NIRA OPINION PAPER
No. 58 | August 2021

NIRA OPINION PAPER
No.58 | August 2021

Citizen Science in the Digital Age- Engaging Civil Society in Social Science and Humanities Research Nippon Institute for Research Advancement (NIRA)
German Institute for Japanese Studies (DIJ）
German Center for Research and Innovation (DWIH Tokyo)
With the rapid spread of information technology, the term “co-creation”
has come into frequent use. Citizen science, collaboration between citizens andscientists, is also an important initiative for jointly shaping society. As one
example, citizen science in the natural sciences is highly regarded worldwide.
On the other hand, citizen science in the humanities and social sciences can beconsidered to still be in its infancy.
What role can citizen science play in the field of humanities and social
science research, in which the subject of study is ourselves rather than natural
phenomena? At a conference jointly organized by NIRA, DIJ, and DWIH Tokyo1,
researchers from Japan and overseas discussed the following points in relation
to citizen science.
Citizen science has the potential to bring new possibilities to thedevelopment of research in the humanities and social sciences. Citizen science
itself has the potential to develop by not only obtaining data from citizens, but
by utilizing the intelligence and insight of citizens in the solution of social issues.
In order to manifest these potentials, it will be necessary to design protocols for
citizen participation, involve universities that support citizen science, and build
data provision and management systems based on the perspectives of data
ownership and the protection of personal information. In addition, the data
platforms provided today by giant IT companies should be regarded not as
enemies that fence in data, but rather as tools for sharing data with citizens.
The era of big data will be the era of designing the data that one wants to use.

Copyright Ⓒ 2021 by Nippon Institute for Research Advancement
This is a translation of a paper originally published in Japanese. NIRA bears full responsibility for the translation
presented here.

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1. Introduction *With the rapid spread of information technology, the term “co-creation” has come intofrequent use. Citizen science, collaboration between citizens and scientists, is also an important
initiative for jointly shaping society. Examples include the American ornithology project “e-Bird,”
in which birdwatchers from around the world participated, and the major project “Galaxy Zoo,”a citizen astronomy initiative. In the Galaxy Zoo project, a vast amount of astronomical
observation data was divided between citizens. As a result, classification progressed in a shortperiod of time, leading to a major discovery – a new form of galaxy. In Japan also, the“Bumblebee Census,” which utilized citizen science methods, is highly regarded.
As this indicates, citizen science, especially in the natural sciences, is displaying great
vigor across national borders. Behind this is the global trend toward making research data more
open. The activity of citizens in collecting and analyzing big data is a mechanism for excavating
data, adding value, and returning it to society. Based on these trends, government agencies inJapan, the United States, and Europe are also providing policy support for citizen science. In
Japan, the promotion of citizen science was proposed as one factor in the enhancement of thefoundations of science and technology innovation in the 5th Science and Technology Basic Plan
(FY2016 to FY2020).
On the other hand, citizen science in the humanities and social sciences can beconsidered to still be in its infancy. What role can citizen science play in the field of humanities
and social science research, in which the subject of study is ourselves rather than natural
phenomena? “Citizen Science in the Digital Age - Engaging civil society in social science andhumanities research,” a conference focusing on the possibilities of and the issues facing citizen
science in the fields of the humanities and social sciences was held in Tokyo in Fall 2019. The
conference was jointly organized by NIRA, the German Institute for Japanese Studies (DIJ),
and the German Center for Research and Innovation (DWIH Tokyo), and saw vigorous
discussion of the issues by experts active at the forefront of citizen science in Japan and overseas.
What are the significance and merits of citizen science in the humanities and social sciences,and how will we form points of contact with citizens? How should responsible collaborative
research proceed? This paper will discuss these issues while also looking at concrete examples.

* NIRA would like to take this opportunity to express its gratitude to all presenters and participants who attended thisconference, in addition to the German Institute for Japanese Studies (DIJ) and the German Center for Research andInnovation (DWIH Tokyo) for their full support in planning and preparation. This paper was compiled by Atsushi Inoue,
a NIRA research coordinator and research fellow, based on the discussions held at the conference.
Copyright Ⓒ 2021 by Nippon Institute for Research Advancement
This is a translation of a paper originally published in Japanese. NIRA bears full responsibility for the translation
presented here.

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[Topic] What is Citizen Science?
Citizen science refers to the involvement of members of the general public who
are not professional scientists in scientific research. The approach has multiple origins
and encompasses a wide range of concepts, but has become entrenched as the conceptof engaging the capabilities of citizens to assist in research, and the generation ofresearch results by citizens and scientists working together. The direct aim of citizen
science is to gather public knowledge and promote research, but it also possesses
significant roles as a form of outreach enabling broad dissemination of research results
and as an aspect of educational activities. The term “citizen science” itself iscomparatively new, only having been in active use in Europe and the United States for
between 20 and 30 years, since the 1990s. Citizens have, however, conducted scientificresearch, including astronomical observation and observation of nature, since the timeof Aristotle. Eventually, in the 19th century, the professionalization of “scientists”
generated a difference between the position of professionals and amateurs as a social
structure. Hence “citizen science,” was born as an attempt to involve citizens in scientificresearch.

2. “Three Keys” Essential for the Promotion of Citizen Science
In Europe and the United States, a trend can be seen towards the taking up ofadvanced initiatives in the area of citizen science, based on the concepts of increasing scientific
literacy and promoting science communication. This is a policy-based approach to science andtechnology, one that seeks to further “democratize” science. The push to advance citizen scienceis accelerating through initiatives such as the European Commission’s formulation, in 2013, ofthe significant goal of integrating five million citizen scientists in five years, and theestablishment in Germany of the “Citizen Science Platform.”
One of the conference’s keynote speeches, offered by German sociologist Dr. Martina
Franzen, (a Postdoctoral Research Fellow at the Institute for Advanced Studies in the
Humanities), presented three challenges that represent the key to working with the public in
the humanities and social sciences.
How Do We Set the Level of Citizen Involvement?
The first point is the issue of how to set the level of involvement of citizens. According
to the classification of citizen science proposed by Professor Muki Haklay of University College
London (UCL), citizen involvement increases from Level 1 to Level 4. As shown in Figure 1,
Level 4 is “extreme citizen science,” in which citizens and scientists work together to produce
collaborative results, from the definition of the problem to data collection and analysis. As
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presented here.

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indicated by the fact that Levels 3 and 4 include the element of “problem definition,” it can beconsidered that rather than simply providing assistance in research work, citizens will
participate from the stage of discussing the research theme to be taken up. There are alsomechanisms for involvement by providing support for research funding.
However, the current situation is that the majority of conventional citizen science
activities are limited to Level 1, in which citizens play the role of “sensors.” Professor Haklay
points out that “In many cases, citizens are still incorporated as only part of the research process.”
What do we ask for as a citizen’s task? If the requirements of the task are low, the degree ofparticipation tends to increase. However, Dr. Franzen indicated that we should first discuss the
direction we are aiming towards in citizen science. Against the background of the availability ofa range of citizen science methods, will citizens be responsible for supporting the process ofacquiring new knowledge, or is the goal to democratize science by means of citizen science andthus change society? These are points that must be considered.
Figure 1 Levels of citizen science（Source） Haklay, M. (2013)2, Figure 2

How Can Participation by a Large Number of Citizens Be Ensured?
The next issue is how can a large number of citizens be reached, and can sufficientnumbers be ensured? Citizen science often involves participation without remuneration. Many
citizen scientists have a main occupation, and have limited time to spare. Motivation is alsoessential to continued participation in citizen science activities. In fields that readily connect toindividual interests, such as astronomy, biology, and archeology, it is possible to expect citizen
participation as part of a hobby. But there are, presumably, few people who would spend theirdays on social issues such as budget deficits and social security. In other words, in the case of
the humanities and social sciences, we must more effectively reach out to citizens. However, Dr.
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presented here.

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Franzen pointed out that when we talk about “citizens,” we are not talking about a homogeneous“everyone.” Citizens with a high level of education and those who possess financial means
display a greater tendency to participate in citizen science; depending on the topic, gender also
plays a role in participation.
In addition to clear targeting, another point that we must be aware of is the problem of
the “digital divide.” While the threshold to participation in citizen science has been significantly
reduced by the introduction of IT, there is a gap between people who do and do not use
information and communication technologies. The older the person, the more pronounced thistendency, but older people also actively engage in volunteer activities. Dr. Franzen informed usthat in Germany also, measures are being debated as to how to involve the elderly in citizen
science.

Research Design and Organizational Challenges
The third point is research design and organizational challenges. In the field of thehumanities, it is relatively easy to conduct research based on big data. In this respect, thehumanities can be considered similar to the natural sciences. However, in the social sciences,
the fact that we ourselves are the subject of research is one that must be negotiated with extreme
sensitivity. The movements of planets and insects, or the letters that make up words, do notchange with human observation, but in the case of the social sciences, the fact of observation
can affect the behavior of both subjects and observers. For example, a shopkeeper who is awareof an observer may behave in a more service-oriented manner than usual. Another example isprovided by a past survey conducted in order to investigate the actual status of begging, in whichcitizens recorded the number of beggars that they saw while commuting; in this survey, there
were cases in which the citizens acting as observers arbitrarily changed their commuting routes
in order to observe more beggars. Protocol design is an important factor in ensuring that
research is not biased by the subjectivity of the citizens involved.
Dr. Franzen also mentioned points to consider when dealing with sensitive personal
information. The “Mass Observation” conducted in England in 1937 is famous as a large-scalesocial research study in which citizens engaged in social observation by keeping a diary of events
around them; as in this case, social science data is often closely related to issues of privacy. It isclear that information management systems are required, but there is also the issue of how tobalance “individual dignity” and “public interest.” In advancing citizen science in the social
sciences, it is also necessary for participants in research to understand the purpose of the citizen
science: citizen science for research or citizen science for public policy ― for example, are they
researching issues such as homelessness or attempting to solve them?

3. New Trends in Citizen Science
Information Technology Boosts Citizen Science
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How do IT professionals view modern citizen science? Professor Masaru Kitsuregawa,Director-General of the National Institute of Informatics, has been for many years one of the leadersin Japanese citizen science as a pioneer in database research. In his keynote speech, Professor
Kitsuregawa offered examples of the collection and utilization of big data by citizens, and, as his
latest initiative, a case study of a project that seeks to collaborate with artificial intelligence (AI).
Professor Kitsuregawa first discussed, as representative examples of citizen participationtype projects, the outcomes of joint projects conducted with the global environmental data integration
and analysis system DIAS. In one case, butterfly monitoring in Tokyo was carried out by three people:
a conservation ecology researcher, an IT researcher, and an individual recruited from among
members of the PAL System Consumers’ Cooperative Union to act as a butterfly investigator. In thisproject, when the butterfly investigator found a butterfly, they uploaded basic information such as
time, date and location, in addition to the captured image. The collected data was managed andedited by the ecologist and published on the website “Ikimoni”. Approximately 50,000 data can besearched by species name, region, and image, and are employed in conservation activities as animportant source of data for understanding biodiversity. Professor Kitsuregawa informed us that theparticipants were delighted at the surprise discovery of a species that had been thought extinct.
Professor Kitsuregawa also introduced “Stork Citizen Science” as an example of therealization of increased sophistication in data collection applications. The survey was conducted on anationwide scale, with numerous members of the public ranging in age from their teens to their 80s
participating. The project has produced new findings, such as the fact that Toyooka in Hyogo
Prefecture is a major stork habitat. Because storks also travel to South Korea and China, the project’s
activities are expanding beyond the borders of Japan.
Monitoring activities in which citizens play a role as “sensors” as described above can besaid to be the “classical approach” to citizen science. In the field of the natural sciences, theintroduction of IT has spurred remarkable development in terms of factors such as increased
efficiency and scale, even as the history of traditional citizen science is woven within the framework.

Reviving Big Data That Slumbers in the Past
The “Minna de Honkoku” project was developed with Assistant Professor Yuta Hashimotoof the National Museum of Japanese History and Associate Professor Yasuyuki Kano of The
University of Tokyo’s Earthquake Research Institute as the central figures, and with the cooperationof institutions and groups including the abovementioned institutions and the Kyoto University’s
Research Group for Historical Earthquakes. This project was introduced by Professor Kitsuregawa
as an example of the humanities and social sciences transcending the boundaries between sciences
and non-sciences. “Honkoku (transcription)” in this case refers to realizing the printing of “kuzushi-

ji,” or cursive characters, which were handwritten in historical materials such as ancient documents
and records. This is to say that the project represented an attempt to utilize big data slumbering in
the past. Specifically, the project was conducted for the purpose of elucidating past natural disasters,
and took historical materials related to earthquakes as its focus. More than 5,000 registeredparticipants took part, and more than six million characters, from approximately 500 historical
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sources, were recorded in a text database. The accuracy achieved was over 98%, an adequate level ofquality to allow the details of the materials to be grasped.
What is surprising is that many of the participants were “amateurs” who were attempting
to decipher ancient texts for the first time. What allowed these inexperienced individuals toparticipate was the provision of the “Kuzushi Character Learning Support Application KuLA,”developed chiefly by Osaka University’s Graduate School of Letters, as learning content for beginners,
and the support provided in interpretation by an AI trained using the “Kuzushi Character Data Set”
published by the National Institute of Japanese Literature and other institutions. Two types ofautomatic cursive script recognition software have also been independently developed by the Center
for Open Data in the Humanities (CODH) and Toppan Printing Co., Ltd. In addition, participants
corrected each other on the Web to improve accuracy (an approach similar to that used by Wikipedia).
In the case of the above-mentioned monitoring survey, training to classify insects and plants wasprovided in a game format as preparation for citizens to act as investigators.
Looking back on these activities, Professor Kitsuregawa says, “Having intellectual curiosity
is the most important factor in propelling citizen science; it is a powerful driving force.” It is no
exaggeration to say that the public’s eagerness to learn supports society.

Data Transcribed by Citizens Can Provide the “Fuel” for AI
As seen above, citizen science methods such as collecting or classifying data throughthe efforts of individuals are considered to represent “classical” citizen science, and their productis the result of the learning realized by each citizen involved. Based on this, “data as fuel for AI,”
assisting AI in learning, has become a new trend.
There has been, in fact, a continuation of the development of the automatic cursive
character recognition AI. In 2019, CODH, the National Institute of Informatics (NII), and the
National Institute of Japanese Literature held a competition on Kaggle. Kaggle is a platformthat connects approximately 400,000 machine learning engineers and data scientists aroundthe world, and holds competitions offering prizes to the developers of the best analytical models
for issues presented by governments and companies. The development of the cursive script
recognition method was accelerated by means of this worldwide competition. The “Cursive
Character Data Set” was improved and provided for use as a learning material for the AI in thecompetition; the greater the amount of learning materials that an AI learns, the more accurate
the AI analysis will be. Therefore, it is expected that the transcribed data provided by the“Minna de Honkoku” project will provide learning materials for AI.
Professor Kitsuregawa says, “Data is the fuel that powers AI.” Up to the present incitizen science, the collected data was mainly handed over to experts and used as researchmaterials. The destination for data has changed significantly – to AI. Citizen science can be
expected to contribute to the initial introduction of machine learning to all fields in the future.

Everyone Is an Amateur and Everyone Is a Citizen

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presented here.

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While tracing the trends in citizen science using examples, Professor Kitsuregawa once
again asked “Who is the citizen in citizen science?” As learning advances, academic fields are
becoming increasingly specialized and subdivided. This tendency is the same in both the naturalsciences and the humanities / social sciences. Giving consideration to the fact that a single
individual was once able to be expert in a wide range of fields, there are certain negative aspects
to this, but it is also the case that this is an era in which experts are now also “amateurs” outside
their specialized field, and at the same time, everyone is an expert in something. Professor
Kitsuregawa pointed out that the line between professional scientists and citizens in citizen
science is also fading. We are all “citizens.”
Barry Barish, who won the Nobel Prize in Physics in 2017 for his achievements in theobservation of gravity waves, is fresh in the memory as a person who was not in the “exact center”
of a specialized field realizing a remarkable achievement. While his co-winners Rainer Weiss
and Kip Thorne are experts in gravitational waves, Barish was originally a developer ofaccelerators that detect elementary particles. Gravitational waves fell outside his area ofspecialization. However, as the director of the American observatory LIGO, which succeeded inobserving gravity waves, his skill as a manager in promoting big science was highly regarded,leading to his receipt of the award. In citizen science today also, the abilities of citizens are
attracting attention from considerations of the management and coordination of such projects.

New Challenges in Citizen Science
A project called “Time Machine” has been commenced in Europe. This is a major project
seeking to digitize and map the 2,000-year history of Europe and design a large-scale simulator.
Professor Kitsuregawa believes that the background to this project is an awareness among
European citizens that the tragic history of the past should not be repeated. Curiosity is not the
only driving force in citizen science.
In recent years, a range of problems associated with the aging of the population havebecome apparent in Japan; worldwide, we face numerous issues, such as the SDGs and the
problem of marine plastics. These problems cannot be solved by experts in one field alone.
Already, in Japan, there is a movement to solicit funds, inspire interest, and attract participants
through crowdfunding in order to clarify the actual state of microplastic pollution in Sagami Bay.
Professor Kitsuregawa emphasized that citizen scientists are required for precisely such difficult
issues that must be solved by society as a whole. How do we bring together the intelligence andinsight of individual “citizens” to produce the maximum effect? Today, with the dramatic
improvement in information technology, citizen science is entering an era in which it faces a newchallenge – breaking the mold of the past.

4. Citizen Science in the Digital Age: Possibilities and Challenges
Following the keynote speeches in the first half, Dr. Shohei Yonemoto (Visiting
Professor, The University of Tokyo), Mr. Kazuhiro Hayashi (Senior Research Fellow, National
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Institute of Science & Technology Policy, Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science &Technology), Dr. Tsutomu Watanabe (Professor, Graduate School of Economics, University ofTokyo), and keynote speakers Dr. Franzen and Professor Kitsuregawa took the stage as
panelists in a panel session. To begin, moderator Dr. Noriyuki Yanagawa (Executive Vice
President, NIRA / Professor, Graduate School of Economics, The University of Tokyo) raised thequestion of the possibilities of, and the challenges faced by, citizen science in a data-driven society.
Advances in technology have made it possible for us to obtain a wide variety of
information and data. As discussed in the keynote speeches, it is not necessary for the individual
providing the data to be an expert; the fact that the data becomes richer with the participationof citizens in the research is a tremendous merit of citizen science. In addition, the ways in whichcitizens are able to participate in research have diversified, allowing more opportunities for
citizen researchers to be involved in domains that were previously restricted to professional
researchers, such as the setting of research agendas and the analysis of data, rather than simply
providing information. The improvement in the quality of research realized through theincorporation of the ideas of citizens is another major factor in the appeal of citizen science.
At the same time, science is displaying a tendency towards inflation. Just as in thenatural sciences, the deployment of big data is advancing in humanities and social science fields.
It is considered that the ability to perform analyses using abundant data will affect outcomes,
and thus that private companies engaged in data businesses, as exemplified by GAFA, will havea significant influence on the development of science. Amid these changes, it will be essential
for us to identify the significance of, and the possibilities for, the involvement of citizens inadvancing science.
At this juncture, Dr. Yanagawa directed considerations towards how to expand thenature and concept of research, how to increase the possibilities for citizen science in humanities
and social science research, and how to build systems enabling citizens to be responsible forresearch as topics for discussion.

Universities Will Play the Role of Marketing “Research as a Product”
Dr. Yonemoto proposed that universities in the 21st century might provide services thatmeet the desires of members of the general public who wish to savor the enjoyment andfrustrations of research. Western modernity was the process of opening the luxuries previously
monopolized by aristocrats to the masses in the form of consumer goods. Scientific research isone of these. The utility of scientific research was recognized in the latter half of the 19th century;
research was consolidated into universities and research institutes for purposes of national
defense and the development of industrial products, and thus became specialized. During theCold War in the latter half of the 20th century in particular, universities and research institutes
grew to become huge. However, Dr. Yonemoto pointed out that in the 21st century, these huge
universities are no longer functional, and may move in the direction of a distribution of functions.
In the process, Dr. Yonemoto predicts that services that open research to the public and allows
them to enjoy the intellectual satisfaction and experience the frustration of research will appear.
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presented here.

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The concept here is that universities will sell “research as a product,” similarly to the way inwhich a travel agency sells overseas travel packages, and the university specialists will provide
the necessary equipment and information and fulfill the function of guiding research.
Many of the research themes chosen by citizens are close to their daily lives, such as
the environment, education, food, health, welfare, culture, local history, and relations withneighboring countries, or are political themes. If platforms are made available for the
publication of the research results produced by such citizens and knowledge is accumulated inan effective manner, it will become a public good that can be used in policy proposals and policy
evaluation. This should also provide a stimulus to current social sciences.
Dr. Yonemoto asserted that as a direction for a post-industrial society, a society in whichcitizens can expect a lifespan of 100 years, the collection and analysis of materials and thepresentation of new perspectives based on each individual's urgent awareness of problems is
one of the most mature forms of political participation.

Towards an Era in Which Collaborative Citizen Science Produces Significant Outcomes
Mr. Hayashi indicated that the concept of citizen science has changed due todigitalization, and that collaborative citizen science is the direction of the future. Traditionally,
communication between science and society has been one-way. Research funds were distributed
to scientists through taxes from citizens, and those scientists worked to communicate withcitizens following the completion of their research. There was little interaction between the twoduring the research process. Under these circumstances, citizen science had considerable
significance as an activity in which citizens monitor scientists who possess an overwhelming
volume of information on themes such as pollution and nuclear power.
However, ICT has made it easier to communicate in both directions, and the ways thatcitizens are able to be involved in scientific research have become more diverse. For example,
the involvement of citizens at the stage of setting research agendas is a new sign. In Europe, aprogram called “Citizen and Multi-Actor Consultation on Horizon 2020” (CIMULACT) is being
implemented to mobilize approximately 1,000 citizens in order to draw a picture of society inthe future, following which there will be discussion as to what type of research themes should
be set. In Japan also, the “Future Society Creation Project,” which has been conducted by theJapan Science and Technology Agency (JST) since fiscal 2017, incorporates a process of soliciting
research themes from citizens.
The sourcing of research support through crowdfunding is also a characteristic ofrecent years. This is one of the ultimate forms of citizen science, given that citizens are involvedin agenda-setting even prior to the commencement of the research. Mr. Hayashi pointed outthat the digital transformation has made it easier for citizens to get involved in science, and thisrepresents a game changer with respect to funding. Moreover, “independent scientists,” who areneither professional scientists nor amateurs, have emerged in recent years. These scientists arefinancially independent, obtain research funds using their specializations (IT skills, etc.), use
the funds to conduct the research they wish to do, and later write academic papers.
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Citizen science has been practiced for years, but the digital transformation has madethe points of contact between scientists and citizens truly diverse. There are cases in Japan inwhich results with significant impact have been produced by pursuing research in collaboration
with citizens. We need to recognize the potential of conducting collaborative scientific researchwith citizens and link it to the development of science.

New Approaches to Protection of Personal Information and Data Acquisition in Citizen
Science
Dr. Watanabe pointed out that the question of how to lower the hurdles around theprotection of personal information and data acquisition is the key to promoting citizen sciencein social sciences fields. The protection of personal information is essential in pursuing researchin the social sciences. For example, when using consumer purchasing information such as
loyalty card information, the citizens who generate the data often have a desire not to have theirinformation seen outside the context of the research. Professional scientists and companies areable to establish rules and protect personal information under these rules, but it is difficult foramateur scientists to proceed with research with similar boundaries. How to protect personal
information in citizen science is a new and difficult issue.
The cost of acquiring data is also an important issue. The lack of a necessity to expend
funds would be the best condition for the expansion of citizen science. However, the reality isthat data has economic value and good quality data is not available for free. How to compensate
the providers of data, and how to reduce costs? It will be necessary to devise ways to lower the
hurdles surrounding the use of data by citizens.
Dr. Watanabe suggested that these issues might be resolved based on agreements
among citizens. For example, the problems of the protection of personal information and the costof data acquisition could be surmounted by an agreement among citizens to the effect that the
information obtained in a certain area would be available to the residents of that area. If both
the researcher and the subjects of the research were residents, information would not be givenout to the outside. It should be comparatively easy to obtain agreement regarding the provisionof personal information and data in research conducted by citizens with other citizens as the
subjects. Finding solutions in the context of citizen science will be an important perspective forthe development of citizen science.

The Rise of Giant Platform Companies and Citizen Science
Professor Kitsuregawa discussed the significance of citizen science and the direction tobe aimed for based on the relationship with platformers. With the rise of giant platform
companies such as the companies making up GAFA, throughout the world discussion isproceeding in relation to data ownership, legislation is being framed in this area, and data is
being utilized based on the concept of data ownership. How to regulate intangible digital goods
is a new and difficult question, but Professor Kitsuregawa believes that when the principle of“FAT (fairness, accountability, and transparency)” is established, platformers will no longer be
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“enemies” that fence data in, but will rather fulfill the role of a public good, providing data tocitizens. In order to move in that direction, it will be necessary to foster a sense of ethics inrelation to data throughout society and to work effectively with platformers. Citizen science also
has an educational significance in fostering an ethical sense of science and data, and the role it
will play will be great.
Dr. Watanabe also pointed out that the relationship between GAFA's data businessand citizen science should be viewed from the perspective of complementarity rather thancompetition. GAFA uses AI to examine human behavior in detail, but in order for AI to function,
it is necessary to impart objective functions unknowingly formed by human individuals, such as“What do humans want to do” and “When do humans feel the happiest?” However, Dr.
Watanabe indicated that determining what these objective functions are is the most difficult
thing for AI specialists. What humans are intending is something that can be seen when theylook back at themselves and carefully observe the people around them. Dr. Watanabeemphasized that it will be of great significance to carry out research that clarifies such principles
of human behavior as citizen science projects.
Professor Kitsuregawa pointed out that we must not forget to be aware of precisely
what data we possess which GAFA does not possess. For example, Japan has a population of
80,000 people aged over 100 years old, and information concerning these people is valuable not
only to Japan but to the world. Long-term follow-up data, as exemplified by cohort studies3, isalso valuable data that platform companies do not possess. The effective use of such data andits linkage with daily life and the development of the social sciences is the direction that citizen
science should aim for.
Furthermore, Dr. Kitsuregawa emphasized that as information technology evolves, thefuture era will not be one in which we use data that someone already possesses, but will rather
be an era of data design, in which one creates the data that one wants. In the area of citizen
science also, there will be citizens who create and study their own data. It will be important toestablish an environment allowing such activities to be carried out with peace of mind, and it
will be necessary to formulate laws that protect data and to build systems for international
cooperation.

Expansion of the Concept of Citizen Science in a Data-Driven Society
The question, “Citizen science in the traditional Japanese context has dealt with
controversial themes such as nuclear power and pollution. Will it be possible for citizen sciencein the humanities and social sciences to treat subjects like these about which opinions are
divided, or will they be excluded?” came from the audience. Dr. Yanagawa proposed that rather
than rejecting the traditional concept of citizen science, the concept could be expanded byincorporating the perspective of data analysis. Even in the case of topics on which opinions are
divided, if value judgments are formulated and conclusions reached only after considering andanalyzing the data, the discussion will be more constructive than in situations in which there isno data. In a data-driven society, it will be important for anyone to be able to use and analyze
Copyright Ⓒ 2021 by Nippon Institute for Research Advancement
This is a translation of a paper originally published in Japanese. NIRA bears full responsibility for the translation
presented here.

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data and to have open discussions based on the results. In this way, Dr. Yanagawa indicated a
direction for citizen science in the digital age.

5. Conclusion
The discussions at the conference made it clear that citizen science has the potential toplay a major role in deepening our understanding not only of natural phenomena but also ofsocial phenomena, and in generating new knowledge. It was indicated that there are certain
conditions for this. First, citizen participation is not limited to data collection. It will be
important to possess a citizen-collaboration perspective that utilizes the knowledge possessedby citizens at various stages of the research process, such as data analysis and thecommunication of results, rather than limiting citizens to merely collecting data. Second, it will
be necessary to strengthen the motivation for citizen participation, because less citizen
participation will lead to the termination or the failure of the research. Means of increasing the
incentive for citizen participation that might be considered include the use of digital tools inorder to create environments enabling research on themes that stimulate the citizens’
intellectual curiosity. Third, ensuring quality in addition to quantity will be an important issue.
It will be necessary to establish protocols for citizen participation, establish systems for theprotection of personal information and the provision and management of data, and to realize
responsible collaborative research conducted by citizens and scientists. It was also pointed outthat the rise of giant IT companies that provide data platforms does not compete with citizen
science. Rather, there is considerable leeway for citizen science to supplement these platforms;
citizen science has access to data that platform companies do not possess, and there are
numerous research themes that should be conducted in order to enable AI to effectively analyze
big data. At the same time, platformers might become providers of data to citizens. It waspointed out that the creation of frameworks and systems to actively build complementary
relationships of this type will also be indispensable to the development of citizen science.
Finally, based on the discussions at the conference, we would like to conclude with afew words about the role that citizen science can play in the current COVID-19 pandemic, which
poses a major threat to global health, economy and society. One of the greatest challenges in
ending the pandemic is our inability to accurately track the movements of infected people until
infection are detected. In order to realize accurate tracking, it will be necessary to collect highly
confidential personal information, including information on individual movements and healthstatus. The consent of citizens is essential to making this possible. If citizens not only provide
data, but are also able to participate in the visualization and analysis of data and knowledge
creation, and if a framework can be established enabling them to jointly own the data, it shouldbe easier to obtain their support. It is also worth considering not only making calls for thevoluntary provision of data, but also providing some kind of economic incentive for citizens toshare data, enabling us to advance citizen science on a policy-directed basis.
When societies have faced crises in the past, there is a long history of citizens coming
Copyright Ⓒ 2021 by Nippon Institute for Research Advancement
This is a translation of a paper originally published in Japanese. NIRA bears full responsibility for the translation
presented here.

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together to overcome those crises. The COVID-19 pandemic is one such threat. However, we stillcannot say that information from citizens has been appropriately aggregated and has led tochanges in the behavior of the government and of citizens. It is no exaggeration to say that thesuccess of COVID-19 measures will ultimately depend on the active involvement of citizens. To
that end, it will be important not only to unilaterally convey information on the effects of
COVID-19 to citizens, but also to invigorate the activities of citizens and scientists towards
thinking about the measures we should take in relation to the pandemic, and citizen science willplay an extremely important role in this. Efforts will be required to facilitate ongoing two-way
communication between citizens and scientists.

Note
1 Citizen Science in the Digital Age - Engaging civil society in social science and humanities research- (Held in September 2019）

2 Citizen science and volunteered geographic information – overview and typology of participation.

In D. Sui, S. Elwood, & M. Goodchild (Eds.), Volunteered Geographic Information, Public
Participation, and Crowdsourced Production of Geographic Knowledge. Berlin: Springer.

3 Cohort study: Studies that bring together a large number of subjects who are not at the present

time (or were not at some point in the past) infected with the disease to be studied, and which,through long-term observation and tracking, investigate whether the presence or absence of certain
factors may cause or prevent the disease.
(Reference) National Cancer Center Hospital Cancer Information Service Glossary: “Cohort Study”
https://ganjoho.jp/public/qa_links/dictionary/dic01/cohort_study.html

The conference was the scene of lively discussion

Copyright Ⓒ 2021 by Nippon Institute for Research Advancement
This is a translation of a paper originally published in Japanese. NIRA bears full responsibility for the translation
presented here.

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◆Program

WelcomeDorothea Mahnke (DWIH Tokyo)

Introduction
Reiko Kanda (NIRA)

Keynote Speech 1：“Same but Different – Citizen Science in the Social Sciences and Humanities.”
Martina Franzen (Institute for Advanced Studies in the Humanities)

Keynote Speech 2：“Data-driven Society and the Citizen Science”
Masaru Kitsuregawa (National Institute of Informatics/ University of Tokyo)

Panel Discussion
Panelists：
Martina Franzen (Institute for Advanced Studies in the Humanities)
Masaru Kitsuregawa (National Institute of Informatics/ University of Tokyo)
Kazuhiro Hayashi (National Institute of Science and Technology Policy)
Shohei Yonemoto (University of Tokyo)
Tsutomu Watanabe (University of Tokyo)
Moderator:
Noriyuki Yanagawa (University of Tokyo and NIRA)

Concluding Remarks
Franz Waldenberger (DIJ Tokyo)

Copyright Ⓒ 2021 by Nippon Institute for Research Advancement
This is a translation of a paper originally published in Japanese. NIRA bears full responsibility for the translation
presented here.

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Martina Franzen
Dr.Martina Franzen is Postdoctoral Research Fellow at the Institute for Advanced Study in the
Humanities (KWI). She received her PhD from the faculty of sociology at the University ofBielefeld in 2010. She engaged in research as Research Fellow and Principal Investigator at
Bielefeld University, Faculty of Sociology from 2009-2014 and as Postdoctoral Research Fellow
and Principal Investigator in the research group science policy studies at the WZB Berlin Social
Science Center from 2014-2019. She moved to KWI in 2019. Her research focuses on science
communication, medialization of science, digitalization and datafication of scientific knowledge
production, citizen science, valuation studies, and sociological theory of society. Of her many
publications, the latest are “Changing science-society relations in the digital age: the citizen
science movement and its broader implications.” (Handbook on Science and Public Policy, 2019,
pp.336-356) and "Zum Wandel der wissenschaftlichen Wissen-sproduktion durch Big Data:
Welche Rolle spielt Citizen Science? ” ("How the data deluge is changing scientific knowledge
production: What role does Citizen Science play? ”) (in Österreichische Zeitschrift für Soziologie,
44, 15-35, 2019).

Masaru Kitsuregawa
Dr. Masaru Kitsuregawa is the Director General, National Institute of Informatics and Professor,
Institute of Industrial Science, The University of Tokyo. He is a pioneer of database research. He
led the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology’s “Info-plosion” project(2005-2010), and headed the Cabinet Office’s Funding Program for World Leading Innovative
R&D on Science and Technology (2010-2014), which focused on ultra-large databases. A
specialist in the field of data engineering, he completed the Doctoral Program of The Universityof Tokyo’s Graduate School of Information Engineering, and holds a Ph.D.in engineering. After
holding positions including Director of The University of Tokyo’s Earth Observation Data
Integration & Fusion Research Initiative, he became Director General of the National Instituteof Informatics in 2013. He also holds the position of professor in The University of Tokyo’s
Institute of Industrial Science, and was President of the Information Processing Society of Japan(2013-2015). Professor Kitsuregawa is the recipient of numerous honors, including ACM
SIGMOD Edgar F Codd Innovation Award, the Medal of Honor with Purple Ribbon andChevalier de la Legion d’honneur.
Kazuhiro Hayashi
Mr. Kazuhiro Hayashi is Senior Research Fellow, National Institute of Science & Technology
Policy, Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science & Technology. He is involved in policy
science re-search, and attempts to educate the scientific community regarding the importance ofreform in the area of the circulation of scientific data. Making use of his knowledge of chemistry
and his IT skills, he contributed to the pioneering digitization and commercialization of thejournal of the Chemical Society of Japan. He is an expert member of the working party on OpenScience for G7 Science and Technology Ministry meeting, and the Cabinet Office in Japan. At
Copyright Ⓒ 2021 by Nippon Institute for Research Advancement
This is a translation of a paper originally published in Japanese. NIRA bears full responsibility for the translation
presented here.

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No. 58 | August 2021
Japan Open Science Summit in June 2018, he planned and hosted a session of Citizen Science
as a chair to foresee the future of collaborative re-searches. He is also helping Young Academy of
Science Council of Japan (SCJ) to utilize Citizen Science for their research, being a speciallyappointed member of SCJ.

Shohei Yonemoto
Mr. Shohei Yonemoto is Visiting Professor at University of Tokyo. He studies the history as
well as the philosophy of science, including bioethics, and global environmental issues. He
graduated from the Department of Science, University of Kyoto. He joined Mitsubishi Kasei
Institute of Life Science and became as President of the Center of Life Science and Society.
He worked as Adjunct Professor of the Research Center for Advanced Science andTechnology, the University of Tokyo. He has authored “Biopolitics” (in Japanese; Chuko
Shinsho 2006) and others.
Tsutomu Watanabe
Dr. Tsutomu Watanabe is Professor of Economics and Dean of the Graduate School of
Economics, The University of Tokyo. Before joining The University of Tokyo in October 2011,
he was professor at Hitotsubashi University (1999–2011) and senior economist at the Bankof Japan (1982–1999). He has held visiting positions at various universities, including Kyoto
University, Bocconi University, and Columbia University. He received his Ph.D. ineconomics from Harvard University in 1992. His main research area is monetary policy andinflation dynamics. He has developed the Nikkei‐UTokyo Daily Price Index® with Kota
Watanabe, and is principal founder of Nowcast Inc.
Noriyuki Yanagawa
Dr. Noriyuki Yanagawa is Executive Vice President, NIRA and Professor of Graduate Schoolof Economics, The University of Tokyo. His research focuses on Contract theory, Financial
Contracts, and Law and Economics. He received his Ph.D. from the Graduate School of
Economics, University of Tokyo. Before joining the Faculty of Economics at the Universityof Tokyo as Associate Professor in 1996, he was Assistant Professor at Keio University. He
became Professor of the University of Tokyo in 2011. He is also a member of the Prime
Minister’s Council on Economic and Fiscal Policy and the Director of the Fintech Research
Forum at the Center for Advanced Research in Finance, the University of Tokyo.

Copyright Ⓒ 2021 by Nippon Institute for Research Advancement
This is a translation of a paper originally published in Japanese. NIRA bears full responsibility for the translation
presented here.

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