Production, Processing and Marketing of Pulses in West Africa

Production, Processing and Marketing of Pulses in West Africa− Considering Inter-Regional Markets and Improving the Living Standards of Local
Residents through a Case Study of the Republic of Benin −March 2007

Japan Association forInternational Collaboration ofAgriculture and Forestry
March 2007

Cover Page: Painting of a water jar with holes supported by three hands. This
was the symbol of a king who once ruled over the Republic of Benin (formerly
Kingdom of Dahomey). The water jar represents the country or society, and it ishoped that all citizens will work together to prevent water (state resources)from seeping through their hands.

Preface
Many developing countries are located in tropical or subtropical zones andtherefore face severe natural, social and economic conditions, so their crop
production level is relatively low and unstable. Faced with such circumstances,developing countries must tackle the challenge of increasing food production
and at the same time fight population problems and poverty. Techniquesdeveloped by advanced nations located in temperate zones are not often applied
effectively. Accordingly, with regard to agricultural cooperation for developing
countries, research and studies on locally applicable techniques should be
carried out while taking into consideration of specific geographical and social
conditions; and there are many such requests.
The Association has implemented studies on the techniques of tropicalagriculture and has published a “Tropical Agriculture Series” (two versions:“Tropical Agriculture Handbook” and “Tropical Crops Handbook”) as part oftheir research and study program.
On this occasion, with the assistance of the Ministry of Agriculture,
Forestry and Fisheries, the Association collected and analyzed basic
information on subsistence crops and information on improving production
technology in developing countries. In addition to information on subsistencecrops which are deeply rooted in local areas, research and a study wereconducted in the Republic of Benin (hereinafter referred to as “Benin”) in order
to examine the potential of new subsistence crops which can lead to the One
Village One Product (OVOP). Although tubers (such as cassava and yams),
grains (such as millet, sorghum, maize and rice) and plantain bananas, etc. canbe listed as major food crops in Africa, in the said area, approximately 40
million people appear to be on the verge of starvation, and if the number ofmalnourished is included, it is said that the number will reach 200 million.
Despite this, agriculture in Africa continues to be sluggish, particularly in thearea of food crop productivity, which has fallen dramatically behind developing
countries, making improvement an urgent task. As mentioned, pulse(leguminous) crops appear to be extremely important since they are an excellent
source of high-quality protein for people.
In the preparation of this Report, a study team was dispatched to Benin inorder to obtain more accurate, up-to-date information. At the same time, theJapanese Technical Committee established within the Association (chaired byProfessor Makoto KATSUMATA) examined the context from a technical pointof view. Four particular types of leguminous crops (cowpea, groundnut,
Bambara groundnut and soybean) were discussed by the members who
participated in the said study. Once again, I would like to express my gratitude― i ―to the members of the Technical Committee for their valuable contribution.
In closing, I sincerely hope that this Report will be useful at the actual
sites of international cooperation in helping to reduce the number of starving
and malnourished people, improve food self-sufficiency, ensure food security,
and reduce poverty in Africa.
March 2007

Hidero MAKI, President
Japan Association forInternational Collaboration ofAgriculture and Forestry(JAICAF)― ii ―

“Study on Subsistence Crops”
of the Basic Data Improvement Project for Supporting Developing Countries
Members of the Technical Committee
Dr. Kenji IRIE: Lecturer, Department of International Agricultural Development,
Faculty of International Agriculture and Food Studies, Tokyo
University of Agriculture.
○Dr. Makoto KATSUMATA: Professor, Faculty of International Studies, Meiji
Gakuin University.
Dr. Chukichi KANEDA: Technical Advisor, Japan Association for International
Collaboration of Agriculture and Forestry (JAICAF).
Dr. Norihiko TOMOOKA: Senior Scientist, Gene Bank, National Institute ofAgrobiological Sciences (NIAS).
Dr. Shigeo MATSUI: Executive Advisor and Auditor, Japan International
Research Center for Agricultural Sciences (JIRCAS).
(Chairperson indicated by ○)Members of Field Survey in Benin
Dr. Kenji IRIE: Lecturer, Department of International Agricultural Development,
Faculty of International Agriculture and Food Studies, Tokyo
University of Agriculture.
Dr. Norihiko TOMOOKA: Senior Scientist, Gene Bank, National Institute ofAgrobiological Sciences (NIAS).
Yuzo KOBAYASHI: Assistant Director, Second Operations Department,
Japan Association for International Collaboration ofAgriculture and Forestry (JAICAF).

― iii ―

Introduction of Authors
Makoto KATSUMATA: Ph. D. in Economics of Development
Professor, Faculty of International Studies, Meiji Gakuin University.
Graduated from School of Political Science and Economy at Waseda
University, completed Ph.D. Program at University Pantheon Sorbonne(Paris 1). Visiting Fellow at University of Dakar and University ofMontréal, up to the present.
Major Field: Economics of Development
Author of: Introduction
Norihiko TOMOOKA: Ph. D in Agriculture
Senior Scientist, Gene Bank, National Institute of Agrobiological Sciences(NIAS). Graduated from Faculty of Agriculture at Kyoto University andcompleted doctor's course of Graduate School of Agriculture. After
entering Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, extensive
research at JIRCAS, NIAS and research overseas, up to the present.
Major Field: Genetics and breeding of leguminous crops, Crop Evolution
Author of: Chapter II (Cowpea, Soybean, Common Bean and Lima Bean),
Chapter III (Mungbean, Black Gram and Rice Bean)
Kenji IRIE: Ph. D in Agriculture
Lecturer, Department of International Agricultural Development, Facultyof International Agriculture and Food Studies, Tokyo University ofAgriculture. Completed Graduate School of International Agricultural
Development at Tokyo University of Agriculture. JICA/Japan Overseas
Cooperation Volunteer (Nepal) and JICA Dispatched Expert of Seed Bank
Project in the Union of Myanmar (Identification and Evaluation), up to thepresent.
Major Field: Food Crops, Identification and Evaluation of Genetic Resources
Author of: Chapter II (Groundnut, Bambara Groundnut and Pigeon Pea),
Chapter III (Yard-long Bean and Winged Bean)
Yuzo KOBAYASHI:
Japan Association for International Collaboration of agriculture And
Forestry (JAICAF), Second Operations Department, Assistant Director.
Graduated from Department of International Agricultural Development,
Faculty of Agriculture at Tokyo University of Agriculture. JICA/Japan
Overseas Cooperation Volunteer (Senegal) and JICA Dispatched Expert of
the Agricultural Machinery Training Project for Irrigated Rice Cultivationin Cote d’Ivoire(Coordinator and Training Planner), up to the present.
Author of: Chapter I, Appendix.

― iv ―

Photo 1:
Pastry “Kluiklui” made from groundnut paste.
Some are spiced with red chili pepper.

Photo 2:
Freshly-made Tofu (bean curd) colored byliquid (bowl on the right) extracted from redsorghum stems.

Photo 3:
Typical bean dish “Abobo”. Large beans on theleft are Bambara groundnut. Small beans on
top are cowpea. White powder on the bottom is“Gari” made from dried cassava, and the green
topping is Kren-kren which is sticky like okra.

Photo 4:
Black balls in the center are solid Miso-likeball, a substitute of “Afitin” made from theseeds of the Néré leguminous tree.

― v ―Photo 5:
Néré tree, Parkia biglobosa (Jacq.) Benth.
Photo of Néré seeds is at lower left.

Photo 6:
Market at Parakou. Agricultural products canbe seen everywhere including various varietiesof beans.

Photo 7:
Cowpea fields stretching as far as we can see(Azowlisse, Ouémé River flood plain)

Photo 8:
Meeting to report the findings of the study;
chairperson (Dr. Louis K. GNAHO/Deputy
Chief is seated in the center.) at Ministry ofAgriculture, Livestock and Fisheries.

― vii ―

Preface ······································································································
List of Committee Members ······································································
Introduction of Authors ···············································································
Frontispiece·································································································

i
iii
iv
v

Table of Contents
Introduction·································································································

1

Chapter I Agriculture in West Africa ························································
1. Natural Environment of West Africa····················································
1-1 Topography ················································································
1-2 Climate·······················································································
1-3 Vegetation···················································································
2. Agriculture and Pulse Crops in West Africa ·········································
2-1 Historical Background ································································
2-2 Export Crops and Monoculture···················································
2-3 Food Production ·········································································
2-4 Soil in West Africa······································································
2-5 West African Pulses, Their Importance and Future ·····················
3. Agriculture in Benin ············································································
3-1 Land Use and Irrigated Area ·······················································
3-2 Administrative Divisions ····························································
3-3 Topography ················································································
3-4 Climate·······················································································
3-5 Farming Population ····································································
3-6 Farm Size ···················································································
3-7 Farm Management ····································································
3-8 Soil ·····························································································
3-9 Cropping System ········································································
3-10 Food and Farming Policies ·······················································

3
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5
7
8
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10
12
14
18
27
27
28
29
30
32
32
33
36
38
40

Chapter II Pulse Crops in West Africa ······················································
1. Cowpea (Vigna uncuiculata (L.) Walpers) ···········································
1-1 Overview····················································································
1-2 Origin and Diversification ··························································
1-3 Production and Yield ··································································
1-4 Cropping System, Cultivation Method, and Use ·························
1-5 Breeding and Production Restraint Factors·································
1-6 Future Perspectives·····································································

49
49
49
50
53
56
63
69

― ix ―

2. Groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.) ······················································· 70
2-1 Overview···················································································· 70
2-2 Origin and Diversification ·························································· 71
2-3 Production and Yield ·································································· 72
2-4 Cropping System and Cultivation Method ·································· 76
2-5 Utilization and Market································································ 77
2-6 Factors for Production Constraints and Breeding························ 82
2-7 Future Perspectives····································································· 85
3. Bambara Groundnut (Vigna subterranea (L.) Verdc.) ························ 86
3-1 Overview···················································································· 86
3-2 Origin and Diversification ·························································· 86
3-3 Production and Yield ·································································· 89
3-4 Cropping System and Cultivation Method ·································· 92
3-5 Use and Market ·········································································· 94
3-6 Breeding and Restricting Factors ················································ 97
3-7 Future Perspectives····································································· 99
4. Soybean (Glycine max (L.) Merrill)····················································· 102
4-1 Overview···················································································· 102
4-2 Origin and Diversification ·························································· 103
4-3 World Soybean Production ························································· 106
4-4 Cropping System, Cultivation Method and Its Utilization··········· 112
4-5 Breeding and Production Restraints Factors ······························· 114
4-6 Future Perspectives····································································· 116
5. Other Pulses························································································· 118
5-1 Pigeon Pea (Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp) ···································· 118
5-2 Common Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) ···································· 120
5-3 Lima Bean (Phaseolus lunatus L.) ············································ 122
Chapter III Possibility (Future) of Introducing New Pulse Crops
in West Africa········································································· 125
1. Mungbean (Vigna radiata (L.) Wilczek) ·············································· 125
2. Yard-long Bean Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walpers cv-gr. Sesquipedalis
E.Westphal Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp)············································· 129
3. Black Gram (Vigna mungo (L.) Hepper) ·············································· 131
4. Rice Bean (Vigna umbellata (Thunb.) Ohwi & Ohashi)······················· 134
5. Winged Bean (Psophocarpus tetragonolobus (L.) DC)························ 137
Appendix····································································································· 139
1. Overall Conditions in Benin ································································ 139
2. Examples of Processed Foods Utilizing Major Pulse Crops················· 144
3. List of Collected Materials ·································································· 163― x ―Introduction
The actual state of food crops, which are presently cultivated, processed,
distributed and consumed extensively in Africa, have not always beenrecognized in Japan. And even if we were aware of the situation, the approachof natural science is usually applied exclusively to the agriculturalcharacteristics of crops. Therefore, from the viewpoint of social science, little
research has been carried out to determine where a crop is actually positioned
in society and its relevance in the economy or how it contributes to the lives of
local residents. However, a comprehensive analysis of both fields is certainly
indispensable to development research in developing countries.
This Report clarifies the fundamental realities of regional markets in
Benin through a comprehensive study of legume crops from production to
consumption in West Africa. The usefulness of the Report in the following
three areas will be established from the viewpoint of developmental studies andadministration of international cooperation.
Firstly, pulse (leguminous) crops, which are the main dietary source of
local residents, will be discussed. The basis of conventional research conducted
on food crops, and mainly in rice, has been expanded so that the actual eating
habits of West Africans can be grasped in a more precise manner. In actual fact,even during the colonial period, food crops for local dairy consumption
attracted little interest from the ruling authority, which gave top priority to thepromotion of cash crops for exportation. In addition, although varieties such as
rice or cassava have been improved, leguminous crops appear to have attracted
little public attention.
Secondly, since the rate of urbanization (5% to 6%) in West Africa
exceeds the population growth (2% to 3%), the ability to independently provide
safe, inexpensive food in a stable manner to a rapidly increasing urban
population through food exportation without stressing the balance ofinternational payments has become an important political issue in thegovernments of each country. In other words, improving the ratio of foodself-sufficiency has now become their primary goal. And although leguminous
crops did not make it into the limelight, they have great potential, by improving
productivity and quality, better distribution and new processed productdevelopment.
Thirdly, rural development by promoting the sale of specific items often
typified in the One Village One Product (OVOP) Movement can be pointed out.
In the future, pulses, the main dietary source of urban West Africans, havemarketing potential not only in one’s own country, but in neighboring countries― 1 ―as well. So it appears that, through careful marketing practices, pulses canbreak fresh ground.
Although the usefulness of pulse research described above was pointed out,
this simply entailed the collection of basic data. In the future, in a more specificapproach to examining the potential for improving the living standards of local
residents through the development of leguminous crops, I would like toemphasize that further studies and research, including a survey of bean
producers, distribution financing and inter-regional tariffs, are still necessary.

― 2 ―Chapter I

Agriculture in West Africa

1. Natural Environment of West Africa
1-1 Topography
Between 600 and 200 million years ago the continent of Africa was
located at the center of the super continent called Pangaea, and it is believedthat other continents such as South America became separated from Africa andmoved to their present locations by the upward power of the plume (hot mantle
material) thrusting the ground surface starting approximately 200 million years
ago (Paleozoic Permian period of the Paleozoic Era to Mesozoic Triassic periodof the Mesozoic Era). Despite erosion due to external forces, the average
elevation of Africa today is still higher than that of any other continent.
Especially, the average elevation of the southeast Africa is higher than thenorthwest Africa. Consequently, the southeast is referred to as “Upper Africa”;
whereas, the northwest is often called “Lower Africa”.

Altitude（unit:m）2000 <
1000 - 2000
500 - 1000
200 - 500
0 - 200
0>

Fig. I-1

The African Topography（Source : ATLAS DE L’AFRIQUE, 2000）― 3 ―One reason of the difference in altitude between northern and southernpart of Africa is the underground volcanic activity in the south which continues
to raise the earth’s crust even today. The earth rose when huge amounts ofmagma accumulated in the great cracks that were formed during the separationof the continents. As a result, the peripheral areas of Africa consist of highlands,
and inland areas are relatively low basins, forming a dish-shaped topography(Yamagata, 2005). In West Africa, south of the Sahara (hereinafter referred to
as “Sub-Sahara”), peneplains lower than 600m above sea level and a basement
complex (West African craton) that is 1 to 3.5 billion years old dominate theterrain. The mountainous areas above 600m elevation in West Africa are theMambila Plateau of eastern Nigeria near the Cameroon border, the Jos Plateau
in central Nigeria, and the Guinea Plateau where the headstream of the Niger
River (Wakatsuki, 1997). As mentioned above and shown in Figure I-1, Africa
continent can be classified into two zones, 1) lowlands in the northwest Africa
around the Sahara Desert, and 2) highlands stretching from Ethiopia to South
Africa where volcanic activity continues even today.

Precambrian sediment
Paleozoic sediment
Mesozoic sediment
Paleogene(Eocene) sediment
Quaternary sediment
Igneous rock
―

Fault

◦

Active volcano

Fig. I-2

The African Geology（Source : ATLAS DE L’AFRIQUE, 2000）― 4 ―Furthermore, as illustrated in Figure I-2, Africa is an extremely old
continent geologically. Therefore, soil fertility in the Guinea Savanna zone incentral Africa is very low.
1-2

ClimateBoth the Tropic of Cancer (35°N) in the Sahara Desert and the Tropic of
Capricorn (35°S) in the Namib and the Kalahari Deserts traverse the continentof Africa. In addition, the African Continent faces the Indian Ocean to the east,
the Atlantic Ocean to the west, the Antarctic Ocean to the south and theMediterranean Sea to the north. Seasonal air masses that form over these waters
greatly affect the climate in each region of Africa. The weather conditions inJanuary and July are shown in Figure I-3. The rainy and dry seasons in thenorthern and southern hemispheres differ, and wind direction and rain patterns
are influenced by air masses generated over the waters described earlier.
Weather condition in January

Oceanic trade windof Cancer（Harmattan）

The AsianCanary Current

Canary Current

The Tropic
Continental trade wind

Weather condition in July

Monsoon
The Equator
Oceanic trade wind** Agulhas Current

Weather environment

Benguela current* Benguela current

The Tropic of Capricorn

The Monsoon

The Guinean Monsoon

Agulhas Current

Average rainfall for the month

Isotherm

300mm <

Cold air

200 - 300mm

Warm air

100 - 200mm

Wind

20 - 100mm

The Tropical Zone front or the convergence front

20mm >

Secondary Tropical Zone front or Trade wind rift line

Fig. I-3 Climate condition in Africa（Source : ATLAS DE L’AFRIQUE, 2000）*

Cold current moving north in the South Atlantic Ocean over open seas off Africa diverted by the Antarctic
Circumpolar Current** Warm current flowing from the India― 5 ―A climate zone map of Africa is shown in Figure I-4. In West Africa,“Guinea Savanna” climatic zone spread from the coast of the Gulf of Guinea inWest Africa to Central Africa. A desert climatic zone spreads to the north ofGuinea Savanna zone across the extensive desert called the Sahara.
Sandwiched by these climatic zones (despite more than 1,000 km between thenorth and south), the climatic zone of the steppe (hereinafter referred to as“Sahel”) and dry tropical climate (hereinafter referred to as “Sudan Savanna”)
stretch from Senegal to Sudan. In addition, the yearly fluctuation in rainfall is
extremely high in areas where annual rainfall is less than 600mm, resulting insevere drought in some years.
Annual rainfall in equatorial climatic zones is usually high. However,whereas rainfall in Abidjan (Côte d'Ivoire) between May to July is very
concentrated, Yaoundé (Cameroon), which belongs to the same climatic zone,
has two rainy seasons, from March to June, and September to October due to its
higher elevation of more than 600m.

Climate classification
Equatorial climate
Guinea Savanna
Sudan Savanna
Sahel
Arid
Mediterranean climate
Anneal Isotherm（℃）

Fig. I -4

Climate Classifications in Africa（Source : ATLAS DE L’AFRIQUE, 2000）

― 6 ―

1-3

Vegetation
Due to the climatic divisions mentioned above, vegetation on the continentof Africa is characteristically different from the distribution of vegetation onother continents (Okitsu, 2005). The vegetation of entire Africa is shown in
Figure I-5. Forest area is approximately 160 million ha (According to FAO
statistics, it is less due to the absence of forest renewal since 1994), and tropicalrainforest cover where the tree crowns are completely closed is estimated to be
only 1.4 million ha at the end of 1985. At present, most tropical rainforest zone
is used for farmland or has become savanna as a result of farmland being
abandoned.

Oasis or oasis vegetation
Mangrove
Deep forest
Mountains and forests
Forest savannaand destructive forest
Open forest and bush savanna
Thickly savanna or bush steppeHighland savanna
Arid step
Arid
Mediterranean vegetation

Fig. I -5

Vegetation in Africa（Source : ATLAS DE L’AFRIQUE, 2000）― 7 ―In West Africa, there appear to be approximately 3 million ha of mangrove
and swamp forests, which are mainly distributed at the Niger Delta in Nigeria
and from Senegal to Sierra Leone (Wakatsuki, 1997).
Although mountain forests are scattered throughout the Guinea Plateau
and Mambila Plateau connecting the Cameroon Highlands, topsoil has been
lost due to excessive upland rice shifting (slash and burn) cultivation, so there
are many areas where no trees and grasses grow. Although forests were oncecleared and the tea plantation was developed in the Mambila Plateau, it has
been devastated and now consists of grassland or vegetation destroyed byexcessive grazing by Fulbe nomads. As a result, grassland and soil erosion has
become a serious problem. Consequently, most (over 80%) of the vegetation inWest Africa is now sparse woodland or grassland (steppe) savanna.

2. Agriculture and Pulse Crops in West Africa
2-1 Historical Background
The fifteen (15) countries of Benin, Burkina Faso, Côte d'Ivoire, Gambia,
Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Liberia, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Nigeria,
Senegal, Sierra Leone and Togo are classified as West Africa. However, insome literatures, Chad and Cameroon are also included, and since the West
Africa Rice Development Association (WARDA) includes seventeen (17)countries tobe member countries, these 17 countries are regarded as West
Africa in this report.
Although most of the countries
have been independent of colonial
rule since 1960, there are countries
whose official language is English(Gambia, Ghana, Liberia, Nigeria,
Sierra Leone and part of Cameroon),
French (Benin, Burkina Faso, Côte
Independent nations
d'Ivoire, Guinea, Mali, Mauritania,
Belgian territories
Niger, Senegal, Togo, Chad andFrench territories
Cameroon), and Portuguese (GuineaItalian territories
Bissau). (Although there is an island
Portuguese territories
nation in the Atlantic called the
Spanish territories
Republic of Cape Verde which is a
British territories and South Africa
former Portuguese territory located
Old German territories
off the coast of Senegal, it has been
* As for number independent years
omitted in this report for conveniencesake.) However, since these countries
Fig. I -6 End of the colonization（Source : ATLAS. J. A. DU CONTINENT AFRICAIN, 1993） were divided without the consent of― 8 ―concerned parties based on the Berlin Conference (held at the end of the
Russo-Turkish War) in 1878, the spheres of tribal language groups do notcoincide with the current national borders.
For example, Fulani nomads* who are widely distributed across West
Africa and live on a traditional lifestyle, travel south during the dry season to
search for drinking water and feeding grounds for their livestock and northduring the rainy season; whereas, some Fulbe have settled into cultivation for
their livelihood (occupation). In addition, tribes such as the Jula and Hausa
who have engage in trade since ancient times are spread over several countries.
The Jula tribe can be found in Burkina Faso, Côte d'Ivoire, Guinea and Mali;
whereas, the Hausa tribe live in Nigeria and Niger. In some sense, suchlanguages could be considered as an international language in West Africa.
It is generally believed that development in West Africa was based on a“savanna farming culture” which originated in the higher reaches of the Niger
River. Since ancient times, cowpeas, millet, moonflowers, sesame seeds andAfrican rice (Oryza glaberrima Steud.) have been cultivated (Yoneyama, 1998).
In addition, the Meroe civilization which flourished in Sudan from the 6th to the
4th Century B.C. had the technique to melt iron. Internal farming culture could
not have been disseminated so quickly without this iron manufacturing
technology. This technology began to penetrate into inland Africa, together
with the Sudanese agriculturalists. Furthermore, as cattle, sheep, goats anddonkeys are the main livestock in the region, some tribes like the Fulbe nomads
described earlier have become more specialized as nomads.
Around the 8th Century, the Kingdom of Ghana flourished from the
Senegal River to the inland delta** of the Niger River, and between the 11th and15th Centuries the Kingdom of Mali flourished occupying the Kingdom ofGhana. In addition, the Kingdom of Songhaï flourished mainly in the former
capital of Tombouctou between 15th and 16th Centuries. Various kingdoms
appeared to have flourished due to the trading of halite (rock salt) and gold
found across the Sahara (Wakatsuki, 1997). However, after the 15th Century,
Europeans such as the Portuguese, followed by the Spanish, the Dutch and theBritish started to swarm to the region—the Great Age of Navigation. I would
also like to mention that when the Portuguese first arrived at a fishingcommunity in Senegal, they asked a local fisherman what the land was called.
*

A mainly nomadic tribe whose occupation is grazing distributed from Mauritania in the northwest to
Cameroon in the east and in many countries in West Africa. In Nigeria and other countries they are called
Fulani; but they call themselves Fulbhe. In addition, various titles such as Foulah, Fulfulde, Peulh, Peul andFulbe are used (http://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/).
**This is low flatland (below 350m above sea level) from Ségou downstream of Tombouctou with low water
conduction capability, so river water floods and pools on the flood plain, forming an inland delta.

― 9 ―The fisherman misunderstood the question and answered “Sunu (our) Gal(boat)”, which became the name of the country (Senegal). The Kingdom ofSonghaï which boasted about its vast territory was destroyed by the attack ofMoroccan armed forces in 1591. Europeans began to buy African slaves (orexchange with guns) from the heads of those kingdom or city states and sellthem in the new continent (America). This is the beginning of a long sad period
in history which lasted for more than 400 years. This caused lack of man powerand slash-and-burn cultivation method increased. During the period of colonial
rule which followed the slave trade period, a monoculture based on cash crops
associated with the destruction of forests and agricultural resources became amajor cause for internal agricultural stagnation which continues to this day.
2-2

Export Crops and Monoculture
Since the colonial period, exportation of agricultural products and mineral
resources has replaced the slave trade mentioned earlier. The recent ratio ofagricultural products in West Africa to the total exportation is shown in Table I-1.
Table I-1 Ratio of Agricultural Products in Total Exportation (1997)
Country Name & Region
Togo
Chad
Côte d'Ivoire
GambiaBenin
Mali
Guinea-Bissau
Burkina Faso
Ghana
Cameroon
Niger
Sierra Leone
Liberia
Mauritania
SenegalGuineaNigeriaWest Africa
Africa(Excluding South Africa
North & Central America
South America
Asia
EuropeOceania
World

％
57.3
57.1
52.8
51.4
48.6
48.3
44.4
36.4
33.3
25.6
19.0
13.8
9.0
9.0
7.1
6.6
3.5
30.8
14.1
16.1)
9.3
27.7
4.4
8.3
32.3
8.2

(Source: Illustrated African Economy, Katsumi HIRANO, based on FY2002)― 10 ―

Although the ratio is 14.1% of entire Africa (16.1% if South Africa is
excluded), which is higher than the world average, it is still not as high as thefigures for South America or Oceania. However, if we limit it to the region ofWest Africa, not only does the ratio (30.8%) greatly surpass the African average,
it surpasses even large South American agricultural nations such as Argentina
and Brazil. This shows that export crops are the central economic pillars ofmany West African nations.
However, few crops are able to earn more than 100 million US dollars
annually. As shown in Table I-2, major cash crops in West Africa include cacao(Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana, Nigeria and Cameroon), coffee (Côte d'Ivoire) andcotton (Benin and Mali) (Hirano, 2002), Senegal being a special case, where
groundnuts are cultivated. Since the World War II such crops have been
introduced by French colonial governments, and the oil refining industry has
also developed and become a motivating force for the agricultural industry.
Although 200 million US dollars of foreign revenue was obtained from cash
crops in 1994, the production remained relatively unstable depending on theweather, and rainfall in particular (Katsumata, 1997).
Table I-2
Crop Name

Major Export Crops and Amount of Exports

Country Name

Export Amount

Ratio in Total

Ratio in(1 million

Export (%)

Agricultural

US$)

Production
(%)

Cacao

Africa in Total

1,919

2.6

2.4

Côte d'Ivoire

1,200

28.5

43.4

Ghana

367

23.7

11.5

Nigeria

172

1.1

1.0

Cameroon

142

7.7

3.8

1,784

1.7

2.2

CoffeeAfrica in Total
Côte d'Ivoire

264

6.3

9.5

CottonAfrica in Total

1,307

1.3

1.6

Benin

168

41.3

20.7

Mali

156

27.8

12.6

(Source: Illustrated African Economy, Katsumi HIRANO, based on FY2002)

On the other hand, although the export crops account for high percentage
in total export, the ratio of cash crops to the total agricultural production issurprisingly low. Percentage of export crops to the total agricultural product for
cacao in Côte d'Ivoire is 43.4%, and for cotton in Benin is 20.7%, and for cacao― 11 ―

in Ghana is maintaining a level of 10%. In order to clarify the relationshipbetween export crops and subsistence crops (grains and tubers), the percentageof planted area of each crop to the total arable land area is shown in Table I-3(Hirano, 2002). As is shown in the table, the planted area of export crops is lessthan subsistence crops. Agriculture in West Africa is generally considered to bea monoculture of cash crops, production of the subsistence crops is more
important in this region.
Table I-3 Ratio of Planted Land in Cultivated Areas (1997)(%)
Country Name

CottonCacao

CoffeeSugar

TobaccoGrainsTubers
15.8

Cane
Benin

23.5

-

-

0.1

-

41.0

Burkina Faso

8.1

-

-

0.1

-

86.3

0.3

Cameroon

2.7

5.0

4.2

1.9

-

13.4

6.1

Chad

9.5

-

-

0.1

-

46.4

4.6

Côte d'Ivoire

3.2

27.2

22.4

0.3

0.3

20.5

11.9

Gambia

1.5

-

-

-

-

47.0

1.0

Ghana

1.1

23.6

0.2

0.1

0.1

28.0

22.7

Guinea

1.3

0.4

3.4

0.3

0.1

46.3

10.6

Guinea-Bissau

0.9

-

-

-

-

36.0

3.1

Liberia

-

1.5

4.6

7.6

-

23.2

15.3

Mali

9.1

-

-

0.1

-

57.4

0.2

Mauritania

-

-

-

-

-

54.8

0.6

Nigeria

1.4

1.5

-

0.1

0.1

57.7

17.6

Niger

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

Senegal

2.4

-

-

0.4

-

56.8

0.9
14.8

Sierra Leone

-

6.4

2.6

-

-

64.7

Togo

6.0

0.9

0.6

-

0.2

34.8

7.0

West Africa Total

4.6

3.9

2.2

0.7

0.1

42.0

7.8

Africa Total

2.3

2.2

1.9

0.7

0.2

45.1

9.4

(Source: Illustrated African Economy, Katsumi HIRANO, based on FY2002)

2-3

Food Production
The dietary habits in West Africa differ according to nation, region andtribe. Agro-ecological map is shown in Figure I-7. Maize is the staple food of
East African nations. Whereas in Sub-Saharan region of West Africa, staple
food differs depending on weather conditions, in particular, with the amount of
rainfall. Consequently, nations with less rainfall depend on grains such as pearl― 12 ―

millet and sorghum. As rainfall increases, corn, cassava, yam and plantainbananas increase.

Cash crops
CottonGroundnuts
Oil palm
CoffeeCacao■

RubberＴ

TobaccoＡ

Pineapple
Agro-ecological classifications
Rice cultivation zone
Mediterranean：grape, olive, citrus, wheat cultivation zone
Oasis & irrigated cultivation zone：date and multiple agriculture
Desert zone
Grain dominant zone：highland wheat, maize，millet, sorghum, etc.
Slash, burn and subsistence cultivation zone：tubers，maize，plantain, etc.

Fig. I -7

Agro-ecological classifications in Africa（Source : ATLAS DE L’AFRIQUE, 2000）

The Niger River basin is the origin of African rice, Oryza glaberrima
Steud, and has been cultivated since as early as 3,500 years ago (Jones, M. P. etal.). About 500 years ago, Asian rice (Oryza sativa) was introduced from Asia

― 13 ―

via the Portuguese. Oryza sativa L. has been mainly cultivated as upland rice
(Tsuboi, 2005). In addition to the population increase at an annual rate of 3%, achange in dietary habits toward consuming more rice in both urban and rural
areas, rice consumption has increased at the rate of 5% annually since 1970
(Futakuchi, 2005). Custom of eating bread was widely established in many
countries due to the influence of former ruling nations, no nations except for
Nigeria are able to cultivate wheat, so it is necessary to import wheat fromadvanced nations.
2-4

Soil in West Africa
Geological features in Africa as mentioned in the preceding paragraph(1-1) have an influence on soil distribution and determine the level ofagricultural productivity in West African region where soil fertility is extremely
low. A soil type distribution map of West Africa is shown in Figure I-8 (soilclassification based on the FAO/UNESCO system).

Fig. I -8

Soil map in West Africa（Source：FAO Soil Map of West Africa, FAO/Unesco, 1974, 1990）
Furthermore, the upper figure "Restoration of ecological environment of the west African savanna andregeneration of the farm village", by Shohei HIROSE and Toshiyuki WAKATSUKI were compiling, from1997 posting.

― 14 ―

The following three characteristics can be observed from the soil map ofWest Africa. The first characteristic is that the soil type distribution is zonal.
Major soils are distributed in a belt coincide with a gradual decrease in rainfall
from the Gulf of Guinea to the Sahara Desert, which correspond with the
distribution of vegetation zones. The second characteristic is that even in thesame soil zone; the influence of base material is recognized. The third
characteristic is that even in the same zonal classification and base material
classification, different soil appears due to water conditions, sedimentation or
erosion due to the influence of topography, in the area, (Wakatsuki, 1997). In
Table I-4, major soil types distributed in West Africa were listed based on areport by Dr. Wakatsuki.
Table I-4
Soil Unit
Arenosols

Soil Distribution by Climatic Zone

Characteristics

Climatic Zone and Area

Soils of quartz sand; deep soil layer

・Sahel: Extensively distributed, less than 500mm rainfall;

and weak development; coarse parent

area with almost no possibility for agricultural

materials

consisting

of

relic

to

alluvium sediments which are notaffected by ground water.
Regosols

Shallowlayerutilization other than nomadic grazing.
・Sudan Savanna: Comprising largest area of northern halfcontinuing from Sahel.

soils

on

non-consolidated materials; shallow
soil layer and weak or immaturedevelopment; coarse parent materials
consisting of colluvial deposits which
are affected by ground water.
Fluvisols

Fluvisols with almost no soil; deep to・Sahel: Flood plains along the banks of Senegal River,

medium soil layer, weak to medium

Niger River and Lake Chad or lowland along the riverdevelopment, coarse to fine-textured
parent materials consisting of alluvium
sediments, weak to medium impact byground water.

such as inland delta.
・Sudan Savanna: Branches of Senegal and Niger Rivers,
lowland of various basins feeding Lake Chad.
・Guinea Savanna: Flood plains such as Niger, Volta andBenue Rivers
・ Equatorial Zone: Mangrove zone, sulfide ThionicFluvisol distributed along the coast from Senegal toSierra Leone.

― 15 ―

Soil Unit
Gleysols

Characteristics

Climatic Zone and Area

Gleysols with anaerobic layer; deep・Sahel: Flood plains along the banks of Senegal River,soil layer and medium development;

Niger River and Lake Chad or lowland along the riverfine-textured

parentmaterials

consisting of alluvium sediments,
which are remarkably affected by

Vertisols

such as inland delta・Sudan Savanna: Branches of Senegal and Niger Rivers,
lowland of various basins feeding Lake Chad.

ground water.

・Equatorial Zone: Major soil in Niger Delta.

Vertisols rich in montmorillonite-type

・Sahel: Part of lowland around Lake Chad; inland delta inclay; no salt accumulation; weakleaching fine-textured composition

Mali, flood plains of Niger and Senegal rivers.
・Sudan Savanna: Mainly in the vicinity of Burkina Faso
and Lake Chad.
・Guinea Savanna: Around upstream of Volta River in
Ghana, upstream of the Benue River in Cameroon.

Planosols

Albeluvic soil; no salt accumulation;brown subsoil; some eluvial and albic

・ Sudan

Savanna:

DistributedinBurkina

Faso

accompanying Vertisols.

horizon; some corroded and ironilluvial horizon
Luvisols

Luvisols with argillic horizon; no・Sudan Savanna: South of the said zone, major soil inoxide layer but reddish brown subsoil;

Mali; distribution of especially rich iron Ferric Luvisols

high base saturation and great change
in clay contamination in soil layer

and red clay-spotted Plinthic Luvisols.
・Guinea Savanna: South of Senegal, Mali, South of
Burkina Faso, Ghana, Togo, Benin, Nigeria and north of
Cameroon; same as above, due to high quantity of
Ferric and Plinthic, southern limit conforms to
1,250mm annual isohyets.
・Equatorial Zone: South of Nigeria

Nitosols

Nitosols of low clay accumulation
with low CEC argillic horizon; no・Sudan Savanna: The coast of south of Senegal, east of
Nigeria, north of the Benue River.

oxide layer as well as Luvisols but red

・Equatorial Zone: Benin, south of Nigeria; especiallysubsoil; low to high base saturation;

fertile and rich nutritional Eutric Nitisols on the left

small change in clay contamination inbank of the Niger Delta and southeast of Nigeria.

soil layer― 16 ―

Soil Unit
Acrisols

Characteristics
Acrisols

weathered

Climatic Zone and Area

withargillic ・Guinea Savanna: Acid Ferric in southern Guinea Savanna

horizon;，no oxide layer as well aswith a lot of rainfall such as Guinea and Côte d'Ivoire.

Luvisols and Nitosols but red subsoil;

・ Equatorial Zone: South of Nigeria, Côte d'Ivoire,

low base saturation and great change

Guinea, Ghana

in clay contamination
Ferralsols

Ferralsols; red to reddish yellow

・Guinea Savanna: Part of Guinea Savanna in Cameroon

subsoil due to no clay accumulation

・Equatorial Zone: Sierra Leone, Liberia

with oxide layer; low base saturation
and

small

changeinclay

contamination* For soil characteristics, with reference to “Identification of Soil Units based on FAO/UNESCO System”,
Takayuki YOSHIZAWA, Expert Bulletin for International Cooperation of Agriculture and Forestry Vol.13,
No. 1, AICAF, 1992.

Fertile soils are generally distributed in the river basins and flood plains ofWest Africa. However, the soil fertility of the Sudan savanna which receives
little rainfall is higher than that of the Guinea savanna which receives more rain
than the said zone. The reason for this is that, 1) parent materials of the Sudan
savanna consist of relatively young sediments in geological time (Tertiary,
Quaternary) (Figure I-2), 2) the Sudan savanna is located on the leeward side ofseasonal wind called Harmattan* and Aeolian dust (Harmattan dust)
accumulates as Loess (yellow ocher), in contrast the Sahel (Guinea savanna) is
located on the windward side of Harmattan causing a heavy soil erosion during
the dry season.
Furthermore, in the Guinea savanna forests have been lost and soil erosion
is severe in many areas, so much of the soil is unproductive due to itscoarseness and the thinness of the topsoil. Hence its population density is low
and agriculture is not considered to be important although it is receives more
rainfall than the Sudan savanna.
Of the soils in the equatorial belt, Ferralsols are distributed extensively
throughout Sierra Leone, and Liberia. This area has become the primaryplantation zone for crops such as rubber and oil palm. Acrisols are distributed
throughout in Côte d'Ivoire, Guinea and Ghana in the equatorial belt, while
Nitosols, acid but relatively fertile, are distributed extensively in Benin and
Nigeria. Consequently, these zones are used for growing cash crops such ascacao, coffee, coconuts and oil palm, etc. (Wakatsuki, 1997).

*

Dry, high-temperature seasonal winds blow from the Sahara Desert (November to March).

― 17 ―

2-5West African Pulses: Their Importance and Future
Pulse crops are often mixed with other grains in the statistics, not only inWest Africa but in other regions as well. In addition, even if some pulse crops
are indicated as pulses, it is often difficult to identify the species. However, thisdoes not mean that pulse crops are not important for the people in the area, but
it is because the importance as cash crops is merely low.
Except groundnut, pulse crops in West Africa (such as cowpeas, kidneybeans, bambara groundnuts*, etc.) do not have cash earning ability and usuallyplanted as mixed crops with staple grain crops (pearl millet, sorghum and corn).
The yielding ability pulses have not been considered as important characters.
However, it is clear that pulse crops are firmly established as components in thelocal diet culture. It is believed that pulse crops help to maintain and preserve
soil fertility in addition to the improvement of major grain crops productivity.
The staple foods (such as yam, cassava, rice and maize) mainly supply the
carbohydrates, and pulse crops served as an important source of vital vegetable
protein (Table I-5). Especially, cowpea which is originated in West Africa isimportant as grain food. In addition, its stalks and leaves are effectively used as
forage (animal feeds). So people in the countries in the Sahel zone such as Mali
and Burkina Faso where a livestock industry is common prefer prostrate type of
cowpea, which is considered as a “non-waste” crop.
Soybean was introduced recently to West Africa for the purpose of
improving nutritional status of the poor and infants. They were disseminated by
UNICEF and NGOs as foodstuffs for processing soybean milk and soybean
flour (kinako) etc., and become firmly established in some countries andregions. For example, since soybean milk was used in school lunch in somecountries, the dietary habits of the young have changed. Soybeans are also
considered to be a promising substitute of néré** (Parkia biglobosa), an
ingredient of traditional seasoning.
Figure I-9 shows the trend in production of four major pulse crops(cowpea, groundnut with shell, bambara groundnut and soybean) in West
Africa. (Source: FAOSTAT)*

Vigna sbterranea (L.) Verdc. Pulse crop originated in the Niger River basin in West Africa; Japanese name is
Futago-mame.
**Néré, seasoning made from the seeds of Parkia biglobosa (Jacq.) benth and fermented and is called
Soumbara in Mali and Burkina Faso, Dawdawa in Ghana and Afitin in Benin.

― 18 ―

Table I-5 Nutritional Value of Major Food Crops in West Africa (per dried food)
Variety

Calories

Crude Protein

Carbohydrates

Fat(per 100g)

(%)

(%)

(%)

409.7

10.16

82.6

4.09

397.1

9.10

89.9

0.14

Sorghum

394.1

15.03

76.2

3.25

Millets

413.8

9.02

83.2

4.99

Grains: Maize
Rice(polished

rice)

385.9

3.75

90.1

0.34

Cassava

390.9

2.58

94.1

0.43

Yautia (New Cocoyam)*

382.6

4.93

88.5

0.59

Sweet Potatoes

391.1

5.24

91.5

0.46

Pulse: African locust bean**

444.7

30.38

35.1

20.30

Bambara groundnut

357.6

21.14

53.5

6.54

Cowpea

389.9

24.67

67.3

2.46

Mungbean

363.6

28.46

60.2

0.99

Groundnut

579

27.0

17.0

45.0

Soybean

452.4

44.08

26.1

19.10

Pigeon pea

354.6

23.27

62.4

1.11

Common bean

341

22.1

61.4

1.7

Lentils

346

24.2

60.8

1.9

Chickpea

358

20.1

61.5

4.5

Fenugreek ***

335

29.0

57.2

5.2

Broad beans

343

23.4

60.2

2.0

Tubers: Yam(Source: Kazumi MAEDA, Agriculture and Pulse Crops in Africa, Various Agricultural Problems in Africa,
1998)

*
**

***

Taro, Colocasia esculenta Schott. and New Cocoyam, Xanthosoma sagittifolium Schott.，
Perkia filicoidea Welw. ex Oliv.，similarly to néré，Parkia biglobosa (Jacq.) Benth., mentioned earlier, it isutilized as a fermented seasoning.
Fenugreek, Trigonella foenum-graecum L. is originally from India.
Young foliage and pea pods are eaten as a vegetable and the seeds
are utilized as a spice and in medicines. (Source of photo on theright: Asahi Hyakka, World Plant 5, pp.1142，Seed Plant V, Asahi
Shinbun Newspaper Publishing Company, 1980)

Photo I -1: Fenugreek― 19 ―

1) Cowpea
Although the production (Figure I-9-1a) and planted area (Figure I-9-2a)of cowpea in Nigeria are clearly outstanding, the yield in Nigeria and otherWest African countries remains relatively low (Figure I-9-3), with the exceptionof Cameroon. Generally speaking, the increase of planted area of cowpea
account for the increase of total production in Nigeria. However, in Cameroon
where the climate is more favorable for cowpea production, the yield ofcowpea is stable and high. Although Niger has the second largest planted areaof cowpea among West Asia, a shortage of rainfall gives a low yield.

Fig. I-9-1aFig. I-9-1b

Production of cowpea in Nigeria

Production of cowpea in West Africa, Nigeria excepted― 20 ―

Area harvested (ha)Fig. I-9-2aArea harvested of cowpea in Niger and Nigeria

Area harvested (ha)Fig. I-9-2b

Area harvested of cowpea in West Africa,
Niger and Nigeria excepted

Fig. I-9-3

Yield of Cowpea in West Africa― 21 ―

2) Groundnut
In addition to the direct use as food, the demand for groundnut oil is large
among vegetable oils. Since groundnut is generally planted as a cash crop in
West African countries, the production and planted area are the largest among
the pulse crops. The yield of groundnut is particularly outstanding in Nigeria(Figures I-9-4a, I-9-5 and I-9-6). Both the production and yield in Senegal,
which economically highly depends on peanuts among West Africa, areunstable due to climatic conditions in the Sahel zone. For example, in 2002 thenation faced an economic slump due to severe drought which went hand inhand with delays in the distribution of groundnut seeds (Figures I-9-4a andI-9-6).

Fig. I-9-4a

Production of Groundnut seeds in Nigeria

Fig. I-9-4b

Production of Groundnut seeds in West Africa,
the higher rank 10 Nigeria excepted― 22 ―

Fig. I-9-5

Area harvested of Groundnut seeds in West Africa higher rank 10

Fig. I-9-6

Yield of Groundnut seeds in West Africa higher rank 103) Bambara groundnut
Although bambara groundnut originated in West Africa, only three
countries are listed in the data, so bambara groundnut has a negative image that
this bean is a minor crop. Although their production is limited to West Africa,
certain demand can be observed. This shows that the said item is a precious
genetic resource and important protein source.
Since the production (Fig. I-9-7) and the planted area (Fig. I-9-8) in two
countries other than Cameroon are not stable and the yield is also low (Fig.
I-9-9), it is not considered as a stable cultivated item. Recent consumer need is― 23 ―

thought to have a considerable effect on this. In similar manner as groundnut,
bambara groundnut bears fruit under the ground. The seed coat covering thegrains is hard so it takes a time to cook. Consequently, the nut is not a very
popular ingredient among households recently. As the planted area is notexpected to increase dramatically, the crop is considered as a “traditional crop
to be protected”.

Fig. I-9-7 Production of Bambara groundnut in West Africa

Fig. I-9-8

Area harvested of Bambara groundnut in West Africa

Note: Due to the omission of 2001, 2002 and 2004, the figures do not form a line graph. Therefore, statistics
on production in Mali are indicated with the marker (▲).

― 24 ―

Fig. I-9-9

Yield of Bambara groundnut in West Africa

4) Soybean
The soybean market has shown remarkable growth in recent years in West
Africa, and Nigeria has particularly outstanding production (Figures I-9-10a
and I-9-11a). Although the yield is low as a whole, the planted area has
definitely been increasing (Figures I-9-11a and b).
Although not as large as Nigeria, the production and planted area in Beninhave grown remarkably. One reason for this is that many pulse producing
districts in Benin introduced soybean as a substitute crop following a slump in
cotton prices. So districts that conventionally cultivated cotton from the central
to northern regions of Benin have increased their planted area of soybean.
Soybean is mainly used after processing, and will contribute extensively tonutrition and diet improvement in the region. Accordingly, UNICEF and NGOs
are endeavoring to increase soybean cultivation for producing processed foods
such as soybean milk and power (kinako) or tofu (bean curd).

Fig. I-9-10a

Production of Soybean in Nigeria― 25 ―

Fig. I-9-10b Production of Soybean in West Africa, Nigeria excepted

Area harvested（ha）

Fig. I-9-11a Area harvested of Soybean in Nigeria
Area harvested（ha）

Fig. I-9-11b

Area harvested of Soybean in West Africa,
Nigeria excepted― 26 ―

Fig. I-9-12

Yield of Soybean in West Africa

3. Agriculture in Benin
3-1

Land Use and Irrigated Area
Arable land area in Benin, which was 2.3 million ha in 1990, has increased
1.5 times in 2006 (3.467 million ha). Considering the lack of change in theforest area, this is not a result of an expansion of farmland due to forest clearing,
but a result of an expansion in the arable land in the lowlands of the river basins.
The present irrigated land is 12,000 ha and that was just 10,000 ha in 1990,
irrigated area does not increase rapidly. Consequently, rice still appears to be
cultivated mainly in rain-fed rice paddy fields.
Table I-7 Land Utilization
Area

Form

Area

Total Land

Form

11.262 million ha

Land Area

11.062 million ha

Forest Area

3.4 million ha

Arable Land3.467 million ha

550,000 ha

Perennial

Permanent Grassland

267,000 ha

Crops
Irrigated Area

12,000 ha

Other

3.566 million ha

Source: FAOSTAT, 2006 (However, due to a lack of renewal data since 2003, the latest
data on forest areas is 1994.)― 27 ―

3-2 Administrative Divisions
As shown in the following figure, the administrative divisions in Benin
include 12 departments and 77 communes.
ATACORABoukoumbé

Natitingou

ALIBORI

Banikoara

Karimama(Natitingou)

Kérou

Péhonko(Kandi)

Gogounou

Malanville

Kobli

Tanguiéta

Kandi

Ségbana

Kouqndé

Toukountouna

BORGOU

Bembèrèkè

Parakou(Parakou)

Kalalé

Pèrèrè

N'DaliSinendéNikki

Tchaourou

Bantè

Ouèssè

Dassa

SavalouGlazoué

SavèMatériCOLLINES

DONGA

BassilaKopargoMONO

AthiémèGrand-Popo(Djougou)

Djougou

Ouaké(Lokossa)

Bopa

Houéyogbé

Comè

Lokossa

COUFFOZOU(Abomey)

Aplahoué

Klouékanmè

Djakotomé

Lalo

ATLANTIQU

AlladaSô-AvaDogbo-Tota

ToviklinE

Calavi

Toffo

Kpomassè

Tori-Bossito

OuidahZè

OUEME

AdjaraBanou(Porto-Novo)

Adjohoun

DangboAguéguéPorto-Novo

Akpro-Missérété

Sèmè-Kpodji

AbomeyOuinhiAgbangnizoun

Za-Kpota

BohiconZangnanado

Covè

Zogbodomè

DjidjaAvrankou
PLATEAU

Adja

Pobè

Ifangni

Sakété

Kétou

LITTORAL

Cotonou(Cotonou)

Fig. I-10

Administrative Divisions（Source：République de Bénin, les classiques africains, 1999）― 28 ―

3-3 Topography
The republic of Benin (hereinafter referred to as “Benin”) is located on the
Gulf of Guinea and borders Nigeria to the east, Niger and Burkina Faso to thenorth and Togo to the west, which is located in the equatorial region in West
Africa between 0° to 4° of east longitude and 6° to 13° of north latitude. The
southern part of the country is partially forested and the tropical northern partis characterized by the Sudan Savanna. Except for a few mountains in thenorthwest, the topography is generally flat and can be divided as follows(Figure I-11).

(5)Plateau(4)Hollow(4)Atacora Mountains

Topography（m）
altitude 500m <300 - 500m

(3)Dahomey peneplain

100- 300m
100m >
National Park

Traffic net
Arterial road(2)Plateau including Lama hollow

Secondary road
RailroadInternational Airport(1)Coastal plainsFig. I-11 The Topography of Benin（Source：ATLAS DE L’AFRIQUE, 2000）(1) Coastal plains: lowland less than 10m above sea level with sandy soil.
Lakes or lagoons are often scattered to make swampy areas. This plain― 29 ―

average width 4km covers length 125km.
(2) Southern plateau including Lama hollow: a clay-textured plateau
containing iron, elevation not exceeding 400m above sea level. The area
consist of the river basins of the Couffo Zou and Ouémé Rivers stretchingfrom north to south, of the clay-textured or peat-like textured Lama hollows
spread from southwest to northeast.
(3) Dahomey peneplain: composed of crystalline rocks that make up a majorpart of the land of Benin. It is a peneplain mixed with many quartz, granite
or gneiss hills. The elevation is from 250 to 350m above sea level.
(4) Northwest mountains: mountains are basically composed of quartz andcrystalline rocks running from the northeast to the southwest. The mountains
are located in Natitingou district, which is the highest in Benin at 650m
above sea level. The Atacora Mountains are the source of many of Benin’srivers.
(5) Northern and Northeast plateau: The elevation is about 250m above sea
level. The sand-textured plateau around Kandi contains conglomerate andclay from the Cretaceous period. Small hills are scattered throughout the area.
The plateau with the basin of the Sota River is descending gradually to the
Niger River.
3-4

ClimateSince Benin stretches latitudinally, different types of climates are
distributed from north to south. Depending on its rainfall and latitude, it can bedivided into the following four climatic zones (Prosper, 1995, Figure I-12).
1) Benin Climatic Zone (Sub- equatorial)
This is an area between 6° and 8° north latitude where two rainy seasons
and a dry season occur in a year. The average annual rainfall is from 800 to
1,400mm, and there is a dry season (August) between two rainy seasons thatreach maximum rainfall in June and in October. Although 40% of the total
rainfall is concentrated in the four months between April and July in this area,
rainfall exceeding 40mm per hour is rare. The number of rainy days per year isapproximately 100 days. Since the area is close to the Atlantic Ocean, humidity
is extremely high, the lowest humidity being more than 60% and the highest
humidity nearly 100% in Cotonou, the center. In addition, the temperature
difference is only 5°C and generally fluctuates between 25°C and 30°C.
2) Sub-Sudan Climatic Zone
This climatic zone is distributed in the peneplain in the central part ofBenin, which can be roughly classified into a rainy season between April andOctober and a dry season between November and March. The annual rainfall is
between 1,100 to 1,300mm, and 90 to 95% of that falls during the five months― 30 ―

of May to September. Moreover, rainfall of more than 40mm per hour isobserved about three times annually. Humidity is lower than that of the Beninclimate mentioned above. The average lowest humidity is 30% and highest is
80%, and the difference in daily temperature sometimes reaches 14°C.

Kandi

③

Harmattan

Kandi

Parakou

Natitingou

Natitingou④
Djougou
Parakou

Harmattan
SavèBassilaAbomey②

Savè

AbomeyBohiconCotonou① Pobé

Lokossa①

Porto-Novo

Benin Climatic Zone
Monsoon(Sub- equatorial)②

Sub-Sudan Climatic Zone③

Tropical Sudan Climatic Zone④

Atacora Climatic Zone

Cotonou

MonsoonClimatic zone boundary line
Temperature
RainfallFig. I-12

Climatic division in Benin（Source：le Bénin, Kolawplé Sikirou ADAM / Michel BOKO,
Les Edition du Flamboyant/EDICEF, 1993）― 31 ―

3) Tropical Sudan Climatic Zone
This climatic zone is located in the northern area, and has a rainy season
between May and September and a dry season between October and April. Thisregion has different characteristics depending on the area. Since it is affected byseasonal winds (harmattan) from the Sahara Desert, dry hot winds blows fromthe northeast between December and March. The annual average rainfall is
between 800 and 1,100 mm and the humidity is relatively low (less than 30%
during the harmattan season and the annual highest humidity is approximately
75%).
4) Atacora Climatic Zone (Mountainous Sudan)
This region has almost the same climate as the previous region and islocated in the mountainous zone in the northwest. This area is located at thehighest altitude and there is a lot of rainfall (1,000 to 1,400mm). Although
showers frequently occur and rainfall per hour reaches 100mm, the amount of
rainfall decreases during the harmattan season. Due to excessive concentrationof rainfall for three months between July and September, extremely large-scalesoil erosion is a problem.
3-5

Farming Population
Forty two percent (3.463 million people) of a total population(approximately 8.2 million) is farmers, 21.9% of which are women.
3-6Farm Size
Self-employed (independent) farming (including tenant farming) isdominant and the average scale of each farm is 7 laborers per single farmhousehold and approximately 1.7ha of cultivation area. However, 5% of
farmhouses in the south and 20% in the north have farming land (including
plantation) exceeding 5ha, so large-scale management with agricultural
machinery can be observed.
Although agricultural income per farm household is not very high at $100
to $300 US, this income is often obtained through cotton cultivation, and aconsiderable amount of income can be obtained in the northern districts.
In addition, income obtained from cotton cultivation includes large profits
through the acquisition of foreign currency not only for producers but also forsome public institutions and even the state. However, the amount of plantedarea has been decreasing due to the impact of the “cotton crisis” mentioned
later; whereas, the planted area for soybeans as a substitute crop has been
increasing.

― 32 ―

3-7

Farm Management
Fig. I-13 demonstrates the distribution of major agriculture zone in Benin.
Cotton which is a major agricultural product in Benin is planted on a nationwide

Distribution of agriculture
Food crops

Distribution of cash crops
Highland multiple agricultural zone

Coffee(millet, yam and fonio)

Ｔ

Maize mixed cropping zone

TobaccoOil palm(cassava, cowpea and groundnut)

Groundnut

Maize and millet mixed cropping zone

Cotton(cassava and yam)

Kapok

Sorghum and yam mixed cropping

Shea butterzone(cassava and maize)

Horticulture

Rice cropping zone

Pineapple
Cashew nut

LivestockcattleNational park

Sheep and goat

Fig. I-13

Main industrial distribution in Benin（Source：ATLAS DE L’AFRIQUE, 2000）― 33 ―

scale, except in the south (Atlantique and Littoral departments) and groundnut
is planted on almost on a nationwide scale mainly by small-scale farming. In
the south, large-scale farm households are the primary cultivators of plantation
crops such as oil palm or coffee, and horticultural crops such as fruit trees orvegetables for the purpose of obtaining foreign currency.
However, corn, cassava, sweet potato, cowpea, tomato, red paper and okra
are cultivated on a nationwide scale and are indispensable food crops for thepeople. Grains such as sorghum and millet are planted in the North and theMidwest (Atacora and Donga), in the North and the Middle East (Borgou andAlibori) and from the Central to the South (Zou and Collines); whereas, riceand yam are cultivated on a nationwide scale except in the South (Atlantiqueand Littoral departments). In recent years, both the planted area and the
production of soybean have increased (Tables I-8 and I-9).
Table I-8

Crops

Change in Planted Area for Major Cultivated Crops in Benin(1998 to 2005）
Unit: ha
1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

Maize

594,277

625,482

653,630

623,412

Sorghum

167,880

154,564

176,533

182,644684,882

662,533

714,154

1,013,628

193,106

173,695

181,269

Millets

39,34537,95844,259180,723

46,21150,90545,361

44,762

Rice

17,07917,56145,49723,32326,50428,78723,44024,754

Cassava

189,400

28,731

202,117

219,404

240,048

261,750

237,894

226,434

207,299

Yam

144,650

145,368

156,831

155,733

173,624

166,921

172,739

98,411

8,253

10,885

12,474

10,716

13,123

10,523

11,163

12,793

Food Crops

Sweet Potatoes
Taro

919

1,020

925

745

814

767

851

834

Cowpeas

113,298

112,580

119,111

115,908

134,681

119,460

122,560

129,002

Bambara Groundnuts

13,297

12,911

15,306

16,496

20,57317,755

18,576

17,232Goussi*14,46015,02916,032

15,511

17,296

16,746

16,124

10,850

Pigeon Peas

5,728

4,543

5,278

5,323

5,511

4,229

4,005

3,859

20,29725,95925,79022,781

25,42728,264

24,52628,272

Vegetables
Tomatoes*
Citrullus lanatus (Thumb.). Member of the gourd family,(Cucurbitaceae) like a water melon, seeds are called Goussi,
or Sésame and is also called Egusi in Nigeria and is an
ingredient in many dishes.

Fruit pulp can be used as a laxative(seeds in Photo I-3 on the right are
extracted from gourds in Photo I-2 on theleft.)

Photo I-2

Goussi Fruit

Photo I-3 Seeds― 34 ―

Red papers

19,636

19,817

23,682

21,43023,71622,863

19,961

23,738Okra

18,87017,595

19,50918,887

21,413

19,977

20,75427,804

Cash Crops
Groundnuts

122,229

125,414138,586

145,572

152,774

154,005

160,504

147,850

Cotton380,311

370,445319,318

356,786

306,890314,097

313,011

187,360

Tobacco

930

707

1,007

1,010

1,195

1,005

874

1,116

Soybeans

2,830

4,210

5,140

4,533

6,591

6,954

10,175

11,133

Source: Planning and Forecast Bureau of the Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Fisheries in Benin,
hereinafter the same applies.
Cash crops such as coffee and oil palm do not fall under the jurisdiction of the Ministry, and are notincluded in this table.

Table I-9 Change in Production Volume of Major Cultivated Crops in Benin(1998 to 2005)
Unit: t
Crops

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

Food Crops
Maize

662,227

782,974

750,442685,902797,496788,320842,017

2,016,551

Sorghum

138,425

126,440

155,275

165,342

182,639

163,276

163,831

167,337

Millets

29,42729,51936,352

34,96940,75135,45736,81736,991

Rice

35,562

34,04049,24654,901

63,21954,18364,69977,133Cassava

1,989,022

2,112,965

2,350,208

2,703,456

3,154,910

3,054,781

2,955,015

2,804,733

Yam

1,583,713

1,647,009

1,742,004

1,700,982

2,151,452

2,010,699

2,257,254

2,093,354

40,854

68,84765,592

56,99683,80051,09849,99960,771

Sweet Potatoes
Taro

3,756

4,551

3,518

3,080

3,207

3,003

2,981

2,117

Cowpeas75,452

74,23785,61378,353

95,332

81,82393,78996,689Bambara Beans

9,260

14,594

14,79012,354

15,925

14,54920,267

11,321Goussi

9,554

8,031

10,291

10,152

13,662

10,951

10,207

6,985

Pigeon Peas

3,490

2,952

3,302

3,363

3,712

3,116

2,969

3,200

Tomatoes

105,626

124,401

139,231

117,563

134,820

141,815

144,235

144,244

Red papers

20,07024,56233,29329,30936,62425,222

41,86548,084

Okra

53,17054,57958,95658,09974,82464,626

68,51965,667

Vegetables

Cash Crops
Groundnuts

98,897

101,943

121,159

125,377

130,008

143,516

154,551

132,904

Cotton359,331375,586

339909393,060

376,739

372,967

348,353

189,728

Tobacco

583

460

679

621

852

723

611

855

Soybeans

1,995

3,444

4,296

3,543

4,744

6,812

5,526

8,991

― 35 ―

In the livestock industry, goat, sheep, pig and chicken are raised. Major
livestock products include poultry, beef and milk, etc. Cow, sheep and goat areespecially common in the Central region and in the Northern district, whereapproximately 40,000 cows are raised as working cattle, and play an importantrole in the plowing of upland fields.
In addition, the fisheries industry also plays a role in providing food and theannual catch is estimated to be 40,000t. Since modern fishing methods have been
rapidly developed thanks to new investments, state-operated fishing companies
now own deep-sea fishing vessels. However, traditional fishing has declined dueto the pollution of lagoons as a result of the development of the Port of Cotonou,
so a new direction for freshwater fish aquaculture is being studied.
Conventionally, ownership of farmland used a traditional possession system
including inheritance (father → children → grandchildren). However, legislation
has been introduced in recent years making it possible to carry out transactions
and time-limited rental agreements. However, complicated procedures and taxes
have been imposed. Nevertheless, farm households who have worked hard to
improve the fertility of the land are reluctant to part with their land.
Irrigation is indispensable to rice and is controlled by the Irrigation Service
Bureau located in Porto-Novo. In recent years irrigation system has been
improved with the assistance from China. The feasible area of irrigation in Beninis approximately 100,000ha in the river basin (27,740ha in the Mono River basin,
30,000ha in the Niger River basin and 60,000ha in the Ouémé River basin) and
200,000ha in the inland lowland area (Data by the Planning and Forecast Bureauof the Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Fisheries). Although 8,000ha was
irrigated until the 1990s, it has decreased to 1,800ha at present. This is anindication of how difficult it is to maintain irrigation facilities (for example,
concrete work maintenance and headwater conservation).
3-8

Soil
The soil is composed of organic matter originated from plants and animals
and mineral matter from rocks in general. Depending on its nature, thecharacteristics of soil constituent elements and geographical features, soil ismature and can be differentiated. In Benin soil is mainly classified as follows.
1) Little-evolution Mineral Soil
It can be observed in all areas (land covered by rock or coastal dunes) whererock is exposed.
2) Ferruginous Soil
This is the most extensively distributed soil, and can be roughly classified
into the following two sub-types.
① Strong ferruginous congealed soil: soil that cannot be used to cultivate― 36 ―

crops due to its continuous layers like armors in the North.
② Weak ferruginous congealed soil: isolated gravel with a slight indicationof fertile soil.

Malanville

Alibori

Niger

MékrouPendjari

Sota

Natitingou

OkparaOuémé

CouffoLittle-evolution Mineral Soil
Ferruginous soil
Laterite Rich in Iron

Zou

Vertisols and hydromorphic soil

AbomeyMono

Cotonou

Fig. I-14 Soil map in Benin（Source：le Bénin, Kolawplé Sikirou ADAM / Michel BOKO,
Les Edition du Flamboyant/EDICEF, 1993）

3) Laterite Rich in Iron
This is red thick-layered soil which is formed on the Continental Terminal in
the South, which is suitable for crop cultivation.

― 37 ―

4)

Vertisols and Hydromorphic Soil
Black thick-layered, fertile soil observed in hollows in the central region andin the large basins (such as the Niger, Ouémé, Couffo and Mono Rivers).
3-9

Cropping System
The National Agricultural Research Institute of Benin (INRAB *)mentioned later takes their initiatives from the development of new varieties
and crop cultivation technologies. New varieties and technologies aretransferred to the research institutes in each local department. After extension
staff at the Regional Center of Agricultural Promotion (CeRPA**) and farming
leaders receive pilot experience and the prospect for dissemination is ready,they are introduced at the actual sites. Hereinafter, recommended varieties andthe characteristics of major crops and cultivation standards are shown.
1) Maize(1) Variety: NH1(1971)***, NH2 (1975), NCP 80 (1980), CIMMYT-IITABENIN POZA-RICA 7843 SR (1981), CIMMYT-IITA-BENIN Pirsaback
7930 SR (1981), DMR-ESR (1984), CIMMYT-GHANA- BENIN Oba
Tampa (1988), IITA-BENIN EVDT 97 STR (2000)(2) Variety Characteristics① Recommended variety: IITA-BENIN EVDT 97 STR② Growing period: 90 days
③ Average Yield: 2 to 3t/ha④ Other: Striga hermonthica (parasitic plant) resistant(3) Cultivation Standards① Fertilization: TSP (triple super phosphate) 50kg/ha② Planting density: 80×40cm 2 seedlings/stock③ Preceding (rotation) cropping: Cotton, peanuts and cowpea
2) Rice(1) Variety: Gambiaca (1977), IR 442 (1980), ADNY 11 (1982), ITA 212(1983), 11365 (1987), NIARIS 85-12 (1987), IRAT 136 (1994), ITA 222(1997), BERIS 21 (1999), NERICA (2002)(2) Variety Characteristics① Recommended variety: As for upland rice variety, IDSA 85, IR 47 701,
NERICA 1and 2
As for paddy rice variety, ITA 222, SIK 131, BERIS 21 and*Institut National des Recherches Agricoles du Bénin.
Centre Régional pour la Promotion Agricole.
***( ) indicates the year introduced.
**― 38 ―WITA 4
② Average yield: 2 to 3 t/ha in upland rice variety, 4 to 6 t/ha in paddy rice
variety③ Other: NERICA 2 which is resistant to damage by birds (which is not
susceptible to feeding damage due to long arista)(3) Cultivation Standards① Fertilization: Compound fertilizer (N15-P2O520-K2O15-S5-MgO3.5Zn0.5) 200kg/ha, urea 75kg/ha, if it does not exist, fertilizer for cotton
can be used. After cropping cowpeas, TSP 50kg/ha② Rotation cropping: In the case of rotation cropping with cowpea in thelowlands, 50% of the fertilizer can be saved.
③ Weeding: Topstar 0.7 ℓ/ha before weed grow, Garil 5 ℓ/ha after weedsgrow3) Cowpea(1) Variety: IT 82 E-32 (1986), IT 81 D-1137 (1986), IT 95 K-193-12 (2002)(2) Variety Characteristics① IT 82 E-32: 60-day growing period, the average yield of 0.95t/ha,
2.2t/ha potential yield, reddish brown grain color,semi-upright form
② IT 81 D-1137: 70 to 80-day growing period, 1.0t/ha average yield,
2.2t/ha potential yield③ IT 95 K-193-12: 65-day growing period, 1.0t/ha average yield, 2.0t/ha
potential yield(3) Cultivation Standards① Fertilization: At seeding time, 100kg/ha TSP (triple super phosphate)＋
50kg/ha potassium chloride② Planting density: 50×15cm 1 seedling/stock (upright), 60×20cm 1
seedling/stock ( semi-upright)③ Pest control: Chemical spray 3 to 4 times－ 1st (optional) if damaged 10 to 15 days later landfill－ 2nd (recommended) when flowering sprouts appear－ 3rd (recommended) when the first sheaths appear－ 4th (optional) around 15th day after implementing 3 times④ Pesticide: mixed liquid of 400ml Decis＋800ml Malathion, 1000ml/ha
Kinikini4) Groundnuts(1) Variety: MOTO, TE-3, TS-32-1― 39 ―

(2) Variety Characteristics① Recommended variety: TS-32-1② Growing period: 90days③ Average yield: 1.2t/ha④ Potential yield: 2.5t/ha⑤ Oil content: 51%(3) Cultivation Standards① Growing density: 40×20cm 1 seedling/stock② Fertilization: P40+S12
5) Cassava(1) Variety: TMS 30572 (1988), BEN 86052 (1986), RB 89509 (1989)(2) Variety Characteristics① TMS 30572: 35 to 40t/ha yield② BEN 86052: 12-month growing period, 17.5t/ha average yield, 25.0t/ha
potential yield, pest and disease resistant (such as mosaic virus,
Pseudomonas cichorii and Cassava green mite), hypovirulence, upright③ RB 89509: 35 to 40t/ha yield(3) Cultivation Standards① Cuttage time: March to the early April② Harvest time: 12 months after planting③ Fertilization: N60kg-P16kg-K138kg/ha for22t/ha, N30kg-P30kg-K60kg/ha
for 18t/ha④ Propagation method: 3 types of basket method, piling up method byheaping, stop-gapping, cuttage seedlings 10 to 20 times.
3-10 Food and Farming Policies
1) Agro-politics
In Benin, agriculture is an important exporting industry for obtaining
foreign currencies (in particular, cotton accounts for 30% of trading items). In
the national development policy, agriculture is given a high priority. However,there are no special policies on the production enhancement of pulse crops,
which is different from other major crops, especially cassava, rice and cotton.
Although information on pulse crops is available at the INRAB as will bementioned later, there are no projects or programs conducted by the Ministry ofAgriculture, Livestock and Fisheries (MAEP*) or under the national policy. In*

Minietère de l’Agriculture, de l’Elevage et de la Pêche.

― 40 ―

other words, the most important goal is to increase the production of staple
foods such as corn, cassava, yam and rice, and to attain self-sustainability and asafe food supply system. Although self-support of staple foods has almost beenaccomplished, maintaining a stable food supply is expected to become difficultin the future due to the increasing food demand associated with sluggish
agricultural productivity and high population growth (2.6%, 2000 to
2005, %/year). Consequently, national agricultural policies advocate ①
substantiation of agricultural techniques and extension activities, ② support
for farmer organizations, ③ introduction and diffusion of agricultural
machinery and plant materials with superior seed quality, and ④ promoting
agricultural research.
MinisterInternal Audit

Special Office

BureauBureauDirector of
Secretariat

Assistant
Director ofTechnical

Technical

Technical

Secretari

Press

AdvisorAdvisorAdvisorat Attaché

Officer

Secretary
GeneralPlanning &GeneralForecasting Bureau

Affairs Bureau

Training &Forest &Agricultural

Agriculture

Livestock

Fisheries

Rural

Applied

FarmAgricultural

Natural

Civil

Div.

Div.

Div.

Legislation

Nutrition &Products

Extension

Resources

Engineering& Promotion

Food Div.

Div.

Quality
Control Div.

Remote Sensing Center

INRAB

CeNAP

Agriculture

Food

TimberAnimalPromotion

Security

Corporation

Protection &Corporation

Corporation

Farm
Products

Control

Stable Price

Corporation

Corporation

CeRPA
Arranged at development
level

Fig. I-15 Organizational Chart of Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Fisheries(Source: Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Fisheries)― 41 ―

2) Agricultural Administration
The Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Fisheries is the highest
organization, and the following bureaus and departments are divided as shownin Figure I-15. The INRAB, which is the key organization for agriculturalresearch, and the Regional Centers for Agricultural Promotion (CeRPA) for
agricultural extension fall under the control of the Ministry.
3) Agricultural Experiment and Research
In Benin, the INRAB undertakes research initiatives in agriculturalsciences in collaboration with the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture(IITA), whose head office is located in Nigeria, for the purpose of providing
information on food crops (such as improved varieties and pest control
technology). The Africa Rice Center (WARDA*) in Cotonou is responsible forthe rice research. The IITA has a branch (Benin Station) in Cotonou andconducts experiments and research in the fields of African farm households
mainly in integrated pest managements control (IPM) for their mandate foodcrops (such as cassava, yam, maize, cowpeas and vegetables).
National Agricultural ResearchInstitute of Benin（INRAB）

Rice Center（Bohicon）

National Center ofAgro-Pedology(CENAP）

Fig. I-16

South Agricultural Research Center（Niaouli Food Crops Research Center）

Palm Research Institute（Seme-Podji）

Central Agricultural Research Center（Savé）

Oil Palm ResearchInstitute（Pobe）

North Agricultural Research Center（Ina Food Crops Research Center）

National Agricultural Research Institutions(Source: Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Fisheries)

The INRAB was established in 1992 and ① contributes to the formulationof national policies on research in the field of agriculture. At the same time, it② plans, formulates and implements research programs in the agricultural
sector. In addition, the Institute ③ contributes to the transfer of technology tobeneficiaries such as those involved in agriculture, ⑤ coordinates national
activities on agricultural research, and ⑥ provides staff training for
agricultural research and development. Moreover, the Institute ⑦ conducts*

In the past the Africa Rice Center was called the West Africa Rice Development Association or WARDA for
short, and is still firmly established even at the present.

― 42 ―

surveys and appraisals in the field, while at the same time, ⑧ dispatching
information on the findings. During the 1990s, the Institute had 12 affiliatedtechnical research institutions, 64 researchers and 100 engineers. However,during the 3rd structural adjustment program issued in February 1996 and aroundtable conference on the research program in the same year, the decision
was made to reorganize and integrate personnel and research activities forcoming 5 years. Consequently, only institutions listed in the following figurecarry out research issued by the INRAB.
Hereinafter the group of institutions is outlined.
(1) National Centre of Agro-Pedology (CENAP)
The Center appears in the organizational chart of the Ministry of Agriculture,
Livestock and Fisheries and carries out research in the following issues in orderto fully understand natural resources for the purpose of soil utilization forsustainable development.
① Classification and evaluation of soil resources② Preparation of soil maps
③ Analysis on soil, water conservancy and vegetation④ Soil fertilization and rehabilitation⑤ Soil and water conservation(2) Rice Center (Bohicon)
This is the only laboratory specified for rice research and development in
Benin. Improved varieties are obtained from the International Rice ResearchInstitute (IRRI) in the Philippines, or WARDA carries out experiments onregional adaptabilities of each rice variety.
(3) Palm Research Institute (Seme-Podji)This laboratory is specialized in coconut palm, and was established in 1949,
located at 20km from Proto-Novo, the capital, near Cotonou. Major research
themes are as follows.
① Development of superior varieties② Development of a technical package necessary for disseminating hybrid
palm trees③ Regeneration of soil deteriorated by coconut palm(4) Oil Palm Research Institute (Pobe)
This oil palm research institution was established in 1922 and is the oldest in
the world. The research themes are as follows.
① Improvement of oil production per ha through hybrid research which is
expected to obtain good results within the Benin ecology② Research on physiological characteristics in order to understand different
reactions demonstrated in dry fields③ Agronomic research in order to develop cultivation techniques andfertilization methods suitable for the climatic conditions of Benin― 43 ―

④ Seed production⑤ Seedling production⑥ Support for oil company associations⑦ Support for plantations(5) South Agricultural Research Center (Niaouli Food Crops Research Center)
This center, the oldest center in Benin, was established in 1904 for the
purpose of adapting European cultivation technology to tropical crops. The
center has 220ha of experimental field, and the following researches are
conducted for grains (corn, rice and cowpeas) and tubers (cassava):① Survey, collection, evaluation and conservation of local plant genetic
resources② Introduction of improved varieties and their evaluation③ Development of varieties adapted to the local agricultural environments
and other conditions④ Research on comprehensive pest control⑤ Research on appropriate cultivation techniques⑥ Research on traditional production system for sustainable agriculture⑦ Diversification of cultivation technology
In addition, the following researches are conducted at present.
① Cowpeas: Many varieties that are resistant to Striga (parasitic plant) areselected through farmer participation.
② Soybeans: Studies on yield improvement, on varieties suitable for mixed
cropping or rotation cropping system, on varieties for high oil content areincluded.
③ Cassava: Selection of high yielding varieties.
④ Groundnut: In a similar manner as soybeans, experimentation andresearch are carried out, and selection and soil fertility testing areconducted through farmers’ participation. The first seeds materials wereobtained from the IITA.
⑤ Other crops: As for a cropping system, mixed cropping with maize andpulses are recommended. Although a germplasm storage facility isdeveloped at the Center, power blackouts frequently occur and generators
are utilized during emergency situations.
(6) Central Agricultural Research Center (Savé)
At the Center, a wide range of food crops such as rice, yam, maize, sorghum
cassava and groundnut are being studied.
(7) North Agricultural Research Center (Ina Food Crops Research Center)
The Center, established in 1930, has an area of 3,255ha. Although maize,
yam sorghum and groundnut are the main crops studied by the Center, cowpea
is also included. In recent years, soybeans are targeted. Major research themes
are as follows.

― 44 ―

① Adding extra values to the crop varieties desired by farmers and thedevelopment of new varieties② Improvement of traditional production systems in collaboration with
development institutions③ Reduce pesticide by utilizing IPM against major pests and during post
harvest treatment④ Research on cultivation technology and natural resources conservation⑤ Research on technology to add value to post harvest products⑤ Diversification of cultivation (vegetables)4) Agricultural Extension
As shown in Figure I-10, there are 12 administrative departments(ATACORA, DONGA, ATLANTIQUE, LITTORAL, BORGOU, ALIBORI,
MONO, COUFFO, OUEME, PLATEAU, ZOU and COLLINES) and 6 regions(ATACORA-DONGA, ATLANTIQUE-LITTORAL, BORGOU-ALIBORI,
MONO-COUFFO, OUEME-PLATEAU and ZOU-COLLINES). In each region,
the Regional Center of Agricultural Promotion (CeRPA) is conducting theextension work. During the colonial period, many support groups in the
agricultural sector were developed for political reasons. In 1975 the Government
established the Rural Development Action Center (CARDER*) whose major role
was food security and the promotion of cotton production. In the 1990s, products
became diversified due to the liberalization of the economy and a drop in theinternational price for cotton. The Government was pressed to reform and began
to focus its attention on improving the living standards of farmers under a new
agricultural policy, and a draft for organizational reform known as the CeRPA was
submitted in 2004 and a new organization, the CeRPA was inaugurated in 2005.
National
国レベル
Level

CeCPA

Regional Level (6)

MAEP

CeRPA

CeRPA

CeCPA

CeCPA

CeRPA

z Training
and Farmer Support Dept.
地域レベル（6）z Food Security and Nutrition Improvement
・研修・農業者支援部
Dept.
・食糧安全保障・栄養改善部
z Legislation and Control Dept. (Seed
Quality Control, Plant Protection,
・法規・コントロール部
Veterinarian)（種子品質管理，植物防疫，獣医）z Farmland Development and Natural
・農地整備・天然資源部
Resources Dept.
・計画・経理・総務部
z Planning,
Accounting and General Affairs
Dept.
・改革推進支援ユニット
z Reform Promotion Support Unit

共同体レベル（77）Community
Level (77)・専門技術員z Technical experts (Production, Education,
Statistics, Control and other)（生産，教育，統計，コントロール他）
z Supervision by CeRPA
・CeRPAからの監督

Fig. I-17

Organization chart of CeRPA（Source：from the fact-finding at CeRPA Ouémé-Plateau）*

Centre d’Action Régional pour le Développement Rural.

― 45 ―

The role of the CeRPA is ① to disseminate new technology, ② to dispatch
information to rural areas, ③ to provide training and ④ to support farmers’organizations, at the development level. CeRPA is located in eachadministrative department, divisions smaller than department such ascommunes or communities are covered by the Local Centers for Agricultural
Promotion (CeCPA*) which is located in 77 communes (communities)
nationwide. The Responsible Communal for Agricultural Promotion (RCPA**)takes charge of their duties. The organization of the CeRPA is illustrated in thefollowing figure.
The Local Promotion Team (EPZ***) is responsible for administrative
divisions (departments) smaller than communities under the control of the
CeCPA
In the days of CARDER, extension workers (APV****) were not evaluatedbecause they just distributed technical manuals on agricultural production. At
present, extension workers (technical experts) at the CeCPA have the expertisein terms of crops production, livestock and fishery production, farming,
farmland development and natural resources management. However, due to thebudget restraints, no new extension workers have been hired during the past 20
years, so aging of human resources has become a major concern. Although thecotton textile development corporation does recruiting new extension workers
every year, this is a very special case. The extension workers are national civil
servants. However, those who are hired in local areas work at their relevant site
and are not transferred to other areas due to local language barriers (tribal
languages). In some departments such as Mono, a governor hires extension
workers at his own discretion. However, this is a rare case even under thegeneral tendencies of decentralization. Although the numbers of civil servants
including extension workers differ according to the population and size of eachdepartment, in the case of the Ouémé-Plateau region, there are 145 full-time
employees and 94 temporary workers (239 persons in total). In the past, those
who had graduated from agricultural college or senior high school could
become extension workers. However, only those who have obtained their BAC(university candidate qualifications) or who graduated from a 4-year university
are now hired. For positions higher than manager at the CeRPA, a master’s
degree or higher is required.
Main technologies of extension to farmers include ① improving soil
fertility by the effective use of cover crops, ② biological pest control*

Centre Communal pour la Promotion Agricole.
Responsible Communal pour la Promotion Agricole.
***
Equipe de la Promotion Zone.
****
Agent de Polyvalant Vulgarisation.
**― 46 ―

technology (e.g. effective use of Neem*), ③ promotion of sustainableagriculture, and ④ alley cropping. In addition, crop production technologies
on acidic soils are of particular importance.
Agricultural implements such as power tillers (cultivators) have been
introduced as a community program. Farmers themselves procure generalfarming tools such as hoes or axes at the market. Since introduction of thelarge-sized milling machines have not been successful, small-sized millingmachines are now installed in the community.
In this chapter (Chapter I), agriculture in West Africa (natural environment,
pulse crops and agriculture in Benin) is outlined. With respect to the pulse
crops, cowpea, groundnut, bambara groundnut and soybean are the mostimportant. The origins and diversification, production and harvest, croppingand cultivation systems and utilization, breeding and causes for production
restraints and future prospects of these important pulse crops will be discussed
in Chapter II.
Citations and Bibliography
1)
2)

3)

4)
5)

6)
7)
8)

9)
*

ATLAS DE L’AFRIQUE, 2000, Le Groupe Jeune Afrique et Les Editions du Jaguar.
Yamagata K., Africa from the Physiographical Point of View, pp.2-14 and Susumu
OKITSU, Africa from the Viewpoint of Vegetation, pp.25-34 (compiled by Kazuharu
Mizuno, African Natural Philosophy, 2005, Kokon Shoin)
Wakatsuki T., 1997, People and History of West Africa, pp.1-6, Topography in West
Africa, Geological Features, Vegetation and Soil, pp.81-96 (compiled by Shohei
HIROSE and Toshiyuki WAKATSUKI, Restoration of Ecology and Regeneration of
Rural Communities in West Africa, Association of Agriculture and Forestry Statistics)
ATLAS J. A. DU CONTINENT AFRICAIN, 1993, Le Groupe Jeune Afrique et Les
Editions du Jaguar.
Yoneyama T., Tradition and Transformation of Farming Society in Africa, pp.9-25(compiled by Yasuo TAKAMURA and Masayoshi SHIGETA, Various Problems with
African Agriculture, Kyoto University Press)
http://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/
Hirano K., Export Crops, pp.31-35, Illustrated African Economy, 2002, Nippon Hyoron
Sha Co., Ltd.
Katsumata M., Groundnuts, Trend in Staple Crops, pp.74-75 (Agriculture and Forestry
in Senegal －Present Conditions, Development Issues－ Country-Specific Research
Series No.61, 1997, JAICAF
Jones, M.P., M. Dingkuhn, G. K. Aluko and M. Semon 1997, Interspecific Oryza sativa

Azadirachta indica A. Juss.

― 47 ―

L. × O. glaberrima Steud. Progenies in upland rice improvement, Euphytica, 92:
237-246.
10) Tsuboi T., Rice Cropping in West Africa (Côte d'Ivoire and Ghana), pp.1-10 (African
Agriculture, Its Issues and Possibility, 2005, African Agricultural Forum)
11) Futakuchi K., Recent NERICA Variety Breading and Research Trend at WARDA, pp.
39-51 (African Agriculture, Its Issues and Possibility, 2005, African Agricultural
Forum)
12) Yoshizawa T. Identification of Soil Units based on FAO/UNESCO System, pp.15-27,
Expert Bulletin for International Cooperation of Agriculture and Forestry Vol.13, No. 1,
1992, AICAF)
13) Maeda K. Agriculture and Pulse Crops in Africa, pp.191-219 (compiled by Yasuo
TAKAMURA and Masayoshi SHIGETA, Various Problems with African Agriculture,
Kyoto University Press)
14) http://faostat.fao.org/
15) http://www.gouv.sn/meteo/
16) Republique du Bénin, Les classiques africains, 1999.
17) Le Bénin, Kolawolé Sikirou ADAM/Michel BOKO, Les Editions duFlamboyant/EDICEF, 1993.
18) Agbegninou Kakou Prosper, La Riziculture et la Mécanisation en République du Bénin,pp.29-42, Proceedings of the International Seminar on Rice Production Technology inWest Africa, Décembre 12-14, 1995, Grand-Lahou et Yamoussoukro, Côte d’Ivoire,réalisé par l’ANADER en collaboration avec la JICA, 1995.
19) Report on the Basic Study for Assistance and Development related to Increased
Production of Food － Republic of Benin － , commissioned by the Ministry ofAgriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, 1998, AICAF
20) Annuaire Statistique, Campagne 2003-2004, 2004-2005, DPP/MAEP.
21) Iwasa S, Kikata Y., Kitano C., Sasaki N., Suzuki T., Hara K. Tropical Plant Handbook,compiled by the Society for Tropical Plants, 1984, Japan Forestry Association
22) Lutte intégrée contre les ravageurs: cap sur 2015, Un plan d’affaires, Institut
International d’Agriculture Tropicale, Station IITA-Bénin,23) 100ans de recherche agricole au service du développement du Bénin 1904-2004, Le
Centre de Recherche Agricole Sud à Niaouli en bref, Institut National des Recherches
Agricoles du Bénin (INRAB), Ministère de l’Agriculture, de l’Elevage et de la Pêche
(MAEP).
24) http://www.bj.refer.org/benin.ct/rec/inrab/25) Kijima M., Asahi Hyakka, World Plant 5, Seed Plant, pp.1142, 1980, Asahi Shinbun
Newspaper Publishing Company― 48 ―

Chapter II

Pulse Crops of West Africa

1. Cowpea (Vigna uncuiculata (L.) Walpers)
English name: Cowpea, Benin: Niébé

Photo II-1-1 Cowpea
Source：NIAS Genebank・Illustrated legume genetic resources database
http://www.gene.affrc.go.jp/plant/image/legume_j.html

1-1 Overview
Cowpea, which originated in West Africa, is an important pulse crop andis cultivated extensively throughout Africa. In the dry savanna zone of West
Africa, many varieties have been developed for diversified cropping systems.
From a nutritional aspect, cowpea has played an important role in protein
supplementation of staple grains (maize, sorghum and millets). However,present yields are low and they are not very resistant to drought or pests anddiseases. Despite this, cowpea is popular in Africa and production is increasing.
The International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), whose head office isin Nigeria, has taken an active role in improving varieties. However, one social
problem facing West Africa is the health of farmers who use agriculturalchemicals for cotton cultivation. At the Benin station of IITA, research which
focuses on developing cowpea varieties that do not require the application ofchemicals.
Based on the findings of the field study in Benin, it was discovered that novegetable markets sell the pods of pulse crops. In Southeast Asia, for example,
the pods of one variety of yard-long bean, Vigna unguiculata (L.), are eaten as avegetable. The introduction of this variety to West Africa would appear to be
worthy of examination.

― 49 ―

1-2 Origin and Diversification
1) Origin, Center of Diversity and Diffusion (Spread)
The center of cowpea diversity in West Africa is Nigeria, southern Niger,
Burkina Faso and Togo. The oldest cowpea seeds (possibly wild cowpea
judging from seed size) based on radiocarbon dating were exhumed from theKintampo rock shelter in central Ghana, and dated at approximately 3,500 BP(Ng, 1997). Based on archeological data, animal husbandry was common inWest Africa 5-3500 BP and it is believed that wild cowpea was a livestock feed.
In 4000 BP domesticated cowpea spread throughout West Asia and then to
India in the 2200 BP. In India, Catjang beans (Vigna unguiculata cultigroup
Biflora), which has small pods that grow upward had developed. Based on areference to cowpea in the diary of Todai-ji Temple, by 1100BP it appears
cowpea spread to Japan via Southeast Asia.
It is recorded that cowpea was first introduced to Europeans when they
were brought to Greece during the expedition of Alexander the Great. Althoughcowpea was thought to have been cultivated extensively in Germany until the
middle Ages, their cultivation soon faded due to the introduction of common
bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.). Only the name remains to this day. Cowpea isstill cultivated in the Mediterranean region in Southern and Eastern Europe. It
was then brought to the New World by the Spanish who reached the West
Indies in the 16th Century, and introduced from West Africa via the slave trade
which also began in the 16th Century.

Fig.II-1-1

Origin and dispersal of cowpea― 50 ―

2) Classification of Wild Cowpea and Geographical Distribution
Table II-1-1 Taxonomic systems of cowpea

Source：Advances in Cowpea Research (1997)

Fig.II-1-2

Geographical distribution of wild cowpea（Diversity center of wild cowpea is in south and southeast Africa）
Source：Evolution of Crop Plants (1995)― 51 ―

Fig.II-1-3

Morphological characteristics of wild cowpea based on thetaxonomic system of Padulosi et al. (1993)(Source：Advances in Cowpea Research, 1997)

The classification system of the wild relatives of cowpea differs according
to taxonomists.
Ancestral wild species (V. unguiculata subsp. dekindtiana var.
dekindtiana) are distributed across the Sub Sahara, Africa, and Madagascar. On
the other hand, diverse wild species closely related to cowpea are distributed inSouth and Southwest Africa. IITA collects and stores genetic resources ofcultivated and wild cowpea for breeding purposes.

― 52 ―

1-3 Production and Yield

Fig.II-1-4

Production of cowpea（source: FAO statistics）

Cowpea production has been increasing worldwide over the past ten years,
with most of the production being in Africa.

Fig.II-1-5

Main cowpea producing countries（source: FAO statistics）― 53 ―

Viewed by country, Nigeria has seen the fastest increase in cowpea
production. Aside from Africa, Myanmar is 3rd ranking (2005) in production.

Fig.II-1-6 Cowpea production in Asia and Europe（source: FAO statistics）

Production of cowpea has not been very high in Asia or Europe. However,production in Asia increased rapidly from year 2000. Production in Europe
decreased from about 40,000t to 20,000t.

Fig.II-1-7 Cowpea production in Benin（source: statistics of Benin）― 54 ―

Between 1998 and 2005 the production of cowpea in Benin fluctuates
between 80,000t and 100,000t and it appears this will continue in the future.
1) Yield

Fig.II-1-8

Cowpea yield of major producing countries（source: FAO statistics）

The yield of cowpea in Egypt is between 2 to 2.5t/ha. The yield inSoutheast Asia rose from 0.5 to 1 t/ha however in most African nations theyield does not usually exceed 0.5t/ha. The yield in Nigeria has surpassed 1
t/ha in recent years. The yield of cowpea in the United States wasapproximately 1 t/ha until 2002 then rose to about 1.5t/ha.
2) Production of Cowpea in Benin by Region
Production
生産量（ｔ） (t)

作付け体系

40000
35000
30000

①
②
③
④
⑤
⑥

25000
20000
15000
10000
5000
0
98
19

Fig.II-1-9

99
19

00
20

01
20

02
20

03
20

04
20

05
20

Cowpea production in each region of Benin（source: statistics of Benin)― 55 ―

The production of cowpea in Benin is mainly concentrated in thecentral-north with some in the south. The largest production area used to be ③
Zou-Collines in the central region; however, it was overtaken by ②
Borgou-Alibori in the northeast in 2005. Production in ① Atacora-Donga in thenorthwest has also been increasing.
Yield(t/ha)
収量(t/ha)
1.00

0.80
①
②
③
④
⑤
⑥

0.60

0.40

0.20

0.00
98
19

99
19

00
20

01
20

20

02

03
20

04
20

05
20

Fig.II-1-10 Cowpea yield in each region of Benin（source: statistics of Benin）

According to Benin governmental data, the yield of cowpea in Benin is
between 0.5 and 1t/ha, which is higher than the average for West Africa basedon FAO statistics. It tends to be higher in ② Borgou-Alibori or ①
Atacora-Donga in the north. With regard to yield, various factors including
onsite environmental conditions, cultivation methods, cropping systems andvarieties planted should be taken into account.
1-4 Cropping System, Cultivation Method, and Use
1) Cropping System(1) Asia and Oceania Regions
Cowpea is widely cultivated as a subsistence crop, and is grown formature dry seeds, for their immature pods, or for animal feed. Cowpea for dry
seeds and for livestock feed is common in South Asia. From Southeast Asia to
East Asia, immature cowpea pods are often used as a vegetable. One variety
group developed in Southeast Asia is called yard-long bean, the long pods ofwhich are specially grown for vegetable production.

― 56 ―

Cowpea has diversified into various varieties from an early-maturing erect
type, a late-maturing spreading type, and an indeterminate twining type. The
early-maturing erect type variety is often cultivated mainly as a catch crop after
rice or wheat, or sometimes it is cultivated as a single crop (monoculture).
Although the late-maturing variety is frequently grown together with maize,sorghum or millets, usually the density of cowpea is low. Cowpea varieties thatare grown for their pods are usually cultivated in home gardens and new pods
are harvested regularly by hand at intervals of four to six days year-round. They
are called “Bori” in India, Bangladesh and Nepal. With respect to young
yard-long bean, which is cultivated extensively in East Asia or Southeast Asia,
monoculture is applied with wide spacing between the mounds for poles(supporting) in many cases. There is a variety called “bush sitao” of whichyoung pods are used and is characterized as an early-maturing semi-erect
growth type. It has long flower stalks, about 30cm long succulent pods and isgenerally cultivated through monoculture without the use of poles. Cowpea foranimal feed is cultivated as a monoculture or mixed with maize and sorghum.
In the case of mixed cropping, the density of cowpea is usually high andcowpea is harvested at its flowering stage. At that time, cereal crops grownmixed with cowpea reached their maturity stage and is harvested together withforage cowpea.
(2) Europe and North America
Varieties for animal feed and varieties for mature dry seeds are cultivatedas single cropping in southern Turkey, Spain, Greece, Italy, Bulgaria and thesouthern United States. In the Unites States, the large black eye or brown eye
varieties are cultivated by machinery as a commercial crop in the states ofGeorgia, California, Texas, Mississippi, Arkansas and Tennessee. Varieties thatare grown for their pods are cultivated together with yard-long beans or bushsitao, although the amount of production is relatively small.
(3) Central and South America
Cowpea is an important crop in Brazil, Venezuela, Peru, Panama, El
Salvador, Haiti, Ecuador, Guyana and Suriname and is usually cultivated as
monoculture. In some case, a mixed cropping with maize is applied. Bothvarieties for mature dry seeds and a variety for vegetables are produced.
Cowpea in this region is characterized by highly diversified seed colors.
(4) East and South Africa
Cowpea is an extremely important crop. Although varieties for dry mature
seeds and for vegetables are cultivated. In case of vegetable cowpea varieties,
they are different from those in East Asia and Southeast Asia and the soft leaves
instead of young pods are used as vegetables. The cowpea leaves are more
important than the seeds in this region. Most farm households grow several― 57 ―

mounds of late-maturing spreading type varieties that are resistant to drought
and their leaves are used as vegetables. For dry seeds, the same variety iscultivated under a mixed cropping system together with maize.
(5) Central and West Africa
In this region cowpea is a staple food crop. While mixed cropping withsorghum or millets is often applied in the dry savanna district in the North, thiscrop is cultivated together with yams, cassava and maize in the South where it
is more humid. The primary purpose for its cultivation in Central Africa orWest Africa is to utilize its dry mature seeds; whereas, in some areas in Beninand Eastern Nigeria the soft leaves or pods are used as vegetables. In the dry
savanna zone, cowpea for animal feed is as important as cowpea for humanfood. In this zone, livestock are extremely important, and grass disappears
during the dry season, farmers grow not only cowpea for food (early variety)but also cowpea for animal feed (late variety).

Fig.II-1-11

Cowpea cultivation area in West Africa

Source：Purdue University Network for the Genetic Improvement for Africa
http://www.entm.purdue.edu/ngica/photos/cowpea_in_the_field/picture0010.html

In West Africa diverse cowpea varieties are cultivated in various cropping
systems. The importance of cowpea in the north area is greater since it is muchdrier and soil fertility is lower. In the north, cowpea is frequently used asanimal feed.
Between 1988 and 1990 IITA carried out cowpea research in Nigeria,
Benin, Niger, Togo, Cameroon and Burkina Faso and classified cowpea
cultivation into 15 types of cropping systems in 4 ecological zones (A: Forest― 58 ―

and South of Guinea Savanna, B: North of Guinea Savanna, C: Sudan Savanna
and D: Sahel Region) as shown in Table II-2.
In zone A, cowpea is cultivated together with maize, cassava, yam andgroundnut, cowpea density is low (1,000 to 5,000 individual/ha). In Zone B,
cowpea is cultivated by mixed cropping with groundnut and sorghum. In thiscase, the most common method is mixed cropping in rows using a systematicintercropping pattern. In Zone C, mixed cropping with millets or sorghum iscommon. Although cowpea is usually mixed with millets in Zone D, it issometimes cultivated as monoculture.
Table II-2 Cropping System including Cowpea in Ecological Zones in West Africa
Zone A

Forest and Southern Guinea Savanna
1.

Zone B

Zone C

Cassava - Cowpea

2.

Maize - Cassava - Cowpea

3.

Maize - Cowpea

4.

Maize - Cowpea, Rely on second rainy season or double cropping

5.

Maize - Groundnut - Cowpea

Northern Guinea Savanna
6.

Maize - Rely on cultivation of cowpea

7.

Groundnut - Cowpea

8.

Groundnut including (or excluding) Millets - Sorghum - Cowpea

9.

Sorghum - Cowpea

Sudan Savanna
10. Sorghum - Groundnut - Cowpea
11. Millets - Sorghum - Rely on cultivation of cowpea including (or excluding) groundnut
12. Millets - Sorghum - Cowpea - Groundnut
13. Millets - Groundnut - Cowpea

Zone D

Sahel Region
14. Millets - Cowpea
15. Millets or Cowpea

Source: Advances in Cowpea Research (1997)

Major cereal crops mixed with cowpea gradually change from maize →sorghum → millet as the environment changes from humid to dry.
Fig. II-1-12 demonstrates a cropping system including cowpea seen in
Kano district of Nigeria. At the beginning of the rainy season (between May
and June), millets are seeded in a wide ridge of between 1.5m and 3m, and at
approximately 1m intervals on each ridge. The planting density is 4,000 to
6,000 hill/ha. In late June, when the rainfall stabilizes, early cowpea grown fordry mature seeds is seeded in single rows between the millet ridges. The― 59 ―

distance between each mound is approximately 1m. Late cowpea for animal
feed is seeded between the remaining millet ridges in mid July. In this manner,a mixed field of ridges of millet, early cowpea, millet and late cowpea that are
seeded repeatedly is created. In some cases, sorghum or groundnut are planted
instead of millet or added to the mixed crops creating a more complicatedcropping system. Millet and early cowpea are harvested from late August to
early September. Late cowpea or sorghum remains until the beginning of thedry season (between October and November). Farmers wait until the leaves oflate cowpea variety used for animal feed become dry and withered, and thenharvest the cowpea plants and wind them with leaves. Cowpea for animal feed
which are wound are placed on roofs or hung from the branches of trees to dry.
Dry cowpea plants prepared in this manner are sold or utilized between Marchand May when it is driest and when prices rise.
Millets
Early cowpea
Millets
Late cowpea
Millets
Early cowpea
Millets
Late cowpea
Millets

Fig.II-1-12

A representative cropping pattern in Kano district of northern Nigeria
source：Advances in Cowpea Research(1997)

Photo II-1-2 An example ofcowpea-sorghum mixed croppingin West Africa

Photo II-1-3 An example ofcowpea-pearl
milletmixed
cropping in West Africa

source：Purdue University Network for the
Genetic Improvement for Africa Photogallery

source：same as left

http://www.entm.purdue.edu/ngica/photos/cowpea growers.html― 60 ―

2) Utilization and Processing
Table II-1-3 Various Cowpea Utilization Methods in Benin
Name

Characteristics

Other Ingredients

Abobo

Seasoned boiled cowpea, frequently served as a side dish for fried food. Red pepper, pepper, garlic,
salt

Adwè

Cowpea paste (prepared by boiling cowpea until softened and making
into a paste soaking and crushing to remove the thin skins); served as asnack or side dish for fried food or bread.

Ata

Cowpea dumpling fried in peanut oil (cowpea are soaked in water until Ginger, garlic, onions, redthey soften and crushed to remove the thin skins; spices are added and it pepper, salt
is ground into a paste using a maize mill; the paste is made into smallballs which are fried in peanut oil); served as a snack or eaten with spicy
sauce.

AtachlèRed pepper, salt
Cowpea are made into fried dumpling using peanut oil (after grinding
cowpea with a grinder, water is added and the cowpea are milled andkneaded; salt and spices are added to the paste and then it is shaped into
dumplings and fried twice; fried dumplings are soaked in cold peanut
oil for 1 hour to 24 hours); eaten with cassava or boiled yam, etc.

Atassi

Cowpea red rice (boiled together with rice) (prepared by boilingred-seed cowpea with water and adding rice boiled with salt); served asa side dish for fried food or bread.

Djogli

Boiled cowpea mixed with maize powder (prepared by adding spices or Smoked shrimp, onions,
red pepper, salt, palm oilvegetables, or shrimp, etc. to boiled cowpea and then mixing in maize
powder); eaten at breakfast or lunch together with fried or smoked fish
or a meat dish.

DocoFried cowpea dumplings (prepared by frying cowpea dumplings in oil;cowpea are ground, milled and mixed with water and spices and madeinto a paste, then dumplings made from the paste are fried); eaten atbreakfast or lunch together with fried yam or fried cassava.

Fèchaoda

Cowpea purée and boiled pork; a dish originating from Brazil (prepared Peanut oil, smoked shrimp,
tomatoes, onions, pepper,by grinding with a mortar to remove thin skins and boiling; spices, oiland pork are then added to the purée); served with other dishes or bread garlic, salt, pork

Salt

Rice, salt

Ginger, garlic, onions,pepper, salt

Smoked shrimp, onions,
Magni-magni Steamed cowpea dumpling wrapped in banana leaves (thin skins are
removed from cowpea pounded in a mortar and then soaked in water to garlic, red pepper, salt,
soften; spices and onions are added, then the seasoned paste is wrapped palm oilin banana leaves for steaming), which is served at lunch or as a snack.
Red pepper, pepper, garlic,
salt

Vèyi

Cowpea are boiled until moisture evaporates (cowpea are boiled inspices until water has completely evaporated); eaten in the daytime orserved with fried food, boiled cassava or boiled yam.

YoyouèFried roasted-cowpea powder (spices and shrimp are added to a paste of Oil, smoked shrimp,
onions, garlic, pepper, redroasted cowpea powder and it is then fried); eaten with boiled cassava
pepper, salt.
or boiled yam.

Source: Excerpt from the La transformation Alimentaire Traditionalle des Légumineuses et Oléagineux au
Bénin (Pulses and Traditional Food Processing of Oil Seeds in Benin)― 61 ―

Cowpea seeds are soaked in water and seed coats
are removed before make paste

Soaked cowpea seeds are squished to makepaste

Cowpea paste used to make Kosai, a traditional
fritter

Traditional cowpea food called “Abobo”

Photo II-1-4 Processed cowpea foodSource：Purdue University Network for the Genetic Improvement for Africa Photogallery
http://www.entm.purdue.edu/ngica/photos.html― 62 ―

1-5 Breeding and Production Restraint Factors
1) Breeding in Africa (by IITA)
According to Singh et al. 1997, the breeding efforts taken by IITA are as
follows. Until around 1987, IITA has been conducting breeding procedure forcowpea on the assumption of monoculture. However, most cowpea in West andCentral Africa are cultivated through mixed cropping. Therefore the breeding
objectives were diversified.
(1) Breeding Objectives: Diverse varieties are required in Africa
The 10 breeding objectives are follows.
① To develop a day-length insensitive, very early variety for dry mature
seeds production (60 to 70 days). This type of variety is for shortduration monoculture crop in a cropping system crop for the area withshorter rainy season.
② To develop a day-length insensitive medium maturity variety for dry
mature seeds production (75 to 90 days). This type of variety can begrown both as monoculture and mixed cropping.
③ To develop a day-length insensitive late variety for dry mature seeds
production and also for green leafy vegetables production (85 to 120days). This type of variety can be grown both as monoculture and mixed
cropping system.
④ To develop a day-length sensitive early variety for dry mature seeds
production (70 to 80 days). This type of variety is for the mixed cropping
system.
⑤ To develop a day-length sensitive medium maturity variety for both dry
mature seeds and animal forage
production (75 to 90 days). This
type of variety is for the mixed
cropping system.
⑥ To develop a day-length
sensitive late maturity variety foranimal forage production (85 to
120 days). This type of variety is
for mixed cropping system.
Photo II-1-5 Stems and leaves of⑦ To develop a high yielding bushy cowpea are dried for forage. Therevariety for vegetables.
is a high demand foＡr cowpea⑧ To develop a variety for high forage in dry regions like northern
seed protein content, shorter West Africa.
cooking-time and preferred seed Source: Purdue University Network for theform and color which has high Genetic Improvement for Africa Photogallery
http://www.entm.purdue.edu/ngica/photos.html
consumer’s demand.

― 63 ―

⑨ To develop a variety resistant to major diseases, pests and parasitic
weeds.
⑩ To develop a variety resistant to drought, low pH and sandy soil with low
fertility.
(2) Production Constraints and Solutions① Virus Diseases
Varieties resistance virus diseases such as CPMV, CAMV, CGMV, CMV and
SBMV have been developed. They are IT82D-889, IT83S-818, IT83D-442
and IT85F867-5.

Photo II-1-6

Virus infected leaf

Source：Arkansas Univ. Cowpea viruses in
Arkansas, http://comp.uark.edu/~morelock/cowpea_virus.html② Bacterial Diseases
Two bacterial diseases, bacterial pustule (Xanthomonas spp.) and bacterial
blight (Xanthomonas vignicola), cause extensive damage to cowpea worldwide.
Breeding lines which is resistance to these two diseases have been developedby IITA. TVx1850-01E, IT90K-284-2, IT90K-277-2, IT86D-715, IT86D-719
and IT81D-1228-14 are promising lines.

Photo II-1-7 Bacterial blight infected leaf
(Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. vignicola)
Source：http://www.bspp.org.uk/ndr/july2006/2006-44.asp― 64 ―

③ Mold Diseases (Leaf Spots)
Anthracnose, Cercospora leafspot,
Verticillium wilt, Phytophythora stem
rot, Septoria leaf spot, Brown blotch,
Scrab, Uromyces rust and Leaf smut
are major fungal diseases. Resistantmaterials have been reported for these
diseases. In most cases, resistancedepends on a single gene. In the case of Photo II-1-8 Cercospora leaf spot
Fusarium wilt or Phytophthora stem rot,
Source：Texas A&M University,
Texas Plant Disease Handbook,race differentiation has been reported,and so multiple resistance genes should http://plantpathology.tamu.edu/Texlab/Vegetables/
Southern_pea/vutop.html
been incorporated. The American
cowpea race (variety), “Iron” is famous as a resistant material against Fusarium
wilt and Charcoal rot. Resistant materials against other diseases have been
detected in the IITA world cowpea collection.
④ Nematodes
Approximately 55 species of nematodes parasites on cowpea have beenreported, of which, the species that causes the most serious damage anddistributes most widespread is Meloidogyne incognita. As a result of theintensive research in North America and Africa, a single superior resistancegene was discovered. IITA has developed breeding lines in which thisresistance gene and a gene resistant to aphids and weevils (Bruchids) areincorporated (such as IT84S-2246-4, IT89KD-288, IT90K-59 and IT90K-76).
⑤ Insect Pests
The variety (IT84S-2246-4) to which compound resistance against
important cowpea insect pests are incorporated has been bred. However,despite the intensive screening up to now, resistant lines effective against
Maruca virtrata and shield bugs have not been discovered. Although the only
method of controlling these pests is to spray with pesticide, taking the
economic conditions of West African farmers into consideration, it is hopedthat resistant varieties will be developed as soon as possible. Detailed
informationon
cowpea
pests
can
be
found
at
http://www.larsen-twins.dk/204cowpea.html.

― 65 ―

Maruca vitrata

Mylabris sp.

Cowpea seeds damaged bybruchid beetles (weevils)

Cowpea weevil(Callosobruchus maculatus)

Anoplocnemis curvipes

Calvigralla tomensicolis

Photo II-1-9 Major insect pests in West Africa
Source：Purdue Univ., Network for the Genetic Improvement for Africa Photogallery and the Web
pages of Mr. Arne Larsen― 66 ―

⑥ Parasitic Weeds: Striga and Alectra
Weeds parasites on cowpea roots, Striga (commonly known as witch weed)
and Alectra, have been reported. These parasitic weeds have damaged cowpea
in Central to West Africa.

Photo II-1-10

Striga gesnerioides

Source：Purdue Univ., Network for the Genetic
Improvement for Africa Photogallery

Photo II-1-11 Striga parasites
to the root of cowpea

Six races of Striga gesnerioides have been reported, and geographicaldistribution is being surveyed. With all these races, resistant lines have been
discovered and resistant varieties are being developed.

Fig. II-1-13 Five races of Striga gesnerioides and their distribution in West Africa
Source：Advances in Cowpea Research (1997)― 67 ―

Striga-sensitive cowpea
Striga-resistant cowpea

Photo II-1-12

Comparison between Striga-sensitive and resistant cowpea varieties.

Source：Purdue Univ., Network for the Genetic Improvement for Africa Photogallery

When a variety sensitive to Striga and a resistant variety were cultivated side
by side in Mali the difference can readily be observed, as can be seen in theabove photo.

Photo II-1-13

Another cowpea parasitic weeds: Alectra spp.

Source：Alectra spp. http://www.larsen-twins.dk/⑦ Ecology of Striga
The small brown seeds of Striga germinate after they react with achemical substance secreted by the roots of a host plant and then form a specialorgan called haustoria on the root of the host plant to absorb nourishment.
Major damage by Striga therefore occurs before Striga appears above ground.
After that, Striga grows its own leaves, and its dependency on the host plantdecreases. Striga blooms 2 to 3 weeks later and produces about 20,000 seeds.
These seeds become germinable after approximately six months and wait for
the host plants to grow nearby.

― 68 ―

⑧ Striga Control
Resistant varieties have not been disseminated among farmers. Herbicides
are too expensive and too dangerous and therefore are not recommended.
Before Striga blooms, it should be weeded by hand and soil fertility should beenriched with compost or small amounts of fertilizer to minimize damage by
Striga.
1-6 Future Perspectives
Despite their low levels of
resistance to major diseases and pests
as well as their low yielding capacity, ademand for cowpea is very high. It
appears they will continue to be an
important food source in West Africa.
Therefore, new varieties and newtechnologies should be developed anddisseminated to improve their value.
Citations and Bibliography
1)
2)

3)
4)
5)

Photo II-114 Farmers are selling
cowpea powder. A trial of the
profitability increase.
Source：Purdue Univ., Network for the Genetic
Improvement for Africa Photogallery

Ng N. Q. and L. M. Monti (eds.) 1990. Cowpea Genetic Resources, International
Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Ibadan Nigeria.
Singh B. B., D.R. Mohan Raj, K.E. Dasheill and L. E. N. Jackai (eds.) 1997. Advancesin Cowpea Research. Co-publication of International Institute of Tropical Agriculture(IITA) and Japan International Research Center for Agricultural Sciences (JIRCAS).
IITA, Ibadan, Nigeria.
Singh S. R. and K. O. Rachie (eds.) 1985. Cowpea: Research, Production andUtilization, International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Ibadan Nigeria.
Smartt J. 1990. Grain Legumes: Evolution and Genetic Resources, Cambridge
University Press.
Smartt J and Simmonds N.W. (eds.) 1995. Evolution of Crop Plants, Longman
Scientific & Technical.

― 69 ―

2. Groundnut ( Arachis hypogaea L.)
English name: peanut, groundnut; Benin: arachide

Photo II-2-1 Groundnut
Flower (http://www.afftis.or.jp/SakumotsuHana/hana10.html)
Other pictures (http://www.ruralnet.or.jp/syokunou/200703/01_3.html）

2-1 Overview
Groundnut originated in central South America, probably in the highlands
spreading from Argentina to Bolivia. Groundnut was first introduced to West
Africa by the Portuguese in the 16th Century in the course of the slave trade. Its
cultivation had gradually spread to all regions of Africa. After continuous
hybridization between the Virginia and Spanish varieties and screening of thehybrids, local varieties adapted to Africa had been selected. Africa is currently
considered as the tertiary center of groundnut genetic diversity. Today 37.2
million tons of groundnut are produced worldwide, most of which are from
Asia. Nigeria is the third largest groundnut producing country, after the UnitedStates and Indonesia. In Benin, the production of groundnut has increased from84,000t to 14,000t during the past 10 years. By region, ② Borgou-Alibori innortheast Benin and ③ Zou-Collines in the central region account for 70% of
total production (Fig. II-2-7). In southern Benin, groundnut is planted twice ayear, the first seeding is in April and the second is in mid-August. In this region,
early Spanish and Valencia varieties are cultivated. On the other hand, in thenorth, mid to late varieties such as Virginia types are cultivated in the rainyseason. Early variety such as Spanish types can also be seen. Groundnut is
usually cultivated mixed with corn, sorghum or cassava without fertilizer.
Large-scale monoculture of groundnut is not seen. Edible oils used in Benin
include oil palm, peanut oil, shea butter and soybean. Small or medium scale― 70 ―

edible oil companies extract oil from groundnut, or farmers themselves extract
oil for their own use. The main limiting factors for groundnut production are
low productivity and price. Yield is low. Cultivation of local low yielding
varieties and temporary drought in growing season is also the problem.
2-2 Origin and Diversification

Fig.II-2-1

Originand centre of diversity of groundnut
図Ⅱ-2-1. ラッカセイの起源と多様性

In the genus Arachis, 9 sections consisting of 69 pieces are described. The
center of diversity for the wild Arachis species is in Gurarani region in
Paraguay, and in eastern and central regions in Bolivia. The place ofdomestication is considered to be a Parana River valley area from Paraguay to
Chaco region of Argentina. Although wild ancestral species of groundnut(Arachis hypogaea) have not been discovered, domestication may haveoccurred to the putative tetraploid wild ancestor (number of chromosomes:
2n=40) evolved by natural hybridization of two diploid wild species followedby chromosome doubling. The domestication of groundnut is considered tohave started 300 to 2,500 B.C. and the ancestors of the Arawak linguistic group― 71 ―

are believed to have been involved in the domestication process. The long
history of cultivation more than 3,500 years account for the considerable
diversification of groundnut.
There are six well-known diversity centers for groundnut in South America.
These diversity centers coincide well with the natural distribution of subspecies
and/or variety of A. hypogaea (Fig II-2-1).
Table II-2-1 Taxonomic treatment of Arachis hypogaea

表Ⅱ-2-1. ラッカセイの分類 (Singh 1995より作図）Subspecies

Variety

Botanical
type

Branchingpattern

Growth
habit

Seed/
pod

Primary area of origin

hypogaea

hypogaea

Virginia

Alternatae

Prostrate
to erect2-3Southern Bolivia and northern Argentina

hirsuta

Peruvian

Prostrate

4

Peru

fastigiata

Valencia

Sequential

Erect

3-4

Peru, Brazil and Paraguay

vulgaris

SpanishSequential

Erect

2

Paraguay, Uruguay and Brazil

fastigiata

Alternatae

Source：Singh 1995

Groundnut is classified into four variety groups, i.e., Virginia, Peruvian,
Valencia and Spanish (Table II-2-1) based on their branching pattern andnumber of grains per pod.
Before the Europeans came to South America, groundnut had alreadyspread all over South America and also to Mexico and Central America. The
Portuguese introduced two types of groundnut varieties from the eastern coastof Brazil to India. Then the Spanish introduced groundnut to Indonesia andChina at the beginning of the 16th Century. In the middle of 16th Century, it had
spread to all over the world. In the 19th Century, groundnut became an
important crop for West Africa, India and the United States. Groundnut was
introduced to Japan from China in 1706, and they were named Nannkinn-mame(Nanking bean). Groundnut was reintroduced to Japan at the beginning of the
Meiji era (1860s) and spread inside Japan.
To West Africa, the Virginia variety was introduced at the beginning of the
16th Century and spread from West Africa to North America in the 17th Century.
In a similar manner, the Spanish variety was introduced by the Portuguese
directly from Brazil at the beginning of the 16th Century. After continuous
hybridization between the Virginia and Spanish varieties and screening of thehybrids, local varieties adapted to Africa had been selected. Africa is currently
considered as the tertiary center of groundnut genetic diversity.
2-3 Production and Yield
The production of groundnut in the world is 37.2 million tons, and the
majority of which is produced in Asia. Although the production in Asia and― 72 ―

Africa is increasing, there has been a decreasing trend during the past 10 years
in Europe (Fig II-2-2).
The top groundnut producing country of groundnut is China then India.
The production in China shows the increasing trends. On the other hand, theproduction in India remains unstable. In Africa, Nigeria is the top producing
country and ranked as the 3rd position in the world, followed by the UnitedStates and Indonesia (Fig II-2-3).
世界のラッカセイ生産量（万t）Africa

4,000

Asia

3,500

Europe

3,000

World

2,500
2,000
1,500
1,000
500
0
1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

Fig.II-2-2 Production of groundnut in the world (x10000t)
Source：FAO statistics

1,600

世界のラッカセイ生産量トップ５（万ｔ）

Chi naIndi a1,400

N i g eri a

1,200

U SA
1,000

Indones i a

800
600
400
200
0
1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

Fig.II-2-3 Major Groundnut producing countries
Source：FAO statistics― 73 ―

アフリカのラッカセイ生産量トップ５（万ｔ）

400

N i g eri a
Seneg a l

350

Suda n300

Cha d
Gha na

250
200
150
100
50
0
1996

1997

Fig. II-2-4

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

Major groundnut producing countries in Africa
Source：FAO statistics

Nigeria is the largest producer of groundnut in Africa, and its production
has increased from 2.3 million tons to 3.5 million tons. Production in Ghana or
Chad have been gradually increasing, whereas production in Senegal andSudan are still unstable, fluctuating between 0.5 million tons and 1.3 million
tons (Fig II-2-4).
20

ベナンのラッカセイ生産量（万ｔ）

18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
1996

1997

1998

Fig.II-2-5

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

Production of groundnut in Benin
Source：FAO statistics― 74 ―

The production of groundnut in Benin increased from 84,000 tons to
140,000 tons during the past 10 years. This increasing trend will continue in the
future (Fig II-2-5).
世界のラッカセイの収量比較（ｔ/ha）

Chi na4.0

Indones i a

3.5

Indi a3.0

N i g eri a

2.5

U SA

2.0
B eni n1.5
J a pa n
1.0
0.5
0.0
1996

1997

Fig.II-2-6

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

Yield (t/ha) of groundnut in selected countries
Source：FAO statistics

The United States gave the highest yield of groundnut in the world, ranging
from 2.8t to 3.5t/ha. In China, the world top producer, yield is also highbetween 2.5 and 3t/ha. The yield in India, the world second highest producer, isunstable and low between 0.7 and 1.4t/ha. The yield in Nigeria is around
1.5t/ha. The yield in Benin is also low, ranging between 0.7 to 0.9t/ha. Average
yield in Benin during the past 10 years is 0.85t/ha (Fig II-2-6).
ベナン各地域の地域別生産量（％）
ATACORADONGA

11%3%

ATLANTIQUELITTORALBORGOUALIBORI

41%

MONOCOUFFO

31%

7%

OUEMEPLATEAUZOUCOLLINES

7%

ベナン各地域のラ ッカセイ生産量（万ｔ）

8

①
②

7

③
6

④
⑤

5

⑥

4
3
2
1
0
1998

Fig.II-2-7

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

Production of groundnut in each region of Benin
Source：Benin statistics― 75 ―

In Benin, production in ② Borgou-Alibori region in the northeast and ③
Zou-Collines region in the central accounts for 70% of the total production (FigII-2-7).

ベナン各地域のラ ッ カセイ収量（ｔ/ha ）

1 .4

①
②

1 .2

③
④

1 .0

⑤
0 .8

⑥

0 .6
0 .4
0 .2
0 .0
1998

Fig.II-2-8

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

Yield (t/ha) of groundnut in each region of Benin.
Source：Benin statistics

The yield of groundnut in ① Atacora-Donga in northern Benin and ②
Borgou-Alibori in northern Benin has been high and stable. The yield in ③
Zou-Collines, the highest groundnut producing region, is lower thanAtacora-Donga and Borgou-Alibori regions. It is necessary to increase the yieldin Zou-Collines by improving the cultivation methods and by introducing better
varieties (Fig II-2-8).
2-4 Cropping System and Cultivation Method
The optimal temperature for growing groundnut is around 28 to 32℃,
which make it a suitable crop for tropical climates. The plant begins to bloom
approximately one month after seeding. The day length has little influence on
the flower bud initiation, but the number of days to flowering is affected by thetemperature and/or soil condition. It takes 50 to 60 days from flowering tomaturity. Groundnut prefers well drained soil and requires precipitation
between 600 and 800mm.

― 76 ―

Groundnut cultivation is seen in all the regions in Benin. In southern
Benin, groundnut is planted twice a year, the first seeding is in April and thesecond is in mid-August. In this region, early Spanish and Valencia varieties arecultivated. On the other hand, in the north, mid to late varieties such as Virginia
types are cultivated in the rainy season. Early variety such as Spanish types canalso be seen in the north. Groundnut is usually cultivated mixed with corn,sorghum or cassava without fertilizer. Large-scale monoculture of groundnut is
not seen. The cultivars include TS-32-1, MOTO and TE-3. The number of days
to grow TE-32-1 is 90 days and the average yield is 1.2t/ha. This cultivar has
high oil content and appears to be highly resistant to Striga, a parasitic weed, so
a planting density of 40×20cm is recommended. The INRAB central research
center in Benin is selecting varieties with high oil content and high biomass
production. They are also conducting field trials for selecting better varieties
under the mixed cropping system with maize.

Shells thresher（ラッカセイの殻剥き機）
Photo II-2-2図Ⅱ-2-9.
Groundnut
productioninWest Africa
西アフリカのラッカセイ栽培
2-5 Utilization and Market
After soybeans, oil palms and rapeseed, groundnut is the fourth mostimportant source of edible oil. The grains contain approximately 20% ofcarbohydrates, 25% of protein and 50% of lipids. About 50% of total groundnut
produced in the world is used for producing high quality edible oil. Another
37% are used for peanut butter or confectionary ingredients, and approximately― 77 ―

12% is used as seed. In addition, the foliages of peanuts are used for livestock
feed, and contain higher amount of protein compared with other forage crops.
Groundnut forage is very palatable and digestible.
In Benin, edible oils are produced from oil palm, peanut, Shea butter andsoybean. Small and medium oil extractors extract groundnut oil or the farmers
themselves extract oil for their own consumption. The extraction method for
peanut oil is quite simple; the roasted groundnut beans are grinded using acompressor (squeezer), mixed with water and left for a couple of days until thewater and oil separate (Photo II-2-3). A traditional method of extracting peanut
oil is shown in Fig II-2-9.

Photo II-2-3 Peanut butter and oil sold in Benin
図Ⅱ-2-10. ベナンにおけるラッカセイ搾油と販売

Method of Extracting Peanut Oil○ Characteristics of peanut oil: Peanut oil is a yellowish straw-coloredliquid. It is mainly used for cooking such as preparing deep-fried food orsalad. The oil is called ”Azimi” in the Fon language, “Epoepa” in the
Yoruba language, “Demizi” in the Dandy language and “San Goune” inthe Bariba language.
○ Ingredient: Peanut grains○ Method of extraction: Shown in the following figures.

Fig. II-2-9a Peanut shells are peeled by hand or using a thresher― 78 ―

Fig. II-2-9b Threshed peanuts are Fig. II-2-9c Spoiled grains andseparated from dust by wind, etc.
wastes are removed.

Fig. II-2-9d Threshed grains are Fig. II-2-9e After cooling, thinroasted in a frying pan.
skins are removed.

Fig. II-2-9f Grains and their removed Fig. II-2-9g
Peanuts arethin skins are separated by winds, etc. grinded in a mill.

― 79 ―

Fig. II-2-9h

Paste is kneaded by hand or with a wooden pestle.

①②

Fig. II-2-9i Oil is squeezed into a Fig. II-2-9j
Oil is boiled tobowl using a sponge or cloth.
remove the remaining water.

Fig. II-2-9k

After cooling, it is stored in barrels or tanks.

― 80 ―

Table II-2-2 Traditional Benin Food Made from Groundnut
Food Name

Processing Method

Andou

Snack made from a mixture of corn power and seasoned peanuts

Cacahuete

Snack made from boiled peanuts with sugar

Huile d’arachide

Peanut oil extracted using a traditional method

KluikluiSnack made from peanut paste after extracting oil

KohuncadaSnack made from roasted peanuts with sugar

NougatSnack made from peanut flour

Tasso

Snack made from boiled peanuts which are then roasted in sand or ash

Photo II-2-4（Kluikluiは，ベナンで人気のあるスナックで，甘さと辛さがある．）
A popular
snack, Kluiklui, is prepared. It tastes sweet and hot.

As seen in Photo II-2-4, after the oil is extracted, peanut paste is processed
into a deep-fried snack called “kluiklui”, a very popular local snack. In
addition to this, various traditional foods utilizing groundnut can be seen (Table
II-2-2).
Table II-2-3 Grains price of groundnut（FrCFA/kg）
in West Africa
Countries

Price

SenegalBurkina Faso
Niger
GuineaCôte d'IvoireBenin375-500
312-380
280-375
400-495600
300-675（August 2006)― 81 ―

Photo II-2-5 Groundnut grains
sold in the market of Benin

Information on the production and market prices of the main agricultural
products in each country in West Africa is available at RESIMAO (Réseau desSystèmes d'Information des Marchés en Afrique de l'Ouest: www.resimao.org).
The information on the market prices of farm products in ten West Africancountries is available at this Web site. This Web site is developed for the
purpose of promoting the inter-regional trade among West African countries.
The range of groundnut grain price in Benin is greater than those ofneighboring countries (Table II-2-3). In Benin, groundnut is not exported and is
only consumed domestically.
Table II-2-4

Price of grain and oil of groundnut in major market in Benin（FrCFA/kg，August 2006）
with a comparison of oil palm oil
Groundnut

Regions

MarketATLANTIQUE Dantokpa

Oil Palm

Grain
Oil
Oil
January August January August January August
500
615
810
675
700
770

BORGOU

Parakou

270

430

800

790

800

515

MONO

Come

540

610

800

800

605

545

OUEME

Ouando

475

655

700

715

700

450

ZOU

Bohikon

290

485

585

600

585

470

ATACORA

Tanguieta

400

545

650

650

650

650

If you want to know the trend in market prices of agricultural products in
Benin, information is available at the ONASA (Office National d´Appui à laSécurité Alimentaire) website (www.onasa.org). Grain price of groundnut at the
Parakou market in Borgou region (northeast Benin) is lower; whereas, price atthe Dantokpa market in Atlantique region (southern Benin) is the highest. The
price of groundnut oil among markets in each region of Benin is relatively
stable throughout the year. Compared with coconut oil, the price for groundnut
oil is slightly higher (Table II-2-4).
2-6 Factors for Production Constraints and Breeding
The factors for production constraints of groundnut in Benin are low yieldand price. The yield of groundnuts is low because local varieties are cultivatedand/or growth is hindered due to a drought during the cropping period. In thesouth, groundnut planted in April encounters the difficulty to dry the harvested
grains. Whereas groundnut planted in August gives low yield because of the
low amount of rainfall available during growth period. Groundnut is usuallycultivated without fertilizer.

― 82 ―

Table II-2-5

Diseases and pests of groundnut― 83 ―

Source: ICRISAT― 84 ―

There are many well-known diseases and pests damaging groundnut(Table II-2-5). Major diseases in West Africa are the groundnut rosette virus(Aphis craccivora) and fungal disease of early leaf spot (Cercospora
archidicola). Insect pest causing severe damage is aphid, which is a vector ofvirus disease. In addition, damage by the nematode is common. In Benin, majordiseases include rust (Pucciniaarachidis), early leaf spot and peanut clump(Polymixa graminis) in the northern region and groundnut rosette in thesouthern region.

2-7 Future Perspectives
The demand for groundnut in West Africa is high. Nigeria will continue tobe one of the largest producing countries in the world. In Nigeria, groundnut isa cash crop. On the other hand, groundnut production in Benin is lower thanthose in the rest of West African countries. Accordingly, varieties with highyielding ability with drought resistance should be introduced.
Citations and Bibliography
1)
2)
3)

Information disclosed on the website: World Geography of the Peanut(http://lanra.anthro.uga.edu/peanut/)
Maeda K., 1994, - Peanuts – Tropical Pulse Corps Cultivation Handbook, AICAF
pp.39-67
C. C. Holbrook 2003 Peanut Breeding and Genetic Resources, Plant Breeding Reviews,
Vol.22: 298-331― 85 ―

3. Bambara Groundnuts (Vigna subterranea (L.) Verdc.)
Benin: Voandzou

Photo II-3-1 Bambara groundnut
3-1 Overview
Bambara groundnut originated in West Africa and has been cultivatedextensively throughout Sub-Sahara Africa. Bambara groundnut is the 3rd mostimportant African leguminous crop after peanuts and cowpeas. In Africa it iscalled “nyimo”, “indlubu”, “jugo”, “njugo” or “voandzou”, and is cultivatedunder mixed cropping system with corn, millet, sorghum, yam, peanuts or
cowpeas. Although bambara groundnut had spread to India, Sri Lanka,
Thailand, Indonesia, the Philippines, Malaysia, New Caledonia and Brazil, it israrely cultivated outside Africa today. Pods of bambara groundnut grows under
the ground in the same manner as peanuts. Each pod contains only one grain.
The average yield of bambara groundnut is estimated to be around 500kg /ha. It
takes 110 to 150 days to harvest bambara groundnuts and it is a short-day crop.
Since the grains of bambara groundnuts contain approximately 63%
carbohydrates, 19% protein and 6.5% lipids, it is a more efficient crop to obtainenergy compared with other leguminous crops such as cowpeas or lentils. Sincebambara groundnut has been used for home consumption, there are various
cooking methods.
3-2 Origin and Diversification
Bambara groundnut has pods that grow under the ground. Although theflowers bloom near the ground, each flower stalk stretches and the ovary
penetrates the ground to produce about 2cm round shaped pod. The lateralbranches emerged from the short internodes less than a few cm apart; it― 86 ―

becomes grass-like shape. It has trifoliate leaves with long peduncle. In West
Africa, bambara groundnut is cultivated in a similar manner as cowpea. The
origin of bambara groundnut is considered to be an area stretching from
northeastern Nigeria to northern Cameroon. Wild bambara groundnut is widelydistributed in this area. The name bambara groundnut originated from the
Bambara tribe of Mali in West Africa. It is called Voandzou in French. The crop
was recorded for the first time in a 17th century. After since it was firstclassified as Voandzeia subeterranea in 1806, this scientific name has been used
Table II-3-1 Germplasm conserved in each country or institutecountries/institutes
number of germplasm
conserved
Benin
3
Botswana
26
Burkina Faso
143
France, ORSTOM
Ca. 1000
Ghana, University of Ghana
80
Ghana, SARI
90
Ghana, PGRC
166
Guinea43
Kenya, National Genebank
6
Kenya, KARI
2
Kenya, National Museums
2
Mali
70
Mozambique
12
Namibia
23
Nigeria, IITA
2035
Nigeria
n.a.
Niger
79
South Africa, Grain Crops Institute
198
South Africa, Institute for Veld and117
Forage Utilization
20
South Africa, Department of Agriculture
22
Tanzania, NPGRC
463
Zambia, University of Zambia
124
Zambia, NPGRC
129
Zimbabwe
Source: Proceeding of the workshop on Conservation and Improvement of Bambara Groundnut (Vigna
subterranea (L.)Verdc.), 1995.

― 87 ―

for more than a century. However in 1980, it was re-classified in the genus
Vigna as Vigna subterranea (L.) Verdc. (Verdocurt 1980). Bambara groundnut
is cultivated extensively in the Sub-Sahara Africa. Wild relatives and weedy
races grow naturally in this area. Wild relatives are distributed throughout theJos Plateau in Nigeria and from Yola to Garoua in Cameroon.
Genetic resources of bambara groundnut are conserved at research
institutes and private institutions in each country in Sub-Sahara and throughout
African (Table II-3-1). Of those, the International Institute of Tropical
Agriculture (IITA) has 2,008 accessions collected from 25 countries and that is
the largest source of genetic resources (Table II-3-2).
Table II-3-2

Number of accessions conserved in the genebank
of International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA)Countries
No. of accessions
Benin
27
Botsuwana
5
Burkina Faso
97
Cameroon
207
Central African Repubric
103
Chad
70
Congo
42
Cote d'Ivoire
4
Ethiopia1
Cambia
11
Ghana
120
Kenya
2
Madagascar
49
Malawi
59

Countries
Mali
Niger
Nigeria
SenegalSouth Africa
Sudan
Swaziland
Tanzania
Togo
Zimbabwe
ZambiaUnidentified
Total

No. of accessions
28
33
310
36
1
7
11
28
139
245
284
101
2208

Source: IITA data base

Photo II-3-2 Gene bank of thesouthern center of INRAB in
Benin

Photo II-3-3 Seed storage room
（seeds were conserved at 10℃）

Only three accessions of bambara groundnut were conserved in the gene

― 88 ―

bank at the southern center of INRAB in Benin (Photos II-3-2 and II-3-3). At
the Parakou market in northern Benin, four varieties based on the seed coatcolor, white, red, black and mottled were sold.
3-3 Production and Yield
According to FAO statistics (2005), cultivation area of bambara groundnuts
is 79,120ha and its production is 74,751t in Africa (Fig. II-3-1). In this figure,statistics for three nations, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, and Congo are compared.
There is little information available for each African nation regarding to the
production of bambara groundnut, since it is cultivated mainly for home use.
10

世界のバンバラマメ 生産量-a（万t）Afr i c a9

Bu r kin a Faso
8

C am e r o o n

7

D. R. o f C o n go

6
5
4
3
2
1
0
1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

Fig.II-3-1 Production of bambara groundnut (x10000t)（Based on FAO statistics）

Judging from the fact that IITA collected bambara groundnuts from 25
nations in Africa, the actual production and cultivated area of bambara
groundnut seems to be higher than FAO’s estimation. In a workshop
proceedings entitled “Conservation and Improvement of the bambara
Groundnut (Vigna subeterranea (L.) Verdic.)” held in 1995, sponsored by
IPGRI (International Plant Genetic Resources Institute), cultivation area andproduction for Nigeria, Ghana, Togo and Zimbabwe, etc. was listed in the
country reports (Table II-3-3). Based on that data, the production in Nigeria is
100,000t.
The average yield of bambara groundnuts is estimated to be around500kg/ha. The yield in Burkina Faso fluctuate significantly from 0.7 to 1.6t/ha(Fig. II-3-2).

― 89 ―

Table II-3-3 Production of bambara groundnut（x10,000t）
Countries

Producti

Botswana

400

Source(Country report)

Burkina Faso

39,572(2005 FAO)

Cameroon

8,500(2005 FAO)

Nigeria

100,000(Country report)

Togo

4,403

(Country report)

Zimbabwe

2,200(Country report)

Mali

17,169(2005 FAO)

Congo

9,510

(2005 FAO)

Benin

11,321(Country report)（Based on FAO statistics）

1.4

B urk i na
Faso

世界のバンバラマメの収量比較（ｔ/ha）

1.2

Ca m eroon

1.0

D .R . ofCong o0.8

Ma l i

0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
1996

1997

1998

1999

Fig.II-3-2

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

Yield (t/ha) of bambara groundnut（Based on FAO statistics）― 90 ―

Production（10,000t）

2.5

1.2

Yield (t/ha)

1.0

2.0

Yield

Production

0.8
1.5
0.6
1.0
0.4
0.5

0.2

0.0

0.0
1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

Fig.II-3-3 Production and yield in Benin（Based on the statistics of Benin）
ベナン各地域の生産量（％）
ATACORADONGA22%

ATLANTIQUELITTORAL

1%

BORGOUALIBORI

0%

MONOCOUFFO

13%

64%

OUEMEPLATEAUZOUCOLLINES

0%

ベナン各地域のバンバラメ生産量（万ｔ）
1 .6

①
②
③
④
⑤
⑥

1 .4
1 .2
1 .0
0 .8
0 .6
0 .4
0 .2
0 .0
1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

Fig.II-3-4 Production of bambara groundnut in each region of Benin（Based on the statistics in Benin）― 91 ―

In 2005, the cultivation area of bambara groundnut in Benin was 17,232ha
and the production was 11,321t. From the results of experimental fields theyield up to 4000kg/ha were reported. The yield from farm households wasapproximately 500kg/ha. The yield of bambara groundnut in Benin from 1998
to 2005 increased substantially from 657kg/ha to 1130kg/ha. The average yieldover the past 8 years is 860kg/ha (Fig. II-3-3).
The production of bambara groundnut in Benin differs for each region.
The largest cultivation area in Atacora-Donga in northwestern Benin is
12,142ha and the production is 7,192t, followed by Zou-Collines in central
Benin and Borgou-Alibori in the northeast. These three regions are major
bambara groundnut production zones in Benin (Fig. II-3-4).
3-4 Cropping System and Cultivation Method
Bambara groundnuts are cultivated under small-scale monoculture ormixed cropping with corn, millet, sorghum, cassava, yam, peanut or cowpea(Photo II-3-4). The incorporation of bambara groundnuts into a cropping
system is considered to be effective for soil improvement.

Small-scale single cropping

Bambara groundnut is called "woman’s crop",
the women cultivate mainly
Grain of bambara groundnut

Photo II-3-4 Bambara groundnut cultivation in West Africa
Source: Arne Larsen's homepage― 92 ―

Fig.II-3-5

Effects of temperature and photoperiod on maturity（Adapted from Collinson 1995.）

It takes 110 to 150 days for bambara groundnuts to mature. Stored seeds
germinate well if they are seeded within one year. Seeds germinate 7 to 15 days
after sowing. Bambara groundnut start flowering at 30 to 35 days after sowing.
Although the bambara groundnut is generally a shot-day crop, it reacts
differently depending on the variety. For example, some varieties show day
neutral flowering response but growth of pods delayed under long-day, whileother varieties decreased pod setting rate under long-day conditions. It has also
been reported that the number of days necessary to produce pods is related tothe temperature (Fig. II-3-5). Bambara groundnuts are cultivated at less than
1,600m elevation, with rainfall between 600 and 700mm and temperatures
between 20 and 28℃. It prefers well-drained soil with pH5.0 to 6.5.
It is generally cultivated on the flat land with low population density. The
seeding density is recommended to be 25 to 75kg/ha, at approximately 10 to
15cm planting intervals and 45 to 90cm of row spacing. Although farmhouseholds usually do not use fertilizer, it is reported that the amount of
nitrogen required by bambara groundnuts could be supplied through root
nodule bacteria. So it is a crop suitable for low-fertilized land (Doku 1969a;
Somasegaran, et al. 1990). In dry regions it is harvested when the foliage
withers; whereas in humid regions it should be harvested before the foliage
becomes withered since the pods are either likely to spoil or seeds germinate.
After sun drying the harvested pods are threshed. Seeds for the following year
are stored within their pods, which can act as an effective barrier against
insects.

― 93 ―

3-5 Use and Market
Table II-3-4 Nutrients in bambara groundnut seeds

Source：Ntundu,1995

Grains of bambara groundnuts contain approximately 64% carbohydrates,
19% protein and 6.5% lipids. It has high methionine content, an essential aminoacid.

Photo II-3-6

Abobo

・ Seeds soaked overnight and boiled
・ Seasoned with oil. salt, peppers,
onions, tomatoes and shrimps

Photo II-3-5 Young pods ofbamabara groundnut eaten boiled
with chili pepper and salt.
There are various cooking methods. The pods of bambara groundnut canbe eaten raw or roasted. Young pods boiled together with salt and red pepper is― 94 ―

a popular snack in West Africa (Photo II-3-5). Although the oil content ofbambara groundnut is less than rich content of peanut, some tribes in Congo
extract the oil after roasting and grinding the beans.
One method of cooking bambara groundnuts in Sub-Saharan African
regions is to make a thick porridge by grinding the beans. In addition, theroasted beans are grinded to make seasoning. Dough made from the ground toflour is processed into deep-fried or steamed products.
In recent years, an attempt was made to make bean milk from bambara
groundnut. It is reported to have a better taste than cowpeas, pigeon peas or
soybeans and has a higher nutritional value.
In Benin, there is a traditional dish called “abobo”. To make this, grains ofbambara groundnut are soaked in water for twenty-four hours together with red
peppers, tomatoes, onions and shrimps. It is often served together with “gari”
made from cassava flour or “plantain” (Photos II-3-6 and II-3-5) and is atypical home cooked dish in West Africa.
Table II-3-5 Use of bambara groundnut in Africa
Country
Ghana

NigeriaSouth Africa

Togo

Cooking and Processing Methodz Immature beans are boiled and seasoned with salt.
z After boiling and grinding mature seeds, it is hardened
into flat cakes or dumplings and steamed.
z Beans soaked in water for twenty-four hours are boiled
to make porridge or blanc-manger.
z Beans soaked in water for twenty-four hours are fried.
Red pepper, tomatoes and onions are added to thewater. A side dish for “gari” made from cassava flouror “plantain”.
z Immature beans are eaten raw or seasoned by boilingwith salt.
z Beans are ground into a flour and used as an ingredientin traditional cooking or processed into products suchas “alele”, “alelen ganye”, “gauda”, “kosai”, “kunu”,“tuwo” and “waina”.
z Immature pods are boiled and eaten as a snack.
z After dried grain flour is boiled with corn or other grain
flour, it is formed into dumplings.
z It is boiled and mixed to make porridge (thipupu).
z It is grinded together with corn to make sticky dough(dithaku).
z Mature seeds are ground into flour to make dough forvarious cooking dishes.

― 95 ―

Country
Zimbabwe

Cooking and Processing Methodz It is boiled to make porridge.
z It is utilized in cooking as a seasoning.

Photo II-3-7 Bambara groundnut sold in a market in BeninIn the markets of Benin, the seed coat color of most varieties is white orred (Photo II-3-7).
Table II-3-6 Price of bambara groundnut in Benin（FrCFA/kg，2006）

MarketRegions

Grain
AugustJanuary

ATLANTIQUE Dantokpa

415

585

BORGOU

Parakou

175

290

MONO

Come

335

335

OUEME

Ouando

435

450

ZOU

Bohikon

245

335

ATACORA

Tanguieta

165

245

― 96 ―

In the markets of Parakou (northern Benin), the price of red-coloredvarieties is 350FrCFA/Tongolo* and the price of white-colored varieties is
450FCFA/Tongolo; suggesting the white-colored varieties are favored byconsumers.
The prices are lower in Atacora and Borgou in northern Benin, which aremajor bambara groundnut production areas, and there is a significant differencein prices between areas. The price of Bambara groundnut is the highest in
August (before harvesting), and lowest in January (after harvest) (Table II-3-6).
3-6 Breeding and Restricting Factors
Bambara groundnut is a suitable crop for semi-arid climates. It is resistantto drought and low fertility soil. In addition, it is a good source ofcarbohydrates. However, its cultivation is still limited to Sub-Sahara Africa.
Some of the reasons for this are 1) unavailability of modern improved varieties
because of the difficulty of artificial hybridization, 2) time consuming processof cooking because of its hard seeds.

Powdery mildew (Erysiphe sp.)

Aphids (Aphis sp.)

Termites

Nematodes

Photo II-3-8 Pests and diseases
1) Diseases and Pests
Fungal diseases of bambara groundnut include leaf spot (Cercospora
canescens), powdery mildew (Erysiphe sp.), leaf spot (Phyllosticta voandzeia),*

Bowl-shaped measuring gauges approximately 800 to 900g in volume.

― 97 ―

wilt (Fusarium sp.), leaf blotch (Phomopsis sp.) and Sclerotium rolfsii.
Although these diseases occur mainly in humid regions, prevention is possibleby spraying the fungicide, such as Benomyl (Benlate). Viral diseases include
cowpea mottle virus (CMeV) and cowpea aphid-borne mosaic virus (AbMV).
Insect damages from aphids (Aphis sp.), bruchids (Callosobruchus sp.),
leafhoppers (Hilda patruelis) and termites have been observed. In addition,
significant damages from nematodes are also reported (Photo II-3-8). Little
researches had been conducted for disease and pest control. It is important toselect varieties with multiple resistances from wide range of genetic resources
or to establish more effective control methods.
2) Breeding
Research of bambara groundnut had started in recent years. In theproceedings of the workshop “Conservation and Improvement of Bambara
Groundnut (Vigna subeterranea (L.) Verdc.) sponsored by the International
Board for Plant Genetic Resources (IBPGR) (presently Bioversity International)
held in 1995 in Zimbabwe, the production conditions and breeding research in
African nations and information on genetic resources were reported (Proceedings
available from www.bioversityinternational.org/publications/Pdf/499.pdf). IITA
reported a wide variation for morphological and agronomic traits among 1,384
accessions collected from Africa (Table II-3-7).
Table II-3-7 Variations for morphological and agronomic charactersamong bambara groundnut germplasm(Source：Goli,1995)― 98 ―

Fig.II-3-5

Variations of protein content in bambara groundnut germplasm
Source：Wenzel et al. 2003

In the research project named BAMFOOD Project Research conducted by
Nottingham University in England, extensive researches including cultivation
experiments to molecular diversity analysis were carried out. One of theresearches has revealed that bambara groundnut germplasm showed a wide
range of protein content (Fig. II-3-5). Evaluation of genetic resources ofbambara groundnut revealed that the genetic diversity is high. However, since
the success rate of hybridization in bambara groundnut is very low,development of a new hybridization technique is essential.
In Benin the National Institute of Agricultural Research (INRAB) is
responsible for the research on bumbara groundnut. Although the Central andNorth Centers of INRAB selected varieties suitable for central and northern
Benin and have been conducting regional field trials, there appears to be someproblems. Shortage of researchers interested in bambara groundnut and low
research priority for this crop are the main issues.
3-7 Future Perspectives
The network “BAMNET” (www.genres.de/bambara/index.htm) wasestablished for the purpose of sharing research information on bambara
groundnut. The database includes information on the characteristics of genetic
resources, products and grain prices in each nation with the aim of promoting
bambara groundnut production (Fig. II-3-6).

― 99 ―

Fig.II-3-6

Bambara groundnut products
Source：BAMNET

Although bambara groundnut is potentially a good crop, efforts for the
breeding of new varieties and the development of new utilization methods need
to be done. The main factor to prevent bambara groundnut breeding is thedifficulty in hybridization. However, an efficient pollination technology has
been developed by researchers in Thailand. Suwanprasert et al. (2006)
discovered that success rate of hybridization increased if flower was pollinatedwithin a one-hour period between 2:30 and 3:30 a.m. The report also stated thatit should be done when the flower stalks of the mother plant begin to elongate.
On the other hand, an attempt was made to conduct a mutation breeding
through irradiation to improve the yield (H.K. Adu-Dapaah, et al. 2004).
Major breeding objectives include “high yield”, “large pods”, “large
grain”, “wide-area adaptability”, “earlier maturity” and “shorter cooking
period” (Table II-3-8).
Bambara groundnut is produced mainly in Africa for home consumption.
A large quantity of bambara groundnut is sold in the market of Benin. In orderto encourage the production of bambara groundnut in Benin, development of
new ways of cooking and processing in addition to the traditional cooking― 100 ―

methods appears to be important.
Table II-3-8 Preferred characters of bambara groundnut

Source：Khonga et al. 2003

Citations and Bibliography
1)

2)
3)
4)

5)

6)

Information disclosed on the website of Arne Larsen, Bambara nut pests (Northern
Namibia)(http://www.larsen-twins.dk/206bambara.html)
Information disclosed on the website of C.J. Swanevelder Bambara-food for Africa(Vigna ubterranea . bambara groundnut) (http://www.nda.agric.za/docs/Bambara.pdf)
Hampson, K., Azam-Ali, S.H., Azam-Ali,S.N. Assesing opportunities for increased
utilization of bambara groundnut in Southern Africa.
H.K. Adu-Dapaah and R.S. Sangwan 2004. Improving bambara groundnut productivity
using gamma irradiation and in vitro techniques African Journal of Biotechnology Vol.
3 (5), pp. 260-265. (http://www.academicjournals.org/AJB).
J. Heller, Begemann and J. Mushonga, editors 1995 Proceedings of the workshop on
Conservation and Improvement of Bambara Groundnut (Vigna subeterranea (L.)
Verdic.) (http://www.bioversityinternational.org/publications/Pdf/499.pdf).
Sayed Azam-Ali. Increasing the Productivity of Bambara Groundnut (Vigna
subterranea (L.) Verdc.) for Sustainable Food Production in Semi-Arid Africa
http://www.nottingham.ac.uk/tcru/BAMFOOD.pdf― 101 ―

4. Soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merrill]
English Name: Soybean; Benin (French): Soja

Photo II-4-1 Soybean
Source：NIAS Genebank・Illustrated legume genetic resources database
http://www.gene.affrc.go.jp/plant/image/legume.html

4-1 Overview
Although soybean originated in East Asia, most production is now inNorth and South America. In recent years, the production volume has rapidly
increased in various places around the world. Soybean was first cultivated inWest Africa in the mid 1980s primarily for the purpose of improving diets.
Soybean was not quickly adopted at the beginning. Since a traditional
fermented food (hard Japanese miso-like seasoning: it is called Afitin in Benin)
made of the seeds of a native leguminous tree called Nélé (Parkia biglobosa) is
common in West Africa, soybean was gradually accepted as a substituteingredient. Then, thanks to the efforts of NGOs, processing methods such as
tofu (soybean curd) and soybean milk were disseminated and cultivation has
gradually increased.
Cotton has been the most important export crop supporting the regional
economies of some nations in West Africa, including Benin. However, a sudden
fall in international cotton prices in the late 1990s had a serious impact on thesenations. Since 2002, international market prices for cotton became lower thanthe production cost of cotton in West Africa; farmers began to search for― 102 ―

substitute crops. Cotton production in Benin fell suddenly in 2005 and soybean
production has increased rapidly in its place. One reason for this could be thatsoybean meal produced after processing oil, tofu or soybean milk can be sold aslivestock feed (partially exported to Europe). In addition, since soybean is a
newly introduced crop, it is not affected by many diseases or pests, which could
also explain the rapid increase in production. The nutritional value of soybean
has also attracted public attention, so that hospitals in Nigeria have begun toutilize it in treatment for malnourished children. It appears the increasing trend
in soybean production in Africa will continue.
4-2 Origin and Diversification

Fig. II-4-1

Origin and dispersal of soybean（Source：modified from Hoshikawa 1981）

1) Origin, Center of Diversity and Dispersal
The center of soybean diversity appears to be midway up the Yangtze
River in China to the Yellow River in North China. In addition to China,
soybean has been cultivated on the Korean Peninsula and Japan since ancient
times where diverse native (indigenous) varieties exist. The ancestral wild
species of soybean is a Glycine soja Sieb. and Zucc. is distributed across China
to the Korean Peninsula, the Japanese islands and far Eastern Russia. It is said
that soybean was cultivated about 5,000 years ago. It is thought that soybean
were brought from China to Japan at the beginning of the Yayoi period, and a
description of soybean can be found in the Kojiki (Records of Ancient Matters)or the Nihon Shoki (Chronicles of Japan). It is also probable that soybean was― 103 ―

cultivated since ancient times in the northern mountainous areas of Southeast
Asia to Bhutan, Nepal and the northern Pakistan. Soybean appears to havespread from China or Japan to Europe by sea in the 18th Century. It is said thatJapanese soybean were introduced to Europe in 1712, Chinese soybean wereintroduced in a botanical garden in Paris in 1739 and it was cultivatedexperimentally at the Kew botanical garden in England in 1790. The first
introduction of soybean into the US was by Samuel Bowen who introduction
them from China in 1765. Soybean are also thought to have been brought to theUnited States by Perry, Commodore of the East Indian Squadron, whorequested trade with Japan during his visit to Uraga in 1853. Since 1924,
following trials at the US Department of Agriculture, soybean began to spreadand the US is presently produces more soybean than any other. Although theTable II-4-1 Wild Species of the genus Glycine and Major Distributed Areas
SpeciesNo. ofDistribution

Chromosomes
Subgenus, Glycine
G. albicans

40

Australia

G. arenaria

40

Australia

G. argyrea

40

Australia

G. canescens

40

Australia

G. clandestina

40

Australia

G. curvata

40

Australia

G. cytoloba

40

Australia

G. falcate

40

Australia

G. hirticaulis

40, 80Australia

G. lactovirens

40

Australia

G. latifolia

40

Australia

G. latrobeana

40

Australia

G. microphylla

40Australia

G. pindanica

40

G. tabacina

40, 80Australia, Midwest and South Pacific Islands, Taiwan and Japan

G. tomentella38, 40, 78, 80

Australia, Papua New Guinea, Indonesia, the Philippines，Taiwan

Australia

Subgenus, Soja
G. max40

CultigenG. soja

40

Russia, China, Korea, Japan

G. gracilis

40

China

G. formosana

40

Taiwan(Source: Science on Edible Pulses, 2003)― 104 ―

route to South America is unclear, they appear to have been brought there from
Europe in the 19th Century. In recent years, cultivation has increased rapidly in
Brazil and Argentina and it appears production will continue to grow.
2) Introduction to Africa
Soybean was first introduced in West Africa around 1900 by colonial
governments and Christian organizations. Soybean was promoted as a miracle
crop in West Africa. From a dietician’s point of view, soybean is cheaper andhigher in protein than other foods. Many regions in Africa have a suitableclimate for cultivating soybean and there are few soybean-related diseases andpests in Africa. Moreover, the capability to restore symbiotic nitrogen throughthe root nodules of soybean makes it possible to cultivate soybean underconditions where there are insufficient nutrients in the soil. Despite these many
advantages, soybean did not spread quickly at the beginning.
The full-scale spread of soybean in West Africa began in 1987 when theInternational Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) began dissemination
activities with the financial assistance of the International Development Center(IDC). These activities were concentrated mainly in Nigeria. And in the recent
years, soybean production in Africa has been increasing rapidly.
Glycine plants, which are wild relatives of soybean, are classified into thesubgenus Glycine and subgenus Soja. Subgenus Glycine plants are perennial
herbs distributed mainly in the tropical zone of Australia and are distantly
related to cultivated soybean, so they cannot be directly hybridized. Subgenus
Soja plants are annual herbs distributed in Asia. Soybean had been
domesticated from G. soja (Japanese name: tusru-mame). G. gracilis is a
species described from northeastern China, its form is considered to fall
somewhere between cultivated soybean and wild soybean, so it is called weed
soybean. There is some discussion on the taxonomical handling of this G.
gracilis and it is not treated as an independent species in some cases. G.
formosana (hosoba-tsuru-mame in Japanese) was discovered in very few areas,such as northern Taiwan. It has a smaller seed than wild soybean (G. soja) andits small leaves are narrow and long.
The ancestral wild species of soybean, tusru-mame (G. soja) is distributed
from southern to northeast China, the entire eastern region of China, the Korean
Peninsula, and even the Ussuri River basin in far eastern of Russia. Although it
is widely distributed from southern Hokkaido to Kyushu in Japan, it cannot beseen in the Okinawa islands. Since it is relatively easy to hybridized
tusru-mame (G. soja) with cultivated soybean, it is expected to become agenetic source for the improvement of soybean varieties. China has placedmuch emphasis on the use of wild soybean for breeding. For example, China
collected tusru-mame (G. soja) from many areas and enthusiastically conducted― 105 ―

a characterization and evaluation. As the result, a lot of useful genetic
information was discovered. For example, some accessions of wild soybean in
China have developed its unique organ called a salt gland which enables theseaccessions to be highly salt tolerant. One wild accession is extremely resistant
to aphids. Some show a stable cytoplasmic male sterility, and can be used for
creating F1 soybean, and a fertility restoring line. In the United States, a gene
resistant to cyst nematodes parasites on soybean roots was discovered fromwild soybean and introduced to cultivated soybean.
Russian Federation

China

Rep.
Korea

Japan

Republic of China

Photo II-4-2 Wild soybean
Glycine soja growing in Japan

Fig. II-4-2 Distribution of G. soja
Collections in Taiwan, China are forG. formosana

Wild soybean is usually found close to human dwellings in places where
the ecology has been disturbed such as riverbanks, paddy fields or grassy areas
along the side of upland fields, or waste land.
4-3 World Soybean Production
The global production volume of soybean has increased rapidly over the
past 10 years and in 2004 it exceeded 200 million tons. The production volume
in Asia remains relatively stable at 25 million tons.
The United States is the world’s largest producer of soybean. Productionin Brazil and Argentina has also increased remarkably over the past 10 years. In
Brazil, the Amazon forests have been cut down due to the expanding soybean
fields, and the problem of environmental destruction has attracted much publicattention.

― 106 ―

Production （x 10000 ｔ）

25,00020,000Africa15,000Asia

10,000Europe
World

5,000

05

04

20

03

20

02

20

01

20

00

20

99

20

98

19

97

19

19

19

96

0

Fig. II-4-3 World production of soybean（source：FAO statistics）

1) Soybean Production in Africa
In the ten-year period between 1996 and 2005, the production volume ofsoybean in Africa increased from 750,000 tons to 1.25 million tons, an increaseof 166%.

Production（x 10000ｔ）

350
300
250
200

AfricaEurope150100
50Fig. II-4-4

20
05

20
04

20
03

20
02

20
01

20
00

19
99

19
98

19
97

19
96

0

Soybean production in Africa and Europe.
（source：FAO statistics）― 107 ―

Production (x 10000 t)

9,000
8,000
7,000
6,000
5,000
4,000
3,000
2,000
1,000
0

USA
Argentina
BrazilChina
India

96 97 98 99 00 01 02 03 04 05
19 19 19 19 20 20 20 20 20 20

Fig. II-4-5

Soybean production in major producing countries（source：FAO statistics）

Although the soybean production volume in Africa is less than 1% of theworld total, Nigeria has the largest production among African nations, and thishas increased rapidly.
Production（x 10000 ｔ）

60
50
Nigeria40

S, Africa

30

Uganda20

Zimbabwe

10

Egypt

0
96 97 98 99 00 01 02 03 04 05
19 19 19 19 20 20 20 20 20 20

Fig. II-4-6

Soybean production in Africa(source：FAO statistics)― 108 ―

2) Soybean Production in West Africa and Benin

Production（x 10000ｔ）

10,000
9,000
8,000
7,000
6,000
5,000
4,000
3,000
2,000
1,000
0

Benin

96 97 98 99 00 01 02 03 04 05
19 19 19 19 20 20 20 20 20 20

Fig. II-4-7

Soybean production in Benin, West Africa(source：FAO statistics)

Soybean production in Benin began to grow rapidly in the late 1990s at
about the same time as the cotton crisis, mentioned later. And it appears thistrend will continue for some time.
3) Soybean Yield
Yield（ｔ/ha）

3.5
3.0
USA

2.5

Brazil

2.0

China

1.5

Japan

1.0

Nigeria

0.5

Benin
Indonesia

0.0
96 97 98 99 00 01 02 03 04 05
19 19 19 19 20 20 20 20 20 20

Fig. II-4-8

Soybean yield in major producing countries(source：FAO statistics)― 109 ―

The soybean yield in Africa is less than 1t/ha, which is much lower than
the world average (approximately 2.2t/ha). The main reason for this could bethat improved varieties have not been utilized effectively and fertilizers havenot been applied due to the small-scale of cultivation.
4) Soybean Producing Regions in West Africa and Benin
Yield（ｔ/ha）
2.5

2
①
②
③
④
⑤
⑥

1.5

1

0.5

0
9
19

Fig. II-4-9

7

9
19

8

9
19

9

0
20

0

0
20

1

02
20

03
20

04
20

05
20

Soybean production in each region of Benin(source：Statistics of Benin)

In the late 1990s, cultivation expanded rapidly in ③ Zou-Collines, wherefarm households began to cultivate soybean as a substitute for cotton. At the
beginning of the 2000s, two northern regions, ② Borgou-Alibori and ①
Atacora-Donga began to rapidly boost their production.
5) Soybean Yield in West Africa and Benin
Production（ｔ）
5000
4500
4000
3500
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0

①
②
③
④
⑤
⑥

19

97

98
19

99
19

00
20

01
20

02
20

03
20

04
20

05
20

Fig. II-4-10 Soybean yield in each region of Benin(source：Statistics of Benin)― 110 ―

6) Relationship between the Increase in Soybean Production in West Africa andthe Cotton Crisis
As a backdrop for the recent rapid increase in soybean production volume
in Benin, the recent change in cotton cultivation in this region should be
mentioned. Known as the cotton crisis in West Africa, the phenomenon was amajor social concern. In many countries in West Africa, cotton plays a majorrole in the economy. In the 2001 statistics, Burkina Faso was the largest
exporter of cotton accounted in West Africa, at nearly 50% of the national
export, followed by Chad at 36%, and Benin at approximately 33%.
With the opportunity of economic liberalization in the 1980s, cotton
production and exportation in West Africa increased rapidly. In the 2004
statistics, cotton from West Africa reached 13% of the global international
market, making it second to the United States.
Since the late 1990s, due to an increase in the use of synthetic fibers andthe policies of agricultural subsidiaries in some nations, international cotton
prices fell suddenly. Particularly in 2002, the international cotton price perpound fell to 35 cents. This price is lower than the production cost in West
Africa. As shown in the following figure (Fig. II-4-11), the international prices
for cotton put downward pressure on production prices, and as a result thecotton production volume in Benin dropped rapidly in 2005. Faced with thisproblem, cotton farmers began to replace cotton with soybean, which was one
cause for the rapid increase in soybean production. Soybean meal produced
after edible oil is extracted from soybean seeds can be exported to Europe. Thisis also considered to be one reason for the increasing interest in soybean.
Production（ｔ）
45000040000035000030000025000020000015000010000050000
097 998 999 000 001 002 003 004 005
2
2
2
2
1
1
2
19
2

Fig. II-4-11 Cotton production in Benin(source：Statistics of Benin)― 111 ―

Benin

4-4 Cropping System, Cultivation Method and Its Utilization
1) Soybean Cropping System and Cultivation Method in West Africa
In the Sub-Sahara region in West Africa, soybean is usually cultivated on
small-scale farms without the use of pesticides or fertilizers or throughmonoculture or mixed cropping with sorghum, corn or cassava, etc. The
planting, weeding and harvesting are done by hand. Soybean in West Africa isharvested 100 to 150 days after planting. After harvesting, threshing is alsodone by hand in most of cases. According to recent research conducted by IITA,
it was found that mixed cropping in a ratio of two rows of cereals and four rowsof soybean has better yielding ability than mixed cropping in a ratio of one rowof cereals and one row of soybean.
2) Utilization of Soybean from a Global Point of View
Approximately 75% of the soybean consumption in the world is forprocessing, and the consumption for eating is small. The breakdown for
consumption for processing is mainly soybean oil and soybean meal after
extracting oil and most of soybean meal is used as ingredients for livestock
feed. The global consumption of soybean oil and meal has been increasing,
especially in China and India where consumption has grown in tandem with theincrease in population.
In the United States and Europe, soybean seeds are used only for edible oiland soybean meal which is fed to livestock; whereas, in Asia, the place oforigin, soybean is used in various forms as human food. For example, they areroasted, boiled, fermented (natto), made into tofu, soybean milk, miso (soybean
paste), green soybean and soybean sprouts. In addition, depending on the use,
various varieties have been bred, e.g., small grain varieties for fermented
soybean and soybean sprouts, high protein with white seed coat varieties fortofu or soybean milk, smooth and large seeded varieties for green vegetablesoybean, and extremely large-sized black grain varieties for New year dishes.
In recent years, the healthy qualities of isoflavone or saponin haveattracted public attention. Various foods that use soybean protein are also soldin markets.
3) Utilization of Soybean in West Africa
Soybean was first cultivated in West Africa in the mid 1980s mainly forthe purpose of nutritional improvement (Photo II-4-3: A). As can be seen in thisphoto, various processed foods are made from soybean for the purpose of
improving infant nutrition. In Benin the University of Abome-Carabi promotes
the development and diffusion of soybean-processed products. Professor
Hounhouigan (left) and Professor Adjahossou (right) (Photo A) play a key role.
Soybean was not disseminated well initially. A traditional fermented food madeof the seeds of an indigenous leguminous tree, which is called Nélé (Parkia― 112 ―

A

B

C

D

E

F
Photo II-4-3 Methods of using Soybean in Benin

A: Soybean processed products for nutritional improvement; B: Afitin, miso-like fermented seasoning made from pulse trees;
C: Tofu; D: Cheese; E: Soybean oil; F: Soybean oil extraction site; Centre Sonqhai, NGO― 113 ―

biglobosa), (Photo II-4-3: B, hard miso-like seasoning: it is called Afitin in
Benin) are popular throughout West Africa, and soybean began to be accepted
as a substitute for this. Since then, thanks to the efforts of NGOs, processing
methods such as tofu (soybean curd: Photo II-4-3: C) or soybean milk havespread and cultivation has gradually increased. Soybean curd making appears
to have spread to villages in northern Benin at the present time, and we could
observe the case that it was supplementing the income of women in ruralcommunities. In Ina village in N’dali department, we visited many farmhouseholds where soybean curd was being made (Refer to the materials
attached at the end of the document for details on soybean curd preparation). As
seen in the photo, tofu (soybean curd) is usually dyed red using red sorghum
stems. Cheese (Photo II-4-3: D), which was introduced before tofu, wasintroduced during the French colonial period and is also dyed red in the sameway, so this custom appears to have been copied. The red color of anthocyan
was considered to have an antibacterial action. Since cheese was introduced
earlier than tofu, this helped the spread of tofu. Tofu is called fromage de soja
(which means cheese made from soybean). It takes almost one day to make tofu,
and the expected income is estimated to be 500FrCFA (approximately ¥ 125).
At the Centre Songhaï, NGO, edible oil is squeezed from soybean (Photos
II-4-3: E and F) and soybean meal is used for livestock feed. Since the soybean
meal of tofu is dried to produce feed even in villages in the north where tofu ismade, nomads often visit to purchase it.
4-5 Breeding and Production Restraints Factors
1) Breeding(1) Goal of IITA soybean breeding
The IITA (International Institute of Tropical Agriculture) in Nigeria, aninternational research institution, has bred soybean since the 1970s. The aim of
the soybean breeding program presently conducted by IITA in West Africa is tobreed soybean varieties that are resistant to soil lacking in phosphoric acid,soybean varieties that can kill parasitic weeds, Striga hermonthica, which
damages cereals crops such as corn, and varieties that can produce symbiotically
fixed nitrogen without inoculating root nodule bacteria. In addition, IITA alsoemphasizes the breeding of multi-purpose varieties that produce a high seedyield and high biomass yield for soil improvement or animal feed.
(2) Measures for Disseminating Soybean Taken by IITAIITA not only breeds varieties but also develops various processing
machinery such as mills or threshers that are easily adaptable to the Sub-Sahara
region and suitable for small-scale processing, and develop diversified
processed foods. IITA lists the following advantages in relation to the― 114 ―

dissemination of soybean in West Africa.
(3) Soybean Protein
Soybean seeds contain approximately 40% protein, which is the highest of
all the food crops, and approximately 20% oil, which is the 2nd highest next topeanuts. Compared to other protein foods such as meat, fish and eggs, soybean
is much cheaper. Soybean also has a better amino acid composition than otherhigh-protein plants. Although the amount of soybean protein used for humanconsumption is relatively small at the present time, since soybean began toattract international attention, a huge potential demand as a future protein
source is anticipated.
(4) Soybean Oil
Soybean oil is extremely easy to digest and does not contain cholesterol.
In addition, after extracting the oil, soybean meal can be utilized as
high-protein livestock feed.
(5) Improvement in Soil Fertility
Soybean restores nitrogen so that soil fertility can be improved. This isimportant for African agriculture.
2) Factors for Restraint
Soybean was only recently introduced to Africa and cultivation areas arestill few, so they are still quite resistant to disease and pests.
(1) Disease Damage
Major diseases in Africa include frogeye leaf spot, bacterial pustule,bacterial blight and soybean mosaic virus, and in recent years, leaf blotch andsoybean rust have been reported. The characteristics of the soybean rustdiseases and spread in outbreak areas are shown below.

Photo II-4-4 Soybean rust (Phakopsora pachyrhizi)（source：Kentucky University www.uky.edu/Ag/CAPS/calendar06/jun06pom.htm）― 115 ―

(2) Nematode
Damage by nematodes has also been reported. Roots damaged bynematodes are susceptible to blight intrusion thus inviting more serious
damage.

Fig. II-4-12

Distribution of soybean rust (Phakopsora pachyrhizi) in Africa（source：Penn State University www.ceal.psu.edu/afmap.htm）(3) Insect Damage
Pests that do the most serious damage to soybean in the tropical zones are
Pentatomorpha (stinkbugs) damage on pods. Bean flies also do serious damage.
However, there appears to be little damage from the pests in Benin probably
because soybean cultivation is new to the area.
4-6 Future Perspectives
Since soybean was always seen sold in the markets of Benin, theutilization of soybean for food appears to be considerable. In addition, tofu
making has spread to rural communities. On the international markets, thesoybean distribution volume continues to increase. If exporting soybean meal
to Europe continues, soybean production in West Africa will continue toincrease.
It was above our expectation that tofu has spread to rural communities inWest Africa. Cheese, a similar food which has already spread, appears to be a

― 116 ―

major reason for this. Diversified processed foods utilizing soybean aredeveloped in Japan. In addition, there are many researchers involved insoybean breeding and cultivation. Moreover, since 2007, the National Instituteof Agrobiological Sciences (NIAS) has started conducting a soybean genome
project. Taking these matters into consideration, there will be many
opportunities for Japan to take in active role in soybean–related research anddevelopment through technical assistance.
Citations and Bibliography
1)
2)

3)
4)

5)

6)

Bromfield E.S.P. and Ayanaba A. 1980. The efficacy of soybean inoculation on acid soilin tropical Africa. Plant and Soil 54: 95-106.
Jones K. M. 2005. Technology adoption in West Africa: Adoption and Disadoption of
Soybean on the Togo-Benin border. A thesis submitted to the Graduate Faculty of North
Carolina State University.
Kaizuma N., K. Kitamura and S. Sakai (compilation) 2003, The Science of Edible
Pulses, Yokendo Co., Ltd.
Nakagawa M., Research on the Recent Trend in Global Soybean Demand, Tottori
University, Department of Agricultural Management and Information Science, information
disclosed on the Web http://muses.muses.tottori-u.ac.jp/dept/E/paper/master/nakagawa.pdf
Shao-hui H., Physiological and Ecological Characteristics of Soybean in WarmClimates ―For Expansion in Future Cultivation
http://133.5.207.201/Textbook/keika/New-S/s3.3.pdf
Hoshikawa K. 1981. New Edition Food Crops, Yokendo Co., Ltd.

― 117 ―

5. Other Pulses
5-1 Pigeon Pea [Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp]
English: Pigeon pea; Benin (French): Pois d’angole

Photo II-5-1aPigeon pea（source：upper left from USDA site，
others taken by the author）

Overview
Pigeon pea is cultivated extensively in tropical zones in South Asia,
Southeast Asia, Africa and the Americas. They are produced approximately in
50 nations worldwide. India is the top producing country and the cultivation
area is about 3.8 million ha, accounting for 85 to 90% of the world cultivation
area (2003). In addition to India, Myanmar, China and Nepal produce large
quantities in Asia. Production in Africa is 420,000 ha (2003) and the East
African countries of Kenya, Uganda, Malawi, Tanzania and Mozambique are
the exporting nations. Pigeon pea production in Africa is 260,000t and it has
increased 96% since 1972. In the future, it appears the production of pigeon
peas in Africa will increase further. The Dominican Republic in the Caribbean
is also a major producer.
The pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan) is a perennial plant. The genus Cajanus
contains 32 species, and there are two cultivated varieties of Cajanus cajan (L.)
Millsp. Cajanus cajan var. flavus is early maturing and small in size, each pod
having three seeds and a yellow seed coat. Cajanus cajan var. bicor is early― 118 ―

maturing and larger in size and each pod has 4 to 7 seeds and is dark red incolor or spotted. The center of diversity of pigeon pea is India where Cajanus isthought to have evolved from the genus Atylosia that grows naturally insouthern India. Pigeon pea was spread to Africa by about 2,200 B.C. East
Africa is a secondary center of diversity. Pigeon pea is resistant to drought andthey can grow well even in low-phosphoric acidic soil in the tropical zones.
This is because pigeon pea can specifically absorb phosphorus from phosphoricacid connected to iron through an organic acid secretion from the root. The
pigeon pea is an important crop in India where it is intercropped with othercrops such as corn, sorghum or millet. Pigeon pea is high in protein, and thedried seeds are used in India as dal. In addition, the young pods are eaten as avegetable and the soft young leaves can be utilized as a green vegetable. The
foliage of pigeon pea is utilized for animal feed or green manure, and is also
used for shading vanilla or as a windbreak for other crops. In Bengal innorthern India and Thailand, pigeon pea is also utilized as a host for Laccifer
lacca (scale insect) which secretes the natural resin lacca. In Africa, sevenvarieties with special qualities such as resistance to damping off disease or
early maturity have been developed by the International Crops ResearchInstitute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) and have become major varieties.
ICRISAT succeeded in its development of cytoplasmic male sterile lines using
mutation breeding in 1991. Through this, hybrid pigeon peas using cytoplasmic
nuclear male-sterility (CMS) systems have been established and thistechnology is being disseminated to public and private institutions.
The cultivation areas or production volumes is unclear in Benin, thecultivation of pigeon pea can be seen from the central to the north where dry
condition prevails. By conducting experiments on mixed cropping of groundnut
and pigeon pea at farm households, ICRISAT has suggested that mixed
cropping could provide additional income. Although pigeon pea has beencultivated through monoculture at farms in Benin, a mixed cropping systemwith other crops should also be examined.

Photo II-5-1b Pigeon pea cultivated in central Benin― 119 ―

Citations and Bibliography
1)

2)

L.J.G. van der Maesen 1995. Pigeon pea Cajanus cajan (Leguminosae-Papilionoideae)
In Smartt & Simmonds (eds.) Evolution of Crop Plants (Second Edition). Longman
Scientific & Technical. pp. 251-254.
Hoshikawa K. 1981, New Edition Food Crops Chapter 31 Other Pulses Yokendo Co.,
Ltd. (in Japanese)

5-2 Common Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.)
English: Common bean, Kidney bean; Benin (French): Haricot

Photo II-5-2 Common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris)
source：NIAS Genebank・Illustrated legume genetic resources database
http://www.gene.affrc.go.jp/plant/image/legume.html

Overview
The common bean originated in the Americans. Current opinion is that asmall-grain variety group from the Mexico area and a large-grain variety groupfrom the Andes in South America were domesticated independently. Kidneybeans were brought to Europe by the Spanish in the 16th Century and wereintroduced to West Africa via Europe (Hoshikawa, 1981). Its heat tolerance is
low especially during the flowering period, so it is cultivated at high altitudes
and in cooler locations in the tropical zones. Although information on
cultivated areas and cultivation in Benin could not been collected, whiteround-grain type kidney bean seeds were being sold in both central Bohiconand southern Cotonou. At the Bohicon market, a metallic bowl (called tongoro)of cowpea approximately 800 to 900g) was sold for 175 to 275FrCFA (¥1 ＝― 120 ―

about 4 FrCFA); whereas, white-seeded common bean was sold at nearly
double the price (400 FrCFA). At the Cotonou market, one tongoro of cowpea
was 250 to 400FrCFA; whereas, white common bean was more expensive at
600FrCFA. The Tropical Agriculture Research Front (formerly Okinawa
Branch) of the Japan International Research Center for Agricultural Sciences(JIRCAS) has bred a highly heat resistant common bean called “Haibushi”,
which has potential as a useful genetic resource in tropical Africa (Nakano et al.,1997). In addition, as kidney beans are totally resistant to the azuki bean beetle,
Callosobruchus chinensis (L.), there appears to have a significant merit tocultivating them in West Africa. Although the sale of common bean seeds could
be observed in Benin markets, the sale of young pods was not seen. At thepresent time, there appears to be no custom of using the young pods ofleguminous crops as vegetables in Benin. From a nutritional point of view, useof the young pods of leguminous crops as vegetables should therefore bepromoted.

Fig. II-5-1

Traditional area of common bean cultivation and distribution of wild form
(●).
(S

D b

k

dS

1995 )

Citations and Bibliography
1)

Debouck D.G. and J. Smartt 1995. Beans Phaseolus spp. (Leguminosae Papilionoideae) In Smartt & Simmonds (eds.) Evolution of Crop Plants (Second
Edition). Longman Scientific & Technical. pp. 287-294.

― 121 ―

2) Hoshikawa, K. 1981. New Edition Food Crops, Chapter 23 Kidney Beans, Yokendo Co.,
Ltd. (in Japanese)3) Nakano, H., Momonoki, T., Miyashige, T., Otsuka, H., Hanada, T., Sugimoto, A.,
Nakagawa, H., Matsuoka, M, Terauchi, T., Kobayashi, M., Oshiro, M., Yasuda, K.,
Vanichwattanarumruk, N., Chotechuen, S. and Boonmalison, D. 1997. “Haibushi”, a
new variety of snap bean tolerant to heat stress. JIRCAS J., 5: 1-12.

5-3 Lima Bean (Phaseolus lunatus L.)
English: Lima bean, Butter bean, Madagascar bean;
Benin: Akpakou (based on a interview at the north of Bohicon, central Benin)

Photo II-5-3a

Lima bean (Phaseolus lunatus)

Source：NIAS Genebank・Illustrated legume genetic resources database.
http://www.gene.affrc.go.jp/plant/image/legume_j.html

Overview
The lima bean originated in the Americas. In a similar manner to common
bean, many data point to dual origin in Mesoamerica and Andes of SouthAmerica. A group of small-grain varieties called Sieva were domesticated inCentral America (near Guatemala) from a tropical small-grain wild species anda group of large-grain varieties called Big Lima were domesticated in theAndes from a large-grain wild species (Fig. II-5-2).
Lima bean is believed to have spread to West Africa from Brazil via
returning slave vessels in the 16th Century (Hoshikawa, 1981). The mature
seeds contain cyanide or hydrocyanic acid glycoside that has unique smell, andcan be poisonous. If lima beans are soaked in water for twenty-four hours,
boiled well and water is replaced several times, the poison can be removed. A
higher amount of hydrocyanic acid (cyanide) is contained in varieties withcolored seed coats, and it is said that in general white seed varieties do notcontain hydrocyanic acid. In addition to boiled fully-matured beans, boiled
young pods is said to be the tastiest of the pulses, and so it is called sugar bean.
In the United States, canned immature beans or frozen or processed pulses are― 122 ―

important products.
Although lima bean varieties could not be seen sold in the markets ofBenin, at one farm household that sold cassava powder (gari) on the roadside alittle north of Bohicon town in central Benin, dozens of pigeon pea and several
lima bean plants were cultivated (Photo II-5-3b). According to the woman of
this farm household, she purchased lima bean seed at the market. The variety is
characterized by small-sized grains and with black spots on a flat white base.
As lima bean is also cultivated in tropical areas in Southeast Asia and it is often
growing naturally escaped from cultivation, they appear to be superior in heat
tolerance than common bean. They are also considered to be quite resistant todiseases and pests.

Fig. II-5-2

Traditional cultivation area (shade) and distribution of wild lima bean (●)（source：Debouck and Smartt 1995）

Photo II-5-3b

A lima bean plants cultivated at north of Bohicon, central Benin― 123 ―

Citations and Bibliography
1)2)

Debouck D.G. and J. Smartt 1995. Beans Phaseolus spp. (Leguminosae-Papilionoideae)
In Smartt & Simmonds (eds.) Evolution of Crop Plants (Second Edition). Longman
Scientific & Technical. pp. 287-294.
Hoshikawa, K. 1981. New Edition Food Crops, Chapter 24 Lima Bean, Yokendo Co.,
Ltd. (in Japanese)― 124 ―

Chapter III

Possibility (Future) of Introducing New Pulse
Crops in West Africa

1. Mungbean (Vigna radiata (L.) Wilczek)
English: Mungbean, green gram

Photo III-1 Mungbean (Vigna radiata)
source：NIAS Genebank・Illustrated legume genetic resources database
http://www.gene.affrc.go.jp/plant/image/legume.html

Overview
Mungbeans have the shortest harvesting period (between 60 and 90 days)
among leguminous crops, so they are characterized by their easily
incorporation into various cropping systems, and production has been
increasing in recent years, mainly in India. The cultivation period is short andeasily incorporated into diversified cropping systems, which is the largest merit
supporting their introduction to West Africa.
However, they are susceptible to pests and diseases, especially the bean
weevil, which has also become a problem for cowpea cultivation in West Africa.
Resistance to drought also appears to be lower than that of cowpea. Therefore,
mungbean should be cultivated during the cropping period and region that is
not subject to severe drought conditions.
Although it is possible to use mungbean in a manner similar to cowpea,
mungbean has a smaller seed size so the market price may be lower. In areas― 125 ―

where mungbean is presently cultivated, mungbeans is eaten as a bean soup(dal) on the Indian subcontinent, mixed with rice, made into a thick bean-mealsoup and bean jam in Southeast Asia. In addition, they are used for bean sprouts
or used as an ingredient for noodles (vermicelli). Although bean sprouts orvermicelli noodles have not been introduced into West Africa except among the
Asian community, one idea is to spread this type of utilziation method of
mungbean in cooperation with local NGOs. Since the demand for bean sprouts
as a healthy food source has increased in the U.S., it will be possible to increase
the demand globally in the future. The relationship between Africa and China
has been gradually strengthened, Chinese restaurants are becoming morecommon mainly in urban areas. In Chinese cuisine, bean sprouts and vermicelli
gelatine noodles are indespensable ingredients, so they may gradually become
more common among local people.

Fig. III-1-1

Distribution of wild mungbean（V. radiata var. sublobata）（source：modified from Tomooka et al., 2002）

Fig. III-1-2

Origin (A) and dissemination of cultivated mungbean（source：Tomooka et al., 2005）― 126 ―

The World Vegetable Center (AVRDC), which is the leading international
institution for vegetable research and development, whose head office is in
China (Taiwan) takes initiatives in breeding mungbean, and is actively involvedin breeding activities in India and Thailand.
Based on the protein types, growth characteristics and its geographicaldistribution of mungbean, the center of diversity is considered to be in India(Figure III-1-2: Zone A), and is regarded as the origin of mungbean.
Mungbeans in Afghanistan, Iran and Iraq (Zone B) represent a secondary centerof diversity. Mungbeans in Southeast Asia (Zone C) appear to have been
affected by intensive selection by farmers due to the environment andpreference, so there are many bright green-colored, late-maturing varieties
prevailed in this zone C. Because of the strong selection pressure in zone C,
protein type constitution became quite simple. There are many dull-green
colored, medium-grain seeds and early-mature varieties in East Asia (zone D).
Mungbean appear to have spread from India to throughout Asian sinceancient times. One route was from India to Southeast Asia and varieties consistof mainly protein type 1 have disseminated. The other route to the East is
considered the Silk Road. Protein type 7 or 8 lines are thought to have been
disseminated through this route from India or West Asia to China, then to
Taiwan (Tomooka et al., 2005).
The mungbean is locally called yaenari, fundou, bundou, ao-mame or
ao-mami in Japanese. Until recently, mungbean was cultivated widely insouthwest Japan. In the 1950s the cultivation area was approximately 200 to
220ha and approximately 210t of mungbean was produced (Hoshikawa, 1981).
Nowadays however, the cultivation of mungbean has almost completely
disappeared in Japan. We were able to collect some lines of native mungbean
varieties that remained, on the South-West Islands (Katsuta and Takeya, 1992,
Tomooka, et al., 1994). In this region, mungbean was used for making bean
sprouts or was eaten mixed with rice. On Tanegashima Island, slender bean
sprouts were an important offering during the Bon Festival (Tomooka, et al.,1994).
Citations and Bibliography1) Hoshikawa, K. 1981, Mungbeans “New Edition Food Crops”, pp.470-475. Yokendo Co.,Ltd.
2) Katsuta M. and M. Takeya, 1992, Exploration and collection of grain legumes andmilltes in Okinawa prefecture. Annual Report on Exploration and Introduction of Plant
Genetic Resources. Vol.8: 1-83.
3) Tomooka, N., D.A. Vaughan & A. Kaga 2005. Mungbean [Vigna radiata (L.) Wilczek].
In (R.J. Singh & P.P. Jauhar eds.) Genetic resources, chromosome engineering, and crop

― 127 ―

4)
5)

improvement. Vol. 1. Grain Legumes. Chapter 10, 325-345. CRC Press.
Tomooka N., D.A. Vaughan, N. Maxted and H. Moss. 2002. The Asian Vigna. Genus
Vigna subgenus Ceratotropis genetic resources. 270 pages. Kluwer Academic Press.
Tomooka, N. H. Nakayama, K. Yamada and A. Sugimoto, 1994. Exploration forcollecting landraces of cultivated crops in Tanegashima and Yakushima islands,
Kagoshima prefecture. Search for Native Species on Tanegashima and YakushimaIslands. Annual Report on Exploration and Introduction of Plant Genetic Resources.,
Vol.10：15-24.

― 128 ―

2. Yard-long Beans Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walpers
Sesquipedalis E.Westphal Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp)

cv-gr.

English: Yard-long bean

Productionof yard-long beans
タイの民間会社によるジュウロ
bythe private company of the
クササゲの生産．ヨーロッパへ
Thailand.
These are exported to
空輸される．
Europe.

Photo III-2-1

Yard-long Beans

Overview
Another name for the yard-long bean is “Naga-sasage (long cowpea)”.
The young pods are raw, which differentiates it in Southeast from the cowpea
which originated in and spread from Africa. Southeast Asia is the center of thediversification of yard-long beans. The leavers of yard-long beans are slightly
glossy and the followers are purple or white. The yard-long bean flower islarger than that of the cowpea. Its seed is slightly curved and more slender thanthe cowpea. Its length is 8 to 12mm. Seed colors are diversified and range fromblack, brown, brown-spotted on a white base and black-spotted on a white base.
Many varieties have creeping stems and long hanging pods that grow 30 to
90cm. The yard-long bean is resistant to drought and is easily cultivated in any
soil or land type. In a similar manner as cowpeas, it is weak against disease andpests. Young pods of yard-long beans are utilized as vegetables due to their soft,
juicy quality and can be eaten raw. In Southeast Asia, it is a popular vegetable
and can be seen everywhere in the markets. In Thailand, private vegetableproduction companies export yard-long beans to Europe. In the markets in
Benin, there is a shortage of vegetables, so only the young pods of kidney― 129 ―

beans could be seen. In the future, to promote the expansion of vegetableconsumption, the introduction of easily-cultivated yard-long beans appears to
be worthy of examination.
Citations and Bibliography
Mitsuru Hotta (editing representative), 1981. Useful Plants of the World, p.1092 Heibonsha
Limited, Publishing― 130 ―

3. Black Gram [Vigna mungo (L.) Hepper]
English: Black gram, black matpe, urd

Photo III-3 Black gram (Vigna mungo)
source：NIAS Genebank・Illustrated legume genetic resources database
http://www.gene.affrc.go.jp/plant/image/legume.html

Overview
Black gram is closely related to the mungbean, and is thought to haveoriginated in India. The largest merit of introduction of black gram into West
Africa is its resistance to bean weevils. Although evaluation with African bean
weevils has yet not been conducted, it was entirely resistant to azuki bean
weevils (Callosobruchus chinensis) in Japan and Thailand and had the effect ofdelaying the growth of cowpea weevil (C. maculatus), whose larva took twice
as long duration to become adults compared with cowpea (Tomooka, et al.
2000). In addition, black gram generally tends to be resistant to diseases andpests in comparison with mungbean. Although the growth period for black
gram is slightly longer than that of early-maturing varieties of mungbean, it isstill possible to harvest black gram in 80 to 90 days, which is the same ascowpea. Drought resistance has not yet been evaluated and it is necessary to
study.
Black gram is used mainly in South Asia and is often eaten as bean soup(dal). They are imported exclusively from Thailand for bean sprout productionin Japan. According to Japanese bean sprouts producing companies, black gram― 131 ―

sprouts are slightly harder than mungbean sprouts, and have an advantage ofbeing more resistant to spoilage during transportation. It is possible to introduce
black gram into West Africa and use in a similar way to cowpea. Comparedwith mungbean, black gram has the nutritional advantage of being higher
methionine content, an essential amino acid. However, considering the smaller
grain size compared with cowpea, it may give a lower price than large-graincowpea in the markets in Benin. Although white cowpea seeds or Bambara
groundnut seeds were traded at a better price in Benin, there are no white
seeded varieties of black gram available. One possibility is to try to develop amarket for bean sprouts in West Africa.
Although there are no international institutions conducting research on
black gram, the The Asian Vegetable Research and Development Center(AVRDC), presently the World Vegetable Center, has its genetic resources. In
addition, the Gene Bank at the National Institute of Agrobiological Sciences(NIAS) has abundant black gram genetic resources.

Fig. III-3-1

Distribution of wild black gram（Vigna mungo var. silvestris）（source：Tomooka et al., 2002）

Although the distribution of wild black gram is almost entirely limited to
India, its distribution has been confirmed in Myanmar and northern Thailand inrecent years. Unlike mungbean traditional areas of cultivation of black gram arelimited to South Asia.
Citations and Bibliography
1)

Tomooka, N., K. Kashiwaba, D.A. Vaughan, M. Ishimoto and Y. Egawa. 2000. The― 132 ―

2)effectiveness of evaluating wild species: searching for sources of resistance to bruchid
beetles in the genus Vigna subgenus Ceratotropis. Euphytica 115:27-41.
Tomooka N., D.A. Vaughan, N. Maxted and H. Moss. 2002. The Asian Vigna. Genus
Vigna subgenus Ceratotropis genetic resources. 270 pages. Kluwer Academic Press.

― 133 ―

4. Rice Bean [Vigna umbellata (Thunb.) Ohwi & Ohashi]
English: Rice bean

Photo III-4-1

Rice bean (Vigna umbellata)

source：NIAS Genebank・Illustrated legume genetic resources database
http://www.gene.affrc.go.jp/plant/image/legume.html

Overview
The rice bean is closely related to the azuki bean (Vigna angularis). This is
the most important pulse crop in slash-and-burn fields throughout themountainous regions of Southeast Asia. Rice beans appear to have beencultivated mainly in slash-and-burn fields until the 1950s, even in Japan (Noda,
1951). Although the cultivation of rice beans is rare in Japan at the present time,some are imported from Thailand and China and used as a substitute for azuki
bean in making bean jam (paste) (Tomooka, 2005).
The merit for introducing rice bean to West Africa is that it is completely
resistant to bean weevils (Tomooka et al., 2000, Kashiwaba et al., 2003, Somta
et al., 2006). It shows almost complete resistance to azuki bean weevils(Callosobruchus chinensis) and cowpea weevils (C. maculates) which is a mostserious problem in cowpea cultivation in West Africa. The level of damage
from bean weevils is reported to differ depending on the variety, so resistanceagainst bean weevils in West Africa should be tested. Rice bean has
considerable resistance against other diseases and pests and their yield is alsohigh. Rice bean is a creeping or climbing plant, and are usually mixed cropped
with crops such as corn and millets by twining around the stems. Judging from― 134 ―

the habitat of wild species, rice bean appears to have a low resistance todrought. Most of the varieties are photoperiod-sensitive. Large-grain varieties
tend to be late maturing. The weight of 100 seeds of the largest-sized rice bean
seed is 37g.

Photo III-4-2 Rice bean mixed with corn.
Steamed young pods sold in a market of Chiang Rai, northern Thailand.
Rice bean is used in a similar way to cowpea. They can be used for beanjam, a thick sweat bean-meal soup or mixed with rice. In Southeast and East Asia,
the young pods are steamed as shown in the photo and eaten like green vegetablesoybean. In Laos, farmers also eat the young pods or flowers as fresh vegetables.
Although there are no white seed varieties which color was traded at a higher
price in Benin, there are various seed colors available in the germplasm.
According to Thai farmers, rice bean tends to hinder the growth of other weeds.
The origin of rice bean appears to be the mountainous regions of Southeast
Asia, based on the distribution of wild and cultivated rice bean and moleculardiversity study (Tomooka, 2007).

Fig. III-4-2 Traditional cultivation area（within line）of rice bean
and collection sites of wild ancestral species（●）.
― 135 ―

Citations and Bibliography
1)

2)
3)

4)
5)
6)

Kashiwaba, K., N. Tomooka, A. Kaga, O.K.Han, D.A.Vaughan. 2003. Characterizationof resistance to three bruchid species (Callosobruchus spp., Coleoptera, Bruchidae) ofcultivated rice beans, [Vigna umbellata (Thunb.) Ohwi & Ohashi]. J. Econ. Entomol.
96: 207-213.
Noda, A. 1951. Research on Native Species, Research on Rice Beans in San-in Region(First Report), Japanese Journal of Crop Science, 21(2)134.
Somta P., A. Kaga, N. Tomooka, K. Kashiwaba, T. Isemura, B. Chaitieng, P. Srinives &D.A.Vaughan. 2006. Development of an interspecific Vigna linkage map between Vigna
umbellata (Thunb.) Ohwi & Ohashi and V. nakashimae (Ohwi) Ohwi & Ohashi and its
use in analysis of bruchid resistance and comparative genomics. Plant Breeding 125:
77-84.
Tomooka, N. 2005. Japanese Traditional Food Crops and Laurel Forest Culture.
Iwanami Science Vol.75 No.4. 445－449. Iwanami Shoten, Publishers.
Tomooka, N. 2007. Rice Bean. In Illustrated Mekong World － History and Ecology(compiled by T. AKIMICHI) p.36. Kobundou Publishers Inc.
Tomooka, N., K. Kashiwaba, D.A. Vaughan, M. Ishimoto and Y. Egawa. 2000. The
effectiveness of evaluating wild species: searching for sources of resistance to bruchid
beetles in the genus Vigna subgenus Ceratotropis. Euphytica 115:27-41.

― 136 ―

5. Winged Bean (Psophocarpus tetragonolobus (L.) DC.)
English: Winged bean

Tuberous roots of winged bean in Myanmar.

シカクマメのイモ（ミャンマー）Photo III-5 Winged
bean

Overview
The winged bean is a perennial, creeping or climbing herbaceous plantthat has underground tuberous roots. There are two hypotheses with respect tothe origin of winged bean. One hypothesis is that the origin is Africa based oncomparative linguistics research. The other hypothesis is that the origin is
tropical Asia. Winged beans are widely cultivated mainly from India to
Southeast Asia, all of Malaysia and the humid highlands of New Guinea and
New Caledonia. The flower is purple tinged with blue and the pod length is 15
to 30cm. The pod cross section is square, which gives its name “shikaku-mame(square bean)”. The seeds are round and black, brown, yellow or white. Someseeds have mottles. The young pods, flowers and leaves are used as vegetables.
The seeds contain as much protein as soybean. The root stock (rhizome) can beeaten raw or eaten after cooking in the same manner as potatoes. In Indonesia,
the seeds are called Botor, where is utilized as remedy for pimples,
conjunctivitis and pneumonia. Cultivation for the root stocks can be seen in the
New Guinea Highlands and Shan State in Myanmar. On the other hand, theyoung leaves and pods are utilized as vegetables in home gardens in Southeast
Asia. Even in Japan, winged bean have begun to be cultivated in Okinawa andKyushu, JIRCAS bred an early-maturing variety “Urizun” suitable for― 137 ―

cultivation in Okinawa.
Citations and Bibliography
Mitsuru Hotta (editing representative), 1981, Useful Plants of the World, p.859, Heibonsha
Limited, Publishing― 138 ―

Appendix
1. Overall Conditions in Benin1) General Situation(1) Area: 112,622km2 (approximately 1.3 times the area of Japanese)(2) Population:：8.20 million persons (United Nations estimate, 2004), 2.6% of annual
increase rate (2000 to 2005, %/year)(3) Major Cities: Cotonou, pop. 690,600 (2005 estimate, hereinafter the same applies)
Porte-Novo (capital), pop. 234,000
Djougou, pop. 202,800
Parakou, pop. 163,800(4) Climate: Tropical, dry zone in the north(5) Language: French (official language), Fon, Yoruba and others(6) Tribe: Fon and Yoruba tribes (south)
Aja tribe (Mono and Couffo river basins)
Bariba and Peulh tribes (north)
Somba tribe (Atacora mountain range, between Togo), etc. 46 tribes(7) Religion: Traditional religion (65%), Christianity (20%), Islam (15%)(8) Currency: FrCFA, 1 Euro ＝ 655.96FrCFA franc (official rate)(9) Time: Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) 1-hour behind(10) Holidays: January 1, January 10 (Vodoun Day), January 16 (Martyr’s Day), April 1(Youth Day), May 1 (May Day), August 1 (Independence Day), August 15(Assumption Day), October 26 (Armaments Day), November 1 (All Saints’day), November 30 (Benin Day), December 25 (Christmas), other transitional
holidays from the Christian and Muslim calendars (such as Tabaski,
foreteller’s birthday, Id al-Fitr, Easter, Ascension Day and Whit Monday)
2) Political System and Internal Affairs(1) Regime: Republic institutions(2) State Head: President Yayi Boni (5-year term of office, next election is March 2011)(3) Parliament: National assembly (83 seats in total, 63 for the ruling party and 20 for the
opposition party, 4-year term of office, next election is March 2007)(4) Government: Ministry of Development, Economy and Finance (Ministère duDéveloppement, de l'Économie et des Finances: MDEF), Ministry of African
Integration and Benin External Affairs Delegate Charge of Minister of
Foreign Affairs (Ministère Délégué chargé de l'Intégration Africaine et desBéninois de l'Extérieur auprès du Ministre des Affaires Etrangères :MDCIABE/MAE), Ministry of Tourism and Handicraft (Ministère duTourisme et de l'Artisanat : MTA), Ministry of Environment and Natural
Conservation (Ministère de l'Environnement et de la Protection de la Nature:― 139 ―

(5)MEPN), Ministry of Mining, Energy and Water Resources (Ministère desMines, de l'Energie et de l'Eau: MMEE), Ministry of Micro Finance andSmaller Enterprises Promotion (Ministre Délégué, Chargé de la Micro-finance et de la promotion des petites et moyennes entreprises auprès du
Ministre du Développement, de l'Économie et des Finances:
MDCMFPP/MDEF), Ministry of Culture, of Youth, of the Sports and Leisure(Ministère de la Culture, de la Jeunesse, des Sports et Loisirs: MCJSL),
Ministry of Health (Ministère de la Santé: MS), Ministry of Industry andCommerce (Ministère de l'Industrie et du Commerce: MIC), Ministry of
Budget attached to Miniter of Development, Economy and Finance (Ministère
Délégué Chargé du Budget auprès du Ministre du Développement, del'Économie et des Finances: MDCB/MDEF), Ministry of Administrative andInstitutional Reform (Ministère de la Réforme Administrative etInstitutionnelle: MRAI), Ministry of Justice charged of the relations with theInstitutions, Spokesman of the Government (Ministère de la Justice chargé
des relations avec les Institutions, Porte-parole du Gouvernement:
MJCRI-PPG), Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Fisheries (Ministère del'Agriculture, de l'Élevage et de la Pêche: MAEP), Ministry Delegate Chargeof the Communication and the New Technologies Delegate Charge of the
President of Republic (Ministère Délégué Chargé de la Communication et desNouvelles Technologies auprès du Président de la République:
MDCCNT/PR), Ministry of Labor and Public Affairs (Ministre du Travail etde la Fonction Publique: MTFP), Ministry of Foreign Affairs Ministère desAffaires Etrangères: MAE), Ministry of National Land and Transportation
attached to President (Ministère Délégué chargé des Transports, des Travaux
publics et de l'Urbanisme auprès du Président de la République:
MDCTTP/PR), Ministry of Primary and Secondary Education (Ministère desEnseignements Primaire et Secondaire: MEPS), Ministry of Internal Affairs,
Public Security and Local Governments (Ministrère de l'Intérieur, de laSécurité Publique et des Collectivités Locales: MISPCL), Ministry of Family,
Women and Children (Ministère de la Famille , de la Femme et de l'Enfant:MFFE), Ministry of Higher Education and Professional Training (Ministèrede l'Enseignement Supérieur et de la Formation Professionnelle: MESFP),
Ministry of National Defense (Ministère de la Défense Nationale: MDN)Internal Affairs: Since its independence, military coups have frequently occurred.
President Kérékou assumed the premiership in 1972 and declared socialism in1974 based on the Marxism-Leninism principles. Since then, although astable political situation has been maintained through moderate and realistic
policies, the Marxism-Leninism principles were abandoned in 1989 due thedeteriorating economic conditions and turbulence in the Eastern Europe.

― 140 ―

(6)Soglo, who was a former World Bank official, was elected Prime Minister inMarch 1900. With the establishment of the Supreme Court and the Social andEconomic Council in May 1994 and the Press Surveillance Committee inJune 1993 and in May and July 1994, the development of democratic national
institutions was completed. During presidential election in March 1996,
President Kérékou was returned to power and continued to promote
democratization and economic structural adjustment. At the presidential
election in March 2001, President Kérékou was elected once again. During
the parliamentary (national assembly) election held in March 2003, thepresident’s party obtained a majority of seats. At the time of the presidential
election in March 2005, Yayi Boni, former president of the African
Development Bank, was elected. Since former presidents Kérékou and Soglo
strictly observed the provisions of the Constitution, they did not represent thepresident in this election.
Diplomacy: As a socialistic country, Benin had a close relationship with Eastern
European nations. However, Marxism-Leninism principles were officiallyabandoned in 1989. In response to the recent democratization andliberalization in Africa, its relationship with advanced nations has beenenhanced. Its economic relationship with Korea, a nation with which
diplomatic relations did not previously exist, has rapidly developed, anddiplomatic relations were established in September 1990. Relations withThailand and Morocco have also been strengthened. Diplomatic relations
were also established with Singapore, Brunei and Indonesia in 1994 and with
Malaysia in January 1995. In addition, regional cooperation has beenenhanced through the Consultative Council (Conseil de l’Entente) of the
Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS).

3) Economy(1) Leading Industry: Agriculture (cotton, palm oil), services industry (port industry), ratio
by industry in GDP is 36.0% in primary industry, 14.0% in secondary
industry and 50.0% in tertiary industry either ratio as estimated by Bank ofFrance in 2002) ）(2) GNI: $3.7billion, $450 per capita, (2004, World Bank)(3) Economic Growth Rate: 2.7% (2004, IMF)
(4) Inflation: 0.8% (2004, IMF)）(5) Total Trade: $555.6 million in export and $744.2 million in import (2003)― 141 ―

(6)Major Item
Item＼Year(Unit: One billion FrCFA)
1999

2000

2001

2002

2003*
322.8

259.5

279.4

273.9

312.1

Cotton

113.4

101.6

93.1

95.6

95.8

Re-exported products

111.6

118.3

98.2

104.0

109.2

Imports (FOB)

391.1

367.4

405.7

473.1

432.2

Capital goods

79.6

61.2

72.1

71.1

78.7

petroleum products

32.0

56.7

55.0

63.3

71.9

Foods

91.7

84.5

86.3

120.1

123.8

Exports (FOB)

Source: Banque de France (Bank of France) (*Estimation)(7) Major Trade Partners
Country＼Year(Unit: one million dollars)
1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

China

3

1

1

16

62

Export

India

32

61

61

42

53

Destination

Thailand

11

7

9

13

20

Ghana

-

5

15

13

17

Niger

5

8

5

5

13

China

43

30

47

46

518

ImportFrance

185

151

144

173

261

OriginEngland

33

18

21

36

83

Côte d'Ivoire

88

52

34

41

82

Thailand

23

15

19

20

81

Source: Direction of Trade Statistics Yearbook, IMF(8)

Economic Overview: As primary industries account for approximately 50% of GDP
and approximately 36% of the working population, 25% of the population is
directly or indirectly engaged in the cotton industry, which accounts for 30%of the leading trade items. In June 1989, the 1st structural adjustment program
was formulated with the receiving of aid from the World Bank and IMF inorder to recover financial conditions which failed in the 1980s due to anincrease in trade deficit and accumulated debts, etc. Subsequently, the 2nd andthe 3rd structural adjustment programs came into effect respectively between
1992 and 1995 and from February 1996, and since then efforts for economic
reform have been taken. As a poverty reduction strategy paper (PRSP) wasapproved in September 2002 and reached the completion stage in March 2003,
so an external debt of $460 million could be saved. Aid-providing nations andorganizations have highly evaluated this country.

― 142 ―

4) Development Assistance Performance(1) Japan Assistance Results
Yen loans (until FY2004, EN <change of notes> base) ¥75.31 billion
Grand aid cooperation (until FY2004, EN <change of notes> base) ¥24.696
billionTechnical cooperation (until FY2004, EN <change of notes> base) ¥23.6
billion(2) Major ODA Results (Unit: $ 1 million, 2003）
Bilateral cooperation: Total (196.1), France (36.8), United States (32.5), German(31.3)
Multilateral: Total (97.5), IDA* (23.9), ADF** (7.3), EU（51.0)

Citations and Bibliography
1)
2)
3)

*
**

Japan Ministry of Foreign Affairs: http://www.mofa.go.jp/mofaj/area/benin/data.html
Country Profile 2005, Benin, Economist Intelligence Unit
Government of Benin: http://www.gouv.bj/

International Development Association (IDA)
African Development Bank (AfDB)― 143 ―

2. Examples of Processed Foods Utilizing Major Pulse Crops
In Benin where the study was implemented at this time, in similar manner as with other
African nations, traditional food processing techniques have been handed over and discharge
a major role in the daily lives of local residents in urban areas as well as rural communities.
Such techniques make it possible to store and process diversified farming products (such as
grains, beans, oil seeds, root-vegetables or potatoes and livestock products). In this manner,
the techniques enhance the value of products in a rural society and also hold an important
position among skills thus greatly contributing to the food supply in urban or rural areas.
Accordingly, the processing skills for pulse crops, which should be handed down for future
generations, and the crop process (soy beans) recently introduced are taken up andintroduced as follows.
1) Peanuts(1) Kluiklui
Kluiklui is a fried snack made from strained peanut lees after the oil is extracted (Refer to
Photo 1 in Frontispiece). To make 680 pieces of this snack, the following ingredients arenecessary: ① 2kg peanuts without shells and ②200g salt. The cooking method is described
below.

Fig. 1 Impurities are removed from peanut grains.

Fig. 2 Peanuts are lightly roasted in a fry pan-liketool.

Fig. 4 Roasted peanuts arecooled by wrapping in ajute bag.
Fig. 3 Roasted peanuts are sifted to gradually remove thethin skins.

― 144 ―

Fig. 5 Thin skins of the roasted peanuts are removed with a corn mill or wooden cooking bar while crushing.

Fig. 6 After screening to remove thin skins, Skinlesspeanuts is wrapped in a jute bag.

Fig. 9 Peanut dough is evenly kneaded by
gradually adding water until hard ragged
texture.

Fig. 7 Skinless peanuts are finely crushed.

Fig. 8 4ℓ of lukewarm water of is gradually added to thedough.

― 145 ―

Fig. 10 Dough is strongly squeezed to extract oil onto the table (left) or similarly
squeezed using a screw press.

Fig. 12 Dough is formed into about 20-cm long bars.

Fig. 11 Salt is added to squeeze dough.

Fig. 14 After coking, the fried bar snacks are removed andplaced into baskets lined with plastic and are wrapped andperfectly covered with cloth to prevent moisture fromgetting in.

Fig.13 Bar-shaped peanuts are fried in extracted peanut
oil for 5 to 10 minutes.

― 146 ―

Fig. 15 The fried snack is called kluiklui and is eaten as is as a side dish for gari.

(2) Tasso
Tasso is a product made of roasted peanuts heated in sand or ash and dried. It is called
Tasso or Azin-sisso in the Fon language or Azin-toto in the Mina language. The ingredientsare ① 2kg peanuts without shells and ②200g salt. The cooking method is described below.
(The time required is about one hour and a half.)

Fig. 1 Impurities are removed from peanut grains.
Fig. 2 Salt 200g is added to 2ℓ of water.

Fig. 3 Salt water is boiled.

― 147 ―

Fig. 5 Peanuts are drained.

Fig. 4 Peanuts are put in boiling water and boiled for
3 to 5 minutes.

Fig. 6 Drained peanuts are spread out onto a basket
and dried.

Fig. 7 Peanuts are roasted in a fry pan using
sand or vegetable ash.
Fig. 8 Roasted peanuts are quickly stuffedby jar or plastic bag.

― 148 ―

Fig. 9 Tasso is eaten as a side dish with alcohol, as it is, or mixed into boiled or grilled corn. In the same manner, it
is eaten with fermented porridge or gari.

2) Cowpeas(1) Abobo
This is a food in which cowpeas are oiled and seasoned (Refer to Photo 3 in
Frontispiece). The ingredients for 5 persons are ①1 kg white cowpeas, ② 10g red pepper, ③5g pepper, ④ 5g garlic and ⑤15g salt. The cooking method is described below (Therequired time is about 1 to 2 hours).

Fig. 2 Cowpea grains are washed.

Fig. 1 Cowpea grains are screened.

Fig.3 Cowpeas are boiled with 3-times the amount of water for 1 hour.

― 149 ―

Fig. 5 Slat is added and cowpeas are brought toa simmer and boiled for a few minutes.

Fig. 4 Cowpeas are seasoned with pounded
spices (garlic, pepper and red pepper).

Fig. 6 Abobo can be eaten at any time of the day. Here it is being served as a side dish with fried-dish gari (cooked with tomatoes,
onions, garlic, smoked shrimp and salt, or simply cooked with palm oil, peanuts oil or coconut oil), bread, boiled cassava or yam.

(2) Magni-magni
Magni-magni is called Nago in the Yoruba language or Olélé in the Fon language, andis a paste made from seasoned cowpea powder. The ingredients for 5 persons are ①1kg
cowpeas, ② 35g smoked shrimp, ③ 140g onions, ④ 30g ginger, ⑤ 35g red pepper, ⑥ 35g
salt, ⑦ 375mℓ palm oil, and ⑧ banana leaves. The cooking method is described below (Therequired time is 3 to 4 hours).

― 150 ―

Fig. 1 Cowpea grains are screened.

Fig. 2 Small amount of water is added to cowpeas
and mixture is crush finely with a mortar.

Fig. 3 Water is added to the finely crushed cowpeas. Thin skins float to the top and are removed by handor with a strainer.

Fig. 5 Spices (onions, smoked shrimp, ginger
and red pepper) are added whole.

Fig. 4 To soften, cowpeas are soaked in water for about
30 minutes.

― 151 ―

Fig. 7 Small-sized cut onions and palm oil
are added to the milled powder.
Fig.6 Cowpeas are milled together.

Fig. 9 Salt is added to freshly prepared paste.
Fig. 8 Mixed well.

Fig. 10 About 85g of paste is wrapped in abanana leaf.

Fig. 11 Magni-magni dough is steamed for
1 hour.

― 152 ―

Fig. 12 Magni-magni is usually eaten as a lunch time snack, as it is, or with other dishes.

3) Soybeans(1) Soy cheese (Tofu)
Over the past few years, soybeans have been promoted for their nutritional value,
mainly for children at nutrition improvement centers in cooperation with NGOs or UNICEF
and are consumed as processed food such as soybean milk, powder (kinako-like) or tofu. In
Ina in the north, many women can be seen making tofu in their gardens. The method formaking tofu is described as follows.

Photo 2 Soybeans are milled with a mill with an
external engine. @100FrCFA/3kg。

Photo 1 Soybeans are soaked in water for a few― 153 ―

Photo 3 Cooled boiled water is added to soybeans.

Photo 4 Soybeans are strained into large pots (40ℓ).
(Soy milk and lees are separated)

Photo 6 This operation is repeated.

Photo 5 Strained lees.

Photo 7 After straining is complete; fire is applied to

Photo 8 Boiling with the lid covered.

the oven.

(About 1 hour)― 154 ―

Photo 9 Remove the lid and remove the lye.

Photo 10 Still soybean milk remains. Boiled
soybean milk is then subdivided (20ℓ pots).

Photo 12 A fermenting liquid called corn starches(left corner) is added to promote coagulation.

Photo 11 Remaining soybean milk is added
to large pots and boiled again.

Photo 14 Excess water is removed. This is utilized
as the next coagulant.
Photo 13 Soybean milk begins to Coagulate.

― 155 ―

Photo 15 Coagulation is almost complete.

Photo 16 A pinch of salt, stir slightly.

Photo 17 The bag is squeezed on a stone.

Photo 18 It is transferred to a grain bag fordehydrating.

Photo 19 Sorghum stems are soaked for coloring,

Photo 20 Tofu is dyed a red color.

dehydrated tofu is removed and divided into large
pieces (left corner).

― 156 ―

Photo 21 Although visibly unappetizing, the taste of tofu is preserved. In areas where there are no refrigerators, preservation the
red coloring improves preservation.

(2) Bean curd (for livestock feed)
Bean curd lees remain following the above-mentioned operation and are an important
livestock feed, especially in the north where livestock is common.

Photo 1 As above in Photo 4, soybeans is strained in

Photo 2 Strained bean curd leesa large pot (40ℓ) (divide soybean milk and bean curdlees).

Photo 4 Bean curd lees are sold to livestock farmers
in the north for livestock feed.

Photo 3 Strained bean curd lees are dried forlivestock feed.

― 157 ―

4) Néré
○ Afitin
Afitin is a mustard product * as Néré (Refer to Photo 5 in Frontispiece) and is a primary
ingredient and traditional solid seasoning utilized for sauces (sticky sauce, vegetables or leaf
sauces, etc.) or Moyo (tomato and onion salad). The ingredients for a portion of 4.5kg Afitinare ① 1 kg Néré seed and ② 250g salt. Its preparation method is described below (Required
time is 2 to 3 days).

Fig. 2 Seeds are soaked in 20ℓ of water.
Fig. 1 Impurities and other objects are removed from
seed.

Fig. 3 Carefully washes seeds.
Fig. 4 Dirt discharged by washing is removed.

*

Although it is called mustard in French, it is actually a fermented seasoning.

― 158 ―

Fig. 6 For easily removal of skins, boiled
Fig. 5 Seeds are boiled with a considerable amount of waterseeds is placed on an oven for 4 to 8
hours.

until they become softer. When the thin skins can be easily
removed or broken the fire extinguished.

Fig. 8 Seeds are stepped on until threshed andFig. 7 Seeds are removed from boiling waterskins are removed.

and transferred to a bowl for pealing.

Fig. 9 Pealed-skin seeds are washed with water in abasket. Grains are transferred to a net.

Fig. 10 Fine 500g sand is paced in a pot toboil the seeds. Water is filled to 2/3 of the pot.

― 159 ―

Fig. 11 Skin-stripped seeds are poured into sandy

Fig. 12 Seeds that float to the surface arewater and stirred in one direction. Any skins orcollected with a basket.

uncooked seeds appearing on the bottom should
be removed.

Fig. 14 Irregular seeds such as seeds with skins
or seed skins are removed.

Fig. 13 Seed are washed in water to remove thesand.

Fig. 16 Seed are washed in water to remove
Fig. 15 Washed seeds are soaked in water for
about 1 hour.

moss-like slime that forms when soaking inwater.

― 160 ―

Fig. 17 Seeds are boiled in water covered for 30
minutes.

Fig. 18 Boiled seeds are transferred to a basket to strain
the water.

Fig. 20 Seeds are placed into a wash tub andcovered with a jute bag or cloth forfermentation for about 12 hours.

Fig. 19 Boiled seeds are spread onto a jute bag on an
open basket.

Fig. 21 Fermented products are air-dried for 4 to 8
hours. This operation improves the flavor.

Fig. 22 250g salt is added to promote a goodconsistency.

― 161 ―

Fig. 23 The fermented product is milled in astationary miller and the dough is called Afitin.
Photo. Afitin at a market in Benin.

Source: D.J.

HOUNHOUIGAN,

TRANSFORMATION

M.C.NAGO,ALIMENTAIRE

J.MONHOUANOU,TRADITIONELLE

OLEAGINEUX AU BENIN, Les Publications du CERNA, 1998.

― 162 ―DES

M.EGOUNLETY,LA

LEGUMINEUSES

ET

3. List of Collected Materials
Materials collected in a field survey implemented in Benin in December 2006 are listed
as follows. (Non-bound materials such as copies are omitted)
1)

le Bénin, Kolawolé Sikirou ADAM / Michel BOKO, Les Editions du Flamboyant /EDICEF, 1993.
2) 100ans de recherche agricole au service du développement du Bénin 1904-2004, Le
Centre de Recherche Agricole Sud à Niaouli en Bref, Institut National des Recherches
Agricoles du Bénin(INRAB), Ministère de l’Agriculre, de l’Elevage et de laPêche(MAEP).
3) Integrated Pest Management: Towards 2015, A business plan, International Institute ofTropical Agriculture(IITA), IITA-Benin Station.
4) Lutte intégrée contre les revageurs : cap sur 2015, Un plan d’affaires, Institut
International d’Agriculture Tropicale(IITA), Station IITA-Bénin.
5) Baï Sêdami ADJAHOUSSOU, BIODIVERSITE VEGETALE, FACTEUR DE
PRODUCTIVITE ET DE DURABILITE DE L’AGRICULTURE : CAS DU
DEPARTEMENT DE L’ATLANTIQUE AU BENIN, pour l’obtention du Diplôme deDoctorat Unique de l’Université d’Abomey-Calavi, 2005.
6) Simone de SOUZA, FLORE DU BENIN(TOME 3), NOMS DES PLANTES DANSLES LANGUES NATIONALES BENINOISES, 1988.
7) Simone de SOUZA, Flore du Bénin (Tome 2), Bord de mer - Mangrove, Jardins,
Quelques arbres remarquables, 2006.
8) Leo J. De Haan, Agriculteurs et éleveures au Nord-Bénin, Ecologie et genres de vie,
KARTHALA, 1997.
9) Simone de SOUZA, 100 Plantes médicinales du Bénin, Guide pratique dePHYTOTHERAPIE, Edition 2005 revue et complétée.
10) GUIDE PRATIQUE, L’AGROFORESTERIE AU BENIN, CENTRE SONGHAI, 1998.
11) GUIDE PRATIQUE D’ELEVAGE, Aulacodes, CENTRE SONGHAI, 2000.
12) GUIDE PRATIQUE D’ELEVAGE, DINDONS, CENTRE SONGHAI, 2001.
13) GUIDE PRATIQUE D’ELEVAGE, ESCARGOTS, CENTRE SONGHAI, 2001.
14) GUIDE PRATIQUE, JARDINAGE BIOLOGIQUE, CENTRE SONGHAI, 2001.
15) GUIDE PRATIQUE, MISE EN PLACE ET EXPLOITATION D’UNE UNITE DE
BIOGAZ, CENTRE SONGHAI, 2001.
16) GUIDE PRATIQUE D’ELEVAGE, OIES ET CANARDS, CENTRE SONGHAI, 2001.
17) GUIDE PRATIQUE D’ELEVAGE, OVINS-CAPRINS, CENTRE SONGHAI, 2001.
18) GUIDE PRATIQUE D’ELEVAGE, PINTADES, CENTRE SONGHAI, 2001.
19) GUIDE PRATIQUE, PHARMACOPEE VETERINAIRE, CENTRE SONGHAI, 2002.
20) GUIDE PRATIQUE D’ELEVAGE, PISCICULTURE, CENTRE SONGHAI, 2001.
21) GUIDE PRATIQUE D’ELEVAGE, PORCS, CENTRE SONGHAI, 2000.
22) GUIDE PRATIQUE D’ELEVAGE, POULETS DE CHAIR, CENTRE SONGHAI,― 163 ―

2002.
23) GUIDE PRATIQUE D’ELEVAGE, POULES PONDEUSES, CENTRE SONGHAI,
2002.
24) Alex G. ZOFFOUN et Col., Manuel d’aviculture à l’usage des pisciculteurs pour desélevages associés (cas des poules pondeuses), CARDER-MONO, Ministère del’Agriculre, de l’Elevage et de la Pêche, REPUBLIQUE DU BENIN, 2003.
25) REPUBLIQUE DU BENIN, Les classiques africains, 1999.

― 164 ―

Production, Processing and Marketing of Pulses in West Africa– Considering Inter-Regional Markets and Improving the Living Standardsof Local Residents through a Case Study of the Republic of Benin –Published in March 2007
EditionPublication

Association for International Collaboration of Agriculture and Forestry
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Production, Processing and Marketing of Pulses in West Africa

Production, Processing and Marketing of Pulses in West Africa− Considering Inter-Regional Markets and Improving the Living Standards of Local
Residents through a Case Study of the Republic of Benin −March 2007

Japan Association forInternational Collaboration ofAgriculture and Forestry
March 2007