Food and Nutrition Sciences, 2021, 12, 591-601
https://www.scirp.org/journal/fns
ISSN Online: 2157-9458
ISSN Print: 2157-944X

Comparison of Various Foods Intakes and Their
Relationships with Body Mass Index in
Japanese Old Men and Women
A. Takada1*, F. Shimizu2, Y. Ishii2, M. Ogawa2, T. Takao2
12

International Projects on Food and Health (NPO), Tokyo, Japan
Faculty of Human Life and Environmental Sciences, Showa Women’s University, Tokyo, Japan

How to cite this paper: Takada, A., Shimizu, F., Ishii, Y., Ogawa, M. and Takao, T.
(2021) Comparison of Various Foods Intakes and Their Relationships with Body
Mass Index in Japanese Old Men and
Women. Food and Nutrition Sciences, 12,
591-601.
https://doi.org/10.4236/fns.2021.126044
Received: May 17, 2021
Accepted: June 26, 2021
Published: June 29, 2021
Copyright © 2021 by author(s) and
Scientific Research Publishing Inc.
This work is licensed under the Creative
Commons Attribution International
License (CC BY 4.0).
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

Open Access

Abstract
Objective: Obesity is an important health problem, leading to many metabolic diseases such as type2 diabetes mellitus, cardiovascular diseases, cancer etc. There are many diet proposals to combat obesity. Since obesity isrelatively rare in Japan, we wanted to know what kinds of foods influencebody mass index (BMI) in old Japanese people. Methods: Healthy participants were given self-administered diet history questionnaires and described answers on each item by recollection of diets they took (7 days dietary recall). We used a brief-type self-administered diet history questionnaire (BDHQ) by using which the Japanese Ministry of Health, Labour andWelfare reports national Nutrition Surveys. From these questionnaires, we
calculated the intakes of energy, carbohydrate, fat, protein or other foods.
Results: Men take more alcohol, salt fruit, beans, and eggs than women.
Intakes of major foods such as carbohydrate, lipid, and protein did not influence BMI in men and women. Conclusion: Within the range of foods
intakes in Japan, no restriction of any food such as carbohydrate is not necessary for staying lean.

Keywords
Carbohydrate, Protein, Fish, Glucose, Insulin, BMI (Body Mass Index), Obesity

1. Introduction
Obesity has been dramatically increased world-widely and to know the effective
and safe weight-loss diets must be investigated [1] [2] [3].
Effects of various weight-loss diets have been proposed and compared. Low
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carbohydrate, high-protein diets were compared with very low fat, energy-restricted
diets [4] [5] [6] [7].
Recently the carbohydrate-insulin model has been proposed [8]. According tothis model, the hormone insulin plays dominant anabolic control. Insulin decreases the circulating major metabolic fuels by stimulating glucose uptake into
tissues, inhibiting release of fatty acids from adipose tissue, so that ketones areproduced in the liver, and promoting fat and glycogen deposition. Consistent
with these effects, increased insulin actions (such as insulin-producing tumors,
initiation of insulin treatment of type 2 diabetes or overtreatment of type 1 diabetes) are shown to be associated with weight gain. Interestingly, inadequate
insulin treatment of type 1 diabetes and drugs that inhibit insulin secretioncauses weight loss.
Dietary carbohydrate has the most potent effects, which vary by amountand type. Most refined grains, potato products and added sugars digest
quickly and have a relatively high GI (glycemic index), whereas non-starchy
vegetables, legumes, whole fruits and intact whole grains tend to have a moderate or low GI.
The Mediterranean diet was rich in vegetables and low in red meat, withpoultry and fish replacing beef and lamb. Mediterranean and low-carbohydrate
diets were shown to be effective alternatives to the low-fat diet for weight loss
and appear to be just as safe as the low-fat diet [9].
As stated later, the rate of obese people is very low, in fact, one of OECD
countries with the lowest obesity rate [10]. We have previously reported
correlations between various foods intakes, plasma levels of amino acids or
fatty acids in Japanese young and old men and women [11] [12] [13] [14]. So
it may be interesting to know what kinds of foods old Japanese men andwomen are taking and whether any kind of foods intake influences bodymass index.
In the present article, we report various foods intakes and their relationships
to BMI in old Japanese men and women.

2. Method
We asked male and female acquaintances older than 50 years old. Acquaintances mean that these participants are personal friends of our groupmembers. The sample sizes and ages of participants are as follows. Acquaintances are older than 50 years old; men (n = 44, age; 70.07 ± 11.1) and women(n = 39, age; 67.4 ± 7.5). We did not ask premenopausal women to participate
since data may be variable due to their hormonal influences so that sample
sizes must be big to get statistically significant results. Dr. K. Matsuoka and K.
Kato, who are internists, checked their health carefully and examined theirblood samples then recruited them if there were no health problems such as
diabetes, hypertension or not serious diseases experienced in the past. They
did not smoke in the past. We also excluded people who took drugs for dysliDOI: 10.4236/fns.2021.126044

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pidemia, hyperglycemia, or hypertension. We collected blood samples earlymorning. Healthy participants were given self-administered diet history questionnaires and described answers on each item by recollection of diets they
took (7 days dietary recall). We used a brief-type self-administered diet history questionnaire (BDHQ) by using which the Japanese Ministry of Health,Labour and Welfare reports national Nutrition Surveys. From these questionnaires, we calculated the intakes of energy, carbohydrate, fat, protein orother foods.

Statistics
The results are presented as means ± SEM. Statistical significance of the differences between groups was calculated according to one-way ANOVA. When
ANOVA indicated a significant difference (p < 0.05), the mean values werecompared using Tukey’s least significant difference test at p < 0.05. Spearman’s
correlation tests were used to examine statistical significance.

3. Results
Table 1 shows that height, weight and BMI (body mass index) are larger in men
than women.
Table 2 shows the amounts of foods intakes of men and women.
The amounts of energy intake are larger in men than women. The amounts ofintakes of protein, carbohydrate, lipid fatty acids or other foods are not different
between men and women.
The amounts of intakes of alcohol, salt, sucrose, beans, beverages and seasonings are higher in men than women. Since people take salty cakes, beans when
they take alcohol or beverages such as Sake in Japan, such habits influence men’s
foods intakes.
Table 3 shows a correlation between foods and BMI. There is no correlation
between any food intake and BMI in women. There are correlations between intakes of vegetable lipid, n − 6 fatty acid, fruits and eggs and BMI in men.
Figure 1 shows Scatter plots and regression line between intakes of carbohydrate
and BMI in men and women.
Figures 1-3 show there is no correlation between intakes of carbohydrate, lipid and protein and BMI.
Table 1. Basic characteristics of participants.

Age

Old menn = 44

Old womenn = 3970.7 ± 11.1

67.4 ± 7.5

SignificanceHeightcm

166.5 ± 6.6

157.1 ± 5.8**

Weightkg

67.4 ± 11.1

50.6 ± 6.8

**

BMI

kg/m2

24.3 ± 3.3

20.5 ± 2.5****p < 0.01 (old men vs. old women).

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Table 2. The amounts of various foods intakes.
Foods intakes of men and women

Old men n = 44

Old women n = 39

Significancekcal/d2265 ± 621

1941 ± 535*

Proteing/d

86.2 ± 27.7

80.0 ± 27.3

Animal protein

g/d51.8 ± 22.0

47.4 ± 19.8

Vegetable protein

g/d34.4 ± 9.9

32.6 ± 10.9

Lipid

g/d

66.4 ± 20.6

60.9 ± 20.9

Animal lipid

g/d32.2 ± 13.4

29.0 ± 10.7

Vegetable lipid

g/d34.2 ± 9.9

31.9 ± 11.9

Carbohydrate

g/d276.0 ± 89.4

248.2 ± 76.9

Saturated aftty acidg/d

17.7 ± 6.5

16.3 ± 5.6

Monosaturated fatty acidg/d

24.2 ± 7.6

21.6 ± 7.7

Polysaturated fatty acidg/d

15.6 ± 4.7

14.6 ± 5.3

Cholesterol

mg/d

469.9 ± 183.2

440.4 ± 187.9

Soluble dietary fiberg/d

3.8 ± 1.4

4.0 ± 1.5

Insoluble dietary fiberg/d11.2 ± 4.9

11.0 ± 4.1

Total dietary fiberg/d

15.5 ± 5.7

15.3 ± 5.7

Salt

g/d

13.9 ± 4.2

11.5 ± 3.2

Sugar

g/d

17.8 ± 10.9

15.1 ± 8.5

Alcoholg/d28.0 ± 28.6

9.7 ± 16.5

n − 3 fatty acidg/d

3.4 ± 1.3

3.1 ± 1.4

n − 6 fatty acidg/d

12.2 ± 3.6

11.4 ± 4.0

Grainsg/d412.1 ± 165.8

338.6 ± 171.6

Potatoesg/d63.4 ± 46.1

53.2 ± 41.3

Sucroseg/d

7.5 ± 5.8

5.1 ± 2.9

*

Beans

g/d

59.0 ± 43.2

82.5 ± 59.3*

Green and yellow vegetables

g/d148.0 ± 91.1

145.4 ± 75.7

Other vegetables

g/d222.9 ± 106.7

220.1 ± 117.5

Fruitsg/d159.1 ± 156.1

212.8 ± 115.9

Fish

g/d

106.4 ± 63.6

94.0 ± 61.7

Eggs

g/d

45.3 ± 31.9

41.9 ± 27.1

Milk

g/d

154.3 ± 125.1

169.7 ± 105.1

Oils

g/d

12.8 ± 5.6

11.1 ± 5.8

Cookiesg/d

57.7 ± 45.1

62.1 ± 43.1

Beverages

g/d1043.9 ± 418.2

779.7 ± 429.9**

Seasonings, spices

g/d296.5 ± 163.9

222.0 ± 140.7

*

Foods

Per day

Energy******p < 0.01, *p < 0.05.

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Table 3. Correlations between various foods intakes and BMI.
Correlations
BMI vs. foods

Old men n = 44

Old women n = 39

Energy

0.072

0.125

Protein

0.050

0.158

Animal protein

0.000

0.125

Vegetable protein

0.144

0.168

Lipid

0.220

0.157

Animal lipid

0.091

0.066

Vegetable lipid

0.335*

0.216

Carbohydrate

0.055

0.073

Saturated fatty acid

0.108

0.145

Monounsaturated fatty acid

0.279

0.152

Polyunsaturated fatty acid

0.255

0.190

Cholesterol

0.228−0.009Soluble dietary fiber

0.204

0.080

Insoluble dietary fiber

0.222

0.161

Total dietary fiber

0.236

0.136

Salt

0.103

0.203

Sucrose

0.031

0.022

Alcohol−0.084−0.024n − 3 fatty acid

0.102

0.196

n − 6 fatty acid

0.298*

0.181

Grains−0.052−0.009Potatoes−0.030−0.047

Sucrose−0.237−0.037Beans−0.061

0.289

Green yellow vegetables

0.174

0.095

Other vegetables

0.230

0.248

Fruits

0.298*−0.047

Fish−0.095

0.105

Meats

0.142

0.125

Eggs

0.367*−0.260Milk−0.255

0.082

Oil

0.257

0.258

Cakes

0.203

0.068

Beverages−0.0090.130

Seasonings, spices

0.012

0.023

*p < 0.05.

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Figure 1. Scatter plots and regression lines of BMI vs. carbohydrate.

Figure 2. Scatter plots and regression lines between intakes of lipid and BMI.
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Figure 3. Scatter plots and regression lines between intakes of protein and BMI.

4. Discussion
It has been recognized that a global epidemic of obesity is a threat of health andfunctional independence of future cohorts of older adults. The obesity andage-related elevation of metabolic risks contribute physical limitation and chronic
cardiometabolic disorders.
There have been many diet plans proposed to reduce body weights.
Low-carbohydrate, high-protein, high-fat diets, so called low-carbohydrate diet,have been compared with low fat energy-restricted diets [4] [5] [6] [7].
Mediterranean diet with a moderate amount of fat and a high proportion ofmonosaturated fat has been shown a benefit for cardiovascular diseases [9] [14][15].
Recently, carbohydrate insulin model has been proposed [8]. According to aconventional model, overeating results in increase energy intake, which increases
levels of circulating metabolic fuels such as glucose or lipids, resulting in fat storage.
According to a carbohydrate insulin model, dietary carbohydrates or other dietary and non-dietary exposure result in increased secretion of insulin. Since insulin increase uptake of glucose into adipose tissues, fat is stored. These changes
cause circulating metabolic fuels. These changes cause fat deposit and obesity.
It is now well known that obesity rates are different among countries. In
high-income countries, obesity rate (body mass index greater than or equal to 30
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kg/m2) is highest among the poor, while overweight (body mass index greaterthan or equal to 25 kg/m2) is shown across all wealth groups. In contrast, in
low-income countries, the prevalence of overweight and obesity is higher amongrich people than among poorer people [16].
Since 1975, the prevalence of overweight (body mass index (BMI) greater thanor equal to 25 kg/m2) among adults increased from 21.5% to 38.9% in 2016 [17].
Over this period, no country has shown decline in the prevalence of overweightor obesity [18]. In 2000, the World Health Organization declared obesity a pandemic and 12 years later issued a global action plan to combat its rise [19] [20].
The rapid increase in overweight and no availability of population-level control
measures are considered to be important reasons of the rising disease burden
and mortality from cardiovascular disease, cancer, and diabetes. Overweight andobesity do not display a consistent wealth gradient across different levels of economic development. In most low- and middle-income countries, the prevalenceof overweight and obesity is higher among wealthier individuals than among
poorer. However, as national economic levels increase, the burden of overweight
and obesity shifts to populations with lower personal wealth [21] [22] [23].
Japan is one of the most affluent countries in the world. According to many
proposal that people in the affluent countries are obese because they eat so calledjunk foods often.
As shown in Figure 4, men and women in Japan are the leanest in the world.
People in other affluent countries such as USA are far more obese than Japanese.
In the present research, we asked healthy Japanese old men and women toreport their food intakes. As shown in Table 3 and Figures 1-3, BMI levels did
not change upon changes of intakes of carbohydrate, lipid and protein. These

Figure 4. BMI of people in different countries.
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results suggest that within the range of intakes of foods n Japan, any kinds offoods led to obesity or slimness.
It is very difficult to explain the reason why such results are obtained. Probably Japanese are very, very health concerned and try to pay much attention tofoods.
Finally, some eating habits typical in Japan are discussed. Japanese tend to
avoid to eat anything sweat. People think that sweat foods contain sucrose,
which has been reported repeatedly unhealthy. There is o custom to eat desserts
such as pie after the meal. People prefer to drink black coffee and many beverages are advertised to be sugar free. Even beer or soft drinks are advertised to be
sugar free.
Japanese people are very health concerned. People often measure bodyweights and try to keep slender.
Recently, eating meat or foods of low carbohydrate are considered to behealthy and do not increase body weight.
People also try to be slender by increase exercise such as running, swimming,or oriental ways of exercise such as yoga.
All together Japanese ways of living seem good for weight control, thus keeping lean.

5. Conclusion
Foods intakes and correlations between BMI (body mass index) and various
foods intakes in old Japanese men and women were examined. Changes in theamounts of various foods intakes such as carbohydrates, protein, and lipid did
not affect BMI.

EthicsThis work has been approved by the Ethical committees of Showa Women’s
University and NPO (non-profit organization) “International projects on foodand health” and has been carried out in accordance with the Code of Ethics ofthe World Medical Association (Declaration of Helsinki) for experiments.

Acknowledgements
Experiments were designed and performed by all of the authors. AT wrote amanuscript. Statistical analyses were done by FS. All authors read the manuscript and approved the final version. All the authors had responsibilities for the
final content. AT is a chairman of NPO “International Projects on Food and
Health”. The NPO is financially supported by people who agreed with the purpose of the organization and voluntarily donated for the project.

Financial Support
This study was supported by grants by NPO “International Projects on Food and
Health.
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Conflicts of Interest
Since no profit is obtained by the present research, there are no conflicts of interest, thus no conflicts of interest for any author.

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