International Conference on Artificial Reality and TelexistenceEurographics Symposium on Virtual Environments (2015)
M. Imura, P. Figueroa, and B. Mohler (Editors)

Effectiveness of Spatial Coherent Remote Drive Experience
with a Telexistence Backhoe for Construction Sites
Charith Lasantha Fernando†1 , MHD Yamen Saraiji1 , Yoshio Seishu2 , Nobuo Kuriu2 , Kouta Minamizawa1 , and Susumu Tachi3
1 Graduate School of Media Design, Keio University, Japan
2 Technical Development Section, Machinery Department, Obayashi Corporation, Japan

3

Institute of Gerontology, The University of Tokyo, Japan

Abstract
In this paper, a spatial coherent remote driving system was designed and implemented to operate a telexistence
backhoe over a wireless network. Accordingly, we developed a 6 degrees of Freedom (DOF) slave robot that can
mimic the human upper body movement; a cockpit with motion tracking system and a Head Mounted Display(HMD) where the operator was provided with a HD720p ultra low latency video and audio feedback from theremote backhoe, and a controller to manipulate the remote backhoe. Spatial coherent driving could help manipulating heavy machinery without any prior training and perform operations as if they were operating the machinery
locally. Moreover, construction work could be performed uninterrupted (24/7) by operators remotely log-in fromall over the world. This paper describes the design requirements of developing the telexistence backhoe followed
by several field experiments carried out to verify the effectiveness of spatial coherent remote driving experience inconstruction sites.
Categories and Subject Descriptors (according to ACM CCS): I.2.9 [Artificial Intelligence]: Robotics—Operator
Interfaces

1. Introduction
Driving vehicles and heavy machinery remotely may allow
human operators to perform actions at a distant location.
There has been several [FTB03, FTB01b] teleoperation vehicle driving works for ordinary vehicles. However, in thispaper we focus on teleoperation into construction heavymachinery so that the human operator could isolate fromthe construction site. This may result in the effectivenesswhere he could perform operations with safety, effectively
and much efficiently compared to working on the physicalsite. Moreover, if the teleoperation task could be performed
over Internet, construction work could be carried out uninterrupted (24/7) by operators remotely log-in from all over
the world.
During the past three decades, the majority of research invehicle teleoperation has centered on multi monitor telepresence systems [NFG89,KP00,McG88] where the operator† charith@kmd.keio.ac.jp
c The Eurographics Association 2015.

is looking at the remote environment through multiple displays showing the video feed from multiple cameras placedon the remote site and the vehicle. More recent vehicle teleoperation systems have emphasized the use of multi-modal
operator interfaces and supervisory control [FT01, FTB01a]
where sensor fusion displays combine information frommultiple sensors or data sources into a single, integrated
view [Foy92]. These systems provide information throughnotifications at the navigation screen or Heads up display
technologies (HUD). These modern navigation techniques
may be useful for ordinary vehicles that uses sequential
based manipulation approaches. However, it’s not practicalto use these on a real construction machinery where complex manipulations has to be performed simultaneously withsafely and confidentially.
Similarly, there has been several works explaining the effectiveness of a humanoid robot to drive an industrial vehicle instead of a human operator [HNK∗ 03, YNK∗ 03] remotely. Human operator performs control lever manipulations and the tasks are applied into the remote vehicle via
the humanoid robot who sits on the remote backhoe. Sim-Charith Lasantha Fernando, MHD Yamen Saraiji, Kouta Minamizawa, & Susumu Tachi / Telexistence Backhoe

ilar work has been done with only one pneumatic roboticarm system for controlling the levers of the industrial vehicle
with a pneumatic rubber muscles (PARM) [SNK06, SK08].
CCD cameras were provided for remote vision. These systems provide technical capabilities of driving an industrial
vehicle remotely, however, the visual flow and spatial coherent relationship between the remote side and local side has
not been mapped. Offroad terrian driving requires to continuously look and confirm the surroundings as well as thefront, rear and sides for any obstacles. Naturally humans
tend to confirm these by looking at side and back mirror.
However, cameras placed on the sides, outside the vehicle
or in the field as 3rd person view would not give the samevisual flow. Therefore, these systems does not allow the human operator to embody himself into the machine nor to feelthe vehicle boundaries in a natural manner.

ers inside his brain. Sometimes, when a driver changes vehicles it takes few time to get used to the new vehicle border.
Telexistence enables a human experience spatial coherent
mapping between the remote-local side and allow to havereal-time sensation of being at a place other than where
he actually exist, and to interact with the remote environment [Tac10, TMFF12]. These systems not only provide visual and auditory sensation, with the development of TELESAR master-slave robot system [TTKK85, TAM89, TAM90,
TY94, TA97, TKIZ04] a combination of vision, auditory
and kinesthetic sensation was achieved. A less complex andminimal telexistence system “TORSO” [WKK∗ 07] provides
human-like neck movements to visually interact and explore
3-dimensional details in a remote object in a more naturaland comfortable manner.

In order to address the above points, a 6 DOF robot system was placed in heavy construction machinery where therobot is synchronized with the operators upper body movements to produce human-like neck movements. The motion
parallax 3D view receiving from the remote side is interactive and could be experienced via a fullHD head mounted
display (HMD). The visual and kinesthetic correlation between the robot and the operator allows the operator to embody himself on the remote vehicle and experience motion
parallax 3D imagery in a natural manner with a latency lessthan 200ms.

2. Spatial Coherent Remote Driving Experience

OPERATORVISION

Spatial Coherent
Correlation

OPERATORKINESTHESIA

Figure 2: System Description (a) Remote Backhoe, (b) Operator’s Cockpit, (c) HMD viewOperator Cockpit
Remote Backhoe

REMOTEVISIONREMOTEKINESTHESIA

Figure 1: Extending the Bodily Border towards remote
Backhoe
The “Bodily Border" in teleoperation can be explained as
the awareness of body’s position and posture [HH11, VR09]
at any given moment. These two functional elements used byhumans to understand and perform actions with the awareness of a body’s position at any given moment. Humans also
extend their bodily border to tools that they use. For example, after few hours of using a hammer, humans can naturally
use it without thinking about targeting the correct position of
the nail, how much force needed etc. Similarly in driving avehicle, the driver usually can understand the vehicle board-This spatial coherent coordination explained in telexistence could be used to model a system that is capable ofproviding embodiment into the remote vehicle space. It isuseful when doing complex tasks where they could perform
multiple limb movements without concentrating and looking everything at once. As shown in Fig. 1, the user is supposed to see his own hands and arms at the same place that
he would expect them to be. In case of this example, robot
vision is transferred to the user and user kinesthesia is transferred to the robot.
In this system we achieve the spatial coherent correlation
by capturing the stereo visuals from the backhoe and reconstruct on the operators cockpit with a head mounted display.
When the operator changes the point of view (PoV), the remote side cameras has to capture on the same PoV. As shownin Fig. 2(a) a 6 DoF robot system is used to mount the camera
head, where it follows the user movements synchronously.
c The Eurographics Association 2015.

Charith Lasantha Fernando, MHD Yamen Saraiji, Kouta Minamizawa, & Susumu Tachi / Telexistence Backhoe

If the operators hands could be modeled and functional asa robotic hand in the remote robot, he would see his own
hands operating the levers inside the backhoe. However, this
could be very complex and to maintain a very low latency
manipulations, mechanical arms might not be the best option. Thus the operators hands were captured using a depth
camera, segmented from the background and provided as anoverlay to remote video feed. As shown in the Fig. 2(b) the
operator wears a wide angle binocular head mounted displaythat has motion sensors to capture the position and orientation of the head. These data has been used to model the kinematics for driving the robot torso and head. With the above
configuration, when operator moves around to see some specific thing around the vehicle, as shown in Fig. 2(c) the robot
moves accordingly and provides spatial coherent visuals together with his own hands superimposed so that he could
feel the presence inside the remote backhoe manipulating thelevers. Furthermore, with the awareness of the body in vehicle space, the operator could understand the vehicle borders
with respect to the surroundings.

A radio controlled backhoe (Model No: Acera Geospec
SK135SR-2) is used as the main carrier. It can remotely controlled for over a 2km distance with the default remote controller. A 6 DoF telexistence robot system is mounted on thebackhoe’s drivers seat adjusting to match the exact height ofa typical operator.
3.2. Slave Robot System
Head
Pitching

Head
Rolling
Binocular
CamerasHead
YawingFixing Band

Rain Coat

3. System Implementation
3.1. Overview and Operator’s Cockpit

Spine Pitching

Spine RollingIntel NuC, Motor Drivers

Intel NuC, Motor Drivers

Wireless
RepeaterWireless
Transceiver
HMD

Depth
CameraStereoCamerasBackhoe
TORSO
Robot

BackhoeController

Operatorʼs Cockpit

Remote Backhoe

Figure 3: Telexistence Remote Backhoe, System Overview
As shown in Fig. 3 the system can be divided into 3
functional elements. A cockpit where the operator manipulates the remote backhoe, wireless data transmission/retransmission equipment and the slave telexistence backhoe.
On the operator side, commercially available wide angle
HMD (Model No: Oculus Rift DK2) is used to track theusers head motion and provide processed video and audio
data received from the remote telexistence backhoe. For
mobility and manipulating the backhoe arm is controlledwith the default backhoe remote controller. A depth camera placed on front side of HMD front captures the real timehands, controller and superimposed onto the remote video.
A proprietary wireless transceiver operating at 2.4Ghz band
was used to transfer the 3D video data as well as robot commands.
c The Eurographics Association 2015.

Total Weight : 20kg

Figure 4: CAD Drawings of 6 DoF Telexistence Robot
Fig. 4 shows the 6 DOF telexistence slave robot used as
the main component to design and implement the spatial coherent remote drive experience. The robot consists of 3 rotational DOF dexterity which acts as the neck, followed by 2
rotational DOF as hip and 1 translational DOF as the spine.
The position and orientation of the operatorÕs head and upper body is captured from the HMD’s tracking system andIP streamed to the remote site. On the robot side, received
Cartesian space data is converted into the joint space with
Inverse Kinematics and send to the PID controller to calculate the necessary parameters to drive the motors.
Two Full HD camera modules (Model No: Logitech
C615) were used to create the stereo camera module requiredby the system. To match the Oculus interpupillary distance(IPD), two cameras were placed at a distance of 64mm eachCharith Lasantha Fernando, MHD Yamen Saraiji, Kouta Minamizawa, & Susumu Tachi / Telexistence Backhoe

other. To match the field of view (FOV) of the Oculus, camera’s stock lenses were replaced by wide conversion lensunit (Model No: MAGICA-WM) to archive a FOV of 100◦ .
The camera lens unit is very light weight (320g) so that the
dynamics of the human head could be maintained when installed in the 6 DOF robot.
For video grabbing, inverse kinematics and motor control algorithms, a board PC (Model No: IntelR NUC Board
D54250WYB) is used. A PCIe to PCI bus expansion box(Model No: ECH-PCI-CE-H4B) is used to connect the D/A,
A/D and Interrupt Counter boards that has been used in the
robot. PCI expansion box connects to mini PC via a MiniCard (mPCIe) to PCIe X1 bus adaptor (Model No: KZ-B26030) The A/D and interrupt counter boards connects to theencoders and photo interrupters where as motor drivers connects to the D/A board.

Table 1: Spatial Coherent Drive System Specifications
HMD

CamerasDiagonal FOV [deg]

100◦

100◦

Aspect Ratio

16:9

16:9

Sensor [inch]

5.7 LCD

1/3 CMOS

Focal Length [mm]5070 ∼ ∞IPD [mm]64

64

Body Weight [mg]

440

320

Resolution/eye [px]960 × 1080

1280 × 720

Scan Rate [Hz]

60.00

60.00

Latency [ms]20 or less

130 or lessHands Superimpose
Correction

Segmentation

IR Capture

backhoe where the 6 DOF robot (TORSO) mimics operator’s upper-body motion.

Stereo Cameras

HMD
Motion CaptureVideo Processing

Position +Orientation

Image Present

x264 Decodeing
UDP Control Bus

UDP Depay
Port 7000

Operator - Local

Network Connection - Wireless 2.4Ghz

Depth Camera

Video Streaming

Robot Control

I420 Capture

Motor Control

x264 Encoding

IK Solution

UDP Payload

UDP Read
Port 6000

Remote Backhoe - Remote

Figure 5: Data Flow Diagram of Spatial Coherent Drive
SystemFig. 5 shows the data flow diagram of the spatial coherent
drive system. Operators head position and orientation is captured from the Oculus DK2 camera, sent to the remote side
via the UDP control bus. The received data is converted into
joint space that used to drive the 6 DOF robot’s motors. The
robot moves according to the operator, and the stereo camera data was grabbed at 720p resolution at 60fps with I420
format. The frames were then H264 encoded and streamedwith a UDP payload. On the operator’s side the payload
was demuxed, H264 decoded and images were further processed for lens distortion correction, color space correction,and finally applying oculus lens distortion. A depth camera(Model No: Leap Motion) is mounted on the front surfaceof the Oculus to capture the operator’s hands and other selected devices such as controller. Captured IR data cloud issegmented, corrected and the hands were masked out fromthe other noise data.
With the above system, operator could experience motion parallax and binocular parallax 3D vision of the remote

Table. 1 lists the specifications of the entire system. The
end-to-end network latency was calculated with a small experiment setup by placing the remote camera in front of thelocal PC screen. The PC generates a constant blinking Blackand White display pattern and it has been captured throughthe remote camera and feedback to the same local PC. The
Black and White pattern is synced on both sides via a cue
flag that is being sent over the network. The time taken to
travel the pattern is then calculated. Data was captured as
1s intervals, 30 repeats and averaged to get the delay. Sameprocedure was carried several times under different environmental conditions and it was found that the average latency
is 160ms. Since the Oculus DK2 has 20ms latency from input to display on the screen, total delay was calculated as
180ms.
The latency and the picture quality plays a important rolein delivering a smooth embodiment experience over telexistence. The minimum requirement for not getting simulator
sickness and dizziness in virtual reality and telepresence has
been found [NST∗ 12, DGKT15] as latency less than 200ms.
With the latency measurements it was found that the latency
requirements for producing smooth virtual reality experience is satisfied.
4. Field Experiments
4.1. Experimental Procedure
The spatial coherent remote drive system with a telexistence
backhoe was constructed successfully. It has been provedthat the end-to-end latency was not an issue to embody thehuman operator onto the remote backhoe. However, thesevalues are theoretical and far from reality. There are several psychophysical effects related to embodiment as well.
c The Eurographics Association 2015.

Charith Lasantha Fernando, MHD Yamen Saraiji, Kouta Minamizawa, & Susumu Tachi / Telexistence Backhoe

Therefore, to fully understand the capability of operating thebackhoe remotely, a real drive test was conducted.

7000mm
7000mm

3

5

1

4

2

6

7000mm

7000mmStart Location

7000mmFigure 6: 7m long, 8 Shaped Drive Track Course
As shown in Fig. 6 , a 8 shaped test drive route was decided to evaluate the telexistence backhoe remote driving
experience. 3 red traffic cones were placed on the turning
points to indicate the points. The center-to-center distance
was kept at 7000mm which was the standard strict turning
curve specification of the backhoe. Subjects were chosenfrom 3 different groups such as backhoe drivers, remote control backhoe drivers, and non-experienced drivers who does
has training in backhoe driving, but does not practise in an
everyday mannar. Furthermore, all the subjects belongs to
one of the Japanese building construction machinery plant(Obayashi Coorporation)
As shown in Fig. 7, we conducted 2 experiments withthe same procedure, but under different environmental conditions. Backhoe drivers and non-experienced drivers were
given instructions on how to use the remote controller tomove front, back, curve and turn manipulations. Remotecontroller backhoe drivers skipped this step. Arm manipulation was disabled on the remote controller except for the
remote controller backhoe drivers. Once the remote control
explanation was done, they were given HMD to wear, thenthe controller on their hand. They were asked to look straight
front to initialize the local position and connected to the remote backhoe. Once connected, they could see as if they
were inside the backhoe (Fig. 2(c)). Also, before moving to
the start point, when they look down, they could see theirown hands on the remote backhoe and holding the remotecontroller. Telexistence backhoe was parked few meters behind the start point. They were asked to move forward, andtime taken to follow the entire course from start point, turn1 - 6 and return to start point was measured.
The subject sits on a separate cockpit room, 10m behindthe start point and the data communication was occurred
through the dedicated wireless transceiver beamed by twocollinear antennas one on the cockpit room and other ontelexistence backhoe. The experiment coordinator stays behind the subject where he could see the remote backhoe in
his vicinity and was instructed to act immediately and stop
the backhoe if some emergency situation occurs.
c The Eurographics Association 2015.

Figure 7: Experimental Conditions of Telexistence Backhoe
Remote Drive System

4.2. Experiment I: Telexistence Backhoe Drive on a
TarmacThe first experiment was done at a machinery plant(Obayashi Coorporation, Tokyo Machinery Plant, Kawagoe,
Japan) surrounded by many heavy industrial machinery anda tarmac. The experiment was carried out with remote backhoe operators (2), t’backhoe operators (3) non-experienced
backhoe operators (35).
Before assembling the 6 DOF robot on the drivers seat,remote backhoe operators were given the same experimental conditions and the track course where they sit directlyon the backhoe. The same subjects were asked to control
the backhoe in the same track course with remote controller
while looking at the backoe from outside. At this step theoperators moved with the backhoe as they could not see thevisuals from first person perspective. Next, they were given
HMD and drive under completely remote. The time taken tocomplete each manipulation type was tabulated as shown in
Table. 2. As can be seen, the remote control took almost 1.23
times than direct manipulation. However, the operators did
not operate under fully remote manner. Therefore, operatingwith the spatially coherent remote system, drivers achieved
an average time of 330sec.
Table 2: Completion time of Direct, Remote Controlled, andTelexistence Backhoe Driving
Manipulation Type

Duration

Performance Ratio

Direct125sec1

Remote Controller

154sec1.23

Telexistence HMD

330sec

2.64

The telexistence backhoe was experienced by backhoe operators as well as non-experienced backhoe operators. With
just understanding the remote control commands, almost everyone was able to complete the track course successfully

Charith Lasantha Fernando, MHD Yamen Saraiji, Kouta Minamizawa, & Susumu Tachi / Telexistence Backhoe

without hitting the traffic cones. However, the time was notrecorded because the comparison data could not be taken as
they have less experience on driving the real backhoe.

Figure 9: Digging the land and filling

Figure 8: Picking up a Sand Sack and Placing on a
Crosshair marked on tarmac
Next, as shown in Fig. 8, the remote backhoe operators
were further given instructions operate the backhoe arm. A
sand sack (800mm diameter) was placed on the first turning point and was asked to pick it up at it’s handle. They
were able to successfully perform the operation without consuming much time compared to direct manipulation. They
further mentioned that the situational awareness (ability tofreely move on the remote backhoe cockpit) allow them tolook at the surroundings, side mirrors so that they could
build confidence. Also ability to determine the depth using
the stereovision allowed them to understand the arm position correctly on the space that they were embodied. This letthem to perform arm operations much faster than any otherremote controlled backhoe manipulation.
4.3. Experiment II: Telexistence Backhoe Drive on a
Muddy land
Next experiment was carried out in a muddy land (Public Works Research Institute, Tsukuba, Japan). Experiments
were carried out for two days where the first day was sunny
and the second day had heavy rains. The experiments werecarried out with remote backhoe operators (3), backhoe operators (5) non-experienced backhoe operators (25).
The experiment procedure was exactly the same as theprevious and course completion time was recorded. However, it was not compared due to uneven weather conditions through out the subjects. Everyone was able to complete the course successfully without hitting the traffic cones.
The time taken was not significantly different compared to
the first experiment. Once the experiment was finished, remote backhoe operators were asked to perform arm manipulations. As shown in Fig. 9, they were asked to dig the land
and fill a close by place with the rubble. It was confirmedthat the full operation of a backhoe was possible completely
remote as well as under extreme weather conditions.

5. Conclusion
We proposed a system that can operate and manipulate heavymachinery in construction sites remotely using a telexistence
backhoe as if the operator is controlling the machine physically. In order satisfy the above condition, we designed andconstructed a 6 DOF slave robot that can mimic the human upper body movement, a cockpit with motion tracking system and a head mounted display where the operator
was provided with a HD720p ultra low latency audio/video
feedback from the remote backhoe. Spatial coherent driving could help manipulating heavy machinery without any
prior training and perform operations as if they were operating the machinery locally. In order to confirm the abilityof performing remote construction work, several field experiments were carried out with remote backhoe, backhoe,
and non-experienced backhoe operators. A track course was
decided under 2 terrain conditions and the completion timeof track course was compared with the different operatorgroups. It was confirmed that the telexistence backhoe system can perform the full operation of a backhoe including
navigation and arm operations under various environmental conditions as if they were inside the backhoe. Moreover
the low latency video transmission over IP network provedthat the operator could embody himself onto the remote environment due to not getting simulator sickness or dizziness.
Though the currently the backhoe was controlled on a distance of around 100m wireless without any retransmission
the infrastructure supports to tele-operate the backhoe overlong distance, within two countries or even two continents.
This could enable the construction work to be performed uninterrupted (24/7) by operators remotely log-in from anywhere in the world.
Acknowledgement
This project is supported by the New Energy and Industrial
Technology Development Organization of Japan (NEDO)
under the Unmanned Construction Technology Project andcollaborated with Obayashi Corporation.
c The Eurographics Association 2015.

Charith Lasantha Fernando, MHD Yamen Saraiji, Kouta Minamizawa, & Susumu Tachi / Telexistence Backhoe

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