Development Bank of Japan
Research Report
No. 25

Environmental Information Policy and Utilization ofInformation Technology:
Toward a Shift in Environmental Policy Paradigm

March 2002

Economic and Industrial Research Department
Development Bank of Japan

Contents

Summary ............................................................................................................................. iii
Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 1
I Transition of Environmental Policy Measures and Environmental
Information Policy .........................................................................................................3
1. Transition Environmental Administration............................................................................... 3
1.1. Transition from Industrial Pollution Problems to Environmental Problems
and Changes in Policy Measures – Environmental Information Policy ............... 3
1.2. Definition and Functions of Environmental Information ........................................ 4
2. Current Status of Environmental Information Distribution ................................................. 5
II Environmental Information Policy and Utilization of Information Technology inEurope and US..............................................................................................................11
1. Environmental Information Policy in the US........................................................................112.

1.1. Movement of Environmental Information Policy by Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) .............................................................................................11
1.2. Environmental Information Policy at the Local Area.............................................17
Trends in Europe .......................................................................................................................192.1. Environmental Democracy, Corporate Activities andEnvironmental Information Policy .............................................................................192.2. Collaboration of Industry, Academia and Government in Environmental
Information Policy in Finland and Sweden ..............................................................20
2.3. Local Version of EMAS in UK (LA-EMAS)...........................................................26
2.4. Environmental Information Laws in Germany ........................................................29
3. Conclusion...................................................................................................................................30
III Development of Environmental Information Policy in Japan .................................... 32
1. Development of E-government and Computerization in Local Communities................32
1.1. Development of E-government at the National Level............................................32
1.2. Computerization in Local Communities and E-government.................................33
2. Environmental Information Policy Measures........................................................................35
2.1. National Policy Measures.............................................................................................35
2.2. Local Policy Measures ..................................................................................................38
3. Conclusion...................................................................................................................................43

Development Bank of Japan Research Report/ No. 25 i

IV Issues to be Addressed in Future Environmental Information Policy ....................... 44
1. Structural Issues..........................................................................................................................45
2. Institutional Issues .....................................................................................................................45
3. Contents Issues...........................................................................................................................46
References........................................................................................................................... 49

ii

Development Bank of Japan Research Report/ No. 25

Environmental Information Policy and Utilization of Information
Technology:
Toward a Shift in Environmental Administration Paradigm
Summary
1. As observed in the case of global warming, environmental problems have ceased to be local
issues, with the relativization of the cause-effect relationship between sources and environmental
burden (i.e. pollution). Based on this development, some have pointed out the need for a shift inenvironmental administration paradigm from the traditional regulation and supervision of firms
identified as sources of pollution to collaboration between the public and private sectors, relying
to some extent on the initiatives of businesses and local residents. In this regard, the distributionof environmental information is important to enable the efficient implementation ofenvironmental policy as well as to ensure smooth sharing of responsibilities between the public
and private sector. It is therefore considered that the development of infrastructure for providing
sufficient environmental information will be a key factor in promoting environmental policy inthe years ahead. Focusing on environmental information and its distribution in the framework ofenvironmental policy as a requirement for promoting collaboration between the public andprivate sectors, this report mainly examines how best to utilize information technology as well as
institutional issues related thereto.
2. Collaboration between the public and private sectors has only begun to materialize at thelevel of local governments, which are important actors in environmental administration. However,some issues have already been pointed out. In bringing about a shift in environmental
administration paradigm as mentioned above, the existing divide in environmental information
should be addressed, not only between private companies and residents but also between thegovernment and the private sector – including private companies – to ensure effective sharing of
information among the governments (local authorities), businesses and residents.
At the same time, the collection and provision of information should consider the secrecy
inherent to environmental information, the diversity of information that reflects specific local
conditions as well as the complexity and specialty in handling information, including the scope of
disclosure.
3. Information technology is a potentially effective tool in sharing information. In the US,
information technology has been introduced through the “e-government” initiative, a concretemeasure for reinventing government. Based on the five principles for environmental regulation
reform, the Environmental Protection Agency has also been engaged in the reconstruction ofenvironmental administration with information technology. The improvement of environmental
information has been identified as a priority in the initiative. A framework for active participationof local residents and private companies has been developed mainly through the establishment ofa system to ensure consistent evaluation of environmental levels in various parts of the country interms of air and soil pollution, among others.
The improvement of environmental information and the utilization of information
technology have also made headway at the level of local areas. Coordination between industry,
Development Bank of Japan Research Report/ No. 25 iii

academia and the government can be observed in measures such as the development ofenvironmental legislation, electronic processing of applications for permission and approval,
original methods of environmental monitoring, as well as the enhancement of, and improved
access to, information related to the Superfund Act.
In Nordic countries (Finland and Sweden), the framework of an e-government based on
information technology has been developed to improve not only efficiency but also conveniencein view of the harsh climate. A similar movement can be observed in environmental
administration. At the local level, relevant authorities, in cooperation with the central government,
are developing a monitoring system. Other examples of collaboration among the industrial,academic and public sectors include the development of environmental information technology
and lifecycle assessment. Such moves are supported by the principle of disclosure ofenvironmental information. In the UK, some local governments have adopted the corporate
environmental management system (EMAS), attesting to their willingness to manage
environmental performance in collaboration with local communities (residents and businesses).
Germany enacted an Environmental Statistics Law for enhancing environmental information
along with the disclosure scheme under the Environmental Information Disclosure Law. Such
institutional infrastructure, though not necessarily linked with information technology, shouldplay an important role in its eventual utilization.
4. Turning to the advancement of e-government in Japan, substantial progress can be observedin the installation of information equipment and networking. However, some technical issues(security, certification, etc.) and institutional issues (administrative procedures, etc.) remainunresolved, as well as sources of financing. All in all, the government sector is experiencing aconsiderable delay in introducing electronic procedures.
At the local areas, computerization plans have been prepared mainly in prefectures and large
cities for developing both hardware and software. In order to promote e-government under eventougher financial constraints than in the central government, local governments needs to change
their administrative processes in the first place, then computerize administration systems in asuitable manner. It is also important for environmental administration to ensure smooth
introduction of information technology in the government sector through information sharing
based on public-private collaboration.
There has been notable progress in environmental information policy. For instance, theNational Institute for Environmental Studies has developed an environmental information
system to provide data on the Internet. The environmental information thus provided is expected
to improve both qualitatively and quantitatively with the development of related schemes andoperations, chiefly under the Information Disclosure Law and the PRTR Law. The utilization of
information technology and the development of e-government has started only recently in local
governments. Some also point out many issues regarding the disclosure of environmental
information, as ordinances have been revised in only a handful of local governments to ensurecompliance with the Information Disclosure Law.
Nonetheless, some local governments have taken the initiative in introducing information
technology for the enhancement and disclosure of environmental information. Examples inwaste disposal include the identification of the weight and movement of household refuse using
the global positioning system (GPS); a household refuse management system using bar codes;
and an illegal dumping prevention system with remote surveillance cameras. Such initiatives aresupported by heightened awareness of environmental problems on the part of local residents andcooperation/collaboration related to the surveillance of illegal dumping. Some local governments
have introduced a local version of environmental accounting on a pilot basis to start theiv Development Bank of Japan Research Report/ No. 25

disclosure of information in electronic form. Thus, the enhancement of environmental
information and the sharing of such information between the public and private sectors ismaking headway at the local level, through the implementation of environmental monitoring andenvironmental management systems.
5. Any shift in the environmental administration paradigm through public-private collaboration
will require better environmental information and the elimination of the existing divide inenvironmental information. However, challenges remain in the field, including the developmentof hardware and software for creating e-government with information technology as well as
institutional and operational issues for the enhancement of environmental information. The
contents of environmental information should also be considered from the viewpoint ofevaluating environmental performance at the local level. Above all, the development of
infrastructure such as soil pollution databases will be important in providing essential information
for corporate activities and daily life of the public.
The implementation of environmental information policy must consider the non-disclosureof expertise and technological information owned by businesses. Consideration should also begiven to the specific characters of environmental information (information related to toxicity andenvironmental burden in particular). Indeed, private companies often disclose information related
to toxicity on a voluntary basis for the purpose of environmental risk management, including dataon soil pollution. However, companies are always concerned about possible public criticism as aresult of disclosure. The government and local residents must refrain from preventing legitimate
corporate activities.
The many issues to be addressed in bringing about a shift of environmental administration
paradigm require more than efforts at the level of local communities. They need to be overcome
through coordinated efforts with support from the central government, in such forms ascooperation covering wide areas and mutual assistance among the industrial, academic andprivate sectors (including NGOs and NPOs).

Development Bank of Japan Research Report/ No. 25 v

Introduction
This report examines a new concept of “environmental information policy,” which has been
gaining importance as the focus of environmental policy has changed from industrial pollution
problems to environmental problems. In light of the characteristics of “environmental
information,” which differ substantially from those of general information, this report discusses
how information technology (IT), which has already been introduced in the public and private
sectors, may be used to address environmental problems. Consideration will also be given to thecurrent status and remaining issues from institutional and systemic standpoints. Assuming thatthe smooth collection, accumulation and distribution of environmental information will help
address future environmental problems, this report focuses not on information technology itself,
but on the characteristics of environmental information that affect the use of IT, on institutional
issues related to the collection, accumulation and distribution of environmental information, as
well as on the socio-economic system that surrounds them.
Since “environmental information” itself is a new concept, this report should be regarded aspilot study.

Contents of the report

This report comprises four chapters. Chapter I outlines the above-mentioned transition fromindustrial pollution problems to environmental problems and the accompanying changes inpolicy measures, as well as the usefulness of environmental information and the importance ofenvironmental information policy. Chapter II provides an overview of the characteristics ofenvironmental administration and the current status of environmental information policy
overseas including the US and Nordic countries (Finland and Sweden), along with theirimplications for environmental information policy in Japan. Chapter III focuses on developments
in Japan and examines the development of environmental information policy, particularly
innovative measures at the national or local level, outlining the introduction of IT in local
governments and tasks for the years ahead. Relevant challenges in the area of environmental
information will also be identified. Based on the analysis in the previous chapters, Chapter IV
identifies an agenda and issues to be addressed in future environmental information policy.

Development Bank of Japan Research Report/ No. 25 1

I. Transition Environmental Policy Measures and Environmental
Information Policy
This chapter first outlines the transition of environmental administration, followed by discussion
on environmental information and on environmental administration that revolves around suchinformation.
1. Transition of Environmental Administration
1.1. Transition from Industrial Pollution Problems to Environmental Problems andChanges in Policy Measures – Environmental Information Policy
The focus of environmental issues has shifted from the typical seven types of industrial pollution
caused mainly by corporate activities, including air and water pollution, to modern types ofproblems including global warming, ozone depletion and endocrine disrupters.
In terms of policy issues, the shift is marked by the relativization of the cause-effectrelationship, in that many complex factors in time and space combine to create environmental
burden, making it harder to identify the relationship between those causes and environmental
pollution. The increase in the number and complexity of the factors has resulted in thediversification of actors involved in addressing environmental problems. Against this backdrop,
Local Agenda 21, adopted by the United Nations in the early 1990s, states that various actors,
including governments, businesses, local residents and NPOs, need to work together inaddressing environmental problems at the local level – i.e. the need of a shift in paradigm.
What kind of policy measures should be taken to address such policy issues? Traditional
policy measures against industrial pollution are known as “direct measures” in that governments
are directly involved. Direct measures are further classified into two categories, including thedevelopment of environmental infrastructure, in which governments themselves are actively
involved, and various regulations on activities in the private sector. They may be defined as aparadigm of unilateral government control.
In contrast, recent policy measures to cope with environmental problems have diversified
due to the complication of factors producing environmental burden and the multiplication of
causes. As a result, attention has shifted to “indirect measures” to reduce environmental burden
indirectly by changing corporate behavior, etc. Some of the indirect measures are focused on
government activities themselves including research and development in public institutes and the
reduction in environmental burden through green procurement, while others induce changes incorporate activities through taxes and levies, including the controversial carbon tax, as well as
through environmental subsidies and emission rights trading.
Most importantly, the collection and distribution of relevant information – “environmental
information” to be discussed later – is required both qualitatively and quantitatively to ensure
effectiveness of indirect measures, in addition to direct measures. In traditional industrial
pollution problems, the existence of an information divide between businesses and the local
population justified certain involvement of governments in the flow of environmental
information to ensure public access to confidential information owned by businesses, including
the emissions of hazardous substances, thus enabling them to demand appropriate policy
measures. In this sense, information flowed in one direction. As regards the current
environmental problems, however, collaboration between the public and private sectors isimportant because it is difficult for governments alone to cope with such problems.
Governments, businesses (including NPOs) and residents need to share information in
Development Bank of Japan Research Report/ No. 25 3

addressing environmental problems from respective standpoints.
The collection and distribution of information should be supported by basic policy measures,
which may be understood as software infrastructure. They include the constitutional right toknow and legislative schemes such as the Information Disclosure Law, as well as environmental
information databases and the PRTR Law1, which also involve the private sector. Environmental
information policy, discussed in this report, comprises such basic policy measures, and is basedon environmental information. In other words, environmental information policy focuses onpolicy measures as the foundation of direct and indirect policy measures.
1.2. Definition and Functions of Environmental Information
What is “environmental information”?
Environmental information encompasses not only environmental information such as the
toxicity of chemical substances (environmental information in a narrow sense) but also on“facility and technology information” such as private recycling facilities, “information related toenvironmental systems and policies” including information on environmental laws, regulations
and policies, as well as information on “environmental management” including information oncompanies seeking compliance with the ISO14000 series and on corporate environment reports
and environmental accounting (environmental information in a broad sense). (For the purpose ofthis report, “environmental information” refers to environmental information in a broad sense.)2
Most of the current environmental problems are beyond the complete understanding of any
one person, yet the whole picture cannot be grasped without information. Here, information is atool for transferring knowledge to others. It is noted that “information” differs from “data.”3
For example, when the density of a substance in the environment is measured, the measured
density itself is a mere datum, and is insufficient as environmental information. The datum isuseful only when it is accompanied by relevant expertise such as criteria concerning toxicity andtechniques of comparison with average density. Information is thus more important than data
because it is communicated with clearer purposes as materials for judgment, etc.
Environmental information that is solely used for environmental administration has different
characteristics from information used for ordinary policies. Namely, it is characterized by (1)secrecy, (2) diversity and (3) complexity and specialty.
First, information related to hazardous substances generated by corporate activities and theiremissions tends to be kept secret, for it negatively affects the image of the companies concerned.
Second, different countries and different regions use different sorts of environmental
information in policy-making, as the natural environment varies in urban and mountainous areas,
requiring distinct ideas for protecting the nature. That is, each area has its own requirement ofenvironmental information. Third, the aforementioned characteristics of environmental
information result in various complexities: the scope of information to be collected and how
such information should be collected; how to manage the information thus collected; the scopeof information to be disclosed and those who have the right to request such disclosure, whichshould be determined in relation to the secrecy of corporate information. Environmental

1
2

3

4

Pollutant Release and Transfer Register Law (Law No.86 of 1999).
Yumihiko Matsu-ura, Kankyo-ho, Seibunndo, 1999, p.99 1.22 classifies environmental information into (1) information related
to the environment itself, (2) information related to toxicity, (3) information related to facilities such as the use and emission ofsubstances creating environmental burden, (4) information related to environmental burden, (5) information related toenvironmental conservation technology, (6) institutional information, (7) information related to accidents, incidents, lawsuits,etc., and (8) other information.
Environmental System Committee, Japan Society of Civil Engineers ed., Kankyo System: Sono Rinen to Kiso Shuho, Kyoritsu
Shuppan, 1998, p.95.
Development Bank of Japan Research Report/ No. 25

information is also highly specialized and considerable expertise is required to understand it.4
Figure 1-1. Concept of Environmental Information
Information on environment itself(e.g. animal and plant ecosystem)
Environmental
information(in narrow sense)

Information related to toxicity(e.g. chemical substances)
Information related to environmental burden(e.g. environmental density measurements)

Environmental information(in broad sense)

Characteristics of environmental
information
Secrecy(particularly in narrow sense)
Diversity
Complexity/specialty

Source:Information on facilities and technologies(e.g. private recycling facilities)

Effect ofenvironmental
Information related to environmental institutions and policies information(e.g. environmental laws and regulations, information on
distribution
environmental education)

Information on environment management(e.g. ISO14001, environmental accounting)

Efficient environmental administration
Smooth public-private role sharing
Improvement of environmentconsciousness in society as a whole

Source: DBJ.

DBJ.

In executing environmental information policy centered on basic measures, it is therefore
important how to collect and distribute environmental information, which is so unique in nature.
Information technology is a useful tool in distributing environmental information.
In bringing about the aforementioned shift in the paradigm of environmental administration,
the traditional viewpoint of “businesses vs. residents” should be complemented by theperspective of “the government vs. the private sector (including businesses)” to ensure
appropriate environmental information sharing among governments (local authorities),
businesses and residents. The following section examines the current status of environmental
information sharing.
2. Current Status of Environmental Information Distribution
At the level of local authorities, which are expected to become important actors in environmental
information policy, collaboration between the public and private sectors involves obstacles.
For example, a large number of organizational and cost-related problems have been pointed
out as regards the Green Procurement Law5, which has been fully implemented since fiscal 2001.
A questionnaire survey indicates the lack of product information in green procurement, as many
local governments responded that “no information is available” or that “product standard isambiguous” (information from businesses to governments).

4

5“Uncertainty” should also be noted as contributing to the complexity and specialty of environmental information. Toxicity
itself may change with the sophistication of technologies and research. Some factors, such as soil pollution, may only berecognized at the time of redevelopment. The collection and distribution of information on such factors need special
consideration, because they must be treated as risks.
Officially called “the Law concerning the Promotion of the Procurement of Environmentally Sound Supplies by
Governments,” the law aims at promoting the procurement of environmentally sound supplies, etc. by governments andfacilitating the shift of demand toward information and other environmental supplies.
Development Bank of Japan Research Report/ No. 25 5

Figure 1-2. Negative Factors Affecting Green Procurement by Local Governments
0

10

20

30

40

50

Low consciousness
in organization
組織意識の低さ

53.4

High
product prices
製品の価格が高い

45.7

No information
available
情報がない

45.1

Ambiguous製品基準が曖昧
product standard

35.3

Insufficient
product varieties
製品種類等が少ない

28.5

Low consciousness of 担当者意識が低い
personnel in charge

26.3

Bad製品の品質が悪い
quality of products

Source:60

Information factors

13.5

Cumbersome
procurement
購入方法が煩雑3.9

Product specifications
製品の規格

3.8

No particularobstacles
特に障害はない3.3

Othersその他

1.8

No回答なしresponse

1.7

Unit: %

Environment Agency, “Questionnaire Survey on Green Procurement by Local Governments,” autumn 1999.

Other examples indicate the lack of information on the condition of soil pollution, theimpact of environmental pollution on human health, etc. As regards soil pollution, some local
governments have disclosed information on incidents of soil pollution on websites. In addition,
institutional designs concerning soil pollution have been provided for in ordinances. Nonetheless,the efforts are still far from being completed (environmental information from governments toresidents or from businesses to residents).
Figure 1-3. Examples of Recent Soil Pollution Incidents in Tokyo
Business establishment
Former Tokyo Gas Omori
Plant
Nisshinbo Industries
Tokyo Plant
Nissan Motor Ogikubo
Plant
Source:6

Condition of pollution
Arsenic level in groundwater was 1,700 times as high as
environmental quality standard, etc.
Six items including the levels of lead and arsenic exceeded
environmental quality standards or reference values.
Trichloroethylene level was 1,653 times as high as environmental
quality standard, etc.

Compiled by DBJ from Tokyo Metropolitan Government homepage.

Development Bank of Japan Research Report/ No. 25

Made public in
Jan. 2001
Jan. 2001
Sep. 2000

Figure 1-4. Availability of Environmental Information to Residents
Environmental protection
by businesses
企業の環境取組

2.1 14.4

53.3

14.5

15.7

Load on environment
from businesses
企業の環境負荷

2.3 15.3

53.3

14.0

15.1

Load on environment
from products
製品の環境負荷

2.7

22.8

50.4

9.5

14.6

Environmental
policies
環境政策

3.1

24.4

48.2

9.1

15.2

Global environment
地球環境

5.6

29.8

42.5

7.7

14.4

Local environment
地域環境

7.4

29.4

41.9

7.6

13.7

Impacton living
生活への影響

5.5

34.6

0%

Source:

40.7

20%
40%
接していて十分
Satisfactory
接していないので欲しい
Unavailable and unsatisfactory
無回答
No reply

5.0 14.2

60%
80%
100%
接しているがもっと欲しい
Available
but unsatisfactory
接していないが欲しくない
Unavailable
and unwanted

Environment Agency, “Survey on Sound Lifestyle” (March 1998).

Conversely, residents as providers of opinion have increased their demand for information,
mainly on the impact of environmental policies and problems affecting their lives. Suchinformation is essential if residents are to change their status from mere receivers of information
to independent actors in environmental protection, because it enables them to urge local
governments or businesses to take action based on actual conditions of the local environment(environmental information from residents to governments or from residents to businesses).6
In financial terms, the total amount of environmental budget has been declining as local
governments are forced to cut back spending as a whole.

6This was illustrated by the response of residents to media reports on dioxin-polluted vegetables in Saitama Prefecture. Swiftand proper action by the governments or parties concerned is indispensable in such cases.
Development Bank of Japan Research Report/ No. 25 7

Figure 1-5. Trends in Environmental Conservation Budgets of Prefectures and Cabinet
Order-designated Municipalities
500¥ billion

400

Left scale: total amount
Right scale: index (1991=100)

350

400

300
250

300

200
200

150
100

100

50
0
３年度
４年度 1993
５年度 1994
６年度
７年度 1996
８年度 1997
９年度 1998
10年度 1999
11年度
FY 1991
1992
1995
Municipality budget
政令市予算
Municipality budget level
政令市予算水準Municipality budget margin
政令市余力

0

Prefecture budget
都道府県予算Prefecture budget level
都道府県予算水準
Prefecture budget margin
都道府県余力Note:“Margin” indicates an index (level) on fiscal 1991 (=100) of the surplus (ordinary) budget source ratio, which is
calculated as 100 – the ratio of current expense to current income.

Source:Compiled by DBJ from Local Environmental Conservation Measures, White Paper on Local Finance, etc.

Of the total budget related to environmental measures, “direct” management ofenvironmental information accounts for only a small share.7 Under the “general environmental
management” heading, which accounts for 8.5% of total environmental budget, “environmental
information management” represents only about 4% in prefectures and 2% in Cabinet Orderdesignated municipalities. Although other expenses may be regarded as measures related toenvironmental information in a broad sense, as described above,8 it can be concluded that thepolicy measures falling under the heading of environmental management budget account for
merely 0.3% of total environmental budget.
As local governments will have to reconstruct their finances under increasingly difficult
conditions, environmental administration will need to be financed more efficiently.

7

8

8

As regards expenses related to environmental conservation, it has been pointed out that different local governments are
involved in different activities, that investment expenses and maintenance expenses are not clearly separated, that field
expenses are not sufficiently distinguished from management, and that the compilation of data is adversely affected by thevertical division of the government sector. See Imura and Niwatari, “Jichitai ni okeru Kankyo Kaikei no Donyu to sono Igi”,
Chiho Zaimu, Gyosei, November 1999, pp.5-7.
For example, the atmospheric conservation budget of Iwate Prefecture (as of fiscal 1999) includes policy measures such as“environmental monitoring research on PCDDs” and “research on hazardous air pollutants.”
Development Bank of Japan Research Report/ No. 25

Figure 1-6. Composition of Environmental Budget and Environmental Information
BudgetGlobalenvironment:
0.5%

Others:
5.6%

General environmental
conservation: 8.5%

■Composition of environmental budget(total)Air
conservation:
7.9%
Total:¥501.1 billion(FY1999)

Natureprotection:
53.8%

Environmental
health: 0.8%

■Composition of environmental budget(general environmental conservation)
Environmental planning, etc.
環境計画等
Environmental impact assessment, etc.
環境アセス等
Environmental
環境教育 education
Environmental monitoring
環境監視
Environmental
information management
環境情報管理Amenity
快適環境
Others
その他

4%
1%

12%

4%
Water quality
conservation:
22.8%

2%

38%

19%

Inner circle:
prefectures
31% Outer circle: Cabinet
Order-designatedmunicipalities(FY 1999)
17%

16%

23%

2%

27%

4%

Note:

Total of prefectures and Cabinet Order-designated municipalities.

Source:Compiled by DBJ from Local Environmental Conservation Measures, White Paper on Local Finance, etc.

Thus, the aforementioned shift in the paradigm of environmental administration requires theclosing of the environmental information divide not only from the traditional viewpoint of“businesses vs. residents” but also from the perspective of “the government vs. the private sector(including businesses),” as well as efficient sharing of environmental information among thegovernment (local authorities), businesses and residents.
The following chapter examines how environmental information policy has developed
overseas.

Development Bank of Japan Research Report/ No. 25 9

Figure 1-7. Shift toward Environmental Problems and Changing Policy Measures
Environmental problems

Industrial pollution problems

Global environment problems●Warming (climate change)●Ozone depletion●Extinction of wildlife species ●Loss of tropical rain forest, etc.

Damages to human health and living environment
generated from artificial anthropogenic activities
such as business operations
Shift of problems
regardingenvironment●7 typicalpollutions:●Other damages

Urban and living environment problems●Urban and living public nuisances (air pollution, etc.)●Waste increase

air pollution,water pollution, soil pollution,
noise and vibration,
ground level settlement,
offensive odor

Damages to human health caused by hazardous substances●Endocrine disrupter problems(including dioxins)●Relativization of cause-effect relationship●Identification of cause-effect relationship (←PPP)
Characteristics ofpolicy agenda●Expansion in space and time●Role of governments → important→introduction of “sustainable development” concept●Diversification of actors (Local Agenda 21)

Unilateral regulation
by governments

Public-private
collaboration

Diversification ofpolicy measures

Direct measures

Environmental policy
measuresIndirect

Development of environmental infrastructure (waste
treatment facilities, water and sewage, etc.)
Public investment for environmental conservation

Direct regulation

Activities ofgovernments

Involvement inprivate sector
activities

Land use regulation

Research and development
Green procurement

Taxes and levies
Subsidies
Emission rights trading
Tax relief

Information Disclosure Law
Right to know
Rules of environmental
responsibilities
Environmental information
databases
Disclosure of environmental
information (PRTR, etc.)

Government

Government

Flow of environmental
information

Basic measures

Involvement
Businesses

Residents

Businesses

Residents
NPO

Sources:Ueda, “Kankyo Keizaigaku,” Takegahara, JDB Research Report No. 93.

10 Development Bank of Japan Research Report/ No. 25

II. Environmental Information Policy and Utilization of Information
Technology in Europe and USThis chapter outlines innovative environmental information policy measures in Europe and theUnited States. Trends in the US will be described first, focusing on the Superfund Act on soil
pollution administered by the EPA and developments in environmental administration at thestate level, which reflect the diversity and complexity of environmental information. This will befollowed by an overview of legislation and systems concerning environmental information policy
mainly in Nordic countries. Finally, the discussion will turn to German legislation, which aims at
systematic institutional development prior to the construction of environmental information
databases.
1. Environmental Information Policy in the US
1.1. Movement of Environmental Information Policy by Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA)
1.1.1. Relationship between government reinvention and environmental information
policyIn the United States, the EPA is in charge of environmental administration at the federal level, as
well as the development of infrastructure that also serves as the basis for environmental
information policy. US environmental administration is characterized by its focus onenvironmental information for carrying out the administrative reform initiated by the Clinton
administration in 1993, which consists of government reinvention and National Performance
Review.
The Clinton administration, formed in 1993, called for “reinventing government” throughNational Performance Review (NPR), which led to many reports on how to undertake NPR.
One of the reports entitled “Reengineering Through Information Technology” put forward theconcept of e-government. The e-government initiative, considered as an important means ofreinventing government, is designed to ensure accountability and increase openness in decisionmaking by improving government services and realizing efficient and effective administration.
The government reinvention and the e-government initiatives also impacted on
environmental information policy. Under the direction of the administration, Carol M. Browner,
then Administrator of the EPA (1993-2001), dispatched over 50 personnel to the NPR team,which was directly placed under the President, to help reinvent the government, and orderedthem to reform environmental regulations in line with the reengineering of the whole
government. As a result, environmental information policy was coordinated with the entire
movement toward reinventing the government.
1.1.2. Development of environmental information policy
The reform of environmental regulations was based on the following five principles: (1)improving environmental information, (2) flexibility, (3) building partnerships, (4) facilitatingcompliance with improved availability of information on environmental regulation, and (5)cutting red tape. Under these principles, the EPA, building on the partnership between the public
and private sectors as well as between federal and local governments, has been actively
implementing institutional reform as top priority in improving environmental information policy.
Above all, the first principle – the improvement of environmental information – is deemedmost important in promoting regulation reform. Why is this? The 1970s were marked by
Development Bank of Japan Research Report/ No. 25 11

deteriorating pollution and the emergence of environmental protection systems. Since
information technology was underdeveloped at that time, policies were focused on individual
environmental media. Also, separate environmental (pollution control) regulations were
institutionalized for individual emission substances. Now that modern information technology
has enabled an environmental policy to address multiple media, however, a new regime isrequired to cope with environmental problems. Examples such as community-based
environmental protection and sector-based approaches entail the reutilization of accumulated
data. That is, the disconnects need to be bridged between the traditional environmental
information databases established for individual environmental media and the current databases
covering multiple media. At the same time, accumulated data should be maintained bothquantitatively and qualitatively, and new methods of data analysis need to be established.
The improvement of environmental information is led by the “reinventing environmental
information” program. This program is based on the observation that the time lag between thecollection and reporting of environmental data delays the response of the government, and thatthe lack of a common data protocol (standard) between databases covering individual media,
such as air and soil, hinders comprehensive cross-medium environmental assessment.
In order to address these problems, a three-pronged policy has been developed comprising(1) the development of data systems based on real-time monitoring systems for environmental
information, (2) the simplification of applications for environmental permissions and approvals,and (3) the realization of cross-medium analysis through the standardization and integration ofdata. Necessary regulation reform to cope with this policy agenda envisages using information
technology.
Building on cooperation and tie-ups between the federal government, state governments,
local governments, universities, businesses, NGOs, etc., strategic measures implemented so far
include: (1) the exchange of environmental data between individual entities, (2) the interpretationof environmental data and the integration of data that have been developed and accumulated
individually, (3) the expansion of chemical substances and emission source data covered by the
Toxic Release Inventory and the examination of measures for ensuring report complianceobligations, and (4) the establishment of an external supervisory organ to check the compliance,
etc. of regulated facilities. In order to ensure the effectiveness of these measures, a Center for
Environmental Information and Statistics (CEIS)9 has been established. Also, the Environmental
Monitoring for Public Access & Community Tracking (EMPACT)10 initiative has been
institutionalized to help local governments construct monitoring systems.

9
10

The CEIS is currently integrated with the Office of Environmental Information (OEI), to be described later.
(1) Objectives: (i) provision of precise environmental monitoring data, (ii) provision of real-time (or periodical) data, and (iii)
provision of useful information for decision-making (provision of so-called metadata).
(2) Requirements for subsidized projects: (i) local governments located in the EMPACT Metro Area (urban areas withpopulations of 100,000 or more, or major cities with populations of 50,000 or more), (ii) technological innovation
potential for real-time monitoring of environmental indicators → dissemination of Web-based technologies (HTML,etc.), data management and security technologies, (iii) appropriate information management, procedure andcommunication techniques, timely provision of information for residents, (iv) involvement of stakeholders (communities,
chambers of commerce and industry, local businesses) in the form of consortiums combining the industrial, academic,
public and private sectors, etc.
(3) Example – Massachusetts
・AIRNOW: timely information concerning air pollution and its impact on health.
・Provision of information and data on ozone and toxic particulates.
・Charles River Cleanup Movement 2005: periodical research on bacteria, eutrophication and heavy metals.

12 Development Bank of Japan Research Report/ No. 25

Figure 2-1. Reinventing Government Program of US Federal Government andDevelopment of Environmental Information Policy by EPA
Reinventing Government and National Performance Review (NPR)→ E-government initiative (improve administrative services through computerization,
realize efficient and effective administration, ensure accountability and transparency).

Leadership of EPA Director Carol Browner toward environmental administration reform (1993- )(1) Dispatching over 50 full-time EPA personnel to National Performance Review Team (NPRT).
(2) Implementing environmental regulation reform in line with federal government reengineering
as a whole.

[Background of environmental policies]
Policies for individual environmental
media (legislation)(1970s)↓(1) Cross-media solution ofenvironmental problems(2) Community-based environmental
protection(3) Sector-based approaches↓
Discontinuities or disconnects between
existing environmental information
databases and newly required policy
solutions

Source:Reinventing Environmental Information(REI)(1) Real-time data system(2) One-stop procedures throughelectronic application(3) Enabling cross-media analysis
through data integration

5 principles of environmental
regulation reform(1) Improving environmental
information(2) Flexibility(3) Building partnerships(4) Easier access to information
on environmental regulation(5) Cutting red tape

Current strategic focus(1) Data standardization(2) Increased public access(3) Reduced burden for environmental
information reporters[Specific strategies]
1. Precondition: collaboration between federal, stateand local governments, universities, NPOs/NGOs,[Tools for executing strategies]
businesses, etc.
1. Center for Environmental Information and
2. Measures
Statistics (CEIS)
・Environmental data exchange between individual
2. Environmental Monitoring for Public Accessentities& Community Tracking (EMPACT)・Interpretation of environmental data andintegration of statistics
・Constant expansion of substances, emission sources anddata elements covered by Toxic Release Inventory (TRI)
and ensuring compliance with reporting obligations
・Ensuring access to records to check regulated facilities’compliance with laws and permission conditions

DBJ.

Basic systems are recognized as being important for environmental information policy. In
general, environmental information tends to be thought of in terms of data, such as polluted sites,
types of pollutant and the status of pollution removal in the case of soil pollution. When using
environmental information, however, it is crucial to decide what data should be collected whenand how, before actually starting to collect information. In the US, such issues have been
discussed in both the public and private sectors, and the results have been useful in constructing
environmental information systems.
The following subsection examines the basic systems and schemes on which theimplementation of such policy measures depends.

Development Bank of Japan Research Report/ No. 25 13

1.1.3 Environmental information systems: basic systems
Within the EPA, the Office of Environmental Information (OEI), established in 1999, is incharge of the collection, management and disclosure of environmental information. The focus ison collecting quality environmental information11. The Office is also in charge of efficiently
collecting environmental information by integrating information, strengthening information
partnerships beyond the borders of existing sectors such as public and private (businesses,
citizens, NPOs), and reducing the burden of environmental information collection.
The basic systems related to collecting environmental information in which the OEI is
involved are 1) systems for collecting environmental information, 2) subsystems for improving
the “quality” of environmental information itself, and 3) systems for ensuring smoothdissemination of environmental information.12 The following section describes in detail three
typical systems included in 1) above.
Figure 2-2. Outline of Basic Systems for Environmental Information Collection in the US
Objective/function
Name of system
Collection of environmental Central Data Exchange
information
Environmental Data
Registry
Chemical Registry System
Biology Registry System
Terminology Reference
SystemInformation Collection
Requests
Ensuring the “quality” ofData Standard
environmental information
EPA’s Quality System

Function
Information on EPA budgets and policies related to the promotionof electronic applications
Comprehensive information source concerning the usefulness,sources and location of environmental data
Reference tools for accessing all records on chemical substances,ecologies, etc. recognized by EPA data systems
Common information source for general terms and definitions
related to the EPA
Standard to be followed by the EPA when collecting administrative
information from the publicCommon standard to prevent disruptions in EPA regulations,
reporting requirements and databases
Policies and procedures concerning quality control of EPA’s
environmental information
Smooth distribution of
Facility Registry System
Directory for increasing public access to facility data related toenvironmental information
EPA regulations
Geospatial Information
Information database integrating GIS, remote sensing andvisualization
Guide to Federal
National directory of environmental information collected,
Environmental Information analyzed and published by the federal government
and Statistics
Locational Data
Designed to improve locational data (latitude and longitude) of
Improvement Projectenvironment-related facilities, etc.
Disclosure of environmental FOIA (Freedom of
information
Information Act), etc.
Source:Compiled by DBJ from EPA homepage (http://www.epa.gov/oei/collecting.htm).

The EPA is constructing a Central Data Exchange (CDX) to help public utilization ofenvironmental information including data processing after information collection and thedisclosure of information. The CDX, to be constructed in three years starting from 2001, will
11

In order to improve the quality of environmental information, the EPA developed an Integrated Error Correction Process(IECP), which has been operational since May 2000. Stored in the Environmental Facility Information system(http://www.epa.gov/enviro), the IECP is one of the 11 main data systems of the EPA.
12
In addition, legislative schemes such as information disclosure serve as subsystems to support the three elements (to be
described later).
14 Development Bank of Japan Research Report/ No. 25

enable private operators, etc. to submit most of the legally required data electronically via theInternet to the EPA.
An Environmental Data Registry Portal (EDR Portal) has been developed to facilitate users’
access. This portal site serves as the “entrance” to environmental information, providing
metadata13 to users. Through the EDR Portal, users can extract data on individual substances
recorded in the Chemical Registry System (described below) and the Biology Registry System:
BioRS), and obtain detailed information.
The Chemical Registry System (CRS) is accessible not only to regulating authorities anddepartments of the federal, state and local governments involved in environment-related
decision-making, but also to a wide range of stakeholders including residents and corporate
system engineers, although certain authorizations are required. By typing in the name of achemical substance and the ID number of the substance on the Internet, users can obtain
technical information on handling of the substance, download the chemical identification data
which are standardized or integrated by the regulating authorities, and obtain other relevant
information such as the composition and mass of each chemical substance.
Figure 2-3. Relations of Systems Operated by OEI
Environmental Data Registry

Terminology Reference System

Registry System
Chemical Registry System
Biology Registry System

MetaPro – metadata registry builder

Source:Compiled by DBJ from EPA homepage.

The above three systems allow corporate users to efficiently exchange (send and receive)
government environmental information related to regulated substances “electronically” through“one entrance.”
The various systems are supported by legislation. Although there is no specific disclosure
scheme for environmental information, as in the case of Germany, the US federal government,
based on the general disclosure scheme under the Freedom of Information Act, is developing
and enhancing the dissemination system for environmental information, while maintaining thequality of data by consolidating data standards, etc.
13

Metadata refer to data concerning the forms and contents of substantial data. They indicate which data are recorded on the
database in which forms.
Development Bank of Japan Research Report/ No. 25 15

1.1.4. Example of environmental information systems – systems related to soil
pollution14
The US has in place a Superfund Act as a legal system to control soil pollution. The Superfund
Act refers to the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation and Liability Act(CERCLA) of 1980 and its reauthorization laws.
The Act provides as follows regarding soil pollution information, which is part ofenvironmental information. The EPA conducts an assessment on any potentially polluted sitethat is newly discovered. If the EPA decides that an inspection is required, the site is registeredon the Comprehensive Environmental Response Compensation and Liability Information
System (CERCLIS). This environmental information system is effectively a database that
contains an exhaustive list of potentially polluted sites.
The EPA conducts a Preliminary Assessment (PA) on the sites listed in the CERCLIS,
which is supplemented by a Site Inspection (SI) as necessary. The extent of risk is quantified
according to the Hazard Ranking System (HRS15). Those sites assessed as exceeding a certain
level of quantified risk are registered on the National Priority List (NPL). The NPL sites are to becovered by subsequent remediation measures.
Figure 2-4. Soil Pollution Cleanup Process under Superfund Act and Environmental
Information Databases
Site detection
Registration on CERCLIS
Preliminary Assessment (PA)Site Inspection (SI)
Hazard Ranking System (HRS)
National Priorities List
NPL sites

Removal Action(as appropriate)
Cleanup planunnecessary (NFRAP)

Remedial Investigation (RI)
Feasibility Study (FS)Remedial Action
Operation and Maintenance (O&M)

NPL Deletion

Source:DBJ Research Report No.6 as revised.

14

For details of the US Superfund Act, see “Current Status and Future Perspective of the Japanese Remediation Industry,” DBJ
Research Report No.6, October 1999. This subsection partially cites the said report.
15
The present HRS, revised in December 1990 (Federal Administration Notice 40CFR PART 300/Appendix: A), indicates thelevel of danger, calculated as the risk of indirect exposure to hazardous substances for groundwater, surface water and air, andas the risk of direct exposure to hazardous substances for soil.
16 Development Bank of Japan Research Report/ No. 25

NPL sites may be registered in three ways: (1) HRS evaluation as exceeding a certain level ofpollution risk, (2) regardless of HRS evaluation (score), designation of a state or a certain area as a
top-priority site, and (3) satisfaction of three specific requirements16.
The important point is that a database has been developed that covers the sites formerly
registered on the CERCLIS but subsequently deleted from the inventory. Such sites are called
Archive Sites (NFRAP). The NFRAP includes those sites on which assessments were conductedaccording to the Superfund Act procedure but for which remedial action was judged byassessments to be unnecessary.
Thus, there are three databases related to the Superfund Act: CERCLIS, NPL and NFRAP.
In principle, they are all made public on the Internet and it is possible to view the contents of thesites as necessary.
1.2. Environmental Information Policy at the Local Area
This subsection examines how environmental information policy is implemented at the local level(state or below). In the US, the federal government generally provides legal frameworks at thenational level that go beyond the boundary of a single local government such as state andmunicipality, while state governments enact individual laws and regulations that suit specific local
conditions. The same applies to environmental administration. Through the establishment ofstricter or broader local laws, each local government has a variety of regulatory measures andpermission/approval procedures to take local specificities into consideration.
Such schemes and procedures are largely made public through information technology.
Many states are actively collecting environmental information in a narrow sense, as mentioned
earlier. Most of the data are available on the Internet. The characteristics of environmental
information policy in five typical states are shown in Figure 2-5.
Take California as an example. The California Environmental Protection Agency (State
EPA) has established environmental indicators and protocols to create a common set ofindicators to evaluate environmental performance. As regards information technology, the State
EPA has been involved in the networking of databases with local municipalities to collectenvironmental information and to build a statewide environmental information database. Active
involvement of the private sector can also be observed: major firms including IBM have helped
to construct this environmental information database. The database coverage is very broad,
ranging from information on the environmental performance and compliance of each local firm
to information on pollution control technologies.

16

a. The Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR) of the US Public Health Service has recommended
declaring the site off limits on the ground that such exposure may cause adverse effect on health;b. The EPA itself has confirmed the risk of serious effect on public health; andc. The EPA has determined that a specialized removal organization that only operates on NPL sites is more cost-effective
than its own division in charge of emergency removal.
Development Bank of Japan Research Report/ No. 25 17

Figure 2-5. Main Contents of Environmental Information Collected, Managed andPublished on Web at the State Level
State

Massachusetts
FloridaNew York

Schemes underenvironmental
laws

Individual
environmental
measures

Environmental
permission/appr
oval procedures

○

○

○

○

○

−

○

○

○

−

Original
measures○○○

Environmental
indicatorsdeveloped

−

○

○

○

−

Original
measures

California

Michigan
Sources:

Original
monitoring
systems
Air – displayedby area
Ozone-related
data

Related toSuperfund Act

Others−Brownfield

E-procurement

Compiled by DBJ from state homepages.

Figure 2-6. Environmental Information Policy Project of California Environmental
Protection Agency (State EPA)
･ Codified by a House law (1999). Designed to improve environmental performance in both the public and private sectors andto develop environmental protection programs initiated by the general public.
･ Clarification of burden sharing between the public and private sectors.
State EPA → Definition of environmental information data protocols and data collection, technical support, support for
inputs to national databases, coordinating function for working groups consisting of the industrial, academic, public andprivate sectors.
･ Collection and provision of information via IT → environmental performance, compliance, pollution control technologies,
alleviation of environmental burden, involvement of employers and stakeholders, quantitative and qualitative value of
information provided for residents, information on the cost-effectiveness of environmental management.
･ The development of basic protocols is coordinated with the federal EPA but also considers the adoption of locally specificprotocols and environmental indicators. Data are transmitted to, and stored in, the federal EPA databases throughcollaborating local universities.
Source:Compiled by DBJ.

The US environmental information policy thus has a delicate balance between centralized
elements and decentralized elements. The federal government has been developing basic legal
systems and environmental information databases that support the systems, while maintaining
close working relationships with state and local governments, which are major actors inenvironmental administration. Also building on such collaboration, each local government
implements its own environmental information policy. As regards the utilization of information
technology, it should be noted that, based on the recognition of the need to ensure active
disclosure of environmental information, the industrial, academic and public sectors work
together at the local level, with logistical support from the federal government.

18 Development Bank of Japan Research Report/ No. 25

2. Trends in Europe
This section outlines trends in environmental information in European countries.17
2.1. Environmental Democracy, Corporate Activities and Environmental Information
PolicyThe general trend is toward the development of environmental democracy, a framework for
active involvement of citizens in environmental administration. Thus, the Convention on Accessto Information, Public Participation in Decision-making and Access to Justice in Environmental
Matters (also known as “Aarhus Convention”)18 took effect in late October 2001, with signaturesof over 40 countries, mainly in Europe. As its name indicates, the Convention is designed topromote (1) access to environmental information, (2) public participation in decision-making inenvironmental matters, and (3) access to justice.
The first element, i.e. access to environmental information, includes both passive access andactive access. The former refers to the right of a citizen to access environmental information
owned by the government, while the latter means the obligation of the government to collect andpublish environmental information. Although its intent is similar to that of the US Freedom ofInformation Act (FOIA), the Convention regards active access as an “obligation”. The second
element, which is participation in decision-making, comprises various stages including (1)participation in decision-making concerning government activities that are expected to haveserious impacts on the environment; (2) participation in public policy-making processes (land use
planning and industrial planning, for example); and (3) participation in the preparation of draft
regulations.19
Figure 2-7. Main Provisions of Aarhus Convention
Article 1
Article 2
Article 4
Article 5
Article 6
Article 7
Article 8
Article 9
Source:Objectives
Definitions
Access to environmental information
Collection and publication of environmental information
Public participation in decision-making related to specific fields of activities
Public participation in environmental planning, programs and policies
Public participation in the preparation of administrative regulations and general legislative regulations
Access to justiceCompiled by DBJ.

The Council of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD),
whose membership includes many of the European countries, adopted Council
Recommendations on Environmental Information to ensure the disclosure of environmental
information owned by the public sector, businesses, etc. under certain conditions and to promote
the collection, preparation and publication of environmental information data, environmental
indicators and related economic statistics.
Recent trends in corporate activities are also related with environmental information.
Important factors in this regard include databases concerning the emissions and movement of
17

Despite an institutional framework of the European Union, it is arguable whether the West European countries may be
regarded as an entity when it comes to environmental administration. It should be noted here that this report focuses on
unique measures in selected countries rather than on the characteristics of environmental information policy measures in
Europe as a whole.
18
25 June 1998.
19
Akihiro Amano, “Kankyo Minshushugi no Choryu,” in Nikkei Sangyo Shimbun Kankyo no Ronten, November 26, 2001, p.11.
Development Bank of Japan Research Report/ No. 25 19

chemical substances (PRTR, etc.), which form part of toxicity related information, andenvironmental information related environmental management. EU countries have started toswitch from the traditional regulatory type of administration to public-private collaboration-based
administration. Information distribution has been promoted through common public-private
platforms using information technology.
The following sections present useful case studies from the two viewpoints of environmental
democracy and focus on relationships with corporate activities.
2.2. Collaboration of Industry, Academia and Government in Environmental
Information Policy in Finland and Sweden
2.2.1. General
Looking at the two Nordic countries (Finland and Sweden), they are both developing egovernment with information technology to improve not only efficiency but also convenience inview of the harsh climate, etc. In environmental management, they have developed
environmental codes that also are written into their Constitutions, based on the Integrated
Pollution Prevention and Control Directive (IPPC) directive and according to the concept ofsustainable development. Finland has modified existing laws and regulations, accompanied byrevisions to the Constitution as necessary. Sweden also established an Environmental Code in
1999, after consolidation of existing environmental laws and regulations. Reflecting the differencein population and industrial intensiveness, however, the two countries slightly differ in theirattitude toward environmental information policy. The following sections outline the current
status of environmental information policy in the two countries.
2.2.2. Finland
Environmental information policy and organizational regime
In 1995, Finland revised Article 14a20 onwards of the Constitution (effective since July 17) todeclare itself an environmental nation. Disclosure of environmental information is aconstitutional right recognized in Paragraph 4 of the Article. Under the Constitution, an Act on
the Environmental Administration was passed in 1995 to guarantee the supply of environmental
information from the public sector, raise public awareness of environmental problems and ensure
efficient and effective environmental administration. As units to facilitate environmental
administration, Regional Environment Centers and Finnish Environment Institute (FEI) were tobe created under the auspices of the Ministry of Environment (Article 2, Paragraph 1 of the Act).
Regional Environment Centers and FEI are also responsible for the management of water
resources, under the supervision of the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry (Paragraph 1 of thesame Article)21.
Although total expenditures related to environmental administration in Finland dropped
from M.4.3 billion (about ¥85 billion) to M.3 billion (about ¥60 billion), the share of operating
cost has been rising while that of capital cost has declined, as environmental infrastructure in the
country is already well-developed. The share of expenditures for the management ofenvironmental information systems, etc. rose from 4.7% in 1993 to 9.9% in 1999, implying the20

Article 14a. (1) The task of conserving nature, biodiversity, the environment, and cultural heritage shall be carried out by all
persons. (2) The government sector shall make every effort to ensure that all persons enjoy opportunities to participate indecision-making on the present environment as well as the right to a healthy environment.
21
It should be noted that all sorts of administrative information, not only environmental information, have been accessible tothe public in principle for many years in Finland. As a rule, all information other than military information and information
related to corporate core competence shall be made public “immediately” and “entirely.”
20 Development Bank of Japan Research Report/ No. 25

software-oriented environmental administration is progressing, the contents of which are
examined next.
Figure 2-8. Expenditures related to Environmental Protection in Finnish Local
Governments
5000

100%
90%

4,299
3,472

80%

4000
3,234

70%

3,206 3,284

3,067
2,998

3000

60%
50%
40%

2000

30%
20%
10%

1000
(9.9%)(4.7%)

0%

0
93

94

95

96

Investment cost
環境ﾏﾈｼﾞﾒﾝﾄ支出
Environmental
management expenditures

97

98

99

Operating cost
合計支出
Total expenditures

Note:

The left scale measures the shares of investment cost and operating cost, and the right scale measures the amount ofexpenditures in markka. Figures in parentheses ( ) for environmental management expenditures for 1993 and 1999 areas percentages of total expenditures.

Source:Compiled by DBJ from “Finland’s National Resources and the Environment 2000,” p.13.

Environmental administration authorities in Finland recognize that environmental
information is not evenly distributed and that asymmetries of information tend to occur between
residents and businesses and between residents and the government in particular. Therefore, aprocess has been developed to produce environmental information and circulate it among policymakers (Parliament), the government, business managers, educators, residents, etc. Typically, FEI
and Regional Environment Centers, working with the Ministry of Environment, implement
environmental information policy in unison with local communities. Priorities include
environmental research at the national level and technology transfer to the private sector, basedon nationwide monitoring of the environment. As described later, cooperation between thegovernment and private companies include environmental information technology development
programs led by FEI, which provide relevant support for private companies.
At the local level, 13 Regional Environment Centers22 have been established to help local
governments smoothly implement environmental policies and to collect environmental

22

Regional Environment Centers prepare and implement regional environment planning and promotion programs and assume
administrative works in receiving subsidies from the EU Structural Fund (Article 7 of the Cabinet Order concerning Regional
Environment Centers).
Development Bank of Japan Research Report/ No. 25 21

information23. Environmental Action Databases are also being constructed, collecting andanalyzing data on corporate environmental investment and its cost-benefit ratio. The databases
identify environmental cost for businesses on a capital basis as well as on a cost basis, and serve
as a software infrastructure to analyze the most reasonable corporate behavior in relation to theenvironment. Although the data have not been made public as they relate to the behavior ofindividual companies, the databases are expected to be made open to the public in the future.
Regional Environment Centers are playing a leading role in the development of such databases,
as it is required to reflect properly local specificities such as the status of business concentrationin each region24.
Even in Finland, various systems related to environmental information are still underconstruction. It is however important that, while the concept of development is elaborated by thegovernment (FEI in particular), active outsourcing has been introduced in the production ofprograms and the maintenance/management of systems. Efforts have been made to reduce initialcost through commissioning to private companies and to control the risk of obsolescence of thesystems.
Environmental monitoring
Environmental information used for environmental administration is collected throughenvironmental monitoring programs and data systems. Finland has more than 70 monitoring
programs, which are implemented by FEI, local governments and local universities, with thesupport of five central ministries and agencies25. Furthermore, local universities are participatingin long-term monitoring programs, cooperating in the development of new environmental
monitoring techniques. Based on the Polluters Pay Principle (PPP), private companies are
obliged to monitor the quality of emission substances and their impact on the environment.
These obligations are stipulated in the Air Pollution and Water Quality and Waste Disposal Laws.
Although monitoring programs have been implemented by the Ministry of Environment
since 1985, the programs are being reviewed as they became partially outdated, and newmonitoring strategies26 are being developed. The success of these measures is supposed to23

Nonetheless, the development of regional environmental policies is mandated to individual local governments, andconsultation with, or involvement of, the central government happens rarely if at all (no agreement with the policy onmunicipalities). On the contrary, an appeal may be filed with an administrative court, etc. against the central government for
any unreasonably strong involvement. Regional Environment Centers function solely under the co-operation between
provinces and local authorities (Article 5-1 of the Environmental Administration Law).
24
The Local Environmental Administration Law (passed in 1986) is applicable to the environmental administration of local
governments. Article 2 defines the functions of the Centers, providing that they shall facilitate and support environmental
protection policies implemented by local governments. Environmental obligations of local governments are provided for in
Article 3. A commission (composed of local government representatives) shall mandate field personnel with the developmentof basic plans on environmental protection (Article 4). In addition, a Local Environmental Protection Committee shall beorganized to help implement concrete environmental protection operations (Article 5-1). The functions of the Committee
include, but are not limited to, the tasks specifically stipulated in the Air Pollution Law, Waste Disposal Law, Water Resource
Law and other environmental laws and regulations, as well as the monitoring of the environment and related survey andresearch (Article 6). The Committee reserves the right to express its opinion on any important decision-making by local
governments concerning the environment (Article 10-2). The Committee is guaranteed access to environmental information toensure the effectiveness of its activities (Article 11).
25
While FEI has a central role to play in environmental information monitoring, other organs are also involved in environmental
monitoring, keeping close contact with FEI. Those organs include Finnish Meteorological Institute (research on air pollution),
Finnish Forest Research Institute (research on forest resources, biodiversity and health), Finnish Game and Fisheries Institute(research on biodiversity), Geological Survey of Finland (survey on infrastructure and soil) and Marine Research Institute(marine research).
26
They include 1) the definition of environmental monitoring in a new environment; 2) assessment on whether the present
environmental monitoring programs have been able to provide proper information on unfavorable environmental conditions,and the suggestion of ways to improve the effect of monitoring action; and 3) assessment on the current use of environmental
information and the suggestion of measures to improve the usefulness of data and increase access to environmental
information.
22 Development Bank of Japan Research Report/ No. 25

depend on better access to environmental information, as well as on the legal definition of, andtighter regulation on, monitoring activities conducted by various actors.
Local environmental information management systems
Local governments have an important role to play in the monitoring systems. Therefore,
environmental indicators for sustainable development have been developed, led by the Ministryof Environment. At the local level, the Ministry of Environment, the Finnish Association of
Local Authorities and some local governments worked together to conduct research on a core setof environmental indicators, the results of which were published in 1994. The core set ofenvironmental indicators has been evolving in economic, social and organizational terms.
2.2.3. Sweden
Since Sweden has more large-sized firms than Finland, environmental administration places
greater emphasis on corporate activities in terms of both regulation and support. For example,
research on product life-cycle assessment (LCA) has been advancing at the national level, and thepractice of green procurement has been accepted widely. Information technology is increasingly
utilized in environmental administration, including the launch of IT-based waste disposal systems.
This section describes how environmental information networks have been constructed at thenational level and what effects this network has had on local environmental information policy.
Building environment information network at the national level
In Sweden, Information and Communication Technology Commission (ICT Commission)27
plays a major role in environmental information policy. ICT Commission, working with the
Ministry of Environment and the Swedish EPA, makes policy recommendations, based on theidea that information technology not only represents an instrument for environmental
monitoring and the supply of environmental information but also provides important
opportunities that contribute to sustainable development. The functions of information networks
have been attracting particular attention in environmental administration.
Environmental information networks built by the central government include Svenska
miljönätet, a database of important environmental information with a search function. It has also
put into practice a simulation system to detect long-term impacts on the environment using
visual data from satellites. Thus, “dynamic” estimation has become possible concerning abnormal
generation of plankton due to the eutrophication of lakes and the mixing of nitrogen compounds
into crops.
Also, Svenska Landtäckedata, currently under construction, utilizes geographical information
databases developed for the EU and accumulates information from satellites. It provides
geographical information on land use and vegetation across the whole country. To be completed
in 2002, it is considered to be the most extensive infrastructure initiative related to environmental
information.
Local environmental information management systems
The construction of IT infrastructure at the national level also stimulates response at the local
level. With the national geographical information system (GIS), some local governments alreadyuse simulation to estimate the impact of plant or building construction plans on the environment.
27

This Commission is composed of nine members appointed by the government (led by the Swedish Ministry of International
Trade and Industry). The current membership includes the Minister of International Trade and Industry, a private business
manager, the Councillor of the Swedish Consulate at San Francisco and a professor of Stockholm University, among others.
Its secretariat, headed by a Director, has seven full-time personnel.
Development Bank of Japan Research Report/ No. 25 23

For example, Malmöhus County (Commission) receives support from the national GIS-map
program to investigate the cause-effect relationship between the health of residents andenvironmental degradation including noise, air pollution and soil pollution (particularly heavy
metals). The environmental maps of the county provide three-dimensional data on the levels ofnoise and pollutant emissions. They are linked with the population register, already in electronic
format, to identify the relationship of the data with population movements.
In the region of Skania, research based on Cabinet Orders (under the Code of Environment)
has been integrated with the Statistics Sweden operation initiated in the regional Virtual
Information Center to develop a system for environmental information management in thewhole region. Combining environmental information with geographical information, this system
supplies data on traffic and construction plans with environmental information and other related
statistics in an integrated form through geographical information. The system is now utilized on apilot basis in the 33 local governments belonging to the region of Skania. The data will beaccessible in the future on the Internet.
Waste disposal systems utilizing information technology
In Sweden, the Waste Research Council, which includes representatives from business, academia
and the government, has been involved in the development of systems related to waste disposal.
Recently, two types of waste simulation model have been developed: “ORWARE” and“MIMES/Waste.”
The ORWARE program is led by Professor Thomas Nybrandt (Agricultural Science
Department, University of Sweden), working with Agricultural Engineering Institute and RoyalTechnology Institute. A model for the biological treatment of organic waste, ORWARE
measures the environmental burden from waste disposal.
A demonstration test on this technology is being conducted in Uppsala. In Stockholm, theEnvironmental Protection Department uses this system to assess environmental burden in thecase of waste incineration. The input data used for this purpose are based on the composition of
the waste and the distance of transport to the waste disposal facility (storage yard). Variants ofthe model are created by choosing different disposal techniques – incineration, inorganic
bioremediation, landfill and recycling. Environmental impact is assessed based on the results ofthese simulations. Thus, ORWARE is used to prepare environmental profiles and particularly tobuild complete waste disposal management systems at the level of local governments. As
individual communities have their own local characteristics, the results have been accumulated
through various types of simulation. The program is characterized by research on waste disposal
management and recycling techniques across various types of industry and business28.
MIMES/Waste, on the other hand, is a model of economic aspects, including the costs andbenefits of waste disposal. This model also takes into consideration numerous environmental
criteria. Because of its economic focus, however, MIMES/Waste is a model suited for costbenefit analysis. This system was developed in Chalmers Institute of Technology.

28

The importance of cross-industry recycling has also been pointed out in Japan (for example, Hidefumi Imura, Professor of
post-graduate course, Nagoya University in “Kankyo Jichitai,” pp.10-11, June 2001).

24 Development Bank of Japan Research Report/ No. 25

Figure 2-9. Environmental Administration and Environmental Information in Two
Nordic Countries
Item(1) Environmental
administration
organs (national
level)(2) Status of local
governments(3) Principal
environmental
legislation(4) Characteristics ofenvironmental
administration

Source:FinlandSwedenMinistry of Environment, Finnish Environment Institute Ministry of Environment, Environment(FEI), Regional Environment Centers (13 centers
Agency, other agencies
nationwide)･ Local governments develop their own environmental
plans based on Local Agenda 21.
･ The central governments and local governments work
together through Regional Environment Centers (butautonomy is respected).
―IPPC (EU Integrated Pollution Prevention andControl Directive ―Constitution Article 14a as amended (1995)(1) Obligation of environmental conservation(2) Guaranteed right to participate in environmental
administration and environmental rights↓
Environmental Administration Law
Environmental administration organs, functions of eachorgan, principle of collaboration with local governments,
etc.
(Autonomous Environmental Administration Law assubordinate legislation)↓
Environmental Protection Law (2000)
Consolidation of environmental permission/approval
procedures, appeal and procedure for residents’participation(1) Collection and provision of environmental
information
FEI to construct national environmental information
databases and establish information collection
systems through Regional Environment Centers.
(2) Development of databases on soil pollution
information.
(3) Development of separate databases on corporate
costs related to environment for investment and for
expenses.
(4) Development of local environmental indicators (BioIndicator Map) utilizing GIS.
(5) Environmental information to be made public inprinciple.
(6) Implementation of an Environment Cluster Research
Program through business-academia-government
collaboration including environmental informationrelated technologies (FEI).

･ Local governments develop their own
environmental plans based on Local
Agenda 21.

―IPPC (EU Integrated Pollution
Prevention and Control Directive ―Code of Environment (1999)(consolidation of 15 separate legal systems)(1) Land use standards(2) Environmental quality standards(3) Soil pollution(4) Treatment of chemical and biologicalsubstances(5) Genetic modification, etc.

(1) Active response to Lifecycle
Assessment (LCA) → focus onenvironmental information.
(2) Implementation of LCA throughintroduction of “Accredited
Environmental Product Profile”
scheme.
(3) Active promotion of green
procurement and examination of how
to disclose product information.
(4) Building environmental information
networks → integration with GIS
technology.
(5) Research on environmental indicators.
(6) Waste disposal system using IT andwaste economic assessment system for
waste administration both underconstruction.

Compiled by DBJ from national Ministries of Environment data, etc.

Although these two systems still cannot be used under an open environment, future
platforms are expected to be open to the public.

Development Bank of Japan Research Report/ No. 25 25

2.3.

Local Version of EMAS in UK (LA-EMAS29)

2.3.1. Factors behind introduction of LA-EMAS
This subsection describes the example of the UK, marked by innovative environmental
management techniques at the local level.
The EU members are currently applying the EMAS, a developed version of ISO14001 that
requires environmental performance to be measured by accredited auditors. This preemptive
move in the field of environmental management has attracted attention recently.
Figure 2-10. Number of Environmental Management Certifications (as of February 2000)
0

500

1000

1500

Germany
ドイツ
Austria
オーストリアSwedenウェーデン
Denmark
デンマークUK
英国
Norway
ノルウェー
Spain
スペイン

2500

1,900
240
223
173
116

Finland
フィンランド30

Others
その他

71

2,400

956

1,014

63
119
47

France
フランス

3000

350

73

35

Source:

2000

463
443

EMAS

ISO14001

330
1,191

Compiled by DBJ from Finnish Ministry of Environment, “Finland’s Natural Resources and the Environment 2000.”

Partly because the EU law allows the application of EMAS to non-private companies
including the public sector30, efforts have been made in the UK to adopt EMAS in a wide rangeof local governments31. This is largely because LA-EMAS had been recognized as an effective
tool for the preparation, implementation and operation of Local Agenda 21 (LA21). LA21 is an
integrated cross-sector strategy or program for local governments, organically linking not only
environmental aspects but also socio-economic aspects and other factors such as the quality ofliving. Economic performance, which serves as a measure of administrative behavior that also
takes economic efficiency into consideration, may have been regarded as a useful policy
instrument to ensure the effectiveness of LA21.
2.3.2. Outline of LA-EMAS
Based on voluntary participation of local governments, LA-EMAS is designed to promote
29

LA-EMAS = Eco-Management and Audit Scheme (EMAS) for Local Government
Council Regulation (EEC) No.1836/93 of 29 June 1993, Article 14 stipulates that Member States do not preclude analogicalapplication, on a pilot basis, of provisions regarding EMAS to outside the industrial sector, including … the public service
sector, for example.
31
DoE Circular 2/95, The Voluntary Eco-Management and Audit Scheme (EMAS) for Local Government (1995), HMSO.
30

26 Development Bank of Japan Research Report/ No. 25

environmental management by participating local governments, thus ensuring continuous
improvement of their environmental performance and expanding the provision of environmental
information to the public. As mentioned above, the participation of local governments in LAEMAS contributes to the preparation and implementation of LA21, and so the central
government, the Improvement and Development Agency and the Local Government
Association (LGA) have agreed to provide support.
A comparison between LA-EMAS and EMAS reveals three main differences32. First, EMAS
evaluates individual business establishments and plants owned by companies, while under LAEMAS, local governments might choose any bureau, department, division or other organizational
unit as “operational unit” for participation, according to the “functions” or “types of operation”
of public services. An operational unit may be an organic entity such as all local governments.
Second, when a company registers a site under EMAS, the whole company must develop an
environmental policy for obtaining certification, but EMAS-LA imposes a larger number ofrequirements as the registration of individual operations is possible. For example, theconstruction of a cross-departmental coordination system is required in addition to thedevelopment of an environmental policy for the whole local government. Furthermore, theparticipation of a department as operational unit entails declaring a fixed date by which all
departments must have completed registration. The third difference concerns how to identify
environmental impact. EMAS focuses on the identification of the environmental impact causedby corporate production activities, etc, such as the emissions of pollutants, the generation ofwaste, the amount of resources and energy used and noise. LA-EMAS adopts a moresophisticated approach in that measuring units for the government sector are determined
separately for environmental burden from the activities of the local government itself and forenvironmental burden generated through the provision of local government services. Apparently,
the latter refers to the impact on local residents resulting from the policies and measures
implemented by the local government, which may be indirect impacts or social effects.
Since the scheme became fully operational in April 1995, just less than 10 LA-EMAS
registrations have been made per year. 54 operations were registered as of January 2001. The
London Borough of Sutton and Stratford-on-Avon District Council are the two local
governments (autonomous districts) that made a head start on this scheme. A total of 11 local
governments have been registered under this scheme, accounting for only about 2% of the total,
but this does not mean that local governments in the UK are reluctant to participate in LAEMAS33.

32

Mami, Oku, “Igirisu Jichitai Kankyo Kanri Kansa Scheme” in Tokyo Metropolitan Administration Research Group, Toshi
Mondai, Vol.90 No.1, p.68, l 21.
33
Oku, op. cit., p.73, ll 4-6.
Development Bank of Japan Research Report/ No. 25 27

Figure 2-11. Comparison between LA-EMAS and (Original) EMAS
Audited unit

Measurement ofenvironmental impact

Registration
requirements

EMAS
LA-EMAS
Individual sites owned by companies (concept Operational units: selected according to the functions
based on geographic area).
and types of public services. (A bureau, department
or division of a local government may constitute an
operational unit.)
Focused on environmental impact
Direct impact → environmental impact
accompanying corporate production activities.
accompanying daily operations of
Examples: pollutant emissions; waste
local governments.
generation; resource, energy & water use;
Service impact → environmental impact throughnoise, etc.
services provided by local
governments.
Development of an environmental
Development of an environmental management
management policy for the whole company.
policy for the whole agency.
Establishment of a cross-sectional coordination
system at the level of the whole agency (note).

Note:

Registration of any section of an agency must be preceded by the declaration of a registration schedule for all
sections.

Source:Compiled by DBJ from Takemichi Hatakeyama, Kankyo-ho Nyumon, Nihon Keizai Shimbun.

2.3.3. LA-EMAS as environmental information system
In addition to its uniqueness in environmental performance management, LA-EMAS ischaracterized by active education and enlightenment on the Web. Indeed, a project called Pan
European Local Authority Eco-Management and Audit Scheme is being conducted at the EU
level. Participating countries include Sweden, Finland, Germany and Greece, as well as the UK.
In order to disseminate the advanced practices in the UK to other EU countries, the program
contains activities such as the development of a common guideline34, the preparation ofmanagement training materials for local governments, the examination of pan European
certificate, a scheme covering local governments only, research on how to utilize IT as anenvironmental information collecting tool, and the presentation of successful cases of local
governments in utilizing information technology35.
These case studies on LA-EMAS have been made public on the Web36, where the results ofthe studies for five cities can be viewed. In the case of Sutton Council, disclosed information
ranges from the Environmental Statement and environmental measures prior to the introductionof EMAS (waste, energy, water, traffic, resources, housing, environmental education,
environmental management of Sutton Council, etc.) to environmental management promotion
regime, activities related to the environment (including the construction of an environmental
information system and the implementation of environmental monitoring) and expected results.
Information exchange including that via the Web has become increasingly active, as theenvironmental management system of the government differs from that of private companies.

34

Because common standards, hastily developed, may not reflect the diversity (local characteristics) inherent to environmental
information, the program assumes diversities including (1) difference between regions in priorities given to environmental
problems, (2) various environmental management techniques, and (3) the consideration of differences in authorities andprocedures in making environmental decisions.
Source: http://euronet.uwe.ac.uk/emas/brief.htm.
35
These activities, supported by the EC (European Commission) LIFE Environment funding, are conducted in collaboration
with groups such as the LGMB (Local Government Management Board), Eurocities and Ecotec.
36
http://euronet.uwe.ac.uk/emas/library/suppot.htm. The study covers the five cases of North Wiltshire District Council,
Taunton Deane Borough Council, Surrey Council, Sutton and Stratford-on-Avon District Council.
28 Development Bank of Japan Research Report/ No. 25

2.4. Environmental Information Laws in Germany
As regards environmental laws, Germany stands out among European countries in that it hasdeveloped an Environmental Statistics Law and a disclosure law specifically for environmental
information. This subsection presents an outline of the two laws37.
2.4.1. Environmental Statistics Law (Gesetz über Umweltstastistiken, BGB 1. I. S. 311)
Under the Environmental Statistics Law of 1980, which concerns the collection of environmental
information in Germany, provisions for the collection of statistical information are designed forsystematic collection of information on “environmental burden” and “environmental
conservation measures” to be used in environmental planning. In this scheme, each province
compiles data for statistical processing after required environmental monitoring. The results arethen compiled and accumulated by the Federal Statistics Agency38.
The Law provides for 1) public waste disposal; 2) waste disposal in the processing sector39;
3) public water supply and public wastewater disposal; 4) water supply and wastewater disposal inmining and processing; 5) water supply and wastewater disposal in power stations, etc. intended
for public supply; 6) waste disposal and wastewater disposal in livestock production; 7) accidents
in the storage of substances that may cause danger to the basin area; 8) accidents intransportation that may cause danger to the basin area; and 9) in the case of information related
to environmental conservation investment in the processing sector, the timing of investigations
and the person responsible for the provision of the information40.
Figure 2-12. Scheme of German Environmental Statistics Law
Item

OutlineSystematic collection of information on environmental burden and environmental conservation
measures to be used in environmental planning.
MethodIndividual provinces to conduct statistical surveys, the results of which are compiled by the Federal
Statistics Agency.
Coverage of information 1) Public waste disposal, 2) waste disposal in the processing sector, etc., 3) public wastewater
to be collected
disposal, etc., 4) wastewater disposal, etc. in mining and processing, 5) information related toenvironmental conservation in processing, etc.
Regulation and persons Timing of statistical information survey and persons responsible for providing information.
concerned
Objective

Source:DBJ.

2.4.2. Environmental Information Disclosure Law (Umweltinformationsgesetz: UIG)The Environmental Information Disclosure Law was enacted in 1994 according to the EU
Directive on Environmental Information Disclosure (90/212/EC). Although information
disclosure schemes had already existed under federal laws before the enactment of the Law, mostof them were concerned with administrative procedures and thus Germany did not recognize
disclosure in a comprehensive manner41.
37This section makes reference to Yumihiko Matsumura, Kankyo-ho, Seibundo (1999), pp.100-108.
Statistics on water management are subject to laws and orders under the Federal Statistics Law (BGB 1. I. S. 1437, 1967).
39
The concept of the processing sector is broader than that of the manufacturing sector, for it includes commercial energy
management, water supply, mining and construction among others. Likewise, 9) covers those industries.
40
In the manufacturing sector, for example, this provision is applicable to business establishments of manufacturers and covers
information on the type, amount and disposal of waste. The responsible person may be the manager or head of the company
to which the establishment belongs, the head of the establishment, or a third person who employs the manager or head of thecompany or establishment. Matsumura, op. cit., p.100, ll 16-19.
41
Matsumura, op. cit., p.103 ll 3-4.
38

Development Bank of Japan Research Report/ No. 25 29

The information covered by the Law is limited in terms of 1) owners of the information and2) types of environmental information. Information owners are defined as those in charge of
duties related to environmental conservation in the federal government, provincial governments,
municipal governments and other public entities involved in certain types of administrative
activities. The disclosure of any information submitted by a third party does not require theconsent of that third party, except that the disclosure of any information provided voluntarily
requires prior consent of the provider. Information owners also include those natural persons
and legal persons in private law who perform public duties in the field of environmental
conservation under the supervision of government ministries or agencies42. Environmental
information to be disclosed includes a) the conditions of water area, air, soil, etc.; b) acts or
measures that cause nuisance to daily life, etc.; and c) acts or measures for environmental
conservation.
The Federal Administrative Court has ruled that the method of disclosure is within thediscretion of the government. However, the method required by the person making the request
for information should be respected in the absence of any justifiable reason including the abuseof the right to request disclosure.
The application of the law may be waived on the ground of the protection of public interest(the protection of international relations, smooth judicial or criminal investigation proceedings,etc.) or the protection of private interest (operational or business secrets).
3.

Conclusion

In the US, information technology has been introduced through the “e-government” initiative, aconcrete measure for reinventing government. Based on the five principles for environmental
regulation reform, the Environmental Protection Agency has also been engaged in thereconstruction of environmental administration with information technology. The improvementof environmental information is a priority in the initiative. A framework for active participationof local residents and businesses has been developed mainly through the establishment of asystem to ensure consistent evaluation of environmental levels in various parts of the country interms of air and soil pollution, among others.
The improvement of environmental information and the utilization of information
technology have also made headway at the level of local communities. Coordination between
industry, academia and the government can be observed in measures such as the development ofenvironmental legislation, electronic processing of applications for permission and approval,
original methods of environmental monitoring, as well as the enhancement of, and improved
access to, information related to the Superfund Act.
In Nordic countries (Finland and Sweden), the framework of an e-government based on
information technology has been developed to improve not only efficiency but also conveniencein view of the harsh climate. A similar movement can be observed in environmental
administration. At the local level, relevant authorities, in cooperation with the central government,
are developing a uniform monitoring system. Other examples of collaboration among theindustrial, academic and public sectors include the development of environmental information
42

Legal persons in private law do not automatically become subject to direct requests for information due to the fact that they
have established waste emitting facilities. As mentioned above, however, any information submitted to the government
according to a legal obligation becomes part of the information owned by the government. According to some doctrines,
persons who assume the responsibilities of managers in environmental pollutant and waste disposal facilities, etc. according tolegal requirements are obliged to disclose their information, as well as environmental certifier and certifying organizations. But
the majority considers otherwise.

30 Development Bank of Japan Research Report/ No. 25

technology, lifecycle assessment and the construction of soil pollution databases. Such moves aresupported by the principle of disclosure of environmental information. Elsewhere, some local
governments in the UK have adopted the corporate environmental management system (EMAS),and the expertise thus accumulated is now being disseminated in other EU countries including
through information technology. In some cases, local governments are taking the initiative tomanage environmental performance in collaboration with local communities (residents andbusinesses).
Figure 2-13. Environmental Information Policy in Selected Countries
Country

Scope of environmental
information
Environmental information in
US EPAinitiatives in major general (in particular, information
related to toxicity, environmental
statesburden and policy
measures/technology)

SwedenFinlandInformation related to toxicity
Information related toenvironmental burden
Information related to policy
measures and technology

UK LA-EMAS

Environmental management
information

Germany

Information related toenvironmental schemes andpolicies
Information related to toxicity
Information related toenvironmental burden

Source:Characteristics of policy implementation･ Maintain coordination between the construction of federal egovernment and environmental information policy measures.
･ Ensure the consistency and compatibility of information on federal
EPA.
･ Clarify the roles of the public and private sectors, and the federal
and local governments.
Original environmental policies at the local level.
･ Provide support through a system of collaboration among industry,
academia and government.
･ Realize tie-ups and burden sharing in environmental information
between the central and local governments.
･ Develop environmental information systems led by national
research institutions (policy measures focused on software → shiftof focus to the flow of environmental social capital cost)･ Develop and operate schemes and databases to accommodate
corporate behavior such as lifecycle assessment (LCA).
･ Construct environmental management systems considering theenvironmental performance of local governments themselves.
･ Disseminate management methods through inter-regional exchangeusing IT.
Principle of disclosure of environmental information.
･ Develop the Environmental Statistics Law as a precondition for theconstruction of environmental databases.
･ Enact the Environmental Information Disclosure Law to facilitate
the flow of environmental information.

DBJ.

Germany has enacted an Environmental Statistics Law at the national level to enhanceenvironmental information. Along with the disclosure scheme under the Environmental
Information Disclosure Law, the legislation is designed to facilitate the distribution ofenvironmental information. Such institutional infrastructure, though not necessarily linked withinformation technology, should play an important role in its eventual utilization.
What is the current status of environmental information policy in Japan? How is information
technology used in actual administrative activities? The following chapter describes institutional
development of environmental information policy and the actual utilization of information
technology, and outlines the efforts underway toward building e-government.

Development Bank of Japan Research Report/ No. 25 31

III. Development of Environmental Information Policy in Japan
1. Development of E-government and Computerization in Local Communities
1.1. Development of E-government at the National Level
At the national level, efforts have been intensifying to construct e-government to provide better
administrative services through substantial improvement of convenience to the population andbusinesses, increased transparency of administrative services, integrated administrative operation,
improvement in functionality, simplification and higher efficiency.
Compared with other countries, Japan lagged behind major developed countries such as the
US and Canada by about two years in the development of e-government43. In December 1999
the government announced its commitment to develop e-government in the framework of theMillennium Project. The “e-Japan” program, prepared and announced in March 2001, envisages
that about 10,800 applications – 98% of the procedures in the central government – will beprocessed electronically by fiscal 200344. Legislative procedures have been progressing well, as thegovernment expects to submit to a regular Diet session in 2002 a bill allowing all procedures tobe made in electronic form. As infrastructure for building e-government, the “Kasumigaseki
WAN” – a LAN (local area network) of special lines linking the ministries and agencies of thecentral government – has almost been completed.
In its relations with local governments, the central government has drawn up an Egovernment and E-local Government Promotion Program to prepare for online processing ofmost procedures in local governments, as all procedures in the national government will beprocessed online by fiscal 2003. Ongoing infrastructure development includes the Integrated
Administration Network, which links about 3,200 local governments nationwide.
The construction of e-government will also address existing issues such as business process
reengineering (BPR) and simplification. There has also been coordination between the public andprivate sectors in solving important issues such as procurement procedures, tax declarations andpayments, online voting, the development of population register network systems, thedevelopment of infrastructure for various certifications and information security45.
The construction of e-government may stimulate the development of IT industries. Somefear, however, that major vendors might enclose users by low-price bidding without consideringprofitability or by adopting particular specifications46.

43

Nikkei Sangyo Shimbun, October 31, 2001, p.5.
Nikkei Sangyo Shimbun, December 4, 2001, p.5.
45
Although this report does not describe the construction of e-government in detail, the example of the UK is worth
mentioning. In the UK, the current Blair administration announced in 1998 that the government services will be fully available
online by around 2005. Its main objective is to improve access to the government by establishing a one-stop counter for thewhole range of administrative procedures. Thus, UK Online was constructed as a Web-based front-end in 2000. Using
electronic certification technology, a Government Gateway was established in March 2001 for reports and applications.
46
Nikkei Sangyo Shimbun, November 28, 2001, p.3.
4432 Development Bank of Japan Research Report/ No. 25

Figure 3-1. Development of E-government
Policy phase
Individual measure
Computerizati Online applications andon of public- reporting
private contact Government certification
systems
Online procurement
One-stop services
Computerizati Inter-ministerial
on of internal electronic document
administration exchange systems
Integrated document
management systems
Cooperation
Development of Localwith local
Government Wide Area
governments Network (LGWAN)
Source:FY 2000
Planning

FY 2001

FY 2002
Implementation

FY 2003

Definition of
Development and operation of
specifications
certification systems
Information
Preparation and experiment of
databases
electronic bidding
Development ofOne-stop services for customs
portal sites
procedures, etc.
Utilization of Kasumigaseki WAN
in all ministries and agencies
System development
Experimental connection
with Kasumigaseki WAN

Operation in all ministries andagencies
Development in individual
local governments

DBJ

1.2. Computerization in Local Communities and E-government
As the above-mentioned measures are increasingly put into practice at the national level, how far
has e-government progressed at the local level? This subsection outlines trends incomputerization, etc. in local governments.
The number of personal computers is often used as a principal indicator of computerization,and in this sense, computerization has progressed in the central government with almost one
personal computer per employee. By comparison, the introduction of personal computers inlocal governments still lags far behind.
Although an increasing number of local governments have their own homepages, theintroduction of electronic procedures on the Internet has stalled in about 60% of the local
governments, and rapid progress in fiscal 2001 is unlikely.

Development Bank of Japan Research Report/ No. 25 33

Number of personnel/personal computer

Figure 3-2. Introduction of Personal Computers in Government
25

80%

職
員20
数
／15
設
置10
台
数 5

70%
60%
50%

中央省庁（左軸）
Central government (left scale)40%

Local governments (right scale)
地方公共団体（左軸）30%

Ratio of LAN connection in central
中央省庁LAN接続率（右軸）20%government (right scale)

10%

0

0%
1995
H7

Source:

1996
H8

1997
H9

1998
H10

1999
H11

2000
H12

Compiled by DBJ from “FY 2000 Report on the Result of Basic Survey on Government Computerization” (former
Management and Coordination Agency).

Figure 3-3. Trends in Ratio of Electronic Procedures and Number of Homepages
1,000

70%

Number of homepages

900

60%

800

50%

700
600

40%

500
400
300
200

30%

Number of homepages (right scale)
ホームページ数（左軸）
手続電子化率（右軸）
Ratio of electronic procedures

20%(right scale)

10%

100
0

0%
1995
H8

1996
H9

1997
H10

1998
H11

1999
H12

2000
H13

Note:

“Ratio of electronic procedures” refers to the share of actual electronic procedures in total number of procedures thatcan be made in electronic form.

Source:Compiled by DBJ from “Progress in Government Computerization” (Management and Coordination Agency).

34 Development Bank of Japan Research Report/ No. 25

Figure 3-4. Share of Local Governments Having Prepared Computerization Plans
100%
80%
60%
40%
20%
0%
Prefectures
都道府県

Source:Cabinet Order指定都市

Tokyo
特別区

designatedmunicipalities

metropolitan
wards

Cities,市町村
towns &
villages

Total
合計

Compiled by DBJ from “Outline of Computerization Measures in Local Governments” (as of April 1, 1999).

Moreover, many cities, towns and villages, other than the municipalities designated by
Cabinet Orders, have yet to prepare local computerization plans.
Thus, the development of e-government at the local level (electronic applications, thedevelopment of infrastructure including electronic certification, institutional development forelectronic procurement, etc.) will need to be addressed in the years ahead.
The reasons for the delay in building e-government in local governments include inadequateorganizational structure, lack of computer literacy among staff and insufficient awareness among
directors including government leaders, as well as the difficulty in securing necessary budget. If
local governments are to proceed with the construction of e-government in the face of financial
difficulties that are even more serious than for the central government, they need to change theiradministrative processes themselves, and to develop electronic administration systems in acoordinated manner.
How have environmental information policy measures been implemented in relation to theconstruction of e-government? Smooth introduction of information technology in thegovernment sector, coupled with information sharing between the public and private sectors, isimportant for environmental information policy. As compared with various information in
ordinary policy measures, environmental information has such characteristics as mentioned in
Chapter I – (1) secrecy, (2) diversity and (3) complexity/specialty). It should be noted that how toaddress the negative aspects of environmental information is crucial in introducing information
technology.
The following section examines the legal aspects of environmental information and trends
related to information technology as a tool of information dissemination. First, national policy
measures will be outlined, followed by a discussion of specific examples of IT utilization at the
local level.
2. Environmental Information Policy Measures
2.1.

National Policy Measures

2.1.1. Legal schemes concerning environmental information
Since there is no separate legal scheme for the regular collection and management ofDevelopment Bank of Japan Research Report/ No. 25 35

environmental information, various environmental statistics have been developed underindividual environmental regulations. The disclosure of information has been addressed within
the framework of the Information Disclosure Law (the Law concerning the Disclosure ofInformation Owned by Administrative Organs: Law No.42 of 1999).
As regards environmental information statistics, for example, the Chemical Substances Law
regulates information related to toxicity. The law requires permission and reporting in producing
and importing chemical substances (Articles 6 and 26), as well as record-keeping on production,
inventories and sales volume (Article 19). It even provides for an information disclosure scheme(Article 23). Information on facilities and technologies must be recorded when such facilities
have been constructed (Article 6 of the Air Pollution Control Law, etc.). After the start ofoperation, information related to environmental burden (Article 16, for example) must be
measured and recorded. The coverage of information related to environmental burden issubstantial, and the government has the obligation of recording and measuring some of the items(Articles 20, 22 and 24 for example).
Some questions have been raised, however47. Most of such legal schemes are designed toregulate and monitor facilities and substances, rather than regularly collecting, managing anddisclosing systematic information. Therefore, they may not be suitable for environmental
management in the medium to long term.
Figure 3-5. Legislation related to Environmental Information Statistics under the Current
Environmental Law System (by Type of Information)
Scope of environmental
information

Existing laws for regulation andsupervision

Information related to
toxicity

Chemical Substances Law

Information related tofacilities andtechnologies

Air Pollution Control Law,
Water Pollution Control Law,
Noise Control Law, etc.

Information related toenvironmental burden

Ditto at the time of installation

Source:Outline of scheme
Permission & reporting scheme for the manufacture, etc. of
specified chemical substances (Articles 6 and 26), obligation torecord volumes (Article 19-I, Rule 7-I), information disclosure
scheme for competent authorities (Article 23-I).
Notification of facility installation (smoke and soot: Air Pollution
Control Law Article 6-I, dust: Article 18-I, etc.), authority forrequesting reports, entering and inspecting (Air Pollution Control
Law Article 26-I), etc.

Air Pollution Control Law,
Water Pollution Control Law,
Noise Control Law, Vibration
Regulation Law

Obligation to measure and record the volume of smoke and soot,etc. (Air Pollution Control Law Article 16), obligation to measure
and record the amount of specified dust (Article 18-12), etc.
Obligation of measurement, monitoring and disclosure for thegovernment on certain items (Air Pollution Control Law Articles
20, 22 and 24), obligation of constant monitoring and disclosure on
groundwater (Water Pollution Control Law Articles 15 and 17), etc.

Air Pollution Control Law,
Water Pollution Control Law

Claims related to accidents (Air Pollution Law Article 17, Water
Pollution Law Article 14-2), etc.

Compiled by DBJ.

The PRTR Law was enacted recently to require businesses to record the inventories andmovements of chemical substances. This report does not discuss the PRTR scheme in detail, as it
has been dealt with in various books and articles. However, the scheme may provide incentives
47

For example, Matsumura, op. cit., p.101 ll.7-10.

36 Development Bank of Japan Research Report/ No. 25

to the construction of environmental information databases on chemical substances. Althoughsome questions have been raised48, the scheme is considered suitable for promoting the
introduction of information technology49.
2.1.2 Environmental information systems
As regards environmental information systems, environmental information is increasingly being
provided and exchanged on the Web based on the Environment Basic Law. The National
Institute for Environmental Studies, an administrative agency, has established and now operates
on its homepage EI-guide 8.150, a portal site for environmental information, as well as
Environmental Quantity Database51, a monitoring site providing information related toenvironmental burden including air pollution. In 1997, the Environmental Information Centerestablished an Environmental Information and Communication Network (EIC)52 to provide andexchange various kinds of environmental information in electronic form.
Technological development using information technology has also been pursued with theestablishment of policy programs such as the Next-generation Environmental Risk Monitoring
System.
Figure 3-6. Examples of National Policies(1)

National Institute for Environmental Studies
EIC (=Environmental Information & Communication
Network)･ Objective･ Legal basis･ Date of
installation･ Information
provided

Source:(2)

Ministry of the Environment
Next-generation Environmental Risk Monitoring System･ Outline

To facilitate the provision and exchange of environmenta
information to promote environmental education andlearning as well as private environmental conservation
activities.
Environment Basic Law Article 27.
Full utilization of the Internet started in January 1997.

･ Budget･ SystemCollection and provision of information on environmenta
administration (Environment Agency press releases,
administrative documents, environmental laws andregulations, etc.) and environmental information(information on environmental information sources,
information on the promotion of environmental
conservation activities, etc.).

･ Development

Monitoring system that constantly measureshazardous substances contained in air, water, soil,
etc. and notifies any anomalies.
¥20-30 billion over the next 10 years.
Collects measurement data online from sensors
distributed nationwide. Displays the data using theGeographic Information System (GIS) and gives
warning as necessary. Shares environmental
measurement information with local governmentand businesses through networking.
Cooperation with National Institute forEnvironmental Studies, universities and measuring
instrument/communication equipment
manufacturers.

Compiled by DBJ from Ministry of the Environment homepage, etc.

48

For example, some argue for the interpretation that (1) data owned by individual business establishments should be disclosed
on request, or that (2) as regards trade secrets, the minister in charge should be obliged to disclose the complete file of therelevant records.
Source: Hiroshi Yamada, “Kagaku Busshitsu to Kankyo Joho Kokai,” in Environmental Law and Policy Society, ed., Kankyo-ho
Seisaku Gakkai-shi, No.4, p.21-22.
49
Yamada, op. cit., p.23 l.29- states that hard data such as emissions from individual business establishments only require theapplication of the Information Disclosure Law, and therefore do not constitute the raison d’être of the PRTR law in themselves(for details, see Shizuo Fujiwara, “Kankyo Joho no Kokai to Risk Communication,” in Zokan Jurist Shin Seiki no Tenbo 2,
Yuhikaku, p.72 l.10-). Rather, the PRTR Law is designed to develop and provide “higher quality” environmental informationby contributing to risk communication with residents and environmental management by the government.
50
A type of metadata and contains an index for each environmental field as well as the “table of contents” for each category of
information such as facilities/technologies and environmental schemes/policies, etc.
Source: http://www.nies.go.jp/db/eic-j/ei_guide8/x/514/htm.
51
Monthly and annual data concerning national atmospheric environment and annual data concerning public water bodies areavailable on this site. The measurement data only covers the FY 1990-1999 period at present.
Source: http://www.nies.go.jp/igreen/index.html.
52
EIC focuses on domestic and international news related to environmental administration, environmental education and event
information, among others (http://www.eic.or.jp).
Development Bank of Japan Research Report/ No. 25 37

Such policy measures are not free from problems, either. Although the central government,
under Article 27 of the Environment Basic Law53, is to provide information through EIC, theprovision also states that the government may “use its discretion to a considerable extent” inproviding the information54. This contrasts greatly with the case of Germany, where a systematic
legal code concerning the collection of environmental information, which includes theEnvironmental Statistics Law, stipulates legal obligations in providing environmental information.
Although individual laws such as the Water Pollution Control Law and the Nature Conservation
Law require reporting in the case of accidents involving the emissions of hazardous substances,
those provisions may not be satisfactory in that competent authorities including local
governments are not required to disclose environmental information that they own. Further
discussion is needed on issues including the persons authorized to collect environmental
information, the scope of the information to be collected, the method of data management
including databases for environmental information thus collected, issues related to data collection
including the persons responsible for reporting and the scope of the data to be reported, as wellas the best practice in disclosing environmental information.
2.2.

Local Policy Measures

2.2.1. Institutional development
As noted above, the utilization of information technology and the construction of e-government
have only just begun at the level of local governments. As regards the disclosure ofenvironmental information, a handful of local governments are now amending ordinances toensure harmonization with the Information Disclosure Law.
Against this backdrop, some local governments are also considering the enhancement ofenvironmental information. The Tokyo metropolitan government amended the existing
Information Disclosure Ordinance in time for the enactment of the Information Disclosure Law.
As a unique movement, it is also striving to improve information disclosure to parallel the US
standard. In 1998, the Tokyo government prepared a “Platform for the Promotion ofInformation Disclosure,” which envisages “active” disclosure of certain archives on the Internetwith or without any request55. Further, the Information Disclosure Ordinance went into effect inApril 2000, in time for the enactment of the Information Disclosure Law by the central
government. Since environmental information is included in the administrative information to bedisclosed, the Ordinance provides an important institutional design for environmental
information policy.

53

Article 27 of the Environment Basic Law: “The government … shall seek to provide appropriate information on
environmental conditions and other necessary information for environmental conservation, subject to the protection of therights or interests of individuals and corporations.”
54
Setsuo Konoyama, “Seifu Saisei to Denshi Seifu ni okeru Kankyo Joho no Denshi-teki na Teikyo to Hokoku,” in Joho Gyosei
Mondai Kenkyu, Kansai University Economic and Political Research Institute (2000), p.71, l.3.
55
Tokyo Metropolitan Government Information Disclosure Ordinance Article 30 Paragraph 1: “The Tokyo metropolitan
government … shall enhance information disclosure and provision measures and seek to promote information disclosure in an
integrated manner, to ensure prompt and easy access for the residents to precise and easy-to-understand information on thepolicies of the government.”
38 Development Bank of Japan Research Report/ No. 25Source:

Unique movement

Measures taken by the Tokyo metropolitan government for
information disclosure and the provision of disclosed
information

Impact◎ Issues concerning corporate environmental information inInformation Disclosure Law･Article 5-(2): Corporate environmental information shall be“disclosed” in principle.
･Undisclosed information(2) A. When the disclosure may violate any rights or legitimate
interests of the corporation including its competitive status(2) B. When the information has been provided voluntarily
following the request of a government organ on condition
that it would not be disclosed and it is deemed reasonable
to leave it undisclosed.
･Proviso for (2) stating exception
The information shall be disclosed if necessary to protect thelife, health, etc. of a person.
→ Ultimately, this is a question of equity that hinges on whether
priority should be given to the competitive status ofbusinesses, or to the extensiveness, etc. of environmental
damages caused by businesses in light of the principle ofdisclosure.

Disclosed information

Information disclosure

Figure 3-7. Relation between Information Disclosure Law Issues concerning
Environmental Information and Measures Taken by Tokyo Metropolitan Government◎ Tokyo Metropolitan Government Information
Disclosure Ordinance (as amended, promulgated in
January 2000)･Emphasis on the right to know (actually providing foraccountability only).
･Coverage was extended to “documents commonlyused in an organization” and electromagnetic records
were newly included (Article 2-II).
･Persons eligible to make requests were expanded(qualification eliminated, Article 5).
･Principle of disclosure with a negative list (Article 7).
Undisclosed
information → Legally stipulated confidential matters,
personal information, business activity
information, voluntarily provided
information, etc.
Cf. Tokyo Metropolitan Government Environment
Basic Ordinance Article 17◎ Tokyo Metropolitan Government Platform for the
Promotion of Information Disclosure (October1998) ← based on Articles 30-33 of the said
Ordinance.
･Disclosure and provision of archives in principlewith or without any request under the Disclosure
Ordinance.
･Inclusion of “environmental” information in data
provided.
･Automatic distribution on the Internet.

DBJ

Are there any projects to ensure smooth flow of environmental information by utilizing
information technology? In light of the emergence of waste management policy in Japan and theadoption of environmental accounting in businesses, which is now impacting on the policies of
local governments with the identification of environmental costs and benefits, the following
section provides some case studies on environmental management information.
2.2.2. Utilization of IT in environmental administration
Waste management (information related to environmental burden, etc.)
Efficient processing systems have also been introduced in waste management. This section
outlines the Waste Reduction Strategy Information GIS System (Kizu Town, Kyoto Prefecture)56,
which utilizes the GPS (Global Positioning System), followed by some examples of other local
governments.
GIS stands for Geographic Information System. The Kizu system combines GIS and GPS.
Waste collection vehicles, equipped with digital cameras and weight sensors, investigate waste
generation and discharge in each area. At the same time, the positions of the vehicles are
identified precisely using a communication satellite. The environmental information thus
collected (information related to environmental burden) is processed by computer to analyze the56

See http://www1.mahoroba.ne.jp/~kizu-res/project2.html.
Development Bank of Japan Research Report/ No. 25 39

amount and type of waste by area, by person, by age group and by family composition. It is also
possible to conduct a simulation analysis on the pattern of waste discharge.
Figure 3-8. Waste Reduction Strategy Information GIS System
Mechanism of next-generation GIS model operation(View maps showing the amount of waste)
GPS(Global Positioning
System)

ISDN(Identification of
positions)(Data collected andtransmitted)
Waste

Library

Kizu
Town
Computer
Room

Waste collection vehicles withweight sensors

Source:SchoolRecycling Training
StationEnvironment
Division

Kizu Town homepage.

The Kizu Town government notes the following three merits of introducing the system.
First, it allows the development of a highly effective waste reduction plan that considers local
characteristics. The collection of specific waste generation data by area, as mentioned above,enables a precise response by quantifying the effect of waste reduction policy. Second, the system
is expected to stimulate waste reduction activities and effectively reduce the disposal cost. The
disclosure of waste data on the Web, etc. is expected to raise public awareness of theenvironment and facilitate the shift to an environment-friendly lifestyle. Third, the system can beused in urban development planning. By analyzing the relationship between local characteristics
and waste generation, it is possible to estimate future waste generation, and thus to forecast theburden on waste disposal facilities (i.e. the application of information related to environmental
burden to facility and technical information), as well as the assessment of impact from theconstruction of condominiums and urban facilities.
In any case, the utilization of information technology itself does not directly lead to
reduction in waste discharge. Rather, daily efforts by the local government should beaccompanied by smooth dissemination of environmental information to the residents57 and thecooperation of the residents in environmental conservation, if the introduction of information
technology is to successfully contribute to environmental information policy.
The city of Koshoku in Nagano Prefecture introduced in April 2000 a Waste Management
System to collect waste discharge data by putting bar-code stickers on household waste bags. The
city government distributes to all households bar-coded stickers, on which the names ofhouseholders are recorded and the names of neighborhood self-governing bodies to which they
belong. The residents put these stickers on waste bags before discharging them. Waste collectors
use bar code readers to accumulate the data, and transmit them to the city’s database foraggregation at the end of their daily work.
57

Kizu Town provides schools with well-managed environmental information on the Internet. The information is also available
at libraries, etc.

40 Development Bank of Japan Research Report/ No. 25

According to the analysis of the city government, with the cooperation and understanding of
the residents, the system has substantially reduced waste generation58. The city also analyzes thecollected environmental information to identify the pattern of waste discharge by householdcomposition and by area, and the results will be used as basic data in charging fees for waste
collection.
Elsewhere, the city of Ichihara in Chiba Prefecture introduced a remote surveillance camera
system in August 2000 to control illegal dumping, as incidents of illegal dumping in coppice
woods of industrial waste including construction materials and also domestic waste wereincreasing rapidly. The surveillance cameras, now installed in several places in mountainous areasand coppice woods in the city, are turned on when a vehicle passes nearby, and the image istransmitted by portable phone circuits to the city’s Environment Division for display andrecording. If identified, the illegal dumper will be asked to remove the waste. Even in this case,however, the utilization of IT in environmental information policy itself is not considered to be a
key factor. The city government recognizes that the system will be effective only when it isaccompanied by institutional support, cooperation and collaboration with citizens and civicorganizations59.
Figure 3-9. Trend of Waste Discharge in Koshoku City
600

ｔ

500

446

548

541
453

450

449

456

475
402

400

341

300

339

341

325

239

200
100
0
Mar

Source:

Apr

May

Jun

1999

2000

July

Aug

Sept

“Gekkan Kankyo Jichitai,” Nihon Kogyo Shimbun (June 2001), p.21.

These examples indicate that the efficient collection of environmental information “online,”
utilizing information technology, facilitates the flow of environmental information. However,“offline” systems are also an important infrastructure to be developed, including institutional
support and the cooperation of local residents, when introducing systems using various
information technology.

58

The city government considers that the cooperation of residents has contributed to the smooth introduction of information
technology and to waste reduction mainly because the city had already (1) required residents’ names to be marked on wastebags, (2) implemented the collection of meticulously classified waste, and (3) designated special bags for waste discharge.
Source: Ibid, p.23.
59
The cameras cannot be installed in all mountainous areas, etc. Illegal dumping has been declining due to cooperation with theresidents, coupled with various policy measures such as the system of surveillance patrols against illegal dumping by citizens(1989) and the development of a draft ordinance effectively banning the entrance of large-sized vehicles into municipal forest
paths (September 2000).
Development Bank of Japan Research Report/ No. 25 41

Local government version of environmental accounting (environmental management
information)
The city of Yokosuka60 introduced for the first time in Japan a “local government version” ofenvironmental accounting on an experimental basis toward e-government. The data are now
available on the Web in electronic form for fiscal 1998 and 1999.
In introducing environmental accounting, the city classified its environmental policy
measures into direct measures and indirect measures, and the cost-effectiveness of environmental
policies has been measured according to this classification. In private companies, environmental
accounting primarily measures and evaluates the cost and effectiveness of direct measures. In thecase of local governments, however, it is also considered important to measure and evaluate thecost and effectiveness of indirect measures.
Figure 3-10. Direct Measures and Indirect Measures
Definition
Direct measures Policy measures
implemented to reduce theburden placed on theenvironment by thegovernment’s activities
Indirect
Policy measures and services
measures
implemented by thegovernment to reduce theburden placed on theenvironment by residents
and businesses

Source:Typical examples○ Pollution control activities (air conservation at sewage treatment centers)○ Global environment conservation activities (waste heat utilization for water)○ Resource recycling activities (paper recycling)○ Environmental management activities (building environmental management
systems, etc.)○ Air pollution control services (monitoring, regulation and guidance offactories, etc.)○ Water pollution control services (water quality survey, development ofpublic sewerage)○ Waste management services (general waste management service, waste
reduction promotion service)○ Natural environment conservation services (park construction service, river
improvement service)

Yokosuka City (http://www.city.yokosuka.kanagawa.jp/k-kaikei/03.html).

The city also classifies the effect of the two types of policy measures into private effect andsocial effect. In private companies, only private effect is measured as the effect of environmental
activities. In local governments, however, social effect is also measured and evaluated, as total
effect of indirect measures cannot be represented solely by private effect. By disclosing these data
even at the experimental stage, the city allows their evaluation through public comments. Basedon this evaluation, the city intends to improve the quality of environmental accounting on its
own initiative. Such efforts to improve environmental information in an interactive way deserve
particular attention61 62.
60

Yokosuka City has taken innovative steps toward e-government, introducing for the first time in Japan a unique “electronic
bidding system” in line with the original bidding system of the city. The city’s experiments have been the subject of many
books and articles, including Nihon Kogyo Shimbun, November 29, 2001, p.4.
61
In concrete terms, private effect and social effect in environmental accounting are as follows.
Source: Yokosuka City website.
Effect62

Definition

ExamplePrivate effectThose costs generated through actual market
transactions that were averted or reduced as a resultof direct measures.

○Social effectThose damages to health, life, properties, etc. byenvironmental pollution that were averted or
reduced as a result of direct or indirect measures.

○

○

○

Electricity charges reduced by power generation using
waste heat.
Fuel cost, etc. reduced by lower fuel consumption.
Damages to health averted or reduced by air pollution
control measures.
Deterioration of amenity averted or reduced by waterpollution control measures.

For aggregate results for fiscal 1999, see http://www.city.yokosuka.kanagawa.jp/k-kaikei/05_11_1.html (direct measures) andhttp://www.city.yokosuka.kanagawa.jp/k-kaikei/05_11_2.html (indirect measures).

42 Development Bank of Japan Research Report/ No. 25

Some questions may be raised, however. For instance, the definition of the part belonging toindirect measures is rather simplistic, subtracting the part of direct measures from the entire
services listed on the environment basic plan. Of course, the improving the quality ofenvironmental management information first requires the city government to voluntarily makeappropriate responses to public comments. In addition, intellectual support at the national level is
expected in the future, along with the enhancement of local environmental management
information in cooperation with other local governments.
3.

Conclusion

This chapter outlined the trend of building e-government in Japan and examined institutional
development and the use of IT in the field of environmental information policy with some casestudies. The introduction of economically reasonable tools such as electronic application andprocurement is a necessary condition for improving government efficiency. However, techniquessuch as the computerization of government procedures in general are not sufficient for full
utilization of environmental information, which is characterized by its secrecy, diversity,
complexity and specialty. Institutional design according to the characteristics of environmental
information is important, and should be based on partnerships with residents and businesses.
How is environmental information policy expected to develop in the future? The final
chapter summarizes some of the remaining problems and expected issues.

Development Bank of Japan Research Report/ No. 25 43

IV. Issues to be Addressed in Future Environmental Information Policy
Any future shift in environmental administration paradigm through public-private collaboration
will require qualitative and quantitative enhancement of environmental information and theelimination of the existing divide in environmental information. The introduction of information
technology in environmental information policy will be a strong support in this regard, but will
hardly be a sufficient condition. As discussed earlier, judgment should be made on whether the
introduction of IT is appropriate, the cases where the utilization of IT is difficult should be
identified, and the costs and benefits of data dissemination with IT should be examined, all basedon the characteristics of environmental information.
Figure 4-1. Environmental Information Matrix

Environmental information(narrow sense)

Environmental information (broad sense)

Type of environmental
information
Information
related to theenvironment
itselfInformation
related to
toxicity
Information
related toenvironmental
burdenFacility and technicalinformation

ExamplesMain purpose ofdissemination

Closely related
sectors

Characteristics ofinformation

Easiness ofcollection

Ways andmeans ofcollection/
disclosure

Disclosurefriendliness

ITfriendliness

Animal andplant ecology

Improvement ofenvironmental
awareness

Government

Diversity,
complexity &specialty○

Monitoring○○

Chemical
substances

Effective
application of theright to know

Residents,
businesses

Secrecy,complexity &specialty, diversity

×

Regulation,
monitoring×○

Measuredvalues ofenvironmental
concentration

Effective
application of theright to know

Residents,
businesses

Secrecy,complexity &specialty, diversity

×〜△

Regulation,
monitoring,
incentive (Ecolabeling)

×〜△○

Trend ofprivaterecyclingfacilities

Improved
efficiency ofenvironmental
conservation
measures

Government,
businesses

Secrecy,complexity &specialty

×〜△

Regulation,
incentive△△

Information
disclosure,(disclosed
information),environmental
education○◎

Enlightenment, incentive△○

Information
Information related toonenvironmental schemes environmenta
and policies
l laws andeducation
Environmental
management
information

Source:Environment
al accounting,
ISO14001

Efficientenvironmental
administration,smooth corporate
activities

Government,
businesses

Complexity &specialty, diversity○(△ forbylaws)

Improvement ofenvironmental
performance

Government,
businesses

Diversity

△〜○

DBJ.

What issues need to be addressed? What viewpoints are valid in tackling these issues? Threeaxes may be considered: (1) structural issues facing the government (local governments inparticular), (2) institutional issues in environmental information policy, as discussed in theprevious chapter, and structure for the development and operation of environmental information,and (3) issues related to the quality of environmental information (contents). These issues are
discussed in the following sections.

44 Development Bank of Japan Research Report/ No. 25

1. Structural Issues
Structural issues refer to issues concerning (environmental) administration in general, including
environmental information policy. These issues may be addressed from both software andhardware aspects. In terms of hardware, e-government is still far from complete, as described in
Chapter III, and the development of infrastructure has been particularly slow at the local level.
For networking as well as information terminals, inter-regional connection of trunk networks will
be important in preparing for the eventual connection with central networks. The establishment
and smooth introduction of core technologies for building e-government, such as electronic
application and certification, are essential in addressing the hardware issues.
Despite such hardware issues, the development of software is much more important. The
introduction of software for protecting personal and corporate information is particularly
important, as this directly encourages the use of information technology. Software is also
involved in the organizational structure required for introducing information technology. It has
been pointed out that the vertical division of administrative structure is a serious obstacle to theintroduction of information technology. It is rare in Japan that a local government has a CIO(Chief Information Officer) such as is common in local governments in Europe and North
America. The heads of local governments must work in unity with information lines.
As was mentioned in Chapter I, local governments are facing even more serious financial
difficulties than the central government, for their sources of financing are limited. Investment inenvironmental administration will have to continue under these circumstances, and so budget
allocations must be monitored to ensure the purchase of hardware does not take precedence oversoftware development.
2. Institutional Issues
Information technology alone cannot ensure the enhancement of environmental information
policy. Institutional development and enhancement according to the characteristics ofenvironmental information is also expected. The judgment on whether a specific scheme isneeded for the disclosure of environmental information, as in the case of Germany, depends on
the implementation and interpretation of the Information Disclosure Law, which is a generallegislation. The answer to this question will emerge as interpretive arguments develop. Meanwhile,
the US-style active disclosure of environmental information on a voluntary basis, observed insome local government, is expected to become an important movement.
In particular, the development of environmental statistics is important not only for policymaking, but also for smooth collaboration between the public and private sectors throughdisclosure to residents and businesses. Schemes related to environmental statistics are defined byseparate laws and are rather unsystematic. If environment management techniques are to evolvewith the measurement of local or national environmental performance, the consolidation ofenvironmental statistics should be regarded as a priority.
In addition to institutional design, appropriate structures need to be built to promote
environmental information policy. Although this report describes only a few of the local projects
in Japan, the barrier of administrative boundaries has hampered the development of wide-area
projects. Moreover, Japan apparently lags far behind Europe and North America in its disclosureand enhancement of environmental information through cooperation between the government
and NGOs/NPOs. The collection of environmental information and the utilization of databasesby the government alone (local governments in particular) will face numerous difficulties,
particularly in terms of cost, because the monitoring of environmental information entails a hugecost in the installation, operation and maintenance of measuring instruments. Besides building
partnerships with environmental NPOs and raising the awareness of residents throughDevelopment Bank of Japan Research Report/ No. 25 45

environmental education, consideration should also be given to introducing monitoring systems
with the cooperation of residents63.
The need to cooperate with non-governmental sectors indicates the importance ofpartnerships between the industrial, academic and public sectors. As regards systems related toenvironmental information, the development of various tools in private companies has beenstimulated mainly by the implementation of the PRTR Law. In fact, the government does nothave to operate all systems related to the environment; active outsourcing may be pursued. For
example, environmental ASP services, increasingly active in Europe and North America, would
help revitalize the domestic industry.
The implementation of environmental information policy must clearly consider therequirements of corporate management, such as the non-disclosure of expertise and technicalinformation owned by businesses. The specific characters of environmental information(information related to toxicity and environmental burden in particular) should also be
considered. Indeed, businesses often voluntarily disclose information related to toxicity for the
purpose of environmental risk management, including data on soil pollution, which has been
attracting attention recently. However, companies are always concerned about the dilemma of
possible criticism from society as a result of disclosure. The government and local residents mustrefrain from preventing legitimate corporate activities.
3.

Contents Issues

As mentioned in Chapter III, information technology has started to be used in Japan mainly for
waste management. In some cases, data on waste movements, etc. are already available. The
construction of databases on environmental information is advancing slowly but surely. However,environmental information recorded in the databases does not always reflect the most recent
trends, and data are sometimes insufficient due to cost problems, etc.
At the same time, various questions have been raised concerning the availability ofenvironmental information and the practice of information disclosure. As regards the methods ofmonitoring related to dioxin, for example, some point out that the current simulation techniquedoes not appropriately consider constantly changing parameters such as meteorologicalconditions and traffic density, as measurements are only made at fixed points64. Further
cooperation between industry, academia and government, as mentioned above, is necessary to
overcome such shortcomings.
In order to evaluate performance with local environmental management systems,
environmental management information including the local version of environmental accounting
will need to be improved, along with ongoing research on environmental indicators. Contents
essential for corporate activities and the daily life of residents will also have to be developed, suchas soil pollution databases.
Consideration should be given to the characteristics of environmental information in
63

It should be noted in this connection that pine needles have been utilized in some communities to estimate the average
concentration of dioxin in the local atmosphere. Along with the reasonableness of the measuring technique itself, thecollection of specimens (pine needles in this case) by local residents themselves is noteworthy as a tool of environmental
information policy (“National Pine-needle Dioxin Survey with the Participation of Citizens”).
Source: Yomiuri Shimbun, October 18, 2001, evening edition.
64
For example, the relative position among measuring stations and approximate distribution of concentration may be defined by
the system run by the Ministry of the Environment, but it is difficult to identify the distribution of concentration within a local
area. In order to overcome this shortcoming, the Environmental Research Institute, an environmental think-tank based in
Shinagawa Ward, Tokyo, developed a technique that utilizes atmospheric, meteorological and automobile information toreconstruct concentration along the road and in other areas in a colored concentration map (simulation). The technique has
been introduced in Itabashi Ward and Ichikawa City among others.
46 Development Bank of Japan Research Report/ No. 25

addressing these issues. In any case, the many issues to be addressed in bringing about a shift ofenvironmental administration paradigm require more than the efforts of a local government.
They need to be overcome through coordinated efforts with support from the central
government, in such forms as cooperation covering wide areas and mutual assistance among theindustrial, academic and private sectors (including NGOs and NPOs).
[Nobuo Ino <e-mail: report@dbj.go.jp>]

Development Bank of Japan Research Report/ No. 25 47

Figure 4-2. Problems and Issues over Environmental Information Policy
Enhancing environmental information and overcoming
environmental information divide
Utilization of IT

Problems
Structural problems of local
government

Development of schemes and construction of
structure for development and operation ofenvironmental information

Development of environmental
information contents

Barriers in introducing IT (egovernment)

Development of specific legal schemes forenvironmental information and structure forenhancement of environmental information

Systematization and development ofenvironmental information contents◎ Hardware: delay in infrastructuredevelopment including informationequipment and networks.
◎ Software· Underdevelopment ofpromotional structure· Vertical division of government
services· Security (protection of personaland corporate information, etc.)◎ Hardware: construction of egovernment including electronic
application and certification.
◎ Software· Promotional structure led byhead of government· Security technologies· Human resource development(literacy)◎ Allocation of necessary budget◎ Enhancement of environmental
information disclosure schemes in local
governments◎ Voluntary disclosure of environmental
information◎ Enhancement of environmental
information statistics◎ Partnership with private sector including
businesses

Institutional development◎ Enhancement of Information Disclosure
Ordinance, institutional design related toenvironmental information◎ Development of legal provisions for
expanding information disclosure◎ Institutional development to promotecollection and development ofenvironmental information· Discussion on introduction ofEnvironmental Statistics Law and
Ordinance◎ Development of techniques toobtain quantitative environmental
information that enables appropriate
response◎ Consideration given to local
environmental performance◎ Local dissemination of information
on environmental burden generated
by corporate activities, etc.

◎ Development of common
environmental indicators for central
and local governments◎ Development of local environmental
management systems (e.g. local
government version ofenvironmental accounting)◎ Development of local environmental
burden databases (e.g. soil pollution
database, database of corporate
information on environmental
burden)◎ Development of various waste
disposal systems utilizing IT

Building development and operation
structure

Future issues to overcome
problems

Source:◎ Construction of development andoperation structure for environmental
information through wide-areacooperation◎ Disclosure of environmental informationin collaboration with NGOs and NPOs
◎ Development of environmental
information technology and development
and operation of databases throughindustry-academia-government
partnerships (e.g. environmental ASP
services through outsourcing)

DBJ

48 Development Bank of Japan Research Report/ No. 25

Characteristics ofenvironmental
information· Secrecy (particularly innarrow sense)· Diversity· Complexity andspecialtyReferences
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50 Development Bank of Japan Research Report/ No. 25

List of Back Numbers (Including JDB Research Report)
No. 25 Environmental Information Policy and Utilization of Information Technology: Toward a Shift inEnvironmental Policy Paradigm (this issue)
No. 24 The Changing Structure of Trade in Japan and Its Impact: With the Focus on Trade in Information
Technology (IT) Goods, March 2002
No. 23 Microstructure of persistent ROA decline in the Japanese corporate sector: Inter-company disparties andinvestment strategies, March 2002
No. 22 Recent Trends in the Japanese Economy: The Japanese Economy under Deflation and Prospects ofEvolution, February 2002
No. 21 Survey on Planned Capital Spending for Fiscal Years 2000, 2001 and 2002, December 2001
No. 20 Current Situation and Challenges for Cable Television in the Broadband Era, October 2001
No. 19 Recent Trends in the Japanese Economy: The Japanese Economy under Deflation, August 2001
No. 18 Introduction of a Home Appliance Recycling System: Effects & Prospects: Progress towards Utilisation of
Recycling Infrastructure, June 2001
No. 17 Survey on Planned Capital Spending for Fiscal Years 2000 and 2001, June 2001
No. 16 Revitalization of Middle-aged and Elderly Workers in Japan’s Labor Markets: Requiring the Expansion of
the Vocational Training Functions, March 2001
No. 15 Risk-Averting Portfolio Trends of Japanese Households, March 2001
No. 14 Consumption Demand Trends and the Structure of Supply: Focus on Retail Industry Supply Behavior,
March 2001
No. 13 Recent Trends in the Japanese Economy: Weakness of Current Economic Recovery and Its Background,
March 2001
No. 12 Empirical Reassessment of Japanese Corporate Investment Behavior: Features and Changes since the1980s, based on Micro-level Panel Data, March 2001
No. 11 Survey on Planned Capital Spending for Fiscal Years 1999, 2000 and 2001, October 2000
No. 10 Job Creation and Job Destruction in Japan, 1978-1998: An Empirical Analysis Based on Enterprise Data,
September 2000
No. 9

Recent Trends in the Japanese Economy: Information Technology and the Economy, September 2000

No. 8

Trend of International Reorganization Affecting the Japanese Automobile and Auto Parts Industries, June
2000

No. 7

Survey on Planned Capital Spending for Fiscal Years 1999 and 2000, June 2000

No. 6

Current Status and Future Perspective of the Japanese Remediation Industry: Technology and Market for
Underground Remediation, May 2000

No. 5

Recent Trends in the Japanese Economy: The 1990s in Retrospect, March 2000

No. 4

Destabilized Consumption and the Post-bubble Consumer Environment, February 2000

No. 3

The Slump in Plant and Equipment Investment in the 1990s: Focusing on Lowered Expectations, the Debt
Burden and Other Structural Factors, January 2000

No. 2

Survey on Planned Capital Spending for Fiscal Years 1998, 1999 and 2000, November 1999

No. 1

Corporate Strategies in Japan’s Semiconductor Industry: Implications of Development in Other AsianCountries, November 1999

JDB Research Report
No.96

Recent Trends in the Japanese Economy: Focused on Fixed Investment and Capital Stock, August 1999

No.95

Efforts to Protect the Natural Environment in the United States and Germany: Environmental Mitigation
and Biotope Conservation, July 1999

No.94

Survey on Planned Capital Spending for Fiscal Years 1998 and 1999, June 1999

No.93

Towards the realization of ‘environmental partnership’: A survey of Japan’s environmental NPO sector
through comparison with Germany, June 1999

No.92

The Impact of Demographic Changes on Consumption and Savings, March 1999

No.91

Recent Research and Development Trends in Japanese Enterprises: Technology Fusion, March 1999

No.90

Recent Trends in the Japanese Economy: Prolonged Balance Sheet Adjustment, January 1999

No.89

Impact of Asset Price Fluctuations on Household and Corporate Behavior: A Comparison between Japanand the U.S., December 1998

No.88

Survey on Planned Capital Spending for Fiscal Years 1997, 1998, and 1999, December 1998

No.87

Foreign Exchange Rate Fluctuations and Changes in the Input-Output Structure, November 1998

No.86

Structural Changes in Unemployment of Japan: An Approach from Labor Flow, November 1998

No.85

Recent Trends in the Japanese Economy: Characteristics of the Current Recession, August 1998

No.84

R&D Stock and Trade Structure in Japan, August 1998

No.83

Survey on Planned Capital Spending for Fiscal Years 1997 and 1998, August 1998

No.82

The Significance, Potential, and Problems of DNA Analysis Research: Establishing Public Acceptance isEssential, May 1998

No.81

The Japan Development Bank Reports on Capital Spending: Survey for Fiscal Years 1996, 1997 and 1998
Conducted in August 1997, March 1998

No.80

Recent Trends in the Japanese Economy: Growth Base of the Japanese Economy, January 1998

No.79

Information Appliances: The Strength of Japanese Companies and Tasks for the Future, January 1998

No.78

Challenges and Outlook for the Japanese Machinery Industries: Impact of ISO14000 Series andEnvironmental Cost, January 1998

No.77

Current Conditions and Issues of Computerization in the Health Care Industry : For the Construction of a
Health Care Information Network, January 1998

No.76

Household Consumption and Saving in Japan, December 1997

No.75

The Direction of Japanese Distribution System Reforms: Strengthening the Infrastructure to Support
Diverse Consumer Choices, November 1997

No.74

Foreign Direct Investments by Japanese Manufacturing Industries and Their Effects on International
Trade, October 1997

No.73

The Impact of the Changing Trade Structure on the Japanese Economy: With Special Focus on the Effects
on Productivity and Employment, October 1997

No.72

An Analysis of Foreign Direct Investment and Foreign Affiliates in Japan, August 1997

No.71

Recent Trends in the Japanese Economy: Stock Replacement and New Demand as Aspects of Economic
Recovery, August 1997

No. 70 Corporate Fundraising : An International Comparison, June 1997

No. 69 The Japan Development Bank Reports on Capital Spending: Survey for Fiscal Years 1996 and 1997
Conducted in February 1997, May 1997
No. 68 The Japan Development Bank Reports on Capital Spending: Survey for Fiscal Years 1996 and 1997
Conducted in August 1996, August 1997
No. 67 An International Comparison of Corporate Investment Behavior: Empirical Analysis Using Firm Datefrom Japan, France and the US, April 1997
No. 66 Housing in the National Capital: Analysis of the Market for Housing using Micro Data, March 1997
No. 65 The Environment for Locating Business Operations in Major East Asian Cities, January 1997
No. 64 Direction of Reconstruction of Business Strategy in the Chemical Industry, January 1997
No. 63 Reflection on Discussions Concerning Regulation of the Electric Power Industry: Deregulation of theElectric Power Industry in Japan and Implication of Experiences in the United States, December 1996
No. 62 Current Status and Future Perspective of the Japanese Semiconductor Industry, November 1996
No. 61 A Breakthrough for the Japanese Software Industry?: Responsiveness to Users’ Needs is the key, October
1996
No. 60 Recent Trends in the Japanese Economy Focusing on the Characteristics and Sustainability of the Current
Economic Recovery, September 1996
No. 59 Analysis of the Primary Causes and Economic Effects of Information: Related investment in the UnitedStates and Trends in Japan, August 1996
No. 58 Selected Summaries of Research Reports: Published in FY 1995, June 1996
No. 57 The Japan Development Bank Reports on Capital Spending: Survey for Fiscal Years 1995 and 1996
Conducted in February 1996, May 1996
No. 56 Recent Trends in the Japanese Economy, May 1996
No. 55 Issues Concerning the Competitiveness of the Japanese Steel Industry, February 1996
No. 54 Changes in the Financial Environment and the Real Economy, January 1996
No. 53 The Japan Development Bank Reports on Capital Spending: Survey for Fiscal Years 1994, 1995 and 1996
Conducted in August 1995, October 1995
No. 52 Current Economic Trends: Focusing on the Appreciation of the Yen and its Effects, October 1995
No. 51 Problems Concerning the International Competitiveness of the Petrochemical Industry, October 1995
No. 50 An Economic Approach to International Competitiveness, October 1995
No. 49 Selected Summaries of Research Reports Published in FY 1994, July 1995
No. 48 Strategies for Improving the Efficiency of the Japanese Physical Distribution System: Part2, July 1995
No. 47 Issues on International Competitive Strength of the Auto Industry, June 1995
No. 46 Problems Concerning the International Competitiveness of the Electronics and Electric Machinery
Industry, June 1995
No. 45 The Japan Development Bank Reports on Capital Spending: Survey for Fiscal Years 1994 and 1995
Conducted in March 1995, June 1995
No. 44 Strategies for Improving the Efficiency of the Japanese Physical Distribution System, March 1995
No. 43 Capital Spending Recovery Scenario Cycle and Structure, August 1994
No. 42 Progress of International Joint Development between Industrialized Countries on the Private Level, May
1994

No. 41 The Japan Development Bank Reports on Capital Spending: Survey for Fiscal Years 1993, 1994 and 1995
Conducted in August 1994 , November 1994
No. 40 Selected Summaries of Research Reports Published in FY 1993, June 1994
No. 39 Recent Trends in Japan’s Foreign Accounts, April 1994
No. 38 The Japan Development Bank Reports on Capital Spending: Survey for Fiscal Years 1993 and 1994
Conducted in March 1994, April 1994
No. 37 Economic Zones and East Asia Prospect for Economic Activity Oriented Market Integration, December
1993
No. 36 Japanese Corporate Responses to Global Environmental Issues, December 1993
No. 35 The Japan Development Bank Reports on Capital Spending: Survey for Fiscal Years 1992, 1993 and 1994
Conducted in August 1993, September 1993
No. 34 Structure of Profit to Capital in the Manufacturing Industry, September 1993
No. 33 Comparison of the Japanese and The U.S. Labor Markets, October 1992
No. 32 The Relative Competitiveness of U.S., German, and Japanese Manufacturing, March 1993
No. 31 The Japan Development Bank Reports on Capital Spending: Survey for Fiscal Years 1992 and 1993
Conducted in March 1993, April 1993
No. 30 The Japan Development Bank Reports on Capital Spending: Survey for Fiscal Years 1991, 1992 and 1993
Conducted in August 1992, December 1992
No. 29 Flow of Funds in the 80s and Future Corporate Finance in Japan, November 1992
No. 28 The Japan Development Bank Reports on Capital Spending: Survey for Fiscal Years 1991 and 1992
Conducted in February 1992, April 1992
No. 27 An Analysis of Foreign Direct Investment in Japan, March 1992
No. 26 Projection of Japan's Trade Surplus in 1995: Analysis of Japan's Trade Structure in the 80s, February 1992
No. 25 Intra-Industry Trade and Dynamic Development of The World Economy, November 1991
No. 24 The Japan Development Bank Reports on Capital Spending: Survey for Fiscal Years 1990, 1991 and 1992
Conducted in August 1991, September 1991
No. 23 The Japan Development Bank Reports on Capital Spending: Survey for Fiscal Years 1990 and 1991
Conducted in February 1991, March 1991
No. 22 Trends of the Petrochemical Industry and its Marketplace in East Asia, March 1991
No. 21 The Japan Development Bank Reports on Capital Spending: Survey for Fiscal Years 1989, 1990 and 1991
Conducted in August1990,September 1990
No. 20 Deepening Economic Linkages in The Pacific Basin Region: Trade, Foreign Direct Investment andTechnology, September 1990
No. 19 The Japan Development Bank Reports on Capital Spending: Survey for Fiscal Years 1989 and 1990
Conducted in February 1990, March 1990
No. 18 Petrochemicals In Japan, The US, and Korea an Assessment of Economic Efficiency, February 1990
No. 17 The Japan Development Bank Reports on Capital Spending: Survey for Fiscal Years 1988, 1989 and 1990
Conducted in August 1989, October 1989
No. 16 Impact of the EC Unification on Japan’s Automobile and Electronics Industries, August 1989
No. 15 Industrial and Trade Structures and the International Competitiveness of Asia’s Newly Industrializing
Economies, August 1989

No. 14 The Japan Development Bank Reports on Capital Investment Spending: Survey for Fiscal Years 1988 and1989 Conducted in February 1989, March 1989
No. 13 The Japan Development Bank Reports on Capital Spending: Survey for Fiscal Years 1987, 1988 and 1989
Conducted in August 1988, September 1988
No. 12 Growing Foreign Investors’ Activities and the Future of Internationalization, September 1988
No. 11 Futures Tasks and Prospects for the Japanese Machine-Tool Industry, July 1988
No. 10 International Division of Labor in the Machine Industries Among Japan, Asia’s NICs and ASEANCountries, June 1988
No. 9

Trends of the Petrochemical Industry and its Marketplace in East Asia around Japan, May 1988

No. 8

The International Competitiveness of Japan and U.S. in High Technology Industries, April 1988

No. 7

The Japan Development Bank Reports on Private Fixed Investment in Japan, March 1988

No. 6

Economic Projections of the Japan’s Economy to the Year 2000, February 1988

No. 5

The Japan Development Bank Reports on Private Fixed Investment in Japan, September 1987

No. 4

Current Trends in the Japanese Auto Parts Industry in Overseas Production, July 1987

No. 3

Current Moves for Foreign Direct Investment into Japan, May 1987

No. 2

Overseas Direct Investments by Japanese Corporations, May 1987

No. 1

Current U.S. Consumption Trends, May 1987