NUTRIENT TIMINGTHE FUTURE OF SPORTS NUTRITIONJohn Ivy, Ph.D.,

Original Publisher's Copyright Page

Table of Contents
In Memory of
Acknowledgments
Foreword
Introduction
PART I:NUTRIENT TIMING PRINCIPLES
1:
Nutrient Timing
2:
Muscle Energy Systems and Fuel Utilization
3:
The Influence of Hormones on Muscle Growth and Development
PART II:NUTRIENT TIMING SYSTEM
4:NTS Energy Phase5:
NTS Anabolic Phase
6:
NTS Growth Phase
PART III:INCORPORATING NUTRIENT TIMING INTO YOUR TRAINING
7:
Making Nutrient Timing Work for You
8:
The NTS Nutrition Program
PART IV:NUTRITION AND PERFORMANCE
9:

Nutrient Activators and Sports Supplements
10:
The Right Macronutrients
11:
The Right MicronutrientsPART V:MUSCLE FUNCTION AND ADAPTATION
12:How Muscles Work and Adapt to Training
Conclusion
Glossary
Caloric Expenditure Calculator
Meal Plan Templates
Bibliography
About the Authors
Back Cover Material
Index“Nutrient Timing represents the next important nutrition concept in the twenty-first
century and will teach readers how to optimize their exercise and recovery metabolism tobetter achieve their fitness and body-development goals. It is a must-read for anyone
interested in physical fitness, performance, and health.”—William J. Kraemer, Ph.D.
Professor, University of Connecticut“Drs. Ivy and Portman have made a major contribution to the field of sports nutrition.
They’ve shown that consuming the right nutrients at the right time optimizes the adaptive
response of skeletal muscle.”—Jose Antonio, Ph.D., C.S.C.S., F.A.C.S.M.
President, International Society of Sports Nutrition“Drs. Ivy and Portman have written a classic. Their science filled book dispels old myths
and should be mandatory reading for all strength athletes.”—Paul Goldberg, M.S., R.D., C.S.C.S.
Strength and Conditioning Coach, Colorado Avalanche“The most important thing to add to your routine that will maximize your workouts is
Nutrient Timing.”—Susan M. Kleiner, Ph.D., R.D., F.A.C.N., C.N.S.
Author of Power Eating“Drs. Ivy and Portman take sports nutrition to a new level. Using some of the latest
research they show how nutrients consumed at the appropriate time can work synergisticallyto stimulate enormous gains in muscle mass and strength—a must-read for the strength coachand athlete.”—Michael H. Stone, Ph.D.
Head, Sports Physiology, U.S. Olympic Committee

In Memory of
Image A. Dr. Ed Burke (1950-2002)

Educator, inventor, scientist, coach, mentor, trainer, author, fitness guru,
missionary for sport, and, most of all, a cherished friend

Acknowledgments
We are grateful to the many people who have helped make this book possible. Joey
Antonio, Jeff Stout, Matt Fitzgerald, and William Kraemer offered valuable suggestions andcomments. Special thanks to John Berardi, whose practical observations are found in a
number of chapters, and Susan Kleiner, who helped synthesize the science into an easy-tofollow daily nutrition program.
We would like to acknowledge Norman Goldfind at Basic Health Publications, whorecognized the value of this information and encouraged us to write this book. Special
gratitude to Carol Rosenberg, whose expertise and patience have shepherded this project tosuccessful completion in spite of a very difficult time schedule. Additional thanks to Mina
Rathbun for the medical illustrations, Nancy Martino for her creative suggestions for thecover, and Gary Rosenberg, whose design creativity has made this book come alive.
Most of all, we would like to thank the many researchers and athletes with whom we havebeen associated over the years, whose insights, experience, and studies represent thescientific underpinnings as well as the practical application of Nutrient Timing.
Finally, we would like to thank our wives, Jennifer and Susan, who have been so supportiveof the time and effort necessary to complete this book.

Foreword
In the world of exercise and nutrition, a plethora of books have come out on a host of topics,
but only a few will have a dramatic impact on the field. This is one of those books! It was
written by two consummate scientists who have actually done the work in the laboratory todevelop the theory and test the hypotheses that this book is based on. Therefore, different
from so many of the books in the nutrition and exercise field that line the bookshelves in any
bookstore, this book is the real thing based on scientific facts. Nutrient Timing represents thenext important nutrition concept in the twenty-first century and will teach readers how to
optimize their exercise and recovery metabolism to better achieve their fitness and bodydevelopment goals. It is a must-read for anyone interested in physical fitness, performance,and health.
This book provides readers with a well thought out structure so that they can actuallydevelop a comprehensive understanding of what Nutrient Timing is all about. It is well written
and provides the needed documentation to help athletes understand the reasoning behind thedifferent elements of the program. Most important, it is easy to read, and this is accomplishedby a very well thought out presentation style and topic structure. Finally, it is fun to read as
the story of Nutrient Timing is so vividly portrayed and illustrated with graphs and stories
about studies that one forgets it is a scientifically based book and not an exciting novel.
Implementing the concepts of Nutrient Timing will have a dramatic impact on the success ofany exercise program, giving this book tremendous practical value. Whether one is a distancerunner or weight trainer or any combination, the use of Nutrient Timing is vital in an athlete’s
ability to optimize exercise performance and, even more important, to promote the optimal
recovery from the exercise stress of a workout. Thus, the practical benefits from reading thisbook are real and immense! It allows readers to understand the reasons why somethingneeds to be done in specific order as well as how the body will adapt and respond. This
book provides a step-by-step guide on how to implement and use the concept in apersonalized exercise and nutrition program. One of the many interesting features of thisbook is the use of “Key Takeaways” at the end of each chapter, which underscore what
readers should know and take away from their reading. Impacting the clarity and style of thebook, the authors have carefully considered what readers must get out of a chapter before
they move on. This book provides readers with the opportunity to reflect as they develop theneeded understanding of the Nutrient Timing concept for use in their own exercise andnutrition program.

Finally, I am really excited about this book Nutrient Timing because it brings together in amost eloquent manner an important concept in the field of nutrition and exercise today. It
allows readers to really understand the scientific basis of the concept. It takes them throughan exciting and interesting development of the concept. It is easy to read and understandbecause the information is presented in a manner that allows readers to enjoy the learning
experience as they become partners in developing this concept for their own practical use. It
is a complete look at the concept with practical elements that will dramatically impact
anyone’s training program.
I hope that you will enjoy this book as much as I have and, after reading it, feel that you too
now possess some powerful new tools that will help you optimize your workouts with betteruse of Nutrient Timing! Enjoy.
—William J. Kraemer, Ph.D.
Professor, University of Connecticut

Introduction
Nutrient Timing is a revolutionary new system of exercise nutrition that will allow you to build
more strength and lean muscle mass in less time than ever before. Its methods are safe andnatural, and can be used by anyone—from children to the elderly and from beginning
exercisers to professional bodybuilders and power lifters. Nutrient Timing is not acommercial gimmick. Rather, it is the fruit of cutting-edge scientific insights into exercise
metabolism, physiology, and nutrition.
The seeds of the Nutrient Timing revolution were planted twenty years ago. Before then,sports nutrition for muscle building and strength training was in the dark ages. It was basedon unproven claims, myths, and practices that were not only useless but sometimes evendangerous. There was a feeling that nutrition could help increase muscle strength and leanbody mass and stimulate muscle growth, but there wasn’t much science to support it.
Hoping to correct this situation, exercise physiologists and nutritionists initiated researchstudies that measured the effect of increased protein consumption on muscle growth andstrength. The results were dramatic. This was the beginning of a revolution in sports nutrition
for strength athletes. Old ideas were quickly discarded and a new nutritional paradigm wasestablished. The new paradigm challenged the recommended daily allowance (RDA) for
essential nutrients. Protein intake was emphasized and carbohydrate intake de-emphasized.
Athletes got results. Thus, “protein” has been the mantra among those involved in resistancetraining for the last fifteen years.
However, as strength athletes became more intelligent about nutrition and began adopting the
new nutrition paradigm with good results, they began to notice what is called the “plateau
phenomenon.” This phenomenon is characterized by stagnation in muscle strength andgrowth. Even following the established recommended exercise and diet guidelines did notseem to prevent the plateau phenomenon from occurring.
Eager to tackle this problem, we, along with other colleagues, have become involved ingroundbreaking sports-nutrition research. This research adds a new dimension to sports
nutrition—the dimension of time. Until now, the strength athlete has focused entirely on what
to eat. The latest research is providing powerful proof that when nutrients are consumed
may be even more important. This emerging research on nutrition and how to activate natural
anabolic (muscle-building) agents is again changing the way we look at building muscle.
These findings form the underpinnings of the next revolution in sports nutrition—Nutrient
Timing—which promises to help athletes break through plateaus and achieve higher levels ofstrength and power.
The easiest way to understand the principles of Nutrient Timing is to look at how the
automobile fuel system evolved. In older cars, the primary fuel-delivery device was the
carburetor. Older carburetors delivered a crude mixture of oxygen and gasoline to thepistons, which converted this mixture into the power that drives the car. If too much oxygenor gasoline was added to the carburetor, the engine stalled. Carburetors were the standard
for almost 100 years, but eventually they gave way to fuel injectors. Fuel injectors are far
more efficient in converting oxygen and gas into maximum energy because the mixture isdelivered at precisely the time when the piston needs it. Newer cars even have a computerthat drives the fuel injectors, making the timing of the delivery of fuel even more precise. As aresult, today’s cars get better performance out of the same tank of gas.
That’s what Nutrient Timing is all about. Until now, strength athletes have used an old
carburetor approach to generate muscle growth and energy. The only improvement has beenin the type of fuel. We know that certain types of protein are “higher octane” and give better
results. But the high-octane protein is still being delivered with imprecise timing by an old“carburetor.” By following the principles of Nutrient Timing, you’ll be able to deliver the
precise amounts of protein and other necessary nutrients at precisely the right time tomaximize muscle growth.
Some of the leading sports scientists from the fields of nutrition, exercise physiology, andmolecular biology have contributed to these findings. Nutrient Timing is a program built on
science. This book includes references to many of the scientific studies related to Nutrient
Timing and also provides an extensive bibliography so that you can review the studies
yourself, if you wish.

yourself, if you wish.
The exciting new science of Nutrient Timing will enable you to achieve more dramatic resultsin muscle growth and strength than you ever thought possible. Nutrient Timing will enable you
to minimize muscle damage and soreness after a hard workout, and your “plateau
phenomenon” will become just a bad memory. By applying the principles of Nutrient Timing,
you can actually sculpt a better body with more lean muscle mass, less fat, and more power
without changing your exercise program or even your total caloric intake.
Nutrient Timing is, above all, a practical program. The information in this book will change
the way you look at nutrition and, more important, change the results you get from your hardtime in the gym. We’ll show you specifically how to apply the latest findings to change theway your body builds muscle, burns fat, and stores energy for the next workout.
As scientists, we are excited about these findings. As athletes, we are applying them to ourown programs and have experienced results firsthand. Nutrient Timing is the future of sports
nutrition. Read on to learn how to make it work for you.

PART I: NUTRIENT TIMING PRINCIPLES

1: Nutrient TimingDuring a muscle’s twenty-four-hour growth cycle, there are periods when the muscle isactively involved in producing energy, periods when it is recovering, and periods when it is
growing. For the metabolic machinery of the muscle to function at its best during each ofthese periods, the appropriate amounts and types of nutrients must be consumed at theappropriate times.
Depending on its metabolic needs at any given time, the muscle machinery can be directed to
produce and replenish muscle glycogen (the stored form of glucose) or synthesize muscle
protein. Each of these operations requires different types of nutrients, and if you’re able todeliver the right nutrient mixture to the muscles at the right time, you can greatly enhancerecovery from exercise and improve muscle growth, strength, and power.
To understand why Nutrient Timing is such a revolutionary concept, we must first take a lookat sports nutrition over the past twenty years. The focus of sports nutrition has been on thetypes of nutrients that are best for the strength athlete. It was quickly recognized that strength
athletes need more protein than is recommended for the average person and that anincreased consumption of protein could improve muscle development.
This has led to a “bulk nutrition” mentality. If protein is good, then more protein must be
better. Unfortunately, you can consume the protein of an entire cow, but if your muscles are
not receptive at that particular time, the protein will be wasted. And, in fact, the evidence
indicates that very few strength athletes fail to get enough protein to support muscle growth.
Then why do so many athletes plateau in their training? The answer lies in when nutrients are
consumed, which is what Nutrient Timing is all about. By consuming the same amount of
nutrients, but keying your consumption to the three phases of muscle growth discussed
below, you will be able to avoid the plateau effect and achieve far greater gains in muscle
strength and muscle mass.

THE THREE PHASES OF THE NUTRIENT TIMING SYSTEM (NTS)
There are three phases of the Nutrient Timing System: the Energy Phase, the Anabolic
Phase, and the Growth Phase.
The Energy Phase
The Energy Phase coincides with your workout. The primary metabolic objective of themuscle during this phase is to release sufficient energy to drive muscle contraction. Most
athletes recognize the importance of consuming carbohydrates during exercise both toprevent depletion of muscle glycogen stores, which helps extend endurance, and to maintainblood glucose levels, which helps delay fatigue. Nutrient Timing, however, entails more thanjust consuming carbohydrates during exercise. Research has shown that when you consume
carbohydrates with protein, specific amino acids, and vitamins, you will be able to sparemuscle glycogen and achieve greater muscular endurance, blunt the rise in the catabolic
hormone cortisol (thereby reducing muscle damage), and help prepare your muscle enzymes
for a faster recovery following your workout.
The Anabolic Phase
The Anabolic Phase is the forty-five-minute window following a workout in which yourmuscle machinery, in the presence of the right combination of nutrients, initiates the repair ofdamaged muscle protein and replenishes muscle glycogen stores. Immediately after exercise,muscle cells are extremely sensitive to the anabolic effects of the hormone insulin. Thissensitivity, however, declines rapidly, as shown in Figure 1.1, and, after several hours,
muscle cells even become insulin resistant. Insulin resistance is a condition that dramaticallyslows muscle glycogen recovery, repair of existing muscle, and synthesis of new muscle.
As you read this book, you will come to understand why consumption of carbohydrates
during this time period is so important for driving muscle glycogen recovery and muscle tissue
repair and synthesis. You’ll also learn why protein consumed without carbohydrate is far lessefficient during the Anabolic Phase. Moreover, you’ll learn why specific antioxidants such asvitamins C and E and amino acids can speed muscle recovery.
Figure 1.1. Closing of Metabolic Window: Without nutrient intervention, themetabolic window begins to close within forty-five minutes following exercise.

The Growth Phase
The Growth Phase extends from the end of the Anabolic Phase to the beginning of the next
workout. It is the time when the muscle enzymes are involved in increasing the number ofcontractile proteins and the size of muscle fibers, as well as in helping the muscle fully
replenish muscle glycogen depleted during the Energy Phase. During the Growth Phase,
consumption of carbohydrate and protein is essential to maintain optimal muscle growth. The
latest research shows that a high intake of protein can be of significant benefit to the strength
athlete if protein is consumed at the correct time. By following the Nutrient Timing System,
you’ll be able to maintain a high anabolic state and restore muscle glycogen, repair muscle
tissue damage, and synthesize new muscle.

IMPORTANT CONCEPTS IN THE NUTRIENT TIMING SYSTEMThe Nutrient Timing System is going to challenge much of what you’ve been taught to believe
about exercise nutrition. For the past twenty years, nutritionists, exercise physiologists, andstrength athletes have painted nutrients in black-and-white terms: “Sugar is bad and protein isgood.” These generalized prejudices may be useful in building an overall healthy diet, but theyoften don’t take into account the metabolic realities of muscle cells during and after exercise.
Following are three true statements that most strength athletes would find pretty hard tobelieve. They illustrate important concepts in the Nutrient Timing System.
“A low-quality protein can be more effective in stimulating protein synthesis than ahigh-quality protein.”
Everything that you have heard or read would suggest that the above statement is false. The
shelves of health food stores are filled with products proclaiming their superiority because
they contain a better-quality protein. However, the effectiveness of any protein product islargely dependent on when you take it.
Muscles can modify their metabolic activity in response to changing needs and various stimuli
at any given instant. This is called “metabolic sensitivity.” A good example is the effect of thehormone insulin. If insulin is stimulated when you are not exercising, it can cause a conversionof carbohydrate into fat, which is the last thing a strength athlete needs. However, in theforty-five minutes after a workout (the Anabolic Phase), the metabolic machinery of themuscle is extremely sensitive to insulin. Insulin has been shown to drive the rebuilding, or
anabolic activity, of the muscle. Nutrients consumed during this postexercise “metabolic
window” are much more effective than those consumed later, when the muscle becomesinsulin resistant.
Let’s look at our shocking but true statement in the light of Nutrient Timing. Consuming apoor-quality protein, such as corn, during the forty-five-minute postexercise metabolic
window will actually result in greater protein synthesis than consuming a high-quality protein,such as whey protein isolate, two hours later. And the difference is not small. The highquality protein consumed two hours later may result in 85 percent less protein synthesis
compared with the corn protein taken immediately after the workout. In Chapter 5, you willfind out why.
“Sugar can stimulate protein synthesis.”

For strength athletes, “sugar,” or carbohydrate, is the poster boy for bad nutrition. Nutrition
articles in bodybuilding and strength-training publications routinely discuss the negative effectsof carbohydrates. Much of what they say is true—up to a point. Unfortunately, your muscle
cells do not read articles appearing in the popular press. This brings us to the second
essential concept of Nutrient Timing. It’s called “nutrient activation.”Your muscle cells never rely on a single nutrient. Rather, muscle metabolism is a tightly
scripted symphony involving fat, carbohydrate, protein, vitamins, minerals, and water. The
proportions of nutrients consumed can significantly affect the degree to which you are able toachieve the results you are seeking. Consuming too much carbohydrate may result inincreased body fat. Consuming too much protein or consuming it at the wrong time may
produce no benefit except to the manufacturers of protein powders.
An excellent example of nutrient activation is the addition of simple (high-glycemic) sugars toprotein. Studies have shown that a high-glycemic carbohydrate/protein supplement candramatically enhance protein synthesis. In fact, in one study, a high-glycemic
carbohydrate/protein drink was 38 percent more effective in stimulating protein synthesisthan a conventional protein drink.
The reason for this effect is that the high-glycemic carbohydrates can serve as nutrient
activators. Consuming high-glycemic carbohydrates following exercise stimulates insulin, oneof the most important regulators of protein synthesis following exercise. When insulin is
stimulated in the presence of protein, the result is greater synthesis of new protein. In otherwords, carbohydrates prime the protein pump by first stimulating insulin. A complex
carbohydrate is less effective because it is a weaker stimulator of insulin.
By now you may be thinking that this book is about the benefits of carbohydrates. It is not.
But there are certain times—namely during and immediately following workouts—when the
addition of simple carbohydrates can have dramatic effects on the muscle cells’ anabolic
processes, which can lead to greater increases in muscle strength and endurance.
“Sugar is more effective than protein in preventing protein degradation in themuscle.”
The third important concept in the Nutrient Timing System is “nutrient optimization.” Theconsumption of certain nutrients at specific times not only can help the muscle recover faster,
but can also shift the metabolic machinery from a catabolic state into an anabolic one.
Following strenuous exercise, there is a significant increase in blood cortisol levels. Cortisol isthe enemy of strength athletes because it breaks down muscle protein; however, its release isa normal part of the body’s response to the stress of exercise. By consuming carbohydrates
during exercise, you can reduce the cortisol response and thereby lessen protein breakdown.
Consumption of high-glycemic sugars increases blood insulin levels. Among its many effects,
insulin prevents protein degradation. Thus, by increasing insulin levels postexercise in thepresence of other essential nutrients such as protein, you can turn off the muscle’s catabolic
switch and turn on its anabolic one.
You may still be skeptical. However, we encourage you to reserve final judgment until
you’ve read more about the Nutrient Timing System. We will challenge some of your longheld beliefs and introduce you to many new ideas about exercise and nutrition. You’ll findthat the bulk theory of protein consumption gives you a false sense of accomplishment andmay even hinder muscle development. You’ll learn about the critical metabolic window
during which you have an opportunity to double or triple protein synthesis. You’ll learn how
carbohydrates can increase blood flow to your muscles, and you’ll find out why two small
helpings of protein may be more effective than a single large helping. Nutrient Timing can also
show you how to reduce your susceptibility to colds and infection.
Finally, you will soon realize that the Nutrient Timing System is a simple one. You won’t haveto walk around with a stopwatch timing every meal to the last millisecond. All you’ll have to
do is recognize that there are critical times during and after exercise to stimulate the muscle’s
natural anabolic agents. Best of all, you’ll see the results almost immediately.
Table 1.1 explains when the three Nutrient Timing phases fall in relation to your daily
workout and the benefits of consuming the right combination of nutrients within each phase.
Chapters 4, 5, and 6 describe the metabolic processes that take place in the three phases ofyour muscles’ growth cycle and why nutrient intervention can play a critical role. And in
Chapters 7 and 8, we show you how to easily incorporate the Nutrient Timing System into
your own training program.
TABLE 1.1. Nutrient Timing System (NTS) Phases and Goals
NTS
What
Time
Phase
NTS Can Do for You
10 minutes prior to and during a
Increase nutrient delivery to muscles
ENERGY
workout
and spare muscle glycogen and protein
Limit immune system suppression
Minimize muscle damage
Set the nutritional stage for a fasterrecovery following your workout
Shift metabolic machinery from aANABOLIC

Within 45 minutes after a workout

Shift metabolic machinery from acatabolic state to an anabolic state
Speed the elimination of metabolic
wastes by increasing muscle blood
flow
Replenish muscle glycogen stores
Initiate tissue repair and set the stage
for muscle growth
Reduce muscle damage and bolster the
immune system

Rapid Segment: The first 4 hours after
Maintain increased insulin sensitivity
a workout
Maintain the anabolic state
Sustained Segment: The next 16-18 Maintain positive nitrogen balance andhours after a workout
stimulate protein synthesis
Promote protein turnover and muscle
development
Table 1.1
KEY TAKEAWAYS 1• During a muscle’s twenty-four-hour growth cycle, it is uniquely sensitive to specificnutrients at different times.
• The Nutrient Timing System divides the muscles’ twenty-four-hour growth cycle into
three phases: Energy Phase (your workout), Anabolic Phase (the first forty-five minutes
after your workout), and Growth Phase (the rest of the day).
• If you deliver the right nutrient mixture to the muscles at the right time, you can
improve muscle growth, strength, and power.
• Metabolic sensitivity is the inherent property of muscles to modify their function
depending on the needs and nutrients available.
• Nutrient activation is the combined action of different nutrients to produce asynergistic effect.
• Nutrient optimization is the shifting of muscle from a catabolic state to an anabolicstate by making available key nutrients at the appropriate time.
GROWTH

2: Muscle Energy Systems and Fuel Utilization
Exercise and nutrition have equal roles in relation to muscle development. Intense resistance
exercise is required to stimulate muscle tissue remodeling and to increase muscle protein
levels and other physiological adaptations that add up to bigger, stronger muscles. Nutritionis needed both to fuel workouts so that they can be more intense and stimulate more
pronounced adaptations and to provide the raw materials for those adaptations that occur
between workouts.
In order to best understand the NTS system, you need a basic understanding of therelationship between nutrition and energy production, on the one hand, and between nutrition
and recovery, on the other hand. In this chapter, we will focus on how and where muscles
derive their energy. If you would like more detailed information on muscle structure, function,and how to optimize muscle growth through training, please refer to Chapter 12.

ATP—THE ENERGY CURRENCY OF THE MUSCLE CELL
Muscle contraction requires a precise amount and appropriate timing of energy release fromfuel stored in the muscle. When the muscle cell receives the signal from the brain to contract,energy stored in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is converted into the energy todrive contraction. This requires that a phosphate molecule be separated from ATP, forming
adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and inorganic phosphate (Pi). ATP is the only source ofenergy that can drive muscle contraction. However, there is only enough ATP stored in themuscle to support a maximal effort for a few seconds. Therefore, ATP must be continually
replenished or muscle contraction will stop.
To maintain ATP levels during contraction, the muscle relies on both anaerobic (without
oxygen) and aerobic (with oxygen) energy systems as seen in Figure 2.1. The proportion ofenergy provided by these systems is intensity-related. The higher the intensity of contraction,
the greater the reliance on the anaerobic energy system. The lower the intensity, the greater
the reliance on the aerobic energy system. If you are doing six sets of squats, you will rely on
your anaerobic energy system to produce ATP because squats are high-intensity, explosive
movements. But if you are planning to jog a mile, you will rely on your aerobic system toproduce ATP.
Figure 2.1. Muscle Energy Systems: ATP is the only molecule that drives muscle

Figure 2.1. Muscle Energy Systems: ATP is the only molecule that drives muscle
contraction. Since the amount of ATP in the muscle is very limited (enough for only
two to three seconds of intense muscle activity), it must be continuously supplied
through both anaerobic and aerobic pathways. There are two anaerobic pathways: thephosphagen and glycolytic pathways. These pathways provide immediate ATP but inlimited amounts and are critical for high-intensity, short-duration exercise. The
aerobic pathway is necessary for sustained energy. It is far more efficient in producing
ATP than the anaerobic pathways, but cannot produce ATP as rapidly. The aerobic
pathway provides energy for low- to moderate-intensity exercise of longer duration byusing carbohydrates, fat, and even protein as fuel.

ANAEROBIC ENERGY SYSTEM
The anaerobic replenishment of ATP can occur either by the breakdown of creatine
phosphate (CP), another high-energy compound stored in muscle like ATP, or by glycolysis.
Phosphagen System
Because ATP and CP are high-energy phosphate compounds, they are referred to as
phosphagens, and the energy system in which these compounds are used for the liberation ofenergy for muscle contraction is referred to as the phosphagen system. CP is the immediate
supplier of energy for the formation of ATP. As CP is broken down to creatine and Pi, it
releases energy for the rapid replenishment of ATP. There is a sufficient amount of CP stored
in the muscle to support a maximal effort for eight to twelve seconds. Without this system,
fast, powerful movements such as sprinting could not be performed.
Glycolysis
A second anaerobic system in which ATP is produced is glycolysis. Glycolysis generates

A second anaerobic system in which ATP is produced is glycolysis. Glycolysis generates
ATP by the breakdown of carbohydrate stored in the muscle in the form of glycogen andblood glucose. Glycolysis cannot produce ATP as fast as the breakdown of CP, but it is still
considerably faster than aerobic metabolism. Unfortunately, glycolysis is a relatively inefficientmeans of producing ATP and one of its byproducts, lactic acid, if produced in highconcentrations, will interfere with muscle contraction and adversely affect performance.
However, glycolysis, like the phosphagen system, is extremely important at the onset of
exercise, when oxygen availability is limited and when the energy demand exceeds theenergy-producing capability of the aerobic energy system.

AEROBIC ENERGY SYSTEM
In order for the muscles to continuously produce the force needed during long-term physicalactivity, they must have a steady supply of energy. In the presence of oxygen, the muscle isable to break down carbohydrate, fat, and, when needed, protein to generate ATP. Aerobic
metabolism, or “cellular respiration,” is a very efficient way of generating energy for muscle
contraction. However, there is a trade-off for this increased efficiency, which is an energy
production slower than that of the anaerobic energy systems. Aerobic energy production
occurs in small organelles within the muscle fiber called “mitochondria.” The mitochondria arelike small energy-producing factories, which convert the energy stored in carbohydrate andfat into ATP. The more mitochondria in a muscle, the greater the muscle’s potential for
aerobic energy production.
Carbohydrate as a Fuel Source
The carbohydrate that is used during aerobic metabolism comes from the muscle glycogenstores and blood glucose. Glycogen is the form in which carbohydrate is stored in the body.
In an average-size man, about 525 grams of glycogen are stored in the muscle with another25 grams of glucose in the blood. The liver stores an additional 100 grams of glycogen,which can be broken down to glucose and released into the blood to maintain blood glucose
as it is being used by the tissues of the body. The amount of energy stored as carbohydrate in
the body is about 2,600 calories, of which 80 percent or 2,000 calories can be used. This isenough energy for about two hours of moderate exercise.
Figure 2.2 summarizes the energy characteristics of the different metabolic pathways.
Figure 2.2. Relative Duration of Exercise Performance When Maximizing Energy
Utilization from the Different Metabolic Pathways

Fat as a Fuel Source
Fat is the body’s most concentrated fuel source. Unlike carbohydrate stores in your body,fat stores can fuel hours of exercise without running out. In fact, a 200-pound man with 15
percent body fat has stored about 130,000 calories of energy. This is enough energy to run
from Washington, D.C., to Miami. However, because the majority of fat is stored in adipose
tissue, it is not readily available for fueling the muscles. In order to be used as fuel, it mustfirst be broken down into fatty acids, transported from the adipose tissue to the muscle byfirst be broken down into fatty acids, transported from the adipose tissue to the muscle by
the circulatory system, and transported across the plasma membrane of the muscle and theninto the mitochondria. Only in the mitochondria can fatty acids be broken down to provide
the energy for ATP synthesis. This is not a very fast process and therefore energy from fatty
acids can be used only during low- to moderate-intensity exercise.
Protein as a Fuel Source
The use of protein for ATP production occurs when carbohydrate stores are low. Proteins
are made up of amino acids. Of the twenty amino acids that the body uses to make protein,eleven are designated as “nonessential” because they can be produced by the body fromother amino acids and do not need to be obtained from the diet. The other nine are essential
amino acids, which the body cannot synthesize. All the essential amino acids must be present
in order for the body to build or repair muscle. During exercise, when the glycogen stores ofthe liver and muscles are starting to become depleted, muscle proteins are broken down intoamino acids and released into the blood. The amino acids are then carried to the liver andconverted into glucose by a process known as gluconeogenesis. Once converted to glucose
by the liver, the glucose is released back into the blood to help maintain the blood glucose
level and to provide glucose for the active muscles.

SUMMARY
The muscle cell only contains enough ATP to support muscle contraction for a few seconds.
Therefore, in order to produce sufficient amounts of ATP to drive contraction the muscle
relies on several different energy systems. In general, these systems can be characterized by
the exercise duration and intensity that they can support. The anaerobic systems, which
include the phosphagen system and glycolysis, can provide ATP rapidly but for only shortperiods of time. The aerobic system is more efficient in generating ATP but it cannot respondas fast as the anaerobic system. The aerobic system provides the energy necessary to drive
muscle contraction for extended periods of time.
KEY TAKEAWAYS 2• ATP is the only energy source that can be directly used for muscle contraction.
• The anaerobic replenishment of ATP during muscle contraction can occur by thebreakdown of CP and by glycolysis.
• The anaerobic replenishment of ATP is rapid but very inefficient.
• The anaerobic energy system is the predominant supplier of ATP during high-intensity
exercise because of the rapid turnover of ATP.
• The aerobic energy system resides in the mitochondria of the muscle cell and requires
oxygen for ATP production.
• The aerobic energy system can use carbohydrates, fats, and protein to replenish
ATP.
• Using the aerobic energy system is an efficient way of replenishing ATP, but it is muchslower than the anaerobic system.
• The aerobic energy system is the predominant supplier of ATP during low- tomoderate-intensity exercise.

3: The Influence of Hormones on Muscle Growth andDevelopment
Every athlete who does resistance exercise knows at least a little bit about hormones. They
are the agents that drive muscle development. In general, athletes classify hormones as good(anabolic) or bad (catabolic). But this is too simplistic. Even the so-called “bad” hormones
are essential because they break down nutrients that provide the energy to drive muscle
contraction. Even the “good” ones often stimulate reactions, such as increased fat deposition,that are not considered beneficial to the strength athlete.
Hormones are chemical messengers. In response to certain stimuli, they are released fromone organ and travel via the bloodstream to another (the target organ), where they initiate a
specific cell reaction. Both catabolic and anabolic hormones are important for resistancetraining. Anabolic hormones stimulate rebuilding and repair reactions in the muscle. Catabolic
hormones stimulate the breakdown of carbohydrate, fat, and even protein for energy.
The Nutrient Timing System focuses on stimulating the release of anabolic hormones tomaximize muscle growth and development.
Hormones are released in response to three stimuli: other hormones, stimulation of nerve
fibers (which is what you would expect during exercise), and also changes in the levels ofcertain nutrients in the blood. Using the principles of Nutrient Timing, you will learn how toturn on the anabolic hormones, and, at the same time, turn off the catabolic ones to maximize
muscle growth and development.

muscle growth and development.
Table 3.1 summarizes the effects of the catabolic and anabolic hormones.
TABLE 3.1. The Metabolic Effects of the Catabolic and Anabolic Hormones
CatabolicEffectHormones
Hormones
Stimulates fat and liver glycogenGlucagonbreakdown andTestosterone
gluconeogenesis
Stimulates fat, liver, and muscle
Epinephrine
Growth hormone
glycogen breakdown
Norepinephrine

Stimulates fat and liver glycogen
IGF-1
breakdown

Cortisol

Stimulates fat, liver glycogen,Insulinand muscle protein breakdown
Table 3.1

CATABOLIC HORMONES
The four major catabolic hormones are glucagon, epinephrine, norepinephrine, and cortisol.
They break down fuel stores such as fat and glycogen, and, in the case of cortisol, protein.
Glucagon
Glucagon is released from the pancreas. Glucagon is often called an “insulin antagonist.”
Insulin is stimulated by high blood glucose. Insulin shuttles glucose into the muscle, thereby
lowering the blood glucose level. Glucagon, on the other hand, is released in the presence oflow blood glucose. Its primary function is to raise the blood glucose concentration byincreasing the release of glucose from the liver and by activating gluconeogenesis, theconversion of amino acids and other small compounds such as lactic acid to glucose.
Additionally, glucagon increases the breakdown of fat. During exercise, glucagon is usually
elevated.
Epinephrine (Adrenaline) and Norepinephrine (Noradrenaline)
Epinephrine is released from the adrenal glands in response to low levels of blood glucose as
well as by the stimulation of resistance exercise. Norepinephrine is primarily released fromnerve endings in blood vessels in response to exercise—the higher the intensity, the greater
the increase.
Both hormones promote the breakdown of liver glycogen to glucose and its release into theblood, increase the breakdown of fat, and increase blood flow to the muscle. Epinephrine
also stimulates muscle glycogen breakdown. Epinephrine and norepinephrine also havemultiple physiological effects, including increasing respiration and heart rate. Both hormones
are elevated during exercise as the body attempts to get more blood to the working muscles
and to increase the breakdown of glycogen and fat for energy.
Cortisol
Cortisol is well known by strength athletes. This hormone is released from the adrenal glands
when blood glucose is low and during very intense exercise such as weightlifting. Cortisol’s
major function is to generate fuel for working muscles. During exercise, your muscles use a
metabolic priority system for generation of energy. This is particularly true during aerobic
exercise. First, carbohydrate is used, then fat, and finally protein. Because of the tremendous
stress that resistance training places on the muscles, the metabolic priority system gets
ignored. When cortisol is released, it causes a breakdown of protein, carbohydrate, and fat
and an increase in plasma amino acids, specifically glutamine and the branched-chain aminoacids (BCAAs).
Elevated cortisol levels have enormous implications for strength athletes. The harder theworkout is, the greater the cortisol release, and the greater the resulting protein degradation.
Cortisol is the reason that many strength athletes reach a plateau. The anabolic benefits ofexercise can actually be negated by the catabolic effect of cortisol.

ANABOLIC HORMONES
Anabolic hormones are involved in the rebuilding and replenishment processes of the muscle
cell. The anabolic hormones include testosterone, growth hormone, IGF-1, and insulin.
Testosterone

Anabolic
Blocks cortisol and stimulates
protein synthesis
Stimulates bone and cartilage
growth and protein synthesis
Stimulates growth of bone,cartilage, and muscle
Multiple effects on muscle
protein synthesis, protein
degradation, and glycogenreplenishment

EffectTestosterone is a powerful anabolic hormone that is released from the testes in males andfrom the ovaries and adrenal glands in females. The release of testosterone is controlled byanother hormone, luteinizing hormone (LH). LH is secreted from the pituitary, a gland foundat the base of the brain. Testosterone has a number of effects, which are classified as either
androgenic or anabolic. The androgenic effects include changes in sex organs and voice pitch
and increased hair growth on the face and body, and psychological effects such as increased
aggressiveness. The anabolic effects of testosterone include accelerated growth of muscle,bone, and red blood cells.
It is believed that testosterone, by blocking cortisol, has an anti-catabolic effect. Through thisaction, testosterone may speed muscle recovery. Athletes who use testosterone and its
derivatives, including anabolic steroids, claim that these drugs help them train harder andrecover faster. These effects tend to be short-lived, however. One reason is that whencortisol release is blocked for a period of time, higher levels of cortisol are produced
thereafter. Thus, when an athlete stops taking an anabolic steroid such as testosterone, thecatabolic effects of cortisol are enhanced and muscle strength and size are lost at a rapid
rate.
Testosterone also has an effect on net protein synthesis. Researchers have shown that
following five days of testosterone injections, there was a twofold increase in protein
synthesis, whereas protein breakdown was unchanged. In a longer trial, over six months it
appeared that the primary effect of testosterone was a decrease in protein breakdown.
Taken together, these results suggest that the specific effects of testosterone on protein
synthesis may be a function of the duration of treatment.
During exercise, there is a slight elevation in testosterone. This elevation is transitory, andmost researchers believe it does not play an important role in the muscle’s postexercise
anabolic activities.
Growth Hormone
Growth hormone is released from the pituitary, and its release is controlled by a number offactors. Growth hormone stimulates muscle growth, increases the breakdown of fat, andinhibits carbohydrate metabolism. The role of growth hormone in exercise is not understood.
There is a transient elevation that drops following exercise. Studies in endurance athletes
show a minimal rise in blood levels of growth hormone during exercise when compared withuntrained individuals.
IGF-1
IGF-1 stands for insulin-like growth factor. It is released from a variety of organs, including
the pituitary gland, the muscles, and the liver. The primary effect of IGF-1 is stimulation ofprotein synthesis in bone, cartilage, and muscle. IGF-1 release is controlled by the intensityof muscle contractions. During exercise, there is a transient increase that falls to baseline
following exercise.
InsulinInsulin may be the most misunderstood hormone among strength athletes because of its
association with carbohydrate. High levels of insulin combined with high carbohydrate intake
have been shown to increase fat synthesis and decrease fat breakdown. Chronic elevation ofblood insulin levels maintained over many years with the resulting accumulation of body fat is
associated with type II (adult-onset) diabetes.
However, while it’s true that high levels of insulin promote fat synthesis, they do notnecessarily do so to the same degree in all circumstances. Insulin is just as effective inpromoting carbohydrate fuel storage and muscle protein synthesis. The degree to whichinsulin promotes fat storage, carbohydrate storage, or protein synthesis at any given timedepends on certain aspects of the individual’s body state. Perhaps the most important factor
is the relative degree of insulin sensitivity in fat cells versus muscle cells: the more insulin
sensitive the fat cells are at a given time, the more insulin will act to promote fat storage; themore insulin sensitive the muscle cells are, the more insulin will act to promote muscle
glycogen storage and protein synthesis.
Muscle cells are especially insulin sensitive after exercise. If glucose and amino acids are
made available at this time, insulin will help synthesize muscle proteins and muscle glycogen ata very rapid rate, and very little fat will be synthesized and stored in adipose (fat) tissue.
Lifestyle factors can increase the insulin sensitivity of the muscle cells and thereby create abody that is generally disposed to build muscle proteins and less disposed to store body fat.
Exercise and a moderate-carbohydrate diet that is rich in fiber can increase muscle insulin
sensitivity. Alternatively, a low-carbohydrate, high-fat diet can decrease insulin sensitivity,
which, as you will soon see, can have negative effects on muscle mass and strength.
Because of its many actions, insulin has earned the title “anabolic regulator of the muscle.” Infact, insulin may be the most important hormone to increase muscle strength and mass. Insulin
is also at the heart of the Nutrient Timing System.

is also at the heart of the Nutrient Timing System.
Insulin is released from the pancreas usually in response to high levels of blood glucose. Most
people are familiar with the fact that insulin increases the transport of glucose into the muscle
cell, but insulin plays many more roles, as you will quickly learn.
INSULIN INCREASES PROTEIN SYNTHESIS

Insulin has a number of actions that increase protein synthesis. Insulin stimulates DNA andRNA, thereby increasing the enzymes responsible for protein synthesis. Proof of insulin’s
effect on protein synthesis has come from many studies. Investigators from Penn State
University Medical School showed that insulin stimulated the cellular machinery (ribosomes)
involved in the manufacture of protein. In another study, researchers from the University ofTexas Health Science Center in Galveston found that, following an insulin infusion, protein
synthesis in the muscle cell increased almost 67 percent.
INSULIN INCREASES AMINO ACID TRANSPORT

Although most people are aware that insulin increases glucose transport into muscle cells,
most are not aware that insulin also increases amino acid uptake into the muscle. This isimportant because amino acids are the building blocks of protein. Muscle cell enzymes needa sufficient supply of amino acids to drive protein synthesis. Biolo and his colleagues at the
University of Texas Health Science Center in Galveston showed that the infusion of insulin
into healthy volunteers increased the rate of transport of key amino acids into the muscle
from 20 percent to 50 percent and this increase was associated with enhanced protein
synthesis.
INSULIN REDUCES PROTEIN DEGRADATION

Net protein gain is a function of protein synthesis and protein degradation. Net protein gain
will occur whenever protein synthesis exceeds protein degradation. Even though there is astrong increase in protein synthesis after exercise, there is also considerable protein
degradation. In fact, there is actually a net protein loss. By decreasing protein degradation,
we can change this net protein reduction into a net protein gain. Insulin has been shown tosuppress protein degradation following exercise, thereby increasing net protein gain.
The takeaway message from these studies is that insulin can increase net protein gain byincreasing amino acid transport, increase protein synthesis, and decrease protein
degradation, as illustrated in Figure 3.1.
Figure 3.1. How Insulin Increases Net Protein Gain: Insulin can increase net
protein balance by 1) stimulating protein synthesis at the level of mRNA translation, 2)
decreasing the degradation of protein, and 3) stimulating the transport of amino acids
into the muscle cell.

INSULIN INCREASES GLUCOSE UPTAKE

Insulin’s ability to increase glucose uptake is its best-known action. Following exercise, themetabolic machinery is involved in replenishing muscle glycogen. Insulin shuttles glucose into
the muscle where it can then be converted into glycogen by muscle cell enzymes. After
exercise, the muscle is very receptive to insulin stimulation of glucose uptake.
INSULIN INCREASES MUSCLE GLYCOGEN STORAGE

During resistance exercise, muscle glycogen stores can be significantly reduced. Aside fromcreatine phosphate (CP), glycogen is the primary fuel for the replenishment of ATP. The
conversion of glucose into glycogen takes place via the activation of the enzyme glycogensynthase. Following exercise, insulin can increase the activity of glycogen synthase by 70
percent, resulting in a tremendous increase in glycogen storage.
INSULIN SUPPRESSES CORTISOL RELEASE

The primary trigger for cortisol release during prolonged aerobic exercise is hypoglycemia, or
reduced blood glucose levels. This is to be expected, since hypoglycemia is a metabolic
stress to the nervous system. Therefore, it is also not surprising that carbohydrate
supplementation during exercise would blunt the rise in cortisol, and this cortisol-blunting
action appears to be mediated by insulin. Higher insulin concentrations protect muscle proteinfrom the catabolic effects of cortisol.
Insulin’s effect on cortisol may also help maintain immune function. Colds and other viral
infections are quite common in athletes undergoing intensive training. Cortisol has beenshown to suppress the immune system and antibody production. Thus, the cortisol-blunting
effects of insulin may also help keep athletes healthy. (Table 3.2)
TABLE 3.2. Insulin’s Anabolic Actions
ActionEffectProtein synthesis
Increases
Amino acid transport Increases
Protein degradation
Decreases
Glucose uptake
Increases
Glycogen storage
Increases
Cortisol release
Decreases
Muscle blood flow
Increases
Table 3.2
INSULIN INCREASES MUSCLE BLOOD FLOW

Another, less well-known but essential effect of insulin is on muscle blood flow. Insulin
infusion has been shown to increase skeletal muscle and limb blood flow by more than 100
percent. Insulin not only increases muscle blood flow, but it targets specific muscles that havebeen exercised. Increased blood flow results in faster removal of metabolic wastes, such aslactic acid and carbon dioxide, and an increased delivery of nutrients, such as amino acids,
glucose, and oxygen, for a more rapid recovery from exercise.

SUMMARY
Hormones are the agents that drive muscle development. They are classified as catabolic andanabolic. Catabolic hormones, including glucagon, epinephrine, norepinephrine, and cortisol,
are involved in breaking down nutrients primarily for use as energy. Anabolic hormones—
including testosterone, growth hormone, IGF-1, and insulin—are involved in thereplenishment of fuel stores and the repair, rebuilding, and growth of muscles.

Contrary to popular belief, insulin is the most powerful anabolic hormone—the mostimportant hormone of all in relation to muscle growth. It is not all good all the time, however.
If you are sedentary and have a high-carbohydrate diet, insulin can increase fat stores. But if
you are a strength athlete who trains smart and practices the Nutrient Timing Systemcorrectly, you will find yourself harnessing the great power of insulin to achieve your goal ofgaining muscle mass and strength and keeping your body fat level very low. In Part III, you
are going to learn exactly how to employ the Nutrient Timing System to take full advantageof this anabolic controller. Turn now to Part II for a complete discussion of the three NTS
phases.
KEY TAKEAWAYS 3• Muscle growth and activity are controlled in large part by anabolic and catabolic
hormones.
• The primary catabolic hormones are glucagon, epinephrine, norepinephrine, andcortisol.
• The primary anabolic hormones are testosterone, growth hormone, IGF-1, andinsulin.
• Following exercise, muscle cells are especially sensitive to the multiple anabolic
effects of insulin.
• Insulin increases muscle glucose uptake and glycogen storage.
• Insulin increases net muscle protein by increasing amino acid transport into the muscle
cell, by increasing protein synthesis and by reducing protein breakdown.
• Because of its impact on so many muscle anabolic processes, insulin is truly “theanabolic controller.”• The principles of Nutrient Timing can help you maximize the effects of the anabolic
hormones while minimizing the effects of catabolic hormones.

PART II: NUTRIENT TIMING SYSTEM

4: NTS Energy Phase
The Energy Phase of the Nutrient Timing System is the period of your workout. The
objective of a resistance workout is to repeatedly require the muscles to generate high levelsof force, which requires a high rate of energy release. This chapter explains how the
principles of Nutrient Timing will help you produce the energy needed to achieve a stronger
workout, how to minimize muscle damage that occurs as a natural consequence of exercise,and, most important, how to set the stage for a faster recovery following your workout.

PHYSIOLOGICAL
EXERCISEANDMETABOLICCHANGESDURING

Exercise stresses many systems of the body. At the onset, there is an immediate need to
produce greater amounts of energy; as exercise intensity increases, so do the muscles’
energy requirements. To accommodate these increased energy needs, the body must initiate
multiple physiological and metabolic changes. While these changes are essential for providing
an adequate supply of energy to the working muscles, they may also result in transient
adverse effects such as muscle damage and immune system suppression. Let’s consider
some of the more important changes and their consequences.
ATP Replenishment
Muscle fibers need a rapid supply of energy during a resistance workout. This requires theutilization of large numbers of ATP molecules. The breakdown of ATP releases the energythat directly drives muscle contraction. There is, however, only enough ATP stored in themuscle for a few seconds of maximal effort. Therefore, ATP has to be rapidly andcontinuously replenished during repetitive or sustained muscle contractions.
The primary sources for rapid repletion of ATP during intense exercise are creatine
phosphate (CP) and muscle glycogen. Unfortunately, CP stores in the muscle are also quite
limited and are depleted with just ten to twelve seconds of maximum-intensity work. If you
combine the amount of ATP stored in the muscle and the amount of CP available to replenish
ATP, you have only enough energy to drive exercise for twelve to eighteen seconds.
The rapid repletion of ATP and CP involves the anaerobic energy system, or glycolysis. As
discussed in Chapter 2, in the anaerobic energy system, muscle glycogen is broken down togenerate ATP. Most strength athletes do not realize how much muscle glycogen is usedduring a training session. One set of ten biceps curls results in a 12 percent loss of muscle
glycogen; three sets result in 35 percent depletion, and six sets result in 40 percent depletion.
Hormonal Changes
During resistance exercise there are changes in a number of key hormones. Anabolic
hormones such as testosterone, growth hormone, and IGF-1 are elevated for a short periodof time and are not believed to play a major role during exercise. There is also a rise inepinephrine and norepinephrine, two catabolic hormones that increase the breakdown ofmuscle glycogen and fat for energy.
The two most important regulatory hormones during exercise are insulin and cortisol. The
opposing actions of these two hormones affect the degree of muscle damage and glycogendepletion during exercise. In the absence of nutritional supplementation, insulin levels decline
during exercise while levels of cortisol begin to rise.
Blood Flow
Because of the increased energy and nutrient needs of the muscle, blood flow to active
muscles is elevated up to 500 percent. This elevated blood flow results in faster delivery ofoxygen and fuel and faster removal of metabolic wastes such as lactic acid and carbon
dioxide.
Effect on the Protein Pool
During sustained exercise, a net muscle protein loss occurs. This is mainly because there is anincreased use of branched-chain amino acids (BCAAs) for energy. BCAAs are generated
by muscle protein breakdown. Because BCAAs serve as precursors for the synthesis ofglutamine, muscle glutamine stores decline as well. Glutamine, the most abundant amino acid

glutamine, muscle glutamine stores decline as well. Glutamine, the most abundant amino acidin muscles, plays an important role in providing fuel for the immune system. During prolonged
stressful exercise, glutamine stores can be almost completely depleted, potentiallycompromising immune system function.
Muscle Damage
Muscle damage is perhaps the most significant physiological effect of a resistance workout.
Exercise physiologists measure muscle damage by using a number of key biochemicalmarkers such as 3-methylhistidine, creatine phosphokinase (CPK), and lactate
dehydrogenase (LDH). Because 3-methylhistidine is only found in the muscle contractile
protein, its presence in the urine indicates that the muscle fibers have been damaged. Like 3methylhistidine, CPK and LDH are usually found only within the muscle fiber but appear in
the blood when muscle fiber membranes are damaged.
There is no single cause of exercise-related muscle damage. The three primary causes are
physical, hormonal, and biochemical. Initial damage occurs as a result of physical forces
acting on the muscle cell. Eccentric exercise, in which muscle fibers lengthen while
contracting, places great stress on the muscle fibers, resulting in an overstretching and tearingof the contractile proteins, which can lead to inflammation. Some of this damage may bebeneficial since it stimulates remodeling of muscle cell fibers, which ultimately results instrength and mass gains. William Kraemer of the University of Connecticut coined the termmuscle tissue disruption to describe this type of damage because the muscle tissue canrecover within twenty-four hours and isn’t compromised in its ability to adapt to training.
The second cause of muscle damage is hormonal—specifically, the hormone cortisol
stimulates muscle protein breakdown.
The third cause of muscle damage is the generation of free radicals (highly reactive moleculesthat can damage muscle protein). Free radicals may come from the mitochondria, from thecapillaries, or even from specific types of cells associated with the immune system.
Regardless of their origin, free radicals can damage cell membranes and may indirectly
inactivate key enzymes associated with proper functioning of the immune system.
Acute Inflammatory Response
The acute inflammatory response is the body’s response to tissue injury, whether it’s causedby exercise, an ankle injury resulting from a fall, or even a cut. Within hours of an injury,
specific cells called neutrophils migrate to the site of the damage, where they begin to remove
tissue debris. This process causes inflammation and swelling, which further damage muscle
cell membranes. The acute inflammatory response continues for a considerable period oftime after exercise (which is one reason why muscle soreness often isn’t felt for twenty-fourhours or more).
Immune Response
Resistance exercise triggers a strong immune response. The immune system responds
anytime there is cellular damage, whether it is caused by a virus, a wound, or exercise. The
immune system’s response to the different types of injuries is quite similar. There is anincrease in white blood cells, an increase in natural killer (NK) cells, and an increase in T
cells, important fighters of infection. However, during strenuous exercise, there is suppressionof the immune system as evidenced by a decrease in the number of T cells and NK cells.
This suppression has been found to be intensity- and duration-related. The higher the relative
exercise intensity and the longer it is performed, the greater the suppression of the immune
system. Immune system suppression can last up to seventy-two hours following exercise andmay increase your susceptibility to infection.
Fluid Loss
Water, of course, is a vital nutrient that serves many functions. It is the major constituent ofblood. Consuming water during exercise helps maintain blood volume, lower bodytemperature, and reduce stress on the heart. For the endurance athlete, because dehydration
represents the number one physiological risk during exercise, the number one nutritional
objective is fluid replacement. For an endurance athlete, a loss of 2 percent body water (3.6
pounds for a 180-pound athlete) will compromise performance. In sports such as football,basketball, and soccer, fluid losses exceeding 2 percent of body weight are frequently
observed.
Resistance exercise does not produce fluid losses to the degree that extended aerobic
exercise does, but dehydration is still a factor. In a study from Old Dominion University,
researchers found that dehydration equal to a 1.5 percent loss of body weight adversely
affected strength performance.
Most athletes now recognize the benefits of hydration and even carbohydrate replenishment
while training. However, it should now be quite obvious that the metabolic processes
occurring during resistance exercise require more intensive nutrient intervention (see Table
4.1). As you will see in the next section, even water with carbohydrates (for example, a4.1). As you will see in the next section, even water with carbohydrates (for example, atypical sports drink) just doesn’t meet the complete nutrient needs of working muscles.
Table 4.1 summarizes the many physiological and metabolic changes that take place within
the muscle and related systems during intense exercise.
TABLE 4.1. Physiological and Metabolic Changes During Intense Exercise
Description
ChangeATP levels
Depleted
Muscle glycogen levels
Partially depleted
Cortisol levels
Increased
Insulin levels
Decreased
Blood flow to muscles
Increased
Protein degradation
Increased
Muscle damage
Increased
Immune system
Suppressed
Acute inflammatory response
Stimulated
Fluid loss
Increased
Table 4.1
NTS GOALS FOR THE ENERGY PHASE
The four primary goals of the Nutrient Timing System during the Energy Phase are:
1. Increase nutrient delivery to muscles and spare muscle glycogen and protein.
2. Limit immune system suppression.
3. Minimize muscle damage.
4. Set the nutritional stage for a faster recovery following your workout.
1. Increase Nutrient Delivery to Muscles and Spare Muscle Glycogen and Protein
Although glycogen depletion has traditionally been the concern of endurance athletes, it isalso an important issue for strength athletes. Muscle glycogen levels following multiple sets
can be reduced as much as 40 percent. Doubling the intensity of the workout doubles thebreakdown.
ATP and creatine phosphate provide most of the energy for muscle contraction, but
glycolysis still plays an important role. Between sets, muscle cells use the glycolytic pathway
to regenerate ATP. By consuming a carbohydrate or carbohydrate/protein sports drink
during your workout, you can preserve muscle glycogen and remain strong throughout yourworkout.
Haff and colleagues studied the effect of carbohydrate supplementation during resistance
exercise. They found that when the carbohydrate supplements were provided, the decline inmuscle glycogen was 50 percent less and that subjects could perform more work thansubjects receiving flavored water.
The latest research now shows that the addition of protein to a carbohydrate supplement
during resistance exercise offers further advantages in terms of preserving muscle protein,increasing protein synthesis, and even extending endurance.
During extended exercise, amino acids—principally the BCAAs: leucine, isoleucine, andvaline—may supply up to 15 percent of the muscles’ energy needs. The use of some
BCAAs for energy can be increased by as much as 500 percent, depending on the intensityand duration of the exercise. The addition of protein to a carbohydrate supplement promotes
the metabolism of the ingested protein and lessens the demand for amino acid release fromthe muscles.
Recent studies coming out of the University of Texas Health Science Center in Galveston
suggest that when protein is added to a carbohydrate supplement and provided at the
beginning of exercise, there is even an increase in protein synthesis after exercise.
Finally, the addition of protein to a carbohydrate supplement has been shown to extend
muscular endurance. Researchers from the University of Texas in Austin found that a
carbohydrate/protein drink improved endurance 57 percent compared with water and 24
percent compared with a carbohydrate-electrolyte drink (see Figure 4.1). The improvement
in endurance was thought to be due to a sparing of muscle glycogen and possibly to thepreferential metabolism of the ingested protein.
Figure 4.1. Effect of Carbohydrate/Protein Supplementation During Exercise:
Following variable intensity exercise, subjects receiving a carbohydrate/protein sports
drink had a 24 percent improvement in exercise endurance compared with acarbohydrate sports drink and a 57 percent improvement compared with water.
(Adapted from Ivy et al.)

2. Limit Immune System Suppression
A second objective of the NTS during the Energy Phase is limiting immune system
suppression. During moderate-intensity exercise, immune function is heightened, increasing
resistance to infection. However, as discussed, with strenuous exercise, the immune system issuppressed, and the risk of infection is thereby increased.
The immune system is closely linked to the neuroendocrine system, which controls therelease of hormones. During strenuous and sustained exercise, this system is activated,causing the release of cortisol. Most of the immunosuppressive responses caused by intense
exercise correlate with increases in blood cortisol levels. Cortisol lowers the concentration
and activities of many of the important immune cells that fight infection.
Interestingly, blood cortisol levels can be regulated to a significant degree during exercise bycontrolling glucose availability. Bishop and colleagues showed that when athletes were givena 6 percent carbohydrate solution during exercise, cortisol levels dropped by almost 80
percent compared with subjects receiving water (see Figure 4.2).
Figure 4.2. Effect on Cortisol Levels of Supplementation During Exercise: Whenathletes were administered a 6 percent carbohydrate solution during exercise, bloodcortisol levels dropped almost 80 percent. (Adapted from Bishop et al.)

Because of the high correlation between cortisol and immune system suppression, it is logicalthat carbohydrate supplementation would limit the suppressive effects of exercise on the
immune system. In fact, this has been confirmed, most notably by David Nieman andcolleagues at Appalachian State University. These researchers have compared a number of
immune system parameters during exercise with and without carbohydrate supplementation.
They found that subjects receiving carbohydrate supplementation during intense exercise had
lower blood cortisol levels and limited immune suppression—as indicated by a lessened T
cell and NK cell reduction—compared with subjects receiving a placebo.
Carbohydrate supplementation provides a dual benefit during exercise, as seen in Figure 4.3.
Maintaining blood glucose helps maintain immune function while decreasing cortisol levels.
During resistance exercise, cortisol levels can increase fivefold. Strength athletes who ignore
the benefits of nutrient supplementation during their workouts place themselves at a greaterrisk of experiencing the immune-suppressive effects of cortisol, which include a transient
weakening of the body’s major mechanisms of fighting infection.
Figure 4.3. Effect of Carbohydrate Supplementation on Immune Function:
Carbohydrate supplementation during exercise may help maintain immune function
two ways: Carbohydrate supplementation decreases cortisol levels and provides
energy to support the immune system.

It is also important to note, as we will see again in discussing the Growth Phase (Chapter 6),
that strength athletes who severely restrict their daily carbohydrate intake may be more
susceptible to infection.
3. Minimize Muscle Damage
The third important objective of Nutrient Timing during the Energy Phase is to reduce muscle
damage. This damage is beneficial to a degree because it stimulates the remodeling process,which leads to larger and stronger muscles. However, the damage to the muscles must bewhich leads to larger and stronger muscles. However, the damage to the muscles must be
repaired before the remodeling process can begin. Because there is no single cause of
exercise-related muscle damage, nutritional intervention must address all the causes.
Carbohydrate supplementation during exercise reduces the rise in cortisol and decreases
specific agents responsible for producing inflammation. Bishop and colleagues fromLongborough University in England showed that carbohydrate supplementation could reduce
biochemical markers of inflammation by almost 50 percent.
Supplementation with the antioxidant vitamins E and C and BCAAs may also help minimize
muscle damage. While there does not appear to be a performance benefit from vitamins C
and E, Rokitzki and colleagues found that supplementation with these antioxidants decreased
levels of CPK, an important marker of muscle damage, twenty-four hours after a marathon.
This finding suggests that they may limit tissue damage due to free radicals. Dr. William Evansfrom the University of Arkansas, a leader in this area, has suggested that antioxidants may be
of benefit in the body’s overall response and adaptation to exercise.
4. Set the Nutritional Stage for a Faster Recovery Following Your Workout
An important tenet of the Nutrient Timing System is nutritional intervention at all stages in themuscle’s growth cycle. Increased muscle mass comes from a cycle of muscle stimulation,muscle breakdown, and muscle rebuilding. Every athlete knows the expression No pain, nogain. This is true in the sense that you must train hard enough to cause a degree of muscle
tissue disruption. However, training hard without appropriate nutrition intervention results in amore prolonged recovery and ultimately a weaker training response.
Although you cannot entirely prevent muscle damage and depletion of your energy stores
during resistance exercise, by applying the principles of the Nutrient Timing System you can
minimize these effects, setting the stage for a faster recovery.
As seen above, there is increased muscle protein degradation, in part to help supply muscle
energy needs during exercise. Consuming protein during exercise will enable you to utilize theingested protein and thereby decrease protein degradation and spare muscle protein. The
same principle holds true with regard to muscle glycogen. Consuming carbohydrate duringresistance exercise results in less depletion of glycogen stores.
The replenishment of muscle glycogen stores is an essential cellular function that is given a
metabolic priority by the muscles’ anabolic machinery following exercise. The faster thisprocess occurs, the quicker the muscle machinery can be reoriented toward the remodelingof your muscle fibers. The replenishment of your energy stores occurs much faster if you
have limited their depletion during your workout by supplementing appropriately.

NTS RECOMMENDATIONS FOR THE ENERGY PHASE
Now that you recognize the importance of nutrient consumption during the Energy Phase, wewould like you to redefine when your workout actually begins. For most, it begins with yourwarm-up stretching or first weightlifting repetition. But there are a number of benefits to begained if you begin your workout instead while you are driving to the gym. Consumption of acarbohydrate/protein drink ten minutes prior to your workout can raise both blood glucose
and insulin levels. At the beginning of your workout, there will be an increase in glucose
uptake into the muscles for use as energy, resulting in greater sparing of muscle glycogen andan increase in endurance. A second benefit is that consumption of a carbohydrate/protein
drink immediately before exercise results in greater protein synthesis after exercise. A third
potential benefit is that by raising the blood glucose level, you may reduce the rise in cortisol,which begins soon after your workout does.
Nutrient supplementation immediately before exercise and continuing every fifteen to twenty
minutes during exercise will not only improve your workout but also lay the groundwork for afaster recovery. Water will help replenish fluid, but a carbohydrate drink or, even better, acarbohydrate/protein drink will deliver additional benefits. If you are to take full advantage of
the Nutrient Timing System, the ideal drink to consume before and during exercise should
contain the ingredients specified in Table 4.2 and described below.
Carbohydrate
Carbohydrate supplementation during exercise not only helps extend endurance, but also
limits suppression of the immune system and reduces muscle tissue damage. The ideal
carbohydrates to use are high-glycemic ones such as sucrose, glucose, and maltodextrin.
Drinks that contain large quantities of fructose may cause gastrointestinal problems.
ProteinConsuming protein during your workout will limit muscle protein degradation. Protein canalso work synergistically with carbohydrate to increase blood insulin levels beyond those
produced by carbohydrate alone. Protein has been shown to extend exercise endurance andto increase protein synthesis upon cessation of exercise. The protein of choice is whey
because it is rapidly absorbed and contains all the essential amino acids, as well as a highpercentage of leucine and glutamine, two amino acids that are used extensively duringpercentage of leucine and glutamine, two amino acids that are used extensively during
sustained strenuous exercise. The ratio of carbohydrate to protein should be approximately
3-4 grams of carbohydrate to 1 gram of protein, as this formulation is highly digestible.
(Table 4.2)
TABLE 4.2. Ideal Nutrient Composition of Supplement for the Energy Phase
NTS
Nutrient
OBJECTIVE• Increase nutrient delivery to muscles
High-glycemic carbohydrates such as
and spare muscle glycogen andglucose, sucrose, and maltodextrin
protein• Limit immune system suppression Whey protein• Minimize muscle damage
Leucine• Set the nutritional stage for a faster
Vitamin C
recovery following your workout
Vitamin E
SodiumPotassium
Magnesium
Table 4.2

Amount(per 12oz water)

20-26g5-6g
1g
30-120mg
20-60IU
100-250mg
60-100mg60-120mg

LeucineThis amino acid may also be of benefit in a sports drink because it not only stimulates insulin
in its own right, but also has a positive effect on protein synthesis.
Electrolytes
Sodium, potassium, and chloride are also necessary in an effective sports drink. The additionof electrolytes not only helps replace what’s lost due to sweating but also encourages
continued fluid consumption because of the salt, which stimulates thirst.
Vitamins
Although many sports drinks contain varying amounts of different vitamins, we recommend
adding vitamins E and C because they reduce free-radical levels, an important cause of
muscle damage.
Fluids
You should try to fully replace fluid and electrolyte losses that occur during a strength-training
workout. Although strength training does not produce the same level of fluid loss as an
endurance workout, fluid losses can still be considerable. Drink at least 12 ounces starting
ten minutes before and continuing throughout your workout. For maximum effectiveness,consume several ounces of your Energy Phase beverage every fifteen minutes. In warm
weather or when conditions are hot, increase your beverage consumption accordingly.
KEY TAKEAWAYS 4• Strength training depletes muscle glycogen, stimulates the acute inflammatory
response, increases protein breakdown, and causes muscle damage.
• Carbohydrate supplementation during exercise helps maintain immune system function
and blunts the rise of cortisol.
• Carbohydrate supplementation combined with protein offers additional endurance
benefits and also sets the stage for a faster recovery after your workout.
• Consuming a carbohydrate/protein supplement ten minutes before your workout will
enable you to have a better workout.

5: NTS Anabolic Phase
The Anabolic Phase is the most critical phase of the Nutrient Timing System. Following aworkout, the muscle machinery is primarily in a catabolic mode. However, it is primed toswitch into an anabolic mode if the right stimuli are provided.
The principles of nutrient optimization and metabolic sensitivity are particularly relevant during
the forty-five-minute period postexercise. The switch that turns off the catabolic machineryand turns on the anabolic machinery is insulin. During this forty-five-minute period, muscle

and turns on the anabolic machinery is insulin. During this forty-five-minute period, muscle
cells are acutely sensitive to the anabolic actions of insulin. Just providing the right nutrients
will exploit this insulin sensitivity and cause a tremendous surge of anabolic activity.
First, let’s consider what happens once we stop exercising. Following exercise, the state of
the muscle in many ways is similar to that seen during exercise; however, if recovery
measures are not taken, this state can actually worsen. ATP and creatine phosphate (CP)levels are depleted, muscle glycogen levels are reduced, and the rise in cortisol seen during
exercise continues in the postexercise period, which means that there is heightened catabolic
activity. Other catabolic hormones, such as epinephrine and norepinephrine, remain elevatedfor thirty to sixty minutes and then return to pre-exercise levels. On the other hand, free
radicals generated during exercise are present and will attack muscle cell structure, causing
damage for many hours after exercise.
The muscle damage that occurred during exercise has stimulated an acute inflammatory
response. Specific cells migrate to the site of muscle damage, increasing inflammation andreleasing specific proteins that cause additional damage to muscle membranes. Markers ofmuscle damage like CPK actually reach a peak twenty-four hours after a workout—further
evidence that membrane damage continues in the post-workout period.
As the damaged muscle cell attempts to repair and rebuild, the increase in protein synthesisthat you would expect has been observed. However, the rate of protein degradation exceeds
the rate of protein synthesis, resulting in a net muscle protein loss. Furthermore, unlessspecific nutritional actions are taken, this catabolic state can continue for a considerable
period of time.
Some essential amino acids, glutamine, and branched-chain amino acids (BCAAs) are also
depleted. This depletion is believed to occur because of the use of amino acids in vital
metabolic processes. Because BCAAs are a precursor for glutamine synthesis, their use as
an energy source may result in lower glutamine levels.
If the above reasons don’t arouse your concern about the state of your muscles postexercise,
there is one more. Elevated blood flow postexercise supports the rapid removal of metabolic
byproducts and faster nutrient and oxygen delivery. Unfortunately, this is a transitory
elevation; blood flow quickly returns to its normal resting level, even though the recoveringmuscle still requires greater oxygen and nutrient delivery.
Considering this fuel depletion and the biochemically compromised state of the muscles
following a workout, it is somewhat surprising to look at what a strength athlete typicallyconsumes during recovery. For many, it is just water. For others, it may be a protein drink.
Although each provides a benefit, neither is adequate for complete recovery.

THE METABOLIC COST OF NUTRIENT DELAY
The forty-five minutes immediately following exercise (the Anabolic Phase) is the metabolic
window of opportunity. At no other time during the course of your day can nutrition makesuch a major difference in your overall training program. Although the muscle has residual
catabolic activity following exercise, it is primed to shift into an anabolic state in the presenceof the right nutrients. If you don’t exploit this metabolic receptivity, your muscle cells willremain in a catabolic state and even begin to develop insulin resistance. The metabolic
window is only open for a short period of time after exercise. Indeed, within minutes after
you stop exercising, it begins to close.
Taking in more nutrients outside the metabolic window will not produce the same results.
When insulin resistance develops, usually two to four hours after your workout, even theperfect combination of nutrients will be much less effective.

TIMING AND GLYCOGEN REPLENISHMENT
As early as 1988, in a study published in the Journal of Physiology, researchers from the
University of Texas at Austin showed that the timing of carbohydrate supplementation
postexercise had a significant influence on the rate of muscle glycogen storage. They foundthat when subjects consumed a carbohydrate supplement immediately after exercise, they
stored twice as much muscle glycogen in a two-hour recovery period as when they took thesame supplement two hours later. Similar results were obtained by researchers at Vanderbilt
University, who found that muscle glucose uptake following exercise was three to four times
faster when supplementation was given immediately after exercise rather than three hours
later.

TIMING AND PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
Stimulation of protein synthesis is essential for all strength athletes. The ineffectiveness of thebulk protein philosophy (more is better) is illustrated when the relationship between timing
and optimal protein synthesis is closely examined.
In order for protein synthesis to occur, amino acids must be transported into the cell, where
they can be utilized by the metabolic machinery to repair, rebuild, and remodel muscle
protein. Muscle amino acid uptake is controlled in part by the blood amino acid levels. In
addition, the level of amino acids in the blood is a critical initiator of protein synthesis.

addition, the level of amino acids in the blood is a critical initiator of protein synthesis.
Research studies show that when the amino acid levels of the blood are reduced to below
normal, amino acids are released from the muscle and muscle protein synthesis declines.
When the blood amino acid levels are increased above normal, muscle amino acid uptake
increases as does muscle protein synthesis.
Activation of protein synthesis by amino acids is most responsive immediately following
exercise. Biolo and colleagues found that amino acid uptake and muscle protein synthesis
were threefold greater in subjects who had engaged in resistance exercise compared withsubjects who had not. Likewise, Okamura and colleagues found that in the postexercise
recovery period, protein synthesis was almost 25 percent higher and amino acid uptake
almost twice as high when a carbohydrate/protein supplement was given immediately after
exercise versus two hours after exercise.
The importance of consuming protein during the Anabolic Phase, however, is best illustrated
by the results of a study by Levenhagen and colleagues at Vanderbilt University. These
researchers looked at the effect of a carbohydrate/protein supplement on protein synthesis
following a sixty-minute bout of exercise. Subjects were given the supplement immediately
after exercise or three hours later. Protein synthesis was almost three times higher when the
supplement was given immediately after, compared with a three-hour waiting period. And theall-important net protein balance (protein synthesis minus protein degradation) increased
significantly in the immediate group. In the three-hour group there was actually a net loss ofprotein. (See Figure 5.1.)
Figure 5.1. Effect of Delay on Net Protein Balance: Subjects were given a
carbohydrate/protein supplement either immediately following exercise or three hours
after exercise. Receiving supplementation immediately after exercise resulted in an
increase in net protein balance, whereas receiving the supplementation three hours
after exercise resulted in a net protein loss. (Adapted from Levenhagen et al.)Besides the benefit of increased protein gain, the group receiving the carbohydrate/protein
supplement immediately after exercise also had greater fat oxidation—that is, they burnedmore fat.

TIMING AND INCREASED MUSCLE MASS
Although supplement timing is critical for protein synthesis and net protein balance, it is also
important for muscle development. After all, a major goal of most strength athletes is toincrease muscle mass.
Using laboratory animals, Suzuki and colleagues were the first to investigate the effects of
Nutrient Timing on body composition. They found that when animals were fed right after
exercise versus four hours later, muscle weight was higher by 6 percent in the group fed
immediately. They also reported that the muscle enzymes responsible for fat oxidation were70 percent higher and abdominal fat was 24 percent lower in the group immediately fed. The
researchers suggested that, compared with nutrient supplementation several hours later, theconsumption of nutrients after exercise may contribute to an increase in muscle mass and adecrease in adipose (fat) tissue.
Similar results were seen in a recent human trial by Esmarck and colleagues. In a twelveweek training study published in the Journal of Physiology, they reported that when acarbohydrate/protein mixture was given immediately after each exercise session, muscle size
increased 8 percent and strength improved 15 percent. When the supplement was given twohours later, there was no muscle hypertrophy (growth) or improvement in strength.
The evidence is overwhelming. Consumption of nutrients during the Anabolic Phase can help
you replenish glycogen stores faster, increase protein synthesis and net protein balance,
improve muscle mass, and even speed up fat oxidation. But not just any nutrients will do.
Although drinking a sports drink is preferable to drinking water, consuming that alone will
cost you a great opportunity to improve muscle development. You must consume all of thecritical nutrients in the right proportions while the metabolic window is open.
The two conditions for muscle growth are metabolic sensitivity and nutrient optimization. The
first condition is satisfied in the postexercise interval because your muscle cells are ready to
begin the rebuilding and recovery process. For nutrient optimization, all you have to do now
is consume all of the nutrients necessary to drive recovery.
NTS GOALS FOR THE ANABOLIC PHASE
The five goals of the Nutrient Timing System during the Anabolic Phase are:
1. Shift metabolic machinery from a catabolic state to an anabolic state.
2. Speed the elimination of metabolic wastes by increasing muscle blood flow.
3. Replenish muscle glycogen stores.
4. Initiate tissue repair and set the stage for muscle growth.
5. Reduce muscle damage and bolster the immune system.
All of this sounds pretty complicated, but it’s not. Once again, the science shows thatthese goals are readily achievable by following some simple steps.
1. Shift Metabolic Machinery from a Catabolic State to an Anabolic StateIn Chapter 3, you learned how important insulin is in regulating anabolic processes. Now, themost effective way to stimulate insulin release is to ingest high-glycemic sugars, right? Not
exactly. While ingesting carbohydrate alone will accomplish the goal, it is nowhere near as
effective as using a carbohydrate/protein supplement.
Use of a carbohydrate/protein supplement will stimulate insulin and blunt cortisol release. The
synergistic effects of carbohydrate and protein were first noted almost forty years ago. In aneffort to determine the effect of food on insulin secretion, scientists noted that foods high inprotein, when combined with carbohydrates, raised blood insulin levels more than other foodcombinations. Spiller and colleagues later followed up on this research by comparing theinsulin response to carbohydrate drinks and carbohydrate/protein drinks. They showed thatthe addition of protein to a carbohydrate drink produced a far greater insulin response than acarbohydrate drink alone.
Researchers at the University of Texas at Austin extended these findings by comparing theeffects of carbohydrate, protein, and carbohydrate/protein supplements on blood insulinlevels after exhaustive exercise. The carbohydrate/protein drink produced the greatest insulin
response followed by the carbohydrate drink and then the protein drink. (See Figure 5.2.) In
fact, the protein supplement by itself produced one-eighth as much insulin response as the
carbohydrate/protein combination. Not only did the carbohydrate/protein produce a greater
response, but it was also found that this response could be maintained throughout therecovery period with continued supplementation to drive postworkout anabolic processes.
Stimulating insulin release is the first step in shifting the metabolic machinery to an anabolicstate after exercise. Once high levels of insulin are achieved, a number of anabolic reactions
are activated in the presence of the right nutrients.
Figure 5.2. Effect of Supplementation Type on Insulin Response: Effect ofcarbohydrate, protein, and carbohydrate/protein supplementation on blood insulinlevels after exhaustive exercise. A carbohydrate/protein supplement produced thegreatest insulin response. (Adapted from Zawadzki et al.)

2. Speed the Elimination of Metabolic Wastes by Increasing Muscle Blood Flow
Recovering muscle requires fast nutrient and oxygen delivery as well as fast removal of
metabolic byproducts such as lactic acid. Removal of lactic acid is particularly important to
the recovery of creatine phosphate (CP), the main precursor by which ATP is regenerated
during resistance exercise. When lactic acid levels are high, it takes longer for CP to berestored. One of the little known but important effects of insulin is the increase of skeletal
muscle blood flow. Laakso and colleagues showed that insulin could increase muscle bloodflow approximately twofold (see Figure 5.3).
The mechanism by which insulin increases skeletal muscle blood flow involves nitric oxide
synthesis. Nitric oxide (NO) has lately received a lot of attention as a means to induce
vasodilation (increased blood flow) in muscle. The precursor for NO is the amino acidarginine. A number of arginine products are currently available from manufacturers who tout
their ability to increase NO production. Studies suggest that insulin is also a strong stimulatorof the NO pathway. In one study, insulin infusion into the blood was shown to be more
effective in increasing NO-dependent muscle blood flow than 30 grams of arginine.
Figure 5.3. Effect of Insulin on Muscle Blood Flow: Following insulin infusion,muscle blood flow almost doubled when compared with muscle blood flow in a control
group. (Adapted from Laasko et al.)

3. Replenish Muscle Glycogen Stores3. Replenish Muscle Glycogen Stores
Some of the most important studies on exercise recovery have measured the effects ofcarbohydrates on the replenishment of muscle glycogen stores postexercise. These studies
have found that supplementing with carbohydrate immediately after exercise is much more
effective than delaying supplementation. It has also been found that supplementing on aregular basis after exercise can maintain a rapid rate of glycogen storage during the earlyhours of recovery, and that carbohydrates that produced the greatest insulin response also
produce the highest rates of glycogen storage. In fact, the rate of muscle glycogen storage
postexercise appears to be directly related to the blood insulin response. That is, the higher
the insulin response the greater the rate of muscle glycogen synthesis.
Trying to increase the blood insulin level by simply increasing the carbohydrate content of the
supplement was initially effective, but only up to a point. When the carbohydrate content of
the supplement exceeded 0.5 grams of carbohydrate per pound of body weight per hour,both the blood insulin response and the rate of muscle glycogen synthesis plateaued.
After this plateau effect was discovered, a number of investigators, knowing that bystimulating a greater amount of insulin they would probably also stimulate a stronger surge inanabolic activity, began to investigate whether they could increase the level of insulin byadding one or more additional nutrients to carbohydrates.
In a pivotal study at the University of Texas at Austin, researchers demonstrated that adding
protein to a carbohydrate supplement could increase the effectiveness of the carbohydrate tostimulate muscle glycogen synthesis by increasing the blood insulin response. The
carbohydrate/protein supplement was found to be almost 38 percent more effective in
restoring muscle glycogen than a carbohydrate supplement and almost four times more
effective than a protein supplement. Using nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, asophisticated technique that evaluates the rate of muscle glycogen storage, these researchers
also showed that a carbohydrate/protein supplement was significantly more effective than acarbohydrate supplement of equal caloric content. Interestingly, during the first forty-fiveminutes of recovery, muscle glycogen storage for the carbohydrate/protein supplement was
two times faster than the carbohydrate supplement containing the same amount of calories.
In another study comparing the effects of a carbohydrate/protein drink to those of acarbohydrate drink, van Loon and colleagues at Maastricht University in the Netherlands
found a near doubling of the insulin response to the former that was consistent with a near
doubling of muscle glycogen storage.
The importance of rapidly replenishing muscle glycogen was clearly evidenced in acollaborative study that included researchers from North Texas State University School of
Medicine and the University of Texas at Austin. When subjects consumed acarbohydrate/protein drink, endurance performance after four hours of recovery was 55
percent greater than when they consumed a carbohydrate drink (see Figure 5.4). The
increase in performance was directly related to greater muscle glycogen synthesis during therecovery period. Researchers in the Allied Health Science Center at Springfield College havealso documented faster recovery and better performance in a subsequent workout whencomparing carbohydrate/protein and carbohydrate supplements.
Figure 5.4. Effect of Postworkout Supplementation on a Subsequent Exercise
Bout: Following a glycogen-depleting exercise bout, subjects were given either acarbohydrate or a carbohydrate/protein/ antioxidant/glutamine beverage. Following afour-hour recovery period, the subjects completed an exercise bout to exhaustion.
When the subjects received the carbohydrate/protein/ antioxidant/glutamine drink,their performance times in the second workout were 55 percent better than when theyreceived the carbohydrate supplement. (Adapted from Williams et al.)4. Initiate Tissue Repair and Set the Stage for Muscle Growth
Because net protein gain is a sum of both synthesis and breakdown, merely looking at
protein synthesis as a measure of net protein gain can be misleading. To increase muscle
mass and strength in the postworkout period, the muscle cell must begin to initiate tissue
repair and to set the stage for muscle growth.
Researchers at McMaster University in Hamilton, Ontario, reported that supplementing witha carbohydrate/protein supplement, both immediately and one hour after resistance exercise,increased muscle protein synthesis compared with a carbohydrate supplement. They noted
higher blood insulin and glucose levels and lower 3-methylhistidine excretion following
consumption of the carbohydrate/protein supplement. You may recall that 3-methylhistidine
excretion is an indicator of muscle fiber damage.
Additional evidence of the positive effect of a carbohydrate/protein supplement on
postexercise protein synthesis comes from Vanderbilt University. Investigators showed that a
carbohydrate/protein supplement provided immediately after exercise increased protein
synthesis almost sixfold over a carbohydrate supplement. The results for the all-important net
protein balance were even more telling. The carbohydrate/protein supplement showed asignificant increase in net protein balance compared with the carbohydrate supplement.
Intuitively, you might expect these results since protein synthesis requires amino acids, which
obviously are not found in a carbohydrate supplement. A more interesting comparison would
be between a carbohydrate/protein supplement and a protein supplement. The answer to thisquestion comes from a recent study from the University of Texas Health Science Center at
Galveston. Scientists evaluated the effects of a carbohydrate supplement, an amino acidsupplement, and an amino acid/carbohydrate supplement on protein synthesis. The results
were dramatic. As shown in Figure 5.5, the researchers found that protein synthesis was
greatest with the carbohydrate/amino acid supplement and least with the carbohydrate
supplement. In fact, the carbohydrate/amino acid supplement was 38 percent more effective
than the amino acid supplement and 100 percent more effective than the carbohydrate
supplement. This study, more than any other study, should convince you that that the
combination of carbohydrate and protein produces a synergistic effect on protein synthesis.
Consumption of a carbohydrate/protein drink postexercise may also replenish glutamine
stores faster. Schoore and his colleagues from the University of Maastrich in The
Netherlands provided either a carbohydrate/protein supplement or a carbohydrate
supplement one and two hours after exercise. Plasma glutamine levels decreased 20 percent
in subjects receiving the carbohydrate alone and remained low in recovery (see Figure 5.6).
In subjects consuming the carbohydrate/protein supplement, postexercise glutamine levels
did not decline.
Figure 5.5. Effect of Amino Acids and Carbohydrate Mixture on Protein Synthesis
Following Exercise: Following resistance exercise, subjects received either acarbohydrate, amino acid, or carbohydrate/amino acid supplement. The
carbohydrate/amino acid mixture increased protein synthesis 38 percent more than theamino acid mixture and 100 percent more than the carbohydrate supplement.
(Adapted from Miller et al.)Figure 5.6. Glutamine Levels with Carbohydrate versus Carbohydrate/Protein
Supplementation: Subjects receiving a carbohydrate/protein supplement following
exercise were able to maintain plasma glutamine levels, whereas subjects receivingcarbohydrate alone had a 20 percent decrease during the first hour following exercise.
(Adpated from Schoore et al.)

5. Reduce Muscle Damage and Bolster the Immune System
The final goal of Nutrient Timing in the Anabolic Phase is to reduce muscle damage andstimulate the immune system. There is no way to eliminate all the muscle damage resulting
from resistance exercise. In fact, to do so would even be undesirable since muscle damage
serves as a stimulus for muscle growth. However, excessive muscle damage will restrict
glycogen and protein synthesis, cause excessive muscle soreness, and delay recovery.
Therefore, to the degree that you can limit muscle damage and reduce muscle soreness, you
can come back stronger the next day. Here again, nutrition in the postexercise period plays arole. Using a carbohydrate/protein drink that also contained vitamins E and C and glutamine,
researchers found a significant reduction in free-radical formation compared with a plain
carbohydrate supplement.
Using this same multi-nutrient beverage composition, Siefert and colleagues at St. Cloud
University reported a 37 percent reduction in blood CPK, an important marker of muscle
damage, after a prolonged exercise bout (see Figure 5.7).
Figure 5.7. Effect of a Carbohydrate/Protein Drink Containing Antioxidants andFigure 5.7. Effect of a Carbohydrate/Protein Drink Containing Antioxidants andGlutamine on Parameters of Muscle Damage: Subjects were given either acarbohydrate or a carbohydrate/protein/ glutamine/antioxidant supplement
immediately after exercise. Free radicals were reduced 69 percent and CPK levels
were reduced 36 percent at twenty-four hours postexercise.

One of the most exciting examples of how nutrition can reduce muscle inflammatory
responses and positively impact the immune system comes from a recent collaborative study
conducted by researchers from Iowa State, Vanderbilt University, and the United States
Marine Corp. The researchers looked at the effect of placebo (no nutrients), a carbohydrate
control, and a carbohydrate/protein supplement taken by Marine recruits after exercise overa fifty-four-day period. Individuals receiving the carbohydrate/protein supplement
experienced:• 33 percent fewer total medical visits.
• 28 percent fewer visits due to bacterial/viral infections.
• 37 percent fewer visits due to muscle joint problems.
• 83 percent fewer visits due to heat exhaustion.
The researchers suggested that the effect of postexercise supplementation with acarbohydrate/protein supplement on the immune system may be related to the increased
availability of specific amino acids such as glutamine, and concluded that the postexercise
carbohydrate/protein supplement “may not only enhance muscle protein deposition but also
has significant potential to positively impact health, muscle soreness and tissue hydration.”

NTS RECOMMENDATIONS FOR THE ANABOLIC PHASE
One important takeaway from this chapter is this: Don’t wait if you intend to take fulladvantage of the postexercise recovery window. This is clearly evidenced in Figure 5.8,
which summarizes the effects of delayed nutrient supplementation on muscle anabolic
activities. Almost every important anabolic activity is reduced after three hours.
Another important lesson is that any nutrition taken during this interval is better than just plain
water. However, the Nutrient Timing System is about optimizing muscle growth anddevelopment. The studies described in this chapter show that you will receive many more
benefits if your postexercise meal contains the right combination of nutrients. Here are thenutrients/supplements we recommend during the Anabolic Phase.
Whey Protein
Whey protein offers a number of advantages. It contains all nine essential amino acids. It isextremely digestible. It has a higher concentration of BCAAs than any other protein source.
It is fast acting because it empties from the stomach and is absorbed into the bloodstream
faster than other proteins. It also contains precursors for the body’s natural antioxidants,
which may help minimize free-radical formation. Whey protein is readily available andwhich may help minimize free-radical formation. Whey protein is readily available andrelatively inexpensive.
Figure 5.8. Effect of Nutrient Delay on Muscle Anabolic Processes: A delay innutrient supplementation of up to three hours can dramatically decrease importantanabolic activities including glycogen storage and protein balance.

A disadvantage of whey protein is that it contains lactose. However, lactose-free wheyprotein products, which contain lactose amounts of less than 1 percent, are now available.
High-Glycemic Carbohydrates
High-glycemic carbohydrates, which are rapidly absorbed and produce a strong insulin
response, are far preferable to complex carbohydrates, which are absorbed far more slowly.
Remember, high-glycemic carbohydrates are the catalysts that drive higher anabolic activity
postexercise. High-glycemic carbohydrates ideal for postexercise supplementation include
sucrose, maltodextrin, and dextrose. Avoid products containing a high percentage of fructose
or galactose. These products are weaker stimulators of insulin.
Carbohydrate/Protein Ratio
Studies show conclusively that a carbohydrate/protein combination is superior in stimulating
both glycogen replenishment and protein synthesis to either a carbohydrate or protein
supplement alone. Carbohydrate provides a strong stimulus for insulin but also provides
substrate for replenishment of muscle glycogen stores. The many studies involving
carbohydrate/protein supplements that have been cited in this chapter used different ratios ofcarbohydrate and protein. Based on a review of these studies, we recommend a 3:1 to 4:1
ratio of high-glycemic carbohydrates to protein—in other words, 3 to 4 grams ofcarbohydrate per gram of protein. Table 5.1 compares the effects of different beverages on
key metabolic activities following a workout. This table, which synthesizes the findings ofmany different studies, makes a very compelling case for a carbohydrate/protein supplement
as the only way to go.
Can Nutrient Timing Reduce Frequency of Colds?
A great deal of research has focused on immune status related to exercise. On the one
hand, individuals who regularly perform mild to moderate exercise are healthier. Numerous
surveys of fitness enthusiasts, runners, and masters athletes show that 60 to 90 percent feelthey experience fewer colds than non-exercisers. Data from a number of epidemiologicalstudies support this viewpoint, showing that regular exercise reduces cold symptoms byalmost 50 percent.
The reason for this benefit may be related to the stress hormone cortisol. A welldocumented effect of cortisol is suppression of the immune system. In individuals whodocumented effect of cortisol is suppression of the immune system. In individuals who
regularly exercise, there is a smaller increase in cortisol levels, which may mean that those
who exercise regularly place less stress on their bodies than those who do not exercise atall. Their bodies have adapted to the stress of exercise.
The situation is quite different for individuals who perform heavy exercise on a regularbasis. Studies conducted with elite endurance runners have shown that overtraining lowers
resistance to upper respiratory infections. Similar results have also been reported forathletes in other sports. The question is whether heavy exercise leads to temporary changes
in immunity.
Researchers call this the “open window” theory, which means that after a hard exercise
bout the immune system is temporarily compromised. This appeared to be the case in one
study when an important barometer of immune function, natural killer (NK) cells, wasmeasured. NK cells are one of the body’s important defenses against viral infection.
NK cells are highly active cells that combat certain types of viruses. During the open
window, which ranges from three to seventy-two hours postexercise, there is a decrease in
NK activity. Thus, it is logical to assume that risk of infection may be increased following
repeated cycles of heavy exercise.
All is not lost, however. Research shows that nutrient supplementation can play animportant role in helping the immune system fight infection. A number of studies have shownthat carbohydrate ingestion during exercise helps prevent changes in the immune response.
One study showed that carbohydrate ingestion significantly lowers blood cortisol andepinephrine levels. And recent studies suggest that a carbohydrate/protein supplement may
be even more effective.
In a study described in detail in this chapter, researchers from Iowa State, Vanderbilt
University, and the United States Marine Corp found that individuals consuming acarbohydrate/protein supplement postexercise had 28 percent fewer visits to the doctor
due to bacterial or viral infections than those consuming a carbohydrate-only supplement.
In addition to reducing cortisol levels, a carbohydrate/protein supplement has also beenshown to increase glutamine levels postexercise. Because of the critical role glutamine plays
in supporting immune system function, this may be an additional reason why acarbohydrate/protein supplement heightens an individual’s response to infection.
The bottom line is that implementing the principles of the Nutrient Timing System can
not only help you exercise better and increase muscle mass, but can also help you stayhealthier.
Amino Acids
Amino acids not only serve as a driving force for protein synthesis postexercise, but specificones such as leucine and glutamine have additional properties that can help in the musclerecovery process. Leucine, by itself, helps stimulate protein synthesis. Glutamine is also an
excellent candidate for inclusion in a postworkout drink because muscle glutamine stores are
depleted following heavy exercise and glutamine has been shown to play an important role inmaintaining a healthy immune system.
Antioxidants
Antioxidant vitamins such as E and C should also be included. A hard workout produces
free radicals, which not only cause muscle protein damage but also may even have a negative
effect on the body’s immune system. (Table 5.1)
Table 5.1

ADDITIONAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR THE ANABOLIC PHASE
Although nutrient supplementation can be taken in the form of a meal or beverage, we know
full well that after a hard workout most athletes simply are not hungry. However, if they wait
until they are hungry, they will miss the critical forty-five-minute window. In our experience, abeverage is easier to consume; therefore, in Table 5.2, we have formulated the ideal
beverage. The beverage should contain between 220 and 260 calories. For most athletes,
this amount of energy can be consumed in 12 ounces of water. This guideline works well forathletes weighing up to 170 pounds. Athletes who weigh more should increase the amount by
50 percent. Table 5.2 provides the ingredient composition for the ideal supplement to
consume during the Anabolic Phase.
TABLE 5.2. Ideal Nutrient Composition of Supplement for the Anabolic Phase
NTS
Nutrient
OBJECTIVE• Shift metabolic machinery from a catabolicstate to an anabolic state• Speed the elimination of metabolic wastes
by increasing muscle blood flow
• Replenish muscle glycogen stores• Initiate tissue repair and set the stage formuscle growth• Reduce muscle damage and bolster the
immune system

Whey protein
High-glycemic carbohydrates such as
glucose, sucrose, and maltodextrin
Leucine13-15g40-50g
1-2g

Glutamine

1-2g

Vitamin C

60-120mg

Vitamin E

80-400IU

KEY TAKEAWAYS 5• Begin your Anabolic Phase supplementation within forty-five minutes of completing
each workout, or risk missing your metabolic window of opportunity.
• A delay of supplementation of more than two hours can significantly reduce protein
synthesis and muscle glycogen replenishment.
• The key to optimum recovery is the hormone insulin, which controls many of the cells’
postexercise anabolic processes.
• Although muscle cells are extremely sensitive to theeffect of insulin immediately after exercise, they rapidly become insulin resistant. So,
waiting until the time of insulin resistance to take the correct nutrients reduces their benefit.
• Make sure your Anabolic Phase nutrition has the right formula to blunt catabolic
hormones and stimulate anabolic hormones, increase blood flow (for faster nutrient delivery
and waste elimination), replenish muscle glycogen stores, initiate tissue repair, and reducemuscular inflammation.
• A carbohydrate/protein supplement in liquid form is very effective in turning on themuscles’ anabolic machinery following a workout.

6: NTS Growth Phase
The third phase of the Nutrient Timing System is the Growth Phase. This is the eighteen- totwenty-hour period during which the majority of gains in muscle mass and strength occur.
Life would be easier for strength athletes if the muscles’ anabolic machinery operated in aconsistent manner for the full interval between workouts. Unfortunately, this is not the case.
There are two discrete time segments within the Growth Phase that can be characterized by
the intensity of anabolic activity.

Amountthe intensity of anabolic activity.
The first, the Rapid Segment, is a period of high anabolic activity, which lasts up to fourhours if activated during the Anabolic Phase. The second is the Sustained Segment in whichmuscle growth continues but at a slower rate. This phase is mainly influenced by your diet.
First let’s review what happens to muscles following the Anabolic Phase, the forty-fiveminutes that follow your workout.
When supplementation does not occur, blood insulin levels will remain low and blood cortisol
levels will be elevated. Muscle glycogen will remain depleted. Protein degradation andmuscle membrane damage will continue. There is continued damage from free radicals andsuppression of the immune system. But the most important change is that without nutrientintervention muscles start to go from a state of high insulin sensitivity to a state of insulin
resistance. Once insulin resistance develops, the ability of your muscle cells to maximize
anabolic activity, even in the presence of the right nutrients, is severely compromised. Whenthe cellular machinery becomes insulin resistant, which starts about two hours after exercise,it can continue for sixteen hours or longer.
Now let’s assume you recognize the importance of postexercise nutrition and have consumed
a carbohydrate/protein drink containing glutamine, leucine, and antioxidants immediately after
your workout. So you have done everything right. You have increased the blood insulin level,
reduced the blood cortisol level, and turned on the anabolic switch. Now you can relax while
the cellular machinery of your muscles replenishes the muscle glycogen stores, repairs
damaged tissue, and increase muscle protein. Right?
Unfortunately, this is not what happens. Again, to use the car-engine analogy, in the Anabolic
Phase you have turned on the cellular ignition and placed the transmission in forward, but if
you don’t provide sufficient fuel, your car will soon run out of gas. In this case, running out ofgas means running out of enough carbohydrate and protein (amino acids) to maintain anelevated blood insulin level, and stimulate muscle glycogen and protein synthesis. Only bykeeping insulin levels elevated can high rates of glycogen storage and protein synthesis be
maintained during the Rapid Segment.
RAPID SEGMENT OF THE GROWTH PHASE
An important aspect of Nutrient Timing is that, although the muscle growth cycle occurs
in separate phases, in reality supplementation in each phase influences the subsequent
phase. Turning on the anabolic switch during the Anabolic Phase is the essential first step,
but without continuing the right type of nutrient consumption, this anabolic surge will not be
maintained.
The two NTS objectives for the Rapid Segment of the Growth Phase are:
1. Maintain increased insulin sensitivity.
2. Maintain the anabolic state.

1. Maintain Increased Insulin Sensitivity
Researchers at the University of Texas at Austin showed that the ability of the muscle cell toreplenish glycogen stores is 50 percent less two hours after exercise than it is immediately
after exercise. Levenhagen and colleagues at Vanderbilt University have reported similar
results for protein synthesis. When a carbohydrate/protein supplement was given immediately
after exercise, muscle protein synthesis was elevated 300 percent, but when the supplement
was delayed by three hours, the elevation in synthesis was only 12 percent. These results
indicate that the muscle is more insulin sensitive early in the recovery period, and that as time
passes, it becomes insulin resistant.
Once the muscle becomes insulin resistant, as we have seen, consuming the right nutrients will
not produce the desired effect. In other words, the anabolic processes necessary to rebuild
and help the muscles grow will not operate at their optimal rate. This means that additional
carbohydrates must be consumed with protein and other essential nutrients. However, thisbecomes a delicate nutritional balance. You want to consume only enough carbohydrates tomake sure that the insulin pump is primed and muscle sensitivity to insulin is not lost.
A review of the literature suggests that in the Anabolic Phase, supplements should becomposed of a 3:1 to 4:1 ratio of carbohydrate to protein (3 to 4 grams of carbohydrate pergram of protein) to fully convert the muscle from a catabolic state to an anabolic state. During
the Rapid Segment of the Growth Phase, you can capitalize on the insulin response that was
initiated during the Anabolic Phase. The question is, what is the ideal quantity ofcarbohydrate to be added to protein?
The muscles in the typical strength athlete have between 100 grams and 120 grams ofglycogen per kilogram of muscle. During a strenuous high-intensity workout, about 40
percent of this stored glycogen will be depleted. If you consume sufficient carbohydrate andprotein during the Anabolic Phase, as much as 65 to 75 percent of your glycogen stores are
replenished within two hours of completing your workout, with no additional
supplementation.
Once this level of glycogen storage is attained, a lower consumption of carbohydrate inconjunction with protein will provide sufficient stimulus to keep blood insulin levels elevated.
This will maintain the muscle cells’ sensitivity to the anabolic effects of insulin and assurecomplete recovery of muscle glycogen.

During the Energy and Anabolic Phases, it is almost mandatory that insulin be strongly
stimulated to drive protein synthesis and muscle recovery. Figure 6.1(a) illustrates thetwenty-four-hour cycle of insulin sensitivity in the muscle in the absence of any
supplementation during or after exercise. As you can see, muscles are extremely sensitive toinsulin during exercise. This sensitivity decreases without any nutrient intervention andmuscles actually become insulin resistant two hours after exercise. This insulin-resistant state
can last up to sixteen hours after exercise if nutrient intake is withheld.
Figure 6.1(a). The Effect of Exercise and Recovery on the Muscle Response toInsulin (without Supplementation): In the absence of supplementation, the muscles’
sensitivity to insulin decreases rapidly. During the postexercise period, muscles become
insulin resistant and can remain so for up to sixteen hours if nutrient intake iswithheld.

Figure 6.1(b) illustrates the goal of nutrient intervention. Consumption of acarbohydrate/protein sports drink during exercise and a carbohydrate/protein recovery drink
postexercise prevents the development of insulin resistance, allowing the muscle cells tomaintain a high level of anabolic activity. To the degree that you can extend the muscles’
insulin sensitivity for up to three to four hours after the Anabolic Phase, you will be rewarded
with greater gains in lean muscle mass and strength. It is important to remember that the goal
is not to keep blood insulin levels high for the full twenty-four-hour growth cycle. This would
not be beneficial. But if you can maintain elevated blood insulin and muscle insulin sensitivity
during the Rapid Segment, the benefits to your muscle-development program will be
substantial.
Figure 6.1(b). The Effect of Nutrient Timing on the Muscle Response to Insulin:
When nutrient supplementation is supplied during the Energy Phase, Anabolic Phase,
and Rapid Segment of the Growth Phase, muscle cells are insulin sensitive for an
extended period of time. This extended insulin sensitivity in the presence of nutrientintervention enables the muscle cells to maintain a high level of anabolic activity.

2. Maintain the Anabolic State
The second objective is to maintain the anabolic state for up to four hours after exercise.
Among the first to demonstrate that a high level of anabolic activity could be maintained with
supplementation after exercise were Blom and colleagues. Their study found that providing ahigh-carbohydrate supplement immediately after exercise and continuing supplementation at
two hours and again at four hours after exercise maintained a high blood insulin level andrapid rate of muscle glycogen synthesis for up to six hours.
A similar pattern was seen with regard to protein synthesis. Rasmussen and colleagues
studied the effects of consuming a carbohydrate/protein drink at one hour and again at threehours after a bout of resistance exercise. When the carbohydrate/protein drink was
consumed at one hour, there was a sharp rise in insulin, which returned to resting values
within one hour. The researchers also found that protein synthesis only increased during thetime when insulin was elevated. Thus, the stimulation and decline of protein synthesis
paralleled blood levels of insulin. When a second serving of the carbohydrate supplement
was given at three hours postexercise, blood insulin rose once again and protein synthesis
was stimulated back to its peak levels.
One of the first studies to investigate the long-term effects of maintaining an active anabolicstate after exercise comes from the laboratory of Masashigi Suzuki at the University of
Wasida in Japan. Suzuki and colleagues fed a high-glycemic carbohydrate and protein meal
to animals undergoing ten weeks of resistance training. One group of animals received theirfirst meal of the day during the first hour after their exercise session, and the second group ofanimals received their first meal of the day during the fourth hour after their exercise session.
After the ten weeks of training, there was no difference in weight gain between the twogroups of animals; however, muscle mass was 6 percent higher and body fat 25 percent
lower in the group fed immediately after exercise. Interestingly, the animals fed immediately
after exercise had a higher resting metabolic rate, possibly due to their greater muscle mass.
Leucine may also be helpful in maintaining high anabolic activity during this time. A study
conducted by Anthony and colleagues at the University of Illinois found that leucine
stimulates muscle protein synthesis following exercise. The effect of leucine on protein
synthesis appears to be independent of its effects on insulin. However, when insulin was
stimulated by carbohydrate in combination with leucine, there was a further increase inprotein synthesis. The authors suggested that leucine in combination with carbohydrate would
be useful in helping muscles recover faster.
SUSTAINED SEGMENT OF THE GROWTH PHASE
This segment begins approximately five hours after exercise and continues until yournext workout. The time you are sleeping is included in this segment. Your total diet iscritically important during this phase. The two NTS objectives for the Sustained Segment of
the Growth Phase are:
1. Maintain positive nitrogen balance and stimulate protein synthesis.
2. Promote protein turnover and muscle development.

1. Maintain Positive Nitrogen Balance and Stimulate Protein Synthesis

An essential condition of muscle growth is the maintenance of a positive nitrogen balance.
This means that your body is excreting less protein than you are consuming. How muchprotein does one need to consume in order to maintain a positive protein balance? This is acontroversial question. Some nutritionists maintain that the average diet contains more thanenough protein for the serious strength athlete. According to the recommended daily
allowance (RDA), protein intake should be 0.8 grams per kilogram (2.2 pounds) of bodyweight per day. The problem is that the nutritionists who developed this recommendation
were using sedentary adults as their models. Furthermore, they were not suggesting that thislevel of protein intake maintains a positive nitrogen balance (positive protein retention), butrather that it maintains a zero nitrogen balance. That is, the amount of protein consumed
would prevent a net protein loss, but would not necessarily allow for protein gain.
How much protein should be consumed daily? Obviously, the goal of the strength athlete is
not to be in zero nitrogen balance, but to be in positive nitrogen balance. In this regard,
Tarnopolsky and colleagues have presented data that indicate a high protein intake will
increase nitrogen balance in strength athletes during intense training. Interestingly, a review of
the available data indicates that 20 percent of the protein consumed in excess of themaintenance amount is retained. In other words, when more protein is ingested, lean bodymass is increased. Moreover, Oddoye and Margen found that a positive nitrogen balance
could be maintained for up to fifty days on a diet that was three times the RDA for protein.
So how much protein do we recommend? Fern and colleagues found a greater gain inmuscle mass over four weeks of training in bodybuilders who consumed 3.3 grams versus
1.3 grams of protein per kilogram of body weight per day. This suggests that large amountsof dietary protein in combination with strength training will stimulate significant muscle growth.
It was also noted that when the bodybuilders consumed the higher protein concentration, asignificant amount was oxidized and not retained. This suggests that protein intake exceededthat which could be used for protein synthesis.
In a study by Tarnopolsky and colleagues, an increase in whole-body protein synthesis wasobserved when strength athletes increased their protein consumption from 0.9 to 1.4 grams
per kilogram (g/kg) of body weight per day. However, there was no additional increase inprotein synthesis when protein consumption was increased to 2.4g/kg of body weight perday. Additionally, Lemon and colleagues found that approximately 1.5g/kg of body weightper day were required to maintain zero nitrogen balance in strength athletes undergoing
intense training. Having a positive nitrogen balance required approximately 1.8g/kg of bodyweight.
Recently, Forslund and colleagues compared the twenty-four-hour macronutrient metabolism
of subjects who had exercised and were on either a high-protein diet (2.5g/kg of bodyweight per day) or a normal protein diet (1g/kg of body weight per day). They found thesubjects on the high-protein diet had a positive protein balance and negative fat balance,
whereas the subjects on the normal protein diet had zero protein balance and a slightincrease in fat balance. In other words, the subjects on the high-protein diet burned more fat.
Table 6.1 summarizes results from multiple studies evaluating the effects of high protein
intakes. Based on these studies, we concluded that the strength athlete will receive significant
benefits from consuming between 2.0 and 2.75 grams of protein per kilogram of body weight(0.9-1.25 gram of protein per pound of body weight) per day when training intensely. Thisshould be a sufficient amount of protein to maintain a positive nitrogen balance, stimulate
muscle growth, and increase reliance on body fat as a fuel source. To make it easy for you todetermine your daily protein intake use, Table 6.2 provides the daily protein requirements at
protein levels ranging from 0.91-1.25 grams per pound of body weight per day for different
body weights.
TABLE 6.1. Studies Evaluating High Protein Intakes
ProteinStudy
Findings
Level(s)3.3g/kg protein level produced greater gain in
Fern
3.3g/kg; 1.3g/kg
muscle mass
Increase in protein synthesis in 1.4g/kg versus
Tarnopolsky et al.
0.9g/kg; 1.4g/kg; 2.4g/kg
0.9g/kg. No additional increase with 2.4g/kg
Lemon et al.
1.8g/kg
Required for positive nitrogen balance
2.5g/kg produced positive nitrogen balance andForslund et al.
1.0g/kg; 2.5g/kg
negative fat balance
Table 6.1
TABLE 6.2. Grams of Protein Required According to Body Weight in Pounds
Daily
Daily
Daily
WeightProtein Level (grams
Protein1.02 Level (grams Protein Level (grams(in pounds)
per pound) 0.91
per pound) 1.14
per pound) 1.25
125
114
128
143
156
150
137
153
171
188
175
159
179
200
219
200
182
204
228
250
225
205
230
257
281
250
228
255
285
313
Table 6.2

Table 6.2

2. Promote Protein Turnover and Muscle Development
During the Sustained Segment of the Growth Phase, it is important to continue to promote
protein turnover and muscle development. Protein turnover is an essential process in helping
build stronger muscles. By definition, protein turnover involves both the processes that break
down protein and the processes that build new protein. The reason that protein turnover is an
important NTS objective is that when protein turnover is increased, you are rebuilding
proteins damaged by training. The result is stronger muscles containing more muscle fibers.
Although protein synthesis will be slower during this segment than during the Rapid Segment,
there is still a substantial amount of protein accretion (an increase in protein concentration
within a muscle) that can occur during the Sustained Segment of the Growth Phase.
According to Fielding and Parkington, protein synthesis may continue after exercise for up to
forty-eight hours. However, as we have seen, net protein balance remains negative unless theappropriate foods or amino acid supplements are consumed.
During the Sustained Segment, it is important to maintain elevated blood levels of aminoacids, as shown in Figure 6.2. This can be done by eating a meal high in protein and snacking
between meals with a protein supplement. Researchers have found a positive relationshipbetween the concentration of amino acids in the blood and the rate of protein synthesis. Theirresults show that increasing protein consumption will increase amino acid levels in the bloodand lead to increased protein synthesis.
Figure 6.2. Effect of Blood Amino Acid Level on Protein Synthesis andBreakdown: An increase in blood amino acids stimulates amino acid transport into themuscle and increases protein synthesis. When blood amino acid levels are low, there isan increased breakdown of muscle protein and a decrease in overall protein synthesis.

Snacking between meals may be advantageous for several reasons. Results from the
University of Texas Health Science Center in Galveston showed that increasing blood aminoacid levels improved protein synthesis, but only up to a certain point. After that, the proteinsynthesis response failed to increase proportionately. Thus, consuming your protein in one
large meal may be much less effective in stimulating muscle protein synthesis than consuming
a normal meal and snacking between meals with a high-protein supplement.
In order to maintain a rapid protein turnover rate and rapid muscle growth, it is also
important to have a positive caloric balance; in other words, to consume more calories thanyou expend. There exists substantial evidence indicating that strength athletes can increase
muscle mass and strength by simply increasing their caloric consumption. Moreover, there issubstantial evidence indicating that a negative caloric balance (consuming fewer calories thanare expended) will adversely affect nitrogen retention.
As early as 1907, Chittenden reported that athletes gained strength and maintained mass on
relatively low-protein diets as long as sufficient calories were consumed. In addition, Gaterand colleagues demonstrated that a positive caloric balance as compared to an equal caloric
balance produced the greater gains in muscle mass in subjects undergoing resistance training.
Therefore, to maximize your gains in muscle mass, construct your diet so that you consume
more calories than you expend.

NTS RECOMMENDATIONS FOR THE GROWTH PHASE
A fundamental principle of the Nutrient Timing System is metabolic sensitivity. By now it
should be apparent that the metabolic action of a particular nutrient is highly dependent on
when it is consumed. The concept of metabolic sensitivity is illustrated clearly in the nutrient
recommendations for this phase.
A carbohydrate/protein supplement is necessary to maintain the anabolic state andheightened level of insulin sensitivity in the four-hour period after your workout. However,once the insulin pump has been primed, less carbohydrate is needed to maintain elevatedinsulin levels. Whereas a carbohydrate/protein mixture containing more carbohydrate relative
to protein (such as 3 to 4 grams of carbohydrate to 1 gram of protein) is ideal to turn on the
anabolic machinery, supplementation during the Rapid Segment can rely on a much lower
carbohydrate to protein ratio. In fact, 1 gram of carbohydrate to 5-8 grams of protein isappropriate.
Carbohydrate is still needed in amounts sufficient to keep the insulin pump operating at its
optimum level. On the other hand, if too much carbohydrate is consumed, it can beconverted into fat. Keeping the insulin level elevated for a sustained four-hour period
prevents development of insulin resistance, which, as we have seen, will slow or turn off
those metabolic processes that are critical for building muscle mass and strength.
It is also recommended that during the Rapid Segment you consume leucine and glutamine
because of their anabolic action on protein synthesis and immune system parameters. Table
6.3 describes the ideal nutrient composition for a supplement to be used during the Rapid
Segment. This nutrient composition will help maintain the high anabolic activity initiated during
the Anabolic Phase.
TABLE 6.3. Ideal Nutrient Composition of Supplement for the Growth Phase
GROWTHNTS
PHASE
Objective
Rapid Segment: The first 4 hours after a • Maintain increased insulin
Whey protein
workout
sensitivity
Sustained Segment: The next 16-18
hours after a workout• Maintain the anabolic state• Maintain positive nitrogenbalance and stimulate protein
synthesis• Promote protein turnover andmuscle development

Nutrient
14g

Casein2g

Leucine3g

Glutamine

1g

High-glycemic carbohydrates 2-4g
Table 6.3
During the Sustained Segment of the Growth Phase, insulin levels decline, but it is possible tosustain protein synthesis, although at a slower rate than during the Rapid Segment. This canbe accomplished with a proper diet and a carbohydrate/protein snack between meals.
Because your diet represents the bulk of your caloric intake, it has the most influence on
protein synthesis and muscle growth during the Sustained Segment. Chapters 7 and 8 detail
the NTS daily nutrition plan and help you construct an appropriate plan to meet your goals.
The supplement recommended for the Rapid Segment of the Growth Phase is a high-protein
snack that can be used between meals and at bedtime during the Sustained Segment. Such a
protein snack or supplement enables you to stimulate protein synthesis by raising the aminoacid levels in your blood between meals. As we have shown, elevated amino acid levels
stimulate protein synthesis and also slow protein degradation, thereby increasing your net
protein balance.
Most important, the high-protein snack does not stimulate insulin. Whereas insulin is essential
at specific times, continued elevation of insulin along with high-carbohydrate consumption is
not desirable. This insulin elevation can lead to increased fat deposition, elevated blood
cholesterol levels, and metabolic disorders.
Protein TypeThe objective during both segments of the Growth Phase is to maintain protein synthesis overan extended period of time. Selection of the right type of protein can help you achieve thisgoal. When comparing the proteins whey and casein, Boirie and colleagues found that
protein synthesis increased 68 percent with a whey supplement and 32 percent with a casein
supplement. However, the anabolic response of the casein was longer lasting. Because whey
is fast acting and the effects of casein are more sustained, we recommend taking a
supplement snack composed of both whey and casein during the Growth Phase.

AmountCaloric BalanceYour diet should be in positive caloric balance for muscle repair and growth to be optimized.
How large a positive caloric balance will depend on your goals. If you are just trying to gainstrength without trying to add much weight, your caloric intake should only exceed yourcaloric expenditure by 50-100 calories per day. If you are trying to increase mass, you may
want your caloric intake to exceed your caloric expenditure by several hundred calories perday. However, if you are a bodybuilder in preparation for competition, you will want to havea negative caloric balance for several weeks leading up to the competition in order to reduce
body fat. During this time, you should reduce your carbohydrate intake and increase yourprotein intake. Table 6.4 summarizes general caloric and nutrient recommendations
depending on your specific training goals. However, these are general guidelines. If you find
you are not getting the results you want, don’t assume that your genes are working againstyou. If your goal is to gain muscle mass and you are consuming an extra 100-200 calories
per day and are not seeing positive results, simply increase your daily caloric intake byanother 100-200 calories.
TABLE 6.4. Daily Caloric Consumption and Macronutrient Content Based on Exercise
Goals
Daily
Goal
Protein
Carbohydrate
Caloric Balance
Gain strength
Gain lean mass
Decrease fat massplus 50-100 calories 21-24%
plus 100-200
21-24%
calories
minus 100-200
calories

26%

43-46%

33%

43-46%

33%

41%

33%

Table 6.4
KEY TAKEAWAYS 6• The Growth Phase is the eighteen- to twenty-hour period during which the majority ofgains in muscle mass and strength occur.
• The Growth Phase can be subdivided into the Rapid Segment and Sustained
Segment.
• The Rapid Segment is a period of high anabolic activity, which can last up to fourhours.
• Optimal anabolic activity during the Rapid Segment requires maintaining the highactivity initiated during the Anabolic Phase by consuming a carbohydrate/protein
supplement approximately two hours after exercise.
• The Sustained Segment is a period of sustained but slow protein synthesis and muscle
growth, which extends from the Rapid Segment until the next workout.
• The protein synthesis during the Sustained Segment is strongly influenced by dietarycomposition and caloric content.
• It is important to maintain a positive nitrogen balance during the Sustained Segment,
which can be accomplished with a high-protein diet and high-protein/low-carbohydrate
snacks or supplements.
• The strength athlete should consume between 0.91 and 1.2 grams of protein perpound of body weight per day for optimal muscle growth and development.
• A high-protein diet will stimulate a positive protein and carbohydrate balance whilecausing a negative fat balance.
• A positive caloric balance will also help stimulate protein accretion.

PART III: INCORPORATING NUTRIENT TIMING
INTO YOUR TRAINING

Fat

7: Making Nutrient Timing Work for You
Sports nutrition is skewed toward two ends of the information spectrum. At one end are thenutritionists and “nutritional experts” who advocate a 1960s approach to sports nutrition.
Their advice consists mainly of paying attention to the food pyramid, eating lots of leafy
vegetables, and trying to control fat intake. According to this approach, you should get all thenutrients you need by following a healthy diet. At the other end of the spectrum are the sports
nutrition companies who are often the purveyors of hype. These are the manufacturers who
claim their products will “double your lean body mass in a week” while extolling the virtues of
their magic herbs and supplements. For them, product claims tend to come out of a thesaurus
rather than from a research laboratory. They are the advocates of “more is better.” If an
ingredient has a benefit, then more of it will give you a greater benefit. Ironically, both ofthese groups take a similar view of current nutrition research.
For many nutrition traditionalists, good scientific research ended around 1980. They
generally fail to incorporate in their programs some of the landmark studies showing how
nutrition could have improved the sports performances of the last two decades.
For the purveyors of hype, good scientific research is remote. Their product claims areusually not substantiated by studies, and when they are, the studies may not be relevant to themodern-day athlete’s realities.
This information abyss presents a true challenge for the serious strength athlete as he or shetries to navigate through hype and outdated thinking. And of course, most serious athletes are
not usually trained in exercise physiology.
We have cited many studies showing the significant and dramatic gains in muscle strength anddevelopment that you can achieve by applying a few basic nutrition principles. The science
supporting Nutrient Timing is growing; our extensive bibliography at the end of this book isevidence of this growth.
As scientists who are committed to finding safe ways to help improve athletic performance,
we find that the most exciting aspect of Nutrient Timing is its power as a tool to help strength
athletes achieve their full athletic potential. Figure 7.1 clearly shows the negative impact ofnutrient procrastination on most of the muscle cells’ key anabolic activities. It also illustrates
the positive impact of timely nutrient consumption. Among its other effects, acarbohydrate/protein supplement taken immediately after exercise (versus waiting up to threehours) can result in a 600 percent improvement in protein synthesis and a 100 percent
improvement in muscle glycogen replenishment. Following the principles of Nutrient Timing
will provide you with the kind of results that will be as powerful as, if not more powerful than,any other sports nutrition program or product.
Figure 7.1. Effect of Nutrient Delay on Key Anabolic Activities

However, no matter how strong the science, it must be practical. In other words, Nutrient
Timing has to work in the training regimens of strength athletes at all levels and every day.
Many pages of this book have been devoted to discussing the science underlying the threephases of Nutrient Timing. In this chapter, we fulfill the promise we made in the Introduction.
Nutrient Timing is a practical and easy program to implement.
Liquid Nutrition versus Food—Which Provides a Better Recovery?
John M. Berardi, C.S.C.S.
While I believe that complete, unbleached, untreated, and unprocessed whole foodshould form the basis of a sound nutritional regimen, good nutritional plans for workouts
and postexercise recovery are exceptions. Liquid supplemental nutrition may be far
superior to whole food for the reasons discussed below.
Liquid Meals Are Palatable and Digestible
Immediately after intense exercise, most people find eating solid food difficult. This isunderstandable. The stress of exercise creates a situation in which the hunger centers arenearly shut down. However, it’s absolutely critical that you eat at this time if you want toremodel the muscle, enlarge the muscle, and recover from the exercise. Fortunately, liquid
supplemental formulas are palatable, easy to consume, and can be quite nutrient dense,
providing all the nutrition you need at this vital time. In addition, since these formulas are
structurally simple, the gastrointestinal tract has no difficulty processing them. Your stomach
will thank you.
Liquid Meals Have a Fast Absorption Profile; Whole Food Is Just Too Slow
Liquid supplemental formulas based on the NTS containing fast-digesting protein(whey) and high-glycemic carbohydrates (dextrose and maltodextrin) are absorbed more
quickly than whole food. A liquid postexercise formula may be fully absorbed within thirty
to sixty minutes, providing your muscles with the essential nutrients during the critical fortyfive-minute metabolic window, whereas a solid food meal may take two to three hours to
fully affect the muscle.
Liquid Meals Take Advantage of the “Window of Opportunity”; Whole Foods
May Miss It
The sooner carbohydrate/protein supplementation gets to the muscles, the better yourchances are for muscle building and recovery. The latest research shows that athletesreceiving nutrients immediately after exercise recover faster and better than those receiving
nutrients two hours later.
Liquid Meals Are Better for Nutrient Targeting
During the postexercise period, an abundance of water and specific nutrients maximize
your recovery. These nutrients include high-glycemic carbohydrates, protein (in a specificratio), and certain amino acids. It’s also best to avoid fat during this time. The only way toensure that these nutrients are present in the right amounts is to formulate a specific liquid
blend or buy a commercially available one that meets these criteria. Whole foods may missthe mark, providing too much or not enough of a given nutrient.
The nutrition foundation for Nutrient Timing is a healthy diet. We offer a number of dietary

The nutrition foundation for Nutrient Timing is a healthy diet. We offer a number of dietarysuggestions and, most important, we have created a template so you can design your own
diet based on your own tastes, habits, and lifestyle. To this nutrition foundation, we haveadded nutrient intervention at three critical times in the muscles’ growth cycle: the Energy
Phase, the Anabolic Phase, and the Rapid Segment of the Growth Phase. This additional
supplementation is usually in the form of a beverage; however, with the exception of theEnergy Phase in which hydration is so important, you can create your Anabolic and Growth
Phase supplements with the right combination of solid foods. As discussed, there are anumber of advantages in taking your nutritional supplementation as a beverage during thefour-hour time span that begins just prior to your workout and ends two to three hours after
your workout.
The macronutrient requirements for strength athletes looking to get the most out of Nutrient
Timing are as follows:• 19 to 26 percent protein• 41 to 48 percent carbohydrate• 33 percent fat
For strength athletes, protein consumption of 0.9-1.2 grams of protein per pound of bodyweight is ideal. This diet will give you the extra protein you need, which, as we have seen,
can help enhance muscle development as well as the necessary energy from carbohydrate
and fat to maintain a healthy immune system and minimize the development of overtraining
syndrome. (There’s more about overtraining in the inset “Overtraining and Nutrition” in
Chapter 10.)
Table 7.1 shows the nutrient composition at different levels of protein intake for a maleweighing 200 pounds and a female weighing 130 pounds.
Table 7.1

Determining Your Caloric Intake
The starting point for any diet program is quantifying your daily caloric expenditure. Once
you know your caloric expenditure, you can then customize your own Nutrient Timing
System nutrition program. (We will show you how to do the latter in the next chapter). In
Appendix A: Caloric Expenditure Calculator, we present a simple do-it-yourself system todetermine how many calories you burn in a twenty-four-hour period.

3+1—The Secret for Implementing Nutrient Timing
Three plus one is all it takes to get the full benefits of Nutrient Timing—that is, nutrientintervention three times around your workout plus one healthy diet. As shown in Table 7.2,
you also have the option of taking another growth phase supplement as a post-dinner snack

you also have the option of taking another growth phase supplement as a post-dinner snackto achieve greater muscle growth.
Table 7.2 outlines a sample food plan for a 200-pound strength athlete who works out once
per day. The goal protein level is 1.1 gram per pound for a daily total of 228 grams. As you
can see, it is not a complex program. However, it does require paying special attention to
nutrition during the periods when your muscles are most susceptible to damage and when
they are most susceptible to growth. This may mean a slight change in your eating habits.
TABLE 7.2. Daily Caloric Composition for a 200-Pound Male Athlete Who Works
Out Once Daily
The goal protein amount is 228 grams and the goal caloric intake is 3,800 calories.
Protein
Carbohydrate
80g
28g

Breakfast 28g
Workout(Energy
6g
Supplement)
Postworkout(Anabolic 15g
Supplement)
2 Hours
Postworkout
20g(GrowthSupplement)
Lunch
46g
Snack
14g
Dinner56g
Post-dinner(Growth20g
Supplement)
TOTAL
226g

Fat
684

24g

1g

129

45g

1g

249

4g

1g

105

82g
92g
80g

18g
33g
49g

674
721
985

4g

1g

105

411g
Table 7.2

138g

3,790

In our examples, we have scheduled your workout in the morning. We recognize that withbusy schedules athletes do not have a set time each day for their workout. To implement the
Nutrient Timing System, you do not have to perform a morning workout. However,whenever your workout occurs, it is important that you consume the proper nutrients during
the three critical phases. If need be, adjust your meals accordingly.
Table 7.3 summarizes the ideal nutrient composition for each phase of the Nutrient Timing
System. As mentioned previously, the ideal form for the NTS supplement in the Energy
Phase is a beverage, which will help replace fluids lost during your workout. Although there
are many advantages to consuming a beverage for the Anabolic and Growth Phase, solid
food can work just as well as long as the nutrient composition is optimal. In the next chapter,one of the country’s leading nutritionists, Dr. Susan Kleiner, author of Power Eating, willshow you how to create your own NTS nutrition program.
KEY TAKEAWAYS 7• A high-protein diet consisting of 41 to 48 percent carbohydrate, 19 to 26 percent
protein, and 33 percent fat is an excellent one for strength athletes.
• 41 to 48 percent carbohydrate and 33 percent fat will give you the necessary energy
for a strong workout and maintaining a healthy immune system.
• 3+1 is the secret for implementing Nutrient Timing effectively: three nutrientinterventions during and after workouts plus one healthy diet.
Table 7.3

Calories

8: The NTS Nutrition Program
Susan Kleiner, Ph.D., R.D., F.A.C.N., C.N.S.
Now that NTS has shown you why your body needs the right combination of nutrients at theright times to promote maximum energy, recovery and growth, you must learn to translate thescientific facts into food. What, how much, and when should you eat to stay healthy and get
the results that you want?
Think of this chapter as both a simple and detailed outline of your menu plan. If you’remerely seeking the basic facts to get started, then the simple menu templates and sample
food menus provided here are the best places to begin. But if you’re interested in learning all
the details, you’ll find them in this chapter as well.

NTS FOOD GROUPS
The easiest way to categorize foods is to put them into groups according to their common
nutrients. Using food groups helps to ensure that a diet is designed with the variety ofnutrients required to promote energy metabolism, tissue growth and repair, and lifetime
health. The Nutrient Timing System uses the specific food groups shown in Table 8.1 (a, b).
This table segments food into twelve groups. You may notice a few tweaks from thetraditional food groups outlined in the well-known USDA Food Guide Pyramid.
To make it easy for you to substitute one food item for another in a specific food group, eachgroup item listed has an equivalent nutrient composition and the same number of calories. For
example, under the starch group, one slice of bread is equivalent to a half cup of cooked
pasta.
Creating Your Personal NTS Nutrition Plan
Step 1
Determine your daily caloric intake using the Caloric Expenditure Calculator in
Appendix A.
Step 2
Select the meal plan templates provided in Appendix B that are closest to your calorie
needs. The meal plan templates are designed to deliver a daily protein content of 1.14
grams of protein per pound of body weight.
Step 3
Refer to Table 8.1 (a, b) to personalize your diet. Select real foods from this table andfill them into the templates.
If your calorie needs are slightly different from those listed in the templates,
do the following:
Step 1
Determine your daily caloric intake using the Caloric Expenditure Calculator in
Appendix A.
Step 2Distribute your calories as follows: 24 percent protein, 43 percent carbohydrate, and33 percent fat.

33 percent fat.
Step 3Adjust the protein, carbohydrate, and fat percentages in the template by adding or
subtracting foods according to their individual nutrient contents listed in Table 8.1 (a, b).
Select foods from this table to personalize your diet.
Except when noted, the templates are designed for an individual who works out once aday. If you work out twice a day, add a second round of Energy, Anabolic, and Growth
Phase supplements to sufficiently adjust your caloric intake.
Table 8.1(a)Table 8.1(b)Review the food groups to become familiar with how different foods are categorized. Next,
turn to the Daily Food Group Templates in tables 8.2, 8.3, and 8.4. We’ve designed thefollowing three templates with menus:• Profile A: 200-pound male who works out once a day• Profile B: 200-pound male who works out twice a day• Profile C: 130-pound female who works out once a day
The Daily Food Group Templates are an overview of what you need to eat and when to eat
it using the Nutrient Timing System. Thereafter, look at the sample food menus for eachprofile in Tables 8.5 (a, b), 8.6 (a, b), and 8.7 (a, b). Based on the Daily Food Group
Templates, we provide a sample NTS Food Menu Plan by placing specific food choices inplace of the food groups listed in the template. For example, you’ll see “1 milk” in thetemplate replaced by “1 cup nonfat milk” in the Food Menu Plan. You’ll see “2 starch” in thetemplate replaced by “1 medium baked potato and 1/3 cup brown rice” in the Food Menu
Plan. By using the Daily Food Group Template, you can personalize your diet by choosing
the foods you like from each food group. It’s that easy to design your own individualized
Nutrient Timing System Nutrition Plan.
Every detail has been figured into these plans. The combinations of foods have been
designed to maximize your training. You don’t need to add anything with one very important
exception: water. In addition to the many beverages used in the meal plans, your body needs
at least 40-48 ounces of water per day. You can drink water with your meals and snacks aslong as it doesn’t hamper your appetite. If you find that you fill up with water during a mealand can’t finish your food, then drink water between meals and snacks.

DAILY FOOD GROUP TEMPLATESPROFILE A
Male • Weight: 200 pounds
Energy: 19 calories per pound
Workout Regimen: Once daily
Goal Daily Caloric Needs: 3,800 calories
Protein Level: 1.14 grams protein per pound of body weight (Table 8.2)
TABLE 8.2. Daily Food Group Template for Profile A
Servings
ProteinStarch
8
24g
120g
Fruit
8
—
120g
Milk
3
24g
36g
Added
7
—
28g
SugarsVegetables 6
12g
30g
Meat/Meat
Substitutes
Very Lean 7
49g
—
Lean
6
42g
—
Medium Fat 2
14g—

Carbohydrates
8g
—
3g

Fat
648
480
267

—

112

—

168

—
18g
10g

196
330
146

Calories

Medium Fat 2
Fat
19
NTS Energy
1
Supplement
NTS
Anabolic 1
Supplement
NTS
Growth2
Supplement
Total Grams
Daily
Calories(actual)Nutrient
Composition

14g
—

—
—

10g
95g

146
855

6g

24g

1g

129

15g

45g

1g

249

40g

8g

2g

210

226g

411g

138g

904

1,644

1,242

24%

43%

33%

3,790

Table 8.2
PROFILE B
Male • Weight: 200 pounds
Energy: 21 calories per pound
Workout Regimen: Twice daily
Goal Daily Caloric Needs: 4,200 calories
Protein Level: 1.24 grams protein per pound of body weight (Table 8.3)
TABLE 8.3. Daily Food Group Template for Profile B
Servings
ProteinStarch
8
24g
120g
Fruit
7
—
105g
Milk
4
32g
48g
Added
3
—
12g
SugarsVegetables 6
12g
30g
Meat/Meat
Substitutes
Very Lean 6
42g
—
Lean
4
28g
—
Medium Fat 4
28g
—
Fat
20
—
—
NTS Energy
2
12g
48g
Supplement
NTS
Anabolic 2
Supplement
NTS
Growth2
Supplement
Total Grams
Daily
Calories(actual)Nutrient
Composition

Carbohydrates
8g
—
4g

Fat
648
420
356

—

48

—

168

—
12g
20g
100g

168
220
292
900

2g

258

30g

90g

2g

498

40g

8g

2g

210

248g

461g

150g

992

1,844

1,350

24%

44%

32%

Table 8.3
PROFILE C
Female • Weight: 130 pounds
Energy: 18 calories per pound
Workout Regimen: Once daily
Goal Daily Caloric Needs: 2,340 calories

4,186

CaloriesProtein Level: 1.1 grams protein per pound of body weight (Table 8.4), (See Table 8.5 a, b,
8.6 a, b & 8.7 a, b at the end of Chapter)
TABLE 8.4. Daily Food Group Templates for Profile C
Servings
Protein
Carbohydrates
Starch
3
9g
45g
3g
Fruit
5
—
75g
—
Milk
2
16g
24g
2g
Added
2
—
8g
—
SugarsVegetables 5
10g
25g
—
Meat/Meat
Substitutes
Very Lean 3
21g
—
—
Lean
3
21g
—
9g
Medium Fat 3
21g
—
15g
Fat
11
—
—
55g
NTS Energy
1
6g
24g
1g
Supplement
NTS
Anabolic 1
Supplement
NTS
Growth1
Supplement
Total Grams
Daily
Calories(actual)Nutrient
Composition

Fat
243
300
178
32
140

84
165
219
495
129

15g

45g

1g

249

20g

4g

1g

105

139g

250g

87g

556

1,000

783

24%

43%

33%

Table 8.4
Experiment with various strategies to find which one or which combination of strategies
works in your life. You might find that copying the template and carrying it around with you is
helpful. You can pull it out when you’re shopping for groceries or ordering at a restaurant.
Alternatively, you can develop your own seven-day menu plan and shop and prepare yourfood accordingly. Most people find that some combination of these two strategies works
best.
The key to success is planning ahead. Although we’ve done the hard part of designing the
program for you, you will still have to shop and prepare your meals, and follow yourtemplate when ordering at a restaurant. But you don’t have to get neurotic about this. The
goal is to follow these plans on a regular basis. If you have been invited to a dinner party or
are traveling and just can’t quite meet the template guidelines, don’t sweat it. Use thesupplements to fuel yourself around your exercise, and do your best to make good choices
the rest of the day. As long as you follow the plan on a usual basis, what happens on theunusual days will have little impact.

FOOD CHOICES: WHAT TO BUY?
When you get to the supermarket, what should you buy? What are the good food choices?
It’s not surprising that the foods that promote health and prevent disease are the same foods
that maximize energy and growth.
Plant foods will be the mainstay of your diet. They are full of vitamins, minerals,
phytochemicals, carbohydrates, and fibers that are essential for energy, growth, and health.
Choose whole, unprocessed fruits, vegetables, grains, beans, nuts, and seeds as frequently as
possible. Vegetable oils and 100 percent fruit juices also play important roles in your diet.
Variety within each of the food groups is just as essential as choosing foods representing
each food group. For instance, eat carrots, broccoli, asparagus, cucumber, lettuce, andtomato, instead of eating solely from the bag of mini-carrots that you have stashed in yourrefrigerator for every meal.
Excellent sources of protein are lean cuts of beef, fish, poultry, eggs, and nonfat and low-fat
dairy and soy products. Nonfat and low-fat dairy products are ideal sources of all the bonebuilding nutrients, some of which are also important for energy and protein metabolism.
Again, variety is very important here. Different protein foods offer a mixture of different
nutrients in addition to protein. Fatty fish like salmon are high in omega-3 fats, eggs are highin lecithin, dairy is high in calcium, and soy is high in isoflavones and fiber.
Shop the perimeter of your supermarket. That’s where you’ll find the butcher/fishmonger,
fresh bakery, produce, and dairy sections. The aisles that offer canned beans and nuts arealso important. Generally, the further you progress toward the center of the store, the more

2,339

Caloriesalso important. Generally, the further you progress toward the center of the store, the more
processed and refined the food becomes.
Highly refined foods are not only depleted of the nutrients through heavy processing, but they
are usually also very high in added sugar. While sugar can be a friend to an athlete when usedaround exercise according to the Nutrient Timing System, sugar at other times of the day
amounts to empty, nonfunctional calories. The Nutrient Timing menu plans are designed to
optimize added sugar in the diet to enhance both taste and performance. Sugar is added tothe menus in teaspoons with exercise timing in mind. Because your body will benefit mostfrom the timing strategy designed into the menus, it is best to follow that strategy mostfrequently. But if you would like to have all your added teaspoons of sugar at one meal, it will
not hinder your progress if you restrict it to special occasions.
Are High-Protein Diets and Protein Supplements Dangerous?
John M. Berardi, C.S.C.S.
You may have heard the rumors, the recommendations of dietitians, and the firm
disapproval of medical professionals. They say that those protein supplements will “destroy
your kidneys,” “cause dehydration,” and “ruin your bones.” But you’ve also heard a
number of other experts, backed up by clinical trials, telling you there’s no danger. So
what’s the truth? Are protein supplements dangerous? Well, let’s take a look at the
research.
Is There Impaired Kidney Function?
Although studies have been published showing that in individuals with unhealthykidneys, excessive protein intake could place undue strain on the kidneys, healthy
individuals have little to worry about with high-protein diets. To demonstrate this, a recent
study showed that when bodybuilders consumed up to 1.3 grams of protein per pound(2.8g/kg) of body weight, kidney function was not impaired. In fact, in an older study
conducted with female rats, kidney function seemed to be improved with high-protein diets.
What About Calcium Loss?
A few original studies demonstrated that when protein intake was raised to 140-225
grams per day, excess calcium was lost from the urine at a faster rate than normal.
However, in these studies, calcium intake as well as phosphorus intake was restricted andnot allowed to increase in proportion to the protein intake. Since whole-food protein
sources contain both calcium and phosphorus and even protein supplements are fortified
with calcium and phosphorus, it only makes sense that increases in protein intake are
typically accompanied by increased dietary calcium and phosphorus. In this context, theresearch has demonstrated that consuming additional protein results in a positive calcium
balance and there are no adverse affects on bone calcium content.
Will You Experience Dehydration?
It’s true that lots of extra protein can cause extra water excretion (that is, more frequenturination). But alcohol and coffee do the same thing. An easy solution is to drink a few
extra glasses of water per day. It will help stave off dehydration and assist other metabolic
processes as well. The relationship between water loss and high-protein diets has been
observed in nonathletes. The study conducted with marine recruits discussed in Chapter 5
suggests that this may not be a problem during exercise. In the marine-recruit study, there
was a dramatic decline in the incidence of dehydration in subjects taking thecarbohydrate/protein drink versus those consuming water or carbohydrate and water. The
83 percent decrease in heat exhaustion in the carbohydrate/protein group may be explainedby the lower lean body mass of the subjects who did not suffer heat exhaustion or by thefact that the increased protein resulted in higher blood levels of a specific protein, which
reduced water loss.
What about Constipation?
Nutritionists and dietitians claim that diets high in protein are low in fiber. Insufficientbulk in the digestive system can cause constipation. However, this problem can be easily
remedied. Simply choose the right foods such as fibrous vegetables and starchy breads andpasta, and drink sufficient amounts of water.
From this information, it should be clear that the “dangers” of a high-protein diet andprotein supplements are overstated. There is no question that athletes benefit from a higher
protein intake. As there are no clear risks associated with them, protein supplements canprovide a convenient and safe way to get extra protein in the diet.
Table 8.5 (a)Table 8.5 (b)Table 8.6 (a)Table 8.6 (b)Table 8.7 (a)Table 8.7 (b)PART IV: NUTRITION AND PERFORMANCE

9: Nutrient Activators and Sports Supplements
Nutrient activation takes place when one nutrient helps another nutrient perform its job more
efficiently. More exactly, nutrient activation is a process by which the biological effects of acertain nutrient are influenced through direct or indirect interaction with one or more othernutrients. This is a key concept in the Nutrient Timing System.
As you’ve learned, muscle recovery and growth occur fastest when the right nutrients are
consumed at the right times in relation to training. That’s simple enough, but it’s also
important to understand how these various nutrients interact to promote muscle growth. This
chapter discusses the key nutrient activators and their potential benefits to the body whentaken at the right time. It also alerts you to the questionable activators—supplements you
might be taking to enhance your performance that just might not work the way they are
purported to.

NUTRIENT ACTIVATORS
Most strength athletes think of nutrients in terms of their direct effects not in terms of their
indirect effects. For example, they think of protein as the constituent that muscles are madeof, but they don’t think of protein as a nutrient that can enhance muscle glycogen storage bystimulating insulin (protein as activator). Let’s take a look at the important nutrient activatorsthat can cooperate to maximize the rate at which proteins become biologically active
components of your growing muscles.
Carbohydrate
The most important nutrient activator in relation to protein is carbohydrate. This connection ismediated through insulin, which is strongly stimulated by the consumption of carbohydrate.
Insulin not only stimulates the transport of amino acids into the muscle, but also activates key
elements of the protein synthetic machinery. The manner in which amino acids activate
protein synthesis is different from the manner in which insulin does, so their effects on protein
synthesis become additive. Insulin also helps decrease protein degradation, which isimportant for tipping the protein turnover balance toward net protein accretion (an increase inimportant for tipping the protein turnover balance toward net protein accretion (an increase in
the protein concentration within the muscle). So, in order to get greater protein synthesis, youneed to consume carbohydrate along with your protein drink during the Anabolic and
Growth phases. For example, researchers have shown that a combined protein/carbohydrate
supplement taken after exercise results in a 38 percent faster rate of protein synthesis as aprotein supplement without carbohydrate. It is therefore fair to say that the path to greater
protein synthesis and ultimately to muscle development is traveled quicker whencarbohydrate is consumed with protein.
Protein
Just as carbohydrate activates protein, protein is able to work with carbohydrate to activate
certain metabolic processes, which include muscle glucose uptake and glycogen storage. As
mentioned, one effect of combined carbohydrate/protein supplementation is a greater insulin
response. Protein alone has only a small effect on blood insulin levels. However, when
protein is combined with carbohydrate, the insulin response is greater than that produced byeither carbohydrate or protein alone.
Insulin is, as we’ve seen, a strong activator of muscle glucose uptake and glycogen synthesis.
However, the nutrient activation caused by protein is not due solely to a greater insulin
response. Certain amino acids such as leucine and isoleucine can activate muscle glucose
uptake and glycogen storage through insulin-independent pathways. Thus, the addition ofprotein to a carbohydrate supplement can greatly increase the rate of muscle glycogensynthesis. In research studies, the addition of protein to a carbohydrate supplement has beenshown to increase glycogen storage by 40 to 100 percent during the early hours of
postworkout recovery.
Amino Acids
Amino acids are a broad class of structurally similar biochemical compounds that serve as
the building blocks of protein. As parts of a protein molecule, they are linked together by
peptide bonds. Thousands of amino acids can be linked to form proteins involved in cellstructure (membranes), cell function (actin and myosin), or energy production (myosin
ATPase). In addition, amino acids can function as biochemical messengers and asintermediates in metabolism. Three amino acids in particular are important nutrient activators
in NTS: arginine, glutamine, and leucine.
ARGININE

Arginine is important in helping the muscles to manufacture other amino acids. In addition,arginine is an excellent stimulator of insulin and therefore has the ability to enhancecarbohydrate metabolism.
Another beneficial characteristic of arginine is its ability to increase blood flow. When bloodvessels are expanded (or dilated), greater blood flow is possible. This is particularly
important during exercise and recovery from exercise, because at these times muscles needgreater amounts of oxygen and nutrients and there is also a greater need to remove metabolic
byproducts such as carbon dioxide and lactic acid. An essential regulator of vasodilation isnitric oxide (NO). The production of NO requires arginine, which serves as a precursor for
NO formation. Arginine supplementation has been shown to stimulate the NO system. A
number of arginine supplements are now sold as circulation boosters. There is, however, adownside to supplementing with this amino acid: consuming arginine in large amounts (greaterthan 10 grams) can cause gastrointestinal distress.
GLUTAMINE

Glutamine is the most abundant amino acid in the blood and muscle cells. It comprises morethan 60 percent of the free amino acid pool in muscle tissue. Glutamine is also the mostnitrogen-rich amino acid, supplying 35 percent of the nitrogen that muscle cells use tosynthesize proteins.
Glutamine is considered to be a “conditionally essential” amino acid because, although the
body can synthesize it, there are times when the body’s high demand for glutamine exceeds
its glutamine stores and manufacturing efforts. Several kinds of stress can dramaticallyincrease the body’s glutamine needs. Strenuous exercise, injuries, and illnesses are the mainones.
In addition to promoting protein synthesis, glutamine, by helping to maintain a positive
nitrogen balance in muscle tissue, also prevents protein breakdown, which is equallyimportant when it comes to building muscle.
At one time it was believed that carbohydrate provided all of the necessary nutrition to
support immune system function. It is now well documented that glutamine is also an
important nutrient for cells of the immune system. During prolonged exercise, glutamine levels
are depleted. Within twenty-four hours, glutamine levels usually return to normal, assuming
the athlete is consuming a healthy diet. However, in athletes who train intensively, glutaminelevels may be chronically low. Because of the relationship between glutamine and immune

levels may be chronically low. Because of the relationship between glutamine and immune
system function, these athletes may be more susceptible to upper respiratory tract infections.
One study reported that 73 percent of athletes with infection had glutamine levels below
normal. This suggests that athletes who train intensively would benefit from glutamine
supplementation. Researchers have demonstrated that supplementation could increase
baseline levels of glutamine. It has also been demonstrated that when protein is taken
following exercise, the normal drop in glutamine can be prevented.
Recent research suggests that glutamine may also promote protein synthesis by activating
metabolic pathways through cell volumization (hydration of cells). Protein synthesis proceeds
more quickly when muscle fibers are enlarged or swollen. Glutamine draws water and salt
into muscle cells, thereby expediting protein synthesis.
Finally, glutamine can also promote the storage of glycogen. In a study by Bowtell andcolleagues from the University of Dundee, Scotland, groups of six subjects each cycled until
exhausted and were then given either a carbohydrate supplement, a glutamine supplement, ora carbohydrate/glutamine supplement. Although the carbohydrate/glutamine supplement did
not promote more muscle glycogen storage than the carbohydrate supplement, it was more
effective in increasing the liver glycogen stores.
Studies have shown that a minimum of 2 grams of glutamine is needed to increase plasma
growth hormone levels. An 8-gram dose has been demonstrated to be effective in promoting
glycogen resynthesis. Because of glutamine’s role in supporting the immune system andpostexercise muscle recovery, it should be a standard part of a postexercise meal.
Studies have shown that short- and long-term glutamine supplementation is safe in humans.
Oral doses of glutamine as high as 0.3 grams per kilogram of body weight have been
administered with no evidence of toxicity.
Table 9.1 lists the glutamine content for a variety of foods.
TABLE 9.1. Glutamine Content of Selected Food
Food
Content
Round steak (3 ounces)
4.05g
Chicken breast (3 ounces)
3.74g
Chicken thigh (3 ounces)
3.31g
Ground beef (3 ounces)
3.19g
Ham (3 ounces)
2.68g
Sole/flounder fillet (3 ounces) 2.39g
Skim milk (1 cup)
1.67g
Mozzarella cheese (1 ounce) 1.65g
Cheddar cheese (1 ounce)
1.59g
Dry roasted peanuts (1 ounce) 1.40g
Lentils (1/2 cup)
1.39g
Soy milk (1/2 cup)
1.35gBlack beans (1/2 cup)
1.16g
Large boiled egg (1 large)
0.82g
Table 9.1
BRANCHED-CHAIN AMINO ACIDS (BCAAS)

Leucine, isoleucine, and valine are three special amino acids known as the branched-chainamino acids (BCAAs). They serve as precursors for the synthesis of glutamine and alanine,
two amino acids that are used up rapidly and in large quantities during intense exercise.
Isoleucine and valine are used as a direct source of energy during exercise. Ingestion of
BCAAs during exercise not only provides needed energy but may also prevent muscle
protein breakdown, resulting in faster postworkout recovery.
In one study, Coombes and McNaughton had two groups of subjects exercise for two hours
on a stationary bicycle. One group had taken a daily BCAA supplement for the preceding
fourteen days, while the second group had received a placebo. In both groups, biomarkers
of muscle damage were elevated from four hours to five days after cycling. However, thisindication of muscle damage was substantially lower in the BCAA group.
Leucine in particular is one of the most potent nutrient activators in relation to muscle growth.
Leucine is not just used as a building block for muscle proteins, but it can also help amplify
muscle protein synthesis. First, it can increase blood insulin levels by stimulating the release of
insulin from the pancreas. Second, it can work cooperatively with insulin to initiate protein
synthesis. Insulin serves to activate the signal pathway, while leucine enhances the signal for
protein synthesis at the level of peptide initiation (translation). This effect is particularly
pronounced after exercise, when the muscle cells exhibit increased insulin sensitivity. Some
research also suggests that leucine is able to stimulate both muscle protein synthesis andglucose uptake through another insulin-independent mechanism.
CreatineCreatine
Creatine is the most popular muscle-building nutritional supplement. In the early 1990s,
creatine exploded in popularity among athletes in strength and speed sports when researchdemonstrated that creatine supplementation could increase the strength and muscle massgains associated with resistance training.
Creatine is necessary for the production of creatine phosphate (CP), the high-energy
phosphate compound stored in the muscles and responsible for the rapid resynthesis of ATP.
Creatine can be manufactured from its constituent amino acids in the liver and through dietaryconsumption of creatine, which is found in animal foods such as beef. Creatine
supplementation can significantly increase the amount of creatine that is stored in the muscles
and thereby increase CP stores.
Many studies have demonstrated that creatine supplementation will enhance training-induced
gains in muscle strength and mass. For example, in a study conducted by Vandenberghe andcolleagues, subjects were placed on creatine or placebo throughout a ten-week strengthtraining program. Compared with placebo, maximal strength was increased by 20 to 25
percent and muscle mass by 60 percent with creatine supplementation. Also, Kreider andcolleagues reported that college football players who supplemented with creatine and glucose
during twenty-eight days of conditioning had greater gains in body weight, muscle mass, andstrength compared with players who received a placebo.
Three different mechanisms have been hypothesized to explain how creatine increases muscle
mass and strength. The first is that an increase in CP directly stimulates protein synthesis. The
second is that an increase in total muscle creatine draws water into the muscle fiber, causing
it to swell, and the swelling then stimulates protein synthesis. The third is that high levels of
intramuscular creatine slow the use of ATP during exercise and speeds the recovery of CP.
This allows for a harder workout and thus a greater stimulus for protein synthesis.
Most of the studies have utilized a brief loading phase, which is 20 grams per day (4 doses of
5 grams each consumed over the day) for five to seven days. This should increase yourskeletal muscles’ creatine and CP levels. A maintenance dose of 2.5-5 grams per day should
be enough to maintain skeletal muscle creatine and CP levels. Stout and colleagues haveshown that the addition of carbohydrate can augment intramuscular creatine, CP, and total
creatine levels. A serving of 36 grams of carbohydrate with 5 grams of creatine will improve
performance more than creatine alone. However, many athletes often use lower levels ofcarbohydrate mixed with creatine with good results.
Caffeine
For decades, athletes of all kinds have used the stimulant caffeine—sometimes referred to as
the world’s most popular drug—to enhance performance. The popularity of caffeine as aperformance aid started to rise more than twenty-five years ago when Dr. David Costill ofBall State University reported that caffeine could improve endurance performance. The
improvement was thought to be due to caffeine’s ability to increase fat oxidation and sparethe use of muscle glycogen. While this is still a possible explanation, recent research suggeststhat caffeine may also delay fatigue by reducing the athlete’s perception of effort. Laurent andcolleagues found that caffeine increased the concentration of hormone-like substances in thebrain called ß-endorphins during exercise. The endorphins affect mood state, reduce
perception of pain, and create a sense of well-being.
Caffeine has also been found to delay fatigue during exercise by blocking adenosine
receptors. Adenosine is produced during exercise and inhibits the release of the brainneurotransmitter dopamine. Decreases in dopamine, along with increases in serotonin,
another brain neurotransmitter have been linked to central nervous system fatigue during
exercise. A decrease in the dopamine-serotonin ratio has been shown to reduce arousal,
induce sleep, and suppress spontaneous activity of animals.
Caffeine has also been popular among strength athletes because of its metabolic and central
nervous system effects. Because caffeine increases fat breakdown and oxidation during
exercise, strength athletes have used caffeine to lower body-fat content. In addition, they
have used caffeine to increase workout intensity because of its ability to increase arousal andreduce perception of effort. However, caffeine is a weak stimulant and has not been found toacutely increase muscle strength or to have a significant effect on body-fat content.

NUTRIENT ACTIVATORSRESEARCHTHATREQUIRE

ADDITIONAL

There are many sports supplements on the market that contain nutrients that may or may notwork as they are purported to. The ones included in this section are those which aresupported by some science but which require additional studies to determine whether they
are of any value. Among the popular nutrients that are in this category are CLA, HMB, Lcarnitine, ribose, and pyruvate.
Conjugated Linoleic Acid (CLA)
Conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) is an omega-6 fatty acid found naturally in various foods that

Conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) is an omega-6 fatty acid found naturally in various foods that
affects carbohydrate, protein, and fat metabolism and exhibits antioxidant properties. CLA
has also been heavily marketed to strength athletes as a supplement that may help lessen
protein catabolism, decrease body fat, and promote greater gains in strength and muscle
mass during training. Some research has shown that supplemental CLA can reduce body-fat
content. However, this effect has been shown only in laboratory mice that received massive
quantities of CLA, which humans could never practically match pound for pound.
Furthermore, results of research studies on the effects of CLA in combination with resistancetraining on muscle mass and strength gains have been negative. Therefore, while dietary CLA
is an important nutrient, it is probably not a worthwhile supplement for reducing body fat or
increasing muscle mass and strength.
Beta-hydroxy-beta-methylbutyrate (HMB)
Beta-hydroxy-beta- methylbutyrate (HMB) is a compound that is found naturally in various
foods and produced in the body from proteins that contain the amino acid leucine. There issome evidence that HMB reduces muscle breakdown following exercise. Many strength andspeed athletes use HMB supplements in the belief that HMB reduces recovery time andallows them to exercise more intensely, resulting in greater gains in muscle size and strength.
HMB has been widely studied. In studies by Nissen and colleagues, it was found that daily
supplementation of HMB along with resistance training could increase muscle mass, reduce
body fat, and increase strength in a dose-dependent manner. More recent studies, however,suggest that HMB supplementation has no effect on strength and muscle gains. So the casefor HMB is still open. Fortunately, there are no reports of negative side effects associatedwith HMB supplements—except for the cost of buying them.
L-Carnitine
A natural compound with both vitamin-like and amino acid-like properties, L-carnitine issupplied in the diet by meats and is also manufactured in the liver and kidneys. Its primaryfunction in the body is to transport fatty acids across the mitochondrial membrane so thatthey can be metabolized. L-carnitine is used medicinally in the treatment of conditions such as
Alzheimer ’s disease and is also a popular weight-loss supplement. Some endurance athletes
use it in the belief that it can increase the body’s fat-burning efficiency during exercise.
However, studies have repeatedly shown that L-carnitine supplementation has no effect on
fat utilization either at rest or during exercise and no effect on endurance performance. While
L-carnitine is essential for fat utilization during exercise, it appears that athletes get as muchas they need in the diet and that supplementation offers no additional benefit.
RiboseRibose is a sugar that the body produces through glucose metabolism and is in turn used in
the structure of ATP. Therefore, it plays an important role in muscle energy production.
Many strength athletes use ribose supplements in the belief that these supplements acceleratemuscle recovery by increasing the rate of ATP synthesis after workouts.
However, studies have demonstrated unequivocally that ribose does not have this effect. For
example, in a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled Belgian study, subjects
performed an intensive regimen of lower-body strength exercises over a six-day period.
Subjects who took a ribose supplement neither replenished ATP stores faster than subjects
receiving a placebo nor outperformed them in the strength tests.
Pyruvate
Pyruvate is a compound that plays an important role in carbohydrate metabolism. Many
athletes take pyruvate supplements as an ergogenic aid, but a recent review by Juhn at the
University of Washington Medical School concludes that it has no ergogenic benefit during
exercise. Some early research on rats suggested that pyruvate supplementation would
promote fat loss by increasing resting metabolic rate and fat oxidation. However, more
recent studies, including one by Stone and colleagues at Appalachian State University, haveshown that pyruvate supplementation does not improve body composition in athletes.
Nevertheless, many companies continue to market calcium pyruvate (the most popularsupplement form of pyruvate).

SUMMARY
In order to have maximum effectiveness, nutrients must have the opportunity to act
synergistically with other nutrients that serve as activators with respect to specific functions.
In the Nutrient Timing System, the two most important activators are carbohydrate andprotein (as well as certain amino acids found in proteins). Consuming individual amino acids
and proteins during the Energy Phase enhances the ergogenic effects of carbohydrate
consumed at the same time. Consuming carbohydrate during the anabolic phase amplifies the
anabolic effects of proteins and individual amino acids. And consuming amino acids andprotein during the anabolic phase also enhances glycogen replenishment.

protein during the anabolic phase also enhances glycogen replenishment.
While some nutritional supplements, such as creatine, have been proven to be beneficial tostrength athletes, many others need additional substantiation. Before taking any supplement,
you should look at the studies first to determine whether the claims are supported and, mostimportant, whether the supplement is safe.
KEY TAKEAWAYS 9• The Nutrient Timing System relies on making use of nutrient activation—the ability ofcertain nutrients to help other nutrients perform their jobs more effectively.
• The most important nutrient activators in Nutrient Timing are the mutual activators
protein and carbohydrate, which influence each other’s actions through insulin.
• Carbohydrate boosts protein synthesis and reduces protein degradation. Protein
boosts glycogen synthesis and glucose metabolism (for more energy during workouts).
• Other anabolic nutrient activators include BCAAs, creatine, and caffeine.

10: The Right Macronutrients
By now it should be clear how important the timing of nutrient intake is in the effort to build
muscle mass and strength. However, we don’t want to give you the impression that the actual
types of nutrients you consume are any less important than you thought they were. To get thefull benefits of Nutrient Timing, you need to consume the right ingredients at the right time.
In this chapter, we discuss the macronutrients—protein, carbohydrate, and fat—as well aswater. In Chapter 11, we turn our attention to the micronutrients: vitamins, minerals, andphytochemicals.

NOT ALL PROTEINS ARE CREATED EQUAL
Protein is the most talked-about nutrient in sports nutrition. What type of protein is best?
How much protein do we need? These issues are hashed and rehashed in the popular media.
Protein deserves such attention because of its many essential roles within the body. In fact,
the word protein is derived from the Greek word meaning “of prime importance.”
The protein content of skeletal muscle represents about 65 percent of the body’s total
protein, and it can be increased dramatically by resistance training. But protein is the basic
structural material of all tissue cells, not just muscle cells. In addition, proteins—in the form of
enzymes, antibodies, hormones, neurotransmitters, nutrient transporters, and cell membrane
receptors—control every biochemical reaction that occurs within the body.
Proteins are generally long molecules composed of amino acid units. Of the twenty aminoacids, nine are considered essential because your body cannot synthesize them; they must be
consumed in your diet. (See “The Essential Amino Acids”) The nonessential amino acids canbe synthesized from one another.
The Essential Amino Acids
Histidine
Isoleucine
LeucineLysineMethionine and/or cysteine
Phenylalanine and/or tyrosine
Threonine
Tryptophan
ValineProteins range in size from two or three amino acids (called peptides) to thousands. Althoughmany of the foods we consume contain protein, the body does not use these proteins intact.
Instead, dietary protein is broken down into amino acids, which are absorbed into the bloodand transported to specific cells. There they are reassembled into the new proteins neededby those specific cells.
The average sedentary adult needs to consume 0.4-0.5 grams of protein per pound of bodyweight per day to maintain existing muscle mass. Most nutritionists recognize today that
athletes in general, and strength athletes especially, require more protein than this. Theyfrequently suggest intake levels of 0.6-0.7 grams per pound of body weight per day formuscle mass gains.
However, as shown in Chapter 6, additional gains can be achieved with even higher levels ofprotein consumption. Table 10.1 shows suggested protein intake levels for sedentary adults,
active adults, and strength athletes.
TABLE 10.1. Protein Requirements for Three Different Levels of Activity

TABLE 10.1. Protein Requirements for Three Different Levels of Activity
Daily

Sedentary
ActiveStrength athletes

Description
Protein Consumption (g/lb of body weight perday)
0.4-0.5
0.6-0.7
0.9-1.2
Table 10.1

Protein-rich foods include beef, poultry, dairy products, fish, and many nuts and beans.
Unfortunately, some of the best sources of protein are high in saturated fat. It’s best to limit
the proportion of protein you consume from foods that are high in saturated fats andcholesterol, including many cuts of meat and whole-milk dairy products.
Protein Powders
Protein supplements and meal-replacement products containing protein became popularamong strength athletes in the early 1990s, and they maintain their popularity today. These
products typically contain whey, casein, and/or soy.
There are four commonly used scientific measurements of protein quality:
Protein efficiency ratio (PER) is a measurement of the growth of animals consuming a
1. fixed amount of dietary protein of a single type. It is considered less applicable tohumans.
The biological value of a protein is a measurement of the amount of that protein that is2.
retained from the total absorbed quantity for maintenance and growth.
Net protein utilization measures the amount of amino acids supplied by a given protein
3.
source that are used to synthesize new proteins in the body.
Chemical score is a measurement of the concentration of the nine essential amino acids
4.
in a protein source.
Table 10.2 uses all four indices to compare the three popular protein powder types to thestandard protein quality reference food—the egg.
TABLE 10.2. Comparison of Three Popular Protein Powder Types and Egg Protein
Protein
BiologicalProtein
Efficiency Ratio (PER)
Value
Protein Utilization
Whey
3.0
104
92
Casein
2.5
71
76
Soy
3.9
100
94
Egg
2.2
74
61
Table 10.2
WHEY PROTEIN

Whey protein is one of two protein types found in milk; the other is casein. These two dairy
proteins are separated from each other in the standard cheese-making process. Whey used
to be considered a useless byproduct of this process and was therefore discarded. However,when it was discovered that whey is actually a very high-quality protein, methods of distillingit into a powder containing little or no fat and lactose (milk sugar) were developed, and whey
powder has since been used in a wide variety of protein supplements.
Whey protein is a complete protein that contains all nine essential amino acids. As shown in
Table 10.2, whey protein compares favorably to other proteins by the four common
measures of protein quality.
The concentration of branched-chain amino acids (BCAAs) is higher in whey protein (about
25 percent) than in any other protein source. The three BCAAs—leucine, isoleucine, andvaline—are unique in that they can be taken up directly by skeletal muscle instead of having
to be metabolized first by the liver. Because BCAAs are faster acting than other amino acids,
they are able to serve as a fairly efficient muscle energy source during exercise and as aready source of raw materials for muscle protein synthesis after exercise. Whey protein isalso considered a fast-acting protein because it empties from the stomach and is absorbed
into the bloodstream from the intestine faster than other proteins. Whey protein is particularly
suited for use during the Energy and Anabolic Phases of NTS.
Whey protein is also rich in the precursors for glutathione. Glutathione is a peptide consistingof three amino acids: gamma-glutamic acid, cysteine, and glycine. Glutathione plays animportant role in neutralizing free radicals and also serves as a potent detoxifier in the body.
Whey protein has been shown to increase glutathione production.
Whey protein comes in a number of forms, including:Whey protein hydrolysate. A hydrolysate is a protein that has been broken down into•
its constituent amino acids. Hydrolysates are expensive and have a bitter taste.
Whey protein isolate. A pure form of whey protein that has had almost all its lactose

Net

Chemical
Score

>100
82
>100
69

Whey protein isolate. A pure form of whey protein that has had almost all its lactose
removed. This product may be useful for individuals who are lactose intolerant.
Whey protein concentrate. The most common form of whey protein. It is inexpensive
and can be incorporated into many types of products. In the past one of the drawbacks of•whey protein concentrate was that it contained a high level of lactose. However, there are
now commercially available formulas that are almost lactose free (less than 1 percent).
Vegetarian Muscle Building—An Oxymoron
John M. Berardi, C.S.C.S.
It’s no secret that eating more protein throughout the day is beneficial to the strength
athlete. But as protein researcher Peter Lemon says, “We don’t eat protein, we eat food.”
Therefore, it’s important to discuss which foods can best assist our muscle-building efforts.
We all know that meat is one of the highest-quality (and tastiest) protein choices, rich invitamins and minerals. Yet some would have us believe that those tasty meats will clog up
our arteries. So we’re faced with a dilemma of Shakespearian proportions: To eat meat or
not to eat meat. That is the question that plagues much of modern society, including
weightlifters, bodybuilders, and other types of athletes. Although much of this debate isfought on subjective and emotional grounds, two things are becoming objectively clear.
First, lean meats have not been found to clog up our arteries with saturated fat. Second,
lean meat consumption may offer advantages when it comes to muscle building.
Dr. Wayne W. Campbell, a nutrition, exercise, and metabolism researcher from the
University of Arkansas, has consistently shown that lacto-ovo-vegetarian eating (dairy andeggs are allowed) can interfere with the positive body composition changes seen in meateating older weight trainers. In his studies, subjects were given 0.8-1.6 grams of protein per
kilogram of body weight per day. Regardless of the protein intake, vegetarians did not
improve to the same degree that meat-eating trainees did. In one particular study, the meateating group consumed a diet containing the following protein breakdown: 17 percent
dairy, 4 percent egg, 16 percent beef, 4 percent poultry, 15 percent pork, 3 percent fish,and 37 percent “other.” The lacto-ovo-vegetarian group consumed a diet containing 32
percent dairy, 3 percent egg, 0 percent beef, 0 percent poultry, 0 percent pork, 0 percent
fish, and 65 percent “other.”After twelve weeks of training, the meat-eating group lost about 2.9 pounds of fat while
gaining about 3.7 pounds of lean mass. However, the vegetarian group gained about 0.2
pound of fat and lost about 2.4 pounds of lean mass.
The balance of Campbell’s work seems to indicate that eating a varied diet that
contains meat protein can lead to increased muscle mass and fat loss in conjunction with aresistance-training program. Since vegetarian proteins (besides egg and dairy) are deficientin certain essential amino acids, even with a total calculated protein intake that seems
adequate, vegetarians may be limiting their muscle-building potential.
•

CASEIN

Casein is the other protein distilled through cheese production. It is significantly different fromwhey protein, as shown in Table 10.2. Although casein does not score as well as whey
protein on some of the important indices, it is still an excellent source of glutamine—a crucial
amino acid for strength athletes.
Two disadvantages of casein are that it has lower concentrations of BCAAs than whey andis more likely to cause gastrointestinal problems in those who are lactose sensitive or lactose
intolerant.
Casein digests more slowly than whey. Although this is a disadvantage in both the Energy
and Anabolic Phases, it is an advantage during the longer Growth Phase since casein is able
to sustain muscle protein synthesis for a longer period. Many strength athletes take a casein
supplement before going to bed to minimize protein loss during the long overnight fast.
SOY PROTEIN

Soy protein was the first powdered protein supplement to hit the market. In fact, it was
originally discovered back in 1904 by George Washington Carver. Soy protein is rich in
BCAAs but contains only a small amount of the essential amino acid methionine. Most formsof soy protein are highly digestible and therefore fast acting, but soy protein is generally
considered a slightly lower-quality protein than whey or casein.
However, soy protein isolates fortified with methionine are now available and are ofcomparable quality to whey and casein. And one advantage of a soy protein isolate overwhey and casein is that it contains no lactose, so those who cannot or do not consume dairybased products can use it.
Many strength athletes avoid soy protein because it contains isoflavones (plant hormones),
which have been shown to have an estrogenic effect in the body. In other words, they mimic
the actions of the female sex hormone estrogen in certain tissues of the body. But this does
not automatically mean that isoflavones reduce testosterone levels and inhibit muscle
hypertrophy, as many have assumed. In fact, there is no evidence whatsoever that this is thecase.

CARBOHYDRATESCARBOHYDRATESThe primary function of carbohydrates is to serve as an energy fuel for the body. As theirname suggests, carbohydrates are carbon- and water-based molecules ranging in size fromthe very small to the very large and are abundant in most plant foods, especially fruits andgrains. There are many different types of carbohydrates, ranging from simple sugars such as
glucose and fructose to long polysaccharides, which may contain 300-26,000 simple sugars
linked together. Regardless of the size of the carbohydrate found in food, once it has been
consumed it is broken down in the stomach and intestines to the smallest unit, which is usually
glucose.
Glucose is transported into the muscles and other tissues, where it is broken down further togenerate energy. When glucose is not needed immediately for energy, it is stored in themuscle and liver in long chains called glycogen. The body’s capacity for storing glycogen islimited. Once glycogen stores in the muscle and liver are replenished, excess glucose can beconverted into fat. It is the conversion of glucose into fat that has given rise to the belief thatcarbohydrate is bad. Even many strength athletes strive to reduce their carbohydrate intake
levels as much as possible. Extreme carbohydrate restriction is counterproductive andpotentially even dangerous for athletes. Since muscle and liver glycogen stores are limited, alow-carbohydrate diet will not provide you with enough energy to perform a hard workout.
In addition, since carbohydrate (as well as glutamine) provides the essential fuel for the
immune system, a low-carbohydrate diet may make you more susceptible to colds andinfection.
Simple and Complex Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are divided into two basic categories: simple and complex. Simple
carbohydrates contain just one or two molecules of sugars and have a sweet taste. Examplesof simple carbohydrates are fructose and sucrose. Most fruits are rich in simple sugars, asare sweets and other processed foods that contain refined sugars (for instance, many
breakfast cereals). Complex carbohydrates may contain hundreds or even thousands ofsugars linked to form a single molecule and have a milder taste. There are two major formsof complex carbohydrates: starches and fibers. Starches are digested more slowly thansimple sugars and therefore provide less energy in the short term, but more in the long term.
Some foods that contain significant amounts of starch include potatoes, wheat, rice, andother grains.
There are two types of dietary fiber: soluble and insoluble. Neither is digestible, but both areessential to good health. Soluble fibers have the form of gums or pastes and dissolve inwater. They have been shown to be extremely valuable in helping to lower blood cholesterol.
Soluble fibers bind bile acids and remove them from the body. Bile acids are needed tomake cholesterol. In the absence of bile acids, therefore, cholesterol levels are lowered.
Insoluble fiber, or cellulose, is the constituent that gives structure to plants. Cellulose provides
a number of important benefits, including absorbing and removing toxins and contributing tohealthy functioning of the digestive tract. Examples of fiber-rich foods are whole grains, green
leafy vegetables, and beans.
The daily recommended fiber intake is 25-30 grams. The average American gets only 10
grams of fiber a day, however, so chances are you need to make some dietary modifications
to increase your fiber consumption.
Glycemic Index
The glycemic index is a method of categorizing foods by their effect on blood glucose levels.
A food with a low-glycemic index produces a mild, sustained increase in glucose. A foodwith a high-glycemic index, on the other hand, produces a larger, more transient glucose
spike. At one time, conventional wisdom held that foods containing predominantly simple
sugars had a high-glycemic index, while those containing predominantly complex
carbohydrates had a low-glycemic index. We now know that there are many exceptions tothis rule. Generally whole grains have a lower glycemic index than refined grains, high-fiber
foods have a lower glycemic index than low-fiber foods, and foods containing high amounts
of protein and/or fat have a lower glycemic index than foods with small amounts of protein
and fat.
The general public perception is that high-glycemic carbohydrates are a bad nutritional
choice because they cause insulin spikes and subsequent blood sugar crashes. This results ingreater fatigue and can also trigger hunger and overeating. However, their powerful effect on
insulin also makes high-glycemic sugars valuable during and immediately after exercise. They
not only provide energy, but also, through their action on insulin, help reduce cortisol levels
and turn on the cells’ anabolic machinery. Still, as we have seen, they provide these benefits
best when combined in the proper ratio with protein.
Another often-overlooked benefit of carbohydrates during extended exercise is that they help
in the metabolism of fat. The muscle cell has a metabolic priority system when it comes towhich nutrients it uses for energy. For short exercise bouts such as sets of resistance
exercise, carbohydrate is the primary nutrient used. During extended exercise the muscles
rely increasingly on fat stores. But carbohydrate is still required to drive the use of fat forrely increasingly on fat stores. But carbohydrate is still required to drive the use of fat forenergy. In this sense, “fats burn in a carbohydrate flame.” After forty-five minutes of exercise,protein—primarily BCAAs—can provide up to 15 percent of a muscle’s total energy needs.
Overtraining and Nutrition
John M. Berardi, C.S.C.S.
You know the feeling. You begin a new training phase pumped up and raring to go.
Then, at about week six, “it” happens. First, you start feeling a little bit drained. Next, youstart feeling a specific brand of muscular soreness that you haven’t felt before. Finally, yourmotivation to get to the gym takes a dramatic downturn. While you try your best to fightthrough the apathy, the soreness, and the generalized fatigue, this phenomenon, known as
overreaching, is stronger than you. At this point, while you’ve fought nobly, it’s time to takea few days off: If you try to keep fighting through it, you’ll slip into a much more dangerous
condition known as overtraining. That’s right: No matter how tough you are (physically or
mentally), in the end overtraining always wins out.
According to Wilmore and Costill (1988), “No single physiological measurement has
proven 100 percent effective [to diagnose overtraining]. Since performance is the mostdramatic indicator of overtraining, it is not surprising to find that overtraining has a dramaticeffect on the energy demands for a standard, submaximal exercise bout. When runners
show symptoms of overtraining, their heart rates and oxygen consumption during the runs
are significantly higher.” What does this mean to you? Well, it means that there’s no way to
predict the arrival of overreaching or overtraining. You simply start to feel run down and, if
you don’t take some time off—wham—you’re overtrained.
Why worry about overtraining? For starters, it leads to decreases in performance andcan, if you try to train through it, result in long periods of poor performance, illness, or eveninjury. According to Fry and colleagues, “Overtrained subjects reported an inability toresume their normal resistance training loads for up to 8 weeks after this study, thus
requiring a long-term regeneration period.” This means that if you allow yourself to develop
full-blown overtraining, it may be months before you’ll be able to train hard again.
While little is known about preventing performance decline and overtraining, a few
things are clear. First, while short periods of overreaching can be beneficial to strength andmuscle gain, you must not let this overreaching go unchecked. After one week ofoverreaching, either decrease training volume and intensity or take a few days off.
Second, nutrition may play an important role in preventing performance decrements
and overtraining. Here are some nutritional strategies for intensive training periods:
1. Consume more total calories. Overreaching and overtraining increase themetabolic cost of exercise and recovery. To prevent immune compromise, weight losses,
and decreases in performance, you must eat more food.
2. Eat more carbohydrates. Some symptoms of overreaching may be caused byprogressive decreases in liver muscle glycogen concentrations (even in strength athletes).
Eating more carbohydrates, especially when muscle glycogen resynthesis is most efficient(during the postworkout period), will ensure adequate liver and muscle carbohydrate
stores.
3. Eat more dietary fat. While low-fat diets were all the rage in the 1980s and1990s, new research has demonstrated that certain types of dietary fat can offer protection
against heart disease, free-radical damage, and cancer, and can increase metabolic rate andfat burning, muscle mass, and the production of hormones such as testosterone. During
overtraining, testosterone concentrations in the blood tend to decrease. Increasing theamount of fat in your diet may help prevent some of this decline.
4. Ingest a good postexercise carbohydrate/protein drink. After exercise, thebody is primed for muscle glycogen resynthesis and the repair of muscle damage. A
carbohydrate/protein drink based on the principles of the Nutrient Timing System can
improve muscle glycogen recovery and muscle protein status. Furthermore, during
overtraining, cortisol concentrations in the blood may increase. Postexercise nutrition
containing carbohydrates and protein may prevent some of this rise in cortisol.
Table 10.3 details the glycemic index ratings of common foods. An important principle of the
NTS is selective consumption of high-glycemic sugars before, during and after your workout.
TABLE 10.3. Glycemic Index Ratings of Some Common Foods
High
Moderate
Low
GI
GI
GI
Cornflakes
Bran muffin
Apple
Honey
OatmealLow-fat milk
Baked potato
Spaghetti (plain)
PearSports drink
Apple juiceBananaBagel
White rice
Whole milk
White bread
Brown rice
BarleyWatermelon
Strawberries
Grapefruit
Cheerios
Peas
Peach
Wheat bread
Kidney beans
Dried apricots
Table 10.3

FATS
It is ironic that sugar is considered the “bad” macronutrient and fat is considered theIt is ironic that sugar is considered the “bad” macronutrient and fat is considered the“unhealthy” one. In fact, both nutrients are essential for a healthy diet. Problems arise when
excesses are consumed.
Fats serve many functions in the body. They are the most energy-dense macronutrient, andthey provide many of the body’s tissues and organs (including the heart) with most of theirenergy. Cell membranes are partly composed of a specific type of fat called phospholipids.
Fats are critical for the transmission of nerve signals that generate muscle contractions, they
serve as a transporter for vitamins A, D, E, and K, and they provide cushioning for theprotection of vital organs and insulation from the thermal stress of cold environments. Finally,
because fat empties more slowly from the stomach, it helps delay the onset of hunger pangs.
This is one reason why diets containing moderate amounts of fat tend to be more successful
than low-fat diets.
Fat is an ideal fuel for muscle cells because per gram it contains almost twice the energy of
glucose, it weighs less per volume, and it is easily transported and stored. In healthy males,
fat constitutes approximately 15 percent of body mass; in healthy females, about 25 percent.
All fats are composed of fatty acids, which are usually linked in three-unit molecules called
triglycerides. There are three major types of fatty acids—saturated, polyunsaturated, andmonounsaturated—distinguished by their molecular bonds and the number of hydrogenatoms they contain. Saturated fats are typically solid at room temperature and are found in
the greatest abundance in meats and dairy foods. Monounsaturated fats are liquid at room
temperature and are most concentrated in oils such as olive, peanut, and canola.
Polyunsaturated fats are also most abundant in certain plant oils—particularly corn andsoybean oils—as well as in seeds, whole grains, and fatty types of fish (such as salmon andtuna).
Polyunsaturated fats are also known as essential fatty acids because our bodies need thembut cannot make them from other nutrients. Omega-3 fatty acid is an essential fatty acid thatis rare in the typical American diet; in fact, most Americans don’t get enough of it. It isbelieved that adequate intake of omega-3 fatty acids is needed to reduce postworkout
muscle inflammation and accelerate repair. Inadequate omega-3 fatty acid intake, coupledwith much higher levels of omega-6 fatty acid intake, is associated with a host ofdegenerative diseases including heart disease, autoimmune diseases, and diabetes. Perhaps
the most practical way to ensure that you get enough omega-3 fatty acids, and to put yourintake of omega-6 and omega-3 fatty acids in the proper balance (a ratio of 3:1 or less), is totake a daily flaxseed oil supplement.
Trans-fatty acids (or simply trans fats) are a form of saturated fat that is unhealthy in any
amount. Trans fats are a product of hydrogenation, a chemical process by which hydrogen is
added to unsaturated fatty acids in order to create a solid, spreadable fat with increased shelflife. They are found in many packaged, processed baked goods and snack foods. Researchshows that trans fats clog arteries, interfere with insulin function and liver detoxification, andincrease the risk of heart attack and stroke.
For exercise performance, muscle growth, and general health, it is also important to limit yourintake of saturated fats to no more than about 30 percent of your total fat intake. Saturated
fat is not inherently bad, as many people believe. On the contrary, it is as useful as any otherfat. However, excessive saturated fat consumption increases levels of LDL cholesterol in the
blood, which in turn can lead to hypertension, stroke, heart attack, and other healthproblems.
In total, fat should account for 30 to 35 percent of the calories in your daily diet. There ismost certainly such a thing as too little fat. When total fat intake dips below 20 percent of
total calories, other health problems, such as fatigue and a weakened immune system, canresult.

WATER
Water is not technically a macronutrient, but it is much like the macronutrients protein,carbohydrate, and fat in that it’s an essential nutrient that we need in large amounts. In fact,
we require much more water on a volume basis than we do protein, carbohydrate, and fat
combined. The average human body is more than 60 percent water. Adequate water intake
is necessary for proper digestion, elimination of wastes, joint lubrication, and other essentialfunctions. Poor hydration also compromises an athlete’s performance by keeping blood
volume below its optimal level. Without adequate water intake, the Nutrient Timing System
will not be as effective.
Daily water intake needs are highly individual. They depend on factors that include bodyweight, the weather, other dietary considerations such as intake of alcohol (which increases
water needs), and activity level (or training volume). The average person requires roughly 1
ounce of water per kilogram of body weight on a daily basis. Athletes generally need a little
more. There’s no precise way to determine exactly how much water you need. It’s best if
athletes simply carry a water bottle at all times and sip from it at regular intervals throughout
the day. Note that most foods contain water, so it’s not necessary to consume a full ounce ofplain water per kilogram of body weight per day.

SUMMARYYou can’t build a great physique with poor nutrition. Your health and performance will pay a
price for every “empty calorie” you consume, and will benefit from every improvement you
make in the quality of the nutrition you take in each day.
The cornerstone of good nutrition is an appropriate balance of 19 to 26 percent proteins, 41
to 48 percent carbohydrates, and 33 percent fats, from quality sources. If you get the rightproportions and the right total amount of macronutrient calories from mainly natural wholefood sources, supplementing with proven-effective supplements such as the protein powders
discussed in this chapter, you’re halfway to achieving an optimal nutrition regimen for muscle
growth. The rest is timing.
KEY TAKEAWAYS 10• To promote maximum muscle growth, you need to maintain a high-protein diet of atleast 2.0 grams per kilogram of body weight per day.
• Emphasize high-quality proteins such as whey protein over lower quality proteins suchas plant-food proteins.
• Try to consume mostly low- and moderate-glycemic carbohydrates during the
Growth Phase for consistent energy, less hunger, and greater nutrient density.
• Limit the amount of saturated and trans fats (which clog arteries) in your diet and be
sure to get enough omega-3 fatty acids, which reduce postworkout inflammation andaccelerate tissue repair.
• Nutrition strategies such as increasing healthy-fat intake can (alongside rest, ofcourse) help you overcome overtraining.

11: The Right Micronutrients
Micronutrients are organic compounds called vitamins and inorganic minerals that the bodyrequires in very small amounts. Vitamins and minerals are considered essential because theycannot be synthesized in the body; they must be consumed in food. In this chapter, we
discuss the functions of several vitamins and minerals that are particularly important tostrength athletes and give a nod to those amazing plant nutrients, the phytochemicals.

VITAMINS
There are thirteen essential vitamins. All act as catalysts, speeding up the various chemical
reactions that our lives depend on. Without vitamins to catalyze these reactions, they could
not take place quickly enough to support life.
The body cannot synthesize vitamins, so they must be consumed consistently in adequate
amounts in foods and supplements. There are two basic categories of vitamins: water soluble
and fat soluble. The body can store the fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E, and K in small amounts
within fat tissues, but it cannot store the water-soluble vitamins (B complex and C), so it’s
especially important to consume these daily.
The B-vitamin complex and vitamins C, D, and E are especially important for strength
athletes.
B-Vitamin Complex
The eight vitamins that make up the B-vitamin complex are thiamine (B1), riboflavin (B2),
niacin (B3), pyridoxine (B6), folate (B9), cyanocobalamin (B12), pantothenic acid (B5), andbiotin. As a group, these nutrients are vital coenzymes that aid in releasing energy fromcarbohydrates, fats, and proteins. Vitamin B6 also assists in building proteins from aminoacids. Vitamin B12 and folate play important roles in cellular reproduction and red blood cellsynthesis.
Most of the B vitamins in the diet come attached to proteins in the foods we eat. A diet that
contains high amounts of protein-rich foods such as meats, nuts, and beans provides plentyof B vitamins. Folate is found in the greatest abundance in green leafy vegetables and is the
only member of the B-vitamin complex in which many people are deficient. You can ensure
adequate folate intake by adding more green leafy vegetables to your diet and by taking adaily multivitamin with folate. See Table 11.1 for recommended daily intake amounts of eachof the B vitamins.
Vitamin C
Vitamin C is perhaps the most multitasking nutrient in humans. It is the only vitamin that ispresent in every cell of the body. On a structural level, it is a major ingredient of collagen, aprotein that connects cells to form tissues. Vitamin C is also a potent antioxidant that

protein that connects cells to form tissues. Vitamin C is also a potent antioxidant thatneutralizes free-radical molecules before they can damage lipid cells. Free-radical damage isa major factor in aging and in the development of many degenerative diseases such as
cancer.
Vitamin C helps replenish supplies of vitamin E, another important antioxidant. It also assists
iron absorption and fat metabolism. Also, new evidence suggests that vitamin C
supplementation may blunt the release of the catabolic hormone cortisol during especiallyhard workouts. In one study, ultramarathon runners who took 1,000 milligrams ofsupplemental vitamin C per day for the seven days preceding a ninety-kilometer run exhibited
30 percent lower cortisol levels immediately after the race and therefore very likely
experienced much less muscle tissue breakdown.
Vitamin C also protects the body against viral infections, which athletes in heavy training are
at greater risk of. One study showed that daily supplementation of 600mg of ascorbic acid(vitamin C) significantly reduced the incidence of upper respiratory infections in individuals
who participated in a marathon. In another study by Peters and colleagues, an antioxidant
combination consisting of vitamin C, vitamin E, and betacarotene decreased upper
respiratory infections by almost 40 percent. Similar results have been seen by otherinvestigators.
Because exercise greatly increases the body’s use of oxygen, which is a free radical, athletes
use more vitamin C to neutralize free radicals than sedentary people and therefore require
more vitamin C in their diet. An intake of 800-2,000 milligrams a day is recommended for
active adults. Exceeding this dosage may result in a number of side effects, including diarrhea
and joint pain. Good sources of vitamin C include many fruits (such as oranges, grapefruits,
and strawberries) and vegetables (such as tomatoes, broccoli, green and red bell peppers,
and leafy greens).
Vitamin D
The function of vitamin D is to maintain normal blood levels of calcium and phosphorus.
Vitamin D facilitates the absorption of calcium, which is essential to the formation andmaintenance of strong, healthy bones. It works in concert with a number of other vitamins,
minerals, and hormones to keep the bones mineral-dense. Weightlifters need especiallystrong bones due to the extreme forces they are routinely subjected to in the gym.
Vitamin D is actually very rare in natural foods. The only foods that contain vitamin D in highamounts are fatty fish and fish oil. Eggs and beef contain small amounts. Most of the vitamin
D in the typical American diet is obtained through vitamin-D-fortified milk and breakfast
cereals. Interestingly, sun exposure results in vitamin D synthesis in the body, so those who
get plenty of sun require less vitamin D in the diet. Athletes need 400-1,000IU (international
units; 1IU=0.45mg) per day.
Vitamin E
Vitamin E is a fat-soluble vitamin that comes in eight forms, the most prevalent and useful ofwhich is alpha-tocopherol. Vitamin E is a powerful antioxidant. It protects cells, including
muscle cells, from destruction at the hands of free radicals by helping maintain cell membrane
integrity. This protection accelerates postworkout recovery in three ways: It limits the loss ofmuscle proteins, lessens postworkout inflammation, and reduces postworkout muscle
soreness.
A number of good studies have demonstrated the recovery-aiding benefits of vitamin E in
those who engage in strenuous exercise. In one recent study, thirty-two healthy men wererandomly assigned to take a daily 1,000 IU vitamin E supplement or a placebo for twelve
weeks and ran downhill (which causes more muscle damage than flat running because it puts
more eccentric stress on the muscles) for forty-five minutes at 75 percent VO2 max(maximum rate of oxygen consumption), once before and once following supplementation.
Blood samples were obtained before and immediately postexercise, and at six, twenty-four,and seventy-two hours postexercise to assess antioxidant status, muscle damage, lipid
peroxidation, and DNA damage. The researchers found that vitamin E supplementation had
a statistically significant beneficial effect on exercise-induced muscle damage.
Vitamin E may also have a beneficial effect on the immune system. Several studies haveshown that vitamin E supplementation improves a number of immune system elements.
Whether it does so directly or by counteracting the immunosuppressive effects of cortisol is
not known.
Interestingly, vitamin E seems to be more effective as a recovery aid when used in
combination with vitamin C. These two antioxidants work synergistically, in complementaryways, as mutual activators. Recommended daily intake of vitamin E for strength athletes is200-1,000IU. Good sources of vitamin E include green leafy vegetables, legumes, nuts,
seeds, and whole grains. (Table 11.1)
Table 11.1. The Essential Vitamins
RDI*
Vitaminfor Adult Athletes
Vitamin A
5,000-25,000IU
Vitamin B1 (thiamine)
30-200mg

Vitamin B1 (thiamine)
30-200mg
Vitamin B2 (riboflavin)30-200mg
Vitamin B3 (niacin)20-100mg
Vitamin B5 (pantothenic acid)25-200mg
Vitamin B6 (pyridoxine)
20-100mg
Vitamin B12 (cobalamin)
12-200mcg**
Biotin125-250mcg**
Folate (folic acid, vitamin B9)400-1,000mcg**
Vitamin C
800-2,000mg
Vitamin D
400-1,000IU
Vitamin E
200-1,000IU
Vitamin K
80-180mcg**
Table 11.1. *Recommended Daily Intake **Micrograms; 1mcg=0.001mg.

MINERALS
Minerals are inorganic nutrients that are absorbed into plants from the earth’s surface andthen make their way into our bodies when we eat those plants or eat animals that have eaten
plants. The most important minerals for muscle building are calcium, iron, phosphorus, andzinc. Also of special value for all active persons are the electrolyte minerals magnesium,
potassium, sodium, and chloride.
Calcium
When we think of calcium, we usually think of bones. And it’s true that 99 percent of thecalcium in the human body is contained in bones as calcium phosphate. However, calcium
also plays critical roles in muscle action and muscle growth. Positively charged calcium ionslocated at neuromuscular junctions are needed to turn an electrical impulse from the brain
into a chemical action that causes muscle fibers to contract and relax. Calcium ions also help
regulate muscle glycogen breakdown and the oxidation of carbohydrates during exercise.
Everyone knows that dairy products are excellent sources of calcium, but so are many typesof seafood (shellfish, salmon, shrimp) and vegetables (broccoli, kale, collard greens). Adults
who regularly participate in strenuous exercise require 1,200-2,600 milligrams of calcium perday. But in order to be properly absorbed, calcium requires the help of other nutrient
activators, especially magnesium. You need to consume approximately 1 milligram ofmagnesium for every 2 grams of calcium for optimal calcium absorption.
Iron
Iron is a trace mineral (that is, a mineral needed in very small amounts) that is necessary forthe formation of hemoglobin, the oxygen-carrying compound found in red blood cells. Since
oxygen plays a vital role in breaking down carbohydrates and fats for energy, especiallyduring exercise, iron serves as an indirect nutrient activator for carbohydrates and fats.
Fatigue is the primary symptom of iron deficiency.
Despite the low levels of iron humans require, iron deficiency is relatively common in female
athletes. Women and girls tend to consume less iron in their diets than men and boys. At thesame time, high levels of activity increase iron needs. Menstruation further increases ironlosses. These factors put female athletes at a higher risk of anemia.
Iron-rich foods include meat, fish, eggs, dark green leafy vegetables, and certain beans,
whole grains, and nuts. Men and women who work out frequently require 10-20 milligramsof iron per day.
Magnesium
Magnesium is found in all the body’s cells, but is most concentrated in the bones, muscles,
and soft tissues. It’s a necessary element in over 300 enzyme reactions involving nerve
transmission, muscle contraction, and especially energy release from ATP. Low blood
magnesium levels during exercise have also been cited as causing muscle fatigue and irregularheartbeat.
Good food sources of magnesium are apples, avocados, bananas, brown rice, dairy foods,
garlic, green leafy vegetables, legumes, nuts, soybeans, and whole grains. The recommended
daily intake for athletes is 400-800 milligrams.
Phosphorus
Phosphorus is the second most abundant mineral in the body, after calcium. It is a constituentof the two most important sources of energy for maximum-intensity efforts—ATP andof the two most important sources of energy for maximum-intensity efforts—ATP and
creatine phosphate. In the bones, it binds to calcium to form calcium phosphate. It also binds
with lipids to form phospholipids, which make up cell membranes. In addition, phosphorus
plays a role in the metabolism of carbohydrate and fat.
Good food sources of phosphorus are milk, fish, eggs, asparagus, corn, legumes, nuts,
meats, poultry, salmon, and some seeds. The recommended daily intake for athletes is 8001,600 milligrams.
Potassium
Potassium is necessary for nerve transmission, muscle contraction, and glycogen formation. It
also aids in maintaining cardiovascular system function. During workouts, potassium helps
calcium do its job of stimulating muscle contractions. While it is calcium that actuallystimulates the contraction, it cannot do so without the aid of potassium. Excessive potassium
loss can cause muscles to contract involuntarily, resulting in painful cramps that can stop you
in your tracks. In addition, potassium losses can lead to heat intolerance.
Good food sources of potassium are bananas, tomatoes, oranges, potatoes, winter squash,
avocados, and beans. The recommended daily intake for athletes is 2,500-4,000mg.
Sodium and Chloride
We mention sodium and chloride together because most of the sodium and chloride we getfrom foods is consumed in the form of sodium chloride—better known as table salt. Both areelectrolytes, meaning they are special minerals that are electrically charged. They play key
roles in maintaining fluid balance and facilitating muscle contraction and relaxation. Sodium
and chloride cooperate with water to help maintain the volume and balance of all the fluids
outside the body’s cells, such as blood.
Sodium plays a particularly important role because it helps transport nutrients into cells, sothey can be used for energy production as well as tissue growth and repair. In addition,
sodium functions in muscle contraction and nerve impulse transmission. Excessive loss ofbody sodium is known as hyponatremia, and it can be dangerous. This condition is rarely
seen, however, except among ultra-endurance athletes competing in warm or hot weather.
Sources of sodium chloride are table salt, sea salt, and most processed foods (such as snack
chips, processed baked goods, and frozen entrées). The recommended daily intake of
sodium and chloride for athletes is 1,500-4,500 milligrams. The average American consumes
6,000 milligrams of sodium chloride daily.
Zinc
Zinc is present in every cell of the body and is a constituent of more than 300 enzymes thatcatalyze the chemical reactions our lives depend on. The mechanisms of zinc’s actions arestill poorly understood, but we do know that it plays important roles in tissue repair andmaintenance and immune system function. Due to its role in tissue repair and its ability toraise testosterone levels, zinc is considered an anabolic mineral. Good sources of zinc include
shellfish, beef, lamb, free-range eggs, lentils, almonds, and chicken. Daily recommended
intake for athletes is 15-60 milligrams.

PHYTOCHEMICALS
Phytochemicals are plant chemicals other than macronutrients, vitamins, and minerals; they
can serve as nutrients within the human body. Although they are not considered essential
nutrients, phytochemicals have tremendous and wide-ranging powers to improve our healthand therefore should be considered essential for optimal health. (Table 11.2)
Table 11.2. The Essential Minerals
RDI*
Mineralfor Adult Athletes
Boron
5-10mgCalcium
1,200-2,600mg
Chloride
1,500-4,500mg
Chromium200-400mcg**
Copper3-6mg
Iodine200-400mcg**
Iron
10-20mg
Magnesium
400-800mg
Manganese
15-45mg
Molybdenum
100-300mcg**
Phosphorus
800-1,600mg
Potassium
2,500-4,000mg

Selenium
100-300mcg**
Sodium
1,500-4,500mg
SulfurNone establishedZinc15-60mg
Table 11.2. *Recommended Daily Intake **Micrograms; 1mcg=0.001mg.
There are literally thousands of different phytochemicals, most of which have not yet been
identified. Dozens have been identified, however, and their beneficial effects studied. Many
phytochemicals are antioxidants. Lutein is a phytochemical found in green leafy vegetables
that has been proven to prevent macular degeneration, an eye disease with an apparent linkto oxidative damage. Beta-carotene protects the immune system. Capsaicin discourages
tumor growth. And the list goes on.
Our reductionist nutrition mentality tempts us to turn individual phytochemicals into
supplements and to take them in heavy doses; however, the evidence suggests thatphytochemicals are effective only when consumed in the balance in which they are found inwhole foods. This is one reason why it is important that we get the majority of our daily
calories from whole foods, and particularly whole plant foods.

SUMMARY
Vitamins and minerals are not something you need to spend too much time thinking about.
While they are critical not just to muscle performance but also to general health, meeting yourbody’s vitamin and mineral needs for optimal health and fitness is easy. Simply maintainplenty of balance and variety in your diet, fill up mainly on natural, whole foods, and perhaps
take a daily multivitamin and multimineral supplement for insurance, and you’ll be good to go.
There are no timing issues with respect to micronutrient intake beyond the general need fordaily consumption.
KEY TAKEAWAYS 11• Maintain a balanced diet with plenty of variety to ensure you get all the vitamins andminerals your body needs daily.
• The antioxidant vitamins C and E are especially important for athletes due to theirproven ability to reduce exercise-related free-radical damage.
• Iron deficiencies are not uncommon in athletes, and especially female athletes, butwith monitoring it’s very easy to maintain adequate iron levels in the blood.
• Don’t forget about the phytochemicals—although not technically essential, thesenutrients are powerful health boosters and are present abundantly in fruits, vegetables, andwhole grains.
• Take a daily multivitamin and multimineral supplement for insurance.

PART V: MUSCLE FUNCTION AND ADAPTATION

12: How Muscles Work and Adapt to Training
Muscles are extraordinary organs that appear to be rather simply constructed, but in reality,
they are highly sophisticated and adaptable structures. Muscle makes up about 40 to 45
percent of the body weight of men and about 35 to 40 percent of the body weight ofwomen. Of course, these percentages can be greatly increased with the proper exercise
training and nutrition protocol. Improving the size, strength, and power of your muscles
requires more than just hard work. It requires that the appropriate type of work be
performed, and it also requires that you have a sound nutrition plan that allows you to get themost out of your workouts. In order to design an effective exercise program and nutrition
plan to meet these goals, one must base them on a solid understanding of how muscles workand how they adapt to exercise training.
Nutrient Timing is the exercise nutrition program that best exploits our current knowledge
about the way muscles function during and between workouts. The purpose of this chapter isto provide you with a foundation in this knowledge. You won’t need to retain every detail inorder to practice Nutrient Timing effectively, but it is important to grasp the general concepts.

MUSCLE STRUCTURE
If you were to cut through a muscle, you would see that it is made up of bundles separated
by connective tissue (see Figure 12.1). These bundles, called fasciculi, are made up ofindividual muscle fibers, or cells. Unlike other cells of the body, muscle fibers have several
nuclei, possibly because of their exceptional length. In some of the larger muscles of thebody, such as the thigh muscles, muscle fibers can exceed twelve inches in length. Muscle
fibers are further subdivided into myofibrils and the myofibrils into sarcomeres. The
sarcomeres are the smallest functional units of a muscle fiber and consist of the major
contractile proteins myosin and actin. These proteins are long filaments arranged in a parallel
formation. During contraction, the actin filament is pulled toward the center of the sarcomere
by the myosin filament, causing the sarcomere to shorten. Shortening of the sarcomeres in a
myofibril causes the shortening of the muscle fiber. Within a muscle, the number of muscle
fibers contracting at any given time is determined by the amount of force required toovercome the resistance to movement and shorten the muscle. For example, curling 10
pounds requires fewer muscle fibers to be recruited than curling 20 pounds.
Figure 12.1. Muscle Structure: Muscle is composed of bundles of muscle fibers
called fasciculi. The muscle fibers are divided into myofibrils, and myofibrils are
divided into sarcomeres, the smallest functional unit of the muscle fiber. Sarcomeresconsist of the major contractile proteins, myosin and actin.

MUSCLE FIBER TYPES
Not all muscle fibers are the same. Skeletal muscles contain two basic fiber types, each with
its own contractile and metabolic profile. Having different types of muscle fibers allows themuscles to have a more diverse performance capability. The two types of fibers are referred
to as slow-twitch (type I) and fast-twitch (type II) fibers. Compared with fast-twitch fibers,slow-twitch fibers are slow to contract and relax, but have a high number of mitochondria,
allowing them a greater aerobic-energy capacity. Slow-twitch fibers are surrounded by alarger number of small blood vessels called capillaries that bring in oxygen and nutrients andcarry away waste products. Conversely, fast-twitch fibers contract and relax faster thanslow-twitch fibers and have a greater glycolytic capacity. They also have a greater store of
the high-energy phosphates and glycogen, but have fewer mitochondria and capillaries.
Because of their contractile and metabolic characteristics, slow-twitch fibers do not fatigue aseasily as fast-twitch fibers and are therefore used for high-endurance activities. Fast-twitch
fibers contract rapidly and function well anaerobically, or without oxygen, for short periodsof time. These fibers are responsible for strength and speed. They are recruited during highintensity activities that demand quick bursts of energy, such as sprinting, jumping, and stopand-go movements that occur in sports such as basketball and baseball. However, fasttwitch fibers fatigue quickly due to the buildup of lactic acid, a byproduct of anaerobic
metabolism.
Everyone has both types of fibers in their muscles, but the relative amount that a person has
is genetically determined and can vary widely from one person to the next. For mostindividuals, muscle fiber type composition is in the range of 50 percent slow-twitch and 50
percent fast-twitch fibers. However, it is possible for the proportion of fibers to be skewed
toward one extreme or the other and this can greatly affect athletic potential. For example,
elite marathon runners are likely to possess a high percentage of slow-twitch fibers in theirmuscles, whereas sprinters are likely to possess a high percentage of fast-twitch fibers in theirmuscles. All muscle fibers, however, can respond to athletic training by improving their ability
to perform according to the way they are trained. Accordingly, training aerobically canincrease the mitochondrial content and aerobic metabolic capacity of fast-twitch fibers, andtraining anaerobically will enhance the phosphagen system of the slow-twitch fibers.
Table 12.1 lists the physiological characteristic of muscle fiber.
TABLE 12.1. Physiological Characteristics of Muscle Fiber Types
Physiological
Fiber
Characteristics
Types Slow Twitch
Types Fast Twitch
Fiber size
Small
Large
Contraction velocity
Slow
Fast
Relaxation velocity
Slow
Fast
Fatigue resistanceHigh
Low
Aerobic capacity
High
Low

Fiber

Aerobic capacity
Anaerobic capacity
Mitochondria density
Creatine phosphate content
Glycogen content
Fat content
Capillary density

High
Low
High
Low
Low
High
High
Table 12.1

Low
High
Low
High
High
Low
Low

DETERMINATION OF FORCE AND SPEED OF CONTRACTION
Force and speed of muscle contraction are governed by the type and number of muscle
fibers recruited or activated, as well as by the frequency of their activation. Slow-twitch
fibers are first to be recruited and then fast-twitch fibers are recruited. This allows for thesystematic mobilization of muscle fibers to accommodate the specific tension, speed, andmetabolic requirements of muscle contraction. In general, slow-twitch fibers are recruitedduring low-intensity exercise. This is followed by activation of the more powerful fast-twitch
fibers as the muscle-force requirements increase. When low-intensity activity is prolonged,
slow-twitch fibers are initially recruited, but as they fatigue, there is a progressive involvementof fast-twitch fibers.
The differential control of muscle fiber recruitment patterns is a major factor in determining
success in various athletic activities. For example, weightlifters are capable of recruiting ahigh number of slow- and fast-twitch fibers together in what is referred to as a synchronous
pattern. This synchronous pattern of muscle fiber recruitment aids the weightlifter ingenerating high amounts of force quickly. Conversely, the endurance athlete recruits muscle
fibers sequentially, or asynchronously, depending heavily on the high-oxidative slow-twitch
fibers. The asynchronous recruitment pattern is advantageous because it provides a recovery
period for the muscle fibers during the activity.

HOW MUSCLES ADAPTThe process by which muscles adapt to exercise training is not straightforward. As any
athlete is keenly aware, different training programs result in different metabolic andphysiological adaptations. We only have to compare the strength athlete with the endurance
athlete to see the extreme range of effects of exercise training on the body. Even with training
programs of equal caloric expenditure, the endurance athlete is not going to develop ameasurable amount of muscle mass, and the strength athlete is not going to have an increase
in aerobic capacity. Even different weightlifting programs can bring about completely different
results. In short, the adaptations to training are highly specific to the type of training that is
performed. Furthermore, there is considerable individual variation in response to the same
training program. This is in large part due to one’s genetic potential. It can also be
significantly influenced by nutritional intervention.
Let’s now consider how muscles adapt and the influence that exercise can have on theirdevelopment.

BASIC PRINCIPLES OF EXERCISE TRAINING
There are four basic principles of exercise training that you should understand if you aregoing to design a training program that meets your specific needs. Table 12.2 provides abrief overview of these principles. You can of course copy what other athletes are doing intheir training programs, but everyone responds differently. Therefore, for the best possible
training benefits, your training program should be individualized.
TABLE 12.2. Basic Principles of Exercise Training
Principle
1. Specificity
Adaptations are specific to the activity, volume, and intensity of exercise.
For adaptation to occur, the overload on a specific muscle must be greater than
2. Progressive overload
normally encountered.
3. Disuse
Adaptations are not permanent.
4. Individuality
Capacity to adapt is in large part determined by your genetic makeup.
Table 12.2
Principle 1: Specificity of Exercise
The principle of exercise specificity states that the biological adaptations to training are
specific to the activity and to the volume and intensity of the exercise performed. Therefore,
improvements are restricted to the energy systems, muscle groups, and other biologicalsystems stressed during training. For example, a resistance-training program that emphasizes
low weight, high repetitions, and a moderate number of sets will increase muscle endurance,
but will not maximize strength gains and muscle development. A program of high-weight,
moderate repetitions, and a high number of sets will emphasize muscle development, but notnecessarily maximize muscle-strength development.

Comment

necessarily maximize muscle-strength development.
Even the speed with which you complete the concentric (weight-raising) and eccentric(weight-lowering) phases of a lift will have an effect on muscle adaptation. In most sports, it
is important that the development of muscle strength emphasize functional strength or
explosive power. To best obtain this type of strength, some of your sets should be designed
so that the concentric phase of the lift is performed as rapidly as possible. Strength
development using a slow concentric contraction does not necessarily result in an increase instrength at faster speeds of contraction. Consequently, a shot-putter’s strength-training
program should incorporate sets of shoulder presses and squats in which the concentric
phase of each exercise is performed in an explosive manner. Therefore, based on theprinciple of specificity, your training program should stress the physiological systems that are
critical for optimal performance in a way that best simulates how they are to be used.
Principle 2: Progressive Overload
Overload refers to a physiological stress or level of exercise that is beyond what iscustomary. Progressive refers to a continued increase in the level of overload. The overload
principle states that, for a training adaptation to occur, the load or stress on the system orsystems of the body being trained must be greater than typically encountered. Once thesystem adapts to the increased stress of training, the stress is no longer atypical, and if further
training adaptations are desired, the training stimulus must be increased. Consider a football
player with a starting bench press of 300 pounds. After one month of training with 210
pounds (3 setsX10 repsX3 times per week), his 1 repetition maximum (1RM) increases to
315 pounds. If this individual continues to train the next month using the same training
protocol he used the first month, he will not see any appreciable improvement in his 1RM.
This is because his muscles have adapted and his training program no longer overloads his
muscles. To see an additional increase in benchpress strength, he will now be required toincrease his workout. Continuous improvement, therefore, requires that the level of training
increase or progress as the system being trained improves.
Principle 3: Disuse
The principle of disuse can be simply defined by the saying “use it or lose it.” Training
adaptations are not permanent. Once you remove the stimulus for change, or the training
overload, the system previously being trained will revert back to a level that willaccommodate the normal daily demands placed on it. We are all aware that if one stops
weightlifting, muscle atrophy will start to occur. Likewise, the muscle mitochondria of a
distance runner will significantly decline if the runner stops training. However, themaintenance of a training adaptation does not require the same training overload as theoriginal development of the adaptation. Therefore, there can be periods of time in yourtraining program when the training overload can be lowered without significant loss of training
adaptation.
Principle 4: Individuality
The capacity to adapt to exercise training is in large part genetically determined. Genetics
play a major role in how fast and to what degree you will adapt to a training program. Surely
you have noticed that some individuals seem only to have to look at a weight and they put on
muscle, while others appear to work extremely hard with little to show for it. Because you
may respond well to one type of exercise stimulus, however, does not mean that you will
respond to all types of exercise stimuli. For example, someone who responds well to aweight-training program may not respond well to an endurance-training program and viceversa.
A caveat to the principle of individuality is that the further you are from your genetic potential,
the easier it is to adapt to training, and the closer you are to your genetic potential, the harder
it becomes to adapt. Large gains in strength are seen at the onset of a training program andadaptation is rather easy. However, after several months of training, an increase in strength
can become difficult and adaptations plateau. To continue to adapt, variation must be
introduced into your training program, and as you have learned, control of your nutrient
intake can be of significant benefit as well.

TRAINING ADAPTATIONS
As we discussed above, the adaptations to a training program are highly specific. Before we
address how the body controls muscle fiber adaptation, it is important to understand which
major adaptations occur in response to different types of training. Let’s look at why one
exercise program increases strength while another increases muscle endurance.
Endurance Training Adaptations
After several months of endurance training, individuals are generally capable of exercising at
higher workloads while maintaining sufficient energy production aerobically. They arecapable of exercising for prolonged periods of time at exercise intensities that had previously
resulted in early fatigue. The adaptations that result in improved aerobic power andresulted in early fatigue. The adaptations that result in improved aerobic power andendurance reside both in the cardiovascular system and within the skeletal muscle.
The cardiovascular system adaptations occur in the heart and blood vessels. As a result ofendurance training, heart weight and volume increase. The increase in heart weight is due toan increase in wall thickness as the myocardium (heart muscle) undergoes hypertrophy (anincrease in size). There is also an increase in left ventricular chamber size. The increase in left
ventricular chamber size and wall thickness makes the heart a more efficient pump, and it isable to pump more blood per beat. This results in greater maximal blood flow and oxygen
delivery to the working muscles during a maximal effort. Other cardiovascular adaptations
include an increase in blood volume, a decrease in blood pressure, and an increase in muscle
capillary density, or the number of capillaries around each muscle fiber. The increase incapillary density is important because it improves the dispersal of oxygen and nutrients into
the cell and the removal of byproducts of metabolism, including carbon dioxide and lactic
acid.
Endurance training also has a substantial impact on the metabolic pathways of skeletal
muscle. The major adaptation is an increase in the size and number of mitochondria. This
increase in mitochondria results in an increase in the lactate threshold, the workload at whichblood lactic acid starts to accumulate and cause fatigue, a sparing of stored carbohydrates(glycogen), and an increased reliance on fat as a fuel source. The increased reliance on fat
and the sparing of glycogen during prolonged exercise play a major role in the increase inendurance performance after training. Other metabolic adaptations include an increase in theproteins that control muscle glucose uptake and its conversion into glycogen. Because of
these adaptations, endurance athletes are better able to replenish their muscle glycogenstores postexercise than untrained individuals.
Resistance Training Adaptations
The adaptations that occur with resistance training are both neurological and physiological.
During the first two to three months of strength training, the major gains in strength occur
because of changes in the connective tissues and nervous system. With resistance training,
there is an increase in tendon, ligament, and internal connective tissue strength. The tendonsof the muscle have built-in sensors that monitor muscle tension. These sensors are designed
to prevent the muscle from generating more tension than the connective tissue can safely
tolerate. If the muscle is developing too much tension these sensors are activated and reduce
nerve stimulation to the muscle. This reduces muscle force and prevents injury to theconnective tissue. As the connective tissues become stronger, activation of these sensors
requires greater muscle tension (meaning that more weight can be lifted). There is also an
increase in the coordination of muscle fiber recruitment, which results in bettersynchronization of muscle fiber contraction and force development. In other words, the more
muscle fibers can be activated at the same time, the more force can be generated by themuscle during a maximal effort.
After the initial neurological adaptations, there starts to be a noticeable increase in muscle
mass. This is due to hypertrophy of the individual muscle fibers through increases incytoplasmic volume, myofibrils, and contractile protein filaments. Muscle fiber hypertrophy
has been reported to be greater in fast-twitch fibers than slow-twitch fibers, but mostresearch studies do not support this finding.
The increase in muscle mass may also be caused by hyperplasia (an increase in the numberof muscle fibers). Although hyperplasia has not been directly demonstrated in humans, it has
been demonstrated to occur in the muscle of experimental animals taught to lift weights forrewards. It has also been observed that the muscle fiber sizes of some strength athletes are
the same as those of individuals of average size and muscle mass. Clearly, an increase in fiber
number is the only way to account for the increase in muscle mass of these strength athletes.
However, an increase in muscle mass due to hyperplasia is probably difficult to achieve andrequires many years of training.
The metabolic adaptations that occur with resistance training are small compared withendurance training. There are small increases in the activities of the glycolytic enzymes andthe enzymes that rapidly restore ATP. There are also small increases in the ATP and CP
stores. If the training program results in high muscle and blood lactic acid accumulation, there
is also an increase in muscle proteins that buffer or neutralize the lactic acid, and increase
lactic acid tolerance and muscle endurance. However, there may also be a reduced capillary
and mitochondrial density with resistance training. This is the result of a dilution of thesestructures due to an increase in the size of the muscle fibers. This means that individuals who
only resistance-train may risk decreasing their aerobic endurance.
Table 12.3 summarizes the different adaptations that occur with endurance and resistancetraining.
TABLE 12.3. Training Adaptations
Endurance
Adaptations
Adaptations
Increase in heart weight
Increase in tendon and ligament strength
Increase in heart size
Greater coordination of muscle fiber recruitment
Increase in the number of blood vessels around each muscle
Increase in the number of muscle fibers
fiber
Increase in size and number of muscle mitochondria
Increase in size of individual fibers

ResistanceIncrease in size and number of muscle mitochondria
Increase in size of individual fibers
Increase in the lactate threshold
Increase in the activities of enzymes that restore ATP
Increase in proteins that control glucose uptake and glycogenIncrease in ATP and CP storesstorage
Increase in lactic acid tolerance
Reduction in the number of blood vessels and mitochondria
per muscle fiber
Table 12.3
Mechanism of Muscle Adaptation
Muscle fibers are approximately 20 percent protein and it is the protein that determines their
physiologic and metabolic characteristics. By increasing, decreasing, or modifying the protein
content, the functionality of the muscle can be changed. In actuality, the proteins thatcomprise the muscle fiber are constantly being synthesized and destroyed. This flux is called“protein turnover”. When synthesis equals degradation, the protein content doesn’t change.
However when synthesis exceeds degradation protein content is increased and whendegradation exceeds synthesis protein content is reduced.
Muscle fibers are highly adaptable. This is because the genes of the muscle are very
responsive to both extracellular stimuli such as hormones and intracellular stimuli such as thelevel of ATP. Altering the expression of specific genes is the basis for the adaptive responses
that occur as a result of strength training. By altering gene expression, rates of synthesis anddegradation can be altered to increase or decrease the level of a specific protein in themuscle fiber.
To appreciate how training and nutrition work together to bring about muscle adaptations
specific to exercise performed, you must first understand how the genetic machinery of themuscle functions. An increase in the level of a specific protein can be controlled at threedifferent levels (see Figure 12.2).
The first level is gene transcription. Genes that hold the information on how a protein is
manufactured are located on specific sites on the muscle’s DNA. When a gene is activated, it
will replicate the information in the form of a blueprint called messenger RNA. A number ofstimuli can activate a gene including hormones, the energy state of the muscle (amount of
ATP and creatine phosphate, or CP) and even levels of different nutrients.
The second level of control is protein translation. During translation, the messenger RNA in
combination with small protein assembly plants called ribosomes, assemble amino acids inthe sequence specified by the messenger RNA to form a designated protein. When theribosomes complete their mission, protein translation stops. Hormones such as insulin and theavailability of amino acids are two of the control factors that positively influence proteintranslation.
Figure 12.2. Impact of Exercise Type on Gene Expression: Depending on the typeof exercise, genes for different proteins are activated. When the gene is activated, it
causes the release of a specific messenger RNA molecule, which serves as a blueprint
for the assembly of a specific protein by ribosomes, which are essentailly protein
assembly plants. Aerobic exercise, for example, can increase the number ofmitochondrial proteins, and resistance exercise can increase the number of contractile
proteins.

For example, after exercise the muscle is very sensitive to the activation of protein translationby amino acids (metabolic sensitivity) and the hormone insulin. Consuming acarbohydrate/protein drink (nutrient activation) immediately after exercise increases insulinlevels, amino acid availability, and promotes ribosome assembly. The net result is an increasein protein synthesis. Although exercise stimulates the actual gene transcription, nutrientintervention at the right time results in a higher rate of protein synthesis.
The third level of control, protein degradation, is less well understood. It is known thatexercise stimulates and insulin inhibits protein degradation. Biolo and colleagues from the
University of Texas Health Science Center in Galveston demonstrated that following
exercise, protein synthesis was increased but so was protein degradation resulting in a net
protein loss. When insulin levels were increased, protein degradation was reduced, resulting
in a net protein gain. These results show that whether protein is gained or lost after exercise
depends on the rates of both protein synthesis and protein degradation. It also reemphasizes
that nutritional intervention, in this case via insulin, can shift the equation in the anabolic
direction.

SUMMARY
Muscle is made up of bundles of muscle fibers called fasciculi. There are two basic types ofmuscle fibers, slow twitch and fast twitch. The physiological and metabolic characteristics ofthe slow- and fast-twitch fibers differ, which allows for a more diverse performancecapability. Muscle is a highly adaptable tissue but the adaptations that occur with training are
specific to the type, intensity, and duration of training. While exercise provides a strong
stimulus for adaptation, the rate of adaptation can be strongly influenced by nutrient
availability. It should be clear that the combination of exercise and nutrient supplementation
can have a strong influence on protein synthesis and muscle tissue development.
KEY TAKEAWAYS 12• Skeletal muscle is composed of slow-twitch and fast-twitch muscle fibers, which havedifferent physiological and metabolic characteristics.
• Speed and force of muscle contraction are determined by the number and types ofmuscle fibers (slow-twitch or fast-twitch) activated, and by the frequency of theiractivation.
• Muscle adaptation is very specific to the type, intensity, and duration of training.
• Make your workout program specific to the physical adaptations you seek throughtraining (for example, if you seek explosive power, incorporate some high-speed lifts).
• Incorporate into your workout program the four basic principles of exercise training.
• The two primary adaptations to resistance training are hypertrophy of individual
muscle fibers and synchronization of muscle-fiber recruitment.
• Although genetics play an important role in muscle cell adaptation, the process can besignificantly influenced by nutritional intervention.
• Customize your training to account for your genetic strengths and weaknesses.

Conclusion
When the first studies on the importance of Nutrient Timing were published, they were met
with skepticism by many exercise physiologists and nutritionists. There have now been manystudies conducted worldwide in the laboratories of respected researchers that support thescience underlying Nutrient Timing. This does not mean that we have all the information weneed. Additional studies are essential if we are to fully understand and elucidate theneed. Additional studies are essential if we are to fully understand and elucidate themechanisms by which nutrition can influence muscle cell growth and development. However,
it is also clear that the science as of this moment strongly supports the premise that strength
athletes, and, in fact, all athletes, trainers, strength and conditioning coaches, and nutritionists
will benefit by incorporating the principles of Nutrient Timing into their programs.
In the last few years, we have seen sports nutrition dominated by the use of illegal drugs andsupplements. However, the many studies we have cited show that Nutrient Timing gives us atool which will enable athletes to safely achieve gains in strength, power, and performancewith the most basic of all tools—the food they eat.
We anticipate further exciting breakthroughs as we watch the science of Nutrient Timing
continue to develop.

Glossary
Actin. One of the two major contractile proteins in muscle cells. See also Myosin.
Activation. See Nutrient activation.
Adaptation. A physiological or biochemical change that occurs when the body is exposed torepeated bouts of exercise.
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP). See ATP.
Adrenaline. See Epinephrine.
Aerobic metabolism. The process of energy production (ATP) that occurs in the
mitochondria and requires the presence of oxygen.
Agonist. A muscle that initiates and is primarily responsible for movement.
Alpha-lipoic acid. An enzyme cofactor in the conversion of glucose into energy; also anantioxidant.
Amino acids. The biochemical building blocks of proteins. There are twenty amino acids,
eleven of which are nonessential and can be manufactured by the body, and nine of which
are essential and cannot be manufactured by the body, so they must be supplied through diet.
Anabolic. The building up of body tissue and fuel stores.
Anabolic Phase. The second phase of nutrient timing, occurring within the first forty-fiveminutes after a resistance workout, during which acute muscle recovery occurs.
Anaerobic metabolism. The process by which energy is produced that does not require thepresence of oxygen.
Anaerobic threshold. The exercise intensity beyond which lactic acid begins to rapidly
accumulate in the working muscles, hastening exhaustion.
Antagonist. A muscle or muscle group that opposes muscle contraction.
Antioxidant. A substance that neutralizes free radicals and prevents tissue damage.
Asynchronous. Refers to a muscle movement pattern wherein motor units are recruited in asequential pattern that allows for rest periods between contractions. Asynchronous
contraction patterns are characteristic of sustained, low-intensity to moderately high-intensity
movements (for example, jogging).
ATP. Adenosine triphosphate; a high-energy compound that is the fundamental source ofenergy for muscle contractions.
ATPase. An enzyme that breaks down ATP to release energy.
Autogenic inhibition. A reflex inhibition of motor neuron discharge that occurs to prevent
excessive muscle tension, which can cause damage to muscle and its connective tissues.
Branched-chain amino acids (BCAAs). Essential amino acids that inhibit muscle protein
breakdown and aid in muscle glycogen storage. The BCAAs are valine, leucine, andisoleucine.
Calcium. A metallic element that is an essential nutrient for humans. It is the main structuralingredient of bones and plays an essential role in muscle contractions.
Calorie. A unit of energy-producing potential that is contained in food and released during
aerobic metabolism.
Capillaries. Tiny blood vessels that allow for the exchange of gases and nutrients between
blood and tissue cells.

blood and tissue cells.
Carbohydrate. A broad category of organic compounds that are contained in food andserve as a major energy source in the body, especially during exercise.
Casein. A high-quality protein that is a product of the cheese-making process.
Catabolism. The process of breaking down the body tissues, particularly skeletal muscle.
Cellular respiration. See Aerobic metabolism.
Cellulose. A dietary fiber that is contained in plant foods and aids the human digestion andexcretion processes.
Coenzyme Q10 (CoQ10). A powerful antioxidant that protects the body from free radicals.
Complete protein. A protein that contains all nine essential amino acids.
Complex carbohydrates (polysaccharides). A carbohydrate made from three or more
simple sugar molecules. The two major categories of complex carbohydrates are starches
and fibers.
Concentric. Refers to a type of muscle contraction wherein the muscle shortens as it
contracts.
Cortisol. A catabolic hormone that breaks down muscle proteins for use as an energy
source. It is released during strenuous exercise or when blood glucose drops below normal
levels.
Creatine monohydrate. A form of creatine that is taken as a dietary supplement in order toincrease creatine phosphate storage in the muscles.
Creatine phosphate (CP). A high-energy compound that is stored in muscle cells in small
amounts and provides a quick energy source for high-intensity anaerobic exercise or work.
Cytoplasm. The fluid medium inside a cell.
Dehydration. A state in which the amount of water in the body has diminished below thelevel needed for optimal athletic performance.
Disuse. An exercise principle, which states that the body will quickly lose adaptations toprevious exercise training if training is discontinued.
Eccentric. Refers to a type of muscle contraction wherein the muscle lengthens as it
contracts, as for example, the lengthening of the biceps during the lowering phase of a biceps
curl.
Economy. The relative energy efficiency of a swimmer, cyclist, or runner in motion. It refers
to the amount of energy an athlete requires to travel at a given pace as compared to otherathletes.
Electrolytes. Mineral nutrients (sodium, chloride, magnesium, and potassium) that aid
muscle contraction, nerve impulse transmission, and other biochemical processes.
Endurance. The ability to sustain work or resist fatigue.
Energy Phase. The workout, or during-exercise, phase of the Nutrient Timing System.
Enzyme. A protein that promotes one or more types of chemical reaction in the bodywithout itself being altered.
Epinephrine. A hormone that stimulates liver and muscle glycogen breakdown, lipolysis,
and gluconeogenesis.
Ergogenic aid. Anything that enhances physical performance. Sports drinks and energy bars
and gels are considered ergogenic aids.
Ergolytic. Anything that will impair physical performance.
Fascicule. A bundle of muscle fibers within a muscle.
Fast-twitch muscle fiber. The type of muscle fiber best suited to anaerobic energy
production. Also called type II muscle fibers.
Fatigue. The inability to continue to work or exercise.
Fatty acid. The components of fat that are used by the body for energy.
Free radicals. Highly reactive chemicals that damage body tissues by pilfering electrons inorder to improve their own stability.
Fructose. Known as “fruit sugar” because it is the type of sugar that is most abundant inFructose. Known as “fruit sugar” because it is the type of sugar that is most abundant infruit. It is sweeter and not as easily digested as glucose.
Glucagon. A hormone that stimulates liver glycogen breakdown, gluconeogenesis, andlipolysis.
Gluconeogenesis. A biochemical process by which small three-carbon compounds such aslactate and some amino acids are converted into glucose by the liver. Gluconeogenesis isincreased to maintain blood glucose levels.
Glucose. A simple sugar derived from the breakdown of dietary carbohydrate that serves asa major energy fuel.
Glutamine. The most abundant amino acid in the body; especially abundant in skeletal
muscles. Glutamine can be converted to glucose and used for energy and is also importantfor immune function.
Glycemic index. A measure of how different foods affect blood glucose levels relative toingestion of pure glucose.
Glycogen. The form in which glucose is stored in the muscle and liver.
Glycolysis. One of two forms of anaerobic energy production, in which glycogen ismetabolized without oxygen. Also referred to as the “glycolytic pathway.”
Glycolytic pathway. The enzymatic pathway in the cell where glycolysis takes place.
Growth hormone. An anabolic hormone secreted by the pituitary gland that stimulates bone
and connective tissue growth and lipolysis.
Growth Phase. The third phase of the Nutrient Timing System, which begins about fortyfive minutes after completion of exercise (that is, after the Anabolic Phase) and ends ten
minutes prior to the subsequent workout.
Hemoglobin. An oxygen-binding protein in red blood cells that transports oxygen in thecirculatory system.
High-quality protein. A type of protein that scores high on any of the four scientificmeasures of protein quality, which rate the effects of proteins in the body.
HMB (beta-hydroxybeta methlbutyrate). A compound that is produced in the body fromthe essential amino acid leucine; it prevents muscle protein breakdown.
Homeostasis. A state of balance, or equilibrium, in a given system of the body.
Hyperglycemia. A state wherein the blood glucose level is above normal.
Hyperplasia. Muscle growth resulting from an increase in the number of muscle fibers.
Hypertrophy. Muscle growth resulting from an increase in the size of muscle fibers.
Hypoglycemia. A state wherein the blood glucose level is too low to support normal
functioning of the body.
Incomplete protein. A protein that does not contain one or more of the essential aminoacids.
Insulin. A hormone that is secreted by the pancreas; it stimulates the transport of glucose
and amino acids into muscle and promotes glycogen storage and protein synthesis.
Insulin-like growth factors. Proteins that are produced in the body. They mimic many of
the functions of the hormone insulin.
Insulin resistance. When the muscle’s response to insulin is less than normal.
Insulin sensitivity. Describes the manner in which the muscle responds to insulin. A
decrease in insulin sensitivity is the same as an increase in insulin resistance, whereas anincrease in insulin sensitivity means the muscle response is greater than normal.
Intensity. The rate at which energy is used relative to the muscle mass recruited.
Iron. An essential trace mineral that is involved in the formation of the blood compound
hemoglobin and the transportation of oxygen.
Isometric. Refers to a type of muscle contraction wherein muscle tension the length of themuscle does not change (that is, no movement is produced).
Lactate threshold. An intensity level of exercise above which the metabolic waste productlactic acid accumulates in the blood faster than the circulatory system can remove it. Also
known as the “anaerobic threshold.”
Lactic acid (lactate). A byproduct of anaerobic metabolism and a fuel for aerobic

Lactic acid (lactate). A byproduct of anaerobic metabolism and a fuel for aerobic
metabolism and gluconeogenesis.
L-Carnitine. A vitamin-like nutrient that helps the body release energy from fat.
Lipolysis. The breakdown of stored fats to free fatty acids.
Low-quality protein. A type of protein that scores lower than most other types of proteinon the four scientific measures of protein quality.
Macronutrients. The three essential nutrient types (excluding water) that are present ingreat abundance in the body: carbohydrate, fatty acids (that is, fat), and protein.
Maltodextrin. A complex carbohydrate that is used in many ergogenic aids (sports drinks,
carbohydrate gels, and energy bars) because it is easily digested.
Medium-chain triglycerides (MTC). A class of fatty acids that are rapidly absorbed andburned as energy.
Messenger RNA. A form of RNA that transfers genetic information from the cell nucleus
to ribosomes in the cell cytoplasm.
Metabolic sensitivity. Refers to the muscles’ ability to quickly change their function in
response to various stimuli.
Mitochondria. Structures within cells that serve as the site of aerobic metabolism.
Muscle fiber. A long, thin, single cell within a muscle that is capable of contracting to
produce force.
Muscular endurance. The ability of the muscle to avoid fatigue.
Myocardium. The scientific name for the heart muscle.
Myofibril. A chain of sarcomeres within a muscle fiber.
Myoglobin. An oxygen-carrying compound similar to hemoglobin but found in muscle.
Myosin. One of two major contractile proteins within muscle cells. See also Actin.
Norepinephrine. A hormone that stimulates heart rate and metabolic reactions such as
lipolysis and gluconeogenesis. Also called noradrenaline.
Nucleotides. The building blocks of nucleic acids, which include DNA, the genetic“blueprint” molecule, and ATP, the most fundamental energy source for muscular activity.
Nutrient activation. A process by which one type of nutrient enhances the effects of asecond type of nutrient.
Nutrient optimization. Refers to the ability of muscles to shift from a catabolic to ananabolic state because of the availability of key nutrients.
Periodization. Varying the training stimulus over discrete periods of time to prevent
overtraining.
Phosphagen pathway. One of two forms of anaerobic energy systems, in which adenosine
triphosphate (ATP) is resynthesized by the energy released from the breakdown of creatine
phosphate.
Placebo. An inactive substance usually provided in a manner identical to an active substance,
to test for real versus imagined effects.
Power. The product of force and velocity.
Prime mover. A muscle that bears the heaviest workload in a given movement pattern.
Progressive overload. The practice of stimulating physical adaptations to exercise byconsistently requiring the body to work slightly harder than it is used to working.
Protein. The fundamental structural components of all living cells and many bioactive
substances such as enzymes, hormones, and antibodies. Proteins are composed of aminoacids.
Protein accretion. An increase in the protein concentration within a muscle.
Protein turnover. The combination of protein synthesis and protein degradation.
Recovery. A process wherein one or more systems of the body return to homeostasis
following exertion.
Ribose. A simple sugar found in cells. It is involved in the production of nucleotides, which
are needed to produce ATP.

are needed to produce ATP.
Ribosome. A particle made of ribose and protein that is found in the cytoplasm of living cells
and serves as the assembly site for polypeptides encoded by messenger RNA.
Sarcomere. The smallest functional unit of a muscle fiber, which consists of the major
contractile proteins myosin and actin.
Simple carbohydrate. A carbohydrate with a relatively basic molecular structure.
Slow-twitch muscle fiber. A type of muscle fiber that is better able to produce energy
aerobically than anaerobically. Also called type I muscle fiber.
Soy protein. A type of protein contained in or derived from soybeans.
Specificity. An exercise principle which states that the body will adapt in response to thespecific demands placed upon it in an exercise program.
Strength. The ability of a muscle to exert force.
Sucrose. Ordinary table sugar. A common ingredient in sports drinks because it is quickly
metabolized to provide fast energy.
Sugar. Another name for a simple carbohydrate.
Synchronous. Refers to a muscle movement pattern wherein large numbers of individual
fibers contract simultaneously to produce strong forces. Synchronous fiber recruitment
patterns are characteristic of high-intensity movements (for example, weightlifting).
Synergist. A muscle that plays a secondary role in generating a certain movement.
Tendon. A strong sheath of connective tissue that connects a muscle to a bone.
Testosterone. A hormone that is responsible for many secondary male sexual
characteristics and also facilitates muscle growth.
Transcription. The process of transferring genetic information from the DNA to messenger
RNA.
Translation. The assembly of amino acids into polypeptides according to instructions
provided by the messenger RNA.
Type I muscle fiber. See Slow-twitch muscle fiber.
Type II muscle fiber. See Fast-twitch muscle fiber.
Vitamin. Any of a number of fat-soluble or water-soluble organic substances obtained fromplant and animal foods that are essential for normal biological functioning.
VO2 max. The maximum rate at which a given athlete can consume oxygen. The higher anathlete’s VO2 max, the faster he or she can run, swim, bike, and so on without accumulatingexcess lactic acid in the working muscles.
Whey protein. A source of amino acids derived from milk.

Appendix A Caloric Expenditure Calculator
To determine your average Daily Caloric Expenditure (DCE), you first have to determine
your Resting Caloric Expenditure (RCE), Daily Activities Caloric Expenditure (DA), andWorkout Caloric Expenditure (WCE). Once you have these figures, you will add them
together to determine your DCE.

1. Resting Caloric Expenditure (RCE)
Resting Caloric Expenditure (RCE) is determined as follows:• For men, RCE=body weight (in pounds)X11 calories per pound• For women, RCE=body weight (in pounds)X10 calories per pound
For example, the RCE for a 200-pound man equals 2,200 calories (200 poundsX11
calories per pound).
Body weight (in pounds) _____X_____ calories=your RCE:_____

2. Daily Activities Caloric Expenditure (DA)
Daily Activities Caloric Expenditure (DA) is determined from the appropriate percentage inTable A.1 and from the above RCE figure.
• DA=RCEX“Percentage of RCE” from Table A.1

• DA=RCEX“Percentage of RCE” from Table A.1
For example, a 200-pound store clerk’s DA is 990 calories (2,200RCEX45 percent [or0.45]=990 calories [DA])RCE (above) _____X_____% of RCE (Table A.1=your DA:_____TABLE A.1. Daily Activity Levels and Resting Caloric Expenditure
DAILY
ACTIVITY LEVEL
of RCE Men
Sedentary: Sits most of the day (forexample, computer programmer,
15%
business person, secretary)
Lightly active: Walks or stands most of
the day (for example, teacher,35%
homemaker, delivery person)
Moderately active: Walks and performs
some light physical labor (for example, 45%
mechanic, store clerk, machinist)
Very active: Has a physically active job(for example, landscaper, laborer,
75%
dancer, steelworker, construction
worker, farmer)
Exceptionally active: Has a very
physically active job (for example,
lumberjack, wilderness guide, miner)

100%

Percentage

Percentage
of RCE Women

15%

30%

40%

70%

90%

Table A.1

3. Workout Caloric Expenditure (WCE)Your Workout Caloric Expenditure (WCE) is determined from the appropriate figure in
Table A.2 multiplied by your body weight and workout time. Determine your (WCE) as
follows:
WCE=Caloric Expenditure (from Table A.2)Xyour body weight (in pounds)Xworkout•
time (see below)
DETERMINING YOUR ACTUAL WORKOUT TIME
The exercise intensities in Table A.2 are based on thirty-second sets with a forty-five-second
rest period between sets. Therefore, to determine your actual workout time, multiply the total
number of sets completed (total sets=number of exercisesXsets per exercise) by 1.25
minutes (30 second set+45 second rest).
For example, our 200-pound man’s exercise program is high intensity (0.058cal/lb/min)and composed of exercises of three sets each, so his workout time is (10x3)X1.25 minutes
or 37.5 minutes.
Knowing his actual workout time, we calculate his WCE as follows:• WCE=0.058cal/lb/minx200lbx37.5min=435
Caloric Expenditure (Table A.2) _____XBody Weight (in pounds) _____XWorkout Time(see above) _____=your WCE:_____
Table A.2 lists the caloric expenditures at five different exercise intensities. To determine
your Workout Caloric Expenditure, use the figure that best represents your workout.
TABLE A.2. Exercise Intensity and Caloric Expenditure
Caloric
Caloric
EXERCISE
Expenditure (calories per pound per Expenditure (calories per pound per
INTENSITY
minute) Men
minute) Women
Circuit Training, 15 reps/exercise
0.053
0.045
Low (60%) 1RM, 10 reps/set
0.048
0.042
Moderate (70%) 1RM, 10 reps/set
0.055
0.048
High (75%) 1RM, 8 reps/set
0.058
0.055
Intense (80%) 1RM, 5 reps/set
0.061
0.058
Table A.2

4. Daily Caloric Expenditure (DCE)
To figure your DCE, add your RCE to your DA and WCE.
For
example,our200-pound
man’s
Expenditure=2,200(RCE)+990(DA)+435(WCE) or 3,625 calories.
Your RCE _____+DA _____+WCE _____=your DCE: _____

Appendix B Meal Plan Templates

Daily

Caloric

Appendix B Meal Plan Templates
The following Meal Plan Templates are designed to help you create your personal NTS
Nutrition Plan.
Determine your daily caloric intake using the Caloric Expenditure Calculator in Appendix
1
A.
Select the meal plan template that is closest to your calorie needs. The meal plan
2 templates are designed to deliver a daily protein content of 1.14 grams of protein perpound of body weight.
Refer to Table 8.1 (a, b) to personalize your diet. Select foods from this table and fill them3
into the templates.
If your calories needs are slightly different from those listed in the templates, do thefollowing:
Determine your daily caloric intake using the Caloric Expenditure Calculator in Appendix
1
A.
Distribute your calories as follows: 24 percent protein, 43 percent carbohydrate, and 33
2
percent fat.
Adjust the protein, carbohydrate, and fat percentages in the template by adding or
3 subtracting foods according to their individual nutrient contents listed in Table 8.1 (a, b).
Select foods from this table to personalize your diet.

Daily Food Group Template 1
PROFILE: Female 130lbs • 18 calories per pound • GOAL: 2,340 calories
Servings
Protein
Carbs
Fat
9
45
3
243
—
75
—
300
16
24
2
178

Starch
3
Fruit
5
Milk
2
Added
2
SugarsVegetables 5
Meat/Meat
Substitutes
Very Lean 3
Lean3
Med Fat
3
Fat
11
NTS Energy
1
Supplement
NTS
Anabolic 1
Supplement
NTS
Growth1
Supplement
Total Grams
Daily
Calories
Nutrient
Composition

Group
Breakfast

Starch
Fruit
Milk
Fat

NTS Energy
Supplement
Immediately
NTS Anabolic
PostSupplement
workout
2 Hours
NTS Growth

8

—

32

10

25

—

140

21
21
21
—

—
—
—
—

—
9
15
55

84
165
219
495

6

24

1

129

15

45

1

249

20

4

1

105

139

250

87

556

1,000

783

24%

43%

33%

Table B.1
Sample Food Menu Plan 1
Food
Servings
1
2
1
1

Breakfast
Total
Workout

—

Cal

2,339

Protein

Carb

3
—
8
—

15
30
12
—

1
—
1
5

Fat
81
120
89
45

11

57

7

335

1

6

24

1

129

1

15

45

1

249

Cal

2 Hours
Postworkout
Lunch

NTS Growth
Supplement

1

20

4

1

105

StarchFruit
Vegetables
Med Fat
Fat

1
2
2
3
3

3
—
4
21
—
28
8
—
—
8
3
—
6
21
21
—

15
30
10
—
—
55
12
8
—
20
15
15
15
—
—
—

1
—
—
15
15
31
1
—
15
16
1
—
—
—
9
20

81
120
56
219
135
611
89
32
135
256
81
60
84
84
165
180

51

45

30

654

139

250

87

2,339

Lunch Total
Snack
Milk
Added Sugars
Fat
Snack Total
DinnerStarchFruit
Vegetables
Very Lean
Lean
Fat
Dinner
Total
Total(Actual)

1
2
3
1
1
3
3
3
4

Table B.2

Daily Food Group Template 2
PROFILE: Female 145lbs • 18 calories per pound • GOAL: 2,610 calories
Total
Protein
Carbs
Fat
12
60
4
324
—
75
—
300
16
24
2
178

Starch
4
Fruit
5
Milk
2
Added
4
SugarsVegetables 5
Meat/Meat
Substitutes
Very Lean 6
Lean4
Med Fat
2
Fat
13
NTS Energy
1
Supplement
NTS
Anabolic 1
Supplement
NTS
Growth1
Supplement
Total Grams
Daily
Calories
Nutrient
Composition

Breakfast

BreakfastGroup
StarchFruit
Milk
Added Sugars
Med Fat
Fat

—

16

—

64

10

25

—

140

42
28
14
—

—
—
—
—

—
12
10
65

168
220
146
585

6

24

1

129

15

45

1

249

20

4

1

105

163

273

96

652

1,092

864

25%

42%

33%

Table B.3
Sample Food Menu Plan 2
FoodServings
1
2
1
1
2
2

3
—
8
—
14
—

Cal

2,608

Protein

Carb

15
30
12
4
—
—

1
—
1
—
10
10

Fat
81
120
89
16
146
90

Cal

Breakfast
Total
Workout

NTS Energy
Supplement

Immediately
NTS Anabolic
PostSupplement
workout
2 Hours
NTS Growth
PostSupplement
workout
Lunch
StarchFruit
Vegetables
Lean
Fat
Lunch Total
Snack
Milk
Added Sugars
Fat
Snack Total
DinnerStarchFruit
Vegetables
Very Lean
Fat
Dinner
Total
Total(Actual)

25

61

22

542

1

6

24

1

129

1

15

45

1

249

1

20

4

1

105

2
2
2
4
3

6
—
4
28
—
38
8
—
—
8
3
—
6
42
—

30
30
10
—
—
70
12
12
—
24
15
15
15
—
—

2
—
—
12
15
29
1
—
20
21
1
—
—
—
20

162
120
56
220
135
693
89
48
180
317
81
60
84
168
180

51

45

21

573

163

273

96

2,608

1
3
4
1
1
3
6
4

Table B.4

Daily Food Group Template 3
PROFILE: Male 160lbs • 19 calories per pound • GOAL: 3,040 calories
Total
Protein
Carbs
Fat
21
105
7
567
—
60
—
240
16
24
2
178

Starch
7
Fruit
4
Milk
2
Added
8
SugarsVegetables 6
Meat/Meat
Substitutes
Very Lean 3
Lean5
Med Fat
2
Fat
15
NTS Energy
1
Supplement
NTS
Anabolic 1
Supplement
NTS
Growth2
Supplement
Total Grams
Daily
Calories
Nutrient
Composition

Group
Breakfast

Starch
Fruit

—

32

—

128

12

30

—

168

21
35
14
—

—
—
—
—

—
15
10
75

84
275
146
675

6

24

1

129

15

45

1

249

40

8

2

210

180

328

113

720

1,312

1,017

24%

43%

33%

Table B.5
Sample Food Menu Plan 3
Food
Servings
2
1

6
—

Cal

3,049

Protein

Carb

30
15

2
—

Fat
162
60

Cal

FruitMilk
Added Sugars
Vegetables
Med Fat
Fat

1
1
3
2
2
3

—
8
—
4
14
—

15
12
12
10
—
—

—
1
—
—
10
15

60
89
48
56
146
135

NTS Energy
Supplement

1

32

79

28

696

6

24

1

129

1

15

45

1

249

1

20

4

1

105

2
1
3
4

6
—
21
—
48
6
—
8
—
—
14
3
—
8
35
—

30
15
—
—
45
30
15
12
20
—
81
15
15
20
—
—

2
—
—
20
22
2
—
1
—
20
23
1
—
—
15
20

162
60
84
180
570
162
60
89
80
180
587
81
60
112
275
180

46

50

36

708

20

4

1

105

180

328

113

3,049

Breakfast
Total
Workout

Immediately
NTS Anabolic
PostSupplement
workout
2 Hours
NTS Growth
PostSupplement
workout
Lunch

StarchFruit
Very Lean
Fat

Lunch Total
Snack
StarchFruit
Milk
Added Sugars
Fat
Snack Total
DinnerStarchFruit
Vegetables
Lean
Fat
DinnerTotal
NTS Growth
Post DinnerSupplement
Total(Actual)

2
1
1
5
4
1
1
4
5
4

1

Table B.6

Daily Food Group Template 4
PROFILE: Male 180lbs • 19 calories per pound • GOAL: 3,420 calories
Total
Protein
Carbs
Fat
21
105
7
567
—
90
—
360
16
24
2
178

Starch
7
Fruit
6
Milk
2
Added
9
SugarsVegetables 6
Meat/Meat
Substitutes
Very Lean 6
Lean6
Med Fat
2
Fat
17
NTS Energy
1
Supplement
NTS
Anabolic 1
Supplement
NTS
Growth2
Supplement
Total Grams

—

36

—

144

12

30

—

168

42
42
14
—

—
—
—
—

—
18
10
85

168
330
146
765

6

24

1

129

15

45

1

249

40

8

2

210

208

362

126

Cal

Total Grams
Daily
Calories
Nutrient
Composition

BreakfastGroup
StarchFruit
Milk
Added Sugars
Med Fat
Fat

208

362

126

832

1,448

1,134

24%

42%

33%

Table B.7
Sample Food Menu Plan 4
Food
Servings
2
2
1
3
2
2

Breakfast
Total

3,414

Protein

Carb

6
—
8
—
14
—

30
30
12
12
—
—

2
—
1
—
10
10

Fat
162
120
89
48
146
90

28

84

23

655

NTS Energy
Supplement

1

6

24

1

129

Immediately
NTS Anabolic
PostSupplement
workout

1

15

45

1

249

NTS Growth
Supplement

1

20

4

1

105

StarchFruit
Vegetables
Very Lean
Fat

2
2
2
6
3

6
—
4
42
—
52
6
8
—
—
14
3
—
8
42
—

30
30
10
—
—
70
30
12
24
—
66
15
30
20
—
—

2
—
—
—
15
17
2
1
—
30
33
1
—
—
18
30

162
120
56
168
135
641
162
89
96
270
617
81
120
112
330
270

53

65

49

913

20

4

1

105

208

362

126

3,414

Workout

2 Hours
Postworkout
Lunch

Lunch Total
Snack
StarchMilk
Added Sugars
Fat
Snack Total
DinnerStarchFruit
Vegetables
Lean
Fat
DinnerTotal
NTS Growth
Post DinnerSupplement
Total(Actual)

2
1
6
6
1
2
4
6
6

1

Table B.8

Daily Food Group Template 5
PROFILE: Male 200lbs • 19 calories per pound • GOAL: 3,800 calories
Total
Protein
Carbs
Fat
8
24
120
8
648
8
—
120
—
480
3
24
36
3
267

Starch
Fruit
Milk
Added
SugarsVegetables
Meat/Meat
Substitutes
Very Lean
Lean
Med Fat
Fat

7

—

28

—

11

6

12

30

—

168

7
6
2
19

49
42
14
—

—
—
—
—

—
18
10
95

196
330
146
855

Cal

Cal

Fat
19
NTS Energy
1
Supplement
NTS
Anabolic 1
Supplement
NTS
Growth2
Supplement
Total Grams
Daily
Calories
Nutrient
Composition

BreakfastGroup
StarchFruit
Milk
Added Sugars
Med Fat
Fat

—

—

95

855

6

24

1

129

15

45

1

249

40

8

2

210

226

411

138

904

1,644

1,242

23%

43%

33%

Table B.9
Sample Food Menu Plan 5
FoodServings
2
2
1
2
3
3

Breakfast
Total

3,790

Protein

Carb

6
—
8
—
21
—

30
30
12
12
—
—

2
—
1
—
15
15

Fat
162
120
89
32
219
135

28

80

28

684

NTS Energy
Supplement

1

6

24

1

129

Immediately
NTS Anabolic
PostSupplement
workout

1

15

45

1

249

NTS Growth
Supplement

1

20

4

1

105

StarchFruit
Milk
Vegetables
Very Lean
Lean
Fat

2
2
1
2
4
2
3

6
—
8
4
28
14
—
60
6
—
8
—
—
14
6
—
8
14
28
—

30
30
12
10
—
—
—
82
30
30
12
20
—
92
30
30
20
—
—
—

2
—
1
—
—
6
15
24
2
—
1
—
30
33
2
—
—
—
12
35

162
120
89
56
112
110
135
784
162
120
89
80
270
721
162
120
112
56
220
315

63

80

49

1,013

20

4

1

105

226

411

138

3,790

Workout

2 Hours
Postworkout
Lunch

Lunch Total
Snack
StarchFruit
Milk
Added Sugars
Fat
Snack Total
DinnerStarchFruit
Vegetables
Very Lean
Lean
Fat
DinnerTotal
NTS Growth
Post DinnerSupplement
Total(Actual)

2
2
1
5
6
2
2
4
2
4
7

1

Table B.10

Daily Food Group Template 6
PROFILE: Male 225lbs • 19 calories per pound • GOAL: 4,275 calories

Cal

PROFILE: Male 225lbs • 19 calories per pound • GOAL: 4,275 calories
Total
Protein
Carbs
Fat
30
150
10
810
—
120
—
480
24
36
3
267

Starch
10
Fruit
8
Milk
3
Added
13
SugarsVegetables 6
Meat/Meat
Substitutes
Very Lean 6
Lean9Med Fat
3
Fat
19
NTS Energy
1
Supplement
NTS
Anabolic 1
Supplement
NTS
Growth2
Supplement
Total Grams
Daily
Calories
Nutrient
Composition

BreakfastGroup
StarchFruit
Milk
Added Sugars
Very Lean
Med Fat
Fat

—

52

—

208

12

30

—

168

42
63
21
—

—
—
—
—

—
27
15
95

168
495
219
855

6

24

1

129

15

45

1

249

40

8

2

210

253

465

154

1,012

1,860

1,386

24%

44%

33%

Table B.11
Sample Food Menu Plan 6
Food
Servings
2
2
1
4
1
2
3

Breakfast
Total

Cal

4,258

Protein

Carb

6
—
8
—
7
14
—

30
30
12
16
—
—
—

2
—
1
—
—
10
15

Fat
162
120
89
64
28
146
135

35

88

28

744

1

6

24

1

129

1

15

45

1

249

1

20

4

1

105

StarchFruit
Milk
Added Sugars
Vegetables
Very Lean
Lean
Med Fat
Fat

3
2
1
3
2
5
3
1
4

Lunch Total
Snack
StarchFruit
Milk
Added Sugars
Fat
Snack Total

2
2
1
6
5

9
—
8
—
4
35
21
7
—
84
6
—
8
—
—
14

45
30
12
12
10
—
—
—
—
109
30
30
12
24
—
96

3
—
1
—
—
—
9
5
20
38
2
—
1
—
25
28

243
120
89
48
56
140
165
73
180
1,114
162
120
89
96
225
692

Workout

NTS Energy
Supplement

Immediately
NTS Anabolic
PostSupplement
workout
2 Hours
NTS Growth
PostSupplement
workout
Lunch

CalDinner

StarchFruit
Vegetables
Lean
Fat

Dinner
Total
Post Dinner NTS Growth Sup
Total(Actual)

3
2
4
6
7

1

9
—
8
42
—

45
30
20
—
—

3
—
—
18
35

243
120
112
330
315

59

95

56

1,120

20

4

1

105

253

465

154

4,258

Table B.12

Bibliography
Chapter 1: Nutrient Timing
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Chapter 2: Muscle Energy Systems
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Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 72:96-105, 2000.
Zawadzki, K.M., Yaspelkis, B.B., III, and Ivy, J.L., “Carbohydrate-protein complex
increases the rate of muscle glycogen storage after exercise,” Journal of Applied
Physiology, 72:1854-1859, 1992.

Chapter 4: NTS Energy Phase
Bigard, A.X., Sanchez, H., Claveyrolas, G., et al., “Effects of dehydration and rehydration
on EMG changes during fatiguing contractions,” International Journal of Sports Medicine,
8:281-285, 1987.
Bishop, N.C., Blannin, A.K., Rand, L., et al., “Effects of carbohydrate and fluid intake on
the blood leukocyte responses to prolonged cycling,” International Journal of Sport
Medicine, 17:26-27, 1999.
Bishop, N.C., Blannin, A.K., Rand, L., et al., “The effects of carbohydrate supplementation
on neutrophil degranulation responses to prolonged cycling,” International Journal of Sport
Medicine, 21(Suppl 1):S73, 2000.
Bishop, N.C., Blannin, A.K., Walsh, N.P., et al., “Carbohydrate beverage ingestion andneutrophil degranulation responses following cycling to fatigue at 75% VO2 max,”
International Journal of Sport Medicine, 22:226-231, 2001.
Gleeson, M., Blannin, A.K., Walsh, N.P., et al., “Effect of low and high carbohydrate dietson the plasma glutamine and circulating leukocyte responses to exercise,” International
Journal of Sport Medicine, 8:49-59, 1998.
Haff, G.G., Koch, A.J., Potteiger, J.A., et al., “Carbohydrate supplementation attenuatesmuscle glycogen loss during acute bouts of resistance exercise,” International Journal ofSport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism, 10:326-339, 2000.
Haff, G.G., Lehmkuhl, M.J., McCoy, L.B., et al., “Carbohydrate supplementation andresistance training,” Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 17:187-196, 2003.
Haff, G.G., Schroeder, C.A., Koch, A.J., et al., “The effects of supplemental carbohydrate
ingestion on intermittent isokinetic leg exercise,” Journal of Sports Medicine and PhysicalFitness. 41:216-222, 2001.
Hargreaves, M., Costill, D.L., Coggan, A.R., et al., “Effect of carbohydrate feedings on
muscle glycogen utilization and exercise performance,” Medicine and Science in Sport andExercise, 16:219-225, 1984.
Hurst, T.L., Bailey, D.M., Powell, J.R., et al., “Immune function changes in downhill runningsubjects following ascorbic acid supplementation,” Medicine and Science in Sports andExercise, 33(Suppl 5):S35, 2001.
Ivy, J.L., “Optimization of glycogen stores,” IN: Encyclopaedia of Sports Medicine:
Nutrition in Sports. (Ed.) S. Knuttgen. Blackwell Science Ltd. Oxford, UK, 2000, pg.97111.
Ivy, J.L., Res, P.T., Sprague, R.C., et al., “Effect of carbohydrate-protein supplement on
endurance performance during exercise of varying intensity,” International Journal of Sport
Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism, 13:388-401, 2003.
Kalliokoski, K.K., Kemppainen, J., Larmola, K., et al., “Muscle blood flow and flow
heterogeneity during exercise studied with positron emission tomography in humans,”
European Journal of Applied Physiology, 83:395-401, 2000.
MacLean, D.A., Graham, T.E. and Saltin, B., “Branched-chain amino acids augmentammonia metabolism while attenuating protein breakdown during exercise,” American
Journal of Physiology, 267:E1010-1022, 1994.
Nehlsen-Cannarella, S.L., Fagoaga, O.R., Neiman, D.C., et al., “Carbohydrate and thecytokine response to 2.5 hours of running,” Journal of Applied Physiology, 82:1662-1667,
1997.
Nieman, D.C., “Nutrition, exercise, and immune system function,” IN: Clinicals in Sports
Medicine, Nutritional Aspects of Exercise. Eds. Wheeler, K.B. and Lombardo, J.A. Vol.18,
1999, p537-538.
Nieman, D.C., Johansen, L.M., Lee, J.W., et al., “Infectious episodes in runners before andafter the Los Angeles Marathon,” Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness,
30:316-328, 1990.
Peters, E.M., Goetzsche, J.M., Grobbelaar, B., et al., “Vitamin C supplementation reduced
the incidence of post-race symptoms of upper respiratory tract infection in ultra marathon

the incidence of post-race symptoms of upper respiratory tract infection in ultra marathon
runners,” American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 57:170-174, 1993.
Ploutz-Snyder, L.L., Convertino, V.A., and Dudley, G.A., “Resistance exercise-induced
fluid shifts: change in active muscle size and plasma volume,” American Journal of
Physiology, 269:R536-R543, 1995.
Potteiger, J.A., Chan, M.A., Haff, G.G., et al., “Training status influences T-cell responses inwomen following acute resistance exercise,” Journal Strength and Conditioning Research,
15:185-191, 2001.
Robergs, R.A., Pearson, D.R., and Costill, D.L., “Muscle glycogenolysis during differing
intensities of weight-resistance exercise,” Journal of Applied Physiology, 70:1700-1706,
1991.
Rokitzki, L., Logeman, E., Sagredos, A.N., et al., “Lipid peroxidation and antioxidant
vitamins under extreme endurance stress,” Acta Physiologica Scandinavacia, 151:149158, 1994.
Rokitzki, L., Logemann, E., Huber, G., et al., “alpha-Tocopherol supplementation in racing
cyclists during extreme endurance training,” International Journal of Sport Nutrition,
4:253-264, 1994.
Schoffstall, J.E., Branch, J.D., Leutholtz, B.C., et al., “Effects of dehydration and rehydrationon the one-repetition maximum branch press of weight-trained males,” Medicine andScience in Sports and Exercise, 33:1694-1700, 2001.
Tesch, P.A., Colliander, E.B., and Kaiser P., “Muscle metabolism during intense, heavyresistance exercise,” European Journal of Physiology and Occupational Physiology,
55:362-366, 1986.
Viitasalo, J.T., Kyrolainen, H., Bosco, C., and Alen, M., “Effects of rapid weight reduction
on force production and vertical jumping heights,” International Journal of Sports
Medicine, 8:281-285, 1987.
Yaspelkis, B.B., Patterson, J.G., Anderla, P.A., et al., “Carbohydrate supplementation
spares muscle glycogen during variable-intensity exercise,” Journal of Applied Physiology,
75:1477-1485, 1993.

Chapter 5: NTS Anabolic Phase
Andersen, J.L., Schjerling, P., Andersen, L.L., and Dela, F., “Resistance training and insulin
action in humans: effects of de-training,” Journal of Physiology, 551:1049-1058, 2003.
Anthony, J.C., Anthony, T.G., and Layman, D.K., “Leucine supplementation enhancesskeletal muscle recovery in rats following exercise,” Journal of Nutrition, 129:1102-1106,
1999.
Biolo, G., Tipton, K.D., Klein, S., et al., “An abundant supply of amino acids enhances themetabolic effect of exercise on muscle protein,” American Journal of Physiology,
273:E122-E119, 1997.
Boirie, Y., Dangin, M., Gachon, P., et al., “Slow and fast dietary proteins differently
modulate postprandial protein accretion,” Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences USA, 94:14930-12935, 1997.
Blomstrand, E., and Saltin B., “BCAA intake affects protein metabolism in muscle after but
not during exercise in human,” American Journal of Physiology, 28:E365-E374, 2001.
Cardillo, C., Kilcoyne, C.M., Nambi, S.S., et al., “Vasodilator response to systemic but not
to local hyperinsulemia in the human forearm,” Hypertension, 34:E12-E13, 1999.
Chandler, R.M., Byrne, H.K., Patterson, J.G., and Ivy, J.L., “Dietary supplements affect the
anabolic hormones after high resistance exercise,” Journal of Applied Physiology, 76:839845, 1994.
Clark, M.W., Wallis, M.D., Barrett, E.J., et al., “Blood flow and muscle metabolism: a focus
on insulin action,” American Journal of Physiology, 284:E241-E258, 2003.
Dangin, M., Boirie, Y., Garcia-Rodenas, C., et al., “The digestion rate of protein is anindependent regulating factor of postprandial protein retention,” American Journal of
Physiology, 280:E340-348, 2001.
Esmarck, B., Andersen, J.L., Olsen, S., et al., “Timing of postexercise protein intake isimportant for muscle hypertrophy with resistance training in elderly humans,” Journal of
Physiology, 535:301-311, 2001.
Gautsch, T.A., Anthony, J.C., Kimball, S.R., et al., “Availability of eIF4E regulates skeletal
muscle protein synthesis during recovery from exercise,” American Journal of Physiology,
274:C406-C414, 1998.

Ivy, J.L., “Dietary strategies to promote glycogen synthesis after exercise,” Canadian
Journal of Applied Physiology, 26(Suppl):S236-S245, 2001.
Ivy, J.L., Katz, A.L., Cutler, C.L., et al., “Muscle glycogen synthesis after exercise: effect oftime on carbohydrate ingestion,” Journal of Applied Physiology, 64:1480-1485, 1988.
Ivy, J.L., Goforth, H.W., Jr., Damon, B.M., et al., “Early post exercise muscle glycogenrecovery is enhanced with a carbohydrate-protein supplement,” Journal of Applied
Physiology, 93:1337-1344, 2002.
Jun, T., and Wennmalm, A., “NO-dependent and -independent elevation of plasma levels of
insulin and glucose in rats by L-arginine,” British Journal of Pharmacology, 113:345-348,
1994.
King, N.A., Burley, V.J., and Blundell, J.E., “Exercise-induced suppression of appetite:
effects on food intake and implications for energy balance,” European Journal of ClinicalNutrition, 48:715-24, 1994.
Laakso, M., Edelman, S.V., Brechtel, G., and Baron, A.D., “Decreased effect of insulin tostimulate skeletal muscle blood flow in obese man: a novel mechanism for insulin resistance,”
Journal of Clinical Investigation, 85:1844-1852, 1990.
Levenhagen, D.K., Carr, C., Carlson, M.G., et al., “Postexercise protein intake enhanceswhole-body and leg protein accretion in humans,” Medicine and Science in Sports andExercise, 34:828-837, 2002.
Levenhagen, D.K., Gresham, J.D., Carlson, M.G., et al., “Postexercise nutrient intake timing
in humans is critical to recovery of leg glucose and protein homeostasis,” American Journalof Physiology, 280:E982-E993, 2001.
Okamura, K., Doi, T., Hamada, K., et al., “Effect of amino acid and glucose administration
during postexercise recovery on protein kinetics in dogs,” American Journal of Physiology,
272:E1023-E1030, 1997.
Okano, G., Suzuki, M., Kojima, M., et al., “Effect of timing of meal intake after squat
exercise training on bone formation in the rat hind limb,” Journal of Nutritional Science andVitaminology, 45:543-552, 1999.
Ready, S.L., Seifert, J., Burke, E., “Effect of two sports drinks on muscle tissue stress andperformance,” Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 31(5):S119, 1999.
Roy, B.D., Fowles, J.R., Hill, R., et al., “Macronutrient intake and whole body protein
metabolism following resistance exercise,” Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise,
32: 1412-1418, 2000.
Roy, B.D., Tarnopolsky, M.A., MacDougall J.D., et al., “Effect of glucose supplementtiming on protein metabolism after resistance training,” Journal of Applied Physiology,
82:1882-1888, 1997.
Spiller, G.A., Jensen, C.D., Pattison, T.S., et al., “Effect of protein dose on serum glucose
and insulin response to sugars,” American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 46:474-481,
1987.
Suzuki, M., Doi, T., Lee, S.J., et al., “Effect of meal timing after resistance exercise on hindlimb muscle mass and fat accumulation in trained rats,” Journal of Nutritional Science andVitaminology, 45:401-409, 1999.
Tarnopolsky, M.A., Bosman, M., MacDonald, J.R., et al., “Post exercise proteincarbohydrate and carbohydrate supplements increase muscle glycogen in men and women,”
Journal of Applied Physiology, 83: 1877-1883, 1997.
Utrainen, T., Mäkimatilla, S., Virkamäki, A., et al., “Physical fitness and endothelial function(nitric oxide synthesis) are independent determinants of insulin-stimulated blood flow innormal subjects,” Journal of Endocrinology and Metabolism, 81:4258-4263, 1996.
van der Schoor, P., van Hall, G., Saris, W.H.M., et al., “Ingestion of protein hydrolysate
prevents the post-exercise reduction in plasma glutamate,” International Journal of Sports
Medicine, 18:S115, 1997.
van Loon, L.J.C., Saris, W.H.M., Verhagen, H., et al., “Plasma insulin responses following
the ingestion of different amino acid and/or protein mixtures with carbohydrate,” American
Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 72:96-105, 2000.
Williams, M., Ivy, J., Raven, P., “Effects of recovery drinks after prolonged glycogendepletion exercise,” Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 31(5):S124, 1999.
Williams, M.B., Raven, P.B., Donovan L.F., et al., “Effects of recovery beverage on
glycogen restoration and endurance exercise performance,” Journal of Strength andConditioning Research, 17:12-19, 2003.
Yki-Jarvinen, H., “Insulin resistance and endothelial dysfunction,” Best Practice andYki-Jarvinen, H., “Insulin resistance and endothelial dysfunction,” Best Practice andResearch Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, 17:411-430, 2003.
Zawadzki, K.M., Yaspelkis, B.B., III, and Ivy, J.L., “Carbohydrate-protein complex
increases the rate of muscle glycogen storage after exercise,” Journal of Applied
Physiology, 72:1854-1859, 1992.

Chapter 6: NTS Growth Phase
Anthony, J.C., Anthony, T.G., and Layman, D.K., “Leucine supplementation enhancesskeletal muscle recovery in rats following exercise,” Journal of Nutrition, 129:1102-1106,
1999.
Apple, F.S., Rogers, M.A., Sherman, W.M., et al., “Comparison of serum creatine kinaseand creatine kinase MB activities post marathon race versus post myocardial infarction,”
Clinica Chimica Acta. 138:111-118, 1984.
Biolo, G., Tipton, K.D., Klein, S., et al., “An abundant supply of amino acids enhances themetabolic effect of exercise on muscle protein,” American Journal of Physiology,
273:E122-E119, 1997.
Blom, P.C.S., Høstmark, A.T., Vaage, O., et al., “Effect of different post-exercise sugardiets on the rate of muscle glycogen synthesis,” Medicine and Science in Sports andExercise, 19:491-496, 1987.
Boirie, Y., Dangin, M., Gachon, P., et al., “Slow and fast dietary proteins differently
modulate postprandial protein accretion,” Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences, USA, 94:14930-12935, 1997.
Borsheim, E., Tipton, K.D., Wolf, S.E., and Wolfe, R.R., “Essential amino acids and muscle
protein recovery from resistance exercise,” American Journal of Physiology, 283:E648E657, 2002.
Chittenden, R.H., The Nutrition of Man. Heinemann, London, 1907.
Evans, W.J., “Protein nutrition and resistance exercise,” Canadian Journal of Applied
Physiology, 26(Suppl):S141-S152, 2001.
Fielding, R.A., and Parkington, J., “What are the dietary protein requirements of physically
active individuals? New evidence on the effects of exercise on protein utilization during
postexercise recovery,” Nutrition and Clinical Care, 5:191-196, 2002.
Fern, E.B., Bielinski, R.N., and Schutz, Y., “Effects of exaggerated amino acid and protein
supply in man,” Experientia, 47:168-172, 1991.
Forslund, A.H., El-Khoury, A.E., Olsson, R.M., et al., “Effect of protein intake and physicalactivity on 24-h pattern and rate of macronutrient utilization,” American Journal or
Physiology, 276:E964-E976, 1999.
Forslund, A.H., Habraeus, L., Olsson, R.M., et al., “The 24-h whole body leucine and urea
kinetics at normal and high protein intake with exercise in healthy adults,” American Journalof Physiology, 275:E310-E320, 1998.
Forslund, A.H., Habraeus, L., Van Beurden, H., et al., “Inverse relationship between protein
intake and plasma free amino acids in healthy men at physical exercise,” American Journalof Physiology, 278:E857-E867, 2000.
Gater, D.R., Gater, D.A., Uribe, J.M., et al., “Impact of nutritional supplements andresistance training on body composition, strength and insulin-like growth factor-1,” Journalof Applied Sports Science Research, 6:66-76, 1992.
Gautsch, T.A., Anthony, J.C., Kimball, S.R., et al., “Availability of eIF4E regulates skeletal
muscle protein synthesis during recovery from exercise,” American Journal of Physiology,
274:C406-C414, 1998.
Haff, G.G., Koch, A.J, Potteiger, J.A., et al., “Carbohydrate supplementation attenuatesmuscle glycogen loss during acute bouts of resistance exercise,” International Journal ofSport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism, 10:326-339, 2000.
Haff, G.G., Lehmkuhl, M.J., McCoy, L.B., et al., “Carbohydrate supplementation andresistance training,” Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 17:187-196, 2003.
Hegsted, M., et al., “Urinary calcium and calcium balance in young men as affected by levelof protein and phosphorous intake,” Journal of Nutrition, 111:553-562, 1991.
Ivy, J.L., Katz, A.L., Cutler, C.L., et al., “Muscle glycogen synthesis after exercise: effect oftime of carbohydrate ingestion,” Journal of Applied Physiology, 64:1480-1485, 1988.
Ivy, J.L., Lee, M.C., Brozinick, J.T., et al., “Muscle glycogen storage after different amountsof carbohydrate ingestion,” Journal of Applied Physiology, 65:2018-2023, 1988.

Lemon, P.W., Dolny, D.G., Yarasheski, K.E., “Moderate physical activity can increase
dietary protein needs,” Canadian Journal of Applied Physiology, 22:494-503, 1997.
Levenhagen, D.K., Gresham, J.D., Carlson, M.G., et al., “Post-exercise nutrient intake
timing in humans is critical to recovery of leg glucose and protein homeostasis,” American
Journal of Physiology, 280:E982-E993, 2001.
Miller, S.L., Tipton, K.D., Chinkes, D.L., et al., “Independent and combined effects ofamino acids and glucose after resistance exercise,” Medicine and Science in Sports andExercise, 35:449-455, 2003.
National Academy of Sciences National Research Council, Recommended Dietary
Allowances, (9th edition), Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1989.
Oddoye, E.A., Margen, S., “Nitrogen balance studies in humans: long-term effect of highnitrogen intake on nitrogen accretion,” Journal of Nutrition, 109:363-377, 1979.
Phillips, S.M., Tipton, K.D., Aarsland, S.E., et al., “Mixed muscle protein synthesis andbreakdown after resistance exercise in humans,” American Journal of Physiology,
273:E99-E107, 1997.
Poortmans, J.R., and Dellalieux, O., “Do regular high protein diets have potential health risks
on kidney function in athletes?” International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise
Metabolism, 10:28-38, 2000.
Rasmussen, B.B., Tipton, K.D., Miller, S.L., et al., “An oral essential amino acidcarbohydrate supplement enhances muscle protein anabolism after resistance exercise,”
Journal of Applied Physiology, 88:386-392, 2000.
Sterck, J.G., Ritskes-Hoitinga, J., and Beynen, A.C., “Inhibitory effect of high protein intake
on nephrocalcinogenesis in female rats,” British Journal of Nutrition, 67:223-233, 1992.
Suzuki, M., Doi, T., Lee, S.J., et al., “Effect of meal timing after resistance exercise on hindlimb muscle mass and fat accumulation in trained rats,” Journal of Nutritional Science andVitaminology, 45:401-409, 1999.
Tarnopolsky, M.A., “Protein and physical performance,” Current Opinions on ClinicalNutrition and Metabolic Care, 2:533-537, 1999.
Tarnopolsky, M.A., Atkinson, S.A., MacDougall, J.D., et al., “Whole body leucine
metabolism during and after resistance exercise in fed humans,” Medicine and Science inSports and Exercise, 23:326-333, 1991.
Tarnopolsky, M.A., MacDougall, J.D., Atkinson, S.A., “Influence of protein intake andtraining status on nitrogen balance and lean body mass,” Journal of Applied Physiology,
64:187-193, 1988.
Wolfe, R.R., “Effects of amino acid intake on anabolic processes,” Canadian Journal ofApplied Physiology, 26:S220-S227, 2001.

Chapter 7: Making Nutrient Timing Work for You
Ballor, D.L., Becque, M.D., Katch, V.L., “Metabolic responses during hydraulic resistance
exercise,” Medicine and Science in Sports Exercise, 19:363-367, 1987.
Beckham, S.G., and Earnest, C.P., “Metabolic cost of free weight circuit weight training,”
Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness, 40:118-25, 2000.
Ivy, J.L., “Dietary strategies to promote glycogen synthesis after exercise,” Canadian
Journal of Applied Physiology, 26(Suppl):S236-S245, 2001.
Ivy, J.L., Goforth, H.W., Jr., Damon, B.M., et al., “Early postexercise muscle glycogenrecovery is enhanced with a carbohydrate-protein supplement,” Journal of Applied
Physiology, 93:1337-1344, 2002.
Ivy, J.L., Katz, A.L., Cutler, C.L., et al., “Muscle glycogen synthesis after exercise: effect oftime on carbohydrate ingestion,” Journal of Applied Physiology, 64: 1480-1485, 1988.
Lemon, P.W., Dolny, D.G., Yarasheski, K.E., “Moderate physical activity can increase
dietary protein needs,” Canadian Journal of Applied Physiology, 22:494-503, 1997.
Levenhagen, D.K., Gresham, J.D., Carlson, M.G., et al., “Postexercise nutrient intake timing
in humans is critical to recovery of leg glucose and protein homeostasis,” American Journal
Physiology, 280:E982-E993, 2001.
Miller, S.L., Tipton, K.D., Chinkes, D.L, et al., “Independent and combined effects of aminoacids and glucose after resistance exercise,” Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise,
35:449-455, 2003.

National Academy of Sciences National Research Council, Recommended Dietary
Allowances, (9th edition), Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1989.
Wilmore, J.H., Parr, R.B., Ward, P., et al., “Energy cost of circuit weight training,”
Medicine and Science in Sports, 10:75-78, 1978.
Wolfe, R.R., “Effects of amino acid intake on anabolic processes,” Canadian Journal ofApplied Physiology, 26:S220-S227, 2001.
CHAPTER 7: LIQUID NUTRITION VERSUS FOOD (INSET)
Dangin, M., Boirie, Y., Garcia-Rodenas, C., Gachon, P., Fauquant, J., Callier, P., Ballevre,O., Beaufrere, B., “The digestion rate of protein is an independent regulating factor of
postprandial protein retention,” American Journal of Physiology, 280:E340-E348, 2001.
King, N.A., Burley, V.J., Blundell, J.E., “Exercise-induced suppression of appetite: effects
on food intake and implications for energy balance,” European Journal of ClinicalNutrition, 48:715-724, 1994.
Levenhagen, D.K., Gresham, J.D., Carlson, M.G., Maron, D.J., Borel, M.J., Flakoll, P.J.,“Postexercise nutrient intake timing in humans is critical to recovery of leg glucose andprotein homeostasis,” American Journal of Physiology, 280:E982-E993, 2001.

Chapter 8: The NTS Program
American Diabetes Association, American Dietetic Association, Exchange Lists for Meal
Planning, 2003.
Ivy, J.L., “Dietary strategies to promote glycogen synthesis after exercise,” Canadian
Journal of Applied Physiology, 26(Suppl):S236-245, 2001.
Kleiner, S.M., Greenwood-Robinson, M., Power Eating, (2nd edition), Human Kinetics
Publishers, Champaign, IL, 2001.
Kleiner, S.M., “Water: an essential but overlooked nutrient,” Journal of the American
Dietetic Association, 99:200-206, 1999.
Zemel, M.B., “Regulation of adiposity and obesity risk by dietary calcium: mechanisms andimplications,” Journal of the American College of Nutritionists, 21(2):146S-151S, 2002.
CHAPTER 8: ARE HIGH-PROTEIN DIETS AND PROTEIN SUPPLEMENTSDANGEROUS? (INSET)
Hegsted, M., et al., “Urinary calcium and calcium balance in young men as affected by levelof protein and phosphorus intake,” Journal of Nutrition, 111: 553-562, 1991.
National Academy of Sciences National Research Council. Recommended dietary
allowances (9th ed). Washington, D.C.; National Academy Press, 1989.
Poortmans, J.R., and Dellalieux, O., “Do regular high protein diets have potential health risks
on kidney function in athletes?” International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise
Metabolism, 10:28-38, 2000.
Sterck, et al., “Inhibitory effect of high protein intake on nephrocalcinogenesis in female rats,”
British Journal of Nutrition, 67:223-233, 1992.

Chapter 9: Nutrient Activators and Sports Supplements
Anthony, J.C., Anthony, T.G., and Layman, D.K., “Leucine supplementation enhancesskeletal muscle recovery in rats following exercise,” Journal of Nutrition, 129:1102-1106,
1999.
Bell, D.G., and McLellan, T.M., “Exercise endurance 1, 3, and 6h after caffeine ingestion in
caffeine users and nonusers,” Journal of Applied Physiology, 93:1227-1234, 2002.
Biolo, G., Tipton, K.D., Klein, S., et al., “An abundant supply of amino acids enhances themetabolic effect of exercise on muscle protein,” American Journal of Physiology,
273:E122-E119, 1997.
Bishop, N.C., Blannin, A.K., Walsh, N.P., et al., “Nutritional aspects of immunosuppression
in athletes,” Sport Medicine, 28:151-176, 1999.
Blomstrand, E., Hassmen, P., Ekblom, B., and Newsholme, E.A., “Administration of
branched chain amino acids during sustained exercise: effects on performance and on plasma
concentration of some amino acids,” European Journal of Applied Physiology andOccupational Physiology, 63:83-88, 1991.

Bowtell, J.L., Gelly, K., Jackman, M.L., et al., “Effect of oral glutamine on whole bodycarbohydrate storage during recovery from exhaustive exercise,” Journal of Applied
Physiology, 86:1770-1777, 1999.
Bruce, C.R., Anderson, M.E., Fraser, S.F., et al., “Enhancement of 2000-m rowing
performance after caffeine ingestion,” Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise,
32:1958-1963, 2000.
Castell, L.M., and Newsholme, E.A., “The effects of oral glutamine supplementation on
athletes after prolonged, exhaustive exercise,” Nutrition, 13:738-742, 1997.
Coombes, J.S., and McNaughton, L.R., “Effects of branched-chain amino acidsupplementation on serum creatine kinase and lactate dehydrogenase after prolonged
exercise,” Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness, 40:240-246, 2000.
Costill, D.L., Dalsky, G.P., and Fink, W.J., “Effects of caffeine ingestion on metabolism andexercise performance,” Medicine and Science in Sports, 10:155-158, 1978.
Davis, J.M., Zhao, Z., Stock, H.S., et al., “Central nervous system effects of caffeine andadenosine on fatigue,” American Journal of Physiology, 284:R399-R404, 2003.
Green, A.L., et al., “Carbohydrate feeding augments creatine retention during creatine
feeding in humans,” American Journal of Physiology, 271:E821-E826, 1996.
Ivy, J.L., “Effect of pyruvate and dihydroxyacetone supplementation on metabolism andaerobic endurance capacity,” Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 30:837-843,
1998.
Ivy, J.L., Costill, D.L., Fink, W.J., and Lower, R.W., “Influence of caffeine andcarbohydrate feedings on endurance performance,” Medicine and Science in Sports, 11:611, 1979.
Juhn, M., “Popular sports supplements and ergogenic aids,” Sports Medicine, 33:921-939,
2003.
Kingsbury, K.J., Kay, L., and Hjelm, M., “Contrasting plasma free amino acid patterns inelite athletes: association with fatigue and infection,” British Journal of Sports Medicine,
32:25-32, 1998.
Kreider, R.B., Ferreira, M., Wilson, M., et al., “Effects of creatine supplementation on bodycomposition, strength, and sprint performance,” Medicine and Science in Sports andExercise, 30:73-82, 1998.
Kraemer, W.J., Volek, J.S., French, D.N., et al., “The effects of L-carnitine L-tartrate
supplementation on hormonal responses to resistance exercise and recovery,” Journal ofStrength Conditioning Research, 17(3):455-462, 2003.
Laurent, D., Schneider, K.E., Prusaczyk, W.K., et al., “Effects of caffeine on muscle
glycogen utilization and the neuroendocrine axis during exercise,” Journal of Clinical
Endocrinology and Metabolism, 85:2170-175, 2000.
MacLennan, P.A., Smith, K., Weryk, B., et al., “Inhibition of protein breakdown by
glutamine in perfused rat skeletal muscle,” FEBS Letters, 237:133-136, 1988.
MacLennan, P.A., Brown, R.A., and Rennie, M.J., “A positive relationship between protein
synthetic rate and intracellular glutamine concentration in perfused rat skeletal muscle,” FEBS
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Chapter 10: The Right Ingredients: Macronutrients
Campbell, W.W., Barton, M.L., Jr., Cyr-Campbell, D., et al., “Effects of an omnivorous
diet compared with a lactoovovegetarian diet on resistance-training-induced changes in bodycomposition and skeletal muscle in older men,” American Journal of Clinical Nutrition,
79:1032-1039, 1999.
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CHAPTER 10: VEGETARIAN MUSCLE BUILDING (INSET)
Campbell, W.W., et al., “Effects of an Omnivorous Diet Compared with a
Lactoovovegetarian Diet on Resistance-Training-Induced Changes in Body Composition and
Skeletal Muscle in Older Men,” American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 79:1032-1039,
1999.
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CHAPTER 10: OVERTRAINING AND NUTRITION (INSET)
Fry, A.C., et al., “Pituitary-adrenal-gonadal responses to high-intensity resistance exercise
overtraining,” Journal of Applied Physiology, 85:2352-2359, 1998.
Wilmore, J.H., and Costill, D.L., Training for Sport and Activity: The Physiological
Basis of the Conditioning Process (3rd edition), Dubuque, IA: Wm. C. Brown Publishers,
1988.

Chapter 11: The Right Ingredients: Micronutrients
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Chapter 12: How Muscles Work and Grow
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About the Authors
John Ivy is Chair and Margie Gurley Seay Centennial Professor in the Department ofKinesiology & Health Education at the University of Texas at Austin. He received his Ph.D.
in Exercise Physiology from the University of Maryland and his postdoctoral training inphysiology and biochemistry from Washington University School of Medicine. He has
published over 150 research papers on the effects of nutrition on physical performance andexercise recovery. He is a Fellow and former Ambassador for the American College ofSports Medicine and Fellow in the American Academy of Kinesiology. (Image I)

Image I
Robert Portman earned his Ph.D. in biochemistry from Virginia Tech. He has numerous
scientific publications and has written and lectured extensively on the role of nutrition in
improving exercise performance. Dr. Portman is head of research at Pacific-Healthimproving exercise performance. Dr. Portman is head of research at Pacific-Health
Laboratories, a nutrition technology company that has pioneered in the development ofinnovative nutritional products to help athletes reach their potential. (Image II)

Image II

Back Cover Material
THE FUTURE OF SPORTS NUTRITION
NUTRIENT TIMING
If you are serious about weight training, you have probably experienced the “plateau
phenomenon.” You train harder, you consume extra protein in your diet, but you just don’t
get the strength and power gains that you want. For the last ten years sports nutrition has
focused on what to eat. The latest research from leading sports science labs now shows thatwhen you eat may be even more important. Nutrient Timing adds the missing dimension tosports nutrition, the dimension of time. By timing specific nutrition to your muscle’s 24-hour
growth cycle, you can activate your body’s natural anabolic agents to increase muscle
growth and gain greater muscle mass than you ever thought possible. Nutrient Timing is thebiggest advance in sports nutrition in over a decade.
By applying the principles of the Nutrient Timing System, you’ll be able to deliver the precise
amounts of nutrients needed at precisely the right time to optimize your muscle-building
agents and maximize muscle growth, while minimizing muscle damage and soreness after ahard workout. You’ll even be less susceptible to colds. You can actually sculpt a better bodywith more lean muscle mass, less fat, and more power without changing your exercise
program or even your total caloric intake. Nutrient Timing will show you how.
“Nutrient Timing represents the next important concept in the 21st Century.”—William Kraemer, Ph.D., Professor, University of Connecticut“Drs. Ivy and Portman take sports nutrition to a new level. A must read for thestrength coach and athlete.”—Michael Stone, Ph.D., Head, Sports Physiology, U.S. Olympic Committee
ABOUT THE AUTHORSJohn Ivy, Ph.D., is a professor and head of the department of Kinesiology and Health
Education at the University of Texas. Dr. Ivy is a world-renowned expert on the role ofnutrition and exercise performance. He has published over 150 research papers and review
articles.
Robert Portman, Ph.D., is president and director of research for PacificHealth
Laboratories, a leading nutrition technology company. Dr. Portman has been a pioneer indeveloping nutritional products that can improve exercise performance and recovery.

Index
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPRSTUVWZAAcute inflammatory response, Adenosine,
Adenosine diphosphate

See ADP,See ADP,
Adenosine triphosphate

See ATP, Adipose tissue, ADP, Adrenal glands, Aerobic capacity, Aerobic energy system,
Allied Health Science Center, Springfield College, Alpha-tocopherol,
Amino acids

branched-chain, essential, supplement, transport, uptake, Anabolic hormones,
Anabolic Phase

additional considerations for, goals for, recommendations for, Anaerobic energy system,
Anthony, J.C., Antioxidants, Appalachian State University, Arginine,ATP

replenishment
B
Ball State University,
BCAAs

See Amino acids branched-chain, Berardi, John M, Beta-carotene,
Beta-hydroxy-beta- methylbutyrate

See HMB, Biolo, G., Biotin, Bishop, N.C., Blood flow, Boirie, Y, Bone growth, Boron,
Bowtell, J.L.
C
Caffeine,
Calciumloss, Caloric balance, Caloric Expenditure Calculator, Calories, Campbell, Wayne W.,
Capsaicin,
Carbohydrates

complex, simple, sports drinks, supplements, Cartilage growth, Carver, George
Washington, Casein, Catabolic hormones, Catabolic state, Chittenden, R.H., Chloride,
Cholesterol, LDL, Chromium, CLA,
Cobalamin

See Vitamin B12, Colds,
Conjugated linoleic acid

See CLA, Constipation, Contractile protein, Coombes, J.S., Copper,
Cortisol

release, Costill, David, CP, CPK,
Creatine phosphate

See CP,
Creatine phosphokinase

See CPK, CystineD
Dairy, Dehydration, Diabetes, type II, DNA, DopamineE
Eggs, Electrolytes, Endorphins, Endurance training adaptations, Energy,
Energy Phase

goals for, recommendations for, Energy release, Epinephrine, Esmarck, B., Evans, William,
Exercise nutrition

See Nutrient Timing,
Exerciseblood flow during, effect on protein pool, hormonal changes during, metabolic changes
during, muscle damage during, physiological changes during, type, Exercise performance,
Exercise training

basic principles of, disuse of, individuality of, overload of, specificity ofF
Fasciculi, Fast-twitch fibers,
Fatmonounsaturated, oxidation, polyunsaturated, saturated, trans, Fatigue, Fatty acids, Fern,
E.B.,
Fiber, dietary

insoluble, RDA, soluble, Fielding, R.A., Fish, Fluid loss, Folate,
Folic acid

See Folate, Food, purchasing,Food groups

templates, Food plans, sample, Forslund, A.H., Free radicals, Fruits, Fuel sources, Fuelutilization
G
Gater, D.R., Gene expression, Gene transcription, Genetics, Glucagon, Gluconeogenesis,
Glucoseuptake,Glutamine

content in foods, Glutathione, Glycemic index,
Glycogenreplenishment, storage, Glycolysis, Glycosis, Growth hormone,
Growth PhaseSee also Sustained Segment; Rapid Segment
H
Haff, G.G., Histidine, HMB,
Hormones

and muscle growth, Hydration, Hyperplasia, Hypoglycemia
I
IGF-1,
Immune system

limiting suppression, Infections,
Inorganic phosphate

See Pi,
Insulinanabolic actions of, antagonist, resistance,
Insulin-like growth factor

See IGF-1, Iodine, Iowa State, Iron, Isoleucine
J
Journal of Physiology, Juhn, MJournal of Physiology, Juhn, M
K
Kidneys, damage to, Kleiner, Susan, Kraemer, William, Kreider, R.B.
L

Lactate dehydrogenase

See LDH, Laurent, D., L-carnitine, LDH, Lemon, P.W., Leucine, Levenhagen, D.K., LH,
Liver, Longborough University, England, Lutein,
Luteinizing hormone

See LH, Lysine
M
Maastricht University, Netherlands, Macronutrients, Magnesium, Manganese, Margen, S.,
McMaster University, ON, McNaughton,L.R., Meat, lean, Metabolic sensitivity, Metabolic
wastes, Metabolic window closing, Methionine, Micronutrients, Minerals, Mitochondria,
Molybdenum, Mulivitamin and multimineral supplements,
Muscle adaptation

mechanism of, Muscle atrophy, Muscle blood flow, Muscle contractile proteins, Muscle
contraction, Muscle damage, Muscle development, Muscle energy systems, Muscle
enzymes,
Muscle fiber types

physical characteristics, Muscle growth cycle, Muscle mass, increased, Muscle repair,Muscle structure, Muscle tissue disruption, Myofibrils
N

Natural killer cells

See NK cells, Neuroendocrine system,
NiacinSee Vitamin B3, Nieman, David, Nissen, S.L.,
Nitric oxide

See NO,
Nitrogenpositive balance, NK cells, NO, Norepinephrine, North Texas State University School of
Medicine, Nutrient activation, Nutrient delay, Nutrient delivery, Nutrient optimization,
Nutrient Timing

Anabolic Phase, concepts of, goals, Energy Phase, Growth Phase, making it work for you,objectives, phases of, principles, system, Nutrition and overtraining, Nutition, liquid versus
food, Nutrition plans, Nutritionists, traditionalO
Oddoye, E.A., Okamura, K., Old Dominion University, Omega-3 fatty acids, Omega-6
fatty acids, Overtraining and nutrition, OxygenP
Pancreas,
Pantothenic acidSee Vitamin B5, Parkington,J., Penn State University Medical School, Peptides, Peters,
E.M., Phenylalanine, Phosphagen system, Phosphorus, Phytochemicals, Pi, Pituitary gland,
Poultry, Post-exercise period, Potassium, Protein drinks,
Protein powders

comparison with egg protein,
Proteindegradation, high intake levels, measurements of quality, requirements for activity,degradation, high intake levels, measurements of quality, requirements for activity,
supplements, RDA, synthesis, translation, type, turnover,Pyridoxine

See Vitamin B6, Pyruvate
R
Rapid Segment, Rassmussen, B.B.,
Recommended Daily Allowance

See RDA, Resistance exercise, Resistance training adaptations,Riboflavin

See Vitamin B2, Ribose, RNA, Rokitzki, L.
S
Sarcomeres, Selenium, Serotonin, Slow-twitch fibers, Sodium, Soy, Soy protein, Spiller,
G.A., Sports drinks,Sports nutrition

See Nutrient timing, Sports supplements, Stone, M.H., Stout, J., Stress, Stretching, Sugar,
Sulfur, Supplement composition, Supplements nutrient profile, Sustained segment, Suzuki,
MT
T cells, Tarnopolsky, M.A.,
Thiamine

See Vitamin B1, Threonine, Tissue injury, Tissue repair, Training adaptations, Trans-fatty
acids, Triglycerides, Tryptophan, Tyrosine
U
University of Arkansas, University of Connecticut, University of Dundee, Scotland,
University of Texas, Austin, University of Texas Health Science Center, Galveston,
University of Washington, University of Wasida, U.S. Food Guide Pyramid, U.S. Marine
Corp
V
Valine, van Loon, L.J.C., Vandenberghe, K., Vanderbilt University, Vegetables, Vegetarianmuscle building, Viruses, Vitamin A, Vitamin B complex, Vitamin B1, Vitamin B2, Vitamin
B3, Vitamin B5, Vitamin B6, Vitamin B9, Vitamin B12, Vitamin C, Vitamin D, Vitamin E,
Vitamin K, Vitamins
W
Water, Whey protein, Williams, M., Wilmore, J.H., Workouts
Z
ZincYour Customized Book Source
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