Effectiveness and clinical applications of a safe edible
antimicrobial peptide produced by lactic acid bacteria
Emi Sumida, Kohei Nagatoshi, Takeshi Zendo

1.

Introduction
Recently, dental caries and periodontal
diseases (Figure 1) have been decreasing by
the efforts made by forerunners of the
field,1) but they still remain to be one of themost frequent infectious diseases that humanhave. Bacteria that causes oral infections do
not exist alone to resist their own hosts. The
bacteria colonize on the oral mucous
membrane (e.g., tooth surface, periodontal
tissues, tongue), dentures, and implants
while forming a community with otherresident
microbiota,
andform
mushroom-shaped biofilms like a fortress tomature into pathogenic flora. Recent
researches have started to reveal thatbacteria associated with biofilms have aneffect on systemic illnesses (e.g., articularrheumatism, diabetes).2)3) In addition, whenhosts experience an immunity deficiency
due to any changes including aging, diseases,or medical treatments, opportunistic
infections that lead to resident microbiota
which do not usually exert pathogenicity inordinary settings or an onset of attenuatedmicroorganisms will occur. Problems in the

Figure 1.
Dental caries and periodontal
diseases of the elderly who need nursing care
Periodontal diseases and dental caries are not only resulting inloss of teeth. Due to the progress of periodontal diseases, teeth
with exposed cementum are prone to dental caries on root surface,leading to fractured teeth. The fractured teeth remain in thejawbone for a long time and become a site to form a biofilm to be aroute for infection transmission of bacteria to enter into the body.

mucous membrane due to oral resident
microbiota
can
cause
pain
and
uncomfortable sensation, resulting in
influencing
diet(nutrition
intake).
Aspiration pneumonia, which is often seenamong the elderly, has characteristics ofmultiple recurrences, leading to theemergence of resistant strains of bacteria
and having resistivity against antimicrobial
agents as a consequence;4)5) however, notonly weakened cough reflex, but oral
resident microbiota is also related to theonset of this disease.6) In Japan, which is
now a super-aging society, it is expected tohave an increase of systemic infectious
diseases that are triggered by oral resident
microbiota; this is attributed to an increaseof the population who are not even capableof gargling, and thus requiring nursing care.
On the other hand, Yoneyama et al.
reported that giving oral care to the elderly
population, who requires nursing care,decreased the occurrence of aspiration
pneumonia,7) so it was shown that there is apossibility that oral care can be a means forpreventive therapy for systemic illnesses.
Akutsu et al. reported a high occurrence of
post-operative pneumonia in cases where
pathogenic bacteria were detected in dental
plaque among those who underwent an
operation of esophagus cancer;8) however,theoccurrenceofpost-operativecomplications decreases with introducing
oral care especially at the time of theoperation of head and neck.9) It has beenfrequently shown that oral care is importantfor oral resident microbiota to continue toprevent systemic illnesses and coexist
without turning into pathogenicity.10)-12) In
addition, it has been reported that oral careis superior in terms of health economics.13)
So, what are the requirements to prepare aOral Healthcare

variety of oral care products then? Oral careproducts must be “user friendly” for bothpeople who need nursing care and caregivers
who support them, especially when products
are for those who have a compromised
immune system, those who require nursing
care (for instance, those who are confined tobed, those who are unable to brush their own
teeth, and those who are unable to spit).
In Japan, people enjoy fermented foodincluding miso and soy sauce for everyday
diet, but this is something Japanese people
leverages the characteristics of lactic acidbacterium for flavor and preservation.
Fermented food including dairy products hastaken hold as dietary culture all over theworld, and thus lactic acid bacterium has
been eaten and has coexisted with humans.
This fact proves the high safety and efficacyof lactic acid bacteria. In this paper, wesought a possibility of utilizing lactic acidbacteria as an oral care agent, which has
been used for diet and health enhancement
since ancient time.
2． Efficacy of bacteriocin produced bylactic acid bacteria for medical
purposesBacteriocin is a collective term of
antimicrobial peptide or proteins that aresynthesized on ribosome by various bacteria.
By producing organic acid including lactic
acid and antimicrobial substances such as
alcohol and bacteriocin, lactic acid bacteria
eliminate other bacteria, inhibit the growthof them, and win the struggle for survival.
Nisin A, as a representative of bacteriocins
produced by lactic acid bacteria (Figure 1),
shows an antimicrobial effect against closely
positioned Gram-positive microorganism
and is highly active in lower concentration
than general antimicrobial substances byshowing a reaction on the cell membrane
instantly. On the other hand, it has
characteristics that there is no harm tohumans and is digested with digestive
enzymes in the intestinal tract of humans
and animals so that the burden on theenvironment is minimized, and thus the
chance for resistant bacteria to emerge isextremely small.14)-16) Bacteriocin producedby lactic acid bacteria is a natural and safe
antimicrobial substance and has been used
and researched as food preservative and isgreatly expected to be applied in the field of
medicine.17)
Table 1.

1

2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

Efficacy of nisin A for medical
purposes

It is a peptide that is composed of 34 aminoacids and is degraded with digestive enzymes in
the intestinal tract. It is easily degraded anddoes not remain in the environment.
It has a broad antimicrobial spectrum against
Gram-positive microorganisms that are
analogous bacteria (MRSA, which is amultiply-resistant organism, and VRE(including vancomycin-resistant enterococci)).
It shows antimicrobial activity instantly.
Generally, it functions in lower concentration
than antibiotics.
Targeting precursor substances on cell walls, it
forms pores in the cell membrane; thus, it has
no influence on humans or animals.
It is acid- and heat-resistant and shows a highsafety profile with low pH.
No antimicrobial activities exist against fungi or
Gram-negative bacteria when it is utilized
alone.
There has been no report of resistant bacterium
at a practical level.
It has neither taste nor smell.

3． Nisin,therepresentativeofbacteriocins produced by lactic acidbacteria
3-1. Nisin A
Nisin, the representative of bacteriocins
produced by lactic acid bacteria, is a peptide,which is composed of 34 amino acids thatare produced from a part of strains of
Lactococcus lactis subsp. lactis of lactic
acid bacteria. There are nisin A, Q, and Z,
the analogous bacteria with different aminoacid sequences (Figure 2), and a thoroughresearch on the biosynthesis and mechanismof action have been ongoing.16) Interestingly,
nisin A was found in cheese by a British
dairy farmer in 1928, in the same era as
when Penicillin, the first antibiotics, wasfound. It has a broad antimicrobial activity
against Gram-positive microorganisms.18)19)
It has especially a high antimicrobial activity
against Bacillus and Clostridium bacteria

and is effective for the control oftrophocytes and the sprout inhibition ofendospore. It functions on Listeria as well as
on Staphylococcus bacteria so that nisin A
has been leveraged especially as foodpreservation.16) Following approvals from
WHO (World Health Organization) andFAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of
the United Nations); it was approved as

GRAS (Generally Recognized As Safe) by
FDA (Food and Drug Administration) in the
U.S.20) It was also appointed as a foodadditive in Japan in 200921) and has been
already used as a food preservative in cans,cheese, and so forth in over 50 countries in
the world.22)

Lanthionine
Dehydroalanine
Figure 2.

3-methyl lanthionine
Dehydrobutyrine

2-aminobutyric acid

The structure of nisin A

The gray-colored amino acid residues indicate unusual amino acids (amino acids that are not contained ingeneral proteins) generated by post-translational modification. The solid arrow indicates an amino acid that is
replaced with nisin Z and Q. The dashed arrows indicate amino acids that are replaced with nisin Q alone (thefigure cited from Ishibashi et al., (2014)36)).

3-2. Sterilization mechanism of nisin A
The sterilization effect by nisin A occurs
when pores are formed on the bacterial cell
membrane and relatively large-sizedmolecules including ions or ATP in cells are
emigrated16)23) (Figure 3). To give a detailed
description, as a lipid II target molecule thatis the precursor of cell walls that are present
on the cell membrane of bacteria, nisin
N-terminus binds with pyrophosphoric acidsof lipid II by seemingly wrapping around toenter into the cell membrane.24) The
sterilization effect is seen when pores in 2.5
nm diameter are formed on the cell
membrane by forming a complex with eightnisin molecules and four lipid II molecules,
and intracellular substances are emigrated25)(Figure 4). Affinity to lipid II, which is aprecursor of this fundamental skeleton, isthe reason why nisin shows theantimicrobial activity in such a low
concentration of nM level (Table 2). Lipid II
broadly exists on the surfaces ofGram-positive microorganism, and nisin

Figure 3.
Nisin A’s pore formation on
bacillus subtilis (the arrows show pore
formation) (S. M. Asaduzzaman, et al., (2009)23)
modified and cited)shows the sterilization effect against MRSA

Oral Healthcare(methicillin-resistant staphylococcus aureus),
VRE (vancomycin resistant enterococci),
and so forth.26)-28) On the other hand, nisin
does not show the sterilization effect onhuman cells that do not have lipid II. In
recent years, a possibility of antimicrobial
effect on biofilms has also beenreported.29)30)

Table 2.
Nisin A’s minimum growth
inhibitory concentration (MIC) against main
Gram-positive microorganisms(Fujita, et al., (2007)18) cited)
Bacterial strain

Strain name

Bacillus cereus
Bacillus coagulans
Listeria innocua
Lactococcus lactis
Streptcoccus salivarius
Staphylococcus aureusEnterococcus faecalis

JCM 2152T
JCM 2257T
ATCC 33090T
ATCC 19435T
JCM 5707T
ATCC 12600T
JCM 5803T

MIC(ng/mL)
84.9
30.2
231
265
2520
158
295

Nisin

Lipid II
Nisin
Lipid II
Outside of cell
membrane

Cell membrane

G, N-acetylglucosamine
M, N-acetylmuramic acidPi, phosphoric acid

Cytoplasm

Figure 4.
Nisin’s mechanism of action(Figure modified and cited from Breukink and de Kruijff (2006)25))

4.
NeoNisin®
4-1. Medical compound of highly
purified nisin A and the plum
extracts
Commercially available nisin products areproduced with a salting-out method using alarge amount of salts so that purity is as low
as 2.5% (w/w) with salts and media
components being mixed in, and thus it used
to be difficult to utilize nisin as is except for
the use as a food preservative. Amid thecircumstances, we initiated a developmentof highly purified technology of nisin A with
Sonomoto, et al., from Faculty ofAgriculture, Graduate School, Kyushu
University, using Lactococcus lactis QU53
of lactic acid bacteria detached from “okara(soybean curd refuse)” produced in Fukuoka.

As a result, we were able to establish anindustrial production system for highly
purified nisin A that is 90% or higher(w/w).31) The highly purified nisin A wassuperior to the conventional nisin products
in terms of quality (purity) and preservative
safety (Figure 5).
Nisin A has high purity, but unlike
Gram-positive bacteria, it cannot passthrough “exterior walls” of Gram-negative
bacteria,
which
consistof
lipopolysaccharide and are present at theouter side of cell walls, so that nisin does notshow any effect when it is used by itself.32)
However, it is known that nisin A will gain asterilization
effecteven
againstGram-negative bacteria by using in
combination with chelating agents and soforth that destroy and eliminate the exterior
walls.33) On the other hand, the plum
extracts show antimicrobial activity in acertain concentration, but it has a strong sour
taste, and thus is not suitable for oral use. As
a result of conducting a combination test
between highly purified nisin A and various
plant-derived constituents, Nagatoshi founda unique compounding ratio of nisin A andthe plum extracts, which has a synergy effectwith nisin A and shows antimicrobialactivity against Gram-negative bacteria anddoes seldom influence the taste, leading to
an improvement of the weakness against
Gram-negative bacteria.34) The number of
viable bacteria was measured after adding
10 µL of Escherichia coli (JCM 1649
strains: 103 - 104 CFU/mL), which isGram-negative bacteria, to nisin A or
NeoNisin® test solution (10 mL) andcontacting for 24 hours. With this, it was
found that NeoNisin® could almost
completely sterilize Escherichia coli (Figure
6).
Nisin A

Residue nisin activation (%)

Highly purified
nisin A

causative microorganism for pneumonia,
food poisoning, epidermis infection, and soforth;
and3)
Aggregatibacter
actinomycetemcomitans(A.a.
bacteria,
Gram-negative bacteria) that is a periodontal
disease-related microorganism. After theabove three types of test microorganisms(105 CFU/mL) were added to NeoNisin® test
solution (200 µL) and contacted for 10
minutes at 37°C, they were cultured at theagar medium, and the number of viablebacteria was measured to calculate thesurvival rate. As a result, almost all S.
mutans and A.a. bacteria were sterilized,
and an obvious sterilization effect against S.
aureus was also observed (Figure 7).
Next, we examined the sterilization effectagainst Porphyromonas gingivalis (P.
gingivalis, Gram-negative bacteria) thatbelongs to red complex,35) a group with thehighest pathogenicity among periodontal
disease causative microorganisms. Afterinjecting P. gingivalis into NeoNisin® test
solution and culturing for 48 hours, theturbidity of the culture medium (600 nm)
wasmeasuredtocalculatethe®
anti-proliferative effect. NeoNisin showed
a great effect even in a very low
concentration (Figure 8).

Time (days)

Figure 5.
Preservation stability of highly
purified nisin A and conventional nisin A (40°C)

4-2. Efficacy of NeoNisin® on oral
bacteria
In order to confirm the efficacy of newly
developed NeoNisin®, tests were conductedagainst the following: 1) Streptococcus
mutans(S.
mutans,Gram-positive
microorganism) that is a causative
microorganism for dental caries; 2)
Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus ，Gram-positive microorganism) that can be a

Figure 6.

Effect of NeoNisin® on Escherichia
coliOral Healthcare

NeoNisin added(Duration ofaction 10 minutes)

Survival rate (%)

Pre-treatment

A.a. bacteria
Pretreatment

NeoNisin

S. aureus

Pretreatment

NeoNisin

Pretreatment

NeoNisin

A.a. bacteria

Figure 7. Effect of NeoNisin® on S. aureus, S.
mutans, and A.a. bacteria
Figure 9. Sterilization rate and speed of
NeoNisin® on S. mutans and A.a.
bacteria

Figure 8. Anti-proliferative effect of
NeoNisin® against P. gingivalis

Figure 10. Gel type and spray type of
Oralpeace®
Furthermore, after making S. mutans andA.a. bacteria contact NeoNisin® for a certain
period of time, they were cultured in theagar medium, and the number of viablebacteria was measured to calculate thesterilization rate. As a result, almost all
bacteria were annihilated within a minute, ashort duration of action, and NeoNisin®
showed the sterilization effect instantly(Figure 9).
With these results, it was showed that
NeoNisin® has a possibility of having an
instant and robust sterilization effect on both
Gram-positive
andGram-negative
microorganisms that can become bacteria tocompose biofilms in the oral cavity.
Especially, the obvious sterilization effect on
S. mutans, P. gingivalis，and A.a. bacteria

indicates a great possibility to become apreventative agent for dental caries andperiodontal diseases, which are two majordiseases in dentistry.
5.

Novelty and clinical applications ofOralpeace®
Oralpeace® developed by Trife Inc. is anoral care product that contains NeoNisin®
and is available in gel and spray. All
ingredients besides NeoNisin® are also
edible, so it is harmless even whenswallowed, and thus it is available forpatients who are not capable of spitting out,
including those who need nursing care andpeople with disability. By applying at theback of dentures, not only it can prevent
infections, but also it can protect the mucous

membrane by moistening and so forth. It hasa sterilization effect on bacteria but has noeffect on human cells. It is also degraded in
the intestinal tract but does not disturb
intestinal flora. Continuous and recurrent
usage is accepted during not only
post-operative periods, but also woundhealing periods, and it is safe to swallow.
Oral care products with these characteristics
did not exist so far. There are three types offlavors and they are available in gel andspray (Figure 10). The spray type, inparticular, has characteristics where patientscan directly spray it into the mouth andswallow, and thus making oral care possible
in places where gargling is not feasible, suchas, in the office or on transportation (e.g., inairplanes or on trains), and also on the bed
or futon mattress. Together with the daily
use with toothbrushing, Oralpeace® will add
a custom of performing oral care anytime
anywhere so that it is thought that biofilm
formation triggered by oral resident
microbiota can be inhibited more effectively.
In addition, “Oralpeace for Pet” waslaunched as an oral care product for pets.
NeoNisin® is expected to have the same
effect on animal oral cavities as in humandue to its mechanism of action. With this, it
is interesting not only that a custom to
conduct oral care for pets on a daily basis
can be proposed as it is safe for pets thatcannot gargle or spit even if they lick or
swallow the product, but also that people
who have pets can feel close to their own
pets since the lineup packaging used for pets
is same as the one used for humans.

Acknowledgment We express our gratitude to Prof.
Hitoshi Komatsuzawa and Dr. Miki Matsuo from
Oral Microbiology, Developmental Medicine,
Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences of
Kagoshima University for help given for experiments
and so forth to write this paper. Also, we wish to
thank for the knowledge on Bacteriocins by Prof.
Kenji Sonomoto from Laboratory of Applied
Microbiology, Seminar of System Bioengineering,
Department of Vital Functions Science Faculty ofAgriculture, Graduate School, Kyushu University. We
offer our sincere gratitude for the cooperation.

6.

10)

Conclusion
It is considered that the possibilities ofusing bacteriocins for medical purposes will
expand to the fields where direct spraying
contacts can be achieved, such as nasal
cavity, pharynx, and skin. Going forward,
we would like to examine these possibilities
and clinical benefits both in humans andanimals while thoroughly considering thecharacteristics, the mechanism of action, andso forth of bacteriocins.

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Effectiveness and clinical applications of a safe edible antimicrobial peptide produced bylactic acid bacteria
Abstract: Recently many cases have been reported that biofilms created by oral resident microbiota trigger
not only dental caries and periodontitis but also various systemic illnesses. Nisin A, a bacteriocin peptide
produced by lactic acid bacteria, has properties to instantly sterilize Gram-positive bacteria. In addition, it
is harmless to human cells and degradable by digestive enzymes, and has neither taste nor smell. Nisin A is
widely used in over 50 countries as a food preservative, and at the practical level no acquired resistantbacteria against nisin A have been reported. Neonisin®, a newly developed antimicrobial agent based onplum extracts and nisin A, sterilizes Gram-negative bacteria also, which are tolerant to nisin A alone, as aresult of chelating action caused by the plum extracts. Utilizing Neonisin®, Trife Inc. further developed aproduct for oral care, named Oralpeace®. Trife succeeded in production of highly purified nisin A, withvery low levels of impurities and salts, which is applied to produce Neonisin® and Oralpeace®. Since
Oralpeace® consists only of edible ingredients, patients that have difficulties in gargling and spitting canuse it safely. Bacteriocins from lactic acid bacteria are being found to have great potential for medical
purposes such as prevention of bacterial infections in body parts with possible skin contact as well as foodpreservation.
Key words: nisin, antimicrobial peptide, food preservative, lactic acid bacteria, oral care, opportunistic
infection, oral diseases, antibiotic-resistant bacteria

Emi Sumida*1

Kohei Nagatoshi*2

Takeshi Zendo*3*1

Sakamoto Dental Clinic
Yayoi Building 2-D, 7-3-1, Oshima, Koto-ku, Tokyo, 136-0072*2
Ecofriendly institute Ltd.
1-7-14 Okada, Chikuno-shi, Fukuoka, 818-0013*3
Department of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Faculty of Agriculture, Graduate School, Kyushu
University
6-10-1 Hakozaki, Higashi-ku, Fukuoka-shi, Fukuoka, 812-8581*1 1995
1997
2005
2005
2009
*2 1995
1995
2000
2002
2007
2012
*3 2004
2004
2006
2007

Graduation from School of Dentistry, Tokyo Medical and Dental University
Completion of Internship (medical staff) at School of Dentistry Hospital Tokyo Medical and Dental
University
Completion of the doctoral course at Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences and ResearchInstitutes Tokyo Medical and Dental University
Contract medical staff at Department of Dental and Oral Surgery, Kawasaki Social Insurance
Hospital
Dentist (Doctor of Medical Dentistry) at Sakamoto Dental Clinic (Koto-ku, Tokyo) as of today
Graduation of Faculty of Agriculture Chemistry, Department of Agriculture, Hokkaido University
Tsukuba Research Institute, Adeka Clean Aid Corporation
Fundamental Research Center, Kansaikoso Co. Ltd.
Development Division, Omu Brand
Founded Quark Bio LLPFounded Ecofriendly institute Ltd. Working as of today
Completion of the doctoral course at Graduate School of Bioresource and Bioenvironmental
Sciences, Kyushu University
Researcher at Faculty of Agriculture, Graduate School, Kyushu University
Assistant at Faculty of Agriculture, Graduate School of Kyushu University
Assistant Professor at Faculty of Agriculture, Graduate School of Kyushu University as of today