Impact Objectives• Trace some new ideas emerging in theories of justice• Examine ethics of care as a theory criticising theconcept of justice• Envisage a more decent society acknowledging
human vulnerability

Ethics for protecting
the vulnerable
Professor Tetsuhiko Shinagawa is interested in philosophy and ethics, and how these can be effectively
applied to highlight and better understand human vulnerability and support vulnerable people
Can you introduce
us to the approaches
that can be adoptedin ethics?
Ethics has threeapproaches or fields:
normative ethics, descriptive ethics (historyof ethics) and metaethics. Normative ethics
discusses what and why we should, may or
may not do. Descriptive ethics researches
various ethical theories evolved over history.
Metaethics investigates the meanings ofeach ethical norm and the feature of moral
thinking.
The question of why we should aid the needy
belongs to normative ethics. What answer
a certain norm (for example, justice) gives
to this question depends on the meaningof the norm. We must, therefore, inquire
meta-ethically as to what ‘justice’ means.
Since the meaning and importance of a norm
often varies in different ethical theories, weare engaged in descriptive ethics: we must
research many philosophers and thoughtsthat have influenced the meanings of norms.
What is your particular interest in philosophy
and applied ethics?
Philosophy is attractive to me because of its
spirit of lending deep thinking to things thatmight seem to be self-evident. In the last halfof the 1980s in Japan, applied ethics began
to be studied vigorously. I participated in theresearch as a graduate student and young
researcher. Applied ethics endeavours togive guidelines for actual issues that emerge
newly in society. This feature confers thenaming on ethical considerations about
various themes. However, my interest inphilosophy meant I was less interested in
the practical functions of applied ethics
and more interested in the analyses of thelogical structure from which guidelines arededuced (normative ethics) and the studyof the meanings of norms mentioned there(metaethics). Thus, I tackle ethics in general.
What type of research are you engaged in at
the Faculty of Letters, Kansai University?
I preside over Kansai University Society for
Ethical Studies and edit the online magazine
Journal for Ethical Studies. I translated Kants
Kritik der praktischen Vernunft: Eine Philosophie
der Freiheit written by Otfried Höffe into
Japanese with two colleagues. It was
published by Hosei University Press in 2020.
From your perspective, what is the ultimate
impact of your research?
We now seem to believe that the following
ideas are self-evident: society consists of selfsufficient and equal members (the conceptof modern society.) It is just that distribution

is done in proportion to merit (Aristotle’s
concept of distributive justice) and the meritis identified with labour and achievements
obtained by it (Locke’s theory of rightto property.) It is highly estimated to be
productive and the blame for being needy isput on the person themself (neoliberalism).
My research challenges such a view ofsociety, tracing some new ideas emerging intheories of justice (Rawls, luck egalitarianism,and so on), and examining ethics of care asa theory criticising the concept of justice,
and aims to envisage a more decent
society acknowledging human vulnerability.
Therefore, the needy as well as the people
caring for them will be the first to benefit
from this research.
How does your work focus on humanvulnerability?
Ethics and philosophy work on people totransform their thoughts. This research
focuses on human vulnerability. It suggests
the risk that mere distribution in proportion
to merits will result in an enlargement of
the difference between the rich and the poorand only some transient victories. It thinks
deeply into the significance of the fact that wehave cooperated and established a society.
Ethics is a study that reverses division andfragmentation by enquiring into what humanbeings are.
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Transforming justiceand the concept of care
Professor Tetsuhiko Shinagawa is seeking a richer concept of justice and an effective concept of care,which he explains are societally-important studies

Professor Tetsuhiko Shinagawa is a
professor of philosophy and ethics at theFaculty of Letters at Kansai University,
Japan. He began studying applied ethics
in the 1980s and today is interested inethics in general, with a specific focus on
the foundations of ethics. Each ethicaltheory is based on a norm or norms that it
estimates to be most essential. For example,of care” is given to the ethical theorists
sharing Gilligan’s idea. Jonas’ principle ofresponsibility posits that human survival
is dependent on our ability to care for theplanet, with our actions having a direct
impact on the Earth’s future and insists on
the present generation’s responsibility forthe existence of coming generations.’

Aristotle’s concept of distributive justicedoes not help the needy because it demands
distribution in proportion to the person’s
merit and being needy cannot be counted
as merit,’ comments Shinagawa. ‘However,we now have the idea of social justice, as
constructed by Rawls’ theory of justice. Andluck egalitarianism has advanced Rawls’
idea that no one deserves their luck. On

The concept of justice assumes that society consists of self-sufficient, autonomous andequal members. This understanding, according to ethics of care, loses sight of humanvulnerability
utilitarianism is founded on the norm of
goodness in the sense of greater happiness.
The difference of these fundamental norms
reflects a variety of ethical theories. It leads
to conflicts among them as to what should
be fulfilled above all.
From Shinagawa’s perspective, the modern
orthodox ethical theories such as liberalismand deontology are founded on justice andright. ‘They presuppose that society consistsof equal and self-sufficient members. It
is the modern society itself where social
rise can be acquired by each person’sabilities and efforts. In fact, however, it is
not the case that all members meet therequirement. We must be helped by others
when we are young, ill, disabled and very
old,’ he highlights.
He sought for ethical theories founded onother norms than justice. ‘Two important
ethical theories were found: psychologist
Carol Gilligan’s ethic of care and Hans
Jonas’ principle of responsibility,’ Shinagawa
comments. ‘Gilligan attained her idea
through her psychological research on
morality development. Ethic of care is anormative ethical theory that stems fromthe interconnected nature of the humancondition and surrounds the need for
responsiveness to the vulnerability ofhuman beings. The naming of “ethics
36 www.impact.pub

DELVING INTO ETHICAL NORMS
In his current research, Shinagawa is
exploring how the ethical norms of justiceand care can be applied to social issues andaid vulnerable members of society. At theintersections of these are important lessons
for aiding people in need, and this is where
his research project sits. ‘This research
will investigate how two contrasted andmutually supplementing ethical norms,
namely, justice and care, can lead tooverlapping guidelines for aiding the needy
as an actual social issue, transforming
their respective conceptions,’ Shinagawa
explains. He has identified shortcomings
with the two norms. Justice means thateach person should be given what they
deserve. It demands that they show
their right or entitlement to it. This has
limitations in that it may prevent people
who cannot independently meet their needsfrom being assisted. Care is usually thought
to function only in an intimate circle. In
order to be effective in larger society thismust be expanded out from intimate
relationships to encompass relationships
on a broader scale. In order to overcome
these respective limitations and then
combine two norms, Shinagawa is seeking
a richer concept of justice and an effective
concept of care.
‘This is a hard, but promising project.

the other hand, some theorists of ethics ofcare have evolved their own social theories:
Virginia Held, Nel Noddings and Eva Feder
Kittay (especially her theory of ‘doulia’) andso on. Two contrastive norms, justice andcare, are getting closer to sharing the same
issues and perhaps (even if theoreticallydifferent, but) practically similar suggestions
about them,’ he envisages.

Rinrigaku no hanashi (A Talk aboutEthics) which composes of three chapters:‘what science is ethics?’, ‘foundation of ethic(moral)’ and ‘on justice’THE DIVIDE BRIDGED
Shinagawa’s research is particularly
important in the context of an increasingly
globalised world and a growing chasm
between rich and poor. At the core of thework is an acute awareness of humanvulnerability and a desire to promotea better understanding of society. ‘The
concept of justice assumes that society
consists of self-sufficient, autonomousand equal members. This understanding,according to ethics of care, loses sight of
human vulnerability. This critique is also
applied to contemporary individualistic andcompetitive society,’ Shinagawa states. The
research is exploring all of these interrelated
ideas and concepts, as well as connectedchallenges, including questions of economy,welfare and identity.
The work is related to fields beyond
philosophy and ethics, including politics,
law and economics, making it highlyinterdisciplinary. ‘Aiding the needy is not
only an issue in ethics, but also in politics,
law and economics,’ states Shinagawa.
Each of these fields has its own values
independent from ethical judgment. For
example, legitimacy of procedure in politics,
coherence among laws and judgements inlaw, and cost-benefit analysis in economics.
‘But ethical judgments are also made ineach of these fields. By contrast ethics canbe called the most abstract normative theory
because it deals with ethical judgments
without being limited to a specific fieldsuch as politics, law, economics and soon.’ This research, therefore, leads to aninterdisciplinary study.
SUPPORT AND UNDERSTANDING
Shinagawa’s research challenges certain
views of society, and this is one of thereasons he is so interested in philosophy– it delves deeper into situations and ideas
to find new meanings and/or outlooks. It
also hopes to enhance understanding ofethics. ‘I hope that my studies will change
the too narrow understanding of ethics.
At first, an unreal division is often madebetween public and private domains anda prejudice is often assumed that ethics
based on justice and right is applied to theformer and ethics of care to the latter,’ says
Shinagawa. ‘Raising children, nursing andcaring for the aged are no longer only donein families, but also in public domains suchas in nursery schools, hospitals and homes
for the elderly. Private issues are also very
often public issues at once. Secondly, there
is a deep-rooted inclination to try to exclude
metaphysical inquiry from ethics.’ This
research tackles a social and actual issueof aiding the needy. ‘It might appear to be

The image of universality in ethic of care. Weaving a network within which everyone is cared
for by someone

possible to do so without metaphysics but
this unearths metaphysical questions suchas ‘what is a human being?’, ‘why do welive together?’, ‘is any significance found in
the fact that we are here now together bychance?’ he outlines.
Ultimately, Shinagawa wants to promotea shift in mindset and improved
understanding of ethics that will lead to abetter society in which human vulnerability
is acknowledged and vulnerable people aresupported. This will prove beneficial not
only for people in need as well as the people
caring for them, but also for all possibly
vulnerable persons, namely, everyone. lProject Insights
FUNDING
Japan Society for the Promotion ofScience (JSPS), KAKENHI Grants-in-Aidfor Scientific Research, Grant number
17K02195
CONTACT
Professor Tetsuhiko Shinagawa
T: +81 6 6368 0416
E: tsina@kansai-u.ac.jp
W: http://www2.itc.kansai-u.ac.jp/~tsina/
engindex.htm
BIO
Professor Tetsuhiko Shinagawa studied
Husserl’s phenomenology at Kyoto
University, after which he set towards
applied ethics in the 1980s, whenbioethics and environmental ethics
began to be vigorously researched
in Japan. He gradually enlarged theresearch field to ethics in general andespecially tackled the foundation ofethics. He is the author of Introduction
to Ethics: From Aristotle to Reproductive
Technology and AI (Chuokoron-shinsha,2020), A Talk about Ethics (NakanishiyaShuppan, 2015) and What Borders Justice:
The Principle of Responsibility and Ethicof Care (Nakanishiya Shuppan, 2007),
which are written in Japanese. Shinagawa
has been a Professor at Kansai University
since 2000.

The image of universality in ethic of justice. The same principle is applied to everyone equallywww.impact.pub 37