Video Camera Technologies Systematization

2

Yasuo Takemura
 Abstract
The video camera is a color television camera for consumer use that makes it possible for anyone to take, record and save amoving picture. This paper surveys developments in consumer video camera technology.
Video cameras have been developed and manufactured in Japan for several decades and exported to global markets. Manykinds of video camera technologies developed in Japan have been applied to digital still cameras, mobile phones forcommunication, and even smartphones and tablets.
Although compact in size, the video camera system includes a myriad of basic technologies covering a wide range oftechnical fields, including optical systems and lenses, image sensors – the key device in photoelectric conversion, digital
signal processing for reproducing high-quality, highly-functional images, recording systems for recording images and highdensity mounting to bring it all together in a compact form. Furthermore, the video camera must also be small, lightweight,
durable and energy-efficient, as well as the basic consumer requirements of low pricing and high reliability.
The image sensor industry has developed into one of Japan’s most successful industries, supported by the timely and rapid
advancement of semiconductor technology and accompanied by a wealth of specialized research. Japanese consumers
expect high fidelity image quality, which has driven the development of high-quality television and video camera
technologies through collaboration between sensor technology engineers and camera technology engineers, resulting inworld-class quality video camera technology.
Many successful image sensor technologies have been developed by Japanese engineers, such as pinned photodiodes thatsignificantly reduce noise levels, FIT-CCD image sensors that resolve the problem of image smear, on-chip micro-lenses
that enable significantly better light utilization efficiency, VOD technology to rectify issues of image blooming, interlaced
addition readout, residual charge sweep-out drive technology, color-difference line-sequential systems for increasing
photographic sensitivity suitable for interlaced scanning to deliver enhanced resolution. These have all been combined to
produce world-class video cameras.
Japan has brought out a succession of world firsts in video camera products. The world’s first single-tube video camera for
consumer use, the IK-12, was commercialized in 1974 by Toshiba. This was followed by the development andcommercialization of various tube-type video cameras. In 1980, Hitachi hit the markets with the world’s first solid-state,
single-chip MOS image sensor video camera, the VK-C1000. In 1982, the world’s first CCD video camera, the TC-100,
was commercialized by NEC, with heated competition ensuing over development and commercialization. In 1983, Sonyreleased the BMC-100, a video camera with an integrated Betamax VCRfor recording. Later, in 1985, two types ofsmall-scaleVCR systems were developed for integrating with video cameras, the VHS-C and 8mm. The Japan Victor
Company (JVC) commercialized a VHS-C video camera, while Sony did the same with an 8mm video camera, the
CCD-V8. Sony’s passport-sized compact video camera, the CCD-TR55, hit the markets in 1989 and the video camera
industry truly began to take hold of the market. The competition over increasing pixel numbers was brought to a close by
Toshiba unveiling its AI-XS1 high-resolution 420,000-pixel video camera. Highly functional and increasingly user-friendly
video cameras then began hitting the market.
Developments in video camera technology came to be widely used in surveillance, industry, medicine and other fields,
producing ripple effects whereby Japanese manufacturers began unveiling a slew of world-first products, such as the color
TV telephone in 1970, the electronic endoscope in 1983 (while the United States produced the world-first, Japan currently
produces 70% of all electronic endoscopes), a thumb-sized camera in 1981 and a stereoscopic video camera in 1989.
The reason that Japanese video camera technologies came to dominate world markets is largely due to cooperation among
Japanese engineers, who exhibited a strong desire to develop new technologies in the midst of a fiercely competitiveenvironment. In the early stages of CCD development, the technology fell short compared to the then mainstream high-end
camera tubes, a situation that vexed engineers specializing in the technology, not to mention the companies they worked for.
They dreamed of future success. A strong sense that they shared a common objective led engineers from competingcompanies to raise concerns at academic conferences, which in turn prompted sound advice from willing mentors. Image
sensor and camera engineers joined forces to propose and resolve issues, gathering together the best people and nurturing
talented engineers. Eventually, patent filings and successive presentations of technological achievements at gatherings ofprofessional associations such as the IEEE and worldwide academic conferences resulted in Japan gaining global
recognition for its unparalleled technological excellence.
Research and development in this field appears to have turned a new corner in the 2000s. The advancement of digitaltechnology and software ushered in a new direction. Scientific associations turned their attention to new technology, suchas super-resolution technology using a mathematical approach to improve the resolution of captured images and computer
imaging technology to reproduce images by capturing and converting light fields. In response to environmental changes,
Japanese engineers are again laying the groundwork for new technologies to blossom. Japanese engineers excel at using
new methods to create high-quality images.
From here on in, there are high expectations regarding the boundless possibilities for advances in camera technology. The
world is watching for new technological innovations from Japan that will bring new camera products to fruition.

Video Camera Technologies Systematization

1

Contents
 Abstract ........................................................................ 1
1. Preface ...................................................................... 3
1.1 Imaging Technology ........................................... 4
1.2 Video Camera Technologies ............................... 5
2. Optical Apparatuses .................................................. 9
2.1 Imaging Lens ...................................................... 9
2.2 Dichroic Prism .................................................. 10
2.3 CFA (Color Filter Array)................................... 10
2.4 Optical LPF (Low Pass Filter) .......................... 10
2.5 Micro-Lens ....................................................... 11
2.6 Other Optical Components ............................... 11
3. Imaging Devices ..................................................... 14
3.1 History of Imaging Devices (1) .......................... 14
3.2 Image Pickup Tube ........................................... 15
3.3 CCD .................................................................. 17
3.4 CMOS Image Sensor ........................................ 20
3.5 Comparison of CMOS Image Sensor and CCD 21
3.6 Important Imaging Device Technologies .......... 22
4. Color Imaging Systems - Part 1 Image Pickup Tube
Era........................................................................... 33
4.1 Overview .......................................................... 33
4.2 Single-Tube Method ......................................... 33
5. Color Television Pickup System - Part 2 CCD/CMOS
Imager Era .............................................................. 41
5.1 Bayer Method ................................................... 41
5.2 Color-Difference Line-Sequential Method ....... 42
5.3 Other Methods .................................................. 42
6. Video Cameras ........................................................ 46
6.1 Overview .......................................................... 46
6.2 Video Camera Production ................................. 46
6.3 Single-Tube Video Camera ............................... 47
6.4 Single Chip Color Camera ................................ 48
6.5 Video Camera Built-in VCR ........................... 49

6.6 Increasing Pixel Numbers................................. 50
6.7 Video Camera Trends ....................................... 50
6.8 Video Camera Progress .................................... 56
6.9 Application of Video Camera Technology........ 56
7. Recording Equipment for Video Camera ................ 60
7.1 Overview .......................................................... 60
7.2 VCR.................................................................. 60
7.3 Digital Recording Media .................................. 60
7.4 Video Cameras using Digital Recording Media 61
8. High Function Technology ..................................... 62
8.1 Overview .......................................................... 62
8.2 AE .................................................................... 62
8.3 AF..................................................................... 62
8.4 AWB ................................................................. 64
8.5 Image Stabilization ........................................... 65
8.6 Face Detection and Recognition ....................... 66
9. High Image Quality Technology ............................. 71
9.1 Contrast Correction .......................................... 71
9.2 Dynamic Range Expansion .............................. 72
9.3 Demosaicing ..................................................... 73
9.4 Super-Resolution Technology........................... 76
10. Video Camera Technology Systematization .................. 83
10.1 General Technology of Video Cameras ........... 83
10.2 Expansion of Video Camera Technology ......... 83
10.3 Progress of Video Camera Technology ............. 84
10.4 Role and Contribution of Society Activity........ 84
10.5 Future Prospects of Video Camera Technology ....
..................................................................... 92
11. Conclusion .............................................................. 93
Glossary of Acronyms .................................................... 94

 Profile

Yasuo Takemura
Chief Survey Officer, Center of the History of Japanese Industrial Technology, National Museum of Nature and Science
March 1962

April 1962

September
1994

2

Graduated from Waseda University First School of
Science and Engineering, Electrical andCommunications Engineering Department
Employed by Tokyo Shibaura Denki Co., Ltd. (nowToshiba Corporation)
Posted to the Central Research Laboratory
Involved in research and development of imaging
technologies, including a color television pickup
system and video cameras
Retired from Toshiba
Employed by Toshiba AVE Co., Ltd.

March 2002

Established Oct Imaging Lab. Co., Ltd.
Involved in development of auto mobile cameras
Served as a part-time lecturer at the University ofElectro-Communications Graduate School andTokyo Polytechnic University Graduate School
since 1994.
IEEE Fellow and ITE Honarary Member (ITE:The Institute of Image Information and Television
Engineers of Japan)

National Museum of Nature and Science Survey Report of Systematization of Technology, Vol.18 March 2013

1.

PrefaceVideo camera technology is one of the few products tohave originated in Japan and been perfected by Japaneseengineers, bringing together a wide range of technologies.
Consumer video devices include television receivers,
VCRs, cameras and DVDs. All of these were developed by
Japanese engineers and have gone into mass production.
Of these, the camera has undergone the most changes, fromtelevision cameras for broadcasting, to video cameras forhome use, dedicated still-image digital cameras, mobile
phones for communication and multifunctional smart
phones. In each case, Japanese technology has led theworld. Video cameras have played a central role in thisprogress, providing a foundation of research anddevelopment to be passed on to future cameras.
While the key device in the camera, the CCD, was invented
in the United States, it depended on Japanese
semiconductor technology. With the incorporation ofunique CCD processing technology, it rapidly improved inperformance and developed into a device capable of being
mass produced. Camera engineers were fastidious in their
devotion to image quality and many new imaging
technologies were produced, raising the degree of
perfection of the video camera.
Even in the early stages of video camera development, highperformance broadcasting cameras were being put topractical use. However, these cameras had to be operated
by experienced, professional camerapersons and required
over 30 minutes of careful maintenance and adjustment
before broadcasting began to obtain a high-quality image.
These were far unacceptable from consumer cameras thatanyone could use.
In order to be able to bring these broadcasting cameras into
the home, they had to be smaller in size, lighter in weight,
more robust and require no adjusting. This first of all
required an improvement in basic camera performance. The
most pressing task to achieve this was to develop a useable
image sensor. Following that, to make the camera smaller
and more lightweight, it was necessary to develop asingle-chip image sensor to combine the three-chip CCD
into one and dispense with the color-separation prism. With
the image size reduced, it was necessary to make theimaging lens smaller and more lightweight. Further, thecamera adopted LSI chips, improving the circuitry andeliminating the areas for adjustment, thereby reducing thenumber of components. To make it compact, it was also
necessary to incorporate high-density mounting technology.
Meanwhile, to make the camera easier to operate, it wasnecessary to automate the exposure, focus and color
temperature adjustments. Collaboration with opticalmanufacturers in Japan resulted in Auto Iris (AI), Auto
Focus (AF) and Auto White Balance (AWB). Imagestabilization was also necessary for handheld shooting.
This report outlines the details on the development of thesetechnologies based on documented materials and clarifies
how Japanese technological development was able to leadthe world.
Chapter 1 includes the preface and outlines thedevelopment of the video camera. Chapter 2 discusses
optical systems for effective image formation of a subject;
Chapter 3 covers image sensors, the key device in thesecameras; Chapter 4 discusses single-tube color imaging
systems; Chapter 5 covers CCD color imaging systems;
Chapter 6 discusses the video camera, the key subject of
this report; Chapter 7 covers recording devices for cameras;

Chapter 8 discusses the high performance processing
required for capturing good images; Chapter 9 covers
digital signal processing required for high image quality;
and Chapter 10 provides a systematization of the above.
In keeping with the aim of this report, technicaldescriptions have largely been left out. Readers seeking
the technical details are invited to refer to the following
works.
Reference Works(1) Nobukazu Teranishi, sup. ed. The Institute ofElectronics, Information and Communication
Engineers, ed.: Image Sensors and Cameras, ‘Forestof Knowledge’ An Anthology on Modern Electronics,
Information and Communication, Ohmsha, June
2012.
(2) Hiroshi Kano, sup. ed., The Institute of Image
Information and Television Engineers, ed.: Digital
Camera Image Processing, Ohmsha, April 2011.
(3) Yasuo Takemura: Introduction to CCD/CMOS
Camera Technologies, Corona Publishing, April
2008.
(4) Toyohiko Hatada et al.: Eye, Color and Light -In
Search of Better Color Reproduction, Japan
Association of Graphic Arts Technology, December
2007.
(5) Kazuya Yonemoto: Fundamental and Application of
CCD/CMOS Image Sensors, CQ Publishing, August
2003.
(6) The Institute of Image Information and Television
Engineers, ed., Kotaro Wakui, sup. ed.: Television
Camera Design Technologies, Corona Publishing,
August 1999.
(7) Kiyoharu Aizawa and Takayuki Hamamoto, eds.:
CMOS Image Sensors, Corona Publishing, August
2012.
(8) Takao Kuroda: Essential and Principles of Image
Sensors, Corona Publishing, August 2012.

Video Camera Technologies Systematization

3

1.1

Imaging Technology

The origins of imaging technology can be traced to amechanical imaging device made by Paul Nipkow in 1884.
This is based on a German patent applied for in January
1884 and registered the following year in January 1885 (1).
Part of this memorable patent is shown in Fig. 1.1. The
detailed description demonstrates the concept of a disc-type
imaging device, as shown in Fig. 1.2. However, it was along time until anyone put this idea into practical use.

international situation, and all television developments
were interrupted with the outbreak of World War II.
Table 1.1 shows a brief history of television, including
later developments.
The Television Society was established soon after the
war and television development began. Japan initiallyfell far behind the United States due to the impact of thewar.

Fig. 1.1. Part of the Nipkow Patent
In 1926, John Logie Baird (2) of the United Kingdom
carried out the world’s first successful televisionexperiment using the Nipkow disk. The memorable day
was January 26, 1926 (3). Remote television transmission
over 438 miles between London and Glasgow was
successfully accomplished in 1927. In addition,intercontinental transmission was also successfully
achieved between London and New York in 1928.
Meanwhile, Vladimir Kosma Zworykin (4) invented afully-electronic television system in 1923 and an
iconoscope camera tube that enabled the electronic camera
in 1930.
Mechanical television systems had a fundamental problem
in that they were incapable of producing a high quality
image. These systems ran into difficulty with the
emergence of electronic systems combining camera tubes
and cathode-ray tubes.
BBC evaluated the fully-electronic, 405 scanning-line
Marconi system and the mechanical, 240 scaning-line Baird
system and in 1935, decided to adopt the fully-electronicsystem (5).
In contrast to these overseas developments, Kenjiro
Takayanagi of Hamamatsu Higher Industry and Masataro
Kawarada and Tadaoki Yamamoto of Waseda University
were respectively carrying out their own independent
research and development.
In March 1930, both systems were demonstrated for the
first time at the memorial exhibition of the fifth anniversaryof radio broadcasting, held in the municipal hall in Hibiya,
Tokyo (6).
The NHK (Japan Broadcasting Corporation) put all its
efforts into development, with the aim of providing
television broadcasting of the Tokyo Olympics, scheduled
to be held in 1940. Takayanagi participated as adevelopment director, and experimental television
broadcasts were begun in 1939. However, the Tokyo
Olympics were canceled due to the deterioration of the4

Fig. 1.2. The Nipkow Disc

National Museum of Nature and Science Survey Report of Systematization of Technology, Vol.18 March 2013

Table 1.1 Television-Related History, created with reference to sources (1)-(8)
Year
1884
1897
1923
1925
1926
1930

Name of person/organization
Nipkow
Braun
Zworykin
Baird
Kenjiro Takayanagi
Yamamoto, Kawarada, Takayanagi

1933
1935

Zworykin
ZworykinTokyo Electric Company

1936

BBC

1937
1939

NHK under the direction of Takayanagi
NHK

1941
1946
1950
1953

NHK
Nippon Television Network
Corporation

1960
1963
1969
1989

Event
Invention of the Nipkow discInvention of CRT tube
Invention of full-electronic television
Invention of the world’s first mechanical scanning television
Successful reproduction of the character “イ”
Demonstration of the Waseda-type and Hamamatsu-type
televisions
Invention of Iconoscope pickup tube principle
Iconoscope announced
Japan’s first Iconoscope developed
Television broadcasting commenced; 441 scanning lines, 25 fps
interlaced
Television Development started for the Tokyo Olympics
Experimental television broadcast startedExperimental TV broadcasting discontinued, research anddevelopment also discontinued
Television Association established
The Institute of Television Engineers in Japan established
Television broadcasting started *February 1

Commercial television station started broadcasting

August 28

Color television broadcasting started
Successful satellite relay experiment between Japan and theUSA **
Satellite rely of the first man stepping on the moon from Apollo
11
Satellite broadcasting started
HDTV (analog) practical test broadcasting started
BS digital broadcasting started
Digital terrestrial broadcasting started
Analog TV broadcasting ended ***September 10

2000
2003
2011
* 4 hours/day, 886 reception contracts** Breaking news on the assassination of President Kennedy*** Except for Iwate, Miyagi and Fukushima due to earthquake impact

1.2

Comments

Video Camera Technologies

In the early days of television in the 1940s and 1950s, a
television camera was black and white. At the time,camera image can take somehow, half-tone image
reproduction was poor. At the 1964 Tokyo Olympics, adomestically-produced two-tube color camera succeeded
vividly in reproducing the image of the opening
ceremony. The image of the smoke from the torch held byathlete Sakai among the crowds in the newly-completed
National Stadium was being relayed across the entire
country at the same at the same time across the country.
Even now, this beautiful color image is still burned into
our eyes. In 1970, the World Exposition was held inOsaka and dances and national costumes from around theworld were aired on color TV every night. Throughnational events of these, the quality of the color camera
improved greatly, and color television receivers grew
rapidly in popularity. Home use VCR (Video Cassette
Recorder) gradually began to increase in popularity withthe rapidly growing demand to record programs.
Broadcasting cameras were equipment operated byprofessional technicians. These cameras could only
achieve color images with careful adjustment before
broadcasting start. Accordingly, research and development
on video cameras fell far behind that of television
receivers, which were intended for consumer use from theoutset.

November 23
July 21
June 1
December 1
December 1
July 24

As home use VCRs began to grow in popularity, there wasan increasing demand from people wanting to record theirown images. Video cameras attracted the attention ofJapanese manufacturers, who started competing on
research and development in this area. While this hasturned into a major industry, changing in format fromdigital cameras to mobile phones, smartphones andtablets, much of the basic technology was developed forthese video cameras.
Unlike the conventional broadcasting cameras, video
cameras were operated by amateurs. They had to be able
to reliably capture images by anyone, anywhere.
Furthermore, they had to be small, lightweight, uniform in
quality, able to be mass produced and able to be sold ataffordable prices.
Japanese engineers struggled and worked hard to produce
a large number of world number one class technologies.
In the following, we would like to clarify the facts
together with evidence on the basis of technologicaldevelopment.
With the popularization of video cameras, digital cameras,
mobile phone cameras and other consumer use camera
appliances, cameras have undergone various changes,
each with their own unique technological developments.
In other industries, a product is completed, gains
popularity and eventually goes into decline. By contrast,
camera technology has progressed by successively
creating new products in different forms.

Video Camera Technologies Systematization

5

TV Cameras

Broadcasting Stations

1960s-1970s

Video Cameras

Home use

1980s-2000s

Digital Cameras

Photography

Late1990s-

Cellular Phones

Communication

Late 2000s-

Smart Phones

Computers

Early 2010s-

Vehicle Cameras

Safety and Security

Late 2010s-

Intelligent Toys

Nursing and Multipurpose

2020s-

Any Japanese technology →Exported to the world

Fig. 1.3. Progress in Major Epoch-Leading Camera Technology
Major cameras and the camera technologies used forthese are shown in Fig. 1.3. We can appreciate how theintended images have slightly altered each time and how
the research and development has progressed. A wide
range of applications for cameras can be expected infuture, such as vehicle-mounted cameras for passenger
vehicles and intelligent cameras for education, nursing
care and the like.
Imaging technology has also been extensively utilized
many other fields, including surveillance cameras forsecurity, endoscopes for medical treatment, industrial
cameras for assembly lines and high-speed cameras forscientific research.
A distinguishing characteristic of the video camera is its
contribution to Japanese industry. As a result of early
price competitions with TVs and VCRs, many
companies set up bases overseas and developed theiroverseas production, thereby losing opportunities toboost the domestic industry and create employment. By
contrast, video cameras have long played a central rolein the video equipment industry by combining multiple
superior technologies and by domestic manufacturers
having the monopoly on production of the key device,
the CCD.
Fig. 1.4 shows domestic production of video equipment
on a monetary basis. Together, video cameras anddigital cameras account for almost half of production in
2004-2005 on a monetary basis. These figures areshown in Table 1.2.
However, two years later, in 2008, a decline began toshow among cameras.

6

National Museum of Nature and Science Survey Report of Systematization of Technology, Vol.18 March 2013

Car navigation systems

LCD TVs

Plasma TVs

Car navigation systems
LCD TVs

Digital cameras

Other TVs

Digital cameras
Video cameras(a) 2004

Video cameras(b) 2005

Fig. 1.4. Domestic Production of Video Equipment 1 (Monetary-Based Comparison) (9)– cameras account for almost half
Table 1.2 Domestic Production of Video Equipment (unit: billion ¥) (9)Item
Liquid crystal TVs
Plasma TVs
Other TVs
DVD
Video cameras
Digital cameras
Car navigation systems

2004
2005
2008
Item
2011
550
874
875 TVs173
158 40 inch or larger
258
182
Under 40-inch
300
94
138
142 DVDs
46
439
418
246 Video cameras
58
650
736
706 Digital cameras
370
476
416
211 Car navigation systems
461

Video Camera Technologies Systematization7

TV 40 or larger

Car navigation system
LCD TVCar navigation system

Digital camera

Plasma TV

Video camera(a) 2008

TV under 40
DVD
Video camera

Digital camera(b) 2011

Fig. 1.5 Domestic Production of Video Equipment 2 (Monetary-Based Comparison) (9)– decline showing among cameras

References(1) Paul Nipkow: Elektrisches Teleskop, German Patent
No.30105, registered Jan. 15, 1885, filed Jan. 6, 1884.
(2) Russell Burns: John Logie Baird, Television Pioneer,
IEE History of Technology Series 28, The Institutionof Electrical Engineers, 2000 (National Museum of
Nature and Science holdings).
(3) The Televisor Successful Test of New Apparatus, The
Times, p.9, Column C, January 28, 1926.
(4) Albert Abramson (foreword by Eric Barnouw):
Zworykin Pioneer of Television, University of Illinois
Press, 1995 (National Museum of Nature and Science
holdings).
(5) BBC History,
http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/baird_logie.shtml

8(6) Kenjiro Takayanagi: Introduction to Television,
Yuhikaku Publisher, 1986. (In Japanese)(7) NHK: The Evolution of TV: A Brief History of TV
Technology in Japan,
http://www.nhk.or.jp/strl/aboutstrl/evolution-of-tv-en/i
ndex.html(8) The Institute of Image Information and Television
Engineers, ed., Kotaro Wakui, sup. ed.: Television
Camera Design Technologies, Corona Publishing,
August 1999.
(9) Taken from a video production equipment
performance table in the Ministry of Economy, Tradeand Industry production dynamics statistics.

National Museum of Nature and Science Survey Report of Systematization of Technology, Vol.18 March 2013

2.

Optical Apparatuses

Video camera optical apparatuses include a wide range oftechnologies, such as imaging lenses, optical LPFs (Low
Pass Filters), dichroic prisms and CFAs (Color Filter
Arrays).
Due to space limitations, let us provide history of only the
major technological developments.
Japanese excellent optical technology is said to be basedon technology developed for naval submarine periscopes.
Japan Optical Co., Ltd. (now Nikon) started producing
weapons for the navy around 1930. In 1932, the army
founded Tokyo Optical Company (now Topcon) to start
its own production (1) which was invested by Hattori
Seikosha, with the acquisition of Katsuma optical
Machinery Co. Both companies worked on technologicaldevelopments, and it was said Japan Optical for the navy
and Tokyo Optical for the army. The Tokyo Optical
Company produced equipment such as range finders andsighting devices. In 1934, Canon was founded as
Precision Optical Industry Co., Ltd., producing Japan’s
first prototype focal plane shutter camera the same year.
Nikon was established in 1917 as Japan Optical Co., Ltd.
through a merger between the optics department of Tokyo
Instrument Works and the reflector department of Iwaki
Glass Works, funded by Koyata Iwasaki, president of
Mitsubishi Joint Stock Company (2).
Major camera optical system technologies are shown in
Table 2.1.

2.1

Imaging Lens

The imaging lens is the most important optical component
affecting camera image quality. In the 1950s, television
cameras had three or four lenses of different focal lengths,
as shown in Fig. 2.1 (a). This was called the turret type;these lenses were altered in accordance with the desired
scene. Television cameras designed for shooting moving
images required a zoom lens; accordingly a zoom lens wasdeveloped (3)-(10). As shown in Fig. 2.1(b), a camera withthe zoom lens in the standard was appeared.

(a) Turret lens attached(b) Zoom lens attachedFig. 2.1 Broadcast Camera and Lenses

Table 2.1 Chronology of Camera Optical Technology, created with reference to literature (44)
Year
1958
1959
1964
1965

Manufacturer
Canon
Canon
PhilipsFuji Photo Optical

1967
1968
1969

Toshiba
Canon
NASA

1970

Fuji Photo Optical

1970

Canon

1971
1972
1976

Nippon Columbia

1976
1980

Kodak

1982

Canon

1983
1984
1986
1989
1993

NEC
Canon
Toshiba
Toshiba
Canon

1993

Fuji Photo Optical

Fuji Photo Optical

Item
The first domestically-produced television camera zoom lensThe first domestically-produced studio zoom lens, 45-200mm / F2.8
3P (Plumbicon) camera using dichroic prism (13)High performance 10x zoom lens for 3 inch IO camera, 80-800mm/F2.0
Widely used in baseball game broadcasts
Black level stabilization (41)1.25 inch PbO studio zoom camera lens (P10x20)
Live color television relay from the Apollo 11 spacecraft to the whole world (frame
sequential)
10x / F1.6 zoom lens (R10x16) for TK-301
Fitted on all NHK colorization standard camera
Three-color separation prism built in bias light (14)
Lag reduction of specific plumbicon
Crystal filter using birefringence (30)
Diffraction grating phase filter (RL Townsend) (31)10x / F2.0 zoom lens (A10x10.5) for ENG 2/3 inch camera
Compact and lightweight
Bayer CFA invention
The first autofocus lens (P18x16 B-AF) mounted in TV-camera
Active AF-TTL system (TTL: Through the Lens)
1 inch HDTV camera zoom lens (PV40x13.5)
Widely used in the 1984 Olympics held in Los Angeles
On-chip micro-lens (32)
1 inch HDTV camera zoom lens (PV14x12.5HD)
16.5mm diameter ultra-compact camera lensCompound eye lens for stereoscopic cameras
First optical image stabilizer broadcasting lens fitted with a variable angle prism
J14ax17KRS-V
Aspherical 10.5-378mm, F2.0, 36x zoom lens A36x10.5 for ENG

Video Camera Technologies Systematization9

I 1958, Japan’s first zoom lens has been developed by
Canon (2). Broadcasting cameras were mainly three-tube,
three-chip cameras with dichroic prisms. It is necessary toincrease the back focus in order to mount the prism, so
there were design limitations. Then, single-tube or single
CCD camera is mainly used for home use, eliminating thisdesign constraint.
Conversely, the RGB three images had to be focused on
the same plane, design to minimize chromatic aberrationis required. In the HDTV age, higher resolution was
required (11) (12).
Since video camera had to be able to be easily used byanyone, auto light control system was adopted at first,
after that, auto focus and auto white balance spread further,and image stabilization also began to be adopted.
Competition became increasingly to make the camera
smaller and more lightweight. The lens size was also
decreased by the adoption of plastic lenses and asphericallenses.

2.2

Dichroic Prism

The dichroic prism is an optical component by which thelight incident on the lens is focused and separated into athree-color RGB optical image. The dichroic prism was
proposed by Philips in 1960 (13) and became an essential
optical component in the three-tube, three-chip CCD
camera. As shown in Fig.2.2, it is formed from threeprisms. Since the blue light rays are reflected selectively
at the first surface and next, the red light rays are reflected
at the second surface, only green light rays aretransmitted. Since the reflected red and blue light rays
respectively form images in the two reflections, they
become inverted images, the same as the G image.

Three-chip CCD technology even started being used inhigh-end video cameras. Automated fix technology wasdeveloped to accurately secure the CCDs, making
full-scale mass production possible.

2.3

CFA (Color Filter Array)

The Bayer type CFA (18) was proposed by Kodak in 1976
and RGB primary color type became a mainstream.
Initially, CFA for single tube color camera was used a
stripe filter. A multi-layer interference coating was used,as the camera tube required high heat processing. Toshibadeveloped the technology to reverse-etch the stripe pattern
on around 30 layers of coating at a width of around ten
microns. These were mass produced by Fuji Photo
Optical. This allowed the commercialization of the
Chromicon color camera tube (19), which paved the way to
the world’s first single-tube video camera (20).
Competition began in 1980 over CFA development, alongwith CCD development. A method was adopted to bondthe CFA over the CCD with high precision. To reduce
production costs, the inorganic interference-coated filters
were replaced with organic dye filters. It was discoveredthat CFAs could be produced using printing technology
and printing companies such as Toppan Printing and Dai
Nippon Printing became involved in video camera
production.
However, it became increasingly complicated toseparately produce CCDs and CFAs and bond them
together and waste management became increasingly
difficult. Accordingly, progress was made ontechnological developments to form the CFA directly on
the surface of the CCD (21)-(26).

2.4

Optical LPF (Low Pass Filter)

Obtaining a color signal from a CCD using a CFA
requires sampling. This can generate a false signal if thesubject has a high-frequency component that is half ormore of the sampling frequency that overlaps with thealiasing component, as shown in Fig. 2.3.

Fig. 2.2 Dichroic Prism (13)It was later discovered that a bias light is effective in
reducing lag in Plumbicon camera tubes, and new built-in
bias light dichroic prism was developed (14).
Technology was developed to directly fix CCDs to thedichroic prism with high accuracy in a three-chip CCD
camera (15)-(17). This eliminated the problem of RGB image
color shift during operation, because unlike in a camera
tube, the photosensitive surface of a CCD is determinedaccurately in a pixel array and does not fluctuate.

10

Level

False color
signalLuminance
signalModulated color
signalFrequency

Fig. 2.3 Cause of False Color Signal Generation

National Museum of Nature and Science Survey Report of Systematization of Technology, Vol.18 March 2013

Table 2.2 Types of Optical LPF
TypeCrystalComposition
Uses artificial crystal double refraction
Used in most CCD cameras

Lenticular

Parallel arrangement of cylindrical lenses

Phase Grating

Phase difference provided byirregularities in a stripe or grid pattern

Christiansen
FilterScattering material with different
characteristics at specific wavelengths
distributed in a liquid

Characteristics
Any characteristics possible, dependingon the thickness
Relatively sharp cut-off characteristics
Any characteristic can be achieved
through pitch and curvature selection
Adjusted by lens pupil position
Different cut-off characteristics fordifferent colors
Provided to lens pupil position
Different cut-off characteristics
available for different colors
Difficult to achieve directionality

To solve this problem, various improvements have been
applied, such providing a layer lens on the surface (35)-(40).

2.6

Other Optical Components

Let us now discuss color reproduction and methods used
to obtain reference black levels.
(a) CZP chart(b) False signal generation

Fig. 2.4 Cause of False Color Signal Generation
Fig. 2.4 (a) is a CZP (Circular Zone Plate) chart in which
the spacing and width of the ring gradually narrows
towards the outside from the center. As shown in Fig.
2.4(b), when this chart is taken by camera, countless rings
appear where there were no rings originally. These are allfalse signals. To eliminate the false signals, thehigh-frequency component of the subject should be
removed. To achieve this, an optical low pass filter (LPF)
is used (27) (28). There are many kinds of these, as shown intable 2.2 (28). Most filters currently in common use are
artificial crystal filters that use the birefringence of thecrystals (29) (30), while some are phase diffraction grating
filters (31).

2.5

2.6.1 OB (Optical Black)
Black level stabilization is important in the video signal.
Without a stable reference black level, a video signal willlose its color balance and the dark and light levels in theimage will be unstable. This stabilization is achieved by
setting a reference voltage and clamping the video signal
to this level.
OB is necessary for providing the reference potential. OB
had been proposed by Toshiba in the camera tube era, as
shown in Fig. 2.5 (41). This is a principal technology
currently used in all CCD and CMOS image sensors.
Target (scanning area)

Light shielding

Micro-Lens
Faceplate

Only the light incident on the photodiode part of thesurface of the CCD contributes to photoelectric
conversion; light incident on any other area is of no effect.
Therefore, if the surface is not treated with anything, thelight utilization drops to 20-30%.
To solve this problem, a method has been adopted to
improve the utilization of light by providing a micro-lenson the top of the photodiode. Like the CFA, this is also
integrated onto the surface of the CCD.
This was first announced by the NEC in 1983 (32). Later
mass production of this process has contributed to
improve sensitivity (33) (34).
With the recent miniaturization of pixels, the photodiodehas had to become more deeply positioned into thesurface, light has not reached effectively.

Fig. 2.5 Optical Black (41)2.6.2 Color Fidelity
Color fidelity is an important technology for the video
camera and research and development has been carriedout for broadcasting cameras (42) (43).
After having added a correction to the results calculated
based on the color characteristics of the three primarycolors of the display device, the spectral characteristics ofthe primary color filter is used as shown in Fig 2.6.
Meanwhile, the color temperature of the light source andwavelength spectral characteristics are important, thecamera is designed to take automatic white balanceaccording to the color temperature of the light source.

Video Camera Technologies Systematization11

Transmittance (%)

Due to space constraints, please refer to the citedreference materials for more detail.

Wavelength (nm)Fig. 2.6 Example Spectral Characteristics of an RGB
Filter
References(1) Shigeaki Shirasawa: History of the Topcon Camera –The Entire Recording of the Camera's Designer,
Asahi Sonorama, April 2007.
(2) Nikon: Company History,
http://www.nikon.com/about/info/history/chronology/index.htm(3) Keizo Yamaji: Studies on the Optical Design of theZoom Lens, Canon Technical Review, Vol.3, Nov.
1964.
(4) Yoshiya Matsui: Lens Design Methods, Kyoritsu
Publisher, 1972.
(5) R. Kingslake: The Development of Zoom Lens,
SMPTE J., Vol. 69, pp. 534-544, 1960.
(6) Yoshiya Matsui: Practical Studies on the Fifth-order
Aberration, Canon Technical Review, Vol.2, Nov.
1963.
(7) Shigeru Ohshima: Zoom Lens for 3-CCD Cameras,
ITE Technical Review, Vol. 12, No. 36, pp. 31-36,
Sep. 1988.
(8) Kazumori Ohnishi: Standardization of Design
Parameters for CCD Camera Lenses, SMPTE J., pp.
647-650, Sep. 1989.
(9) Toshiro Kishikawa: Introduction to Optics,
Optronics, 1990.
(10) Shizuo Takaoka: Zoom Lens, ITE Journal, Vol. 23,
No. 5, pp. 346-354, May 1969.
(11) Katsuo Katagiri: Imaging Lens for HDTV, ITE
Technical Review, Vol. 14, No. 53, pp. 29-34, Sep.
1990.
(12) Shigeru Ohshima: Zoom Lens for HDTV, Optics,
Vol. 23, pp. 100-101, Feb. 1994.
(13) Hendrik de Lang and Gijsbertus Bouwhuis: Optical
System for a Color Television Camera, US Patent,
3,202,039, Aug.24, 1965, Priority Aug. 2, 1960.
(14) Ohkubo and Sekiguchi: Canon Bias Light, Canon
Image, Vol. 5, 1970.
(15) Toshihiro Fukuro: Installation Structure ofSolid-state Imager for Television Camera, JapaneseUtility Model JPU 1984-39580.
(16) Akio Sakashita and Mitsuyasu Watanuki: Installation
Equipment for Solid-State Imaging Device, Japanese
Patent, JPA 61-135279.
(17) Shigehiro Kanayama, Kazuto Tanaka and Masanori
Ito: Installation Structure for Solid-State Imaging

12

Device, Japanese Utility Model JPU 1987-47288.
(18) B. E. Bayer: Color Imaging Array, U. S. Patent,
3,971,065, July 20, 1976.
(19) Kohei Funahashi, Yasuo Takemura and Hiroshi
Motoyama: Chromicon-color Stripe Filter Built-In
Vidicon, Toshiba Review, Vol. 28, No. 9, pp.
1017-1022, Sep. 1973.
(20) Yasuo Takemura: Development of the Single-TubeColor Camera for Home Use, ITE Journal, Vol. 60,
No. 6, pp. 879-882, June 2006.
(21) Koji Shimomura, Tomoko Otagaki, Yoko Tamagawa,Michiyo Kobayashi, Hiromitsu Aoki, Yoshikazu
Sano and Sumio Terakawa: Novel Synthetic
Aqueous Photoresist for CCD Micro Color Filter,
SPIE, 2195-823, 1974.
(22) Hiromitsu Aoki, Kenji Yokozawa, Nobuyuki Waga,
Tomoko Ohtagaki, Yoshiaki Nishi, Hirotatsu
Kodama, Yoshikazu Sano and Sumio Terakawa:
Advanced Complementary Color Filter Technology
without Dyeing Process for CCD Image Sensors,
SPIE, 3333-1232, 1998.
(23) Y. Inaba, K. Tanaka and T. Yamaguchi:
Degradation-Free MOS Image Sensor with Photonic
Crystal Color Filter, IEEE Electron Device Lett., Vol.
27, No. 6, pp. 457-459, Jun. 2006.
(24) Takamichi Wada, Yasuaki Terui, Masaru Yoshino
and Yoshio Ohta: Solid-State Imaging Device andProduction Method, Japanese Patent, JPA
S51-151123, Dec. 1976.
(25) Toshio Nakano, Akio Taniguchi, Tadao Kaneko, Ken
Tsutsui, Norio Koike, Akiya Izumi and Akira
Sasano: On-chip Color Filter for Solid-State Imaging
Device, 1980 ITE Annual Convention.
(26) Shusaku Nagahara, Kuniomi Tsuda, Takeshi Higucni
and Yoshio Johzaki: Color Filter for Spatially
Encoding Color TV Camera, ITE Journal, Vol. 35,
No. 3, pp.195-199, March 1981.
(27) Kazuo Sayanagi: Optical Noise Filter, Applied
Physics, Vol. 27, No.10, pp. 623-632, Oct. 1958.
(28) Yasuo Takemura: Introduction to CCD/CMOS
Camera Technologies, Corona Publishing, April
2008.
(29) Shusaku Nagahara: Present and Future of Color
Cameras using Multiple Image Sensors, 1973
Annual Convention of Electrical Engineers Joint
Conference.
(30) Shusaku Nagahara, Yoshikazu Kobayashi, Saburo
Nobutoki and Toshihiko Takagi: Development of theFrequency-Multiplexing Single-Tube Color Camera,
ITE Journal, Vol. 26, No. 2, pp. 104-110, Feb. 1972.
(31) R. L. Townsend, Spatial-Frequency Filter for a
Kell-Type Color Camera, J. Appl. Opt, pp.
2463-2472, 1972.
(32) Yasuo Ishihara and K. Tanigawa: A High
Photosensitivity IL-CCD Image Sensor with
Monolithic Resin Lens Array, IEDM Tech. Digest,
pp. 497-500, Dec. 1983.
(33) Y. Sano, T. Nomura, H. Aoki, S. Terakawa, H.
Kodama, T. Aoki and Y. Hiroshima: SubmicronSpaced Lens Array Process Technology for a High
Photosensitivity CCD Image Sensor, IEDM Tech.
Digest, pp. 283-286, Dec. 1990.
(34) MEI/MEC (Panasonic), SONY, Pioneering
Developments in Microlens Technology for CCDs
Used in ENG Cameras, EMMY AWARD, The
National Academy of Television Arts and Sciences,
Technical/ Engineering Achievement Awards

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Committee Data Inquiry, Oct. 1994.
(35) Yoshikazu Sano, Yoko Shigeta, Michiyo Kobayashi,
Hiromitsu Aoki, Takuya Umeda, Wataru Uesaka,
Rou Tsukamoto, Hiroyuki Senda and Masato Arasoe:
Improvement of the CCD Photoelectric Conversion
Characteristics due to On-chip Layer Lens
Technology, ITE Journal, Vol. 50, No. 2, pp. 226-233,
Feb. 1996.
(36) Hideki Muto: Simulated Integration between CCD
Shape and Optical Device, 1995 ITE Annual
Convention, pp. 89-90.
(37) Hideki Muto: Three-dimensional Wave Optics
Simulation of the Inner Lens Structure, ITE
Technical Report, Vol. 23, No. 49, pp. 7-12,
IPU99-46, Jul. 1999.
(38) Ko Hirota, Junichi Furukawa, Yoji Takamura,
Takahiro Wada, Yukihide Kago, Yoichi Ohtsuka,
Kazuhiko Nishibori, Ryutaro Tatebe, Shoichi Kitaya,
Masayuki Shimura and Hiromichi Matsui: 1/3 inch
380k Effective Pixel IT CCD Imaging Device, ITE
Technical Report, Vol. 16, No. 18, pp. 7-12, IPU92-8,
Feb. 1992.
(39) Kimiaki Toshikiyo, T. Yogo, M. Ishii, K. Yamanaka,Toshinobu Matsuno, K. Onozawa and T. Yamaguchi:
A MOS Image Sensor with Microlenses Built by
Sub-wavelength Patterning, Vol. 28, No. 8, ISSCC,
Feb. 2007.
(40) Kazutoshi Onozawa, Kimiaki Toshikiyo, Takanori
Yogo, Motonori Ishii, Kazuhiko Yamanaka,Toshinobu Matsuno and Daisuke Ueda: A MOS
Image Sensor with a Digital Micro-Lens, IEEE Trans.
Electron Devices, Vol.55, No.4, pp. 986-991, Apr.
2008.
(41) Kenkichi Shinozaki: Black Level Stabilization for
Television Equipment, Japanese Patent, S42-23381,
Nov. 13, 1967.
(42) A. H. Jones: Optimum Color Analysis
Characteristics and Matrices for Color Television
Cameras with Three Receptors, SMPTE J., Vol.77,
No.2, pp.108-115, 1968.
(43) Toshiya Saito: Color Fidelity of Color Camera, ITE
Journal, Vol. 23, No. 1, pp. 2-12, Jan. 1969.
(44) Kotaro Wakui: Comprehensive Chronology ofElectronic Media, New Media, pp. 29-136, Jan.
1997.

Video Camera Technologies Systematization

13

3.
3.1

Imaging Devices
History of Imaging Devices(1)

Let us outline the development of imaging devices, thekey elements in the video camera.
3.1.1 Image Pickup Tube
Imaging device that was used for the first home use video
camera was a Vidicon, which is a type of image pickup
tube. These image pickup tubes were used for the first
decade. In 1970, Bell Laboratories announced the CCD(charge-coupled device), and manufacturers around theworld started on research and development on this newtechnology. This research and development kept pace withadvances in Japanese semiconductor technology and by
the late 1980s image pickup tubes were being replaced by
CCDs.
The history of imaging devices can be summarized asshown in Table 3.1. The first imaging device used fortelevision camera is said to be Nipkow mechanical disk of
1884. The image dissector was the first electronic device
in about 50 years later, although it had very poorsensitivity due to having no charge storage capabilities.
Iconoscope was the first storage-type image pickup tube.
Image orthicon improved the performance of the
Iconoscope, and was widely used in the age of black andwhite television broadcasting. Image pickup tubes wereused in the early stages of color television broadcasting.
However, while the IO had some outstanding
characteristics, it required careful adjusting of the electron
beam and other elements prior to use and was not suitablefor general use.

Next, a photoconductive type image pickup tube appearedusing a photoelectric effect to alter the electrical resistanceaccording to the amount of light . The Vidicon, devised by
Weimer et al of RCA using Sb2S3 as a photoconductive
film, was used extensively in industrial and home use
cameras.
The world’s first single-tube color camera for home use
had a Vidicon tube with a built-in color filter. It was
released by Toshiba in 1974 at a price of ¥298,000. Thiscamera is regarded as the first color cameras for home use
in earnest(2).
The Vidicon tube had the disadvantage of being
susceptible to lag. This was solved with the Plumbicontube, which used a PbO photoconductive film. Thesetubes were used in most three-tube color cameras forbroadcasting.
3.1.2 Solid-State Image Sensor
In contrast to image pickup tubes, imaging devices thatuse semiconductor technology are called solid-state image
sensors (3). Practical research and development onsolid-state imaging devices began after the invention of
the CCD (4) (5). These were initially also called
charge-transfer devices (CTDs) and included the BBD (6)and CID (7) (8).

Table 3.1 Progress in Image Sensors
Type
MechanicalElectronic
Image type

Photoconductive type

Photomultiplier type
Solid state

XY address

Charge transfer

CMOS

14

Name
Nipkow disc (1884)
Image Dissector (1931 Farnsworth)
Iconoscope (1933 Zworykin)
Image orthicon (1946 Zworykin)
SEC (1964 Westinghouse)
SIT (1971 RCA)
Vidicon (1940 RCA)
Plumbicon (1962 Philips)
Chalnicon (1971 Toshiba)
Saticon (1972 NHK and Hitachi)
Newbicon (1974 Panasonic)
HARP tube (1994 NHK)
Photoscanner (1963 Honeywell)
TFT (1964 RCA)
Scanistor (1964 IBM)
Phototransistor Array (1966 Westinghouse)
MOS type image sensor mass production (1981 Hitachi)
BBD (1969 Philips)
CCD (1970 Bell System Lab.)CID (1971 Philips)
CPD (1979 Panasonic)
Accordion CCD (1984 Philips)
CSD (1984 Mitsubishi Electric)
CMOS image sensor (1993 Fossum)

National Museum of Nature and Science Survey Report of Systematization of Technology, Vol.18 March 2013

3.1.3 CCD
The emergence of the CCD accelerated the research anddevelopment of solid-state imaging devices (9). Major
semiconductor manufacturers, such as Toshiba, NEC,
Hitachi, Matsushita Electronics and Sony haveparticipated in research and development all at once inJapan. In the 1980s, a large number of engineers had
gathered in the study group of the image sensor, held by
the Institute of Television Engineers organized. After the
meetings, engineers from all manufacturers alike would
enthusiastically discuss their ideas together late into thenight, honing their technological strengths and combining
forces to commercialize products (10) (11). This energy
paved the way to bring Japanese imaging technology to
the top of the world today (12) (13).
The biggest obstacle to commercializing the CCD was aconstant battle with dust and scratches during the
manufacturing process. CCDs have a large photosensitive
surface and all 200,000 pixels in the sensor must be freeof defects for it to operate. Even if the press release ofcommercialization was performed, each manufacturer
took considerable time before an actual product emerged.
(14) (15).
3.1.4 CMOS Image Sensor
While the CCD had been regarded as the definitive
imaging device for video cameras, the movement of a newimaging device came out of the late 90's from expectationsof small size of the camera and high integration of LSI. In
order to obtain a high performance characteristics, CCD
required three power sources, high-voltage power supplyof 10V and about ±3-5V. This was difficult to achievewith a single chip that also included the circuitry.
Under these circumstances, E. R. Fossum proposed an
active-type CMOS image sensor in 1993. This is regarded
to be the first of today’s CMOS image sensors (16). CMOS
refers to an imaging device that has a complementary
metal oxide semiconductor LSI design and is
manufacturing using CMOS processing technology.
Following a concept presentation by E. R. Fossum in 1995
on producing single-chip processors using CMOS image
sensors (17) (18), institutions and companies everywherethrew themselves into research and development.
Development has been underway with the aim to realize asingle-chip camera with built-in DSP (Digital Signal
Processing) (19) - (21). Toshiba gained much attention in1997 with the release of a digital camera with 330k pixels
CMOS sensor. Today, large camera market using CMOS
image sensor is formed in the fields of digital cameras,
mobile phones and tablets. CMOS sensor has been also
replaced from CCD in video camera.

3.1.5 Other Solid-State Image Sensors(a) MOS typeThe world's first MOS type camera was commercialized
by Hitachi Ltd. in the 1980s. The difference between thecurrent CMOS-type was not provided with a pixel
amplifier. However, it is worth noting that a lot of
research results also were applied to CCD. A number oftechnological developments were carried out, including
the npn structure (22), non-destructive readout and half
pitch pixel shifting in each scan line (23). Methods forsuppressing fixed pattern noise were also developed (24).
Furthermore, an improvement was also devised in theform of the transversal signal line (TSL) method, in which
the signal was read out from the horizontal lines throughthe use of a horizontal switch transistor (25). However, it
was no match for the low noise of the CCD and soon
faded out.
(b) Stacked type
Stacked image sensors improved the aperture ratio byperforming photoelectric conversion with an overlaid
photoconductive film, using the CCD or MOS sensor only
as a switch.
CCD and CMOS sensors have a photodiode forphotoelectric conversion, switching and transfer scanningcircuits and a semiconductor chip on all the same plane.
This means that they have a poor light utilization factor
and a low aperture ratio. It was believed that arranging thephotoelectric conversion and scanning in a stacked
structure would make it possible to configure these
independently of each other, as well as to improve theaperture ratio by almost 100%. This research anddevelopment was undertaken by Hitachi (26) (27),Matsushita Electric Industrial (28), Toshiba (29) and othermanufacturers. As a result, 2M pixel HDTV camera wasdeveloped (30) (31) and also used in broadcasting cameras(32).
(c) Amplified type, etc.
Research and development of amplified MOS imager(AMI) amplifying the signal charges converted by thephotodiode using MOSFET had been advanced by NHK(32)-(35),Olympus Optical, and Mitsubishi Electric.
Other devices included the charge priming device (CPD)(36), which combined the advantages of the CCD and MOS
sensors, the charge sweep device (CSD) (37), an improved
version of the CCD, and the accordion CCD (38).
Meanwhile, other research included the static induction
transistor (SIT) (39) (40) by Tohoku University and Olympus
Optical, which achieved photoelectric conversion with astatic induction phototransistor, the charge modulation
device (CMD) (41) (42) by the NHK and Olympus Optical,
the avalanche photodiode device (APD) (43), floating gate
amplifier (FGA) (44) and base stored image sensor (BASIS)
(45)
.

3.2

Image Pickup Tube

Imaging device used in the first video camera in 1974 was
Vidicon image pickup tube which used a Sb2S3 (antimony
trisulfide) photoconductive film. Image pickup tube era
continues, but Vidicon had a lag disadvantage. Afterdevelopment for lag reduction, Plumbicon using PbO
photoconductive film in photoconductive layer wasinvented. In response to the stimulus to this, Saticon,
Charnicon, and Newvicon were invented one after theVideo Camera Technologies Systematization

15

other in Japan.
The Plumbicon was developed in 1962 by Philips. Color
quality of the broadcastjng was significantly improved,since the Plumbicon has come to be used in three-tube
color camera. In contrast, Saticon, Chalnicon andNewvicon were used in video cameras, resolving the
Vidicon lag and also contributing to improved image
quality.

In 18mm image pickup tubes, miniaturization is achieved
remarkable when compared with Image Orthicon 4 inch
and a half, such as a cannon.
Using Fig. 3.3, let us explain the operation of the image
pickup tube, because the reference about the pickup tube
is less (47).
Field mesh (G4)

Accelerating
electrode (G2)

Beam focus
electrode (G3)Signalelectrode (Sj)

Cathode (K)Faceplate

Vent pipe
Transparent
conductive layer

Aperture
Photoconductive layer

Beam control
electrode (G1)

Heater(H)

Fig. 3.3 Image Pickup Tube Structure (47)
Fig. 3.1 Image Pickup Tube and CCD (46)Fig. 3.1 shows a comparison of the external shape of
CCDs and the image pickup tubes used in single-tube color
video cameras (46). 1 inch pickup tube E5180 of theelectromagnetic deflection and electromagnetic focusing,
18mm pickup tube of the electromagnetic deflection andelectrostatic focusing, one inch color CCD and one inch
black and white CCD are shown from left to right. The
coil assembly is required to deflect focus the electron
beam in the case of an image pickup tube. Sinceelectrostatic-focused image pickup tubes had an built-in
focus function, as shown in Fig. 3.2, they did not need an
external coil assembly for focusing, which meant they
were suitable for downsizing the camera.

The faceplate is made of optical glass with the innersurface, coated with a vacuum-deposited ITO (NESA
coating) and formed photoconductive layer on thefaceplate. The light is incident through the lens from theleft, and an optical image is formed on thephotoconductive film. A vacuum is maintained on theinside of the image pickup tube. When thephotoconductive film is scanned with an electron beamheated by the heater, the signal charge built up by thephotoelectric effect according to the optical image is
gradually removed from the ITO area. This operation canalso be explained by the equivalent circuit given in Fig.
3.4.
Photoconductive film

Electron beam

CathodeLight
Focusing coil
Deflection
coil

Output signal

Alignment coil ormagnetMagnetic shieldFig. 3.2 Difference between Electromagnetic Focusing
and Electrostatic Focusing (46)16

Fig. 3.4 Image Pickup Tube Equivalent Circuit (47)
In order not to mix each pixel, they are required that
resistance of the photoconductive layer is large and thatthe charge stored cannot move laterally.

National Museum of Nature and Science Survey Report of Systematization of Technology, Vol.18 March 2013

3.3

CCD

3.3.1 Structure
When CCDs were first invented, research anddevelopment was carried out on applications for both
semiconductor memory and imaging devices, since they
made it possible to store or transfer a signal charge with asimple structure. However, it soon became evident thatthey offered significant advantages as imaging devices.

Electrodethe movement in the opposite direction of the signal
charge is prevented by a barrier formed below theelectrodes a. All signal charges are stored under theelectrodes c, when the gradually changed voltage applied
to the electrodes b becomes to the +0.5V. If this operationis repeated, the signal charge is transfersed to the right
direction. The relationship of the waveforms of
three-phase operation which is described above are as inFig 3.6.

φ1: Waveform of electrode a
φ2: Waveform of electrode b

Insulating film
p-typesemiconductor

Depletion layer

φ3: Waveform of electrode c

Signal charge(a) Storage

Fig. 3.6 Three-Phase Driving Waveform (1)(b) Transfer

Fig. 3.5 CCD Structure (1)The basic CCD structure comprises a number of MOS
capacitors closely arranged in parallel, as shown in Fig.
3.5. It is a simple structure, with a number of electrodes
putting on an insulating layer on the surface of thesemiconductor. Applying a voltage to each electrode insequence allows two operations of transferring andaccumulation of the signal.
The electrodes are separated into three groups, a, b and c,with a varying voltage applied to these. In the state ofsignal accumulation, electrodes a and c are applied with alow voltage of +0.5V, while the electrodes b are appliedwith a high voltage of +5V. Then, deep potential well isformed under the electrodes b to which a high voltage wasapplied. If light is exposed in this state, generated signal
charge can be accumulated under the electrodes b.
Next, the voltage applied to the electrodes a is maintained
at +0.5V and the voltage applied to the electrodes c isaltered from +0.5V to +5V, the voltage applied to theelectrodes b gradually is changed from +5V to +0.5V, inthis case, the potential well change as shown in Fig. 3.5(b) and the signal charge accumulated under the electrodesb can be transferred under the electrodes c. At this time,

Sequentially switching the voltage every third electrode totransfer the signal charge is called three-phase driving.
Three-phase driving requires an analog operation from
+5V to +0.5V. This cannot be achieved by a binary pulse
waveform. In practical CCD, two-phase drive is used forthe horizontal transfer, and four-phase drive is used for thevertical transfer.
It was found that the transfer efficiency and S/N cannot be
maintained with such simple structures as shown in Fig.
3.5 and a number of specific improvements were made in
the CCD structure.
3.3.2 Types of CCD
There are five kinds of CCD imaging devices currently inuse, as shown in Fig. 3.7. These comprise five different
combinations according to whether a photodiode isprovided for photoelectric conversion, whether the CCD
itself performs photoelectric conversion and whether it has
a one-field CCD memory.
The so-called 2 million pixel CCD has 1920 effective
pixels horizontally and 1080 effective pixels vertically, but
4 x 4 pixels, ie, 4 pixels in the horizontal, 4 vertical pixels,
are shown for convenience of description. Since the mostcommonly used among the five types of Fig. 3.7 is
IT-CCD, I will try to explain the basic operation of the
CCD imaging device using IT- CCD as representative of
these.

Video Camera Technologies Systematization17

V-transfer CCD

Photosensitive area

Storage area Photosensitive area

PhotodiodeOutputH-transfer CCD

PhotodiodePhotosensitive area

H-transfer CCD

OutputV-transfer CCD

V-transfer CCD

Photosensitive area

OutputV-transfer CCD

H-transfer CCD

Storage area

V-transfer CCD

Photosensitive area

OutputPhotodiodeH-transfer CCD(e) All pixel readout IT-CCD(d) FIT-CCD

OutputH-transfer CCD

Fig. 3.7 Various Types of CCDs (1)(a) IT-CCD
Fig. 3.7 (c) shows the structure of the IT-CCD (Interline
Transfer CCD). The portrait-oriented rectangles represent
photodiodes, while the landscape-oriented rectangles
represent the electrodes of the vertical transfer CCDs. The
vertical transfer CCDs are arranged between thephotodiodes in each row, with the horizontal transfer
CCDs arranged in a line adjacent to the last row of verticaltransfer CCDs.
When an optical image of an object is formed on thesurface by the imaging lens, photoelectric conversion is
performed in each photodiode and the signal charge isaccumulated, the charge image can be generated.
The charge image signal is sequentially transferred in thevertical and horizontal directions, devised to extract thesignal from one signal output terminal. This part is playedby the transfer section of the CCD.
The signal charge stored in the photodiodes of the
16-pixel structure is simultaneously transferred to an areaof the vertical CCD by a field shift pulse. After two
vertical pixels are added, the vertical transfer CCD of fourrows is gradually transferring charges in the verticaldirection in parallel. The vertically-transferred signal
charge is injected into the horizontal transfer CCD. Eachtime a four-pixel horizontal signal enters, the signal istransferred in the horizontal direction and is output
through the output circuit at the left. Once the horizontaltransfer CCDs are empty, the signal charges of the nextline are fed to the horizontal transfer CCD and theoperation is repeated. Signal of one line is graduallyobtained from the output terminal in this way. Eachphotodiode is empty immediately after the charge has
been transferred to the vertical CCD by a field shift pulse.
Since the light is continued to hit to each photodiode, thecharges begin to be accumulated again.
IT-CCD is widely used in video camera, digital camera
and almost all of the cameras, except for special

18

applications.
In 1982, when CCDs were first commercialized, the pixel
number was about 200,000 (400H x 480V). The size of
one pixel was also about 13μm x 22μm. By technologicalprogress, including the miniaturization technology, thesize became to the 1.7μm x 1.7μm in 2010.
(b) FF-CCD
Figure 3.7 (a) shows a FF-CCD (Full Frame-CCD), in
which the vertical transfer CCDs also perform
photoelectric conversion. This format is closest to theoriginal CCD format. This CCD stores and transfers thesignal using the same operation as the principle shown in
Fig. 3.5. Since light must be incident on the CCD surface,the electrodes of the CCD are formed by transparent
electrodes such as poly-silicon.
While the FF-CCD has the simplest structure of all the
CCDs, it requires a strobe-type on-off light source ormechanical shutter like a camera, as the light continues tohit during signal transfer. The shutter needs to only be
open to let light in during charge storage and then closes
to shut off the light for signal charge transfer.
These were initially used in endoscopes and other small
cameras as they allowed the chip size to be reduced, but
are hardly used today.
(c) FT-CCD
Figure 3.7 (b) shows a FT-CCD (Frame Transfer CCD),
which has a CCD 1 field memory unit between thehorizontal transfer CCD and photosensitive portion of the
FF-CCD. The signal charge for the entire field stored in
the photosensitive portion has to be quickly transferred tothe storage unit, preventing light hitting in during transfer.
The FT-CCD has been studied actively at an early time of
CCD invention, but for the reason that the chip size islarge and that inevitable smear phenomenon due to theleakage of light exists, the opportunity to be used in Japan

National Museum of Nature and Science Survey Report of Systematization of Technology, Vol.18 March 2013

is small.
(d) FIT-CCD
Figure 3.7 (d) shows a FIT-CCD (Frame Interline Transfer
CCD), which is added the one field CCD memory to
IT-CCD. Although chip size is larger than the IT-CCD andcomplicated two types of vertical transfer are required,
FIT-CCD is possible to reduce the smear which is a
disadvantage of IT-CCD. Accordingly, FIT-CCDs are usedin electronic news-gathering (ENG) cameras and studiocameras for performance-oriented broadcasting stations.
At present, 2/3 inch FIT-CCD having 2 million pixel andS/N 62dB performance is used in mainstream
broadcasting camera.
(e) All-Pixel Readout IT-CCD
Figure 3.7 (e) shows an all-pixel readout IT-CCD, which
has a structure with three to four vertical transfer CCD
electrodes per photodiode, thereby allowing the signals
from all the photodiodes to be read out at the same time.
3.3.3 CCD Structure
Figure 3.8 shows a cross-sectional structure of the typical
pixel structure used in IT-CCDs. The photosensitive
portion is provided under the micro-lens, a verticaltransfer unit is disposed on the right side. Japanese
inventions are shown as a part surrounded by the red bold
frame which had a significant effect on the performance
improvement.
Micro lens
On chip color filter array

Thinning of the portion under
micro lensLight shielding
filmTransfer
electrode
Buried channel

Buried photodiode

Vertical overflow drain

Fig. 3.8 IT-CCD Pixel Structure (48)visible light component. Because charges by longwavelength light are extinguished, since long-wavelength
light such as near-infrared light is converted in deep
p-well portion to reach. This structure is called a vertical
overflow drain (VOD) structure and has contributed
significantly to the high-densification and miniaturizationof the CCD.
The use of this structure makes it possible to remove thesignal charge stored on the photodiode all at once along
the substrate by controlling the substrate voltage. A systemof adding a pulse at any given time to remove previously
stored signals has made electronic shutter operation easier.
It should be noted that the structure of the buried
photodiode is also used in the CMOS image sensor.
(b) Color Filter
Micro-lens and color filter array are formed on thephotodiode.
Unlike ordinary semiconductor technology, the newtechnologies are needed to stain and process using a
special resin.
This is called an on-chip color filter, where the color filter
array is precisely aligned with the CCD pixels, being
overlaid onto the pixels at micron level.
The micro-lens array is formed on top of this. The
micro-lens concentrates the light on the photosensitive
surface onto the photodiode portion, which can double or
triple the amount of light entering the photodiode, thereby
significantly improving the light efficiency, which was adrawback with the CMOS and IT-CCD image sensors. It
also helps to increase sensitivity and offers the advantage
of a light-shielding effect to reduce the amount of light tothe transfer electrodes and transistor area.
(c) Transfer Electrode
When a field shift pulse is applied to the transfer
electrodes, signal charges stored in the buried channel
photodiode in the transfer unit is transferred via the p+layer formed to the right of the photodiode.
The transfer unit is structured to minimize light
contamination. It comprises Poli-Si electrodes through a
SiO2 insulating film in the the buried channel n, which isthen covered with an aluminum shielding layer through an
insulating membrane.

Although the principle of CCD is illustrated in Fig. 3.5,
the structures put into practical use has become fairly
complex structure to improve the performance.
Al electrode(a) PhotodiodeA photodiode used in CCD is made to form a p-well on asemiconductor substrate n, to form an n+ layer on it,
so-called n+ pn structure.
In addition, it is characterized in that the p+ layer isformed on the n-type layer, and is formed in the bulk sideslightly rather than the surface of the photodiode, called aburied photodiode. The structure has a p+ n+ pn from thesurface as p+ n+ pn. Using this structure, a photodiodesurface can be so as not to deplete, and dark current thattends to occur at the interface is suppressed to lower.
Fixed pattern noise due to dark current is suppressed tolower one digit or more.
On the other hand, by reducing the thickness below thephotodiode, to create a pn structure in the direction of thesubstrate, p-well has been devised structure as cast off thesubstrate side of the signal charge generated excessively
strong light. Thus, it is possible to suppress the blooming,and further, to be able to be efficiently accumulated a

Poly-siliconelectrodep+ layerp-type semiconductor(a) Two-phase driving CCD

Al electrodePoly-siliconelectrodep-type semiconductor(b) Four-phase driving CCD

Fig. 3.9 Cross-Sectional Structure of Horizontal andVertical Transfer CCDs (1)Video Camera Technologies Systematization

19

(d) Transfer Direction Structure

Figure 3.9 shows the structure of a horizontal transfer
CCD for two-phase driving and a vertical transfer CCD
for four-phase driving.
The overlapping electrode structure prevents any
unnecessary barriers from occurring. Since a p+ layer
forms under one electrode in two-phase driving, forming a
potential barrier, transfer in one direction is possible.
The respective waveforms are shown in Fig. 3.10.
Two-phase driving is used for horizontal transfers, which
require high speed, while four-phase driving is used forvertical transfers, which can be carried out at a relatively
slow speed.

As shown in Fig. (b), the signal charge stored in thephotodiode is amplified by an amplifier provided for eachpixel, then switched and read out for each pixel by thevertical and horizontal shift resistors.
Although Fig. (b) shows an example of a CMOS image
sensor constituted by two transistors, four transistors aremainly used recently to improve performance.
3.4.1 Pixel Structure
Figure 3.12 shows a pixel configuration of the so-called
4TR composed of four transistors (49).

Vertical signal line
φ1: Waveform of electrode φ1
φ2: Waveform of electrode φ2(a) Waveform of two-phase driving CCD
Address line
φ1: Waveform of electrode φ1

φ2: Waveform of electrode φ2

φ3: Waveform of electrode φ3

φ4: Waveform of electrode φ4(b) Waveform of four-phase driving CCD

Fig. 3.10 Waveforms of two-Phase and four-Phase Driving
(1)

3.4

CMOS Image Sensor

As described in 3.1.4, CMOS image sensors have attracted
attention from around 1995. As shown in Fig. 3.11, as
compared with the IT-CCD in terms of the configurationof the imaging device, it is possible to see the difference inthe method for reading to the output circuit signal charges
photo-electrically converted by the photodiode.

Vertical scan circuit

OutputHorizontal scan circuit

Outputみ(b) CMOS image sensor

Fig. 3.11 CMOS Image Sensor Structure

20

Fig. 3.12 4TR Pixel Structure
One pixel of the CMOS sensor is composed of aphotodiode PD, a readout transistor MTG (transfer gate
transistor), an amplifier transistor MA, a select transistor
MSL and a reset transistor MRS.
The signal charge generated by photoelectric conversion isstored in the source of the readout transistor MTG. The
accumulated charge switches on when a pulse is applied to
the gate, and is pooled in the floating diffusion FD. Whena line is selected by the select transistor MSL, the signal
amplified by the amplifier transistor MA is transferred to
the vertical signal line. The vertical and horizontal shift
resistors then output the signal in sequence.
Here, it is intended that the reset transistor is placed
between the amplifier transistor and the readout transistor;
this initializes the voltage to a constant level before thesignal is read out.
3.4.2 Characteristics
Having an amplifier in each pixel in the CMOS sensor
made it possible to overcome the noise, which was thegreatest drawback with the existing MOS sensor. While it
had always been the intention to provide an amplifier foreach pixel, any variations between the amplifiers would
result in fixed noise, making the entire sensor useless.
Advances in semiconductor microfabrication played asignificant part in enabling the production of elementswith uniform amplification. Also advances in circuit
technology for electronically correcting pixel defects andnoise contributed to this.
Post-processing also became possible using a digital
signal through a system called column ADC, wherein thesignal charges for each horizontal line are AD converted
all at once. This was a significant step forward for camera
performance.
Another major feature of the CMOS image sensor is thecapability to quickly output the signal charges obtained byphotoelectric conversion.
3.4.3 Product of the CMOS Image Sensor
The first product using CMOS image sensor was a digital
camera PDR-2 commercialized in 1997.
CMOS sensors have grown significantly as a digital
camera imaging devices since then. Quite a number havealso been used in mobile phones. As a video camera, it

National Museum of Nature and Science Survey Report of Systematization of Technology, Vol.18 March 2013

began to be used in HDTV camera required many pixels.

3.5

Comparison of CMOS Image Sensor
and CCDAs mentioned thus far, the golden age of the CCD as an
imaging device for video cameras is coming to a close as
these are now being replaced by CMOS image sensors.
Since technical details are beyond the scope of this report,
let us simply make several comparisons between CMOS
sensors and the mainstream consumer IT-CCD sensor,
with reference to the works cited in the preface. Throughthis, the reason why the CMOS sensor has been growing
by leaps and bounds will be appreciated.
(a) Characteristics and Features
Table 3.2 illustrates the distinctive characteristics of eachsensor. From the fact that CMOS image sensor is effective
for the integration of the peripheral circuit of low power
consumption, such as DSP, it is useful to thecamera-equipped mobile phone small and became main
product in this field.
Table 3.2 Features of CCD and CMOS Image Sensors

Photoelectric
conversion
AmplifierReadout
Smear
OutputFEACMOS image
sensorPhotodiode
Each pixel
ColumnNo
DigitalBuilt-inSignal processing Can be built incircuitPower source
1 power source

CCD
Same as left
One in the
output stage
CCD transfer
Yes
AnalogSeparate chiprequired
Not possible
3 power source

Table 3.3 illustrates the distinguishing features of both
sensors. The initial drawbacks of high noise and low
sensitivity has led to improvements that make itcomparable to the CCD sensor. While CCD smear has
been improved by 70-90dB, this phenomenon inherently
does not occur in the CMOS sensor. Advantage of the
CMOS sensor has become decisive in the number ofpixels of two million pixels or more. There is a theory thatimaging devices have a 30-year cycle and the CCD,
invented in 1970, finally appears to be vacating theleading role.
Table 3.3 Performance Comparison of CCD and CMOS
Sensors
Item
Sensitivity
Smear
Dynamic range
Pixel increase
High speed
S/N

CMOS image sensor
◎
◎
→◎
◎
◎
→◎

IT-CCD◎◎(b) Readout Methods - Global Shutter and Rolling
Shutter
There is a difference between CCD and CMOS image
sensor in the method of reading the signal charge
accumulated in the image portion. I will try to explain the
difference between these reading methods.
In the CCD, by a field shift pulse, the signal charge
accumulated in all pixels are transferred to the V-CCD atonce, and read out. This method is called a global shutter.
By contrast, in a CMOS image sensor, the signal charges
are read out line by line. This method is called a rolling
shutter. Let us examine the differences between thesereadout methods in detail, with reference to Fig. 3.13 (50)(51)
. In the figure, the time axis extends backwards fromthe surface of the paper. The optical image reaches theimaging plane of the sensor in a series of continuous
images over time. The readout methods differ in the way
to sanple this continuous image, that is, where the moving
image is cut into frames.
Figure (a) shows the CCD readout method, in which the
shutter is opened at a specific time and closed again after
the signal is stored. Since this is uniform everywhere in all
the pixels, the accumulation is terminated at the time
when it will be cut vertically along the time axis, apredetermined time has elapsed. Then, simultaneously, thesignal charges are transferred to the V-CCD. Since thecharges are read sequentially line by line in the V-CCD,
over time, it will read out the signals sequentiallyobliquely. Figure (b) shows the CMOS sensor readout
method, in which the signal appears cut on an angle overtime, as the shutter opens line by line across all the pixels.
Since the shutter interval is constant for all pixels, thesignal is gradually integrated over a period of time within
the time interval. The signal is then sequentially read out
on the diagonal, as it is read out sequentially line by line.
This means that the CCD sensor shoots one frame at atime, while the CMOS image sensor uses a continuous
shooting method. Accordingly, the CMOS image sensor
readout method makes perfect sense for capturing amoving image, but this is not the case for extracting asingle frame. When shooting a moving subject, instead of
capturing a scene comprising all of the pixels at the sametime like the CCD sensor, the CMOS image sensor
captures different images of the scene on each line acrossall of the pixels. This can result in image distortion if thesubject is moving at high speed. This requires someattention in the case of digital cameras intended for taking
still images.
On the other hand, CCD becomes disadvantageous if you
want to read without delay. As can be seen from in Fig.
(a), time delay occurs in the form of a triangle to read thesignal from the storage end. Meanwhile, delay does notoccur until signals readout time from the accumulation
end in the CMOS sensor, as is clear from Fig. (b). In
normal standard television formats, the base of the triangle
in the CCD sensor figure is one field time of 1/60s or
16.6ms. The longest delay in a CMOS sensor is one line
time of 0.031μs, that can be almost ignored time delay.
While this difference in readout time is not a significant
problem in a video camera, it is a very important factor in
the time-sensitive scene, where the captured images haveto be processed quickly, such as in an automotive camera.

Video Camera Technologies Systematization

21

Readout
Readout

Readout time

Readout time
Shutter speed

Shutter speed

1 Field

1 Field

Passage of time(a) CCD Readout Method(B) CMOS Imager Readout Method

Fig. 3.13 Differences in Readout Methods (50)(51)(c) Trend of Miniaturization of Pixel Pitch
Fig. 3.14 shows a trend in pixel pitch reduction. Whenvideo cameras were first put to practical use in 1980, they
had a pixel pitch of 12μm. By around 1995, most cameras
had square pixels with a pitch of 5.6μm. Miniaturization
then was temporarily stagnant, but then continued toprogress from the late 1990s.

3.6

Important Imaging Device Technologies

3.6.1 Chronology of Main Technologies
Number of major imaging device technologies for
improving performance and establishing for mass
production have been developed in Japan. Table 3.4 shows
important technology items and the explanation by era.
Technical details can be found in the cited references.
Important technology viewed from the patent andSociety report
Since research and development have been performed byverifying the Society report and patent, let us introduce a
few of these.
The Japan Patent Office published a Patent Application
Technology Trends Research Report on digital cameras (52)
in 2009.

Pixel pitch (μm)

3.6.2

Year

Fig. 3.14 Trend in Pixel Pitch Reduction
It was previously thought that a camera could not be madeusing a sensor with a pixel pitch of 2.2μm or less. Because
the pitch becomes close to the wavelength of light anddecreases the imaging performance due to lens diffraction
and other effects. However, the advancement oftechnological development led to the commercializationof a CMOS image sensor having with a 1.12μm pixel
pitch in 2012.
If the pixel pitch can be reduced, the chip size can also be
reduced if the pixel number is constant. It is then possible
to place a large number of chips on one semiconductor
wafer. This makes it an effective means for cost reduction.
By contrast, the smaller the pixel size, the smaller theamount of incident light on the pixel and the amount ofsignal is reduced. As a result, the sensitivity decreases andthe S/N ratio also decrease. However, these issues havebeen surmounted by the advancement of technologicaldevelopment.

22(a) VOD Technology
VOD is the structure shown in Fig. 3.8. It wassignificantly beneficial to improve the image quality andfunction by providing an electronic shutter andsuppressing blooming.
As shown in Table 3.5, the VOD was invented by Tetsuo
Yamada (then of Toshiba), who was awarded the Ministerof International Trade and Industry Invention Award andthe National Invention Awards by this invention. He
invented 1 more related patent and was awarded the
Director General of the Science and Technology Agency
Invention Award and the Kanto Region Commendation
Invention Awards.
VOD technologies have been published in the Journal of
the United Kingdom and Electronics Engineers by H.
Goto, T. Yamada and et al (53). On the other hand, Y.
Ishihara presented at ISSCC similar techniques also
reported domestic Japanese ITE.
(b) FIT-CCD Technologies
A FIT-CCD is a CCD with a one-field memory, as shownin Fig. 3.7 (d). Smear is reduced significantly, FIT-CCD isused almost to the broadcasting CCD camera. For the chipsize becomes larger, since the cost increase, it has beenrarely used in the video camera. The FIT-CCD wasinvented by Sekine, as shown in Table 3.6, but although a

National Museum of Nature and Science Survey Report of Systematization of Technology, Vol.18 March 2013

patent was applied for, the patent was not registered as noreview request was made. Instead, the patent rights went
to Ishihara of a subsequent application.
It should be noted that the cited papers by Kenju Horii areold (56)-(58).

Video Camera Technologies Systematization

23

Table 3.4 Chronology of Imaging Devices
Year
Name / Manufacturer
1947 J. Bardeen and W. H. Brattain (Bell Labs)
1963 Morrison (Honeywell)1963 F.M. Wanlass (Fairchild )1964 J.W.Horton
1964 P.K.Weimer
1968 Plessy Company Ltd.
1969 F. L. J. Sangster
1970 W. S. Boyle and G. E. Smith
1971 Philips
1971 M. F. Tompsett, et al
W. F. Kosonocky and J. E. Carnes
R.H.Krambeck et al.
1972 W. F. Kosonocky and J. E. Carnes
R. H. Walden et al.
C. H. Sequin
1974 M. H. White, et al
A. Yusa et al. (Olympus)
1975 Y. Yoshino et al. (Panasonic)
1976 S. Ochi (Sony)
1978 T. Yamada (Toshiba)
H. Sekine (Toshiba)
1979 N. Koike et al. (Hitachi)
HitachiTohoku Univesity & Olympus
1980 Ohba et al. (Hitachi)
T. Chikamura et al. (Panasonic)
S. Manabe et al. (Toshiba)
Panasonic
NEC1981 N. Teranishi (NEC)Y. Takemura et al. (Toshiba)
1982 T. Kuroda et al. (Panasonic)
Hitachi1983 S. Ochi (Sony)
H. Sekine (Toshiba)

24

Name
Remarks
Transistor
Photo scanner(61)Invention of CMOS image sensor
1963 IEEE ISSCC USP 3356858
Scanistor(62)The idea of making an imaging device by reading photodiodes in order side-by-side
Thin film image sensor array
The idea of making an imaging device by reading thin-film elements in order side-by-side (63)PN Photodiode + MOS Amp (64)
CMOS image sensor principle
BBD (6)
Type of CTD, invented one year earlier than the CCD
CCD(4)(5)Invention of the CCD
CID(7)(8)FT-CCD(65)First CCD area image sensor
Floating diffusion amp (66)Two-phase driving CCD (67)
Used in horizontal transfer
IT-CCD(68)Main consumer CCD
Buried channel CCD (69)Horizontal OD (Overflow Drain) (7)CDS (Correlated Double Sampling)
Correlated double sampling circuit (70)(40)
MOS type BCD (Bulk Charge Transfer Device)
Similar technology to buried channel CCD
Three-level drive (91)
Driven by the same electrode as the transfer electrode and the readout electrode
Field readout CCD(71)VOD (Vertical Overflow Drain) (53)Invention of VOD
FIT-CCD (63)(64)
Invention of FIT-CCD
MOS type npn structure(22)Stacked MOS device(26)(27)
SIT(39),(40)Photoelectric conversion in the static induction transistor
Fixed pattern noise reduction method (24)Development of FPN method
Stacked CPD(27)(28)
Stacked CCD(29)-(32)CPD(36)Invention of Charge Priming Device
Intrinsic gettering (IG) (74)
Buried photodiode(72)(73)
Same technology named the pinned photodiode by B. C. Burkey (3)(90)
Sweep-out drive technology
Technique to erase the residual charge by driving with a pulse number greater than the numberof pixels
Depletion of the photoelectric conversion element Removal of residual charge
at the time of reading (92)
MOS type pixel interpolation method(23)The pixel shift method (75)Technique for increasing the resolution by shifting 1/2 pixel pitch on each scan line
Checkered pixel array (76)
Idea of the honeycomb patent

National Museum of Nature and Science Survey Report of Systematization of Technology, Vol.18 March 2013

Y. Ishihara (NEC)Sony
1984 A.J.P.Theuwissen et al. (Philips)
1985 Hitachi

On-chip μ lens (59)
MCZ substrate (77)
Accordion CCD (38)
MOS TSL method (25)1985 Mitsubishi Electric
OlympusF. Ando et al (NHK)CSD (Charge Sweep Device( 37)
CMD (charge modulation device) (41)(42)
AMI (Amplified MOS intelligent imager) (33)-(35)1988 J.Hynecec
1990 Panasonic1991 Toshiba
1993 E. R. Fossum
NEC
U. Seger1995 E. R. Fossum
1996 C. H. Aw
1997 D. Scheffer
2000 T. Sugiki et al. (Toshiba)
N. Nakamura & S. Matsunaga (Toshiba)

FGA (floating gate array) (44)APD (avalanche photodiode device) (43)
2 million pixel stacked CCD for HDTV (29)- (32)
Active CMOS image sensor proposed(16)All pixel readout method
WDR(83)
1 chip camera with built-in DSP (17) (18)Global shutter(84)Active Pixel Image Sensor (81 )(82)
Parallel ADC (84)
CMOS noise reduction method (85)

T. Yamada (Fuji Film)
2001 Pixim
2003 K. Oda et al. (Fuji Film)2005 S. Sugawa (Tohoku University)
2007 Y. Egawa (Toshiba)2008 OmniVision-TSMC2010 SonyToshibaCanon

Honeycomb CCD (86)
WDR by providing an ADC in each pixel
Honey comb WDR (87)WDR
WDR
Backside illuminated CMOS-APS
16.41million pixel back illuminated CMOS-APS
14.6million pixel back illuminated CMOS-APS
120 million pixel CMOS-APS

Performance improvement (33)(Signal reading method by providing a horizontal switchingtransistor for each pixel)
CCD improvement
Method for amplifying MOSFET in the signal charges photoelectrically converted by thephotodiode

Progressive scanning (78)
DSP : Digital Signal Processing

Providing ADC for each line and pipelining the ADC and data output
1/f noise and thermal noise suppression using a feedback clamp method on the output amplifier
itself
WDR with image processing
Horizontal overflow storage capacity (88)
Using double exposure (89)
For cellular phones
For video cameras
For cellular phones
The largest number of pixels: 9.5 field/sVideo Camera Technologies Systematization

25

Table 3.5 VOD Technologies
Charge Transfer
DeviceSolid-State Image
SensorInventor
Manufacturer
Appl. No.
Filing datePublication No.
Publication datePublic notice No.
Public notice date
Patent No.
Date of patent
Decision of refusal
Appeal trial
Demand for trial
Joint names

Hiromitsu Shiraki
NECS49-134668
Nov. 21, 1974
A S51-60186
May 25, 1976
B S61-60592
Dec 22, 1986
1430947
March 24, 1988
May 8, 1984
S59-10283
June 7, 1884

Remarks

pn structure FT-CCD

Iwao Takemoto
Hitachi
S52-5953
Jan. 24, 1977
A S53-91622
Aug. 11, 1978
B S58-23992
May 18, 1983
1211101
June 12, 1984
July 6, 1982
S57-15970
Aug. 4, 1882
Norio Koike
Masaharu Kubo
p-well MOS image
sensorItem

Solid-State Image
SensorTetsuoYamada
Toshiba
S53-1971
Jan. 13, 1978
AS 54-95116
July 27, 1979
BS 59-17581
April 21, 1984
1243180
Dec. 14, 1984

Solid-State Image
SensorTetsuo Yamada et al.
Toshiba
S55-100346
July 22, 1980

BS62-17878
April 20, 1987
1411948
Nov. 27, 1987

Nobuo Suzuki
Hiroshige Goto

Solid-State Image Sensor
and Driving Method
Yasuo Ishihara
NEC
S55-13057
Sep. 19, 1980
AS 57-55672
April 2, 1982
BS62-16599
April 13, 1987－－
Nov. 29, 1988

Solid-State Image
SensorSolid-State Image
Sensor and Production
MethodNobukazuTeranishi
NEC
S57-8433
Jan. 22, 1982
AS 58-125970
July 27, 1983
BH4-24870
April 28, 1992
1925337
April 25, 1995

Nobukazu Teranishi
NEC
S56-57999
April 17, 1981
AS 57-173274
Oct. 25, 1982
BH1-21351
April 9, 1992
1932139
May 26, 1995
Feb. 14, 1989
S1-4536
March 16, 1989
Yasuo Ishihara
Hidetsugu Oda
Hidetsugu Oda
Change in the diffusion Impurity variation
depth of the N-type
suppression of CZ
regionboard

1990 Minister ofInternational Trade andIndustry Invention
Award at the National
Invention Awards. 1989
Director General of
Science and Technology
Agency Invention Prizeat the Kanto Invention
Awards.
Reference Materials(1) Nobukazu Teranishi: [Memorial Lecture] Technological Developments towards Practical Image Sensor Implementation: Evolution of the Vertical Overflow Drain(VOD), ITE-IST, Nov. 19, 2010.
(2) Japan Patent Office: Industrial Property Digital Library.
The following are related papers.
(1) Hiroshige Goto, Hirokazu Sekine, Tetsuo Yamada and Nobuo Suzuki: CCD Linear Image Sensor with Buried Overflow Drain Structure, Electronics Letters, Vol. 17, No. 24, pp. 904-905, 1981.
(2) Y. Ishihara, E. Oda, H. Tanigawa and N. Teranishi: Interline CCD Image Sensor, with Anti-blooming Structure, ISSCC82 Digest of Technical Papers, pp.168-169, Feb.1982.
(3) Yasuo Ishihara et al.: CCD image sensor with a Vertical Overflow Drain Structure, ITE Journal, Vol.37, No.10, pp.782-787, 1983.
(4) Y. Hiroshima, S. Matsumoto, K. Senda, T. Kuriyama,K. Horii, T. Kuroda, T. Kunii, H. Mizuno: Elimination of Fixed Pattern Noise in Super-8 Format CCD Image Sensor by the Use of Epitaxial
Wafers, IEEE IEDM, PP.32-35 (Dec. 1984).

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(c) On-Chip Micro-Lens
The on-chip micro-lens has a structure as shown in Fig.
3.8. By concentrating the optical image efficiently on thephotodiode, micro-lens is very effective in improving thesensitivity. As shown in Table 3.7, the literature of
Ishihara is the first in the conference presentation (59).
Invention of Wada et al. is the basic patent. In the field of
discrete components, techniques for collecting light havebeen carried out using a small lens on the device for along time. However, various improvements were required
to be formed micro-lenses without defect using aheterogeneous resin on a CCD semiconductor substrate.

(d) Addition Readout Method
For interlaced scanning is performed in the moving image,it is necessary to devise the reading method of each line.
In order to eliminate lag disadvantage, method of adding
the two adjacent line signals become effective.
Although the basic patent for this method was filed by
RCA, immediately after this patent has become known,domestic manufacturers have also been proposed many
patents, as shown in Table 3.8.
For interlace technology there is a paper by CH Sequin(60).

Table 3.6 FIT-CCD
Item
Inventor
Manufacturer
Appl. No.
Filing datePublication No.
Publication datePublic notice No.
Public notice date
Decision of refusal
Appeal trial
Patent No.
Date of patent
Remarks

Solid-State Image
SensorHirokazu Seｋine
Toshiba
S53-125703
Oct 14, 1978
AS 55-52675
April 17, 1980-

Charge Transfer Image
Sensor and Driving
MethodYasuo Ishihara
NEC
S54-72035
June 8, 1979
AS 55-163963
Dec. 20, 1980
BS 60-33345
Aug. 2, 1985

1309974
March 26, 1986
First proposal of
Not aware of prior
FIT-CCD
application by Sekine
Patent not granted due
to forgetting torequest review

Solid-State Image Sensor
Shigeyuki Ochi
Sony
S54-83455
July 3, 1979
AS 56-8966Jan. 29, 1981
BS 62-52988
Nov. 9, 1987
Nov. 14, 1989
Dec. 14, 1989
1615692
Aug. 30, 1991
Objection on the groundsof the prior Sekine
application
Appealed after refusal
In response to the reasons
for refusal, registeredagain with limited claims
Name also changed
FIT-CCD with electronic
shutter function

Literatures:(1) Kenju Horii, Takao Kuroda, Shigenori Matsumoto and Takao Kunii: A New CCD Imaging Device
Configuration: the FIT-CCD Image Sensor, 1981Kansai-section Joint Convention of Institutes of ElectricalEngineering G9-14, pp. G280.
(The first mention of the name FIT-CCD to refer to the FIT-CCD structure.)(2) Kenju Horii, Takao Kuroda and Takao Kunii: A New Configuration of CCD Imager with a Very Low
Smear Level, IEEE Electron Device Letters, Vol. EDL-2, No. 12, pp. 319-320, Dec. 1981.
(The term FIT does not appear, but the actual FIT-CCD is illustrated.)(3) Kenju Horii, Takao Kuroda and Shigenori Matsumoto: A New Configuration of CCD Imager with a Very
Low Smear Level: FIT-CCD, IEEE Electron Devices, Vol. ED-31, No. 7, pp. 904-909, 1984.
(Full paper on FIT-CCDs).

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Table 3.7 Micro-Lens
Solid State Image
Device and Production
Imaging Device
MethodInventor
Shigeo Kobayashi
Takamichi Wada et al. Masatoshi Sato
Manufacturer
Panasonic
Panasonic
Fuji film
Appl. No.
S51-151123
S54-31974
S47－128724
Filing date
Dec. 20, 1972
Dec. 15, 1976
March 19, 1979
Publication No. AS49-84797
AS53-74395
AS55-124366
Publication date Aug. 14, 1974
July 1, 1978
Sep. 25, 1980
Public notice No. PS60-59752
Public notice date Dec. 26, 1985
Patent No.
Reject1336494
RejectDate of patent
Sep. 11, 1986
Decision of refusal July 20, 1980
May 8, 1979
Jan. 22, 1985
Oct. 20, 1987
Appeal trial
Feb. 21, 1985
Remarks
Close contact with a
Visible light cut-off
Joint signatories asconvex lens on top of the filter on thefollows: Yasuaki Terui,sensorlight-receiving element Yu Yoshino and Yoshio
covered in a spherical Ohta; Emmy Awardshape
Reference patent
AS49-84797
US51-124360
Item

Photoelectric Conversion
DeviceReceiving Equipment
for Optical Warning
DeviceTakashi Yamamoto
Panasonic
US50-46170
March 31, 1975
UAS51-124360
Oct. 7, 1976
RejectSolid State Imaging
Device and Production
MethodToshio Nakano et al. Tetsuo Aoki
Hitachi
Sharp
S58-168165
H5-241030
Sep. 14, 1983
Sep. 28, 1993
AS60-60755
AH7-99296
April 8, 1985
July 9, 1999
Withdrawal
295071436350
Micro-Lens
Production Method

Joint signatories asfollows: Akira
Sasano, Ken Tsutsui
and Toshihisa
TsukadaOn-Chip Lens
Production Method
Shingo Kadomura
Sony
H7-158845
June 26, 1995
AH9-8266
Jan. 10, 1997
3355874
Oct. 4, 2002

Production method
providing a convex lens,flat layer and a concave
lens.
AH3-190166
AS60-60755
AH7-99296
AH2-244625

Literature:(1) Y. Ishihara and K. Tanigaki: A High Photosensitivity IL-CCD Image Sensor with Monolithic Resin Lens Array, IEDM Tech. Digest, pp. 497-500, Dec.1983.

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Table 3.8 Addition Readout
Method of Operation ofSolid-State Imaging
Charge Transfer Type
DeviceImage Sensing Device
Inventor
P.A. Levine
Yoshio Ohta
Manufacturer
RCA
Panasonic
Appl. No.
US 491836
S49-131701
Filing date
1974/7/25 Priority
1974/11/14
Publication No.
AS51-36819
AS51-57123
Publication date 1976/3/27
1976/5/19
Public notice No. PS54-41363
Public notice date 1979/12/7
Patent No.
1003021
Withdrawn
Date of patent
1980/6/27
Decision of refusal
Trial number
Demand for trial
Remarks
Fundamentals of addition Describes a method of
pixel readout
reading out multiple lines
at once during one
Joint signatories
horizontal readout
Item

Reference Patent

Solid-State Color Imaging
DeviceSolid-State Imaging
DeviceSolid-State Imaging
DeviceYoshio Ohta
Panasonic
S50-82996
1975/7/4
AS52-6416
1977/1/18
PS58-14789
1983/3/22
1185619
1984/1/20

Shusaku Nagahara
Hitachi
S51-71142
1976/6/18
AS52-155010
1977/12/23
PS60-43704
1985/9/30
Trial rejected
1984/8/28
S59-17716
1984/9/25

Yoshio Ohta
Panasonic
S51-154017
1976/12/20
AS53-77125
1978/7/8
PS60-28435
1985/7/4
1306183
1986/3/13

Ryuhei Nakabe
Toshiro Matsuura

Hideo Onodera
Kenji Takahashi
Kazuhiro Sato

Yasuaki Terui
Takamichi Wada
Yu Yoshino

AS51-29021

AS51-31119
AS51-36819

AS51-36819

IT-CCD Imaging
DeviceShigeyuki Ochi
Sony
S51-157234
1976/12/24
AS53-80119
1978/7/15
PS62-40910
1987/8/31
1522884
1989/10/12
1985/7/25
S60-17670
1985/8/29

AS51-57123
AS52-155010
AS53-77125

Solid-State Color
Imaging Device
Norio Koike
Hitachi
S52-82965
1977/7/13
AS54-37427
1979/3/19
PS58-53830
1983/12/1
123058
1984/9/19

Iwao Takemoto
Masaharu Kubo
Kazuhieo Sato
Shusaku Nagahara
AS52-6416
AS52-2403

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Matsukane, K. Oda and M. Inuiya: A Progressive
Scan CCD Image Sensor for DSC Applications,
IEEE J. Solid-State Circuits, Vol. 35 No. 12, pp.
2044-2054, 2000.
(87) Kazuya Oda, Hirokazu Kobayashi, Kazuhiko
Takemura, Yutaka Takeuchi and Tetsuo Yamada:Development of Wide Dynamic Range Image
Sensors: Fourth-generation Super CCD Honeycomb,
ITE Technical Report, Vol. 27, No. 25, pp. 17-20,
March 28, 2003.
(88) Shigetoshi Sugawa, Nana Akabane, Satoshi Adachi,
Kazuya Mori, Toshiyuki Ishiuchi and Koichi
Mizobuchi: Wide Dynamic Range CMOS Image
Sensor using Lateral Overflow Storage Capacity,
ITE Technical Report, Vol. 29, No. 24, pp. 29-32,
March 18, 2005.
(89) Yoshitaka Egawa, Hidetoshi Koike, Ryuta Okamoto
et al.: Wide Dynamic Range CMOS Image Sensor
with a Double Exposure Operation, ITE Technical
Report, Vol. 31, No. 21, pp. 25-28, March 23, 2007.
(90) Yasuo Takemura and Yoshitaka Katayama:
Charge-Coupled Device, PBS 53-911, Jan. 12, 1978,
filing date May 31, 1972.
(91) Yu Yoshino and Yasuaki Terui: Semiconductor
Device, PB 1398724, Nov. 26, 1987, filing date May
16, 1975.
(92) Takao Kuroda and Kenju Horii: Solid State Image
Sensor Driving Method, PBH 4-14551, March 13,
1992, filing date Apr. 26, 1982.

National Museum of Nature and Science Survey Report of Systematization of Technology, Vol.18 March 2013

4.
4.1

Color Imaging Systems - Part 1 Image
Pickup Tube Era
Overview

4.2

Many kinds of image devices have been used for the video
camera as follows. Image pickup tube has been used for along time from the 70’s to the first half of the 80’s. Next,
CCD has been used from the late 80’s to the early 2000’s
and CMOS image sensor has been used since 2000’s. Allof these are photoelectric conversion devices that sense
the brightness of the light and alter the magnitude of theelectrical signal.
This is because the elements that perform thephotoelectric conversion, whether it is thephotoconductive layer in the image pickup tube or thephotodiodes in the CCD or CMOS image sensors, have nolight wavelength selectivity and are sensitive to any
wavelengths in the visible light region.
Therefore, some optical means of separating the input
light into three primary colors was necessary to obtain
three primary color signals. To date, a lot of research anddevelopment have been conducted for this technique (1).
Color pick up systems can be expressed as in Fig. 4.1,
when they can be classified by the number of imaging
devices. While image pickup tube devices can be either
single-tube or three-tube and solid-state imaging devices
can be either single-chip or three-chip, only the chip types
are shown here to simplify the illustration.
The format shown in Fig. (b) is used in almost all video
cameras, while the format shown in Fig.(c) is used insome special applications.
The sequential format shown in Fig. (a) became a hot
topic in TV video transmission of the Apollo moon
landing. This method is practical for business use andsome other medical applications.
Meanwhile, the three-chip shown in Fig. (c) is used instudio cameras for broadcasting stations that require highperformance, ENG (electronic news gathering) cameras
and EFP (Electronic Field Production) cameras.
Since this report is mainly providing a chronologicaloverview, refer to the cited literature (1) (2) for technicaldetails.

Single-Tube Method

Before the CCD was put to practical use, most video
cameras used the Vidicon, a camera tube with a Sb2S3(antimony trisulfide) photoconductive layer.
In image pickup tube, photoconductive layer is scanned by
the electron beam, and signals are extracting from thetransparent electrodes. Electron beam scanning andconvergence was performed through analog methods,
usually by electromagnetic deflection and convergence
using a coil. Accordingly, scanning uniformity wasdifficult to achieve and scanning distortion would occur,
meaning that the scanning position could not be
determined exactly and accessing information in pixel
units was impossible.
4.2.1 Tricolor Vidicon
The first single-tube method with a built-in color filter
was the tricolor Vidicon produced by RCA in 1955 (3). As
shown in Fig. 4.2, the usual method involved separating
the ITO (NESA coating) uniformly deposited on thetransparent electrode into stripes and connecting every
third one together to produce three output lines.

Fig. 4.2 Tricolor Vidicon (5)ImagerLens

Lens

ImagerColor filter
array
Motor

RGB rotating
disc(a) Field Sequential

Lens

Color
separation
prism(b) Single-Chip using
Color Filter Array

Imager for
red light

Imager for green
light
Imager for bluelight(c) 3-Chip

Fig.4.1 Color Image Pickup Methods (2)ideo Camera Technologies Systematization

33

Each of the three electrode groups had a striped RGB
color filter, allowing separate RGB color signals to beobtained from the three output lines. In practice, thisconfiguration results in color mixing by the effect ofinter-wire capacitance, as well as a reduced S/N ratio. This
capacitance can reach 300pF in one inch image pickup
tube, with impedance reaching 400Ω at 1.3MHz. The load
resistance must be reduced to avoid color mixing, whichthen reduces the S/N ratio. Some efforts to improve thishave been published (4) (5).
Industrial cameras made by the RCA and Magnabox werecommercialized using the tricolor Vidicon.
4.2.2 Frequency Multiplexing
In Nippon Columbia, research and development using thissystem has been actively carried out in the 1960s (6). Since
the manufacturer of the image pickup tube was limited at
the time, research and development was carried out by
using a normal Vidicon and a relay lens.
As shown in Fig. 4.3, the purpose of the relay lens is to
re-focus the image from the stripe filter (then also called
the strip filter) onto the photoconductive film in the image
pickup tube. However, it must be re-imaged without
degradation of the peripheral and resolution of peripheral
light near image, there is unreasonable to optical design,
the relay lens did not provide sufficient performance.

(a) Relation of Color Stripe Filter and Signal WaveformBlue light cut

Red light cut(b) Relation of Each Color Siganal Frequency BandwidthFig. 4.4 Frequency Multiplexing Color Pickup System

ObjectImaging lensColor stripe
filter

Relay lens

Image pickup
tube faceplate

Fig. 4.3 Example of a Single-Tube Color Pickup Systemusing Relay Lens
Principle diagram of a frequency multiplexing is shown in
Fig. 4.4. As shown in Fig. (a), two types of stripe filters
are used. A transparent filter and blue cut filter are
arranged alternately in a stripe filters on the left. On theother hand, transparent and red cut filters are arranged
alternately on the right. The optical image of the subject is
amplitude modulated at a frequency corresponding to thepitch of each of these filters, producing the correlation
between the modulated red signal and modulated blue
signal shown in Fig. (b).
The resolution of this image pickup tube had to cover awide frequency range of 6MHz, as shown in Fig. 4.4. This
also required a special high-performance image pickup
tube, as it required a high S/N ratio up to around 6MHz.
Accordingly, it was difficult to consistently obtain an
acceptable image.
Nippon Colombia continued its research and developmentof this method for a number of years and put it to practicaluse in industrial cameras (7)-(15).
Ideas on frequency multiplexing systems had long been
proposed around the world. In 1953 Leslie H.

34

Bedford (Canadian Marconi) (16) (17) and Keith Teer
(Phillips) (18) and in 1956 David Russell Tate (EMI)proposed indivisually single-tube color camera systems
with two-color stripe filters (19). These proposals came topublic notice at 1958. These three inventions arerespectively registered in the United States, the United
Kingdom, Canada and Japan.
In contrast to these patents, initial proposal of Nippon
Columbia in 1961 was limited to system having a mixer toremove beat interference (20)-(22).
Table 4.1 shows a list of these patents.

National Museum of Nature and Science Survey Report of Systematization of Technology, Vol.18 March 2013

Table 4.1 Frequency Multiplexing System Patents
Item
Inventor
Maker
Appl. No.
Filing datePublication No.
Publication date
Patent No.
Date of patent
Remarks

Color Television
CameraRay D. Kell
RCA
301,503
July 29,1952

Leslie H. Bedford
Canadian Marconi
650,962
16-Jul-53

Leslie H. Bedford
Canadian Marconi
659,355
Jan. 6, 1954

2,733,291
Jan. 31, 1956
Basic patent forfrequency multiplexing

Canad 602,998
Aug. 9, 1960
Color camera having cyan andyellow stripe filters

Canad 578,146
June. 23, 1959
Cyan and yellow stripe
filters for color cameras

Item

Color Signal Generator

Inventor

David Russell Teat

Maker
Appl. No.
Filing datePublic notice No.
Public notice date
Patent No.
Date of patent
RemarksEMI
Priority 1956-2-24
S35-14656
1960/10/5

Color camera having stripe filters

Color Signal Generating
Apparatus Using aSingle Camera Tube
Toshihiko Takagi,
Shusaku Nagahara
Nippon Colombia
S36-18776
1961/5/27
S39-13833
1964/7/16

Single-tube color camera
with a mixer for beatinterference removal

Corresponding British Patent
856,0024.2.3 Frequency Interleaving
Frequency interleaving methods were presented by
Hitachi and Toshiba both at the National Joint Conventionof Four Electrical Engineering Related Associations in
1970. There were subtle differences between thepresentations by the two companies.

Improvement of an Apparatus for
Simultaneously Generating Multiple
Television Signals
Keith Teer
Philips

Color Television
Transmission Filter

Color Television Transmission

Priority 1953-11-14
S33-3361
1958/11/14

Color camera having cyan andyellow stripe filters

Color Television Signal
Generating Method

Composite Signal Generator

Toshihiko Takagi, Shusaku
Nagahara
Nippon Colombia
S37-31707
1962/7/26
S40-5170
1965/3/18

Toshihiko Takagi, Shusaku
Nagahara
Nippon colombia
S38-70590
1963/12/26
S42-12473
1967/7/14

A method of frequency
multiplexing to avoid beatinterference by tilting one
color filter
All three Nippon Colombia
patents filed after the above
four well-known examples

A method of frequency
multiplexing by tilting one
color filter and verticalscanning

The Toshiba method (23) had the modulated B signal
interleaved between the luminance signal and themodulated R signal, as shown in Fig. 4.5 (a) (b). The
Hitachi method (24) had the modulated R and B signals
interleaved into the luminance signal, as shown in Fig. 4.5(c).

(a) Frequency bandwidth of frequency interleaving method 1(b) Frequency bandwidth of frequency interleaving method 2(d) Relation of Color stripe filter and signal waveform(c) Frequency bandwidth of frequency interleaving method 3

Fig. 4.5 Frequency Interleaving Color Pickup System

ideo Camera Technologies Systematization

35

Table 4.2 Frequency Interleaving Method Patents
Item
Inventor
Manufacturer
Appl. No.
Filing datePublication No.
Publication datePublic notice No.
Public notice date
Patent No.
Date of patentContent

Item
Inventor
Manufacturer
Appl. No.
Filing datePublication No.
Publication datePublic notice No.
Public notice date
Patent No.
Date of patent
Trial number
Trial registration
Trial rejected
Abandoned
Content
Remarks

36

Color TV Camera Using Frequency
Separation Single Camera Tube
Haruo Sakata
NHK
S41-30805
1966/5/16

S45-8699
1970/3/28
583954
1970/9/22
Basic method interleaving single-carrier
frequencies

Video System for Transmitting Two
Independent Images
Sue Yang Shy et al.
Western ElectricS46-3742
Priority 1970/2/2
S46-759
1971/9/3

S51-7515

Color Signal Generating Apparatus

Color TV Imaging Device

Color TV Imaging Device

Yoshizumi Eto
Hitachi
S44-25544
1969/ 4/4

Yasuo Takemura
Toshiba
S44-68387
1969/8/30

Motoi Yagi, Yasuo Takemura
Toshiba
S44-77051
1969/9/29

S49-49247
1974/12/26
787522
1975/9/16
Interleaving two modulated color signals in theluminance signal using two types of diagonal color
filters

S50-34375
1975/11/7
822621
1976/7/28
Crossing the arrays of two color stripe
filters and arranging two types of carriers
into an interleaving relationshipS51-32053
1976/9/10
8570191977/4/28
Interleaving two modulated color signals in theluminance signal using two types of tilted
diagonal color filters

Color Signal Generator
Jai Jerome Blanc Staudinger et al.
RCA
S46-6126
Priority 1970/2/11
S46-1208
1971/9/16
S52-1615
1977/1/17

S51-7515

Color Coding Camera

Imaging Device for Obtaining Multiple Signals

Robert Adams Dischart
RCA
S46-6127
Priority 1970/2/11
S46-1207
1971.9.16
S57-22503
1982/5/13
1142424
1983.4.13
S51-7516
1982.10.25

Motoi Yagi, Yasuo Takemura
Toshiba
S45-11436
1970.2.12

Single carrier 120° interleaved
Refused (1976.4.6)
Patent registered following appeal trial

Single carrier interleaved
Claims corrected (1979.10.8)

S51-22775
1976.7.12
967285
1979.7.26

1981.9.30
1978/12/14
The first tilting alternating color filter
AbandonSingle carrier interleaved
Refused due to objection from Panasonic (1976.4.6).
Claim dismissed at trial (patent not satisfied) due tobeing the same as JPA 46-3742.

National Museum of Nature and Science Survey Report of Systematization of Technology, Vol.18 March 2013

While conventional frequency multiplexing systems
required the image pickup tube with a frequency
bandwidth of up to 6MHz, as shown in Fig. 4.4 (b), thesemethods were both innovative method in that they werecapable of achieving the same resolution with a bandwidthof 5MHz, thereby significantly narrowing the frequency
bandwidth.
Toshiba then succeeded in achieving mass production of
the Chromicon tube, in which the color filter was built
inside the image pickup tube. This led to thecommercialization of the world’s first home video camera
in 1974 (25). While Hitachi also worked on camera
development (26) (27), it focused on developing of frequency
multiplexing systems (28)-(36).
As shown in Fig. (d), the frequency interleaving system
involves positioning at least one of the color filters
obliquely to the scanning direction, so that the phase of
the modulated color signal alters by π for each scanningline. Thus it is possible to separate the two signals from ashared frequency. This method of frequency interleaving
signals was presented and discussed in the Proc. IEEE in1971 (37). Detailed analysis results were reported after that(38)-(42).
Starting with Japan, there has been a number of proposals
about this frequency interleaving method at the same time
also from overseas manufacturers. These proposals arecollectively shown in Table 4.2. The oldest is asingle-carrier system proposed (43) (44) and the patent wereregistered by Sakata (NHK) in 1966. In 1969, Eto(Hitachi) applied for the patent (45) of the method 3 shownin Fig.4.5(c) and Takemura (Toshiba) also applied for thetwo patents (46) (47 )of the method 2 and 3 shown in Fig.4.5(a) and (b).
Overseas manufacturers to apply for patents included Sue
Yang Shy et al. (Western Electric) (49) and Guy Jerome
Brandingar et al. (RCA) in 1970 (50). Both proposedfrequency interleaving methods and applied for a priority
claim in Japan, but both were deemed to be the same as
the above-mentioned patents and were refused with nopatent granted. One patent application filed in 1970 byRobert Adams Dischart (RCA) was granted with a limited
priority claim (51).
Another patent for a single-carrier frequency interleaving
method was applied for one day after theabove-mentioned patent (48) and was granted withlimitations.
The above conference presentations on frequency
interleaving and the public release of the Sakata patent
both took place in March 1970. All of the above patent
proposals were filed until February 1970, which means
they were all co-pending and unknown to each other. It is
an interesting phenomenon that the similar idea wasinvented at the same time in different places around theworld.
Next, let me show how the invention of the frequency
interleaving was born. There were various opportunities
for ideas to arise. In 1969, members of the Toshiba R&D
Center were busy in the development and trial productionof color TV phone exhibited in Osaka Expo.
Delivery time is approaching at hand, the project team had
to struggle until midnight every night. Camera to be
used in this set is a two-tube method, but the product ofhome video camera should be carried in single-tube
method. However, no pickup tube that can be taken out
stably frequency band of 6MHz. This is the mission of the
Research Center to overcome the weaknesses. Moreover,there is no meaning unless a system in which other people

do not have thought. This was not far from the head evenwhile we are chased by a prototype. One night, after goingto the bed and dozing off, Fourier analysis has beenremembered that learned at student days. If the frequency
could be interleaved, the bandwidth could be narrowed,
allowing multiple color signals to be individually
separated out. If this could be applied to single-tube
method, it would be an effective use of frequency
bandwidth. This method is possible by placing the color
stripe filter diagonally to tha scanning direction.
It is not true that new ideas will not be born when you arebusy with work because you have no time to think. Good
ideas are often born when you are busy, because theenergy has been enhanced.
4.2.4 Phase Separation Method (Trinicon Tube)
In contrast to the tricolor method of directly retrieving the
RGB signals with three electrodes, the Trinicon method
uses two electrodes, as shown in Fig. 4.6. Moreover,
simply by retrieving the reference signal necessary forphase separation, it only needed one electrode to retrieve
the RGB signal (52). This made it possible to avoid theinfluence of the capacitance, which was a drawback withthe tricolor system. It was possible to achieve phaseseparation using the index signal as a reference, as thecolor signal was an RGB sequential signal.
Using this method, professional cameras werecommercialized from Sony in 1971.
Electron beam
Photoconductor
Electronic Index
Color stripe filter
Faceplate

Input light

Offset pulse

Target voltage
Signal output

Fig. 4.6 Schematic Cross-Sectional View of a Trinicon
4.2.5 Step Energy Method
This method has a WCG stripe filter and is intended toseparate two sets of color signals from the high-frequency
component using envelope detection (53). As shown in Fig.
4.7, a relatively wide-bandwidth luminance signal isseparated out by LPF. Next, one of the color signals is
separated by a narrow-band LPF. After the high-frequency
component is separated out with a HPF and the 2R+B and
R+2B color signals are separated by the two envelope
detectors. Finally, the three RGB color signals are
separated using a matrix circuit.
This scheme was proposed in 1978 by JVC and the single
tube color camera was made using this method.

ideo Camera Technologies Systematization

37

Preamp
Image pickup
tube

Wide bandwidth
LPF

Upper envelope
detector
Lower envelope
detector

Matrix circuit

Narrow bandwidth
LPF

Fig. 4.7 Color Separate Circuits of Step Energy Color
Pickup System
4.2.6 Three-Electrode Method
In 1974, three-electrode single tube color camera weredeveloped from the Hitachi (54)-(57).
4.3
Two Tube Color Camera
High-performance Vidicon tubes were required for
frequency multiplexing, as this incurred a high load on the
tube. Accordingly, a two-tube color camera was developed,with one tube for the luminance signal and the other for
the RB color signals (58) (59).
Fig. 4.8 shows a two-tube color camera optical systemused in a color TV television phone (60) exhibited at the
Osaka Expo in 1970.
Compensation filter

Image pickup tube
for color signal

Reflecting prism

Relay lensColor stripe filter
Lenticular
Field lensCompensation filter

Imaging lens

YC separation
prism

Image pickup tube forluminance signal

Compensation filter

Fig. 4.8 Optical Aparatus of TwoTube
Color TV Telephone
Here the carrier frequency of the blue signal is set to
1.4MHz. As frequency bandwidth of the color signal is0.5MHz, a 2.5MHz frequency bandwidth is sufficient for
the image pickup tube. A configuration of eight relay
lenses was used in order to prevent any decrease inperipheral resolution and brightness.
It should be noted that this two-tube camera has beencommercialized for business use as the IK-83 (62)-(64).
At the time, it gained attention as the business-use camera
to sell for under ¥1 million.
In addition, as the broadcast camera, two-tube camera
using an image orthicon was used by the NHK for the1964 Tokyo Olympics (65) (66).

38

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National Museum of Nature and Science Survey Report of Systematization of Technology, Vol.18 March 2013

Television Signal Generator, JPB S40-5170, filingdate July 27, 1962.
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1970, filing date May 16, 1966.
(45) Yoshizumi Eto: Color Signal Generator, JPB
S49-49247, Dec. 26, 1974, filing date April 4, 1969.
(46) Yasuo Takemura: Color television pickup apparatus,
JPB S50-34375, Nov. 7, 1975, filing date Aug. 30,
1969.
(47) Motoi Yagi and Yasuo Takemura: Image pickup
apparatus obtaining multiple signals, JPB S51-32053,
Sep. 10, 1976, filing date Sep. 29, 1969.
(48) Motoi Yagi and Yasuo Takemura: Image pickup
apparatus obtaining multiple signals, JPB S51-2275,
July 12, 1976, filing date Feb. 12, 1970.
(49) Sue Yang Shy, et al (Western Electric): Video system
for transmitting two independent images, JPA
S46-759, Sep.3, 1971, priority filing date Feb. 2,
1970. Prior Application of R B Interleaving Using
Inclined Color Filters Was Filed at Aug. 30 1969.
Abandoned Dec. 14, 1978 (rights not granted).
(50) Jai Jerome Blanc Staudinger, et al (RCA): Color
Signal Generation Method, JPB S52-1615, priority
filing date Feb. 11, 1970. Refused due to Opposition
by Matsushita. Claim rejected in the appeal (patent
not established). Identical to JPB S46-3742.
(51) Robert Adams Dischart: Color coding camera system,
JPB S57-22503, May 13, 1982, priority filing dateFeb. 11, 1970.
(52) Yasuharu Kubota, Hiromichi Kurokawa, Takanori
Shiono, Susumu Tagawa and Takehiro Kakizaki:
Phase Separate Single Tube Color Camera by
Electronic Index Signal, ITE Journal, Vol. 27, No. 4,
pp. 243-251, April 1973.
(53) Ryoyu Takanashi, Tadayoshi Miyoshi and Shintaro
Nakagaki: Single-Tube Color Camera using a Step
Energy Demodulation Method, ITE Technical Report,
TBS48-2, pp. 49-54, Aug. 25, 1978.
(54) Takeo Nishimura, Akira Sasano, Toshio Nakano,Haruo Matsumaru, Ken Tsutsui and Shusaku
Nagahara: 3 electrode single-tube color image tube,
1974 IEEJ Annual Convention, 387.
(55) Shusaku Nagahara, Yoshizuki Eto, Kazuhiro Sato,
Kenji Takahashi, Takeo Nishimura and Shizuka
Ishibashi: 3-Electrode Single-Tube Color Television
Camera, 1974 IEEJ Annual Convention, 388.
(56) Akira Sasano, Toshio Nakano, Haruo Matsumaru,
Ken Tsutsui, Takeo Nishimura and Shusaku
Nagahara: Vidicon Tube for 3-Electrode Single-TubeColor Camera, ITE Journal, Vol. 29, No. 6, pp.
485-490, June 1975.
(57) Yoshizuki Eto, Kazuhiro Sato, Kenji Takahashi,
Shusaku Nagahara, Takeo Nishimura and Shizuka
Ishibashi: Development of the 3-Electrode
Single-Tube Color Camera, 1974 ITE Annual
Convention, 4-8.
(58) Kohei Funahashi, Yasuo Takemura and Hiroshi
Motoyama: Chromicon-Stripe Filter Built-In Vidicon,
Toshiba Review, Vol. 28, N.9, pp. 1017-1022, Sep.

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1973.
(59) **Kohei Funahashi, Yasuo Takemura and Hiroshi
Motoyama: Stripe Filter Vidicon Developed – Best
Suited for Two-Tube Frequency Division System
Color Camera, Toshiba Review, pp. 20-26, Oct.
1973.
(60) Yasuo Takemura, Daiki Nabashima and Motoi Yagi:
Characteristics of the Color TV Telephone, IEEE
Trans. Broadcasting, Vol. BC-19, No. 4, pp. 77-84,
Dec. 1973.
(61) Yasuo Takemura, Itsuzo Sato and Hisao Tajiri:Compact Color Television Camera, J. of the SMPTE,
Vol. 82, No. 1, pp. 12-16, Jan. 1973.
(62) Kohei Funahashi, Yasuo Takemura, Hiroshi
Watanabe, Hideo Kobayashi and MitsuhikoOkuhara: 2 Tube Compact Color Camera, ITE
System & Circuit Board Report, Oct. 21, 1971.
(63) Hiroshi Watanabe, Hideo Kobayashi, Kohei
Funahashi and Yasuo Takemura: IK-83 Color
Camera – Stripe Filter Built-In Vidicon and ITVColor Camera, Toshiba Review, Vol. 27, No. 7, pp.
647-650, July 1972.
(64) Hiroshi Watanabe, Hideo Kobayashi, Kohei
Funahashi and Yasuo Takemura: Compact Color TV
Camera, Model IK83, Toshiba Review, pp. 17-21,
Feb. 1973.
(65) Kozo Hayashi, Fujio, Masaho Sugimoto and Sakai: 2
Tube Luminance Separate Color Camera, IEICE
Annual Convention, 582, Nov. 1963.
(66) Kozo Hayashi and Masaho Sugimoto: 2 Tube
Luminance Separate Color Camera, ITE Journal, Vol.
20, No. 5, pp. 303-313, May 1966.

40

National Museum of Nature and Science Survey Report of Systematization of Technology, Vol.18 March 2013

5.

Color Television Pickup System - Part 2
CCD/CMOS Imager Era

The image pickup tube obtains a signal by scanning aphotosensitive surface with an electrode beam. Since thescanning would vary with the voltage applied to thedeflection coil, the position of the pixels on thephotosensitive surface could not be determined accurately.
On the other hand, the photosensitive surface in CCD and
CMOS image sensors is composed of a photodiode array,
which means that the position of the pixels can be
determined accurately in microns order. Since scanning is
also performed by electronic switching, the pixel position,
it is possible to specify the exact position of the pixel. This
led to a new color imaging system different from thatprovided by the image pickup tube.
Table 1 shows the major color imaging systems.

R, B images. Accordingly, this method was awkward touse in video cameras, which deal with moving images.
Such arrangement has been extensively studied in the
1930's when it was about to colorization by using black
and white film. In Japan, the patent proposal describedabove did not become registered (2).
There are various methods to separate the color signals
from the CFA of the Bayer array (3)-(5). These are describedin chapter 9 below.

Table 5.1 Major Color Imaging Systems
Year
1960
1976
1977
1978
1979
1979
1979
1980
1982
1982
1983
1983
1983
1983
1984
1984
1999
2007

5.1

Item
Color separation prism that would become the basis
for the 3-chip method (20)Bayer method (7)Horizontal pixel shifting 2-chip method (18)
Improvement to the Bayer method (19)
RB stripe 2-chip method (17)Pixel shifting 3-chip method (1)MOS-type W G Cy Ye method (14)MOS-type W G Cy Ye pixel shifting method (15) (16)Frequency interleaving method (10)Image shift (3)Field integration frequency interleaving method(11)-(13)Swing CCD (2)Frame integration color difference line sequential
method (6)Field integration color difference line sequential
method (5)Improvement to the Bayer method (8)Bayer system signal processing method (9)Vertical color separation sensor (24)
WRGB method (21)-(23)Fig. 5.1 Bayer Patent (1)(a) In the case of 4x4 pixels

Bayer Method

As shown in Fig. 5.1, Bayer method of the basis ofsingle-chip color filter is arranged in a checker board on
the Y corresponding to the luminance signal, and aligningto the two color signals, C1, C2. Basic patent has been
proposed by Bayer of Kodak in 1976 (1). In practice, as
shown in Fig. 5.2 (a), the green, which contain a large
amount of the luminance signal, are arranged in acheckerboard pattern, and the red and blue are arranged in
the remaining squares. As shown in Fig. 5.2 (b)-(d),among all the 16 pixels, G occupies eight pixels, and B
and R occupies the 4 pixels. This layout is bothhorizontally and vertically symmetrical and is anacceptable, straightforward method for dealing with
two-dimensional information.
However, standard television systems use interlaced
scanning. If the Bayer method is used in interlacing, thered and blue images may appear alternately in each screen.
One field memory is required to convert these to asimultaneous images. When you take a picture in motion,
drawback occurs that movement becomes unnatural in the(b) G-pixels(c) R-pixels(d) B-pixels

Fig. 5.2 Bayer CFA - Primary Color Filter

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5.2

Color-Difference Line-Sequential
MethodThe color-difference line-sequential method proposed by
Morimura et al. (Matsushita) was a color array effective
for moving images and suitable for addition readout (6) (7).
As shown in Fig. 5.3 (a), this CFA consists of four colors,
one primary color G and three complementary colors Y, C
and M. It is characterized that the order of G M in the
fourth line is interchanged with the order of M G in thesecond line.

(b).
This color separation method can be explained using thefollowing equations.
Since these waveforms are pulse amplitude modulation
signals, they can be represented as a DC component and afundamental wave component, by deploying in a Fourier
series. In the first scanning line (odd-numbered scanninglines),On the other hand, in the second scanning line
(even-numbered scanning lines),[1]
Color signal component on
the first scan line

[2]

Yellow
filter[3]

Cyan filter[4]

MagentafilterGreen filter
Color signal component on
the second scan line(a) Color Filter Array(b) Two-row addition readout signal

Fig. 5.3 Color-difference Line-sequential Color Filter

When reading the CFA in the first field, the signals areread by adding the signal of the first line (1) and thesecond line (2), and then are read by adding the signal of
the third line (3) and the fourth line (4) and then theprocess is repeated below. For interlacing, adding
combinations are changed in the next field. In the second
field, the signals are read by adding the signal of thesecond line (2) and the third line (3), and then are read by
adding the signal of the fourth line (4) and the fifth line(5) and then the process is repeated.
In this way, it is possible to obtain the output signals asshown in Fig. 5.3 (b). Here, the signal of Fig. 5.3 (b) canbe expressed as the three primary color signals of Fig. 5.4(a) Two-row addition readout
signalHere, fs is the fundamental frequency determined by thepitch of the color filters.
As shown in the above equations, the luminance signal of
the DC component is separated by the LPF. The twocolor-difference signals, (2R-G) and (2B-G) are obtainedby separating the high-frequency component using the
BPF centered at fs. They can be obtained line-sequentiallyfor each scanning line. Although the DC component andcolor-difference signals shown here differ slightly fromthe exact luminance signal and color-difference signals,
they can be corrected using a matrix circuit.

5.3

Other Methods

Although various methods have been proposed, CFA
method put to practical use in a video camera has been
almost unified in line sequential complementary color
difference and Bayer type primary color in currently.
These methods are briefly touched upon below.

(b) Primary color signal
component(c) Three primary color signal
components

Fig. 5.4 Color Separation using a Color-Difference Line-Sequential Method

42

National Museum of Nature and Science Survey Report of Systematization of Technology, Vol.18 March 2013

5.3.1 WRGB Method
As shown in Fig. 5.5, WRGB method is obtained byreplacing the one of Gs which is arranged two sequencesin the Bayer method, to transparent W.

5.3.3 Frequency Interleaving Method
This method was invented to adapt the same pixel
arrangement used in camera tubes to CFA and to obtain
red and blue signals in a frequency interleaving
relationship. Toshiba proposed two readout types, frame
readout and field readout, and commercialized these insome products (15)-(18).

Fig. 5.5 WRGB Color Filter Array
Since the incident light in the W pixel area is not blocked
by the color filter and is directly photoelectricallyconverted by the photodiode, this method can be expected
to improve sensitivity. Image sensors using this filter arrayhave been released successively by Toshiba (8)-(10) andKodak (11).
5.3.2 MOS Type Method
There were many suggestions of the image pickup
methods to proceed in the development of Hitachi camera
to focus on the MOS image sensors (12)-(14). Since plurality
signal outputs can be easily obtained, unlike the CCD,
color signal multiplexing system was proposed utilizing
its features. The MOS CFAs are shown in Fig. 5.6. The
CFA shown in Fig. 5.6 (a) using four colors WCGY wascalled an orthogonal array, as it retrieved four respective
output signals directly from the device. Since it could readout two lines simultaneously, it was possible to read out
WG and YC simultaneously. Since signals of all pixels areread out in one field by this method, the so-called fieldreadout has been able to achieve.
Meanwhile, Fig. (b) shows a Δ-symmetrical arrangementof color filters over the pixels, positioned to be 180˚ out ofphase with the adjacent line. By pixel shifting effect,
improvement of the resolution is performed.

(a) Frame readout

Fig. 5.7 Frequency Interleaving
This method uses a color filter array repeated as a basic
unit of 4x2 pixels as shown in Fig. 5.7. Both frame
readout and field readout are possible. Fig. (a) shows theframe readout consisting of four colors W, G, C and Y,
while Fig. (b) shows the field readout consisting of threecolors C, G, and Y.
Using Fig. 5.7 (a), the principle of operation can be
explained as follows.
The frame readout shown in Fig. (a) repeats the signal W,
G, W, G… on the odd lines and C, Y, C, Y… on the evenlines.
Since the signals are shown in
W=R+G+B
Y=R+G
C=G+B
the signals for each scan line are obtained as R, B signals
by pulse-amplitude modulation, as shown in Fig. 5.8 (a)(i) and (ii).

Interlace circuit

Interlace circuit

Horizontal shift register (7.2MHz)

Vertical shift register

Horizontal shift register (7.2MHz)

Vertical shift register(b) Field readout(a) Orthogonal Array(b) Δ Array

Fig. 5.6 Example of MOS type-CFA

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(i) Odd scanning line signal
waveform(i) Odd scanning line signal
waveform(ii) Even scanning line signal
waveform(ii) Even scanning line signal
waveform(iii) (i)+(ii) signal waveform(iii) (i)+(ii) signal waveform

has the same phase for each scanning line, while thecarrier frequency of the modulated blue signal has thereverse phase for each scanning line.
Therefore, the carrier of the modulated color signals R,
and B are different each other phase π, the two carrier
signals are woven in frequency interleaving.
5.3.4 Vertical Color Separation Method
The methods described so far have been methods ofobtaining separate color information for each pixel byarranging color filters in two dimensions. By contrast,
vertical color-separation techniques are used to attempt tocolor separation within the thickness of one pixel. It must
be made of a transparent material, including the wiring
layer. Fig. 5.9 shows a conceptual diagram of thisarrangement.
Optical image input(iv) (i)-(ii) signal waveform(iv) (i)-(ii) signal waveform(a) Frame readout(b) Field readout

Fig. 5.8 Frequency Interleaving Signal Waveform
Thus, by addition of the signals of even lines and oddlines, R + 2G signal is obtained by the base band signal
and 2B signal is the modulated signal, as shown in Fig.
(iii). On the other hand, it is possible by subtraction to
obtain the R signal modulated as shown in Fig. (iv).
When analyzing the frequency components of thesesignals, the signals of the odd lines S0 are represented by
the following formula. Since the harmonic component of
the pulse amplitude modulated signal falls outside thesignal frequency band, we are focusing on thefundamental frequency component.

fs: carrier frequency due to the CCD pixels
Similarly, signals of the even lines Se are represented by
the following formula.

The wide-bandwidth luminance signals Ey are represented
equally in any scan line as

On the other hand, if we represent the modulated color
signal in the odd lines as Eco and in the even lines as Ece,

Here, the carrier frequency of the modulated red signal

44

B photosensitive
layer
Transparent
electrodeG photosensitive
layer
Transparent
electrodeR photosensitive
layer
Transparent
electrode

B optical image signal
outputG optical image signal
outputR optical image signal
outputFig. 5.9 Conceptual Diagram of Vertical Color Separation
System
If it was possible to find a transparent material with asharp wavelength selectivity to be able to separate thedesired color and with full transparency to non-desired
wavelength, it would be possible to produce the ideal
image sensor.
Currently, the materials close to the above object areorganic photoconductive film and Si semiconductor
having wavelength selectivity. Observing the cross-sectionof the time when the light enters a photodiode, it isgradually absorbed as sequentially from the shortwavelength blue to the long wavelength red and isphoto-electrically converted. This means that if it waspossible to extract the signal by separating the thickness
direction, signals of different wavelengths could beobtained separately. Direct image sensor using thisprinciple have been developed by Foveon, Inc., the digital
camera is commercialized by Sigma Inc. (19) - (21).
On the other hand, by making a transparent photoelectric
film using an organic material having wavelength
selectivity, methods extracting signals decomposed threecolors in the thickness direction, have been studied. Basic
research and development has been promoted by NHK
and Fujifilm each (22)-(24).
Literatures(1) B. E. Bayer: Color Imaging Array, U. S. Patent,
3,971,065, July 20, 1976.
(2) B. E. Bayer: Color Imaging device, JPA S51-112228,
May 20, 1980 Final rejection.
(3) P. L. P. Dillon, A. T. Braulit, J. R. Horak, E. Garcia,
T. W. Martin and W. A. Light: Fabrication and
Performance of Color Filter Arrays for Solid-State
Imagers, IEEE J. Solid-State Circuits, Vol. 13, No.1,
pp.23-27, Feb.1978. Joint Issue IEEE Trans.
Electron Devices, Vol. ED 25, No. 2, pp. 97-101,
Feb. 1978.
(4) P. L. P. Dillon, D. M. Lewis and F. G. Kasper: Color

National Museum of Nature and Science Survey Report of Systematization of Technology, Vol.18 March 2013

imaging System using a Single CCD Area Array,IEEE Trans. Electron Devices, ED-25, 2, pp.
102-107, Feb. 1978.
(5) Makoto Onga, Toshimichi Nishimura, Shigeo
Komuro, Tetsuya Iizuka Masaaki Tsuruta, Toshiharu
Kondo and Seisuke Yamanaka: Signal Processing
ICs Employed in a Single Chip CCD Color Camera,
IEEE Trans. Consumer Electronics, CE- 30, 3, pp.
374-380, Aug.1984.
(6) Yoshiaki Sone, Kiyotsugu Ishikawa, Susumu
Hashimoto, Takao Kuroda and Yoshio Ohkubo: A
Single-Chip CCD Camera System using Field
Integration Mode, ITE Journal, Vol. 37, No. 10, pp.
855-862, Oct. 1983.
(7) Atsushi Morimura: Improved Line-Sequential
Color-Difference System for Single-Chip Color
Camera, ITE Journal, Vol. 37, No. 10, pp. 847-854,
Oct. 1983.
(8) Hiroto Honda, Yoshinori Iida, Go Ito and Yoshitaka
Egawa: A Novel White-RGB Color Filter Array for
CMOS Image Sensors, Electronic Imaging, Proc.
SPIE, Vol. 6492, pp. 6492J-1-10, Feb. 2007.
(9) Hiroto Honda, Yoshinori Iida and Yoshitaka Egawa:High Sensitivity Color CMOS Image Sensor with
WRGB Color Filter Array and Color Separation
Process using Edge Detection, Proc. International
Image Sensor Workshop, pp. 263-266, Jun. 2007.
(10) Hiroto Honda, Yoshinori Iida, Yoshitaka Egawa,
Hiromichi Seki and Nagataka Tanaka: HighSensitivity Single-Chip Color CMOS Image Sensor
using White-RGB Color Filter Array, ITE Technical
Report, Vol. 31, No. 50, pp. 15-18, Oct. 26, 2007.
(11) Eastman Kodak News Release, June 14, 2007.
(12) Masuo Umemoto, Kazuhiro Sato, Norio Koike, Iwao
Takemoto, Akira Sasano, Moriji Izumida, Kenji
Takahashi and Shusaku Nagahara: Single-chip Color
Television Camera, ITE Journal, Vol. 33, No. 7, pp.
554-559, July 1979.
(13) Shusaku Nagahara, Kenji Takahashi, Toshiyasu
Akiyama and Morishi Izumita: Compact MOS Type
Single-Chip Color Camera, ITE Journal, Vol. 34, No.
12, pp. 1088-1095, Dec. 1980.
(14) Michio Masuda, Masaru Noda and Iwao Aizawa:
PAL System Color Camera with Single-Chip MOS
Sensor, ITE Journal, Vol. 37, No. 10, pp. 840-846,
Oct. 1983.

(15) Yasuo Takemura and Kazushige Ooi: New
Frequency Interleaving CCD Color Television
Camera, IEEE Trans. Consumer Electronics, CE-28,
4, pp. 618-624, Nov.1982.
(16) Yoshinori Takizawa, Hiroaki Kotaki, Kikuo Saito,
Tadashi Sugiki and Yasuo Takemura: Field
Integration Mode CCD Color Television Camera
using a Frequency Interleaving Method, IEEE Trans.
Consumer Electronics, CE-29, 3, pp. 358-364,
Aug.1983.
(17) Hiroaki Kotaki, Yoshinori Takizawa and Yasuo
Takemura: Field Integration Frequency Interleaving
Color Pickup System with a CCD, ITE Journal, Vol.
37, No. 10, pp. 833-839, Oct. 1983.
(18) Yasuo Takemura, Kazushige Ooi, Masanobu Kimura,
Kiyofumi Sanda, Akihiko Kubota, Minami Amano:
New Field Integration Frequency Interleaving
Television Pickup System for Single-Chip CCD
Camera, IEEE Trans. Electron Devices, E D-32, 8,
pp. 1402- 1406, Aug.1985.
(19) R. B. Merrill: Color Separation in an Active Pixel
Cell Imaging Array using a Triple-Well Structure,
USP 5,965,875, 1999.
(20) Foveon Inc. home page http://www.foveon.com/(21) Paul M. Hubel: Foveon Technology and Changing
Landscape of Digital Cameras, 13th IS & T Color
Imaging Conference, pp. 314- 317, 2005,(22) Hokuto Seo, Satoshi Aihara, Masakazu Namba,
Toshihisa Watanabe, Hiroshi Ohtake, Misao Kubota,
Norifumi Egami, Takahiro Hiramatsu, Tokinobu
Matsuda, Mamoru Furuta, Hiroshi Nitta and Takashi
Hirao: Proof-of-principle Experiment of Organic
Imaging Device using a Laminated Structure of ZnO
TFT Circuit and Organic Photoelectric Film, ITE
Journal, Vol. 64, No. 3, pp. 365-371, March 2010.
(23) Satoshi Aihara: Application to Image Sensor of
Organic Photoelectric Film, ITE Journal, Vol. 60, No.
3, pp. 291-294, March 2006.
(24) Mikio Ihama, Tetsuo Mitsui, Kimiatu Nomura,
Yoshinori Maehara, Hiroshi Inomata, Takashi Goto
and Yutaka Takeuchi: New Organic CMOS Image
Sensor Suitable for Miniaturization of the Pixel Size,
Fujifilm Research & Development, pp. 14-17, No.
55, 2010.

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6.
6.1

Video Cameras
Overview

From the late 1960s, home use VCR has been started tospread. Then, not only for recording a television program,but also to be taken easily by themselves, video camera
has been strongly desired.
However, it was a state in which the color program is not
being broadcast only slightly in the television broadcast atthat time. Color broadcast program has spread rapidly inthe wake of the Osaka Expo. Research and developmentof a video camera aimed at the home use, has been
intensified by each manufacturer. Home use color video
camera was successful commercialization by Toshiba in
1974, and followed by other manufacturers successively
commercializing single-tube video cameras using Vidicon(1) (2).
Single-tube video camera went widely used as home use
until CCD camera was commercialized in mid-1980.
Because VCR for recording an output signal of the camera
was initially stationary type, VCR must be moved on acart. Moreover, coaxial video cable and audio cable werenecessary to connect between the VCR and the camera.
While portable VCR was eventually developed, for heavy
still, it was used in the shoulder type. Nevertheless, there
was a strong demand from consumers for cameras torecord the activities of their children in school plays or on
sports days. From the late 1970s, recording boom occurs,
the number of video camera went rapidly increase(3).
However, it was so troublesome to connect cables between
the camera and VCR and there was a strong demand tointegrate the two. In part, a video camera integrated withthe conventional VCR was commercialized. However,cassette size determined in the VHS system and β schemes
which have become popular for home use was very large,
so there were mechanical limitations to productminiaturization. To that end, progress was made on thedevelopment of a camera-specific VCR, VHS-C type and8-mm method with a compact cassette appeared in 1985.
Thereafter, the video camera will become a product thathas been integrated with the VCR. Since this period was atime that each manufacturer has succeeded in mass
production of CCD, production of the camera began toincrease in quantity explosively during this period. While
video cameras were first commercialized with 200k pixels,
fierce pixels number competition has been started between
each manufacturer in order to give the features. Pixel
number competition of CCD was progressing from 300k
pixels to 400k pixels, it was ended to meet the resolutionof the NTSC system at 420k pixels. The 1990s saw thestart of a new competition over performance. When it
comes to the 1990s, high-performance competition begins.
Accuracy of the AF and AWB is improved, and many new
features were added, including image stabilization andface recognition. With the popularization of digital
television in the 2000s, rapid progress was made in digital
HDTV video cameras. Recording media also diversified toinclude not only DV and VCR formats, but also DVD,
HDD and memory cards.
Meanwhile, as digital cameras for capturing still images
increased in image sensor speed and memory capacity,
they became capable of capturing moving images fromaround the late 2000s. Video cameras also became capableof taking still images; the boundary between the two wasfading.

46

Let us now describe video camera production and themain video cameras in each period.

6.2

Video Camera Production

When the video camera statistics was started at 1983,
production of the video camera was only 1.2 million units.
This increased steadily each year and topped 10 million
units in 1991, as shown in Table 6.1 and Fig. 6.1.
Table 6.1 Camera-Related Production (4)Video
Camera

1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2020
2011

Digital
CameraVideo
CameraDigital
CameraQuantity
Quantity Production Production(millions) (millions) (billion ¥) (billion ¥)
1.202
115
1.571
155
2.574
354
3.258
417
4.609
483
6.682
645
6.935
615
8.803
736
11.774
923
8.383
614
7.751
498
7.997
450
8.658
443
8.830
462
8.898
455
9.684
489
10.456
5.057
525
214
11.706
9.615
549
327
8.522
12.765
410
387
8.993
16.916
415
436
11.88
25.080476
591
11.95729.200418
736
13.07628.876439
650
12.52437.150392
731
12.47746.761
392
835
7.928
36.273
246
706
4.155
24.695
130
530
3.856
24.206
132
435
1.904
19.53958
390

Video camera production volume (million)
Digital camera production volume (million)
Video camera production value (¥ 100 billion)
Digital camera production value (¥ 100 billion)

1983 1985

1990

1995

2000

2005

2010

Fig. 6.1 Production of Video Cameras and Digital
Cameras (4)However, due to the impact of the economic downturn,decline was followed afterwards, although it increased
again in 1995. Production output peaked again in 2000

National Museum of Nature and Science Survey Report of Systematization of Technology, Vol.18 March 2013

and plateaued with the rapid rise of the digital camera.
Since 2005, there has been a downward trend in quantity(4).
Meanwhile, in terms of price, production output peaked at¥900 billion in 1991 and did not exceed this value withagain. It was because the intensity of competition withmass production and cost reduction were continued.
Most of the video cameras had been exported. The numberof domestic was 1.77 million units in 1988, and 2.08
million units in 1991. By the way, the penetration rate of
the video camera in Japan was 29.9% against color TV
99.0% and 72.5% VCR in March 1994.
TV and VCR were transferred to overseas production
from this time, domestic production went decreased. In
contrast, the video camera domestic production has
become one of the few electric appliances mainstream. It
is worth noting that video camera production contributed
to Japan’s foreign currency income and also to securing
employment in Japan.
In the chart, price and quantity of digital camera
production are also shown for reference.
In production, it is a phenomenon of interest that digital
camera growth of several years from 1999, is similar tothe video camera growth of the number of years from1983 statistics began. Price and quantity both peaked in
2007, followed by a downward phenomenon due to theintensification of price competition and the shift tooverseas production thereafter. Since the camera function
was incorporated into the cell phones and smartphones
from the late 2000s, production of the video camera has
decreased.

6.3

Single-Tube Video Camera

The filter integrated color (FIC) Vidicon wascommercialized by Nippon Columbia in 1970 andsingle-tube color cameras for industrial use werecommercialized (5). In 1971, Sony also commercialized
industrial use single-tube color camera using the phaseseparation method (6).
Under such circumstances, in 1974, home video camera of
the world's first breakthrough was commercialized by
Toshiba at ¥298,000 (7). Toshiba succeeded in mass
production of color cameras using the Chromicon camera
tube. Until then, only a few cameras had been available
for less than ¥1 million, with Toshiba’s IK-83 two-tube
color camera hitting the markets for ¥650,000.
Previous cameras had to be adjusted externally. A lot ofvolume to adjust the performance were installed in thecamera, and when camera becomes worse, theperformance has been repaired by adjusting them. Since
the video camera is not necessarily the only professionaluse, they had to operate without any adjustments. As theresult that design for compact, lightweight and robust was
adopted, mass production became possible for the firsttime. A brochure of the world’s first video camera IK-12 isshown in Fig. 6.2 (9).

Fig. 6.2 Brochure of the World’s First Video Camera (9)Before this camera was commercialized, Toshiba had infact announced the development of a camera for home use(10). This was two tube Vidicon camera about the same sizeas the 8mm film camera used for shooting the motion
pictures that were popular at the time. This camera was
exhibited at the IEEE Show held in New York and caught
the great attention. However, the price was not appropriate
for mass production for home use. The industrial use
camera IK-83 was released in April 1972 at a price of¥650,000, the cheapest at the time (11). Since the opticalsystem becomes complicated in 2-tube camera, it became
necessary to develop a single-tube camera to produce low
cost. Therefore, five years has elapsed before beingcommercialized as home use. Each manufacturer alsobegan to establish a mass production technology of thecamera in this opportunity. Sony which started fromindustrial cameras commercialized the home use phaseseparation method using Torinicon tube.
In addition, JVC has announced a single tube camera instep energy method to retrieve the color signal by theenvelope detection can be divided into low-frequency andwide band frequency to the output signal in 1978. In
addition, in 1979, Hitachi entered the home use camera
using Saticon tube in tri-color method, and in 1980,
Matsushita also entered using Newvicon single tube.
Notable among such movement is that almost all stillcamera manufacturers enhanced their conversion fromfilm to electronic device. The reason for this is a sense ofcrisis that the film would disappear since the introductionof the electronic still camera of July 1981 from Sony.
When it comes to 1982, Konishiroku, Canon and Nikon
decided to launch of single tube video camera.
In this way, until the early 80's from the late 70's,
single-tube video camera using an image pickup tube has
become widespread, it went building the foundation of thevideo camera.
While CCD cameras began to be put to practical use inearly 1980, they could not be spread since they were
expensive and difficult to mass produce. However, as
mass production technology was established in the
mid-80s, video camera was replaced to the CCD camera
rapidly.

ideo Camera Technologies Systematization

47

6.4

Single Chip Color Camera

In April 1981, the world’s first solid-state video camera,
the VK-C1000 was released from Hitachi. Using afour-color CFA and a four-line MOS imaging device, theprice of this camera was ¥350,000 (12). Fig. 6.3 shows
outline photography. Then, in October 1982, as shown in
Fig. 6.4, the world’s first CCD video camera the TC-100,
was released from NEC at ¥278,000 (13). This camera used
Bayer-method IT-CCD. One year later, in October 1983,
Sony released a Bayer-method IT-CCD video camera, theCCD-G5, at ¥228,000. At the same time, Hitachi released
a new camera product with a two-line readout MOS
imaging device using a two-color CFA at ¥218,000.

Fig. 6.4 The World’s First CCD Video Camera(supplied by NEC)
Price comparable to the single-tube camera by the adventof these cameras, has been gradually realized. In addition,
CPD video camera was released at ¥258,000 from
Panasonic using color difference line sequential method in
October 1984. While CCD video camera using the same
method was released from NEC at ¥198,000 in December
the same year. Price of the video camera became under¥200,000 for the first time.
Table 6.2 shows the single-chip video cameras brought out
by different companies from 1984 to 1985 (3).

Fig. 6.3 The World’s First Solid-State Video Camera
using MOS Image Sensor (supplied by Hitachi)
Table 6.2 Single-Chip Video Cameras Released in 1983-1984

48

Type
Manufacturer
Image sensor
Color pickup system

VK-C1500
HitachiMOS
Pixel interpolation
dot sequential

CCD-G5
Sony
CCD
Bayer

VZ-CD100
Panasonic
CPD
Color differenceline-sequential

YCW chckered
Over 300

VCK-100
Sanyo
MOS
4-colorsimultaneous
readout
GCYW
250

CFA
Horizontal resolution (TVlines)
Minimum illumination (lx)Power consumption (W)Imaging lens(mm)
Dimensions W,H,D (mm)Weight (kg)Release date
Price (yen)

TC110
NEC
CCD
Color differenceline-sequential

RGB chckered
250

YCMG chckered YGC chckered
250
250

YGC chckered
250

35
3.7
6X Zoom
f=12.5-75
124×134×195
0.98
Oct-83¥218,00028
4.7
6X Zoom
f=12.5-75
149×139×192
1.09
Oct-83¥248,000

30
4.5
6X Zoom
f=12-72
107×137×218
1.02
Oct-83¥228,000

30
56X Zoom
f=12.5-75
209×168×242
0.98
Oct-84¥259,800

20
3
6X Zoom
f=8.5-51
108×137×223
0.95
-

9
4
6X Zoom
f=11--70
120×148×183
0.98
Dec-84¥198,000

National Museum of Nature and Science Survey Report of Systematization of Technology, Vol.18 March 2013

IK-3000
Toshiba
CCD
Frequency
interleave6.5

Video Camera Built-in VCR

While video cameras essentially required VCR the
conventional Betamax and VHS formats could not be built
into cameras due to the large cassette size. From the early
1980s, as there is a need to create a new VCR standard forvideo cameras, many manufacturers went to announce
prototype video cameras built-in VCR by their own
standards. As shown in Fig. 6.5(a), the Video Movie (14) in
1980, and the two months after it, as shown in Fig. 6.5 (b),Hitachi announced its Mag Camera (15). Moreover, in thenext 1981, Matsushita announced the Micro Video System(16)
as shown in Fig. 6.5 (c). Sanyo also announced acamera-integrated ultra-compact VCR system in August
1981.
The gist of the 8mm video new format has been created,
after preliminary draft of unified format has been
discussed in the five companies. The five companies are
JVC of VHS developer and Phillips (Netherlands) of
V-2000 developer in addition to the above-mentioned
three companies. Later, other manufacturers belonging theElectronic Industries Association of Japan, the Magnetic
Tape Industry Association, the Japan Camera Industry
Association and other related associations were invited toparticipate (17). As a result, 8mm video conference isformed, and 8 mm video has been normalized by theapproval of the 127 companies in April 1984 (18). Refer to
Chapter 7 for details.
As a result, from 1985 onwards, manufacturers produced
so-called integrated VCR cameras with built-in VCR.
Polaroid released an 8mm video camera using
frequency-interleaving IT-CCD. In October 1984, 8mm
video camera using a 250 000 pixel CCD was released at¥298,000 from Sony. Following this ordinary 8mm
camera, dedicated only recording camera was released at¥198,000 in April 1985. Meanwhile, in October 1985,
Matsushita released a VHS video camera using an 8mm
size color-difference line-sequential IT-CCD at ¥298,000.
Hitachi also released a VHS video camera with a new
MOS-type sensor in February 1986, while Toshiba
released a VHS video camera in April 1986.

(a) Video Movie (Sony)(b) Mag Camera (Hitachi)(c) Micro Video System (Panasonic)

Fig. 6.5 ProposedVCR-Integrated Video Cameras (frompress releases by each company)

Table 6.3 Recording media built in camera in 1985-1986
Type
Manufacturer
VCR
Image sensor
No. of pixels
Color pickup system

CCD V88AF
Sony
8mm
2/3 CCD250k
G stripe

CFA

RB line-sequential

Minimum
illumination (lx)Power consumption(W)
Imaging lensDimensions WHD(mm)
Weight (kg)Release date
Price (Yen)

NV-M3
Panasonic
VHS
8mm CCD
200k
MGYC checkered
Color differenceline-sequential
19

GR-C7
JVC
VHS-C
1/2 CCD
220K
MGYC checkered
Color differenceline-sequential
10

7.1

VM-500
HitachiVHS
2/3 MOS300K
MGYC checkered
Separate 4-wire15

9.5

VM-500ToshibaVHS
1/2 CCD
200K
MGYC checkered
Frequency
interleave
10

7.5

10

9.4

8

6 times zoom
F1.4 AF

6 times zoom
F1.2 AF

6 times zoom
F1.6 AF

6 times zoom
F1.2 AF

6 times zoom
F1.2 AF

126×191×350

144×192×361

121×165×223

164×192×359

164×192×365

2.3
Oct-85¥299,8002.7
Oct-85¥298,000

1.3
Feb-86¥248,000

2.4
Feb-86¥298,000

2.7
Apr-86¥298,000

ideo Camera Technologies Systematization

49

6.6

Increasing Pixel Numbers

As described so far, the most important factor for thevideo cameras of the 1970s and early 1980s was toachieve a resolution commensurate with NTSC
broadcasting. It was also necessary to achieve a resolution
comparable to that of the single-tube cameras that had
gained early popularity. Accordingly, developers focusedon implementing pixel numbers of 200k-250k. Once eachmanufacturer reached this level of resolution, as shown in
Table 6.3, the goal then shifted to higher resolutions.
Since NTSC broadcasting has a 3.58MHz color subcarrier,
200k pixel image sensors were initially consideredsufficient for a horizontal resolution of approximately 270
TV lines. However, by adoption of the new standard suchas 8mm and S-VHS, horizontal resolution is improved to
400 TV lines more than the conventional VCR. Thisrequired an increase in the number of pixels of image
sensor.
While the relationship between image sensor pixel size
and resolution differs depending on the color image
pickup system and luminance signal processing, therelationship between the horizontal resolution and numberof pixels in a single-chip color camera is shown in Fig. 6.6(19). In the primary color systems, the G signal, which is
the main component of the luminance signal, is relatively
low. On the contrary, in complementary color systems,
since G signal is contained in almost all pixels, there is theadvantage in superior resolution.
As illustrated, in order to ensure the resolution of morethan 400 TV lines, it was necessary to use an image sensor
of 400,000 pixels. Since it was difficult to increase thepixel number at once from 200k to 400k, 400k has beenachieved through a 300k.

High-resolution color TV [700 TV lines]
Horizontal resolution [TV lines]

In addition, JVC launched a VHS-C format video camera
in February 1986 to compete with the 8mm format, and 3
schemes were commercialized as the recording media.
These video cameras are shown in Table 6.3 (3).

B&W camera
DVD [500 TV lines]
High band 8mm & S-VHS[over 400 TV lines](Complementarycolorscheckered)(Primary colors
striped)Video floppy[360 TV lines]
Home use video[240 TV lines]

Horizontal pixels

Effective horizontal Pixels

Fig. 6.6 Relationship between Horizontal Resolution and
the Number of Image Sensor Pixels
Table 6.4 shows an example of changes in camera
performance and specifications leading up to 400k pixels
from 200k pixels. A 200k pixel sensor was capable of ahorizontal resolution of 250 TV lines. This increased to360 TV lines with the 300k pixel sensor. With a 420k
pixel sensor, it was possible to achieve 470 TV lines andexceed S-VHS resolution.
In addition, high performance competition was also
activated along with the image quality due to the pixels
number, but this is discussed in Chapter 8.

6.7Video Camera Trends

Many kinds of video cameras have been developed andcommercialized. Let us note the progress from the point ofview of some of these. Firstly, Table 6.5 shows the main
video cameras from the 1970s to the present. For the sakeof accurate as possible, this table has been created mainly
by press releases and brochures by each manufacturer, in
addition to conference presentations and bibliographies (3)(29) (30). Therefore, please understand that numerical values
set forth are not measured under the same conditions.

Table 6.4 Progress in Pixel Number and Examples of Camera Performance
IK-3000
FeatureImaging device
2/3 inch CCD
No. of pixels
200k
Horizontal resolution
250 TV lines
VCR
None
Imaging lens
6 times zoom
F number
1.2
Finder
0.6 inch B/W CRT
Minimum illumination
50lx
Weight1.1kg
Dimensions (W×H×D)
95×120×210
Power consumption
5W
Release date
Autumn 1981
Price
¥350,000
Weight includes cassette and battery

50

AI-30AFHigh performance AWB

AI-40SVFirst 400k pixel camera

1/2 inch CCD
300k
360 TV lines
VHS-C
6 times zoom
1.2
0.6 inch B/W CRT
8lx
1.6kg
115×156×270mm
8.5W
Aug. 1987¥198,000

2/3 inch CCD
400k
470 TV lines
S-VHS
6 times zoom
1.7
0.6 inch B/W CRT
15lx
1.7kg
115×156×291mm
9.0W
April 1988
¥248,000

National Museum of Nature and Science Survey Report of Systematization of Technology, Vol.18 March 2013

AI-XS1High resolution(first 420k pixel camera)
1/2 inch CCD
420k
470 TV lines
SVHS-C
8 times zoom
1.2
1 inch B/W CRT
7lx
1.34kg112×145×295mm
10.3W
Sep. 1989¥198,000

Table 6.5 Video Camera History
Year

Month

Type

1970
1971
1972
1973
1974

1975
1978

1979

1980

IK81
4 IK83
4 IK12

Nippon Columbia
SonyToshiba
Toshiba
Akai Professional
Toshiba

VCC-300

Sanyo Electric

5 3chip Prototype
4 IK1300
VK-C600E
GC-3350F
7 GX-V3
XC-350JA
VK-C830
1 XC-1
6 IK-2300
Video Movie
7

NHK-NEC
Toshiba
Hitachi
JVC
JVC
Sharp
HitachiSony
Toshiba
Sony

9
9

2

1983

3
7
10
10

1984

Power
Consumption

1-inch FICVidicon
1-inch Trinicon
1-inch 2-chip Vidicon
2/3inch 2chip Vidicon
1inch Special Vidicon (Chromicon)
25mm Electrostatic convergence,electromagnetic deflection Vidicon
CCD
1inch Special Vidicon (Chromicon)
VidiconSingle Tube
Three-electrode single-tube
Saticon Single Tube
2/3inch 120K pixel IT-CCD
2/3inch Special Vidicon (Chromicon)
2/3ich FT-CCD

2.8kg

15

2.6kg

31W

1.4kg
3kg

12W

1.3kg
2.5kg
2kg

9W
7W
3.8W

2/3inch MOS

1.1kg

Mag Camera

Hitachi

2/3inch MOS

2.6kg

Toshiba
Panasonic

2/3inch 200K pixel CCD
New Cosvicon Single tube
1/2inch Cosvicon

2.1kg

5W

MF Trinicon
2/3inch CPD
2/3inch 200Kpixel CD

2.7kg
1.9kg
1.1kg

4.9W
5W

MOS
Single Vidicon
Single Carrier 1/2-inch Saticon
CCD
MOS

980g

Micro Video System

8 Mavica

10

WeightHitachiPanasonic

4 HVC-F1
Sony
5 Micro Video System Panasonic
5 IK-3000
Toshiba1982

Inches / Image Sensor

VK-C1000

10 Prototype
1981

Manufacturer

VK-C1500
XC-2P
KONICA color VC
TC-100
VK-C3000
VC-100S-100
KY-1900
IK-C400
BMC-100
CCD•G5
XC-37
VCC-520TORONESony
Hitachi
Sharp
KonicaNEC
Hitachi
Canon
Nikon
JVC
Toshiba
Sony
Sony
Sony
Sanyo Electric
Minolta

3-Tube Saticon
1/2-inch Saticon
1/2-inch SMF Trinicon
2/3-inch 190K Pixel IT-CCD
2/3-inch 190K Pixel IT-CCD
1/2-inch Saticon

690g

890g
2.48kg
1kg
115g
2.2kg

2.9W

5.8

RecordingdeviceSeparate
Separate
Separate
Separate
Separate
Separate

Price

800,000
650,000
450,000
298,000

Characteristics
Industrial use, color filter built-in, frequency-multiplexed, single-tube
Industrial use, phase-separated, single-tube
Industrial use, color filter built-in, two-tube
Low cost industrial use, color filter built-in, two-tube
Low cost industrial use
The world's first video camera for consumer use

Separate
Separate
Separate
Separate
Separate
Separate
Separate
Separate
Separate
Separate
System
ProposedJapan's first prototype
227,000 Reduced cost, production of 3,000/month
178,000
251,800 Step energy pickup system
138,000 The world's smallest and lightest video camera for consumer use, single-tube

Separate

350,000

System
Proposed
Separate
Separate
System
Proposed
Separate
Integrated
Separate
Floppydisc
Separate
Separate
Separate
Separate
Separate
Separate
Separate
Separate
SeparateβSeparate
Separate
Separate
Separate

Tri-color pickup system, Saticon tube
Two-chip CCD, the world's first cockpit camera for ANA B747
199,000 Minimum illumination 50lx
Integrated 8mm tape, prototype exhibited at the Berlin show in September
The world's first solid-state video camera, exhibited at the Electronics Show, releasedin April 1981
Integrated 1/4tape VCR, prototype exhibited at the Berlin show in September
Prototype exhibited in the Electronics Show
Integrated 7mm tape ( new evaporated tape proposed)
220,000 High-resolution picture with 300TV-lines
Micro-video system using CPD, exhibited at the USA Panasonic Show
350,000 Development and release announced
The world's first electronic still camera, released in 1986
Weighs less than 1kg
99,800 Zone focus, Good Design AwardFirst Photokina exhibition for camera manufacturers
The world's first CCD video camera for consumer use
288,000 The world's first video camera using auto focus
Canon’s first
Nikon’s first
145,000 Lightest & lowest power consumption
269,000 β- movie, the world's first video camera integrated VCR, recording only
228,000 The world's first mass produced CCD
The smallest & lightest black & white camera for industrial use
198,000 Portable β-VCR video camera

Video Camera Technologies Systematization

51

1985

1986

1987

1988

6
6
8
9
11

1989

9

1990

4
6
9

1991
1992

52

1
4
10
12
2
8
8
9
9
9
10
6
8
9

VM-200
GR-C1
VCK-100
CCD-V8
NV-M1
VM-E1
NV-M3
GR-C7
VC-C20
NV-M21
CCD-M8
IK-M10B
IK-C20A
CCD-V30
NV-MS1
AI-30F
VL-C51
NV-MC15
VEM-D1
IK-T30C
VL-C65
IK-M30CCD-V88
GR-A30AI-35AF
AI-41SV
VL-C650
PV-460AI-XS1
CCD-TR55
S-K3D7
A1
GET'S
NV-S1
KY-90
VM-ES88
BCC-100
SC-C01
ES-30TW

Hitachi
JVC
Sanyo
Sony
Panasonic
Canon
Panasonic
JVC
Sharp
PanasonicSony
Toshiba
ToshibaSony
Panasonic
Toshiba
Sharp
Panasonic
Sanyo
Toshiba
Sharp
ToshibaSony
JVC
Toshiba
Toshiba
Sharp
Panasonic
ToshibaSony
Toshiba
Canon
JVC
Panasonic
JVC
Sanyo
ToshibaJVC
FujiFilm

LX-1

Canon

VM-ES800
4 CCD-TR900
9 GR-SZ1

Sanyo
Sony
JVC

299,000
288,000
248,000
280,000

Integrated VCR
Integrated VHS-C VCR
Portable β-VCR video camera
The world's first 8mm video camera
Integrated VCR
Canon’s first integrated VCR, phase separation pickup system
Color difference line-sequential imaging system
The world's smallest & lightest VHS Video Movie Camera
Using F1.2 & 8x lens, Good Design Award
High speed electronic shutter 1/10,000s
Handycam
The world's smallest camera , 17.5φ & 53mm in length
Box-type camera with changeable C-mount lens
Playback-capable Handycam
S-VHS integrated
300k pixels high image quality
High speed electronic shutter 1/1,000s, 8x zoom lens

1/2-inch Highband Saticon
Solid-state Image Sensor
250K Pixel CCD
Single tube New Cosvicon
1/2-inch Saticon

1.9kg
1.09kg1.97kg2.5kg
1.98kg

7.6W
4.7

7.5W

VHS-C
Separate
8mm
VHS
8mm

1/2-inch CCD
2/3-inch CＣＤ

1.3kg
2.4kg

7.5W
9.5W

VHS
VHS

248,000
255,500

250K PixelCCD
200K Pixel CCD
200K Pixel CCD
250K PixelCCD
420K PixelCCD
1/2-inch 300K Pixel CCD
CCD

１kg
25g
100ｇ
１.4kg

4.2W
4.3W

198,000
500,000
300,000
198,000

1.3kg
1.2kg

8.5W
7.5W

8mm
Separate
Separate
8mm
S-VHS
VHS-C
VHS-C

1/2-inch 270K Pixel CCD
1/2-inch 300K Pixel 3-chip CCD
1/2-inch 270K Pixel CCD
1/2-inch 300K Pixel CCD
2/3-inch 420K pixel CCD

2.1kg
730g

6.8

25g
0.9kg

4.2W

1/2-inch 300K Pixel CCD
1/2-inch 400K Pixel CCD

1.68 ㎏
1.4kg

8.5W
9.0W

8mm
Separate
VHS-C
Separate
8mmm
Integrated
VHS-C
SVHS-C
VHS-C

1/2-inch 420K Pixel CCD
1/2-inch CCD
1/2-inch 300K Pixel CCD
1/2-inch 360K Pixel CCD

1.34kg790g
1.67kg
1.5kg

10.3W

780g

6.5W

198,000 Integrated 8mm VCR
The world's first compact 3-CCD camera, 72x71x156mm (W×H×D)
8x zoom lens, ergonomic design
Compact camera, 300k pixels
215,000 The smallest & lightest camera using TTL AF/AWB
Using Full range AF
178,000 Flicker compensation
218,000 High image quality 400k pixels
1.5inch color LCD finder, enlarged by lensThe first optical image stabilization camera for the US market
198,000 Increased competition over pixel number; advent of NTSC 420k pixels
160,000 Passport size video camera with 6x zoom lens
The world's first stereoscopic video camera
260,000 Good Design Award
S-VHS movie composition
Brenbee, image stabilization camera using fuzzy logic
3-CCD camera with IC card
163,000 Jiema, binocular style
3CCD camera recorder for industrial use, development CCD bonding equipment
GET'S, necessary parts removable camera
Electronic still camera

8.3W

1/3-inch CCD
1/2-inch 250K Pixel CCD
1/2-inch 410K Pixel 3-chip CCD
1/2-inch 360K Pixel CCD
1/2-inch 400K Pixel CCD

1/3-inch 270K Pixel CCD
1/3-inch 410K Pixel CCD

690g
860g

5.5W

National Museum of Nature and Science Survey Report of Systematization of Technology, Vol.18 March 2013

SVHS-C
8mm
VHS-C
Hi8
Integrated
SVHS-C
8mm
Hi8
S-VHS-C
Floppy
disc
Hi8
8mm
Hi8
Integrated

298,000

198,000
198,000

VL mount camera (new lens mount system developed between Canon, Sony, Hitachi
and Panasonic)
158,000 Jiema, using fuzzy logic for AE, AF, AWF
1/3 smaller and lighter camera, 410k pixel precision CCD- Video movie camera supporting wide-angle, telescopic and microscopic shooting

1993
1994

1995

1996
1997

1998

1999
1999
2000

2001
2002
2002

2003

2004
2005
2006

2007

10 VL-HL1
NV-3CCD1
CCD-VX1VL-HX1FS-1
2 THK-500D
5 GR-EX7E1
4 CCD-TRV90
9 NV-DJ1
9 DCR-VX1000
9 DCR-VX700
12 GR-DV1
12 VL-DH5000
QV-10
VM-H3910 GR-DVM1
VM-PS102
7 PK-MC202
8 Allegretto PDR -2
9 MV1
11 GR-DVL
2 XL-1
9 DCR-TRV900
GR-DLS1
D1
9 ADA
5 DCR-VX2000
7 VL-MR1
GR-DVA2000
8 VL-NZ10
IDC-1000Z
X3
6 VL-MG10
8 VL-DD10
AG-DVX100
2 VL-Z7
HD1

Sharp
Panasonic
Sony
Sharp
Fuji Film
Toshiba
JVC
Canon
Sony
Panasonic
Sony
Sony
JVC
Sharp
Casio Computer
Hitachi
JVC
Sanyo
NEC
Toshiba
Canon
JVC
Canon
Sony
JVC
Nikon
Fuji Heavy Industries
Sony
Sharp
JVC
Sharp
Sanyo
FoveonSharp
Sharp
Panasonic
Sharp
JVC

DMX-C1
TK-WD310
HDR-FX1
HDR-HC1
MEHV10HDR-UX1
HDR-SR1
DZ-GK3300
DMX-HD1
DMX-CA6
DMX-CA65
1 HDC-SD1

Sanyo
JVC
Sony
Sony
ToshibaSony
Sony
Hitachi
Sanyo
Sanyo
Sanyo
Panasonic

2
10
7
9
7
7

1/3-inch 410K Pixel CCD
3 chip CCD
410K Pixel 3-chip CCD
1/3-inch 410K Pixel CCD
1/3-inch 410K Pixel CCD
2/3-inch 1.3M Pixel 3-chip CCD
CCD
1/2-inch 410K Pixel CCD
1/3-inch CCD
3CCD
1/3-inch 410K Pixel 3chip CCD
Single chip CCD
1/3-inch 570K Pixel CCD
1/4-inch 410K Pixel CCD

890ｇ

1/3-inch CCD
1/4-inch 270K Pixel CCD
320×240 pixel 1/4-inch CCD
1/4-inch 330K Pixel CMOS
1/3-inch 380K Pixel Progressive CCD
380K Pixel CCD
1/3-inch 270K Pixel CCD
1/4-inch 3chip CCD
380K Pixel CCD

620g
640g
200g
130g
930g
670g
1.7kg
880g
670g

CCD
1/3-inch 380K Pixel 3chip CCD
1/4-inch 680K Pixel CCD
1/4-inch 680K Pixel CCD
1/4-inch 680K Pixel CCD
1/2-inch 1.5M Pixel CCD
3-color Stacked CMOS
1/4-inch 1.33M Pixel CCD

9.4W

1.5kg

Hi-8
S-VHS-C
Hi-8

900g
815g

8W

Hi8
Separate
Integrated

10.4W

Hi8
DV
DV
DV
DV
miniDV

1.1kg
1.4kg
450g
1.19kg

8.7W
3.9W

Integrated
8mm
Separate

7.1W
6.3W
9.5W

miniDV
Integrated
miniDV
DV
Integrated

6.3W

1.4kg
880g
660g
450g
575g

5.0W
4.4W
4.4W

590g
630g

4.8W
5W

1/4-inch 1.33M Pixel CCD
1/8-inch 4.2M Pixel CCD/1/4-inch 680K
Pixel CCD
1/2.7-inch 3.34M Pixel CCD

580g

4.4W

155g

2.9W

1/3-inch 1.12M Pixel 3chip CCD
1/3-inch 2.97M Pixel CMOS
5M Pixel CCD
1/3-inch CMOS
1/3-inch CMOS

2.0kg
680g

1/2.5-inch 5.36M Pixel CCD
1/2.5-inch 6.37M Pixel CCD
1/2.5-inch 6.37M Pixel CCD

210g
155g
220g

660g
640g
4.3W
3.1W
3.2W

DV
miniDV
Integrated
miniDViD DiscminiDV
miniDVDV
miniDVSD CardSeparate
HDV
HDV
HDD
DVD
HDD
DVD
SD CardSD CardSD CardSD Card210,000
298,000
350,000
198,000

The world's first LCD monitor camera, LCD-View Cam
Brenbee Pro,
Flagship model of the consumer use video camera
Twin-cam 8, zoom lens & wide-angle
Simple High-8
HDTV 3-CCD camera, 1000 TV lines resolution
185,000 S-VHS stereoscopic Hifi movie
Movie-Boy, visual line input in the viewfinder
TRV style, opening and closing side LCD monitor
275,000 Digicam, digital high resolution camera with 500 TV lines resolution
350,000 Digital Handycam using DV Standard
235,000
220,000 Pocket digital movie using DV Standard
Digital recording with 224.64K pixel LCD monitor
LCD digital camera, full-scale popularization begins
No image degradation
230,000 Pocket Digital Movie, LCD video camera
Open price Standard AA battery-operated, 2 hours recording
The world's first USB-compatible camera
59,800 The world's first CMOS digital camera
235,000 Progressive frame still image
Progressive 500TV line resolution
588,000 3-CCD lens exchangeable, XL lens mount, for top amateur / professional use
Interlaced / progressive switchable
Optical 10x, total 200x zoom
Digital single-lens reflex camera compatible with existing SLRs
Automotive stereo camera (with Legacy Lancaster), Active Driving Assist
380,000 Memory stick slot equipment
230,000 First D terminal deployment, SD card compatible
Movie player, digital camera combined
LCD digital view cam, 3-inch LCD monitor
160,000
iDshot, world's smallest magneto-optical disc camera, first use of IEEE 1394
Stacked single-lens reflex digital camera
3-inch LCD camera with flash lightVideo Camera Separation TypeVideo camera capable of cinematography, 24p shooting and gamma mode
2.5inch LCD monitor, SD card supported
The first HDTV equivalent video camera
Open price Xacti, the first MPEG-4 movie camera, VGA 30fps
WDR camera using Pixim image sensor
Open price Home-use HDTV video camera with 1080i signal
Open price Compact Home Use HDTV Camera using Primary Color Filter,
Open price The first video camera with 0.85inch HDD (4 GB), from tape to HDD
Open price Digital HDTV video camera using AVCHD standard
Open price Digital HDTV video camera using AVCHD standard
Open price The first video camera with DVD
Open price The smallest & lightest HDTV video camera
Open price World’s first life waterproof video camera
Open price Waterproof video camera
Open price AVCHD format

Video Camera Technologies Systematization

53

9 GSC-A100F
Toshiba
1/3-inch 2.36M Pixel CMOSDMX-CG65
Sanyo
1/2.5-inch 6.18M Pixel CCD
2008
9 D90
Nikon
23.6×15.8mm 12.9M Pixel CMOS
11 EOS 5D Mark II
Canon
36×24mm 21.1M Pixel CMOS
HDR-FX1000
Sony
ClearVid CMOS
DMX-HD1000
Sanyo
1/2.5-inch 4M Pixel CMOS
2009
DMX-HD2000
Sanyo
1/2.5-inch 8.1M Pixel CMOSDMX-CG10
Sanyo
1/2.33-inch 10.66M Pixel CMOS
2010
1 HDR-AX2000
Sony
1/3-inch 3chip CMOS
9 NEX-VG10Sony
APS-C Size CMOS
2012
10 EOS-C300
Canon
35mm fullsize 18.1M Pixel CMOS
10 EOS-C500
Canon
35mm fullsize 8.29M Pixel CMOS
10 NEX-VG900
Sony35mm fullsize 24.3M Pixel CMOS
12 NEX-VG30
Sony
APS size 16.1M Pixel CMOS
2013
2 X920M
Panasonic
1/2.3-inch backside-illuminated 3-CMOS
About the notation of the manufacturer's name, Matsushita, Sanyo wrote under the name of the time.

495g
150g

270g
268g
171g
2.1kg
620g
1.82kg1.43kg1.03kg1.42kg
480g

3.3W

4.2W
4.3W
2.7W

23.9W
11.7W

5.9W

References(1) The Institute of Electronics, Information and Communication Engineers, ed.: Image Sensor and Camera, Ohmsha, June 2012.
(2) Genkosha: Video Salon, Nov. 2011.
(3) Video Camera Grand Prix
(4) Development of Stereoscopic Atomobile Camera (3), Nikkei Electronics, pp. 92-95, Sep. 19, 2011.
(5) Ibaraki Prefectural Museum of History: Special Exhibition Home Electronics from Ibaraki Region.
(6) Yasuo Takemura: CCD Camera Technologies, Rajiogijutusha, Nov. 1986. (Ceased publication.)(7) Manufacturers’ websites.
(8) Thanks to the people written in the acknowledgements.

54

National Museum of Nature and Science Survey Report of Systematization of Technology, Vol.18 March 2013

HDD
SD CardHDV
SD CardSD CardSD CardMemoryMemoryMemoryMemoryOpen priceOpen priceOpen priceOpen priceOpen priceOpen priceOpen priceOpen priceOpen priceOpen priceOpen priceOpen price
328,000
178,000

The smallest full HDTV video camera using 100GB HDD
Video Camera using MPEG4 AVC (H.264) format
The world's first single-lens reflex camera capable take HDTV Moving Images
The world's first single-lens reflex camera capable take full HDTV Moving Images
HDV professional flagship camera
The world's smallest & lightest full HD movie camera
The world's first progressive HD video camera, 1080 60P
Compact 10million-pixel camera
HDV → AVCHD, from tape to memory
Interchangeable lens HD video camera
4K cinema camera, 2012 Emmy Award
2K full HD video camera, 2012Emmy AwardInterchangeable 35mm lens full-size CMOS camera
Having 12.76 million pixels

Innovation of the video camera was intense, during theperiod from the emergence of the video camera in the late1970s to the 1990s. Remarkable video cameras that
represent the era are summarized in Table 6.6. Notable
cameras include the single-tube IK-12, the world’s firsthome use video camera, the VK-C100, the world’s firstsolid-state imaging camera to be commercialized, and theTC-100, the world’s first video camera to have a CCD
image sensor, which later became the main image sensor
for video cameras for a lomg time. While there was some
initial difficulty in mass producing CCD cameras, theCCD-G5 quickly succeeded in mass production. Most ofthese so far were dedicated imaging cameras with nomeans of recording captured images.
Fig. 6.7 Passport-Sized Video Camera (18)
Table 6.6 Specifications of Representative Video Cameras from Each Era (late 1970s to 1990s)
Item
FeaturesImage sensor
Color pickup
systemHorizontal
resolution
Imaging lensFinderElectronic
shutter
WeightSize (W×H×D)
Power
consumption
Release date
Price

Image Pickup Tube
IK-12
Toshiba
The world's first home-use video
camera1inch Vidicon
Ye, Cy stripe
Frequency Interleave

MOS Type
VK-C1000
Hitachi
The world's firstsolid-state video camera

CCD
TC-100NEC
The world's first
CCD video
cameraCCD
CCD-G5Sony
The world's first mass
produced video
camera2/3inch 190K Pixels
IT-CCD
CCD
R, G, B Checker R, G, B Checker
Bayer
Bayer

2/3inch 190K Pixels
MOS
Cy, W, Ye, G Mosaic

250TV lines

260TV lines

Fixed (C-mount interchangeable)
None

8mm
CCD-TR55
Sony
Passport size
(popularization trigger
product)
2/3inch 270K Pixels
CCD
Mg, G, Ye, Cy hecker
Sequential color
difference

250TV lines-

6x zoom lensElectronic View Finder
None

6x zoom lens
1inch B&W CRT
None

6x zoom lens
0.6inch B&W CRT

2.6kg
90×170×345
65W

1.7kg
58×100×155mm
5.3W

1.02kg
107×137×218mm
4.5W

0.79kg
107×106×176mm
5.2W

April 1974
¥298,000

April 1981
¥350,000

Oct. 1982¥278,000

Oct. 1983¥228,000

June 1989¥160,000

Features

SVHS-C
AI-XS1
Toshiba
400K pixels CCD Video Camera

SVHS-C
NV-S1
Panasonic
Image Stabilization

Hi8
VL-HL1Sharp
LCD Viewcam

DV (6mm Digital)
DCR-VX1000
Sony
Digital Recording

Image sensor

1/2inch 380k pixels CCD

1/3inch 270k pixels CCD

380k CCD

DV (6mm Digital)
NV-DJ1
Panasonic
Digital Recording
1/4inch 270k pixels
CCD

Mg, G, Ye, Cy
Checker
Sequential color
difference

RGB 3-chip CCD

RGB 3-chip CCD

500 TV lines

500 TV lines

Item

1/60-1/4000

1/3inch 380k CCD

Color pickup
systemMg, G, Ye, Cy Checkered
Sequential color difference

Mg, G, Ye, Cy Checker
Sequential color
difference

Horizontal
Resolution
Imaging lensFinderElectronic
shutter
WeightSize (W×H×D)
Power
consumption
Release datePrice

470 TV lines

330 TV lines

8x zoom lens
1inch B&W CRT
1/60-1/10,000

6x zoom lens
1/100-1/4,000

4inch Color LCD
1/60-1/10,000

10x zoom lensColor LCD
1/60-1/8000

10x zoom lensColor LCD
1/4-1/10,000

1.3kg
112×145×295mm

0.97kg
96×134×167mm

0.89kg198×144×78 mm

1.1kg
144×122×266.5 mm

1.6kg
110×144×329

10.3W

7.8W

9.3W

7.5W

9.5W

Sep. 1989¥198,000

June 1990¥165,000

Oct 1992¥210,000

Sep.1995¥275,000

Sep. 1995¥235,000-

ideo Camera Technologies Systematization

55

The Video camera CD-TR55, shown in Fig. 6.7, was thefirst video camera with integrated VCR having a recording
function. Moreover, since this camera are summarized inpassport size, by this model, video cameras could bespread in earnest. While the resolution of a video camera
was insufficient still until here, AI-X1 was the firstsuccessful camera using the 420k pixels CCD, and withthe advent of this camera, increased competition of the
pixels number of CCD was put an end. In terms offunction, the video camera NV-S1 with auto stabilization
function first solved the hand shake plagued until it. Auto
Stabilization (AS) has become indispensable in addition to
the three major functions AE, AF, AWB of this later. In
1995, the DV-format camera appeared, enabling digitalrecording with no loss of image quality. When people
wanted to edit the captured image, degradation of image
quality could not be avoided at the time of dubbing by
analog recording up to it. But, the trouble has been
resolved after the digital recording.

6.8

Video Camera Progress

Here, with reference to Fig. 6.8, let us trace the evolutionof the video camera by era.
As shown in Fig. 6.8 (a), because it was quite heavy at thetime when first video camera was announced in 1969, it
was the type to put on a tripod yet. The shoulder type
video camera put on the shoulder in 1974 has been put
into practical use. Fig. 6.8 (d) shows the final single-tube
video camera, which has achieved a considerable degreeof miniaturization. However, it still has a separate VCR
for recording, which has to be put on the shoulder. By thelate 1980s, 8mm VCR and VHS-C appeared and cameras
could be supported in the palm of the hand. Whilecameras remained in this format for a while, by the adventof recording media replaced to SD card, HDD, or DVD
further from the VCR, miniaturization has become
possible to fit in the palm of the hand, as shown in Fig. 6.8
(f).

6.9

Application of Video Camera
Technology

Following the invention of the CCD in 1970,
manufacturers around the world continued their researchand development on video cameras. In order to achieve
the performance that surpasses the pickup tube, intensedevelopment competition ensued among Japanesemanufacturers aiming video camera in particular. As aresult, from the early 1980s, manufacturers issued manypress releases on video camera development andcommercialization. In many cases, commercialization was
postponed about six months due to delays in establishingmass production technology.
Manufacturers struggling to mass produce CCDs turned
their efforts to producing professional cameras on arelatively smaller production scale.
Sony commercialized the first box-type professional
camera in September 1983. In 1988, Toshibacommercialized the world’s first 3CCD camera, theIK-T30C. New high-precision bonding equipment
developed for this could bond three color-separation
prisms accurately to the photosensitive surface of theCCDs.
6.9.1 Thumb-Size Camera (Ultra-Compact Camera)
An ultra-compact, thumb-sized camera wascommercialized by Toshiba in September 1986, as shownin Fig. 6.9 (20)-(22). This made it possible to shoot fromcamera angles that could not be captured with existing
cameras. In the Lake Biwa Marathon, by mounting thecamera to an escort motorcycle, it captured vividly the
movement of the legs of the runners. These images werebroadcast by the NHK, and seeing this image,commentators raised the voice of surprise. Mounting acamera to the helmet of a test skier on a downhill ski
course on Mt Furano, this camera made it possible todeliver dynamic, real images in the skier’s view of the up

Fig. 6.9 The World’s First Ultra-Miniature Camera(e) VHS-C integrated
AI35AF 1988(b) Single-tube IK12
1974(a) Two-tube prototype 1969(c) Single-tube IK3000
1981(d) Single-tube
IKC400 1983

Fig.6.8 External View of Changes in Video Cameras

56

National Museum of Nature and Science Survey Report of Systematization of Technology, Vol.18 March 2013(f) HDD integrated 2005

and down course directly into people’s living rooms. The
NHK broadcast these images for the first time in the world,
drawing rave reviews. In addition, it was also being used
to the scene put quietly next to the glasses in "A Taxing
Woman" movie.
The idea of this innovative camera came from a shortstory by Yasushi Inoue, The Eyes of Others.
Despite CCD has become smaller, why are remain video
cameras so big? In addition, we cannot put the camera to
the place anywhere we want to see.
This was the ultimate dream for camera researchers. Whatwould happen if you move the eye out of the camera? It
was very difficult to implement such a trivial idea. This
exploring of the unknown went on under the table(internally-funded development), while conventional
business went on as usual. There were no experts in thisnew field of research. Even if a prototype could somehow
be made, if it were too novel idea, it was difficult to getpeople of the manufacturing site to recognize the benefitsof it. Before the prototype was discarded, themicro-camera was put to users to test out and was very
well-received. The ultimate dream and the change inthinking resulted in the realization of the world’s firstmicro-camera.
6.9.2 Electronic Endoscope
The practical electronic endoscope, so commonplace
today, was developed in Japan in 1987 (23)-(25). Before that,
doctors observed the fiber scope image consisting of 50k
elements and took photographs as necessary. When the
CCD could be directly attached to the tip of the scope,more doctors at the same time could observe a televisionscreen, as shown in Fig. 6.10. The number of doctors
experiencing lower back pain is said to have decreased
due to no longer having to stand in an unnatural posturenecessary to operate the endoscope. The endoscope has
now advanced from being an observation tool to a surgicaltool, having forceps to pluck the cell debris and lasers toburn off affected areas. This is also a ripple effect of video
camera technology.

Fig. 6.11 The World’s First Stereoscopic Video Camera
This was achieved by using the 300k pixel AI-30AF video
camera shown in Table 6.4 as the base unit and adding
compound eyes to the camera head. By accommodating
precisely an integral structure with the two pairs of lenses
and the CCD, left and right images were able to place with
μ accuracy. The left and right images are retrieved in field
sequential and recorded on an ordinary VCR. Playback isachieved by switching alternately left and right liquid
crystal glasses in synchronization with the image, thereby
and allowing viewers to easily enjoy a stereoscopic image.
This camera is still widely used today.
Previous stereoscopic cameras comprised two cameras ona tripod and required careful adjustment to align theimages. If the screen was even slightly displaced vertically,
the left and right images could not overlap, and they
become hard to see. This stereoscopic video camera, byintroducing the technique of automatic adjustment jig tosecure the high precision and CCD prism three-chip
camera, it was possible to reduce the accuracy of the μorder or less error in the vertical direction. In this way, it
was possible to obtain three-dimensional images
successfully be affixed in the integral structure and CCDlens, stable easily at any time. To create a new camera,
keeping the point of technology is necessary.
6.9.4 Intelligent Toys
Intelligent toys are expected as future applications ofvideo camera technology. One such image is that of an
intelligent doll that can give a simple response to womenor senior citizens living alone who may want someone totalk to when coming home. Nursing robots that canmonitor the elderly in need of constant care and quickly
report any abnormalities can also be put to use in homes,
care facilities and hospitals. The basic technologies
common to these applications are video camera
technologies themselves.

Fig. 6.10 Japan’s First Electronic Endoscope
6.9.3 Stereoscopic Video Camera
The world’s first stereoscopic video camera, the SK3D7
shown in Fig. 6.11, was developed in 1987 andcommercialized for the United States (26)-(28).

Fig. 6.12 The I-Doll, an Example of an Intelligent Toy
Fig. 6.12 shows the I-Doll (Intelligent Doll), an intelligent
toy prototype applying laptop face recognition andJapanese language recognition to video cameras (29)-(31). If
you talk to the I-Doll, the video camera attached to theideo Camera Technologies Systematization57

forehead of the doll detects the words, recognizes andunderstands the words, and display screen on the dollchanges, while the speakers can enjoy conversation. It wasprototyped in 1998, but it was too early for its time; it was
costly and did not make it to commercialization.
6.9.5 Color TV telephone
The world’s first color TV telephone was exhibited to the
public in the Telecommunications Pavilion at the World
Expo in Osaka in 1970. As shown in Fig. 6.13, this used a
two-tube camera, with a camera on top, a receiver below
and a small monitor mounted on the upper right section(32)-(34). The camera was a highly sensitive 2/3 Chalnicon
two-tube camera. A pair of these was displayed in the
Telecommunications Pavilion for 180 days and could befreely used by the visitors. They could also be used forcommunicating between the Tokyo Kasumigaseki
Building and the Osaka MM building as necessary.

Fig.6.13 The World’s First Color TV
Telephone
6.9.6 From the Cockpit Camera to the Video Camera
In the early 1980s, manufacturers worked hard to achieve
mass production of CCDs. Sony’s strategy was to startpractical implementation from a small number of models,
move on to business-use models and then lead up to
full-scale mass production. Let us introduce its history.
During the transition period from pickup tubes to CCDs,
Sony developed three types of cameras. The first of these
was the XC-1. This was the world’s first CCD color
camera, commercialized in 1980, and it provided a
stepping stone on the road to CCD mass production. It
was used in aircraft, initially for the Sky Vision system in
ANA jumbo jets, mounted in the cockpit and the forefootlanding gear. Sticking reason for CCD adoption had to
overcome the weakness of the pickup tube, which is large
size, vulnerable to shock and vibration. Since CCD was
120k pixels, resolution shortage was covered with 2-chip
pickup system.
The second camera was the black and white XC-37,
produced in 1983 on a full-scale CCD mass production
line. This was the turning point in the transition from pickup tube to CCD. Ultra-small size that ride in the palm of
the hand and anti-vibration shock resistance of the CCD
unique, is called an overwhelming reputation in thecommercial field, it became a long-selling machine in 15
years as a pioneer of machine vision camera.
In 1985, the CCD-V8 video camera adorned the final raceof the conversion to a CCD from image pickup tube. It
was also the originator of small video cameras built-in
VCR. This camera recorded in the 8mm format, using a
250k pixel single-chip color CCD. It took five hard yearsof technological development from the time the prototype
Video Movie was announced until it was completed.
(Taken from interviews with Mr. Fumio Nagumo,

58

formerly of Sony)
Literatures(1)

Shusaku Nagahara, Saburo Nobutoki, Takehiro
Kakizaki and Takao Ando: Two and Three Color
Image Pickup Tube, ITE Journal, Vol. 28, No. 11, pp.
896-301, 1974.
(2) Mitsuru Kawasaki and Kotaro Wakui: Special Issue
Imaging Devices 7. Image Pickup Tubes and Camera
Technology, ITE Journal, Vol. 28, No. 11, pp.
918-925, 1974.
(3) Yasuo Takemura: CCD Camera Technologies, RadioTechnology Published, Nov. 1986. (Ceased
publication.)(4) Statistics by EIAJ, JEITA and CIPA, edited to fit theformat.
(5) Shusaku Nagahara, Yoshikazu Kobayashi, Saburo
Nobutoki and Toshihiko Takagi: Development of theFrequency Multiplexing Single-Tube Color Camera,
ITE Journal, Vol. 26, No. 2, pp. 104-110, 1972.
(6) Taiji Kubota, Hiromichi Kurokawa, Takashi Shiono,
Susumu Tagawa and Takehiro Kakizaki: Phase
Separation Method Single-Tube Color Camera with
Electronic Index, ITE Journal, Vol. 27, No. 4, pp.
243-251, 1973.
(7) Yasuo Takemura: Development of the Home UseSingle-Tube Color Camera, ITE Journal, Vol. 60, No.
6, pp. 879-882, 2006.
(8) Toshiba Compact Color Camera IK-12 brochure,
April 1974.
(9) Toshiba press release, World’s Smallest Color TV
Camera - Development of Ultra-Small Color TV
Camera, Optimal for Home Use VCR, March 6,
1969.
(10) Yasuo Takemura, Itsuzo Sato and Hisashi Tajiri:Compact Color Television Camera, J. of the SMPTE,
Vol. 82, No. 1, pp. 12-16, Jan. 1973.
(11) Toshiba press release, Release of Low Price
Simplified Color Camera IK-83, March 29, 1972.
(12) Hitachi MOS Color Video Camera VK-C1000
brochure, March 1981.
(13) NEC press release.
(14) Sony press release, Video/Camera-Integrated ‘Video
Movie’ in the Tentative Name. The Prototype Publicand Proposed Method Unification, July 1, 1980.
(15) Hitachi press release, Basic Design for the ‘Mag
Camera’ VCR Built-In Camera of 2 Hours Shooting,Sep. 16, 1980.
(16) Matsushita Electric Industrial press release, theWorld’s Smallest, Lightest and Low Power
Consumption Camera-Integrated VCR Developmentof "Micro-Video System" using the CPD Solid-State
Imaging Device, May 20, 1981. (Matsushita also
proposed a micro-video system with a half-inch
image pickup tube in Feb. 1981.)(17) Five companies joint press release to Related
Industries the Framework for the New Format of the
Draft Camera-Integrated VCR, Jan. 20, 1982.
(18) Yasushi Yunde: Standardization Draft of 8mm Video,
ITE Journal, Vol. 38, No. 3, pp. 219-225, 1984.
(19) Yasuo Takemura: Introduction to CCD/CMOS
Camera Technologies, Corona Publishing, April
2008.
(20) Yasuo Takemura, Masanobu Kimura, Kazushige Ooi,
Hiroshi Mukaigawa, Takahiro Nakamura, Chiaki
Tanuma, Kiyofumi Sanda and Minami Amano: CCD
Micro-Miniature Color Camera, IEEE Trans.

National Museum of Nature and Science Survey Report of Systematization of Technology, Vol.18 March 2013

Consumer Electronics, Vol. CE-33, No. 2, 85-89,
May 1987.
(21) New Hi-Tech Product Survey by Nikkei Reporter:
No. 1 Ranked New High-Tech Product: theUltra-Compact CCD Camera, Nikkei High-tech
Information, August 18, 1985.
(22) Chiaki Tanuma, Yasuo Takemura, Kazuhiro Hemi,
Masanobu Kimura, Yu Kondo, Minami Amano andYoshitaka Fukuoka: Ultra-Compact CCD Color
Camera, ITE Journal, Vol. 41, No. 11, pp. 1026-1032,
1987.
(23) Hoshi: Electronic Endoscope, Medical Review, Vol.
11, No. 2, pp. 44-50, 1987.
(24) Ayao Ito: Medical Optoelectronics, IEICE Journal,
Vol. 71, No. 1, pp. 28-31, 1988.
(25) Yasuo Takemura: Miniaturization Trend of the CCD
Endoscope, Coronary, Vol. 6, pp. 31-36, August1989.
(26) Yasuo Takemura, Masanobu Kimura, Shinichi
Yamaguchi, Junichi Hosokawa and Yasunari
Arakawa: Stereoscopic Video Movie Camera using
300K Pixel IT-CCD Sensors, IEEE Trans. Consumer
Electronics, Vol. 37, No. 1, pp. 39-44, Feb. 1991.
(27) (Invited Paper) Yasuo Takemura: Stereoscopic Video
Movie Camera 3D-CAM, 1989 3D Meeting, June
1989.
(28) Yasuo Takemura: Special Issue of Next Generation

Television: Big Dreams of Many Years Approaches
to the Ralization – Commercialization of
Stereoscopic Video Discs and Stereoscopic Video
Movies, Nikkei high-tech information, Jan. 9, 1989.
(29) Tomoko Furuya: Application of 21st Century the
Sensor Recognition Technology, Toshiba AVE
technical review, No. 10, March 2000.
(30) Tomoko Furuya, Yasuo Takemura and Motohiko
Takeuchi: Intelligent Robot, JPA2001- 179665, July
3, 2001, application Dec. 24, 1999.
(31) Tomoko Furuya, Yasuo Takemura andMotohikoTakeuchi: Intelligent Robot with Facial
Expressions, JPA2001-215940, Aug. 10, 2001,
application Jan. 31, 2001.
(32) Yasuo Takemura, Motoi Yagi, Daiki Nabeshima,
Eiichiro Aoki and Kazuo Hamaguchi: Prototype
Color Television Telephone, 7th Television
Engineers Annual Convention, 10-7, pp. 331- 332,
1971.
(33) Yasuo Takemura, Daiki Nabeshima and Motoi Yagi:
Characteristics of the Color TV Telephone, IEEE
Trans. Broadcasting, Vol. BC-19, No. 4, pp. 77-84,
Dec. 1973.
(34) Yasuo Takemura, Daiki Nabeshima and Motoi Yagi:
Color TV Telephone, ITE Journal, Vol. 27, No. 3, pp.
190-196, 1973.

ideo Camera Technologies Systematization

59

7.
7.1

Recording Equipment for Video Camera
Overview

Recording equipment for video cameras were provided
separately from the camera and connected using a cable.
This was inconvenient and progress was made on an
integrating system called a camera built-in VCR that
could be incorporated into a camera. However, since thecassettes themselves were too large in the existing
Betamax and VHS formats, it was not possible to produce
a video camera that was both small and easy to use.
Therefore, several compact cassettes were proposed andstandardized for cameras. This led to a flood of formats,such as 8mm, VHS-C, SVHS-C, DV and HDV. In
addition, manufacturers also started making video cameras
to suit their own specialty fields, such as DVDs, HDDs
and SD cards, as well as VCR tapes.
Let us provide a simple overview of these here.

7.2

VCR

The first home-use VCR was the Unified I type that has
been standardized as a technology standard of the EIAJ in
1969. It used an open-reel tape format rather than cassette
type.
Later, tape cassettes is advanced, a variety of methods has
been developed one after another. The U-matic format
with its ¾ tape was commercialized in 1970, followed by
the Unified I type cartridge VCR in 1972 and the V-cordformat with its ½ tape in 1974.
Proper cassette VCR appeared in the form of the Betamax
format by Sony in 1975 and the VHS format by JVC in
1976. Most stationary type VCR has been summarized in
the two schemes.
An integrated VHS format camera was also released on
the United States market. In Japan, Sony released an
integrated VCR in 1983 in the Betamax format, withslightly smaller cassettes.
Later, improvements were made to the performance of
NTSC peripheral devices and the 240 TV lines horizontal
resolution of the VHS format was no longer sufficient.
The S-VHS format was standardized in 1987, with the aimof achieving higher resolution.
By adopting the S terminal to be entered in YC separation,
the resolution of the TV broadcast of the NTSC system
while being constrained to 330 TV lines, 5MHz signal
input is possible, horizontal resolution has become morethan 400 TV lines.
On the other hand, as a target of the camera built-in type,in 1984, 8mm video aimed at the next generation of home
use VCR has been standardized as a unified format of 127
worldwide companies.
In opposition to this, the group of VHS system hasdeveloped a VHS-C cassette for built-in cameras.
However, since the recording time was as short as 20
minutes, VHS-C cassette was struggling to 8mm video
that allows recording of 120 minutes.
The 8mm format later increased its performance with theHi 8 and Digital 8 formats, and these systems using thecompact cassette size, have spread to a video camera.
Table 7.1 shows the tape widths and cassette sizes.

60

Table 7.1 Cassette Size and Tape Width
Item
VHS
β
VHS-C
8mm videoDVmini DV

Cassette size (mm)188×104×25
156×96×25
92×52×23
95×62.5×15
125×78×14.6
66×48×12.2

Tape width (mm)
12.65
12.65
12.65
8.00
6.35
6.35

The HD Digital VCR Council established the DV standardof digital recording VCR in 1995. In this standard, DV
cassette standard size was 125 x 78 x 14.6mm, mini DV
cassette size was 66 x 48 x 12.2mm, tape width was ¼
inch (= 6.35mm). As a result, image degradation due todubbing which was trouble from the conventional could
be reduced.
The HDV format was formulated for high-definition
images, but at 1440 x 1080, this was not fullhigh-definition, which required a horizontal resolution of1920 pixels.

7.3

Digital Recording Media

There is nothing wrong with this as a standard, as thisnumber of pixels still continues to be used for terrestrial
digital broadcasting in Japan, although many people are
not aware of this. By the way, broadcasting at 1920 pixels
in the horizontal direction is only BS digital in Japan.
Following the standardization of the DVD in 1995, a
succession of other digital recording media appeared, suchas HDD and SD cards. Reliability has been significantly
improved in the portable HDD which was a recording
media of the original PC. A compact HDD with adiameter of 0.85 inches (around 22mm) was achieved in
January 2004. This had 32 x 24 x 4mm cassette size and acapacity of 4GB. By June 2012, HDD capacity hadreached 1.5TB. Fig. 7.1 shows an exterior view of the 0.85
inches HDD.

Fig. 7.1 0.85 inch HDD
Initially, it was a recording media of still images for
digital cameras. With the advancement of semiconductor
technology, recording capacity of the SD card continue toincrease year by year, the capacity of 64GB has beenachieved in the standard type in 2012.
Compared to conventional magnetic tape recording, these
digital recording media offered significant advantages,
such as not requiring a complicated mechanism,
significantly improved reliability and superior access.
Video cameras using these recording media were

National Museum of Nature and Science Survey Report of Systematization of Technology, Vol.18 March 2013

commercialized in succession, while VCR video cameras
with their complicated mechanisms rapidly began todisappear.

7.4

Video Cameras using Digital Recording
Media

Sony and JVC put out DV format video cameras in 1995.
They were spotlighted since image quality is not degradedby the editing and dubbing.
In 2003, the first high-definition video camera wasreleased by JVC. However, this did not gain popularity,
since scanning line of this camera had only 720 lines
against standard 1080 lines. 1080i high-definition camera
was released for business use from Sony in 2004. This
was a HDV format business-use model, but it was
followed by the release of a home use high-definition
camera in 2005.
In 2007, Panasonic brought out a high-definition video
camera with an SD card, while Toshiba released ahigh-definition video camera with an built-in HDD. Other
manufacturers hit the markets with their own video
cameras, using their own preference of recording media.
Even Sony, which had persisted with the HDV format,
brought out a video camera in 2010 with the tape replacedby memory recording.
Specifications of these recording media are shown in
Table 7.2.
Literatures(1) Katsuya Yokoyama, Author, edited by Japan
Broadcasting Corporation: NHK Home Video
Technology, Japan Broadcasting Publishers
Association, April 1980.
(2) Japan Broadcasting Corporation edited: VTR
Technology, Japan Broadcasting Publishers
Association, Oct. 1982.
(3) Yasuo Takemura and Shigeo Tanaka, Authors, editedby ITE, Home Video Equipment, Corona Publishing,Oct. 1991.
(4) ITE, edited: Image Information and Television
Engineering Encyclopedia, edited by inheritancetechnology, Ohmsha, June 2010.
(5) Toshiba news release: For the Development of a 0.85
inch Hard Disk Drive that can be Mounted on a
Mobile Device, Jan. 8, 2004.
(6) Toshiba news release: Release of Portable Hard DiskCANVIO, June 19, 2012.

Table 7.2 Digital Recording Media
System
DV
HDV
AVCHD

Recording media
Magnetic tape
Magnetic tape

Capacity
12.9GB/hour
Ditto

Number of pixels
720×480
1440×1080,1280×720
1920×1080, 1440×1080,
1280×720, 720×480, 720×576

DVD80mmDVD
2.8GB (Both sides) BD 7.5GB
DigitalSD card
64GB
DigitalHDD
1.5TB
1.5TB: 408,000 photographs (at 3.5MB each); 1200 movies (at 13MB/minute, 90 minutes/movie); 159 hours of digital TV; 381,000
music songs (MP3 compression 128kbps, 4 minutes/song)ideo Camera Technologies Systematization

61

8.
8.1

High Function Technology
Table 8.1 Auto Exposure Method

Overview

Electronic circuits in video cameras can be roughly divided
into circuits concerning image quality and high function.
Research and development on this circuit technology was
carried out in the 1960s and 1970s, mainly in relation tobroadcasting cameras. This technology has contributed
greatly to color camera performance. After that, the race todevelop the home use video camera became violently whenit comes to the 1970s. As an application of image
processing technology, electronic circuits of highfunctionality and image quality were advanced by Japaneseengineers. First, the key technology for high functionality
will be introduced here. High functionality technologies ofvideo camera mainly comprises auto exposure (AE), auto
focus (AF), auto white balance (AWB), auto stabilizer (AS),face recognition and flicker removal, as shown in Fig. 10.1.

8.2

AE

The first AE patent is said to be by Jullius Durst (AGFA,
Germany) (1) in 1955, shown in Fig. 8.1. It was intended tocontrol the shutter speed of the camera by detecting thebrightness.
While this camera had a separate photometric sensor, thiswould measure the ambient light, making it impossible toaccurately measure the brightness of the object.
Since cameras now have a high performance sensor namely
an image sensor, as shown in Table 8.1, light intensity iscontrolled by using the output signal of the image sensor.

MethodDetector

Principle

Ambient Light

Spot Sensor

Simple Measurement

ObjectImage Sensor

Average Measurement
Weighted Measurement

Output signal increases if the subject is brighter, anddecreases if darker. Keeping this at a constant level
requires a means of controlling the amount of incident
light, either by changing the lens aperture or bycontrolling the electronic shutter speed.
Nowadays it is common to use a program to alter both ofthese. Simple photometry by averaging the whole frameof the subject is rarely used now. Current methods use
weighted metering, in which the subject frame is divided
and the metering is carried out on the more important
areas, and face recognition AE, in which the face area ofa person being taken is selected by face recognition andthen metering is carried out on that area.

8.3

AF

AF technology has been used from the earliest cameras.
The Konica C35AF released in 1977 was very popular,
nicknamed the Jaspin Konica. This was the world’s first
AF camera, using a module developed by Honeywell (2).
This mechanism, called the TCL (Through the Camera
Lens) method (4), divided the light passing through thelens into two images and then detected the phasedifference between the resulting two images, as shown in
Fig. 8.2.
Lens

Forward focus
Back focus(Devided into right and left images) (Devided into left and right images)
R image

L image

L image

R image

Just focus(Single image)Fig.8.2 TCL Method (4)Fig.8.1 AE Basic Patent (1)62

National Museum of Nature and Science Survey Report of Systematization of Technology, Vol.18 March 2013

In addition, there was a patent dispute between Minolta andHoneywell.
The two companies had initially been promoted in the joint,
but the development speed was too slow. In the meantime,
Minolta developed its own system and installed it in asingle-lens reflex camera, the Alpha 7000.
As a result, this camera became a violation of Honeywell’spatent (7) (8).

Fig. 8.5 Scene with Depth

The patent is shown until control means using the output
signal of the TCL, as shown in Fig. 8.3. Although theprinciple of the TCL method is also shown in a patent by
German company Leitz (9), it does not mention the control
means, as shown in Fig. 8.4.

Fig.8.4 Leitz AF Patent (8)AF technology then advanced in two general directions, as
shown in Table 8.2: the contrast method to maximize thevideo signal contrast and the phase difference method.
Table 8.2 Auto Focus Method
MethodActiveDetector
UltrasonicControl
Lens Focus

Passive

Infrared
TCL
Image signal

Lens Focus
Lens Focus
Lens Focus

Light Field

None

None

Principle
Propagation
velocity
Triangle
Phase detection
Phase difference &Image Contrast
Image processing

High frequency component

Fig.8.3 Honeywell AF Patent (7)Here, when we go back to the origin of the AF, the object
has originally 3-D depth, as shown in Fig. 8.5. Where thecamera focuses depends on the wishes of thephotographer. It is due to the intention of thephotographer where he wants to focus. It is therefore notpossible to achieve perfect AF through any simple
means.
The first method considered was center-weighted
metering, selecting the center of the frame and focusing
there on the assumption that the photographer would
position the desired subject in the center of the frame.
However, there was a flaw with this method in that if thephotographer were capturing a scene in which a toast was
being proposed, for example, the camera would focus on
the mug of beer and blur out the all-important people inthe shot. Accordingly, a more recent method has been touse face recognition technology to focus on the faces.
Hill-climbing control is often used in basic AF control
technology. The amplitude of the high frequency
component of the video signal maximizes at the focus
position, on the contrary, the amplitude decreases for rear
focus or in the front. This relationship is shown in Fig.
8.6. It is called a hill-climbing servo, as it means to climb
the top of the mountain, and is also a technique fromJapan (10).

Focus Position

Distance

Fig. 8.6 Hill-Climbing Control
Digital control by microcomputer has been carried out inpractice in recent years.
After integrating the high-frequency components over
one field period, the lens is moved as this value come tobe largest.
While it is simple in theory, in practice if you do not
move it one way or another, you cannot know whether it
is in focus or not. Also, you cannot check that the signal
amplitude is at its maximum value, even if it is in focus,
or at the top of the hill. Since the maximum value of theamplitude is highly dependent on the object, no absolutevalue can be determined. Also, when the object moves,
the speed to follow becomes a problem. Since the value
ideo Camera Technologies Systematization

63

8.4

unnatural. However, cameras faithfully reproduce the
RGB components contained in the light even under
different color temperatures. If the color temperature ishigh, as shown in Fig. 8.7 (a), the camera reproduces a
bluish white, while if the color temperature is low, asshown in Fig. 8.7 (c), then the camera reproduces areddish white.
In many cases, it is necessary to control the whitebalance in the camera when the color temperaturechanges, because white must appear as white, as shownin Fig. 8.8. For an achromatic subject, this is adjusted sothat the RGB ratio is always constant or so that the color
difference signals R-Y and B-Y become always zero. As
shown in Fig. 8.9, the color temperature is detected byviewing the balance of the RGB signal. If the color
temperature is high, the B gain goes to reduce and if thecolor temperature is low, the R gain goes to reduce.
Color separation

is obtained by integrating each field, the time of several
fields is required for detection at a minimum.
New light field technology (11)-(13) is notable in the recent
field of AF. This technique is intended to reproduce animage by converting Fourier transform image formed on
the rear surface of the lens, using electrical processing.
Since the image sensor is placed in the imaging position, an
optical image entering the pixels is usually obtained byintegrating the light passed through the entire surface of thelens. As a result, any original angle information was lost.
On the other hand, in the light field technology angle
information is actively utilized. More specifically, byplacing a microarray lens to image plane, a plurality ofimages having angular information is imaged on the image
sensor. Using this system to capture a subject means it ispossible to adjust the focus position according to thepreference of the photographer by using the angle
information in the image and processing the image
accordingly.

AWB

The color in an image varies according to the light
conditions even if the photographic subject is the same, forinstance, under sunlight outdoors, in cloudy weather, underwhite lamp indoors or under fluorescent lights.
Since the human eye is capable of adapting to different
light conditions to make white feel like white even indifferent lighting, these different conditions do not feel(a)Higher color temperature+2700K(a) Fine weather scene

Gain control

Gain control

Color temperaturedetection

B output

Color temperature
control

Fig. 8.9 Block Diagram of AWB (Auto White Balance)(b) Original picture

Fig.8.7 Color Changes due to Color Temperature(b) Cloudy weather scene(c) Lower color temperature-2300K(c) Indoor scene lit by light bulb

Fig. 8.8 Preferred Color Tones for Changes in Color Temperature

64

R output
G output

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It is necessary to detect the color temperature accurately inthis case. Ideally, a white reference, such as Mg paint isplaced in front of the lens and then takes a white balance
for the camera.
However, this is too much of combersome for ordinary
camera users, so the white is determined using the featuresof the photographic subject.
For example, it can be based on the assumption that if all
the colors in a scene are integrated, they will generally
approximate to zero and come close to an achromaticcolor.
In this case, only the low saturation component in thescene needs to be integrated after the high saturation
colored portion is excluded.
Using such methods increases the accuracy of the color
temperature detection. In some specific scenes, the AWB
function can be dispensed with due to the particularcharacteristics of the subject to avoid producing an
unnatural image, such as a sunset scene with an overall
red color, or a close-up of a tomato.
In practice, there are not many different types of color
temperatures, so cameras can be pre-configured withseveral different correction coefficients, such as forincandescent lamps, fluorescent lamps or sunlight, andthese can be switched to produce a white balance that isclose to optimal.
For further details on this technology, refer to the cited
literature (14) - (19).

8.5

Image Stabilization

Image stabilization technology to electronically correct
camera shake was first put to practical use in broadcastingin 1987 (20) (21). This electronic image stabilization systemremoves shaking by scanning the image signal for screen
shake and vibration, quantifying this in terms of parallel
displacement of the overall image, and then correcting theposition of the screen based on this information.
As shown in Fig. 8.10, this method involves identifying a
motion vector from the video signal, generating acorrection vector and translating the image position.
ADC

MemoryDelay

The need for video camera image stabilization is
beginning to be recognized since the late 1980s, withmuch research and development taking place in this field(22). The gimbal mechanical method (23) (24) shown in Fig.
8.12 was first commercialized for video cameras.
Yawing (Blurring
Yawingof(lefttheand leftright andcameraright)
shake)

Angular velocity
Angular velocity

Sensor Circuit
CircuitSensorImage sensor
Lens

Pitching(Blurring of
Pitching (Blurring of the upper and lower)
the upper and lower)
OpticaliAngular velocity
Angularsignalvelocity signal

Actuator (1)Actuator (2)Servo Circuit

Servo Circuit

Gimbal mechanism

Fig. 8.12 Gimbal Mechanical System (22)Memoryreadout control
Y/C
separate

Fig.8.11 Early Image Stabilization Apparatus (20)DAC
OutputInput

Anti-vibration device is required for camera
photographing from moving objects, broadcasting images
from a hand-held camera while were difficult to view, thisdevice was able to improve these images.
While image stabilization is now a standard feature on
digital cameras, in 1987 semiconductor technology was
not as advanced as it is now; this device required aportable rack, as shown in Fig. 8.11.

Moving vector
detect circuit
Detectionarea control

Fig. 8.10 Block Diagram of an Image Stabilization
Apparatus (20)A major factor causing camera shake in hand-heldshooting is due to the vibration below 20Hz (23). First, aband extraction filter is used in both the horizontal andvertical directions to extract the frequency component
effective for motion detection from the video signal. Next,
a band extraction representative point matching method isused to extract the motion vector more efficiently (25) (26).
Fuzzy logic is used to differentiate between hand shakeand subject movement to avoid false operation (27).
A system for correcting blurring in CCD cameras waspatented in 1980 (28).
Many kinds of image stabilization systems have since
been researched and developed (29)-(86).

Video Camera Technologies Systematization

65

8.6

Face Detection and Recognition

The face is the most important subject in camera shooting.
According to statistics, 70% is taken around the face (87).
Thus, as it becomes increasingly necessary to take photos
with no failure, by matching the exposure, focus and color
tone centered on the face, the number of cameras withface detection features is increasing.
Face recognition technology was first installed on threemodels in Nikon’s COOLPIX series launched in February
2005, the 7900, 7600 and 5900. These cameras adopted
Face IT, a face recognition technology developed by
Identix (Minnesota, USA) using biometric technology.
This was the world’s first face recognition AF in acompact digital camera, capable of detecting and focusing
on human faces in the shooting scene (88).
In September 2006, Fujifilm released the Fine Pix
S6000fd digital camera, equipped with a face detection
feature called Intelligent Face. An announcement wasmade stating that image processing software, ImageIntelligence was capable of detecting up to 10 people at atime. The detection speed was the world's fastest (89).
Digital camera with face recognition was released one
after another when it comes to 2007. Pentax with the
Optio A30 in February, Sony with the Cyber-shot T100 in
March, Olympus with the μ780 in April, Canon with the
IXY DIGITAL 810IS in June, and Casio with the EXILIMZOOM EX-Z1200 in June.
Technology emerged in the fall of 2007 that could not
only detect a face, but also a smile.
Sony released the Cyber-shot DSC-T200 and DSC-T70 in
September 2007, equipped its own "Smile Shutter" anddesigned to shoot without missing a natural smile (90).
Omron developed real-time smile measurement
technology to measure the smile degree from the facial
image (91), as shown in Fig. 8.13. This was in turnfollowed by the release of the CAMEDIAFE-320 by
Olympus in January 2008, a camera with a Smile Shot toautomatically capture a smile using continuous shooting(92).

In January 2008, Panasonic released the world’s firstface-recognition high-definition digital video camera
HDC-SD9 / HDC-HS9. This was equipped with automatic
face recognition that detects people’s faces while
capturing moving images and automatically performing
the appropriate adjustments, meaning effortless operationby the user (93). In April the same year, Sony built a facerecognition function into its digital high-definition camera
HDR-TG1 to allow clear capturing of faces (94).
Face recognition technology has long been promoted forsafety applications for a long time such as for gate entry
checks and detecting suspicious persons at airport gates,
as well as for gathering personal statistics on viewers for
television audience research. These applications use a
database of stored faces of individuals, with the aim ofmatching the face of the person in front of the camera to aface stored in the database. Therefore, it is necessary toincrease the accuracy rate.
By contrast, camera face recognition technology is far
simply technically, as it only captures the face. Let us
introduce this technology.
The camera has to accurately detect the face area within
the captured scene (photographic subject). Generally, aface database is provided to distinguish between face andnon-face images. Facial features, such as the eyes, noseand mouth are characterized by their location, end points
and center points, while the chin, nose, eyes, eyebrowsand mouth are characterized by their shape and contours.
Face detection is performed by combining these features.
In this example, the identifier has a database of facial
images, as shown in Fig. 8.14 (a), and learns to distinguishbetween face and non-face images. Next, the camera
focuses on the eyes and the nose, as shown in Fig. 8.14 (b),and determines an approximate positional relationship,with three additional characteristics.

(a) Example of a face dictionary(b) Feature point extraction
Fig. 8.13 Image using Smile Measurement Technology ofOmron’s OKAO Vision (89)66

Fig. 8.14 Example Face Dictionary,created with reference to literature (95)

National Museum of Nature and Science Survey Report of Systematization of Technology, Vol.18 March 2013

Right eye is darker than the cheek
Left eye is darker than between
the eyebrows(a) Face and window scanning(b) Face detection
Nasal cavity is darker than thecheek

Fig. 8.15 Example of Face Detection Processing

The right eye is darker than the cheeks; the left eye isdarker than the eyebrows; the nose is darker than thecheeks. This can be represented as three groups of lightand dark rectangles. Each group is called Haar Wavelet
characteristics. Final determination is carried out using aboosting learning algorithm.
This fulfilling of multiple characteristics simultaneously iscalled co-occurrence and has contributed to improving
detection accuracy (95). Methods using partial contrast
include using the eyes and mouth (96). One such example isshown in Fig. 8.15.
For more detailed information on this technology, refer tothe cited literature (97)-(103).
Literatures(1) Jullius Durst: Disengageable Automatic Exposure
Device for a Photographic Shutter, USP 2,885,938,
May 12, 1959, (Jan. 22, 1955 Claiming priority).
(2) Konishiroku Photographic Industry Camera
Technology Department: Technical Data of the New
Camera, Konica C35AF, Photographic Industry inJapan, Vol. 36, No. 1, pp. 74-79, Jan. 1976.
(3) Yasumasa Endo: 2-Split Infrared Autofocus System
for Video Cameras, ITE Technical Report, Vol. 11,
No. 10, pp. 27- 32, Aug. 1987.
(4) Shinsuke Ono, Makoto Sakano: Video camera
Auto-Focus using a TCL Sensor, ITE Technical
Report, Vol. 11, No. 10, pp. 33-38, Aug. 1987.
(5) Kenji Toyota: New Auto-Focus System for Video
Cameras, ITE Technical Report, Vol. 11, No. 10, pp.
39-44, Aug. 1987.
(6) Hirotsugu Murashima and Akatuki Maeda: Digital
Integration Auto-Focus Video Camera, ITE
Technical Report, Vol. 11, No. 10, Aug. 1987.
(7) Norman L. Stauffer: Focus Detecting Apparatus,
USP 3,875,401, Apr. 1, 1975 (July 9, 1973 Patentapplication).
(8) Spread ripples of AF camera patent dispute: Minolta
settlement payment of 16.5 billion to Honeywell,
Nikkei Electronics, No. 550, pp. 225-235, March 30,
1992.
(9) Ludwig Leitz: Photoelectric Precision Camera
Range Finder with Optical Verification, USP
3,529,528, Sept. 22, 1970, (Dec. 6, 1966 Claiming
priority).
(10) Junichi Ishida and Yasushi Fujimura: Automatic
Focusing for TV Camera using a Hill-Climbing
Servo System, NHK Technical Research, Vol. 17, No.
1, pp. 21-26, 1965.
(11) Ren Ng, Marc Levoy, Mathieu Bredif, Gene Duval,Mark Horowitz and Pat Hanraham: Light Field

Photography with a Hand-held Plenoptic Camera,
Stanford Tech Report CTSR, pp. 1-11, 2005-02.
(12) Shinsaku Hiura: Computational Photography
Overview, ITE Technical Report, Vol. 36, No. 18, pp.
17-21, Mar. 2012.
(13) Hiroshi Kano: 50 Images in Micro-lens: Adjusting
the Focus in the Operation of a Pixel, Nikkei
Electronics, No. 1089, pp. 44-47, Aug. 20, 2012.
(14) Akihito Fujishige and Koji Ikeda: Simplified Auto
Tracking White Balance System, National Technical
Report, Vol. 31, No. 1, Feb. 1985.
(15) Kenichi Yada: Basic Study of Automatic White
Balance Method using the Illumination Light Sensor
in a Color Camera, ITE Annual Convention, 3-10,
1978.
(16) Toshio Murakami, Yasushi Toki, Michio Masuda andKotaro Kawamura: Consideration of an Auto White
Balance System for a Color Video Camera, ITE
Annual Convention, 4-6, pp. 83-84, 1986.
(17) Tomio Shimizu, Takayoshi Hasegawa and Yoshiteru
Matsuda: Automatic Color Temperature Tracking
System for a Color Video Camera, National
Technical Report, Vol. 31, No. 1, Feb. 1985.
(18) Kazufumi Minagawa, Yozo Iida and Takashi
Nakayama: Automatic White Balance Adjustment
for Color Video Cameras, ITE Annual Convention,
5-1, pp. 107-108, 1982.
(19) Kazuhiro Yamanishi, Tatsuki Ide and Shin Fukuda:
Multi-Functional Technology in Home AV
Equipment, ITE Journal, Vol. 43, No. 6, pp. 561-570,
June 1989.
(20) Kenjiro Kai, Shigeru Ujihara, Yoshio Kadoshino,
Katsunori Chiba, Koei Kawamura and Minoru Abe:
Image Shake Correction Devices, ITE Technical
Report, Vol. 11, No. 3, pp. 43-48, May 1987.
(21) Koei Kawamura, Minoru Abe, Kenjiro Kai, Yoshio
Kadoshino: Development of Image Shake Correction
Devices, ITE Annual Convention, 16-5, pp. 377-378,
1987.
(22) Hiroya Kusaka: 3.1 Image Stabilization, ITE Journal,
Vol. 49, No. 2, pp. 131-134, Feb. 1995.
(23) Toshio Inaji, Soichiro Fujioka, Takayuki Hayashi
and Jiro Kajino: Development of Image Shake
Prevention Technologies for Video Cameras, ITE
Technical Report, Vol. 11, No. 28, pp. 19-24, Nov.
1987.
(24) Mitsuaki Oshima, Masataka Izaki, Jiro Kajino,
Sachiaki Igarashi and Hiroshi Mitani: Image
Equipment, JPB 1,589,189, JPA H1-53957 (Dec. 29,
1983 Patent application).
(25) Jun Morimura, Kenya Uomori, Hiroshi Ishii, Takashi
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3, pp. 48-54, 1991.
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(59) Shoki Ohmae, Shinichi Tashiro, Takuya Yamaguchi,
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CCD Image Sensor, ITE Technical Report, Vol. 18,
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(60) Shoki Ohmae, Shinichi Tashiro, Takuya Yamaguchi,
Toshihiro Kuriyama, Hirotatsu Kodama, Masashi
Asaumi, Tsutomu Imanishi, Yoshikazu Sano andYoshimitsu Hiroshima: 1/4-inch High Resolution
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(74) Mitsuru Sato, Shigeki Ishizuka, Akira Nikami and
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Mitsuru Sato: Control Techniques for Optical Image
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(76) Nikkei BP: Development of a New Lens Mechanism
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(78) Toshio Inechi, Soichiro Fujioka and Hiroshi Mitani:
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(79) Nikkei BP: Practical Implementation of Automotive
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(80) M.Oshima, T. Hayashi, S. Fujioka, T. Inaji, H.
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(83) Noriyuki Oishi: Image Stabilization has been
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(84) Takashi Naito, Toshihiko Tsukada, Keiichi Yamada,Kazuhiro Kozuka and Shin Yamamoto: License Plate
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(85) Masayoshi Sahara: Electronic Technology in the
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(89) Fuji Photo Film News Release: The world's Fastest
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(90) Sony Press Release: Detects a Smile, Shooting in
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(93) Panasonic Press Release: Digital High-Definition
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Function that Finds and Captures Faces, January 9,

Video Camera Technologies Systematization69

2008.
(94) Sony Press Release: The World's Smallest andLightest Digital HD ‘Handycam’ Released to Allow
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(95) Takeshi Mita: Face Detection Technology to Achieveboth High Speed and High Precision, Toshiba
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(96) Masato Kawade: Chapter 12. Possibilities for
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(97) Tsuyoshi Xu and Takeo Sugimoto: Face Detection
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70

12, 2000.
(99) Wataru Ito: Imaging Device, Method and Program,
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9.

High Image Quality Technology

Following on from Chapter 8, let us describe the highquality technology of video camera electronic circuit.
As shown in Fig. 10.1, which provides a summary of all
video camera technology, these electronic circuits include
the basic camera circuits, such as a color separation circuit,color signal processing and luminance signal processing,as well as contrast correction, dynamic range expansion,
demosaicing and super-resolution processing.

9.1

To achieve the intended purpose, a multiplier is used forthe separation of the input image, while ε filters and othervarious digital filters and functions are used for processing
the image. These sophisticated arithmetic processing wasstrongly performed (4) (5).
For example, the contrast of the input image can be
optimized after separation by compressing the level of theillumination light component and expanding the object
light level, as shown in Fig. 9.2.

Contrast Correction

Recent advances in digital imaging technology haveopened new ground in the fields of image recognition andimage processing.
In the conventional analog approach, backlight correction,edge or certain signals enhancement would increase thenoise to the same extent. In many cases, this would resultin an overall noisy image, despite the desired effect having
been achieved, leaving the general impression that theimage quality had not been significantly improved.
Digital processing has made it easier to perform frequency
domain image processing based on the Fourier transform.
It has also made it possible to apply various filtering by
manipulating the frequency domain, as well as digitalprocessing using mathematical functions.
British company Apical Limited entered this area early on
and has been working to improve the image quality ofdigital cameras and surveillance cameras (1). Apical uses amethod of improving image quality by means ofappropriate contrast correction of the black and white
components in a signal that have been lost during thecompression and recording of the signal. It is possible tocorrect the contrast in advance, so that the input signal
will not exceed the contrast range of the display device.
It is also possible to obtain a high quality image with thedesired properties improved by dividing the input image
into illumination light component and object lightcomponent, based on Retinex theory (2) shown in Fig. 9.1,
and then combining the two after processing themseparately (3). While this principle was proposed in the
1970s, advances in digital image processing paved theway for active research and development by NASA in the
1990s. In the 2000s, the enabling of high integration andhigh speed digital processing led to its use in consumer
applications.

Illumination lightcomponent

Levelcompression
Optimal contrast
image

Multiplier

Image synthesis

Object light component

Level
expansion

Fig. 9.2 Adaptive Contrast Enhancer (ACE)
After the multiplier separates out the texture generatorsand skeleton image and the processing as shown in Fig.
9.3 is applied, a high-quality expanded image can beobtained with (1) no peripheral edge ringing, (2)no sample
hold blur, (3) suppressed jaggy edges (6).

Fig. 9.3 Image Expansion Application, compiled withreference to literature (6)Performing the processing shown in Fig. 9.4 can also
produce a high-quality image by removing only noise
without dulling the sharp edges and without generating
ringing or jaggy edges (6).
On the other hand, by utilizing these images processing
technology, electrically lens blur correcting was developed
for practical use (7).

Fig. 9.1 Retinex Principle

Fig. 9.4 Noise Reduction Application,
Summarized by literature (6)Video Camera Technologies Systematization

71

9.2

Dynamic Range Expansion

The dynamic range is the extent to how the dark areas andlight areas can be reproduced when these areas are mixed
within a single image. In other words, dynamic range ismeasured as the ratio between the light and dark areas.
Figure 9.5 illustrates the photoelectric conversion
characteristics of the image sensor. Bright level of theoutput signal is limited by the saturation by the input
excessive light. On the other hand, dark level is limited by
the signal buried in noise when the input light isdark.Therefore, expanding the dynamic range basicallyrequires raising the saturation level and lowering the noiselevel.
The IT-CCD (interline transfer CCD), most common usedin cameras today, has a dynamic range of 60-70dB.
However, since intensity of light is much wider than this,on-vehicle cameras require a dynamic range of about120-130dB to handle without inconvenience in nature.

image sensor are impaired and so it has not been usedpractically into actual cameras.
As shown in Fig. 9.6, dynamic range expansion is desired
where the contrast range is extremely wide at the entrance
and exit of the tunnel (9) (10). In Fig. 9.6 (a), the insidescene of the tunnel cannot be seen, while in Fig. 9.6 (b)the outside scene of the tunnel cannot be seen.

(a) At the entrance, the interior is dark andcannot be seen very well(b) Inside, the exterior is so bright andcannot be seen very wellFig. 9.6 Images of a Tunnel Entrance and Exit

Signal output

Saturation level

Noise level
Light input

Fig. 9.5 Image Sensor Photoelectric Conversion
Characteristics
Expansion of the dynamic range is a very importantdevelopment challenge in camera technology and various
efforts have been made in this area since the 1980s,
primarily in improving image sensor technology (8).
However, in many cases, the basic characteristics of the

Various methods of dynamic range expansion technology
have been proposed and tested, as shown in Table 9.1.
However, since it affects the basic characteristics of thecamera, it has rarely been installed on actual video
cameras. It has been put to practical use in some
professional cameras, installed on station platforms (11) (12)and monitoring scene and person with highly variablelevels of sunlight (13) (14).
Fig. 9.7 shows a frame of an image taken with a wide
dynamic range (WDR) camera adaptively using multiple
electronic shutters. While the outside view cannot be seenin the image taken with an ordinary camera, as shown in
Fig. 9.7 (a), this camera can recognize both the inside andthe outside of the tunnel, as shown in Fig. 9.7 (b).

Table 9.1 Various WDR Methods
Item
Basic characteristics
Pixel configuration

MethodExpansion of the saturation level
Reduction of the noise level
Logarithmic characteristics (15)-(20)Lateral overflow capacity (21)-(26)Vertical 2-pixel method (27) (28)
ADC in each pixel (13) (14)Camera technology

72

Sweep-out drive (29)Multiple electronic shutter (30)-(32)MeansPixel area expansion, etc.
Dark current reduction, etc.
Use of MOS FET threshold characteristics
Re-accumulate overflow charge
High sensitivity and low sensitivity pixels
arranged vertically
Each pixel signal has a different exposure timethrough ADC
Remove part of the accumulated charge
Time division of high-speed shutter andlow-speed shutter

National Museum of Nature and Science Survey Report of Systematization of Technology, Vol.18 March 2013

Since camera signal processing was analog in the 1970s
and 1980s, a method of obtaining a RGB signal was
limited. For example, image quality have been improvedby Onga by using 4 lines of 1H delay then using line
correlation to obtain two color difference signals and theluminance signal (37) (38).
Later, digital signal processing contributed greatly to
improving image quality in this field. From the early
1990s, Kodak, which had received much early attention
for producing the Bayer method, proposed patents forvarious plausible methods for filling pixels. Advances incomputing made it relatively easier to simulate resolution
and false signals, resulting in a clear color image.
Universities and various research laboratories joined
manufacturers in turning their research focus on this.
Numerous patents and academic reports came to be madeas a result (39) (40).
These techniques became to be known as demosaicing,which recovers the new signal from sampled mosaic
signals.

(a) Image using normal camera(b) Image using WDR camera

Fig. 9.7 Image comparison of using normal camera and
WDR camera (32)
CMOS image sensors made it possible to configure thetransistor and capacity at pixel level, meaning it was now
possible to implement various types of WDR using pixel
structures that were not possible with CCDs. Thus, various
methods have been proposed (33)-(36).
Refer to the cited references for details, as there is nospace to describe each method in detail in this paper.

9.3

Demosaicing

The Bayer array shown in Fig. 9.8 (a) comprises therespective color components shown in Fig. 9.8 (b) – (d). G
is arranged in a checkerboard pattern, and occupies twice
as many pixels as R and B.
Thus, any pixels lacking color information must be filled
in to obtain a color signal from the separately-arrayedcolor information. By the method how to fill the pixel,
relations of the spurious signal and the resolution of theimage is greatly changed, and the effects on image quality
is large.

(a) Bayer Array(b) G component

9.3.1
Simple Interpolation
As shown in Fig. 9.9 (a), the G component could bealways made up from 4 pixels around interpolated pixels.
Therefor, G component on G23 position could beinterpolated from 4 kinds of G pixels existing arround G23
position.
In contrast, as shown Fig. 9.9 (b)-(d), depending on theposition of the R, the interpolation of the R component are
three ways, such as a cross of 4 pixels, a vertical columnof 2 pixels or a horizontal row of 2 pixels.
At first, as shown in Fig. 9.9 (b), R component on R23
position has to be interpolated from R four pixels existing
diagonally.
Meanwhile, R22 and R13 are respectively interpolated by
the 2 vertical or horizontal pixels, as shown in Fig. 9.9 (c)and (d). The B component also can be interpolated in thesame way as the R component.
That is, G in the case of performing a simple linear
interpolation, becomes followings,
G23 = (G13 + G22 + G24 + G33 ) / 4 .
Meanwhile, with cross interpolation, R or B become
followings,
R23 = (R12 + R14 + R32 + R34 ) / 4(c) R component(d) B component

Fig. 9.8 Bayer Array and RGB Color Components

Video Camera Technologies Systematization73

(a) Interpolation of G
G23 = (R13 + R 22 + R24 + R 33 ) / 4(b) Cross interpolation1of R
R23 = (R12 + R 14 + R32 + R 34 ) / 4(c) Verticalinterpolation1of R
R22 = (R12 + R32) / 2(d) Horizontal
interpolation of R
R13 = (R12 + R14) / 2

Fig. 9.9 Each Color Component Interpolation
With vertical interpolation, R22 = (R12 + R32 ) / 2.
With horizontal interpolation, R13 = (R12 + R14 ) / 2.
However, this method is a so-called smoothing and only
achieves a simple LPF effect. Accordingly, while there is
no problem in areas where there is no change in the image,there is significant error at edges or in textures. Thus, thefollowing improvements have been proposed to reduce theerror.
9.3.2 Adaptive Interpolation
Adaptive Interpolation method that interpolates bydetermining the direction of the edge has been proposed byRobert H. Hibbard (Eastman Kodak) (41). At first, wheninterpolating the G23 in Fig. 9.9, to see the surrounding G
pixel, this technique determine the preferred direction ofinterpolation. This method calculates the vertical andhorizontal G gradients and interpolates using pixels in the
direction of less change, with the assumption that thechange will be greater in the direction with the higher
gradient. Specifically, the following equations are used for
calculation.

Fig. 9.10 An Example of Interpolation with
Consideration of Edge Directions of the Color
Information (42)Here,
if Rh > Rv G34 = (G24 + G44 ) / 2
if Rv > Rh G34 = (G33 + G35 ) / 2
Other than the above case G34 = (G24 + G33 + G35 + G44 )
/4

Here,
if Gh > Gv G23 = (G13 + G33 ) / 2
if Gv > Gh G23 = (G22 + G24 ) / 2
Other than the above case G23 = (G13 + G22 + G24 + G33 ) /4.
While the above method looks at the gradient across 2
pixels, applying the color information makes it possible todetermine the gradient across 3 pixels, thereby improving
the recognition accuracy. The above method patent was
proposed on the same day as the above method by Mark A.
Prescott and Claude A. Laroche (both Eastman Kodak) (42).
As shown in Fig. 9.10, this method is performed todetermine the gradient by calculating the surrounding R
pixels when interpolating G34 to the position of the R34
pixel. While this method looks at the gradient across 2
pixels when interpolating only G pixels, the gradient across
3 pixels can be taken into account by using the R pixel,
thereby the prediction accuracy is increased.

74

Similarly, when interpolating G23 to the position of theB23 pixel under the same conditions, the gradient can be
determined by calculating the surrounding B pixels.
An interpolation method that looks at the direction of theedge has also been proposed using the Jacobian array (43).
9.3.3 ACPI (Adaptive Color Plane Interpolation)
The ACPI method was proposed by John F. Hamilton, Jr.
and James E. Adams, Jr. (both Eastman Kodak) as amethod to increase the accuracy of the interpolation
using the gradient and Laplacian (second-orderdifferential) by combining the G pixels with either the B
or R pixels (44). As shown in Fig. 9.11, this method
involves adding the G gradient and R Laplacian when
determining the change in G.

Here,
if Δ Gh > Δ Gv, then
G34 = (G24 + G44) / 2 + (2R34 – R14 – R54) / 4
if Δ Gv > Δ Gh, then
G34 = (G33 + G35) / 2 + (2R34 – R32 – R36) / 4

National Museum of Nature and Science Survey Report of Systematization of Technology, Vol.18 March 2013

replacing the pixel with the average value of this ratio.
Missing G pixels are first interpolated by theinterpolation methods described in 9.3.1-9.3.3.
Next, R and B pixels are generated. However, since these
are the same, only R generation is shown here. Using theBayer method, there are three ways of locating theposition of missing R pixels, as shown in Fig. 9.9. In Fig.
9.9 (c), the position (2, 2) is generated, using the ratio ofthe vertical neighboring.
Followings are obtained.
Fig. 9.11 Explanatory Diagram of ACPI System (44)Other than the above case
G34 = (G24 + G33 + G35 + G44) / 4 + (4R34 – R14 - R32 – R36 –R54) / 8.
On the other hand, for the B and R pixels, B pixel will be
described for example.

Since a signal of the position (1, 3) is generated in Figure
9.9 (d), using ratio of the horizontal both sides,

On the other hand, since a signal of the position (2, 3) isgenerated in Fig. 9.9 (b), if the ratio of the 4 pixels in the
cross is used, thenVertical interpolation,
B33 = (B23 + B43) / 2 + (2G33 - G23- G43) / 2
Horizontal interpolation,
B24 = (B23 + B25) / 2 + (2G24 - G23- G25) / 2
There are three types of interpolation of the cross direction.
In the case of a downward sloping,
B34N = (B23 + B45) / 2 + (2G34 - G23- G45) / 2
In the case of an upward sloping,
B34P = (B43 + B25) / 2 + (2G34 - G43- G25) / 2
If an average value,
B34A = (B23 + B25 + B43 + B45) / 4 + (4G34 - G23 - G25 - G43 G45) / 4.
There are different types of determination for upward or
downward sloping.
In the case of a downward sloping,
DN = | 2G34 - G23 - G45 | + | B23 - B45 |;In the case of an upward sloping,
DP = | 2G34 - G25 - G43 | + | B25 - B43 |.
So, in the case of DP > DN,
B34A = (B23 + B45) / 2 + (2G34 - G23- G45) / 2
If DN > DP,
B34P = (B43 + B25) / 2 + (2G34 - G43- G25) / 2.
If DP ≑ DN,
B34A = (B23 + B25 + B43 + B45) / 4 + (4G34 - G23- G25 - G43 G45) / 4
A similar interpolation is performed for the other color
signal, in this case, the R pixels.
9.3.4 CHBI Method (Constant Hue Based Interpolation)
Sections 9.3.1 to 9.3.3 were methods of interpolating pixels.
The CHBI method proposed by David R. Cok (Eastman
Kodak) generates new pixels by replacing pixel contrast (45).
This method makes use of the image property in whichchanges in hue are uniform in uniform images and the color
ratio also becomes substantially constant.
Accordingly, R and B pixels are generated by finding theratio of the two colors from the surrounding pixels andAll pixels can be generated.
The B pixels in the other color signal can be generated ina similar manner.
In addition, the Cop method is a good approach forinterpolating a few R and B pixels using the G pixels.
Another method was proposed in 1984 (46) to improve R
and B pixel interpolation and reduce false signal (color
fringing) by calculating the color component of the R andB pixels using the G component.
9.3.5 Improvement using the edge indicator
Method that takes into account the edge detection has
been proposed from Ron Kimmel (Israel) (47). First, edge
indicator is set in the some direction. It is determined thatthe value of the edge indicator becomes small and thatthe contribution of the adjacent pixels in that direction issmall, when the edge is likely in certain direction. By
weighted addition instead of simple addition ratio, theaccuracy of the replacement can be improved.
9.3.6 Japanese Technologies
In Japan, methods of applying a means of pixel
determination to a complementary color filter array were
proposed by Naoki Ozawa et al. and Toshiyuki Akiyama
et al. (both Hitachi), who had pioneered the MOS camera(48)-(50). These ideas were not limited to complementarycolor filter arrays and could also be applied to a Bayer
color filter array.
Also, by changing the pixel replaced by determining thelevel difference between the pixels, a method for
improving image quality and for reducing the spurious
signal was proposed by Hiroki Matsuoka et al.
(Matsushita Electric Industrial) (51).
Furthermore, the method using vertical and horizontal
correlation as described in 9.3.2, was proposed by
Akihiro Maenaka et al. (Sanyo) in 2 month lag (52) (53).
This method provided a means of detecting the verticaland horizontal correlation, identifying whether thecorrelation was strong or weak and then determining theinterpolation pixel.
9.3.7 Japanese Demosaicing Technologies
While the above was realized with analog means,
research and development of digital demosaicing has

Video Camera Technologies Systematization75

been carried out since the 1990s. Method to try to improve
the image quality by replacing the pixel was developed by
Tetsuya Tetsuya Kuno et al. (Mitsubishi Electric
Corporation) (54)-(57).
In general, since R G and B components have strong
correlation, when the low frequency components of of eachpixel are indicated to LPF subscript, followings are
obtained,
R34: G34 = RLPF: GLPF
Because this equation holds,
G34 = R34 × GLPF / RLPF
Therefore, the vertical and horizontal correlations of G are
followings,
GV and GH,
when GV < GH,
Gi , j = Ki , j x GVLPF / KVLPF.
Here, K is either R or B.
Similarly,
when GV > GH,
Gi , j = K i , j x GHLPF / KHLPF.
Next, replacing the R and B pixels in the following
techniques,

9.4.1 Increase of Sampling Frequency
The idea of achieving an increased sampling frequency
in a video camera by changing the relative position
between the image sensor and the optical image withtime was proposed by K. A. Hoagland et al. (78) (79). By
periodically vibrating the thin glass plate inserted into theoptical system and thereby moving the optical image
horizontally, this method improves the resolution byeffectively doubling the horizontal pixel number (80).
The swing CCD, which applies this idea to an actual
image sensor was proposed by Nozomi Harada et al. (81).
As shown in Fig. 9.12, this method effectively doubles
the pixel number by mounting a piezoelectric element
under the CCD package to minutely move the array byhalf a pixel pitch in the horizontal direction.
CCD chip
Ceramic
PackageVibration to theleft and right

Substrate
Piezoelectricelement-

A method has been proposed in which a non-linear filter isused instead of the LPF and in which having constraint
conditions when using a correlation difference. This
reduces the interpolation error and also improves theaccuracy of the interpolation (55).
Toshiba also proposed a method of generating a virtual
pixel to set the position of the reference pixel by analogicalreasoning in reference to a color signal that differs from thecolor of the reference pixel color filter, based on theassumption that all of the RGB components are present in
the pixels corresponding to the color filter (58)-(60).
Fig. 9.8 (a) shows a method of focusing on the reference
pixel G22 and generating virtual pixels RV, BV.

In the same way, with regard to the reference pixel G33:

Characteristically, these arithmetic expressions obtain thebrightness information from the G signal and the color
information from the ratio between G and the surrounding
R and B pixels, with each calculated from the average pixel
values.
In addition to this, university research is also a thriving,such as followings.
The scheme to be restored from the pixel mixture images
was proposed by Ikuko Ota and Kiyoharu Aizawa(University of Tokyo) (61), a method using Total-Variation
regularization was proposed by Takashi Komatsu andTakahiro Saito (Kanagawa University) (62) (63) and a methodthat takes into account color signals having a high spatial
frequency, by Taro Sekine et al. (Niigata University) (64).
Even in recent times patent proposals are actively applied
by Canon, Nikon, Sony and other manufacturers (65)-(77).

9.4

76

Piezoelectricelement

Fig. 9.12 Swing CCD (81)Fig. 9.13 Pixel Increase by Four Imaging
This concept can be extended, as shown in Fig. 9.13. Byshooting at the position of each fine movement by
repeatedly right, bottom, the left, the four times sampling
points are obtained, and can be improved twice verticaland horizontal each resolution. Minutely moving thearray repeatedly to the right, bottom and left andcapturing an image at each position gives four times as
many sampling points, thereby doubling both the verticaland horizontal resolution.
9.4.2 Intra-Frame Super-Resolution Reconstruction
Super-resolution method using intra-frame processing
was realized by Takashi Ida, by utilizing theself-congruency property, in which luminance change has
the same properties between lines (82) (83).
In many cases, the edge portion such as the outline ischanged to the same brightness along the edges. In otherwords, there are a plurality of similar pattern at the edge.
This image property is called self-congruency. For
example, if we focus on the cheek area in the mostimportant woman’s face shown in Fig. 9.14 (a), we see
the same intensity change in luminance pattern repeatedalong the contour. Fig. 9.14 (b) shows a 3-D luminancevariation in the contour portion. Here we see that similarchanges are numerous.

Super-Resolution Technology

National Museum of Nature and Science Survey Report of Systematization of Technology, Vol.18 March 2013

(a) Part of the face(b) Luminance change in thecontoured portion

Fig. 9.14 Image Self-Congruency, created withreference to literature (84)It should be noted here that while the luminance change isthe same along the outline area, the position moves little bylittle horizontally to the right.
This results in a slight change in the pixels above andbelow the contour sampling position, if sampling is taken at
equal intervals from the left of the frame.
Fig. 9.15 provided an illustrated explanation of this. First, thesimilar pixels are selected, as shown in Fig. 9.15 (a). Next,
after adjusting the position, new pixels are interpolated
based on the surrounding pixels, as shown in Fig. 9.15 (b). In
practice, the number of sampling points on the central pixel
line can be increased by calculating from the same relative
position on another line, as shown in Fig. 9.16 (85).

9.4.3Inter-Frame Super-Resolution Reconstruction
This method refers to the preceding and following frames
when increasing the resolution of a moving image frame.
There is no change between frames in a static image if
the camera is in a fixed position and the subject does not
move, however, if the camera or the subject moves, thesubject will have different sampling positions between
the two frames. If it were possible to rectify thismovement and adjust the position of the oblect, it would
result in an image with an increased number of sampling
points.
Therefore, if movement can be accurately detected, thismethod can be used to restore high-frequency
components and produce a high resolution image.
The intra-frame super-resolution reconstruction method
shown in Fig. 9.4.2 has little scope for increasing theresolution of images with no self-congruency. Thus, thismethod of inter-frame super-resolution reconstruction
from multiple images using sub-pixel shift wasdeveloped (86) (87). As shown in Fig. 9.17, the resolution is
improved by generating a sub-pixel shift image shifted
half a pixel from the pixels of the target frame.
Original frame pixels½ pixel shift

Sub pixel shift pixels(a) Extraction of similar pixels

Fig. 9.17 Method of Generating a Sub-Pixel Shift Image(86)

These technologies are used in digital televisions andPCs. For practical use, this requires high-speed
processing. Dedicated LSIs have been developed to work(b) Alignment of similar pixels
with particular equipment. PCs mounted theFig. 9.15 Interpolation using Surrounding Pixels
SpursEngine™ media streaming processor, while digital
televisions mounted the MetaBrain™ Premium dedicated
LSI imaging engine (86).
These
technologies can be expected to have a wide range
Interpolation pixel
Pixel lineof applications in imaging devices in the future, fromapplying
Original
video cameras to digital cameras, mobile phones andsuper-resolution
luminance change
smartphones.

Luminance value

Shooting pixel

9.4.4 Noise Cancel Technologies
It is necessary to minimize the noise in advance inapplying super-resolution technology.
In many cases, the conventional noise reduction
technology has used frame correlation techniques.
However, after these processing, effect of thesuper-resolution processing is eliminated. Therefore,
NL-Means (Non-Local Means) has been noted.

Pixels copiedfrom other lines

Fig. 9.16 Super-Resolution Method using Intra-Frame
Processing (85)Video Camera Technologies Systematization

77This scheme was proposed by A. Buades et al. (Spain) (88).
This method is first calculated as the weight of thesimilarity between the blocks around the target pixel andthe blocks collected in large quantities from the images.
Then, taking a weighted average of the central pixel of eachblock, this technique replaces the target pixel to this value.
Based on this method, structure adaptive NL-Means
method was developed by Kawada et al. (Toshiba) (89).
An image divided into blocks can be represented by a
combination of simple patterns, as shown in Fig. 9.18.
Therefore, base pattern robust to noise is learned
statistically from natural images. First, it is arranged in theorder of frequency of appearance high block of 500 million
pieces cut from natural image. 147 pieces from among
them have been ordered as shown in Fig. 9.19 (a). A basepattern with a high frequency of appearance represents a
local structure that occurs often in a natural image. On the

Block cut out from the image

other hand, the base pattern with minimal frequency of
appearance can be regarded as a noise component having
no correlation to the structure of the image. Then, only
the base patterns with a high frequency of appearance are
selected, as shown in Fig. 9.19 (b). These patterns areless susceptible to noise. Using these base patterns toreplace existing blocks makes it possible to avoid the riskof similar areas being affected by noise. Fig. 9.20 showsa block that has been re-represented using the basepatterns given in Fig. 9.19 (c).
There is insufficient space to cover super-resolution
technology in detail here. A comparative evaluation ofimages is given in cited reference (90) and explanations incited references (91)-(95).

Base patterns

Coefficients corresponding to each base patternFig. 9.18 Image Structure using Base Patterns (89)78

National Museum of Nature and Science Survey Report of Systematization of Technology, Vol.18 March 2013

(a) Base patterns generated from a large amount of natural images
First step(b) Base patterns that appear frequently
Second step(c) Base patterns correlate highly with their own block

Fig. 9.19 Base Pattern Selection Method (89)

Original blockBase patterns strongly
correlating to the originalblock

Coefficients
corresponding to eachbase pattern

Start block re-represented by a
combination of base patterns

Fig. 9.20 Noise Reduction Method (89)
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2004).
(58) Yasuo Takemura: New Demosaicing Method ofBayer Color Filter Array, 2010 ITE Annual Meeting,
19-2, Aug. 2010.
(59) Yasuo Takemura, Hiroto Honda, Kazuhito Sasaki
and Tatsuya Shimoike: Image Pickup Device andmethod for Processing an Interpolated Color Signal,
USP 8,077,234, Dec. 13, 2011. (Jul. 27, 2007priority date).
(60) Yasuo Takemura, Hiroto Honda, Kazuhito Sasaki
and Tatsuya Shimoike: Imaging Device,
AP2009-55589, July 27, 2007 priority date)(61) Ikuko Ota and Kiyoharu Aizawa: Demosaicing and
Restore from Image Pixel Mixtures, ITE Journal,
Vol. 58, No. 1, pp. 109-114, 2004.
(62) Takashi Komatsu and Takahiro Saito: Demosaicing
with a Restore Function of Blur caused by Optical
Low-Pass Filters, ITE Journal, Vol. 59, No. 3, pp.
407-414, March 2005.
(63) Takashi Komatsu, Takahiro Saito:
Sharpening/Demosaicing Method - Sharpening of
Using the Total-Variation Regularization, ITE
Journal, Vol. 61, No. 11, pp. 1621-1632, Nov. 2007.
(64) Kentaro Seki, Yoshitoshi Takahashi, Hisakazu
Kikuchi and Shogo Muramatsu: Color Demosaicingthat are Friendly to the Color Signal Having a HighSpatial Frequency, ITE Journal, Vol. 61, No. 8, pp.
1209-1217, Aug. 2007.
(65) Takaaki Fukui, Eiichiro Ikeda and Toshiro Endo:
Signal Processing Method and Apparatus, Patent
No. 4,702,912, March 18, 2011 (filed May 12,2000).
(66) Kenichi Ishiga and Ken Utagawa: Interpolation
Processing Apparatus and Recording Medium for
Storing the Interpolation Processing Program,
Patent No. 4,305,989, May 15, 2009 (filed Feb. 4,1999).
(67) Atsushi Kobayashi: Image Processing Apparatus
and Processing Method, Patent No. 4,066,484, Jan.
18, 2008 (filed Dec. 8, 1997).
(68) Ken Utagawa: Interpolation Method, Patent No.
4,038,867, Nov. 16, 2007 (filed March 19, 1998).
(69) Kazuo Kawamura and Hideaki Yashima: Image
Processing Apparatus and Recording Medium
Storing the Program, Patent No. 3,946,866, April
20, 2007 (filed May 15, 1998).
(70) Takehito Tsukioka and Takeo Tsuruoka: Image
processing apparatus, Patent No. 3,914,628, Feb. 9,2007 (filed Jan. 28, 1998).
(71) Koichi Ide: Signal interpolation method, Patent No.
3,662,949, April 1, 2005 (filed Dec. 29, 1993).
(72) Kosuke Nobuoka: Imaging Pickup device, Patent
No. 3,647,052, Feb. 18, 2005 (filed April 15, 1993).
(73) Akihiro Maenaka, Yukio Mori and Haruhiko
Murata: Color Separation Circuit for a Single-Chip
Color Video Camera, Patent No. 2,931,520, May 21,

Video Camera Technologies Systematization81

1999 (filed April 18, 1994).
(74) Hiroaki Sugiura: Color Video Camera, Patent No.
2,815,497, Aug. 14, 1998 (filed Aug. 26, 1991).
(75) Takashi Sasaki and Akihiko Shiraishi: Color Signal
Processing Apparatus, Patent No. 2,744,260, Feb. 6,
1998 (filed Nov. 22, 1998).
(76) Masatoshi Okutomi and Chisho Goto:
High-Resolution Color Image Generation Method,
High-Brightness Color Image Generation Apparatus
and High-Resolution Color Image Generation
Program, Patent No. 4,214,409, Nov. 14, 2008 (filed
Oct. 8, 2003).
(77) Takayuki Ogasawara and Akira Nakao: Image
Processing Apparatus and Image Sensor, Patent No.
4,751,428, May 27, 2011 (filed Aug. 12, 2008).
(78) K.A. Hoagland: Television Applications of Interline
Transfer CCD Arrays, NASA/JPL Conference on
CCD Technology, pp. 152-156, Dec. 1976.
(79) A. Nordbryhn: The Dynamic Sampling Effect with
Charge Coupled Device (CCD) Imagers, SPIE, Vol.
143, 1978.
(80) K. A. Hoagland: Image-Shift Resolution
Enhancement Techniques for CCD Imagers, SID 82
Digest, pp. 288-289, 1982.
(81) Nozomi Harada, Yukio Endo, Yoshiaki Hayashimoto,
Yoshitaka Egawa, Chiaki Tanuma, Katsunori
Yokoyama and Okio Yoshida: Swing CCD Image
Sensors, ITE Journal, Vol. 37, No. 10, pp. 826-832,
Oct. 1983.
(82) Takashi Ida, Nobuyuki Matsumoto and Kenzo
Isogawa: Reconstruction-based Super-Resolution
using Image Self-Congruency, IEICE Technical
Report, Vol. IE2007, pp. 135-140, Dec. 2007.
(83) Akira Kumagai, Takashi Ida, Akiyoshi Tanaka:
Super-Resolution Technology to Achieve High Image
Quality, Toshiba Review, Vol. 63, No. 11, pp. 50-63,
Nov. 2008.
(84) Naoshi Mishima and Himio Yamauchi: CELLREGZA Super-Resolution Technology, Toshiba
Review, Vol. 65, No. 4, pp. 15-18, Apr. 2010.
(85) Toshiaki Watanabe: High Image Quality Technology
Trends and the Initiatives by Toshiba, Toshiba Review,Vol. 64, No. 6, pp. 2-6, June 2009.
(86) Hidenori Takeshima, Nobuhiro Kato and Toshimitsu
Kaneko: Multi-Frame Super-Resolution Technology
using Subpixel Shifted Images, Toshiba Review, Vol.
64, No. 6, pp. 11-14, 2009.
(87) Hidenori Takeshima and T. Kaneko: Image
Registration using Subpixel-shifted Image forSuper-Resolution, Proc. International Conference
Image Processing, San Diego, 2008-10, IEEE, pp.
2404-2407.
(88) A. Buades, B. Coll and J.-M. Morel: An on-Local
Algorithm for Image Denoising, CVPR2005, IEEE
Computer Society Conference, Vol. 2, pp. 60-65,
2005.
(89) Satoshi Kawata, Yasunori Taguchi and Nobuyuki
Matsumoto: Random Noise Removal Technology to
Achieve a High-Quality Digital Camera, Toshiba
Review, Vol. 65, No. 9, pp. 32-35, Sep. 2010.

82(90) Sang Cheol Park, Min Kyn Park and Moon Gi
Kang: Super-Resolution Image Reconstruction: aTechnical Overview, IEEE Signal Processing
Magazine, pp. 21-36, May 2003.
(91) Shigeki Sugimoto and Masatoshi Okutomi:
Super-Resolution Processing of Image, Journal of
the Robotics Society of Japan, Vol. 23, No. 3, pp.
33-37, Apr. 2008.
(92) Masayuki Tanaka and Masatoshi Okutomi:
Super-Resolution Technology from Multiple
Images to Break the Wall of the Number of Pixels,
ITE Journal, Vol. 62, No. 3, pp. 337-342, March
2008.
(93) Takahiro Saito: New Image Processing Paradigm
for High-Quality Image Input, 17th Imaging
Seminar of the Hamamatsu Region Knowledge
Cluster Initiative, lecture materials. October 31,
2006.
(94) Takahiro Saito: Super-Resolution Oversamplingfrom One Image to Break the Walls of the Sampling
Theorem, ITE Journal, Vol. 62, No. 2, pp. 181-189,
Feb. 2008.
(95) Tetsuya Kuno: Special Edition: Image Processing
Technology of Special Digital Single-Lens Reflex
Camera, ITE Journal, Vol. 61, No. 3, pp. 275-278,
March 2007.

National Museum of Nature and Science Survey Report of Systematization of Technology, Vol.18 March 2013

10. Video Camera Technology Systematization
However, this did not become widely popular at the time as
the resolution was far lower than photographic film andprinting paper.
In the late 1990s, technology for digital recording in thesemiconductor memory and the number of pixels of theimage pickup device has been achieved. Thus technology
progress resulted rapid popularization and industry growth
overtaking video cameras in terms of production quantity.
On the basis of the video camera technologies, further
improvement of image quality for still images went under
way digital camera.
Mobile phones began to grow in popularity in the late
1990s and camera-equipped mobile phones emerged,
incorporating camera miniaturization technology. While
this function was initially used instead of the memo
function, there was growing demand for taking snapshots.
As advances in camera miniaturization and pixel
miniaturization technology made it possible for mobile
phones to capture images that were on par with compact
digital cameras, cameras were built into all mobile phones
in Japan. With a growing demand for taking self portrait
and couple shots, mobile phones emerged providing both
front and rear cameras.
As this function was applied to smartphones and tabletswith computer functions, cameras eventually became an
integral part of these products.

General Technology of Video Cameras

Figure 10.1 illustrates a systematization of video camera
technology. Broadly categorized, video camera technology
comprises imaging device which is the most importantcomponent of the video camera, some optical devices
including an imaging lens, optical LPF and the CFA, AFE
which corresponds to the pre-processing, digital signal
processing of the main part of the video camera and output
circuit. The digital signal processing unit consists of thenecessary basic circuits processing a video signal,
high-performance circuit for obtaining an image without
fail and quality enhancement circuit for improving theimage quality. A microcomputer is used to control thesecircuits and the actual processing algorithms are performedby the software.
In addition, a recording equipment and view finder are
required. There are optical viewfinders that incorporate
part of the optical image and electronic viewfinders withsmall LCD screens.

10.2

Expansion of Video Camera Technology

Fig. 10.2 shows the expansion of video camera technology.
In a large technical flow, electronic cameras (also referred
to as electronic still cameras) for recording and reproducing
still images were drew attention from the early 1990s.
These used a special standard floppy disk for a recording
medium at first.

(1) Contrast compensation(2) Dynamic range expansion(3) Demosaicing(4) Super-resolution processing

Light

Basic Camera Circuits

Image Sensor(1) Image Pickup tube
(2) CCD(3) CMOS image
sensorObjectImaginglens

Optical LPF
OpticalsystemHigh density
Assembling(Including small partsand circuit board)

High-quality
image
processing
High-functinal
processing

AFE (CCD only)

View finder
OutputCircuits

10.1

NTSC Output

Recording Apparatus(VCR DVD HDD
Memory Card)

Digital signal processing
Power supply
circuits
SoftwareAutomatic
measurement andevaluation

System LSIHigh reliability

Housing(1) Color separation(2) Color signal processing(matrix, color signal
processing and skin color compensation)(3) Luminance signal processing(γ compensation, knee processing, masking,detail processing, flare compensation,
shading compensation, black level andwhite level processing)(1) AI (Auto-Iris)(2) AF (Auto-Focus)(3) AWB (Auto-White Balance)(4) Auto-Stabilizer(5) Face Recognition(6) Electronic Shutter(7) Electronic Zooming(8) Backlight Compensation(9) Automatic Object Tracking

CFA: Color Filter Array
LPF: Low Pass Filter
AFE: Analog Front End
AGC: Auto Gain Control
CDS: Correlated Double Sampling

Fig. 10.1 Video Camera Technology Block DiagramVideo Camera Technologies Systematization

83Smartphones
Consumer
Use

Computers
Mobile phone

Communication
Digital camera

Digital Still Images
Electronic stillcameraVideo camera

Still Image

SurveillancecameraIndustrial
Use

Industrial camera/ thumb-sized camera
Electronicendoscope
Contributing to various fields

TV phone / conference
Automobile
cameraIntelligent toy

Fig.10.2 Evolution of Video Camera Technology
Meanwhile, in the industrial sector, surveillance cameras
were being used for store monitoring and platform safety
monitoring. These were also set up on street corners with
the idea of providing a crime deterrent effect. This has also
been deployment of video camera technology.
While fiberscopes were the main type of endoscopes usedin the medical field, these were replaced by electronicendoscopes with a CCD attached to the tip. Since theelectronic endoscope can be obtained a clear image, it ishighly effective that early disease could be found. It also
has the benefit of multiple doctors being able to see thescreen at the same time. There is also anecdotal evidence
that back pain among doctors has been reduced due to theease of operation. Use of these cameras has expanded toinclude rigid endoscopes and laparoscopes, making it
possible to go without laparotomy, meaning fasterpostoperative recovery and a significant alleviation of theburden on the patient.
On the other hand, by mounting a camera on passenger cars
has become commonplace, which is also a development ofvideo camera technology. Commercialized products forvehicle-mounted cameras include Parking Assist andAround View for viewing the surrounding environment.
Further, vehicle camera developments are expected, suchas collision prevention and line-crossing warnings using
white line detection.

10.3

Progress of Video Camera Technology

Chronological order video camera technologies aredescribed in Table 10.1, and the progress of technology aresummarized. This table was compiled with reference to theannual report published in the July issue of ITE Journal
every second year, as well as cited references (1) and (2).
Technical items are shown on the vertical axis, while the84

country of origin of the technology is indicated by the line
thickness for each item. World's first and the Japan's firstVideo cameras are listed in Table 10.2.
The evidence for these selections is summarized in Table
10.3. Table 10.4 lists potential technology heritage
candidates based on the research to date.

10.4

Role and Contribution of Society
Activity

Contributions from the Association's background was
supposed to produce one after another of thesetechnological achievements. In particular, it can be
mentioned that through the Institute of Television
Engineers in Japan (ITE current), researchers andengineers worked together for many years, taking steps
towards a common goal.
A large number of human resources came together in thecamera field in the late 1970s and 1980s, when rapid
progress was being made in camera technology. In addition,
good leaders had been enrolled in the institution and eachmanufacturer. Despite the small size of the video camera, it
contained an adept combination of advanced technology.
Academic conferences and journals provided theopportunity to present and publish findings on these newtechnologies. Idea exchange is performed for theadvancement of technology in these fields, young
engineers are empathetic guidance, and were being
nurturing. Then, cooperation beyond the boundaries of the
manufacturers were being built. These gave a stimulus to
the young engineers of each manufacturer and were carriedout a brilliant achievement to be proud of in the world.
Those who are contributing to these are Messrs below;
Teruo Ninomiya (NHK), Yuji Kiuchi (Toshiba) and Takao

National Museum of Nature and Science Survey Report of Systematization of Technology, Vol.18 March 2013

Ando (Shizuoka University) who both have lead as chief ofthe Electronic Devices Research Committee at the time,
Shin Hasegawa (University of Electro-Communications)and Shusaku Nagahara (Hitachi) who have been chief of
the System and Circuits Study Group, Takanori Okoshi(University of Tokyo), Mikio Ashikawa (Hitachi) and
Shigeo Tsuji (Toshiba) who have been taught in theeditorial committee.
As shown in Fig. 10.3 and Fig. 10.4, some of these activities
are described in round-table discussion, which was
published in the Journal, etc. (3) - (5).
Joint Study Group of the circuit system and an electronic
device to be held in March every year in particular has been
attracting attention as a study group to report the results of
one year. In many cases, conference room became
overcrowded with researchers and engineers of the imaging
device and the video camera. Then, hastily, large conferencehall that can accommodate many participants was prepared.
From time to time, the Editorial Board of the Institute of
Television Engineers would plan the special issues ofimaging. These activities also spread overseas, with
manufacturers focusing on technical committees in March.
Philips engineers are said to have reserved the Prince Hotelnear the venue and immediately started translating theJapanese-language research papers for their research (6).
The first special issue of the Journal of the Institute of
Television Engineers was published in July 1979, as shownin Fig. 10.3. The idea surfaced that it should have images
printed in color, perhaps because it was about color imaging
devices. This idea came to pass and it was printed in color,which was a rarity at the time. Teruo Ninomiya,editor-in-chief at the time said followings;“This special issue was sold out as soon as good
reputation. Surprisingly, when I met the foreign people
who are associated with the image sensor, everyonebought and had it. Prominent researchers, such as Dr.
Wymer (RCA), Mr. Giyosu (Thomson CSF) also have it,
and interest of the book was also higher in foreigncountries (7) ”

The goal was to export the video camera to the whole world.
Therefore, the latest technological achievements ofimaging devices were presented to the IEEE ISSCC andIEDM, while video cameras achievements were presented
to the ICCE. Through these activities, the world’s highest
technology level from Japan was appealed to the foreigncountries. The IEEE Image Sensor Workshop, held once
every two years, has also been active in recent years.
IEEE: Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
IEDM: International Electron Devices Meeting
ISSCC: International Solid-State Circuits Conference
ICCE: International Consumer Electronics Conference
Many papers were also published in the following journals:
IEEE Transactions on Electron Devices
Journal of the Solid-State Circuits
IEEE Transactions on Consumer Electronics
The August 1985 edition of IEEE Trans. Electron Devices
included a Special Issue on Solid-State Image Sensors wasedited by at August 1985. As shown in Fig.10.4, Mikio
Ashikawa (Hitachi) was selected as a guest editor, together
with industry leader Walter F. Kosonocky. Five Japaneseengineers were included among the 13 editorial members
and carried out a paper peer review (9).

Fig.10.4 Part of the IEEE Trans. ED (9)For this special issue, 17 papers from Japan, 15 the UnitedStates and 5 Europe were adopted in this special issue. It
was said that the image sensor and video camera journals
could no longer be maintained value of the Journal
without Japanese technical papers.
Meanwhile, although the August 1983 issue of IEEE Trans.
Consumer Electronics was not solely related to video
cameras, the 40 papers published included 21 from Japan,
8 from the United States, 10 from Europe and 1 from
India (10).
These activities were highly appreciated from all over theworld, and Japanese technology in these fields became theunwavering in the world.

Fig.10.3 Part of the ITE Journal Special Issue Contents (8)Video Camera Technologies Systematization

85

Table 10.1 Schematic Diagram of Video Camera Technology
Year

Related social
environment& TV technologies

Ministry of International Trade and
8 mm video
Industry request to unify a VCR
standardization (1982)
Osaka Expo
U-matic VCR
standard fails (1976)(1970)
V-code (1974 Sanyo)(1969)
VHS-C video
Popularization of color TV β (1975Sony)standardization (1982)
VHS (1976 JVC)
Live broadcast of Apollo
moon landing by field
sequential color camera(1969)Development of
single-tube color camera(1962 Nippon Columbia)

Optical Technology
Prism
Color Filter
Lense
Optical LPF

Color separation
prism (1960 Philips)

ENG
development(1970)

Experimental HDTV camera
exhibited (1973 NHK)

Color TV telephone(1970 Toshiba)

Dichroic color stripe
filter (1974 Fuji Photo
Optical)Dyeing color stripe filter (1974
Toppan Printing, Dai Nippon Printing)Video Camera

Chromicon(1971 Toshiba)

Photoscanner(1963 Honeywell)

BBD(1969 Philips)

Scanistor(1964 IBM)

CCD
(1970 Bell)

TFT(1964 RCA)FT-CCD(1971 Bell)

Overlap gate(1971 RCA)

On-chip color filter(1980 Hitachi)

Development of zoom
lens

Development of lenticular &diffraction grating optical LPF

Image Sensor

Near infrared cut
glass filter

Crystal optical
LPF(1980 Hitachi)

Practical realization of
MOS image sensor(1980 Hitachi)

Chromicon mass
production(1974 Toshiba)
2-phase driving
CCD(1971 Bell)

IT-CCD(1973 Bell)

Practical realizationof CCD(1981NEC)Buried PD (1981
NEC)

VOD
(1978 Toshiba)
Field readout(1976 Sony)

FDA
development(1973 RCA)

Buried channel(1972 Bell)

Practical
realization
Practical
ofimplementation
MOS cameraof MOS camera(1980
Hitachi)(1980 Hitachi)

Home-use video
cameraInvention of frequency
interleaving(1953 Philips)
Frequency interleaving
camera(1970 Toshiba)

CCD adopted(1981 NEC)

Pixel shift(1978 Sony)

Built-in VCR
8mm
VCRadopted
adopted
8mm VTR(1985(1985Sony)Sony)

Color difference line
sequential system(1983 Panasonic)

Bayer system(1978 Kodak)
CDS Circuit(1973 RCA)

VHS-C
(1985 JVC)

Solid-state
CCD camera
cameraSingle-tube(1974 Toshiba)High image quality

Inclined optical LPF

Newvicon(1973 Panasonic)
Saticon(1974Hitachi)

Broadcasting camera

On-chip micro-lens(1983 NEC)
Development of auto-focus

ITV camera

Image Processing

Concept of electronic stillcamera (1981 Sony)

FIT-CCD(1978 Toshiba)

Trinicon single-tube color camera
for business use (1971 Sony)

Telescopic lensdevelopment

Tri-color Vidicon(1960 RCA)

Analog HDTV Muse
(1984)
BS: completed(2003)
Ground: completed(2011)

Defectcompensation
Auto setup(1984 NHK)AE
(1956 AGFA)

High performance

Hill climbing
servo(1965 NHK)

Domestic
Technology

TCL(1976 Honeywell)

Development of AE AF AWB

Overseas Technology

Table 10.1 refers to the following literature and sources.
(1) Kotaro Wakui: Comprehensive Chronology of Electronic Media, NEW MEDIA magazine, pp. 29-136, Jan. 1997.
(2) Yasuo Takemura: Introduction to CCD/CMOS Camera Technologies, Corona Publishing, Dec.1997.
(3) Kotaro Wakui, Fumio Ukigaya, Yasuo Takemura et al.: Television Camera Design Technology, pp. 13-25, Corona
Publishing, August 1999.
(4) Yuji Kiuchi: 20th Century Developments in Image Sensing Technology, ITE Journal, Vol. 54, No. 2, pp. 136-140, Feb.
2000.

86

National Museum of Nature and Science Survey Report of Systematization of Technology, Vol.18 March 2013

High-quality
S-VHS (1987)

DVD standard(1995)

Digital HDTV
(1996)The 3rd 3D boom
(2009)

Ground digital HDTV
(2003)

3D technology
2D → 3D conversion(2009 Toshiba/Sony)

Digital HDTV
BS (2000)
High sensitivity HARP Electronic endoscopetube (1987 NHK/Hitachi)(1988 Toshiba)
Concept changes to thethumb-sized camera (1987
Toshiba)

Digital camera becoming
popular (1995 Casio)

Vertical color separation(NHK / Fujifilm)

Mobile phone camera(2000 Sharp)

HD stack CCD
broadcasting camera(1990 Toshiba)

Bonding
Bondingof
ofthe
theCCD
CCD
andandthetheprism
prism
(1988
Toshiba)(1988 Toshiba)

70x zoom lens
(1994 Fujion）

Liquid lens(2005 Varioptic (Fr.))

Asphlick suface lensPlastic lens

SWC coating(2008 Canon)

Thin lensMultilayer diffractive opticalelement lens (2001 Canon)

HDTV lensHigh speed CCD(2006 Kinki University)

CSCM(2007 Toshiba)

Pixel size miniaturizationcompetition

CMOS proposal(1993 Fossum)

High-quality technology
2K→4K change(2009 Toshiba/Sony)

Modularization

1.4μ pixel
Back-illuminated(2010 Sony,)

Honeycomb(2000 Fujifilm)

Back-illuminated(2010 Toshiba)
Image stabilization
DV standard
1/2-420k pixel(1992 Panasonic)(1995 Panasonic)(1989 Toshiba)
Pixels number Multi-functionality
200k pixel camera
Pixel number
Digitizationcompetition ends
mass production
competitioncompetitioncompetitionat 420k pixels(1985)(1987)(1992～)(1995～)(1989)DV
Standard
LCD
finderStereoscopic(1995 Sony)(1992 Sharp)
camera(1989Toshiba)
1/2-300k pixel(1987 Toshiba)

HDD
in
HDDbuilt
built-incameracamera(2007(2007Toshiba)
Toshiba)

1000fps high speed(2012 Casio)

HDTV competition(2003～)

Record media
diversification (2006～)

DVD built-in camera(2006 Hitachi)

SD card built-in camera(2007 Panasonic)

High image quality bysuper-resolution processing(2010～ Toshiba, Sony, etc.)

High image quality throughdemosaicing (2000～)

Digitization ofcamera circuits(1985～ )Shake correction(1987 NHK, Toshiba)

HDTV camera Full-scale
HDTV camera full-scaledissemination
popularization(2004 Sony)(2004 Sony)

Gimbal system(1991 Panasonic)
Shakecorrection

Facerecognition

Face IT(2005 Identix)

Face recognition(1991 Nikon)(5) Nobukazu Teranishi: 10 Findings that Undergirded 20th Century Developments in Solid-State Imaging Technology, ITE
Journal, Vol. 54, No. 2, pp. 141-147, Feb. 2000.
(6) Kazuhiro Sato: The Heart of 30 Years of Information Sensing Technology, ITE Journal, Vol. 56, No. 3, pp. 407-410,
Mar. 2002.
(7) Takao Kuroda: Japan in the World of Image Sensors: Learning from Japan’s Role and History, ITE Journal, Vol. 65, No.
3, pp. 336-341, Mar. 2011.
(8) Shigeyuki Ochi: CCD 40th Anniversary of the CCD: Dawn, ITE Journal, Vol. 65, No. 5, pp. 691-697, May. 2011.

Video Camera Technologies Systematization

87

Table 10.2 The World’s First and Japan’s First Video Camera
Year

Backlight-illuminatedSensor(2010 Toshiba)

Cellular Phone Camera(2000 Sharp)

Cellular Phone

Digital Cameras
Electronic Still Camera

Digital recording camera(1990 Fujifilm & Toshiba)

Electronic Still Camera(1981 Sony)

Video Camera integrated
8mm VCR(1985 Sony)
Video Camera integrated
VHS-C VCR
(1985 JVC)
Single Tube
(1974 Toshiba)

MOS single-chip(1981 Hitachi)

Single-chip CCD(1982 NEC)

QV10(1995 Casio)

3-chip CCD Video
Camera(1992 Sony)
3 chip CCD Video
Camera(1990 Toshiba)

Passport Type
Camera (1989 Sony)LCD View Cam(1992 Sharp)

Backlight-illuminatedSensor(2010 Sony)

CMOS Digital Camera(1997 Toshiba)

Digital Video Camera(1995 Panasonic)
Camera built-in HDD(2007Toshiba)

Digital HandyCam(1995 Sony)
Exchangeable Lens
Camera(1998 Canon)

HDTV(2004 Sony)

Camera built-in
DVD(2006 Hitachi)Video Camera
Image Stabilizing Camera(1990 Panasonic)

β-Video Camera(1983 Sony)

Camera built-in SD Card(2007 Panasonic)

Stereoscopic Video Camera(1989 Toshiba)

CCD Endoscope(1983 Toshiba)

Electronic Endoscope

Cockpit CCD Camera(1980 Sony)
Industrial Camera

Ultra-Miniature
Camera(1986 Toshiba)

3-chip CCD
Camera(1989 Toshiba)

Camera Module(1983 Sony)
Color TV Telephone for Osaka Expo
(1970 Toshiba)

Electronic OHP(1990 Elmo)

Color TV Telephone
I-Doll(2000Toshiba)
Intelligent Camera
World'sFirst

88

National Museum of Nature and Science Survey Report of Systematization of Technology, Vol.18 March 2013

Japan's First

Table 10.3 Evidence for World-Firsts and Japan-Firsts[Video Cameras]
Title
Video Camera
MOS Single-Chip
CCD Single-Chip
Beta VCR integrated Video
CameraVHS-C VCR integrated Video
Camera8mm VCR integrated Video
CameraPassport Size Video Camera
Stereoscopic Video Camera
Shake Correction Video Camera
3-chip CCD Video Camera
3 chip CCD Video Camera
LCD ViewCam
DigiCam
Digital Handycam
Lens Exchange Capable System
Authentic HDTV Camera
Camera built-in DVD
Camera built-in HDD
Camera built-in SD card

Year
Maker
1974 Toshiba
1981 Hitachi
1982 NEC1983 Sony

Type
IK-12
VK-C1000
TC-100
BMC-100

Reason
The world's first home-use video camera built-in color stripe filter Vidicon. Roots of video camera.
The world's first home-use video camera using MOS image sensor
The world's first home-use video camera using CCD
The world's first video camera integrated recording apparatus

1985 JVC

GR-C1

The world's first video camera integrated VHS-C VCR1985 Sony

CCD-V8The world's first video camera integrated 8mm tape VCR

1989
1989
1990
1990
1992
1992
1995
1995
1998
2004
2006
2007
2007

CCD-TR55
SK3D7
NV-S1
BCC-100
CCD-VX1VL-HL1
NV-DJ1
DCR-VX1000
XL-1
HDR-FX1
DZ-GK3300
GSC-A100F
HDC-SD1

The world's first small-scale video camera miniaturized to passport size. Spread in earnest begins.
The world's first 3D video camera using compound eyes. 500 units launched in the U.S.
The world's first video camera using the hand-shake correction
The world's first 3-chip video camera. The world's first automatic machine combining precise between CCD and prism
Flagship model for the 3-chip CCD home-use video camera
The world's first video camera with LCD finder.
The world's first digital video camera. DV recording system
The world's first digital video camera. DV recording system
The world's first video camera capable exchange lensTrue HDTV video camera with 1080 TV line resolution
The world's first HDTV video camera with a DVD recording medium.
The world's first HDTV video camera with a HDD recording medium.
The world's first HDTV video camera with an SD card recording medium

Sony
Toshiba
Panasonic
ToshibaSony
Sharp
Panasonic
Sony
Canon
Sony
HitachiToshiba
Panasonic[Video camera related]
Color TV Telephone1970 Toshiba

Electronic Still Camera
1981
Ultra-Miniature Camera
1986
3-chip CCD Surveillance Camera 1988
Digital Recording Camera
1990
Visual Presenter
1990
Authentic Digital Camera
1995
CMOS Digital Camera
1997
Cellular Phone Camera
2000
Back-Illuminated Sensor for
2010
CameraBack-illuminated Sensor for2010
cellular phone
CMOS Image Sensor having
2010
largest number of pixels

SonyToshiba
IKM10B
Toshiba
IKT-30C
Toshiba & Fuji film DS-X
Elmo
EV101
Casio Computer
QV10
Toshiba
Sharp
J-SH04Sony

The world's first color TV telephone demonstration exhibited at the Osaka World Expo between the Expo Telecommunications Pavilion
and the Kasumigaseki Building
The world’s first prototype of today’s digital cameras. A striking prototype with the catchphrase, Goodbye film!
Ultra-compact camera having a 16.5mm diameter camera head. This camera revolutionized the idea of the box-type camera.
The world's first three-chip compact camera. Development of highly accurate automated bonding between the CCD and prism
The world's first digital camera with a semiconductor memory as a recording medium. Forerunner of the current digital camera
Electronic OHP (overhead projector).The world's first electronic OHP using CCD camera
Flagship that led to full-scale spread start
The world's first digital camera using a CMOS image sensor
The world's first mobile phone camera released by J-Phone.
The world's first 16.41 million pixel back-illuminated CMOS image sensor

Toshiba

The world's first 14.60 million pixel back-illuminated CMOS image sensor for mobile phone

Canon

The world's largest 120 million pixel CMOS-APS image sensor.

Video Camera Technologies Systematization

89

Table 10.4 Important Video Camera and Video Camera related Technologies(a) Video Camera
No.
Name
1 Solid-State Video Camera
VK-C1000
2 Single-Tube Video Camera
IK-12
3 CCD Video Camera
TC-1004 Passport Size Video Camera
CCD-TR55
5 Video Camera Brenby
NV-S1
6 Stereoscopic Video Camera
SK3D7
7 LCD ViewCam
VL-HL1
8 VCR integrated Video Camera
BMC-100
9 8mm Video Camera
CCD-V89 VHS-C Video Camera
GR-C1
11 3-CCD Video Camera
BCC-100
11 3-CCD Video Camera
CCD-VX1
13 Digital Video Camera
NV-DJ1
13 Digital Video Camera
DCR-VX1000

90

Situation
Storage

Location
Ibaraki Prefectural Museum of History
Mito
ExhibitToshiba Science Museum
KawasakiInvestigation Exhibit
Storage
ExhibitExhibitExhibitExhibit
StorageUnder
investigation
Storage
Storage
StorageSony History Museum
Tokyo
Panasonic AVC Okayama Plant
OkayamaToshiba Science Museum
Kawasaki
Sharp Museum
TenriSony History Museum
Tokyo
Sony History MuseumTokyo
JVC VHS Memorial Museum
YokosukaSony History Museum
Tokyo
Panasonic AVC Okayama Plant
Okayama
Sony History Museum
Tokyo

National Museum of Nature and Science Survey Report of Systematization of Technology, Vol.18 March 2013

Manufacturer
HitachiYear
1981

Selection Reason
The world's first solid-state video camera using MOS Image Sensor

Toshiba

1974

NEC

1982

The world's first home-use video camera using color stripe filter built-in
Vidicon. Roots of the video camera
The world's first CCD video camera

Sony

1989

Panasonic

1990

Toshiba

1989

Sharp

1992

Sony

1983

Sony

1985

The world's first stereoscopic video camera
Roots of stereoscopic camera
The world's first LCD video camera
Previously using small CRT
The world's first video camera integrated recording medium
Previously connected by a cable to a separate recording device
The first video camera using the 8mm cassette

JVC

1985

The first video camera using the VHS-C cassetteToshiba

1990

Sony

1992

The first 3-chip CCD video camera using the world's first automatic machine
combining precise between CCD and prism
Flagship model of the professional video cameras

Panasonic

1995

Sony

1995

The world's first passport size compact video camera
Full-scale dissemination for home use began by this camera
The world's frst hand-shake correction video camera

The world's first digital video camera
using DV recording format
The world's first digital video camera
using DV recording format

(b) Video Camera related
No.
Name
1 Cellular Phone Camera
J-SH042 Ultra-Miniature Camera
IKM10B
3 Color TV Telephone－
4 Electronic OHP
EV101
5 Cockpit Camera
XC-1
6 Cockpit Camera－

Situation
Storage

Manufacturer
Sharp

Year
2000

Toshiba1986

Investigation

Toshiba1970

Investigation

Elmo

1990

Sony

1980

Storage

Storage
Investigation

Location
Sharp Museum
Tenri
Toshiba Science Museum
KawasakiSony History Museum
Tokyo

Panasonic

Selection Reason
The world's first mobile phone camera released by J-Phone.
Roots of mobile phone camera
Ultra-compact camera having a 16.5mm diameter camera head
Revolutionized the size of the video camera
The world's first demonstration exhibited between telecommunications pavilion at
the Expo and the Kasumigaseki Building
The world's first electronic OHP with a CCD camera
Electronic OHP (overhead projector)
CCD implemented for the first time in the world
Installed in the All Nippon Airways jumbo jet
Installed in a Japan Airways jumbo jet

Video Camera Technologies Systematization

91

10.5

Future Prospects of Video Camera
Technology

Research and development in the video camera
technology have been investigated. Future prospects ofvideo camera technology will be discussed from here.
10.5.1 Desire to Moving Image
Camera technology has progressed with time, with video
camera technology at its core, as shown in Fig. 10.2. It hasdeveloped with changes in form, including digital cameras,
mobile phones, smartphones and tablet devices. Although
it is a little more complicated than still images, our desire
for shooting and storing moving images is not going toabate.

Journal, Vol. 60, No. 8, pp. 1244-1249, 2006.
Discussion: Enthusiasm for Solid Image Sensor
Development and Association Activities, Part 2, ITE
Journal, Vol. 60, No. 9, pp. 1386-1392, Sep. 2006.
(6) Interviews to Toru Mochizuki of ITE
Secretary-General and Keiko Okimune of Chief
Editor, Dec. 3, 2012.
(7) Memorial Issue 400, Round-table Discussion with
Former Editor-in-Chief, ITE Journal, Vol. 35, No. 12,
pp. 992-1003, 1981.
(8) Special Issue on Solid-State Imaging Devices, ITE
Journal, Vol. 33, No. 7, 1979.
(9) Special Issue on Solid-State Image Sensors: IEEE
Trans. Electron Devices, Vol. ED-32, No. 8, 1985.
(10) IEEE Trans. Consumer Electronics and IEEE Trans.
Electron Device, Joint Issue, Vol. CE-29, No. 3, Aug.
1983.
(5)

10.5.2 High Image Quality
In digital television, increasing of pixel numbers is
progressing from 2K x 1K, the so-called 2 million pixel
HDTV, to 4K x 2K, four times. However, rather thanincreasing the number of pixels by force, the image
processing technology will become common to convert
the image from 2K to 4K. This has been the casethroughout the history of increases in pixel number, as
simply increasing the number of pixels the side effects ofsensitivity and dynamic range reduction may occur. As
mentioned in Chapter 9, there are significant advances insuper-resolution and demosaicing technology. If thesetechnologies of the Japanese image making were applied,
high-definition novel video camera could be born.
10.5.3 3D Technology
We also have a strong appetite for 3D displays.
Unfortunately, the 3D digital television boom of two years
ago proved to be temporary, because there had no essentialchange in the technology in the past 25 years.
compatibility with 2D television and the nuisance ofwearing 3D glasses have to be resolved.
Again, 2D→3D conversion technology is attracting
attention. Even if a broadcaster transmits in 2D, it could
be possible to convert the signal to 3D at the receiver. If
compatibility with 2D could be maintained, we could
expect to see the spread of 3D television gain momentum.
Glasses-less 3D TV has also come to the stage of practicaluse in the art. If this were to proceed, 3D video camera isa necessity.
Advances in semiconductor technology have made it
possible to implement previously-problematic advanced
image processing methods, thanks to increases in speed
and capacity. Future progress in the video camera is full of
unlimited possibilities. I believe this is the direction inwhich Japanese technology is headed.
Literatures(1) Yasuo Takemura: Introduction to CCD/CMOS
Camera Technologies, Corona Publishing, April
2008.
(2) The Institute of Image Information and Television
Engineers, ed., Kotaro Wakui, sup. ed.: Television
Camera Design Technology, Corona Publishing,
August 1999.
(3) Round-Table Talk: Young Engineers Actively Talk
about Their Solid State Camera Technology, ITE
Journal, Vol. 37, No. 10, pp. 869-876, 1983.
(4) Discussion: Enthusiasm for Solid Image Sensor
Development and Association Activities, Part 1, ITE

92

National Museum of Mature and Science Survey Report of Systematization of Technology, Vol.18 March 2013

11.

Conclusion

This report has provided video camera technologies
systematization, describing specific technology of video
cameras. The achievements in video camera technology
are the results of tireless imagination by researchers andengineers and their efforts and commitment to researchand development. In particular, it was noteworthy that key
technologies in it built up by Japanese researchers andengineers. Video cameras have grown into a majorindustry and have been widely favored to people all over
the world. These results are uniquely meaningful and are apleasure indeed for researchers and engineers who havebeen involved in the development.
It has been very grateful for me to have been able toparticipate its activities and to have been able to write thisreport.
The technology made up the video camera covers a broad
range of fields. In addition to the technologies describedin this report, these also includes such technologies, as
following; viewfinders, LSI for cameras, microcomputer
technology to control video camera functions, related
software technology, casings and other structural
technology, high-density implementations to mountcomponents onto circuit boards and evaluation and highreliability technology at the core of mass production.
Since these technologies are common to many consumer
electronics products, they had to be omitted here due tospace constraints. I hope that these technologies may becovered from a different angle in other research.
It must not be forgotten that these technologies werecreated by researchers and engineers working together
towards common goals through the society activities. A
large number of human resources came together in thevideo camera field in the late 1970s and 1980s, whenvideo camera technologies progressed rapidly. Videocameras were already capable of capturing acceptable fineimages using image pickup tubes and it was not easy tomake up a high-performance video camera using the new
CCD imaging device. To raise the technical level,
engineers have played a technical improvement bypresenting new ideas to others outside the company andby overlaying discussion with friends. Journal andResearch Committee of the Institute of Television
Engineers of Japan (now the Institute of Image
Information and Television Engineers) provided a forum
for presentation and an exchange of ideas ensued, aimed
at the advancement of the technology. Empathetic
guidance to young engineers and a network ofcollaboration was built up by technology veterans of eachmanufacturer beyond company boundaries. Whenelectronic devices study group or method and circuit study
group were held, participants had been overflowed at any
time. After the meetings, participants fed out to the tavern
and continued their passionate discussions until late.
Since a limited space, it has not been possible to provide
technical details in this report. Accordingly, the cited
literatures described in detail, including all authors listed
as possible for ease of searching.
I would like to effectively utilize readers these resources.

Acknowledgments
The author received the cooperation of many people whendescribing this report and expresses sincere thanks to thefollowing people in particular, who provided interviews,
valuable comments and resources.
Toru Mochizuki (ITE Secretary-General)
Keiko Okimune (ITE Editorial Responsible Officer)
Tomoko Kanno (Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry
Patent Office)Nobukazu Teranishi (Panasonic Corporation, Image
Sensor Technology Planning Officer)
Daisaku Abura (Yucaly Optical Laboratory
Masao Suzuki (Canon Inc.)
Kiyoshige Shibasaki (Nikon Corporation)
Fumio Nagumo (formerly of Sony Corporation)
Kazuhiro Sato (formerly of Hitachi Ltd.)
Takao Kuroda (formerly of Panasonic Corporation)
Hirokazu Sekime (formerly of Toshiba Corporation)
TetsuoYamada (Tokyo Polytechnic University)
Kazushige Oi (Fuji Xerox Co., Ltd.)
Yasuyuki Asada (formerly of Toshiba Corporation)
Mitsuru Kawasaki (formerly of NEC Corporation)
The author also expresses sincere thanks to the following
people, who kindly provided the materials on which Table
6.5 is based, including examining video cameras models.
Toshinobu Haruki (formerly of Sanyo Electric Co., Ltd.)
Hideki Toyoda (formerly of Sanyo Electric Co., Ltd.)
Yasushi Watanabe (formerly of Sharp Corporation)
Yasuo Kusano (formerly of Sharp Corporation)
Ikumi Minema (formerly of Victor Company of Japan,
Ltd.)
Hiromichi Tanaka (formerly of Panasonic Corporation)
Tadashi Nagai (Panasonic Corporation)
Toshiya Fujii (Panasonic Corporation)
Sony Corporation Information Center
The author further wishes to express gratitude to thefollowing people, who assisted in locating items.
Ibaraki Prefectural Museum of History: Ikuo Ikeda(Assistant Director), Tadao Ohtsu (Curator Director ofMaterials), Masaki Osato and Yoko Noguchi
Toshiba Science Museum: Boyon Kim
Sharp Museum: Yuriko Fujiwara
Panasonic Corporation, AVC Network Company: Isamu
Miyai
JVC Kenwood Corporation, VHS Museum: Hisao Hino,
Hiroyuki Hiraoka, Masaharu Toyono and Kazunori
TanabeVideo Camera Technologies Systematization

93

Glossary of Acronyms
ACPI method: Adaptive Color Plane Interpolation, ademosaicing method
ADC: Analog to Digital Converter
AE: Auto Exposure, also called AI: Auto Iris
AF: Auto Focus
AFE: Analog Front End, CCD pre-processing circuit
AGC: Automatic Gain Control
AMI: Amplified MOS Intelligent Imager
APD: Avalanche Photodiode Device
AS: Auto Stabilization
AWB: Auto White Balance
BASIS: Base Stored Image Sensor
Bayer method: Primary-color filter array invented by
Bayer
BBD: Bucket Brigade Device
CCD: Charge Coupled Device
CDS: Correlated Double Sampling Circuits
CFA: Color Filter Array
CHBI: Constant Hue Based Interpolation, a demosaicing
method
CID: Charge Injection Device
CTD: Charge Transfer Device
CMD: Charge Modulation Device
CMOS image sensor: Complementary Metal Oxide
Semiconductor image sensor
CPD: Charge Priming Device
DSC: Digital Still Camera
CSD: Charge Sweep Device
DSP: Digital Signal Processor
DV system: Digital Video system, a digital VCR format
DVD: Digital Versatile Disc, Digital Video DiscEFP camera: Electronic Field Production Camera
ENG camera: Electronic News Gathering Camera
FD: Floating Diffusion
FGA: Floating Gate Amplifier
FF-CCD: Full Frame CCD
FIT-CCD: Frame Interline Transfer CCD
FT-CCD: Frame Transfer CCD
HCCD: Horizontal Transfer CCD
HDD: Hard Disc Drive
HDTV: High Definition Television
I-Doll: Intelligent Doll
IEEE: The Institute of Electrical and Electronics
Engineers, the world’s largest electrical engineering
association with 300,000 members
IT-CCD: Interline Transfer CCD, also called IL-CCD
ITO: Indium Tin Oxide Nesa coating
LPF: Low Pass Filter
LSI: Large Scale Integrated Circuits
NL-means: Non-Local Means, an image processing
methodPD: Photo DiodePbO: Lead oxide
Sb2S3: Antimony trisulfide
SD: Secure Digital Memory
SIT: Static Induction Transistor
S/N: Signal to Noise Ratio
TCL: Through the Camera Lens, an automatic focus
method
TSL: Transversal Signal Line
VCCD: Vertical Transfer CCD
VHS: Video Home System
VOD structure: Vertical Overflow Drain structure
VCR: Video Cassette Recorder94

National Museum of Nature and Science Survey Report of Systematization of Technology, Vol.18 March 2013