E-Waste Disposal Effects on the Aquatic
Environment: Accra, Ghana
Jingyu Huang, Philip Nti Nkrumah, Desmond Ofosu Anim,and Ebenezer Mensah

Contents
1
2

Introduction ........................................................................................................................
Management of E-Waste in Ghana ....................................................................................
2.1 E-Waste Recycling in Ghana ....................................................................................
2.2 Proximity of the Agbogbloshie E-Waste Disposal Site
to Water Bodies .........................................................................................................
3 E-Waste Contaminants .......................................................................................................
4 Effects of E-Waste Contaminants on Aquatic Organisms .................................................
4.1 Effects of Heavy Metals on Aquatic Life .................................................................
4.2 Effects of Organic Pollutants on Aquatic Life ..........................................................
5 Summary ............................................................................................................................
References ................................................................................................................................

20
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29
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J. Huang
Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Integrated Regulation and Resource Development
on Shallow Lakes, Hohai University, Nanjing, China
P.N. Nkrumah (*)
Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Integrated Regulation and Resource Development
on Shallow Lakes, Hohai University, Nanjing, China
Department of Agricultural Engineering, Kwame Nkrumah University of Scienceand Technology, PMB, Kumasi, Ghana
College of Environment, Hohai University, No. 1 Xikang Road, Nanjing 210098, China
D.O. Anim
College of Environment, Hohai University, No. 1 Xikang Road, Nanjing 210098, China
E. Mensah
Department of Agricultural Engineering, Kwame Nkrumah University of Scienceand Technology, PMB, Kumasi, Ghana
D.M. Whitacre (ed.), Reviews of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology
Volume 229, Reviews of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 229,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-03777-6_2, © Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2014

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J. Huang et al.

Introduction

In most developing countries, the rapid pace of urbanization is a challenge to urban
environmental management. One major challenge of waste management facingsome urban areas is electronic waste (e-waste). The increasingly rapid evolution ofelectronic technology, coupled with rapid product obsolescence, has compounded
the e-waste problem (Otsuka et al. 2012).
The amount of e-waste generated globally is growing at a rate nearly three times
faster than the growth of overall municipal solid waste (Schluep et al. 2009).
According to UNEP (2010), the annual e-waste generated worldwide is estimated to
be 20–50 million tons (t). Unfortunately, between 50% and 80% of such e-waste isprospectively exported to developing countries like Ghana, China, India and Nigeria(Puckett and Smith 2002; UNEP 2005; Orisakwe and Frazzoli 2010; Environmental
Investigation Agency 2011; Lundstedt 2011).
The University of Ghana’s Institute for Environment and Sanitation Studies
reported that Ghana has been identified as a popular dumping ground for old electronics (Koranteng and Darko 2011), making e-waste an alarming and growing
menace in the country. This accumulated e-waste is poorly managed in the country,
because proper systems for recycling and disposal of them are lacking (Nordbrand2009; Darko 2010). According to Amoyaw-Osei et al. (2011), hundreds of tons ofe-waste end up at the scrap yards in Ghana every month, where it is disassembled to
extract valuable components and metals. Specifically, the main center for recovering and recycling e-waste materials is the Agbogbloshie Scrap Market in the Greater
Accra region (Brigden et al. 2008). Prakash et al. (2010) estimated that about 8,000
metric t of e-waste is being treated annually at the Agbogbloshie metal scrap yard.
The uncontrolled dumping and inappropriate recycling of e-waste poses serious
threats to human health and the environment at large (Prakash et al. 2010), because
e-waste contains a multitude of hazardous substances that may be released as thewaste is handled and processed (Lundstedt 2011; Tysdenova and Bengtsson 2011).
The toxic chemicals that exist in e-waste include a wide range of heavy metals, suchas cadmium (Cd), lead (Pb), mercury (Hg), arsenic (As) and nickel (Ni), and also
persistent organic compounds, such as brominated flame retardants (BFRs) andphthalates. Other chemicals that appear in e-waste include the polychlorinatedbiphenyls (PCBs), nonylphenol (NP), and triphenyl phosphate (TPPs), among others (Azuka 2009; Robinson 2009). A study conducted by Greenpeace International(2008) at the Agbogbloshie scrap yard showed that some samples contained Cd, Hg
and Pb in quantities that are considered especially toxic to aquatic life.
Unfortunately, according to the Director of the Chemicals Control andManagement Centre of the Ghana Environmental Protection Agency, data on theadverse impact of e-waste on human health and the environment in Ghana is highly
limited (Pwamang 2009). It is sad to note that research conducted to date at the main
Ghanaian e-waste dumpsite (Agbogbloshie) has been only on a small scale, and as
a result, the true extent of e-waste chemical contamination at the site is largely
unknown (Caravanos et al. 2011). Moreover, to the best of our knowledge, the environmental concerns of e-waste in particular have not yet been properly addressed in
Ghana (Agyei-Mensah and Oteng-Ababio 2012; Asante et al. 2012; Otsuka et al.
2012; Caravanos et al. 2013; Riederer et al. 2013).

E-Waste Disposal Effects on the Aquatic Environment: Accra, Ghana

21

Notwithstanding the dearth of knowledge, there is concern for the contamination
at the Agbogbloshie disposal site because of its close proximity to other water bodies, such as the Odaw River and its estuary, and the Korle lagoon. This near proximity, coupled with the incessant floods that occur in the area, enhances the probability
that aquatic life will be exposed to e-waste. According to Nixon et al. (2007), Korle
Lagoon, which is in the downstream estuary, has become one of the most polluted
water bodies on earth, and this is clearly a very serious concern.
In the present paper, our goal is to review the potential hazards posed by e-waste
contaminants on the aquatic environment at the Agbogbloshie disposal site in Ghana,
which we contend typifies the situation in the majority of developing countries. To
achieve our goal, we estimated the volume of e-waste disposed of in Ghana, and evaluated the available e-waste management options. We sought to know what chemical contaminants are commonly detected in the various kinds of e-waste disposed of in Ghana
and assessed the significance of the Agbogbloshie disposal site’s proximity to nearby
water bodies. In addition, we analyzed the factors that may facilitate the contaminationof the water bodies by hazardous substances that exist in e-waste. Ultimately, we
assessed the possible adverse effects to aquatic life from release of e-waste-associatedchemical contaminants (primarily heavy metals and organic compounds).

2

Management of E-Waste in Ghana

As mentioned in the introduction, Ghana has become a popular dumping ground for
e-waste. Despite the enormous amounts of e-waste that is dumped in Ghana, there
is no clear measure for how many used-computer or other electronic-equipment
shops exist around the country; nor is the quantity of e-waste that now exists in the
country well established. Orisakwe and Frazzoli (2010) reported that the main reason for this is that records are simply not kept on these parameters. However, limited data do suggest a rise in the quantity of e-waste that has been imported to Ghana
since 2003 (Fig. 1). The main components of e-waste processed at Ghanaian scrap
yards include obsolete computers and televisions (Brigden et al. 2008).

Fig. 1 Estimated quantityof E-waste imported into
Ghana (Adapted from UN
Comtrade 2010)

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2.1

J. Huang et al.

E-Waste Recycling in Ghana

The e-waste recycling activities in Ghana are mainly performed by the informal
sector. This sector uses rudimentary methods to salvage copper and other metallic
components that can be sold. For example, the e-waste is dismantled and sometimes
burned (Amoyaw-Osei et al. 2011; Lundstedt 2011). During the recycling process,simple hand tools such as hammers, chisels, or even stones are employed to breakelectronic devices down to their individual components. Materials of no value aredisposed of in a large area at the disposal sites. Such materials are piled up on the
dump site and are periodically burned to reduce volume. It must be noted that wet
chemical leaching processes, often associated with the recovery of precious metals
from printed wiring boards (PWBs), have not been observed in Ghana (Prakash
et al. 2010; Amoyaw-Osei et al. 2011). However, there are indications that these
PWBs are exported to Asia for further processing (Grant and Oteng-Ababio 2012).

2.2

Proximity of the Agbogbloshie E-Waste Disposal Site
to Water Bodies

Agbogbloshie is located geographically at 05°35′N and 00°06′W (Fig. 2). The town
covers an area of approximately 16 km2 and has a population of about 40,000. It lies
within the tropics.
The Agbogbloshie scrap yard, as depicted in Fig. 2, is situated on flat ground on
the left bank of the Odaw River, and in the upper reaches of the Korle Lagoon in
Accra (Amoyaw-Osei et al. 2011; Caravanos et al. 2011; Oteng-Ababio 2012).
These water bodies adjacent to the disposal site form part of one of the major catchments (Odaw-Korle) in the Accra metropolis, and cover an area of 250 km2.
The mean annual rainfall in Ghana is estimated to be 1,187 mm (FAO 2005) andthe average annual rainfall in the Accra Metropolitan Assembly is about 730 mm(Accra Metropolitan Assembly 2006). This region has a distinct rainy season, in
which routine heavy rains fall primarily during two rainy seasons. There are two
rainfall peaks, one notably in June and the other in October. Rain usually falls during intensive short storms and gives rise to local flooding. The flooding particularly
affects low-lying areas such as the Agbogbloshie scrap yard. We must emphasizethat the lower-lying lagoons and the Odaw river, which ultimately flow into theocean, are just adjacent to the disposal site. Therefore, the threat that moving water
will leach or wash contaminants into the local water bodies is high; once such contaminated run-off occurs, the threat to aquatic organisms in these water bodies isalso high. Actually, Biney (1998) classified urban run-off as one of the main typesof pollution that reaches the Odaw-Korle catchment. Brigden et al. (2008) confirmed that many chemicals present in the Korle lagoon sediment were the same as,or were similar to, those found at the contaminated sites where waste was burned orprocessed; site sampling suggested that pollutants migrated from the burning sites

E-Waste Disposal Effects on the Aquatic Environment: Accra, Ghana

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Fig. 2 Map of the Agbogbloshie E-waste recycling site in Ghana (Adapted from Oteng-Ababio 2012)

to surface waters, probably as a result of heavy rainfall and flooding. The direct
disposal of e-waste into water bodies is augmented by the introduction of thesesame contaminants into the same water bodies via leaching.
Another mechanism that is likely to introduce e-waste contaminants to the local
water bodies is atmospheric deposition. The region lies within the dry coastal

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J. Huang et al.

equatorial climatic zone and is therefore rather dry (Ghana Districts 2006). Thisfact, coupled with the open burning practices that take place during e-waste recycling, results in the formation of thick fumes. The fume particles may be introduced
to the nearby surface waters through wet or dry atmospheric deposition. We describe
the contaminants that are introduced to the local water bodies in Sect. 3.

3E-Waste Contaminants

E-waste contains numerous hazardous chemicals and materials (e.g., heavy metals
such as lead and cadmium, and many chlorinated or brominated organic compounds). Some of the types of chemicals found in e-waste are identified in Table 1.
The occurrence of these contaminants within the local environment of thee-waste recycling site in Ghana cannot be disputed. Brigden et al. (2008),
Caravanos et al. (2011) and Otsuka et al. (2012) have tested soil and ash samples
at the Agbogbloshie site, and have identified high concentrations of toxic metals(in quantities that were as much as 20-times above background levels), such as
zinc, lead and copper, and organic chemicals, such as the phthalates andTable 1 The nature of chemical contaminants that exist in E-waste
Chemical
Lead

Arsenic
Beryllium
Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)
Cadmium
Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs)
Polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and furans(PCDD/Fs)
Nonylphenol (NP)Triphenyl phosphate (TPP)
polychlorinated naphthalenes (PCNs)
Mercury (Hg)

Source of these components
Glass of cathode ray tubes (CRT) in televisions
and monitors, lead-acid batteries, polyvinyl
chloride (PVC) cables
Integrated circuit boards
Connectors; Mother boards and finger clips
Electrical transformers, capacitors, PVC
Switches, solder joints, Housing, PVC cables,
cathode ray tubes, rechargeable Batteries
Casings
Formation during thermal processes
Insulators, Housing, Casing
Casings of computer monitors
Capacitors, insulated wires
Batteries, flat screen electronic displays,
switches, relays, Housing
PVC

Phthalates (e.g., di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate(DEHP), dibutyl phthalate (DBP))
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)
Formation during thermal processes
Chromium
Steel housing
Barium
CRT, Vacuum tubes
Source: Adapted from Nordic Council of Ministers (1995), Matthews (1996), Microelectronics
and Computer Technology Corporation (1996), OECD (2003), Brigden et al. (2005), Azuka(2009), Environmental Investigation Agency (2011) and Lundstedt (2011)

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E-Waste Disposal Effects on the Aquatic Environment: Accra, Ghana

polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs). However, we also note that studies on
the detection of harmful chemicals in the sediments of the nearby water bodies are
extremely limited.

4

Effects of E-Waste Contaminants on Aquatic Organisms

Obviously, the introduction of the e-waste contaminants to the local water bodies
poses hazards to the local aquatic organisms. A study conducted by the Institute forApplied Ecology (the Öko-Institut) indicated that local residents living near thelagoon, where uncontrolled dumping and e-waste recycling activities occur,lamented the adverse impacts of the site on the aquatic life of nearby water bodies(Prakash et al. 2010). This study revealed that the lagoon, which used to be a common fishing ground for the residents of the local communities until a few years ago,
is now heavily polluted. As a result, many aquatic species in the lagoon have been
eliminated. Amoyaw-Osei et al. (2011) also observed that the Odaw River, which
was formerly an important fishing ground, has become dead because of the extensive pollution caused by uncontrolled dumping and the crude processing of e-waste
in the area.
According to the US EPA (1998), an ecological risk assessment method can beapplied to predict the potential adverse effects of bioaccumulative pollutants toorganisms by comparing the exposure concentrations to an effect concentration. In
Table 2, we compare sediment concentrations of contaminants from Korle Lagoon
with sediment toxicity thresholds for saltwater benthos proposed by Australia,
Canada, and by Long et al. (1995) working in the United States. The metals posing
the highest potential risk in Korle Lagoon sediments appear to be copper, lead andzinc, whose concentrations ranged from 20-times higher than the sediment

Table 2 A comparison of high-level contaminants in Korle Lagoon, with sediment quality
guideline values for saltwater benthos of Australia and New Zealand (ANZECC) and Canada. In
columns 2–4, two values are given for each sediment quality guideline; the lower one is the one
below which no effects are expected; the higher one is associated with an increased probability ofadverse effects (concentrations are given in mg kg−1 dry wt)
Contaminant
Korle Lagoona
Cadmium
6
Chromium34
Copper
2,260
Lead
1,685
Mercury
<0.5
Zinc
2,425
a
Source: Brigden et al. (2008)b
ANZECC (2012)c
CCME (2012)

Long et al. (1995)
1.2/9.6
81/37034/27047/2181.0/3.7
150/410ANZECC 2012b
1.5/1080/37065/27050/2200.15/1200/410

Canada 2012c
0.7/4.2
52.3/160
18.7/10830.2/112
0.13/0.7
124/271

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J. Huang et al.

concentration most associated with adverse effects to benthos (Cu), 15-times higher(Pb), and 5.6-times higher (Zn).
The sediment toxicity thresholds shown in Table 2 do not account for sitespecific influences on the bioavailability of contaminants, and pertain mainly to
toxicity arising from short-term (10–30 day) sediment exposures, rather thanchronic toxicity, and effects arising from the concentration of contaminants in theaquatic food chains. Thus, Table 2 incompletely characterizes potential risks associated with Korle Lagoon sediments and surface waters. Nevertheless, concentrationsof copper, lead and zinc are high enough in the sediments to warrant further investigations into the effects of these and other contaminants, and implementation ofcontrols on their release into the water bodies. It must be pointed out that we havepredicted pollutant effects on aquatic life, based on their release from sediments
into the water column, which is expected from both diffusion and advection, anddepends on the pH and Eh of the sediments (Reuber et al. 1987; Simpson et al.
1998, 2000, 2002).

4.1

Effects of Heavy Metals on Aquatic LifeThe adverse impacts that heavy metals impose on aquatic life have been well established. Heavy metals are highly persistent, toxic in trace amounts, and can potentially induce severe oxidative stress in aquatic organisms (Frazier 1979; Nammalwar
1983; Forster and Whittmann 1983; Meria 1991; Al-Masri et al. 2002; Karbassi
et al. 2006; Guo et al. 2009; Woo et al. 2009; Jakimska et al. 2011). Aquatic organisms may absorb heavy-metal pollutants directly from water or indirectly via uptake
from the food chain.
Metals may typically act together to potentiate toxicity (Corrill and Huff 1976).
Nammalwar (1983) addressed both the indirect and direct effects by which heavy
metals affect aquatic organisms. The author noted that indirect effects are producedon food chain organisms and via ecological stress, whereas direct effects areobserved on behavior, migration, physiology, metabolism, reproduction, development and growth of aquatic animals. In this review, we considered and addressed
the direct effects caused by these pollutants on aquatic organisms.
Contamination of a river with heavy metals may cause effects on the ecologicalbalance of the aquatic environment, and may narrow the diversity of aquatic organisms as the extent of contamination increases (Ayandiran et al. 2009). Khayatzadeh
and Abbasi (2010) reported that heavy metals in polluted reservoirs may also affectfish species at the population level.
Stohs and Bagchi (1995) and Leonard et al. (2004) reported that molecularmechanisms of heavy metal cytotoxicity include the following: damage to plasma
membranes, binding to proteins and phospholipids, inhibition of Na- &, K-dependent
ATPases, inhibition of transmembrane amino acid transport; enzyme inhibition;
lipid peroxidation and oxidative DNA damage, along with depletion of antioxidant
enzymes via generation of Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS).

E-Waste Disposal Effects on the Aquatic Environment: Accra, Ghana

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Toxicity of Lead to Aquatic Organisms
Lundstedt (2011) reported that lead, a particularly problematic metal, is highly
abundant in e-waste. Pb accumulates in the environment and produces both highacute and chronic effects on biological systems (i.e., plants, animals and microorganisms), even at low concentrations (Biesinger et al. 1972; LeBlanc 1982). Leadcauses behavioral disturbances, affects survival, growth, learning and metabolism,
and inorganic compounds of lead may be carcinogenic (Weber and Dingel 1997;
Ribeiro et al. 2009; Huang et al. 2010). Moreover, Pb causes scoliosis in fish
(Stomiñska and Jezierska 2000).
Chronic toxicity occurs when lead is bioconcentrated in aquatic species over a
period of time, and when it accumulates in internal organs. However, biomagnification has not been observed to occur in the aquatic environment (Prosi 1989). The
author noted that the dissolved chemical forms of lead are extremely toxic in theaquatic environment, when present at high concentrations.
When lead concentrations in algae exceed 500 ppb, enzymes needed for photosynthesis are inhibited (Nagpal 1987; Rioboo et al. 2009). When photosynthesis is
reduced, algal growth is adversely affected. Decreased algal growth means less foodfor animals, which has repercussions for the entire ecosystem. Lead also has direeffects on fish. The primary mode of uptake of aqueous Pb2+ in freshwater fishes isthrough their gills into the blood stream (Seymore et al. 1995). Once absorbed, Pb2+
is distributed particularly to the liver, kidney, heart and male gonads (ATSDR 2005).
When lead concentrations exceed 100 ppb, gill function is affected. Fishes exposed
to high levels of lead exhibit a wide-range of effects including muscular and neurological degeneration and destruction, growth inhibition, mortality, reproductive
problems, and paralysis (US EPA 1976; Eisler 1988; Rademacher et al. 2003).
Acute effects of Pb on freshwater invertebrates (for water exposures and food chain
exposures) are normally reported at concentrations of 100–100,000 μg/L (Nagpal
1987; Boyle et al. 2010; Mager et al. 2010, 2011).

Toxicity of Cadmium to Aquatic Organisms
Cd is a nonessential heavy metal and is considered to be one of the most toxic ofaquatic contaminants. Cd can cause toxicity to organisms at each biological level,from populations and communities to cellular elements (Rashed 2001). Even at sublethal concentrations, Cd has a cumulative effect and may cause serious disturbances to fish metabolism that produces abnormal behavior, locomotor anomalies
or anorexia (Bryan et al. 1995; Cicik and Engin 2005). Hayat et al. (2007) noted that
long-term exposure (20 days or more) of juvenile and adult rainbow trout,
Oncorhynchus mykiss, to waterborne cadmium at sub-lethal concentrations resulted
in decreased growth. It is reported that Cd primarily accumulates in fish in the liver,stomach and gills (Abu Hilal and Ismail 2008). Solomon (2008) stated that Cd
impairs aquatic plant growth and thus, adversely affects the entire aquatic ecosystem, since green plants are at the base of all food chains.

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4.2

J. Huang et al.

Effects of Organic Pollutants on Aquatic Life

Toxicity of PBDEs to Aquatic Organisms
PBDEs are of significant environmental concern because they are toxic, bioaccumulative and persistent (Michigan Department of Environmental Quality
2007). In particular, it was observed in OECD testing that these compounds are notnaturally biodegradable (EU draft RAR 2000). They easily bio-accumulate in fatty
tissues and bio-magnify throughout food chains (Law et al. 2006). Wollenberger
et al. (2005) reported the PBDEs to be very toxic to aquatic organisms. However,current knowledge concerning their effects on aquatic organisms is limited(Breitholtz and Wollenberger 2003; Tam et al. 2012).
Nevertheless, we note that adverse effects on neurobehavioral development(Branchi et al. 2005) and endocrine disruption (Muirhead et al. 2006) have beenreported in the literature for PBDE compounds. PBDEs are known to cause many
deformities in aquatic organisms, and these morphological abnormalities are more
pronounced during embryogenesis (Lema et al. 2007). Specifically, Mhadhbi
et al. (2010) observed abnormal skeletal formations and pericardial edema in turbot. These authors also noted that PBDEs are teratogenic to the embryo–larvalstages, during which embryo development is adversely affected, perhaps leading
to embryo mortality.

Toxicity of the PCDD/Fs to Aquatic Organisms
The polychlorodibenzodioxins and furans (PCDD/Fs) are persistent organic pollutants displaying high toxicity and bioaccumulation potential (US EPA 2000). They
tend to biomagnify in higher trophic levels of the aquatic food web. In a study conducted for the Ontario Ministry of the Environment, the authors noted that because
PCDD/Fs are hydrophobic, the majority of them released into aquatic systems tend
to bind to the organic fraction of suspended and/or bed sediments (Dillon Consulting
Limited 2007). They also have an affinity for lipid-rich tissues of aquatic organisms.
According to the Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment (2001), aquaticorganisms may either take up PCDD/Fs from water or sediment, or by consuming
contaminated prey.
In fish, PCDD/Fs are thought to elicit most, if not all, of their toxic and biochemical effects via the aryl hydrocarbon (Ah) receptor (Environment Canada
2000). The adverse consequences of PCDD/Fs on fish are primarily manifested as
reproductive effects such as survival of eggs and embryos (Dillon Consulting
Limited 2007). As a result, the long-term population of local species is negatively
affected. The authors noted that PCDD/Fs also affect the survival, growth and reproduction of adult fish.

E-Waste Disposal Effects on the Aquatic Environment: Accra, Ghana

529

Summary

The volume of e-waste is growing around the world, and, increasingly, it is being
disposed of by export from developed to developing countries. This is the situationin Ghana, and, in this paper we address the potential consequences of such e-waste
disposal. Herein, we describe how e-waste is processed in Ghana, and what the fate
is of e-waste-chemical contaminants during recycling and storage. Finally, to theextent it is known, we address the prospective adverse effects of e-waste-related
contaminants on health and aquatic life downstream from a large e-waste disposal
facility in Accra, Ghana.
In developing countries, including Ghana, e-waste is routinely disassembled byunprotected workers that utilize rudimentary methods and tools. Once disassembled, e-waste components are often stored in large piles outdoors. These processing
and storage methods expose workers and local residents to several heavy metals andorganic chemicals that exist in e-waste components. The amount of e-waste dumped
in Ghana is increasing annually by about 20,000 t. The local aquatic environment is
at a potential high risk, because the piles of e-waste components stored outside areroutinely drenched or flooded by rainfall, producing run-off from storage sites tolocal waterways. Both water and sediment samples show that e-waste-related contaminants have entered Ghana’s water ways.
The extent of pollution produced in key water bodies of Ghana (Odaw River and
the Korle Lagoon) underscores the need for aquatic risk assessments of the many
contaminants released during e-waste processing. Notwithstanding the fact that pollutants from other sources reach the water bodies, it is clear that these water bodies arealso heavily impacted by contaminants that are found in e-waste. Our concern is thatsuch exposures have limited and will continue to limit the diversity of aquatic organisms. There have also been changes in the abundance and biomass of surviving species
and changes in food chains. Therefore, the need for actions to be taken to reduce entryof e-waste pollutants into Ghana’s aquatic environment is real and is immediate.
Heavy metals (e.g., lead, cadmium, copper and zinc) and organic pollutants (e.g.,
PCDD/Fs and PBDEs) have been detected in the sediments of local water bodies inquantities that greatly exceed background levels. This fact alone suggests thataquatic organisms that live in the affected water bodies are highly exposed to these
toxic, bio-accumulative, and persistent contaminants. These contaminants havebeen confirmed to result from the primitive methods used to recycle and processe-waste within the local environment.
Only limited local data exist on the threats posed by these e-waste-related contaminants on nearby natural resources, especially aquatic organisms. In this review,
we have addressed the potential toxicity of selected heavy metals and organic pollutants on aquatic organisms. Since there are no data on concentrations of contaminants in the water column, we have based our predictions of effects on pollutant
release rates from sediments. Pollutants that are attached to sediments are routinely

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J. Huang et al.

released into the water column from diffusion and advection, the rate of which
depends on pH and Eh of the sediments. E-waste contaminants have the potential toproduce deleterious effects on the behavior, physiology, metabolism, reproduction,
development and growth of many aquatic organisms. Because it is confirmed thatboth heavy metal and organic contaminants are reaching the biota of Ghana’s local
waterways, we presume that they are producing adverse effects. Because local dataon the aquatic toxicity of these contaminants are as yet unavailable, we strongly
recommend that future research be undertaken to examine, on a large scale andlong-term basis, both contamination levels in biota, and adverse effects on biota of
the nearby water bodies.
Acknowledgement The authors are grateful for the financial support from the National Programon Key Basic Research Project of China (2012CB719804), the Natural Science Foundation of China(51208177), the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities (2012B03414) and the
Natural Science Foundation of Jiangsu Province (BK2012086). We are also extremely grateful to
Dr. Dave Whitacre, RECT Editor, for his excellent comments and editing of the manuscript. The
authors acknowledge all anonymous reviewers for their time and profound suggestions. We would
also like to thank Cecilia Kwofie, Amos Tiereyagn Kabo-bah, Jennifer Abena Kwofie, Akosua
Korantemaa Agadzi and Thelma Dede Baddoo for their assistance and language editing.

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