁce, and manuscripts are stored on a shelf in the ofﬁce.
Seven manuscripts are stored, and in several of these, we noted

Pariaman regency, registered as a cultural asset with BP3. The

smudging of some letters. Manuscript data has been recorded inbuilding registered with BP3 is a wooden mosque, and the grave98Chapter 2 Case Studyin front of the mosque has been destroyed apart from its roof.

was no damage to the manuscripts or the place of worship, but

There was little damage to the wooden structure, but the brickbecause earthquakes frequently occur in the region, it is neces-extension at the back of the mosque was been damaged. In totalsary to consider steps for the future.

16 manuscripts are stored, in the mosque and in a dwelling lo(7) Surau Syattariah (Tanah Datar)cated next door. This dwelling was destroyed in the earthquake.
The old Quitabs (Islam texts) stored there got wet in the rain as

This is a house of worship in Batusangkar, Tanah Datar Re-

they sat under the collapsed house. Currently the occupants ofgency. 27 manuscripts are stored here. Digitization has been

the collapsed house are living in the wooden mosque which wascompleted in a survey sponsored by the British Library. The

not affected by the earthquake. The manuscripts that had gotten

manuscripts are placed in envelopes and stored in the place of

wet are still being dried in the shade in the mosque. In the Aceh

worship. The administrator of the place of worship is a teacher

tsunami, many cases were reported where manuscripts wereat a national Islamic high school in Batusangkar (Sekolah Tinggi

wrongly dried in the sun, but here the correct procedure was fol-Agama Islam Negeri), and has conducted surveys of the manu-

lowed. When we asked where they learnt this, the mosque cus-

script collection with the cooperation of Andalas University

todians replied that they had learnt this when they participatedsince 2006. Instruction is also being provided to local residents

in a course on manuscript preservation at the state museum inon the management of old manuscripts. The same applies to the2005, and training held by Andalas University in conjunction

region above with regard to earthquakes.

with the British Museum in 2007. The Quitabs stored there were
published in the Middle East and West Sumatra, and the items

Public Facilities

published in West Sumatra are particularly rare, making it an ex-(8) State Museum
Located in Padang city. Unfortunately, as we visited on Sun-

tremely valuable collection.
Currently, all the manuscripts are stored in a small room in the

day and the curator was not on site, we were unable to go inside

mosque, and some of them are stuffed into envelopes and placed

and only inspected the exterior. It is said that the museum hasvertically. Further, desiccant agents and insect repellent are not

58 manuscripts.These are recorded in Tokyo University of For-

being used.

eign Studiesʼ catalog. The manuscripts were not damaged in theearthquake.

(5) Surau Paseban (Padang)(9) State LibraryThis is a place of worship in Kec. Koto Tangah in Padang
Pariaman regency. Said to have previously been home to over

Located in Padang city, roughly 50m from the State Museum.

100 manuscripts, it now has 33 manuscripts. The Tokyo Uni-

It is a four-story building constructed with reinforced concrete,versity of Foreign Studiesʼ catalog has data on the 31 items. The

but ﬂoors 1 to 3 are said to have collapsed. At the time of ourplace of worship is of wooden construction and was not dam-survey visit, the books and documents had already been removed

aged in the earthquake. The manuscripts were stored in glassfrom the library, and the collapsed building had been demol-cases within the place of worship and on shelves in a small roomished. The books taken out were moved to the public archives

within the place of worship according to the instructions given

for safekeeping. A survey was performed by the National Library

by Andalas University. It seems that the former is for importantin Jakarta in June 2009 before the earthquake, and 23 manu-

manuscripts, and they are laid down horizontally and stored cor-

scripts deposited in the state library were restored (manuscripts

rectly. It seems that the remaining manuscripts on the shelf haveowned by ② ). 17 of these are currently being restored in the

not been sorted out. For both shelves, desiccant agents and insect

National Library in Jakarta. The whereabouts of the remaining 6

repellent are not being used.

is unknown. As the library has jurisdiction over old manuscripts
in West Sumatra, there are plans to increase the collection with

(6) Surau Darussalam (Agam)the cooperation of Andalas University.

This is a house of worship in Agam Regency. It has four man(10) Public Archives

uscripts. This is a house of worship newly contacted by Andalas
University. In this case, believers brought the manuscripts to be

Located in Padang city. The curator, Eka Nuzia showed us

stored and the place of worship had trouble dealing with this.

around. There are three buildings on the grounds of the public

At present, manuscripts are only stored on the ofﬁce within thearchives: an office building in the center, a document storage

place of worship and have not been organized. This time, there

building behind that, and a new document storage building under99

Chapter 2 Case Study

construction next to that. While the ofﬁce building was almost

pan consortium. Also, based on moves by UNESCO, in addition

undamaged, the ﬁrst and second ﬂoors of the document storage

to the survey scheduled to be conducted by the consortium inbuilding were badly damaged. While the storage boxes with theAceh, a survey on damage to written cultural heritage of Padang

documents in them can be seen from outside the building, thewas urgently implemented and the survey report was submit-

building itself is extremely unstable, and the documents cannot

ted to UNESCO. UNESCO is scheduled to prepare a compre-

be removed for fear of setting off a secondary disaster.

hensive report based on these reports, and to submit this to theIndonesian government, and the proposals made by international

4-3-3 Recovery of Disaster-Damaged Cultural Heritage

experts are expected to be incorporated into the Padang Action

Action Plan for the Recovery of Padang is currently being

plan. This would be quite significant if Padang could be used

formulated by the central government and the West Sumatra

as a pilot case for culture to be incorporated and established inprovincial government of December 2009. Recovery plans havepost-earthquake recovery plans in Indonesia in the future.

been formulated for regions, provinces and cities that have expe-

Considering the fact that there were no cultural heritages inrienced major disasters in the past, and Padang is no exception.

the Padang region recorded on the UNESCO world heritage list,

Moreover, the Indonesian government followed the precedents

UNESCOʼs moves in this case are noteworthy for their speedof Aceh and Central Java and Jogjakarta with the establishment

along with the scale and content of the assistance. Conversely,of the Rehabilitation and Reconstructions Executing Agency

it could be said that Jogjakarta and central Java, home the inter-

for West Sumatra as the third example of its kind, and there arenationally known tourism sites of Borobudur and Prambanan,plans to reconstruct homes and public facilities in accordance

which are also registered as world heritage sites, gained muchwith short, mid and long term recovery plans in the future. Fur-attention from inside and outside Indonesia regardless of UNES-

thermore, as the recovery plans made on a provincial or munici-COʼs moves. We hope that in the future, the comprehensive re-pal level in the past did not incorporate items on cultural heri-port being prepared by UNESCO generates much interest in in-tage, UNESCO submitted a cultural heritage damage assessment

ternational society, which can then be directed toward assistancereport to the Indonesian government, and intends to propose thefor speciﬁc cases of restoration.

inclusion of cultural items in the Padang Action Plan. The survey report written on cultural heritage damage in Padang madePrince Claus Fund for Culture and Development (Thein this survey has already been submitted to UNESCOʼs Jakarta

Netherlands)
The Prince Claus Fund based in the Netherlands has provided

ofﬁce.

assistance for the construction of a manuscripts library in Tanoh
4-3-4 International Cooperation

Abee to store many manuscripts in Aceh. The Fund has also

UNESCO

provided assistance to the Indonesia Heritage Trust in Padang by

The main difference in the international support for the res-supporting the damage survey conducted from October 10.

toration of Padangʼs cultural heritage when compared to the4-3-5 Conclusion

tsunami damage in Aceh five years ago and the Central Java
earthquake three years ago is the moves made by UNESCO.

Now we will summarize the results of the survey based on the

UNESCO began collecting information on damage from theitems mentioned above while keeping in mind case immediately

Indonesian government and locals in Padang immediately after

after the earthquake in Padang.

the earthquake, and worked with the Indonesian government

Timing of local surveys and assistance: Padang is a case in

to assist requests by the Indonesian government for assistancewhich action was taken immediately after the earthquake, andfrom international society. In addition, a damage survey funded

the on-site survey was conducted two months after the earth-by UNESCO was scheduled one month after the earthquake,

quake occurred. There was no atmosphere of tension in Padang

and experts on museums, historical buildings and urban plan-city where building and urban planning surveys were centered,ning were dispatched provide the required assistance based on

or in the surau or mosques around Padang Pariaman regency

information obtained to date and discussions with the Indone-

where the manuscripts are scattered. However, according tosian government. Two experts were dispatched from the United

Indonesian experts who entered the village most severely dam-

Kingdom to museums where exhibits fell and were damaged asaged one month after the earthquake, it was in no condition to bea result of the earthquake, and six experts on historical buildings

surveyed. Some people are of the opinion that cultural heritage

and urban planning were dispatched after consultation with Ja-

surveys should be conducted 3 months after an earthquake, but
100Chapter 2 Case Study

it is believed that the most important aspects are quickly and ac-

Nusantara Manuscripts (MANASSA), which quickly pro-curately collecting on-site information. The timing of assistancevided information to international society in Aceh, utilized

through on-site surveys and the dispatch of experts should be

its academic network in an effort to improve networks for

decided based upon such information. For example, in Padang,quickly provided information on affected areas since Aceh.

the bricks from a collapsed building began to be cleaned up one

Meanwhile, with regard to moves made by active NGOs andmonth after the earthquake, and after one month it was difﬁcult

universities, there seems to be a lack of collaboration by theseto maintain the condition of exhibits in the museum that wereNGOs and university institutes along with public institutions

damaged when they fell. Furthermore, with respect to the condi-

such as local governments, the central government in Jakarta andtions in Padang city, many large public facilities suffered severe

regional ofﬁces under the jurisdiction of the central government.

damage, but very few homes were completely destroyed, and theInformation on the cooperative relationships NGOs and univer-security situation recovered relatively quickly. Based on this, thesities have formed with foreign institutions is difﬁcult for public

timing of the dispatch of experts by UNESCO (one month after

institutions to obtain. In order to rapidly collect information andthe earthquake) is believed to have been appropriate.

perform restoration more effectively after earthquakes, the issue

Trends in international assistance: Due the swift response bygovernment and the private sector. Furthermore, it is also neces-

UNESCO, the current issue id how to support the restoration

sary for countries providing assistance to consider which orga-

action plan implemented by the Indonesian government. Until

nizations would be the best counterparts to make assistance thenow, regions in Padang had not been registered based on themost effective under such conditions.

faced is how to form a collaborative relationship between theidea of “urban landscape” but it is probably necessary to consider
protection of the townscape when reviewing the registration list,

5. Conclusion

to review the protection system used to date, and to create links

5-1 Conclusion
Over the past ﬁve years, there have been many natural disas-

between restoration action plans and implementation systems.

ters including the tsunami in 2004, the central Java earthquake in
Roles of universities and NGOs: In Padang, universities and2006 and the West Sumatra earthquake in 2009. The experiences

NGOs play different roles to those of the government in theirof these disasters have had an impact on measures taken in In-

efforts aimed at restoration. Eko Alvares, a professor of urban

donesia to recover from disasters. Although there are differences

planning at Bung Hatta University, has been involved in thein the disaster prevention measures taken by each region, theycreation of a 20-year plan for Padang. One month after the earth-

are gradually becoming better established with the assistancequake, he set up an ofﬁce for people affected by the earthquakeof a variety of countries. However, no standards have beenin the old city of Padang (Kota Lama Padang) to provide advice

established for disaster prevention for cultural heritage, steps

for residents. He has also selected seven buildings within thetaken after damage is incurred or how much detail is required

city to create design plans for restoration from earthquake dam-for surveys of the cultural heritages covered by such measures.

age with his students10. NGO activities include damage surveys

Moreover, although the historical importance of the identiﬁca-

conducted by the Indonesian Heritage Trust with the support oftion of written cultural assets has begun to be recognized mainly

the Prince Claus Fund. This survey was a damage survey cover-by academics, there is currently a lack of awareness of what kinding historical buildings not limited to registered cultural assets.

of written cultural assets are located in each region.

Members from Gadjah Mada University who experienced theHere, we would like to address the situation and issues related

survey of damaged cultural heritage during the central Javato the restoration of damaged cultural heritage revealed by thisearthquake also participated in this survey. The activities of thesesurvey in Indonesia from the perspective of international coop-

universities and NGOs play important roles for damaged culturaleration.
・There were differences in optimal timing for the initiation

heritages owned or managed by the private sector or communities that cannot be handled by government institutions.

of assistance in Aceh, Java and Padang. The timing of as-

From Aceh and Jogjakarta to Padang: implementation ofcultural heritage incurred in each affected region.

sistance varies depending on differences in the damage tosurveys by the Indonesian Heritage Trust utilized the experiences of Jogjakarta in Padang, where the next earthquake

・Looking at examples such as the Japanese paper and chemi-

occurred. For manuscripts, Indonesian Association forcal products used for restoring documents and manuscripts
101

Chapter 2 Case Studyin Aceh, the scaffolding provided for the monuments ineration of short, medium and long term plans implemented by

Prambanan, physical aid provided as emergency assistancecountries providing assistance. Surveys should be conducted at ashould be effectively conducted based on consideration oftime carefully considered based on information on damage in theinformation on the damage and the requirements of the af-

country concerned, and the details of the survey need to be based

fected country.

not only on a certain region or cultural heritage, but a perspective rooted in the overall system for preserving cultural heritage

・Cooperation not only with governments but also NGOs isin the country receiving assistance.

essential; for some cultural heritages subject to assistance.

・Provision of Goods for Emergency Assistance: Physical assis-

It is necessary to understand the relationships and roles oftance required for emergency assistance is effective if sufﬁcientNGOs and governments in countries being dealt with inconsideration has been given the requirements and situation inorder to consider counterparts able to effectively utilize as-

the relevant country. For example, the provision of PCs for cre-sistance provided.

ating catalogs for damaged libraries in Padang is believed to beeffective while only requiring a small expense. However, Japanʼs・Japan is expected to accumulate of research on the earth-emergency assistance related to cultural heritage does not in-quake resistance of historical buildings and provide techni-

clude any funding for the provision of inexpensive consumables

cal cooperation utilizing such research. However, researchand equipment such as PCs. The provision of goods without

and technical cooperation based on long-term plans extends

surveying the damage situation is not useful, and there is a highbeyond the framework of emergency assistance and the for-likelihood that it will end up being short-term assistance withmulation of plans on international cooperation based on thelittle outlook for long-term effectiveness, but the rapid provision

results of emergency surveys is essential to carry this out.

of goods should be considered depending on survey results.

The plans should then be considered by various experts and・Interdisciplinary research cooperation: It is impossible to con-related organizations within the consortium based on fac-duct sufficient technical cooperation or research only utilizing

tors such as ﬁnancial aspects. Trends in international assis-

academic ﬁelds related to cultural heritage. That is, collaborationtance for damaged cultural heritages need collaboration notwith ﬁelds other than cultural sciences, such as seismology, civil

only with international organizations such as UNESCO but

engineering and meteorology is also required. The Consortium

also countries providing assistance such as European andfor International Cooperation in Cultural Heritage related to theAmerican countries. It is necessary to constantly collect in-

restoration of damaged cultural heritage needs to play a role asformation on the timing of moves by each country and whata place for sharing information between a variety of academic

kind of assistance is provided, in addition to information on

ﬁelds.

international conferences, etc. on progress after assistanceis provided.
1

5-2 Proposals

See [http://www.budpar.go.id/page.php?ic=622&id=4294/] fordetails.

Based on the situation and issues described above, the matters2

See [http://www.eri.u-tokyo.ac.jp/indonesia/ ] for details.

that need to be addressed by Japan to provide assistance for cul-3

Law on Cultural Property No.5/1992

tural heritage restoration are as follows.

4

Based on an announcement given by the Indonesian・Strengthening of Ties with Academic Networks: It is clear

government at the “Expert Meeting on Cultural Heritage:that the creation of academic networks and relationships of trust

Restoration and conservation of immovable heritage damaged

with other countries in normal circumstances are essential forby natural disaster, 14-16 January 2009, and at Bangkok

information collection and assistance in the event of a disaster.

/ Ayutthaya, Thailand Immovable Cultural Heritage and

The role of the Japan Consortium for International Cooperation

Emergency Actions in Southeast Asia,” hosted by Nationalin Cultural Heritage is gaining importance as a place for interna-

Research Institute for Cultural Properties, Tokyo.

tional cooperation and collaboration with these academic ﬁelds.

5

See Appendix 5・Importance of First Damage Assessment : Damage assessment

6[Tokyo University of Foreign Studies 2006]

conducted immediately after a disaster should be conducted after

7

See Appendix 6

duly considering requests from the country concerned, and need8

See [ http://www.acehbooks.org/ ] for details.

to produce results that can be used as material for the consid-

9

See [http://www.princeclausfund.org/en/what_we_do/cer/

102

Chapter 2 Case Study

index.shtml] for details.
10

Based on an interview with Professor Eko Alvares held on November 19, 2009.

103

Chapter 2 Case Study

4. Iran(Focused on the Case of Bam)
Kokushikan University
1. Outline of the Research Project1-2 Member of the Research Project1-1 Research Abstract

The following members took part in and contribute thisThis research project was carried out under the tile of Re-

research project. The members except Okada did not join the

search Report on the Recovery of Damaged Cultural Properties

mission team to Iran, but contributed in the form of informative

based on the contract consigned between the Kokushikan Uni-

cooperation such as seismic data collection and interpretation ofversity and the Japan Consortium for International Cooperation

Persian documents.

in Cultural Heritage (JCIC). The cultural heritage as a target of
this project is an archaeological site of Bam. It was awfully andName
Okada, Yas-

Afﬁliation & status
Professor, Institute fortotally damaged by the earthquake which occurred in Iran in theuyoshi

Cultural Studies of Ancient data and report

At the site of Bam, many experts from abroad such as Italy,

Toshikazu,

Iraq, Kokushikan University making
Professor, Faculty ofInformation ofGerman, and France have still engaged in various schemes ofHanazato

Engineering, Mie Univer-seismic andsitystructural

Solemaniye,

Graduate Course of theengineering
Interpretation of

KimiyaUniversity of Tokyo

Persian docu-

end of 2003.

activity in the recovery process as well as the staff dispatchedfrom the national authority. As for Japan, in the mean time, mostof related parties and persons have recently been kept away fromthe process after the kidnapping of a Japanese student which

Assignment
Generalization ofments

occurred in 2007, although it had once a strong presence in ﬁnancial support and personnel contribution immediately after the

1-3 Itinerary of the mission to Iranearthquake.

The member of this research project, Mr. Okada, alone visited

The purpose of this research is to ascertain precisely the cur-Iran for the mission in mid September this year, of which therent conditions of recovery process going on site, and then what

itinerary including the details of his visit is as follows:

the site really require for the coming future, through the observation presently in November 2009, when six years have elapsed

Table 1: Itinerary of the mission to Iran for research on the recovery ofdamaged cultural properties of Bam

since the earthquake had occurred. Unfortunately, however, thedatepresent author in charge of this research project could not haveinstitutions visited &description

interview persons

an opportunity of visit to the site of Bam within the contract.

2009/

Instead, he made an effort in the best way to collect the informa-

8 Sep.

tion and to obtain relevant documents from the ofﬁcial persons

Left Japan via Kansai
airport.

in the city of Tehran.
The project team would like to express sincere thanks to:

9 Sep.

UNESCO Tehran Cluster Ofﬁce,

Entered Iran at Tehran Mr. Mokhtari introduced
airport via Qatar.

Bam Base Tehran Ofﬁce of Iranian Cultural Heritage, Handicrafta vice-director, Mr. Ne-

Met with Mr. Mokhtari, jati. Talked about theand Tourism Organization,

director of BBTO, and purpose of visit and con-ICOMOS Iran National Committee,

his colleague at Hotel.

Isfahan University,and excellent staff members of these organizations for their in-

10 Sep.

valuable cooperation.

ﬁrmation of schedule.

Called on Mrs. Mokh- Information of recovt a r i a n d N e j a t i a t a t ery project controlled
BBTO in Saad Abad105

by BBTO and related

Chapter 2 Case StudyPark.

of faults in the east including the area of Bam (Fig.1).

publications.
Joined by Mr. Vatan-

The investigation teams sent by Japanese academic institutes

doust, former Director

including those of architecture and of civil engineer immediatelyof RCCCR, Mokhtariʼs

after the earthquake, reported that the city of Bam is said to haveboss.

had no experience of earthquake throughout history, and in fact
there is no indication of any seismic damages there.

11 Sep.

Called on Mr. Boustani, Talked about Iranian ad-

On the other hand, in the east of Bam there is active Bam fault

secretary general of ministration of heritage(or Gowk fault), which is a right-lateral one running in the north-

ICOMOS Iran.

protection and activities

south direction, and it is said that this fault might be associatedof ICOMOS Iran.

with the earthquake in 2003. According to United States Geological Survey (USGS), the hypocenter was located some 10 km

12 Sep.

Vi s i t t h e o f f i c e o f Exchange of views on

south to the city center of Bam and some 10 km deep. It further

ICOMOS Iran and met ICOMOS activities ofannounced that despite of shallowness of the hypocenter, thewith its board members national level such as

fault rupture did not reach the earth surface due to a relatively

including President Mr. relationship with thesmall scale of magnitude which indicated 6.6 (Fig.2). The hypo-

Hojat.

center was assumed within 10 km from the citadel of Bam andgovernment

some 8 km deep.
13 Sep.

S e c o n d v i s i t t o Received copies of major
BBTO.

publications and discussed on cooperation
with Japan.

Visit to Japanese Em- Exchange of views on
bassy to see cultural at- cultural cooperation betaché, Mr. Abe Left Iran. tween two countries.
14 Sep.

Arrived in Japan via
Qatar.

2. Disaster Characteristics of Cultural Properties in Iran
2-1 Disaster Characteristics in IranAccording to Geological Survey of Iran（GSI）, there arethree major seismic belt in the whole country of Iran. The ﬁrst
one is along Zagros mountain range in the west, the second

Fig.2 Fault line near Bam

along Alborz mountain range, and the third the north-south belt
Most of buildings in Bam had been of masonry structure with
adobe (mud-brick) and/or ordinary bricks, and very few were ofmodern construction. Adobe is very traditional as well as chineh
wall in the way of construction simply with mud compiled,buildings of which are usually constructed with thick walls anddomical-vaulted roofs of the same brick masonry. Due to the inferiority of seismic resistance this kind of masonry construction
has been prohibited after the twice revisions since the enforcement of aseismic designing method in 1967.
2-2 Previous disaster damages on cultural properties
According to the relevant research by Hanazato and Hejazi(2009), large parts of Iran are seismically very active. However,Fig.1 Location of Bam

106Chapter 2 Case Study

the Bam region was not regarded as belonging to the most active

sistance, such as military assistance, search and rescue, spacezones. The main reasoning behind this assumption was that: a)technology and non-material assistance. However, in the context

no historical damaging earthquake had previously been reportedof historical areas there are some other measures that should befrom Bam, and b) the Bam Citadel (Arg-e-Bam) was an indirect

considered. They are:evidence of the lack of damaging earthquakes. The youngest

1)

Vulnerability assessment,

parts of the citadel dated approximately to 400 years ago, while

2)

Planning,

the oldest parts were over 2000 years old. Arg-e-Bam had, to3)Institutional framework,

the best of our knowledge, not been damaged previously by any

4)

Information systems,

earthquake. The historically low seismic activity around Bam is

5)Resource base,reﬂected in the predicted accelerations of around 0.30g at 10%

6)

Warning systems,

probability in 500 years, which is relatively moderate.

7)

Response mechanism,

8)

Public education and training,

9)

Rehearsals.

Three large earthquakes have struck the region north of Bam(on the Gowk fault) over the last decades:
the Golbaf earthquake of 11 June 1981, Ms=6.6;

3-1-2 Stakeholders in Risk Preparedness of Bam

the Sirch earthquake of 28 July 1981, Ms=7.0;
the North Golbaf (Fandogha) earthquake of 14 March

Stakeholders in a risk preparedness process usually include

1998, Mw=6.6.

representatives of the following:・Community members,

The trends of the main faults (including the Bam fault) in thisregion are north-south, and NW-SE. The Gowk fault system is・ Governments (national and local) encompassing public andrecognisable for its surface ruptures during the 1981, 1989 andsemi-public entities,

1998 earthquakes as well as a hot spring system.

・Civil society organizations including NGOs,
・Private sector, i.e. business and industrial groups,

3. Disaster Prevention System and Recovery of Cultural

・ Professional groups, including academic researchers, training

Properties ― System and Efforts of Iranorganizations, consulting ﬁrms,

3-1 Disaster Prevention System and Efforts

・Media, including newspaper and TV networks,

On the disaster prevention system of the national level of Iran,For the risk preparedness process to be effective and successful

we have a detailed report produced after the Bam earthquake by

all these stakeholders should demonstrate commitment to thethe collaboration of the UNESCO Tehran Cluster Ofﬁce and thecause through transparency, bottom-up planning, democratiza-

University of Shahid Beheshti:

tion, cost effective measures, ensuring proper utilization of

Fallahi, Alireza & Sharif Motawef, 2007, "Bam Earth-resources and strengthening close collaboration and partnership.

quake Reconstruction Assessment, An Interdisciplinary(see attached Table).

analytical study on the risk preparedness of Bam and3-2 System and Efforts in the Disaster Management

its cultural landscape, a World Heritage Property in

It is no doubt that the disaster of Bam has urged to build up

Danger"a nationwide system of disaster management in Iran though the(A joint project between UNESCO Tehran Cluster Ofﬁce

speciﬁc information was not available. Here at ﬁrst is introduced& University of Shahid Beheshti).

based on Fallahiʼs report mentioned above which recorded in de-

The following description is after the above document unlesstail and concluded how the people of Bam behaved themselvesa special notice would be indicated.

in response to the earthquake. Secondly abstracted is a national
effort referred to in the document prepared last year as a national

3-1-1 Conceptual Framework

report to submit to UNASCO World Heritage Committee.

UNDRO (Ofﬁce of the United Nations Disaster Relief Coordinator) in 1984 recounts eleven general preparedness measures:

3-2-1 On-site Data Collection in Fallahiʼs Report

emergency plan, legislation, ﬁnancial measures and compensa-

The people who lived in Bam is categorized at ﬁrst into thetion, organization, communications, predictions or forecasts,

following three groups from the viewpoint of the lifestyle.

public warnings and information, damage and needs assessment
for post-disaster phase, emergency health care, evaluation,

Group A: People engaged in business affected by culturaltraining and education. It also mentions the special types of as-

heritage,107

Chapter 2 Case Study
Table 2: Stakeholders’ analysis of Bam risk preparedness process community

Group B: People with deep interest in cultural heritage.

to assist in deterring plants diseases and other epidemics.

Group C: Ordinary people.

7) Relations must be strengthened between the District Gover-Further in the report the residential area of Bam is divided

nor, Mayor, the CHO and other related stakeholders.

into seven sub-areas and summarized each by the sub-area the8) Greater responsibility must be allocated toward the private

results of the data collection by means of personal interview.

sector in order to persuade them to assist in maintaining histori-

Noticeable points of conclusions as a whole are as follows:

cal buildings.

1) Arg-e Bam is a symbol of culture, tradition and history9) There exist 4 main elements in Risk Preparedness: plan-

within Bam. For this reason, it represents and conjures a sensening, regulation, budget and people participation.

of identity and pride within the community. The next priority
deals with the restoration of Imam shrines and mosques. This

3-2-2 Action plan for Risk Preparedness and Disastersequence of priority coincide with the viewpoint of Bamʼs resi-

Mitigation

dents

Table 3: Bam base within the organizational chart of ICHHTO

2) There exist signiﬁcant differences between the residents of
Bam whom hold long entrenched historic within the area, andthose who have migrated during the post-earthquake period inregards to their feelings of belonging to Arg and other historicsites.
3) There does not exist significant differences between low,
middle and high social classes in regards to their feelings towards Arg and Bamʼs overall Heritage.
4) Those individuals whom remained residents of Bam after
the disaster posses much stron ｇ er feelings of affection to Bam.

(after “Management Plan” in [ICHHTO 2008])

5) Younger residents under the age of 20, lack awarenessabout Arg-e Bam and other historic monuments. Therefore ,4. Bam Earthquake in 2003 – a Case Analysis

there is an urgent need to educate and train residents in this re-

4-1 Outline of Disastergard.

The earthquake occurred at 05:26 a.m. in local time on Dec.

6) Support is required for palm and date tree owners in order

26, 2003. The United States Geological Survey (USGS) an108

Chapter 2 Case Study
Table 4: Risk Preparedness and Disaster Mitigation

Fig.3 Damage level map of the central area of Bam city
(part of map made by Building and Housing Research Center and provided by UNESCO Tehran Cluster Office)109

Chapter 2 Case Study

nounced the seismic scale as 6.6 in magnitude. The earthquake

Citadel to build the new city of Bam. The ﬁrst restoration action

acceleration was ﬁgured 0.8g in horizontal one and 1.1g in verti-of the Citadel as a historical monument was taken in 1958. It wascal.

registered as a national heritage site in 1966. The comprehensive

UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs re-restoration of the Citadel began in 1971, which continued until

ported that some 50,000 buildings were collapsed, some 43,200

the devastating earthquake on 26 December 2003.

people were killed, some 90,000 people lost their residences, and

The Citadel, which is mainly made of adobe, is surroundedthat more or less 200,000 people were hurt both physically andby walls of up to 18 m high and 2000 m long. The commonerʼseconomically.

quarters and the governorʼs quarters are the two major sections

International Institute of Earthquake Engineering and Seismol-of the Citadel, which are separated by walls and fences. The for-ogy (IIEES) informed that severe damages were concentrated

mer consists of seven residential areas, and the latter consists ofin the city Bam, and that in the old quarter, i.e. northeastern andthe military section and the governorʼs residence and associatedsoutheastern part of the city, in particular, more than 80 percent

buildings.

of the buildings in the built area were collapsed completely. The
Citadel of Bam located within the area was also thoroughly dam-

4-2-2 Detailed Description of Disaster Damage – Effect-

aged

factor Analysis of the Earthquake Damage and the Typology
In Vol. 1 - No. 2 issued in 2007 of the special serial publication “ARG: Annual Report of Arg-e Bam Research Foundation”

4-2 Disaster Damages on Cultural Properties
4-2-1 Outline of the Property

commenced after the earthquake, Mr. M. Nejati, vice-director of

The Bam Citadel, the Arg-e Bam, is one of the most remark-the Bam recovery project, described effect factors and their types

able complexes of earthen architecture and construction that wasrecognized in the series of building damages of Bam as follows:“The first step of the recovery process after the earthquake

ruined in the Bam earthquake of 26 December 2003. Soon after

was to reinforce the damaged historical buildings in Bam. In thisthe earthquake restoration activities started in the Citadel.
The Bam Citadel stands on a rocky slope at an altitude ofwork, it was recognized that the condition of damaged structures

1065 m, latitude 26 5′North and longitude 58°27′East, with avaried widely, and that such variation was caused by several fac-hot-dry climate, on the North-east side of the city of Bam, South-

tors including building material and construction method. These

east Iran. The Citadel, with a area of about 20 ha, is one of thecan be classiﬁed into:largest mud complexes in the world, which dates back to near1)

2000 years ago. It used to be a residential site until the middle ofthat the unevenness of ground could have caused difference ofthe nineteenth century A.D., at which time people abandoned theaffection, and that even in the same building, variety of quality

Affection to seismic damage: analysis of earthquake proved

Fig.4 ICHTO model of the Bam Citadel (after Langenbach).

110Chapter 2 Case Studyof building material and construction method of previous restoration as well as time difference of restoration stage could haveaffected the condition of damage.
2)

Affection of previous restoration works: restoration works

carried out in Iran so far were always sought for the authenticity of structures and spaces, but not prepared for earthquake andother disaster.
3)

Affection of lacking seismic design: the facts of earthquake

are very often left behind in Iran due to considerably long intervals, and therefore no architects and other building craftsmen
had any experience of seismic disaster.
4)

Affection of faults of building materials: substantial weak-ness of mud-brick was an important cause as well as shortness ofseismic resistance of mud-brick structure.
5)

Affection of faults in architectural plan and foundation

design: the difference of damage might have been suggested
through conﬁrming the presence of accurate design of dome andarch by means of precise measurement, and besides, the lack offoundation in many of buildings could have made a loss worse
6)

Affection of other natural factors: damage done to timber bytermites is an example of this category; damage by wind like assandstorm cannot be also neglected; neither of them needs to beemphasised to compare to seismic damage.
Fig.5 South Main Gate

4-2-3 Architectural Landscapes Before and After the
Sistāni House,

Earthquake• Production of over 11000 adobes required by the Italian Minis-

As mentioned above, restoration works had already started at
the site before the earthquake. In restored spots the structural re-try of Culture for restoration of Tower 1,

mains mostly appear to be damaged much worse than other spots• Making a contract with Bam Municipality of Nezām Shahr for

because of structural discontinuity between parts of original

providing the clay from Nezām Ābād area to the adjacent of Bam

masonry and later addition. Some of remains which had alreadyCitadel for production of adobe, mortar, and mud plaster,

been restored relatively better such as the Main Gate and Gover-• Adding up six more shades measuring 12 by 6m to the adobe

norʼs Residence, represent a stronger contrast of change between

workshop, aiming to increase the number and improve the qual-

appearances before and after the earthquake as are presented

ity of adobe,

below.

• Further equipment of the adobe workshop and the laboratory,• Further equipment of the model workshop,

4-3 Recovery of Damaged Cultural Properties• Purchasing drilling machines for new restoration approach,

4-3-1 Activities from “Periodical Report 2009”• Purchasing drilling machines for inserting the tensile elements

1)in the walls, domes and etc.,

Equipments• Completion and equipment of the Document Center by provid-• Purchasing the necessary scaffoldings for restoration works,

ing two external hard disks, and in order to increase the security• Purchasing the material needed for the workshops,

level of data protection, the external hard disks are keeping in• Expansion of the general warehouse and the facilities for stor-

two different locations in safe box,

ing tools and equipments of the project,• Production of over 200,000 adobes to use in restoration process• Completion of the Building of the Center for study of archeo-in Bam Citadel, • Production of over 25,000 reinforced adobes

logical ﬁndings (the warehouse and pottery exhibit),with palm ﬁbers required by the University of Dresden (Tech-• Equipping and supplying the items of consumption for thenische Universität Dresden) for continuation of restoration ofworkshops,
111

Chapter 2 Case Study

Fig.6 Central complex of the citadel

Fig.7 Around the stable building

Fig.8 Courtyard of the barrack

Fig.9 Grand Jami Mosque

Fig.10 Ice House

112

Chapter 2 Case Study• Completion of the residence of the project staff,

rack• Computer hardware and software updating,• Equipping the technical of ofﬁce with broadband internet,

4-3-2 Action Plan Proposed by Isfahan University

2)of three major parts: (1) research, (2) conservation, restoration

The action plan for restoration of the Bam Citadel consists
Emergency restoration

Acts of emergency conservation have been carried out to pre-and rehabilitation, and (3) presentation and education. The ac-serve the remaining elements in the following areas:tion plan is not aimed to complete reconstruction of the whole• Fortiﬁcation of the Second Gate,

complex, but to conserve, restore, revitalise, present and develop• Windmill Tower of Jame Mosque,the historical areas, based on clear guidelines and a strategic,• Ramp of the Stable,

realistic action plan to be implemented in the coming months• Vast areas of the west and east of the Public Quarters,

and years. Thus, restoration of the main parts of the complex and• Jame Mosque.

rehabilitation of some parts such as surrounding walls, passageways and squares, residential units and public buildings are in

3)

Debris removal

priority. The three phases of actions to be undertaken in different

More than 80% of the debris has so far been removed. The taskstages are: phase I: emergency measures; phase II: documenta-

has been carried out the following places: North of the fortiﬁca-

tion, assessment, analysis and planning, and phase III; long-termtion of the Second Gate, Windmill Tower, Vast areas of the west

restoration, rehabilitation, presentation, and sustainable utilisa-

and east of the public quarters, Payāmbar Mosque, Architecturetion of Bamʼs cultural heritage.

units of the south of the Stable, Architecture units of the south-

Phase I: Emergency Measures - The Bam Citadel required

west of Sabbath, Army Commander Building, Western walls ofurgent interventions in order to prevent further damage to thethe Governor Seat, Inside of the perimeter walls for a length ofstructures in case of after-shocks, and to ensure the conservation

1830m.

of the documentation on the site and to commence the research
and analysis need to proceed with restoration plans. Phase I was

4)accomplished in the ﬁrst half of the year 2004.

Stabilization

In view of the threats endangering various parts of the Citadel,

Phase II: Documentation, Assessment, Analysis and Planning

fortiﬁcation workshops have been established, and the collaps-- Phase II, which was undertaken in 2004 and 2005, comprised

ing structures have been stabilized in the following area:

comprehensive analysis and research aimed at improving the• Completion of two rooms of Sistani House by injection methodknowledge of the structural, geological and geotechnical condi-

and installation of ﬁberglass elements.

tions of the site, extending the knowledge of the archaeological• Completion of two rooms of the Stable by injection method

strata, and improving the performance of the materials and of theand installation of geo-grid mesh in various layers of the piers.

construction of all future reconstruction or restoration activities.

• Reinforcement of Payambar Mosque by using Sisse elements

Phase III: Long-Term Conservation, Restoration, Rehabilita-(palm tree ﬁbers) (ongoing).

tion, Presentation, and Sustainable Utilisation of Bamʼs Cultural• Reinforcement the range of structures in the west of the public

Heritage - These activities must be linked to the overall recon-

quaters

struction and recovery plan of Bam City and represent an opportunity to improve the local and national capacities to build and5)

Restoration and reconstruction

restore structures in a seismic-safe manner, while representing• Chahār Souk,

the authentic designs and materials of the heritage assets. This

• Fortiﬁcations of the Second Gate,action will be implemented in the coming decade (2005-2015)• Windmill Tower,

and beyond.
For reference, contents of the above publication are shown• Ramp of the Stable,• Sistāni House,

below:• One architectural unit to the east of the Second Gate,/ Abstract• West and east of the passageway of the Bazaar,/ 1. Introduction: 1.3. The Action Plan 1.3.1. Phase I: Emer-• West of Sabbath House,

gency Measures 1.3.2. Phase II: Documentation, Assessment,• Walls of the pilgrimage place of Jame Mosque,Analysis and Planning 1.3.3. Phase III: Long-Term Conserva-• Completion and conservation and restoration work at the Bar-

tion, Restoration, Rehabilitation, Presentation, and Sustainable113

Chapter 2 Case Study

Utilisation of Bamʼs Cultural Heritage/ Conservation of research materials on the Arg.

/ 2. Description of the Project: 2.1. Original State of the Adobe/ Ranking the enormity of damage caused by the earthquake.

Shop 2.2. State of the Adobe Shop before the Earthquake 2.3.

/ Making 3D models of ﬁve historical buildings in Bam.

State of the Adobe Shop after the Earthquake 2.4. Project Out-/ Activities at the courtyard of Takiyeh in Bam.

line 2.5. Activities Carried Out So Far/ Restoration works at the barrack of Arg-e Bam.

/ 3. Experimental Tests: 3.1. Adobe Material Properties 3.1.1.

/ Planning of an access route to Arg-e Bam.

Material Properties of Adobe Shop 3.1.2. Material Properties/ Introduction of pre-historic pottery sherds found in the post-

Selected for Structural Analysis 3.2. Palm-Tree Rope Properties

earthquake/ 4. Structural Analysis: 4.1. Material Properties 4.2. Loading

investigations.

4.3. Method of Analysis/ Masjid-i Jami: discoveries after the earthquake.

/ 5. Further Activities/ Measuring the stress between arch and vertical wall in earthen/ 6. Conclusionbuildings.
/ Translation: “Conservation and Structural Restoration of Ar-

4-3-3 Activities Known from the Publication of Annualchitectural Heritage” adopted at the conference in Zimbabwe inReports of Arg-e Bam Research Foundation

2003.

1)

/ Activities outside the Arg: former hospital building and city

Annual Report, vol. 1 no. 1 (2005)// Preamble: Sayyed Beheshti, Bam earthquake, a tremble in thewalls.

Iranians mind. / Skandar Mokhtari, A glance over post-earth-/ Studies and classiﬁcation of mud brick.

quake activities of the Arg-e Bam Urgent Recovery Project.

/ Arg-e Bam: barrack in Governorʼs residence.

// Archaeology: Bam after earthquake: selective information on/ Proposal of restoration of the Ice House in Bam.

ethnoarchaeology of disaster. / Debris removal from Arg-e Bam.

/ Reconstruction of the former hospital building.

/ Human bone remains inside Arg-e Bam walls: historical con“Arg-e Bam after the earthquake: archaeological activities”

text.

3)

// Mud-brick excavation: A glance over laboratory achievements

issued in 2007of the Arg-e Bam Urgent Recovery Project. / Soil mechanic/ Review of activities of the Bam recovery project after thelaboratory: methods and techniques. / Laboratory studies on Arg-

earthquake.

e Bam mud-bricks (tower 1). / Laboratory studies on Arg-e Bam/ Bam: its geography and history.

soil mines.

/ Report the outline of archaeology of Arg-e Bam and the re-// Geology: A report on geological setting of Bam.

moval of debris.

// Pathology: On the Pathology of Arg-e Bam surrounding walls.

/ On-going program of current situation survey and archaeologi-/ Pathological study on Arg landscape. / Pathological study on

cal investigations.

Yakhdan (ice house). / Restoration and conservation of tower 7. // Stone artifacts discovered at the site of Tal-e Atasi.

Relics and limits of the old Bazaars (Markets).

/ Introduction of pre-historic pottery sherds unearthed in Bam.

// Reports and case studies: A plan for study of Qanats (well/ Arg-e Bam and its cultural landscape in Achaemenid era: fun-gaallary) of Bam region. / A plan for study of Qalahs (forts)

damental view.

of Bam religion. / Using GIS in Arg-e Bam documentations. // Introduction of Sasanian to Islamic archaeology of Arg-e Bam

ICHTO international activities after earthquake of 26 December

and its vicinity.

2003 in Bam. / 'Bam' Tsrategic-structural project (from cultural-/ Introduction of pottery of 8th to 13th centuries in Hijrah.

historical point of view): the ﬁrst phase.
4-4 International Cooperation
2)

Annual Report, vol. 1 no. 2 (2007)

4-4-1 Scheme of International Aid/ Technical activities in the urgent recovery works on the cultural

Many experts of earthen architectural heritage visited Bam on

heritage Bam.

occasion of “Terra 2003 - the ninth international conference on/ Activities inside Bam.

the study and conservation of earthen architecture” held in Yazd

/ Archaeological research and activities in the recovery projectin November to December, 2003, just before the earthquake. Ac-

of Bam.

cordingly, because the international interest in the landscape of/ Archaeological research of Ahraz area and the Bam fault.

Bam had considerably increased when the earthquake occurred,
114

Chapter 2 Case Study

movement of international aid for rescuing Bam had quickly

operation. In research phase, too, the desired goals could only bebeen raised with the UNESCO Tehran ofﬁce as a key organiza-

reached through international supports.

tion.
In particular, Italy and Japan took the initiative in direct ﬁnan-

3)

As for the required equipments in the Citadel, the greater

cial support in the early stage of recovery process of damaged

part of them still needs to be procured. From the current stage

Bam. The Japanese fund, however, was applied mainly to theon, advanced technical equipments are needed.

cost of international conferences and experimental restoration
works done not only by Iranian groups but by the German team

5．Conclusions and Recommendations

other than the expense for Japanese consultants.

This research project aimed mainly at rather technical tasks

Italy and France (CRATerre-EAG) dispatched some experts

including international cooperation and disaster countermea-

and set about on-site restoration works soon after the earthquake,sures, and has successfully been resulting in abundant collection

and then have been producing a certain results at the specificof latest information and relevant materials thanks to the cour-spots, part of the outer fortiﬁcation for Italy and the inner second

tesy of the Iranian authority and UNESCO Tehran Ofﬁce as wellgate for CRATerre. As for Japan, on the other hand, although

as other personal cooperation.

some experts have been involved, any on-site works are not cur-Six years have elapsed since the earthquake occurred in therently promoted other than an experimental collaboration doneend of 2003, and the recovery project controlled by the Iranian

recently by Professor Hanazato, Mie University with the staff ofgovernment seems to have been continued with success both inIsfahan University.

academic research and practical restoration in general though not
so rapidly.

4-4-2 Required International Cooperation

Nevertheless, at present when most of financial aid offered

The Iranian authority expressed necessary programs in thefrom abroad or international organizations has ceased, we areform of international cooperation under the title ʻNeed for inter-

faced still with various problems in order to recover and main-

national supportsʼ in the periodical report submitted to UNESCO

tain continuously “Bam and its cultural landscape” by which thein 2009 as follows:damaged site was inscribed in the UNESCO World Heritage
List.

1)

For the time being, the salvation project of Bam and its Cul-

The author would like to recommend here the following

tural Landscape is in need of ﬁnancial support from international

proposals for the next stage of recovery and maintenance of theinstitutions, co-workers, and universities to survive. Due to hav-site based on various research results mentioned above and also

ing limited ﬁnancial funds, it is not feasible to call on interna-

on the latest information obtained from some key persons withtional experts on the side of the Iranian government to take partwhom the author contacted in last September:in the project. On the other hand, the project seriously calls forconstant international cooperation; thus, it has to exert a pull on

1)

Long term program:international institutions as ﬁnancial sponsors. So far, UNESCO

Such intensive restoration works as operated in theses six

has been of great help for the project through the funds siphoned

years at Bam so far gave us precious experiences, but they de-by the Credit Fund in Trust of Japan. Also, Italian Ministry ofserved just an initial stage of the entire recovery project. Now an

Culture (Ministero per i Beni e le Attività Culturali) has ﬁnanced

urgent and setting of a long term program is needed, taking into

one joint project. As several universities have so far expressedconsideration the future voluminous task.

their readiness to take part in the project, the financial funds
have to be provided as quickly as possible.

2)

2)

Given the fact that the works included in the project cannot

share the results of so far completed experimental works brought

be carried out without a proper scientiﬁc and research support,by several teams organized for research and practical restoration

it seems crucial to establish an international research centre forincluding foreign missions, and to promote the exchange of criti-

brick heritage at Bam Citadel. The initial steps have already been

cal comments.

International conference:
Sustainable conference system should be produced in order totaken, and those in charge of the project intend to take complete
possession of the lands in order to start to build the research

3)center. However, equipping the center requires international co-

Equipments:
The lack of necessary equipments is most severe problem at115

Chapter 2 Case Study

the site of conservation and restoration. Supply of more heavymachines would no doubt smoothly promote any on-site works.
In particular, earthquake simulation vehicles or the like are required not only for conservation of Bam, but for seismic experiment in the nation scale, where with relatively short intervals
disastrous earthquakes occur.
4)

Permanent research base:
The history of Bam as well as its urban structure is of greatinternational interest, and at the same time, not only various
materials for restoration but plenty of seismic information are
currently stored. Therefore, the author believes to be very reasonable conditions here in Bam to install a permanent researchbase for seismic disaster from the view point, both academic andadministrative, where also the program of capacity building is
expected to undertake.

116

Chapter 2 Case Study

5. Greece(Case Study on the Monastery of Daphni and Archaeological Site of Olympia)
Ritsumeikan University
Ritsumeikan-Global Innovation Research Organization
1. Research Overview

1-2 Members of the Mission

1-1 Research Objective

The Members of this research are as follows.

Recently increasing attention is being paid to damage toName

cultural heritage, and we are seeing more and more examples
of cultural heritage sites suffering damage caused by natural or
human disasters. We should take disaster mitigation measures topreserve our precious cultural heritage on a daily basis. Disastermitigation measures differ from country to country. Some countries do not include cultural heritage in their schemes for disaster

MissionProfessor, Ritsumeikan Global Innovation Re- General coordination, Survey on
search Organization, Ritsumeikan Univ.
Greek policy for the protection(Research Center for Disaster Mitigation of Ur- of cultural properties
ban Cultural Heritage, Ritsumeikan Univ. (RitsDMUCH))

Kenzo Toki

Professor, Ritsumeikan Global Innovation Re- Summary of the special session
on the protection of cultural
search Organization, Ritsumeikan Univ.
(Director, Rits-DMUCH)
properties

Yozo Goto

Project researcher, Earthquake Research Institute Survey on seismic damageof The University of Tokyo
cases, Surveys on methods ofreinforcement

Minsuk Kim

Post-Doctoral Fellow, Ritsumeikan Global Inno- Survey on Greek policy for thevation Research Organization, Ritsumeikan Univ. protection of cultural properties
and concrete cases(Rits-DMUCH)

mitigation, and there are a number of examples where there wasno real disaster mitigation system for a cultural heritage until

Position / Afﬁliation

Kanefusa
Masuda（chief）

1-3 Research Schedule

it had been severely damaged by a natural disaster. In addition,

The research took place from the 20th to the 28th September

since there is the need for quick and proper recovery of a cultural

2009. The research schedule and the interviewees are presented

heritage after a disaster event, we have had increasing requests

in the table below.

for cooperation from other countries, resulting in real cases of（Table of Research schedule）

cooperation. However, it is be hard to cooperate quickly andDateappropriately if measures are planned after a disaster has happened. Thus, it is important to determine how we can contribute

Visiting Places
AM

Ancient Agora in AthensPM

Library of Hadrian, Temple of the Olympian
Zeus, etc.

21th Sept.

AM

The Parthenon of the Athenian Acropolis Maria Ioannido(Fig.1-1)（Director of The Acropolis Restoration Service）

to other countriesʼ disaster mitigation measures in advance, andHellenic Ministry of Culture (Fig.1-2)

to maintain close coordination with them.
Ritsumeikan-Global Innovation Research Organization, Ritsumeikan University was commissioned by the Japan Consortiumfor International Cooperation in Cultural Heritage and carried out

PMcase surveys on recovery of damaged cultural heritages as part of a
research project on international cooperation for protecting cultural

People Interviewed

20th Sept.

Elena Korka（Director of Prehistoric and Classical Antiquities, Hellenic Ministry of
Culture）
A. Miltiadou-Fezans（Directorate of Technical Research
for Restoration, Hellenic Ministry of
Culture）

The Exhibition Room for Archaeological A. Miltiadou-Fezans
Finds from Santorini in the National Archaeological Museum of Athens
The New Acropolis Museum (Fig.1-3)

heritages. The project mainly consists of surveys on disaster mitigation systems and response systems in target countries, as well as
concrete cases of both recovery and actual international cooperation.

22nd / 23rd
Sept.

AM
PM

3rd Greece–Japan Workshop : Seismic Design, Observation, Retroﬁt of Foundations,
held in the Petros M. Nomikos ConferenceCenter at the Island of Santorini (Fig.1-4)

24th Sept.

AMThe Monastery of Daphni

This research took up the Monastery of Daphni and the archeological site of Olympia, Greece as its main cases. Generally, Section
2 presents the characteristics of disasters and the characteristics

PMof damage to cultural heritage sites. Section 3 presents a disaster

A. Miltiadou-Fezans
N. Delinikolas（Head of the Section for Restoration Studies on Byzantine monuments, Hellenic Ministry of Culture）
Harris P. Mouzakis（Assistant Professor, National Technical University of Athens）

The Monastery of Hosios Loukas
Archaeological Site of Delphi (Fig.1-5)

25th Sept.

mitigation and recovery system for cultural heritages, and Section
4 summarizes concrete examples of damaged cultural heritages

26th Sept.

and their recovery as well as international cooperation, based on

AMmovingPM

Archaeological Site of Olympia and its Konstantinos Antonopoulos
Museum（Head of local service at Olympia,
Hellenic Ministry of Cul¬ture）

AM

movingPM

Sanctuary of Asklepios at Epidaurus (Fig.1- Nikos Ninis
6)（Head of the Engineering Division,
Finance Management Fund forArchaeological Projects, Hellenic
Ministry of Culture）

the outcomes of the research. Section 5 reports “Special Session on
Earthquake Protection and Post-earthquake Restoration of Cultural

Archaeological Sites of Mycenae and Tiryns

Heritages” in the 3rd Greece-Japan Workshop during the term of this27th Sept.

research. Last but not least, Section 6 presents conclusions of these28th Sept.

case surveys and proposals resulting from them.
117

AM

The National Archaeological Museum ofAthensPM

The Byzantine and Christian Museum

AM

The Acropolis Restoration Service (YSMA) Maria Ioannidou

PM

Acropolis, AthensChapter 2 Case Study

Fig.1-1 Site visit in the restoration site of Acropolis, Athens

Fig.1-2 Interview in Hellenic Ministry of Culture

Fig.1-3 New Acropolis Museum (designed by Bernard Tschumi and others. Opened in June 2009)

Fig.1-4 View of Special Session of the 3rd Greece–Japan Workshop

Fig.1-5 Fire protection systems in Delphi

Fig.1-6 Fire protection systems in Epidaurus

118

Chapter 2 Case Study

Fig.1-7 Research sites and venue of workshop

119Chapter 2 Case Study

2. Characteristics of Disaster Damage to Cultural Heritages

Turkey breaks into the Greek Aegean plate, which is diverted toin Greece

move to the west and south. From the south, the African plate

2-1 Features of Natural Disasters in Greece

subducts under the Aegean plate, and forms typical subduction

The main natural disasters in Greece are earthquake and wild-arc geology. Hence, Crete and Rhodes islands have sufferedﬁre. Earthquake disasters often cause landslides. Floods and vol-many earthquakes.

canic eruptions are also a threat from the viewpoint of cultural

Mega earthquake of M8 have occurred at intervals of several

heritage preservation, and they often cause mudﬂows.

hundred years, and caused damage not only to these islands but
also to the Greek mainland. The shallow earthquakes among
them, occurring at intervals of about one thousand years, caused

1) Earthquake
Greece is the highest earthquake-prone country in Europe.

tsunamis that affected the coasts of the Mediterranean Sea. Some

Earthquakes of magnitude greater than 5.5 on the Richter scale

historians think that these mega-earthquakes may have affectedoccur 0.64 times per year on average. This is lower than Japanthe sociocultural rise and decline of ancient Greece to some ex-(1.14) but is greater than Italy (0.52) (UNDP, 2004). However,tent.

when compared by unit area, Greece is 4.9 times per year per

Another active seismic zone of Greece is the west coast along

million square kilometer, whereas Japan is 3.0 and Italy is 1.7.

Ionian Sea. In this zone the strike-slip fault has caused frequent

Table 2-1 shows recent damaging earthquakes in Greece.

M7 scale earthquakes. One of the recent tragedies in this zone

These earthquakes are not as large as those that have occurred in

was the 1953 Ionian Islands Earthquake (M7.2), which killed
about 450 persons and burned down 90% of the historical town

Japan, but they are more frequent.

on Zakinthos Island.

Table 2-2 is the historical earthquake list of Greece, showing
another aspect of Greek seismicity. Mega-earthquakes greater

There are two more seismic zones which are dangerous tothan magnitude 8.0 have occurred at intervals of several hundred

many cultural heritages in Greece. One extends from east to west

years.

in the center of the Greek peninsula and the other from Athens

These seismic features of Greece may be understood throughto Patra along the north coast of Korinthiakos Kolpos. The 1999

Fig.2-1, which gives a broad overview of the tectonic plate

Athens earthquake, which affected Monas-teries of Daphni, oc-

movement around Greece. From the east, the Anatolian plate ofcurred in the latter zone.

Table 2-1 Recent Damaging Earthquake in Greece (European Commission Directorate, 2003)

Table 2-2 Historical Mega Earthquake in Greece (Papazachos, 1997)

120

Chapter 2 Case Study

Fig.2-1 Plate motions which affect active tectonics in the Aegean andsurrounding area (Papazachos, 1997)

Fig.2-2 Burned areas of Greece during the summer of 2007
(Zirogiannis, 2009)

2) WildﬁreWildfire is becoming a serious natural disaster in Greece.
From 1955 to 1973, 11,500 hectares of land were burned peryear on average. However, this increased to 55,000 hectares per
year from 1980 to 2000. Then, 270,000 hectares were burnedin the summer of 2007, which is the worst wildfire season incontemporary Greek history. Zirogiannis (2009) discussed thebackground to this increase, pointing out ecological and socioeconomic factors. The following is a summary of his discussion.
Within the past 50 years, Greece has undergone serious socialand demographic changes. From the end of the 1940s a rapidly
growing urbanization movement was initiated and people started
moving into the big cities. This movement reached its peakaround the end of the 1960s and led to the isola-tion of manyrural areas. A steady decline in rural population was observed.
There was less demand for fire wood and grazing land, agricultural ﬁelds were left uncleared, paths in the mountains were

Fig.2-3 Satellite photo during the burning of 2007 (DLR)

no longer needed. Moreover, Mediterranean markets for forest
products were steadily shrinking. Then, rural dwellers, tradition-

prices extremely high. And wildfires started to appear with anally the “managers” of forest land, were no longer attached to theincreasing frequency in areas where development land was great

woodlands as a means of making a living.

demand. Corrupt developers might have made intentional ﬁres

The consequences of the above are an ever increasing accu-

to construct houses and tourist lodgings soon after the ﬁres.

mulation of biomass in the Greek forest, and a decrease of the

The professionals of Hellenic Ministry of Culture mentioned

incentive for rural dwellers to protect woodlands from natural

another aspect of the increasing danger of wildfire to cultural

threats, such as wildﬁres.

heritages, which is a change of mountain vegetation, i.e., theFurthermore, from the late 1970s, as the results of economic

covering of pine trees, which did not exist in ancient Greece

prosperity and increased pollution in urban centers, many people

ages.

started leaving the cities during the summer months and building

Pine trees have spread across all of the wild area of Greece

vacation houses in coastal areas and mountain villages. Thus, theexcept the man-made olive forests. Fallen pineneedles containurban lifestyle contacted to wildland, and raised the opportunity

oil and are very inﬂammable. In addition, pine-cones can surviveof accidental ﬁres as well as the increase of tourism travelers.

during a ﬁre and disperse many seeds soon after it. Thus, the risk

Additionally, the Greek legal system greatly impedes anyof wildﬁre recurs within a short time even though the ﬂammablechange in the use of forest land. Short-age of land led the landpineneedles were burned out in the previous wildﬁre.
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Chapter 2 Case Study

destroyed in 1570 BC by an earthquake. It was rebuilt in 1450

3) Volcano eruption
There are only three active volcanos (Methana, Santorini andBC and redestroyed in 1375 BC (Christaras, 2003).

Nisyros) in Greece that have erupted in historic times. They arelocated along the volcanic arc of the Southern Aegean Sea, andtheir activity is assumed to be an effect of the African plate subduction (Papazachos, 1997).

Fig.2-5 Knossos in Crete (Christaras, 2003)

Akrotiri on Santorini Island also contains ruins of the Minoan civilization. A large volcanic erup-tion in about 1550 BC
blew the mountain body of the ancient Santorini Island andAkrotiri town was covered with volcanic ash and pumice stone.
Inhabitants of the town was assumed to have escaped before theFig.2-4 Volcanic Arc of Southern Aegean Sea (Papazachos, 1997)

eruption. Excavation of the buried town began in 1974 and its
richness and large scale raised the hypothesis that the Atlantis of

Only one weak eruption of the Methana volcano (in 250 BC)

legend was on Santorini Island.

and ﬁve also weak eruptions of the Nisyros volcano are known

Another site of ruins on Santorini is the ancient Thyra, which(in 1422, 1830, 1871, 1873, 1888).

prospered after 900 BC. In 631 BC, the inhabitants of Thyra

The most important and dangerous volcano in Greece is thatmoved to Cyrene in Libya to escape a famine caused by volca-of Santorini. This has a very big caldera, which was formed in

nic activity. Minoura et al. (Minoura, 2000) surveyed tsunami

approximately 1620 BC. There are thirteen known historic erup-

deposits along the coast of the Southern Aegean Sea and also

tions of this volcano from 197 BC to 1950. Some of them werenumerically simulated a tsunami caused by subsidence of thevery strong, causing damage and killing people. The eruption

caldera of Santorini. They concluded that Santoriniʼs volcanicof approximately 1620 BC not only damaged the civilization

activity had caused a large tsunami that affected the Aegean re-of Santorini but also caused a large tsunami, which affected thegion in the late Minoan period.

island and coasts along the Aegean Sea. Some historians have

Another interesting story about an earthquake in ancient

tried to relate the Atlantis Legend to this historic volcanic activ-

Greece is the Trojan War legend. In the epic poem of “Ilias”

ity.

created by Homeros, Troy was defeated by a trick of a dummyhorse. However, some dreamers have postulated that the Trojan

2-2 Overview of Disaster Damage to Cultural Heritage

walls were broken by a strong earthquake and that the ancient

1) Ancient Ages

Greece army utilized the chance to invade the city. Poseidon in

Earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, tsunami and slope failures

Greek mythology is a god of the sea creates tsunami, and a horse

must have damaged very many cultural heritages in the long his-in Greek mythology is a god of earthquakes. It is a fact that the

tory of Greece.

active North Anatolian fault extends through the Trojan region.

Actually, there are many stories about the impact of thesenatural disasters on civilized towns in ancient Greece. Knossos2）Recent Years

on Crete Island was the site of a palace of the Minoan civiliza-

Papazachos and Papazachou (Papazachos, 1997) describedtion. This site was continuously inhabited from the Neolithic

representative damage to cultural heri-tages in more recent years

period (7000-3000 BC) until Roman times. An earthquake andas follows:

probable eruptions of Thyra (Santorini) volcano destroyed the“The cultural consequences of earthquakes in Greece

town before 1890 BC. A new Palace was built in 1700 BC andhave been very signiﬁcant since historical monuments
122

Chapter 2 Case Study

also. Among them, are the Metropolis (the Cathedral
Church) and the National Lyric Theatre. Also affected,
though repairable, were a large number of buildings
hosting cultural activities or objects of cultural value,
including the National Opera and the ArchaeologicalMuseum.
The monastery of Daphni, already inscribed in the world heritage list of UNESCO, is one of the most important monumentsof the middle Byzantine period, being famous worldwide for its
excellent mosaics of the Catholic (Miltiadou, 2004). However, it

Fig.2-6 Troy and North Anatolian Fault (Papazachos, 1997)

is situated in a Neogene tectonic graben on the west side of thebasin of Athens, 150m from the E-W trending marginal fault.

have been repeatedly destroyed by earthquakes. We

Being located in a tectonically active area, it has suffered dam-can mention the destruction of the Colossus of Rho-age due to many intensive earthquake shakes. When consideringdos (227 BC), the Olympic Zeus temple in Olympia

the last two centuries, earthquakes of 1889 estimated magnitude(365 AD), the Asclepios building in Cos (554 AD),

6.7 on the Richter scale (M6.7R), 1894 (M7.0R), 1914 (M6.0R),

the Roman market in Thessaloniki (620 AD) and of

1981 (M6.7R) and 1999 (M5.9R) should be mentioned. The

many archeological articles exhibited in the museum

1999 earthquake was not large in magnitude, but occurred in aof Heraklion (1926, 1935). One of the most impressive

shallow crust about 15 km north of the Monastery. The building

recent destructions of the national cultural heritage is

did not collapse but became unstable, and needed emergency

that caused by the earthquakes of August 1953 in Io-

ﬁxing and much repair work.

nian island. Romas (1975) mentioned that 90% of thecultural asset of Zante became ash by the earthquakesof 1953 and the ﬁre which followed.”
Christaras (2003) listed the most destructive earthquakes toDelphi archaeological site as follows:・

600 BC: complete destruction of the sanctuary・

373 BC: extensive damage to the archaic temple of Apollo,
mainly by rockfalls.

・ 1870 AD: signiﬁcant damage to the monuments (reactivationof the Arachova-Delphi fault zone)
The archaeological site of Delphi is built under an almost vertical limestone slope. Almost vertical discontinuities are developed in the rock mass, which are intersected by joints, fracturesand open cracks. When we visited the site, entry to the center ofFig.2-7 View from cliff, Delphi (Christaras, 2003)

the site was inhibited by a small rock-fall that had happened several days before.
Theoﬁli et al. (Theoﬁli, 2001) mentioned damage to classicalmonuments caused by the 1999 Mt Parnitha-Athens Earthquake
as follows:
Most classical monuments survived the earthquake almost without damage. Serious damaged occurred to the Fortress of Fili (5th Century BC) and theWall of Elefsina (5th Century BC). Some Byzantine
monuments suffered damages. This is the case of
the Monastery in Daphni (11th Century AD), whichsuffered significant damage. Damage to historicalmasonry buildings of the last centu-ries was reported

Fig.2-8 Delphi ruins and cliff

123

Chapter 2 Case Study

the years an earthquake protection policy framework. The mainlines of the earthquake protection policy are:・

To mitigate seismic risk in the built environment

・To ensure preparedness at central government, prefecture

and local authorities level・To upgrade earthquake awareness and to keep the public

informed on seismic safety issues
・To improve emergency response and aid provision.
The basis of the anti-seismic policy in Greece consists of thefollowing legislative tools:
・

FEK 534 B/20-6-1995, New anti-seismic regulation.

・

FEK 315B/17-4-1997, New reinforce concrete regulation.

・

FEK 1329/6-11-2000, Greek regulation of reinforce con-crete.
2) Agencies in the ﬁeld of seismic protection

Fig.2-9 Mosaic of Daphni

The Earthquake Planning and Protection Organization(EPPO)1 under Ministry for the Environment, Physical Planning and Public Works (YPEHODE), established in 1983, is thecompetent authority to guide the national earthquake protection
policy and to coordinate the state and private resources for its
implementation. EPPO assigns and supports research projects onearthquake protection issues. Collaboration with foreign institutions and authorities, cooperation with the scientiﬁc community
and a leading role in promoting seismic safety in the country, areamong its tasks. A variety of EPPO publications about preven-Fig.2-10 Monastery of Daphni under repair

tion of earthquake disasters and earthquake protection are avail-3) Wildﬁreable.

Many of the cultural heritages in Greece are made from marble stone, whose surface is metamorphosed by ﬁre. In fact, some

The Earthquake Rehabilitation Service (YAS) under YPE-

parts of some monuments have been scarred by ﬁre, and most

HODE has as main task the implementation of the policy onof the ﬁres are assumed to have been manmade. Although, theearthquake reconstruction of buildings at national, prefecture

number of wildfire disasters in Greece has increased in recent

and local level. YAS supervises the rehabilitation and reconstruc-years. The level of damage to cultural heritages by wildfire istion procedure and the Service keeps records of the state funds

not clear.

expenditure for the reconstruction and repair of earthquake damaged buildings.
The General Secretariat of Civil Protection (GSCP)2, estab-

3. Disaster Preparedness and Recover of Cultural Heritage:

lished in 1995, under the Ministry of Interior is mainly involved

Structural Framework and Measuresin the ﬁeld of civil protection. It is assigned by law to comprise

3-1 Disaster Preparedness

all measures as well as civil and private means for the protection

Vatavali (2003) summarized the Greek policy for earthquakeof the population against all types of disasters (natural, techno-

disaster preparedness in his report to the European Commission,

logical, etc., at national, regional and local level).

Directorate General Environment Unit D3: Civil Protection as

The Institute of Engineering Seismology and Earthquake

follows.

Engineering (ITSAK)3 was established in 1979, in Thessaloniki,after the 1978 earthquake disaster. The main objective of ITSAK

1) Seismic protection policy

is applied research in the ﬁelds of engineering seismology, soil

Greece has paid a heavy toll in terms of life loss and has suf-

dynamics and earthquake engineering aiming at upgrading thefered a serious damage to property and cultural heritage due to

Greek Seismic Design Code and mitigating earthquake damage.

earthquakes. Eventually this experience has led to forming over124

Chapter 2 Case Study

Further development of structure monitoring and laboratory

3-2 Structural Framework and Measures in Time of Disastertechniques on structural mechanics, as well as involvement in

The Greek crisismanagement structure against disasters is

public and private projects by performing special studies andmainly operated by the General Secretariat of Civil Protection

providing consulting, participation in national and international(GSCP), the Hellenic Fire Brigade and the Hellenic Police.

research projects on seismic-risk mitigation and expansion of

GSCP was established in 1995, under the Ministry of the Interi-collaboration with relevant research institutes and industry inor5. It is assigned by law to comprise all measures as well as civil

Europe and beyond, with emphasis on the Eastern Mediterraneanand private means for the protection of the population against

and Balkan regions, are included in the research and activity pro-

all types of disasters (natural, technological, etc., at national,

gramme of the institution for the future.

regional and local levels). The Hellenic Fire Brigade is also con-

4

The Geodynamics Institute (GI) of the National Observa-

trolled by the Ministry of the Interior6, but the Hellenic Police7

tory of Athens aims at the study and promotion in the ﬁelds ofis controlled by the Ministry of Citizen Protection8(Formerly theseismology, of the physic of the earthʼs interior, geophysics,

Ministry of Public Order).

volcanology, geothermy and seismotechtonics. The main tasks

An organizational chart of GSCP is shown in Figure 3-1. On

of GI are collection and processing of seismological-geophysicalthe top page of the web site of the Ministry of Citizen Protection,

parameters, the performance of research projects, the elaboration

Figure 3-2, the logos of agencies related to civil protection areof relevant studies, the training and services to third bodies.

shown in the center. This seems to mean that close cooperation

University departments and laboratories in most Greek

is required among GSCP, Fire Brigade and Police.

universities carry out significant research in a wide range ofscientific fields relevant to earthquake protection. Significant

3-3 Structural Framework for Cultural Heritage in Times ofresearch activity has been carried out by the Department of Civil

DisasterEngineering and the Department of Rural and Surveying Engi-

There is no description of activities in times of disaster or

neering of National Technical University, the Faculty of Geology

preservation of cultural heritage on the web page of the Hellenicof National and Kapodistian University of Athens and the De-

Ministry of Culture. The author made questionnaires about thepartment of Civil Engineering of University of Patras.

structure of preparedness and recovery for cultural heritages, andposted them twice to several staff members of the Hellenic Ministry of Culture, but no answer was received.

Fig.3-1 Organization chart of GSCP (http://www.civilprotection.gr/)

125Chapter 2 Case Study

Fig.3-2 Logos of Organizations concerning civil protection (http://www.
yptp.gr/main.php?lang=EN&lang=EN)

4. Case Study

The author does not think that this indicates a lack of serious awareness of natural disasters in the Hellenic Ministry of

4-1 Monastery of Daphni

Culture, because even in the English-language web site of the

4-1-1 Overview of Disaster

Agency for Cultural Affairs of Japan, there is no clear descrip-1) Name: Katholikon of Daphni Monasterytion of measures to protect Japanese cultural heritages from

2) Date: 7th September 1999

natural disaster.

3) Nature and extent of damage: Severe damage to the structure

It was heard that the role of each staff member was re-deﬁned

and the mosaics due to the 1999 Mt Parnitha-Athens Earthquake

and the center and local agencies have practiced frequent disas-(M5.9R) which occurred about 15km north.

ter drills since the wildﬁre disaster of 2007.

4) Location: About 10km northwest of downtown Athens
5) Proﬁle as a cultural heritage:
Miltiadou (2009) summarized the profile of Daphni Monastery as follows:
The Byzantine monastery of Daphni (world heritage list of

Fig.4-1 Location of Daphni Monastery (Attached to Google Map)

126

Chapter 2 Case Study

UNESCO), is one of the most important monuments of middle
Byzantine period, famous worldwide for the mural mosaics of its
Katholikon (main church).
The monastery comprises various buildings (laid out in asquare plan shown in Fig.4-3), constructed over a long periodof time, starting on the 11 th century AD. Currently, most of thebuildings are in ruins, with the exception of the Katholikon, partof the internal range of cells, the cistern and the northern fortiﬁcation walls. The Katholikon belongs to the octagonal type andpreserves large part of the original mural mosaics. It comprises
the main church, the sanctuary, the narthex and four chapels,

Fig.4-4 N-W view of Katholikon(Miltiadou, 2009)

which complete its orthogonal plan. In the western part, only theperimeter walls of an exonarthex or portico and those of a spiralstairway tower leading to the upper floor have survived (Figs.
4-4, 4-5).
The central part of the main church is cross-shaped in plan,
the hemispherical dome rising over its square core. The domeis 8.2m in diameter and 16.4m high, and rests on an almost
cylindrical drum with 16 piers and 16 vaulted windows. The

Fig.4-5 N-E view of Katholikon(Miltiadou, 2009)
Fig.4-2 One of the mosaics of the Daphni monastery

Fig.4-6 The central dome and its drum, curried by eight pendentives
and eight arches(Miltiadou, 2009)

Fig.4-3 Original plan
(Miltiadou, 2005)

127

Chapter 2 Case Study

for restoration10.
4-1-2 Details of Disaster Damage to Cultural Heritage1) Details of disaster damage
A systematic survey of damage due to the September 7th,
1999 earthquake is summarized by Miltiadou (2009). The contents of this section 4-1-2 to section 4-1-4 are excerpts from
Miltiadouʼs paper presented at the special session on “Earthquake Protection and Post-earthquake Restoration of Cultural
Heritages” in the 3rd Greece-Japan Workshop: Seismic Design,
Observation, and Retroﬁt of Foundations.
Fig.4-7 Plan of the Katholikon and schematicpresentation of emergency measures(Miltiadou, 2009)

survey are presented, showing the severe damages observed indome and its drum are carried by eight pendentives and eight

extensive network of shear and bending cracks (ranging fromarches (four semicircular and four embodied in the squinches ofhair cracks to those several centimeters wide) has appeared on

the corners), forming an octagon and achieving in this way thethe walls and piers of the monument, whereas numerous oldtransition from circle to square. Thus, twelve piers (laying out

cracks (due to previous earthquakes) increased in length andin a square plan), provide support to the dome together with thewidth. Severe structural dislocation and outwards movement

groin vaulted arms of the cross, situated in a higher level (Figs.

of the walls was recorded in the NE corner of the main church

In Fig.4-9 some typical drawings of cracks and deformations
the monument (both to its structural part and to the mosaics). An

4-6, 4-7). All the other parts of the monument are covered with(~14cm to the N and ~10 cm to the E). Signiﬁcant out-of-planebyzantine groin vaults.

displacement of the N and S arms of the cross (~16 cm and 21cm
respectively), and of the free standing west wall of the exonarthex were also recorded, due to further deterioration of previous

6) History of Disaster and Restoration:
Severe damage was caused to a Greek cultural heritage by

deformations (~16 cm in the corners and ~25 cm in the middle).

earthquakes in 1889 and 1897, after which restoration was car-

The damages were more extensive in the higher parts of theried out by the Greek Archaeological Society : mosaics werestructure, especially in the sanctuary, the arms of the cross andcleaned by Italian artisans and the west side of the narthex andall the arches below the dome area. As shown in Fig.4-9, the NE

9

the dome were entirely rebuilt. The structure was reinforced

and NW small arches just below the squinches presented severein 1920. In 1955-57, a more extensive restoration project wasdislocation near their crown, followed by out of plane deforma-

undertaken by the Restorations Department of the Ministry oftions of the squinches themselves. Cracks appeared also in all the

Culture. The church was restored, the cloister was repaired, andgroin vaults of the church. The structural condition of the dome

the mosaics were cleaned again. In 1960, the walls filling the(reconstructed at 1891 and damaged soon after its reconstructionarches in the western wall of the exonarthex were removed andat 1894), was assessed as extremely critical immediately afterin 1968 the west entrance to the monastery was cleared. Afterthe earthquake.
Horizontal cracks have appeared along the perimeter of theanother damaging earthquake in 1999, the monastery was closed

drum (both at its base and top, Fig.4-10). In the piers of thedrum that are situated perpendicular to the East-West direction,
horizontal cracks (due to out-of-plane bending) have opened attheir top and bottom. In the piers that are situated parallel to the
E-W axis, diagonal or bi-diagonal (shear) cracks have appeared.
In the intermediate piers, mixed type of (less severe) cracks wasobserved.

Fig.4-8 Excavators of Daphni, 1891
(Roland et François Etienne, 1995)

128

Chapter 2 Case Study(a) East-West section. View to South(b) East-West section. View to North(c) North-South section. View to West(d) North-South section. View to East

Fig.4-9 Typical presentation of damages (Miltiadou, 2009)

Fig.4-10 Zoom up of North-South section. View to West
(Unit indicator is meter.) (Miltiadou, 2009)

129

Chapter 2 Case Studyalong the longitudinal one (E-W). Such a difference in behavior2) Qualitative Interpretation of Damages
It was observed that the number and the opening of crack in

is usual in churches with an orthogonal plan and could be at-the vertical elements of the Katholikon increase from the base totributed to the larger number and sections of vertical elements

the top of the monument. The monument exhibits the tendency

available along the E-W axis in the main church. This behaviour

to “open” from the base to the top along both main directions.

was also noticed in the past, whereas previous interventions

This deformed shape of the church is conﬁrmed also by the his-

were applied with the aim to alleviate this problem (external

tory of the monument. The South façade of the narthex reachedstone buttresses in the north, metallic trusses and confinementin 1894 a total out-of-plane deformation larger than 200mm andof piers in the south). Although those corrective measures wereit was reconstructed (Fig.4-11). However, even this reconstructedin the right direction (allowing the church to withstand the 20thpart of the monument presents today a total out-of plane defor-

century earthquakes without local collapse), they were proven tomation of 90 mm (drawing in Fig.4-11). This is another element

be insufﬁcient to prevent extensive cracking of the monument.

proving that the feature we observe now in the monument is an

The damages observed in the drum of the cupola may, there-

inherent characteristic (due to its initial construction scheme

fore, be attributed to the (increasing with height) tendency forand the extended alterations/interventions undertaken during its

out-of-plane deformations of the church. It should be reminded

lifetime). Thus, out of plane deformations were reported both forhere that the damages that made imperative the demolition andthe perimeter walls and for all the main arches bearing the dome

reconstruction of the cupola at the end of the 19th century werein the central area of the monument, followed by a geometricalof the same nature, as those observed now; this is proved by the

deformation (and loss of initial shape) of the arches themselves.

missing parts of the mosaics. As described above, most of the

The lack of wooden or metallic ties (typical structural elements

piers in the drum exhibited out-of-plane deformations. Since thefor the Byzantine architecture) or other horizontal elements con-substructure on which the system of the cupola rests is deform-

necting the vertical walls, pillars and piers should have played

ing out-of-plane and the cupola itself (being very stiff) is practi-

an important role towards this pathology.

cally non deforming, the piers of the drum (being rather ﬂexible

Moreover, the increase of crack openings with height was

out-of-plane) are called to follow the deformations of the sub-found more pronounced along the transversal axis (N-S), thanstructure.

Fig.4-11 N-S transversal section in the narthex. The south wall, although reconstructed in 1896,
presents today a 90 mm out-of-plane deformation. (Miltiadou, 2009)

130

Chapter 2 Case Study

4-1-3 Recovery of Disaster-damaged Cultural Heritage

the structure did start to move towards them. Moreover, the up-

1) Emergency response

per part of the exonarthex walls and the NW and SW piers were

The following are excerpts from the paper presented by Mil-

conﬁned using steel plates and bars.

tiadou (2009) and rearrangement of the on-site explanation by

Regarding the drum of the dome, specially designed steel ele-

Miltiadou.

ments were constructed to brace the windows and conﬁne in two

Immediately after the earthquake, a multidisciplinary working

levels the masonry piers (Fig.4-15), taking special care to assuregroup was formed by the Hellenic Ministry of Culture (HMC)

the in situ assemblage of all these structures without harming thewith the assignment to do the necessary inspections, assess themural mosaics.

nature and the signiﬁcance of damages and elaborate, together
with a Scientific Committee set to this purpose (composed byProfessors Ch. Bouras, T. P. Tassios, E. Mariolakos and N. Zias)
and all competent authorities of the Ministry, a strategic plan forthe protection, conservation and restoration of the monument, its
mosaics included.
Due to the severe damages of the structure and the danger of
eventual aftershocks, the decision was taken for the applicationof emergency measures. The aim of those measures was(a) to reduce the danger of further deterioration of structural
damage andFig.4-12 Raking shores installed in the NE corner(Miltiadou, 2009)(b) to ensure accessibility and safe working conditions for all thescientiﬁc and technical personnel, thus enabling the executionof all the surveys and investigations, necessary for the design
and implementation of the most adequate structural restorationinterventions .
The emergency interventions were designed taking into account specific demands deriving from the importance of themonument and the necessity for implementation of ﬁnal restoration works without removing the supports and scaffoldings.
Thus, they had to be reversible, easily assembled and allowing
for gradual disassembling in the interior, as well as adjustable
to the deformed geometry of damaged elements. Moreover, any
contact with the vulnerable mural mosaics was to be avoided.
To this end various alternative solutions were examined.

Fig.4-13 Interior vertical steel props(Miltiadou, 2009)

Fig.4-12 shows schematically the retained one. In the NE cornerof the building, three double-framed steel raking shores wasconstructed, as in this area a pronounced tilting of the external
walls has been noticed and the telltales installed just after theearthquake, indicated further opening of cracks and a tendencyof the corner to detach (Fig.4-12). In the interior, and in the exonarthex, vertical steel props were built beneath the main arches,in order to provide vertical support to their cracked structure(Figs. 4-13, 4-14).
Between the metal framework (the raking shores and thevertical props) and masonry walls, a 12cm full layer of wooden
beams and wedges (together with a 3mm soft packing) wereinserted, to provide good contact with the masonry without

Fig.4-14 Exonarthex vertical steel props(Miltiadou, 2009)

harming the surfaces, while allowing relative movement, unless131Chapter 2 Case Study

Fig.4-15 Dome’s emergency measures(Miltiadou, 2009)
Fig.4-16 One of the finite elements models prepared for parameter
analyses (Miltiadou, 2004)

Furthermore, the following measures have been undertaken:(a) the installation of adequate types of scaffoldings in the interior and exterior of the church, in order to offer safe working
conditions for the personnel, and(b) the removal of the tiles of the roof and the application of
temporary water isolation membranes just below them, to protect the cracked extrados of the vaulted structures, and hence
the mural mosaics from leaking water.
2) Numerical Veriﬁcation of the Pathological Image
Preliminary linear parameter analyses were performed (Miltiadou, 2004), as a means for verifying the pathological image
extracted from qualitative interpretation mentioned in 4-1-2 inorder to select adequate emergency interventions.
For the preliminary analytical study, using the computer code
ACORD, the structure was modeled by shell elements (Fig.4-

Fig.4-17 Inner face of shell elements. Tensile stresses due to selfweight of the structure(Miltiadou, 2009)16), whereas the mechanical properties of elements belonging
to various parts of the structures were assumed on the basis of
the available data for the construction materials. Linear elastic
analyses were performed for various combinations of actions(self weight alone or combined with seismic action). Both staticthe severe damages occurred to the drum of the dome, as welland dynamic analyses were performed and provided a quite sat-as to the arches and vaults supporting the dome. In general, theisfactory numerical veriﬁcation of the pathological image of theanalyses for loading combinations including the seismic action

monument.

have shown a critical concentration of tensile stresses in arches

Fig.4-17 shows the calculated stresses for the inner face ofat various levels, as well as in the piers of the drum. In addition,

shell elements, due to vertical loads. Irrespectively of the accu-

extensive damages in vertical elements (masonry in the perim-racy of numerical values of stresses, one may clearly distinguisheter of the monument, as well as piers) were conﬁrmed.

the vulnerability of the region of arches and domes (especially in

Furthermore, in the framework of this preliminary work, thethe west part), even for the self-weight of the monument alone.

plots of principal tensile stresses were compared with the respec-

As expected, tensile stresses are developed in the apex of several

tive drawings on which observed cracks were reported (Milti-

arches, in the groin vaults of the narthex, in the base of the cu-

adou, 2004). This comparison proved to be quite satisfactory, as,pola and that of its drum, as well as in the four squinches.

in general, the observed crack pattern (location and inclinationof cracks) seems to be conﬁrmed by the analytical results in all

In Fig.4-18, an out of phase movement of the east and west

regions of the monument.

parts of the monument is shown. Such a movement can explain132Chapter 2 Case Study

Fig.4-18 Deformed shape of the structure looking from the N. Dynamic analysis; seismic action along thelongitudinal axis (Miltiadou, 2004)

The design of high injectability grouts was carried out tak-3) Decision of Structural Restoration SchemeDue to the high values of the monument, its vulnerability anding into account the performance requirements derived from thethe fact that interventions should not drastically alter the initialstructural restoration study. Following target values were set forstructural system, the decision was taken to investigate thor-

the basic mechanical properties of the grouted masonry: tensile

oughly its structural behavior. To this end additional data were

strength approximately double than that one of the masonrynecessary in order to avoid extensive interventions that might

before grouting, and compressive strength approximately equal

not be needed and that would inevitably alter the architectural

to 3.0 MPa. And then, on the basis of the available literature, itvalue of the monument. Then, it was decided to implement thewas estimated that the compressive strength of the grout at thestructural restoration works in two phases, thus giving the pos-age of six months should lie between 6MPa and 10MPa; a grout

sibility for these additional data to be collected.

ﬂexural strength of the order of 2 to 3MPa was required. In ad-

The ﬁrst phase of works comprises all those considered neces-dition, the physical-chemical properties of the raw materials

sary to achieve the better possible repair and strengthening ofshould be selected in a way that the durability of the structure

masonry elements (mainly stitching and deep re-pointing where

and its precious mosaics would not be jeopardized. Finally, thenecessary, systematic grouting injections, local reconstructions,

grouts should have high injectability capacity, so that, under low

etc). During this ﬁrst phase of works a better structural surveypressure (~0.075 MPa), they enter and ﬁll ﬁne voids and cracks,of invisible parts of the monument (internal face of masonry ele-with a nominal minimum width (Wnom) equal to two tenths ofments, extrados of vaults) could be possible.

millimeter.

The second phase concerns the various strengthening inter-

Two main categories of grouts could satisfy injectability,

ventions that will be designed and selected as optimum, in orderstrength and durability requirements:

to improve the overall behavior of the whole building (such as(i) ternary grouts composed of lime, pozzolan and a low cement
content (30%) andinstallation of ties, diaphragmatic structures in the extrados of(ii) natural hydraulic lime – based grouts.

the vaults and the exonarthex, etc).
The implementation of the first phase of structural restora-Thus, various grout mixtures, belonging to the above twotion interventions has been now accomplished, together with thecategories, were designed and tested at the laboratory of the Di-

most of the research and investigations undertaken to support

rectorate for Technical Research on Restoration of the Hellenicboth phases of works.

Ministry of Culture (DTRR/HMC). In order to determine inject-

Preliminary proposals for the second phase of interventions

ability characteristics, the penetrability, ﬂuidity and stability of

have also been approved, but their final design is still under

the suspensions were fully examined in various water/solids ra-

elaboration.

tios, with or without superplastisizer. The compositions presenting satisfactory injectability capacity were further tested to evaluate their behavior to salt decay and estimate their mechanical4 ) Research and Development for Design and Restoration
works

characteristics (compressive and ﬂexural strength). Furthermore,(Design of Grouts and Investigation of Masonry Behavior Be-

six alternative grout formulations presenting similar injectability

fore and After Grouting)were injected into twenty eight cylindrical specimens, simulat-a) Design of grout compositions and tests on cylinders

ing the inﬁll material of three leaf stone masonry. The cylinders
133

Chapter 2 Case Study

were then subjected to compression in different hardening ages.

to be efﬁcient from the mechanical point of view.

After comparative evaluation of the results, two grout composi-

From the two alternative compositions, the natural hydraulictions fulﬁlled simultaneously the injectability, the strength andlime based grout was selected for the application to the Katho-

durability requirements (Table 4-1). Therefore, they were se-likon of Daphni Monastery, due to the substantial (compressive

lected to be applied to six three leaf stone wallettes, simulating

and tensile) strength enhancement of wallettes, the rather ductile

the masonry of the upper parts of the monument.

behavior under diagonal compression compared to that of ma-

Table 4-1. Mechanical and injectability characteristics of the grouts
selected to be injected in the wallettes (Miltiadou, 2009)

properties that contribute to the protection of mosaics and fres-sonry grouted with the ternary grout, and the better durability

Grout properties
T36 (sec)
Sand column 1.25/2.50 mm(Wnom ~ 0.2 mm)
Bleeding %App.viscosity td=4.7 (sec)Compressive fgc
and ﬂexural fgt
strength (MPa)
Ternary
NHL5-based grout

Ternary (1)19

Nhl5-based grout (2)
22.5

2
20.5

3
22

28
fgc
4.08
2.82

fgt
2.11
2.47

Age (days)
90
fgc
fgt
8.16
2.29
4.50
2.52

coes.
c) Optimum grout composition
In order to further improve the hydraulic lime based grout, theaddition of ﬁne natural pozzolan (dmax<45 μ m) with 10% was

180
fgc
10.6
6.36

decided, on the basis of additional data, deriving from porosity

fgt
3.13
3.87

measurements, salt durability tests and from in situ pilot trials.
The mix proportions and the injectability characteristics of the(1) Ternary: 30% white Danish cement, 25% Lime (powder),optimum grout composition are presented in Table 4-2. This

45% natural pozzolan Petr. (<45 μ m), super-plasticer 1%,

optimum grout composition was used for the repair of the monu-

water 80% of the solid phase of the groutment.

(2) NHL5-based grout: 100% NHL5 (St Astier), superplasticer

Table 4-2 Optimum grout composition and injectability characteristics
measured in the laboratory
and in situ at the first pilot preparation (Miltiadou, 2009)

1%, water 80% of the solid phase of the grout

Grout composition
NHL5 (St Astier)Pozzolan Petrotechniki
Superplasticizer (1), (2)Water (1)Grout properties
T36 (sec) – Sand column 1.25/2.50 mm(Wnom ~ .0.2 mm)
Bleeding
Apparent viscosity 0 min after mixing
td=4.7(sec)
60 min after mixing (agitated)b) Construction and testing of wallettes
The geometry of the wallettes was chosen to simulate the upper and more vulnerable part of perimeter masonry. In order toavoid scale effects a scale 2:3 was selected. Six three-leaf stone
masonry wallettes were constructed using materials of similar
characteristics as the in-situ ones (Fig.4-19).

90%
10%
1%
80%
In lab

In situ

19 - 22
<1%
21
23

1%
22
25

(1) % of the solid phase of the grout(2) superplasticizer based on polycarboxylic etherd) Construction and testing of a large scale structure with abyzantine groin vault
Byzantine groin-vaults are used for covering the most of theparts of the Katholikon of Daphni Monastery, including the armsof the cross, where severe damages have been occurred. Thus,
an experimental research was carried out by DTRR/HMC incollaboration with the Laboratory of Earthquake Engineering of
NTUA.

Fig.4-19 The wallettes prepared for grouting(Miltiadou, 2009)

A model of a byzantine groin-vaulted structure bearing locallyBoth grouts applied to the specimens were able to achievemural mosaics was constructed. The materials and the construc-homogenisation of masonry by ﬁlling cracks and voids of wal-tion type used for its masonry walls were exactly the same withlettes. Thus, the wallettes exhibited substantial improvement of

those used for the construction of the wallettes.

their behavior, in terms of compressive strength, tensile strength

The groin vault was built without any formwork, following

and reduction of the separation between the three leaves of ma-

the traditional way of byzantine masons. The total dimensions ofsonry, without substantial increase in their stiffness, and proved

the model are in plan 2.70m x 2.60m and in height 2.85m. These134

Chapter 2 Case Study

harming the old ones, adjacent to or underneath them,dimensions were selected taking into account the limitations im-ii) removal of tiles and other covering and ﬁlling materials to

posed by the capacity of the seismic simulator.

reach the extrados of all vaulted structures,

The model was tested after nine months from its constructioniii) stitching of the most severe cracks, using long stones,by imposing seismic loads gradually increasing, until rupture.
Then local application of grouts and installation of ties to thebricks, or thin titanium plates,

arches was performed and after a suitable period of time the testsiv) few local reconstructions necessary either for the repair ofwere repeated, until rupture.

dislocated or collapsed parts or for the restoration of past

The model was then injected with the ﬁnal grout composition

morphological alterations,v) deep re-pointing where necessary and preparation of the(Table 4-2) to homogenize the whole structure, following themasonry for injection grouting,same methodology with that used for the injection of the wallettes and the injection of the monument itself. Tests were againvi) implementation of injection grouting,repeated until rupture. As expected, it was observed that thevii) removal of all injection tubes,

dynamic characteristics of the model were changed after the ap-viii) in situ conservation of all deteriorated old mortars using

plication of grouting to the whole structure, and the model could

frescoes techniques,ix) execution of all necessary works to ensure the protection

suffer stronger base motions.

of the extrados from rainwater.
In parallel with the works for the masonry repair, the competent Conservators have carried out all the necessary works forthe in situ conservation (including grouting) of severely damaged mural mosaics. As anticipated, in most cases, the cracks
on the masonry affected also the mosaics beard on its internal
face (Fig.4-23). In order to ensure the protection and in situ conservation of old pointing mortars, on the external facades, theupper central area just below the dome, and the groin vaults ofthe sanctuary, the deep re-pointing works have been executed by

Fig.4-20 The groin vaulted structure on the seismic simulator before
grouting (Miltiadou, 2009)

Fig.4-22 Cracked mosaics have to be preserved in situ. (Miltiadou, 2009)

Fig.4-21 The groin vaulted structure after grouting(Miltiadou, 2009)

5) Restoration works of the First Phase
This first phase of masonry repair interventions comprised
mainly the following works (Fig.4-22):i) very careful removal of plasters and deteriorated pointing

Fig.4-23 Typical examples of in situ mural mosaics conservation works(including installation of fine tubes for grouting) (Miltiadou, 2009)mortars applied during previous interventions, without
135

Chapter 2 Case Study

experienced Conservators.

weak earthquakes were recorded (5/11/2006 and 12/12/2006).

For the majority of the re-pointing works adequate lime-

The analyzed data (Table 4-3) clearly shows the increase of the

pozzolan based mortars were used. For the local reconstructions,period during the stitching of cracks and local deep re-pointing

deep re-pointing of extremely damaged critical areas and stitch-(8/1/2006) and the decrease of the period by a result of grouting

ing with thin titanium plates, hydraulic lime based mortars were

injection to some extent (5/11/2006 and 12/12/2006).

applied.

Thus, it was proved that the effect of interventions and more

As anticipated special attention has been given to the design

speciﬁcally of grouting on the overall behavior of the structureof the adequate grouts, furthermore, a speciﬁc on-site applica-

can be evaluated by a seismic monitoring system. This promis-

tion methodology has been developed and applied. The mosting ﬁnding led to the decision to install in 2007 complementary

important aspects of this methodology are reported in Miltiadou-

instrumentation, with the aim to cover the whole structure.

Fezans et al. (2008). This application methodology permitted theTable 4-3 Variation of the period of the first mode and the rigidity ratio

implementation of injections to this important monument, bearing mosaics, frescoes and old mortars that had to be preserved in

26/ 9/2004
8/ 1/2006
5/11/2006
12/12/2006

situ, in a more rational and fully controlled way.
During the whole project, all interventions have been docu-

Period
0.27
0.30
0.20
0.22

West-Est
Rigidity ratio
1.0
0.81
1.8
1.5

South-North
PeriodRigidity ratio
0.32
1.0
0.39
0.67
0.26
1.5
0.26
1.5

The rigidity is assumed to be proportional to square of reciprocal of the period.

mented in a detailed way, together with all the new ﬁndings concerning the materials, types of construction, past interventionsb) Application of nondestructive test (NDT) for Mapping

and pathology of various invisible elements.

Mosaics Substrata and Grouting Monitoring
Two kind of NDT were applied for mapping mosaics substrata

6) Monitoring

and grouting monitoring.

a) Installation of earthquake monitoring system

An exhaustive high frequency ground-penetrating radar sur-In order to increase the understanding of the seismic structural

vey has been realized on the fifty main mosaics of the Katho-

response and to decrease the uncertainty of the seismic action,

likon of Daphni Monastery, with the aim to investigate the possi-

the installation of an earthquake monitoring was installed on thebility of GPR application to locate doubtful zones (delaminations,central core of the monument at 2003, after the implementation

changes of substrata mortar or other buried heterogeneities, etc),of the aforementioned emergency measures, and before the be-

related to the mosaics very near bearing-structure. It has been

ginning of restoration works.

shown that the GPR maps, giving a more detailed and less sub-Thus, when the hydraulic lime grouting application started, in

jective qualitative evaluation of mosaics substrata, can be a very

June 2006, the system was functioning and had already recorded

useful tool for the Conservators in order to locate doubtful zones

two weak earthquakes. The ﬁrst took place before the beginningin a more reﬁned way. Furthermore, the possibility of using GPR

of masonry repair (26/9/2004) and the second during the prepa-

procedures to monitor the movement of the grout behind the mo-ration of masonry for grouting by stitching of cracks and local

saics, in real time, during injection was also investigated.

deep re-pointing (8/1/2006). After three and four months from

Investigations have been also realized to control the grouting

the end of the ﬁrst grouting period, during which grouting was

effect into the masonry walls, using seismic techniques, includ-

implemented up to the springing level of groin vaults, two moreing some sonic 2D travel time tomographies. In Fig.4-24 two in-

Fig.4-24 Tomographical reconstruction in a grouted and in a non grouted area (Miltiadou, 2009)

136

Chapter 2 Case Study

dicative tomographical reconstructions of a grouted and in a non3) Nature and extent of damage: Partial damage to the sur-grouted area are presented. The comparison of these two cases

rounding hills due to the 2007 Peloponnisos wildﬁre.

permits to conclude that the grouting survey of such masonry4) Location: Ilia state of Peloponnisos prefecture

structures may be achieved by the observation of the velocities

5) Proﬁle as a cultural heritage:of their inner part.

In addition to being a highly important panhellenic Sanctuary,
the site is also the cradle of the Olympic Games, an institution of

4-1-4 Issues for Second Phase Restoration and International

worldwide prestige and brilliance from ancient times to the pres-Collaborationent day.

Miltiadou summarized the ﬁrst phase restoration as follows:

The sacred grove of Olympia, the Altis, which began to take

“The high values of the Katholikon of Daphni Monas-

form in the 10th-9th c. BC, was dedicated primarily to Zeus. The

tery and, hence, the need for accurate information toﬁrst buildings were erected in the Archaic period (7th-6th c. BC),

serve the design of optimum structural interventions

and new structures were gradually added to them to serve theled to the adoption of a step by step multidisciplinary

constantly increasing needs of the Sanctuary. The site received

approach, both concerning the design and the imple-

its ﬁnal layout at the end of the 4th c. BC, and in the Hellenistic

mentation of the structural restoration interventions.

and Roman periods it underwent a number of modiﬁcations dic-

This approach proved to be very efﬁcient, as it givestated by the circumstances of the time (X. Arapoyanni, 2004).

the possibility to perform the in situ and laboratory

The sanctuary consists of an unordered arrangement of vari-investigations that are necessary for the design of theous buildings (Fig.4-26). Enclosed within the temenos (sacrednext step, as well as for the evaluation of the previous

enclosure) are the Temple of Hera (or Heraion/Heraeum) andones.”

Temple of Zeus, the Pelopion and the area of the altar, where theGreek professionals should be admired for their passion andsacrifices were made. The hippodrome and later stadium werestrong will to restore their worldwide valuable cultural heritages

also to the east.

by developing their own technology. Consequently, their own

To the north of the sanctuary can be found the Prytaneion andexperience and knowledge are being accumulated in the Greek

the Philippeion, as well as the array of treasuries representing

cultural heritage preservation community. They did not seem tothe various city states. The Metroon lies to the south of theseneed help from other countries.

treasuries, with the Echo Stoa to the East. To the south of the

Although funds for the restoration came from the EU, it was

sanctuary is the South Stoa and the Bouleuterion, whereas thean unrestricted subsidy. The Greek government receives a largeWest side houses the Palaestra, the workshop of Pheidias, thepack of subsidies from the EU and distributes it to many projects

Gymnasion and the Leonidaion.

according to its own judgment. Moreover, more money than the

Olympia is also known for the gigantic ivory and gold statue

EU subsidy has been spent by related organizations of Greece.

of Zeus that used to stand there, sculpted by Pheidias, which was

Meanwhile, the professionals on the site believe that a surface

named one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World by Anti-

earthquake fault appeared 150m from Katholikon. They said thatpater of Sidon. Very close to the Temple of Zeus which housed

a crack in the ground was seen there. However, seismologicalthis statue, the studio of Pheidias was excavated in the 1950s.

investigation showed that the seismic fault of the M5.9 earth-

Evidence found there, such as sculptorʼs tools, corroborates thisquake of September 1999 was located 15km north of Daphni

opinion. The ancient ruins sit north of the Alfeios River andMonastery. This means that a large earthquake greater than 1999ʼ

Mount Kronos (named after the Greek deity Kronos). The Klad-s could be expected during the long life of the valuable culturaleos, a tributary of the Alfeios, ﬂows around the area. Its locatedheritage.

in the part of Greece which is called Peloponesse.

More discussion about the design earthquake for this indis-

To the north along the river, Olympia Museum is located,pensable cultural heritage seems to be needed, and second phasewhich preserves and shows valuable ancient sculptures (Fig.4-

restoration should be based on this issue.

27) and garnitures gotten from the Olympia ruins. Mount Kronos, being called as the holy place of Zeus and playing the north4-2 Archaeological Site of Olympia

backdrop of the sanctuary, was severely burned by the 2007

4-2-1 Overall Picture of the Disasters

wildﬁre.

1) Name: Olympia monument
2) Date: August 24th till the 28th, 2007
137

Chapter 2 Case Study

Fig.4-25 Location of Olympia and the burned area (percentage) of each district(attached to Zirogiannis 2009)

Fig.4-26 Plan of Olympia sanctuary

Fig.4-27 Ancient sculptures shown in Olympia museum

138Chapter 2 Case Study

6) History of Disaster and Restoration:

yearly by the excavators in the scholarly journals “Olympischea) History of the excavation of Olympia

Forschungen”15 and “Olympia Bericht”.

In 1767, special interest in Olympia was shown by J.J. Winckelman11, founder of modern archaeological research. He drew
up a collection of ancient remains and carefully observed the
excavations at Herculaneum and Pompei, making the sharpest
criticizes of the measures taken, while dreaming of excavating
Olympia. He categorized the research method for sacred precincts in Greece, which was implemented in the ﬁeld in the 19th
century (Roland et François Etienne, 1995).
The ﬁrst to locate the Sanctuary was R. Chandler, an English
traveler who visited Olympia in 1766. Soon afterwards, in 1780,
L.S.F. Fauvel arrived at the sacred site and drew the ﬁrst plans of
it. In 1806 the ﬁrst trial trench was made in the temple of Zeus
by E. Dodwell and W.Gell, and in 1811, C.R. Crockerell and C.
Haller von Hallerstein made a small excavation at this site. The
ﬁrst plan of Olympia using the trigonometric method was prepared in 1813 by Allason and J. Spencer Stanhope.
In 1829, shortly after liberation from the Turks and the foun-Fig.4-28 West metope in Zeus Temple. ca. 460 BC.
(Louvre Museum)

dation of the Greek State12, the ﬁrst excavation was carried out,
for a period of two months, by a French scientiﬁc mission (Expédition Scientifique de Morée), led by General N.J. Maison,
incluing A. Blouet and J.J.Dubois (Olympia Vikatou, 2006). At
this time parts of the temple of Zeus were uncovered on the surface, as well as parts of early Classical marble metopes (Fig.4-28)
from the temple, now in the Louvre (Helmut Kyrieleis, 2007).
Systematic excavation of the Sanctuary began in 1875, afterFig.4-29 The temple of Zeus after it was uncovered, in 1876
(Helmut Kyrielesis, 2007)

efforts over the years by E. Curtius of the German Archaeological Institute, with an agreement signed by the Greek and German statues, defining the terms and obligations of each. The
ﬁrst excavation period, during which most of the buildings werediscovered, lasted from 1875 to 1881 and was carried out by E.
Curtius, A. Adler, W. Dörpfeld, C.A. Boetticher, R. Borrmann,
A. Furtwängler, G. Treu and P. Graef (Figs. 4-29, 4-30).13 From1937 to 1942, excavations were concentrated on the Stadium,with E. Kunze and H. Schleif in charge. With the 2nd world war,
excavations were halted in 1942 and the site itself suffered greatFig.4-30 The Heraion after its discovery during the excavations in 1877
(Helmut Kyrielesis, 2007)

damage under the army of occupation. Post-war research began
in 1952 under the supervision of E. Kunze and A. Mallwitz. Almost all the Sanctuary had by now been revealed (Fig.4-31). A
second excavation period followed, lasting from 1906 to 1929,
with W.Dörpfeld in charge.14
Recent decades have brought to light large building complexes of Roman times. Under way at present are small-scale excavations and restoration by the German Archaeological Institute,under the supervision of the Ministry of Culture and the local

Fig.4-31 Excavation activity in the stadium in 1958
(Helmut Kyrielesis, 2007)

Archaeological Ephorate. Results of the research are published139

Chapter 2 Case Studyb) Recovery of the ancient site
Apart from excavating, the archaeologists and architects
working at Olympia have attached great importance to the conservation of the monuments and their visual revaluation throughpartial reconstruction of the original architecture. The completely restored Classical stadium, for instance, the re-erectedcolumns of the palaestra and the Heraion (Figs. 4-32, 4-35) andparts of the terrace of treasuries are impressive testimonies ofthese activities.
The ﬁrst feature of the restoration work at Olympia is a reconstruction drawing. The reconstruction drawing of the elevation of
the temple of Zeus at Olympia (Fig.4-33) was drawn by Victor
Laloux, which was designed with no consideration for scientiﬁc

Fig.4-32 Temple of Hera Restoration work, 1972
(Helmut Kyrielesis, 2007)

precision. In fact, the discreet (but false) color on the building
does not reveal the trend in the 1880, but rather the observation
records of the architecture.
George Kawerau erected two columns of the Hera Temple
in 1886-90, excavated in consultation with Balanos16, restored
using the techniques learnt from the Acropolis, in 1905 (Jukka
Jokilehto,1999).
The latest restoration works, undertaken on the occasion of
the modern Olympic Games of 2004 at Athens and Olympia,
were the anastylosis of one of the huge columns of the temple ofZeus (Fig.4-34) and the partial reconstruction of the Philippeion

Fig.4-33 The temple of Zeus. Detail of an imaginary reconstruction
drawing of the sanctuary of Olympia by V.Laloux (1883). (Helmut
Kyrielesis, 2007)(Fig.4-36). These challenging and highly expensive restoration
projects would not have been realised without the generous ﬁnancial support of sponsors, who supplied the necessary means:
The Anastasios G. Leventis Foundation has ﬁnanced the whole
Phillippeion project and has borne the lionʼs share of the costs
for the column of the great temple, while one third of the costs
for the latter were contributed by the Society of Friends of theGerman Archaeological Institute-Theodor Wiegand Gesellschaft17.
The partial restoration work of Phillippeion, ﬁnished in 2005,
was executed by the German Archaeological Institute. It included some architectural members, which were brought backto Greece from the Pergamon Museum (Berlin) in 2004 when
Olympic game was held in Athens. This is in stark contrast to
the Elgin Marbles18 in the British Museum, which has provoked

Fig.4-34 Column drums andarchitectural members from thetemple of Zeusa discussion for a long time and has not yet been solved. It represents the ties of the friendship between Germany and Greece regarding the restoration of cultural heritage since Greece became
an independent kingdom from Turkey.

140

Chapter 2 Case Study

Olympia country belongs to this state Elia.
b) Wildfires in the state of Elia
Administratively the state of Elia is divided into 22 counties.
Fig.4-38 provides an illustration of those counties along with
their respective burned areas. Each county is further divided
into a number of towns and villages. In total there are 210 settlements in the state of Elia (including towns and villages). 168 ofthem were affected by the ﬁres out of which 133 were severely
burned.
In the county of Ancient Olympia, the burned area was 5,200

Fig.4-35 Temple of Heraha, 29% of its territory. The blazes brought with them devastating consequences. 68 people were burned during the summer of2007 in Greece. Out of those, 46 lost their lives during the 5 daycrisis period (August 24th-28th) in the state of Elia. Most of thevictims died in their effort to evacuate burning villages, or during their attempt to save their property, such as animal stables,
houses, or agricultural ﬁelds.
Scientists argued that weather conditions definitely playeda key role in the spread of the fires. Three heat waves had hit
Greece by late August, something that was never recorded before. In addition, lack of precipitation in southern Greece, where
the region of Peloponissos is located, further exacerbated theFig.4-36 Phillippieion

intensity of the blazes. Nevertheless, it would be unjustiﬁed to

4-2-2 Details of Disaster Damage to Cultural Heritage

solely blame weather conditions for the extent of the damage.

1) Wildﬁres and Emergency Responses

The increased accumulation of biomass, the poor management

The following are excerpts from the thesis presented by Ziro-of forests and the idea that wildfire management is comprised

giannis N. submitted to the Graduate School of the University of

exclusively by ﬁre suppression are all key aspects.

Massachusetts Amherst (Zirogiannis, 2009).

These are extensive wildfires that burn at 1000oC creating
their own climatic conditions that can even lead to the appear-a) Wildfires in August 2007

ance of tornados. The toll on houses and other infrastructure was

The summer of 2007 was by far the most devastating wildﬁrealso heavy. Approximately 847 residences were burned to theseason ever recorded in Greek history. Approximately 270,000

ground in Greece. The vast majority (815 houses) were locatedhectares of land were burned. Fig.4-37 illustrates the geographic

in the region of Peloponissos. Amongst them 524 were found inlocation of the burned areas. The red rectangle on Fig.4-37 high-the state of Elia.

lights the prefecture of Peloponissos. As one can observe, theTable 4-4 provides aggregate information regarding different

greater extent of burned areas of the country are concentrated

types of infrastructure that were burned during the summer ofin that prefecture. Peloponissos is comprised of 7 states (i.e.

2007 in Greece. As one can observe the state of Elia, suffered theAchaia, Argolida, Arkadia, Elia, Korinthos, Lakonia and Mes-

greatest number of losses compared to all other states that weresinia). Fig.4-25 illustrates the location of those 7 states as wellaffected by the blazes.

as the percent of area burned in each one, during the summerof 2007. The burned acreage of the prefecture of Peloponissos
amounts to 180,310 hectares. That was the result of a series ofblazes staring from early July and lasting until early September.
However, the most extensive damage took place towards theend of August. From August 24th till the 28th wildﬁres burned
through the Peloponnesian state of Elia, where 77,756 hectares of land (i.e. 29% of the stateʼs area) were burned. Ancient141

Chapter 2 Case Study

Fig.4-37 Burned areas of Greece during the summer of 2007. The red rectangle highlights theprefecture of Peloponissos (Zirogiannis, 2009).

Fig.4-38 The 22 counties of the state of Elia, along with a graphical illustration of their burned areas(identified by the different colours) (Zirogiannis, 2009).

142

Chapter 2 Case Study
Table 4-4 Burned infrastructure during the summer of 2007 in Greece(Zirogiannis, 2009)c) Meteorological dataroad. A ﬁre truck coming up the road and heading towards theData for the month of August on humidity, wind speed, as

villages crashed against incoming trafﬁc.That accident blocked

well as maximum and minimum temperature from a meteoro-

the road and people were trapped on the spot. Very soon the ﬁrelogical station in Elia are presented on Figs. 4-39, 4-40 and 4-41

reached the location of the accident burning 9 people (3 seasonal

respectively. It is clearly seen that 24th of August (on the day theﬁremen and 6 citizens) at approximately 3:30 pm.

wildﬁre started to terribly spread) suffered multiple bad condi-

This tragic incident was of paramount importance in thetions, high wind, low humidity and high temperature.

course of the 5-day wildfire crisis-period. Very soon the news

The wind direction during August of 2007 is shown in Fig.4-

was broadcasted all over the state. It was the ﬁrst time in the na-

42. This is also clearly related to the direction of the spread oftionʼs contemporary history that so many people had died in a

the wildﬁres.

wildﬁre. The incident caused a great deal of panic in Elia. Fromthat day onward, whenever a ﬁre approached a village, authori-d) Emergency responses in Elia

ties (predominantly the Police and in some cases the Fire De-① Response of local people

partment) would order the evacuation of the settlement, in some

The blazes that affected the region lasted during a 5 day peri-cases, even if there was no immediate danger. Faced with an un-

od between August 24th through 28th. The ﬁres were so massive

precedented national tragedy the federal authorities decided thatand the need for the intervention of the Fire Brigade so great that

their ﬁrst priority should be to protect human lives by making

ﬁre crews were not able to keep track of and record the starting

sure that citizens were transported away from villages that weretimes of most blazes, beyond those that appeared during the ﬁrst

close to the blazes.

day (August 24th). The ofﬁcial records of the Fire Department

What foresters and fire scientists claimed should have beenof the city of Pirgos (the capital city of the state of Elia) included

done, however, was for authorities to have summoned capable

documentation only for the 6 initial blazes of 24th of August.

villagers that could provide signiﬁcant assistance to the efforts

These are illustrated in Fig.4-43. After those 6 initial blazes theof ﬁreﬁghters.

Fire Brigade could not keep track of the new blazes that occurred

As the days went on both citizens and ofﬁcials started realizing(if any). As the ﬁres spread and reached more and more villages

that local villagers (predominantly farmers by occupation) were

ﬁreﬁghters would respond based on the level of threat perceived.

a rather effective ﬁre suppression force given the equipment andOne of the 6 initial blazes occurred on August 24th at 2:40 pm

experience they had in combating blazes. Most of these people

at the settlement of Paleoxori (see Fig.4-43 for the geographicalhad fought wildﬁres in the past and possessed farmerʼs trucks as

location of the settlement). Paleohori is located on a mountain-

well as water tanks that could be used as “mini-ﬁretrucks”. As aous landscape with very narrow roads. Tall blazes, in combi-

result evacuation orders would decrease after the 3 day (i.e. Au-

nation with strong winds and extremely low levels of relative

gust 26th) and people would start realizing that engaging in ﬁrehumidity led the locals to spontaneously evacuate the villages.

suppression efforts was an effective way of protecting themselves

A big convoy of cars with people seeking shelter at the nearby

and their property. Fig.4-44 shows the change of the participation

beach, located just a few kilometers away, was coming down theof villagers in ﬁre suppression efforts.
143

Chapter 2 Case Study

Fig.4-39 Wind speed in km/hour on a daily basis for August 2007, from the meteorological station ofAndravida (Zirogiannis, 2009)

Fig.4-40 Relative humidity on a daily basis for August 2007, from the meteorological station ofAndravida (Zirogiannis, 2009)

Fig.4-41 Min and Max temperature on a daily basis for August 2007, from themeteorological station ofAndravida (Zirogiannis, 2009)

144

Chapter 2 Case Study

Fig.4-42 The diversion of the wind that occurred during August 2007
(Zirogiannis, 2009)

Fig.4-43 The 6 initial blazes of August 24th and their respective times of occurrence.
Blazes are presented by yellow pins (the fire of Klindias occurred at 1:00 am on August 25th). Colored segments ofthe map represent areas burned. Two of the six blazes (Thines and Amaliada at the North-West of the region) weresuccessfully contained. The other four burned almost uncontrollable for a period of 5 days. (Zirogiannis, 2009)

145

Chapter 2 Case Study

Fig.4-44 Bar chart illustrating the participation of villagers in fire suppression efforts by day(Zirogiannis, 2009)

Fig.4-45 The fire stations in Elia (Zirogiannis, 2009)146

Chapter 2 Case Study② Operation of ﬁre crews and waterbombers

talio that hosts two PZL M-18 planes. The latter are exclusively

The state of Elia has 5 ﬁre stations. Their locations (marked

under the command of the Fire Department commander of Elia.

by yellow pins) and respective areas of responsibility (identiﬁed

Approximately 330 firefighters with 60 vehicles had to re-by different colours) are illustrated in Fig.4-45. Each station isspond to dozens of cases of threatened villages within a matter ofstaffed by a combination of permanent and seasonal personnel.

days. In addition, the four Canadair CL-415 planes stationed in

The latter consists of ﬁre ﬁghters working on 6-month long con-Andravida had to operate in other states that were threatened bytracts that last from May 1st until October 31st. As of 2008 thesewildﬁres during the same 5-day crisis period. Ground forces incontracts have been extended to 8 months (April 1st to Novem-

Elia were reinforced by ﬁre ﬁghting personnel from other statesber 31st) in an effort to provide seasonal ﬁre ﬁghters with a moreof Greece, as well as by foreign volunteers. Nevertheless, it was

stable source of income. Table 4-5 provides information on theoften the case that outof-state ﬁre ﬁghters could not contributepersonnel and automobile infrastructure capacity for each of thesigniﬁcantly to suppression efforts. That could be explained by

5 ﬁre stations in Elia

the fact that they lacked the knowledge of the local terrain, thelandscape and the prevailing winds in the area.

Given the infrastructure capacity of the ﬁre department in thestate, as well as the fact that 59% of the villages in Elia were

After the tragic incident in Artemida, where 9 people lost theiraffected by the ﬁres (130 out of a total of 219 were burned), ﬁre-lives, the main preoccupation of the officials in charge of the

ﬁghters were in great scarcity during the 5 critical days.

crisis, was to protect human lives and peopleʼs houses, often ne-

Apart from ground crews, aerial support is also of paramountglecting woodlands and agricultural ﬁelds. It was often the caseimportance in any wildﬁre suppression. During the summer ofthat a ﬁre truck would arrive at a village with orders to remain in2007 the ﬁre ﬁghting ﬂeet of Greece (analyzed on Table 4-6) was

the main square and operate only to save burning houses. Thatsigniﬁcantly reinforced by a total of 23 planes and 18 helicopterswould severely restrict the potential contribution of a ﬁre crewthat were offered in the form of assistance by several European

since it was not allowed by its superiors to engage in suppression

countries.

efforts in the woods and/or agricultural ﬁelds.

There are two bases hosting ﬁreﬁghting planes in the state ofIn their vast majority citizens of Elia acknowledged the con-

Elia. One in the military airport of the town of Andravida that

tribution of ﬁre crews and stated that ﬁre ﬁghters would often

hosts four Canadair CL-415 planes and one in the area of Epi-

demonstrate heroic efforts to save people and property. However,Table 4-5 Fire fighting personnel and equipment capacity in each of the 5 fire stations of Elia
(Zirogiannis, 2009)

Table 4-6 Aerial fire fighting capacity of Greece (Zirogiannis, 2009)147

Chapter 2 Case Study

blazes were so severe that both civilians and ﬁre ﬁghters were

However, the ﬁre traveled across embankments where the roadoverwhelmed by the magnitude of the threat. As a senior citizen

goes through a tunnel.

of the village of Smerna stated “even if each and every one of us

The forest of Mount Kronos was completely burned (Fig.4-

was a professional ﬁreﬁghter, we would still not have been able46b). Then, the ﬁre came close to the border of the Olympia area

to extinguish the ﬁre”. Another citizen of Makistos further em-

and began to burn some trees in the east part of the stadium.

phasized the point: “Even with 100 water bombers we would not

However, fortunately it jumped the stadium and went eastward

have been able to suppress the blazes”.

in the evening (Fig.4-47). This was the ﬁrst damage by wildﬁresince the site had been excavated.

2) Influence on Olympia Archaeological Site and emergencyb) Fire fighting by the archaeological site officers

response by the site ofﬁce
The following are summaries of the authorʼs interviews with

About twenty elevated water cannons located on towers

ofﬁcers in the central and site ofﬁces of the Ministry of Culture.

(Fig.4-49) around Mount Kronos and nearby hills were operated,but the ﬁre was so strong that the water cannons seemed not toa) Crisis

be effective enough. These water cannons were supplied in 2003
and had been used mainly for watering the trees.

On August 26th (two days after the outbreak of big wildﬁres),the ﬁre invaded the forest of Mount Kronos from the northern

Approximately sixty persons, including officers of the site,

mountainous area. Behind Mount Kronos, there is a highway,

ﬁreﬁghters and volunteers, mainly used forty hydrants located atwhich was expected to become a firebreak against wildfire.

the site (Fig.4-48) to ﬁght the ﬁre. By their heroic ﬁghts against(a) Before the wildfire (Zirogiannis, 2009)(b) During the wildfire (Zirogiannis, 2009)(c) Just after the wildfire (Zirogiannis, 2009)(d) Two years after the wildfire

Fig.4-46 Change of view of Mount Kronos

148

Chapter 2 Case Study

the ﬁre and by the ﬁreﬁghting facilities such as hydrants and wa-

Mount Kronos was covered with pine trees before being

ter cannons, the Olympia archaeological museum and most partburned by the wildfire, but from literature on ancient Mountof the archaeological site were saved.

Kronos was known to have been previously covered by plane

An electric power line was cut, but a dynamo-electric genera-trees, cypress, olive and oak. Thus, thirty-ﬁve thousand young

tor was activated. Water from a tank located behind the mountaintrees of these kinds were collected and planted. Erosion control

and water pumped from a river near the site were used for ﬁresystems made from wooden members were also placed on theﬁghting. These facilities had been improved since 2002.

mountain (Fig.4-50).
A risk management structure of the Olympia archaeological

4-2-3 Recovery of Disaster-damaged Cultural Heritagesite office was redefined and disaster response drills have become more frequent.

Mount Kronos became bald, and it was necessary to recover

For the further protection of the archaeological site, the Hel-

the green on the mountain because the ceremony of lighting thelenic Ministry of Culture had implemented the following (Soﬁatorch for the 2008 Beijing Olympic Games was approaching.

(b) Just after the wildfire(a) Before the wildfire
Fig.4-47 Eastern end of Olympia archaeological site
(Zirogiannis, 2009)

Fig.4-48 Hhydrants in the site

Fig.4-49 Towers for water cannon

149

Chapter 2 Case Study

Avgerinou Kolonia, 2008):

Kronos in Olympia, and should be applied more universally.

・ Construction works for the procurement of water (boreholes,

However, the quickest way is to strengthen ﬁre ﬁghting capa-

technical works on a ﬂat section of the adjacent river for water

bility. As was experienced during the big 2007 wildﬁre, multiple

collection, construction of water reservoirs in suitable locations).

wildﬁres may occur simultaneously. This is like multiple ﬁres in・

Monitoring of the area via satellite (Athens Observatory).

a big urban earthquake case. Thus, sufﬁcient ﬁre ﬁghting capa-・Creation of a PUP-UP system19 in areas of low vegetation

bility should be provided and local people should be trained to(stadium slopes).

protect important archeological sites, without the need to depend・on professional ﬁre brigades.

Expansion of the existing ﬁre protection system in the com-

International cooperation in coping with large wildfires inplex around building perimeters.

Greece has been implemented by many European countries of-

The budget for the prevention of the corroding and ﬂooring
was covered by the special depository for the confrontation offering water-bombers. They have joined with the Greek ﬁre bri-emergency situations. The project of the planting of the newgade and contributed to suppression of ﬁres around archaeologi-

trees was fully covered by Latsis Group and Eurobank EFG

cal sites. However, our survey heard of no cases of international(Olympia Vikatou, 2008).

direct contribution to ﬁre ﬁghting at archaeological sites.
In any way, the Greek experience of ﬁre ﬁghting of multiple
simultaneous terrible fires should be exchanged with Japanese
professionals and administrators of cultural heritages.
4-3 International Cooperation
Greece is subject to two different kinds of disaster: severe
earthquakes and the large wildfires. However, Greece has notreceived any assistance for heritage recovery from speciﬁc foreign countries. Assistance from the EU, a regional European
organization, were limited within its general ﬁnancial support to
Greece as a member country and the emergency supply of ﬁreextinguishing airplanes by its member countries, but did not in-

Fig.4-50 Check dams in the channel

clude any technical assistance.
This is not because Greece already had enough expertise for

4-2-4 Issues for Risk Reduction and International

recovery of heritage disasters through its frequent disaster ex-

Collaboration

perience. Greece is now meeting the challenge to develop new

It can be said that many archaeological treasures in Greece

scientiﬁc techniques for disaster mitigation and recovery in these

had been preserved by being buried with airborne dust, mud-cases, which shows how it has become one of the most devel-

slide, vegetation etc., and are now facing new risks after being

oped countries in heritage protection.

dug up in recent years. The increase of wildﬁre in recent years is

As a good example, in the post-earthquake retroﬁtting work

also assumed to come from human factors, such as lower main-at Daphni Monastery, all the recovery works are scientiﬁc andtenance of mountain forests and warmer climatic temperatures.

open to public professionals. Each recovery step from the begin-

These human factors must be conquered, or at least suppressed,ning to the end are published as English scientiﬁc presentation

but it will take a very long time. As it is unrealistic to rebury the

papers by the resident conservation engineer, Ms. Miltiadou.

archaeological treasures, we must compete with these manmade

This information is then made available to foreign researchers or

natural disasters.

site managers from foreign countries that have similar problems.

One way is to arrange a wide ﬁre-belt around the archaeologi-

During our visit, Ms. Miltiadou kindly guided us around thecal site, but most of the land around the sites is owned privately,sites, and she was very open to any questions from us. This open

and sometimes the wild green of neighboring areas compose

attitude is very important in formulating a better disaster mitiga-

indispensable landscapes for the site.

tion policy, which requires the cooperation of people from many

Another way is to change the vegetation of neighboring ar-very different scientiﬁc ﬁelds. If we in Japan have something toeas from flammable trees such as pines to flame-retardant andlearn from Greece, this attitude and methodology would be mostancient indigenous trees. This has already been tried on Mount

important for all professional experts in many different fields,
150

Chapter 2 Case Studyand mutual communication between Greece and Japan should be

and ﬁre disasters, not simply in bilateral support to Greece. One

encouraged.

important work would be to formulate a disaster mitigation plan

In the case of the fire disaster at the Olympia site, the Hel-for World Cultural Heritages that would be universally useful forlenistic Ministry of Culture organized an international expert

both wooden and stone masonry structures.

meeting on disaster reduction of World Cultural Heritage inNovember 2008, one year after the fire, in cooperation with

5. Special Session on Earthquake Protection and Post-

UNESCO World Heritage Center. They openly showed all theearthquake Restoration of Cultural Heritages

problems of the site, and provided a public place to formulateThis workshop was originally organized as an opportunity tointernational policy frameworks necessary for the improvement

exchange technical knowledge concerning seismic design, obser-

of future disaster reduction measures for World Heritage sites.

vation and retroﬁt of foundations by the Japanese Society of Civil

Greece is intending to contribute to international society, not in aEngineers and the Hellenic Society for Earthquake Engineering.

bilateral arrogant way, providing an opportunity to share their di-

As the location of the workshop is one of the important Greek

saster experience with the world including developing countries.

cultural heritage sites, the Ritsumeikan University investigation

This Greek intention was widely communicated to inter-group proposed to hold a special session on protection of cultural

national society through the conclusion document named

heritages during the workshop. This proposal was welcomed by“Strengthening Disaster risk Reduction at World Heritage prop-

the Greek side, and Professor G. Gazetas, a Greek side chairperson

erties: the Olympia Protocol for International Cooperation”20,of the organization committee, kindly introduced some key persons

and the contents of this document were already reflected inof the Greek Ministry of Culture and National Technical Univer-discussions of the UNESCO World Heritage Committee in Junesity of Athens. Then, the aim of the special session was agreed by

2009. This intention is continuing in the 2nd expert meeting,them and a call for papers for this special session was announced.

organized by both the UNESCO World Heritage Center and theAt the same time, four invited speakers were selected: Professor K.

Israeli government in November 2009, and in preparing the next

Toki of Ritsumeikan University, Dr. A. Miltiadou-Fezans of Greek

international movement. Greece also played an important role

Ministry of Culture, Professor T. P. Tasios and Professor E. Vintzi-

in this 2nd meeting. There is something to learn here for Japan,

leou of National Technical University of Athens.

who tends to focus on bilateral international assistance projects.

Fifteen papers including 5 from the invited speakers were sub-In conclusion, Japan is expected to collaborate with Greece inmitted to this special session, which was held on Tuesday, Sep-

contributing to international society, and also for mutual com-tember 22 from 14:20 to 20:00. Presentations and active discus-

munication among heritage experts in the field of earthquake

sions prolonged the time allocated for the session by one and a

Fig.5-1 Prof. K. Toki at his Presentaion

Fig.5-2 Prof. K. Masuda and
Dr. A. Miltiadou-Fezans at co-chair deskFig.5-3 Dr. Y. Goto at his Presentaion

Fig.5-4 Participants at the session

151Chapter 2 Case Study

Fig.5-5 Program of Workshop “3rd Greece – Japan Workshop: Seismic Design, Observation and Retrofit of Foundations
with Special Issue on Protection of Cultural Heritages”

152

Chapter 2 Case Study

half hours. This session provided a lot of important information

many since the excavation by Heinrich Schliemann, and manyto our survey and created invaluable opportunities to exchange

German tourists visit his special exhibition room at National Ar-

experiences with Greek specialists and professors.

chaeological Museum. Although it is in advantageous position in

Figs.5-1, 5-2, 5-3 and 5-4 are snapshots of the special session.

receiving international assistance from the EU, Greece believes

The program of the workshop including the special session is

it has a high level of heritage conservation expertise, and has noshown in Fig.5-5.

need for any technical assistance from foreign countries.

6. Conclusion

destruction, Greece has requested the return claim of reliefs of

6-1 Conclusion

Parthenon (Elgin Marbles) owned by the British Museum. The

In recent international discussions related to cultural heritage

New Acropolis Museum, opened in 2009, has been prepared

As stated above, Greece has many ancient archaeological sites
built since 17th century BC., as the mother of European classic

to display them after their return. Mr. Matsuura, the UNESCO

civilization, and also has many Byzantine cultural heritage sites

Director General, attended to the opening ceremony, and madebuilt in medieval time. Greece is situated at the border area ofa congratulatory speech 21. After the Olympia fire in 2007,

tectonic plates between African and European continents, and

UNESCO and the Hellenic Ministry of Culture cooperated inhas been suffering seismic damage since ancient times. It is alsoorganizing an international expertsʼ meeting for disaster risk

situated in the dry Mediterranean climate, and many forest ﬁres

reduction for world heritage in November 2008, and it adopted

happen every year, which has a severe impact on efforts to pro-a conclusion document “The Olympia Protocol for International

tect its cultural heritage.

Cooperation”22, which is expected to describe a basic strategy forThis research focused on two recent big disasters in Greece;

the UNESCO World Heritage Centre. According to the proceed-

the Daphni Monastery (World Heritage registration in 1990)

ings, Greece contributed to the preparation of a new interna-

damaged by an earthquake in 1999, and Olympia archaeologi-tional framework on this subject as the host country. However,cal sites (World Heritage registration in 1989) affected by thethe Japanese government delegate simply reported on the present

forest fire in 2007. With the support of Hellenic Ministry ofsituation within Japan. Greece is continued its active role at the

Culture, we were able to visit these two sites for our ﬁeld survey,

second meeting, which was held in near earthquake country Is-

and also organize a meeting with Greek seismic professionals,

rael in November 2009, and offered to host the third meeting to

exchanging views through professional presentations. We found

be attended by other countries including Japan.

as a result that Japan is advanced in several ﬁelds at the basic

Relations with its neighbor Turkey were improved when ascientiﬁc level, but also that Greece has developed several bet-

Greek rescue team was dispatched to Turkey after the earthquake

ter measures for cultural heritage risk preparedness measuresthat occurred in its northwest in August 1999. Then one monthagainst earthquake and ﬁre than Japan, and also that they havelater a Turkish rescue team was dispatched to Greece following

similar problems of shortage of funds and difﬁcult relationships

the earthquake there. These rescue activities may be seen as aamong different administrations, as we do in Japan.

diplomatic tool utilizing cultural heritage disasters within thesame earthquake zone.

For international assistance for the recovery of cultural heritages following a disaster, Greece has been accepting ﬁnancial

Putting all these factors together, Greece does not need any

support from EU since its participation to Euro currency area

technical or ﬁnancial assistance from any speciﬁc countries, but

in 2001, but this is not limited to disaster recovery or cultural

does need to accept the regional assistance with its conserva-

heritages. Greece receives 75% subsidy assistance for its manytion projects as a culturally developed European country. It also

cultural heritage conservation projects. However, they regard

needs to coordinate its activities with international organizations

these as natural delivery right, as they pay their contribution tolike UNESCO, emphasizing its prestigious position in the in-

the EU.

ternational community, as well as developing friendly relations

Greece has been the target of many archaeological surveys bywith neighboring countries through cultural heritage protection

Britain, France and Germany, etc. since 18th century. Since its

from disasters. In its relations with Japan, Greece is presently

independence from Ottoman Turkey in 1832, Greece has beenpromoting ﬁrst an increase in the numbers of good quality tour-

playing an important international role in European modern con-ists to its heritage sites, second mutual exchange of scientificservation movement, like the Athens Charter International meet-

and technical knowledge concerning heritage protection as aing organized in 1931. It has no special relationship with any

similar seismic country, and third solidarity in formulating more

speciﬁc countries, but has a very friendly relationship with Ger-advanced international frameworks, including the development
153Chapter 2 Case Studyof a disaster risk management plan for the sustainable protection

fertilized with Japanese same domain society, especially high-of world cultural heritages under the umbrella of UNESCO.

lighting the goal, the methodology and the passions.
・

6-2 Suggestions

Greek experiences of ﬁre ﬁghting under multiple simulta-

neous terrible ﬁres should be exchanged with Japanese profes-

Based on these conclusion, we would like to make the follow-

sionals and administrators of cultural heritages.

ing tangible suggestions.
1.

In relation to the 3rd point in above, most urgent action

for Japan would be announce Japanese cooperation in organizing the 3rd UNESCO World Heritage workshop on ʻDisaster1

http://www.oasp.gr

Risk Reduction to Cultural Heritageʼ in 2010. The ﬁrst of these2

http://www.civilprotection.gr/

workshops was held in Olympia, Greece, in 2008 and the sec-3

http://www.itsak.gr

ond in Acre, Israel, in 2009. The meeting in 2010 is expected4

http://www.gein.noa.gr

to be held in Asian Paciﬁc region with the support of Japan.

5

http://www.gscp.gr/ggpp/site/home/ws.csp

In the East Asia region, Korea may organize a large expert

6

http://www.ﬁreservice.gr/pyr/site/home.csp (in Greek)

meeting on cultural heritage risk reduction related with its

7

http://www.astynomia.gr/index.php?option=ozo_content&perf

memorial of the restoration of the Sungnyemun (Namdaemun)

orm=view&id=34&Itemid=13&lang=EN

gate building in Seoul after its ﬁre in 2008.Thus, some joint

8

http://www.yptp.gr/main.php?lang=EN

co-organization between Korea and Japan may be interesting.

9

Such buildings from the Medieval did not attract much atten-

Alternatively, as the Tsunami, climate change and intangibletion from researchers at that time, and some of them were bro-

heritage protection, etc., have not been deeply discussed in

ken down when they became obstacles of excavations of older

former meetings, these issues, e.g., in relation to Samoa, might

buildings―such as Parthenon, Library of Hadrianus (Roland et

be treated in the Paciﬁc region with Japanese cooperation. For

François Etienne, 1995).

the Japan Consortium for International Cooperation in Cultural10

http://www.sacred-destinations.com/greece/daphni-monastery

Heritage, these meetings might be good opportunities to orga-

11

Johann Joachim Winckelmann (1717 - 1768), German art

nize such international expert meeting with foreign organiza-

historian and archeologist, who in initiating the "Greek revival"

tions outside Japan under the umbrella of UNESCO.

deeply influence the rise of the neoclassical movement during

The Japanese government has already proposed to the inter-the late 18th century. He was one of the founders of scientiﬁc

national society at Seville World Heritage Committee in 2009archaeology and ﬁrst applied the categories of style on a large,

to organize a large international meeting in 2012 in commemo-

systematic basis to the history of art. Many consider him to be

rating the 40-years anniversary of UNESCO World Heritage

the father of the discipline of art history. Winckelmann crystal-

Convention. The Japan Consortium for International Coop-

lized his famous concept of the essence of Greek art – the idea of

eration in Cultural Heritage, supported by both Ministry of"Noble simplicity and quiet grandeur" and the deﬁnitive asser-

Foreign Affairs and Agency for Cultural Affairs, may be abletion, "The one way for us to become great, perhaps inimitable,

to co-organize above expert meeting, as a kind of preparatory

is by imitating the ancients."- in Thoughts on the Imita-tion of

meeting for the large meeting in 2012.

Greek Works in Painting and Sculpture (1755). (Roland et Fran-

2.

Secondly, development of mutual exchange of experts inçois Etienne, 1995)

scientiﬁc and technical ﬁelds between Greece and Japan should

12

be encouraged. Both countries are located in earthquake zones,

Bavaria, was elected the first king of Greece in 1829, which

and have a strong need to develop measures of Risk Manage-

implied the ties between Greece and Germany. This relationshipment Plan for Cultural Heritage, especially for earthquakes.

lead to the collaboration for the excavation and restoration of

Othon (Otto in German), who was second son of King of

Joint research activities by both the stone masonry architecture

historic sites afterward.

culture and wooden timber architecture culture may be able to

13

The ﬁrst results were published in the big ﬁve–volume work

develop universal protection measures. These research ﬁelds“OLYMPIA”.

may be very different, but research could yield signiﬁcant re-

14

The results were published in the two-volume work ALT-

sults very soon, so they need to be hurried.

OLYMPIA.

・

15

The experiences and knowledge being accumulated in the

Greek cultural heritage preservation society should be cross-

The journal, which has been published by German Archaeo-

logical Institute since 1944, can be referred in the URL below.
154

Chapter 2 Case Study

http://www.dainst.org/index_34eed562bb1f14a14689001
7f0000011_de.html
16

The modern restoration in Greece started in 1894, during

which a big earthquake occurred in Athens and affected the big
buildings of ancient Greece which were already half destroyed.
Nikolaos Balanos, who was assigned to restore the Acropolisof Athens, had taken a major role in the restoration activities in
Greece for four decades until World War II. He also introduced
the anastylosis, which is an archaeological term for a reconstruction technique used for the construction at Acropolis, to an Athens meeting in which the Greek word “anastylosis “ was adapted
as-is in the Athens charter. Therefore, Balanos was widely
known as well as the anastylosis. The Venice Charter of 1964
added the details of criteria for anastylosis. Anastylosys is the
combined word of ana: again and stylos: column, translated to“reconstruction of column” in modern Greek, which is associatedwith the symbolic architectural term of the erection of columns
and from which its intent to rebuild from the original materials
was derived. In fact, the word “anastylosys” was present in ancient Greek with similar intent: setting up of monuments (Shuji
Matsumoto, 2000).
17

http://www.twges.de/18

The Elgin Marbles, also known as the Parthenon Marbles,

are a collection of classical Greek marble sculptures, inscriptions and architectural members that originally were part of
the Parthenon and other buildings on the Acro-polis of Athens.
Thomas Bruce, 7th Earl of Elgin, the British ambassador to the
Ottoman Empire from 1799–1803, had obtained a controversial permission from the Ottoman authorities to remove pieces
from the Acropolis. From 1801 to 1812 Elgin's agents removed
about half of the surviving sculptures of the Parthenon, as well
as architectural members and sculpture from the Propylaea andErechtheum. The Marbles were transported by sea to Britain. In
Britain, the acquisition of the collection was supported by some,while many critics compared Elgin's actions to vandalism or
looting. Following a public debate in Parliament and subsequent
exoneration of Elgin's actions, the marbles were purchased by
the British Government in 1816 and placed on display in the
British Museum, where they stand now on view in the purposebuilt Duveen Gallery. The legality of the removal has beenquestioned and the debate continues as to whether the Marbles
should remain in the British Museum or be returned to Athens.
19

A type of ﬁre suppressant system.

20

Appendix8 in this report.

21

Appendix7 in this report.

22

Appendix8 in this report.

155

Chapter 3

Assignments for the Future

The buildings around the seismic
center of the Sichuan earthquake
were heavily damaged. People fromhome and abroad were concerned
about the damage of watchtowers(Qiang’s traditional structures) in themountain area, the World Heritagebuildings in Dujiangyan.

China
Aceh

Indonesia

Chom Kitti Pagoda is the sole example The Aceh manuscript archive buildingin Thailand of cultural heritage
collapsed and documents were swept
implementing earthquake
away by the tsunami.
countermeasures. However, during
this disaster, it was affected bydamage such as a cracked buildingbase and a fallen finial, but there were
not the other major damage. Damage
to other cultural heritage apart frompagoda structures was not reported.

ThailandCentral JavaWest Sumatra

Iran・UNESCO (technical support)
・Japan (technical and materialInternation ・UNESCO (financial aid)
No international cooperation has been ・Aceh is the only province where
Request was made to British to carry
support)international organizations canal support UNESCO contributed 1.5 million yuan carried in connection with theConducted study of disaster-affected out a survey of the status of disastercontract with the provincial
RMB for the restoration of the World presented case studies.
affected museums. A request wascultural heritage for National
government and non governmental
Heritage site, Qingcheng-shan hill.
made to Japan to study historical
Research Institute for Culturalorganizations without having to pass
Recovery work has started.
buildings and city planning, based on
Properties, Tokyo as a projectthrough the central government.
・The French government (technicalcommissioned by the Cultural Affairs consultation with the Consortium for・Japan (financial and technicaladvice)International Cooperation in Cultural
Agency (total of 3 missions).
support)Inspected Lingbaoxiu-yuan inThis was subsequently taken over by Heritage.
The Tokyo University of Foreign
Pengzhou three times. Advice
Studies provides support for Acehnese the University of Tskuba and continues ・the Netherlands (financial aid)
provided by French experts.
today.
literary cultural property. This
Financial aid received from the Prince
・Japan (technological exchange)
university has a history of carrying out Scaffolding was awarded at no cost by Claus Fund to support the IndonesianThe
a grass-roots grant from the Ministry of Heritage Trust.
surveys and research in Indonesia“Japan-China Workshop on
Foreign Affairs.
dating back to before the disaster inEarthquake Resistance Measures for・UNESCO (technical and material
2002, and this support continues
Cultural Heritage” which focused on
support; technological exchange)
today.
protection, restoration and earthquake
A study of disaster-affected cultural
・Germany (2007 to 2009)
resistance of buildings and earthquake
Digitization of manuscripts by Leipzig heritage was carried out ten days after
resistance measures for museums
the earthquake; scaffolding was
University. Digitization was notand their collections, was held on
provided; and an international
completed.
February, 2009.
conference was held.
・France・Saudi Arabia (financial aid)
École Française d’Extrême-Orient
Financial support provided via(EFEO) donated books.
UNESCO.
・Kingdom of the Netherlands
・Holland (financial aid)
The Royal Netherlands Institute of
Financial aid received from the Prince
Southeast Asian and Caribbean
Studies (KITLV) digitized books and Claus Fund to reconstruct a factory forthe manufacture and sale of traditional
uploaded them on the website.
crafts.
・International Centre for Aceh andIndian Ocean Studies (multinationalorganization)
Established in 2009. Aims to revitalize
academic activities in Aceh.

Monasteries of Daphni

GreeceArchaeological Site of Olympia

A number of activities are being
carried out such as reforestation work,
the establishment of check dams in
the channel, securing water
resources, strengthening disaster
response training.

Affected by the forest fire of 2007, its
stone materials narrowly escaped
damage. Its surroundings including
the sacred mountain behind the sitewere totally burnt out.

The “International Conference on
For the case studies presented, there was no support provided by a specific
Earthen Architecture” was held justforeign country.
before the earthquake and many・EUexperts visited Bam so this disaster
Emergency provision of financial support and firefighting aircraft.
occurred while all eyes were focusedon Bam. Due to this, international
support provided chiefly by the
UNESCO Tehran Cluster Office wasswift.
・Japan (financial aid andtechnological exchange)
Held international conference andprovided financial aid to an
experimental restoration project
undertaken by Dresden University ofGermany. A joint experimental project
between Mie University and Isfahan
University was carried out but there
have been no on-site project
developments.
・Italy and France (technicalassistance and restorationcooperation)
United Kingdom and France(CRATerre) experts were taken by the
UNESCO inspection team to carry out
an on-site study soon after theearthquake. Italy was responsible forthe outer fort wall restoration while
France oversaw the inner fort wall.

As a measure to prevent excessive
cracking of masonry walls and toprevent the falling of mosaic pieces,work to inject hydraulic lime grout isongoing.

80% or more of buildings in the old
Due to the earthquake, steel frame
urban district of Bam City collapsed
support and a vast amount of
including catastrophic damage to Arg- restoration work was necessary.
e Bam. The qanāt (undergroundwaterway) which Bam City needs toexist was also damaged. “Bam and its
Cultural Landscape”was inscribed on
the List of World Heritage in Danger
after the earthquake.

Recovery plans have been formulated Restoration work was carried out atchiefly by central government and the the fort straight after the earthquake.
provincial government of West
Sumatra. Reconstruction andRehabilitation Authority was alsoestablished.

Historical buildings in central Padang
There was no damage to thecity were damaged. Damage was
Borobudur site. The Prambanan
Temple Compounds and surrounding concentrated in large-scale publicstone cultural heritage were damaged. facilities in the city center andmuseums and archives collapsed.
A wooden structure within the Royalpalace complex in central JogJakarta The library was totally destroyed two
was completely destroyed. Brickmonths later.
masonry buildings were also
damaged.

Response Due to its system of verticalOn the day following the earthquake,On the day of the earthquake, the 8th A number of activities are being
to disaster- communication in cultural properties Regional Office of Fine Arts, Fine Arts carried out such as the construction of President Yudhoyono visited theaffected
division, disaster information was
Department, Ministry of Culture, which new buildings, collection of materials, Prambanan Temple Compounds.
culturaldigitization of manuscripts, review ofswiftly disseminated, and the Director is in charge of this region, inspected
Damage survey and restoration work
heritagearchive facilities and restoration ofof the State Administration of Cultural the site, and asked supports ofhas been carried out.
Heritage entered the damaged site
Headquarter of Fine Arts Department, manuscripts.
within one week of the
Ministry of Culture in Bangkok.
earthquake.Within one month of the
Couple of days later, charged person
earthquake, the State Administration made the replacement of a fallenof Cultural Heritage held a conference finial, did construction work to theand started recovery work. After themain part for this replacement, andearthquake, the construction of central grouted cracks. Monitoring surveys arestorages for the protection of cultural currently being carried out once a year
properties was accelerated.
to check the leaning status of the
Restoration work is aimed to bebuilding.
completed within two years.

Status ofdisasteraffectingculturalheritage

Chapter 3 Assignments for the Future

Learning from the cultural heritage restoration case studies presented in Chapter 2, this Chapter considers the role of international co-

operation and discusses related issues and prospects. First, based on the countriesʼ case studies, the status of damage to cultural heritage,

restoration responses and related international cooperation are summarized below.

159

Chapter 3 Assignments for the Future

The following items are listed as points the national case studies had in common.
・Emergency support is provided chiefly by governments. Emergency support methods mainly include financial aid, technological exchange or providing advice (i.e. damage assess rents of cultural heritage) and there are a few examples of technical cooperation. For
example, while China received offers of international cooperation from a number of foreign countries and organizations, emergency
support provided was limited to financial aid from UNESCO, technical advice from the French government, and technological exchange with the Japanese government.
・ As for continuous support, this tended to be provided by non-governmental support organizations with a higher percentage of technical cooperation. For example, dating back to before the disaster in Indonesia, support for Acehnese literary cultural property has been
provided in the form of surveys and research by the Tokyo University of Foreign Studies.
・ Demand for a system of cooperation existing in non-disaster times is high among countries where emergency support was not carriedout. For example, although Thailand made no appeals for support when a disaster struck, they have expressed a request to carry out
joint research relating to future disaster prevention measures, organizations engaging in cultural property disaster prevention, public
information systems, and the use of GIS databases. For Greece also, where the case study did not report any specific support fromoverseas, exchange of academic knowledge and exchanges between experts in the fields of disaster prevention and cultural heritage
protection is demanded.
・ When heads of states visit cultural heritage sites and provide encouragement, this has a positive effect on subsequent cultural heritage
restoration work. For example, in China, it is said that the people at the scene of the disaster were encouraged by a visit from the Director of the State Administration of Cultural Heritage, enabling them to fulfill their difficult duty while torn between humanitarian relief and cultural heritage relief activities. Further, on the day following the earthquake in the central part of Java, Indonesia, President
Yudhoyono of Indonesia visited the Prambanan Temple Compounds so damage affecting the site was reported early.
・ Countries related to disaster-affected cultural heritage tend to provide international cooperation. Lingbaoxiu-yuan, which is locatedin Pengzhou, China, is a Christian monastery that was built by a French missionary in 1908 so French experts provided advice for the
restoration plan. In Aceh, Indonesia, grave posts marking the tombs of the Netherlands soldiers killed in the Aceh War were swept
away by a tsunami, but were soon replaced due to Netherlandsʼ support.

Based on the above items and recommendations given for each of the case studies, the following three points indicate requirements forinternational cooperation in the restoration of disaster-affected cultural heritage.

Non-disaster time cooperation systems
As shown by the Chinese case study, since it is necessary for overseas organizations providing cooperation to adhere to the laws of theaffected country when carrying out cultural heritage protection activities, mutually acknowledging, during non-disaster time, the differences between countriesʼ cultural heritage systems, philosophies, and technologies enable the development of specific restoration activities that encompass international cooperation. Further, when the “Forum on Risk Preparedness for the Preservation of Cultural Heritage”
was held by ASEAN+3 (Japan, South Korea, and China) in January, 2009, (detailed in the Thailand case study report) it concluded andrecommended that carrying out a follow-up workshop, promoting networks to strengthen disaster prevention cooperation, and publishing joint research and other research findings were necessary. This demonstrated that non-disaster rather than disaster time international
cooperation is demanded. The Fine Arts Department of the Ministry of Culture in Thailand also expressed its wish to carry out joint
research on earthquake disaster prevention with the vastly experienced Japan. Since humanitarian activities and infrastructure reconstruction are prioritized during an emergency, it is crucial to adhere to notions of “prevention” that seek to minimize action needed when adisaster strikes, and to build systems of cooperation such as carrying out non-disaster time joint research and joint projects. Further, nondisaster time systems of cooperation can improve the continuity of projects. As shown by the Indonesian case study, the Aceh project was
enabled by relationships of trust developed through studies and research that had been carried out by the Tokyo University of Foreign
Studies since before the tsunami disaster. Considering that international cooperation in the restoration of disaster-affected cultural heritage tends to be limited to emergency support, this point is particularly worth noting and, indeed, underlines the effectiveness of nondisaster time systems of cooperation.

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Chapter 3 Assignments for the Future

The importance of information-sharing
One thing that became clear from this study was the unique character of each countryʼs disaster-time communication and command
systems. For example, in China, information submitted to the government was gathered in line with the countryʼs own vertical command
system. There were also countries such as Indonesia On the other hand, with some countries such as Indonesia, it is effective to share
information not only with government but also with NGOs. By creating non-disaster time systems of information-sharing rooted in acountryʼs individual institutions, effective information-sharing could also be achieved at times of disaster, allowing countries to examine
whether their support is being used to full advantage by their counterparts. Further, judging when to provide international support for disaster-affected cultural heritage is a difficult problem but information-sharing between countries enables them to time support best suited
to certain situations.

Long-term support plans
As stated previously, the long-term support provided by the Tokyo University of Foreign Studies, as shown in the Indonesian casestudy, is something particularly worth noting considering that international cooperation to restore disaster-affected cultural heritage tends
to be limited to emergency support. Because the Tokyo University of Foreign Studies had from the beginning pursued long-term researchplans in its inherent capacity as an organization of research, it had been carrying out research in Indonesia dating back to before the disaster struck. While government support is provided in response to requests, support by research organizations is motivated by the research
activities of that organization. Therefore, if one were to compare emergency support; which is provided chiefly by government organizations and is in response to requests for assistance; to long-term support which tends to be provided by non-governmental organizations,
it is feasible to think that including experts and research organizations that have had a cooperative relationship with disaster-affected
regions and countries in support delegations could enable the presentation of short, medium and long-term support plans to cooperative
partners. In this respect, one could argue that the role of the Japan Consortium for International Cooperation in Cultural Heritage with its
extensive network of domestic and overseas experts is to praivide information for best suited people for requests.

Based on the above, when providing international cooperation for disaster-affected cultural heritage, the future role that Japan shouldplay is extremely significant. For example, one could argue that a definite prospect is holding workshops to promote non-disaster timesystems of cooperation and information-sharing. Japan has already achieved success through the “Japan-China Workshop on Earthquake
Resistance Measures for Cultural Heritage” held in February, 2009. Also, “Forum on Risk Preparedness for the Preservation of Cultural
Heritage” held by ASEAN+3 (Japan, South Korea, and China)in January, 2009 concluded and recommended ① carrying out a follow-up
workshop, ② promoting networks to strengthen disaster prevention cooperation, ③ presenting joint research ④ creating a communication tool such as website which help these three goals. According to these two workshops, it is clear that people hope to have opportunities to share information, such as of preventing disasters, conservation philosophy, how-to use databases like GIS, and distributing
information in an emergency, In addition, the Greek case study reported that collaboration is required in the international community toform a more advanced international framework, and that the formulation of crisis management programs aimed at the sustainable protection of the World Heritage under the umbrella of UNESCO are required. Moreover, Japan has great experience for these research fields;architecture, civil engineering, and meteorology, and those thematic themes are also important to be considered in workshops. When suchworkshops or similarly-themed workshops are held in the future, the Japan Consortium for International Cooperation in Cultural Heritage
will do its best to dispatch experts and collect information.
Also, we consider the role of the consortium with a wide network of specialist from home and abroad is collecting data of researches
and specialists in the field of cultural heritage, and provide opportunities to share information between different areas for effective international cooperation.
This study was unfortunately unable to identify collaboration with other support-providing countries such as those in Europe, and information showing the international cooperation policies of support-providing countries is limited. However, it is necessary to constantly
gather information relating to how these countries time their actions and the kind of support they aim to provide. It is also necessary toobtain information at international conferences relating to what happens after support has been provided. To grasp what kind of contribution Japan can make in the future, it will be necessary to carry out studies not only in disaster-affected counties but also in other countries
that provide support. This could help to strengthen cooperation and collaboration and enable more effective international cooperation.
Further, it is hoped that comparing systems between Japan and other support-providing countries could clarify issues that Japan, as one
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Chapter 3 Assignments for the Futureof the support-providing countries not examined in this study, will need to improve upon in the future.

162

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List of Figures, Tables, and Pictures
List of Interviewees

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List of Figures, Tables, and Pictures

List of Figures, Tables, and Pictures
0. Introduction
Figure 1: World Heritage Site (June 2008) Located in the Earthquake Zones by Research Center for Disaster Mitigation of Urban Cultural Heritage, Ritsumeikan University, Kyoto, Japan
Figure 2: Case study area

1. China
Figure 1: Research country and overview of regions used for the research
Figure 2: Frame format of Chinese administrative organizations engaged in cultural heritage protection
Figure 3: Topography and seismic center of Sichuan province (superimposed on an image obtained from Google earth)
Image 1: Overlooking the Longmenshan Mountains from Dujiangyan
Image 2: The post-disaster condition of Tielong-dian hall and Jidangpu-dian hall (obtained from National Research Institute for Cultural
Properties, Tokyo (Ed.), 2009)
Image 3: The post-disaster condition of Yunyan-si temple (obtained from National Research Institute for Cultural Properties, Tokyo (Ed.),2009)
Image 4: Disaster-affected class one cultural relics in Wenchuan province (obtained from National Research Institute for Cultural Properties, Tokyo (Ed.), 2009)
Image 5: Damaged roof tiles of Wuziguan shrine in Xixiang, Shaanxi province (photograph taken by ZHAO Qiang) (photograph supplied by the Cultural Relics Bureau of Shaanxi Province)
Image 6: Post-disaster condition of Wuyunlou building and Zhangliang-miao shrine in Liuba prefecture, Shaanxi province (photographtaken by ZHAO Qiang) (photograph supplied by the Cultural Relics Bureau of Shaanxi Province)
Image 7: Post-disaster condition of Cultural Relics Bureau of Chencang, Baoji, Shaanxi province (photograph taken by Baoji Cultural
Relics Bureau) (photograph supplied by the Cultural Relics Bureau of Shaanxi Province)
Image 8: Part of Erwang-miao Shrine damaged by the disaster
Image 9: Plastic sheets covering the roof of the disaster-affected Fulongguan Shrine
Image 10: Disaster-affected Wenxing tower, An prefecture
Image 11: Post-disaster condition of Qiang village, Taoping (obtained from National Research Institute for Cultural Properties, Tokyo(Ed.), 2009)
Image 12: Post-disaster condition of watchtowers in Taoping Qiang village (obtained from National Research Institute for Cultural Properties, Tokyo (Ed.), 2009)
Image 13: Collapsed cultural relics bureau of Hanyuan prefecture (obtained from National Research Institute for Cultural Properties, Tokyo (Ed.), 2009)
Image 14: Ceramics damaged in cultural relic offices (obtained from National Research Institute for Cultural Properties, Tokyo (Ed.),2009)
Image 15: The Cultural Relics Bureau of Dujiangyan is located in a corner of the Dujiangyan World Heritage Site
Image 16: Interviews at the Cultural Relics Bureau of Dujiangyan
Image 17: Report of damage status survey compiled by the Cultural Relics Bureau of Sichuan Province (obtained from the website of theState Administration of Cultural Heritage)
Image 18: Interviews at the Chengdu Municipal Bureau of Culture
Image 19: General earthquake damage restoration plan created by the State Administration of Cultural Heritage (obtained from the website of the State Administration of Cultural Heritage)
Image 20: Erwang-miao Shrine construction signs. Organizations giving donations and carrying out planning, supervising and construction were each different, and organizations selected by the State Administration of Cultural Heritage are in charge.
Image 21: Staff from Guangxi Cultural Relic Protection Center engaged in restoration work of Fulongguan Shrine
Image 22: Interviews at the Chengdu Jinsha Site Museum
Image 23: Interviews at the Cultural Relics Bureau of Shaanxi Province
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List of Figures, Tables, and Pictures

Image 24: General Shaanxi province cultural relics rescue and protection plan created by The Cultural Relics Bureau of Shaanxi Province (obtained from the State Administration of Cultural Heritage website)
Image 25: Lingbaoxiu-yuan before the disaster (obtained from the State Administration of Cultural Heritage website)
Image 26: Lingbaoxiu-yuan before the disaster (obtained from the State Administration of Cultural Heritage website)
Image 27: Lingbaoxiu-yuan after the disaster (obtained from the State Administration of Cultural Heritage website)
Image 28: Lingbaoxiu-yuan after the disaster (obtained from the State Administration of Cultural Heritage website)
Image 29: The workshop between Chinese and Japanese experts regarding anti-seismic measures for cultural property buildings
Image 30: Visual inspection of Dujiangyan conducted during the workshop
Image 31: Interviews at the State Administration of Cultural Heritage

2. Thailand
Figure 1-1-1: Map of study destinations (wide area)
Figure 1-1-2: Map of study destinations (detailed)Figure 2-1: Average monthly precipitation amount from 1971 to 2000 (Thai Meteorological Department)
Figure 2-2: Active faults and hypocenter and scale of past earthquakes in Thailand (Department of Mineral Resources)
Figure 2-3: Map of active faults in Thailand (Department of Mineral Resources)
Figure 2-4: Seismic hazard map of Thailand (Department of Mineral Resources). Zones are divided into 4 stages according to presumed
modified mercalli (MM) intensity.
Figure 2-5: Past interplate earthquakes occurring at areas surrounding Thailand (Department of Mineral Resources)
Figure 3-1: The disaster-time system of command (Asian Disaster Reduction Center (ADRC))
Figure 3-2: Landslide-response materials aimed at local authorities in Phetchaburiprovince (Department of Mineral Resources).

Figure 3-3: Nationwide landslide hazard map of Thailand (Department of Mineral Resources, 2004). Hazard levels increase in order fromgreen to red (red is highest and green is lowest).
Figure 3-4: Landslide hazard map (Nan Province, Northern Region) (Department of Mineral Resources, 2005)
Figure 3-5: Regional communication system and response when a landslide hazard is anticipated (Department of Mineral Resources)
Figure 3-6: Brochure about tsunamis (Department of Mineral Resources)
Figure 3-7: Brochure about natural disasters (Department of Mineral Resources)
Figure 3-8: Ministry of Culture, Fine Arts Department organizational chart (produced by Mr. Surayoot Wiriyadamrong (Fine Arts Department, Office of Archaeology))
Figure 3-9-1: Monument GIS database screen. It is possible to search for and display a monument from the map by selecting the monument type.
Figure 3-9-2: Monument GIS database screen. Here, Wat Phrathat Doi Suthep has been selected. In addition, it is possible to display detailed image attribute information as a list and download visual data such as photographs.
Figure 3-10: Map showing overlay of active fault information on monument locations (produced by FAD)
Figure 4-1-1: The 16th May 2007 earthquake hypocenter and instrumental seismic intensity (modified mercalli intensity) (USGS).
Figure 4-1-2: The 16th May 2007 earthquake epicenter and tremors (modified mercalli intensity and supplementary data) (map createdby the United States Geological Study KML file)Figure 4-2: Location of the Chom Kitti Pagoda (marked by an encircled triangle). It lies on a hill overlooking the river. (FAD database)
Figure 4-3: A two-dimensional diagram of Chom Kitti (Mr. Sudchai)
Figure 4-4: Repair plan drawing for Chom Kitti pagoda in 2006 (elevational view)
Figure 4-5: Repair plan drawing for Chom Kitti pagoda in 2006 (two-dimensional diagram)
Figure 4-6: Photograph positions (Images 4-2-1 to 4.2.6)
Figure 4-7: Post-earthquake repair areas and details (Mr. Sudchai Phansuwan)
Figure 4-8: Specification of repairs to pagodaʼs apical parts (Mr. Sudchai Phansuwan)
Figure 4-9: Wat Phrathat Doi Suthep location (FAD database). Its location at the top of a mountain is evident.
Figure 4-10: Two-dimensional diagram of Wat Phrathat Doi Suthep (FAD database)Table 2-1: Thai geographical divisions
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List of Figures, Tables, and Pictures

Table 2-2: Thailandʼs seasonal divisions
Table 2-3: Seasonal precipitation amounts according to region (Unit: mm)Table 2-4: Tropical cyclone landfall frequency in Thailand over a 54 year period (1951-2004)
Table 2-5: Flood damage between 2001 and 2007
Table 2-6-1: Earthquakes felt in Thailand (magnitude of five and over*)
Table 2-6-2: Earthquakes felt in Thailand (magnitude of five and over**)Table 2-7-1: List of Cultural Heritage sites in all regions affected by flooding in 2007 (Office of Archaeology)
Table 2-7-2: List of Cultural Heritage sites in all regions affected by flooding in 2007 (Office of Archaeology) (Original document)
Image 1-1: Photographs of study destinations
Image 2-1: Thai flooding (Sukhothai, September 2002)
Image 2-2-1: Ku Pa Dom site. The roof is settled to protect the plaster covered on the remainʼs floor
Image 2-2-2: Ku Pa Dom site. The soil is wet and muddy because the rainy season has just finished. The area of the roof pillars submerged by water is discolored, and as well as algae thriving in the brick remains, efflorescence can be observed near the boundary of thewater seepage areas.
Image 2-3-1: Wat Chaiwattanaram (Ayutthaya)
Image 2-3-2: Wat Chaiwattanaram. The small vertical drop between the river on the right side and the temple is evident. A laterite fence
has been built as an anti-flooding measure.
Image 2-3-3: Wat Chaiwattanaram. Anti-flooding construction work is being carried out.
Image 2-3-4: Wat Chaiwattanaram. Waterproof barrier made from concrete.
Image 2-3-5: Wat Chaiwattanaram. Mobile shield-like waterproof apparatus. It can be folded-up when not being used.
Image 2-4: Wat Chedi Luang (Chiang Mai). The upper part has largely collapsed due to an earthquake and the lost part was not reconstructed during the restoration work of 1992.
Image 2-5: Pom Phet Fort (Ayutthaya). Repairs including anti-flood measures are being carried out (January 2009).
Image 3-1: Database training session for Regional Office of Fine Arts' representatives carried out at the FAD.
Image 4-1-1: Chom Kitti Pagoda
Image 4-1-2: The south face of the pagoda. Photograph taken after confirming horizontal level. The large tilting to the east is evident.
Image 4-1-3: The apical part of the pagoda that was removed for repairs in 2007. It decorates the front face of the east side.
Image 4-1-4: The pagoda terrace. This picture illustrates the structureʼs tilt due to past earthquakes and soil movement, as well as repeated repairs.
Image 4-2-1: This photograph illustrates that the finial part of the pagoda's upper section was toppled because of an earthquake (No.1 ofFigure. 4-6)
Image 4-2-2: The fallen finial part (No.1 of Figure. 4-6)
Image 4-2-3: Cut surface of the finial part (No.1 of Figure. 4-6)
Image 4-2-4: Cut surface of the finial part (No.1 of Figure. 4-6)
Image 4-2-5: Cracks in the pagoda wall surface caused by earthquakes (southeast corner) (No.2 of Figure. 4-6)
Image 4-2-6: Cracks close to the southeast corner terrace (No.3 of Figure. 4-6)
Image 4-2-7: Cracks in the pagoda wall surface caused by earthquakes (plastered area)
Image 4-2-8: Cracks in the plastered area
Image 4-2-9: Cracks in the plaster
Image 4-3-1: Wat Phrathat Doi Suthep
Image 4-3-2: Overlooking urban area from Wat Phrathat Doi Suthep. It is evident from this photograph that Wat Phrathat Doi Suthep sitson a clifftop.

3. Indonesia
Figure 1: Tsunami-affected areas[ Source : http//www.fao.org/geonetwork/]

Figure 2: Epicenter and disaster assessment [Source: http://unosat.web.cern.ch/unosat/]
Figure 3: Epicenter of the Earthquake [Source: United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA)]
171

List of Figures, Tables, and Pictures

Photo 1: Taman Sari Gunongan
Photo 2: Dutch CemeteryPhoto 3: Bank Indonesia (formerly De Javasche Bank)
Photo 4: The newly rebuilt Aceh Documentation and Information Center (PDIA)
Photo 5: The newly rebuilt Research Center for the Study of History and Traditional Values
Photo 6: Manuscript preserved in an envelope
Photo 7: Manuscript room
Photo 8: Mold discovered on a manuscript
Photo 9: Restoration Laboratory
Photo 10: Book scanning
Photo 11: Museum repository
Photo 12: Manuscripts on display
Photo 13: A packet of silica gel placed next to a manuscript
Photo 14: Visit to earthquake-affected areas by President Yudhoyono (Antara News, May 31, 2006)
Photo 15: Full view of Loro Jonggrang Temple (July 2006)
Photo 16: Sewu Temple (July 2006)
Photo 17: Plaosan Temple (July 2006)
Photo 18: Sojiwan Temple (July 2006)
Photo 19: Collapsed wooden building of the Royal Palace in Jogjakarta City (June 2006, Jogja Heritage Society)Photo 20: Scaffolding of the central temple
Photo 21: Scaffolds provided by the Japanese government
Photo 22: A large facility that collapsed
Map 1: Map of Ache
Map 2: Map of Banda Ache and Investigated Places
Map 3: Map of Main Monuments in Central Java and around Jogjakarta

4. IranFigure 1: Location of Bam
Figure 2: Fault line near Bam
Figure 3: Damage level map of the central area of Bam city（part of map made by Building and Housing Research Center and provided
by UNESCO Tehran Cluster Office）
Figure 4: ICHTO model of the Bam Citadel (after Langenbach).
Figure 5: South Main Gate
Figure 6: Central complex of the citadel
Figure 7: Around the stable building
Figure 8: Courtyard of the barrack
Figure 9: Grand Jami Mosque
Figure 10: Ice House
Table 1: Itinerary of the mission to Iran for research on the recovery of damaged cultural properties of Bam
Table 2: Stakeholdersʼ analysis of Bam risk preparedness process community
Table 3: Bam base within the organizational chart of ICHHTO
Table 4: Risk Preparedness and Disaster Mitigation

5. Greece
Figure 1-1: Site visit in the restoration site of Acropolis, Athens
Figure 1-2: Interview in Hellenic Ministry of Culture
Figure 1-3: New Acropolis Museum
172

List of Figures, Tables, and Pictures

Figure 1-4: View of Special Session of the 3rd Greece–Japan Workshop
Figure 1-5: Fire protection systems in Delphi
Figure 1-6: Fire protection systems in Epidaurus
Figure 1-7: Research sites and venues of workshop
Figure 2-1: Plate motions which affect active tectonics in the Aegean and surrounding area
Figure 2-2: Burned areas of Greece during the summer of 2007
Figure 2-3: Satellite photo during the burning of 2007
Figure 2-4: Volcanic Arc of Southern Aegean Sea
Figure 2-5: Knossos in Crete
Figure 2-6: Troy and North Anatolian Fault
Figure 2-7: View from cliff, Delphi
Figure 2-8: Delphi ruins and cliff
Figure 2-9: Mosaic of Delpni
Figure 2-10: Monastery of Daphni under repair
Figure 3-1: Organization chart of GSCP
Figure 3-2: Logos of Organizations concerning civil protection
Figure 4-1: Location of Daphni Monastery
Figure 4-2: One of the mosaics of the Daphni monastery
Figure 4-3: Original plan
Figure 4-4: N-W view of Katholikon
Figure 4-5: N-E view of Katholikon
Figure 4-6: The central dome and its drum, curried by eight pendentives and eight arches
Figure 4-7: Plan of the Katholikon and schematic presentation of emergency measures
Figure 4-8: Excavators of Daphni, 1891
Figure 4-9: Typical presentation of damages
Figure 4-10: Zoom up of North-South section. View to West (Unit indicator is meter.)Figure 4-11: N-S transversal section in the narthex. The south wall, although reconstructed in 1896, presents today a 90 mm out-of-plane
deformation.
Figure 4-12: Raking shores installed in the NE corner
Figure 4-13: Interior vertical steel props
Figure 4-14: Exonarthex vertical steel props
Figure 4-15: Domeʼs emergency measures
Figure 4-16: One of the finite elements models prepared for parameter analyses
Figure 4-17: Inner face of shell elements. Tensile stresses due to self-weight of the structure
Figure 4-18: Deformed shape of the structure looking from the N. Dynamic analysis; seismic action along the longitudinal axis
Figure 4-19: The wallettes prepared for grouting
Figure 4-20: The groin vaulted structure on the seismic simulator before grouting
Figure 4-21: The groin vaulted structure after grouting
Figure 4-22: Cracked mosaics have to be preserved in situ.
Figure 4-23: Typical examples of in situ mural mosaics conservation works
Figure 4-24: Tomographical reconstruction in a grouted and in a non grouted area
Figure 4-25: Location of Olympia and the burned area (percentage) of each district
Figure 4-26: Plan of Olympia sanctuary
Figure 4-27: Ancient sculptures shown in Olympia museum
Figure 4-28: West metope in Zeus Temple. ca. 460 BC.
Figure 4-29: The temple of Zeus after it was uncovered, in 1876
Figure 4-30: The Heraion after its discovery during the excavations in 1877
173

List of Figures, Tables, and Pictures

Figure 4-31: Excavation activity in the stadium in 1958
Figure 4-32: Temple of Hera Restoration work, 1972
Figure 4-33: The temple of Zeus. Detail of an imaginary reconstruction drawing of the sanctuary of Olympia by V.Laloux (1883).
Figure 4-34: Column drums and architectural members from the temple of Zeus
Figure 4-35: Temple of Hera
Figure 4-36: Phillippieion
Figure 4-37: Burned areas of Greece during the summer of 2007. The red rectangle highlights the prefecture of Peloponissos
Figure 4-38: The 22 counties of the state of Elia, along with a graphical illustration of their burned areas (identified by the different colours)
Figure 4-39: Wind speed in km/hour on a daily basis for August 2007, from the meteorological station of Andravida
Figure 4-40: Relative humidity on a daily basis for August 2007, from the meteorological station of Andravida
Figure 4-41: Min and Max temperature on a daily basis for August 2007, from themeteorological station of Andravida
Figure 4-42: The diversion of the wind that occurred during August 2007
Figure 4-43: The 6 initial blazes of August 24th and their respective times of occurrence.
Figure 4-44: Bar chart illustrating the participation of villagers in fire suppression efforts by day
Figure 4-45: The fire stations in Elia
Figure 4-46: Change of view of Mount Kronos
Figure 4-47: Eastern end of Olympia archaeological site
Figure 4-48: Hhydrants in the site
Figure 4-49: Towers for water cannon
Figure 4-50: Ckeck dams in the channel
Figure 5- 1: Prof. K. Toki at his Presentaion
Figure 5- 2: Prof. K. Masuda and Dr. A. Miltiadou-Fezans at co-chair desk
Figure 5- 3: Dr. Y. Goto at his Presentaion
Figure 5- 4: Participants at the session
Figure 5- 5: Program of Workshop “3rd Greece-Japan Workshop: Seismic Design, Observation and Retrofit of Foundations with Special
Issue on Protection of Cultural Heritages”
Table 2-1: Recent Damaging Earthquake in Greece
Table 2-2: Historical Mega Earthquake in Greece
Table 4-1: Mechanical and injectability characteristics of the grouts selected to be injected in the wallettes
Table 4-2: Optimum grout composition and injectability characteristics measured in the laboratory and in situ at the first pilot preparation
Table 4-3: Variation of the period of the first mode and the rigidity ratio
Table 4-4: Burned infrastructure during the summer of 2007 in Greece
Table 4-5: Fire fighting personnel and equipment capacity in each of the 5 fire stations of Elia
Table 4-6: Aerial fire fighting capacity of Greece

174

List of Interviewees

List of Interviewees
1. China (order of interview)
ZHAO, Chuanrong, Vice Director, Cultural Relics Bureau of Sichuan Province
LI, Bei, Director, Cultural Relics Bureau of Sichuan Province, Museums Division
ZHU, Xiaonan, Director, Cultural Relics Bureau of Sichuan Province, Cultural Relics Protection Division
WANG, Fengjun, Vice Director, Chengdu Municipal Bureau of Culture
MIAO, Yongshu, Director, Chengdu Municipal Bureau of Culture, Cultural Relics Division
KA, Zaibin, Vice Director, Cultural Relics Bureau of Dujiangyan
XU, Jun, Bureau Officer, Cultural Relics Bureau of Dujiangyan
WANG, Yi, Museum Director, Chengdu Jinsha Site Museum
ZHOU, Kuiying, Director, Cultural Relics Bureau of Shaanxi Province, Cultural Relics Division
ZHAO, Qiang, Vice Director, Cultural Relics Bureau of Shaanxi Province, Cultural Relics Division
ZHAN, Changfa, Director, Chinese Academy of Cultural Heritage, Technical Research Institute for Cultural Relics Protection
XU, Yan, Director, People's Republic of China, State Administration of Cultural Heritage, Cultural Relics Protection Division

2. Thailand[Office of Archaeology, Fine Arts Department, Ministry of Culture]
Tharapong Surischat, Director, Office of Archaeology, Fine Arts Department
Sudchai Phansuwan, Civil Engineer, Office of Archaeology, Fine Arts Department
Vasu Poshyanandana, Architect, Office of Archaeology, Fine Arts Department
Manatchaya Wajvisoot, Architect, Office of Archaeology, Fine Arts Department) * Thailand representative
Surayoot Wiriyadamrong, Architect, Office of Archaeology, Fine Arts Department
Patiwat Tul-on, Architect, Office of Archaeology, Fine Arts Department
Sitthichai Pooddee, Archaeologist, Office of Archaeology, Fine Arts Department
Wirayar Chamnanpol, Computer Technical Officer, Office of Archaeology, Fine Arts Department[8th Regional Office of Fine Arts, Fine Arts Department, Ministry of Culture]
Sahawat Naenna, Director, 8th Regional Office of Fine Arts in Chiang Mai, Fine Arts Department, Ministry of Culture[Department of Mineral Resources]
Somjai Yensabai, Director, Office of Environmental Geology, Department of Mineral Resources, Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment

3. Indonesia[Jogjakarta]
Jogjakarta Archaeological Heritage Preservation OfficeCentral Java Archaeological Heritage Preservation Office
Borobudur Archaeological Heritage Preservation InstituteGadjah Mada University[Aceh]
PKPM (Pusat Kajian Pendidikan dan Masyarakat)
Harun Kuchik Leumiek, Pak. Harun Kuchik Leumiek
Ali Hasjmi Education Foundation (Yayasan Pendidikan Ali Hasjmi)
Aceh Documentation and Information Center (PDIA (Pusat Dokumentasi dan Informasi Aceh))
Research Center for the Study of History and Traditional Values (Balai Kjian Sejarah dan Nilai Traditional)
Aceh Provincial Museum (Museum Negeri Propinsi)
Provincial archives (Badan Arsip)
175

List of Interviewees

Provincial library (Perpustakaan Daerah)International Centre for Aceh and Indian Ocean Studies (ICAIOS)[Jakarta]
National Library of Indonesia (Perpustakaan National)
Directorate General of History and Archaeology, Ministry of Culture and Tourism
UNESCO Jakarta Office
Titik Pudjiastuti, former chairperson of the Indonesian Association for Nusantara Manuscripts (MANASSA)[Padang]
Mesjid Raya Mudiak Padang / Surau Tandikek
Mesjid Raya VII Koto Ampalu
Surau Ampalu Tinggi
Surau Baru Bintungan Tinggi
Surau Paseban
Surau Darussalam
Surau Syattariah
Batusangkar Archaeological Heritage Preservation Office (BP3 Batusangkar)West Sumatra Provincial Museum (Museum Negeri Propinsi)
Provincial archives (Badan Arsip)

4. Iran
Watanabe, Kunio, Professor, Saitama University (Analysis of soil and building material; Information of Mission)
Mehrdad Hejazi, Professor, Isfahan University (Traditional construction of Iran; Proposal of restoration)
Taniguchi, Junko, Program specialist of UNESCO Tehran cluster office (UNESCO Information)
Eskandar Mokhtari, Director, Bam Base Tehran Office (Official information of Bam)
Arash Boustani, Secretary General, ICOMOS Iran (General information of cultural heritage in Iran)
Mohammed H.Talebian, Former director of Bam project (Conservation of national level)
Rasool Vatandoust, Former director of RCCCR (ICOMOS matter)
Abe, Masamichi, Director, Japan Information and Culture Center (Comment from Japanese Embassy; Request of Iran)

5. Greece
Elena Korka, Director of Prehistoric and Classical Antiquities, Hellenic Ministry of Culture
Harris P. Mouzakis, Assistant Professor, National Technical University of Athens (NTUA)
Konstantinos Antonopoulos, Head of local service at Olympia, Hellenic Ministry of Culture
Maria Ioannidou, Director of the Acropolis Restoration Service (YSMA), Civil Engineer of NTUA (National Technical University ofAthens)Miltiadou-Fezans, Directorate of Technical Research for Restoration, Hellenic Ministry of Culture
N. Delinikolas, Head of the Section for Restoration Studies on Byzantine monuments, Hellenic Ministry of Culture
Nikos Ninis, Head of the Engineering Division, Finance Management Fund for Archaeological Projects, Hellenic Ministry of Culture※Dispense with the Mr. and Mrs.

176

Appendix

Appendix

Appendix 1: Thailand 1
Mark Petersen, Stephen Harmsen, Charles Mueller, Kathleen Haller, James Dewey, Nicholas Luco, Anthony Crone, Davide Lidke, and Kenneth Rukstales (2007): Documentation for the Southeast Asia Seismic Hazard Maps, Administrative
Report September 30, 2007. U.S.Department of the Interior, U. S. Geological Survey (Extraxt)
Faults in Thailand
Even though no surface-faulting earthquakes have been documented in Thailand in the past 700 yr (Bott and others, 1997;
Fenton and others, 1997), wide spread evidence of Holocene surface deformation has been recognized for nearly two decades. These intraplate faults have tectonic histories that are complex (i.e., Morley, 2002); their origin, distribution, and tectonic history are driven by distant convergent-plate motions. In northern Southeast Asia, a broad zone of generally east-west,
sub-parallel, well-deﬁned sinistral faults extend from the Burma coast eastward into Vietnam and China. These faults, joinwith the Himalayan deformation zone, and deﬁne an arc of the India-Asia collision belt. The strike-slip faults of northern andwestern Thailand give way to transtensional, normal faults in the northeastern corner of the country. The normal faults share
striking similarities to faults in the Basin and Range Province of the Western United States (Fenton and others, 1997, 2003).
They bound Tertiary basins that reﬂect similar origin, style of faulting, spatial distribution, and rates of activity as faults in
the Basin and Range Province; similarly, northern Thailand is undergoing east-west to northwest-southeast extension (Fenton
and others, 1999). Thailand, like vast regions of the Basin and Range, has not had a historic large-magnitude earthquake andtherefore is not generally considered seismically active. The geologic record, however, suggests that these generally quiescent faults have been the source of large earthquakes and if earthquake processes are comparable to those in the Basin andRange Province, earthquakes as large as M7.1 (1915 Pleasant Valley, Nevada) to M7.3 (Hebgen Lake, Montana) may occur.
The faults we included in our model are long enough to support earthquakes of that size.
There has been an extensive effort in Thailand to document and characterize potentially active faults (Kosuwan and others, 1999, 2000) by the Department of Mineral Resources with cooperative research studies by Chulalongkorn University,
Thailand, and Akita University, Japan, that evolved from earlier compilations (Nutalaya, 1994; Hinthong, 1995). In the decade since the earliest of these compilations, many trenching investigations have been completed that identify where largemagnitude Holocene (and earlier) earthquakes have occurred.
We rely on published data to assign slip rates, and our discussions of fault parameters in the Thailand workshops illustrated that published rates vary considerably. This is not a problem unique in Thailand but is recognized worldwide; some(but not all) of the reason for this variation is that relative-dating techniques lack reproducibility. We adopted the strategy totreat each site-speciﬁc (trenching) study equally. If the published slip rate is a range of values, we use the average of thoseend members. Then single-study values are averaged. However, if the result of a study is based on regional comparison ofgeomorphology and is followed by more recent investigations including trenching, the site-speciﬁc studies supercede the regional comparison and the latter was not considered in assigning preferred slip rates.
The earliest and most extensive reconnaissance studies of faults in Thailand are by Fenton and others (1997, 2003). Theyevaluated the geomorphic expression of faulting; however, the study was handicapped by the absence of a well-deﬁned late
Quaternary framework. Because of the regional nature of this study, slip rates were assigned based on broad similarities
between faults. We have used their ﬁndings in our analysis where they have not been superceded by fault-speciﬁc studies.
Future work on the Long, Nam Pat, Phayao, and Phrae Basin faults will certainly improve our understanding of these faults.
Using the same guiding philosophy, additional sources were characterized by Wong and others (2005). The Khlong Maruifault (ﬁg. 7, Table 3) is generally poorly expressed in the landscape; it is assigned a low slip rate, suggesting recurrence ofM7.5 earthquakes on the order of more than 100 k.y. Likewise the Ranong fault is assigned a slip rate similar to Fenton andothersʼ (2003) low slip-rate faults.

179

Appendix	  7. Map of fault sources in and near Thailand.
Table 3. Thailand fault parameters.

Length
(km)

Dip
(°)

Width

Characteristic M

Slip rate(mm/yr)Annual probability

Recurrence interval
Reference(yr)

KhlongMarui fault

348

90

15

7.51

0.01

7.8494E-06

127,398

Wong and others,
2005

Long fault

63

50

20

7.17

0.1

6.8464E-05

14,606

Fenton andothers, 2003

Mae Chan
fault

154

90

15

7.51

0.7

2.4319E-04

4,112

Kosuwan andothers, 2003

Mae Kuang
fault

34

90

15

6.86

0.43

2.6250E-04

3,809

Rhodes andothers, 2004

Mae Yom
fault

27

50

20

6.74

0.47

7.6717E-04

1,303

Charusiri andothers, 2006

Moei fault

226

90

15

7.51

0.36

1.8383E-04

5,439

Saithong andothers, 2005

Nam Pat
fault

38

50

20

6.91

0.1

1.1574E-04

8,640

Fenton andothers, 2003

Phayao fault 30

50

20

6.80

0.1

1.3075E-04

7,648

Fenton andothers, 2003

Phrae Basin
fault

65

50

20

7.18

0.1

6.9868E-05

14,312

Fenton andothers, 2003

Phrae fault

73

50

20

7.24

0.06

4.7533E-05

21,037

Udchachun andothers, 2005

Pua fault

80

50

20

7.29

0.6

3.6844E-04

2,714

Fenton andothers, 2003

Ranong fault 523

90

15

7.51

0.1

1.x1801E-04

8,473

Wong and others,
2005

Sri Sawat
fault

209

90

15

7.51

0.6

2.8216E-04

3,544

Kosuwan andothers, 2006

Thoen fault

107

50

20

7.43

0.16

9.2634E-05

10,795

Charusiri andothers, 2004
Pailoplee, 2004

Three
Pagodas
fault

380

90

15

7.51

0.56

4.7944E-04

2,085

Charusiri andothers, 2004
Kosuwan andothers, 2006

Name

1 Characteristic magnitude ﬁxed based on worldwide analog.

180

Appendix

The other faults in our analysis have been targets of more recent detailed paleoseismological investigations. These fault
parameters were discussed at the Thailand workshops and represent the best assessment at this time. We will provide only
brief remarks regarding these faults that are relevant to seismic hazard mapping. Refer to Figure 7 and Table 3.
The Mae Chan fault is an east-west left-lateral strike slip fault in northern Thailand, located near the city of Mae Chan.
It extends from near the Myanmar border in the Nam Mae Kok valley eastward into Laos across the Mekong River (Fenton
and others, 2003). The morphology of the Mae Chan fault demonstrates clear evidence of late Quaternary surface faulting
including such features as shutter ridges, sag ponds, and beheaded gullies (Wood, 1995, 2001, Hinthong, 1995; Rymer andothers, 1997). Long-term activity is evident in satellite imagery showing offset, on the scale of hundreds of meters, of active
river channels. Based on assumed erosions rates Fenton and others (2003) suggest that the Mae Chan fault has a slip rateof 0.3–3 mm/yr. More recent trenching by Kosuwan and others (2003) suggest a lower slip rate of 0.7 mm/yr with possibly
three surface-rupturing events occurring in the Holocene. Our assigned slip rate is based on the more recent and detailed
study.
The Mae Kuang fault was ﬁrst reported by Perez and others (1999) as a 30-km-long fault subparallel to and south of the
Mae Chan fault and northeast of the Chain Mai basin in the Mae Tho Range. It, like the Mae Chan fault, is a strike-slip
structure. Our assigned slip rate is the average of long-term rates proposed by Rhodes and others (2003) of between 0.175
and 0.7 mm/yr based on 3.5 km offset since the reversal of faulting between 5 and 20 Ma.
The Mae Yom fault strikes northeast for a distance of approximately 25 km. Recent investigations suggest multiple Holocene displacements with the most recent movement about 5 k.y. ago (Charusiri and others, 2006).
The predominately strike slip, nearly 230-km-long Moei (or Mae Ping) fault trends northwest near and paralleling thewestern border of Thailand. Recent studies of this fault suggest recurrence intervals measured in tens of thousands of years
and a slip rate of 0.36 mm/yr (Saithong and others, 2005).
The fault with the lowest slip rate assigned in this model is the centrally located Phrae fault. The assigned slip rate is from
Udchachun and others (2005). However, previously published slip rate of 0.1 mm/yr (Fenton and others, 2003) is based onregional similarities, but the basis of this slip rate is not documented. Our model suggests recurrence intervals on the order oftens of thousands of years.
The Pua fault, in the northeasternmost part of Thailand, demonstrates unmistakable evidence of recurrent and recent faulting. The range-front is abrupt and linear in satellite imagery clearly highlighting this west-dipping normal fault. Fenton andothers (2003) document that the youngest and best-expressed geomorphology is found along the northern and central partof the fault. They assign a slip rate of 0.6 mm/yr to this fault based on comparative geomorphology. A more recent study by
Charusiri and others (2006) does not document a slip rate for this fault, but trenching suggests that surface rupturing earthquakes have occurred 8,000, 6,000, and 2,800 yr ago. The annual rate of 3.184E-04 from our study is in agreement with thechronology documented by Charusiri and others (2006).
The west-dipping, normal Thoen fault (Fenton and others, 2003) bounds the eastern side of the Thoen, Mae Moh andLampang basins. Recurrent activity along this fault has resulted in a series of faceted spurs reaching 250 to 350 m in heightand deeply entrenched wine-glass valleys. The range front is abrupt in satellite imagery, which provides further evidence that
this fault has been the source of recurrent large magnitude earthquakes. Fenton and others (2003) document 6 m offset of theactive ﬂoodplain of the Mae Mai River. The absolute age of this terrace surface was not determined, but its assigned age is
10 ka. There is a general lack of wide-spread evidence of Holocene offset; therefore, the actual slip rate may be much lower
as documented by later studies by Charusiri and others (2004) and Pailplee (2004) who conclude that the slip rate is 0.15
mm/yr and 0.17 mm/yr, respectively. The assigned slip rate is the average of the most recently published rates.
The Sri Sawat and Three Pagodas faults are subparallel, strike-slip faults that have similar slip rates in our model. Fault
parameters are poorly known and recent studies do not concur. Fenton and others (2003) suggest a broad range of 0.5-2 mm/
yr for the Three Pagodas fault based on geomorphic input and relative dating techniques. Later studies suggest slip rates
of 0.22–0.5 mm/yr (Charusiri and others, 2004) and 0.76 mm/yr (Kosuwan and others, 2006); these are the basis of our assigned slip rate. The Three Pagodas fault is especially important because it is the primary contributor to hazard in Bangkok,
Thailand, because this source is closest to the city. The assigned slip rate for the Sri Sawat fault is based on studies by Kosuwan and others (2006). Their study indicates that at least one large-magnitude Holocene earthquake has occurred on this181

Appendix

fault.
In addition to location and slip rate, the third dimension of fault sources must also be deﬁned. Bott and others (1977) provide a summary of seismicity in Thailand that indicates that the majority of seismicity occurs at depths of 10–20 km. Therefore, we assign an average depth (15 km). The assigned dip for the normal faults in our model reﬂect the default value usedin the United States. All slip rates are either vertical, for normal faults, or horizontal, for strike-slip faults; therefore, the fault
parallel widths (20 km) are larger on dipping faults than similar strike-slip faults. The long faults in the model (> 90 km) are
assigned maximum magnitudes of M7.5 based on world-wide analogs.
Other Regional Sources
Most of the Thailand faults in our model have characteristic magnitudes with recurrence times of several thousands ofyears. Earthquake hazard can be inﬂuenced by faults and sources in neighboring countries; therefore, a literature search was
conducted to evaluate any signiﬁcant seismic sources beyond the borders of Thailand. Two faults have recurrence intervals
on the order of a few hundred years: The Red River and Sagaing faults (ﬁg. 7, Table 4). These faults cause the highest hazards in the northern portion of Southeast Asia.
The Sagaing fault in Myanmar is a major right-lateral strike-slip fault that carries some or all of the oblique plate motion
related to the India-Eurasian convergence similar to the Sumatran fault on the island of Sumatra. Our assigned slip rate isbased on high rates of strain accumulation suggested by GPS studies (Socquet and others 2006). Socquet and others (2006)
indicate that the GPS rate is similar to rates documented in earlier geologic studies (Bertrand and others, 1998). Like the Sumatran fault we modeled the Sagaing fault with ﬂoating M7.9 earthquakes that have equal probability of rupturing along thefault.
The other source, the Red River fault in Vietnam and China (ﬁg. 7, Table 4), is another major, long (>900 km) right-lateral
strike-slip fault. Reported slip rates are 2-8 mm/yr (Allen and others, 1984) based on measured offsets between 9 m and 6km; the average was used in this model, which agrees with data presented by (Replumaz and others, 2001; Schoenbohm andothers, 2006). The slip rate of the Red River fault is poorly constrained because of the lack of radiometric age dating of offset landforms. Like the Sagaing fault, we constrain the maximum magnitude at M7.9.
Table 4. Regional fault parameters.
Name

Length (km) Dip (°)

WidthCharacteristic M Slip rate (mm/yr) Annual probability Recurrence interval (yr)

890

90

15

7.91

5

Sagaing fault 724
zone

90

15

7.91

18

Red Riverfault

7.3877E-03

135

1 Characteristic magnitude ﬁxed based on worldwide analog.

Ground Motion Models
The ground motion models are referred to as attenuation relations or ground motion prediction equations. These models
predict the ground motion for a particular fault source, fault type, magnitude, distance, stress drop, Q attenuation properties of the crust, and local soil condition. We apply attenuation relations for intraplate earthquakes within stable continental
regions, interplate crustal earthquakes near plate boundaries, subduction zone earthquakes on the plate interface, as well asintermediate and deep earthquakes within the subducting slab.
Crustal Intraplate Attenuation Relations
Once the earthquake sources are deﬁned, attenuation relations relate the source characteristics of the earthquake and propagation path of the seismic waves to the ground motion at a site. Predicted ground motions are typically quantiﬁed in termsof a median value (a function of magnitude, distance, site condition, and other factors) and a probability density function ofpeak horizontal ground acceleration or spectral accelerations for different periods (McGuire, 2004). We apply separate attenuation relations for the interplate crustal, intraplate crustal, deep, and subduction earthquakes. Ground motion maps areproduced by considering the ground motion distributions from each of the potential earthquakes that will affect the site and182

Appendix

by calculating the ground motion with an annual rate of 1/475 or 1/2475 (10% and 2% probability of exceedance in 50 yr)
for building code applications.
For the stable Sunda plate we use the crustal intraplate attenuation relations to characterize the ground motions. We haveapplied the following weighting scheme for these attenuation models: Toro and others (2005; wt. 0.2), Frankel and others(1996; wt. 0.1), Atkinson and Boore 140 bar stress drop (2006, 2007; wt. 0.1), Atkinson and Boore 200 bar stress drop (2006,
2007; wt .0.1), Somerville and others (2001; wt. 0.2), Campbell (2002; wt. 0.1), Tavakoli and Pezeshk (2005; wt. 0.1), andSilva and others (2005, wt. 0.1). These models account for variable stress drops, ﬁnite faults, and cratonic attenuation properties.
The Southeast Asia seismic hazard maps are made using a reference site condition that is speciﬁed to be the boundary
between NEHRP classes B and C, with an average shear-wave velocity in the upper 30 m of the crust of 760 m/s (Building Seismic Safety Council, 2003). However, some attenuation relations are not developed for this shear-wave velocity.
Therefore, for the intraplate attenuation relations we have typically converted hard-rock attenuation relations to approximate ground motions for a site with shear velocity on the NEHRP B/C boundary. For several of these models the hard rock
(NEHRP A) to ﬁrm rock (NEHRP – BC) conversion that we used for these maps is a simple factor for many spectral periods.
These factors are: 1.74 for 0.1 s, 1.72 for 0.3 s, 1.58 for 0.5 s, and 1.20 for 2.0 s spectral acceleration (SA). Similar factors
are available for PGA, 0.2 s, and 1.0 s. Another parameter that is important in ground motion simulations for the intraplate
attenuation relations is stress drop, or the compactness of the earthquake rupture. Based on the recommendation of G. Atkinson, we have applied two alternative stress drops of 140 bars and 200 bars for the Atkinson and Boore (2006, 2007) model toaccount for epistemic uncertainty in that parameter.
P．44
Thailand
Seismic hazard in Thailand tends to be controlled by subduction and deep seismicity at coastal sites, by faults in many
parts of western inland Thailand, and by relatively infrequent background events in the stable interior. Figure 16 shows thecontributors to 1-s seismic hazard at a site in Bangkok. Bangkok is relatively far from the nearest Quaternary fault in thefault model, the Three Pagodas fault. The main contributor to hazard in Bangkok is background seismicity in the stable
Sunda plate. The 500-yr return time 1-s spectral acceleration is about 0.02 g in Bangkok (BC-rock site condition).
Conclusions
The USGS Southeast Asia seismic hazard maps are for use by USAID only. These are not ready for use in engineering
design. Modiﬁcation will be made to the maps to eliminate artifacts. An open-ﬁle report will be published in the near future
will contains models useful for design.

183

Appendix
Table 1. Regional source model.
Source Zones

Minimummagnitude

Maximummagnitude

Recurrence (cumulative a-value and b-value
area of zone – or annual recurrence
for characteristic earthquake)

Weight1. Background seismicity
Shallow (0-50 km)1

5.0

7.0

Smoothed seismicity

1.0

1.0

Intermediate (50-100, set at 60 km)

5.0

7.8

Smoothed seismicity

1.0

1.0

Intermediate (100-150, set at 100 k)

5.0

7.8

Smoothed seismicity

1.0

1.0

Deep (150-200 km, set at 150 km)

5.0

7.8

Smoothed seismicity

1.0

1.0

Deep (200-250 km, set at 200 km)

5.0

7.8

Smoothed seismicity

1.0

1.0

2a. Sunda smoothed seismicity

5.0

7.0

4.80/4,283,820 km2

1.021

0.5

2b. Sunda constant seismicity

5.0

7.0

1.021

0.5

Smoothed seismicity

3. Crustal fault models
Thailand

5.0

Mmax-Table
3

Table 3

1.0

Indonesia

5.0

Mmax- Table 2

Table 20.25 for 4 models

4. Sunda subduction zone
6.29/1,427,270 km2

1.014

9.2

6.38/578,080 km2

1.097

7.0

6.38/578,080 km2

9.2

0.003/yr

7.0

5.48/470,340 km2

9.2

0.001/yrJava-Sumatra-Andaman (GR)

7.1

9.1

Java-Sumatra-Andaman (GR)

5.0

7.0

Java (GR)7.1

Java (GR)5.0Southern Sumatra (Char)
Southern Sumatra (GR)5.0

Northern Sumatra-Andaman (Char)

0.333
0.333
0.667
0.667
0.667

0.936

0.667
0.667

2

Northern Sumatra-Andaman (GR)

5.0

7.0

5.15/378,860 km

0.959

0.667

Burma (GR)

7.1

9.2

5.72/325,070 km2

1.190

0.667

Burma (GR)

5.0

7.0

5.72/325,070 km2

1.190

0.667

1 Shallow background seismicity (0-50 km) does not include region of the Sunda subduction zone or the Sunda plate zone. Char and
GR represent characteristic and Gutenberg and Richter magnitude-frequency distributions.

	  Fig.16. Hazard curves for 1-Hz spectral acceleration at a site in Bangkok, Thailand.

184

Appendix	  Figure D-1. Hazard map for Thailand and Malaysian peninsula showing the peak ground acceleration with a
10-percent probability of exceedance in 50-yr hazard level for firm rock site condition (Vs30=760 m/s). Low
hazard areas near central Thailand are artifacts of the Sunda zone and will be modified in the near future.

	
  Figure D-2. Hazard map for Thailand and Malaysian peninsula showing the 5-Hz spectral acceleration with a
10-percent probability of exceedance in 50-yr hazard level for firm rock site condition (Vs30=760 m/s). Low
hazard areas near central Thailand are artifacts of the Sunda zone and will be modified in the near future.

185

Appendix	  Figure D-3. Hazard map for Thailand and Malaysian peninsula showing the 1-Hz spectral acceleration with a
10-percent probability of exceedance in 50-yr hazard level for firm rock site condition (Vs30=760 m/s). Low
hazard areas near central Thailand are artifacts of the Sunda zone and will be modified in the near future.

	
  Figure D-4. Hazard map
for Thailand and Malaysian peninsula showing the peak ground acceleration witha 2-percent probability of exceedance in 50-yr hazard level for firm rock site condition (Vs30=760 m/s). Low
hazard areas near central Thailand are artifacts of the Sunda zone and will be modified in the near future.

186

Appendix

Figure D-5. Hazard 	
  map for Thailand and Malaysian peninsula showing the 5-Hz spectral acceleration witha 2-percent probability of exceedance in 50-yr hazard level for firm rock site condition (Vs30=760 m/s). Low
hazard areas near central Thailand are artifacts of the Sunda zone and will be modified in the near future.

	
  Figure D-6. Hazard map
for Thailand and Malaysian peninsula showing the 1-Hz spectral acceleration witha 2-percent probability of exceedance in 50-yr hazard level for firm rock site condition (Vs30=760 m/s). Low
hazard areas near central Thailand are artifacts of the Sunda zone and will be modified in the near future.

187

Appendix

Appendix 2: Thailand 3
Thailand Country Report 2008
Part 1: Natural Disaster Situation in Thailand
1.1. Geographical Characteristics of Thailand
Thailand is located between 5º and 21º N latitude and between 97º and 106º E longitude, bordering to the North by Laosand Myanmar, to the East by Laos and Cambodia, to the South by the Gulf of Thailand and Malaysia, and to the west by theAndaman Sea and Myanmar, and covering the area of 513,115 square kilometres. The weather is warm and rather humid
with an average high temperature of 34 ◦ c and the low of 23 ◦ c. As of December 2008, the total population stood at 65
millions.
1.2. Administrative system
Conventional long form: Kingdom of Thailand
Conventional short form: Thailand
Government type: Constitutional monarchy
Capital: Bangkok
Administrative divisions: 76 provinces (changwat) three types of government
administration: central, provincial and local.
1.3. Typical natural disaster in Thailand
Similar to neighboring countries, Thailand has been affected by natural disaster including ﬂood, landslides, urban ﬁre,bush ﬁre, windstorm, drought, hunderboltinduced disaster, hail storm and epidemic. Only in 2004, the country faced for theﬁrst time in history the tsunami generated by the giant earthquake near Indonesia.
1.4. The Past Disaster Statistics
Source: Department of Disaster Prevention and Mitigation
Part 2: Disaster Management System
2. 1. The Disaster Prevention and Mitigation Act 2007:
The Disaster Prevention and Mitigation Act 2007 (DPM Act) has replaced the old and outdated 1979 Civil Defence Act
and the 1999 Fire Prevention and Suppression Act. Entering into force on 6 November 2007, the new Act has 4 prominent
features, including 1) Introducing 3 main policy- making and planning bodies including National, Provincial and Bangkok
Metropolitan, 2) Having Prime Minister or an designated Deputy Minister as the National Commander, 3) Empowering
Department of Disaster Prevention and Mitigation (DDPM) as the core government department in handling national disastermanagement work, and 4) Authorizing local governments to take responsibility of disaster management in their respective
areas, in line with the Provincial Plan.
Year

Disaster types

Frequency (time)

People Killed

Total affected people

Damaged Value (USD)

2007

Flood

13 (54 provinces)36

2,326,179

48,224,742

2007

Fire

1901 (71 provinces)

45

9,761

25,022,623

2006

Flood

6

446

6,050,674

275,069,103

2006

Fire

1731 (66 provinces)

37

9,708

30,967,018

2005

Drought

1 (71 provinces)-

11,147,627

216,167,461

2005

Flood

12 (57 provinces)75

2,874,673

1,692,238

188

Appendix

According to the new DPM Act, disaster can be classiﬁed into 3 categories namely: 1) Man-made and natural disasters; 2)
Disaster resulted from air raid during wartime; and 3) Disaster resulted from sabotage or terrorist attack.
In terms of policy making, there are 3 levels: National, Provincial and Bangkok Metropolitan Administration level, which
are chaired by the Prime Minister or an designated Deputy Minister, Provincial Governor, and the Bangkok Governor
respectively. Each of three- policy- making organ is composed of the committee as follows:(1) The National Disaster Prevention and Mitigation Committee (NDPMC)
Members of the committee come from various Ministries relevant to disaster management, i.e. Ministry of Interior,
Ministry of Defence, Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives, Ministry of Transportation and Communications, Ministryof National Resources and Environment, Ministry of Information, Communication and Technology, Ministry of Public
Health, Ministry of Finance, and so on. The Prime Minister or designated Deputy Prime Minister is a chairperson, andDirector- General of Department of Disaster Prevention and Mitigation (DDPM) is the secretariat of the committee. The
Committee has prominent tasks and responsibilities for proposing the policy to formulate the National Disaster Prevention
and Mitigation Plan, and effectively integrating the development on disaster prevention and mitigation mechanism among
government agencies, local administrations, and other relevant private sectors.
(2) The Provincial Disaster Prevention and Mitigation Committee
The Provincial Governor as the Provincial Director will be the person responsible for disaster prevention and mitigation in
his or her own province including appointment of the Provincial Disaster Prevention and Mitigation Committee, which comefrom representatives from other provincial disaster management agencies. The Secretariat of the provincial committee is theChief of Disaster Prevention and Mitigation Provincial Ofﬁce. Their main duty of the provincial committee is to formulate
the provincial disaster management plan under the guideline of national plan.
(3) The Bangkok Metropolitan Committee
Just the same as Provincial Director, Bangkok Metropolitan Governor as the Bangkok Director is responsible for disasterprevention and mitigation in Bangkok and to be the person to appoint the Bangkok Metropolitan Committee composingof delegates from government agencies including Bangkok Metropolitan, DDPM, Universities, and public charities andNational plan

Provincial Plan

Bangkok Metropolitan Plan

(1) Guide lines, measures and adequate budget (1) The setting up of Special Command Centerto support disaster prevention and mitigation when ever disasters strike, that center shall be
operations systemically and continuously
constructed and has authorities to commandand oversee disaster prevention and mitigation
operations and activities(1) establishment of command center where
disaster occurred for construction andauthorization for disaster prevention andmitigation operation(2) Guide lines and methods for providing aids
and mitigate the impacts of disasters in both
short and long term, together with evacuation
procedures of effected people, government
services, and other local administrations,
supports effected people on their public health,public utilities and communication system( 2 ) P l a n a n d p r o c e d u r e s f o r l o c a l (2) plan and process to procure materials, tools
administrations for procuring tools, equipments, equipment, and vehicle for disaster prevention
materials, hardware and vehicles in disaster and mitigation
prevention and mitigation operations(3) Relevant government agencies and local
administrations shall proceed all operations
under (1) and (2), and shall seek for availability
and mobility of fund( 3 ) P l a n a n d p r o c e d u r e s f o r l o c a l (3) plan and process to procure signaling
administrations for procuring an early warning devices or others for notifying the occurrence
system and other equipments to inform people and expectation of a disasterand communities on incoming disasters(4) Preparedness perspectives on support (4) Operation plan for disaster prevention and (4) Bangkok Disaster Prevention and Mitigation
personnel, equipments and other materials to mitigation at local administrations
Action Operation Plan
deploy upon disaster prevention and mitigation
operations, and capacity building of those
personnel and other people shall be included(5) Guide line on fixing, recovery and (5) Cooperation plan to other relevant public (5) Coordination Plan with Public Charity
restoration to community right after disastercharities.
Organizations in Bangkok

189

Appendix

communities in Bangkok. The Committee has powers in drafting the Disaster Prevention and Mitigation Plan for Bangkok
which shall be consistence to the National Disaster Prevention and Mitigation Plan, and other handling the disastermanagement related activities.
2.2. Disaster Prevention and Mitigation Plan
Department of Disaster Prevention and Mitigation, as the Secretariat of the National Disaster Prevention and Mitigation
Committee, has the responsibility to devise the National Disaster Prevention and Mitigation Plan. This is to be doneby conferring with relevant government agencies, local administrations, and private sectors. Once the National Plan isapproved, it will be used as a master plan, upon which the provincial and Bangkok Metropolitan Administration will bebased. The national plan will be in service for the period of 3 years. DDPM is to make sure that the new plan for the next 3
years is ready for use accordingly.
According to the National Disaster Prevention and Mitigation Act 2007, the three-level plan shall have substantial parts asshown in the table below.
2.3. National Civil Defence Plan B.E. 2548 (2005)
The National Civil Defence Plan 2005 has been developed from the same plan yearly 2002 by the National Civil Defence
Sub-committee authorized to improve plan. It still serves as the master plan for agencies responsible in disaster managementin providing guidelines or formulating their operational plans. The plan will be reviewed and updated by DDPM every threeyear before proposed for approval by the National Disaster Prevention and Mitigation Committee. The plan has two parts:
the ﬁrst is of disaster prevention and mitigation, and the other is Civil Defence for Security (Rear-Area Protection).
2.4. Department of Disaster Prevention and Mitigation
Department of Disaster Prevention and Mitigation (DDPM), according to the Bureaucrat Reform Act 2002, has been
formed by different organizations responsible for disaster prevention and mitigation as follows:(1) Civil Defence Division of Department of Provincial Administration;(2) Department of Accelerated Rural Development;(3) Department of Social Welfare, Department of Community Development;and(4) Ofﬁce of National Safety Council
In 2008, DDPM has 4,220 staffs. Among this number, 1,940 are civil servants and the rest are permanent and temporary
employees.
According to Article 11 of Disaster Prevention and Mitigation Act B.E.2550, DDPM is mandated to be central government
agency under the umbrella of Ministry of Interior to undertake the work on disaster prevention and mitigation at a national
level. Aside its Head Ofﬁce in Bangkok, DDPM also has 18 Regional Operation Centers and 75 Provincial Ofﬁces acrossthe country.
2.5. National Safety Council of Thailand
The National Safety Council of Thailand (NSCT) is the other disaster management policy making body at a national
level. Unlike the National Committee on Disaster Prevention and Mitigation, the main focus of NSCT is man-made andtechnological disaster management. The council has been established in 1982 on the ground of the problem of road trafﬁc
accidents in Thailand which annually resulted in the tremendous loss of lives, properties and national economy. Later on,
its responsibilities have been extended to cover the prevention of chemical accident, occupational accident, accident inhome and public venues, considering preventive measure of ﬁre in high-rise building, accident prevention in subway tunnel
construction, providing education of safety etc. The NSCT is chaired by the Prime Minister and the committee comprises
high level government ofﬁcials from concerned government agencies, president of some charitable foundations and a few
scholars. The Director General of Department of Disaster Prevention and Mitigation is a member and the Secretariat of the190

Appendix

NSCT.
2.6. Disaster Management Approaches
To cope with the disastrous events, Thailand has prominently formulated the Disaster Prevention and Mitigation Act 2007
to be the national disaster management mechanism which is overseen by DDPM as the national coordinating organization on
disaster prevention and mitigation. Moreover, DDPM in collaboration with other related organizations has dealt effectively
with disastermanagement underlining the concept of Total Disaster Risk Management (TDRM)-comprising preparedness,
response, recovery, and prevention and mitigation, and according to the Civil Defence Plan 2005.
Recently, DDPM has developed the effective mechanism of preparedness perspective through the following approaches:
1) Establish the Ministerial Integrated Disaster Prevention and Mitigation Action Plan on Disaster Management
focusing on participation of all involved agencies at provincial and ministerial, private and government sectors, andfoundation and NGOs.
2) Devise the Strategic National Action Plan (SNAP) to provide direction of the country in understanding disaster risk
reduction over the next decade in line with the context of HFA.
3) Contribute the concept of Community Based Disaster Risk Management (CBDRM) to sustainable development:
As the local authorities and community are direct victims of disaster and are capable to reduce the existing risks, DDPM hascontinuously implemented CBDRM Project together with among governmental , non-governmental, private, civil defense ,and international organizations.
4) Establish Disaster Prevention and Mitigation Academy (DPMA) to be the principal training venue in the ﬁeld of
disaster prevention and mitigation for government and private sector staffs and for the general public.
5) Enhance the capacity of local authorities in disaster management via the following activities:
・Training course of technical and technological know – how development
・Equipping local authorities with disaster management related equipments and tools
・Allocating annual central budget to local authorities for disaster management
・Increasing the numbers of community – based civil defence volunteers. (government ofﬁcial assistant). Currently, there
are approximately 1,087,690 CDVs throughout the country to assist government ofﬁcials in disaster prevention andmitigation undertaking.
・Providing efﬁcient One Tambon One Search and Rescue Team (OTOS), each SAR team comprises of 10 members, inevery Thailandʼs tambon all over the country (7,255 tambons).
6) Set up Emergency Response Team (ERT) for each type of large-scale hazards or incidents to operationally coordinate
with Director at the provincial level and ofﬁcers of the Ad-Hoc Directing Center in case of disaster occurring. Each ERT willconsist of 10 members, including one (1) team leader, three (3) for planning, and six (6) for operation.
7) Formulate Evacuation Plan, and Drill, in accordance with the Provincial Civil Defence Plan, every province inThailand will have to formulate “Provincial Evacuation Plan” which is corresponding to types of threatening disaster within
the provinces, and have to conduct evacuation drill at least twice a year.
8) Provide the updated information on disaster risk areas for disaster risk reduction strategy planning.

191

Appendix

Revision: 0.0 Updated: 3 October 2007
(H.M. the King signet)

Disaster Prevention and Mitigation Act
B.E. 2550 [A.D. 2007]________________________________________________________

BHUMIPOL ADULYADEJ, REX:

Given on the 28 Day of August, B.E. 2550 [2007]
Being the 62nd Year of the Present Reign.
His Majesty the King Bhumibol Adulyadej is graciously pleased to proclaim that;
Whereas, it is expedient to have the law on Disaster Prevention and Mitigation.

Be it, therefore, enacted by the King, by and with the advice and consent of the National
Legislative Assembly as follows;
Section 1: This act is called “Disaster Prevention and Mitigation Act, B.E. 2550 [A.D. 2007]”

Section 2: This act shall come into force as from the day following the date of its publication in
the Royal Gazette1.
Section 3: These following acts shall be repealed and replaced by this act;

(1) Civil Defense Act, B.E. 2522 [A.D. 1979](2) Fire Defense Act, B.E. 2542 [A.D. 1999]
Section 4: Herein the act;

“Disaster” means any of these disasters; fire, storm, strong wind, flood, drought, epidemic inhuman, epidemic in animals, epidemic in aquaculture, and epidemic in plants and other public disaster
either natural disasters or human-made disasters, accidents or all other incidents that effect to life, bodyor properties of the people, of the government. And in this regards, air threats and sabotages are also
included.
nations.

“Air threat” means any disasters affected from strikes or attacks in the air by terrorists or alien“Sabotage” means any disasters affected from any activities aim to destroy to private or
government properties, public utilities, or activities of offensive, deterrence, delay to any operations
including of any harmful actions toward persons which will create a political, economical and social
disturbance or damage to national security as a whole.
“Government agency” means any government services, state enterprises, national publicorganizations, or other government units; excludes local administrations or municipal governments.

“Local administration” means any Tambon2 administrations, municipalities, Pattaya city
government, or other local administrations by law; excludes provincial governments and Bangkok
Metropolitan government.
“Province” means any provinces throughout the Kingdom of Thailand; excludes Bangkok.

1
2

Published in the Royal Gazette Vol. 124, Part 52 A (ก), dated on 7 September B.E. 2550 [A.D. 2007]
There is also mentioned as “sub-district”

192

Appendix

Revision: 0.0 Updated: 3 October 2007
“District” means any districts and minor districts3 throughout the Kingdom of Thailand; excludes
districts in Bangkok.

“District governor” means any district governors and any assistant district governors who are in
charge to all minor districts are also included.

“Local governor” mean any governors in Tambons, municipality governors, Governor of Pattaya,
and other chiefs or governors of other local administrations.

“Commander in chief” means the chief who is in charge on National Disaster Prevention and
Mitigation Operation.

“Director” means any directors in central, provinces, districts, local administrations and Bangkok
is also included.

“Officer” mean any designated officials for disaster prevention and mitigation operation in any
relevant area of works by this law.
“Volunteer” means any Disaster Prevention and Mitigation volunteers.

“Director-General” means Director-General of Department of Disaster Prevention and Mitigation.
“Minister” means respective minister who has been authorized by this law.

Section 5: Minister of Interior shall be having authorities to define relevant ministerial
regulations, regulations, and other announcements to be enforced by this law, but not before thoseregulations or announcements have been published in the Royal Gazette.
CHAPTER 1
General Provisions________________________________

Section 6: There shall be a National Disaster Prevention and Mitigation Committee (NDPMC)4,
consisting of Prime Minister or designated Deputy Prime Minister as a chairperson, Ministry of Interior as
first vice chairperson, Permanent Secretary for Interior as second vice chairperson, and Permanent
Secretary for Defense, Permanent Secretary for Social Development and Human Security, Permanent
Secretary for Agriculture and Cooperatives, Permanent Secretary for Transportation andCommunications, Permanent Secretary for National Resources and Environment, Permanent Secretaryfor Information and Communication Technology, Permanent Secretary for Public Health, Direct-Generalof The Bureau of Budget, Commissioner-General of Royal Thai Police, Supreme Commander, Commandantof Royal Thai Army, Commandant of Royal Thai Navy, Commandant of Royal Thai Air Force, DirectorGeneral of National Security Council, and together with others but not more than five intellectuals whoare experienced in city planning, and disaster prevention and mitigation shall be appointed by the Cabinet
as members.
Director-General of Department of Disaster Prevention and Mitigation as the secretariat of thecommittee, and not more than other two officials in Department Disaster Prevention and Mitigation shallbe appointed as an assistant secretary.
Section 7: The committee shall have the powers and duties as follows;34(1) Propose the policy to formulate the National Disaster Prevention and Mitigation plan.
(2) Determine and preapproval the plan under Section 11 (1) before submitting the plan to the
Cabinet.

There is also mentioned as “King Amphoe” in Thai
Thai Abbreviation of the committee is “กปภ.ช”193

Appendix

Revision: 0.0 Updated: 3 October 2007
(3) To integrate the development on disaster prevention and mitigation mechanism among
Government agencies, Local administrations, and other relevant private sectors effectively.
(4) To recommend, support and promote on any disaster prevention and mitigation activities.
(5) To propose regulations on remuneration, recompenses, and other expenses related todisaster prevention and mitigation operations, and those regulations shall be in accordance
to rules and regulations of Ministry of Finance.
(6) To perform other duties according to this and other laws as may be required by the Minister.

Regarding to the operations of the committee in paragraph one, the committee shall have theirrights to appoint a sub-committee to perform tasks on their behalf, and the sub-committee shall adapt
Section 10 to regulate their meetings.

To have more benefit from the committee according to paragraph one, the committee shall haveauthority to demand other government services, local administrations, or other private agencies toprovide, to illuminate any relevant information to their meetings.

Section 8: The appointed intellectual members of the committee shall be performing their duties
for a term of four years.

In case of any appointed intellectual members vacate before their term, or a new or an additional
member appointed by the Cabinet, the appointee shall be resumed in their duties not more than theremaining of the term.
Any members who vacate office upon termination of the term shall maintain their duties until the
newly appointed members take their office.

The appointed intellectual members could be reappointed but they are not allowed to be in theiroffice more than two terms continuously.

Section 9: In addition the vacation of their office upon termination of the term according to
Section 8, the appointed members would vacate their office upon;(1) Death(2) Resignation by proposing the resignation letter to the chairperson(3) Being dismissed by the Minister(4) Being a bankrupt(5) Being an incompetent or a quasi-incompetent person(6) Being imprisoned by a final judgment or a lawful order to a term of imprisonment, except for
an offence committed through negligence or petty offence.

Section 10: The constituted quorum meeting of the committee shall have not less than one-halfof the total members.

For any meetings, the chairperson of the committee shall preside over the meeting. If thechairperson absence, or unable to perform his or her duties, the vice chairperson shall be resumed thefunction as the chairperson respectively. Otherwise, one of the present members shall be selected as thechairperson.

Any decisions of meeting shall be judged by majority of the votes, based on one member one votebasis. In case of equality of votes, the chairperson who is presiding over the meeting shall have anadditional vote as a casting vote.

Section 11: Department of Disaster Prevention and Mitigation shall be the central government
unit to operate any related activities on national disaster prevention and mitigation, and shall havepowers and authorities as follows;(1) Formulates the National Disaster Prevention and Mitigation Plan for the committee to seek
for an approval by the Cabinet
194

Appendix

Revision: 0.0 Updated: 3 October 2007
(2) Organizes and researches on procedures and measures to prevent and mitigate all impacts ofdisasters effectively(3) Operates, cooperates, supports and assists other government services, local administrations,and other relevant private sectors on disaster prevention and mitigation. And provides aids
to disaster effected people(4) Guides, and provides consultancy, and train other government services, local administrations
and other private sectors on disaster prevention and mitigation(5) Follow-up, assesses and evaluates all activities related to disaster prevention and mitigation
at all levels(6) Perform other duties in accordance to this and other law or as may required by Commander
in Chief, Prime Minister, the Committee or the Cabinet

After the plan in paragraph one has been approved, other related government services and local
administrations shall operate all of their activities according to the plan.

During the process of formulating the prevention and mitigation plan in paragraph one,
Department of Disaster Prevention and Mitigation shall confer with relevant government agencies, local
administrations. In this regards, private sectors shall be able to be included into this conferring for theiropinions.

For benefit of any operations under Section 10 (3), (4), (5) and (6), there shall be Disaster
Prevention and Mitigation Center in some provinces. Those centers shall operate in the area of provinceand neighboring provinces as necessary. And there shall be Disaster Prevention and Mitigation Offices tooversee and support any disaster prevention and mitigation activities at provinces level or as required by
Director.
Section 12: The Disaster Prevention and Mitigation Plan under Section 11 (1) shall havesubstantial parts as follows;(1) Guide lines, measures and adequate budget to support disaster prevention and mitigation
operations systemically and continuously(2) Guide lines and methods for providing aids and mitigate the impacts of disasters in both
short and long term, together with evacuation procedures of effected people, government
services, and other local administrations, supports effected people on their public health,public utilities and communication system(3) Relevant government agencies and local administrations shall proceed all operations under(1) and (2), and shall seek for availability and mobility of fund
(4) Preparedness perspectives on support personnel, equipments and other materials to deploy
upon disaster prevention and mitigation operations, and capacity building of those personnel
and other people shall be included(5) Guide line on fixing, recovery and restoration to community right after disaster

Those activities on paragraph one shall be preceded based on prioritization of hazard risks andvulnerabilities of disasters. And if there is any necessities to update, to correct laws or regulations or
propositions of the Cabinet, those necessities shall be included into the National Disaster Prevention and
Mitigation Plan.

Section 13: Designated Minister as Commander in Chief shall have power to control and oversee
on disaster prevention and mitigation throughout the Kingdom according to this law. And the ministershall have power to command or demand to Directors, Deputy Directors, Assistant Directors, Officers, andVolunteers throughout the Kingdom.
The Permanent Secretary for Interior as Deputy Commander in Chief assists the Commander,
shall perform any duties as my required by the Commander. He or she shall have delegated power tocommand the operations under paragraph one.

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Section 14: The Director-General as Central Director, shall have power to control and oversee
operations of other Directors, Deputy Directors, Assistant Directors, Officers, and Volunteers on disasterprevention and mitigation throughout the Kingdom.
Section 15: Provincial Governor as Provincial Director shall responsible for disaster prevention
and mitigation of their own province. He or she shall have power as follows;(1) Formulate the Provincial Disaster Prevention and Mitigation Plan in accordance to thenational plan(2) Oversee and train all volunteers of local administration in the province(3) Oversee and investigate all local administrations on preparing of disaster prevention andmitigation equipments, materials, vehicles and other related hardware for their own use inaccordance to Provincial plan(4) Operate as a government service unit at local administration level to provide basic support todisasters affected people, and other activities related to disaster prevention and mitigation(5) Support local administrations on any related activities of disaster prevention and mitigation(6) Perform other duties as may be required by the Commander in Chief or the Central Director

For benefit of operations under Section 15 (3), (4), and (5), Provincial Director shall have power
to demand other government agencies and other local administrations in their own province to cooperate
to Provincial Disaster Prevention and Mitigation Plan and shall have power to control and oversee
activities of Officers and Volunteers in according to this law.

Section 16: Provincial Disaster Prevention and Mitigation Plan under Section 15 (1) shall havesubstantial parts as follow;(1) The setting up of Special Command Center when ever disasters strike, that center shall be
constructed and has authorities to command and oversee disaster prevention and mitigation
operations and activities(2) Plan and procedures for local administrations for procuring tools, equipments, materials,
hardware and vehicles in disaster prevention and mitigation operations(3) Plan and procedures for local administrations for procuring an early warning system andother equipments to inform people and communities on incoming disasters(4) Operation plan for disaster prevention and mitigation at local administrations(5) Cooperation plan to other relevant public charities.

Section 17: For formulating Provincial Disaster Prevention and Mitigation Plan, Provincial
Governor shall appoint a committee. That committee shall be consisted of these following members;(1) Provincial Governor as chairperson(2) Designated Deputy Provincial Governor as a vice chairperson(3) Commander of Army Circle, or Commander of Provincial Army base or their representative
as a vice chairperson(4) Provincial Administrator as a vice chairperson(5) Other members shall be consisted of these following;(a) Representatives from provincial government services appointed by Provincial
Governor at any appropriated numbers as members(b) Seven representatives from local administrations consisting of two persons frommunicipalities and other five persons from Tambon Administrations as members(c) Representatives from public charities shall be appointed by Provincial Governor inany appropriated numbers as member(6) Chief Officer of Disaster Prevention and Mitigation Office or representative from Department
of Disaster Prevention and Mitigation as secretary

In case of higher education institutes or universities located in that province, president or rectorof each institute shall be appointed by Provincial Governor at any appropriated numbers as members or
consultants.
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The committee under paragraph one shall formulate their Disaster Prevention and Mitigation
Plan and propose to their Provincial Governor for executing of the plan.

Responsibilities and meeting procedures of committee under paragraph one shall be assigned by
Provincial Governor.

Section 18: Provincial Administrator as Deputy Provincial Director shall assist Provincial
Director on disaster prevention and mitigation operations, and shall perform other duties as may berequired by Provincial Director.

Section 19: District governor as District Director, shall perform duties on disaster prevention
and mitigation in their home-land and shall perform other duties as may be required by Provincial
director.

For any operations of District Director under paragraph one, the director shall have power todemand other government agencies, relevant local administrations in their area of works to operate theProvincial Disaster Prevention and Mitigation Plan, and shall have power to command, control andoversee all activities of relevant Officers and Volunteers on their operations in accordance to this law.

Section 20: Local Administration as Local Director shall perform their duties on disasterprevention and mitigation in their areas of works. Local administrators shall perform duties as Local
Director, and shall assist Provincial Director and District Director in performing other duties asrequested.

For any operations of Local Director under paragraph one, the director shall have power tocontrol, and oversee local Officers, local Volunteers activities according to this law.
The Administrative assistants shall perform their duties as Assistant Local Director on disasterprevention and mitigation and other duties as may be required by Local Director.
CHAPTER 2
Disaster Prevention and Mitigation____________________________________________

Section 21: In any occurrence or expected to occur of disasters in local administration area, that
Local Director has to proceed the disaster prevention and mitigation operation at once, and he or she
shall report to District Director, and Provincial Director immediately.
For the operations on paragraph one, the Local Director shall have power to;(1) Demand any local civil servants, local government employee, local government service
servants, local government officers, volunteers, and other relevant personnel to perform any
necessity actions for prevention and mitigation of that disasters(2) Utilize any materials, tools, equipments, and vehicles of the government, or of private sectors
in affected areas as necessary to prevent and mitigate that disasters(3) Utilize communication devices of the government, or of private sectors in affected area orneighboring areas(4) Request other local administrations to support that disaster prevention and mitigation
operation(5) Order any people to enter or leave the areas, buildings or any specific locations(6) Provide aid and support to effected people radically and expeditiously

Section 22: If there is an incident or event in paragraph one, District Director and Provincial
Director shall have their authorities equal to Local Director. District Directors shall oversee in theirdistrict, and Provincial Directors shall function in their provinces respectively.
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In case of that Local Director require a support from other government agencies or othergovernment agents outside the areas, he or she has to request to District Director or Provincial Director
to demand other relevant agencies to response rapidly.

Section 23: When a disaster occurs in any local administrations, other neighboring Local
Directors shall have to support to that Local Director on the prevention and mitigation operations.

Section 24: When a disaster occurs, local Officers in those affected area shall have to deploy the
mitigation operation at once, and report to Local Director in their area of works for further operation
immediately. And in some unavoidable cases, those Officers shall have power to implement any
operations to protect or save life of those effected people.

Section 25: In any occurring disasters or expected to occur, the Director shall have authorities tocommand other Offices to modify, destroy, move or remove any obstacle, structures, materials of any
private properties to mitigate the impacts of disaster. But any actions shall be limited to protect or toresolve any damages from disasters.
Any actions in paragraph one shall be allowed to operate upon necessities to community
relatively.

If there is any modifications, destroying, or talking out of structures, materials or properties thatwill lead to more disaster dilation to other neighboring areas that Local Director shall not allow operating
under paragraph one or two, except that operation is under supervision of Provincial Director.

Section 26: When any Officers shall be able to enter into private own buildings or properties orplaces near to area of disaster for prevention and mitigation purpose, those Officers shall get permitted
by the owner before taking any actions or operations, except that operation is under supervision of
Directors, even there is no owner presenting over, those Officer shall be granted.

In some cases under paragraph one; some belongings or materials inside those properties shallbe able to active a disaster, those Officers shall have power to order the owner to bring their belongingsout of that building.

If the owner or proprietor ignore or unable to compile the order, those Officers under paragraph
two shall have authority to take those belongings out of the properties or building. However, thoseauthorizations shall be limited to any necessity for disaster prevention and mitigation only. And those
Officers shall not be blamed to any damages.

Section 27: In the disaster mitigation operations, Director or designated Officers shall havepower to;(1) Build some temporary shelters for living or getting first aid, and properties care taking toeffected people(2) Manage the traffic arrangement in the disaster impact areas and neighboring areas(3) Keep out the disaster impact areas and neighboring areas for preventing unauthorizedpeople(4) Provide security measures to prevent plunderers or thief to through the area(5) Support effected people to move their moveable properties and belongings from disaster
impact area to secured neighboring areas as requested

The Director or designated Officers shall prepare tools or signals for displaying working status or
purpose on specific locations or actions under paragraph one

In any operation under (2), (3), (4), and (5), either Director or Officer shall be proceeding by
themselves or shall be able to delegate their authorities to other appropriated government official or local
police department to assist or proceed on their behalf. Under (5), other public charities shall be included
to assist this operation.
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Section 28: When disaster occur or expected to occur, in any local areas and people in that area
shall be affected by disaster, or will be obstacles to disaster prevention and mitigation. Commander in
Chief, Deputy Commander in Chief, Central Director, Director, District Director and Local Director shall beable to order those effected people to evacuate to other areas as necessary to disaster prevention andmitigation operations.

Section 29: When disaster occurs or expected to occur in any areas, and there shall raise more
violent for staying or continuing normal living activities. Commander in Chief, Deputy Commander in
Chief, Provincial Director, District Director and, Local Administration Director under the approval from
District Director shall be able to make an announcement to disallow any people to entry, or to do otherbusiness in that area. That announcement shall be in specific period of time as necessary.

Section 30: Local Director shall responsible for damaged assessment of disaster, and thoseeffected people, and properties shall be recorded or certified on that assessment. A proof of affected or acertificate shall be given to those people for recovering and compensation.
Proof of affected under paragraph one shall have entitlement details to get restoration andcompensation from the government, name and contact information of relevant government agency.
Anyhow, the required information shall be defined by the Director-General.

If those effected people lost their official or legal documents, those people shall request or informtheir local administration at effected area or at their homeland. That local administration shall notify toother relevant government agencies. Those relevant government agencies shall renew and delivery that
documents to effected people or the local administration. All charges and fees shall be waived for theserenewing services, even there shall be charged legally.
When those affected people or owner of damages properties request other support or services,that Local Director shall issue assessment certificate in accordance the regulations of Ministry of Interior.

Section 31: In case of severe drought occurring, Prime Minister or designated Minister shall havepower to demand the Commander in Chief, Directors, government agencies and related local
administrations to deploy disaster prevention and mitigation, including of providing supports to thepeople in affected areas. The Commander in Chief shall have power further to Section 13 and Directors
shall have power further to Section 21 and other duties under Section 25, 28 and 29 shall be granted to
the Commander in Chief, Deputy Command in Chief, Directors, Deputy Director, Assistant Director andother Officers respectively.

If any government employees abandon their duties, deny compiling any commands from Prime
Minister or designated Deputy Prime Minister, shall be charged as highest disciplinary violation or
improperly operation at highest degree.
CHAPTER 3
Disaster Prevention and Mitigation in Bangkok Metropolitan_________________________________________________________________________

Section 32: Bangkok Metropolitan Governor as Bangkok Director shall be responsible for
Bangkok Disaster Prevention and Mitigation shall have power as follows;(1) Formulate the Disaster Prevention and Mitigation Plan for Bangkok, which shall beconsistence to the National Disaster Prevention and Mitigation Plan
(2) Oversee and train Volunteers in Bangkok(3) Procure materials, equipments, tools, vehicles and others, as necessary to Disaster
Prevention and Mitigation as stated in Disaster Prevention and Mitigation Plan for Bangkok(4) Provide basic recovery to disaster effected people or victims, and shall provide security andany disaster prevention and mitigation actions(5) Support and assist local administrations and their neighboring in disaster prevention andmitigation
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(6) Perform any related duties as may required by the Central Director

For most benefits from conforming (3) (4) and (5), Bangkok Director shall have power tocommand government services and Bangkok services, and coordinate other government agencies andother relevant local administration in disaster prevention and mitigation operation in Bangkok in
accordance to Bangkok Disaster Prevention and Mitigation Plan, and shall have power to command,
control and oversee all operations of Bangkok Officers and Volunteer in accordance to this law.

Section 33: Bangkok Disaster Prevention and Mitigation Plan. As stated under Section 32 (1)there shall be substantial subjects according to Section 12 as follows:(1) Establish Command Center where disaster occurred, there shall be constructed andauthorized for disaster prevention and mitigation operations(2) Plan and process to procure materials, equipments tools and vehicles for disaster prevention
and mitigation operation(3) Plan and process to procure signaling devices or others for notifying the occurrence or
expectation of a disaster(4) Bangkok Disaster Prevention and Mitigation Action Operation Plan
(5) Coordination plan with public charity organizations in Bangkok

Section 34: For formulating the Bangkok Disaster Prevention and Mitigation Plan, Bangkok
Governor shall appoint a committee that consisting of:(1) Bangkok Governor as chairperson(2) Permanent Secretary for Bangkok as vice chairperson(3) Other members of the committee consisting of:(a) Appropriate number of delegates from government agencies or offices in Bangkok(b) Representatives from Department of Disaster Prevention and Mitigation(c) Appropriate number of delegates from public charities in Bangkok(d) Appropriate number of delegates from communities in Bangkok

The Bangkok Governor shall appoint appropriate number of representatives from Ministry of
Defense and universities as consultants or committee members.

The committee in paragraph one shall formulate the Bangkok Disaster Prevention and Mitigation
Plan and propose to Bangkok Governor for further promulgation.

The committee in paragraph one shall perform and arrange meetings as defined by Bangkok
Governor accordingly.

Section 35: Permanent Secretary for Bangkok as vice chairperson to assist Bangkok Director indisaster prevention and mitigation operations and others duties as my required by Bangkok Director. The
powers and authorities as described under Section 32, paragraph 2 shall be adapted to his or her duties, if
appreciable.

Responsibilities and authorities of Permanent Secretary for Bangkok as Bangkok Deputy Director
shall be described under paragraph one. Permanent Secretary for Bangkok’s authorities and duties shallbe able to be delegated to Assistant Permanent Secretary.

Section 36: Each Bangkok District Directors as Assistant Bangkok Director to assist Bangkok
Director in responsible and perform duties on disaster prevention and mitigation in each districts andother duties as may be required by Bangkok Director.

As described under paragraph one, the Assistant Bangkok Director shall be authorized tocommand government services and Bangkok services to assist or cooperate on disaster prevention andmitigation over affected areas in Bangkok where those authorities appreciable for controlling andsupervision to Officers and Volunteers to perform their duties to this law accordingly.
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Responsibilities and authorities of District Director as Assistant Bangkok Director as described inparagraph one and two shall be able to be delegated to Assistant District Directors to perform duties on
their behalf, if appreciable.
Section 37: In any occurrences or expected to occur of disasters, Assistant Bangkok Director
shall immediately proceed the disaster prevention and mitigation operation, and notify the Bangkok
Director and Assistant Bangkok Director at once.

The prescription under Section 21 paragraph two, Section 22 paragraph three and four, Section
24, Section 25, Section 26, Section 27, Section 28, Section 29 and Section 30 shall be adapted for Bangkok
disaster prevention and mitigation accordingly.

Section 38: In case of further assistance from other government services is required to perform
disaster prevention and mitigation in Bangkok, the Bangkok Director shall request those agencies. And
depending on the requests, those informed government officials shall immediately perform their duties asrequested over disaster prevention and mitigation operation in Bangkok.
CHAPTER 4
Officers and Volunteers______________________________

Section 39: Directors shall have powers and authorities to appoint Officers as follows:(1) Central Director shall has authority to appoint Officers for performing their duties
throughout the Kingdom(2) Province Director shall has authority to appoint Officers for performing their duties atprovince level(3) District Director shall has authority to appoint Officers for performing their duties at districtlevel(4) Local Director shall has authority to appoint Officers for performing their duties at local
region(5) Bangkok Director shall has authority to appoint Officers for performing their duties
throughout Bangkok Metropolitan

Rules and regulations of Ministry of Interior shall be applied for appointing and operations of
Officers at each level.

Section 40: If there are any places or buildings, or materials or parts inside or outside ofbuildings or places, could be a cause of a disaster easily. Those Directors or Officers who know shallinform relevant authorities for further investigation.

Section 41: Directors shall conduct to set up Volunteer unit in their responsible area to perform
duty as follows:(1) Assist Officers in disaster prevention and mitigation operations(2) Perform other duties as my required by Director and according to rules and regulations of
Ministry of Interior

The administration and management, selection, training, rights, duties and disciplines of
Volunteers shall be followed rules and regulation of Ministry of Interior accordingly.

Section 42: In the case of any public charities or persons assist the Officers during disaster event,Director or designated Officer shall delegate their duties or area of work to those persons appropriately.

For efficiency disaster recovery, the Director shall notify relevant public charities, and person inthat affected area. They shall be informed on coordination procedures and operation details of Provincial
Disaster Prevention and Mitigation plan or Bangkok Disaster Prevention and Mitigation plan.
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CHAPTER 5
Miscellaneous_____________________________________

Section 43: Commander in Chief, Deputy Commander in Chief, Director, Deputy Director, andother Officers who perform their duties in accordance to this Disaster Prevention and Mitigation Act shallbe designated officials under Criminal Laws. And any those performed operations with properness andcarefulness upon their authorities and functions according to this act; there shall be no guilty and shall beacquitted.
Any actions under paragraph one, if there are any direct damages to properties of one, exceptthat disaster itself. The government shall compensate to that damages subject to ministerial regulations
and procedures.

Section 44: In case of any changes of disaster prevention and mitigation facts as specified indisaster prevention and mitigation plans under this act, or if those plans have been used for five years.
Those responsible persons who oversee the formulating of plan shall have to revise or review that plan
rapidly.

Section 45: There shall be a uniform, badge and identify card for Officers and Volunteers to
declare themselves whilst disaster prevention and mitigation operation.
That uniform, badge and identify card shall be specified by Ministry of Interior.

In the case of the Commander in Chief, Deputy Commander in Chief, Director or Deputy Director
prefer to attire in uniform, and shall be specified by Ministry of Interior accordingly.

Section 46: Any operations under Section (21), (22), (25), (28) or (29), if there would beexecuted in military areas, related to military missions and personnel, or affected to military properties
and assets. Those operations shall be an agreement between the military commandant in that area andProvincial Director or Bangkok Director.
Section 47: All fines according to this act shall be settled into local administration for spendingon their local disaster prevention and mitigation operation.

Section 48: Those personal and officials who related to disaster prevention and mitigation
operation shall not use any confidential information for their own interests, or shall not expose theinformation that would be able to effect to other persons or their professions without an authority.
CHAPTER 6
Penalties______________________________

Section 49: Any persons who are not observance or impede to any official operations of Director
under Section 21 shall be imprisoned not more than three months or shall be fined not more than six
thousand Baht or both.

Section 50: Any persons who impede any operations of the Officers under Section 24 or violate
to any commands of Director under Section 25, or impede any operations of the Officers under Section 26,
shall be imprisoned not more than one year or fined not more than twenty thousand Baht or both.
Section 51: Unauthorized entry to keep out disaster area under Section 37 (3) shall be
imprisoned not more than three months or fined not more than six thousand Baht or both.

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In the case of the violation under paragraph one has been made by the owner or holder of those
properties under Section 27 (3). Director or designated Officer shall state a warning instead ofprosecution.

Section 52: Any persons who violate to an evacuation order under Section 28, if that orderwould be prevent the interfering of disaster prevention and mitigation operations, or behave against
Section 29 shall be imprisoned not more than one month or fined not more than two thousand Baht orboth.

Section 53: Whilst the occurrence of public disaster, any persons who wear uniform or badge ofthe Volunteer or the public charity in order to belie others shall be imprisoned not more than threemonths or fined not more than six thousand Baht or both.

Section 54: Any persons who dishonestly collect or look for themselves or others by appearing
to be a Volunteer, Officer or any related services concerning to disaster prevention and mitigation
operation shall be imprisoned not more than one year or fined not more than twenty thousand Bath or
both.
Section 55: Any persons who violent to Section 48 shall imprisoned not more than six months or
fined not more than two thousand Baht or both.
Transitory Provisions___________________________________

Section 56: All related personal or government agencies shall finish the formulating of their
Disaster Prevention and Mitigation Plan in accordance to this Act within two years after this Act isenforced. Until the formulating of the plan finish, all disaster prevention and mitigation activities shall be
operated in accordance to the existing plans.

Section 57: All Disaster Prevention and Mitigation Regional Centers in Department of Disaster
Prevention and Mitigation shall be Disaster Prevention and Mitigation Centers established under Section
22 paragraph 11 of this Act.
Section 58: All ministerial regulations, disciplines, notices or orders of Civil Defense Act B.E.
2522 [1979] and Fire Defense Act B.E. 2542 [1999] shall be enforced upon acquiesce to this Act.

Countersigned byGeneral Surayuth Chulanont,
Prime Minister of Thailand

Remarks: The reasons for promulgation of this act is follows; in reference to the establishment of Department of Disaster
Prevention and Mitigation under Ministry of Interior according to Bureaucracy Improvement for Ministries, Bureaus, Departments
Act B.E. 2545 [A.D. 1998] The main mission of the department is for oversee disaster prevention, mitigation and recovery, andincluding of accidents. As of this, all disasters and accidents related administrations that used to be under supervision by two
agencies, The Civil Defense Division in Department of Local Administration, Ministry of Interior and The National Safety Council,
Office of Permanent Secretary for Prime Minister Office shall be in charged by a single department. Moreover, the law of Fire
Defense is described in details on fire prevention and mitigation, and the responsible agency of both Fire Defense Act and Civil
Defense Act is the same, then for the effective, consistency and unity of disaster risk reduction management and operations, these
two laws shall be aggregated into this Disaster Prevention and Mitigation Act.

(Unofficial translated by Khun Usa BANYEN, Khun Sirikorn KITIWONG, DDPM and Khun Pairach HOMTONG, UNDP)

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ราชกิจจานุเบกษา๗ กันยายน ๒๕๕๐พระราชบัญญัติ

ปองกันและบรรเทาสาธารณภัย
พ.ศ. ๒๕๕๐

ภูมิพลอดุลยเดช ป.ร.

ใหไว ณ วันที่ ๒๘ สิงหาคม พ.ศ. ๒๕๕๐เปนปที่ ๖๒ ในรัชกาลปจจุบัน
พระบาทสมเด็ จพระปรมิน ทรมหาภูมิพลอดุลยเดช มีพระบรมราชโองการโปรดเกลา ฯใหประกาศวา
โดยที่เปนการสมควรมีกฎหมายวาดวยการปองกันและบรรเทาสาธารณภัยจึง ทรงพระกรุ ณาโปรดเกล า ฯ ใหต ราพระราชบั ญญั ติขึ้ น ไวโ ดยคํา แนะนํา และยิ น ยอมของสภานิติบญั ญัติแหงชาติ ดังตอไปนี้
มาตรา ๑ พระราชบัญญัตินี้เรียกวา “พระราชบัญญัติปองกันและบรรเทาสาธารณภัย
พ.ศ. ๒๕๕๐”มาตรา ๒ พระราชบัญญัตินี้ใ หใชบังคับเมื่อพนกําหนดหกสิบวันนับแตวันประกาศใน
ราชกิจจานุเบกษาเปนตนไป
มาตรา ๓ ใหยกเลิก(๑) พระราชบัญญัติปองกันภัยฝายพลเรือน พ.ศ. ๒๕๒๒(๒) พระราชบัญญัติปองกันและระงับอัคคีภัย พ.ศ. ๒๕๔๒มาตรา ๔ ในพระราชบัญญัตินี้
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Appendixเลม ๑๒๔ ตอนที่ ๕๒ กหนา ๒
ราชกิจจานุเบกษา๗ กันยายน ๒๕๕๐“สาธารณภั ย” หมายความวา อัค คีภัย วาตภัย อุทกภัย ภัยแลง โรคระบาดในมนุษ ยโรคระบาดสัตว โรคระบาดสัตวน้ํา การระบาดของศัตรูพืช ตลอดจนภัยอื่น ๆ อันมีผลกระทบตอ
สาธารณชน ไมวาเกิดจากธรรมชาติ มีผูทําใหเกิดขึ้น อุบัติเหตุ หรือเหตุอื่นใด ซึ่งกอใหเกิดอันตราย
แกชีวิต รางกายของประชาชน หรือความเสียหายแกทรัพยสินของประชาชน หรือของรัฐ และให
หมายความรวมถึงภัยทางอากาศ และการกอวินาศกรรมดวย
“ภัยทางอากาศ” หมายความวา ภัยอันเกิดจากการโจมตีทางอากาศ
“การกอวินาศกรรม” หมายความวา การกระทําใด ๆ อันเปนการมุงทําลายทรัพยสินของ
ประชาชนหรือของรัฐ หรือสิ่งอันเปนสาธารณูปโภค หรือการรบกวน ขัดขวางหนวงเหนี่ยวระบบ
การปฏิบัติงานใด ๆ ตลอดจนการประทุษรายตอบุคคลอันเปนการกอใหเกิดความปนปวนทางการเมือง
การเศรษฐกิจและสังคมแหงชาติ โดยมุงหมายที่จะกอใหเกิดความเสียหายตอความมั่นคงของรัฐ
“หนวยงานของรัฐ” หมายความวา สวนราชการ รัฐวิสาหกิจ องคการมหาชนและหนวยงาน
อื่นของรัฐ แตไมหมายความรวมถึงองคกรปกครองสวนทองถิ่น
“องคกรปกครองสวนทองถิ่น” หมายความวา องคการบริหารสวนตําบล เทศบาล องคการ
บริหารสวนจังหวัด เมืองพัทยา กรุงเทพมหานคร และองคกรปกครองสวนทองถิ่นอื่น ที่มีกฎหมาย
จัดตั้ง
“องคกรปกครองสวนทองถิ่นแหงพื้นที่” หมายความวา องคการบริหารสวนตําบล เทศบาล
เมืองพัทยา และองคกรปกครองสวนทองถิ่นอื่นที่มีกฎหมายจัดตั้ง แตไมหมายความรวมถึงองคการ
บริหารสวนจังหวัด และกรุงเทพมหานคร
“จังหวัด” ไมหมายความรวมถึงกรุงเทพมหานคร
“อําเภอ” หมายความรวมถึงกิ่งอําเภอ แตไมหมายความรวมถึงเขตในกรุงเทพมหานคร
“นายอําเภอ” หมายความรวมถึงปลัดอําเภอผูเปนหัวหนาประจํากิ่งอําเภอ
“ผูบริหารทองถิ่น” หมายความวา นายกองคการบริหารสวนตําบล นายกเทศมนตรี นายกเมืองพัทยา และหัวหนาผูบริหารขององคกรปกครองสวนทองถิ่นแหงพื้นที่อื่น
“ผูบัญชาการ” หมายความวา ผูบัญชาการปองกันและบรรเทาสาธารณภัยแหงชาติ
“ผูอํานวยการ” หมายความวา ผูอํานวยการกลาง ผูอํานวยการจังหวัด ผูอํานวยการอําเภอ
ผูอํานวยการทองถิ่น และผูอาํ นวยการกรุงเทพมหานคร
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ราชกิจจานุเบกษา๗ กันยายน ๒๕๕๐“เจาพนักงาน” หมายความวา ผูซึ่งไดรับแตงตั้งใหปฏิบัติหนาที่ในการปองกันและบรรเทา
สาธารณภัยในพื้นที่ตาง ๆ ตามพระราชบัญญัตินี้
“อาสาสมัคร” หมายความวา อาสาสมัครปองกันภัยฝายพลเรือนตามพระราชบัญญัตินี้
“อธิบดี” หมายความวา อธิบดีกรมปองกันและบรรเทาสาธารณภัย
“รัฐมนตรี” หมายความวา รัฐมนตรีผูรักษาการตามพระราชบัญญัตนิ ี้มาตรา ๕ ใหรัฐมนตรีวาการกระทรวงมหาดไทยรักษาการตามพระราชบัญญัตินี้และใหมี
อํานาจออกกฎกระทรวง ระเบียบ ขอบังคับและประกาศเพื่อปฏิบัติการตามพระราชบัญญัตินี้
กฎกระทรวงนั้น เมื่อไดประกาศในราชกิจจานุเบกษาแลวใหใชบังคับได
หมวด ๑
บททั่วไป
มาตรา ๖ ใหมีคณะกรรมการปองกั น และบรรเทาสาธารณภัยแห งชาติ เรี ยกโดยยอว า“กปภ.ช.” ประกอบด ว ย นายกรั ฐ มนตรี ห รื อ รองนายกรั ฐ มนตรี ซึ่ ง นายกรั ฐ มนตรี ม อบหมาย
เปน ประธานกรรมการ รัฐ มนตรีวาการกระทรวงมหาดไทย เปน รองประธานกรรมการคนที่หนึ่ งปลัดกระทรวงมหาดไทย เปนรองประธานกรรมการคนที่สอง ปลัดกระทรวงกลาโหม ปลัดกระทรวง
การพัฒนาสังคมและความมั่นคงของมนุษย ปลัดกระทรวงเกษตรและสหกรณ ปลัดกระทรวงคมนาคมปลั ด กระทรวงทรั พ ยากรธรรมชาติ แ ละสิ่ ง แวดล อ ม ปลั ด กระทรวงเทคโนโลยี ส ารสนเทศและ
การสื่อสาร ปลัดกระทรวงสาธารณสุข ผูอํานวยการสํานักงบประมาณ ผูบัญชาการตํารวจแหงชาติ
ผูบัญชาการทหารสูงสุด ผูบัญชาการทหารบก ผูบั ญชาการทหารเรือ ผูบัญชาการทหารอากาศ
เลขาธิการสภาความมั่นคงแหงชาติ และผูทรงคุณวุฒิอีกไมเกิน หาคนซึ่งคณะรัฐมนตรีแตงตั้งจากผูมี
ความรู ความเชี่ยวชาญ หรือประสบการณที่เกี่ยวของกับการผังเมือง และการปองกันและบรรเทา
สาธารณภัย เปนกรรมการ
ใหอธิบดีเปนกรรมการและเลขานุการ และใหแตงตั้งขาราชการในกรมปองกันและบรรเทา
สาธารณภัยจํานวนไมเกินสองคนเปนผูชวยเลขานุการ
มาตรา ๗ ให กปภ.ช. มีอํานาจหนาที่ ดังตอไปนี้(๑) กําหนดนโยบายในการจัดทําแผนการปองกันและบรรเทาสาธารณภัยแหงชาติ
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ราชกิจจานุเบกษา๗ กันยายน ๒๕๕๐(๒) พิจารณาใหความเห็นชอบแผนการปองกันและบรรเทาสาธารณภัยแหงชาติ ตามมาตรา ๑๑ (๑)กอนเสนอคณะรัฐมนตรี(๓) บูรณาการพัฒนาระบบการปองกันและบรรเทาสาธารณภัย ระหวางหนวยงานของรัฐ
องคกรปกครองสวนทองถิ่น และหนวยงานภาคเอกชนที่เกี่ยวของใหมีประสิทธิภาพ(๔) ให คํ า แนะนํา ปรึ ก ษาและสนั บ สนุน การปฏิ บัติ ห น า ที่ ใ นการป อ งกั น และบรรเทา
สาธารณภัย(๕) วางระเบียบเกี่ยวกับคาตอบแทน คาทดแทน และคาใชจายในการดําเนิน การปองกัน
และบรรเทาสาธารณภัย โดยความเห็นชอบของกระทรวงการคลัง(๖) ปฏิบัติการอื่น ใดตามที่บัญญัติไวในพระราชบัญญัตินี้หรือกฎหมายอื่น หรือตามที่
คณะรัฐมนตรีมอบหมาย
ในการปฏิบัติการตามอํานาจหนาที่ในวรรคหนึ่ง กปภ.ช. จะแตงตั้งคณะอนุกรรมการเพื่อ
ปฏิบัติการอยางหนึ่ง อยางใดแทนหรือตามที่มอบหมายก็ได ทั้งนี้ ใหนําบทบั ญญัติใ นมาตรา ๑๐มาใชบังคับกับการประชุมของคณะอนุกรรมการโดยอนุโลม
เพื่ อ ประโยชน ใ นการปฏิบั ติ ก ารตามอํ า นาจหน า ที่ต ามวรรคหนึ่ ง กปภ.ช. อาจเรี ย กใหหนวยงานของรัฐ องคกรปกครองสวนทองถิ่น หรือหนวยงานของภาคเอกชนที่เกี่ยวของมารวมประชุม
หรือชี้แจงหรือใหขอมูลก็ได
มาตรา ๘ ใหกรรมการผูทรงคุณวุฒิอยูในตําแหนงคราวละสี่ป
ในกรณีที่ก รรมการผูทรงคุณวุ ฒิพน จากตําแหนงก อนวาระ หรือในกรณี ที่คณะรัฐ มนตรี
แตงตั้งกรรมการผูทรงคุณวุฒิเพิ่มขึ้นในระหวางที่กรรมการผูทรงคุณวุฒิซึ่งแตงตั้งไวแลวยังมีวาระอยูใน
ตําแหนง ใหผไู ดรับแตงตั้งใหดํารงตําแหนงแทน หรือเปนกรรมการผูทรงคุณวุฒิเพิ่มขึ้นอยูในตําแหนง
เทากับวาระที่เหลืออยูของกรรมการผูทรงคุณวุฒิซึ่งไดแตงตั้งไวแลว
เมื่อครบกําหนดตามวาระดังกลาวในวรรคหนึ่ง หากยังมิไดมีการแตงตั้งกรรมการผูทรงคุณวุฒิใหมให ก รรมการผูท รงคุ ณ วุ ฒิ ซึ่ งพ น จากตํ า แหน ง ตามวาระนั้น อยู ใ นตํ าแหน ง เพื่ อ ดํ าเนิ น งานต อ ไปจนกวาจะมีการแตงตั้งกรรมการผูทรงคุณวุฒิใหม
กรรมการผูทรงคุณวุฒิ ซึ่งพนจากตําแหนงตามวาระอาจไดรับการแตงตั้งอีกได ทั้งนี้ ไมเกิน
สองวาระติดตอกัน
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ราชกิจจานุเบกษา๗ กันยายน ๒๕๕๐มาตรา ๙ นอกจากการพนจากตําแหนงตามวาระตามมาตรา ๘ กรรมการผูทรงคุณวุฒิ
พนจากตําแหนงเมื่อ(๑) ตาย(๒) ลาออก โดยยื่นหนังสือลาออกตอประธานกรรมการ(๓) คณะรัฐมนตรีใหออก(๔) เปนบุคคลลมละลาย(๕) เปนคนไรความสามารถ หรือคนเสมือนไรความสามารถ(๖) ไดรับโทษจําคุกโดยคําพิพากษาถึงที่สุดใหจําคุก เวน แตเปนโทษสําหรับความผิดที่ได
กระทําโดยประมาทหรือความผิดลหุโทษ
มาตรา ๑๐ การประชุ ม ของ กปภ.ช. ต อ งมี ก รรมการมาประชุ ม ไม น อ ยกว า กึ่ ง หนึ่ งของจํานวนกรรมการทั้งหมด จึงจะเปนองคประชุม
ในการประชุมคราวใด ถาประธานกรรมการไมอยูในที่ประชุมหรือไมสามารถปฏิบัติหนาที่ได
ใหรองประธานกรรมการคนที่หนึ่งเปนประธานในที่ประชุม ถารองประธานคนที่หนึ่งไมอยูใ นที่ประชุมหรือไมสามารถปฏิบัติหนาที่ได ใหรองประธานคนที่สองเปนประธานในที่ประชุม ถาประธาน
กรรมการและรองประธานกรรมการทั้งสองไมอยูใ นที่ ประชุม หรือไมสามารถปฏิ บัติหนาที่ไ ดใหกรรมการซึ่งมาประชุมเลือกกรรมการคนหนึ่งเปนประธานในที่ประชุมสําหรับการประชุมคราวนั้น
การวินิจฉัยชี้ขาดของที่ประชุม ใหถือเสียงขางมาก กรรมการคนหนึ่งใหมี เสียงหนึ่งในการ
ลงคะแนน ถาคะแนนเสียงเทากัน ใหประธานในที่ประชุมออกเสียงเพิ่มขึ้นอีกเสียงหนึ่งเปนเสียงชี้ขาด
มาตรา ๑๑ ใหกรมปองกันและบรรเทาสาธารณภัยเปน หนวยงานกลางของรัฐ ในการ
ดําเนินการเกี่ยวกับการปองกันและบรรเทาสาธารณภัยของประเทศ โดยมีอํานาจหนาที่ ดังตอไปนี้(๑) จัดทําแผนการปองกันและบรรเทาสาธารณภัยแหงชาติเสนอ กปภ.ช. เพื่อขออนุมัติ
ตอคณะรัฐมนตรี(๒) จัด ใหมี ก ารศึ กษาวิจั ย เพื่ อ หามาตรการในการป อ งกั น และบรรเทาสาธารณภัย ให มีประสิทธิภาพ(๓) ปฏิบัติการ ประสานการปฏิบัติ ใหการสนับสนุน และชวยเหลือหนวยงานของรัฐ
องคกรปกครองสวนทองถิ่น และหนวยงานภาคเอกชน ในการปองกันและบรรเทาสาธารณภัย และให
การสงเคราะหเบื้องตนแกผูประสบภัย ผูไดรับภยันตราย หรือผูไดรับความเสียหายจากสาธารณภัย
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ราชกิจจานุเบกษา๗ กันยายน ๒๕๕๐(๔) แนะนํ า ให คํ า ปรึ ก ษา และอบรมเกี่ ย วกั บ การป อ งกั น และบรรเทาสาธารณภั ยแกหนวยงานของรัฐ องคกรปกครองสวนทองถิ่น และหนวยงานภาคเอกชน(๕) ติดตาม ตรวจสอบ และประเมินผลการดําเนิน การตามแผนการปองกันและบรรเทา
สาธารณภัยในแตละระดับ(๖) ปฏิ บั ติก ารอื่น ใดตามที่บั ญ ญั ติไ ว ใ นพระราชบัญ ญั ตินี้ ห รื อกฎหมายอื่น หรื อตามที่
ผูบัญชาการ นายกรัฐมนตรี กปภ.ช. หรือคณะรัฐมนตรีมอบหมาย
เมื่อคณะรัฐ มนตรีอ นุมัติแ ผนการปองกัน และบรรเทาสาธารณภัยแห งชาติ ตาม (๑) แล วใหหนวยงานของรัฐและองคกรปกครองสวนทองถิ่นที่เกี่ยวของปฏิบัติการใหเปนไปตามแผนดังกลาว
ในการจัดทําแผนการปองกันและบรรเทาสาธารณภัยแหงชาติตาม (๑) ใหกรมปองกันและ
บรรเทาสาธารณภัยรวมกับหนวยงานของรัฐที่เกี่ยวของและตัวแทนองคกรปกครองสวนทองถิ่นแตละ
ประเภทมาปรึกษาหารือและจัดทํา ทั้งนี้ จะจัดใหหนวยงานภาคเอกชนเสนอขอมูลหรือความเห็นเพื่อ
ประกอบการพิจารณาในการจัดทําแผนดวยก็ได
เพื่อประโยชนใ นการปฏิบัติหนาที่ตาม (๓) (๔) (๕) และ (๖) กรมปองกันและบรรเทา
สาธารณภัยจะจัดใหมีศูนยปองกันและบรรเทาสาธารณภัยขึ้นในบางจังหวัดเพื่อปฏิบัติงานในจังหวัดนั้น
และจังหวัดอื่นที่อยูใกลเคียงกันไดตามความจําเปน และจะใหมีสํานักงานปองกันและบรรเทาสาธารณภัย
จังหวัดขึ้น เพื่อกํากับดูแลและสนับสนุนการปฏิบัติการปองกันและบรรเทาสาธารณภัยในจังหวั ดหรือตามที่ผูอํานวยการจังหวัดมอบหมายดวยก็ได
มาตรา ๑๒ แผนการปองกันและบรรเทาสาธารณภัยแหงชาติตามมาตรา ๑๑ (๑) อยางนอย
ตองมีสาระสําคัญดังตอไปนี้(๑) แนวทาง มาตรการ และงบประมาณที่จําเปนตองใชในการปองกันและบรรเทาสาธารณภัย
อยางเปนระบบและตอเนื่อง(๒) แนวทางและวิธีการในการใหความชวยเหลือและบรรเทาความเดือดรอนที่เกิดขึ้นเฉพาะ
หนาและระยะยาวเมื่อเกิดสาธารณภัย รวมถึงการอพยพประชาชน หนวยงานของรัฐ และองคกร
ปกครองสวนทองถิ่น การสงเคราะหผูประสบภัย การดูแลเกี่ยวกับการสาธารณสุข และการแกไข
ปญหาเกี่ยวกับการสื่อสารและการสาธารณูปโภค(๓) หนวยงานของรัฐและองคกรปกครองสวนทองถิ่นที่รับผิดชอบในการดําเนินการตาม (๑)และ (๒) และวิธีการใหไดมาซึ่งงบประมาณเพื่อการดําเนินการดังกลาว
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ราชกิจจานุเบกษา๗ กันยายน ๒๕๕๐(๔) แนวทางในการเตรียมพรอมดานบุคลากร อุปกรณ และเครื่องมือเครื่องใชและจัดระบบ
การปฏิบัติการในการดําเนินการปองกันและบรรเทาสาธารณภัย รวมถึงการฝกบุคลากรและประชาชน(๕) แนวทางในการซอ มแซม บูร ณะ ฟน ฟู และใหค วามช วยเหลือ ประชาชนภายหลั งที่สาธารณภัยสิ้นสุด
การกําหนดเรื่องตามวรรคหนึ่ง จะตองกําหนดใหสอดคลองและครอบคลุมถึงสาธารณภัยตาง ๆโดยอาจกําหนดตามความจําเปนแหงความรุนแรงและความเสี่ยงในสาธารณภัยดานนั้น และในกรณี
ที่มีความจําเปนตองมีการแกไขหรือปรับปรุงกฎหมาย ระเบียบ ขอบังคับ หรือมติของคณะรัฐมนตรี
ที่เกี่ยวของ ใหระบุไวในแผนการปองกันและบรรเทาสาธารณภัยแหงชาติดวย
มาตรา ๑๓ ใหรัฐมนตรีเปนผูบัญชาการมีอํานาจควบคุมและกํากับการปองกันและบรรเทา
สาธารณภัย ทั่วราชอาณาจัก รให เป น ไปตามแผนการป องกั น และบรรเทาสาธารณภัยแหง ชาติ แ ละพระราชบัญญัตินี้ ในการนี้ ใหมีอํานาจบังคับบัญชาและสั่งการผูอํานวยการ รองผูอํานวยการ ผูชวย
ผูอํานวยการ เจาพนักงาน และอาสาสมัครไดทั่วราชอาณาจักร
ใหปลัดกระทรวงมหาดไทยเปนรองผูบัญชาการมีหนาที่ชวยเหลือผูบัญชาการในการปองกัน
และบรรเทาสาธารณภัย และปฏิบัตหิ นาที่ตามที่ผูบัญชาการมอบหมายโดยใหมีอํานาจบังคับบัญชาและ
สั่งการตามวรรคหนึ่งรองจากผูบัญชาการ
มาตรา ๑๔ ให อ ธิ บ ดี เ ป น ผู อํ า นวยการกลางมี ห น า ที่ ป อ งกั น และบรรเทาสาธารณภั ยทั่วราชอาณาจักร และมีอํานาจควบคุมและกํากับการปฏิบัติหนาที่ของผูอํานวยการ รองผูอํานวยการ
ผูชวยผูอํานวยการ เจาพนักงาน และอาสาสมัคร ไดทั่วราชอาณาจักร
มาตรา ๑๕ ใหผูวาราชการจังหวัดเปนผูอํานวยการจังหวัด รับผิดชอบในการปองกันและ
บรรเทาสาธารณภัยในเขตจังหวัด โดยมีอํานาจหนาที่ดังตอไปนี้(๑) จัดทําแผนการปองกันและบรรเทาสาธารณภัยจังหวัด ซึ่งตองสอดคลองกับแผนการ
ปองกันและบรรเทาสาธารณภัยแหงชาติ(๒) กํากับดูแลการฝกอบรมอาสาสมัครขององคกรปกครองสวนทองถิ่น(๓) กํากับดูแลองคกรปกครองสวนทองถิ่น ใหจัดใหมีวัสดุ อุปกรณ เครื่องมือเครื่อ งใชยานพาหนะ และสิ่งอื่น เพื่อใชในการปองกันและบรรเทาสาธารณภัยตามที่กําหนดในแผนการปองกัน
และบรรเทาสาธารณภัยจังหวัด

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ราชกิจจานุเบกษา๗ กันยายน ๒๕๕๐(๔) ดําเนิน การให หนว ยงานของรัฐ และองคกรปกครองส วนทองถิ่น ใหก ารสงเคราะห
เบื้องตน แกผูประสบภัย หรือผูไดรับภยัน ตรายหรือเสียหายจากสาธารณภัยรวมตลอดทั้งการรักษา
ความสงบเรียบรอยและการปฏิบัติการใด ๆ ในการปองกันและบรรเทาสาธารณภัย(๕) สนับสนุน และใหความชวยเหลือแกองคกรปกครองสวนทองถิ่น ในการปองกัน และบรรเทาสาธารณภัย(๖) ปฏิบัติหนาที่อื่นตามที่ผูบัญชาการและผูอํานวยการกลางมอบหมาย
เพื่อประโยชนในการปฏิบัติหนาที่ตาม (๓) (๔) และ (๕) ใหผูอํานวยการจังหวัดมีอํานาจสั่ง
การหนวยงานของรัฐและองคกรปกครองสวนทองถิ่นซึ่งอยูในจังหวัด ใหดําเนินการในการปองกันและ
บรรเทาสาธารณภัยตามแผนการปองกันและบรรเทาสาธารณภัยจังหวัด และมีอํานาจสั่งการ ควบคุม
และกํากับดูแลการปฏิบัติหนาที่ของเจาพนักงานและอาสาสมัครใหเปนไปตามพระราชบัญญัตินี้
มาตรา ๑๖ แผนการปองกันและบรรเทาสาธารณภัยจังหวัดตามมาตรา ๑๕ (๑) อยางนอย
ตองมีสาระสําคัญตามมาตรา ๑๒ และสาระสําคัญอื่นดังตอไปนี้(๑) การจัดตั้งศูนยอํานวยการเฉพาะกิจเมื่อเกิดสาธารณภัยขึ้น โครงสรางและผูมีอํานาจสั่งการ
ดานตาง ๆ ในการปองกันและบรรเทาสาธารณภัย(๒) แผนและขั้นตอนขององคกรปกครองสวนทองถิ่น ในการจัดหาวัสดุ อุปกรณ เครื่องมือ
เครื่องใช และยานพาหนะ เพื่อใชในการปองกันและบรรเทาสาธารณภัย(๓) แผนและขั้นตอนขององคกรปกครองสวนทองถิ่น ในการจัดใหมีเครื่องหมายสัญญาณ
หรือสิ่งอื่นใด ในการแจงใหประชาชนไดทราบถึงการเกิดหรือจะเกิดสาธารณภัย(๔) แผนปฏิบัติการในการปองกันและบรรเทาสาธารณภัยขององคกรปกครองสวนทองถิ่น(๕) แผนการประสานงานกับองคการสาธารณกุศล
มาตรา ๑๗ ในการจัดทําแผนการปองกันและบรรเทาสาธารณภัยจังหวัด ใหผูวาราชการ
จังหวัดแตงตั้งคณะกรรมการขึ้นคณะหนึ่ง ประกอบดวย(๑) ผูวาราชการจังหวัด เปนประธานกรรมการ(๒) รองผูวาราชการจังหวัดซึ่งผูวาราชการจังหวัดมอบหมาย เปนรองประธานกรรมการ(๓) ผูบัญชาการมณฑลทหารบกหรือผูบังคับการจังหวัดทหารบกหรือผูแทนเปนรองประธาน
กรรมการ(๔) นายกองคการบริหารสวนจังหวัด เปนรองประธานกรรมการ
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ราชกิจจานุเบกษา๗ กันยายน ๒๕๕๐(๕) กรรมการอื่น ประกอบดวย(ก) ผูแ ทนหนว ยงานของรั ฐที่ ประจํา อยู ใ นพื้ น ที่จั งหวั ดตามจํ านวนที่ ผูว าราชการ
จังหวัดเห็นสมควรแตงตั้ง(ข) ผูแทนองคกรปกครองสวนทองถิ่นแหงพื้นที่จํานวนเจ็ดคน ซึ่งประกอบดวยผูแทน
เทศบาลจํานวนสองคนและผูแทนองคการบริหารสวนตําบลจํานวนหาคน(ค) ผู แ ทนองค ก ารสาธารณกุ ศ ลในจั ง หวั ด ตามจํ า นวนที่ ผู ว า ราชการจั ง หวั ดเห็นสมควรแตงตั้ง(๖) หัวหนาสํานักงานปองกันและบรรเทาสาธารณภัยจังหวัด หรือผูแทนกรมปองกันและ
บรรเทาสาธารณภัย เปนกรรมการและเลขานุการ
ในกรณีที่ จั ง หวั ด ใดเป น ที่ตั้ ง ของสถาบัน การศึ ก ษาระดั บอุ ด มศึ กษา ให พิ จารณาแต ง ตั้ งผูบ ริห ารของสถาบัน การศึก ษานั้ น เป น ที่ ป รึก ษาหรือ กรรมการตามจํ านวนที่ ผูว าราชการจั งหวั ดเห็นสมควร
ใหคณะกรรมการตามวรรคหนึ่งมีหนาที่จัดทําแผนการปองกันและบรรเทาสาธารณภัยจังหวัด
เสนอผูวาราชการจังหวัดเพื่อประกาศใชตอไป
การปฏิบัติ หนา ที่แ ละการประชุมของคณะกรรมการตามวรรคหนึ่ ง ใหเ ปน ไปตามที่ผูว าราชการจังหวัดกําหนด
ในกรณีที่กรมปองกันและบรรเทาสาธารณภัยเห็นวาแผนการปองกันและบรรเทาสาธารณภัย
จังหวัดไมสอดคลองกับแผนการปองกันและบรรเทาสาธารณภัยแหงชาติ ใหแจงใหผูวาราชการจังหวัด
ทราบเพื่อดําเนินการแกไขใหแลวเสร็จภายในสามสิบวันนับแตวันที่ไดรับแจง
มาตรา ๑๘ ใหนายกองคการบริหารสวนจังหวัดเปนรองผูอํานวยการจังหวัด มีหนาที่
ชวยเหลือ ผูอํ านวยการจั งหวัด ในการป องกัน และบรรเทาสาธารณภัย และปฏิบั ติห นา ที่อื่ น ตามที่
ผูอํานวยการจังหวัดมอบหมาย
มาตรา ๑๙ ใหน ายอําเภอเปน ผูอํ านวยการอําเภอ รั บผิด ชอบและปฏิ บัติห นาที่ใ นการปองกันและบรรเทาสาธารณภัยในเขตอําเภอของตน และมีหนาที่ชวยเหลือผูอํานวยการจังหวัดตามที่
ไดรับมอบหมาย
ในการปฏิบัติหนาที่ของผูอํานวยการอําเภอตามวรรคหนึ่ง ใหผูอํานวยการอําเภอ มีอํานาจสั่งการ
หนวยงานของรัฐและองคกรปกครองสวนทองถิ่นที่เกี่ยวของซึ่งอยูในเขตอําเภอใหดําเนินการในการ
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ราชกิจจานุเบกษา๗ กันยายน ๒๕๕๐ปองกันและบรรเทาสาธารณภัยตามแผนการปองกันและบรรเทาสาธารณภัยจังหวัด และมีอํานาจสั่งการ
ควบคุม และกํากับดูแลการปฏิบัติหนาที่ของเจาพนักงานและอาสาสมัครใหเปนไปตามพระราชบัญญัตินี้
มาตรา ๒๐ ใหองคกรปกครองสวนทองถิ่นแหงพื้นที่มีหนาที่ปองกันและบรรเทาสาธารณภัย
ในเขตท องถิ่ น ของตน โดยมีผู บริ ห ารทอ งถิ่ น ขององค กรปกครองส ว นท องถิ่น แห ง พื้น ที่นั้ น เป นผูรับผิดชอบในฐานะผูอํานวยการทองถิ่น และมีหนาที่ชวยเหลือผูอํานวยการจังหวัดและผูอํานวยการ
อําเภอตามที่ไดรับมอบหมาย
ในการปฏิบัติหนาที่ของผูอํานวยการทองถิ่นตามวรรคหนึ่ง ใหผูอํานวยการทองถิ่นมีอํานาจสั่งการ
ควบคุม และกํากับดูแลการปฏิบัติหนาที่ของเจาพนักงานและอาสาสมัครใหเปนไปตามพระราชบัญญัตินี้ให ป ลั ด องค ก รปกครองส ว นท อ งถิ่ น ขององค ก รปกครองส ว นท อ งถิ่ น แห ง พื้น ที่ นั้ น เป นผู ช ว ยผู อํ า นวยการท อ งถิ่ น รั บ ผิ ด ชอบและปฏิ บั ติ ห น า ที่ ใ นการป อ งกั น และบรรเทาสาธารณภั ยในเขตทองถิ่นของตนและมีหนาที่ชวยเหลือผูอํานวยการทองถิ่นตามที่ไดรับมอบหมาย
หมวด ๒
การปองกันและบรรเทาสาธารณภัย
มาตรา ๒๑ เมื่ อ เกิ ด หรื อ คาดว า จะเกิ ด สาธารณภั ย ขึ้ น ในเขตขององค ก รปกครองสว นท อ งถิ่ น แห งพื้ น ที่ใ ด ใหผู อํา นวยการท องถิ่น ขององค ก รปกครองส วนท องถิ่น แหง พื้ น ที่ นั้ นมี ห น า ที่ เ ข า ดํ า เนิ น การป อ งกั น และบรรเทาสาธารณภั ย โดยเร็ ว และแจ ง ให ผู อํ า นวยการอํ า เภอที่รับผิดชอบในเขตพื้นที่นั้นและผูอํานวยการจังหวัดทราบทันที
ในการปฏิบัติหนาที่ตามวรรคหนึ่ง ใหผูอํานวยการทองถิ่นมีอํานาจหนาที่ ดังตอไปนี้(๑) สั่ง ข า ราชการฝ า ยพลเรื อ น พนั ก งานส ว นท อ งถิ่ น เจา หน า ที่ ข องหน ว ยงานของรั ฐเจาพนักงาน อาสาสมัคร และบุคคลใด ๆ ในเขตองคกรปกครองสวนทองถิ่นแหงพื้นที่ที่เกิดสาธารณภัย
ใหปฏิบัติการอยางหนึ่งอยางใดตามความจําเปนในการปองกันและบรรเทาสาธารณภัย(๒) ใชอาคาร สถานที่ วัสดุ อุปกรณ เครื่องมือเครื่องใช และยานพาหนะของหนวยงาน
ของรัฐ และเอกชนที่ อยูใ นเขตองคกรปกครองสวนท องถิ่น แหงพื้ น ที่ที่เกิ ดสาธารณภัย เทาที่ จําเป นเพื่อการปองกันและบรรเทาสาธารณภัย

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ราชกิจจานุเบกษา๗ กันยายน ๒๕๕๐(๓) ใชเครื่องมือสื่อสารของหนวยงานของรัฐหรือเอกชนทุกระบบที่อยูในเขตองคกรปกครอง
สวนทองถิ่นแหงพื้นที่ที่เกิดสาธารณภัยหรือทองที่ที่เกี่ยวเนื่อง(๔) ขอความช ว ยเหลื อ จากองค ก รปกครองส ว นท อ งถิ่ น อื่ น ในการป อ งกั น และบรรเทา
สาธารณภัย(๕) สั่งหามเขาหรือใหออกจากพื้นที่ อาคารหรือสถานที่ที่กําหนด(๖) จัดใหมีการสงเคราะหผูประสบภัยโดยทั่วถึงและรวดเร็ว
มาตรา ๒๒ เมื่อมีกรณีตามมาตรา ๒๑ เกิดขึ้น ใหผูอํานวยการอําเภอ และผูอํานวยการ
จังหวัดมีอํานาจหนาที่เชนเดียวกับผูอํานวยการทองถิ่น โดยในกรณีผูอํานวยการอําเภอ ใหสั่งการได
สําหรับในเขตอําเภอของตน และในกรณี ผูอํานวยการจั งหวัด ใหสั่ง การไดสําหรับ ในเขตจังหวั ดแลวแตกรณี
ในกรณีที่ผูอํานวยการทองถิ่นมีความจําเปนตองไดรับความชวยเหลือจากเจาหนาที่ของรัฐหรือ
หนวยงานของรัฐที่อยูนอกเขตขององคกรปกครองสวนทองถิ่นแหงพื้นที่ของตน ใหแจงใหผูอํานวยการ
อําเภอหรือผูอํานวยการจังหวัด แลวแตกรณี เพื่อสั่งการโดยเร็วตอไป
ในกรณีจําเปนเพื่อประโยชนในการปองกันและบรรเทาสาธารณภัยใด ผูอํานวยการจังหวัดจะ
สั่งการใหหนวยงานของรัฐ องคกรปกครองสวนทองถิ่น เจาหนาที่ของรัฐ หรือบุคคลใดกระทําหรือ
งดเวนการกระทําใดที่มีผลกระทบตอการปองกันและบรรเทาสาธารณภัยนั้นก็ได คําสั่งดังกลาวใหมีผล
บังคับเปนระยะเวลาตามที่กําหนดในคําสั่ง แตตองไมเกินยี่สิบสี่ชั่วโมง ในกรณีที่มีความจําเปนตองให
คําสั่งดังกลาวมีผลบังคับเกินยี่สิบสี่ชั่วโมง ใหเปนอํานาจของผูบัญชาการที่จะสั่งการไดตามความจําเปน
แตตองไมเกินเจ็ดวัน
ในกรณี ที่ พื้ น ที่ ที่ เ กิ ด หรื อ จะเกิ ด สาธารณภั ย ตามวรรคหนึ่ ง อยู ใ นความรั บ ผิ ด ชอบของ
ผูอํานวยการทองถิ่นหลายคน ผูอํานวยการทองถิ่นคนหนึ่งคนใด จะใชอํานาจหรือปฏิบัติหนาที่ตาม
มาตรา ๒๑ ไปพลางกอนก็ได แลวใหแจงผูอํานวยการทองถิ่นอื่นทราบโดยเร็ว
มาตรา ๒๓ เมื่อเกิดสาธารณภัยขึ้นในเขตพื้นที่ขององคกรปกครองสวนทองถิ่นแหงพื้นที่ใด
ใหเปนหนาที่ของผูอํานวยการทองถิ่นซึ่งมีพื้น ที่ติดตอหรือใกลเคียงกับองคกรปกครองสวนทองถิ่น
แหงพื้นที่นั้น ที่จะสนับสนุนการปองกันและบรรเทาสาธารณภัยที่เกิดขึ้น
มาตรา ๒๔ เมื่อเกิดสาธารณภัย ใหเปน หนาที่ข องเจาพนัก งานที่ประสบเหตุตองเข าดําเนินการเบื้องตนเพื่อระงับสาธารณภัยนั้น แลวรีบรายงานใหผูอํานวยการทองถิ่นที่รับผิดชอบในพื้นที่
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ราชกิจจานุเบกษา๗ กันยายน ๒๕๕๐นั้นเพื่อสั่งการตอไป และในกรณีจําเปนอันไมอาจหลีกเลี่ยงได ใหเจาพนักงานมีอํานาจดําเนินการใด ๆเพื่อคุมครองชีวิตหรือปองกันภยันตรายที่จะเกิดแกบุคคลได
มาตรา ๒๕ ในกรณี ที่ เ กิ ด สาธารณภั ย และภยั น ตรายจากสาธารณภั ย นั้ น ใกล จ ะถึ งผูอํา นวยการมีอํา นาจสั่งใหเจ าพนั กงานดัด แปลง ทําลาย หรื อเคลื่อนยายสิ่งก อสร าง วัส ดุ หรื อทรัพยสิน ของบุ คคลใดที่เปน อุ ปสรรคแกการบําบัดปดปองภยัน ตรายได ทั้งนี้ เฉพาะเทาที่จําเป นแกการยับยั้งหรือแกไขความเสียหายที่จะเกิดขึ้นจากสาธารณภัยนั้น
ความในวรรคหนึ่งใหใชบังคับกับกรณีมีความจําเปนตองดําเนินการเพื่อปองกันภัยตอสวนรวม
ดวยโดยอนุโลม
ในกรณีที่การดัดแปลง ทําลาย หรือเคลื่อนยายสิ่งกอสราง วัสดุ หรือทรัพยสินจะมีผลทําใหเกิด
สาธารณภัยขึ้นในเขตพื้นที่อื่นหรือกอใหเกิดความเสียหายเพิ่มขึ้นแกเขตพื้นที่อื่น ผูอํานวยการทองถิ่น
จะใชอํานาจตามวรรคหนึ่งหรือวรรคสองมิได เวนแตจะไดรับความเห็นชอบจากผูอํานวยการจังหวัด
มาตรา ๒๖ เมื่อมีกรณีที่เจาพนักงานจําเปนตองเขาไปในอาคารหรือสถานที่ที่อยูใกลเคียง
กับพื้นที่ที่เกิดสาธารณภัยเพื่อทําการปองกันและบรรเทาสาธารณภัย ใหกระทําไดเมื่อไดรับอนุญาตจาก
เจาของหรือผูครอบครองอาคารหรือสถานที่แลว เวน แตไมมีเจาของหรือผูครอบครองอยูในเวลานั้น
หรือเมื่ออยูภายใตการควบคุมของผูอํานวยการ ก็ใ หกระทําไดแมเจาของหรือผูครอบครองจะไมได
อนุญาต
ในกรณีที่ทรัพยสินที่อยูในอาคารหรือสถานที่ตามวรรคหนึ่ง เปนสิ่งที่ทําใหเกิดสาธารณภัย
ไดงาย ใหเจาพนักงานมีอํานาจสั่งใหเจาของหรือผูครอบครองขนยายทรัพยสินนั้นออกจากอาคารหรือ
สถานที่ดังกลาวได
ในกรณี ที่ เ จ า ของหรื อ ผู ค รอบครองไม ป ฏิ บั ติ ต ามคํ า สั่ ง ของเจ า พนั ก งานตามวรรคสอง
ใหเจาพนักงานมีอํานาจขนยายทรัพยสินนั้นไดตามความจําเปนแกการปองกันและบรรเทาสาธารณภัย
โดยเจาพนักงานไมตองรับผิดชอบบรรดาความเสียหายอันเกิดจากการกระทําดังกลาว
มาตรา ๒๗ ในการบรรเทาสาธารณภัย ผูอํานวยการและเจาพนักงานซึ่งไดรับมอบหมาย
จากผูอํานวยการมีอํานาจหนาที่ดําเนินการดังตอไปนี้(๑) จัดใหมีสถานที่ชั่วคราวเพื่อใหผูประสบภัยอยูอาศัยหรือรับการปฐมพยาบาล และการรักษา
ทรัพยสินของผูประสบภัย
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ราชกิจจานุเบกษา๗ กันยายน ๒๕๕๐(๒) จัดระเบียบการจราจรชั่วคราวในพื้นที่ที่เกิดสาธารณภัยและพื้นที่ใกลเคียงเพื่อประโยชน
ในการปองกันและบรรเทาสาธารณภัย(๓) ปดกั้นมิใหผูไมมีสวนเกี่ยวของเขาไปในพื้นที่ที่เกิดสาธารณภัยและพื้นที่ใกลเคียง(๔) จัดใหมีการรักษาความสงบเรียบรอยและปองกันเหตุโจรผูราย(๕) ชวยเหลือผู ประสบภัย และชวยขนยายทรัพย สิน ในพื้น ที่ที่ เกิดสาธารณภัยและพื้น ที่ใกลเคียง เมื่อเจาของหรือผูครอบครองทรัพยสินรองขอ
ผูอํานวยการหรือเจาพนักงานซึ่งไดรับมอบหมายจากผูอํานวยการจะจัดใหมีเครื่องหมายหรือ
อาณัติสัญญาณเพื่อใชในการกําหนดสถานที่หรือการดําเนินการใดตามวรรคหนึ่งก็ได
ในการดําเนินการตาม (๒) (๓) (๔) และ (๕) ผูอํานวยการหรือเจาพนักงานจะดําเนินการเอง
หรือมอบหมายใหพนักงานฝายปกครองหรือตํารวจในพื้นที่เปนผูดําเนินการ หรือชวยดําเนินการก็ได
และในกรณีตาม (๕) จะมอบหมายใหองคการสาธารณกุศลเปนผูดําเนินการหรือชวยดําเนินการดวยก็ได
มาตรา ๒๘ เมื่อเกิดหรือใกลจะเกิดสาธารณภัยขึ้น ในพื้นที่ใด และการที่ผูใดอยูอาศัยใน
พื้น ที่นั้น จะกอ ใหเกิ ดภยัน ตรายหรือกี ดขวางตอการปฏิบั ติหนา ที่ของเจาพนักงาน ใหผูบัญ ชาการ
รองผูบัญชาการ ผูอํานวยการ และเจาพนักงานซึ่งไดรับมอบหมายมีอํานาจสั่งอพยพผูซึ่งอยูในพื้นที่นั้น
ออกไปจากพื้นที่ดังกลาว ทั้งนี้ เฉพาะเทาที่จําเปนแกการปองกันและบรรเทาสาธารณภัย
มาตรา ๒๙ เมื่อเกิดหรือใกลจะเกิดสาธารณภัยขึ้นในพื้นที่ใดและการอยูอาศัยหรือดําเนิน
กิจการใด ๆ ในพื้นที่นั้นจะเปนอันตรายอยางรายแรง ผูบัญชาการ รองผูบัญชาการ ผูอํานวยการกลาง
ผูอํานวยการจังหวัด ผูอํานวยการอําเภอ และผูอํานวยการทองถิ่นโดยความเห็นชอบของผูอํานวยการ
อําเภอ จะประกาศหามมิใ หบุคคลใด ๆ เขาไปอยูอาศัยหรือดําเนิน กิจการใดในพื้น ที่ดังกลาวก็ได
ประกาศดังกลาวใหกําหนดระยะเวลาการหามและเขตพื้นที่ที่หามตามที่จําเปนไวดวย
มาตรา ๓๐ ใหผูอํานวยการในเขตพื้นที่ที่รับผิดชอบสํารวจความเสียหายจากสาธารณภัย
ที่เกิดขึ้นและทําบัญชีรายชื่อผูประสบภัยและทรัพยสินที่เสียหายไวเปนหลักฐาน พรอมทั้งออกหนังสือ
รับรองใหผูประสบภัยไวเปนหลักฐานในการรับการสงเคราะหและฟนฟูหนั ง สื อ รั บ รองตามวรรคหนึ่ ง ต อ งมี ร ายละเอี ย ดเกี่ ย วกั บ การสงเคราะห แ ละการฟ น ฟู ที่ผูประสบภัยมีสิทธิไดรับจากทางราชการ พรอมทั้งระบุหนวยงานที่เปน ผูใหการสงเคราะหหรือฟน ฟูและสถานที่ติดตอของหนวยงานนั้นไวดวย ทั้งนี้ ตามแบบที่อธิบดีกําหนด
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ราชกิจจานุเบกษา๗ กันยายน ๒๕๕๐บรรดาเอกสารราชการของผูประสบภัยที่สูญหายหรือเสียหายเนื่องจากสาธารณภัยที่เกิดขึ้น
เมื่อผูประสบภัยรองขอตอองคกรปกครองสวนทองถิ่นแหงพื้นที่ที่เกิดสาธารณภัย หรือที่เปนภูมิลําเนา
ของผูประสบภัย ใหเปนหนาที่ขององคกรปกครองสวนทองถิ่นแหงพื้นที่นั้นแจงใหหนวยงานของรัฐ
และองค กรปกครองสว นทอ งถิ่ น ที่ เกี่ ยวขอ งทราบ และใหห นว ยงานของรัฐ และองค กรปกครอง
สวนทองถิ่นที่เกี่ยวของออกเอกสารทางราชการดังกลาวใหใหมตามหลักฐานที่อยูในความครอบครองของตน
สงมอบใหแกผูประสบภัยหรือสงมอบผานทางองคกรปกครองสวนทองถิ่นแหงพื้นที่ที่เปนผูแจง ทั้งนี้
โดยผูประสบภัยไมตองเสียคาธรรมเนียมหรือคาบริการ แมวาตามกฎหมายที่เกี่ยวกับการออกเอกสาร
ราชการดังกลาวจะกําหนดใหตองเสียคาธรรมเนียมหรือคาบริการก็ตาม
ในกรณีที่ผูประสบภัยหรือ เจาของหรือ ผูครอบครองทรัพยสิน รอ งขอหลักฐานเพื่อรับการ
สงเคราะหหรือบริการอื่นใด ใหผูอํานวยการในเขตพื้น ที่ที่รับผิดชอบ ออกหนังสือรับรองใหตาม
ระเบียบที่กระทรวงมหาดไทยกําหนด
มาตรา ๓๑ ในกรณี ที่ เ กิ ด สาธารณภั ย ร า ยแรงอย า งยิ่ ง นายกรั ฐ มนตรี ห รื อ รองนายกรัฐมนตรีซึ่งนายกรัฐมนตรีมอบหมายมีอํานาจสั่งการผูบัญชาการ ผูอํานวยการ หนวยงานของรัฐ
และองคกรปกครองสวนทองถิ่นใหดําเนินการอยางหนึ่งอยางใดเพื่อปองกันและบรรเทาสาธารณภัย
รวมตลอดทั้ งให ความช วยเหลื อแกประชาชนในพื้น ที่ ที่กํา หนดก็ไ ด โดยใหมีอํ านาจเชน เดีย วกั บผูบัญชาการตามมาตรา ๑๓ และผูอํานวยการตามมาตรา ๒๑ และมีอํานาจกํากับและควบคุมการปฏิบัติ
หนาที่ของผูบั ญชาการ รองผูบัญชาการ ผูอํานวยการ รองผู อํานวยการ ผูชวยผูอํานวยการ และเจาพนักงานในการดําเนินการตามมาตรา ๒๕ มาตรา ๒๘ และมาตรา ๒๙ ดวยเจาหนาที่ของรัฐผูใดไมปฏิบัติตามคําสั่งของนายกรัฐมนตรี หรือรองนายกรัฐมนตรี ตามวรรคหนึ่ง
ใหถือวาเปนการปฏิบัติหนาที่โดยไมชอบหรือเปนความผิดวินัยอยางรายแรง แลวแตกรณี
หมวด ๓
การปองกันและบรรเทาสาธารณภัยในเขตกรุงเทพมหานคร

มาตรา ๓๒ ใหผูวาราชการกรุงเทพมหานครเปนผูอํานวยการกรุงเทพมหานครรับผิดชอบ
ในการปองกันและบรรเทาสาธารณภัยในเขตกรุงเทพมหานคร และมีอํานาจหนาที่ ดังตอไปนี้
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ราชกิจจานุเบกษา๗ กันยายน ๒๕๕๐(๑) จัดทําแผนการปองกันและบรรเทาสาธารณภัยกรุงเทพมหานคร ซึ่งตองสอดคลองกับ
แผนการปองกันและบรรเทาสาธารณภัยแหงชาติ(๒) กํากับดูแลการฝกอบรมอาสาสมัครของกรุงเทพมหานคร(๓) จัดใหมี วัสดุ อุปกรณ เครื่องมือ เครื่องใช ยานพาหนะ และสิ่ งอื่น เพื่อใช ใ นการป อ งกั น และบรรเทาสาธารณภั ย ตามที่ กํ า หนดในแผนการป อ งกั น และบรรเทาสาธารณภั ยกรุงเทพมหานคร(๔) ดําเนิน การใหการสงเคราะหเบื้องตนแกผูประสบภัย หรือผูไดรับภยันตราย หรือเสียหายจากสาธารณภัย รวมตลอดทั้งการรักษาความสงบเรียบรอย และการปฏิบัติการใด ๆ ในการ
ปองกันและบรรเทาสาธารณภัย(๕) สนับสนุนและใหความชวยเหลือแกองคกรปกครองสวนทองถิ่นซึ่งมีพื้นที่ติดตอหรือ
ใกลเคียงในการปองกันและบรรเทาสาธารณภัย(๖) ปฏิบัติหนาที่อื่นตามที่ผูบัญชาการและผูอํานวยการกลางมอบหมาย
เพื่อประโยชนในการปฏิบัติหนาที่ตาม (๓) (๔) และ (๕) ใหผูอํานวยการกรุงเทพมหานคร
มีอํานาจสั่งการสวนราชการและหนวยงานของกรุงเทพมหานคร รวมทั้งประสานกับหนวยงานของรัฐ
และองคกรปกครองสวนทองถิ่นที่เกี่ยวของในการปองกันและบรรเทาสาธารณภัย เพื่อใหเปนไปตาม
แผนการปองกันและบรรเทาสาธารณภัยกรุงเทพมหานคร และมีอํานาจสั่งการ ควบคุม และกํากับดูแล
การปฏิบัติหนาที่ของเจาพนักงานและอาสาสมัครของกรุงเทพมหานครใหเปนไปตามพระราชบัญญัตินี้
มาตรา ๓๓ แผนการปองกันและบรรเทาสาธารณภัยกรุงเทพมหานครตามมาตรา ๓๒ (๑)อยางนอยตองมีสาระสําคัญตามมาตรา ๑๒ และสาระสําคัญอื่นดังตอไปนี้(๑) การจัดตั้งศูนยอํานวยการเฉพาะกิจเมื่อเกิดสาธารณภัยขึ้น โครงสรางและผูมีอํานาจสั่งการ
ดานตาง ๆ ในการปองกันและบรรเทาสาธารณภัย(๒) แผนและขั้นตอนในการจัดหาวัสดุ อุปกรณ เครื่องมือเครื่องใช และยานพาหนะเพื่อใช
ในการปองกันและบรรเทาสาธารณภัย(๓) แผนและขั้น ตอนในการจัด ใหมีเ ครื่องหมายสั ญญาณ หรือ สิ่งอื่น ใด ในการแจงให
ประชาชนไดทราบถึงการเกิดหรือจะเกิดสาธารณภัย(๔) แผนปฏิบัติการในการปองกันและบรรเทาสาธารณภัยในเขตกรุงเทพมหานคร(๕) แผนการประสานงานกับองคการสาธารณกุศลในเขตกรุงเทพมหานคร
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ราชกิจจานุเบกษา๗ กันยายน ๒๕๕๐มาตรา ๓๔ ในการจัดทําแผนการปองกันและบรรเทาสาธารณภัยกรุงเทพมหานคร ใหผูวา
ราชการกรุงเทพมหานครแตงตั้งคณะกรรมการขึ้นคณะหนึ่ง ประกอบดวย(๑) ผูวาราชการกรุงเทพมหานคร เปนประธานกรรมการ(๒) ปลัดกรุงเทพมหานคร เปนรองประธานกรรมการ(๓) กรรมการอื่น ประกอบดวย(ก) ผูแทนสวนราชการหรือหนวยงานของกรุงเทพมหานครตามจํานวนที่ผูวาราชการ
กรุงเทพมหานครเห็นสมควรแตงตั้ง(ข) ผูแทนกรมปองกันและบรรเทาสาธารณภัย(ค) ผูแทนองค การสาธารณกุศลในเขตกรุง เทพมหานครตามจํ านวนที่ผูว าราชการ
กรุงเทพมหานครเห็นสมควรแตงตั้ง(ง) ผูแทนชุมชนในเขตกรุงเทพมหานครตามจํานวนที่ผูวาราชการกรุงเทพมหานคร
เห็นสมควรแตงตั้ง
ใหแตงตั้งผูแทนกระทรวงกลาโหมและผูแทนสถาบันการศึกษาระดับอุดมศึกษาเปนที่ปรึกษา
หรือกรรมการตามจํานวนที่ผูวาราชการกรุงเทพมหานครเห็นสมควรแตงตั้งให ค ณะกรรมการตามวรรคหนึ่ ง มี ห นา ที่ จั ด ทํ า แผนการป อ งกั น และบรรเทาสาธารณภั ยกรุงเทพมหานครเสนอผูวาราชการกรุงเทพมหานครเพื่อประกาศใชตอไป
การปฏิบัติ หนา ที่แ ละการประชุมของคณะกรรมการตามวรรคหนึ่ ง ใหเ ปน ไปตามที่ผูว าราชการกรุงเทพมหานครกําหนด
มาตรา ๓๕ ให ป ลั ด กรุ ง เทพมหานครเป น รองผู อํา นวยการกรุ ง เทพมหานครมี ห น า ที่ชวยเหลือผูอํานวยการกรุงเทพมหานครในการปองกันและบรรเทาสาธารณภัย และปฏิบัติหนาที่อื่น
ตามที่ผูอํานวยการกรุงเทพมหานครมอบหมาย และใหนําความในวรรคสองของมาตรา ๓๒ มาใช
บังคับกับการปฏิบัติหนาที่ของรองผูอํานวยการกรุงเทพมหานครดวยโดยอนุโลม
ความรับ ผิด ชอบ และอํา นาจหนา ที่ข องปลั ดกรุง เทพมหานครในฐานะรองผูอํ านวยการ
กรุงเทพมหานครตามวรรคหนึ่ง ปลัดกรุงเทพมหานครจะมอบหมายใหรองปลัดกรุงเทพมหานคร
เปนผูชวยปฏิบัติดวยก็ได
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ราชกิจจานุเบกษา๗ กันยายน ๒๕๕๐มาตรา ๓๖ ใหผูอํานวยการเขตในแตละเขตของกรุงเทพมหานคร เปนผูชวยผูอํานวยการ
กรุงเทพมหานครรับผิดชอบและปฏิบัติหนาที่ในการปองกันและบรรเทาสาธารณภัยในเขตของตน และมีหนาที่ชวยเหลือผูอํานวยการกรุงเทพมหานครตามที่ไดรับมอบหมาย
ในการปฏิ บั ติ ห น า ที่ ข องผู ช ว ยผู อํ า นวยการกรุ ง เทพมหานครตามวรรคหนึ่ ง ให ผู ช ว ยผูอํานวยการกรุงเทพมหานคร มีอํานาจสั่งการสวนราชการและหนวยงานของกรุงเทพมหานครที่อยูใน
เขตพื้น ที่ใ หชวยเหลือหรือรวมมื อในการปองกัน และบรรเทาสาธารณภัยตามแผนการปองกัน และบรรเทาสาธารณภัยกรุงเทพมหานคร และมีอํานาจสั่งการ ควบคุม และกํากับดูแลการปฏิบัติหนาที่ของ
เจาพนักงานและอาสาสมัครของกรุงเทพมหานครใหเปนไปตามพระราชบัญญัตินี้
ความรั บ ผิ ด ชอบ และอํ า นาจหน า ที่ ข องผู อํ า นวยการเขตในฐานะผู ช ว ยผู อํ า นวยการ
กรุงเทพมหานครตามวรรคหนึ่งและวรรคสอง ผูอํานวยการเขตจะมอบหมายใหผูชวยผูอํานวยการเขต
เปนผูชวยปฏิบัติดวยก็ได
มาตรา ๓๗ เมื่อเกิดหรือคาดวาจะเกิดสาธารณภัยขึ้นในเขตกรุงเทพมหานคร ใหผูชวย
ผูอํานวยการกรุงเทพมหานครมีหนาที่เขาดําเนินการปองกันและบรรเทาสาธารณภัยโดยเร็ว และแจงให
ผูอํานวยการกรุงเทพมหานครและรองผูอํานวยการกรุงเทพมหานครทราบทันที
ใหนําความในมาตรา ๒๑ วรรคสอง มาตรา ๒๒ วรรคสามและวรรคสี่ มาตรา ๒๔มาตรา ๒๕ มาตรา ๒๖ มาตรา ๒๗ มาตรา ๒๘ มาตรา ๒๙ และมาตรา ๓๐ มาใชบังคับกับการ
ปองกันและบรรเทาสาธารณภัยในเขตกรุงเทพมหานครดวยโดยอนุโลม
มาตรา ๓๘ ในกรณีที่มีความจําเปนที่จะตองไดรับความชวยเหลือจากเจาหนาที่ของรัฐผูใด
หรือ หน วยงานของรัฐ ใดในการป องกัน และบรรเทาสาธารณภัย ที่เ กิด ขึ้น ในเขตกรุง เทพมหานคร
ใหผูอํานวยการกรุงเทพมหานครแจงใหเจาหนาที่ของรัฐผูนั้นหรือหนวยงานของรัฐนั้นทราบ และเมื่อ
เจาหนาที่ของรัฐผูนั้นหรือหนวยงานของรัฐนั้น แลวแตกรณี ไดรับแจงแลว ใหเปนหนาที่ที่จะตอง
ดําเนินการใหความชวยเหลือในการปองกันและบรรเทาสาธารณภัยที่เกิดขึ้น ในเขตกรุงเทพมหานคร
ตามที่ไดรบั แจงโดยเร็ว
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ราชกิจจานุเบกษา๗ กันยายน ๒๕๕๐หมวด ๔
เจาพนักงานและอาสาสมัคร
มาตรา ๓๙ ใหผูอํานวยการมีอํานาจแตงตั้งเจาพนักงานเพื่อปฏิบัติหนาที่ดังตอไปนี้(๑) ผูอํานวยการกลาง มีอํานาจแตงตั้งเจาพนักงานใหปฏิบัติหนาที่ไดทั่วราชอาณาจักร(๒) ผูอํานวยการจังหวัด มีอํานาจแตงตั้งเจาพนักงานใหปฏิบัติหนาที่ไดในเขตจังหวัด(๓) ผูอํานวยการอําเภอ มีอํานาจแตงตั้งเจาพนักงานใหปฏิบัติหนาที่ไดในเขตอําเภอ(๔) ผูอํานวยการทองถิ่น มีอํานาจแตงตั้งเจ าพนักงานใหปฏิบัติห นาที่ไดในเขตองคก รปกครองสวนทองถิ่นแหงพื้นที่(๕) ผูอํานวยการกรุงเทพมหานคร มีอํานาจแตงตั้งเจาพนักงานใหปฏิบัติหนาที่ไดใ นเขตกรุงเทพมหานครหลั ก เกณฑ ก ารแต ง ตั้ ง และการปฏิ บั ติ ห น า ที่ ข องเจ า พนั ก งานให เ ป น ไปตามระเบี ย บที่กระทรวงมหาดไทยกําหนด
มาตรา ๔๐ ในกรณีที่ผูอํานวยการหรือเจาพนักงานพบเห็นวาอาคารหรือสถานที่ใดมีสภาพ
ที่อาจกอใหเกิดสาธารณภัยไดโดยงายหรือมีวัสดุหรือสิ่งของใดในอาคารหรือสถานที่ใดที่อาจกอใหเกิด
สาธารณภัยได ใหแจงพนักงานเจาหนาที่ตามกฎหมายวาดวยการนั้นทราบเพื่อตรวจสอบตามอํานาจ
หนาที่ตอไป
มาตรา ๔๑ ใหผูอํานวยการจัดใหมีอาสาสมัครในพื้น ที่ที่รับผิดชอบ เพื่อปฏิบัติหนาที่
ดังตอไปนี้(๑) ใหความชวยเหลือเจาพนักงานในการปองกันและบรรเทาสาธารณภัย(๒) ปฏิบัติหนาที่อื่น ตามที่ผูอํานวยการมอบหมายและตามระเบียบที่กระทรวงมหาดไทย
กําหนด
การบริหารและกํากับดูแลอาสาสมัคร การคัดเลือก การฝกอบรม สิทธิ หนาที่และวินัยของ
อาสาสมัคร ใหเปนไปตามระเบียบที่กระทรวงมหาดไทยกําหนด
มาตรา ๔๒ ในกรณีที่องคการสาธารณกุศลหรือบุคคลใดเขามาชวยเหลือการปฏิบัติหนาที่
ของเจาพนักงานในระหวางเกิดสาธารณภัย ใหผูอํานวยการหรือเจาพนักงานที่ไดรับมอบหมายมีอํานาจ
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ราชกิจจานุเบกษา๗ กันยายน ๒๕๕๐มอบหมายภารกิจหรือจัดสถานที่ใหองคการสาธารณกุศลและบุคคลดังกลาวในการใหความชวยเหลือได
ตามที่เห็นสมควร
เพื่อ ใหการชวยเหลือหรือบรรเทาสาธารณภัยเปนไปอยางมีประสิทธิภาพ ใหผูอํานวยการ
แจงใหองคการสาธารณกุศลและบุคคล ที่มีวัตถุประสงคในการใหความชวยเหลือผูประสบภัยที่อยูใน
พื้น ที่ที่รับผิดชอบ ทราบถึงแนวทางการปฏิบัติตามแผนการปองกัน และบรรเทาสาธารณภัยจังหวัด
หรือแผนการปองกันและบรรเทาสาธารณภัยกรุงเทพมหานคร และวิธีการประสานงานในการปฏิบัติหนาที่
หมวด ๕
เบ็ดเตล็ด

มาตรา ๔๓ ให ผู บั ญ ชาการ รองผู บั ญ ชาการ ผู อํา นวยการ รองผูอํ า นวยการ ผู ช ว ยผูอํานวยการ และเจ า พนักงานซึ่งปฏิบัติการตามหนาที่ใ นการปองกัน และบรรเทาสาธารณภัยตาม
พระราชบัญญัตินี้ เปน เจาพนักงานตามประมวลกฎหมายอาญา และในการปฏิ บัติการตามหนา ที่ดังกลาว หากไดดําเนินการไปตามอํานาจหนาที่ และไดกระทําไปพอสมควรแกเหตุและมิไดประมาท
เลินเลออยางรายแรง ใหผูกระทําการนั้นพนจากความผิดและความรับผิดทั้งปวง
ในการดําเนินการตามวรรคหนึ่ง หากเกิดความเสียหายแกทรัพยสินของผูใดซึ่งมิใชเปนผูไดรับ
ประโยชนจากการบําบัดภยันตรายจากสาธารณภัยนั้น ใหทางราชการชดเชยความเสียหายที่เกิดขึ้น
ใหแกผูนั้นตามหลักเกณฑและวิธีการที่กําหนดในกฎกระทรวง
มาตรา ๔๔ ในกรณีท่ขี อเท็จจริงเกี่ยวกับสาธารณภัยหรือการปองกันและบรรเทาสาธารณภัย
ที่ไดกําหนดไวใ นแผนตาง ๆ ตามพระราชบัญญัตินี้เปลี่ยนแปลงไปหรือแผนดังกลาวไดใ ชมาครบ
หาปแ ลว ใหเปนหนาที่ของผูซึ่งรับผิดชอบในการจัดทําแผน ปรับปรุง หรือทบทวนแผน ที่อยูใ นความรับผิดชอบของตนโดยเร็ว
มาตรา ๔๕ ใหมีเครื่องแบบ เครื่องหมาย และบัตรประจําตัว สําหรับเจาพนักงานและ
อาสาสมัครเพื่อแสดงตัวขณะปฏิบัติหนาที่ในการปองกันและบรรเทาสาธารณภัย
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ราชกิจจานุเบกษา๗ กันยายน ๒๕๕๐เครื่ อ งแบบ เครื่ อ งหมาย และบั ต รประจํ า ตั ว ตามวรรคหนึ่ ง ให เ ป น ไปตามแบบที่
กระทรวงมหาดไทยกําหนด
ในกรณีที่ผูบัญชาการ รองผูบัญชาการ ผูอํานวยการ หรือผูชวยผูอํานวยการประสงคจะแตง
เครื่องแบบ ก็ใหกระทําไดตามแบบที่กระทรวงมหาดไทยกําหนด
มาตรา ๔๖ การดําเนินการตามมาตรา ๒๑ มาตรา ๒๒ มาตรา ๒๕ มาตรา ๒๘ หรือมาตรา ๒๙ ภายในเขตทหารหรือที่เกี่ยวกับกิจการ เจาหนาที่ หรือทรัพยสินในราชการทหารใหเปนไป
ตามความตกลงเปน หนังสือรวมกัน ระหวางผูอํานวยการจังหวัดหรือผูอํานวยการกรุงเทพมหานคร
และผูบังคับบัญชาของทหารในเขตพื้น ที่ที่เกี่ยวของ เวน แตเปนกรณีการสั่งการของนายกรัฐมนตรี
หรือรองนายกรัฐมนตรี ตามมาตรา ๓๑มาตรา ๔๗ บรรดาคาปรับตามพระราชบัญญัตินี้ใหเปนรายไดของทองถิ่น เพื่อนําไปใช
จายเกี่ยวกับการปองกันและบรรเทาสาธารณภัยของทองถิ่นนั้น
มาตรา ๔๘ หามมิใหบุคคลที่ปฏิบัติหนาที่ในการปองกันและบรรเทาสาธารณภัย นําเอา
ความลับ ซึ่งตนไดมาในฐานะนั้น ๆ ไปใชเพื่อประโยชนสวนตัว หรือเปดเผยความลับนั้นแกผูอื่นโดยไม มีอํ านาจโดยชอบดว ยกฎหมายในประการที่ นา จะเกิ ดความเสีย หายแกผู หนึ่ งผู ใ ด หรื อแกก ารประกอบอาชีพของผูนั้น
หมวด ๖
บทกําหนดโทษ
มาตรา ๔๙ ผูใ ดไมปฏิบัติตามคําสั่งหรือขัดขวางการปฏิบัติหนาที่ของผูอํานวยการตาม
มาตรา ๒๑ ตองระวางโทษจําคุกไมเกินสามเดือน หรือปรับไมเกินหกพันบาท หรือทั้งจําทั้งปรับ
มาตรา ๕๐ ผูใดขัดขวางการดําเนินการของเจาพนักงานตามมาตรา ๒๔ หรือการปฏิบัติ
ตามคําสั่งของผูอํานวยการตามมาตรา ๒๕ หรือขัดขวางการปฏิบัติหนาที่ของเจาพนักงานตามมาตรา ๒๖วรรคสาม ตองระวางโทษจําคุกไมเกินหนึ่งป หรือปรับไมเกินสองหมื่นบาท หรือทั้งจําทั้งปรับ
มาตรา ๕๑ ผูใดเขาไปในพื้นที่ที่ปดกั้นตามมาตรา ๒๗ (๓) โดยไมมีอํานาจหนาที่ตาม
กฎหมายหรือตามคําสั่งของผูอํานวยการ ตองระวางโทษจําคุกไมเกินสามเดือน หรือปรับไมเกินหกพันบาท
หรือทั้งจําทั้งปรับ
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ราชกิจจานุเบกษา๗ กันยายน ๒๕๕๐ในกรณีที่ผูกระทําความผิดตามวรรคหนึ่งเปนเจาของหรือผูครอบครองอาคารหรือสถานที่ที่อยู
ในพื้นที่ที่ปดกั้นตามมาตรา ๒๗ (๓) ผูอํานวยการหรือเจาพนักงานซึ่งไดรับมอบหมายจากผูอํานวยการ
จะเรียกบุคคลดังกลาวมาตักเตือนแทนการดําเนินคดีก็ได
มาตรา ๕๒ ผูใดฝาฝนหรือไมปฏิบัติตามคําสั่งอพยพบุคคลออกจากพื้นที่ตามมาตรา ๒๘ถาคําสั่งอพยพนั้นเพื่อเปนการปองกันการกีดขวางการปฏิบัติหนาที่ในการปองกันและบรรเทาสาธารณภัย
หรือฝาฝนคําสั่งตามมาตรา ๒๙ ตองระวางโทษจําคุกไมเกินหนึ่งเดือน หรือปรับไมเกินสองพันบาท
หรือทั้งจําทั้งปรับ
มาตรา ๕๓ ในขณะเกิดสาธารณภัย ผูใ ดแตงเครื่องแบบหรือประดับเครื่องหมายของ
อาสาสมั ค รหรื อ ขององค ก ารสาธารณกุ ศ ล และเข า ไปในพื้ น ที่ ที่ เ กิ ด สาธารณภั ย โดยมิ ไ ด เ ป นอาสาสมัครหรือสมาชิกองคการสาธารณกุศลดังกลาว เพื่อใหบุคคลอื่นเชื่อวาตนเปนบุคคลดังกลาว
ตองระวางโทษจําคุกไมเกินสามเดือน หรือปรับไมเกินหกพันบาท หรือทั้งจําทั้งปรับ
มาตรา ๕๔ ผูใ ดเรี่ยไรหรือหาประโยชนอื่ น ใดสําหรั บตนเองหรือผูอื่น โดยมิชอบโดย
แสดงตนวาเปนอาสาสมัคร เจาพนักงานหรือผูดํารงตําแหนงอื่นใดในหนวยงานที่เกี่ยวกับการปองกัน
และบรรเทาสาธารณภัย หรือใชชื่อของหนวยงานที่เกี่ยวกับการปองกันและบรรเทาสาธารณภัยในการ
ดําเนินการดังกลาว ตองระวางโทษจําคุกไมเกินหนึ่งป หรือปรับไมเกินสองหมื่นบาท หรือทั้งจําทั้งปรับ
มาตรา ๕๕ ผูใดฝาฝนมาตรา ๔๘ ตองระวางโทษจําคุกไมเกินหกเดือน หรือปรับไมเกิน
สองพันบาท หรือทั้งจําทั้งปรับ
บทเฉพาะกาล
มาตรา ๕๖ ใหหนวยงานหรือบุคคลที่มีหนาที่จัดทําแผนการปองกันและบรรเทาสาธารณภัย
ตามพระราชบัญญัตินี้ ดําเนินการจัดทําแผนการปองกันและบรรเทาสาธารณภัยตามพระราชบัญญัตินี้
ใหแลวเสร็จภายในสองปนับแตวัน ที่พระราชบัญญัตินี้ใชบังคับ การดําเนิน การปองกันและบรรเทา
สาธารณภัยในระหวางที่ยังจัดทําแผนดังกลาวไมแลวเสร็จใหเปนไปตามแผนที่เกี่ยวของที่ใชบังคับอยูใน
วันกอนวันที่พระราชบัญญัตินี้ใชบังคับ

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ราชกิจจานุเบกษา๗ กันยายน ๒๕๕๐มาตรา ๕๗ ใหบรรดาศูนยปองกัน และบรรเทาสาธารณภัยเขต กรมปองกันและบรรเทา
สาธารณภั ย เป น ศู น ย ป อ งกั น และบรรเทาสาธารณภั ย ที่ จั ด ตั้ ง ขึ้ น ตามมาตรา ๑๑ วรรคสี่
แหงพระราชบัญญัตินี้
มาตรา ๕๘ บรรดากฎกระทรวง ระเบี ย บ ข อ บัง คั บ ประกาศ หรื อคํ า สั่ง ที่อ อกตาม
พระราชบัญญัติปองกันภัยฝายพลเรือน พ.ศ. ๒๕๒๒ และพระราชบัญญัติปองกันและระงับอัคคีภัย
พ.ศ. ๒๕๔๒ ซึ่งใชบังคับอยูในวัน ที่พระราชบัญญัตินี้ใชบังคับ ใหยังใชบังคับไดตอไปเทาที่ไมขัด
หรือแยงกับบทบัญญัติแหงพระราชบัญญัตินี้
ผูรับสนองพระบรมราชโองการ
พลเอก สุรยุทธ จุลานนท
นายกรัฐมนตรี

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ราชกิจจานุเบกษา๗ กันยายน ๒๕๕๐หมายเหตุ :- เหตุ ผลในการประกาศใช พระราชบัญญัติฉ บับนี้ คือ เนื่องจากการปฏิ รูประบบราชการตาม
พระราชบัญญัติปรับปรุง กระทรวง ทบวง กรม พ.ศ. ๒๕๔๕ ไดจัดตั้งกรมปองกันและบรรเทาสาธารณภัย
ขึ้นเปนสวนราชการสังกัดกระทรวงมหาดไทย มีภารกิจหลักในการดําเนินการปองกัน บรรเทา ฟนฟูสาธารณภัย
และอุบัติภัย ซึ่งมีผลทําใหงานดานสาธารณภัยและงานดานอุบัติภัย ที่เดิมดําเนินการโดยกองปองกันภัยฝาย
พลเรือน กรมการปกครอง กระทรวงมหาดไทย และสํานัก งานคณะกรรมการปองกัน อุบัติภัยแหงชาติ
สํานักงานปลัดสํานักนายกรัฐมนตรี สํานักนายกรัฐมนตรี มารวมอยูในความรับผิดชอบของหนวยงานเดียวกัน
นอกจากนี้กฎหมายวาดวยการปองกันและระงับอัคคีภัย เปนกฎหมายที่มีสาระสําคัญและรายละเอียดเกี่ยวกับ
การปองกันและบรรเทาสาธารณภัยในดานของอัคคีภัย รวมทั้ง หนวยงานที่จะตองปฏิบัติเพื่อใหเปนไปตาม
กฎหมายดังกลาวก็เปน หน วยงานเดี ยวกัน เพื่อใหการปฏิบัติงานเปนไปอยางมี ประสิทธิภาพและแนวทาง
เดียวกัน ตลอดจนเพื่อใหเกิดความเปนเอกภาพในการอํานวยการและบริหารจัดการเกี่ยวกับการปองกันและ
บรรเทาสาธารณภั ย จึ งเห็ น สมควรนํ ากฎหมายวาด ว ยการป องกัน ภัย ฝายพลเรือน และกฎหมายวาดว ยการปองกันและระงับอัคคีภัย มาบัญญัติไวรวมกัน จึงจําเปนตองตราพระราชบัญญัตินี้

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Appendix 4: Thailand 4
ACT ON ANCIENT MONUMENTS, ANTIQUES, OBJECTS OF ART AND NATIONAL MUSEUMS, B.E.2504 (1961),
Thailand.
ACT ON ANCIENT MONUMENTS, ANTIQUES,OBJECTS OF ART
AND NATIONAL MUSEUMS,
B.E.2504 (1961)1
BHUMIBOL ADULYADEJ, REX.
Given on the 2nd Day of August, B.E.2504;
Being the 16th Year of the Present Reign.
His Majesty King Bhumibol Adulyadej is graciously pleased to proclaim that:
Whereas it is expedient to revise the law on ancient monuments, antiques, objects of art and national museums; Be it,
therefore, enacted by the King, by and with the advice and consent of the Constituent Assembly acting as the National
Assembly, as follows:
Section 1. This Act is called the “Act on Ancient Monuments, Antiques, Objects of Art and National Museums, B.E.2504(1961)”.
Section 2. This Act shall come into force after the expiration of thirty days from the date of its publication in the
Government Gazette2.
Section 3. The following shall be repealed:(1) The Act on Ancient Monuments, Objects of Art, Antiques and National Museums, B.E.2477; and(2) The Act on Ancient Monuments, Objects of Art, Antiques and National Museums (No.2), B.E.2486
All other laws, by-laws and regulations in so far as they deal with matters provided herein or are contrary hereto or
inconsistent herewith shall be replaced by this Act. 1 As last amended by the Act on Ancient Monuments, Antiques, Objectsof Art and National Museums (No.2), B.E.2535 (1992) (published in the Government Gazette Vol.109, Part 38, dated 5th
April B.E.2535 (1992)) 2 Published in the Government Gazette Vol.78, Part 66 dated 29th August B.E.2504 (1961)
Section 4. In this Act:
“ancient monument”3 means an immovable property which, by its age or architectural characteristics or historicalevidence, is useful in the ﬁeld of art, history or archaeology and shall included places which are archaeological sites, historicsites and historic parks;“antique” means an archaic movable property, whether produced by man or by nature, or being any part of ancientmonument or of human skeleton or animal carcass which, by its age or characteristics of production or historical evidence, isuseful in the ﬁeld of art, history or archaeology;“object of art”4 means a thing skillfully produced by craftsmanship which is high valuable in the ﬁeld of art; “duplicate
antique”5 means a thing which is a duplicate of an antique or a particular part of an antique registered under this Act or whichis in the possession of the Department of Fine Arts;

1

As last amended by the Act on Ancient Monuments, Antiques, Objects of Art and National Museums (No.2), B.E.2535(1992) (published in the Government Gazette Vol.109, Part 38, dated 5th April B.E.2535 (1992))

2

Published in the Government Gazette Vol.78, Part 66 dated 29th August B.E.2504 (1961)

3

As amended by section 3 of the Act on Ancient Monuments, Antiques, Objects of Art and National Museums (No.2),
B.E.2535 (1992)

4

As amended by section 4 of the Act on Ancient Monuments, Antiques, Objects of Art and National Museums (No.2),
B.E.2535 (1992)

5

As added by section 5, ibid.
227

Appendix“duplicate object of art”6 means a thing which is a duplicate of object of art or a particular part of object of art registeredunder this Act or which is in the possession of the Department of Fine Arts;“duplicate”7 means imitate, replicate or reproduce by any means in order to be like or similar to the original object
regardless of its original size, features or material; “competent ofﬁcial” means the person appointed by the Minister for the
execution of this Act;
“Director-General” means the Director-General of the Department of Fine Arts;“Minister” means the Minister having
charge and control of the execution of this Act.
Section 5.8 The Director-General may, in regard to the issuence of permit or licence by him under this Act, entrust agovernment ofﬁcial of the Department of Fine Arts in a position not lower than a Director or its equivalent to act on hisbehalf of the Changwat Governor of any locality to act on his behalf in such locality. Such entrustment shall be published in
the Government Gazette.
After the publication of entrustment of authority to the Changwat Governor of any locality according to paragraph one,the application for permit or licence shall be ﬁled with the Changwat Governor of such locality.
Section 6.9 The Minister of Education shall have charge and control of the execution of this Act, and shall have thepower to appoint competent ofﬁcials, issue Ministerial Regulations prescribing fees not exceeding the rates provided in the
shedules hereto attached, granting exemption from fees, and prescribing other activities for the execution of this Act.
Such Ministerial Regulation shall come into force upon their publication in the Government Gazette.
CHAPTER I
Ancient Monuments
Section 7. The Director-General shall, for the purpose of keeping, maintaining and controlling ancient monuments
under this Act, have the power to cause, by means of notiﬁcation in the Government Gazette, any ancient monument as hethinks ﬁt to be registered, and to determine such area of land as he thinks ﬁt to be its compound; which area shall also be
considered as ancient monument. Cancellation and modiﬁcation of the same may likewise be made.
If the ancient monument to be registered under the foregoing paragraph is owned or lawfully possessed by any person,
the Director-General shall notify in writing the owner or possessor thereof. The owner or possessor shall, if not satisﬁed
therewith, be entitled within thirty days from the date of his or her being aware of the Director-Generalʼs notiﬁcation to
apply for an order of the Court requiring the Director-General to stop registration and/or determination of such area of landas ancient monuments, as the case may be. If the owner or possessor fails to apply for the order of the Court or the Court
gives, when the case is ﬁnal, the order rejecting the application, the Director-General shall proceed with the registration.
Section 7 bis.10 No person shall construct any building according to the law on the control of building construction within
the compound of ancient monument registered by the Director-General except permit has been obtained from the DirectorGeneral.
In the case where the building being constructed without permit, the Director-General shall have the power to stop theconstruction and to demolish the building or a part of the building within sixty days from the date of the receipt of the order.
Any person who refuses to stop the construction or to demolish the building or a part of building according to order ofthe Director-General shall be liable to the offence of refusing the order of ofﬁcial. The Director-General shall demolish thebuilding or a part of that building and the owner, the occupier or the constructor shall have no right to claim damages orproceed with the case whatsoever against the persons executing that demolition.
If the owner does not remove the demolished materials from the ancient monumentʼs compound within ﬁfteen days fromthe date of the completion of the demolition, the Director-General shall sell such materials by auction. Proceeds of sale after
6

ibid.

7

ibid.

8

As amended by section 6, ibid.

9

As amended by section 6, ibid.

10

As added by clause 1 of the Announcement of the National Executive Council No.308, dated 13th December B.E.2515(1972)
228

Appendix

deduction of demolition and sales expenses shall return to the owner of such materials.
Section 8. All ancient monuments listed and published in the Government Gazette by the Director-General under the law
on ancient monuments, objects of art, antiques and national museums before the day of the coming into force of this Act
shall also be taken as registered ancient monuments under this Act.
Section 9. In case the registered ancient monument owned and lawfully possessed by any person is deteriorating,dilapidating or being damaged by any means whatsoever, the owner or possessor thereof shall inform the Director-Generalof the deterioration, dilapidation or damage within thirty days from the date of his or her being aware of its occurence.
Section 9 bis.11 The ancient monument under section 9 which display to the public for collecting admission fee or any
other fees as regular business or yield any beneﬁts whatsoever from such ancient monument, the owner or possessor thereof
shall bear the expense of repair, in total or in part, as prescribed by the Director-General.In determining the expense of
repair under paragraph one, the Director-General shall appoint a committee of not less than three persons and the owner orpossessor shall also be a member.
Section 10.12 No person shall repair, modify, alter, demolish, add to, destroy, remove any ancient monument or its parts
or excavate for anything or construct any building within the compound of ancient monument, except by order of the
Director-General, or permit has been obtained from the Director-General. If the permit contains any conditions, they shall becomplied with.
Section 10 bis.13 The competent ofﬁcial shall have the power to enter any ancient monument for the purpose of inspection
as to whether there has been any repair, modification, alteration, demolition, addition, destruction, removal of ancientmonument or its parts or any excavation or construction of building within the compound of ancient monument. The
competent ofﬁcial shall have the power, for this purpose, to seize or attach any object which is reasonably suspected of
excavation within the compound of ancient monument.
The inspection, seizure or attachment under paragraph one shall be made between sunrise and sunset. After an inspection,
seizure or attachment has taken place in the Bangkok Metropolitan area, a report shall be made to the Director-General andin other Changwats to the Changwat Governors and the Director-General.
Section 11. The Director-General shall have the power in regard to any registered ancient monument even owned or
lawfully possessed, to order the competent ofﬁcial or any person to make a repair or to do by any means whatsoever for
restoration or preservation of its original condition; provided that its owner or possessor has ﬁrst to be notiﬁed thereof.
Section 12. In case of transfer of the registered ancient monument, the transferor shall give the Director-General within
thirty days from the date of transfer a written information specifying the transfereeʼs name and residence as well as the dateof transfer.
The person who acquires ownership of a registered ancient monument by inheritance or by will shall inform the DirectorGeneral of such acquisition within sixty days from the date of the acquisition. In case there are many persons acquiringownership of the same ancient monument and one of the co-owners entrusted to give information of the acquisition ofownership has given the information within the said period, it shall be taken that all co-owners have given suchinformation.
Section 13.14 When it is deemed appropriate for preserving the condition, safety, cleanliness and tidiness of the registeredancient monument, the Minister shall have the power to issue a Ministerial Regulation on conducts of visitors during theirvisit; and may ﬁx admission fee or any other fees. The organizing of visits to ancient monument owned or lawfully possessedby any individual who charge admission fee or any other fees shall be notiﬁed in writing prior to the Director-General andshall be complied with the rules, procedure and conditions notiﬁed by the Director-General in the Government Gazette.

11

As added by section 7 of the Act on Ancient Monuments, Antiques, Objects of Art and National Meseums (No.2), B.E.2535(1992)

12

As amended by section 8, ibid.

13

As amended by section 9, ibid.

14

As amended by section 10 of the Act on Ancient Monuments, Antiques, Objects of Art and National Museums (No.2),
B.E.2535 (1992)229

Appendix

Section 13 bis.15 When it is deemed appropriate for promoting education and publicizing culture and arts, the DirectorGeneral shall have the power to give a written permit to an individual to carry out any activity that gain beneﬁt form thecompound of registered ancient monument not owned or lawfully possessed by any individual. The person receiving thepermit shall bear all expenses incurred in that activity and shall pay ownership fees, remittances, and other fees to the
Department of Fine Arts. The payment received shall beneﬁt the Archaeological Fund in accordance with rules notiﬁed by
the Director-General in the Government Gazette.
CHAPTER II
Antiques and Objects of Art
16

Section 14. The Director-General shall have the power, if he deems that any antique or object of art not being in thepossession of the Department of Fine Arts is useful or of special value in the ﬁeld of art, history or archaeology, to cause,by means of notiﬁcation in the Government Gazette, such antique or object of art to be registered. The Director-Generalshall have the power, if he deems that any antique whether it is registered or not, or any registered object of art should beconserved as a national property, to cause, by means of notiﬁcation in the Government Gazette, such antique or object ofart not to be traded. If he deems that they should become a national property, the Director-General shall have the power orpurchase such antique or object of art.
Section 14 bis.17 When it its deemed appropriate for preservation and registration of antiques or objects of art dating from
Ayudhya and earlier periods, the Director-General shall have the power to cause, by means of notiﬁcation in the Government
Gazette, any locality to be an area of survey for a particular antique or object of art. In such cases, the owner or possessor
shall inform the numbers, appearances and places at which such antiques or objects of art stored to the Director-General inaccordance with the rules, procedure and conditions notiﬁed by the Director-General.
When a notiﬁcation under paragraph one has been made, the Director-General or a person entrusted by him or her shallhave the power to enter a dwelling place of an owner or possessor or a place at which antiques or objects of art are stored
between sunrise and sunset or during working hours for the beneﬁt of registration. In the case where it is deemed that any
antique or object of art is useful or of special value in the ﬁeld of art, history or archaeology, the Director-General shall havethe power under section 14.
Section 15. No person shall repair, modify or alter any registered antique or object of art, unless permit has been obtained
form the Director-General. If the permit contains any conditions, they shall be complied with.
Section 16.18 In case the registered antique or object of art is deteriorating, dilapidating or being damaged or lost or
removed from the place at which it is stored, the possessor of such antique or object of art shall inform the Director-Generalof the deterioration, dilapidation, damage, lose or removal within thirty days from the date of his or her being aware of its
occurrence.
Section 17. In case of transfer of the registered antique or object of art, the transferor shall give the Director-General
within thirty days from the date of transfer a written information specifying the transfereeʼs name and residence as well as
the date of transfer.
The person who acquires ownership of a registered antique or object of art by inheritance or by will shall inform the
Director-General of such acquisition within sixty days from the date of the acquisition. In case there are many persons
acquiring ownership of the same antique or object of art and one of the co-owners entrusted to give information of theacquisition of ownership has given the information within the said period, it shall be taken that all co-owners have givensuch information.

15

As added by section 11, ibid.

16

As amended by section 12, ibid.

17

As added by section 13, ibid.

18

As amended by section 14 of the Act on Ancient Monuments, Antiques, Objects of Art and National Museums (No.2),
B.E.2535 (1992)
230

Appendix

Section 18.19 Antiques or objects of art which are the State property and under the custody and care of the Department ofFine Arts are inalienable, except by virtue of law. However, if the number of certain similar antiques or objects of art is inexcess of need, the Director-General may permit to transfer them by means of sale or exchange for the beneﬁt of national
museums or give them to the excavators as rewards or for a consideration of their service in compliance with rules notiﬁedby the Director-General in the Government Gazette.
Section 18 bis.20 Antiques or objects of art which are under the possession of the Department of Fine Arts or are registeredand are useful or of special value in the ﬁeld of art, history or archaeology, the Minister shall have the power to cause, bymeans of notiﬁcation in the Government Gazette, such antiques or objects of art to control the duplication.
When a notiﬁcation under paragraph one has been made, the productions, trade or possession in a place of business ofa duplicate antique or duplicate object of art under duplication control thereof shall be complied with the rules, procedureand conditions notiﬁed by the Director-General in the Government Gazette. The person who wishes to produce a duplicate
antique or duplicate object of art under such duplication control shall inform a list of items to the Director-Geneal and show
a sign of duplication on each produced item.
After being informed according to paragraph two, the Director- General shall notify lists of producers and duplicate
antiques and duplicate objects of art under duplication control to the Director-General of the Customs Department for the
beneﬁt of export or take out of the Kingdom.
Section 19.21 Any person wishing to engage in the business of antiques and objects of art not to be traded under section 14
paragraph two must obtain a licence from the Director-General.
The application for a licence and the grant thereof shall be in accordance with the rules, procedure and conditionsprescribed in the Ministerial Regulation.
In case the Director-General grants the application, he shall notify the list of the licensees in the Government Gazette.
In case the Director-General refuses to grant the application, the applicant is entitled to lodge an appeal in writing to the
Minister within thirty days from the date of his or her being aware of such order.
The decision of the Minister shall be ﬁnal.
Section 19 bis.22 Any person wishing to display antiques and objects of art to public for collecting admission fee or any
other fees shall submit prior notiﬁcation in writing to the Director-General and shall comply with the rules, procedure andconditions notiﬁed by the Director-General in the Government Gazette.
Section 19 ter.23 The licence issued under section 19 shall be valid until 31st December of the year of its issuance. If thelicensee wishes to apply for a renewal of his or her licence, he or she shall ﬁle an application to the Director-General before
the expiration thereof. Having ﬁled the application, he or she may carry on his or her business until such time when the
Director-General makes an order refusing the application.
The application for a renewal of licence and the grant thereof shall be in accordance with the rules, procedure andconditions prescribed in the Ministerial Regulation.
In case the Director-General grants the application, he shall notify the list of the licensees in the Government Gazette.
In case the Director-General refuses to grant the application, the applicant is entitled to lodge an appeal in writing to the
Minister within thirty days from the date of his or her being aware of such order.
The decision of the Minister shall be ﬁnal.
If there is an appeal for a renewal of the licence under paragraph three before the decision is made by the Minister, theMinister may give the permission that the appellant may carry on his or her business if he or she so requests.
Section 20.24 The licensee under section 19 shall produce the licence in the conspicuous place of his or her business
19

As amended by section 15, ibid.

20

As added by section 16, ibid.

21

As amended by section 17 of the Act on Ancient Monuments, Antiques, Objects of Art and National Museums (No.2),
B.E.2535 (1992)

22

As amended by section 18, ibid.

23

As added by section 19, ibid.

24

As amended by section 20, ibid.
231

Appendix

and he or she shall make a list of the antiques or objects of art or duplicate antiques or duplicate objects of art which are in
his or her possession and keep such list within such place in compliance with rules notiﬁed by the Director-General in the
Government Gazette.
Section 21.25 The competent official shall have the power to enter any place of production, business, exhibition orstorage of antiques or objects of art or duplicate antiques or duplicate objects of art between sunrise and sunset or during
working hours for the purpose of inspection as to whether the licensee has complied with this Act or whether the antiques orobjects of art or duplicate antiques or duplicate objects of art unlawfully acquired or whether there are duplicate antiques or
duplicate objects of art not being complied with notiﬁcation prescribed by the Director-General under section 18 bis in suchplaces. In the case where there is a reasonable cause to suspect that the licensee has not complied with this Act or there are
the antiques or objects of art or duplicate antiques or duplicate objects of art unlawfully acquired or duplicate antiques or
duplicate objects of art not complied with notiﬁcation prescribed by the Director-General under section 18 bis, the competentofﬁcial shall have the power to seize or attach any antiques or objects of art or duplicate antiques or duplicate objects of art
for the beneﬁt of legal prosecution.
Section 21 bis.26 In the performance of duties, the Director-General or a person entrusted by him or her or the competentofﬁcial, as the case may be, shall produce his or her identity card to the owner, the possessor, the licensee or the person
concerned at the places being inspected under section 14 bis or section 21 and such person concerned shall provide him withreasonable facilities.
Section 21 ter.27 In the performance of duties, the Director-General or a person entrusted by him or her or the competentofﬁcial shall be ofﬁcial under the Penal Code.
Section 22.28 No person shall export or take out of the Kingdom any antique or object of art irrespective of whether it isregistered or not, unless a licence has been obtained from the Director-General.
The application for a licence and the grant thereof shall be in accordance with the rules, procedure and conditionsprescribed in the Ministerial Regulation.
The provisions of paragraph one shall be not apply to objects of art which are not more than ﬁve years old and have notbeen registered and the bringing of antiques or objects of art in transit.
Section 23. Any person being desirous of temporarily dispatching antiques or objects of art out of the Kingdom shallapply to the Director-General for a licence. In case the Director-General gives the order refusing to grant the application, theapplicant is entitled to lodge an appeal against the Director-Generalʼs refusal to the Minister within thirty days from the dateof his or her being aware of such order. The decision of the Minister shall be ﬁnal.
In case the Director-General deems appropriate or the Minister decides that a licence be issued to the applicant for
temporarily dispatching antiques or objects of art out of the Kingdom and the applicant has agreed to comply with theconditions, methods and requirements on deposit of security money and/or payment of penalties as prescribed in the
Ministerial Regulation relating thereto, the Director-General shall accordingly issue a licence to the applicant.
Section 23 bis.29 In the case where it is necessary to export or take out of the Kingdom any antiques or objects of art orparts of them which are in the possession of the Department of Fine Arts for the purposes of education, analysis, research,
repair or assembly, the Director-General shall have the power to export or take out temporarily of the Kingdom such antiques
or objects of art or parts of antiques or objects of art. In case the parts of such antiques or objects of art have to be processedor destroyed in regard to the process of analysis or research, the Director-General may export or take such parts out of theKingdom without having to bring them back.

25

As amended by section 20 of the Act on Ancient Monuments, Antiques, Objects of Art and National Museums (No.2),
B.E.2535 (1992)

26

As added by section 21, ibid.

27

Ibid.

28

As amended by section 22, ibid.

29

As added by section 23 of the Act on Ancient Monuments, Antiques, Objects of Art and National Museums (No.2),
B.E.2535 (1992)
232

Appendix

Section 24.30 Antiques or objects of art buried in, concealed or abandoned within the Kingdom or the Exclusive Economic
Zone under such circumstances that no one could claim to be their owners shall, whether the place of burial, concealment,or abandonment be owned or possessed by any person, become the State property. The ﬁnder of such antiques or objects ofart shall deliver the same to the competent ofﬁcial or the administrative or police ofﬁcial under the Criminal Procedure Codeand is entitled to not more than a reward of one-third of the value of such property.
The Director-General shall appoint a committee of not less than three members to determine the value of property
according to paragraph one. The Finder is entitled to appeal against the decision of the said committee to the DirectorGeneral within ﬁfteen days from the date of his or her being aware of the decision. The decision of the Director-Generalshall be ﬁnal.
Section 24 bis.31 In the case where the licence issued under this Act is lost or materially destroyed, the licensee shall ﬁlean application for a substitute for the licence to the Director-General within ﬁfteen days from the date of his or her being
aware of the loss or destruction.
The application for a substitute of the licence and the issuance thereof shall be in accordance with the rules, procedure andconditions prescribed in the Ministerial Regulation.
CHAPTER III
National Museums
Section 25. There shall be national museums for keeping antiques or objects of art which are the State property.
Any site on which a national museum is to be established or any place required to be a national museum as well as thecancellation of the status of national museum shall be published by the Minister in the Government Gazette.
National Museums existing on the day of the coming into force of this Act shall be national museums under this Act.
Section 26.32 Antiques and objects of art which are the State property under the custody of the Department of Fine Arts
shall not be kept in other place than in the national museums. But in case it is unable or unsuitable to keep them in thenational museums, they may be, subject to the permission of the Director-General, kept in other museums, temples, or places
belonging to the government.
The provisions of paragraph one shall not apply to the case of temporarily displaying antiques or objects of art at any
place by permission of the Director-General, or to the case of taking antiques or objects of art out of the national museums
for repair by order of the Director-General.
In case of plurality of similar pieces of antiques and objects of art, the Director-General may allow any Ministry, SubMinistry or Department to keep some pieces of them.
Section 27. 33 When it is deemed appropriate for preserving the safety, cleanliness an tidiness of national museums,
the Minister shall have the power to issue a Ministerial Regulation on conducts of visitors during their visit and may ﬁx
admission fee or any other fees.
CHAPTER IV
Archaeological Fund
Section 28. There shall be set up a fund called the “Archaeological Fund” for the expenses of operation profitable toancient monuments or museum activity.
Section 29. The archaeological fund consists of :(1) money acquired under this Act ;(2) monetary beneﬁts accuring from ancient monuments ;(3) donation in cash or property ;30

As amended by section 24, ibid.

31

As added by section 25, ibid.

32

As amended by section 26 of the Act on Ancient Monuments, Antiques, Objects of Art and National Museums (No.2),
B.E.2535 (1992)

33

Ibid.
233

Appendix(4) central fund or capital money which, under the law on ancient monuments, objects of art, antiques and national
museums, is at the disposal of the Department of Fine Arts on the day of the coming into force of this Act.
Section 30. The keeping and the payment of archaeological fund shall be in compliance with the rules prescribed by the
Minister.
CHAPTER IV BIS34
Suspension and Revocation of Licences
Section 30 bis. When any licensee violates or does not comply with this Act, Ministerial Regulation, Notiﬁcation or rules
issued under this Act or conditions imposed by the Director-General, the Director-General shall have the power to suspend
the licence for a period of not more than sixty days each time; but in the case where a licensee is prosecuted in the Court for
an offence under this Act, the Director-General may suspend the licence pending the ﬁnal judgement of the Court.
The person whose licence has been suspended shall not be apply for any licence under this Act during the period of suchsuspension.
Section 30 ter. When it appears that any licensee has received the ﬁnal judgement of the Court for a violation of this Act
or violates the order of suspension, the Director-General shall have the power to revoke his licence.
The person whose licence has been revoked shall not apply for any licence under this Act until the period of two years
from the date of the revocation has elapsed.
Section 30 quarter. The licensee shall be notiﬁed of the order of suspension and the order of revocation in writing. In thecase where the person whose licence has been suspended or revoked is not found or refuses to receive the order, such ordershall be posted at the conspicuous place speciﬁed in the licence or the domicile of such licensee, and such licensee shall bedeemed to have known thereof from the date of posting the order.
The order of suspension and the order of revocation under paragraph one shall be published in the Government Gazetteand may propagate in newspaper or by other method.
Section 30 quinque. The person whose licence has been suspended shall have the right to appeal in writing to the
Minister within thirty days from the date of his or her being aware of the order.
The decision of the Minister shall be ﬁnal. The appeal under paragraph one shall not stay the execution of the order ofsuspension or revocation.
CHAPTER V
Penalties
35

Section 31. Any person who ﬁnds any antique or object of art which is buried in, concealed or abandoned at any place
under such circumstances that no person could claim to be its owner and converts the same to himself or herself or to otherperson, shall be liable to imprisonment for a term not exceeding seven years or to a fine not exceeding seven hundred
thousand Baht or to both.
Section 31 bis.36 Any person who conceals, disposes, makes away with, or purchases, receives in pledge or otherwise any
antique or object of art obtained through the commission of an offence under section 31 shall be liable to imprisonment for aterm not exceeding ﬁve years or to a ﬁne not exceeding ﬁve hundred thousand Baht or to both.
If the offence under paragraph one is committed for commercial purposes, the offender shall be liable to imprisonment fora term not exceeding seven years or to a ﬁne not exceeding seven hundred thousand Baht or to both.
Section 32.37 Any person who trepasses ancient monument or damages, destroys, causes depreciation in value to or makes
useless of any ancient monument, shall be liable to imprisonment for a term not exceeding seven years or to a fine not
34

As added by section 27 of the Act on Ancient Monuments, Antiques, Objects of Art and National Museums (No.2), B.E.2535(1992)

35

As amended by section 28, ibid.

36

As added by section 29 of the Act on Ancient Monuments, Antiques, Objects of Art and National Museums (No.2), B.E.2535(1992)

37

As amended by section 30, ibid.
234

Appendix

exceeding seven hundred thousand Baht or to both.
If the offence under paragraph one is committed against the registered ancient monuments, the offender shall be liable toimprisonment for a term not exceeding ten years or to a ﬁne not exceeding one million Baht or to both.
Section 33.38 Any person who damages, destroys, causes depreciation in value to, makes useless of or loss any registeredantique or object of art, shall be liable to imprisonment for a term not exceeding ten years or to a ﬁne not exceeding one
million Baht or to both.
Section 34. 39 Any person who does not comply with section 9, 12, 13 paragraph two, 14 bis, 16, 17 or 20 or does notcomply with the Ministerial Regulations issued under section 13 or 27 shall be liable to imprisonment for a term notexceeding one month or to a ﬁne not exceeding ten thousand Baht or to both.
Section 35.40 Any person who violates section 10 or does not comply with the conditions imposed by the Director-Generalin the licence under section 10, shall be liable to imprisonment for a term not exceeding three years or to a ﬁne not exceeding
three hundred thousand Baht or to both.
Section 36.41 Any person who trades in antiques or objects of art not to be traded by the notiﬁcation issued under section
14 paragraph two or violates section 15 or does not comply with the conditions imposed by the Director-General in thelicence under section 15, shall be liable to imprisonment for a term not exceeding ﬁve years or to a ﬁne not exceeding ﬁve
hundred thousand Baht or to both.
Section 36 bis.42 Any person who does not comply with the notiﬁcation issued under section 18 bis paragraph two or does
not inform a list of his produced items to the Director-General or does not show a sign of duplication on his or her produced
item under section 18 bis paragraph two, shall be liable to imprisonment for a term not exceeding one year or to a ﬁne notexceeding one hundred thousand Baht or to both.
Section 37.43 Any person who does not comply with section 19 paragraph one shall be liable to imprisonment for a term
not exceeding three years or to a ﬁne not exceeding three hundred thousand Baht or to both.
Section 37 bis.44 Any person who does not comply with section 19 bis or the notiﬁcation issued under section 19 bis shallbe liable to imprisonment for a term not exceeding six months or to a ﬁne not exceeding ﬁfty thousand Baht or to both.
Section 37 ter.45 Any person who obstructs or does not provide reasonable facilities to the Director-General or person
entrusted by him or her or the competent ofﬁcial who is performing the duties under this Act shall be liable to imprisonment
for a term not exceeding one month or to a ﬁne not exceeding ten thousand or Baht to both.
Section 38.46 Any person who, in violation of section 22, exports or takes out of the Kingdom any non-registered antiqueor object of art shall be liable to imprisonment for a term not exceeding seven years or to a ﬁne not exceeding seven hundred
thousand Baht or to both.
Section 39.47 Any person who, in violation of section 22, exports or takes out of the Kingdom any registered antique orobject of art shall be liable to imprisonment for a term of one year to ten years and to a ﬁne not exceeding one million Baht.
Transitory Provisions
Section 40. Any person who, on the day of the coming into force of this Act, trades in antiques or objects of art or as hisor her regular business, displays the same to the public for collecting admission fee shall apply to the Director-General for alicence to that effect within thirty days from the day of the coming into force of this Act.
38

Ibid.

39

As amended by section 31, ibid.

40

Ibid.

41

As amended by section 32, ibid.

42

As added by section 33, ibid.

43

As amended by section 34 of the Act on Ancient Monuments, Antiques, Objects of Art and National Museums (No.2),
B.E.2535 (1992)

44

As added by section 35, ibid.

45

Ibid.

46

As amended by section 36, ibid.

47

Ibid.
235

Appendix

The provisions of sections 19 and 20 shall not apply to the person who trades in antiques or objects of art or as his or her
regular business, displays the same to the public for collecting admission fee, and has applied for a licence in comformity
with the foregoing paragraph, thus as from the day of the coming into force of this Act up to the day of receiving the licence.
Countersigned by :Field-Marshal S.Dhanarajata
Prime Minister
Rates of Fees48(1) Licence under section 19

20,000 Baht each(2) Licence under section 22(a) Antiques or objects of art which
the Department of Fine Arts
deems as dated from Ayudhya andearlier periods, not exceeding 2,000 Baht each(b) Antiques or objects of art which
the Department of Fine Arts deems
as dated in the period later than
Ayudhya period, not exceeding 1,000 Baht each(3) Licence substitute 100 Baht each(4) Renewal of a licenceeach time equal to thefee for the licence48

As amended by section 37 of the Act on Ancient Monuments, Antiques, Objects of Art and National Museums (No.2),
B.E.2535 (1992)
236

Appendix

Appendix 5: Indonesia 1
Tokyo University Foreign Studies Aceh Project for the Preservation of Cultural Heritage - Condition of Damage toDocuments in Aceh(1) Survey of Damage: Dispatch of Researchers from the National Islamic University to Aceh
January 16-20, 2005
“Historical Document Hub Regional Culture Research Center” Project
Condition of Damage to Documents in Aceh
2005/03/25
Translated from Edited by Yumi Sugawara
Including Video of Conditions
1. Documentation and Information Center of Aceh (PDIA (Pusat Dokumentasi dan Informasi Aceh))
Location: Jl. Prof. Majid Ibrahim I/5, Banda Aceh・A library mainly used by university students to collect information for writing papers. It was established with thecooperation of Aceh Province and Syiah Kuala University. The main collections are documents donated from theNetherlands and Jakarta. The materials here were better than those in universities.
・70 manuscripts in Malay, Arabic and Acehnese were collected and stored here.
・The building was destroyed and all documents were washed away, but they would be useless even if they remained in
the building. These have all been cleaned up and no traces remain.
・PDIA strongly wishes to receive donations of copied materials and books in order to rebuild (However, books arescheduled to be stored in a museum for some time because the building needs to be repaired ﬁrst).
2. Research facility on traditional values and history
Balai Kajian Sejarah dan Nilai Tradisional
Location: Jl. Tuanku Hasyim Banta Muda 17, Banda Aceh・Approx. 15 manuscripts are stored here.
・The building was destroyed and the collection was washed away in a ﬂood or soaked in water.
3. Foundation for Education and Museum of Ali Hasjmi
Yayasan Pendidikan Ali Hasjmi
Location: Jl. Jend. Sudirman 20, Banda Aceh
・This is a library established by the late Ali Hasjmi, who was chairman of the Indonesian Council of Islamic
Propagation in Aceh. It collects books related to Islam.
・It contains approximately 50 manuscripts and many historical documents including the personal records of Ali
Hasjmi.
・As it was located in a slightly elevated location, the building was not destroyed by the tsunami. However, the ﬂoor
was covered in around 5cm of water. Furthermore, bookcases fell over in the initial earthquake, leaving all books andother materials on the ﬂoor. Not only were they waterlogged, they were also left in that state for approximately one
week after the earthquake and tsunami. They were immediately picked up and dried in the sun. (http://www.pikiranrakyat.com/cetak/2005/0105/14/0804.htm)( ⇒ This is an incorrect method of saving the materials)
As the bookshelves containing manuscripts did not fall over, the manuscripts were not soaked in water.
・The condition of the manuscripts stored here is quite poor and cloves are used for preservation. They have not beenorganized. We saw as far as the case where the manuscripts are standing.
・This is a library with poor organization and storage conditions because no expert instruction has been provided, and it
was very difﬁcult for researchers to use.
237

Appendix

4. Provincial State Museum
Museum Negeri Propinsi
Location: Jl. Sultan Alaidin Mahmudsyah
・It has around 360 manuscripts. The storage conditions are very good.
・The building was largely unaffected by the earthquake or tsunami.
・The curator has philology expertise. When planning manuscript projects in Aceh, the ﬁrst step should be to obtain thecooperation of this curator.
5. Tanoh Abee Library
Dayah Tanoh Abee (Dayah means Islam boarding school)
Location: Seulimeum, Aceh Besar (Approx. 50km from Banda Aceh)
・A boarding school established by Abdul Wahab al-Fairusy in the 19 th century. It owns approximately 3500
manuscripts (estimated) (A catalog has been created in the past, but they do not cover the entire collection). The
boarding school has the largest collection of manuscripts in Indonesia. The manuscripts were inherited from Ulema
and collected from the private sector.
・The building is a traditional Achean design. No effects of the earthquake are evident.
・No steps have been taken to preserve the manuscripts. Not even traditional methods such as the use of cloves havebeen adopted.
・It is famed for being exclusive, and there are particularly stringent restrictions on use by non-Muslims. (Difﬁcult for
non-Acehnese Indonesians to use, but actually tolerant of foreigners.) A UIN representative was given permission to
conduct a survey.
6. Regional Public Archives
Badan Arsip
・In the past, this was the West Indonesian branch of the National Archive in Jakarta. It became an independent
organization with the decentralization of the government.
・It contains public documents from the 1950s onwards. However, there are also some documents from as far back as
the 1920s.
・The are basically closed to the public because some of the public documents are directly related to current politicalissues. It is difﬁcult for researchers to se the facility.
・All of the items that were on the ﬁrst ﬂoor were washed away by the tsunami. However, documents are usually stored
on the second ﬂoor. It is believed that only documents recently distributed by the government were located on theﬁrst ﬂoor.
7. Regional Library (Perpustakaan Daerah)・Books for the general public are placed on the ﬁrst ﬂoor. Publications on Aceh are stored on the second ﬂoor.
・Like the public documents, all of the books that were on the ﬁrst ﬂoor were washed away by the tsunami. There wasalready no sign of books. The second ﬂoor was not damaged by the tsunami, but many valuable items were taken bylooters.
・Two vehicles used as mobile libraries were destroyed by the tsunami.
8. Private Sector
We obtained information that some manuscripts in the region are still being held by the private sector such as Teupin
Raya, Kabupaten Pidie, Awe Geutah Aceh Utara, Samalanga Aceh Utara and Langsa Aceh Timur. Small Dayahs probably
still house manuscripts.

238

Appendix

Overview:
1. Manuscripts being held by institutions can e divided into those that cannot be saved (1 and 2) and this that received little
damage from the tsunami (3-5).
2. However, as the storage conditions were already bad before the earthquake in 3 and 5, instruction on the repair andrestoration of manuscripts is required ⇒ Necessary to request assistance from libraries and public archives.
3. It is necessary to create an inventory and a catalog for 3 and 5. However, as the number of items is so large for 5, there
is a high probability that this will take a substantial amount of time. ⇒ It may be necessary to request the dispatch ofliterature experts from the Indonesian Association for Nusantara Manuscripts.
4. In order to gain the trust of the owners for 3 and 5, work was jointly conducted by the Jakarta Islamic State University
and the Islamic University in Aceh because personnel with expertise in Islamic manuscripts are required.
5. Looking at the videos, 3 needs to be addressed quickly. As 5 suffered very little damage from the earthquake, no urgency
is required. (More restoration support than disaster support)
6. The National Archive and Mr. Sakamoto have provided instruction on emergency measures in 6 and the National Land
Authority (Badan Pertanahan Nasional), but private sector staff could not be invited as was the case for 3 and 5.
7. The National Library in Jakarta is providing support for 7.
8. It is necessary to survey manuscripts held in the private sector.
9. Surveys on the need for support to regional archives are still insufﬁcient.
Information source:
Oman Fathurahman, (PPIM UNI Jakarta)
National Library, National Archive
Teuku Ibrahim Alﬁan (Acehnese Historian who was formerly a professor from Gadjah Mada University)
Imran T. Abdullah (Formerly a professor of Gadjah Mada University and former visiting professor at the Tokyo Universityof Foreign Studies).
Yoshimi Nishi

239

Site No.
Name
1
Mesujid Raya Mudiak
Padang / Surau Tandikek

Manuscript and its Condition

Location
PadangPariamanPhoto01: Smudging of some letters2

Mesujid Raya Ampalu VII
Koto Ampalu

Stored Condition

Photo04: All manuscripts are stored in the cabinet
at officePhoPhoto02:

Pho

Photo03:

Pho

PadangPariamanPhoto08:

Photo09:

Photo10: Manuscripts were stored in a cardboard box

Pho

Pho

Pho

Appendix 6: Indonesia 2
Buildings

Remarks
A mosque located in Patamuan district (kec.Patamuan) in Pariaman, that was damaged by theearthquake. Many cracks were noted on the walls and columns of the mosque, but it is still
being used for worship services.
A building attached to the mosque is used as an office, and manuscripts are stored on a shelfin the office.
Seven manuscripts are stored, and in several of these, we noted smudging of some letters.
Information of the manuscripts has been indicated in the catalog which was made by Andalas
University and TUFS, but desiccant agents and insect repellent are not being used.
Also, the digitalization of the manuscripts was not done yet.

Photo05: Mosque

Photo06: Damage on the inner wall of the mosque

Photo07: Interier of the Mosque
A mosque located in Sungai Sarik (Kec. Sungai Sarik) district in Pariaman.
A landslide occurred on the entry road to the village, and for some time after the earthquake
the road was impassable. At the time of our survey, the villagers were carrying out works, andbikes and pedestrians were able to pass.

Photo11: Landsliding of the road to the village

The mosque itself has been damaged and we noted cracks not only on the walls and columns,
but also on the floor. However, the damaged part is still being used for worship services.
According to Andalas University, at the time of the previous ceremony 23 manuscripts wereconfirmed, but all of them had been moved to the state library for restoration. But it appears
that manuscripts from this mosque were buried under a collapsed library building and 17
manuscripts were moved to the national library in Jakarta for restoration. Beside thosemanuscripts, there are few manuscripts are in a box, stored in a wooden dwelling located tothe east of the mosque.
Desiccant agents and insect repellent are not being used, and even though the manuscripts
are being stored inside, they are not in a case with glass doors, but instead in one box on topof a cabinet against the wall.

Photo12: Mosque

Photo13: Damage of the Mosque3

Surau Ampalu Tinggi

PadangPariamanPhoto14: Manuscripts were stored in indivisualenvelop

Photo15: Stored in the glass cabinet

Ph

Ph
4

Surau Baru Bintungan
Tinggi

PadangPariamanPhoto18 : Damp documents were air dry in themosquePhoto19 :Some documents were kept in the envelop

Pho

Pho
5

Surau Paseban

Padang

Photo22: Manuscripts in the glass cabinet

Photo23 : The glass cabinet with manuscripts

PhAppendix 6: Indonesia 2
A place of worship located in Pariaman district.
Construction of a new mosque has been in progress since before the earthquake, and only the firstfloor is complete. This new mosque is currently used for worship services. The old mosque wasbadly damaged by the earthquake and people are not allowed in.
There is a dwelling located next to the old mosque, and 26 manuscripts are stored there. According
to Andalas University, cataloging and digitalization of the manuscripts was completed before theearthquake. In contrast with the previous two sites, manuscripts were stored in individual envelopes
and stored in a glass cabinet in a file-box. However, desiccant agents and insect repellent are notbeing used.
Photo16 : Mosque

Photo17 : Inner wall of the mosque was seriously damaged
A place of worship located in Nan Sabaris district in Pariaman state.
The mosque is registered as cultural heritage by BP3. The building registered with BP3 is a wooden
mosque, and the grave in front of the mosque has been destroyed apart from its roof. There waslittle damage to the wooden structure, but the brick extension at the back of the mosque was beendamaged.
More than 16 manuscripts are stored, in the mosque and in a dwelling located next door. This
dwelling was destroyed in the earthquake, and the old kitabs, text for Islam studies, stored there got
wet in the rain as they sat under the collapsed house. Currently the occupants of the collapsed
house are living in the wooden mosque which was not affected by the earthquake. The kitabs andbooks that were gotten wet are still being dried in the shade in the mosque.

Photo20 : Gave was totally collapsed. (front)

The owned kitabs were mainly published in the Middle East and in the West Sumatra, and thecollection is a valuable because the kitabs which was published in the West Sumatra were extremely
rare.
Currently, all the manuscripts are stored in a small room in the mosque, and some of them
are stuffed into envelopes and placed vertically.
Further, desiccant agents and insect repellent are not being used.

Photo21 : Mosque is registered as cultural heritage by BP3
A place of worship, Surau , in the Koto Tangah district (Kec. Koto Tagngah) in Padang.
Said to have previously been home to over 100 manuscripts, it now has 33 manuscripts. 31
manuscripts were listed on the catalog which was made by TUFS and Andalas University.
The place of worship is of wooden construction and was not damaged in the earthquake.
Manuscripts were stored both in glass cabinets and in cabinets in a small room in the place ofworship follow to suggestions by Andalas University. It seems that the former is for importantmanuscripts, and they are laid down horizontally and stored correctly.
It seems that the remaining manuscripts on the shelf have not been sorted out. For both shelves,desiccant agents and insect repellent are not being used.

Photo25 : SuaranPhoto24 : Documents which is kept in the woodern
cabinet in a room.
6

Surau Darussalam

Agam

7

Surau Syattariah

Tanah Datar

8

Provincial Museum

Padang City

Photo 26: Manuscripts

Photo27: Manuscripts were kept in the office

PhoPhoto29: Manuscripts

Photo30: Manuscripts were stored in the envelop

Pho

Pho

Appendix 6: Indonesia 2

A place of worship, Surau, in the Agam state and owned four manuscripts.
Currently local Muslim often bring their manuscripts and request the Surau to conserve, therefore,
Andalas University just started contacting with the place and try to support them in response to therequest of this Surau.
Manuscripts were stored in office of the place of worship and not well organized. Although there is nodamage on the buildings and the manuscripts by earthquake in last Septembre, it is necessary to takecountermeasures against the earthquakes that frequently occur .

Photo28: Surau
A place of worship in Batusangkar district in Tanah Datar State and owned 27 manuscripts.
Digitalization of the manuscripts were already completed under the support of British Library.
The manuscripts are stuffed into envelopes and stored in the office of the place of worship. The
maintanance staff of the Surau graduated from National Islamic high school in Batusangkar andhave cooperated with Andalas University to collect and to survey on manuscripts since 2006. Also,
the Surau give advice on the manuscripts which were owned by local residents.
Also, there is no damage on the buildings and the manuscripts by earthquake in last Septembre, itis necessary to take countermeasures against the earthquakes that frequently occur
as same as Site06.

Photo31: Surau
Located in Padang city. Unfortunately, as we visited on Sunday and Director was on the mission to
the Netherlands and the curator was not on site, we were unable to go inside and only inspected
the interior. It is said that the museum has 58 manuscripts. All of them are on the catalog which
was made by TUFS and Andalas University and it seems to have no damage on the manuscripts
in the earthquake.

Photo32 : Museum

9

Provincial Library

Padang City

Pho
afte
10

Archive

Padang City

Photo34: Manuscripts with blue cover were already Photo35 : One of the room which store books fromrestored by the National Library in Jakarta
provincial library.

Photo36 : Making a list by hand writing because of lackof PC facilities.

Photo37 : Some of newspapers and books were damped

Pho

Ph

Appendix 6: Indonesia 2

Located in Padang city, roughly 50m from the State Museum.
It is a four-story building constructed with reinforced concrete, but floors 1 to 3 are said to havecollapsed. At the time of our survey visit, the books and documents had already been removed
from the library, and the collapsed building had been demolished.
The books taken out were moved to the public archives for safekeeping. A survey was performedby the National Library in Jakarta in June 2009 before the earthquake, and the state library wasconfirmed to have roughly 23 manuscripts which were consigned by Site02. Of these, 17
manuscripts were still in the National Library in Jakarta for restoration and 6 manuscripts were notbeen confirmed during the research.
In West Sumatra, it was decided that library has just started to have a responsibility for old
manuscripts,
therefore, the library plan to expand their collection on the manuscripts under the
Photo33 : Building was totally collapsed and was demolishedcooperation with Andalas Universtity.
after two months.
Located in Padang city.
There are three buildings on the grounds of the public archives: an office building, a document
storage building behind that, and a new document storage building under construction next to that.
While the office building was almost undamaged, the first and second floors of the document
storage building were badly damaged. While the storage boxes with the documents in them can beseen from outside the building, the building itself is extremely unstable, and the documents cannot
be removed for fear of setting off a secondary disaster.

Photo38 : Building for Administration

Photo: Archive which is seriously damaged.

Appendix

Appendix 7: Greece 1
On 20 June 2009, Mr. Koichiro Matsuura, the Director-General of UNESCO, took part in the inauguration of the New
Acropolis Museum in Athens, Greece.
Speaking in the presence of the President and Prime Minister of the Hellenic Republic, their Excellencies Karolos
Papoulias and Kostas Karamanlis, the Minister for Culture, Antonis Samaris, numerous Heads of State and Government, thePresident of the European Commission, Mr. Jose Manuel Barroso and Mr. George Anastassopoulos, President of UNESCOʼs General Conference and Ambassador of the Hellenic Republic to UNESCO, Mr. Matsuura congratulated his hosts on
the completion of the museum. Recalling his ﬁrst visit to the Acropolis and the strong emotion he had felt on seeing thecraftsmanship of the work undertaken 2,500 years ago, he observed that “this stunning new home for its artefacts is an
important complement to the World Heritage site that will allow visitors to fully appreciate this outstanding heritage ofhumanity.”“At UNESCO, we believe that museums are places where cultural legacies are safeguarded and transmitted to successive
generations. By generating pride and mutual understanding through cultural representations, [they] foster appreciation for
cultural diversity,” Mr. Matsuura continued.
Congratulating the Hellenic Republic on its commitment to safeguarding heritage for future generations, the DirectorGeneral acknowledged its special contribution in the area of the return of cultural property, highlighting an international
conference held in Athens in March 2008 and its support for the activities of the International Committee for Promoting the
Return of Cultural Property to its Countries of Origin or its Restitution in Case of Illicit Appropriation. In this regard, Mr.
Matsuura noted that “at its ﬁfteenth session last month, this Committee adopted a recommendation jointly proposed by theGovernments of Greece and the United Kingdom, inviting UNESCO to assist in convening necessary meetings between thetwo countries with the aim of reaching a mutually satisfactory solution to the issue of the Parthenon Marbles. We stand readyto do so,” he concluded.
In a meeting prior to the inauguration, the Director-General and President Papoulias discussed the outcomes of theRegional Summit of Heads of State of South East Europe held in Cetinje, Montenegro, on 4 June last. Mr. Matsuura also
paid warm tribute to Ambassador Anastassopoulosʼs tireless work both in strengthening the bilateral cooperation between
UNESCO and the Hellenic Republic and as President of UNESCOʼs General Conference.
A lunch hosted by Ambassador Anastassopoulos provided the opportunity for wide ranging discussions with Mr. Theodore
Dravillas, Secretary of State for Culture, Mrs. Maria Ekaterini Papachristopoulou-Tzitzikosta, the President of the Hellenic
National Commission for UNESCO and Mrs. Elena Korka, Director of Antiquities at the Ministry of Culture.
During his brief stay in Athens, the Director-General also had the opportunity to admire the collections of the National
Archaeological Museum.
*Author(s):Ofﬁce of the Spokesperson - La Porte-parole*Source:Flash Info N°123-2009*24-06-2009249

Appendix

Appendix 8 : Greece 2
STRENGTHENING DISASTER RISK REDUCTION
AT WORLD HERITAGE PROPERTIES:THE OLYMPIA PROTOCOL FOR INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION（UNESCO WORLD HERITAGE CENTRE, 2009）
1. INTRODUCTION: WHAT IS THIS DOCUMENT AND HOW TO USE IT
This document is part of the outcome of a Workshop on Disaster Risk Management at World Heritage Properties, jointly
organised in November 2008 at Olympia (Greece) by the Hellenic Ministry of Culture and the UNESCO World Heritage
Centre, with a ﬁnancial contribution from the UNESCO Goodwill Ambassador Mrs. Marianna Vardinoyannis.
During this workshop, which gathered experts and heritage site managers from various regions, participants discussed thescope and contents of a possible “Programme” for reducing disaster risks at World Heritage properties, which would assist
States Parties to the 1972 Convention in translating into action the “Strategy for Reducing Risks from Disasters at World
Heritage Properties” adopted by the World Heritage Committee in 20071. The present document provides a summary of the
discussions held at Olympia with regard to this possible Programme.
The participants in the Olympia Workshop recognised that a Programme for reducing disaster risks at World Heritage
properties would have a considerable scope and require the joint effort of all the actors engaged in the implementation of
the World Heritage Convention. Considering the difﬁculty of identifying resources for the entire Programme in one time,
it was suggested that its implementation could proceed in steps, depending on the availability of funds and the interestof potential donors. It was not to be expected, thus, that this Programme be implemented within a given time frame as astandard project under a single, comprehensive funding, but rather that it may provide a framework under which separate,
but related activities could be developed, funded and carried out. For this reason, the present Document makes reference tothe “Olympia Protocol for International Cooperation”, named after the venue of the above-mentioned Workshop, rather than
to a Programme in the more traditional sense.
It is hoped, indeed, that States Parties would use this document as a general framework, or protocol, for developing
cooperation among them – possibly through partnerships and twinning arrangements among World Heritage properties
sharing similar disaster risks - in the area of disaster risk reduction at World Heritage properties. At the same time, States
Parties and other potential donors are encouraged to provide support to enable the UNESCO World Heritage Centre andother partners to ensure the overall coordination of the initiative as well as the implementation of the proposed activities at
global level, within the framework of the Strategy approved by the World Heritage Committee. Some activities foreseen
under this Document have already been carried out and others may be implemented with funding through the International
Assistance scheme under the World Heritage Fund, or with support from States Parties and other donors. The majority ofthem, however, are currently not funded. The more resources can be mobilised, the larger the scope of the initiative that will
be implemented and the more World Heritage sites that will beneﬁt from it.
The present document includes an initial chapter explaining the rationale for its establishment (i.e. why such a protocol
is needed), an outline of its main objectives and a description of proposed activities. The latter include both initiatives thatwould need to be implemented by UNESCO, owing to their global scope, and actions (the majority) that could be carriedout directly by States Parties, individually or, more appropriately, in the framework of twinning arrangements among World
Heritage sites, as mentioned above. Both the global and individual activities would be framed within a single, coherent
1

See Document WHC-07/31.COM/7.2, available online from:http://whc.unesco.org/archive/2007/whc07-31com-72e.doc
250

Appendix

strategy, where each step contributes to the achievement of the broader aims of the Protocol.
2. RATIONALE: WHY REDUCING DISASTER RISKSWorld Heritage properties, as with all heritage properties, are exposed to natural and man-made disasters, which threaten
their integrity and may compromise their values.
By disaster we mean here a sudden event whose impact exceeds the normal capacity of property managers, or of acommunity, to control its consequences. The loss or deterioration of these outstanding properties would negatively impact
the national and local communities, both for their cultural importance as a source of identity and of information on thepast, and for their socioeconomic value. Experience, moreover, has demonstrated that the conservation of cultural heritage
and the transmission of traditional technology, skills, and local knowledge systems, are not just important per se, i.e. fortheir intrinsic historic, artistic or scientific significance, but because they may contribute fundamentally to sustainable
development, including the mitigation of disasters. Heritage-sensitive practices, in fact, can assist in signiﬁcantly reducing
the impact of disasters, before, during and after they have taken place. For instance, research in areas affected by seismic
activities has shown that buildings constructed with traditional techniques have often proven to be very resilient to quakes,
when well maintained, as compared with modern construction. Sustainable land-use practices for agricultural and forestlands
act to prevent landslides and ﬂoods, which each year cause more casualties than earthquakes in many parts of the world.
Risks related to disasters within heritage sites are a function of their vulnerability to different potential hazards. The
recent natural disasters in Bam, Iran, or in the Old Fort of Galle in Sri Lanka are high proﬁle examples of the vulnerabilityof cultural heritage worldwide. Natural heritage can also be threatened, in exceptional circumstances, by natural disasters.
Hazards, however, may be also man-made, such as ﬁre, explosions etc. Accidental forest ﬁres, conﬂicts, massive refugee
movements, bursting of tailing pond dams as in Doñana, Spain, are certainly a concern to natural World Heritage sites.
If natural disasters are difficult to prevent or control, hazards resulting from human activities can be avoided, and thevulnerability of heritage sites to both natural and manmade disasters can be reduced, thus lowering the overall riskthreatening a property. Despite this, most World Heritage properties, particularly in developing areas of the world, do nothave any established policy or plan for managing the risk associated with potential disasters. Existing national and local
disaster preparedness mechanisms, moreover, usually do not take into account the signiﬁcance of these sites and do notinclude heritage expertise in their operations. At the same time, traditional knowledge and sustainable practices that ensured
a certain level of protection from the worst effects of natural hazards are being progressively abandoned. As a result,hundreds of sites are virtually defenceless with respect to potential hazards and consequent disasters. Strengthening disasterrisk management for properties inscribed in the World Heritage List, therefore, is necessary to prevent and reduce damage
from disasters and preserve their cultural and natural values, thus protecting an essential support for the social and economic
wellbeing of their communities.
UNESCO and other partner institutions such as ICCROM, ICOMOS, IUCN and ICOM, have in the past years developed
a number of initiatives aimed at strengthening the capacity of site managers to address disaster risk management for World
Heritage cultural and natural properties. These drew from concerns originating after the Second World War and renewedin 1992 because of the high and visible incidence of disasters and armed conﬂict on television in the early 90s. They werepart of a general movement from curative approaches to conservation to a concern for preventive approaches, and frommanaging interventions to managing sites. While the need to strengthen disaster risk management for World Heritage has
been stressed in the past, governmental commitments have not yet followed. In particular, the Kobe-Tokyo Declaration of1997 and the Recommendations from the Kobe Thematic Session on Cultural Heritage Risk Management in 2005 pinpointed
the necessity for better integration of concern for risk in cultural heritage management, and recognition of the value of local
and indigenous knowledge in disaster risk reduction. The Davos Declaration, adopted in 2006 by the International Disaster251

Appendix

Reduction Conference (IDRC), reiterated these principles2.
3. OVERALL OBJECTIVES AND STRATEGY FOR IMPLEMENTATIONThe overall objective of this Protocol is to provide a general framework for developing cooperation among States Parties
in order to translate the Strategy for Reducing Risks from Disasters at the World Heritage Properties into concrete actions at
the site level.
The Protocol is based on a combination of global and site-based activities complementing each other and contributing to
its overall goal. Its main components are:
1. The establishment of a Clearing House on Disaster Risk reduction;
2. The organization of International Workshops to introduce the 2007 Strategy for Disaster Risk reduction art World
Heritage Properties and the scope and contents of the present Protocol for Cooperation. These workshops should
also facilitate the identiﬁcation of pilot sites – and the establishment of twinning arrangements among them – for the
implementation of the Protocol;
3. The development, mostly through partnerships or twinning arrangements, of disaster risk reduction strategies on pilot
properties inscribed on the World Heritage List, selected among those more vulnerable to possible hazards in different
regions of the world, and also using, as a methodological reference, the recently developed “World Heritage Resource
Manual for Disaster Risk Reduction”;
4. The organisation of International Workshops to review the progress made at different pilot sites, harmonise theapproaches and share the lessons learnt. The experience resulting from these activities will be widely disseminatedthrough publications regional meetings, on line communications, etc.;
5. The development of complementary capacity-building, educational and communication initiatives.
4. ACTIVITIES AND EXPECTED RESULTS
A detailed description of the proposed activities is provided here below, arranged according to the three most relevant
strategic objectives of the World Heritage Convention, i.e. Conservation, Capacity-Building and Communication, taking into
account that the strategic objective of “Community” – adopted by the Committee in 2007 - is integrated within each of these.
Activities that could be implemented directly by the States Parties, for example in the framework of twinning arrangements,
are marked with an asterisk.
Conservation
4.1. Establishment of a Clearing House on Disaster Risk Reduction
It is proposed to develop a Clearing House of resource materials on Disaster Risk Reduction – possibly at the World
Heritage Centre or at ICCROM - including policy texts, guidance, case studies and illustrations, drawing also from
submission by States Parties in the context of Nominations and the Periodic Reporting exercise. This would include
information on existing initiatives and twinning arrangements between World Heritage properties. ICOM will continue tocollect and put at disposal resource material concerning principally the disaster risk reduction of movable heritage.
Expected result: Information and reference materials on disaster risk reduction for World Heritage are accessible to those2

The Davos Declaration is accessible online from:http://www.idrc.info/userﬁles/image/PDF_2006/IDRC_Davos_Declaration_2006.pdf
252Appendix

concerned.
4.2. International Workshops3 to introduce the Protocol, to identify pilot sites and facilitate the establishment of
twinning arrangements
These international workshops (as many as appropriate and feasible) would involve bringing key management personnel
from selected sites together with disaster risk reduction experts for cultural and/or natural heritage, depending on theselected sites. The Protocol for International Cooperation and its strategy for implementation will be presented, and casestudies reviewed. In selecting potential sites, attention will be paid to ensure diversity of typologies (including presence ofmovable heritage), of disaster risks – with consideration given to post-disaster areas and linkages with Climate Change - andof geographical regions, with priority given to properties exposed to multiple hazards.
Expected results: The objective and scope of the protocol for cooperation as well as a methodology for developing
disaster risk reduction strategies for each site are introduced. Experiences on disaster risk reduction are shared among
management personnel, while concrete twinning arrangements among partner World Heritage sites are developed;
understanding of the “Strategy for Reducing Risks from Disasters at World Heritage Properties”( adopted by the World
Heritage Committee in 2007) is increased.
4.3*. Workshops to build capacities of concerned stakeholders and launch the development of appropriate disasterrisk reduction strategies at selected sites.
These workshops - to be organized once two or more World Heritage properties have decided to cooperate in theframework of a twinning arrangement - will involve key management personnel from each site, local and national-levelauthorities responsible for reducing disaster risks in each country concerned (i.e. civil defense ofﬁcials) and international
resource persons. A general introduction on Disaster Risk Reduction will be provided, based on the selected sitesʼ casestudies, and modalities for long-term cooperation will also be identiﬁed through the establishment of time-framed actionplans. This would be the ﬁrst step towards the development of appropriate disaster risk reduction strategies at the concerned
World Heritage properties.
Expected results: Capacities among the key stakeholders are built, and a concrete time-framed plan of action is definedfor the implementation of activities in the context of established cooperation agreements (e.g. twinning) among States
Parties and other partners.
4.4*. Risk Assessment at selected pilot properties
An analysis and assessment of the risks threatening the selected pilot sites and the people living in them will be led byresponsible site managers, in collaboration with local civil defence ofﬁcials and in consultation with disaster risk experts,
taking into account existing records of disasters, potential hazards and the vulnerability of the property. This assessment will
also provide a complete understanding of existing policies and measures for reducing the impact of disasters (if any) on theWorld Heritage property, and opportunities for cooperation with other concerned institutions.
Expected results: Risks to the World Heritage property are defined, which will have to be reduced through appropriate
identification of potential hazards and vulnerabilities of the site. Priorities for intervention are set up.
4.5*. Socio-economic analysis and research on traditional skills and local knowledge systems relevant to disaster risk
reduction
This activity will enable the understanding of the opportunities and threats, resulting in particular from the interaction
3

The Olympia Workshop of November 2008 intended to achieve these objectives, as well as serving as an opportunity for the launching of the Programme and this Protocol for International Cooperation.
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between the local communities and the selected World Heritage properties, with regard to the risks associated to disasters.
Research will be carried out on traditional land uses, skills, knowledge systems etc. whose continuation or revitalisation
might be beneﬁcial to strengthen the preparedness to disaster for the protection of the World Heritage property. Research on
traditional knowledge related to movable heritage disaster risk management will also be carried out. At the same time, thestudy will take into consideration the social and economic feasibility of the integration of this traditional knowledge in the
management of risks within the property, making suggestions for its adaptation to modern constraints and requirements.
Expected result: Essential information is provided for the establishment of consultations with the local community andvaluable insights on its possible participation in the reduction of disaster risks in the context of the management of their
World Heritage property.
4.6*. Inter-institutional Workshops on Disaster Risk Reduction at site level
At this stage of the Protocol for Cooperation, it is proposed to organise an Inter-institutional Workshop at each of thepilot-sites, including representatives from the heritage agency responsible for the protection of the property, and of all otherinstitutions and agencies, both at national and local levels, concerned with disaster risk reduction. The workshop, moderated
by an international resource person, will facilitate the exchange of information on perceived risks at the World Heritage
property and existing policies and procedures to mitigate the impact of disasters. This will provide essential input for the
integration of concern for disaster risks within Management Plans for the World Heritage property.
Expected results: An understanding of the respective needs, roles and capacities with respect to disaster risk reduction
for the World Heritage property is shared among participating institutes, and possible weaknesses and the scope for better
coordination and integration are identified.
4.7*. Seminars with local community
A Seminar with representatives from the local communities will be held at each selected property in order to sensitisethem to the risks from disasters affecting the World Heritage site in or around which they live, and the possible impact of ahazard on their persons and well-being. The Seminar will present and discuss the results of the research (see points 4.4 and
4.5 above) and solicit a reaction from the local communities on its possible direct involvement in disaster risk reduction
activities for the protection of the World Heritage property, and the appropriate ways of achieving this.
Expected result: A full understanding of the opportunities and constraints for the integration of local community concerns
and capacities related to disaster risk reduction into the Management Plan for the World Heritage property are shared
among local communities.
4.8. Mid-term International Workshop to review progress of the activities and validate methodologies for developing
an appropriate disaster risk management strategy at site level.
This international workshop, gathering representatives from the pilot sites where activities are being implemented, will
enable the review of experiences and learning among the participating sites, and will compare proposals for ﬁnalising theirrespective risk-sensitive management plans.
Expected results: The approach and methodologies being developed within each site are confirmed or reoriented, bestpractices are shared, and the network among all participants in the initiative is strengthened.
4.9*. Development of disaster risk reduction strategies at selected World Heritage properties
When activities 4.1 to 4.7 are completed, Heritage Conservation Agencies, assisted by international resource persons, willdevelop the appropriate Disaster Risk Reduction Strategies for their properties, taking into account all the elements gathered
throughout the Programme. These will be integrated on one hand into Management Plans for the properties, if existing,254

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and into existing Disaster Preparedness, Response and Recovery Plans at national and local levels. They will include theidentiﬁcation of indicators for monitoring the effective management of disaster risks at the sites.
Expected result: conservation at selected World Heritage properties is strengthened through improved disaster risk
reduction strategies.
4.10*. Follow up at Pilot Properties
A follow-up evaluation is suggested, at each pilot World Heritage property, to assess the impact of the activities carriedout on the conservation and management of the sites. This evaluation could take place two years after the completion ofactivity 4.9 above.
Expected results: lessons from past activities are learnt and corrective measures identified.
Capacity building and Communication
4.11. Publications and dissemination of materials on the web
After the completion of the work at the selected pilot sites, a publication will be prepared, and translated into the ofﬁcial
languages of UNESCO. Complementing the “Resource Manual” developed by ICCROM, IUCN and the World Heritage
Centre, this publication will provide concrete references and best practices showing how the methodology outlined in the
Resource Manual can be applied in practice. The Resource Manual will be also made available on the web, possibly in amore user-friendly format.
Expected result: Publications and materials (including on the web-site of the World Heritage Centre) on disaster risk
reduction are disseminated to site managers around the world.
4.12. Distribution of information for each Region
Distribution of the results from the above activities will also take place in conjunction with scheduled regional meetingsfor each of the five geographic regions of the world, i.e. Africa; Arab States; Asia and the Pacific; Europe and North
America; and Latin America and the Caribbean. The staff members of the Heritage Conservation Agencies for each pilot
site will be asked to contribute to information sessions and presenting the above-mentioned publication, and to share theirexperience in helping completing the risk-sensitive Management Plan for their site in the context of their particular region.
This component will complement the above publication in building capacities among the various regions of the world.
Expected result: Firsthand knowledge about the development of disaster risk reduction strategies from the pilot sites
exchanged.
4.13. Development of a curriculum for a Training Course on Disaster Risk Reduction
Building on the experience of the activities carried out, and on the methodology outlined in the “Resource Manual”, it issuggested to develop a curriculum for a short (one or two weeks) course on World Heritage Disaster Risk Reduction, which
could possibly become a regular feature of ICCROMʼs Training programmes. This Course could be offered in different
regions of the world, in partnership with the various Category 2 Centres on World Heritage that are being established, using
one of the pilot World Heritage properties taking part in the initiative as a case study.
Expected result: Progress is made towards the development of a much-needed training programme which would build
capacity on reducing disaster risks among those responsible for the conservation of World Heritage properties.

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4.14. Development of a component on Disaster Risk Reduction within the World Heritage in Young Hands School Kit
and activities
It is proposed to expand the current School Kit “World Heritage in Young Hands” by introducing a component on
Disaster Risk Reduction. The related activities could envisage visits to sites exposed to disaster risks and activities to reduce
underlying risk factors.
Expected result: Educational material is developed which would contribute to sensitising the young people to the threats
posed by disasters to World Heritage properties and the urgent need to reduce the related risks.
4.15. International Day of Disaster Risk Reduction at World Heritage Properties
It is proposed to celebrate the International Day of Disaster Risk Reduction at World Heritage Properties, in coordination
with the existing International Day of Disaster Risk Reduction (early October, every year), to give visibility and raiseawareness about this important issue. This annual event will also provide opportunities for conducting drills and educational
activities, including exhibitions, at World Heritage properties.
Expected results: Awareness is raised at the local and global level on disaster risks that affect World Heritage properties
and ways to reduce them. At the same time, preparedness for effective response is strengthened at site level.
5. IMPLEMENTATION MODALITIESIf resources were made available, the activities under this Protocol for International Cooperation could be coordinated by
the World Heritage Centre of UNESCO, possibly through the establishment of a Focal Point, and implemented by various
partners according to different modalities, including – as mentioned above – bilateral twinning arrangements.
Global activities such as International Workshops, publications and training courses will be implemented directly by theWorld Heritage Centre in collaboration with Advisory Bodies and other appropriate partners, including ICOM, the Blue
Shield and the UN International Strategy for Disaster Reduction.
As already explained, considering the difﬁculty of identifying resources for all activities proposed under this protocol
for Cooperation, it is envisaged that its implementation could proceed by steps, depending on the availability of funds
and the interest of potential donors. The activities described in Section 4 above, on the other hand, lend themselves to acertain degree of ﬂexibility. Site-based activities, for example, could be implemented independently from global ones in
the framework of speciﬁc “packages”, and the number of sites concerned would also depend on the availability of resources
and the number of twinning arrangements established. When the Programme reaches a critical mass of ongoing activities,
it is proposed to establish an Advisory/Steering Group involving, of course, the Advisory Bodies to the World Heritage
Convention, but also UN-ISDR, ICOM and other Members of the Blue Shield, the Council of Europe and other relevant
Institutions. The role of this Steering Group would be to review the progress of the Programme and provide orientation for
its improvement.

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