Human Aspects of Nuclear Safety2023

Gender Balancein the Nuclear Sector

NE A

Human Aspects of Nuclear Safety

Gender Balancein the Nuclear Sector“There is only one thing worse than coming home from the lab to a sink full of dirty dishes,
and that is not going to the lab at all!”
Chien-Shiung Wu, pioneering Chinese American nuclear physicist© OECD 2023
NEA No. 7583
NUCLEAR ENERGY AGENCY
ORGANISATION FOR ECONOMIC CO-OPERATION AND DEVELOPMENTORGANISATION FOR ECONOMIC CO-OPERATION AND DEVELOPMENTThe OECD is a unique forum where the governments of 38 democracies work together to address the economic,
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The OECD member countries are: Australia, Austria, Belgium, Canada, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, the Czech
Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Ireland, Israel, Italy, Japan,
Korea, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Mexico, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Poland, Portugal, theSlovak Republic, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Türkiye, the United Kingdom and the United States. The
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NUCLEAR ENERGY AGENCYThe OECD Nuclear Energy Agency (NEA) was established on 1 February 1958. Current NEA membershipconsists of 34 countries: Argentina, Australia, Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Canada, the Czech Republic,
Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Japan, Korea, Luxembourg,
Mexico, the Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Russia (suspended), the Slovak Republic,
Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Türkiye, the United Kingdom and the United States. The European
Commission and the International Atomic Energy Agency also take part in the work of the Agency.
The mission of the NEA is:– to assist its member countries in maintaining and further developing, through international
co-operation, the scientific, technological and legal bases required for a safe, environmentally friendly
and economical use of nuclear energy for peaceful purposes;– to provide authoritative assessments and to forge common understandings on key issues, as input togovernment decisions on nuclear energy policy and to broader OECD policy analyses in areas such asenergy and sustainable development.
Specific areas of competence of the NEA include the safety and regulation of nuclear activities, radioactive
waste management and decommissioning, radiological protection, nuclear science, economic and technicalanalyses of the nuclear fuel cycle, nuclear law and liability, and public information. The NEA Data Bank
provides nuclear data and computer program services for participating countries.
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Revised version, March 2023.
© OECD 2023
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Cover photos: Gender balance (melitas, ShutterStock).

FOREWORD

ForewordOn 10 December 2019, representatives from 14 countries and internationalorganisations gathered in a conference room dedicated to the legacies of someof the female founders of nuclear and radiological sciences: Marie SkłodowskaCurie, Lise Meitner, Chien-Shiung Wu, Edith Quimby, Ellen Gleditsch, Harriet
Brooks, Katharine Way and Toshiko Yuasa, among many others. Under thephotographs of these distinguished women, whose achievements have notalways been fully recognised, the OECD Nuclear Energy Agency (NEA) convened
an exploratory meeting on improving gender balance in the nuclear sector. The
journey begun on that day has reached a significant milestone with this report, which
represents years of work to gather the first publicly available international data on women
working in nuclear energy and to lay out a framework for countries to transform the longrunning numerical and cultural gender imbalances and unlock the full potential of all genders
to contribute to the future of the field.
At that first meeting, the participants resolved that after years and decades of goodintentions to diversify the sector, it was time to move from talk to action. The global pandemic
further underscored the urgency of supporting women, even as it highlighted the opportunities
for flexible solutions and the innovation possible from diverse teams. Amidst a challenging
environment for international co-operation, in 2021 the delegates received a mandate from theSteering Committee for Nuclear Energy to form the high-level “Task Group on Improving theGender Balance in the Nuclear Sector” under the leadership of the Steering Committee’s vicechair, Dr Fiona Rayment, OBE, Chief Science and Technology Officer of the United Kingdom’s
National Nuclear Laboratory. The task group set out to collect data to understand the current
challenges facing women in the sector in order to ground action in a firm evidence base, theresults of which are contained in the following pages.
Three years since the delegates began their work on the eve of the pandemic, the global
context has shifted in ways subtle and dramatic. The structural challenges facing women tobalance families and careers became more visible. The importance of organisational culture,
diversity, and management in building resilient, innovative teams and developing new ways tocollaborate was underscored. The nuclear energy sector also achieved new prominence as itsrole in helping the world reach net zero carbon emissions by mid-century has become
increasingly recognised. Fresh investments are being announced and new nuclear technologies
promise bountiful clean, safe, and sustainable energy to power future growth and development.
It is an exciting time to be in sector. The moment is ripe to realise the nuclear field’s fullpotential as a diverse, creative home for the world’s brightest minds, whose gender andbackgrounds reflect the societies that it serves.

William D. Magwood, IV
Director-General,
OECD Nuclear Energy Agency

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Table of contents

Executive summary ................................................................................................................................ 9
Key findings ......................................................................................................................................... 9
Key recommendations...................................................................................................................... 11
Chapter 1. Overview of findings and recommendations ............................................................. 13
1.1. Introduction............................................................................................................................... 13
1.2. Overview of findings ................................................................................................................ 16
1.3. Recommendations .................................................................................................................... 25
1.4. References.................................................................................................................................. 30
Chapter 2. By the numbers: Human resource data on women in the nuclear sector
workplace.......................................................................................................................... 31
2.1. Introduction............................................................................................................................... 31
2.2. Labour force representation .................................................................................................... 33
2.3. Career trajectory ....................................................................................................................... 36
2.4. Pay parity ................................................................................................................................... 45
2.5. Summary of the key findings from the human resources survey ..................................... 46
2.6. References.................................................................................................................................. 46
Chapter 3. From the women themselves: Survey data on women’s experiences andperceptions of the nuclear sector workplace .............................................................. 47
3.1. Introduction............................................................................................................................... 47
3.2. Attractiveness of nuclear sector careers for women ........................................................... 49
3.3. The nuclear sector workplace ................................................................................................. 51
3.4. Career trajectories .................................................................................................................... 58
3.5. Women’s opinions on career barriers and solutions ........................................................... 68
3.6. Summary of key findings from the opinion-based survey of women working
in the nuclear sector................................................................................................................. 72
3.7. Conclusion ................................................................................................................................. 72
3.8. References.................................................................................................................................. 73
List of annexes
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
F.

Quantitative survey template ................................................................................................. 75
Quantitative survey data estimated representation of national nuclear sectors ............ 79
Qualitative survey questions................................................................................................... 81
Snapshot of qualitative survey results .................................................................................. 91
Qualitative survey demographics ........................................................................................... 95
Contributors to this publication ........................................................................................... 101

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

List of figures
1.1.
1.2.
1.3.
1.4.
1.5.
1.6.
1.7.
2.1.
2.2.
2.3.
2.4.
2.5.
2.6.
2.7.
2.8.
2.9.
2.10.
2.11.
2.12.
2.13.
2.14.
2.15.
2.16.
2.17.
2.18.
2.19.
2.20.
2.21.
2.22.
2.23.
2.24.
3.1.
3.2.
3.3.
3.4.
3.5.
3.6.
3.7.
3.8.
3.9.
3.10.
3.11.
2.12.
3.13.
3.14.
3.15.
3.16.
3.17.
3.18.
3.19.
3.20.

6

Overall female participation by job category ..................................................................... 16
Overall female participation by role level........................................................................... 17
Would you encourage female friends and family to join the nuclear energy sector? .. 18
Simple projection of gender balance with current and balanced recruitment ............. 22
Promotions – female participation by management level................................................ 23
Promotions – female participation by job category ........................................................... 23
The three pillars: Attract, Retain and Advance.................................................................. 27
Total workforce by country .................................................................................................. 33
Overall female nuclear workforce participation by country ............................................ 34
Overall female participation by job category ..................................................................... 35
Overall female participation by role level........................................................................... 35
New hires: sample sizes by country .................................................................................... 36
New hires: female participation by country ....................................................................... 36
New hires: female participation by job category ............................................................... 37
New hires: female participation by management level .................................................... 37
Attrition: sample size by country ........................................................................................ 38
Attrition: female participation by country ......................................................................... 38
Female attrition by role level................................................................................................ 39
Net female retention by role level – percentage point difference ................................... 39
Female attrition by job category .......................................................................................... 40
Net female retention by job category – percentage point difference .............................. 40
Promotions: sample size by country ................................................................................... 41
Promotions: female participation by country .................................................................... 41
Promotion: female representation in promotions by job category ................................. 42
Promotions: female representation in promotions by management level .................... 42
Career development programmes: sample size by country............................................. 43
Career development programmes: female participation by country ............................. 43
Career development programmes: female participation by job category ...................... 44
Career development programmes: female participation by level ................................... 44
Pay parity: sample size by country ...................................................................................... 45
Pay parity: the differential between women’s and men’s salaries ................................. 46
Received responses, excluded and included ...................................................................... 49
Would you encourage female friends and family to join the sector? ............................. 50
Would you encourage female friends and family – showing all answers ...................... 50
Are there barriers impacting women specific to nuclear? ............................................... 51
Are physical working conditions equal for men and women? ........................................ 52
Are women fully encouraged, valued and respected in my workplace? ........................ 52
Are women fully encouraged, valued and respected in my workplace? ........................ 53
Are women fully encouraged, valued and respected in my workplace? ........................ 53
Accounts of sexual harassment in the workplace ............................................................ 54
Is the presence and visibility of women widespread in my workplace? ........................ 54
Is the presence and visibility of women widespread in my workplace? ........................ 55
Is the presence and visibility of women widespread in my workplace? ........................ 55
Do women role models and mentors exist in my workplace? ........................................ 56
Do robust policies and priorities exist in my workplace to support women? ............... 56
Are the gender polices generating career satisfaction and optimism? .......................... 57
Do managers engage and express commitment to gender balance? ............................. 57
Are there only limited institutional barriers to female retention and promotion? ...... 58
Are career opportunities the same for men and women in my workplace? ................. 58
Are career opportunities the same for men and women in my workplace? ................. 59
Are career opportunities the same for men and women in my workplace? ................. 59

GENDER BALANCE IN THE NUCLEAR SECTOR, NEA No. 7583, © OECD 2023

TABLE OF CONTENTS

3.21.
3.22.
3.23.
3.24.
3.25.
3.26.
3.27.
3.28.
3.29.
3.30.
3.31.
3.32.
3.33.
3.34.
3.35.
3.36.
3.37.
3.38.
3.39.
3.40.
3.41.
3.42.
3.43.
A.1.
A.2.
A.3.
A.4.
A.5.
A.6.
E.1.
E.2.
E.3.
E.4.
E.5.
E.6.
E.7.
E.8.
E.9.
E.10.
E.11.
E.12.

Are programmes to professionally develop women available and effective? ............... 60
Are programmes to professionally develop women available and effective? ............... 60
Are performance appraisals in my workplace the same for men and women? ........... 61
Are performance appraisals in my workplace the same for men and women? ........... 61
Are salary considerations the same for men and women in my workplace? ............... 62
Are salary considerations the same for men and women in my workplace? ............... 63
Are salary considerations the same for men and women in my workplace? ............... 63
Are salary considerations the same for men and women in my workplace? ............... 64
Does pregnancy/maternity leave negatively impact women’s career trajectory? ........ 64
Does pregnancy/maternity leave negatively impact women’s career trajectory? ........ 65
Are the consequences of parenthood the same for men and women? .......................... 65
Does having a family/caregiving negatively impact women’s career trajectory? ......... 66
Does having a family/caregiving negatively impact women’s career trajectory? ......... 66
Does menopause negatively impact women’s career trajectory? ................................... 67
Does menopause negatively impact women’s career trajectory? ................................... 67
Career expectations and challenges.................................................................................... 68
Barriers to retention and promotion ................................................................................... 68
Barriers specific to the nuclear sector ................................................................................. 69
Personal barriers and challenges ......................................................................................... 69
Interventions supporting the recruitment and advancement of women ...................... 70
Interventions for inclusive work cultures that value leadership by women ................. 70
Interventions supporting work-life balance and the female staff retention ................. 71
Effective solutions to improve the attractiveness of nuclear careers for women......... 71
Job categories and levels template ...................................................................................... 75
New hires template ............................................................................................................... 76
Attrition template .................................................................................................................. 76
Career development programmes template ...................................................................... 77
Promotion template ............................................................................................................... 77
Salary template ...................................................................................................................... 78
Number of respondents by country and region ................................................................. 95
Current employment in the nuclear sector ........................................................................ 96
Country of residence ............................................................................................................. 96
Residency by region ............................................................................................................... 97
Type of organisation .............................................................................................................. 97
Role .......................................................................................................................................... 98
Time working in the sector................................................................................................... 98
Highest qualification ............................................................................................................. 99
Age ........................................................................................................................................... 99
Relationship status .............................................................................................................. 100
Dependents ........................................................................................................................... 100
Minority group ...................................................................................................................... 100

List of tables
2.1.
2.2.
B.1.
D.1.

Fraction of the total workforce in each job category ........................................................ 34
Fraction of the total workforce at each level...................................................................... 34
Quantitative survey data estimated representation of national nuclear sectors ......... 79
Snapshot of qualitative survey results................................................................................ 92

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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Executive summary

Women pioneered the nuclear and radiological fields, and continue to make vital contributions,but female representation in the sector remains limited. This is especially the case in science,technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) and leadership roles. STEM fields benefit fromdiversity as it spurs collaboration and productivity. The lack of diversity represents a loss ofpotential innovation and growth and a critical threat to the future viability of the field.
The OECD Nuclear Energy Agency (NEA) collected data on gender balance in the nuclear
sector in NEA countries to understand workforce representation, career trajectories, andchallenges facing women in the sector, especially in STEM and leadership positions. In 2021, theNEA polled over 8 000 women in the nuclear workforce in 32 countries, and collected humanresources data from 96 nuclear organisations in 17 countries. Based on the findings,
recommendations are proposed to support countries working to improve gender balance in the
sector.

Key findings
The first comprehensive survey of gender balance in NEA countries substantiates women’s
underrepresentation in the sector, especially in STEM and leadership roles.
•

Women comprise 24.9% of the nuclear workforce, based on data from 17 countries, andconstitute only 20.6% of the STEM workforce and 18.3% of senior leadership roles.

•

Current recruitment, attrition and promotion rates are insufficient to significantly
improve gender balance in the sector.

Challenges to attracting women: Recruitment into the nuclear sector is not gender balanced,
although women in the sector would recommend nuclear careers to other women.
•

Women are 28.8% of new hires in the nuclear sector, but are better represented in nonSTEM hires (40.7% female) than in STEM hires (24.6% female). The percentage of new
female hires marks the upper limit of women’s future workforce representation. Because
STEM roles in the nuclear sector are those that most typically lead to senior management,
the low percentage of STEM hires does not point to substantial future change.

•

The majority of women surveyed would encourage other women to pursue a career inthe sector. However, there is significant ambivalence and regional variation.

•

Women rank improving the visibility of women in the sector, including in STEM andleadership roles, as an effective solution for enhancing the attractiveness of the sector
for women.

•

Increasing career flexibility and developing comprehensive solutions to balance
professional and family responsibilities poll strongly as ways to increase the sector’s
gender balance.

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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Challenges to women’s retention: Retention and attrition trends are insufficient for improving thegender balance in senior leadership roles. Pregnancy and family responsibilities are rated by
women as major career impediments. Women experience hostile work environments in the
nuclear sector, especially in STEM roles.
•

Attrition in the nuclear workforce (women and men) is 8.1%, of which women constitute
23.9%. This is lower than the workforce percentage of female new hires (28.8%) and womenin the nuclear workforce overall (24.9%). However, the highest attrition is among womenin non-managerial and lower management positions. This signals leakage from theleadership pipeline and will result in a smaller pool of women eligible for senior roles.

•

Women surveyed overwhelmingly state that pregnancy, family responsibilities, and/or
accommodating a spouse’s career have negative impacts on their careers.

•

Women experience hostility in the nuclear workplace, including sexual harassment.
Accounts are higher for women in STEM roles, women with lower educational
attainment and women who are members of minority groups.

•

Approximately two-thirds of the women surveyed believe that gender stereotyping,micro-aggressions, unconscious bias and/or male-dominated work cultures negatively
impact women’s careers in the nuclear sector.

•

Over half of the women surveyed indicate that their workplace culture is inclusive, butthere is significant regional variation.

•

Women report a lack of management commitment to improving gender balance in theworkplace and insufficient institutional support. Women ages 25-44 poll more negatively,
and there are regional variations. Employees in regulatory organisations poll morepositively.

•

Women highly rank improving workplace inclusivity through: better training on
countering stereotyping and unconscious bias, developing collaborative leadershipmodels and monitoring workplace culture.

•

Women highly rank comprehensive solutions to balance family life (including increased
workplace flexibility and access to childcare), increased visibility of women, mentoring andcultural change as needed to improve gender balance in the nuclear sector.

Challenges to women’s advancement: Women are, on average, paid less than men in the
nuclear sector. The female promotion rate is insufficient for significantly improving the genderbalance in STEM roles. Women regard opportunities for career advancement as unequal.

10•

Women in the nuclear sector tend to be paid less than men, based on limited datasets
and supported by qualitative survey results. Salary disparities between men and womenare lowest in European countries.

•

Women are awarded 27.1% of promotions in the nuclear sector, which is higher than the
proportion of women in the nuclear workforce (24.9%). Women in positions requiring
university degrees and in management roles are being promoted above their
proportional workforce representation in these categories. However, female promotion
rates for non-STEM roles significantly exceed those for STEM roles, exacerbating trends
that concentrate women in non-STEM areas.

•

Women surveyed state that they want to progress in their career. However, women do
not regard opportunities in the nuclear workplace as equal, and believe that there aretacit or explicit institutional barriers to their retention and advancement. Stereotypes or
unconscious bias about leadership characteristics; real or perceived incompatibilities
between family and career responsibilities; and workplace cultures unsupportive of
women’s professional development rate as major hurdles.

•

Women constitute 26% of participants in career development programmes. This exceeds
their proportional representation in the nuclear workforce (24.9%). However, theGENDER BALANCE IN THE NUCLEAR SECTOR, NEA No. 7583, © OECD 2023

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

qualitative survey of women’s experiences indicates that men are perceived to be
selected for career-enhancing projects, development opportunities and training atgreater rates than women. In addition, women surveyed indicate that programmes tosupport their professional development, especially at the management level, are notavailable or not effective.
•

Women identified the lack of female role models, mentors, and leaders, as well as socialcultural perceptions that nuclear careers are masculine, as barriers specific to the
nuclear sector that need to be changed in order to improve gender balance.

Key recommendations
Comprehensive, co-ordinated policy solutions are recommended to improve gender balance inthe nuclear sector.
The following actions are proposed:•

Attract women into the sector through public communications campaigns, enhancing
the educational pipeline, and balanced recruitment and hiring;•

Retain and support women in the nuclear sector workforce by eliminating harassment,
building inclusive work environments, addressing impacts related to familial
responsibilities, assessing unequal impacts on women of policies and programmes,
linking executive management performance to progress on supporting and advancing
women, and by conducting regular national qualitative surveys on workplace
experiences;•

Advance and develop women as leaders and enhance their contributions to the sector by
eliminating unequal impacts for women’s career recognition and advancement and by
conducting regular national surveys on women’s participation in the nuclear sector
workforce; and•Provide data and accountability through goal-setting, regular reporting and designating
resources and senior-level individuals to implement the above actions.

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OVERVIEW OF FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Chapter 1. Overview of findings and recommendations

1.1. Introduction
1.1.1.

Relevance for the nuclear sector

Women scientists and engineers pioneered the nuclear and radiological fields, with leaders andinnovators such as Marie Skłodowska-Curie and Lise Meitner, among many others, establishing
the foundation of modern nuclear science and technology. Many of those female trailblazers
challenged the limited opportunities and expectations for women of their times. Today, many
countries provide equal rights for women and men. In addition, many countries have madeimportant steps in increasing gender equality in education, employment, entrepreneurship andpublic life. 1
Despite this progress, women in science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM)
remain exceptional not only for their contributions, but also for their rarity. Across member
countries of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), men
outnumber women approximately four to one in engineering and computer science (OECD,2021). 2 In addition, women are underrepresented in leadership positions and are less likely thantheir male peers to become CEOs, sit on corporate boards or hold public leadership roles (OECD,
2017b). This is a global problem affecting most countries and many STEM fields to varying
degrees.
At the same time, many OECD Nuclear Energy Agency (NEA) member countries face serious
skills shortages that must be addressed in the next decade and beyond if nuclear technologies
are to be applied safely and effectively. There is a demand for more scientists and engineers
with the capacity to support new projects, effective regulation, and advanced research anddevelopment, and who can also serve as key leaders in the future. The need is great and the factthat women are severely underrepresented in STEM and leadership roles shows that many
countries are losing access to a vast pool of talent.
Adding to this urgency, the world faces a tremendous challenge to alter society, policies,
technologies and practices to achieve net zero carbon emissions by mid-century. The nuclear
sector has the opportunity to play a vital role in supporting this objective. The sector’s ability tocontribute to the success of this global effort will require high-performing organisations that are
diverse, inclusive and innovative. Improving the gender balance in the sector is key to achieve this,as it is now well understood that diverse teams spur innovation and performance. 3 In addition,
the current dearth of women in the nuclear sector is an important element in the gap in

1.

OECD countries are adherents to the OECD Recommendations on Gender Equality in Education,
Employment and Entrepreneurship (adopted in 2013) and on Gender Equality in Public Life (adopted in2015). Progress is reported in The Pursuit of Gender Equality (OECD, 2017) and the Report on the
Implementation of the OECD Gender Recommendations (OECD, 2022).

2.

As measured by the share of tertiary education graduates in information and communication
technologies (21% female) and engineering, manufacturing and construction (27% female).

3.

For example, a McKinsey study of over 1 000 companies in 15 countries conducted in 2019 showed thatthe top quartile companies for gender diversity in executive teams had a 25% higher chance ofoutperforming their bottom quartile industry peers on profitability.

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OVERVIEW OF FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

understanding and perceived values between the sector and the broader society. These gaps raise
persistent barriers to the application of nuclear technology despite its attributes and benefits. 4
In this context, attracting, retaining, and supporting a gender-balanced workforce is highly
relevant for the nuclear sector’s sustainability and ability to contribute to society. The talentsof diverse scientists, engineers and technologists are needed to develop innovative solutions forclean, reliable energy to power economic growth and mitigate climate change. Even more
importantly, gender-balanced leadership is essential in the laboratory, in the boardroom and on
the public stage. In each sphere, the future of nuclear energy is being envisioned, decided andbuilt. Nuclear leaders in industry, government and civil society must constitute a range ofexperiences and perspectives. This vibrant, diverse leadership is urgently required to build
lasting coalitions for long-term socio-economic decisions and technological solutions thatreflect the whole of society and benefit from the contributions of all.

1.1.2.

Report objectives

This NEA report intends to:
1. Take stock of the current gender balance in the nuclear sector in NEA countries, includingin the workforce overall, and in STEM and leadership roles; the gender balance inrecruitment and career trajectories in the sector; and women’s experiences of working inthe sector, including challenges and barriers;2. Provide the first publicly available, international data on gender balance in the nuclear
sector for policymakers and stakeholders to use to understand the challenges, to guidethe development of data-driven solutions, and to benchmark progress on improving
gender balance in the sector; and3. Establish a comprehensive, evidence-driven policy framework with recommendations
for countries to improve gender balance in the nuclear sector.

1.1.3.

Scope

The NEA is an intergovernmental agency that facilitates co-operation among countries withadvanced nuclear technology infrastructures to assist its members 5 in maintaining and further
developing the scientific, technological and legal basis required for a safe, environmentallysound and economical use of nuclear energy for peaceful purposes. For the purpose of thisreport, the nuclear sector is understood to be the peaceful application of nuclear technologies
in NEA member countries. The sector is comprised of a wide range of organisations, including
but not limited to: nuclear power plant operators, nuclear fuel cycle organisations, nuclear
regulatory bodies, nuclear public sector entities (for example, the nuclear office of an energy
ministry), technical support organisations, new nuclear reactor build sites, decommissioned
and decommissioning sites, universities, nuclear research and development organisations,original equipment manufacturers and nuclear supply chain organisations. This expansive
definition recognises that the nuclear sectors in NEA member countries vary considerably indemarcation, composition, organisation and size. Accordingly, the data contained in this report

14

4.

There is a body of academic literature on differences in women’s support for nuclear power in various
countries. For an example of a case study focusing on the gender divide over time and at different
political levels, see Sundström and McCright (2016).

5.

As of 2023, the NEA has 34 member countries: Argentina, Australia, Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Canada,
the Czech Republic, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Japan,
Korea, Luxembourg, Mexico, the Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Russia (suspended asof 11 May 2022), the Slovak Republic, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Türkiye, the United
Kingdom and the United States.

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OVERVIEW OF FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

represents distinctly different national sectors and great care should be taken when seeking to
make comparisons.

1.1.4.

Methodology

The findings and recommendations in this report were developed under the auspices of the NEA
by a task group mandated by the Steering Committee for Nuclear Energy, the Agency’s highest
governing body. The task group consisted of representatives from member countries with
policy-level responsibilities or recognised expertise, and included government officials andexperts from industry and research organisations.
This report is the result of the following process:•A review of existing data on demographics in the nuclear sector and STEM fields in NEA
and OECD member countries was conducted in late 2019;•

An initial survey of NEA member countries’ policies and initiatives on gender balance inthe nuclear sector and STEM fields was undertaken in late 2019. Input was received fromten countries; 6•

An exploratory meeting was held in December 2019 for NEA member countries to assess
the landscape and effectiveness of current efforts to improve gender balance in the
sector, and to identify gaps that would benefit from international co-operation;•

Indicators and two survey instruments were developed to measure the current genderbalance in the nuclear sector, especially in STEM and leadership roles, and to understandthe challenges facing women in the sector. This work was conducted through fourinternational meetings held between February and June 2021;•

A quantitative survey was sent to NEA member countries through a formal request to theSteering Committee for Nuclear Energy and OECD Permanent Delegations to collect humanresources data from nuclear organisations. Data on the nuclear sector workforce, new hires,
attrition, promotions, salaries and participation in career development programmes was
requested, disaggregated by gender, job type (STEM/non-STEM) and management level.
The data was collected from 96 organisations in 17 countries 7 between June and October
2021;

•

A public survey of women working in the nuclear sector gathered qualitative data fromover 8 000 women in NEA countries on workplace experiences and possible solutions.
The 34-question survey was available from June to August 2021 on the NEA website ineight languages; 8•Triannual high-level meetings of country representatives on the NEA task group were
held between 2021-2023 to analyse the collected data and develop a policy framework
and recommendations; and•Informal consultations were conducted throughout the process with experts andstakeholders in the nuclear sector, including female executives in the nuclear sector andrepresentatives from the Women in Nuclear (WiN) network, to refine the data collection
methodology and policy proposals.

6

Australia, Canada, France, Japan, Ireland, Italy, Poland, the Slovak Republic, the United Kingdom andthe United States.

7

Argentina, Australia, Belgium, Canada, France, Hungary, Italy, Japan, Korea, Norway, Poland, Romania,
Russia (NEA membership suspended as of 11 May 2022), Slovenia, Spain, Sweden and the United Kingdom.

8

English, French, Italian, Japanese, Korean, Romanian, Russian and Spanish.

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1.2. Overview of findings
This section provides a summary of the key insights on the current gender balance in the
nuclear sector in NEA countries based on data collected in 2021. As detailed in the methodology
above, the findings reflect an analysis of quantitative human resources data gathered directlyfrom nuclear organisations as well as qualitative data gathered from a public survey of women
working in the nuclear sector. More analysis of the data is available in the report’s subsequent
chapters. It is important to note that the data is a short-term snapshot and therefore limited interms of representing long-term trends.

1.2.1.

Gender balance in the nuclear workforce

Women are 24.9% of the nuclear workforce in NEA countries, based on the data gathered from
96 organisations in 17 countries. This average has been adjusted for national differences in thesize of the nuclear workforce. The data collected is estimated to represent at least 50% of thenational nuclear sector in over half of the countries surveyed. Only one country in the sample
has a majority-female nuclear workforce, but the sample size submitted for this country is fewer
than 200 people.
Women are underrepresented in STEM and leadership roles, even when considered in termsof their representation in the nuclear workforce. Only 20.6% of the STEM workforce in the
nuclear sector is female, and only 18.3% of senior leadership roles (executive and upper
management) are held by women. Figure 1.1 below depicts women’s representation in certain
kind of positions: STEM versus non-STEM roles, and whether the role typically requires auniversity degree. Women are significantly better represented in non-STEM positions, whichmight be expected to include communications, human resources and other support roles. Thereis a particularly sharp contrast between non-STEM “professional” roles that might entail auniversity degree (48.2% female) and STEM “worker” roles that do not typically require
university education (16.4% female). 9 These trends persist across all countries that submitted
data, although in some countries the differences are less marked.

Figure 1.1. Overall female participation by job category

Note: Mean excludes Russia due to the large sample size.
“Worker” means a position that does not typically require auniversity degree. “Professional” means a role that typically
does.

9.

16

For further explanation of the job categories and management levels, please see Section 2.1.2.

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Figure 1.2 below shows the data disaggregated by management level. Women are best
represented at the lower and middle management levels (27.8% and 25.7%, respectively). In theupper management and executive positions, fewer than one in five roles are occupied by women.
However, these trends are not necessarily reflected in all countries.

Figure 1.2. Overall female participation by role level

Note: Mean excludes Russia due to the large sample size.
“Executive” typically means the ten highest-ranked employees inan organisation. Depending on the organisation, “management”
positions may or may not entail supervisory responsibilities.

1.2.2.

Recruitment into the nuclear sector

Women are 28.8% of new hires in the sector. This is higher than the existing workforce (24.9%),but also marks the upper limit of future female representation if the trend continues. Womenare better represented in non-STEM new hires (40.7% female) than in new hires for STEM roles(24.6% female). A positive trend is that the rate of female STEM new hires is above the current
representation of women in those roles (20.6%). Women are also being hired into managementlevels at a noticeably higher rate than their current representation in those roles (see Chapter 2,
Figure 2.8). Although this represents a positive trend, even the management levels with thehighest rate of female new hires remain well below parity. Therefore, the increase will not resultin balanced management if current trends continue.
The majority of women in the nuclear sector would recommend it to other women. Attracting
women into the nuclear field is a prerequisite for rebalancing the workforce. When asked whether
they would encourage or discourage daughters, female family members or close friends to pursue
a career in the sector, 59% of the women surveyed responded that they would encourage them.
However, there was a significant geographic range, from 72% in Northern Europe who would be
encouraging to only 27% in Asia and Oceania, as depicted in Figure 1.3 below.10 In addition, many
responses were ambivalent (neither agreeing nor disagreeing). A significant number (33.27%) of
women surveyed indicated that they would neither encourage nor discourage their female friends
and family from a career in the sector.

10. Geographic regions per the United Nations M49 Standard (see United Nations Statistics Division, 2022).

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Figure 1.3. Would you encourage female friends andfamily to join the nuclear energy sector?

Note: Geographic regions per the United Nations M49 Standard.

Women cite work-life solutions, role models and mentors, pay transparency and careerdevelopment as important factors to increase the sector’s attractiveness for women. The public
survey included a section asking respondents to rank proposed solutions for increasing genderbalance in the sector. The survey respondents were women already working in the sector withan average age of approximately forty. However, the most popular responses remained largely
consistent even among younger women. Female survey respondents considered work-lifebalance solutions, mentoring and the visibility of female role models to be significant for
attracting and recruiting other women. Pay transparency and opportunities for career
progression were also highly ranked. These survey findings are incorporated into therecommendations described in the next section (Section 1.3).
The following solutions ranked highest among the women surveyed as possible ways toimprove the attractiveness of careers in the nuclear sector for women (see Chapter 3, Figure 3.44
for additional rankings):

1. Improving the visibility of women in the sector, including those in STEM and leadership
positions;

2. Improving the lifestyle of certain nuclear sector jobs to be more women-friendly,
including increased technology, flexibility and/or other accommodation to improve thequality of life for jobs entailing on call and shift work; and3. Improving the culture of the nuclear energy sector to better support women and value
women’s contributions.

The preferred solutions to improve gender-balanced recruitment, development andadvancement included (see Chapter 3, Figure 3.41 for additional rankings):
1. Providing comprehensive corporate solutions for family responsibilities (corporatechildcare, extended maternity leave, etc.);
2. Regularly analysing and reporting on organisational compensation packages and salary
increases for disparities between men and women, including for new hires and internal
promotions; and3. Establishing mentoring programmes for women at all organisational levels and forstudents, and conducting regular longitudinal studies on the impact.

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1.2.3.

Women’s experiences in the nuclear workplace

Women experience hostility, including sexual harassment, especially in STEM roles. Over halfof women (52.2%) working in the nuclear sector who responded to the public survey reported
that they have experienced or heard accounts of behaviour or attitudes that are overtly or tacitly
hostile to women in the workplace. Close to half (44.7%) recounted having experienced or heard
accounts of sexual harassment of women in their workplace. Women working in STEM
positions reported higher experiences of hostility than women in non-STEM roles. For sexual
harassment, accounts were highest among female STEM “workers” (roles not requiring auniversity degree). For both hostility and harassment, the highest responses were recorded from
respondents working in Latin America and Northern America, and at power plants orinternational organisations. Members of minority groups reported experiencing more hostility
and harassment than average. In general, respondents with lower educational attainment
registered more hostility and harassment. For women over age 25, reports of sexual harassment
were largely independent of age. One positive trend is that reports of sexual harassment werelower for women under age 25. Experiences of workplace hostility varied slightly with age andregistered at higher rates for women ages 25-44 and over 65.
Workplace culture and stereotypes inhibit women’s careers. Over half (58.3%) of womensurveyed reported that their workplace culture is inclusive; however, this was much higher insome regions than in others. The level of agreement by survey respondents was over 75% inNorthern Europe, and over half in Northern America and Eastern Europe, whereas workplaces in
Latin America, Asia and Oceania, and Western and Southern Europe were ranked lowest by the
respondents (see Section 3.3.1, Figure 3.6). Regulatory agencies and new nuclear reactor build sites
reported the highest inclusivity. Women in roles that do not require a university degree
experienced the lowest levels of reported workplace inclusivity. In addition, women surveyedreported that biases about leadership characteristics and a culture that does not sufficiently
support the professional development of women impedes their career advancement.
Approximately two-thirds of the female survey respondents agreed that “stereotyping, microaggressions or unconscious bias” and a “male-dominated work culture that inhibits the fullcontributions of women” negatively impact women’s careers in the nuclear sector.

1.2.4.

Perceptions of workplace policies and management commitment to genderbalance

Women report equal physical working conditions, but a lack of management commitment togender balance and insufficient institutional support. 11 Women polled in the public survey
overwhelmingly agreed (75.9%) that there are few or no differences or disparate, gender-based
impacts between men and women in physical working conditions (adequate facilities,
equipment, and/or protective gear). However, only 41.7% of women polled believed that theirworkplace features robust policies to improve gender balance. Older women and those in
Northern Europe tended to hold more favourable views. Opinions about management
commitment fare poorly. Only 32.5% of women surveyed reported that managers in theirworkplace express a commitment to improve gender balance and discuss the impact of policies
and programmes to achieve this. Responses from Northern Europe and Northern America weremore favourable than the average.
When asked about whether policies to improve the gender balance within their organisations
helped them to feel satisfied with their career and optimistic about their future prospects, only
43% of women polled responded affirmatively. Agreement by survey respondents was highest in
Northern Europe and Northern America, and lowest in Latin America and Southern Europe.
Women in regulatory agencies, other government entities and fuel cycle organisations ranked
their employers well, whereas women at decommissioned or decommissioning sites and those

11. The survey questions asked about organisational policies in the respondent’s workplace, and did not
ask specifically about national or governmental policies.

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working at original equipment manufacturers or nuclear supply chain organisations scored theiremployers the lowest.
Women favour collaborative leadership, better organisational monitoring, and training to
improve workplace inclusivity. The public survey included a section asking respondents to rank
effective measures to create inclusive work cultures that value diverse contributions andleadership. The female respondents ranked the following as the most effective solutions:
1. Regular organisation-wide training on identifying and countering stereotypes,
unconscious bias and micro-aggressions;
2. Developing and rating employees on leadership models that centre on collaborative,
participatory leadership styles; and3. Regular surveys of employees and using focus groups of women at different
organisational levels to monitor the work culture and to develop new initiatives toaddress issues and enhance the contributions of women to the organisation.
Further top responses are shared in Chapter 3, Figure 3.42. These findings are incorporated
into the recommendations described in Section 1.3.

1.2.5.

Impact of pregnancy and family life on women’s careers

Pregnancy and family responsibilities are overwhelmingly perceived to have a negative career
impact, especially on young women and STEM professionals. Pregnancy was widely (70.7%)
viewed by women polled in the public survey as having a negative impact on their career
trajectory, including promotions. Younger women (ages 18-34) and those in the most juniorroles (students and trainees) registered even stronger feelings about pregnancy’s negative
impact (nearly 80%). STEM “professionals” (positions requiring a university degree) and lowerlevel managers reported the highest perceptions of negative career impacts of pregnancy. Thisis significant, since these roles feed into higher leadership levels. An additional question on theimpact of family responsibilities, including parenthood and caregiving, elicited an even stronger
reaction with 73.5% of women polled perceiving a negative career impact. Women polled who
reside in Southern Europe, Western Europe, Northern America, and Asia and Oceania hadhigher response rates about the negative impact of pregnancy and family responsibilities, but
the global variation was not wide. Women belonging to minority groups reported more negative
career consequences for becoming parents than average.
In addition, 62% of survey respondents indicated that accommodating a spouse’s career,
including the inability to relocate, has a negative career impact on women. Menopause, on theother hand, was generally not regarded as having a negative career impact, including amongolder respondents. However, many responses were ambivalent (neither agreeing nor
disagreeing), even among menopausal age groups.
Women want more flexibility, access to childcare and upward career pathways compatible
with parenthood. The public survey of women included a section asking about effective
interventions for improving work-life balance and retaining women in the nuclear sector
workforce, including on the executive track after becoming parents. The following solutions
ranked highest:
1. Flexible teleworking options for men and women regardless of parental and family status;
2. Ensuring that there are adequate facilities in the workplace for childcare and lactation,
as well as flexible policies to support parents; and3. Analysing the expected career path for an upwardly mobile manager and identifying
possible barriers and challenges caused by parenthood or other family responsibilities. (Forexample, is promotion to upper management contingent upon certain kinds of jobs that
may be difficult for a nursing mother?) Developing accommodations and alternate
pathways.

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Further top-rated responses are shared in Chapter 3, Figure 3.43. These findings areincorporated into the recommendations described in the next section (Section 1.3).

1.2.6.

Pay parity

Women are paid less than men in the nuclear sector. There were significant differences between
countries, and gender disparities in salaries were found to be highest for non-European
countries. The average is based on data collected from 12 countries in Europe, Asia and Oceania,
and Northern America and has been adjusted to control for national sample sizes. It should be
noted that the datasets were small, with few organisations represented in many of the country
samples. The salary differential ranged from 0.7% to -28.3%. Only two countries showed a small
positive differential in favour of women.
This negative pay differential, based on an analysis of quantitative human resources data,
was consistent with the qualitative public survey results. In the public survey, female
respondents perceived that men receive higher salaries than women for similar positions andcredentials (53.2% agreement), as well as higher salary increases or bonuses (48.9% agreement).
Female managers and non-STEM “professionals” (positions generally entailing a university
degree) expressed the most agreement that there are salary disparities between men andwomen.

1.2.7.

Retention and career development

Women constitute 23.9% of the 8.1% attrition rate. In combination with other trends, this is still
too high to significantly improve the proportion of women in the nuclear sector at current trends,
especially in the leadership pipeline. The female attrition rate was lower than the rate of female
new hires (28.8%) as well as the percentage of women overall in the workforce (24.9%). Since alower attrition rate is a positive trend, this could help improve gender balance in the sector, but
only marginally. Retention was proportionately greater for non-STEM “professionals” (positions
that typically require a university degree), and this may work against improving the genderbalance in technical and scientific roles. In addition, female STEM “workers” (positions thatgenerally do not require a university degree) seem to be leaving at a rate exceeding their workforce
representation, enhancing the negative shift. Female attrition at the mid-management level andabove was proportionately lower than female representation at these levels of the workforce. Thisshould have a marginal effect in rebalancing across managerial levels. However, the highest rates
of attrition were at the non-management and lower management levels. Female attrition at theselevels was higher than current female representation in these roles, as well as higher than the
average nuclear sector workforce attrition for women. This trend represents leakage from theleadership pipeline and may result in a smaller pool of women eligible for progressively senior
positions.
Figure 1.4 below is a simple model projecting future female participation in the nuclear sector,
assuming no change in the overall size of the workforce, and attrition at 8.1%, the current rate forthe workforce sample of men and women. 12 The red line shows the trajectory if female
recruitment continues at 28.8%. The gold line models the scenario if future recruitment werebalanced. This is a restricted model, but one that shows the essential features and indicative timescales.

12. Note that the human resources data collected represents a limited, short-term snapshot and may notindicate long-term trends.

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Figure 1.4. Simple projection of gender balancewith current and balanced recruitment

Women want to progress in their careers. Women are more likely to participate in careerdevelopment programmes, but do not view them as effective and regard opportunities foradvancement as unequal. Over two-thirds (66.1%) of women polled in the public survey said thatthey want to progress and advance in their careers. Furthermore, female representation in careerdevelopment programmes was measured at 26%, which was above the proportion of women in
the nuclear sector workforce (24.9%). There were no significant regional trends between countries
with respect to women’s participation in these programmes. However, it should be noted thatcareer development programmes may be difficult to compare.
Although the human resources data showed that women participated in career development
programmes at rates exceeding their workforce representation, such programmes may be
unavailable or ineffective. According to the public survey results, only 30.9% of women agreed that
there were accessible and effective programmes available in their workplace to support theirprofessional development, especially at the management levels. In general, female managers
were more likely to indicate that such programmes were available and effective. STEM
“professionals” (positions requiring a university degree), students/trainees, and “workers”(positions not requiring a university degree) reported the highest dissatisfaction with theavailability and effectiveness of such programmes. In addition, 52.2% of women surveyed
perceived that men were selected for training or development opportunities (especially those seen
as prerequisite for promotion) at greater rates than women.

1.2.8.

Promotions and leadership

The female promotion rate of 27.1% is insufficient to significantly improve the gender balance
in senior leadership roles in the nuclear sector. The promotion rate was higher than thepercentage of women in the nuclear sector workforce (24.9%) as measured in the humanresources data. In addition, female promotion rates for management positions exceeded
women’s current representation at those levels (see Figure 1.5 below, with the dotted lines
indicating the current female representation). This is a positive trend, but the proportions arestill modest. Women in roles generally requiring a university degree (“professionals”) were being
promoted at rates exceeding their workforce participation in these job categories (see Figure 1.6
below). In particular, women received a strong majority (61.4%) of promotions within non-STEM“professional” staff, significantly above their representation in the workforce. However, thisfurther embedded the technical divide seen in the data, in which women are concentrated in
non-STEM roles. Furthermore, the rate of female promotions in non-management roles
followed the overall workforce, suggesting that women may remain underrepresented in thelong-term leadership pipeline.

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Figure 1.5. Promotions – female participation by management level

Note: Mean excludes Russia due to the large sample size. Dottedlines are current female representation in category or level.

Figure 1.6. Promotions – female participation by job category 13

Note: Mean excludes Russia due to the large sample size.
Dotted lines are current female representation in category orlevel.

The public survey results mirrored the human resources trends. While most womensurveyed did not necessarily indicate that they have been overlooked for career opportunities
and promotions (only 28.4% felt overlooked), they did not necessarily think that careeradvancement, including promotions, is equal for women (only 47.8% of women thought that it
is equal). The women surveyed think that men have been promoted at higher rates than womenfor similar levels of responsibility and performance (63.3% of the female respondents shared
this perception) and that men have received more positive performance appraisals than womenfor similar levels of performance (51.7% of women surveyed). In addition, 65.3% of the womenpolled agreed with the statement that “men are being selected for high-profile projects atgreater rates than women.”

13. “Worker” means a position that does not generally require a university degree. “Professional” meansthat it does.

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Lack of female leaders to serve as mentors and role models, bias about leadershipcharacteristics, and lack of support to balance work and family inhibit women’s careers. The
results of the public survey indicated that women spend a lot of time thinking about or have strong
feelings about their career expectations and challenges, especially promotions. Going further, one
question asked about the biggest barriers to the retention and promotion of women in the nuclear
sector, based on the respondents’ own experiences. The following ranked highest (further top
responses are shared in Chapter 3, Figure 3.38):
1. Stereotypes or unconscious bias about leadership characteristics;
2. Perceptions that family life is incompatible with the management track or that family
responsibilities preclude women from pursuing management positions; and3. A culture that does not sufficiently support the professional development of women.
When asked about barriers specific to the nuclear sector, the highest ranked were (further
top responses are shared in Chapter 3, Figure 3.39):
1. A lack of women in the sector, including in leadership positions;
2. Social-cultural perceptions that jobs in the nuclear sector are for men; and3. The nuclear sector lifestyle, including being on-call and shift work, is not attractive or
women-friendly.
As described above, the women surveyed reported that a lack of women in the sector,
including in leadership positions, is a significant barrier to the retention and advancement of
women. Women leaders serve as role models, mentors and trailblazers for other women. In a
separate survey question about whether role models and mentors for women are available in theirworkplace, only 37% of women agreed, with significant regional variation. In general, around halfof women polled in Northern Europe and Northern America reported access to role models andmentors in their workplace, while this fell to a quarter or less of survey respondents in Eastern
Europe, Southern Europe, Latin America, and Asia and Oceania. Role models were reportedly moreavailable for women working in regulatory agencies, other government offices and internationalorganisations. They were least available for women working at new nuclear reactor build sites,
original equipment manufacturers and nuclear supply chain organisations. Students and trainees,senior-level managers and STEM “professionals” (positions requiring a university degree) reported
the highest levels of access, whereas the availability was lowest for STEM “workers” (positions not
requiring a university degree).
Barely half (50.9%) of women surveyed said that their workplace culture is woman-friendly
and characterised by the presence and visibility of women, including in STEM and leadership
positions. Northern Europe and Northern America ranked the highest in terms of visibility, andWestern Europe and Asia and Oceania were ranked the lowest by the respondents. Opinion varied
considerably according to organisation type. High visibility was registered in regulatory and othergovernment organisations. In contrast to the question about mentors and role models,
respondents working at new nuclear reactor build sites reported a high visibility of women in theirworkplaces. Nuclear power plants ranked the least favourably in terms of female visibility.
Women who identified as members of a minority group polled similarly to the average in termsof the availability of mentors and role models in their workplace. However, they reported
experiencing lower levels of the presence and visibility of women in their workplace.

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1.2.9.

Summary of key findings

Women in the nuclear sector in NEA countries are:

24.9% of the nuclear workforce, and less in STEM and senior leadership roles;

28.8% of new hires, and less in STEM and mid-to-senior leadership roles;

27.1% of promotions, clustered in non-STEM roles;

paid less than men; 14experiencing workplace hostility and sexual harassment;facing negative career impacts from pregnancy and family responsibilities; andeager to advance, but inhibited by barriers, cultural biases and lack of support.

1.3. Recommendations
1.3.1.

The “Attract, Retain and Advance” Framework

The data summarised in the previous section and further detailed in the subsequent chaptersof this report show that women are underrepresented in the nuclear sector, especially in STEM
and leadership roles. Women face barriers to career progression and are not effectively
supported by their workplaces to fully realise their potential. Accordingly, direct, practical andsubstantive actions are recommended to increase the proportion of women in the sector,
support their career development, and enhance their contributions. This guidance is organised
as a framework consisting of three pillars and undergirded by a reporting regime for data andaccountability:
1. ATTRACT women into the nuclear sector;
2. RETAIN and support women in the workforce (including addressing impacts related tothe conduct of familial responsibilities); and3. ADVANCE and develop women as leaders and enhance their contributions.
The goal of these pillars is to provide an overarching, strategic framework through whichgovernmental institutions and other nuclear sector actors can develop context-specific policies
and programmes. Each pillar contains targeted recommendations developed from the data
findings to address the needs and challenges of women in the sector. These recommendations
are outlined below, organised under each of the three pillars and including provisions for data
and accountability.
The framework is designed to help countries implement comprehensive strategies andinitiatives at the national level, as well as in organisations over which they have purview. Thesemight include government agencies, contractors, and funding recipients. Since therecommendations have been developed under the auspices of the NEA, an intergovernmentalorganisation, another important goal of the framework is to align priorities and spurco-ordinated efforts at the international level. This is explicitly articulated with respect to therecommendations on data collection, but could be undertaken in a range of areas. Finally, even
if the actions proposed below target governments, it is hoped that the framework will bewelcomed by the entire nuclear sector and that a broad range of organisations will aspire to put
these recommendations into practice. The challenges are systemic and require the co-ordinated

14. Based on limited datasets.

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action of governments working with private and other non-governmental stakeholders toengender meaningful and lasting change.
Countries and organisations face different challenges depending on their unique contexts.
Some may have already achieved gender balance, including in STEM and leadership roles.
Therefore, some of the below items may be more applicable for certain contexts than others.
However, the framework should be useful to all to advance or maintain gender balance, tomonitor changes and share learning, and more generally, to contribute to international cooperation to implement and disseminate standards that will promote a globally vibrant sector.
Furthermore, the recommendations on data collection will fill a significant information vacuum.
High-quality international data will better equip countries to improve policies and tools, and tomonitor and report on progress. As an intergovernmental initiative, this will contribute to better
opportunities and quality of life for women and men in many countries. Finally, the framework
may offer a possible model for adaptation to improve other diversity imbalances in the nuclear
sector.
The NEA is an intergovernmental agency within the OECD and consequently builds upon
the pre-existing OECD standards on gender equality to which countries adhere. In 2013, theOECD Council adopted the Recommendation on Gender Equality in Education, Employment andEntrepreneurship (OECD, 2017a). 15 This international instrument expands upon the significant
foundation provided by several United Nations instruments on various aspects of genderequality. 16 It provides an overarching policy foundation and mandate for governmental
approaches and research to address gender inequality across sectors. It was followed in 2015 by
the more focused OECD Recommendation on Gender Equality in Public Life (OECD, 2016). According
to the most recent reporting on the implementation of these OECD instruments, the tailoredfocus of the 2015 instrument on improving a specific aspect of gender inequality has resulted ina visible impact (OECD, 2022). OECD countries have taken targeted action to improve genderequality in public life, and the results are assessable. However, the same report notes the lackof progress on gender equality in STEM, and calls for further policy tools to be developed for
STEM fields. 17
The efficacy of the 2015 instrument offers a useful model as a targeted instrument formeasurable impact in a well-defined sector. Such progress is sorely needed in the nuclear field,
given its deep gender imbalance and its persistent cultural biases that present unique challenges
to women. Change is also well within reach. The nuclear sector is relatively small, clearly
demarcated, and composed of a significantly large percentage of agencies and organisations
under governmental purview. Accordingly, the below framework and recommended actions havebeen developed as a solution that is both tailored to the nuclear sector as well as comprehensiveof the broader, societal challenges. This nuclear-specific policy framework draws upon andcontextualises the existing OECD gender standards and combines them with insights from the
new NEA gender data, thereby offering a unique and powerful tool for change.

15. All OECD members as well as Argentina, Kazakhstan, Morocco and Russia are adherents to the 2013
Gender Recommendation.
16. Notably, the principles embodied in the 1979 United Nations Convention on the Elimination of all Formsof Discrimination against Women (CEDAW); the 1995 Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action of the
Fourth United Nations World Conference on Women; the United Nations Millennium Development
Goals (MDGs); and the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).
17. See OECD (2022).

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Figure 1.7. The three pillars: Attract, Retain and Advance1.3.2.

First pillar: Attract women into the nuclear sector

A. Public communications campaigns
Engage in public communications campaigns
communications should be designed to:topromotegenderbalance.

These•

Change gendered perceptions about careers in nuclear fields, including “normalising”
science, technology, engineering, mathematics (STEM) and nuclear science andtechnology as fields for women and girls;•

Explain the social value and impact of nuclear science and technology;•

Highlight attractive opportunities in nuclear careers;•

Showcase women’s leadership and contributions to the nuclear field; and•Target women and men and make the case as to why gender balance benefits the nuclear
sector and enriches STEM fields.

B. Enhance the educational pipeline
Undertake specific initiatives and facilitate volunteer efforts to enhance the educational
pipeline, including:•

Informing students, parents and teachers on the value and impact of nuclear scienceand technology; and•Encouraging girls, especially those at the early stages of schooling, to pursue STEM
studies.

These actions may include but are not limited to:•Creating information packs and/or online educational modules about nuclear scienceand technology, including women’s contributions to the field, and share or partner witheducational establishments and teachers on implementation; and•Introducing students to female STEM role models and nuclear careers by organisingcareer days, mentoring workshops and other awareness events.

C. Gender-balanced recruitment and hiring
Implement policies to identify and eliminate gender-based barriers to improve gender balancein recruitment and hiring.

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Actions may include but are not limited to:•

Conducting targeted communications and recruitment campaigns to attract women andprepare them to apply;•

Adopting best practices in using gender-neutral job announcement language and hiring
criteria;•

Implementing policies to assure the use of gender-neutral selection criteria, genderbalanced application reviews and selection panels; and•Regularly reviewing policies, practices and outcomes related to the starting salaries of
new hires to assure pay parity.

1.3.3.

Second pillar: Retain and support women in the workforce (including addressing
impacts related to the conduct of familial responsibilities)

A. Address impacts related to the conduct of familial responsibilities
Address impacts related to the conduct of familial responsibilities by:

B.

•

Providing increased flexibility to support employees with familial responsibilities outside
work, such as flexible teleworking for all staff;•

Analysing the need for off-normal hours in nuclear positions (particularly those related
to the operation of nuclear facilities) and their relationship to career advancement,
clearly explaining their necessity where required, and developing accommodations oralternate career progression pathways;•

Offering or facilitating access to childcare and lactation facilities in the workplace;•

Offering attractive parental and family leave policies and encouraging all employees totake full advantage of these benefits;•

Developing policies and programmes to support employees returning from parental orfamily leave to re-integrate into the workplace and to mitigate impacts on career andpay progression; and•Regularly reviewing the above policies and publicly publishing assessments of theirimpact, including plans to remedy any gaps.

Eliminate harassment and build inclusive work environments

Develop appropriate institutional measures to eliminate gender-based harassment in theworkplace, to create inclusive work environments and cultures, and to address genderstereotypes and unconscious bias. Measures to be considered include:

28•

Providing regular, organisation-wide inclusivity training, which has been usedsuccessfully in many organisations and is recommended as a good practice;•

Implementing targeted strategies promoting allyship and maximisingparticipation, including by men, to foster inclusive work cultures;•

Conducting independent assessments to identify any patterns of harassment and bias,
as well as workplace culture strengths and weaknesses with regards to inclusivity, anddeveloping plans to remedy any adverse findings and to build inclusive workplace
practices; and•Encouraging partners with whom the organisation engages to ensure safe working
environments free of harassment and to foster inclusive work cultures.

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C. Assess gender impacts of policies and programmes
Regularly and independently assess policies and programmes for unequal gender impacts,
including but not limited to human resource policies and career development programmes, forexample through gender impact assessment tools.

D. Link executive and management performance to progress on gender balance
Link performance and compensation of executives and managers to specific and quantifiableobjectives to implement measures associated with progress on gender balance. Executives andmanagers should be responsible for improving gender balance and building an inclusive work
culture.

E.

Conduct qualitative national surveys on workplace experiences

Conduct regular qualitative national surveys on workplace experiences and perceptions in the
nuclear sector regarding:•

Gender-based harassment;•

Gender-based discrimination;•

Unequal gender impacts in the workplace, including regarding compensation and careeradvancement;•

Parental leave, including organisational support, workplace culture and attitudes, andcareer impacts; and•Other gender-based workplace experiences.

1.3.4.

Third pillar: Advance and develop women as leaders and enhance theircontributions

A. Conduct national surveys on gender participation in the nuclear workforce
Conduct regular national surveys on gender participation in the nuclear workforce, to include:•

Salaries (including for new hires and employees returned from parental leave), salary
increases, bonuses and promotions, disaggregated by gender, job function andmanagement level;•

Gender-disaggregated representation in job functions and levels, including time-inposition;•

Gender-disaggregated participation in career development and training programmes,
especially those considered prerequisites for promotion to the executive level;•

Career impacts on employees who take parental or family leave, including correlations
between time away from the workplace and career progression;•

Policies on promoting gender balance, including pay equity, the availability and use ofparental leave, the provision of re-integration supports, and how the effectiveness ofpolicies is measured; and•Qualitative examples of successes and challenges that can be shared as examples of bestpractices and lessons learnt.

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B. Eliminate unequal gender impacts for women’s career recognition and advancement
Identify and eliminate unequal gender impacts for women’s career recognition andadvancement. In particular:•

Mandate unconscious bias and inclusivity training for all decision makers andinterviewers for hiring and promotions;•

Offer leadership and career advocacy training (particularly for, but not limited to, thosein STEM areas) that provides a particular emphasis on self-empowerment to all
employees, with special sessions targeted to female staff;•

Offer training for managers about how to encourage diverse staff, including those facing
gender-based barriers, to actively advance their careers;•

Develop organisational resource groups and networks of all-gender coalitions that
include male allies to promote gender equity and foster inclusive work cultures; and•Conduct regular pay equity reviews to ensure that employees are compensatedappropriately based on experience, years of service, scope of work and position.

1.3.5.

Data and accountability

Undertake data collection, analysis and accountability to ensure the effectiveness andimplementation of efforts to improve gender balance. To this effect:•

Set and publicly issue short-term and long-term goals for the actions proposed in thisframework, and participate in regular reporting; and•Designate a senior executive and identify resources to implement activities proposed inthis framework.

1.4. References
McKinsey & Company (2020), Diversity Wins: How Inclusion Matters, https://www.mckinsey.com/
featured-insights/diversity-and-inclusion/diversity-wins-how-inclusion-matters (accessed
24 May 2022).
OECD (2022), “Report on the Implementation of the OECD Gender Recommendations”,
www.oecd.org/mcm/Implementation-OECD-Gender-Recommendations.pdf (accessed 24
May 2022).
OECD (2021), “Distribution of graduates and new entrants by field: Share of graduates by genderin fields of education”, Education at a Glance Database, https://stats.oecd.org/ (accessed 18
May 2022).
OECD (2017a), 2013 OECD Recommendation of the Council on Gender Equality in Education, Employment
and Entrepreneurship, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264279391-en.
OECD (2017b), “Chapter 11 Women at work: A snapshot of women in the labour force – The glassceiling remains intact”, The Pursuit of Gender Equality: An Uphill Battle, OECD Publishing,Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264281318-en.
OECD (2016), 2015 OECD Recommendation of the Council on Gender Equality in Public Life, OECD
Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264252820-en.
Sundström, A. and A.M. McCright (2016), “Women and nuclear energy: Examining the genderdivide in opposition to nuclear power among Swedish citizens and politicians”, Energy
Research & Social Science, Vol. 11, pp. 29-39, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.erss.2015.08.008.
United Nations Statistics Division, “Standard country or area codes for statistical use (M49) –Geographic Regions”, https://unstats.un.org/unsd/methodology/m49 (accessed 24 May 2022).

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Chapter 2. By the numbers: Human resource dataon women in the nuclear sector workplace

2.1. Introduction
To improve understanding of women’s current representation and experiences in the nuclear
sector in Nuclear Energy Agency (NEA) member countries, two surveys were conducted in 2021:
the first was a survey of NEA countries’ nuclear organisations via their human resources
departments, and the second was a voluntary opinion-based survey of individuals. This chapter
examines the quantitative data gathered through the former, and the qualitative data gathered
through the latter survey is explored in Chapter 3. The human resources survey was developedby the NEA and disseminated to national nuclear organisations via member countries’
permanent delegations to the OECD and the Steering Committee for Nuclear Energy
representatives between June and October 2021.

2.1.1.

Methodology for the human resources data

Excel templates 1 (see Annex A) were distributed via NEA member country officials, with arequest to survey a significant representative sample, ideally the majority, of the national data.
Each template was formed from six worksheets, covering: job categories and levels, new hires,
attrition rates, career development, promotion and salaries. In all, 39 data submissions werecollected between June and October 2021, from 96 organisations in 17 NEA countries. Countries
were asked to provide the most recent data available. Some of the data submissions werecompiled at the national level by NEA member country representatives, whereas other datasubmissions were provided to the NEA at the organisational level.
The submitted worksheets were reshaped and concatenated to form pivot tables for data
analysis. Aggregated data were analysed using the statistical programming language R and its
associated application RStudio.
This is a collection of data from a wide range of public and private organisations around theworld, against a changing employment landscape. The analysis will provide direction andindicators for policy development but should be understood as a snapshot that will inevitably
be partial.
A note on averages or means: Countries that contributed to this survey vary considerably interms of the size of their nuclear sector, their populations, the type of organisations captured,and other less tangible factors. This report sets out to summarise the status of women in the
nuclear sector in NEA countries and how that varies with job category, level and geographic
region. Mean values are a useful way of summarising data but can hide a large range or be
dominated by one contributor. In these cases, extrapolation needs to be carried out with careand in context.

1.

The template design was adapted from a survey by Women in Nuclear Canada (see Strategic Policy
Economics, 2020).

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2.1.2.

Defining job category and management level

The human resources survey asked the organisations that provided data to categorise theiremployees into four general job categories and five general management levels. The purpose ofthis was to make useful comparisons across organisations with very different structures and tounderstand the percentage of women in roles with core science, technology, engineering andmathematics (STEM) functions as well as the composition of the leadership talent pipeline.

Job category
The job category definitions are generally determined by education requirements and withreference to the International Labour Organisation (ILO)’s International Standard Classificationof Occupations (ISCO-08).
1. STEM Professional: The position generally requires a university degree in STEM (i.e. ingeneral from the science and engineering faculty of a university). Business and finance are
not included in this category. In general, it corresponds with the fourth ISCO skill level andwith reference to ISCO sub-major groups 21 and 22, “Science, Engineering and HealthProfessionals.” This job category may also include positions in ISCO major group 1,“Managers.”
2. Non-STEM Professional: The position generally requires a university degree, but notnecessarily in STEM. Positions requiring business and finance degrees are included inthis category. In general, it corresponds with the fourth ISCO skill level and withreference to ISCO major group 2, “Professionals”, specifically sub-major groups 23-26.
This job category may also include positions in ISCO major group 1, “Managers.”
3. STEM Worker: This position generally requires tertiary education not equivalent to auniversity degree, such as a vocational school diploma or apprenticeship. In addition,
the position should involve handling or operating some form of technology where thetechnology is the primary purpose of their work. In general, it corresponds with thesecond or third ISCO skill levels and with reference to ISCO sub-major groups 31 and 32,“Science, Engineering and Health Associate Professionals.” This job category may also
include positions in major group 7, “Craft and Related Trades Workers,” and majorgroup 8, “Plant and Machine Operators and Assemblers.”
4. Non-STEM Worker: The position does not require a university degree and does not qualify
as a STEM position. In general, it corresponds with the first, second or third ISCO skill
levels.

Management level
The human resources survey asked responding organisations to divide employees into fivecategories: non-management level, lower management level, middle management level, upper
management level and executive. Aside from specifying that the executive level should beapproximately the top ten individuals in an organisation (or fewer, depending on theorganisation’s size), no further specification was given. Given the wide range of organisations
surveyed, from nuclear operators to research organisations to government, management
responsibilities may vary from a certain number of supervised staff to oversight of policy andprogrammes with high visibility and organisational responsibility but few if any direct reports.
Therefore, the reporting organisation was asked to determine how to define these levels andcategorise staff appropriately. The comparisons between reporting organisations are valid anduseful for the goals of the survey, which is to understand the representation of women in
leadership roles and the talent pipeline.

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2.2. Labour force representation
2.2.1.

Overall

The total recorded workforce across all reporting organisations was 326 358. The workforce bycountry is shown in Figure 2.1. The median country sample size was 3 335. Seventeen countries
provided data. Dotted lines (in this and subsequent charts) have been reduced in length to better
display the range of values. The scale factors are given with the country name.

Figure 2.1. Total workforce by country(women and men)

The mean values presented in the sections below need to be understood in the context of
the weighting of individual country sample sizes. Even so, to prevent the large Russia sample
dominating, it is excluded from the calculations of mean values.
The data represents an estimate of at least 50% of the national nuclear sector in over half ofthe countries surveyed. However, it should be noted that the representativeness of the data
varies considerably within and between countries. Nuclear sectors differ significantly indemarcation, composition, organisation and size. In addition, the type of organisations
providing data and the percentage of the sector represented from each country is similarly
diverse. Therefore, countries are not easily comparable and great care should be taken whenseeking to draw conclusions at the country level. (See Annex B for the estimated percentage ofthe national nuclear sector represented by the quantitative data gathered in the humanresources survey for each country that contributed data. A list of organisations that provided
data may be found in Annex F.2.)
The tables below show how the reported workforce (women and men) is distributed by “Jobcategory” (Table 2.1) and “Management level” (Table 2.2).

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Table 2.1. Fraction of the total workforce in each job category(excluding Russia)
Job category fraction(women and men)

Job category
Non-STEM worker

11.5%

Non-STEM professional

8.2%

STEM worker

33.4%

STEM professional

46.9%

Table 2.2. Fraction of the total workforce at each level(excluding Russia)
Management level

Management level fraction(women and men)Non-management

53.8%

Lower management

13.6%

Middle management

26.8%

Upper management

5.4%

Executive

0.3%

Across responding organisations, women formed 24.9% of the total nuclear sector workforce(Figure 2.2), but with a wide variation between countries. Although Norway and Hungary
reported strong female participation, the sample size in both cases is below 200. In contrast, theUnited Kingdom, France and Russia each reported over 20 000 employees. The spread in Figure
2.2 may be due to, at least in part, the cross section of organisations captured by different
countries.

Figure 2.2. Overall female nuclear workforce participation by country

Note: Mean excludes Russia due to the large sample size.

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2.2.2.

Gender disaggregation by job category and management level

The gender balance in the nuclear sector workforce varied across job categories (Figure 2.3), withthe sharpest contrast in female participation being between STEM “workers” (16.4% female) andnon-STEM “professionals” (48.2% female). An imbalance between scientific/technical roles andother functions appeared as a general feature of the survey results, with women constituting only
20.6% of the STEM workforce in the nuclear sector.
Women were best represented at lower and middle management levels (27.8% and 25.7%
respectively, see Figure 2.4). In upper management and executive roles, fewer than one in fivewere occupied by women (18.3%).

Figure 2.3. Overall female participation by job category(Identical to Figure 1.1)

Note: Mean excludes Russia due to the large sample size.

Figure 2.4. Overall female participation by role level(Identical to Figure 1.2)

Note: Mean excludes Russia due to the large sample size.

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2.3. Career trajectory
2.3.1.

New hires

A total of 41 056 new hires were reported, representing 12.6% of the overall workforce sample,
as shown by country in Figure 2.5 below.

Figure 2.5. New hires: sample sizes by country(women and men)

Overall, 28.8% of new hires were women (Figure 2.6), a higher fraction than in the existing
sectoral workforce. However, if the trend continues, 28.8% would also mark the female workforce’s
long-term limit. Increasing the number of women among new hires would be necessary to achieve
gender parity in the nuclear workforce. Note that country sample sizes (women and men) varied
from 9 to 31 000. Slovenia, Italy, Hungary and Norway were all under 100.

Figure 2.6. New hires: female participation by country

Note: Mean excludes Russia due to the large sample size. Greybar indicates sample size less than 10.

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New hires segmented by job categories (Figure 2.7) also show women as significantly better
represented among all non-STEM jobs (42.2%) than all STEM jobs (20.6%). The dotted lines show
the corresponding fraction of female participation in the existing workforce. Although womenare underrepresented in STEM positions, the percentage of new hires for STEM roles is above
the current female representation in those roles. This is a positive trend for the increase of
women in STEM roles.

Figure 2.7. New hires: female participation by job category

Note: Mean excludes Russia due to the large sample size. Dotted lines
are current female representation in category or level.

Figure 2.8 shows the same data by disaggregated by management level. With respect to theexisting workforce, women are proportionately better represented at lower and upper
management levels. The dotted lines show the corresponding fraction of female participation in
the existing workforce. Again, the increase in the fraction of female new hires exceeding thecurrent female percentage in all management levels is a positive trend for improving genderbalance. However, even the best-performing level is well below gender parity, and the increase in
new hires will not raise female participation beyond 28.8% of the workforce, on average.

Figure 2.8. New hires: female participation by management level

Note: Mean excludes Russia due to the large sample size. Dotted lines
are current female representation in category or level.

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2.3.2.

Attrition

Attrition is defined as the departure of employees from an organisation for voluntary or
involuntary reasons, such as resignation, termination or retirement. A total of 26 378 departing
employees were reported, or 8.1% of the overall workforce sample, shown by country in Figure 2.9.
Sample sizes from Australia, Slovenia, Belgium, Italy, Hungary and Norway were all below 100.

Figure 2.9. Attrition: sample size by country(women and men)

Since the gender balance is exacerbated if a disproportionate number of women leave thesector, attrition data are shown on a negative y-axis (Figure 2.10). An optimistic sign is that only
23.9% of leavers were female, a slightly lower level than their representation in the continuing
workforce (24.9%) and also below the level of female new hires (28.8%).

Figure 2.10. Attrition: female participation by country

Note: Mean excludes Russia due to the large sample size. Grey bar
indicates sample size less than 10.

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Some of those leaving will be moving to other jobs in the nuclear sector. Nevertheless, it isassumed that this is a reasonable measure of the gender balance of those leaving the sector
altogether.
Female attrition at the middle management level and above is proportionately lower thanfemale representation in these levels of the workforce, which is depicted by the dotted lines.
(Figure 2.11). This also has a further, albeit marginal, effect in rebalancing across managerial
levels. While the lower attrition at higher management levels may appear positive, the highest
levels of attrition are at the non-management and lower management levels. Not only is thefemale attrition at these levels higher than the average workforce attrition for women, but it
also represents leakage from the leadership pipeline and will result in a smaller pool of womenat the higher management levels. To illustrate this trend, the percentage-point difference
between female attrition and female workforce representation in the corresponding
management level is shown in Figure 2.12.

Figure 2.11. Female attrition by role level

Note: Mean excludes Russia due to the large sample size. Dotted lines
are current female representation in category or level.

Figure 2.12. Net female retention by role level– percentage point difference

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The difference in female attrition between STEM and non-STEM job categories (Figure 2.13)
largely reflects the composition of the female workforce participation (indicated by dotted lines).

Figure 2.13. Female attrition by job category

Note: Mean excludes Russia due to the large sample size. Dottedlines are current female representation in category or level.

Retention was proportionately greater for non-STEM “professionals”, which will work
against improving the proportion of women in technical and scientific roles. Equally, female
STEM “workers” (positions that generally do not require a university degree) left at a greater rate,enhancing that negative shift. To illustrate this trend, the percentage-point difference between
female attrition and female workforce representation in the corresponding job category is
shown in Figure 2.14.

Figure 2.14. Net female retention by job category– percentage point difference

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2.3.3.

Promotions

A total of 48 728 promotions were reported (Figure 2.15), or 14.9% of the overall workforce sample.
Some countries were unable to provide promotion data.

Figure 2.15. Promotions: sample size by country(women and men)

Figure 2.16. Promotions: female participation by country

Note: Mean excludes Russia due to the large sample size. Grey bar
indicates sample size less than 10.

The number of women’s promotions was particularly poor among STEM “workers.” In thiscategory, 17.2% of promotions went to women (Figure 2.17) and compares with 35.1% for nonSTEM “workers.” (Note: “workers” connotes roles that do not require a university degree.)However, this is proportional to the female representation in those roles, as depicted by thedotted line. Women received a strong majority (61.4%) of promotions within non-STEM
professional staff, significantly above their representation in the workforce.

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Additional data analysis (not depicted below) revealed that for female STEM “workers”(those without university degrees) in lower management positions, 6.9% of promotions wereawarded to women. This is in stark contrast to the 52.3% of promotions awarded to women in
middle management non-STEM “professional” roles (positions requiring university degrees).
This further embeds the technical divide seen in data, in which women were concentrated in
non-STEM roles. A positive trend is that women in STEM and non-STEM “professional” roles
were promoted at rates exceeding their workforce participation in this job category.

Figure 2.17. Promotion: female representation in promotions by job category(Identical to Fig. 1.6.)

Note: Mean excludes Russia due to the large sample size. Dottedlines are current female representation in category or level.

When disaggregated by management levels, promotion rates for women exceeded theirrepresentation at each level (as indicated by the dotted line). This trend should improve thegender balance at all levels except in non-management, where it follows the overall workforce(Figure 2.18).

Figure 2.18. Promotions: female representation in promotions by management level(Identical to Fig. 1.5.)

Note: Mean excludes Russia due to the large sample size. Dottedlines are current female representation in category or level.

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2.3.4

Career development programmes

A total of 73 201 employees, or 22.4% of the overall workforce sample were engaged in careerdevelopment programmes (Figure 2.19). Not all reporting countries provided data on thisindicator.

Figure 2.19. Career development programmes: sample size by country(women and men)

Figure 2.20. Career development programmes:
female participation by country

Note: Mean excludes Russia due to the large sample size. Grey bar
indicates sample size less than 10.

The mean rate of female participation in career development programmes was 26.0%,
slightly above the percentage of women in the overall nuclear sector workforce (24.9%).

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Figure 2.21. Career development programmes:
female participation by job category

Note: Mean excludes Russia due to the large sample size. Dotted lines
are current female representation in category or level.

When segmented by role level (Figure 2.22), women’s enrolment in career development
programmes was noticeably robust at the lower management level. At this level, 32.6% ofparticipants in such programmes were female, which was higher than the main workforce female
representation in this level. Women in internships and apprenticeships (for which there are no
gender comparators in the main workforce) were at a comparatively high level (43.7% and 35.5%
respectively), although absolute numbers were low – interns and apprentices/trainees (womenand men) made up only 3.3% of the workforce in career development programmes.

Figure 2.22. Career development programmes:
female participation by level

Note: Mean excludes Russia due to the large sample size. Dottedlines are current female representation in category or level.

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The levels of female engagement in career development programmes was reasonably high(over 40%) in non-STEM roles (Figure 2.21). However, it was lower than could be expected in nonSTEM “professional” roles compared to female workforce participation in this job category, as
represented by the dotted line. Interestingly, female participation in the non-STEM “worker”
category was significantly higher than the rate of female representation in this category. Female
STEM “workers” were severely underrepresented in career development, as they are in theworkforce in general, suggesting that targeted career development, if it exists, is not widespread.

2.4. Pay parity
Not all countries were able to provide salary data. The datasets received were combined using
total workforce figures included specifically for the purpose (Figure 2.23). However, granularanalysis by job category and management level necessitated a weighting that was not payspecific, an approximation that may not hold in all cases.

Figure 2.23. Pay parity: sample size by country(women and men)

Across the countries reporting pay information, the average male salary was calculated at
USD 56 445, and the female average at USD 53 514 per annum. The difference between male andfemale pay varied considerably between countries. For France it was small, and slightly
favoured female workers. Figure 2.24 shows the disparity by country expressed as a percentageof average male pay. For the countries that reported data, the salary differential ranged from
0.7% to -28.3%. Note that the size of the French sample (Figure 2.23), compared to other countries,
strongly influenced the average of women being paid 5.2% less than men. Excluding the Frenchdata, women’s salaries were 19.5% less than those of men.

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Figure 2.24. Pay parity: the differential between
women’s and men’s salaries

To properly combine salary data, expressed as averages, requires the weighting to be known
in each case (how many staff contributed to the average). The complication of combining at
both an organisational and national level means there is more uncertainty in the final analysis
than is the case for other data in this report. Nevertheless, the trends should be clear; there are
deep disparities in some countries, whereas only a minority are well-balanced. More studies are
required to improve accuracy and to understand the environment that gives rise to genderinequality in pay.

2.5. Summary of the key findings from the human resources survey
Women in the nuclear sector in NEA countries are:

24.9% of the nuclear workforce surveyed in 96 organisations in 17 countries;

most likely to work in a non-STEM role requiring a university degree, and least likely to work in a
STEM role that does not require a university degree;poorly represented in upper management and executive levels, with both under 20%;



28.8% of new hires, which is the upper limit of the female nuclear workforce representation if
gender-balanced recruitment does not improve;

23.9% of job leavers, and more likely to “leak” early in the leadership pipeline;

being promoted at high rates in non-STEM roles requiring a university degree; and

paid on average 5.2% less than men (based on limited data from 12 countries), with greater
disparities in non-European countries.

2.6. References
ILO (2012), International Standard Classification of Occupations (ISCO-08), International Labour
Organization, Geneva, www.ilo.org/public/english/bureau/stat/isco/docs/publication08.pdf(accessed 24 May 2022).
Strategic Policy Economics (2020), Women in Nuclear Canada Member Survey: Findings,
https://strapolec.ca/wp-content/uploads/2020/10/WiN-Canada-Member-Survey-FinalReport-June-2020.pdf (accessed 24 May 2022).

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Chapter 3. From the women themselves: Survey data on women’s
experiences and perceptions of the nuclear sector workplace

3.1. Introduction
To improve understanding of women’s current representation and experiences in the nuclear
sector in OECD Nuclear Energy Agency (NEA) member countries, two surveys were conducted
in 2021: the first was a survey of NEA countries’ nuclear organisations via their human resources
departments, and the second was a voluntary opinion-based survey of individuals. This chapter
examines the qualitative data gathered through the latter, which complements the quantitative
data gathered through the former survey that was explored in Chapter 2.

3.1.1.

Methodology for the public NEA Survey of Women in the Nuclear Sector

Women in the global nuclear sector were invited to complete an online survey between June andAugust 2021. This opinion-based survey targeted women working in the nuclear sector in NEA
countries. It was developed by the NEA using the cloud-based software SurveyMonkey and madepublicly available on the NEA website in eight languages (English, French, Italian, Japanese, Korean,
Romanian, Russian and Spanish). The survey was promoted by NEA email distribution, website
and social media content, as well as through countries’ permanent delegations to the OECD,national representatives on the Steering Committee for Nuclear Energy, members of the NEA
Gender Balance Task Group, and by nuclear organisations and networks such as Women in
Nuclear (WiN). (See Annex C for the survey questions and Annex F.1 for a list of member country
representatives.)
Completion of the survey was entirely voluntary, and the answers represent the opinions
only of those who responded. No attempt has been made to normalise or weight the data. Rather,
the analysis aims at providing a sense of direction to inform the development of strategies andinterventions that will, over time, improve gender balance.
The survey comprised 34 multiple-choice questions, of which 8 were required and 26 were
optional. Closed-form questions were used to allow semi-quantitative analysis. Questions had
either scale answers (“strongly disagree” through to “neither agree nor disagree” to “strongly
agree”), or the option to choose up to three options from a longer list.
To conclude whether there was overall agreement or disagreement with a proposition,
responses in this report were aggregated to “agreed” and “disagreed” (or in one case “encourage”
and “discourage”).
In general, each opinion question was stratified by background information from questions
two to eleven (summarised below). Only a selection chosen to illustrate significant themes has
been captured in this report.
After an initial question asking if the respondent identified as a woman, ten factual
questions gathered information relevant to employment and possible gender impacts. For the
purposes of this survey, respondents were asked whether they identified as a member of a

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minority group, using a definition adapted from the United Nations. 1 The summarised
background information of the demographic questions can be found in the Annex E.
The survey targeted women in the NEA member countries and one of the backgroundquestions asked about country of residence or where the respondent’s most significant nuclear
sector work experience took place. Respondents came from 32 NEA member countries, ranging
from a handful of responses per country to over a thousand. Therefore, to present a meaningfulgeographical disaggregation of the data, the responses are grouped according to the United
Nations M49 Standard. (See Annex E, Figure E.1, for a chart of the responses by country ofidentified residence or work experience.)
The survey questions asked about experiences and organisational policies and programmes
in the respondent’s workplace, and did not ask specifically about national or governmental
policies. The results should not be interpreted as an evaluation of any specific national context.
Nor do the results represent any official national or governmental policy position.
Finally, it should be noted that the survey was conducted amidst the global COVID-19
pandemic, which may have influenced responses. However, the questions were designed to ask
the respondent to consider their experiences in general, rather than the particular impact of thepandemic.

3.1.2.

Overview of the survey questions

The 34-question survey was divided into the following sections:•

Questions 1-11: Background information (11 questions) – employment, location, education,age, family and minority status;•

Questions 12-14: Perceptions of gender balance in the workplace (7 questions) – presenceof women in the organisation, culture and policies, management, stereotypes, gender
impacts on working conditions, career, salary, and performance review;•

Questions 15-22: Aspirations and professional development (8 questions) – expectations
and challenges, institutional support, and role models;•

Questions 23-30: Barriers and challenges that need to be addressed (20 questions) – nuclearspecific, entry and advancement, family, pay, and work culture; and•Questions 31-34: Identifying solutions (4 questions with each up to 23 choices) – attracting
women into the nuclear sector, supporting women’s careers, and creating inclusive work
environments.

By 1 September 2021, 8 924 responses were received, not all of which were valid to be
included in the analysis (Figure 3.1).

1.

48

The current UN definition is set out in the 1992 Declaration on the Rights of Persons Belonging to
National or Ethnic, Religious and Linguistic Minorities. The 1977 UN study by the UN Sub-commission
on the Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities is widely quoted and was adapted for
the NEA survey: “A minority group is considered to be a group of people within a country who possess
ethnic, religious or linguistic characteristics differing from those of the rest of the population and show,
if only implicitly, a sense of solidarity, directed towards preserving their culture, traditions, religion or
language. Typically, the minority group is in a numerically inferior or non-dominant position comparedto the majority of the population.”

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Figure 3.1. Received responses, excluded and included

Using the total workforce and female participation rate estimated from the survey oforganisations in Chapter 2, for the purpose of the analysis the estimated total number of womenin the nuclear workforce for this survey is approximately: 2
326 360 (population of nuclear workforce from human resources survey) x 24.9% (female nuclear
workforce participation) = 81 264 (estimated number of women in participating nuclear workforce)
This gives a survey response rate of 8.5%, typical for a survey of this type.

3.2. Attractiveness of nuclear sector careers for women
A sector that can attract women is a prerequisite for rebalancing the nuclear workforce,
although it depends on several factors. As one measure, survey respondents were asked
whether they would encourage or discourage daughters, female family members or closefriends to pursue a career in nuclear energy. Overall, 59% responded positively, although thishides a significant range, from 72% in Northern Europe to 27% in Asia and Oceania.
Figure 3.3 shows all answers included in Figure 3.2, including a substantial fraction who
neither agreed nor disagreed. Although a majority would encourage other women towards a
nuclear career, there was also a degree of ambivalence. This is evidenced by the large numberof respondents who answered that they would neither encourage nor discourage their female
friends and family to pursue a career in the sector (33.27%), in yellow below.

2.

These numbers are for the purpose of testing the validity of the sample size and do not represent an
estimate of the nuclear workforce in NEA countries. The population of the nuclear workforce from thehuman resources survey refers only to the 96 organisations in 17 countries that contributed data. Public
survey respondents represented 32 countries and likely worked at more organisations than contributed
human resources data.

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Figure 3.2. Would you encourage female friends and family to join the sector?
(Identical to Fig. 1.3.)

Note: Geographic regions per the United Nations M49 Standard.

Figure 3.3. Would you encourage female friends and family – showing all answers

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Barriers to women in the nuclear workforce were not generally seen to be particular to thesector, with fewer than half of respondents (43.1%) agreeing that nuclear-specific barriers exist.
However, the largest variation in viewpoints was correlated with the age of the respondents(Figure 3.4) and shows a trend towards younger workers recognising sector-specific issues. Since
recruitment from this age group is a significant aspect of the nuclear talent pipeline, this is anarea that merits attention.

Figure 3.4. Are there barriers impacting women specific to nuclear?

Where nuclear sectoral-specific barriers were identified by the survey respondents, themost common were related to cultural and societal factors, including a lack of women alreadyin leadership positions and preconceptions in society that the positions “are male” (see Section
3.5.1, Figure 3.39).

3.3. The nuclear sector workplace
3.3.1.

Working conditions and culture

For women to remain in the nuclear workforce and for new entrants to find the sector appealing,
it is important that the workplace not only be inclusive in practice but also that it be perceived
as such. In the survey, the most frequently cited barriers or challenges related to leadership (alack of female leaders and gender bias about leadership characteristics), balancing family
responsibilities (see Section 3.5.1, Figures 3.37 and 3.38), and culture (unsupportive work
cultures for women and sociocultural perceptions about the masculinity of the sector). For
example, two-thirds of the respondents agreed that stereotyping, microaggressions,
unconscious bias, and male-dominated work cultures inhibit women’s full contributions andnegatively impact their career trajectory. Nevertheless, a clear majority (75.9%) agreed that there
were few or no differences or disparate, gender-based impacts with regards to adequate
facilities or the provision of equipment or protective gear (Figure 3.5). The response was not
uniform, but remained high for all regions, and was largely independent of the type oforganisation.

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Figure 3.5. Are physical working conditions equal for men and women?
(Region)Note: Geographic regions per the United Nations M49 Standard.

When asked whether women are encouraged, valued and respected in the respondent’s
workplace (Figure 3.6), 58.3% of respondents agreed. However, there was wide geographicalvariation, from significant agreement (75.6% in Northern Europe) to significant disagreement(only 37.8% of respondents in Latin America felt that women are valued).

Figure 3.6. Are women fully encouraged, valued and respected in my workplace?
(Region)Note: Geographic regions per the United Nations M49 Standard.

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The response also varied with organisation type (Figure 3.7). At the lower end, only aroundhalf of the female respondents working in power generation or decommissioning felt positively
included and valued (50% and 50.5% respectively). Women working in regulation and at new
nuclear reactor build sites were the most positive (72.2% and 65.3%).
Given the consequence of attracting early career entrants and retaining women with young
families, it is encouraging that there was somewhat more agreement within younger age groups(Figure 3.8).

Figure 3.7. Are women fully encouraged, valued and respected in my workplace?
(Organisation type)Figure 3.8. Are women fully encouraged, valued and respected in my workplace?
(Age)

Accounts of sexual harassment in the workplace (including personal experiences andsecond-hand accounts) were reported by 44.7% of respondents (Figure 3.9). For a question that
ideally would report zero, this marks a high level. Beyond the unacceptability (and often
illegality) of sexual harassment, these reports could act as a further disincentive to women in

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the nuclear workforce to remain and to encourage friends and families to seek a career in the
sector. An additional question asked about accounts of hostile behaviour or attitudes to womenin the workplace, to which over half of respondents responded in the affirmative. Such accounts
were particularly acute in Latin America, Northern America, and Northern Europe, at nuclear
power plants and international organisations, among minorities, and in STEM roles, especiallythose requiring fewer educational credentials.

Figure 3.9. Accounts of sexual harassment in the workplace

3.3.2.

Visibility of women and availability of mentors and role models

The visibility of women in the nuclear workforce is a factor in the sector’s attractiveness to newentrants. Women in leadership positions serve as role models and mentors, and strengthen
gender-balanced policy making. Opinion was divided on the question of how present and visible
women are in the respondent’s workplace, especially in science, technology, engineering andmathematics (STEM) roles and leadership positions. Overall, 50.9% of respondents agreed thatfemale visibility is widespread, but with considerable variation geographically (Figure 3.10).

Figure 3.10. Is the presence and visibility of women widespread in my workplace?
(Region)Note: Geographic regions per the United Nations M49 Standard.

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Opinion also varied considerably according to organisation type. The highest female visibility
was reported in regulation, new nuclear reactor build sites and government (Figure 3.11).

Figure 3.11. Is the presence and visibility of women widespread in my workplace?
(Org.)

Stratification by age also revealed a concerning trend, with far greater agreement among
respondents over 54 years old and those under 24 years old (Figure 3.12). This trend correlatedwith time spent in the sector. Female visibility was least obvious to women ages 25-54 who havebeen working in the sector between 3 and 15 years. This is a crucial demographic for which
mentoring and role models would help create a robust pipeline into more senior roles.

Figure 2.12. Is the presence and visibility of women widespread in my workplace?
(Age)

A targeted question about the presence of role models elicited a strong response. Only 37%
of respondents agreed that role models and mentors exist in their workplace (Figure 3.13),
although this masks stark geographical divisions. In Northern Europe and Northern America,
agreement averaged well over half of respondents. However, in the rest of Europe, Latin Americaand Asia and Oceania, the combined average is only around a quarter of respondents, and is
especially low in Eastern Europe.

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This finding was reinforced in other parts of the survey. A dearth of women in the sector,
including in leadership positions, was the most frequently selected nuclear-specific barrier forthe retention and advancement of women (see Section 3.5.1, Figure 3.39).

Figure 3.13. Do women role models and mentors exist in my workplace?

Note: Geographic regions per the United Nations M49 Standard.

3.3.3.

Gender equality policies and managerial commitment

Managerial commitment sets the tone for the development of the workforce. Attitudes towards
existing policies provide a guide to their trajectory and the effectiveness of communications to
the incumbent workforce. However, the survey found that only 41.7% agreed that robust policies
were in place to support gender balance (Figure 3.14). As with several other measures, there wasconsiderable variation geographically, following the trend of respondents in Northern Europe
and Northern America expressing the most positive views.

Figure 3.14. Do robust policies and priorities exist in my workplace to support women?
(Region)Note: Geographic regions per the United Nations M49 Standard.

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A more personally focused question on the extent to which gender policies within the
respondent’s organisation helped the respondent feel satisfied and optimistic about future
career prospects generated a similar overall outcome (Figure 3.15).

Figure 3.15. Are the gender polices generating career satisfaction and optimism?

Note: Geographic regions per the United Nations M49 Standard.

This finding about career satisfaction and optimism might reflect both the absence of clear
and effective policies, as well as a lack of management communication and discussion about theirimpact. Expressions of management commitment to gender balance were only acknowledged by
32.5% of respondents (Figure 3.16), with many outside Northern Europe and Northern America
strongly rejecting the premise. Women aged 25-44 polled more negatively than average. There
were organisational differences as well: employees at international organisations, regulators,
academic institutions and fuel cycle organisations expressed the most agreement, and employeesof new build sites the least.

Figure 3.16. Do managers engage and express commitment to gender balance?

Note: Geographic regions per the United Nations M49 Standard.

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3.4. Career trajectories
The opportunity to progress professionally is salient for the attractiveness of the sector and toensure that gender is balanced at all levels, including leadership positions. In a high skill, safetycritical sector, the accumulation of knowledge and experience is rightly valued. The freedom tofully develop over a career is essential to support equality of opportunity. In addition, retention
and development is vital for the robustness of the workforce.
In response to the survey question about institutional barriers to female retention andpromotion, less than half (42.6%) opined that no such barriers exist (Figure 3.17). Agreement on
the absence of barriers was highest in Northern Europe and lowest in Latin America.

Figure 3.17. Are there only limited institutional barriers to female retention and promotion?

Note: Geographic regions per the United Nations M49 Standard.

3.4.1.

Career opportunities

As viewed by survey respondents, opportunities for career advancement varied widely bygeographic region. In Northern Europe, 68.6% agreed that there was little gender-based
difference, but this reduced to 33.7% agreement in Latin America. Globally, most respondents
believed that gender-based differences exist in the sector (Figure 3.18).

Figure 3.18. Are career opportunities the same for men and women in my workplace?
(Region)Note: Geographic regions per the United Nations M49 Standard.

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A significant trend was observed with respect to respondents who identified as members ofthe majority or of a minority group. Those who affirmed that they did not belong to a minority
group expressed above-average agreement with the premise that career opportunities are equal.
However, respondents who identified as belonging to a minority group agreed far below theaverage, with only 39.6% recognising no major differences (Figure 3.19).

Figure 3.19. Are career opportunities the same for men and women in my workplace?
(Minority and non-minority groups)

Survey respondents who identified as STEM “workers” (role does not require a university
degree) rejected in greater numbers the suggestion that career development is equal (Figure 3.20).

Figure 3.20. Are career opportunities the same for men and women in my workplace?
(Role)

Note: “Worker” means a position that does not typically require auniversity degree. “Professional” means a role that typically does.

3.4.2.

Programmes for career development

Continuous professional development (CPD) is a conscious, proactive process to increase skills
and knowledge, and as such is another consequential avenue in which women should be able toaccess the full range of career opportunities. Although often associated with management levels,

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the concept implies the availability of calibrated professional development programmes at alllevels. Strikingly, the survey found very low agreement that effective development programmes
exist (30.9%), with little variation across roles (Figure 3.21). This finding was little affected byorganisation type, or age below 65. The result is particularly concerning given the low visibility ofwomen in leadership positions and lack of female role models, as reported in Section 3.3.2. In thelong-term, this is likely to negatively impact gender balance in the leadership development
pipeline.

Figure 3.21. Are programmes to professionally develop women available and effective?
(Role)

Note: “Worker” means a position that does not typically require auniversity degree. “Professional” means a role that typically does.

The absence was particularly remarkable in certain regions. Survey respondents in Latin
America, Southern Europe and Asia and Oceania reported the least level of access. Continuing
the favourable trend seen in other questions, Northern Europe and Northern America fared thebest in the polling.

Figure 3.22. Are programmes to professionally develop women available and effective?
(Region)Note: Geographic regions per the United Nations M49 Standard.

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3.4.3.

Work performance appraisals

Fair work performance appraisals underpin progression, career development, salary parity andgeneral recognition. Only a little more than half of the respondents believed that there are few
differences between women and men in work performance appraisals (56.4%). Stratification byregion shows a wide range from 42% in Latin America believing that there are no negative
gender-based impacts to 70.6% in Northern Europe (see Figure 3.23).
In general, survey respondents expressed confidence that performance appraisals in theirworkplace are not impacted by gender. The pattern of agreement is similar to views on theequality of career opportunities (Section 3.4.1) with the exception of Eastern Europe. Over halfof Eastern Europe respondents agreed that appraisals are gender-neutral, whereas they had
disagreed about career opportunities being gender-equal. Respondents in Northern Europe
exhibit the highest levels of confidence in the lack of disparate gender impacts.

Figure 3.23. Are performance appraisals in my workplace the same for men and women?
(Region)Note: Geographic regions per the United Nations M49 Standard.

Figure 3.24. Are performance appraisals in my workplace the same for men and women?
(Role)

Note: “Worker” means a position that does not typically require auniversity degree. “Professional” means a role that typically does.

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A link to confidence in appraisals stratified by corporate role is less clear. Managers and“professionals” (roles entailing a university degree) consistently reported higher confidence infair appraisal processes and career opportunities, while “workers” (roles not requiring auniversity degree) tended towards the opposite view (Figure 3.24). It may be worth noting thatthe latter may spend more time undergoing appraisal than carrying them out. However, thisdoes not rule out that disparities may be more common at more junior levels, and sinceappraisals affect access to higher levels, this could be significant.

3.4.4.

SalaryThe existence of basic salary parity was accepted by 49.8% of respondents. The mostdissatisfaction with fairness in salary was reported by women aged 35-54 (Figure 3.25) andamong non-STEM staff and STEM “workers” (“workers” is defined as roles not requiring auniversity degree) (Figure 3.26).
In many regions, differences in salary were reported by a significant majority, and theinternational average approached half of survey responses perceiving disparate, gender-based
impacts on salaries between men and women. In Western Europe, only 37.4% believed that there
were few or no salary differences, and 47.7% believed the opposite. Since Western Europe had thelargest regional survey completion size, this was largely responsible for pinning the mean at 49.8%.
The high number of respondents in Western Europe were concentrated in France. Interestingly,
the human resources data collected from France showed the lowest disparity in pay, and in fact
slightly favoured women. Further research would be needed to understand the reason for thecontradiction between the public survey responses and human resources data. 3

Figure 3.25. Are salary considerations the same for men and women in my workplace?
(Age)

3.

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A possible explanation is that regulation went into effect in France in 2019 requiring companies toannually publish gender pay gaps. This may have resulted in wider awareness of this issue.

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Figure 3.26. Are salary considerations the same for men and women in my workplace?
(Role)

Note: “Worker” means a position that does not typically require auniversity degree. “Professional” means a role that typically does.

Figure 3.27. Are salary considerations the same for men and women in my workplace?
(Region)Note: Geographic regions per the United Nations M49 Standard.

There was also a separation when looking at the educational qualifications of the
respondents. Those with STEM backgrounds exhibited slightly higher confidence in pay equity
than respondents with non-STEM educational qualifications (Figure 3.28).

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Figure 3.28. Are salary considerations the same for men and women in my workplace?
(Highest qualification)

3.4.5.

Impact of fertility and family life

Pregnancy, parenthood and caregiving might each result in a gender disproportionate impact
on day-to-day working life and options for career development. The perceived impact ofpregnancy was clear. When asked if pregnancy negatively impacts women’s career trajectory,
including promotion, 70.7% of survey respondents agreed that it did, with comparatively little
variation globally (Figure 3.29).

Figure 3.29. Does pregnancy/maternity leave negatively impact women’s career trajectory?
(Region)Note: Geographic regions per the United Nations M49 Standard.

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Parenthood may be an issue that is more immediate for some respondents than others. In
the age range 18 to 34 years old, a negative impact was recorded by over 78.8% (Figure 3.30).
Segmentation by job role revealed similar agreement, varying from 60.3% for non-STEM workers
to 77.4% for students/trainees. It is cause for concern that younger and more junior women
expressed such negative perceptions of the career impact of pregnancy.

Figure 3.30. Does pregnancy/maternity leave negatively impact women’s career trajectory?
(Age)

A separate survey question asked about the career impact of parenthood. Only 44.1%
thought that there was no difference in impact between men and women. This dropped to 34.7%
among women belonging to minority groups (Figure 3.31), with 48.5% actively rejecting the
proposal and a significant percentage expressing no opinion.

Figure 3.31. Are the consequences of parenthood the same for men and women?
(Minority groups)

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The negative impact of caregiving and family responsibilities was widely reported, with
73.5% overall agreement that there was a negative impact (Figure 3.32). The geographicaldistribution was similar to views on the impact of pregnancy.

Figure 3.32. Does having a family/caregiving negatively impact women’s career trajectory?
(Region)Note: Geographic regions per the United Nations M49 Standard.

The impact remained more keenly felt in younger age groups (Figure 3.33), with the negative
perception of the career repercussions of pregnancy extending to that of parenthood. Within
older age groups, when support for both grandchildren and older relatives becomes more likely,
opinions about the unfavourable impact of caregiving were stronger than those about
pregnancy.

Figure 3.33. Does having a family/caregiving negatively impact women’s career trajectory?
(Age)

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In contrast, menopause was not viewed as problematic in the workplace (Figure 3.34).
Curiously, age groups likely to experience menopause either did not perceive a negative career
impact for women or had no opinion (Figure 3.35).

Figure 3.34. Does menopause negatively impact women’s career trajectory?
(Region)Note: Geographic regions per the United Nations M49 Standard.

Figure 3.35. Does menopause negatively impact women’s career trajectory?
(Age)

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3.5. Women’s opinions on career barriers and solutions
Eight opinion-based questions were posed about barriers and potential solutions to achieving
improved gender balance in the nuclear sector. Each respondent was asked to choose and rank
up to 3 options to represent their priorities from lists of 8 to 23 choices, including the option to
select “none of above.” The horizontal scale shows the percentage of all of those choosing each
option as one of their three. For the full text of the survey choices, please refer to Annex C.

3.5.1.

Barriers
Figure 3.36. Career expectations and challenges

Question 17. “The career expectations and challenges that I have strong feelings aboutor spend a lot of time thinking about are: (Select no more than three)”Note: For full text of the answer options, see Annex C.

Figure 3.37. Barriers to retention and promotion
Question 19. “In my experience, barriers to the retention and promotion of women
may be most strongly related to: (Select no more than three)”Note: For full text of the answer options, see Annex C.

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Figure 3.38. Barriers specific to the nuclear sector
Question 25. “In my experience, the most significant barriers or challenges specific to the nuclear
energy sector for the retention and advancement of women are: (Select no more than three)”Note: For full text of the answer options, see Annex C.

Figure 3.39. Personal barriers and challenges
Question 23. “Please check all that apply:”

Note: For full text of the answer options, see Annex C. The survey was conducted between JuneAugust 2021, in the midst of the global COVID-19 pandemic, which may have influenced some
responses.

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3.5.2.

Identifying solutions

Figure 3.40. Interventions supporting the recruitment and advancement of women
Question 31. “In your opinion, which of the following would be effective to support the recruitment,
development and career advancement of women? (Select no more than three)”Note: For full text of the answer options, see Annex C.

Figure 3.41. Interventions for inclusive work cultures that value leadership by women
Question 32. “In your opinion, which of the following would be effective to create inclusive work
cultures that value diverse contributions and leadership by women? (Select no more than three)”Note: For full text of the answer options, see Annex C.

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Figure 3.42. Interventions supporting work-life balance and the female staff retention
Question 33. “In your opinion, which of the following would be effective for improving work-lifebalance and retaining women in the nuclear energy workforce, including on the executive track postpartum? (Select no more than three)”Note: For full text of the answer options, see Annex C.

Figure 3.43. Effective solutions to improve the attractiveness of nuclear careers for women
Question 34. “In your opinion, which of the following would be effective solutions to improve theattractiveness of careers in the nuclear energy sector for women? (Select no more than three)”Note: For full text of the answer options, see Annex C.

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3.6. Summary of key findings from the opinion-based survey of women working in
the nuclear sector
Women in the nuclear sector in NEA countries:

would generally encourage female family and friends to join the sector (with some ambivalence,and they are less likely to do so in Asia and Oceania 4);

say that basic working conditions (facilities, equipment, protective gear) are equal and without
disparate gender impacts (less so in Asia and Oceania and Latin America);

generally feel included and valued in their workplaces (less so outside of Northern Europe andNorthern America, and with variation between organisation type);experience workplaces in which accounts of sexual harassment and hostile behaviour and attitudes
towards women are not uncommon;

lack role models in their workplace (especially in countries outside of Northern Europe and Northern
America) and find the dearth of female visibility and leadership a barrier;

rate their organisations and managers as insufficiently committed to gender balance;are eager to advance in their careers, but experience sociocultural and institutional barriers,
including unequal salaries and performance appraisals;

do not have ready or meaningful access to effective career development programmes (particularly
in Latin America, Southern Europe, and Asia and Oceania);

perceive negative career impacts from pregnancy, parenthood and caregiving; and

are more likely to report negative impacts if a member of a minority group.

3.7. Conclusion
The results of the two surveys covered in Chapters 2 and 3 provide new insights into the genderimbalance in the nuclear sector in NEA countries. A major contribution of the data is to establishthat women constitute a quarter of the nuclear energy workforce and are clustered in nontechnical areas in the sector. Given this benchmark, much remains to be done to achieve a
workforce representative of society that is able to make best use of all available talent. Data on
attrition rates, promotion and career development show some positive signs and may be early
indicators of changing attitudes that have yet to show up in the sectoral workforce overall.
However, current trends will not alter the make-up of the workforce quickly. With a recruitment
rate of 28.8%, there is no prospect of even reaching 30% in the long term without improved
recruiting balances. Continuing professional development and promotion are also essential
components in diversifying the workforce at every level. In addition, a lack of role models andwomen in leadership roles, as shown in both the human resource and individual surveys, may
have a long-term negative impact on developing and advancing women from more junior roles.
One interesting measure of diversifying the sector is the readiness of current female
employees to encourage the next generation of women to choose a nuclear career. In that regard,
the results are ambivalent. More were inclined to encourage female friends and relatives to join
the sector than were actively opposed to making this personal recommendation, but a sizeable
number were neutral. This ambivalence may be related to limited expectations for positive change,
as evidenced from survey respondents’ low endorsement of management commitment and

4.

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Geographic regions are titled and defined per the United Nations M49 Standard (see Annex E, Figure E.1).

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polices related to improving gender balance. In addition, a deeply concerning finding is theprevalence of sexual harassment and hostility to women as a feature of the workplace, either
through direct experience or second-hand accounts. This is disturbing in and of itself, and iscertainly not conducive to recruiting and supporting new and expanded cohorts of women.
The picture overall is one that is not dissimilar in gender diversity performance to otherengineering-focused sectors, which may have an overall female participation rate that disguises
a greater imbalance in the technical occupations central to the sector. 5 While the immediateworking environment may on the surface appear to treat women and men equally, there is a lackof confidence in the commitment of managers to create inclusive work environments, reduce andmitigate disparate impacts on women’s career development (especially related to parenthood andfamily commitments), and improve gender balance across the sector.

3.8. References
Engineering UK (2018), Briefing: Gender Disparity in Engineering, The Engineering and Technology
Board,
www.engineeringuk.com/research/briefings/gender-disparity-in-engineering/(accessed 24 May 2022).
United Nations Commission on Human Rights (1979), Study on the rights of persons belonging to
ethnic, religious and linguistic minorities/by Francesco Capotorti, Special Rapporteur of the SubCommission on Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities, E/CN.4/Sub.2/384/Rev.1,
https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/10387 (accessed 24 May 2022).
United Nations General Assembly (1992), Declaration on the Rights of Persons Belonging to National or
Ethnic, Religious and Linguistic Minorities, General Assembly resolution 47/135, www.ohchr.org/en/instruments-mechanisms/instruments/declaration-rights-persons-belonging-nationalor-ethnic (accessed 24 May 2022).
United Nations Statistics Division, “Standard country or area codes for statistical use (M49) –Geographic Regions”, https://unstats.un.org/unsd/methodology/m49/ (accessed 24 May 2022).

5.

For example, in the United Kingdom, only 14.5% of engineers across all sectors are women (seeEngineering UK, 2018).

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QUANTITATIVE SURVEY TEMPLATE

Annex A. Quantitative survey template

The following six tables 1 were used to collect quantitative human resources data from nuclear
organisations in NEA countries. They were distributed to NEA countries in June 2021 as an Excel
file in English and French. The findings are detailed in Chapter 2.

Figure A.1. Job categories and levels template1.

The template design was adapted from a survey conducted by Strategic Policy Economics for Womenin Nuclear Canada in 2020.

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QUANTITATIVE SURVEY TEMPLATE

Figure A.2. New hires template

Figure A.3. Attrition template

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Figure A.4. Career development programmes template

Figure A.5. Promotion template

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QUANTITATIVE SURVEY TEMPLATE

Figure A.6. Salary template

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QUANTITATIVE SURVEY DATA ESTIMATED REPRESENTATION OF NATIONAL NUCLEAR SECTORS

Annex B. Quantitative survey data estimated representation ofnational nuclear sectors

This table shows the estimated percentage of the national nuclear sector represented by thequantitative data gathered in the human resources survey. These are estimates only and areprovided to illustrate the significant variation with regards to the representativeness of thenational data. The organisations that provided quantitative data are listed in Annex F.2.

Table B.1. Quantitative survey data estimated representationof national nuclear sectors
Country

Est. % of sector represented

Country

Est. % of sector represented

Argentina

84.8%

Norway17%Australia

50%

Poland90%

Belgium

Unavailable

Romania60%

Canada20%

Russia100%

France37%

Slovenia

90%

Hungary

Unavailable

Spain

36%

Italy

70%

Sweden

90%

Japan

13%

United Kingdom

50%

Korea

10%

Note: The above are estimates only.

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Annex C. Qualitative survey questions

The following 34-question survey was available on the NEA website from June to August 2021
under the title “Survey of Women in the Nuclear Sector”. It was administered throughSurveyMonkey and available in eight languages (English, French, Italian, Japanese, Korean,
Romanian, Russian, and Spanish). The results are detailed in Chapter 3. A snapshot of theresults is available in Annex D.
1.

Are you a woman, or do you identify as woman?
a)

Yes

b) No
2.

Are you currently employed in the nuclear sector?
a)Yesb) No, but I used to work in the sectorc)No, but I intend to work in the sector in the futured) None of the above
3.

Country of residence or where your current or most recent nuclear sector work
experience took place:a)[Drop down list of NEA member countries]b) Other
4.

Type of nuclear organisation where you are currently employed or where your mostsignificant nuclear sector work experience took place:a)

Nuclear power planb) Nuclear fuel cycle organisationc)

Nuclear regulatory organisationd) Technical support organisatione)Other nuclear public sector entity (nuclear office of energy ministry, etc.)f)

New nuclear reactor build siteg)

Decommissioning/decommissioning siteh) Nuclear research and development organisationi)

University or academic institutionj)Original equipment manufacturer or nuclear supply chain organisationk) International organisation
l)

Other

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5.

Which of the following best describes your current or most recent role?
a)

Senior-level managementb) Mid-level managementc)Lower-level managementd) STEM professional*e)

Non-STEM professional*f)

STEM worker*g)

Non-STEM worker*h) Student or trainee* Definitions of job categories provided – see methodology section of Chapter 3 for more information.

6.

Approximately how many years have you been employed in the nuclear sector?
a)Less than 3 yearsb) Between 3 and 5 yearsc)

Between 6 and 10 yearsd) Between 11 and 15 yearse)

Between 16 and 20 yearsf)More than 20 yearsg)

I have no work experience in the nuclear sectorh) None of the above
7.

What is the highest level of education you have completed?
a)Compulsory education terminating in adolescenceb) Vocational training or certification in STEM
c)

Vocational training or certification in non-STEMd) University bachelor’s degree in STEMe)

University bachelor’s degree in non-STEMf)

University master’s degree in STEMg)

University master’s degree in non-STEMh) University doctoral degree in STEM

8.

i)

University doctoral degree in non-STEM

j)

None of the aboveYour current agea)Under 18b) 18-24c)25-34d) 35-44
e)

45-54

f)

55-64

g)

65+

h) Prefer not to say

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9.

Which of the following best describes your relationship status?
a)Singleb) Married or long-term partnershipc)

Separated or divorcedd) None of the abovee)

Rather not say

10. Have you ever had dependents living with you while you were working?
a)

Yes, a child or childrenb) Yes, but not a child or childrenc)Nod) Rather not say
11. Do you identify as a member of a minority group?
a)

Yes

b) No
c)

Rather not say

12. The presence and visibility of women is widespread in my workplace, especially in science,technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) roles and leadership positions. My
workplace’s culture is women-friendly, including visible women role models and few if
any spoken or unspoken differing expectations of men vs women.
a)Answer options: Strongly disagree, Disagree, Somewhat disagree, Neither agree nor
disagree, Somewhat agree, Agree, Strongly agree

13. My workplace features robust policies and management priorities to support, develop,
and promote women, including organisational accountability through monitoring andevaluation. These policies are meaningful implemented and adhered to. There is a top
manager responsible for gender policy. Training or other initiatives to counter genderstereotypes, micro-aggressions or unconscious bias are effective.
a)Answer options: Strongly disagree, Disagree, Somewhat disagree, Neither agree nor
disagree, Somewhat agree, Agree, Strongly agree, I do not know

14. In my workplace, there are very few or no differences or disparate, gender-based
impacts with regard to:i.

Working conditions (e.g. adequate facilities, equipment, and/or protective gear)a)ii.

Career advancement (e.g. opportunities and promotion are the same for womenand men)a)iii.

Answer options: Strongly disagree, Disagree, Somewhat disagree, Neither agree
nor disagree, Somewhat agree, Agree, Strongly agree, I do not know

Becoming a parent (e.g. no negative career impacts due to motherhood)a)iv.

Answer options: Strongly disagree, Disagree, Somewhat disagree, Neither agree
nor disagree, Somewhat agree, Agree, Strongly agree, I do not know

Answer options: Strongly disagree, Disagree, Somewhat disagree, Neither agree
nor disagree, Somewhat agree, Agree, Strongly agree, I do not know

Salarya)

Answer options: Strongly disagree, Disagree, Somewhat disagree, Neither agree
nor disagree, Somewhat agree, Agree, Strongly agree, I do not know

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Performance appraisalsa)Answer options: Strongly disagree, Disagree, Somewhat disagree, Neither agree
nor disagree, Somewhat agree, Agree, Strongly agree, I do not know

15. Overall, gender policies within my organisation have helped me to feel satisfied withmy career and optimistic about my future career prospects.
a)Answer options: Strongly disagree, Disagree, Somewhat disagree, Neither agree nor
disagree, Somewhat agree, Agree, Strongly agree

16. Overall, I feel that my workplace is inclusive and women in my workplace are fully
encouraged, valued and respected.
a)Answer options: Strongly disagree, Disagree, Somewhat disagree, Neither agree nor
disagree, Somewhat agree, Agree, Strongly agree

17. The career expectations and challenges that I have strong feelings about or spend a lotof time thinking about are: (Select no more than three)a)Expectation about the type of job or position that I have or wantb) Expectation about the type of organisation I currently or want to work forc)

Expectation about my salary or other compensationd) Expectation about mentoring, training, and/or professional developmente)Expectation about promotion and/or career advancementf)

Expectation about the role that family life has or will have on my careerg)

Challenges/barriers to obtaining a certain type of job or positionh) Challenges/barriers to working at a certain organisationi)

Challenges/barriers to receiving a certain salary or other compensationj)Challenges/barriers to receiving mentoring/training/professional developmentk) Challenges/barriers to promotion and/or career advancementl)

Challenges/barriers in my career related to family lifem) Challenges or barriers in my career related to fertility or menopausen) Prefer not to respondo) None of the above
18. I believe that there are very few or no institutional barriers, tacit or explicit, to theretention and promotion of women in my workplace.
a)Answer options: Strongly disagree, Disagree, Somewhat disagree, Neither agree nor
disagree, Somewhat agree, Agree, Strongly agree

19. In my experience, barriers to the retention and promotion of women may be moststrongly related to: (Select no more than three)a)Culture that does not sufficiently support professional development of womenb) Few women in the organisation to develop and promotec)Family responsibilities preclude women from pursuing management positionsd) Insufficient workplace accommodation for family responsibilities, such as
parenthood84e)Perceptions that family life is incompatible with the management trackf)

Gender stereotypes or unconscious bias about leadership characteristics

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Uncomfortable atmosphere for womenh) Insufficient access to professional development, either formal or informali)Insufficient access to mentors and networks for opportunities and advancementj)Insufficient financial compensation or lack of pay parityk) Societal pressures on women to leave the workforcel)Financial pressures on women to leave the workforce (e.g. high-cost childcare)m) Challenges/barriers to being able to effectively network through social activities
compared to male peersn) In my opinion, there are no barrierso) Barrier not listed
20. Programmes to support and professionally develop women and improve gender balance
in my workplace, especially at the management levels, are available and effective.
a)Yes, programmes are available and effectiveb) Programmes are availablec)

Programmes are available, but not effectived) Programmes are not availablee)Neither agree nor disagreef)

I do not know

21. Role models and mentors for women are available in my workplace.
a)Answer options: Strongly disagree, Disagree, Somewhat disagree, Neither agree nor
disagree, Somewhat agree, Agree, Strongly agree

22. In my workplace, managers express commitment to gender balance and discuss theimpact of policies and programmes to support and advance women.
a)Answer options: Strongly disagree, Disagree, Somewhat disagree, Neither agree nor
disagree, Somewhat agree, Agree, Strongly agree

23. Please check all that apply:a)

I want to progress and advance in my career.

b) I actively pursue career growth opportunities, including applying for promotions.
c)

I feel that I have been overlooked for career opportunities and promotion.

d) None of the above apply to me.
24. I feel that there are barriers or challenges impacting women that are specific to the
nuclear energy sector.
a)Answer options: Strongly disagree, Disagree, Somewhat disagree, Neither agree nor
disagree, Somewhat agree, Agree, Strongly agree

25. In my experience, the most significant barriers or challenges specific to the nuclear
energy sector for the retention and advancement of women in the nuclear sector are:(Select no more than three)a)Lack of women in the sector, including in leadership positionsb) Culture of the nuclear energy sector is not supportive of womenc)Social-cultural perceptions that jobs in nuclear energy are for men

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QUALITATIVE SURVEY QUESTIONSd) Negative social messaging about the nuclear energy sector
e)Relative attractiveness and/or social-cultural prestige of other STEM fields

f)Political sensitivity of nuclear energyg)Lack of support or pressure from family/friends not to work in nuclear energyh) Workplace environment of nuclear power plant is not attractive or women-friendlyi)Lifestyle, including being on call and shift work, is not attractive or women-friendlyj)Career trajectory in nuclear sector is not attractive or women-friendlyk) Positions necessary for career advancement are not conducive to family lifel)Concern about hazards of radiation on physical health, including fertilitym) Concern about nuclear accidents and emergenciesn) Concern about career as nuclear energy programmes are downsized or closedo) In my opinion, there are no barriers specific to nuclear energyp) None of the above
26. Would you encourage or discourage your daughter or a female family member or closefriend to pursue a career in the nuclear energy sector?
a)Actively encourageb) Slightly encouragec)Neutrald) Slightly discouragee)Actively discourage

27. In my opinion, the following gender-specific issues negatively impact women’s career
trajectory, including promotion:i.

Pregnancy, including maternity leavea)ii.

Family responsibilities, including parenthood and caregiving
a)

iii.

Answer options: Strongly disagree, Disagree, Somewhat disagree, Neither agree
nor disagree, Somewhat agree, Agree, Strongly agree, Not applicable

Inability to fully participate in male-dominated social activities and networking due
to gendera)86

Answer options: Strongly disagree, Disagree, Somewhat disagree, Neither agree
nor disagree, Somewhat agree, Agree, Strongly agree, Not applicable

Menopausea)v.

Answer options: Strongly disagree, Disagree, Somewhat disagree, Neither agree
nor disagree, Somewhat agree, Agree, Strongly agree, Not applicable

Balancing spouse’s career, including inability to relocatea)iv.

Answer options: Strongly disagree, Disagree, Somewhat disagree, Neither agree
nor disagree, Somewhat agree, Agree, Strongly agree, Not applicableAnswer options: Strongly disagree, Disagree, Somewhat disagree, Neither agree
nor disagree, Somewhat agree, Agree, Strongly agree, Not applicable

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vi.

Gender stereotypes, micro-aggressions or unconscious bias
a)

vii.

Answer options: Strongly disagree, Disagree, Somewhat disagree, Neither agree
nor disagree, Somewhat agree, Agree, Strongly agree, Not applicableMale-dominated work culture which inhibits full contributionsa)Answer options: Strongly disagree, Disagree, Somewhat disagree, Neither agree
nor disagree, Somewhat agree, Agree, Strongly agree, Not applicable

28. In my experience, sometimes there have been meaningful differences between men andwomen with respect to the following:i.

Men receiving higher salaries than women for similar positions and credentials
a)ii.

Men receiving more positive performance appraisals than women for similar levelsof performance
a)

iii.

Answer options: Strongly disagree, Disagree, Somewhat disagree, Neither agree
nor disagree, Somewhat agree, Agree, Strongly agree

Men being selected for training or development opportunities seen as prerequisite
for promotion at greater rates than women
a)

vii.

Answer options: Strongly disagree, Disagree, Somewhat disagree, Neither agree
nor disagree, Somewhat agree, Agree, Strongly agree

Men being selected for high-profile projects at greater rates than womena)vi.

Answer options: Strongly disagree, Disagree, Somewhat disagree, Neither agree
nor disagree, Somewhat agree, Agree, Strongly agree

Men accessing opportunities due to ability to network through social activities
outside of worka)v.

Answer options: Strongly disagree, Disagree, Somewhat disagree, Neither agree
nor disagree, Somewhat agree, Agree, Strongly agree

Men receiving higher salary increases than womena)iv.

Answer options: Strongly disagree, Disagree, Somewhat disagree, Neither agree
nor disagree, Somewhat agree, Agree, Strongly agree

Answer options: Strongly disagree, Disagree, Somewhat disagree, Neither agree
nor disagree, Somewhat agree, Agree, Strongly agree

Men being promoted at higher rates than women for similar levels of responsibility
and performancea)Answer options: Strongly disagree, Disagree, Somewhat disagree, Neither agree
nor disagree, Somewhat agree, Agree, Strongly agree

29. I have experienced or heard accounts of behaviour or attitudes that are overtly or tacitly
hostile to women in my workplace.
a)Answer options: Strongly disagree, Disagree, Somewhat disagree, Neither agree nor
disagree, Somewhat agree, Agree, Strongly agree

30. I have experienced or heard accounts of sexual harassment of women in my workplace.
a)Answer options: Strongly disagree, Disagree, Somewhat disagree, Neither agree nor
disagree, Somewhat agree, Agree, Strongly agree

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31. In your opinion, which of the following would be effective to support the recruitment,
development and career advancement of women? (Select up to three)a)Establish gender targets for percentage of applicants, interview candidates, andpromotions or new hires for all job categories and management levels, and monitor
and report regularly.

b) Regularly collect and publish data on the percentage of women in different job
categories and management levels, especially STEM and leadership positions.
c)Analyse intake qualifications and participation requirements for corporate
professional training and development programmes for disparate gender impacts,
and remedy or accommodate accordingly. (For example, would a nursing mother beable to participate in this programme?)d) Establish and monitor aggressive targets for women in programmes required forupper management levels.
e)Analyse recruitment processes for disparate gender impacts and gender balance.
Target women in recruitment. Regularly monitor and adjust.

f)Regularly review public communications and promotional material for gender
diversity and gender stereotyping.

g)

Establish mentoring programmes for women at all organisational levels andstudents. Conduct regular longitudinal studies on the impact.

h) Regularly analyse and report on organisational compensation packages and salary
increases for disparities between genders, including for new hires and internal
promotions.
i)Establish an organisational working group chaired by a member of the senior
executive team to develop and monitor organisational policy and programmes tosupport gender balance. Include women at all organisational levels and men fromupper management in this group. Assign the group meaningful resources andexecutive support.

j)Include regular meetings with external or internal women’s groups as part of theexecutive agenda.

k) Monitor and remedy the gender balance in corporate participation in industry
events and external programmes.
l)

Provide comprehensive corporate solutions to help women withresponsibilities (corporate childcare, extended maternity leave, etc.).

familym) None of the above.
32. In your opinion, which of the following would be effective to create inclusive work
cultures that value diverse contributions and leadership by women? (Select up to three)a)Provide regular organisation-wide training on identifying and countering genderstereotypes, unconscious bias and micro-aggressions.

b) Create regular internal and external campaigns promoting the current and historicalcontributions of women to the organisation and to the nuclear energy field.
c)Analyse and provide training on gendered language in hiring and performance
evaluations, job announcements and other human resource materials.

d) Develop and rate employees on leadership models that centre collaborative,
participatory leadership styles.
e)88

Regularly survey employees and use focus groups of women at different
organisational levels to monitor the work culture and develop new initiatives toaddress issues and enhance the contributions of women to the organisation.

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QUALITATIVE SURVEY QUESTIONS

f)

Identify and regularly articulate at the highest executive levels the measurable andimmeasurable value of women to the organisation’s financial health and societal
impact.

g)

Establish corporate gender policies to support a culture of inclusivity (e.g. a code of
ethics, an ethics committee as an option for resolving conflicts, including thoserelated to behaviour, harassment, etc.).

h) Establish gender balance as a portfolio for executive management, including regular
reporting and accountability.
i)None of the above.

33. In your opinion, which of the following would be effective for improving work-lifebalance and retaining women in the nuclear energy workforce, including on theexecutive track post-partum? (Select up to three)a)Survey departing employees to identify organisational blind spots.

b) Offer flexible teleworking options for men and women regardless of parental orfamily status.
c)

Monitor performance reviews and promotion rates for teleworking versus nonteleworking employees. Develop policies and training to avoid disparate impacts forteleworking employees.

d) At the highest management levels and through policies and programmes designed
according to behavioural insights, encourage all employees (women and men) totake full and equal amounts of parental leave.
e)Analyse promotions, performance reviews and salary increases for impacts ofparental leave on career progression.

f)Analyse the expected career path for an upwardly mobile manager from a genderlens and identify possible barriers and challenges caused by parenthood or otherfamily responsibilities. (For example, is promotion to upper management contingent
upon certain kinds of jobs that may be difficult for a nursing mother?) Develop
accommodations and alternate pathways.

g)Ensure that there are adequate facilities in the workplace for childcare and lactation,
as well as flexible policies to support parents.

h) None of the above.
34. In your opinion, which of the following would be effective solutions to improve theattractiveness of careers in the nuclear energy sector for women? (Select up to three)a)Improve the diversity of the workforce to make nuclear energy careers more
attractive as comfortable and vibrant workplacesb) Implement robust policies and programmes to support women to increase career
opportunities, upward trajectories and longevity for women in the nuclear energy
sectorc)

Improve strategic communications about the career opportunities in the nuclear
energy sectord) Improve strategic communications about the benefits of nuclear energy to reduce
global carbon emissions and combat climate changee)Improve strategic communications about the historical and current contributions of
women to the nuclear energy sectorf)Improve visibility of women in the sector, including those in STEM and leadership
positions

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Improve the culture of the nuclear energy sector to better support women and value
women’s contributionsh) Improve social-cultural perceptions that jobs in nuclear energy are for men
i)Better counter negative social messaging about the nuclear energy sectorj)Better compete on the attractiveness and/or social-cultural prestige vis-à-vis other
STEM fields through improved partnerships with schools and universitiesk) Better compete on the attractiveness and/or social-cultural prestige vis-à-vis other
STEM fields through improved partnerships with media and cultural taste-makers(e.g. television, social media)l)

Increased political engagement on the benefits of nuclear energym) Improve nuclear workplace environments to be more women-friendly (for example,
adequate facilities, equipment or protective gear for women)n) Improve the lifestyle of certain nuclear sector jobs to be more women-friendly,
including increased technology, flexibility and/or other accommodations to improve
the quality of life for jobs entailing on call and shift worko) Improve breadth of career trajectories with a range of pathways into upper
management in the nuclear energy sectorp) Improve communications addressing concern about hazards of radiation on
physical health, including fertilityq) Improve communications addressing concern about nuclear accidents andemergenciesr)Improve communications addressing concern about the career impact of nuclear
energy programmes being downsized or closed, including promoting long-term
career opportunities in decommissionings)

Offer grants and scholarships for women to study nuclear-related subjectst)Offer internship and research programmes targeting womenu) Engage young scientists in attractive and innovative research projectsv)

Improve communications through better co-ordination with national andinternational networks promoting opportunities and dialogue for young women
about careers in STEM

w) None of the above

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Annex D. Snapshot of qualitative survey results

This annex contains a snapshot overview of the responses to the 2021 NEA “Survey of Womenin the Nuclear Sector”. Note that “agree” in these tables is counted for responses “somewhat
agree”, “agree”, or “strongly agree.” Please see Chapter 3 for more detail about the survey results
and Annex C for the full text of the survey questions.

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Table D.1. Snapshot of qualitative survey results
Question
number

Question

Percentage agreeing/
top three responses

Q 12

Presence and visibility of women is widespread

50.9% agree

Q 13

Policies and management priorities for GB are robust

41.7% agree

Q 14Adequate working conditions

75.9% % agree

Equal opportunities for career advancement

47.8% % agree

No negative career impacts from becoming a parent

44.1% % agree

Equal salary between men and women

49.8% % agree

Equal performance appraisals

56.4% % agree

Q 15

Satisfied and optimistic

43.0% agree

Q 16

Inclusive workplace

58.3% agree

Q 17

Expectations and challenges that respondent has strong feelings
about or thinks about a lot (top three)Job/position expectations
Salary expectations
Promotion expectations

Q 18

Few or no institutional barriers

42.6% agree

Q 19

Barriers to retention and promotion (top three)

Bias about leadership characteristics
Perceptions that family life and career
are incompatible
Culture does not support professional
development

Q 20

Programmes available to support and develop women

30.9% agree

Q 21

Role models and mentors available

37.0% agree

Q 22

Managerial commitment to gender balance

32.5% agree

Q 23

Want to progress/advance career

66.1% agree

Actively pursue growth opportunities and promotion

38.6% agree 1

Feel overlooked for opportunities and promotion

28.4% agree

None of the above

16.8% agree

Q 24

Nuclear-specific barriers or challenges

43.1% agree

Q 25

Most significant barriers or challenges specific to the nuclear
sector for retention and advancement of women (top three)

Lack of women/women leaders
Sociocultural perceptions that roles aremale
On-call/shift work is not women-friendly

Q 26

1.

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Would encourage female family member to work in nuclear

59.0% agree

Responses to this question may have been influenced by the global pandemic.

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SNAPSHOT OF QUALITATIVE SURVEY RESULTS

Question
number

Question

Percentage agreeing/
top three responses

Q 27

Negative career impact: Pregnancy/maternity leave

70.7% agree

Negative career impact: Caregiving/parenthood

73.5% agree

Negative career impact: Balancing spouse’s career

62.0% agree

Negative career impact: Menopause

15.3% agree

Negative career impact: Male-dominated networking

46.9% agree

Stereotyping, microaggressions, unconscious bias

64.8% agree

Negative career impact: Male-dominated work culture

62.2% agree

Equivalent men receiving higher salaries

53.2% agree

Men receiving more positive performance appraisals

51.7% agree

Men receiving higher salary increases

48.9% agree

Men accessing opportunities due to ability to network throughsocial activities outside of work

55.9% agree

Men being selected for high-profile projects

65.3% agree

Men being selected for training or development

52.2% agree

Men being promoted at higher rates

63.3% agree

Q 29

Aware of behaviour or attitudes hostile to women

52.2% agree

Q 30

Aware of accounts of/suffered sexual harassment

44.7% agree

Q 31

Action to support recruitment, development and advancementof women (top three)Comprehensive solutions to balancefamily life

Q 28

Analyse/report compensation
Establish and monitor mentoring
programmes
Q 32

Action for inclusive work cultures (top three)

Training on stereotyping andunconscious bias
Rate leadership on collaborative styles
Regular surveys/focus groups

Q 33

Action to improve work-life balance (top three)Flexible teleworking to all
Adequate childcare facilities
Analyse career paths

Q 34

Solutions to improve attractiveness of careers for women (topthree)

Improve visibility of women
Increase flexibility and work/life balance
Improve culture of sector to bettersupport/value women

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QUALITATIVE SURVEY DEMOGRAPHICS

Annex E. Qualitative survey demographics

The “Survey of Women in the Nuclear Sector” was conducted between June to August 2021 andreceived 8 924 total responses (see Section 3.1.2 for an explanation of response validity). Thisannex provides an overview of the demographics of the respondents. The survey findings aredetailed in Chapter 3.

Figure E.1. Number of respondents by country and region

Note: Geographic regions per the United Nations M49 Standard.

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QUALITATIVE SURVEY DEMOGRAPHICS

Figure E.2. Current employment in the nuclear sector
Question 2. ”Are you currently employed in the nuclear sector?”

Figure E.3. Country of residence
Question 3. “Country of residence or where your current or most recent nuclear sector work
experience took place”

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QUALITATIVE SURVEY DEMOGRAPHICS

Figure E.4. Residency by region
Question 3. “Country of residence or where your current or most recent nuclear sector work
experience took place”

Note: Geographic regions per the United Nations M49 Standard.

Figure E.5. Type of organisation
Question 4. “Type of nuclear organisation where you are currently employed or where your mostsignificant nuclear sector work experience took place”

Full text: Nuclear power plant, nuclear research and development organisation,
nuclear fuel cycle organisation, other, nuclear regulatory organisation, technicalsupport organisation, original equipment manufacturer or nuclear supply chainorganisation, other nuclear public sector entity (nuclear office of energy ministry,etc.), university or academic institution, decommissioning/ decommissioning
site, international organisation, new nuclear reactor build site

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QUALITATIVE SURVEY DEMOGRAPHICS

Figure E.6. Role
Question 5. “Which of the following best describes your current or most recent role”

Note: Depending on the organisation, “management” positions may or may not entail
supervisory responsibilities. See the methodology section of Chapter 3.
STEM professional: Position generally requires a university degree in science, technology,
engineering or mathematics. Business and finance are not included in this category.
Non-STEM professional: Position generally requires a university degree, but notnecessarily in STEM. Business and finance are included in this category.
STEM worker: Position generally requires tertiary education not equivalent to a university
degree, such as a vocational school diploma or apprenticeship. In addition, the position
should involve handling or operating some form of technology where the technology is theprimary purpose of the work.
Non-STEM worker: Position does not require a university degree and does not qualify as a
STEM position.

Figure E.7. Time working in the sector
Question 6. “Approximately how many years have you been employed in the nuclear sector?”

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QUALITATIVE SURVEY DEMOGRAPHICS

Figure E.8. Highest qualification
Question 7. “What is the highest level of education you have completed?”

Figure E.9. AgeQuestion 8. “Your current age”

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QUALITATIVE SURVEY DEMOGRAPHICS

Figure E.10. Relationship status
Question 9. “Which of the following best describes your relationship status?”

Figure E.11. Dependents
Question 10. “Have you ever had dependents living with you while you were working?”

Figure E.12. Minority group
Question 11. “Do you identify as a member of a minority group?”

Note: For the purpose of this survey, a minority group is considered to be a group ofpeople within a country who possess ethnic, religious or linguistic characteristics
differing from those of the rest of the population and show, if only implicitly, a senseof solidarity, directed towards preserving their culture, traditions, religion or
language. Typically, the minority group is in a numerically inferior or non-dominantposition compared to the majority of the population. Please refer to the current UN
definition as set out in the 1992 Declaration on the Rights of Persons Belonging to
National or Ethnic, Religious and Linguistic Minorities.

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CONTRIBUTORS TO THIS PUBLICATION

Annex F. Contributors to this publication

Many people have contributed to the development of this publication.
Below are the names of the country representatives and delegates who participated in themeetings of the NEA Task Group on Improving the Gender Balance in the Nuclear Sector and in
the preparatory work. There are also the names of the organisations that provided data as well
as a list of other contributors.
The OECD Nuclear Energy Agency thanks them all for their valuable efforts.

Country and international organisation representatives•

Gabriela Maria ACOSTA (Argentina)•

Patricia Ayelén AMIGO (Argentina)•

Melina BELINCO (Argentina)•

Raul Eugenio COMELLI (Argentina)•

Facundo DELUCHI (Argentina)•

Marina DI GIORGIO (Argentina)•

Delfina DI LORENZO (Argentina)•

Florencia RENEDO (Argentina)•

Agostina SERRANO BENTANCOUR (Argentina)•

Maite UNZAGA (Argentina)•

Joanne BARTLEY (Australia)•

Michele COECK (Belgium)•

Katrien MEERSMAN (Belgium)•

Rosemary CRANE (Canada)•

Monica HORNOF (Canada)•

Karina LANGE (Canada)•

Julie LEBLANC (Canada)•

Lisa MCBRIDE (Canada)•

Rumina VELSHI (Canada)•

Iva PETRICKOVA (Czech Republic)•

Sebastián POCHE (Czech Republic)•

Marie-France BELLIN (France)•

Coline BEUZIT (France)

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CONTRIBUTORS TO THIS PUBLICATION

102•

Pierrick BLANCARD (France)•

Aline DES CLOIZEAUX (France)•

Melinda GERNEZ (France)•

Anne-Marie JONQUIERE (France)•

Isabelle LEBOUCHER-MORLET (France)•

Mana MAMODE (France)•

Sylvain PETIT (France)•

Lucie PHEULPIN (France)•

Isabelle POLI (France)•

Katharina STUMMEYER (Germany)•

Virág AMBERBOY-KISS (Hungary)•

Daniel BALOG (Hungary)•

Annafrancesca MARIANI (Italy)•

Antonietta RIZZO (Italy)•

Keiko FUKANO (Japan)•

Rinta GOTO (Japan)•

Yumiko HATA (Japan)•

Taro HOKUGO (Japan)•

Yuko IKUTA (Japan)•

Shinji KINJO (Japan)•

Hiroko MIYAMURA (Japan)•

Nobuo NAKAE (Japan)•

Tomoko NAKANISHI (Japan)•

Hirotaka OKU (Japan)•

Akira SAKUMA (Japan)•

Takehiro SASAGAWA (Japan)•

Kinichi UEDA (Japan)•

Hiroyuki WANI (Japan)•

Fumitaka WATANABE (Japan)•

Miyoko WATANABE (Japan)•

Yeonhee HAH (Korea)•

Henrik MOHR NORDVISTE (Norway)•

Bartosz SKIERKOWSKI (Poland)•

Mihaela ANDREI (Romania)•

Irena CHIVU (Romania)•

Daniel-Dumitru ENE (Romania)

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CONTRIBUTORS TO THIS PUBLICATION•

Diana Elena GRIGORESCU (Romania)•

Daniela NASTASE (Romania)•

Manuela PAVAL (Romania)•

Gulnara BIKKULOVA (Russia*)•

Julia DMITRIEVA (Russia*)•

Natalia ILNITSKAYA (Russia*)•

Anzhelika KHAPERSKAYA (Russia*)•

Yulia NEMTSEVA (Russia*)•

Alesia YUNIKOVA (Russia*)•

Zuzana PISTEKOVA (Slovak Republic)•

Jarmila VYRVOVÁ DRGONOVÁ (Slovak Republic)•

Andreja PERSIC (Slovenia)•

Paloma MORA YAGÜE (Spain)•

Cristina VILLALBA (Spain)•

Isabel VILLANUEVA (Spain)•

Nina CROMNIER (Sweden)•

Kirsty HEWITSON (United Kingdom)•

Ella LAWS (United Kingdom)•Beccy PLEASANT (United Kingdom)•

Fiona RAYMENT (United Kingdom)•

Naomi RUTLEDGE (United Kingdom)•

Miriam COHEN (United States)•

Aleshia DUNCAN (United States)•

Robert HORNER (United States)•

Suzanne JAWOROWSKI (United States)•

Mary LAMARY (United States)•

Alexandra NOWAK (United States)•

Brian SHELBOURN (United States)•

Katja MRAVLAK (European Commission)•

Aneta SIEJKA (European Commission)•

Alina JOSAN (IAEA)•

Rachel LOPER (IAEA)•

Olena MYKOLAICHUK (IAEA)* Russian membership in the NEA was suspended as of 11 May 2022.

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CONTRIBUTORS TO THIS PUBLICATION

Organisations

104•

Agencia Brasileño-Argentina de Contabilidad y Control de Materiales Nucleares(Argentina)•

Autoridad Regulatoria Nuclear (Argentina)•

Comisión Nacional de Energía Atómica (Argentina)•

Nucleoeléctrica Argentina S.A. (Argentina)•

INVAP S.E. (Argentina)•

Australian Nuclear Science and Technology Organisation (Australia)•

Belgian National Agency for Radioactive Waste and Enriched Fissile Material (Belgium)•

Belgian Nuclear Research Centre (Belgium)•

Federal Agency for Nuclear Control (Belgium)•

National Institute for Radioelements (Belgium)•

Atomic Energy of Canada Limited (Canada)•

Bruce Power (Canada)•

Canadian Nuclear Safety Commission (Canada)•

CANDU Owners Group (Canada)•

Department of Natural Resources (Canada)•

Kinectrics (Canada)•

NB Power (Canada)•

Ontario Power Generation (Canada)•

SNC-Lavalin (Canada)•

Assystem (France)•

Atlantique (France)•

Commissariat à l’énergie atomique et aux énergies alternatives (France)•

Daher (France)•

Egis (France)•

Électricité de France S.A. – Division Ingénierie et Projets Nouveau Nucléaire (France)•

Électricité de France S.A. – Direction de la Production Nucléaire (France)•

Framatome (France)•

GDES (France)•

L’Institut de Radioprotection et de Sûreté Nucléaire (France)•

Naval Group (France)•

NETMAN (France)•

NUVIA Group (France)•

Onet (France)•

Orano (France)

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CONTRIBUTORS TO THIS PUBLICATION•SETEC (France)•

Spie Nucléaire (France)•

Thomas Thor Associates (France)•

Trillium Flow Technologies (France)•

VINCI Energies (France)•

Hungarian Atomic Energy Authority (Hungary)•Società Gestione Impianti Nucleari (Italy)•

Japan Atomic Energy Agency (Japan)•

National Institutes for Quantum Science and Technology (Japan)•

Nuclear Regulation Authority (Japan)•

Korea Atomic Energy Research Institute (Korea)•

Korea Hydro & Nuclear Power Co., Ltd. (Korea)•

Korea Institute of Nuclear Nonproliferation and Control (Korea)•

Korea Institute of Nuclear Safety (Korea)•

Korea Radioactive Waste Agency (Korea)•

Korea Institute of Radiological & Medical Sciences (Korea)•

Norwegian Radiation and Nuclear Safety Authority (Norway)•

Instytut Chemii i Techniki Jądrowej (Poland)•

Ministry of Climate and Environment – Nuclear Energy Department (Poland)•

Narodowe Centrum Badań Jądrowych (Poland)•Państwowa Agencja Atomistyki (Poland)•

Polskie Elektrownie Jądrowe (Poland)•

Zakład Unieszkodliwiania Odpadów Promieniotwórczych (Poland)•Agenția Nucleară și pentru Deșeuri Radioactive (Romania)•

Comisia Naţională pentru Controlul Activităţilor Nucleare (Romania)•

Institutul Național de Cercetare-Dezvoltare pentru Fizică și Inginerie Nucleară ‘Horia
Hulubei’ (Romania)•

RATEN CITON (Romania)•

RATEN ICN (Romania)•

SN ‘Nuclearelectrica’ S.A. (Romania)•

Rosatom (Russia)•Jožef Stefan Institute (Slovenia)•

Krško Nuclear Power Plant (Slovenia)•

Slovenian Nuclear Safety Administration (Slovenia)•

Asociación Nuclear Ascó Vandellós II A.I.E. (Spain)•

Centro de Investigaciones Energéticas, Medioambientales y Tecnológicas (Spain)

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CONTRIBUTORS TO THIS PUBLICATION•

Consejo de Seguridad Nuclear (Spain)•

CONSENUR (Spain)•

Empresa Nacional de Residuos Radiactivos (Spain)•

GD Energy Services (Spain)•

Iberdrola (Spain)•

Ministerio para la Transición Ecológica y el Reto Demográfico (Spain)•

Barsebäck AB (Sweden)•

Chalmers University of Technology (Sweden)•

Forsmark Kraftgrupp AB (Sweden)•

KTH Royal Institute of Technology (Sweden)•

OKG Akitebolag (Sweden)•

Ringhals AB (Sweden)•

Studsvik AB (Sweden)•

Svafo AB (Sweden)•

Svensk Kärnbränslehantering (Sweden)•

Swedish Radiation Safety Authority (Sweden)•

Uppsala University (Sweden)•

Vattenfall (Sweden)•

Westinghouse Electric (Sweden)•

Dounreay Site Restoration Limited (United Kingdom)•

EDF Energy (United Kingdom)•

Hinkley Point C (United Kingdom)•

Low Level Waste Repository Ltd (United Kingdom)•

Magnox Ltd (United Kingdom)•

National Nuclear Laboratory (United Kingdom)•

Sellafield Ltd (United Kingdom)•

Sizewell C (United Kingdom)

Other contributors

106•

Willem ADEMA (OECD)•

Ursula ARNAL DIFFU (NEA)•

Steve BENNETT (Cogent Skills)•

Sama BILBAO Y LEON (formerly NEA)•

Natalie BONILLA (NEA)•

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Pierre BOURDON (formerly NEA)•

Marc BROUILLETTE (Strategic Policy Economics)•

Mihaela BRUNETTE (NEA)•

Keiko CHITOSE (NEA)•

Antonella DI TRAPANI (NEA)•

Céline FOLSCHÉ (OECD)•

Elizabeth GAMARRA (formerly NEA)•

Gabriele GRASSI (NEA)•

Halle HILL (formerly NEA)•

Greg LAMARRE (NEA)•

Emma LEGUILLON (NEA)•

Violeta LEIVA (formerly NEA)•

Daniela LULACHE (NEA)•

William D. MAGWOOD, IV (NEA)•

Florence MAHER (NEA)•

Nobuhiro MUROYA (NEA)•

Kimberly NICK (NEA)•

Lelia ROUSSELET (formerly NEA)•

Vladislav SOZONIUK (NEA)•

Hasumi TANI (formerly NEA)•

Wilma TIIPPANA (formerly NEA)•

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Gender Balance in the Nuclear Sector
Female scientists and engineers pioneered the nuclear and radiological fields, with leaders and innovatorssuch as Marie Skłodowska-Curie and Lise Meitner, among many others, establishing the foundation ofmodern nuclear science and technology. Women continue to make vital contributions to the sector,
but their visibility and overall numbers in the sector remain limited, especially in science, technology,
engineering, and mathematics (STEM), and leadership roles. The lack of diversity in the sector representsa loss of potential innovation and growth and a critical threat to the viability of the field.
This report features the first publicly available international data on gender balance in the nuclear sector.
The data was collected from over 8 000 women in the nuclear workforce in 32 countries, as well as humanresources data from 96 nuclear organisations in 17 countries. Based on the findings, a comprehensive,
evidence-driven policy framework is proposed with practical recommendations.

Nuclear Energy Agency (NEA)
46, quai Alphonse Le Gallo
92100 Boulogne-Billancourt, France
Tel.: +33 (0)1 73 21 28 19
nea@oecd-nea.org www.oecd-nea.org

NEA No. 7583