Summary of the Research Report “Research on Promotion of Public School Teachers to a
Managerial Post – Monitoring the Current State through Secondary Analysis of the School
Teachers Statistical Survey”

1. Summary of the Research Study
This report shows the research results of the “Team for Examination of Problems at the Time of
Promotion to a Managerial Post” established to conduct research for the project, “Comprehensive
Research on Pre-service Training, Placement and In-service Training of Teachers to Foster Children’sCompetencies”. This team focused on the conditions of promotion to a school managerial post as aprerequisite for exploring the problems school teachers face when promoted to a managerial post. A
secondary analysis was conducted of the information (information close to raw data) of the “School
Teacher Statistical Survey” 1 conducted by the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science andTechnology in order to gain a deeper and more comprehensive understanding of the current state.
Specifically, we analyzed the situation of public elementary schools, lower secondary schools,
and upper secondary schools focusing on the following three points.
(1) Changes in the age group of public school managerial staff in recent years
An analysis was conducted comparing age distribution, and the age at which the teacher was
promoted, etc. with a focus on the status of implementation of the system of senior teachers newly
established in 2008.
(2) Regional differences in the status of promotion to a managerial post in public schools
Confirmation of the differences in the age at which the teacher was promoted by prefectural
region, and classification of the situation by region.
(3) Attributes of teachers promoted to a school managerial post
Analysis of attributes possessed by teachers with a relatively high or low probability of being
promoted to a managerial post with regard to the various attributes observable from the data.
Research period: 2015 - 2016, Research Representative: Akihide Osugi (Director of the Department
for Elementary and Secondary Education Research)

2. Summary of the Research Outcomes

1

This survey is conducted every three years, and this research used data from the surveys conducted in 2004, 2007,2010 and 2013.

1

(1) Changes in the age groups of public school managerial staff in recent years

In recent years, while public school teachers as a whole are seeing an aging trend, there has also
been a recent younger trend due to an increase in young teachers in all of the school types. Although
this trend was observed regardless of whether or not a teacher had been appointed to the position ofsenior teacher, it was particularly notable in regions where a senior teacher had been appointed. The
situation of elementary schools is shown as an example in Figure 1.
Correspondingly there has been an aging in the teachers in managerial posts in all of the school
types. However, although the managerial staff are aging overall, in the elementary schools and upper
secondary schools there has been a slight trend in the regions where a senior teacher has been
appointed towards younger managerial staff leaving room for managers to be appointed from a
relatively young generation. As an example of this trend, the age composition of the principals of
elementary schools is shown in Figure 2, and the age composition of the vice-principals (deputy
principals or vice-principals) is shown in Figure 3. Comparing the regions where a senior teacher had
been appointed to regions where a senior teacher had not been appointed in 2013, the percentage ofthe youngest age group in each position (50 or younger with the principals and 45 or younger withthe vice-principals) was higher. However, in the lower secondary schools, the situation did notsuggest a trend towards younger managerial staff.

No senior

Senior
主幹教諭
主幹教諭
teacherteacherありなし

Figure 1 Changes in the age composition of all of the elementary school teachers (by status of
appointment of a senior teacher)
8.2%
平成16年
2004

2013

平成25年

9.4%

平成16年
2004

10.6%

2013

平成25年
0%

18.8%

30.3%
17.4%

42.1%
33.5%

23.0%

24.4%

10%
20%
30%
31 - 40
30 or younger
30歳以下
31～40歳

27.1%

0.0%
0.5%

34.1%

40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
41 - 50
61 or older
51 - 60
41～50歳
51～60歳
61歳以上

0.0%
0.2%

39.6%
39.3%

22.3%

19.4%

90%

100%

Source: Based on the “School Teachers Statistical Survey” of the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports,
Science and Technology

Figure 2 Changes in the age composition of elementary school principals (by status of appointmentof a senior teacher)2

SeniorNo senior
主幹教諭
主幹教諭
teacherteacher
あり
なし

6.5%

平成16年
2004

2013

0.0%

55.6%

37.9%
0.6%

平成25年

0.0%

73.6%

25.8%
4.2%

平成16年
2004

2013

平成25年

36.4%
1.7%

0%

0.0%

59.4%

26.2%

1.1%

71.0%

10%
20%
50歳以下
50 or younger

30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
51～55歳
56～60歳
61歳以上
56 - 60
61 or older
51 - 55

90%

100%

Source: Based on the “School Teachers Statistical Survey” of the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports,
Science and Technology

No senior

Senior
主幹教諭
主幹教諭
teacherteacherありなし

Figure 3 Changes in the age composition of elementary school vice-principals (by status of
appointment of a senior teacher)
平成16年
2004

11.5%
2.1%
2013
17.1%
平成25年
5.4%

平成16年
2004

2013

8.7% 0.0%

37.3%

42.5%

25.1%

55.8%
38.8%

42.3%

13.4%

2.8%

平成25年

19.9%

0%

10%
20%
30%
46
50
45歳以下 46～50歳
45 or younger

51.1%

26.2%

70%
80%
40%
50%
60%
51
55
56
60
51～55歳 56～60歳 61歳以上
61 or older

90%

0.0%
0.0%
0.0%

100%

Source: Based on the “School Teachers Statistical Survey” of the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports,
Science and Technology(2) Regional differences in the status of promotion to a managerial post in public schools
Looking at the situation of changes in the average age of all of the teachers which also affects
the school managerial staff, although there are an increasing number of younger teachers in regions
where there are a bigger number of large cities, this kind of generational change is not being seen
in regions with a large number of depopulated areas. This applies to all of the school types, but forreference purposes, the region classifications (relative positioning) for elementary schools areshown in Figure 4.
Figure 4 Relative positioning of the average age of all teachers (elementary school)3Changes during the period
were higher than the national average
期間中の変化が全国平均より高い
Relatively
rising trend
相対的に上昇傾向

平成16年
Lower
than the
全国平均
2004
より低い
average

Remaining
relatively high
相対的に高いまま北海道
Hokkaido
Aomori Iwate
Yamagata 山形
Fukushima 福島
青森
岩手Akita 秋田
Tochigi Gunma Niigata Fukui Yamanashi
栃木
群馬
新潟
福井
山梨
Nagano Shimane Tottori Yamaguchi Ehime
Saga Nagasaki
Kagoshima
長野
鳥取Kumamoto
島根Miyazaki
山口
愛媛
佐賀
長崎
熊本
宮崎 鹿児島Miyagi Ibaraki Tokushima Kochi Oita

宮城

岐阜
静岡 Shiga滋賀
Gifu Fukuoka
Okinawa沖縄

茨城

徳島

高知

大分

埼玉
千葉 Tokyo
東京
神奈川
Saitama Chiba
Kanagawa
Toyama 富山
Ishikawa 愛知
Aichi Mie三重
Kyoto 京都
Osaka
石川
大阪
Hyogo Nara Wakayama Okayama Hiroshima
兵庫
奈良 和歌山 岡山
広島
Kagawa Fukuoka
香川
福岡
相対的に低下傾向
Relatively
declining trend

相対的に低いまま
Remaining
relatively low

平成16年Higherthan the
全国平均
2004
より高い
average

期間中の変化が全国平均より低い
Changes during the period were lower than the national average

Source: Based on the “School Teachers Statistical Survey” of the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports,
Science and Technology

Note: The relative positions based on the national average are shown in the four categories.
The position of the prefecture names in each category is in no particular order.
In addition, the distribution of the average ages of the principals and vice-principals and the
distribution of age groups (young teachers comprising 10% of the average age) where promotions
to these posts start show various patterns depending on the region. Among them, it became clearthat a common pattern can easily be seen between the average age of each post and the age groupwhen promotions start.
(3) Attributes of teachers promoted to a school managerial post
A logistic regression analysis was conducted to look at the attributes of teachers promoted to aschool managerial post at the time of 2013. From the results, the nationwide trend of attributes
possessed by teachers with a relatively high probability or low probability of being promoted to a
managerial post are shown in Table 1.
Table 1 Attribute trends of teachers promoted to a school managerial post4

昇進する確率がAttributes
where the rate ofpromotionis relatively high
相対的に高い属性
小学校

昇進する確率がAttributes
where the rate ofpromotionis relatively low
相対的に低い属性

年齢上昇※
女性※
Woman **
Experienceof working
教員養成系大学出身
社会人経験ありelsewhere
専修免許保有＊二種免許保有Possessing two
qualifications
中学校免許併有
高等学校免許併有
中学校
年齢上昇※
女性※
Lower
Woman **
Seniority **secondaryExperience of working
Graduating from a teacher training
教員養成系大学出身
社会人経験ありuniversity
schools
elsewhere
Holdinga specialized teacher’s license
専修免許保有二種免許保有Possessing two
Concurrent holding of an elementary
schoollicensequalifications
小学校免許併有
Holding of a social studies license
Holdingof a health and PE license
社会科免許保有
保健体育科免許保有
高等学校
女性＊
Seniority 年齢上昇※
**
Upper
Woman
*
Holding a specialized teacher’s license *secondaryExperience of working
専修免許保有＊社会人経験ありConcurrent
holding of a lower secondary
school license
schools
elsewhere
中学校免許併有
Holdinga mathematics license
Holding a science license
数学科免許保有
理科免許保有注：※付きの属性は，ほぼ全地域に共通して見られることを示し，Note: ** means that the attribute was the same for almost all regions
while＊付きの属性は半数強の地域で見られることを示す。
* means that the attribute was seen in just over half of the regions
Elementary
schools

Seniority **Graduated from a teacher training
university
Holding a specialized teacher’s license *Concurrent holding of a lower secondary
school license
Concurrent holding of an upper
secondary school license

In addition, when a similar analysis was conducted by prefecture, there were some attributes
where the trends tended to be consistent with national trends in almost all regions, but in general there
were many attributes not consistent with the national trends.

5

Summary of the “Research Report on the Standards for Teacher Competence in OtherCountries”

1. Purpose and Summary of the Research Study(1) Purpose of the research study
In order to cultivate the competencies required in the future era, there is a need to rethink theteaching content and methods, and in order to be able to achieve this, one pressing issue is to reformthe pre-service training, recruitment and in-service training of teachers who are to be responsible for
fostering these competencies, and therefore in response, the Education Rebuilding Council released“The Competencies Required in the New Era, and the Education and Teachers Needed to Foster theCompetencies” (Seventh Recommendations) (May 14, 2015). In response to these recommendations,the Central Council for Education set out in the “Report on Enhancing the Competencies of Teachers
Responsible for Future School Education – Towards Building a Teacher-Training Community to
Learn Together and Improve Together” (December 21, 2015) that with regard to the “teacher training
indicators” which are commonly expected of teachers in their role as highly-qualified professionals,“each prefecture, etc. should develop teaching training indicators in order for teachers to be able tohave an overall view of their entire teaching career in their role as a highly-qualified professional,
and clarify the competencies that teachers should acquire according to the stage of their career”.
Meanwhile, in other countries, there are many places where standards for teacher competence arebeing developed, and these are being used as indicators for pre-service training, recruitment, and inservice training, etc.
Therefore, the purpose of this research study is to obtain ideas which will be useful when forming
teacher training indicators as standards for pre-service training, recruitment and in-service training
by means of conducting comparative research on the current state and issues of the standards forteacher competence in other countries.

(2) Summary of the research study
In examining the standards for teacher competence in other countries, we conducted comparison
and analysis utilizing the research studies of education experts in each country, and through study
groups and e-mails. There were nine countries which took part in our research: the UK, Germany,
France, Finland, the United States, Australia, New Zealand, Singapore and South Korea. We also
gave an outline of early childhood education (in the United States, the UK, Germany and China).

Research period: 2015 - 2016, Research Representative: Akihide Osugi (Director of the Department
for Elementary and Secondary Education Research)62. Summary of the Research Outcomes(1) International trends of the standards for teacher competence
We conducted a study into what kind of standards for teacher competence had been establishedin other countries and how they were being utilized. Table 1 shows the presence or absence of teacher
competence standards in the target country. Competence standards had been developed for teachers
in eight countries excluding Finland, while competence standards had been developed for teachers inmanagerial posts in six countries except Germany, France and Finland. In addition, with regard to thecompetence standards, broadly speaking, there were some countries that established standards forteachers in general while other countries had established standards according to the level ofproficiency such as for novice teachers, ordinary teachers, and proficient teachers. Regarding
managerial posts, there were countries which only had principals, and countries which set standards
for each occupation rank or school type.
Table 1 Presence or absence of competence standards for teachers and managerial staff
Competence standards for teachers

Competence standards for managerial staff

UK

Teachers

Principal

Germany

Teachers

No standards

FranceTeachers and staff

No standards

Finland

No standards

No standards

United States

Teachers

Principal, teachers’ leader

Australia

Teachers (new graduates, proficient teachers, highly

Principal

proficient teachers, position of leadership)
New Zealand

Teachers (pre-service training, teacher registration,

Principal (primary, secondary), vice-principal etc.

novice teachers, teachers, proficient teachers)
Singapore

South Korea

Teachers (novice teachers – ordinary teachers [ranks],

Principal, deputy principal, department head, subject /advanced, proficient teachers)

grade leader

Teachers (including head teachers, nutrition

Principal , vice-principal

instructors, health instructors, librarian teachers,
special school teachers, counseling teachers, etc.)

Regarding use of the standards for teacher competence, diverse use was seen depending on the
country as shown in Table 2. At the pre-service training stage, the standards were used as the criteria
for teaching qualifications (UK, Australia, New Zealand), the criteria for teacher licenses (US), thecriteria for the formation of teacher training programs (Germany), and as the criteria for certification(UK and US). At the recruitment stage, the standards were used as criteria for the teacher recruitment
examination (France), and as criteria to determine skills at the time of completion of the examination(UK, Germany, New Zealand). At the in-service teacher stage, the standards were used as guidelinesof professional development (UK, US, New Zealand, Singapore, Korea), the criteria for teacher
evaluation (UK, USA, Australia, New Zealand, Singapore, Korea), and other uses were for school7

audits (UK), to identify unfit teachers (UK), teacher registration certification (New Zealand), andteacher registration renewal (Australia). In particular, in the United Kingdom and the United States,
standards are being developed which look over the entire teaching career from pre-service training,
recruitment to in-service teachers.

Table 2 The role and functions of the standards for teacher competenceStudent teacher and recruitment level
UK

In-service level

Acquisition of teaching qualifications, teacher

Professional development, teacher evaluation, school

training program certification, evaluation at the end

audits, identification of unfit teachersof an examination
Germany

Teacher training program formation, evaluation at theend of an examination

FranceTeacher recruitment examination

FinlandUS

Teacher training program certification, teacher'sProfessional development, teacher evaluation

licenseAustralia

Acquisition of teaching qualifications

Teacher evaluation, teacher registration renewal

New Zealand

Teacher registration certification, evaluation at theProfessional development

end of the examination
Singapore

Professional development, teacher evaluation

South Korea

Professional development, teacher evaluation(2) Form and content of the standards for teacher competence(i) Form of the standards for teacher competenceWith regard to the features in terms of the form, first of all, focusing on the number of competence
standards set for teachers, the number of standards which were set as 1, 2, 3 .... and had six to fourteen
items. Second, many countries indicated the standards for teacher competence divided into areas
according to the content groups such as 1) educational guidance, 2) daily living guidance (South
Korea), and so on, and showed the corresponding relationships. Third, in addition to the standards forteacher competence, there were some countries that set subcategories for each standard and preparedrubrics (evaluation criteria tables).
(ii) Content of the standards for teacher competence
Regarding the contents, there were 1) educational guidance, 2) student guidance and daily living
guidance, and 3) attitudes and ethics as a teacher. 1) Educational guidance included learners andlearning, the contents of the subjects, etc., lesson planning and implementation, evaluations, etc. 2)
Student guidance and daily living guidance included character development, subjective decisions andjudgments, handling of tasks and needs, information provision, regular lifestyle habits, and preventionof problem behavior, etc. 3) Attitudes and ethics as a teacher included understanding the teaching
staff, obligations and responsibilities, performance of duties, participation in school-wide activities,
cooperation and collaboration with the parents and local communities, self-study and professional
development.
8

(3) Suggested examples of standards for teacher competence(i) Examples of setting standards to cover the entire teaching career
The standards for teacher competence in the United Kingdom and the United States were designed
to be widely used at the respective stages of pre-service training, recruitment, and in-service training
with a view to the entire teaching career. The InTASC (Interstate Teacher Assessment and Support
Consortium) standards in the United States give a concrete image of the path of proficiency of theteachers through an indication of “performances”, “knowledge”, “dispositions” and “learning
development”. It can be said that it has been designed for broad use as a desired teacher image, criteria
for evaluation, and guidelines for professional growth overlooking the entire teaching career.
(ii) Examples showing standards divided into proficiency levels
Case examples indicating criteria where the teachers are classified into several levels of
proficiency include Australia (new graduates, proficient teachers, highly proficient teachers, positionsof leadership), New Zealand (novice teachers, teachers, proficient teachers), Singapore (novice toordinary teachers [3 ranks], advanced teachers, proficient teachers), and others. In this way, when thestandards are shown in stages, it is possible to know the goals at the next stage such as what is required
and to what degree in order to achieve proficiency at the higher levels, and the standards function as
guidelines in terms of self-development and functional development.
(iii) Examples of revision to simplified standards
In the UK, the problem was that the original standards formulated in 2007 were far too detailed,and so the standards were revised in 2010 to create simplified standards. The standards
comprehensively describe the knowledge and skills absolutely necessary for teachers through thesetting of detailed items. However this tend tends to fall into elementalism, and therefore, it becomes
hard to grasp an overall image of the competencies, and moreover, limits the degree of freedom inthe teacher’s teaching practices narrowing down their range of discretion. In addition, due to the large
number of items, excessive labor and work are required to conduct the evaluation. Owing perhaps tosuch factors, the number of standards for teacher competence were generally kept to about 10 in thetarget countries.

9Project Research of the FY2015-2016 National Institute for Educational Policy Research Project
Survey Research Report – “Comprehensive Study on Pre-service Training, Placement and InService Training of Teachers to Foster Children’s Competencies”
Differences in the status of interactions between teachers depending on class size and grade /school size
Focusing on formative evaluations thought to have a great influence on academic ability
Summary of the research

1. Issues

Class composition and teacher cooperation

It is apparent that it is easier for teachers to pay attention to individual children if the class is small,but the relationship between the class size and the state of cooperation among the teachers is not as clear.

Formative evaluations and academic ability

Many previous studies have shown that even in formative evaluations, the implementation ofevaluations where the results are fed back to the learner, and where the subject of the evaluation, thelearner, is able to use these results to improve his or her learning has a huge effect on the learner’s
academic ability. In order to make a formative evaluation, criteria to be used for interpretation in order
to measure the learner’s level against the achievement goals should be prepared beforehand using thestate of the learner’s efforts in the learning process and the state of the results of the achievements, andfeedback should be given to the learner using these criteria. In addition, cooperation between teachers
teaching the same subject is considered to be essential when deciding how to prepare the interpretation
criteria and how to effectively conduct feedback.

Technology to monitor teacher cooperation

Teacher cooperation is often carried out within a few minutes such as between lessons in a shortamount of time. In order to monitor the state of such communication, use of a wearable sensor which
incorporates an infrared sensor that records face-to-face situations and an acceleration sensor thatrecords physical movements in units of 1 second or less, which is one of the technologies used for
immediate and continuous measurement, was considered to be effective.

2. Purpose

10This depends on the size of the lower secondary school and the class size. The purpose of thisresearch is to clarify the differences in the status of cooperation among teachers when preparing aformative evaluation. In addition, preparing a formative evaluation means preparing the interpretation
criteria necessary for feedback to be given to the students and deciding on methods of effectively giving
feedback to the students.

3. Method

Survey target and contents
For the three types of schools of the same
size (12, 13, 15 classes), we surveyed two
schools respectively with different averageclass sizes, totaling six schools (Table 1).
We asked the managerial staff and teachers(excluding nursing teachers and nutrition
teachers) of each surveyed school to wear
wearable sensors from the time of arriving
at work to the time of leaving work forthree consecutive days (Tuesday,
Wednesday, Thursday), and also asked theteachers to answer a questionnaire giving areport on the contents of meetings anddiscussions with other teachers every day
for the three-day period.

Table 1 School size of the surveyed schools (number ofclasses in the regular grades), average class size,
subjects of the survey and number of teachers analyzed
No. of teachers analyzed
Schools

No. ofclasses

1st school

Averageclass size

No. ofteachers
surveyed

1st day

2nd day

3rd day

12

33.9

25

6

7

5

nd

12

34.8

24

9

8

7

rd

14

34.2

26

6

7

4

th

14

36.1

24

8

8

7

th

5 school

15

34.3

26

9

6

8

6th school

15

35.7

29

10

9

9

2 school
3 school
4 schoolAnalyzed teachers

Out of the surveyed teachers, only teachers who were in charge of teaching all of the lessons of
all of the subjects for one grade were selected. This is because the state of cooperation among theteachers was thought to be different for those who were team teaching or teaching lessons for two
grades, or where two teachers were teaching one grade. On this basis, we analyzed teachers who had
been wearing a wearable sensor for two or more days during the three-day survey period for sevenhours or more a day.

Communication data by face-to-face partner and content

The communication data by face-to-face partner and content was created through the following
process. (1) We created face-to-face communication data for each day during the three-day survey
period for each target teacher to be analyzed; (2) the target time was 11 hours in total from 8:00 am
to 7:00 pm; (3) the face-to-face partner included all teachers who were wearing a wearable sensor at11each surveyed school; (4) of the data output by Hitachi’s Human Big Data Service base station
terminal, and of the matrix data of face-to-face situations and average frequency for every 2.5 seconds,
which was face-to-face communication data; (5) the fact of face-so-face interaction was recorded
using an infrared sensor, and if the body movements of the people having the interaction weresynchronized at 1.0 Hz or more, it was judged that face-to-face communication had taken place; (6)the matrix data was divided according to the attributes of the face-to-face partner, and (7) the faceto-face communication time by face-to-face partner and content was calculated by multiplying thematrix data, which had been divided according to the attributes of the face-to-face partner, by theratio of the content of the meetings and discussions by attributes of the face-to-face partner monitored
through a questionnaire.

4. Results

Table 2 shows the averages and rates of face-to-face communication time according to theattributes of the face-to-face partner by school, and Table 3 shows the average times and rates by
face-to-face communication content among teachers teaching the same subject.

Table 2 Average and rate by school of face-to-face communication by the attributes of the face-to-facepartnerFace-to-face partners
Teachers of the same subject Teachers of same grade Teachers of other subjects/grades Managerial post

Schools M

1st school
2nd school
3rd school
4th school
5th school
6th school

SD

M

Rate

SD

M

Rate

19.23 10.14 0.04 230.42 70.09
23.89 22.38 0.04 413.56 223.35
79.46 104.28 0.19 267.38 221.25
5.83 16.50 0.02 167.55 136.90
26.76 38.52 0.08 214.63 70.79
33.58
43.13 0.06 312.46 120.66

SD

Rate

0.49 179.05 128.47
0.75 94.68 38.41
0.66 58.27 43.44
0.65 70.57 58.35
0.64 55.88 62.88
0.57 139.71 109.15

M

0.38
0.17
0.14
0.27
0.17
0.26

SD

Rate

43.81 37.82
19.63 16.54
2.62
3.14
13.28 11.54
35.56 36.56
61.79 49.40

0.09
0.04
0.01
0.05
0.11
0.11

Table 3 Average time and rate by three-day contents of face-to-face communication with teachers teaching the same
subject

Formative evaluation preparation

Lessons

Student guidance

School affairs

OthersSchools Average time

Rate

Average time

Rate

Average time

Rate

Average time

Rate

Average time

Rate

1st
school2nd
school3rd
school4th
school5thschool6th
school

1.88

0.08

0.42

0.02

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

21.04

0.90

9.29

0.32

11.9

0.4

1.63

0.06

2.35

0.08

4.23

0.14

60.42

0.39

51.06

0.33

24.86

0.16

0.06

0.00

19.44

0.12

0.00

0.00

26.67

0.57

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

20.00

0.43

9.48

0.34

4.94

0.17

0.00

0.00

6.29

0.22

7.55

0.27

1.58

0.04

6.79

0.18

4.50

0.12

17.1 4

0.46

6.86

0.19

12

5. Study
As shown in Figure 2, although this is not applicable to schools with 12 classes, the study
suggests that if the size of the school is the same, it is more likely in schools with smaller classes that
preparations for formative evaluations will have been made such as the interpretation criteria
necessary to give feedback to the students being created through cooperation among teachers of thesame subject, and methods determined to effectively give feedback to the students. However, as
shown in Table 3, the average preparation time for formative evaluations through cooperation among
teachers teaching the same subject by school was about 60 seconds for one school, 9 seconds for two
schools, and 2 seconds or less for two schools, and the preparation time itself for formativeevaluations through cooperation among teachers teaching the same subject is short. In addition, as
shown in Table 2, the average face-to-face communication time among teachers teaching the same
subject by school was about 6 seconds for the minimum value and about 80 seconds for the maximum
value, and the time spent was also short.
Many previous studies have revealed that the implementation of formative evaluations has a great
effect on academic ability. In addition, in order to conduct formative evaluations, it is necessary to
prepare interpretation criteria in advance to judge the level of achievement of the target goals fromthe state of the learner’s efforts in the learning process and the state of the achievements, and toprovide feedback to the learners using these criteria. Based on the findings of these previous studies,
it is considered that the ease with which these formative evaluations are implemented may lead toincreasing the academic abilities of the students. Moreover, the results of this study suggest that thesekinds of effective formative evaluations are easier to implement in smaller classes.

6. Issues of the research

The objective was to clarify the differences in the status of preparing formative evaluations
through cooperation among teachers teaching the same subject depending on the size of theschool and the size of the class, but the difference in the average class size through a
combination of schools with 12 classes was 0.9, the average class size through a combinationof schools with 14 classes was 1.9, and the average class size through a combination of schools
with 15 classes was 1.4, and the problems remain that although comparisons were madedepending on the size of the class, there was little difference, and face-to-face communication
itself among the teachers fluctuated widely within the same school and with other schools. In
addition, since the surveyed schools were six schools in a specific region, the results of thisresearch can only be taken as examples.
13

Figure 1 Percentages of face-to-face communication time by attributes of the face-to-face partner by school

Figure 2 Percentages of face-to-face communication with teachers teaching the same subject

14

FY2015 -2016 Research Project of the National Institute for Educational Policy Research
Report on the Research Study “Comprehensive Study on Pre-service Training, Placement andIn-service Training of Teachers to Foster Children’s Competencies”
The relationship between class size and the children’s orientation towards learning
objectives – focusing on fifth-grade elementary school children
Summary of the research

1. Purpose-

To conduct further analysis of large-scale survey data and to clarify the relationship between
children’s motivation and class size.

-

To this end, we will focus on children’s orientation towards learning objectives and consider
the relationship between the class size and the directionality of approaches to the issues ofchildren using a multilevel structural equation.

2. Methods-

Further analysis of the data of the survey conducted of 5th grade students of elementary
schools out of the data acquired in the FY2007 Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports,
Science and Technology survey research project relating to teachers and staff, “Survey
Relating to the Size and Educational Effects of Group-Living and Group-Learning” (one classof each school, 275 schools, 7,643 children).

-Self-improvement motivation thought to be similar to the orientation towards learning
objectives in the subscale of the reading culture – “self-improvement support check”
conducted as part of the children’s survey, the answers on class size of the classes subject tothe survey out of the questions of the schools’ survey and the answers to whether there were“many parents with a keen interest in education” as a characteristic of the school were added
as points for further analysis.

-

We analyzed the differences in effects on the self-improvement willingness of children byclass size according to a multilevel structural equation model as shown in Figure 1. Level 1
is the child’s level, and Level 2 is the class level.

-

For self-improvement willingness, we estimated a multi-level item response model for each15

level.
-The class size was centered on the median class size of the schools being analyzed, and thenumber of parents with a keen interest in education, which was one of the categories of theschools’ survey, was treated as a covariate.

3. Results and Discussions-

The path from the Level 2 class size to motivation in Figure 1 is negative and significant(unstandardized coefficient is -0.016, p = 0.36). Based on this estimated value, if we show
the predictive value of the factor score of the willingness for self-improvement based on classsize, by degree (1 for a lot, 0 for not a lot) of parents with a keen interest in education as acovariate, the result is as shown in Figure 2.

-

From the above results, based on the fact that the willingness for self-improvement targetedin this research is similar to the orientation towards learning objectives in the research on
motivation, this suggests that the orientation towards children’s learning objectives is higher
if the class in which the child is enrolled is smaller, and lower if the class in which the childis enrolled is bigger.

Figure 1 Model to examine the difference in effects on self-improvement willingness of children
by class size
16

Figure 2 Predictive value of self-improvement willingness based on class size and school
characteristics

17

Summary of the “Report of the Research Study on Teacher and Staff Placement andManagement to Enhance the Overall Strength of the School Organization”

1. Purpose of the research study(1) Purpose of the research study

As well as planning and implementing educational curricula that nurture the competencies
required of a new era, “schools as teams” are required to solve more complicated and diverse
issues, and to ensure enough time face-to-face time for the teachers and children. The Council forCentral Education and other forums have stated that in order for schools to be able to function asa team, it is essential for the principals to further demonstrate their leadership skills for thefunctions of management to be reinforced, and for the teaching and guidance structure of teachersand staff to be reconstructed (placement of teachers and staff, and a system of division of duties
and collaboration).
In order to solve these policy problems, what is required is evidence relating to thecomposition of the competencies of principals who promote “the school as a team”, how thesecompetencies can be developed, how the beliefs of the principal that the school is open to change
can be improved through the principal’s leadership (effective leadership) and the satisfaction levelof the principal with respect to his or her job (degree of job satisfaction), as well as a need for
proposals aimed at reconstructing the teaching and guidance structure of teachers and staff.
Therefore, for this research study, we conducted (1) a survey (domestic research) in order tostudy measures to increase the level of acquisition of the competencies, sense of effective
leadership, and degree of job satisfaction of the principals, and to clarify the factors influencing
them, and (2) a comparative study (overseas comparative study) on the role of schools in othercountries and the teaching and guidance structure of teachers and staff in order to study measures
aimed at reconstructing the teaching and guidance structure of teachers and staff.
This research study is one part of the “Comprehensive Study on Pre-service Training,
Placement, and In-service Training for Teachers to Foster Children’s Competencies”(Representative researcher: Akihide Osugi (Director of the Department for Elementary andSecondary Education Research), research period: FY 2015 -2016)”.

2. Summary of research outcomes18

(1) Research study on the competencies and professional development of the principals

In the domestic research study, we developed a scale for the level of competency acquisitionof principals who promote “schools as a team”, a scale to rate effective leadership, and a scale forthe degree of job satisfaction, and utilizing these scales, we conducted research to find the factors
affecting the level of competence of the principals, sense of effective leadership and degree of job
satisfaction. In addition, we analyzed the perception of the usefulness (usefulness of growth
opportunities) of diverse opportunities to acquire the necessary competencies as a principal andexpectations of learning at graduate school for each career stage.
The period of the survey – the “Survey on the Competencies and Professional Growth of the
Principals”, was from November 14, 2016 to December 9, 2016, targeting 1,795 principals
throughout the country. In order to attain a reflection of the professional awareness of principals
throughout all of Japan, the number of schools surveyed by prefecture was decided so as to be
proportional to the ratio of elementary schools/lower secondary schools and prefecture by
population. Then, after randomly choosing the first target school, we extracted target schools at
regular intervals and asked the principals of the schools to cooperate with the research. The valid
response number was 1,065 persons, and the valid response rate was 59.3%. The composition of
the survey items was as is shown in Table 1.

Table 1 Composition of the survey items
Category(�)(�)Contents of the survey
Relationshipbetweentheacquiredcompetencies(competencies acquired by theprincipal), and attributes andbackground of the principal,
schoolorganization/
environment, cooperation andcollaboration between schools.
Relationship between effective
leadership (principal’s belief
that
leadershipcanbedemonstrated or that schools
can change through leadership)
and attributes and backgroundof the principal, schoolorganization / environment,
collaboration and collaboration
between schools

Background to the survey
Requirement of improving thecompetencies of principals
promoting “schools as a team”

Contents of the questions
The competencies necessaryfortheprincipal,
competencies which are
acquiredSince what is needed forprincipals to be able to lead“schools as a team” is toreview the current school
culture and to promote school
improvement, it is necessary tohave a high level of effective
leadership.

Sense of effective leadership

19

(�)

(�)

Relationshipbetweenthedegree of job satisfaction(satisfaction towards the job),
and attributes and backgroundof the principal, schoolorganization / environment,cooperation and collaboration
between schools
Awarenessofvariousopportunities to acquire thenecessary competencies as aprincipal (the usefulness ofgrowth opportunities) and
expectations for learning at
graduate school for each careerstage

An increase in job satisfaction
is required in order to be able
to secure excellent humanresources for principals.

Degree of job satisfaction

Interest in graduate school
education is rising as one of
the important opportunities for
improving the competencies ofprincipals

The timing and motive forwanting to become aprincipal, the usefulness ofgrowthopportunities,
expectations of learning at
graduate school learning foreach career stage(i) Competencies of the principals
When considering measures to enhance the competencies of principals who promote “schools
as a team”, it is necessary to clarify the composition of their competencies and to clarify the
influencing factors. Therefore, we analyzed the variables (observable variables) that measure thecompetencies acquired by the principals through factor analysis, and as shown in Table 2,summarized the five elements: “educational policy implementation skills” (ability to appropriately
manage schools based on educational policy trends), “ability to realize a vision” (ability toconceive and realize a vision), “ability to collaborate with assisting staff” (ability to collaborate
with administrative staff, etc.), “ability to build relations of trust with outside people” (ability tocollaborate with the local community and to build relations of trust) and “ability to foster acollaborative environment” (the ability to foster a cooperative, comfortable environment forteachers and staff to work).
Table 2 Elements of the level of competence acquisition
Elements
Educational
policyimplementation
skillsAbility to realize
a vision
Ability tocollaborate withassisting staff,
etc.
Ability to build
relations of trustwith outside
peopleObservable variables“Knowledge of the educational measures of the national and local governments”,“knowledge of education laws (including duties and service), etc.

“Ability to conceive a school vision”, “ability to persuade others of the school vision”,
etc.
“Ability to collaborate with administrative staff”, “ability to cooperate with nursing
teachers”, etc.

“Ability to cooperate and collaborate with the local community and parents,” “ability
to handle complaints from outside persons”, etc.

20

Ability to foster
a collaborativeenvironment“Ability to create a comfortable environment for teachers and staff”, “ability to createa collaborative atmosphere inside the school”* Questions were posed on to what extent the principals had acquired the competencies in relation
to each of the observable variables using five scale points: “1. Not at all”, “2. Not very much”, “3.
Neither yes nor no”, “4. To a certain extent”, and “5. Very much”, and the results were analyzed
using factor analysis.
Subsequently, out of the five elements, we focused on “educational policy implementation
skills” and “ability to realize a vision”, and in order to grasp what kind of factors were affecting
these elements, we performed a multiple regression analysis using the subscale scores (averagevalue of the scores of the observable variables included in each respective element) as explanatory
variables. As shown in Table 3, the four groups: “variables relating to the principal’s attributes”,“variables relating to the principal’s career history”, “variables relating to the school’s
organization and environment” and “variables on school cooperation / collaboration”, and a totalof 22 variables were incorporated as explanatory variables.
Table 3 Explanatory variables
Variables on the attributes of the principals
Ambitions of the principal up until the early 40s (dummy variable), elementary school work (dummy
variable), female principal (dummy variable), age
Variables on the background of the principals
Experience of working as a social education director (dummy variable), board of education work
experience (dummy variable), years of service as a principal, years of service as the principal at the current
school, learning opportunities through self-motivating clubs or academic conferences, etc. (dummy
variable), knowledge from books, etc. (dummy variable), graduate school dispatch training experience(dummy variable), experience of undergoing training at the National Institute for School Teachers andStaff Development (dummy variable) and long-term trainee experience at the National Institute for School
Teachers and Staff Development (dummy variable).
School organization and environmental variables
Number of classes, number of education-related mentors, number of family/local community mentors,
appointment of a senior teacher (dummy variable), sense of usefulness of administrative staff, sense of
usefulness in supporting an education chief
Variables relating to school cooperation and collaboration
Collaboration between schools and the local community (dummy variable), regional coordinator (dummy
variable), integrated elementary and lower secondary school education (dummy variable)

Table 4 shows the results of analysis using the “educational policy implementing skills”
subscale scores as explanatory variables. The four estimation models were significant at a level of
1% level. In Model 1, the variables of the “ambitions of the principal up until the early 40s” and“elementary school work” were significant at a level of 1%. In Model 2, “learning opportunities
at self-motivating clubs and academic conferences, etc.”, “knowledge from books, etc.” were21

significant at a level of 1%. In addition, the “board of education work experience” was significant
at a level of 10%. In Model 3, “usefulness in supporting an education chief” was significant at alevel of 5%.
Through the four analytical models, the variables of “ambitions of the principal up until theearly 40s”, “learning opportunities at self-motivating clubs and academic conferences, etc.”, and“knowledge from books, etc.” can all be confirmed to be significant at a level of 1%. (Only theconclusions are shown below.)(i) Principal results relating to the level of competence of the principal
Regarding “educational policy implementation skills”, it was found that self-evaluation tended to behigher, the more aspiring principals up until their early 40s 2 recognized learning at self-motivating clubs
and academic conferences, etc. to be beneficial as a growth opportunity, or recognized knowledge frombooks, etc. to be beneficial as a growth opportunity.
Regarding the “ability to realize a vision”, it was found that self-evaluation tended to be higher, themore aspiring principals up until their early 40s recognized learning at self-motivating clubs and academic
conferences, etc. to be beneficial as a growth opportunity, or recognized knowledge from books, etc. to bebeneficial as a growth opportunity.

Table 4 “Multiple Regression Analysis Results Taking “Educational Policy Implementation
Skills” Subscale Scores as Explanatory Variables 3

Attributes

Background

Organization andenvironment

Cooperation andcollaboration

Model 1Model 2Model 3Model 4B

Aspiring principals up until their early 40s.163

Work at an elementary school

.086

Women

.070

Age

-.001

Experience of a social education director
Board of education work experience

Standard
error

.03
0
.03
0
.04
3
.00
6

*
*
*
*

B

Standard error

.14
1
.07
5
.03
1
.00
9
.02
6
.05
4

.0
31
.0
31
.0
44
.0
07
.0
51
.0
30

B

Standard error

BStandard error

**

.130

.037

**

.148

.043

*

.068

.037

+

.028

.043

.034

.051

.029

.059

.006

.009

.008

.011

.006

.058

.065

.077

.053

.037

.045

.044

+

**

2 Compared to other principals, aspiring principals up until the early 40s tend to cite as motivation for wanting

to become a principal, “a sense of interest in school management from the time of being appointed chief of adivision of work”, “encountering an ideal school manager” or “a desire to create their own ideal school”, andtended not to cite as motivation “recommended by a person in the vicinity” or “thinking someone had to takeover the job”.
3 <Model 1> only inserted variables regarding the attributes of the principal. <Model 2> controlled the variables
regarding the attributes of the principal and introduced variables on the background of the principal. <Model 3>
controlled the variables regarding the attributes of the principal and the [variables on the background of theprincipal, and inserted variables on the organization / environment of the school. <Model 4> controlled thevariables on the attributes of the principal, the [variables on the principal’s background, the variables on theorganization and environment of the school, and inserted variables on school collaboration and cooperation. The
same analysis was subsequently carried out.

22

No. of years working as a principal

-.0
10
-.0
06
.11
5
.15
9
-.0
08
.04
2

.0
07
.0
15
.0
30
.0
35
.0
51
.0
31

.03
3

.0
39

-.009

.008

-.018

.010

.000

.018

.012

.021

**

.118

.036

**

.127

.043

**

**

.155

.043

**

.155

.052

**

-.036

.059

-.011

.068

.057

.036

.052

.043

.022

.047

.027

.057

No. of classes

.001

.003

.002

.003

No. of education related mentors

-.005

.003

-.005

.004

No. of family or local resident mentors

-.004

.005

-.005

.006

Appointment of a senior teacher

-.036

.043

-.062

.049

Sense of usefulness of administrative staff

.037

.025

.035

.029

.056

.028

.036

.033

.019

.055

Local community coordinator

.052

.048

Integrated education between elementary
and upper secondary school

.046

.045

No. of years working as a principal at thecurrent school
Learning opportunities at a self-motivatingclub or academic conference, etc.
Knowledge from books, etc.
Graduate school dispatch training
experience
Training experience of the National Institutefor School Teachers and Staff Development
Long-term trainee experience at the
National Institute for School Teachers andStaff Development

Sense of usefulness in supporting the
education chief
Collaboration between the schools and local
community

Capacity
Adjusted R

3.724

.35
4

2.9
61

.4
17

2.831

*

.519

2.772

+

.621

2

N

0.036

0.082

0.081

0.073

1027

978

710

545
**p＜0.01，*p＜0.05，+p＜0.1(ii) Sense of effective leadership
For principals leading “schools as a team”, it is necessary to review the previous school culture
and to promote school improvement and so a high level of effective leadership is required. For
this purpose, it is necessary to clarify the structure of effective leadership and to clarify the
influencing factors. Therefore, we analyzed the variables (observable variables) that measureeffective leadership through factor analysis, and as shown in Table 5, summarized the four
elements: “local community collaboration” (confidence in being able to promote local community
collaboration), “lesson improvement” (confidence in being able to improve the lessons), “student
guidance” (confidence in being able to build a student guidance system), and “responses todiversity” (confidence in being able to build a system to handle diversity).
Table 5 Effective leadership elements
Elements

Observable variables

Local
community
collaboration“Able to explain and understand the educational policies of the school to parents and local
residents”, “able to discuss with the parents and local residents the image of the children
to be nurtured in the region”, etc.

23Lessonimprovement
Student
guidance
Responses todiversity“Able to advance lesson improvement based on the perspective of active learning”, “ableto lead curriculum development”, etc.
“Able to build an organizational structure to address student guidance issues such as
bullying and school attendance refusal”, “able to build an organizational structure to
respond to special support education issues, etc.
“Able to build an organizational structure to improve the academic ability of children inpoor families”, “able to create a system that organically links staff possessing diverse
expertise”, etc.

* Questions were posed on to what extent the principals looked back to the day when they wereappointed to their school to the present day in relation to each of the observable variables using
five scale points: “1. Not at all”, “2. Not very much”, “3. Neither yes nor no”, “4. To a certain
extent”, and “5. Very much”, and the results were analyzed using factor analysis.
Subsequently, out of the four elements, we focused on “local community collaboration” andlesson improvement”, and in order to grasp what kind of factors were affecting them, we
performed a multiple regression analysis using the subscale scores (average value of the scores ofthe observed variables included in each factor) as explanatory variables.
(ii) Principal results relating to a sense of effective leadership
Regarding a sense of effective leadership with regard to “local community collaboration”, it was foundthat the sense of effectiveness tended to be higher, where the principal’s school was an elementary school
and it was recognized that learning at self-motivating clubs and academic conferences was beneficial as a
growth opportunity, where the principal’s school had a school support local community headquarters or
school and local community collaborative headquarters, where the school was implementing integrated
elementary and lower secondary school education, the smaller the size of the school, the larger the numberof family or local community mentors (spouses, parents, friends, neighbours, etc.) and the greater the senseof usefulness of support from the education chief.
Regarding a sense of effective leadership with regard to “lesson improvement”, it was found that thesense of effectiveness tended to be higher, the more it was recognized by aspiring principals up until theirearly 40s and women that learning at self-motivating clubs and academic conferences was beneficial as a
growth opportunity, it was recognized knowledge from books, etc. is useful as a growth opportunity, thegreater the number of years of service as principal at the current school and the greater the sense of
usefulness of support from the education chief.

(iii) Degree of job satisfaction
In order to be able to secure excellent human resources for the principal, what is needed is toimprove the appeal of the job and to increase the degree of job satisfaction. For this purpose, it isnecessary to clarify the composition of degree of job satisfaction and to clarify the influencing
factors. Therefore, we analyzed the variables (observable variables) that measure the degree ofjob satisfaction through factor analysis, and as shown in Table 6, summarized the five elements:“work-related satisfaction” (satisfaction level of finding the job rewarding), “relationshipsatisfaction” (degree of satisfaction with regard to relationships with teachers and staff), “degreeof satisfaction with the state of the school” (degree of satisfaction with the situation of the children
at the school where the principal works), “degree of satisfaction with the work conditions” (degree24

of satisfaction with a work life balance and treatment), and “degree of satisfaction with therelationship with administrative officials” (degree of satisfaction with the relationship with thechief of education and the board of education).
Table 6 Elements of job satisfaction
Elements
Work-related
satisfaction
Relationshipsatisfaction
Satisfaction withthe state of theschoolSpecific items“Able to demonstrate ability”, “able to demonstrate independence”, etc.
“Relationship with nursing teachers”, “relationship with administrative staff”, etc.
“Calm atmosphere of the school”, “growth of the children”, etc.

Satisfaction with“Acquisition of annual paid leave”, “salary / benefits”, etc.
the work
conditions
Satisfaction with
“Leadership of the chief of education”, “support of the board of education”
the relationshipwithadministrative
officials* Questions were posed on the extent to which the principal was satisfied to each of the observable variables
using five scale points: “1. Very dissatisfied”, “2. Somewhat dissatisfied”, “3. Neither yes nor no”, “4. Somewhat
satisfied” and “5. Very satisfied”, and the results were analyzed using factor analysis.

Subsequently, out of the four factors, we focused on “relationship satisfaction” and“satisfaction with the work conditions”, and in order to grasp what kind of factors were affecting
them, we performed a multiple regression analysis using the subscale scores (average value of thescores of the observed variables included in each factor) as explanatory variables.
(iii) Principal results relating to degree of job satisfaction
Regarding “work-related satisfaction”, it was found that the degree of satisfaction tended to be higher,
the more experience of training there was for aspiring principals up until the age of 40 and women at the
National Institute for School Teachers and Staff Development, the higher the sense of usefulness of support
from the administrative staff, and the higher the sense of usefulness of support from the chief of education.
Regarding “satisfaction with work conditions”, it was found that the degree of satisfaction tended tobe higher, the more recognition there was by women of how learning at self-motivating clubs and academic
conferences was an opportunity for growth, and if there was long-term trainee experience at the Institute,the higher the sense of usefulness of support from the administrative staff, and the higher the sense of
usefulness of support from the chief of education.

(iv) Competencies to be learnt especially at graduate school for each career stage
Interest in graduate school education is increasing as an important opportunity for improving
the competence of the principals. When considering the role that graduate school education plays
in improving the competence of the principals, it is indispensable to consider the “timeliness” of25

what kind of content is to be learnt at what career stage.
Therefore, 37 questions on the competencies required of principals were set, and where current
teachers and staff at the three career stages of “principal”, “vice-principal/deputy principal”,“senior teacher/advanced skills teacher/chief teacher” were sent to a teacher education graduate
school, etc. for the purpose of enhancing the competence of current and future principals, we asked
them to choose five competencies to be learnt especially at graduate school for each respective
career stage. The top six items for each position are summarized in Table 7.
(iv) Principal results relating to competencies to be learnt especially at graduate school by career stage
The results showed that there were differences in the competencies to be acquired at graduate school foreach career stage, and in particular, there were large differences between what should be learnt at graduate
school during the “senior teacher/advanced skills teacher/chief teacher” stage and what should be learnt
at graduate school “before becoming vice-principal/deputy principal” and afterwards. It is thought that
this is a reflection of the managerial position of the vice-principal/deputy principal which differs from thejob responsibilities of the senior teacher/advanced skills teacher/chief teacher”.

Table 7 Competencies to be learnt particularly at graduate school by career stage (top six
items)
1st

2nd

Ability toconceive aschool vision

Crisismanagement
skillsPrincipal

Viceprincipal /deputyprincipal
Seniorteacher /advancedskills chiefteacher /chiefteacher

Crisismanagement
skillsExpertise inthecurriculum,
subjectteaching,
student
guidance, etc.

3rd

4th

Beliefs andAbility toprinciples
promoteconcerning
curriculum
education
management
based onsocietalchanges
Ability to
Ability to
Ability toconceive a
guide teachers create aschool vision and staff
collaborative
atmosphereinside theschoolAbility to
Ability to
improvepromotelessons from curriculum
themanagement
perspective ofactivelearning

Ability to
guideteachers and
staff

5th
Decisionmaking

6th
Knowledge ofeducational
measures of
the national
and local
governments

Ability to
Ability tocollaborate
promotewith andcurriculum
cooperate with management
the local
communityand parents
Ability to
Crisiscreate amanagement
collaborative skills
atmosphereinside theschool(2) Overseas comparative study of the role of schools in other countries and teaching systemof teachers and staff
Conducting an overseas comparative study is one way of obtaining knowledge that is helpful
in terms of reviewing the teaching system of teachers and staff, etc. In the overseas comparative
26

study, we aimed to conduct comparative research from the perspective of clarifying (1) the
characteristics of the role of schools in Japan, (2) the characteristics of the work for which theJapanese teachers are responsible, and (3) the characteristics of the workflow when helping
Japanese children (for example, the flow when a violent incident occurs) in order to “visualize”
the characteristics of the teachers and staff, etc. in Japan.
Two criteria were set as the criteria when selecting the target countries of the survey. That is
the scope (broad - narrow) of the school educational activities and the content of the duties (clear- ambiguous).
Ninomiya (2014) 4 presents a global school typology theory of “a memorable school” which
incorporates the characteristics of “a school that focuses on the subjects” and “a school whereinteresting activities such as elective subjects, club activities, and special activities are available,
and teachers and experts care and look after the students”. This “broad – narrow” scope of theschool educational activities should connect to the teaching and guidance structure of teachers andstaff, etc. In addition, the method of employment in the world, including the employment ofteachers and staff, is divided into a “job system” in which the duties are made clear and the salaries
are linked, and a “membership system” in which workers are employed without clarification of
their duties. “The clear – ambiguous” nature of the duties is likely to greatly affect the teachingsystem of teachers and staff, etc.
In the overseas comparative study, the teaching and guidance structure of teachers and staff,
etc. was divided, based on the above standards: (1) a school system type where teachers serve
multiple functions but have restricted duties (first quadrant); (2) a school system type where
teachers serve limited functions and have restricted duties (second quadrant); (3) a school system
type where teachers serve limited functions and have ambiguous duties (third quadrant); and (4)a school system type where teachers serve multiple functions and have ambiguous duties (fourth
quadrant) (however the school system type located in the third quadrant where the teachers serve
limited functions but their duties are ambiguous does not, in reality, exist). In addition, taking into
consideration regional balances, we conducted a survey using the target countries of the survey of
the National Institution for Education Policy Research (2013): the United States, the United
Kingdom, France, Germany, China, South Korea, with the addition of Singapore as the seventhcountry. The standpoint of each country is shown in Figure 8.

4

Authored and edited by Shozo Ninomiya, “New Edition Schools around the World - From the
Education System to Everyday School Scenes”, Academic Journal Publication, 2014.
27

Content of teachers’ duties (clear)
FranceGermany
School system type where
teachers serve limited
functions and have

Scope ofeducational
activities (narrow)

U.S., U.K., China,
Singapore
School system type where
teachers serve multiple
functions but have restricted
duties (first quadrant)

restricted duties (second
quadrant)

school system type where

School system type where
teachers serve multiple
functions and haveambiguous duties (fourth
quadrant)
Japan
South Korea

teachers serve limited
functions and haveambiguous duties (third
quadrant)

Scope ofeducational
activities (broad)

Content of teachers’ duties (ambiguous)
Figure 8 Types of teaching and guidance structures of teachers and staff, etc. in other countries
In order to visualize the characteristics of the duties for which Japanese faculty members are
responsible, we established 40 duties that are generally performed in school, and conducted asurvey on whether or not they are being performed in the school, and if they are, who is in charge.
When examining the content of the duties, the content of the work of the “Survey on the Actual
Work of Teachers” conducted by the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science andTechnology in FY2006 was used as reference, and the categories of “work related to guidance forthe students”, “work related to managing the school” and “work related to responses to outside
persons” were kept for the categories of work.
Out of the 40 duties, aside from the seven items that all teachers in all countries are in chargeof: “checking attendance”, lessons”, “research of teaching materials”, “experiential activities”,“preparation, scoring, evaluation of exam questions”, “exam supervision”, and “evacuation drills,
school safety guidance”, the work the teachers of each respective country were or were not incharge of is shown in Table 9. The symbol ◯ shows the teacher was “in charge of the work”, thesymbol △ shows the teacher was “sometimes in charge of the work or some of the teachers werein charge of the work” while the symbol x shows the teacher is “not in charge of the work”. Work

where teachers in three or more countries chose “sometimes in charge of the work or some of theteachers were in charge of the work” or “not in charge of the work” are shown in grey.
Principal results relating to overseas comparative research on the role of schools in other countries
and the teaching system of teachers and staff, etc.
The results showed that in other countries teachers are not in charge of administrative tasks such as“work related to managing the school” and “work related to responses to outside persons” for which
Japanese teachers are responsible, and that more Japanese teachers are in charge of “work related to28

guidance for students” than teachers in other countries. This confirms what was already pointed out in the
2nd OECD Teaching and Learning International Survey.
In Japan, it is commonplace for teachers to be in charge of “guidance and monitoring absence fromschool”, “contacting absent children”, “morning homeroom”, “school lunches and nutritional guidance atlunchtime”, “guidance during break times”, “school cleaning guidance”, “health and sanitary guidance”,“counseling, psychological care”, “guidance for club activities not included in the classes”, which is notnecessarily the case with teachers in other countries. This result backs up the suggestion that “in order toensure Japanese teachers are less busy, it is important to lessen the need for Japanese teachers to be incharge of peripheral duties (handling of administrative work, etc.: note of the person citing the survey) as
well as guidance for children such as counseling, guidance on academic paths, meal and cleaning
guidance, guidance on club activities, which are taken on in addition to regular classes” as indicated inresearch based on further analysis of the 2nd OECD Teaching and Learning International Survey.

In Japan, there is a need in the future to consider how to categorize work, which is not a lesson
but is related to school education, commonly taken on by teachers such as “guidance andmonitoring absence from school”, “contacting absent children”, “morning homeroom”, “school
lunches and nutritional guidance at lunchtime”, “guidance during break times”, “school cleaning
guidance, and “guidance for club activities not included in the classes”.
France and Germany serve as informative examples for this point. In France, time is divided
into three categories: “school time (temps scolaire)” where classes are conducted on the
responsibility of the school, “peripheral school (temps périscolaire)” such as acceptance in themorning, lunch breaks, and acceptance and support after school, and “temps extrascolaire” on
Saturday, Sunday, Wednesday afternoon, short vacations, the summer vacation, etc. In addition to“time outside of school”, the relationship of “peripheral school (temps périscolaire)” with school
education is also emphasized, but is not categorized as school education, and the principal person
responsible is not the teacher, but social welfare and education professionals referred to as“animatour”.
In Germany, all-day school is being expanded based on the results of the PISA survey in 2000,
but this is also sometimes criticized from the viewpoint of social education, youth aid, and family
education as “school education monopoly”. Also even in Germany, there are children’s activities
such as social education and youth aid, which are specialized services provided by social welfare
and education professionals.
As indicated from these examples in France and Germany, there is the possibility that there isa three-part theory of “school”, “peripheral school”, “outside of school” which differs from thetwo-part theory generally used in Japan of “school” and “outside of school”. Although the scopeof school educational activities is certainly narrow in these countries, we can see from theexamples that the educational activities are likely to be substantial if the time of the “peripheral
school” is included, and that social welfare / education professionals are the ones in charge during
this time29

The current teaching system of teachers and staff, etc. in Japan is categorized in the school
system type where teachers serve multiple functions and have ambiguous duties (fourth quadrant).
Certainly, there are many points that we should continue in the future as there are basic merits
using the conventional way. However, in order to plan and implement a curriculum that fosters
the competencies required for a new era, there is a need to reconstruct the teaching system ofteachers and staff, etc. in order to resolve the complicated and diverse issues, and to ensuresufficient face-to-face time for teachers and children. In such case, Japan will be moving closer tothe school system type where teachers serve multiple functions but have restricted duties (first
quadrant) or the school system type where teachers serve limited functions and have restricted
duties (second quadrant).
In this research study, we were able to confirm that it is possible to take measures for a school
system type where teachers serve multiple functions but have restricted duties (first quadrant) suchas promotion of the placement of school counselors, club activities support staff andadministrative staff as well as measures aimed at a school system type where teachers serve limited
functions and have restricted duties (second quadrant) in the direction of placement of social
welfare and education professionals in the “peripheral school” activities incorporating the threepart theory of “school”, “peripheral school” and “outside of school” as with France and Germany.
There were issues as well in this research study. When creating the list, we checked literature
and websites, and then took the procedure of checking with multiple educational personnel of therelevant country and filling in the list, but the actual situation of each country is diverse, andfurther verification will be needed in the future.
Table 9 The role of teachers in other countries
Ⅳ

Ⅱ

Ⅰ

Quadrant

U.S.

U.K.

China

Singapore

FranceGermany

Japan

South Korea

Guidance and monitoring school absenteeism

×

×

×

×

×

×

△

×

Contacting absent children

×

×

○

○

×

○

○

○

Morning homeroom
Ordering and administrative handling to purchase teaching materials

×

○

○

×

×

×

○

○

×

×

△

×

×

×

△

×

Grade information management

○

×

△

○

○

○

○

○

Preparing teaching materials (printing and preparing objects)

○

×

○

○

○

○

○

○

Individual guidance and supplementary guidance for children with issues

○

×

○

○

○

○

○

○

Running and preparation of experiential activities

○

×

○

○

○

○

○

○

School lunches and nutritional guidance at lunchtime

×

×

×

×

×

×

○

○

Guidance during break times

○

×

○

△

×

○

○

○

Name of country
Work

Work related to guidance for the children

30

Work related to responding

Work related to managing the school to outside persons

School cleaning guidance

×

×

○

×

×

×

○

○

Athletic meets, cultural festivals, etc.

○

○

○

○

×

○

○

○

Managing and preparing athletic meets, cultural festivals, etc.

○

○

○

○

×

○

○

○

Academic path guidance and consultation

△

○

○

○

×

○

○

○

Health and sanitation guidance

×

×

○

○

○

○

△

○

Guidance for students who shows problematic behavior

△

○

○

○

○

×

○

○

Counseling, psychological care

×

×

○

○

○

×

△

×

Guidance for club activities not included in classes

△

×

○

△

×

△

○

△

Children and student council guidance

○

○

○

×

×

○

○

○

Organization of classroom environment, equipment management

○

×

△

○

○

○

○

○

School patrols and safety inspection

×

×

○

×

×

○

×

Answers to surveys and statistics of national and local governments

×

×

×

×

○

Receipt and storage of documents

×

×

△

×

×

×

×

×

×

×

○

△

×

Preparation and execution of budget proposal

△

○

△

Facility management, inspection and repair

×

×

×

×

×

△

×

Collection of academic payments

○

×

×

Preparation of documents related to teachers’ business trip

×

×

×

×

○

School public relations (websites, etc.)

×

×

△

×

×

○

Office work related to transfer and relocation of students

×

×

○

×

×

×

Home visits

×

×

○

×

×

×

Cooperation with regional events

○

○

×

○

×

Coordination with local volunteers
Management of managing organizations in which local residents
participate

×

×

△

×

×

○

△

△

×

×

×

×

△

△

△

△

△

×

×

×

×

×

×

○

△

×

×

×

○

×

△

×

○

△

△
△
×
×

* The symbol 〇 has been added to “things the teacher is in charge of”, the symbol △ to “things the teacher ispartially in charge of or thing only some of the teachers are in charge of” and the symbol x to “things theteachers is not in charge of”. The duties for which teachers in three or more countries chose △ or x are
indicated in grey. Although 40 jobs were set in all, the seven categories of “checking attendance”, lessons”,“research of teaching materials”, “experiential activities”, “preparation, scoring, evaluation of examquestions”, “exam supervision”, and “evacuation drills, school safety guidance” have not been listed.

31