Systemized Survey on the Development and Practical Application ofCompact Disc (CD) Technology

1

Takao Ihashi
 Abstract
Viewing the history of technology as a whole, the latter half of the 1970s had been one hundred years
since Edison introduced a sound-reproducing system using a wax cylinder, and the world was awaiting
the rise of a new technology. Meanwhile, NHK Science & Technology Research Laboratories had begun
their research and development into using digital communication technology for audio broadcasting. Aftera long period of fundamental research, their first prototype of a digital recording device was presented tothe public in 1969, heralding the dawn of digital audio. Heitaro Nakajima, then Director of NHK
Broadcasting Science Research Laboratories, was the man responsible for this fundamental research.
Nakajima later accepted an offer at Sony Corporation and became responsible for its audio business,developing digital audio and CD, achieving what led to him being called“the father of CD”and“the father ofCD-R”and culminating in his name being engraved in a Medal of Honor with Purple Ribbon from thegovernment of Japan. In retrospect, although the time was ripe for digital audio, no manufacturer had
developed concrete product ideas. However, in March 1979, Philips, a company in The Netherlands,
visited Japan with a prototype of what later became the compact disc. This made a great impact on Sony.
It promptly agreed to negotiate directly with Philips and to commercialize the product, then followed thiswith agile action. The technical details and the product concept for the compact disc were determined byJune of the following year. This compact disc system proposed by Sony and Philips was unveiled withceremony to persons involved with music and recording at Salzburg in April 1981, followed byannouncements in New York in June and in Tokyo in October. Commercialization began the following
year, in the autumn of 1982, but its widespread adoption was in 1985 and beyond. On the other hand, thefundamental technology for digital audio had been in development for more than ten years, playing alarge role in securing and storing master recordings.
The conditions at the dawn of digital audio in this survey report is based on The Challenge for NextGeneration Audio and memoranda by Heitaro Nakajima, and the sequence of events leading up to thebirth of the compact disc is based on memoranda by Masahiro Mizushima, who was a member of Sony’s
negotiation team at the time. Descriptions of optics and digital signal processing technologies forming thecore of this technology are based on papers and documentation published by persons in the field. Also
described are the CD“family”which followed and continued to grow, how the computer-friendly CD-ROM
was born, and how the concepts of“multimedia”and“interactive”were established and came to be put topractical use across a broad scope of applications, including consumer games. Described, too, is how,once the CD-ROM (“read-only”) appeared on the scene, a compatible CD-R (“recordable”) became anecessity in order for consumers to create their own CDs, and, despite concerns about copyrightviolations, CD-R media production rapidly expanded, with the CD-R becoming the most mass-produced
product in human history. Finally, a chapter is spent discussing the cultural revolution thought to havebeen triggered by the CD, however, this systemized survey is not an academic paper but a record of avaluable industrial technology on the decline.
Today, in which network reigns, CD-DA remains a rare case as it still plays the major role as an audio
distribution medium. According to the history of technology, it had been destined to be replaced by new
media or systems by the start of the 21st Century. However, the fact remains that, though 35 years havepassed since its release, no medium has emerged to supplant the CD. What had the late Karajan, theone who had valued and supported the CD the most, seen in its future through his keen foresight? On theother hand, CD systems were heroes made by the times which sped fleetingly through the last 20 yearsof the 20th Century. They grew into the greatest packaged media system of all time as the technology
was fortunate to match the market and the times, creating a large group of related industries. It is a factthat the technology which matured on this foundation was passed on to the current world of networks. CD
systems have, for the large part, finished serving their purpose, but the brilliant history of its technology—
formulating abstract technology to the level of industry—is affirmed to conclude this abstract.

 Profile

Takao Ihashi
Senior Researcher, Center of the History of Japanese Industrial Technology, National Museum of Nature and Science, Tokyo
1967:
1974-1988:
1988-1994:
1994-1997:
1997-2002:
2002-2006:
2006:
1989-1998:
1999:
1996-2001:

Graduated from Saitama University Faculty of Engineering
Started working for Sony Corporation Research Laboratory
Research manager of the Disc Development Division
Assigned to the Audio Video Business Division
Manager of the Multimedia Promotion Division
Head of the Format Center
President and Representative Director of Start Lab Inc.
President and Representative Director of Bifröstec Inc.
Secretary of Orange Forum
Secretary of CDs21 Solutions
Director of DVD FLLC Corp

 Contents
1 Introduction ..................................................................... 4
2 The Dawn of Digital Audio ............................................... 7
3 CD Technology ............................................................. 19
4 Establishing Disc Production Methods ........................... 40
5 Overview of the CD Family ............................................ 47
6 Emergence and Scope of CD-Related Business ............ 53
7 Emergence of Recordable CDs ..................................... 75
8 Establishing ISO Standards for Estimating the Life
Expectancy of Optical Media ......................................... 91
9 The Cultural Revolution Triggered by the CD................. 95
10 Conclusion .................................................................. 100

1Introduction

The compact disc is the de facto standard by Sony

PolyGram respectively, keenly felt a sense of crisis and had

Corporation and Philips Corporation (Netherlands). This

to undergo a rapid paradigm shift. This became a cause forappealing system began with the announcement of compact

hastening the popularization of digital audio throughdisc digital audio (CD-DA) in 1981 and instantly

technology investment, production equipment and every

revolutionized the music industry with the idea of “goodother area possible. Chapter 2 discusses the dawn of digitalmusic, any time, by anyone”. Momentum had been building

audio, describing the sequence of events leading up to theto create a new world of music using digital audio. In the fall

proposal of CD-DA, providing a systematic view of digitalof 1977, a century after Edison’s famous phonographaudio technology and identifying the process by which CD-

cylinder recording of “Mary Had a Little Lamb”, SonyDA basic technology was proposed and decided upon. Fig. 1-

Corporation began proposing technologies and unveiling

1 shows data from the Recording Industry Association of

prototypes, as did other corporate collaborations, such as

Japan on analog record production in Japan. Production

between Mitsubishi Electric Corporation and TEAC

volumes of LPs clearly drop away from 1980. Fig. 1-2 is a

Corporation and between Hitachi Corporation and Nippon

photograph taken at the official unveiling of the compact disc

Columbia Corporation. This prompted the founding of theto the music world in Salzburg in April 1981. This priceless“Digital Audio Disc (DAD) Committee” and thephotograph shows Herbert von Karajan of the Vienna

commencement of discussions on standardizing digital audio

Philharmonic Orchestra, a staunch supporter and fountain ofdiscs. In March 1979, Philips unveiled a prototype compact

knowledge on digital audio, standing in front of thedisc to Japanese manufacturers as a successor to the compact

Sony/Philips prototype player and enjoying CD-DA playback

cassette, using basic optical video disc (VLP) technology.

with Sony chairman at the time, Morita Akio. The small-scale

While all the other manufacturers took a “wait and see”

Sony player shown in the photograph was the result of a

stance, Sony decided that this was an ideal concept for

design project consigned to the author of the present report.

distributing new music content and promptly signed a joint
development contract with Philips. This was due to Nakajima

Disc record production volume by model (unit: 1 million)

Heitarō, Sony’s managing director and general manager of
the audio business division, who had previously been the
Laboratory. During his time at the NHK, he had worked on

45 rpm 17cm
No. of records

general manager of the NHK Broadcasting Science Researchresearch and development of digital audio technology, and78 rpmSony was leading development in this area. From August

33 rpm 17cm

1979, meetings were held every other month in Eindhoven

1930(Netherlands) and Tokyo to work on the technical details. In

Note 1: 78 rpm record production volume estimated from the raw material used
2: Production volumes are unknown for 1943-1945 due to wartime

the summer of 1980, the two companies reached a basic
agreement, signing a famous collaborative development
declaration stating that “contribution to modulation as well as
error correction from Sony and Philips is equal”. The

Fig. 1-1 Trends in Analog Record Production Volumes
and Production Values (Japan/per year)
Excerpt from RIAJ resources

companies set October 21, 1982 as the release date for music
software and players. Sony launched the CDP101 together
with several dozen music titles, and the compact disc era
suddenly began.
The CDP101 was not widely popular due to its high pricetag. However, sales soared when the D-50 portable CD player
hit the markets in 1984 for a strategically low price of lessthan ¥50,000. This was accompanied by a huge uptake inmusic software. Music content production at the time was thedomain of the LP record, but LP sales noticeably dropped
away from around 1980. Sony and Philips, affiliated with

At center: Maestro Herbert von Karajan

Fig. 1-2 Unveiling of the CD in Salzburg (Austria, April 15,
1981)

world-leading music content companies CBS/Sony Inc. and4

At right: Sony Chairman Morita Akio

National Museum of Nature and Science Survey Report of Systematization of Technology, Vol. 25 2018. MarchAs a means of systematizing CD technology, the book oftest case, but the participants can be proud of their pioneering

CD-DA standards, or the “Red Book”, contains characteristicrole, as a similar system was later adopted for DVD/Blu-ray.

specifications such as external form, digital signal processing

The CD-R was easy to use, offering almost 1GB ofand error correction. The main technology items given in thisrecording capacity. It was very useful as external media

report are based on the process of negotiations between Sonystorage for computers, and most computers either came withand Philips. Chapter 3 discusses this CD technology ina CD-R/CD-ROM drive or had one built in. At their peak,greater detail. Chapter 4 outlines production methods for

CD drives were being produced and shipped at the samethese discs that held the key to distributing music content.

volume as computers (around 200 million per year). The CD-

The CD rapidly grew in scope of application. The

R, as the recording media, became the most produced productcomputer-friendly CD-ROM standard was announced aroundin human history at around 10 billion per year. The golden

1985. The book of CD-ROM standards was named theage lasted until around 2002, with the CD-R being used for“Yellow Book”. The CD-ROM format was actively utilizedexchanging all kinds of data, storing and sharing photos,

by Microsoft Corporation for distributing everything fromeducational data and medical data. However, Japanesepersonal computer (PC) user manuals to application software.

production only accounted for around 10% of total

Other companies adopted the idea and the CD-ROM became

production, with other countries in Asia accounting for overthe leading form of external storage media for computers. As

50%. This led to price competition and resulted in the market

computers advanced and spread, CD-ROMs were even usedbeing flooded with “cheap and nasty” unlicensed products

for household video game consoles. Hardware devices andand the credibility of recordable optical discs being tarnished.

distribution media hit the markets in staggering numbers, in

The industry worked hard and in earnest to restore its

turn rapidly driving down the cost of hardware and software,

reputation, banning imports and providing guidance to stores.

which spread its popularity further.

However, the vitality of illegitimate overseas manufacturers,

Other members of the CD family began to appear on thewho, with no concept of the “yield rates” of their own high-scene from around 1986-1987, just as the CD-ROM had

performance optical discs, imported second-handdone. This CD family is discussed in Chapter 5. Chapter 6

manufacturing equipment from Japan and produced fake CD-

describes the emergence and scope of CD-related business,Rs, led to serious concerns over the future of the industry.

including the tabletop CD-DA player business, technology

This led to the establishment of ISO standards for estimating

related to the CD Walkman, which made the CD known to

the life expectancy of recordable R media, discussed in

the world, and technology related to the CD-ROM, which

Chapter 8, and the formation of a stable recordable R discdeveloped into a huge business.

market. Although increased semiconductor memory density
and improved network environments meant that the CD-

The most important member of the family was the

R/RW had to concede its leading role from around 2005-

recordable CD (CD-R), compatible with CD-DA and CD-

2006, there is still strong demand for the product and it is still

ROM. This is discussed in Chapter 7, along with thebeing used in various areas, at around one-third the volume ofrewritable CD-RW. The CD-R was proposed in 1989 and theits golden age.

standards formulated into the “Orange Book” by Sony
Corporation, Philips Corporation and recording film patent

The compact disc is not just a playback device and aholder Taiyo Yuden Co., Ltd. However, the CD standard only

recording device; it is also a uniquely shaped storage medium

defined signal reflectivity of at least 70%, and each company(120mm diameter, 1.2mm thick) capable of holding almost

used different characteristics of recording film. Maintaining

1GB of information. It has a recording density similar to that

CD-DA and CD-ROM playback compatibility was a majorof the semiconductor lithograph of the early 1980s. This

concern. The only solution was to assign each recording

required technology capable of etching a semiconductor

medium an ID code and have the drive read that code topattern on a plastic surface, a far cry from anything in the

optimize recording. This media identification method system

existing recording industry. All manufacturing had to be

was launched and closely managed. The Orange Forum (acarried out in a clean room, with production facility

voluntary industry group) was formed in keeping with thespecifications at the same level as semiconductor production.

Orange Book to provide management and guidance on

Production machinery started out with some trial and error,

adhering to this rule, thereby averting the crisis. Even now,and it took quite some time to perfect the entire system.

the company ID codes are strictly maintained and work in

Meanwhile, the market expanded from the CD-DA and CD-

conjunction with the drive system. This was the world’s first

ROM to the huge CD-R market. The CD-R production line

Systemized Survey on the Development and Practical Application of Compact Disc (CD) Technology

5

produced around 100 million discs per month and was madepart of everyday life. Chapter 9 discusses the theory of theup of a vast array of fully-automated production machinery

cultural revolution triggered by the CD, whereby thethat worked 24 hours a day on pressing, coating depositing,interactive culture and the concept of multimedia formed theannealing and packaging.

basis for networking technology and has carried on throughIn the end, it is an indisputable fact that over the last 30

to the present day.

years, the compact disc has entered the market and become

Have we angered Karajan?
In the fall of 1977, Maestro Karajan came to Japan with the Berlin Philharmonic Orchestra. During a moment of freetime, he decided to visit Sony’s chairman, Mr. Morita. Morita wanted to welcome Karajan with something special, so hethought he would play him a digital recording. Morita prepared for the day meticulously. He called on Nakajima Heitarō,
head of the research laboratory, to play some music recorded digitally on the PCM1600.
As the music played, the maestro’s face turned into a sullen frown. What he was hearing was a recording of a recent
lively rehearsal of “Il Trovatore”, conducted by himself. It was real and impacting, complete with the occasional
reprimand of orchestra members by the maestro and furious tapping of the baton. However, a rehearsal is very private toan artist, which explained the look on Karajan’s face. Nakajima recollected profusely apologizing to the maddened
Karajan for “slipping into the rehearsal and taking a recording and then playing it back without permission”.
The truth was that before the summer break, Sony staff had taken their digital recording system (including the
PCM1600) to the recording studio at EMI Records, a well-known record label in London. The EMI engineers were going
to be recording an orchestra conducted by Karajan the following week in Salzburg and had asked the Sony staff to run acomparative test using an analog master tape and the PCM1600 connected to the same microphone under the same
conditions. However, being angry was only natural, because whatever the reason, the fact remained that they had made asecret audio recording by not asking permission and by recording the digital audio without consent. The maestro accepted
their explanation that they only wanted to test the sound quality of the prototyped digital recording equipment and had noother ulterior motive for making the recording and turned his attention to the music once more. As he did, his expression
changed to one of surprise.
The sullen-faced Karajan had gone through questions such as “What is digital?” and “What is the rationale behind it?”Now he began to smile and show signs of admiration, with comments like, “This is completely new music. This is thesound of the future.” In the end, he even remarked that he would like to set up such a system at his work, to which Morita
readily agreed. When the maestro returned home, Nakajima followed him with a letter of thanks. He recalled part of theletter said, “Technology is constantly evolving. Our nature is to conduct research and development in search of goodsound anywhere. You are in a different position, but you understand this in the sense of seeking good sound.” The maestro
later went on to become a backer of digital audio technology, assisting the popularization of the CD as its greatest
supporter and evangelist.

6

National Museum of Nature and Science Survey Report of Systematization of Technology, Vol. 25 2018. March

2

The Dawn of Digital Audio

2.1 Digital Audio Research

SP record player
30cm φ SP record

The history of audio in the 20th century is a history of
seeking better sound. Broadcasting systems used forbroadcasting live music produced and recorded in studios andhalls began with medium-wave broadcasting in the 1930s andprogressed to FM and FM stereo broadcasting by the 1960s.
PCM broadcasting began in the 1990s and we are now in theage of high quality internet broadcasting. Recording beganwith electrical amplification and transitioned to the age of thetape recorder in the 1960s. Various digital audio tape (DAT)systems began to emerge in the 1980s. Meanwhile, records
shifted from phonograph cylinders to disk-type SP records,
followed by the emergence of long play (LP) records in the
1950s. These dominated until the CD-DA disc appeared. Inthat sense, the 1970s were the dawning era of digital audio,
while the 1980s were the era in which the technology
blossomed. The product that triggered this was undeniably
the CD-DA system. Fig. 2-1-1 shows the correlations
between recording, broadcasting and records from around1920 to around 2000. Fig. 2-1-2 shows examples of SP and
LP players that were used until the CD appeared. For adetailed report on the systematization of technology before
the emergence of digital audio, refer to Anazawa Takeaki“Historical Development of Analog Disc Recording
Technology and Artifacts Now in Existence”, Survey Reporton the Systematization of Technologies, Vol. 21.
Live
performance

Studiohall
Meeting places

Broadcasting

Collecting
soundRecords

Recording

Carbon microphone

Electrical
amplification

Broadcasting studio
Ribbon microphone
Civic hallHall

Condenser microphone

FM broadcast

StereoRecording studioMultipurpose hall

Digital
Net broadcast

Fig. 2-1-1 Correlation Diagram of Sound Collection,
Broadcasting and Records

According to former Sony general manager Nakajima
Heitarō in “Jisedai Ōdio ni Idomu [The Challenge for NextGeneration Audio]”, records remain of the fresh dawning eraof digital audio. Digital audio research was begun by the
Acoustic Research Division of the NHK Science &Technology Research Laboratories, where Nakajima wasworking.

Stereo LP player
30cm φ vinyl record

Fig. 2-1-2 SP and LP Record Players

Nakajima was taking great efforts to improve the quality of
FM broadcasting. On November 23, 1963, shocking news
came through the Japan-USA satellite relay (the assassinationof President Kennedy). What left an impression on Nakajima
was that this relay came through on digital communication
technology. This prompted him to start studying how
digitization could be applied to sound broadcasting. He
identified the tape recorders that were being used as one
cause for the deterioration in FM broadcasting quality.
Consequently, with the opinion that a key technology
innovation was needed, he set out to see if the tape recordersystem could be digitized. At the time, digitization meantconverting the signal to pulse code modulation (PCM). Thiswas front-running technology in the world ofcommunications. Given that the frequency band used for
PCM recording is 1-2MHz, the under-resourced digital audio
project got under way with the assumption that a video
recorder could be used. However, the prevailing view
regarding research on the digital audio tape recorder for
improving FM broadcasting quality was that digitaltechnology was used for space communication andtelephones and had nothing to do with high-quality audio
technology. This research was nothing more than a sidecurrent in the Science & Technology Research Laboratories.
Nevertheless, Hayashi Kenji, who had first proposed the

Systemized Survey on the Development and Practical Application of Compact Disc (CD) Technology

7project, and the other researchers worked tirelessly andfinally produced a barracks-model prototype in 1966. It was
not perfect, but it was capable of playing back digital audio.
Fig. 2-1-3 shows photographs of the improved stereospecification PCM prototype No. 2 produced by the NHK
Science & Technology Research Laboratories.

general manager of the NHK Broadcasting Science ResearchLaboratories, and then was headhunted for a position at Sony
Corporation in 1971, serving as the head of the newly
established Audio Technology Center. Since he also served
as the head of the Audio Business Group, everything aboutaudio at Sony, from development to business, came under
Nakajima’s domain. However, in those days Sony wasconcentrating its investment into the professional U-Matic
and the household VTR, with digital technology not evengetting a glimpse. Around 1973, Nakajima began suggestingVideo recorder

digital audio development to Sony’s technical laboratory,
based on research from his time at the NHK. Nakajima
initially proposed a system comprising a 2″ tape recorder unitthat had 56 fixed magnetic heads, a tape speed of 76cm/s andMain unit (power supply
unit not shown)

Fig. 2-1-3 NHK PCM Prototype (Stereo)

In May 1969, the NHK Science & Technology ResearchLaboratories unveiled the PCM prototype No. 2 on its
opening day. The music played was from the RimskyKorsakov opera “The Golden Cockerel”. The researchers had
been up all night making adjustments and were deeply moved
when the sound of the Cockerel played. The quality of thesound mesmerized the listeners and was a great success. This“world’s first digital sound” was thought to be a premonitionof the dawn of digital audio and the world of digital audio tocome. However, Nakajima later transferred to the NHK
Broadcasting Science Research Laboratories. With the focus
shifting from acoustic technology to color image technology,
the Science & Technology Research Laboratories’ digitalaudio technology development mission came to an end andthe researchers involved had to seek out new areas of activity.
The PCM technology that had been cultivated went to theprivate sector along with the researchers. From around 1972,
efforts began to be made in the field of music recording to
produce a practical digital audio tape recorder. Around a
decade before the launch of CD-DA, technologicaldevelopments in digital audio recording were steadilybuilding up, improving and being put to use in recording,well on the way to practical implementation. It is admirable
how suited the Japanese character is to this type oftechnology development. Nippon Columbia took the world
by storm with the release of “Denon PCM digital records”,
high-quality digitally-recorded LP records. This is discussed
in detail in Anazawa Takeaki “Historical Development of
Analog Disc Recording Technology and Artifacts Now in
Existence”, mentioned previously.
Meanwhile, Nakajima Heitarō had gone on to become the8weighed around 300kg, with a separate PCM digital audio
adapter.
Analog tape recorders for directly recording continuous
sound waveforms usually have a frequency band as close to
0.2MHz as possible. High-end digital audio requires several
million bits per second, which equates to several MHz per
second. As irony would have it, this issue was resolved by theprofessional U-Matic and household Betamax video
recorders that Sony was commercializing at the time. Since
these systems were handling video signals, recording pulse
codes of several megabits was well within their
specifications. Mechanical parts were a high investment cost,
but a reliable supply could be obtained by adapting the video
cassette recorder (VCR) that was coming onto the market.
This meant that development only had to concentrate on the
PCM digital audio adapter processing unit, which madeachievement all the more likely. The VCR was usually used
for recording and playing television programs. By adding aprocessor, it could be functionally upgraded into a digitalaudio tape recorder. The idea was that this could rouseconsumer interest as an attractive feature of the household
VCR that was rapidly gaining popularity. Thus, two PCM
digital audio adapter systems came into being: the PCM-1,
designed to integrate with the Betamax household VCR, and
the PCM-1600, designed to integrate with the U-Matic
professional VCR. Fig. 2-1-4 shows the PCM-1 and the full
professional U-Matic system with the PCM-1600.
PCM adapters, especially the PCM-1600, are extremely
historically valuable. In an age where there was only analog
recording equipment and hardware, Sony’s release of thePCM-1600 digital audio recording system for professional
applications was truly impacting. This made it possible torecord digital master tapes and was the forerunner ofintegrated systems in which the entire process from recording
to editing and cutting could be done digitally.

National Museum of Nature and Science Survey Report of Systematization of Technology, Vol. 25 2018. Marchdecade before the CD-DA, and the emergence of the CD-DA
was the best choice as far as timing of introduction wasconcerned. Records indicate that the first digital recording
was in April 1972 was a performance at Aoyama Tower Hallof two Mozart string quartets, String Quartet No. 15 in D
Minor (K. 421) and “The Hunt”, String Quartet No. 17 in Bflat Major (K. 458), by the noted Czech Smetana Quartet,
which happened to be in Japan at the time. The performers
later asked to redo the recording, and so another version
partially re-recorded in Prague was released with the first
CDs in 1982. By strange coincidence, the first digitallyrecorded CD released also featured a Mozart string quartet.
Another major role played by the PCM adapter is its
U-Matic and PCM-1600

Fig. 2-1-4 Sony PCM-1 and PCM1600

Vast amounts of analog tapes began to be converted to digital
at a rapid pace. The new added value was beneficial when it
came to introducing digital systems. Further developments
were made to the PCM-1600, and the 1610, 1620 and 1630
were released on the market. This was a major supporting
factor for the production of CD-DA.

significant contribution to the practical implementation ofdigital discs for optical audio, that is, compact discs. Aroundthe mid-1970s, the household VCR (VHS, Betamax) started
gaining more attention as a medium for video distribution
rather than just serving as a time shift option for recording
TV programs. Of course, there was demand from content
holders in Hollywood and elsewhere for video discs as a
distribution medium, just like the record. In response,
household electronics manufacturers around the world beganproposing technological possibilities. Table 2-2-1 shows thefirst video disc ideas proposed in 1977. These futuristic

2.2 The Start of Digital Audio

technologies came in a variety of formats, such as the optical

The basis for the PCM adapter is the sampling frequency.
This also played a significant role in the CD-DA sampling
frequency and in the quantization bit number. The sampling
frequency is 44.1kHz, the optimum value calculated fromanalog VCR. This was brought over into the standards forstudio digital recording and developed into the sampling
frequency for CD-DA, as shall be discussed later. It was also
used in the multichannel recorders that followed and became

video disc proposed by Philips and introduced on the market
as the Video Long Play (VLP), the electrostatic CED
developed by juggernaut RCA and the mechanical TED
proposed by Telefunken.
Table 2-2-1 Comparison of Video Disc Formats (1977)
Signal Detection Method

OpticalElectrostatic

Developer: Product Name

Phillips: VLP

RCA: CED

Cutting

Photoresistor(using laser)

Photoresistor(using laser)

the basic sampling frequency for digital studios. Anotherfrequency, 47.25kHz, also reached implementation stage, but
44.1kHz processing is used for almost everything in the areaof audio mastering, including recording, editing and master

MaterialDisc
Signal surface

production.
Although a major controversy later arose regardingwhether the quantization bit number for commercial CD-DA
products should be 14 or 16 bits, in the early days of digitalaudio recorders until around 1971, a 12-bit non-linear system

SignalReading

Transparent
plastic(deposition
process
required)
1mm depth fromsurface (caddy
not needed)

MechanicalTelefunken:
TED
Mechanical(same as theLP)

Conductive
plastic (yield?)

Plastic (same as
the LP)

Surface (caddy
needed)Surface (caddy
needed)SensorLaser reflectedlightPlayback needle
with electrode

Relationshipbetweensensor anddisc

Playback needle→ piezoelectricelement

No contact

Contact

Contact

Optical pickup?

Disc?

None

Cost Push Factors

was used. Nippon Columbia achieved PCM digital recording
around 1972 using 13 bits. A 14-bit system was also
investigated. Eventually, around 1979, the 16-bit format was
adopted, as it was technologically possible in terms ofprofessional application, plus the engineers wanted to “giveend users the same high sound quality as professionals”. In
that sense, the conditions for digital audio were laid out a

The optical video disc format stood out from the othertechnologies as it could read a signal without making
physical contact. The signal from the PCM adapter wasrecorded in FM modulation on the principle that it would berecorded by VCR. However, experiments by Sony revealed

Systemized Survey on the Development and Practical Application of Compact Disc (CD) Technology

9that digital sound files simply would not play. Although error
correction had been identified, it was not yet at an adequatelevel of completion. Sony learned two things from theseexperiments: the signal from the PCM adapter had to berecorded directly; and a signal processing format had to be
developed with improved error correction for the uncharteredfield of digital audio discs. This direct recording was the only
format using optical video disc technology and later led to the
CD-DA.
Around 1977, when the PCM-1 was launched, was also
when RCA, the world’s largest electronics manufacturer,
began fighting for a share of the household VCR market and
set its sights on developing a video disc. This was the eve
before the dawn of the video media business, and mostmanufacturers had faith in the video disc market as a medium
for video distribution. Everyone was focusing on standards
and commercial products for video discs and digital audio
discs alike. There were no manufacturers dedicated to digitaldiscs only for audio. The cutting-edge technology exhibitedat the All-Japan Audio Fair in the fall of 1977 included

2.3 CD Concept Proposed
At that time, Sony’s technical laboratory under Nakajima
was focused on getting better direct recordings of audio
signals and improving other technologies such as error
correction. They were also making rapid advances inrecording density and working on getting longer recording
times on smaller forms of recording medium. The prototype
system exhibited at the 1978 Audio Fair had a two-hour
digital sound recording on a 30cm disc. The following year,
in 1979, the team had achieved a recording density that could
record over 13 hours on the same sized disc. These advancesin recording density were the result of research at the time.
Fig. 2-3-1 shows the progress in basic technology for
improving recording density from 1976 to 1979. The 30cm
disc, which could only hold 30 minutes of FM recording in
1976, could hold 13 hours of direct recording three years
later. This was entirely due to bright ideas and hard work byengineers. Fig. 2-3-2 shows a 30cm optical DAD prototype(13 hour playback) released by Sony in 1978. However,many were of the opinion that while recording more than ten

prototype digital audio disc players by Sony, ahours was feasible for business purposes, it was not a reality

Hitachi/Nippon Columbia group and a Mitsubishi

for household use. Of course, there were no clear answers on

Electric/TEAC/Tokyo Denca group. The direction of

how a 30cm product could become a commercially viable

technology trends at the time was evident in that Sonycommodity.

exhibited a dedicated digital audio player, while the other two

Rotation

Modulation

Playback time1976

1800 rpm

FM modulation
video format

30 min (single
sided)

Sep
1977

900 rpm

Oct1978

450 rpmJun
1979

64 rpmgroups presented prototypes that were compatible with video
discs.
The atmosphere at the time clearly indicated that the new
digital audio technology was in the air and that newtechnologies were beginning to blossom profusely. The
following year, in 1978, 15 companies established the Digital
Audio Disc (DAD) Committee for discussing thestandardization of digital audio discs. After two and a halfyears, 50 companies had become members and over 100
meetings had been held. Eventually, the committee dissolved

Fig. 2-3-1

Directrecording
Delay
Modulation
Directrecording
Run Length
Limited CodeDirectrecording
HDM-1

Waveform/code

1 hour(single sided)
2 hours 30 min(single sided)
13 hours 20 min(single sided)

Advances in Sony PCM Audio Disc
Recording Density

after proposing the CD as a digital audio disc format, alongwith several other formats. As a result, the DAD Committee
had no part in the specifications for the CD or its
manufacturing. Although it had not made any
recommendations on unifying digital audio specifications, theactivities of the DAD Committee were the first movements instandardization led by the private sector.

Fig. 2-3-2 Sony 30cm Optical DAD Prototype

10

National Museum of Nature and Science Survey Report of Systematization of Technology, Vol. 25 2018. March

The year 1979 is one of the most important years in CD
development history. World renowned Dutch electronics

The Philips prototype had the following specifications.
Demonstration model description

manufacturer Philips brought a prototype CD player to Japan• Disc diameter:

115mm

to demonstrate it. The team from the Netherlands included• Disc thickness:

1.5mm

Lou Ottens, technical director of the Philips Audio Industry• Sampling frequency:

44.3kHz

Group, Joop Sinjou, also from the Audio Industry Group, and• Quantization:

14 bitchief engineer Jacques Heemskerk. They visited each of the• Rotation:

500-215 rpm, starting frommajor manufacturers in turn. The intention was clear: Philips
was thinking about proposing a new global standard andcenterDevelopment concept

Japan, brimming with prominent electronic manufacturers,• Replacement for LP records

was the first target. The prototype had a huge impact on• Dedicated audio

Sony. Nakajima recalls, “We hadn’t even thought as far as a

• Wider scope of application by downsizing

commercial product, but our eyes were opened and we were

• Uses a semiconductor laser

very impressed by Philips’ approach”. As mentioned

Other details, such as the recording density and error

previously, the reaction from most manufacturers other thancorrection, are still under investigation and have not yet beenSony was to take a “wait and see” stance. This was because

published. Fig. 2-3-3 shows the Philips demonstration

most Japanese manufacturers at the time were caught up in

prototype. There was a considerable amount of digital

the appeal of the video disc and had disregarded the idea ofcircuitry under the table, but as advances were made in LSI,

commercializing an audio-only disc. Another reason for this

this all was made to fit inside the small sized player. Philips

reaction is that most manufacturers were developing contact-

and Sony had been unable to negotiate to an agreement overtype signal reading technology and had little confidence in ahousehold video cassette recorders and both had experience

contactless optical system.

bitter failure. Now faced with shrinking music production,

Meanwhile, Sony had improved digital recording and error

this made the bond between the two companies stronger andcorrection technology to achieve higher density recording andprobably became the driving force behind the new-concept

longer playing time and was now at the stage of having to

product, the CD-DA.

define a specific product image. The question was how tomarket several hours of music software. At that point, thesurprisingly good proposal came from Philips, and Sony leapt
on board to resolve its own issues. With its “eyes opened” toPhilips’ idea of a small scale, dedicated audio disc, Sonyworked with Philips on standardization based on the Philips
prototype. The company was quick to reach a consensus, and
the Philips/Sony joint task force was formed in August 1979.

At the same time, Sony’s senior management was moving
quickly. In April 1979, a month after Philips’ demonstrationin Japan, Sony Vice President Ōga Norio met with W. Zaiss,
Philips VLP division manager. Sony chairman Morita Akio
met with Philips vice president Cor van der Klugt in May,
while Sony president Iwama Kazuo visited PolyGram in
Eindhoven and Hanover. This rapid succession of moves by
senior executives was keen and agile, and deepening thesebonds between business is thought to have been the greatest
factor in the success of the CD.

Fig. 2-3-3 Philips Concept Model

2.4 Sony/Philips Discussion Memorandum
With “eyes opened” by the compact disc product proposal
from Philips, Sony had a rapid succession of questions andsuggestions for Philips, confident in its decade of experiencein digital audio technology. Despite the fact that it had its
own music company, CBS Sony (with the power to resist a

Systemized Survey on the Development and Practical Application of Compact Disc (CD) Technology

11new format), it was less than a month after the demonstration(2) Playback Lengththat the company reached a consensus to base its technology

Both companies were of the same opinion regarding

on the optical format compact disc. This was the first time inplayback duration. Philips proposed a playback duration of

the company’s history that a basic agreement on how to

45-60 minutes, to which Sony agreed. The echoes of four-

proceed had resulted from urgent meetings between seniorchannel audio were still present throughout the audio industry

managers. Based on that agreement, relevant staff from theat the time. Sony insisted on the importance of a four-channel

two companies held a series of six meetings in Eindhoven

system that was bi-directionally compatible with two-channel(Netherlands) and Tokyo between August 1979 and June

systems. Frequency division and time division were also

1980 to establish specifications. Discussions between thediscussed, but there were questions about both. There werecompanies began in Eindhoven and resulted in a basic

also doubts about the marketability of a four-channel system,

agreement within six months. Within a year, a provision

so the discussion did not go into depth. However, it wasstandards book, the so-called “Red Book”, had been put

standardized in the Red Book that one bit would be allocatedtogether. The negotiated outcomes between Sony and Philips

to four-channel and if there was market demand, this could be

were added into the detailed report (memorandum) byachieved by halving the playback time. Unfortunately, no

Mizushima Masahiro (Sony R & D manager). Mizushima

four-channel audio has emerged to date.

was the only Sony representative present at all of themeetings. Since the senior managers of the companies had
already agreed on the product concept, the necessary items to
be discussed regarding digital audio disc specifications
included: (1) the outer diameter, inner diameter, thickness
and other physical characteristics of the disc; (2) playback
length; (3) sampling frequency and quantization bit number;(4) modulation method; (5) error correction method; (6)discussed by the Digital Audio Standards Committee of the
Audio Engineering Society, and advocated for a sampling
frequency of 50.4kHz and 16-bit quantization.
However, Philips argued that this was too much, since
20kHz was adequate for audio bandwidth. Regarding thestandard laser frequency (780nm semiconductor laser).

quantization bit number, Philips spoke on behalf of its• First meeting (August 27-28, 1979, Eindhoven)“since 16-bit is used for professional mastering, 14-bit is

The attendees were Nakajima Heitarō, Miyaoka Senri(manager of the Disc Development Division), Doi Toshitada(deputy director of the technical laboratory) and Mizushima
Masahiro from Sony, and Pieter Bögels, Marino Carraso

subsidiary music company, PolyGram, with the view thatenough for consumer use”. Either way, both companies
agreed that “one level down from professional use isadequate for consumer use”.

(manager of the Optical Disc Research Division, Research(4) Modulation Method

Center), Joop Sinjou and Jacques Heemskerk from Philips. It

At this meeting, Philips explained that the demonstration

was agreed to aim to release new products in 1982-1983 andmodel had used modified Miller modulation, the so-called

to finalize a summary of specifications by the end of the year.
The details of the discussion are given below.
(1) Disc Outer Diameter
The demonstration disc Philips brought to Japan had adiameter of 115mm. This diameter matched the diagonallength of the compact cassettes that were the main audio
system at the time.
Philips was conscious of the car audio industry and wanted
to maintain company consistency with a size that matchedthat of the compact cassette. The shared development task ofthe developers was to go “from compact cassette to compact
disc”. However, this did not mean Philips was fixated on
115mm. The requirement was to have the player fit within the
DIN standards, which meant any disc diameter between
105mm and 125mm was possible.

12(3) Sampling Frequency and Quantization Bit Number
Sony believed that the strongest candidate was 50.4kHz, as

M2 method, for its modulation. Philips also discussed theeffect of the molding precision of the pit (the shape the signal
forms on the disc) on jitter and highlighted the importance ofcontrolling the low frequency component of the modulation
signal.
Sony agreed that jitter depends on molding precision.
Regarding the effect of the low frequency component, Sonyasserted that the emphasis should be on having the minimum
inversion intervals during high density recording, andpromised to present data on the verified four to twelve
modulation (FTM) at the next meeting.
(5) Error Correction Method
Philips showed the huge amount of data it had compiled
on disc errors and claimed that most of it was random error

National Museum of Nature and Science Survey Report of Systematization of Technology, Vol. 25 2018. Marchusing 3 bits or less. Sony insisted on the importance ofproposed that it should have some components in common

countermeasures for burst error as well as random error andwith video disc players. The situation at the time was

the importance of error signal correction with long interleave

probably affected by the introduction of video disc systems

length. The two companies had very different opinions. As

on the market, and so this came up for discussion.

the debate went on, Philips admitted the importance of burst

Specifically, this included making factors such as discerror countermeasures, but insisted that burst error is caused

thickness, center hole diameter and signal area start diameterby hardware mistracking or defocusing and that a method tocompletely prevent the cause from occurring would be
sufficient. Sony repeatedly advocated the idea that if long
burst error is presumed to occur, then a suitably capable error
correction method should be built into the system from theoutset.
The companies also discussed the concept of control anddisplay, the forerunner to subcode, and how to implement it.
• Second meeting (October 3-5, 1979, Tokyo)
The two companies first presented and explained theirmodulation and error correction methods. These were atodds, with Sony favoring (1) FT modulation and (2) crossinterleaved error correction and Philips favoring (1) M2
modulation and (2) convolution error correction (2,3). They
agreed to technically compare, measure and verify bothclaims and to reciprocally send engineers to work on trial
disc manufacturing. Laying the groundwork for proceedingwith discussions based on data made for significant progressin that it was the first step towards joint development.
It has become something of a legend that the team sent tothe same as video discs. The conclusion was that it would not
be possible to implement, given the significant difference
between the concepts, and Sony agreed. This resolved thefirst question of compatibility with video discs and the matter
was settled that the CD would be a dedicated digital audio
disc. The CD continued to be developed as a dedicated digitalaudio system for another decade until around 1990, with the
emergence of the video CD, a digital video disc using
MPEG1 video signal processing technology.
• Third meeting (December 17-19, 1979, Eindhoven)
The test results of the jointly developed experimental discs
agreed on at the previous meeting were reported.
In terms of modulation method, the FT method proposedby Sony resulted in three times more bit errors than the M2
method proposed by Philips. It was also reported as being
less adequate in terms of dropout, fingerprints and sensitivity
to asymmetrical pit shape. Sony had predicted this situationand had developed 3PM modulation, a new and improved
method to replace FT modulation. Consequently, Sony

Philips were true engineers with very little English. Dr.

agreed to abandon FT modulation immediately and propose a

Heemskerk, chief engineer at Philips, shared the following

new “ASAP” method as soon as possible. The improved 3PM

recollection. “Those engineers were very brave. Fluent

modulation method was later named eight to fourteen

English is not always necessary to have a discussion about

modulation (EFM) and became the mainstay of basic CD

technology, and they were able to fully enter the discussion

technology.

using the universal language of technology. In the end, we

In terms of error correction, the proposals by both Sonybecame a single team, regardless of nationality or

and Philips were reported as having no issues for ordinary

management.” As a success story for future generations, thisdiscs, although Sony’s method proved to be better in the low-

proves that no matter what the situation, the determining

error range and Philips’ method proved to be better in thefactor is “having the courage to take the plunge”. It has longhigh-error range. However, from a technical point of view,

been said of many events that “it was easier than wethe reports indicated that there was room for improvement inthought”.

error correction capabilities for scratches and fingerprints on

At the meeting, Sony insisted that if it was possible tohave a disc diameter of less than 125mm while still ensuring
more than 45 minutes of playback time, then the standard
sampling frequency should be 50.4kHz with 16-bit
quantization. Philips commented that if the disc was less than
115mm, it had no issue with Sony’s proposal.
However, despite understanding that the basic concept for
the CD was a dedicated audio system, Sony unusually

the disc surface and where signal reading tracking or focus
was out.
Despite the tireless efforts of the engineers, time went
marching on. The directive from management to gather
measurement data in 1979 and reach a final agreement inMarch 1980 was impossible to achieve. However, theengineers at Sony and Philips admirably did all they could toSystemized Survey on the Development and Practical Application of Compact Disc (CD) Technology

13put together the main specifications in time for the DAD

Europe. Amidst all this, Sony withdrew its initial insistenceCommittee scheduled in March.

on 50.4kHz in favor of 44.1kHz, as this was the frequency it

To achieve this, they did anything they could and used any
resource they could find. For error correction in particular,

1978. Sony had decided that this sampling frequency was still

they separated the factors causing random error and thetheoretically able to produce audio playback at 20kHz. At thefactors for burst error caused by physical anomalies in thesame time, the greatest advantage to digital audio was no loss

disc and implemented a very thorough computer simulation.

of sound quality by having the same sampling frequency

At this time, Sony only had one IBM 1340 and it was sharedfrom recording to editing, cutting and disc production. Thisby the business division. Commandeering this IBM, used to

was necessary to be able to easily use the many master

calculate the payroll, to run simulations overnight meant thatsources already recorded on the PCM-1600. This

the payroll could not be calculated, resulting in delayed

revolutionary decision meant that the same samplingsalary payments and angry scolding from the managers infrequency would be used for professional use and consumer

general affairs. At the beginning of March, an ASAP

use alike.

modulation method was proposed to Philips, with thismuddled month having widened the window margin. The
error correction method proposed by Sony was crossinterleaved Reed-Solomon code (CIRC) error correction,
developed by converting adjoining code into Reed-Solomoncode with the idea that it would make the hardware(2) Quantization bit number
Philips had pegged the CD as an easy listening medium for
in-car audio and insisted that a quantization bit number of 14
could theoretically produce a dynamic range of 86db andwould be adequate for consumer use. In fact, most analog

configuration easier.

cassette tapes and LP records to date have been around 70db,• Fourth meeting (March 17-19, 1980, Tokyo)

provided far superior sound quality. It is also a fact that many

The objective of this meeting was to have a summary ofso the 86db achieved with 14-bit quantization would haveof the key 16-bit devices at the time were only used forbasic CD technology ready in time for the DAD Committee

military or measuring equipment. Using these for consumer

meeting scheduled for the end of March 1980. The mainuse would have added two extra digits to the cost, which

specifications agreed on were: (1) a sampling frequency ofactually was a preposterous proposal. Despite this, Sony44.1kHz; (2) 16-bit quantization; (3) Sony’s proposed error

continued to insist on the importance of 16-bit audio even forcorrection method of converting adjacent code into Reed-

consumer use, as it would ensure digital audio discs were a

Solomon code; (4) disc diameter and playback time.

high quality sound system capable of classical or jazz.

Although Philips insisted on 115mm/60 min and Sony

This situation did not sit well with the claim that “theinsisted on 127mm/75 min, they agreed that this was a

mission of the CD is to provide households with a far

question of marketing and better left to the judgment ofsuperior recorded sound than existing LP records and cassettesenior company executives in both companies. Unfortunately,

tapes”. At the time, Sony had its sights on the forthcoming

the modulation method was still being experimented with anddevelopment of a 1-chip 16-bit computer. Most computers

was left out of the discussion.

processed in 8-bit units, but the technology for integral(1) Sampling frequency
The standards for professional and consumer digital audio
at the time included several standard frequencies. One was
50Hz, set as the studio standard in 1978 by the AudioEngineering Society. Another was 44.1kHz, used by Sony in
the PCM-1 and PCM-1600 (derived from (525-30)×3×30
NTSC video signal), and its integral multiple (8/7) 50.4kHz.

14

used in the PCM-1600 master recorder released in March

multiple processing was soon to emerge. In his book “CDŌdio Dangi [Discussion of CD Audio]”, Nakajima is of theopinion that “as a system for the 21st century to come,
improving by a mere 10db was not enough; we had to ensurea dynamic range of over 90db for the future – we had to do
16-bit.”The 14-bit/16-bit debate dragged on with no focal point.

A third was 48kHz, an integer multiple of the 8kHz

As part of the debate, the task force compared recordings offrequency used for digital telephone communication being

the sound of a triangle, the last test carried out by theconsidered for use by broadcasters and record companies inengineers. Heemskerk (Philips chief engineer) recalled that as

National Museum of Nature and Science Survey Report of Systematization of Technology, Vol. 25 2018. Marchthey all listened to the metallic clang reverberate, he thought,

correction to Philips at the next meeting. The method was“There seems to be no difference, but maybe there is”.

named cross interleaved Reed-Solomon code (CIRC) andHowever, the Philips team were also engineers and had no

performed as well as they had hoped. As luck would have it,

objection to making the sound quality as high as thehaving error correction in byte units, and later having signal

technology would allow. After this experiment, the decision

modulation in byte units as well, made the CD more

was finally made to have a quantization bit number of 16.

compatible with computers, which led to the rapid
development of the CD-ROM.

(3) Error correction method
The task force had differences of opinion regarding burst
error. Generally speaking, it is impossible to reduce optical(4) Modulation method
No agreement was reached on modulation method at thisdisc defects to zero, regardless of what process is used tomeeting. There was discussion comparing the Philips M3

manufacture it. Discs can also be scratched or get fingerprints

method proposed at the third meeting with the new method

or dust on them. As this can cause abnormal reading, it was

proposed by Sony. Sony’s method was suited to a higher

clear that steps had to be taken to somehow detect errors anddensity than Philips’ method, but there were still questions

restore the signal back to normal. Most disc defects are errors

about its stability in relation to fingerprints, scratches andcalled random bursts (short bursts) that last for around 1-2

other noise. At this meeting, the parties agreed that if Sonybits. As these can occur as much as several dozen time per

could increase the density by a further 20% and confirm that

second, Philips proposed an efficient error correction system

the impact of bit asymmetry was within a tolerable range,

using an experiment-based, mathematical approach.

they would proceed with Sony’s proposed method, otherwise

Meanwhile, Sony proposed a design with a practicalthey would use the M3 method. However, after the meeting,simulation that effectively corrected long burst errors, which

Philips started developing a modulation method similar to the

do not occur frequently, but can last for dozens of bits as a

one proposed by Sony. This method, with further efforts toresult of mistracking, or from scratches or fingerprints on the

reduce the low frequency components, was the BES method

surface. The differences between these two underlyingthat formed the prototype for the EFM method that would

approaches to error correction were preventing the companies

become the modulation method used in the CD.

from reaching an agreement.
As a final step, the task force decided to test error
correction performance by open experiment. The first round
was a comparison of ordinary high quality discs. The second
round was a comparison of discs covered in dust and smearedwith gunk. There was no difference between the two methods
for these two rounds. The third round was a comparison ofdiscs that had deliberately been scratched with sand on atabletop, and this time Sony’s method was clearly better. In
response, Philips confused the meeting by offering to add
improvements to its own method to make it perform as well
as Sony’s method, such as by having a longer interleaving
length.
However, Philips noted that the improved version
suggested by Sony improved redundancy by up to 17% andcooperated in making changes, including making simulation
estimates for the LSI proposed by Sony to prevent concerns
about rising costs. The two companies finally came to a basic

Up until the fourth meeting, the Sony/Philips specification
negotiations had been reaching basic agreements and getting
basic conditions prepared in time for the DAD Committee
submission deadline. However, none of the DAD Committee
members knew that Sony and Philips were developing
jointly. Of course, there was no issue with Sony or Philips
making proposals independently, but it must be explained
why Sony kept the DAD Committee in the dark about going
into partnership with Philips when the two companies started
working on joint development. Although there is no problem
at all with having an agreement or alliance with a particularcompany as a management strategy, in Japanese society it
was unthinkable. Nakajima later recollected having toweather a storm of anger from most of the members.
Members Watanabe Shū (Hitachi) and Kamio Kenzō(Matsushita Electric) recollected that “although everyone at
the time hated it that Sony had teamed up with Philips todevelop the CD, it is normal to do it now. Looking at the fussagreement to use Sony’s new proposed method. They also

over the DVD after that, we have to say that Sony’s ability toagreed on converting adjacent code to Reed-Solomon code,take action on the CD at that time was remarkable” (JASand Sony agreed to present the final version of the error

Journal Proceedings).

Systemized Survey on the Development and Practical Application of Compact Disc (CD) Technology

15• Fifth meeting (May 13-15, 1980, Eindhoven)
Based on the agreement from the previous meeting, Sony’s
amended error correction was agreed upon and the officialname designated as cross interleaved Reed-Solomon code
(CIRC).

• Modulation method
The main topic at the fifth meeting was the modulation
method, the most pivotal point in the negotiation.
The M3 (modified Miller modulation) method proposed byPhilips was DC free, but lacked in recording density. The

At the previous meeting, the decision on disc diameter andmethod proposed by Sony had around 10db greater low

thickness had been left to senior management. A diameter of

frequency component, but lacked in system reliability,

120mm and thickness of 1.2mm were confirmed, according

leading to concerns over the recording density level thatto the specifications agreed on in early April between Sony

could be achieved practically. Accordingly, Sony proposed

vice president Ōga Norio and Philips audio division general

an amendment that reduced the low frequency component,manager Joop van Tilburg. Philips had previously proposed

while Philips proposed a new modulation method suited to115mm with a playback time of 60 minutes. This proposal

high density recording. There was no great difference

had been strongly underpinned by Philips’ subsidiary

between the two proposals in terms of performance. Philips

PolyGram, asserting that the cost of the disc was not the costpointed out that Sony’s method would transmit errors, but

of manufacturing the disc, but the cost of the software on theSony insisted that error transmission was not highlydisc. By this rationale, the longer the playing time, the greater

important. The method proposed by Philips had the issue ofthe cost of the disc. It claimed that around 90% of all music,

hardware cost. The debate continued in two parallel lines

including classical but not opera, was no longer than 60with no signs of convergence. The suggestion came up ofminutes. Sony’s vice president invoked the famous argument:

discarding the agreed-upon CIRC error correction method,

the Japanese love Beethoven’s 9th Symphony. Being able toand the Japanese team started preparing to go back to Japan.

fit that piece of music on one disc would give meaning to the

At this point, the two companies had lost all the achievements

new media. Ōga insisted that 75 minutes would allow enoughthey had built up together, and the decision was left toroom for the piece to be conducted at any tempo. van Tilburg

management. Bögels suggested extending the meeting forreluctantly agreed on the condition that PolyGram would not

one more day and arranged a friendly dinner party. He

be further aggravated. (The published CD standard playbackaffirmed his appreciation for the negotiations between thetime remains “60 minutes”, not the maximum 75 minutes.)

two companies and his respect for technology. In the end,

Disc diameter, as previously mentioned, had started out

Nakajima accepted Bögels’ proposal and a de facto

with a product plan for in-car players, in keeping with theagreement was reached on the modulation method. The

DIN standards. Sony engineers had concluded that thedetails of the agreement were that Philips would further

maximum possible diameter was 130mm. van Tilburg

investigate the servo circuit synchronization recovery time

responded that he “wouldn’t concede 130mm, but 120mm

and the effects of bit asymmetry on the BES method, while

would be OK”. Ōga said that would be fine, and the diameterSony would agree to the BES method if the scale of hardware

was promptly set at 120mm. Incidentally, the 15mm inner

could be brought within a reasonable range. As if to soften

bore diameter of the disc was the size of the Dutch 10 centthe antagonism between the two companies, the following

coin. By adjusting the drive motor and the optical pickup in

well-known memo was appended.

the design, the playback start position was set at 25mm.
Calculated from this, 10mm or so was a suitable innerdiameter. This coin, playfully nicknamed by the Dutch as thePhilips and Sony agreed that contribution to modulation as
well as error correction from Sony and Philips is equal.
H. Nakajima, Tr. P. W. Bögels

“dubbeltje”, is an unforgettable symbol as the only coin in the

The patents for the agreed technologies were filed in theworld that can fit through the center hole in a CD. The later

names of engineers from both companies. In that sense, both

DVD and Blu-ray discs also had 15mm center holes. While

companies contributed equally to the CD.

this is partially for compatibility, allowing different types of
discs to record and play back on the same player or recorder,
in another sense it is a “fun fact” that the “DNA” of this ten
cent coin, the smallest in the world, has been successively
passed down to other types of optical discs after the CD.

• Sixth meeting (June 17-18, 1980, Tokyo)
The BES method was adopted as the modulation method,
but the official name was up for review. It was later changed
to eight to fourteen modulation (EFM).
The official name of the system was designated as Digital
Compact Disc at this meeting, although the official name was

16

National Museum of Nature and Science Survey Report of Systematization of Technology, Vol. 25 2018. Marchchanged to Compact Disc Digital Audio due to trademark
concerns. It was also confirmed at the time that a
Sony/Philips alliance would present the CD system to the
DAD Committee.
With the above final agreement in place, the Sony/Philips
CD standardization task, begun in August 1979, reached thefirst stage of completion in June 1980 and could finally be
revealed to the world. At this point, with much still to decideon, Sony and Philips continued on into the second stage ofnegotiations. Fig. 2-4-1 shows a commemorative photographtaken at the end of the sixth meeting.

The following is a summary of the CD-DA specifications
agreed by Sony and Philips.
• Performance time:
74 minutes 42 seconds• Disc diameter:
120mm• Sampling frequency:
44.1kHz• Quantization number: 16bit• Error correction code: CIRC
• Modulation method:
EFM
References
1) “Konpakuto Disuku: Sono 20-nen no Ayumi [TheCompact Disc: Its 20-year History]” CDs21 Solutions(2005)
2) “Jisedai Ōdio ni Idomu [The Challenge for NextGeneration Audio]” Nakajima Heitarō, Fuun-sha (1998)
3) “Sony/Philips Discussion Memorandum” Mizushima
Masahiro
4) “Dejitaru Ōdio no Genjō to Shōrai no Yume [Current
State and Future Dreams of Digital Audio]” Nakajima
Heitarō, JAS Journal (Mar 1988)

Fig. 2-4-1 Sixth Meeting with Sony and Philips (Tokyo,
June 1980)

A year later, in April 1981, Sony and Philips held a grandCD demonstration in Salzburg, backed by Karajan, for themusic and record industry. This kicked off a world debut,with an official announcement was made in New York on
June 27 and an exhibit at the All-Japan Audio Fair in the fall.
Fig. 2-4-2 shows a photograph of the presentation in Japan.
However, at this point there were as yet no prospects for anyof the key devices, such as semiconductor lasers, optical
pickups or signal processing LSI.

Fig. 2-4-2 CD Presentation in Japan (Palace Hotel,
October 1981)

Systemized Survey on the Development and Practical Application of Compact Disc (CD) Technology

17

Human-Powered Fan
Finally, a demonstration CD player was unveiled in April 1981. The venue was a presentation in Salzburg, Austria,
where Karajan lived. Karajan, who in Morita’s home three years earlier had first been angered by the secret recording,then delighted by the sound quality, wrote in a letter that “when it is finally possible to have a CD demo, I am ready toinvite the members of the recording industry, journalists and music aficionados from around the world to a trial
exhibition”. On that basis, a presentation was held, hosted by Philips, Sony and of course Karajan. The maestro himself
pressed the button on the player. In that moment, the magnificent sound of CD digital audio was officially released to theworld. It was introduced to the eager crowd present as “a gift to music lovers”. The members of the Berlin Philharmonicpresent were played a recording of themselves on CD. They were all thrilled and agreed they had never heard their own
performance sound so beautifully as it did on the CD. Nakajima recollects that even the maestro admitted, “There’s
nothing better than this.”
However, although things had come this far, the unveiling party was still one of cold sweat and close calls. The
demonstration CD player at the unveiling was a working machine that met most of the specifications, but it was hand built.
Under the table, covered with a white sheet, was a huge digital signal processor circuit on a rack. They had not been able
to use LSI integration, so there were several thousand integrated circuits, memory circuits, resistors and capacitors
arranged on circuit boards. These circuit boards generated an incredible amount of heat. This was no problem in a wellventilated area, but not covered up under a table for a lengthy demonstration. As the temperature rose, so did the risk ofphase lock loop (PLL) occurring and the entire machine shutting down.
Initially, the team tested an electric fan, but there was a risk that electromagnetic interference from the fan motor would
cause major trouble with the large-scale electronic circuits. Concluding that there would be no solution without sacrifice,the team decided on a “human-powered fan”, using a hand fan to cool the circuits. However, the difficulty was how to hidesomebody under the table during the demonstration to keep fanning the circuits. By chance, Sony had sent an engineer
who was of a small build. He took on this important mission and spent a full hour under the table fanning the circuits forthe demonstration. Although it was the engineer that was drenched in sweat, Nakajima could not help breaking out in acold sweat himself. The unveiling was a true balancing act, but, like a baby’s first cry, the CD had now been heard. After
Salzburg, major events were held at the Hilton Hotel in New York and the Palace Hotel in Japan. Ultimately, the “coldsweat” demonstration ended in success.

18

National Museum of Nature and Science Survey Report of Systematization of Technology, Vol. 25 2018. March

3

CD Technology

3.1 Optical Systemcontent area at 116mm cannot be used, but it is important for

The world of 12cm optical discs began with the CD(around 0.7GB). As developments were made in higher
density, optical discs progressed forward to the DVD (around
5GB, or just less than 10GB on two layers) and then the Blu-

ensuring the reliability of the disc, especially in terms of
preventing moisture from penetrating into the disc. If thecontent is shorter and does not reach all the way to the edge,a lead-out area is placed at the end of the recorded area. Sinceray (around 25GB, or 50GB on two layers) from around thethe CD was designed to be a total optical system, includingyear 2000. These discs have become very diverse indisc thickness, it is important to consider the opticalapplication, going beyond music to storing photographs andproperties of the disc material (such as the refractive index

films, and from there to storing archive data. Advances inand complex refractive index). Most of the material used is

optical disc recording density alone in 25 years (1980 to

optical polycarbonate, a high-performance plastic with the2005) enabled discs to hold around 25 times more (notincluding layering technology) than they did before. The
most important piece of technology that started this all is the
optical disc using contactless signal detection. This chapter
provides details on the underlying technologies in the opticalsystem that allow it to read signals from the physical form of
the CD optical disc. Fundamentally, the underlying
technology that was perfected in the CD continued on
unchanged in the DVD and Blu-ray, only with higher

optimal molecular weight for pit molding. Incidentally, theoptical discs that followed the CD used the same basic
parameters to maintain compatibility with the CD. The only
difference is the depth of the light transmissive layer (0.6mm
for DVD, 0.1mm for Blu-ray). Since the CD was designed tohold 74 minutes of Beethoven’s 9th Symphony, as mentioned
in the previous chapter, it has a recording capacity of
0.783GB (44100 × ((16×2)/8) × 60 × 74 × 10-9).

recording density. It is at the heart of all 12cm optical disctechnology and is still being developed into practicalLead-ineveryday technologies today. Fig. 3-1-1 shows a schematic

Lead-out

overview of the world of 12cm optical discs that began with

Programmablearea

the CD.

Higherdensity

Higher audio
quality
Digitizationof video

Lead-in
Laser beam

Recording
performance

Digitalarchive

Lead-out
Clamping area

Pit

PrintedsurfaceFig. 3-1-1 The World of Optical Discs

Protective
layerLight transmissive
layer

3.1.1

Optical Disc Physical Appearance

As shown in Fig. 3-1-2, the CD has a diameter of 120mm,
a center hole of 15mm and a thickness of 1.2mm. The
programmable area that content can be written to starts at a

Signal surface (B) +reflective layer (C0)

Fig. 3-1-2 Compact Disc (CD) External View and CrossSection

Fig. 3-1-3 shows a schematic diagram of the basic optical

diameter of 50mm (25mm radius) and extends out to adisc principle. For CDs, the most distinguishing characteristic

diameter of 116mm (58mm radius). There are the lead-in (46-is that the signal is not read from the surface of the disc, but50mm) and lead-out (116-117mm) areas. The optical discreads and controls this signal. There is also a definedclamping area from 26mm to 33mm, which holds the disc in
its rotation. The outer 2mm beyond the outer edge of thefrom within the disc. It is essentially made up of three layers.
These comprise the laser penetrating substrate layer, thesignal data + reflective layer and the protective layer. For
recording and playback, the laser beam (a 782nm

Systemized Survey on the Development and Practical Application of Compact Disc (CD) Technology

19semiconductor laser for CDs) shines from underneath, asshown in Fig. 3-1-3, and is concentrated on the signal
surface. The light that is reflected off the reflective surface,shown at the top of the signal layer in the image, is altered inintensity according to the physical changes in the signal
layer. This is picked up by the light sensor and converted into
an electrical signal, which is processed and then output as amusic or video signal. Fig. 3-1-4 shows a diagram of thesignal surface. The grooves, called pits, appear to be arranged
Fig. 3-1-5 Error Occurring on an Optical Discat random. Each pit is around 0.9-3.3μm in length (for EFM
modulation), 0.5μm wide and has a track pitch of 1.6μm. The
pit depth is related to the servo signal. Fundamentally, it is

The CD has a system called constant linear velocity

around ¼ of the laser wavelength λ. Taking the refractive(CLV), which maintains a constant linear velocity along theindex of the polycarbonate substrate of around 1.5 into
account, this results in a depth of around 100nm. These pits
are recorded on the entire surface of the CD. Since eachspecification has a margin of error, the key to developing the
CD was how to rectify those errors and produce an accurate
signal. Fig. 3-1-5 shows the physical error (deviation) that
occurs towards the outer edge of the disc. The largest value isthe vertical deviation of the disc due to the flexibility of theplastic substrate, which allows for ±6°. This means that a disc

diameter. Essentially, this technology improves the recording
density. The linear velocity of a CD is 1.2-1.4m/s (the model
value is 1.25m/s), with a revolution speed of around 200rpm(outer diameter) to 600rpm (inner diameter). The
conventional LP records had a constant angular velocity(CAV) instead of the CLV, with fixed rotation speeds such as33⅓rpm. In terms of recording density, if the outer perimeter
ratio is n, then the value for CLV is (n+1)/2× higher thanon a planar surface can bend by around 1mm. There is also

CAV. For a CD, n=2.4, so the recording density is 1.7×

eccentricity of around 70μm, including rotation axis error, as

higher, thus making it possible to fit Beethoven’s 9th

well as a focus error tolerance of ±0.5mm. To achieve a

Symphony on a single 74-minute disc. Incidentally, the CD

flawless servo system at the time would have been almost

single was specified with an outer diameter of 80mm to fit

impossible. Fortunately, disc molding precision steadily

one or two songs on it. This grew in popularity, especially in

improved, eventually making it possible to detect signals on

the Japanese music market. Other than the outer diameter, thetabletop hardware. However, the portable players that cameout two years later in 1984 required drastic measures toprevent skipping, and so the hard work and trial and error
continued.

specifications were all the same as for the 120mm CD,
including the inner hole diameter, music start diameter, etc.
This made the two disc sizes fully compatible.
3.1.2

Contactless Signal Detecting Technology

The most distinctive of the main CD technologies is the“contactless signal detection” using light. While the physicalDiscform of the optical disc is as previously discussed, an
important part of the technology is how the embedded signal

Optical pickup
Light sensor

Laser

Fig. 3-1-3 Disc Principle

is detected. The light used for this must meet the following
conditions.
(1) The light must have good coherence properties and beable to be condensed into a spot the size of the signal
pits on the disc using a condensing optical system(2) The light must come from a tiny illumination source
to be incorporated into a small pickup(3) The light must have sufficient quantity to read andwrite signals with good signal to noise (S/N) ratio
In other words, the optical system focuses the light down
to a small point and then reads the signal produced by theFig. 3-1-4 Optical Disc Signal Surface

20

light diffracted from the pits etched into the disc. The term
coherence is also used to describe another property of light.

National Museum of Nature and Science Survey Report of Systematization of Technology, Vol. 25 2018. MarchSpatial coherence is important when light is converged. Iflight with good coherence and a good wavefront is converged
through a lens, it can be focused down to a very small point.
Light with poor coherence cannot be focused down to a small
point, because the wavefronts are overlapping in different
directions. This is a major factor in light source selection. For
example, an LED is an incoherent light source and cannot be
condensed to any size smaller than the light source. However,a semiconductor laser (light amplification by stimulated
emission of radiation) literally produces light by stimulated
emission and is an extremely coherent light source and thus
satisfies condition (1) as an ideal light source for optical

In 1982, a semiconductor laser light wavelength λ of
780nm had just been achieved. A prototype could not be
procured due to the prohibitive cost. Eventually, mass
production level technology was achieved, and the capability
was there to produce 10,000 units per month. The Sharp
Corporation plant in Tenri was the only manufacturing site.
Later, from around 1985, as CD player production started
growing exponentially, production of this key device in the
pickup also started to increase. Production levels reachedover 100 million per year, and Sony started producing its
own. Semiconductor lasers developed further, achieving a
red-light wavelength λ of 650nm for DVDs in 1996 and ablue-light wavelength of around 400nm for Blu-ray in 2003.

discs. Since semiconductor laser crystals are very small, they

The semiconductor laser remains a key device in optical discs

also fully satisfy condition (2). In terms of the S/N ratio oftoday and is still produced in high quantities.

condition (3), the S/N ratio requirements are determined by
the playback system. Generally, optical disc noise includes
laser noise, disc noise and sensor and preamplifier noise,
which means care must be taken with design. The
semiconductor laser used for optical discs will be discussed
in more detail in the following section (Optical Pickup (OP)Technology).
Light is a wave and can be condensed down to an
infinitesimally small point with geometric optics. However,from a wave optics perspective, the diameter of thecondensed beam has a finite value by the effects of lensdiffraction. If two parallel beams with identical intensity

In terms of lens NA, the lenses used at the time were theones that could be mass produced, the same as for thesemiconductor lasers. The NA determined the beam spot
diameter as well as important factors for optical discs.
Optical disc signal detection requires various error
corrections, as shown in Fig. 3-1-5. Factors relating to the
NA include: (1) focal depth = λ/NA2; (2) tolerance for disctilt ∝ λ/NA; (3) tolerance for uneven thickness of disc lighttransmissive layer ∝ λ/NA4. In terms of optical systemdesign, the lower the NA, the better. (1) Assuming λ=0.78
and NA=0.45 provides a focal depth of around ±1.9μm, thus
providing an optimal residual error value for the focus servo.
(2) In terms of disc tilt, the optical axis between the disc

distribution are incident to a lens, the condensed beam issignal surface and the optical pickup is not straight due toknown to form an airy disk. This is illustrated in Fig. 3-1-6.

disc curvature and other factors. This causes various

Around 84% of the total energy converges in the center spot.

aberrations in the optical system, including coma aberration

The diameter of this circle can be expressed as 1.22 × λ/NA,and spherical aberration. Fig. 3-1-7 shows typical examples

where NA is the numerical aperture value, represented as NA= n × sinθ, λ is the light wavelength, and n is the refractive
index of the transmission medium. For CDs, λ = 780nm and
NA = 0.45, producing an airy disk diameter of
1.22×0.78/0.45 = 2.1μm. This formula indicates that tocondense the light down to a small spot, it is better to have ashorter wavelength and a higher NA.

of these aberrations. Light condensed into a small point has acomet-like appearance under coma aberration and asurrounding halo under spherical aberration, as shown in theimage on the right. This produces a soft focus. The principleof focusing down light as much as possible and using aphysical phenomenon of interference from pits to read asignal requires aberration to either be rectified or suppressedin the design to within acceptable limits for recording andplayback. The CD optical system is designed to incorporate
light being transmitted through the plastic substrate. The
fundamental signal detection principle is as follows. A laser(for CD, wavelength λ=780nm) is condensed through a lensand passes through a disc, where it is diffracted by the pits on
the signal surface of the disc. The diffracted light does notreflect back, while the light that hits the physically unalteredsurface between the pits is reflected back. A signal is detected

Intensity distribution

Fig. 3-1-6 Intensity Distribution of Condensed Light

from the changes in reflected light. Fig. 3-1-8 shows aschematic diagram of optical disc signal detection.

Systemized Survey on the Development and Practical Application of Compact Disc (CD) Technology

21

MTF (amplitude transfer function)

PTF (phase transfer function)(a) sine wave pattern
Example condensed beam with coma
aberration (comet-like appearance)

Fig. 3-1-7

Fig. 3-1-9 Optical Disc Transfer Functions

Example condensed beam with sphericalaberration (soft focus appearance)

Optical System Coma Aberration andSpherical Aberration
Disc surface(b) NA lens output response

Of course, the MTF, PTF and other factors break down in
actual optical systems due to various factors, as opposed totheoretical optical systems. The main causes are: (1)aberration in the lens system itself; (2) spherical aberration
due to uneven disc thickness; (3) coma aberration due to thesignal surface of the disc tilting off the optical axis; (4)imperfections in the signal surface that cannot be handled by
the focus servo. These factors need to be addressed, either by
designing to ensure certain margins or by actively adding
correction mechanisms. This is the key to hardware stability.

Fig. 3-1-8 Optical Disc Signal Detection Principle

Another important parameter is the frequency
characteristic of the optical system. Like a camera, this isessentially achieved by optical transfer function (OTF) andgenerally expressed as a complex number. The absolute valueof the OTF is the modulation transfer function (MTF), which
represents the amplitude transfer function. The non-real partof the OTF is phase transfer function (PTF), which represents
the phase properties. Fig. 3-1-9 shows the general concept of
OTF. In a CD optical system, the light is condensed through asingle lens, reflected off the signal surface of the disc andreturns through the same lens modulated by the pits, so the
OFT only needs to find the autocorrelation between the twocircular apertures. Generally, spatial frequency or opticalsystem cutoff (x) is represented as 2NA/λ. For CDs,
λ=0.78μm and NA=0.45, which means x = 1.154×106. Inother words, there is a spatial frequency readout limit of 1154
per mm. Given that the smallest pit on a CD is 0.87μm, thebasic spatial frequency of a row of these pits is1/(1.87μm×2)=0.581×106. Given a density of 581 per mm,
1154/581 ≈ 2, meaning that the signal is read out at 2× thefrequency band. Entering the same values for DVD, thespatial frequency readout limit is 1846 per mm, which gives abasic spatial frequency of a row of pits (smallest size 0.4μm)
of 1250 per mm. Since 1846/1250 ≈ 1.48, the signal is readout at 1.5× the frequency band.

22

3.1.3

Servo Technology for Signal Detection

Servo technology for optical disc signal detection can bebroadly categorized as relating to the focus servo and thetracking servo. The former follows the vertical movement of
the disc in order to maintain focus on the signal surface. The
latter maintains the light focus on a particular signal track as
the disc rotates, within a certain error margin from a perfectcircle, to ensure continuous signal reading. Servos are a coretechnology for optical pickups and there are several types ofthem that operate depending on how an error signal isdetected. A brief description is given here, to avoid
overlapping excessively with “Historical Development ofLaser Disc (LD) Technology with Respect to Efforts to
Hasten Its Technological Development and Practical
Application” (Vol. 21).
A) Focus Error Signal Detection Method
Focus servos can be broadly categorized into three types,
according to the signal error detection method. The mostcommonly used technology is an astigmatic error signal
detection mechanism. Fig. 3-1-10 shows a diagram of this.
The light beam reflected back from the disc is divided by abeam splitter, and a four-way photosensor is placed on thesurface where the focal points connect. By placing acylindrical lens between the beam splitter and thephotosensor, the light beam on the photosensor forms a circle

National Museum of Nature and Science Survey Report of Systematization of Technology, Vol. 25 2018. Marchat the point shown by j in the figure if the signal is in focus,that the concentrated beam must traverse, at the maximum

otherwise the spot on the photosensor forms an ellipticalsize of 100μm. With pit molding error and deviation from ashape. The four output differences from the four-way

perfect circle also factored in, the error potential increases

photosensor are calculated as {((1) + (3)) - ((2) + (4))} tofurther. Fig. 3-1-11 shows a diagram of tracking correction.

give a result of 0. The calculation result is translated to a

The three-spot method is essentially the same as the method

focus error signal. The closer the disc comes to the lens, theused for optical video discs. Two auxiliary beams are placed

farther away the image plane shifts and the image on thein front of and behind the signal reading beam in the center.

four-way photosensor at point j becomes elongated, giving a

The auxiliary beams A and B go slightly over the edge of thenegative focus error signal value. The farther the disc moves

track, while the main beam spot sits directly on the track. If

from the lens, the wider the ellipse, giving a positive focus

the track moves up or down, the signal to auxiliary spots A

error signal value. This allows two opposite error signals.

and B changes due to diffraction, resulting in opposite error

Other methods include spot size detection (SSD) and thesignals. In other words, the system provides information as toFoucault method. Since these essentially treat changes in discwhich side the track is misaligned towards and how much the

focal point as changes in the shape of the spot on thesignal is misaligned by. While this is the most commonly

photosensor, which is amplified and converted into an error

used method of CD tracking error correction, it does havesignal, the technology is the same.

several drawbacks, including needing a diffraction grating forthe auxiliary spots and poor efficiency of the main beam. For

Light source

Beamsplitter

CD-R recordable media, which requires the main beam to be
utilized as efficiently as possible, there has been a transition

Cylindricallens

to DPP and other methods.
Shift left and right due toeccentricity

Near

Far
Focus error
signalObjective lens

Optical disc signal
surface

Disc too close to lens
Exactly rightDisc too far from lensAuxiliary spot A

Tracking
error signal

Auxiliary spot B

Fig. 3-1-10 Focus Servo Principle
Auxiliary beam AB) Tracking Error Signal Detection Method
The technology to rectify errors in track orientation is very

Main beam spot

Track
Auxiliary beam B

important for optical discs to detect signal. The main methods
used in CDs are the three-spot method and the push-pull
method. Improved tracking error detection methods using thepush-pull method can be categorized as differential push-pullor directional phase detection. The former is used inrecording media systems that have grooves without pits, suchas the CD-R, while the latter is used in playback systems,
such as CD-DA and CD-ROM.
I)

Fig. 3-1-11 Tracking Correction DiagramII) DPP and DPD Methods
Both methods are excellent in their capability to detect anerror signal with a single beam. This utilizes the change inlight intensity as the light is diffracted from the pits andreflected back into the objective lens. The change of intensity
is due to the relative difference in location between the pit

Three-Spot Method

Optical disc systems read a signal from pits or grooves inthe disc as the disc rotates, as mentioned previously.
Naturally, the accuracy depends on several factors. With atrack pitch of around 1.6μm and center hole measurement
accuracy of 15mm ± 0.1, a disc can have around 70 tracks

and the spot. Since the diffracted pattern is also observable inplaces other than the objective lens, the light intensity
distribution can be picked up by two-way photodetectors(PD) along the track direction, making it possible to detect a
tracking error signal. Fig. 3-1-12 shows a diagram of pushpull track error signal detection. Various technologies have

Systemized Survey on the Development and Practical Application of Compact Disc (CD) Technology

23been devised to detect tracking error signals reliably. As the

The DPD method is an excellent improved push-pull

RF signal increases, the detected signal decreases with a pit

method. Fig. 3-1-14 shows a diagram of this method. The

or groove depth of λ/4. Accordingly, the pit depth can be set
between λ/4 and λ/8 to produce an error signal and limit
offset. In addition, if the light is reflected back to the laser it
was emitted from, noise increases. Offset limiting technology
and noise cancelling technology are therefore very importantin ensuring an accurate RF signal.

main advantages are (1) it is hardly affected by pit depth and(2) it is hardly affected by movement of the beam on thephotodetector. Accordingly, it is suited for an optical pickup
tracking method that is not housed in one structure. The DPD
method essentially takes the light distribution from therelative change in position between the beam and pits, detects
and calculates a signal using a four-way photodetector, anduses this as a tracking error signal. In the sense that the HF

Incident beam

signal is represented as the sum of the four-way

Returning beam

photodetector (a + b + c + d), it is a modulated signal with a
Two-way photodetector

band limited by the wave properties of the light in the player.
The diagonal error signal is represented as {(a + c) – (b + d)}.
When the track is in the center of the beam, the diagonal error
signal is zero. If the disc misaligns in the direction of the

Tracking error signal

Fig. 3-1-12 Push-Pull Method Tracking Error Correction

The DPP method is a technology that eliminates offset
using three beams. Fig. 3-1-13 shows a diagram of DPP
tracking error signal detection. The light from the laser isdivided three ways using a diffraction grating. The strong
beam in the center enters the recording channel, while thetwo side beams move the diffraction grating to ensure it stays
between the channels. There are also three photodetectors,

arrow in the figure as it rotates, it outputs a sine wave, but thephase is out by ±90° from the HF signal. If a diagonal error
signal phase is detected based on the HF signal, opposite
tracking error signals can be produced. In practice,heterodyne detection and phase contrast are used as error
signal detection methods. The DPD method requires opticaldiscs to have pits, and is mainly used for CD-DA and CDROM. In many cases, the DPP method is used for tracking
error signals in CD-R recordable media.

one for each beam, arranged along the tracking direction and

Direction of light beam movement

subtracting respectively to calculate the push-pull of theBeamcenter beam and the push-pull of the side beams. Next, theside push-pull gain is adjusted and the groove and land

BrightDark

offsets are reverse phased to produce a push-pull signal with

BrightDark

no offset. This is mainly used in CD-R and DVD-R recording

Binarized b + d

systems. For CD-R/RW, recording is done with an address

Binarized a + c

signal in a groove that is made in a special way with a wobble

Tracking
error signal

so that it cannot be read by playback systems. This isdiscussed in Chapter 7 and the emergence of recordable CDs.

Fig. 3-1-14 DPD Tracking Error Signal Detection

Spot 2
Disc
Objective lensBeam splitter

Spot 1
Tracking adjustment

Photodetector
Diffraction grating

Spot 3Collimator lens
Laser

GrooveSpot position on the photodetector
Track pitch

Fig. 3-1-13 DPP Tracking Error Signal Detection

24

National Museum of Nature and Science Survey Report of Systematization of Technology, Vol. 25 2018. March

3.2 Optical Pickup (OP) Technology
Disc

One of the most important technology devices for CDs isthe signal detection system, called the optical pickup. The
main components include the semiconductor laser or laser

Barreldiode, the objective lens, the photo diode and various opticalelements. Details of the semiconductor laser are given in 3-21. In order to read the signal recorded on the optical disc, thelight source must be condensed to a diameter smaller than thepits in which the signal is recorded. The light emitting part ofan LED chip has a finite size and cannot be made infinitely
small. Consequently, the light cannot be condensed smallenough to be the same size as the pits on an optical disc. The
optical disc signal reading principle requires a certain degreeof coherence, as it is produced by interference between theThree objective lenses in two groups

Fig. 3-2-1 CD Objective Lens Development

Optical pickups can be broadly categorized as either
polarized light systems or non-polarizing light systems. Fig.
3-2-2 shows the structure of optical pickups. Figure (a) showsa polarized light system, the earliest type of optical pickup.
This is still used today for recording where the disc signal
surface requires laser power. Since the polarization direction

light from the surface of the pit and the light from the bottomof a semiconductor laser is a straight line, a polarizing beamof the pit. In that sense, a semiconductor laser is ideal.

splitter is positioned in the path of the light in that direction.

The objective lens is also an important device. In the early

The light from the semiconductor laser passes through astage of CD development, the only lens that met the technicalquarter wave plate to produce circularly polarized light,

specifications was a microscope objective lens. Like awhich is focused on the disc surface. The light reflected frommicroscope, the lens is made up of several layers of glass
lenses. These were used for laser discs at the time and werevery highly priced, as they were unable to be mass produced.
Unless this prominent objective lens could be developed into
something smaller, cheaper and able to be mass produced,
then “the CD could not be developed”. Developers spared noeffort with their trial and error attempts to achieve this crucial
mission. The result was a single layer aspherical lens. Whileit was largely dependent on advances in machining centers to

the disc passes back through the quarter wave plate toproduce linearly polarized light. As the polarized light istravelling in a different direction, the polarizing beam splitter
bends it 90° to direct it to the photodiode photodetector. The
issue with this system is that the use of polarized light meansthat any polarization defects in the disc will be detected as
being larger than they actually are. For example, if someforeign matter was mixed in with the disc when it was
molded, altering the refractive index of the surrounding
material, it would be detected as being several times larger

be able to produce the aspherical molds, the practicalthan the actual defect and lead to servo instability. Since

implementation of the ideal objective lens was an overall

polarized light optical pickups have this issue, they aresuccess, in terms of both costs and mass production

largely not used for CD playback, although they are still thecapability. The development of the aspherical plastic lensmain type of pickup used for recording CD-R, as thewith a diameter of just over 7mm is a story of hardship. The

recording surface requires power.

details of this are given in 3-2-2, with great respect to theengineers who worked on this development. Fig. 3-2-1 shows

Disc

Disc

the advances in CD objective lenses. Technology is now
being adopted that will reduce the size and weight evenfurther to achieve an ultra-small aspherical plastic objective
lens around 3mm in diameter. In terms of futurecompatibility between DVD and CD, the technology is being
developed to produce a lens for two laser wavelengths,
780nm and 680nm, whereby a hologram is produced on theaspherical plastic surface to produce zero-order and firstorder diffracted light, making it compatible with both.

(a) Polarized light system(b) Non-polarized light system

Fig. 3-2-2 Optical Pickup Structure

The non-polarized light system (b) has a half mirror inplace of the polarized beam splitter and no quarter wave
plate. There are issues with this structure in that the lightreflected from the disc returns to the laser and causesinterference noise. Semiconductors generally oscillate at

Systemized Survey on the Development and Practical Application of Compact Disc (CD) Technology

25

several wavelengths. Each spectrum is considered as a groupof wavelengths that oscillate easily. If the power is increased,
the vertical mode changes to single mode. However,changing the vertical mode to multi-mode has been
demonstrated to be less affected by noise from the reflected
light. In recent years, semiconductor lasers have beendeveloped that are less susceptible to this reflected light. As aresult, this type of non-polarized light system is the mostcommonly used for optical pickups in playback systems.
There are two other categories of optical pickup: finite andinfinite. Generally, infinite refers to a system in which thelight enters the objective lens in parallel beams. This was
widely used in early optical pickup systems. However, one

Fig. 3-2-3 Finite Optical System (KSS-210, 213)

drawback was the high cost of the optical components in the

An examination of what this type of optical pickup was

pickup. To resolve this, the finite system was developed,

known for and what kind of hardware it was used in revealed

using the smallest possible number of components. The finite

the following. While there is only one example from Sony,system is difficult to use, due to its susceptibility to sphericalthe systematic development of the technology is clearly seen.

aberration with the vertical movement of the focal servo andFig. 3-2-4 ((1) to (3)) shows some of the optical pickups andother types of aberration with the radial movement of the

hardware developed between 1980 in the prototype era to

tracking servo. Despite this, most commercial optical pickups

1993 in the golden age. The optical pickup used in the CDP-

today are finite systems.

101, marketed in 1982, was the infinite KSS-100 opticalSony, the leading manufacturer and seller of optical discsystems, mostly made its own optical pickups. The following
is a list of optical pickup technologies by Sony. Table 3-2-1
categorizes Sony optical pickups for CD. The most highly
sold pickups are the finite KSS-210 and KSS-213, whichpeaked at over five million units produced overseas permonth. This was the ultimate discrete optical pickup, with theminimal component design, the aspherical plastic lens and thephotodetector integrated in an IC. Fig. 3-2-3 shows a design
diagram. This model is still the main model being
manufactured and is marketed under various brands.
Table 3-2-1 CD Pickup Categories
For normal
devices
KSS-150

Infinite opticalsystem PDIC
Type (511 optical
pickup unit)
Finite optical
KSS-210system PDIC
Type (CD model
mentioned above)
Finite optical
KSS-240
system OPS IC
Type (RF Amp 3
VR Type)Infinite opticalsystem OPS IC
Type (RF Amp 3
VR Type)
Finite optical
KSS-390
system KSS-240
compatible LC
Moving Mg Type
Finite optical
KSS-213system KSS-210
CD modelunadjusted

26

For mid-range
devices
KSS-151

For high-end
devices
KSS-190 (basediecast)system with its huge objective lens. The specifications of the
KSS-150were almost identical, and the derived models KSS151 and KSS-190 were used in all CD players at the time.
The finite optical pickup with its minimal number of parts
emerged around 1990. This reduced costs dramatically, andthe CD player business grew rapidly as a result. Later, withthe development of the CD-ROM and CD-R, CD players
gained an unshakeable hold as computer terminal devices,
accompanied by a dramatic rise in the demand for andproduction of optical pickups. It became a major industry,
with global production peaking at over 200 million units per
year. Unfortunately, the only optical pickups produced inJapan today are specialized business products with highreliability and high recording density specifications. In thatsense, Japan may be suited to added-value, low-quantity,
high-variety production, but the booming technology industry
has come to a quiet close, with nothing passed on but theglory of a former era.
3.2.1

KSS-270
KSS-272 (acoustic
noise
countermeasures)

KSS-280 (basediecast)

CD Semiconductor Laser

The term semiconductor laser is literally made up of thewords “semiconductor” and “laser”. Laser is an abbreviation
for “light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation”.
Before the emergence of semiconductor lasers (1970s to early
1980s), small gas lasers were used.

National Museum of Nature and Science Survey Report of Systematization of Technology, Vol. 25 2018. Marchendeavors of dedicated engineers to make it happen. This istruly admirable.
Sharp developed a V-channeled substrate inner stripe(VSIS) using its own P-type GaAs substrate. The company
Prototype Goronta

successfully managed to resolve the problematic lifespanissue, extending it to 40,000 hours, and thus successfully
achieving the industry’s first mass-produced infrared
semiconductor laser for CD players. The VSIS structure is asystem for effectively emitting laser light by creating a V-

Fig. 3-2-4 Evolution of CD Pickups (1)shaped channel in a crystal and narrowing down an area for
an electric current to pass through. Fig. 3-2-5 shows the VSIS
structure developed by Sharp (taken from Sharp Technical
Journal).

CDP-227ESD, CDP228ESD, CDP-X55ES,
CDP-X33ES, CDP-R3, etc.

Electrode

CDP-950,CDP750,CDP970,CDP770,CDP-570, etc.

(cap layer)(clad layer)(active layer)(clad layer)(current-blocking layer)(substrate)
ElectrodeFig. 3-2-5 Sharp VSIS Structure

Fig. 3-2-4 Evolution of CD Pickups (2)The CD is designed with a system based on a 780nm
wavelength semiconductor laser. This light is tentatively
categorized as visible light, although in practice it is only
visible if illuminating a white piece of paper in a dark room.
For CD playback, only 0.5mW is needed to reach the discsurface, while 3-5mW is enough for effective use of the
optical pickup. However, the growing popularity of the CDROM drive from the end of the 1980s and the CD-R/RW
Fig. 3-2-4 Evolution of CD Pickups (3)The most commonly used of these was the He-Ne laser, a
red-light laser with a wavelength of 632nm, used in consumer
laser discs. However, with dimensions of around 300×30mm
and requiring a special power source, these did not make itinto small consumer CD players. In the 1980s, an infrared
semiconductor laser was developed based on gallium
arsenide (GaAs), but Sharp was the only manufacturer thatmanaged to commercially mass produce it.
Since many books have been published on the principle ofsemiconductor laser light emission, details are omitted here.
According to the Sharp Technical Journal, research anddevelopment on semiconductor lasers can be traced back to
the early 1960s. By the time of its practical implementation
into the Sony CDP-101 in 1982, the foundational
development of semiconductor lasers had already been goingon for 20 years. The technological outcome was no accidental
product, but point-blank proof of the earnest and hardworking

drive from around 1995 triggered a competition over highspeed playback and recording. With CD-R/RW recording
speed increasing, the semiconductor laser output also had toincrease. For recording, the highest speed of the CD-R was
16× that of its base speed. Recording with an optimal
waveform required a peak value of around 30mW. This also
depended on the efficiency of the optical system and therecording waveform (write strategy). In the 2000s, advancesin high-powered semiconductor lasers saw the emergence ofsystems with 200mW lasers. Sharp even achieved a highpowered infrared laser capable of 48× CD-R recording. The
infrared semiconductor laser was destined to trigger further
competition over higher power, faster recording speed,smaller size, lighter weight and lower cost. To remaincompetitive, manufacturers improved their operational
efficiency and picked up their development speed. This
endurance-building resulted in new DVD and Blu-ray
products.

Systemized Survey on the Development and Practical Application of Compact Disc (CD) Technology27

In 1985, Sony started producing infrared semiconductor

single digits. The physics and applied physics specialists

lasers for CD, using a metal organic chemical deposition

from the electrical manufacturers came together to try to(MOCVD) technology it was developing. Organic refers todesign a lens that would resolve this. This was just after the

carbon. A gas such as gallium is converted into organic metal

emergence of the portable CD player around 1984. Throughtrimethyl gallium (CH3)3GA, gasified using a carrier gas andsuccessive meetings, the study group was able to calculatepassed into a reaction chamber with a substrate of highly

the coma aberration and spherical aberration and virtually

heated GaN or GaAs, and a thin layer is deposited onto thecreated an optical lens by trial and error. They worked on thesubstrate. Indium (In) or aluminum (Al) can also be added
into the gas, as well as the necessary impurities for N and P
type semiconductors, thus producing multiple layers of highquality thin film. Different companies explored different
methods, such as liquid phase epitaxy (LPE) and molecularbeam epitaxy (MBE), but MOCVD became the industry
standard as it was good for mass production. The method was
also later used for the 650nm infrared semiconductor lasers
used for reading DVD and the 450nm blue-violet
semiconductor lasers used for reading Blu-ray. Since theearly laser products used a lot of electricity, a large 9mm
diameter package was used to ensure waste heat dissipation.
As lower power consuming systems were developed, theoptical pickups and other hardware grew smaller. Today, thepackage for reading Blu-ray and other discs has a 5.6mm
diameter. The highest-produced semiconductor laser for CD
by Sony is the SLD104U-A, with a colossal 700 million

possibility of an aspherical lens and reached a point where
they could design it themselves. The wavelength used in CDs
is a single 780nm laser wavelength and does not require an
achromatic lens. Introducing an aspherical lens into thedesign made it possible to achieve with a single lens. Thisconclusion was simply conjecture. The curved design wascompleted but manufacturing the mold for the lens took aseries of trial and error. By a stroke of luck, they tried casting
an aspherical lens using inorganic glass and it met therequirements. However, when it came to pilot plant
production, it was clear that they needed to improve the poor
yield rate and reduce costs. To resolve this, if the lens could
be made from acrylic resin or similar, this would be optimalfor reducing cost. However, this was no easy task at all.
The Philips optical laboratory in Eindhoven is said to have
had shelves full of failed plastic objective lenses. An engineer

produced between 1989 and 2007. Sony is still producing

at Philips made the following comment to a visiting Japanese

semiconductor lasers for CDs, and production now totals overengineer. “We’ve tried so hard and haven’t been able to get it

3 billion, including double wavelength semiconductor lasers

right, there’s no point in the Japanese trying. For your own

that can read both CDs and DVDs (780nm and 660nm in one

good, stop wasting your efforts trying to make plastic pickup

package). Fig. 3-2-6 shows a Sony semiconductor laser forlenses.” CD pickup lenses required submicron accuracy,CD.

beyond the specifications of plastic lenses for glasses orviewfinders. Everything down to ambient humidity was amajor factor. There were an incalculable number of failures.
Many companies gave up trying to produce a plastic pickup
lens. The only one that did not was Sony. Sony, perhaps as asafeguard while working on its own developments, provided
funds to Konica, which had a long wealth of technicalexperience in lens design, and handed over the project to theFig. 3-2-6 Sony Semiconductor Laser for CD

3.2.2

Aspherical Plastic Objective Lens

As previously mentioned, the first objective lenses used
for CD pickups were microscope objective lenses made of
optical glass and comprising two groups and three layers.
These were a very expensive component, costing around¥3000 at the time. While this was a fair price for microscope
manufacturers, electronics manufacturers commercializing
CD players needed to drop that figure into double or even28

Kojima Tadashi Group, which had spearheaded the design ofthe zoom lens for the single-lens reflex camera. The Kojima
Group had been looking for a change of direction fromsingle-lens reflex cameras and leapt to the task. Through atremendous amount of trial and error, the efforts finally paid
off with the successful development of an aspherical plastic
objective lens for CD. This success was underpinned byresearch and prototypes in aspherical lenses by Yoshida
Shōtarō in the late 1950s and early 1960s (Bulletin of the
Research Institute for Scientific Measurements, Tohoku

National Museum of Nature and Science Survey Report of Systematization of Technology, Vol. 25 2018. MarchUniversity). The Kojima Group quickly took note of

was always distorted and could not achieve the specified

Yoshida’s research and proved it was possible to produce animaging performance. The Sony engineers worked day andaspherical plastic objective lens by developing a lens with anight to develop this deposition method with multiple

similar shape to Yoshida’s aspherical aplanatic lens (a lensgrooves, and the Singapore plant somehow managed tofor correcting spherical aberration and coma aberration).

achieve mass production. In that sense, Konica’s greatest

Yoshida’s aplanatic lens suddenly came under the spotlight,

technical knowledge of the aspherical plastic objective lens

opening up a fierce patent dispute after three decades.

was this vapor respiration mechanism.

However, thanks to Konica’s perseverance, the patents were
established in Japan and the United States, with Konica
securing a monopoly share over aspherical plastic objective
lenses for CD.
Eventually, all of Sony’s globally-booming CD drives
were fitted with the aspherical plastic objective lenses
developed by Konica. Production went from 1 to 2 million
per month to a colossal 10 million per month. As production
increased, the unit cost of the lens dropped dramatically, from¥300 to ¥100 and then to ¥50, while Konica continued tohold the monopoly. However, Sony began to see that
Konica’s hold on this key device (the principle of having a
key device procured by two companies) would cause future
problems in business. Sony again began developing its own
technology and also began to consider the possibility of
manufacturing its own.
Kojima Tadashi, who originally designed the single-lensreflex camera zoom lens, was awarded the Medal with Blue
Ribbon in recognition for the development of the asphericalplastic objective lens for compact disc. The number ofaspherical plastic objective lenses for CD produced byKonica totaled to well over 500 million. In that sense,

Fig. 3-2-7 Konica Aspherical Plastic Lens for CD

3.3 Deciding on a Digital Signal Processing
MethodFundamentally, audio digitization began in 1982 with thesale of the CD-DA disc. According to the Kōjien Japanesedictionary, digitization means expressing a certain quantity ordata as a finite numeric string (e.g. binary). Analog is given
as expressing a certain quantity or data as a physical quantitythat can change in continuum (e.g. voltage or current).
Naturally occurring physical quantities such as temperature,humidity, length and mass are all continuous analog
quantities. By contrast, digital uses a number to express thenearest value to the analog quantity within a certain range ofaccuracy. Since values that are represented digitally can bewithout Konica’s objective lens, there would have been noprocessed by computer, it is possible to record and store thosehope of the CD becoming as widespread as it is today. Fig. 3-

values and they do not change. Using digital methods to

2-7 shows a Konica aspherical plastic objective lens for CD.

record, transmit, distribute and play back images and sounds

Meanwhile, Sony was having a difficult time developing

means the data remains constantly unchanged regardless of

its own aspherical plastic objective lens. The final deposition

how many times the content is viewed or heard. This is astage of the process was proving particularly impossible. The

major advantage over analog, in which the data is susceptible

company built a new dedicated plant in Singapore andto change through deterioration or noise. In the process ofcontinued the race against time. The most important andaudio playback, there are a number of processes between

technically demanding step in the manufacturing process forrecording at the concert hall or studio and hearing by theaspherical plastic lenses was the deposition of the anti-

user, including editing, duplicating and playback. With

reflective coating. The Konica team had found that applying

conventional analog audio, each of these processes wasa coating with grooves to allow vapor in and out of the plastic

accompanied by a very slight deterioration in sound quality.

lens surface made it possible for the lens to have a refractive
index distribution with an onion-like appearance thatmaintained the imaging performance. With no knowledge of

However, with the emergence of the CD and digital audio,
for the first time it was possible to have no deterioration at allin these processes, other than errors in the initial digitization.

this research and development, the team at Sony found thatthe refractive index distribution of the aspherical plastic lens

Systemized Survey on the Development and Practical Application of Compact Disc (CD) Technology

29

Fig. 3-3-1 shows the general configuration of digital audio

either 1 or 0. The highest value is 1111111111111111, which

recording and playback equipment. The analog signal enters

equates to 65535 in base 10. The word “digital” comes fromthe recording system, passes through the line amp and low

the Latin word “digitus”, meaning “finger”. Generally, binary

pass filter (LPF), and is converted to a digital signal by thedigits are called “bits”. Using the fingers on both hands gives

sampling circuit (sample-and-hold circuit) and quantization

10 bits in binary, which equates to 1023 in base 10 (1 + 2 + 4

circuit (A/D converter). An error-correcting code is then

+ 8 + 16 + 32 + 64 + 128 + 256 + 512). Table 3-3-1 shows aadded to the signal, it undergoes modulation or other digitalcomparison between binary, base 16 hexadecimal and basesignal processing and is then recorded on optical disc or other

10. In hexadecimal, letters of the alphabet are used torecording medium. For playback, the signal is read from therepresent the values from 10 to 15, since these must berecording medium and undergoes demodulation, error

represented as single digits. Accordingly, 10 in base 10 iscorrection, digital filtering and other digital signal processing

represented as A in hex, 11 as B, 12 as C, 13 as D, 14 as E

before being converted to an analog signal by the D/A

and 15 as F. Two-digit hex values go up as high as FF, whichconverter.

equates to 255 in base 10. Each additional digit adds a newplace and indicates the number of times by which the digit

RecordingsystemAnalog signal
Amplification Band limiting
Line
amp

Analoginput

LPF

Sampling

has been increased by the base number. Binary is used inDigital signal
Quantization

Sample-andhold

A/D converter

CrystalClockgenerator

D/A
converter

Digital filter

Error correction
signal added

digital devices and is highly compatible with hexadecimal.

Modulation

This is apparent in the timing by which new digits are added.
Speed control

Recording/playback

PlaybacksystemAnalogoutputAmplification

Interpolation

Line
amp

LPF
Analog signal

Error
correction

For example, the highest single-digit number in hex is F,
which is represented in binary as the four digits (bits) 1111.
The highest two-digit number in hex is FF, which is

Demodulation

Digital signal

Fig. 3-3-1 Digital Audio Recording/Playback System
Configuration

Essentially, sound comprises subtle changes inatmospheric pressure. It is an analog signal with an amplitude
that changes continuously with time. In actual analog

represented in binary as the eight digits (bits) 11111111. For
each digit added to a hex number, four digits (bits) are addedin binary. Table 3-3-1 shows a comparison between binary,base 16 hexadecimal and base 10.
Table 3-3-1
Base 10Binary, Base 10 and Hexadecimal
Binaryrecording, factors such as the S/N ratio of the recording
medium, frequency characteristics and non-linear distortion
have a direct impact. Other issues include wow and flutter
and modulation noise caused by uneven rotation of the rotaryor drive system, as well as noise from mechanical scratcheson the recording medium. By contrast, digital recording
converts the audio signal into discrete numerical values,
which not only does away with the issues given above, butalso has other inherent advantages, such as essentially no
deterioration when making digital copies and the ability tocorrect the few errors that occur.
The outline of this chapter is as follows. 3.3.1 discusses
the basic mechanisms of digital audio (PCM), quantizationand sampling frequency. 3.3.2 outlines the eight to fourteen
modulation (EFM) CD modulation method. 3.3.3 provides an
overview of the cross interleaved Reed-Solomon code
(CIRC) error correction method.
3.3.1

Digital Audio (PCM) Mechanisms

A) Quantization
Pulse code modulation (PCM), the cornerstone of digitalaudio, is a digital signal format used in CDs. CDs use 16-bit
quantization, which comprises 16 digits of binary values,

30

National Museum of Nature and Science Survey Report of Systematization of Technology, Vol. 25 2018. March

HexadecimalElectronic devices operating digitally use binary, as they

than two times greater than the highest frequency of the

can only have two values, “on (1)” and “off (0)”. By

original signal, digitization can be achieved without any loss

processing these values at high speed, they can representof original signal information. However, in practice,large numbers, character information, graphics, images andfrequencies are chosen to allow for a further 10% margin.

even sound. Sound is originally a wave that oscillates in

Based on this principle, the sampling frequency could be any

objects and the air. As the wave increases, it moves up andfrequency higher than 40,000Hz, since the highest frequency

down from a zero point. The portion above zero can be

audible to the human ear is 20,000Hz. The frequency used in

expressed as a plus value, while the portion below zero can

PCM for CDs is 44,100Hz, as mentioned above, to maintainbe expressed as a minus value. To represent minus values incompatibility with VTR. This means signals are captured at abinary, a notation system called “two’s complement” is used.

frequency of 44,100 times per second. This process is called

This way to calculate negative numbers in binary is achieved

sampling, and the frequency used is called the samplingby “inverting all the original bits and adding 1”. The highest

frequency. Fig. 3-3-2 shows a diagram of quantization andpositive number in two’s complement representation is not

sampling. The size of the increments on the vertical axis is111111111111, but 011111111111, which equates to 32767

determined by the quantization (bit number), while the size ofin base 10. The lowest negative number is 100000000000,

the increments on the horizontal axis is determined by thewhich equates to -32768 in base 10. The PCM used in CDs

sampling frequency. Essentially, the greater and more precise

operates with 16-bit (16-digit) binary, which allows forthe values on both axes, the more precise the representation

digital data with a range of 65536 values from 32767 to -will be. The 16-bit, 44.1kHz specifications for CD allow a

32768.

precision of 65,536 steps on the vertical axis and 44,100 steps

The size of the original analog signal of a sound can be

per second on the horizontal axis.

represented as the amount of voltage after it is picked up by amicrophone and converted into an electrical signal. This isconversion. The analog sound (amount of voltage) isconverted to the nearest values in the 16-bit range outlined
above. This process of digitizing the sound is called
quantization.
Although the voltage value of the (analog) sound at AD

65536 step quantization

converted to digital data by analog to digital (AD)Analog data
Digital data

conversion varies depending on the components and circuit
configuration used, it generally uses 5V or 3.3V values.
These are divided out by 65535, so that each step has a valueof 5/65535 = 0.076mv (76μv). The signal is converted to thenearest digital values with 76μv accuracy.

Sampling 44,100 times per second

Fig. 3-3-2 Diagram of Quantization and Sampling

The quantized sample values are converted to discrete
numerical values in reference to amplitude. The dynamicB) Sampling Frequency (Sampling)
Taking a signal that changes continuously with time andrepresenting it with values at fixed intervals is calledsampling. Sampling makes it possible to turn a continuous
signal into discontinuous, discrete signals. Turning these
discrete signals into a continuous signal again is calledinterpolation. This is done by sending a sample sequence
through a low pass filter (LPF). Generally, the audible range(bandwidth) of the human ear is around 20-20,000Hz. Sound
below 20Hz is called ultra low frequency, while sound above
20,000Hz is called ultrasonic frequency or ultrasound. The
well-known Shannon’s Theorem sets out the conditions for
signal reproduction in the sampling interpolation process. If

range that represents the quantization of n bits can be
expressed as D (dB) = 20Log2n + 1.76 (dB). For CDs, n = 16,
which gives a theoretical dynamic range of D = 97.8 (dB). It
is also important for digital signal processing technology todeal with quantization error noise, aliasing and other issues.
Accordingly, careful attention has been paid to LPF design.
Technically, the LPF is not set to not rapidly drop from
20kHz. An oversampling LPF carries oversampling out ateight times higher than 44.1kHz, then gently curves to halfthat frequency, 176kHz. This prevents aliasing and delays in
the 20kHz region, thereby minimizing any changes in soundquality.

the signal bandwidth is represented as B and the sampling
frequency is represented as f, then provided B (Hz) ≤ f/2(Hz), playback can be achieved without distortion. Thismeans that provided a signal is captured at a frequency more
Systemized Survey on the Development and Practical Application of Compact Disc (CD) Technology

31

3.3.2Eight to Fourteen Modulation (EFM) Method

Modulation is converting given information at a given

Table 3-3-2

EFM Lookup Table Example

Data (base 10)

8-bit data (binary)

frequency band to record and play back reliably, that is,

000000000

01001000100000

matching frequency band to signal. Specifically, when a CD

100000001

10000100000000

200000010

10010000100000

300000011

10001000100000

400000100

01000100000000

500000101

00000100010000

600000110

00010000100000

700000111

00100100000000

800001000

01001001000000

900001001

10000001000000

1000001010

10010001000000

1100001011

10001001000000(servo) is used to maintain track position as the CD player

1200001100

01000001000000

reads the pits to prevent the same effect as a needle jumping

1300001101

00000001000000

1400001110

00010001000000

to a neighboring track in an analog player. This can be

1500001111

00100001000000

1600010000

10000000100000

controlled automatically based on the pits where pits are

1700010001

10000010000000

player reads data, a technology called eight to fourteen
modulation (EFM) ensures that the track with the data
recorded is kept in sight.
A compact disc has data etched onto it in a spiral shape.
Since it is binary digital data, a pit with data is read as 1 and aland with no data is read as 0. Automatic tracking control

etched onto a compact disc, but if there are areas with no pits,
it can be difficult to track the signal. Simply, EFM
technology was developed to prevent this from happening.
Data recorded on compact disc is essentially in units ofeight bits. Eight-bit data has 256 values, ranging from00000000 to 11111111. For example, if a signal of 00000000
continues for a while, this equates to a section that is all landand no pits. To resolve this, the 256 values are temporarily
converted to 14-bit values containing moderate amounts of 1
and 0, and then recorded onto the disc. Since the 256 valuesof 8-bit data are a selection from the 163,384 values of 14-bit
data, it is possible to use only data that includes moderateamounts of 1 and 0. This is handled as per the EFM lookup
table shown in Table 3-3-2. One 8-bit symbol is converted toa specific pattern in 14-bit representation. Eight-bit 00000000
is converted to 14-bit 01001000100000 and then recorded.
Even if this data signal continues for some time, 1 continues
to appear at a moderate rate. The CD player then reads 14-bit
01001000100000 and converts it back from the lookup tableto 8-bit 00000000.
EFM modulated digital data is read by a system withfrequency characteristics such as an optical pickup. When 8bit (256) is converted to 14-bit (16,384), the channel bit “1”is inverted and “0” is not inverted so that the pits on the discform a certain shaped interval. The number of 0s between 1
and 1 can be between 2 and 10, giving a total of 257 values.

Data converted to 14-bit

Forms a pulse signal between a minimum 3T and maximum
11T, where T is the channel bit cycle. The length of the pit isrepresented as T min and T max. In terms of a standard clock
sensor, the longer the T min the better and the shorter the T
max the more stable the system. The actual CD pit length
after EFM modulation can have nine values at a speed of 1.25
m/s: 0.87μm, 1.16μm, 1.45μm, 1.74μm, 2.02μm, 2.31μm,
2.60μm, 2.89μm and 3.18μm.
The EFM signal then has a 1B (8-bit) non-audio control
code called a subcode added and a frame cycle signal added
to produce the CD recording signal. One frame is made up of
588 channel bits. A three bit guard is positioned between
each symbol converted to 14-bit to prevent “1” bits running
together. This is processed in real time during data creation.
The number of channel bits in a frame is 14×33 + 24 = 588(bit/FRAME). The channel bit frequency is 7.35kHz × 588 =4.3218MHz. This is the read clock frequency generated by
the CD player.
3.3.3

Error Correction Method (CIRC)

Cross interleaved Reed-Solomon code (CIRC) is an error
correction method first adopted in the Red Book. It combines
two methods: cross interleaved and Reed-Solomon. Error
correction is based on advanced mathematical theory. A briefsummary is given here, as this is best left to a specialized
book. The Reed-Solomon (encoding) method is a system of
error correction using a combination of data words (codewords) and parity words (redundant words or check words).
This system allows powerful error correction for short,frequent errors (random error). Interleaved correction is more

32

National Museum of Nature and Science Survey Report of Systematization of Technology, Vol. 25 2018. Marcheffective for correcting long errors (burst error) that occur(2) If an error is read (error area cannot be identified)easily on disc media. Interleaved refers to the process of(a) ¥200 + [¥200] + ¥400 + ¥300 = ¥1100 (P)breaking up the data and dispersing the error. Those data

(originally ¥1000; difference of ¥100)

blocks are then combined with Reed-Solomon encoding. Fig.

(b) ¥200 × 1 + [200] × 2 + ¥400 × 3 + ¥300 × 4 = ¥3000

3-3-3 shows an interleaved example.

(Q)(originally B = 100 × 2, Q = ¥2800; difference of ¥200)
From this, (b) ÷ (a) = 2, (b) – (a) = ¥100, thus it can be
determined that the correct value for the second code
word is ¥100. Adding the check word Q improves theerror correction capability as follows.
i)With two words missing, error correction ispossibleii) With one word in error, error correction isFig. 3-3-3 4 Interleaved Words

The concept of error correction can be described using a
supermarket receipt as an example.
A receipt from the supermarket might total ¥1000 of
shopping, where A = ¥200, B = ¥100, C = ¥400 and D =¥300. If the receipt gets dirty or torn so that it can no longer
be read, the following ways could be used to restore it to its
original condition.
(1) If the unreadable area can be identified
If one row cannot be read (one word missing), e.g. ¥200
+ [?] + ¥400 + ¥300 = ¥1000, the missing word can becalculated from the total, in this case [?] can becalculated to be ¥100 and the sequence can be fully
restored (error correction is possible). However, if “1” isread as “2” (one word error), it cannot be determined
where the abnormality lies (error detection possible). If
there are errors in two or more rows, error detection is
not possible. The receipt data comprises four code words
and one check word. The following system applies.
i)With one word missing, correction is possibleii) With one word in error, detection is possible but
not correctioniii) With two words in error, detection is not possible
With a two check word configuration, the check words
are the total P and a newly added weighted sum Q, where
P = A + B + C + D, and Q = A + 2B + 3C + 4D.

possibleiii) With two words in error, error detection ispossibleP and Q are called parity words. This code structure iscalled Reed-Solomon encoding.
The following is a summary of interleaved and crossinterleaved encoding. Data loss due to optical disc dropout
can occur for longer than two words, making error correction
impossible using the methods described above.
Consequently, if the signal is recorded with the word
sequence temporarily rearranged so that no two of the same
block words occur beside each other, it is possible to reducethe chance of two word errors. This rearrangement of word
sequence is called interleaving. The following are the maincauses of error in CDs.
(1) Errors occurring during the disc manufacturing
process(2) Scratches or soiling on the disc surface(3) Servo or sync misalignment
In the case of (1), errors occur frequently in the form ofrandom error (short gaps), while for (2) and (3), errors tend tooccur less frequently, but in the form of burst error (longgaps). The error correction method used is cross interleaved
Reed-Solomon code (CIRC), a combination of ReedSolomon code, which is good for correcting random error,
and the cross interleaved method, which is good forcorrecting burst error.
The occurrence likelihood of bit errors correctable by
CIRC is around “once per disc”. Of course, the error
correction sets to work to produce a correct signal. Even if

Systemized Survey on the Development and Practical Application of Compact Disc (CD) Technology

33the disc is scratched beyond the scope of error correction, it isoutput as 1 frame of data. The 8-bit data output undergoes

possible to correct scratches on the disc up to 2.4mm in

EFM modulation and recorded to the CD (the frame actuallylength with erasure correction. CD-DA output is a continuous

has cycle signal and subcode added). Fig. 3-3-4 shows ananalog signal with high correlation between adjacent

outline of CIRC encoding. When the signal is decoded, thissamples. It is therefore possible to interpolate the signal byconfiguration is reversed.

inferring from the correct data before and after. Theinterpolated signal is hardly noticeable to the listener.

16-bit input
from A/D
converter
8-bit output toEFM
modulator

However, it was very clear when the Red Book wasstandardized that the CD is not just a digital audio disc2 symbol delay /scramble(DAD), but also a digital data disc (DDD). Standardized

Interleave
C1: (32,28,5) Reed-Solomon code

production began immediately for use as high capacity

1 symboldelay

C2: (28,24,5) Reed-Solomon code

Fig. 3-3-4 CIRC Encoder Overview

computer memory storage. The standard book for CD-ROM
used in computers is called the Yellow Book, as shall bementioned later. If a user tries to use an audio disc forcomputer memory storage, the greatest issue will be error

3.4 CD Media Physical (Logical) Format

correction. Computer data will not allow even one bit of

In order to utilize a recording medium as an actual“error” and requires a more powerful method of error

versatile medium, various conventions must be met. For

detection and correction. In addition to CIRC, the Yellow

example, if a sheet of white paper is designated as A4 size

Book includes an error detection code (EDC) and an error

and 0.1mm thick, its physical specifications are clear. This iscorrection code (ECC). The EDC checks for the presence of

its “physical format”. When data is being recorded on to CD

errors using a check sum. Any errors detected are corrected

media (CD ROM), unless a physical format and logicalusing a correction code in the ECC. The two systems are soformat (file system) are specified, nothing can be recorded toeffective that the random error bit error rate is around 1000

the disc. The following discusses aspects from the basic CD

times lower than using CIRC alone. This is the level ofmedia subcode and file structure to the file system. The fileperformance required by the Yellow Book for computers CDROMs. Accordingly, all PC CD-R/RW drives now soldinclude EDC and ECC systems as well as CIRC. When
producing CD-R and CD-RW content (storing data),
powerful error correction is automatically included in thatsystem used in actual writing technology is discussed in
Chapter 7 “Emergence of Recordable CDs”. Fig. 3-4-1 showsa diagram of the track structure and block structure of the CD
family.
Pre gap
Lead-inPre gap

Pre gap

Post gap

Post gap

Post gap

Music

Music

Music

Track 1

Track 2

Track 3

Lead-outdata.
In terms of data flow through encoders, the CIRC

Program area

configuration is as follows. The data from the A/D has a 12
word input (6 samples left and right; 1 sample = 2 words, 1
word = 16 bits). First, the word is divided into two symbols(1 symbol = 8 bits), upper (A) and lower (B), and converted
to 24 symbols. A two symbol delay is applied, and then thesignal is scrambled and sent to encoder C2. Parity generates 4
symbols, making a total of 28 symbols. The 28 symbols areinterleaved and sent to encoder C1, where parity generates
another 4 symbols to a total of 32 symbols. A one symbol
delay is applied to every other symbol; the two symbols are

34

2352 bytes

Fig. 3-4-1 Track Structure and Block Structure of the CD
FamilyNational Museum of Nature and Science Survey Report of Systematization of Technology, Vol. 25 2018. March3.4.1

CD-DA Subcode

Music is recorded on CD-DA discs in song units called“tracks”. This has the same recorded subcode control
information as CD media. The smallest unit needed forrecording this subcode is called the frame (subcode frame). In
other words, a CD-DA music track is a collection of multiple
frames. The information necessary information for CD media
playback and control is designated as subcode. For CD-DA,
the FFM modulated digital music data is managed as acollection of 98 EFM frames. These are the subcode frames.
While Fig. 3-4-2 is quite detailed, it shows the relationshipbetween the EFM frame and the sub code frame. One EFM
frame is made up of 24 bytes of recorded audio data with C2and C1 error correction parity added to every 12 bytes ofdata. This set comprises 98 EFM frames. Thus, EFM frame ×
98 = 1 subcode; subcode frame recording capacity = 24 bytes
× 98 = 2352 bytes. Music tracks are made up of multiple
subcode frames, although the total subcode varies dependingon the length of the music. Subcode information is 8-bit andplays back continuously when the disc is played. It ismanaged in units called channels. There are eight subcode
channels, P-W. The P and Q channels are used for CD-DA
media. The R-W channels are not used elsewhere in the CD
family except for subcode CDs.
The P channel records the lead-in area indicating the startof recording, the lead-out area indicating the end ofrecording, and the interval between music tracks. The Q
channel records the table of contents (ToC) indicating thesongs recorded on the CD, the music track numbers, index
numbers, track duration, disc length and other information.
Fig. 3-4-3 shows a diagram of the P and Q channels. The
main control signals in CD-DA players are held in thesechannels and they are used as the basis for all system
controls. These channels are also used for recording theinternational standard recording code (ISRC).

Fig. 3-4-2 Relationship Between EFM Frame and Subcode Frame

Systemized Survey on the Development and Practical Application of Compact Disc (CD) Technology

35

recording capacity of around 650 megabytes. Most
CD-ROMs are structured with Mode 1.
(2) Mode 2 has no error correction data and is suited tovideo or audio signals where read errors have little
impact. The benefits of Mode 2 is that the area used
for error correction in Mode 1 can be used for user
data. This increases the recording capacity by 15% toFig. 3-4-3 Relationship Between CD-DA Subcode P and Q
Channels

Meanwhile, the R-W channels are designated for subcode

2336. This figure is calculated by 2336 = 2352 – 12
(sync) – 4 (header).
The physical format specifies that general data andaudio/video data cannot coexist on the same track. This

CDs and used for applications such as CD-G (CD graphic

means the disc cannot be used for multimedia content. One

still images), CD text (text information) and CD-MIDI (MIDI

proposal was to divide Mode 2 into Form 1 and Form 2,

signals). A typical CD-G plays back music like a CD-DA, but

making it possible to have a mix of general data andcan also play karaoke videos with images synchronized to theaudio/video data. Specifically, a subheader is designated tomusic. These were very popular in the karaoke industry. CD

specify the form, as shown in Fig. 3-4-4. A major feature of

text records information such as album title, track names,

subheaders is the ability to play back audio and images inartist names and messages on CD-DA discs. Although these

sync. The Mode 2 Form 2 structure is unique, culminating inadded value to the CD-DA, they were not highly popular, as

the CD-I (CD-Interactive), specifying the CPU (Motorola

the difficulty in authoring could not be reflected in the price.

MC68000) and OS (real time OS, OS-9). This standard is

The CD-MIDI records data in MIDI format, the standard

generally called the Green Book. This technology wasinterface for electronic musical instruments. Although theseundergirded by an era in which computer technology had to

could be used for ensembles of MIDI connected electronic

be incorporated into consumer electronics. Household

instruments, in practice they have been used to control

appliances had to start with a single switch, and media had tomusical equipment and venue lighting and have not been

be compatible. Specifying the latest CPU and OS was written

overly popular.

into the standard to achieve a superior position. The system
had the latest real time OS and the fastest consumer CPU, the

3.4.2

CD-ROM Technology Development

The most popular CD media, the CD-ROM, has the data

Motorola MC68000, capable of multitasking. Unfortunately,
the high price and the lack of infrastructure for software

on disc controlled by subcode. The following provides a

production meant this did not grow into a major business andsimple outline of CD-ROM sector formatting. Generally, a

the technology was eventually engulfed by the Microsoft

CD-DA transmits 75 frames of data per second. On CD-

stronghold. However, in industries with various computers

ROM, the frames are called sectors. CD-ROMs also(CPU and OS), specifying the CPU and OS is not done

physically record in minimum units of 2352 bytes per frame.

generically. A new standard called CD-ROMXA (CD-ROM

The data recorded in each frame is structured in two modes.

extended architecture) was formulated to remove that

(1) Mode 1 records the necessary data for error correction

limitation and has been widely used in the field of PCs.

in some sectors. This mode is used for recording files,
programs and other general data. One frame of user
data has a recording capacity of 2048 bytes. This
figure is calculated by 2048 = 2352 – 12 (sync) – 4(header) – 288 (auxiliary, including ECC).
Accordingly, a 74 minute disc CD-ROM has a36

National Museum of Nature and Science Survey Report of Systematization of Technology, Vol. 25 2018. Marchdisk operated by BASIC programming, it was steadily

HeaderBlock address
Minutes Seconds Blockprogressing into what would become known as the personal

All zero

Mode 0Sync signal

Mode 0computer. However, the personal computer of this era wasstill an expensive system. The main reason for the high priceHeaderError detection
code

User data

All zero

Block address
Minutes Seconds BlockSpace

Mode 1

Sync signal

Mode 1
Error correctioncode
P parity

Q parity

was the cost of the internal memory (RAM) and the harddisk. This was a time when 1MB of hard disk came with aprice tag of ¥10,000. There was indeed demand for a highcapacity, low-priced memory device.
PC recording media consisted of floppy disks. In 1976, theHeaderBlock address
Minutes Seconds Block8-inch floppy gave way to the 5.25-inch floppy, but theseUser data

Mode 2

Sync signal

Mode 2were still small in capacity and expensive in price. It was nota convenient form of media. PCs were loaded with graphic

Scramble area

display functions and audio functions, while more reasonable

2352 bytes (1/15 sec)

floppy disks were produced. While the large external devices
Error detection
code

Block address
Minutes Seconds Block

Subheader

HeaderMode 2

Sync signal

Mode 2 (Form 1)

User data

Error correctioncode
P parity

Q parity

Reserve

Subheader

Mode 2

Sync signal

HeaderMinutes Seconds Blockcheaper and more widely accessible was an inexpensive,high-capacity media to replace the hard disk. In 1984, Sonyand Philips formulated the CD-ROM standard. Microsoft

Mode 2 (Form 2)

Block address

were being built in internally, what the PC needed to become

User data

immediately started up a CD-ROM business. In 1985, apublication was produced called “CD-ROM, the New
Papyrus” (ASCII, Japan). The CD-ROM had a clear strategy

Fig. 3-4-4 CD-ROM Mode Structure

The development of CD-ROM technology, which records
digital data instead of CD media audio information, began
directly after the launch of the CD-DA. The personal
computer originated with the microcomputer LSI chip 4004
in 1971. This was followed by the emergence of the 8-bit
CPU 8008 in 1972, but it was never used for anything beyond
a high-end calculator part. An improved version, the 8-bit
CPU 8080, was launched in 1974. This was a major turning
point in the course of history. In 1975, the firstmicrocomputer kit, the “Altair 8800”, was commercializedusing the 8080 chip. This triggered a worldwide boom in
home-built microcomputers. “BASIC”, the programming
language used in the Altair 8800, was developed by a college
student venture led by Bill Gates. This venture business waslater significantly impacted by the development of CD media,
growing into global giant Microsoft. In the early 1980s, themicrocomputer system was fitted with a keyboard input
device and output results to a display. With a built-in hardforward.
The CD-ROM standard only stipulates the physicalformat, as the stipulations for recording general data are
included in the CD-DA audio data standard. Since the CDROM was to function as a practical media device, it
obviously had to have various logical formats stipulated.
Since whoever first gained control of the logical format
would gain control of the market, Microsoft actively workedon the logical format. In that sense, Microsoft and the CDROM were in a were in a highly reciprocal relationship. The
CD-ROM played a major role in the company developing
into a global player.
3.4.3

CD-ROM Logical Format

With the CD-ROM standard formulated, the way was
finally open for it to be used as a recording medium forgeneral digital data. However, for the CD-ROM system to be
used as an external recording device, the logical format or“file system” had to be worked out. Generally, computer datais handled in file chunks. The file system manages these files.
The issue was that the file system specifications were

Systemized Survey on the Development and Practical Application of Compact Disc (CD) Technology

37different for each operating system (OS). Even if generic files

press-type optical discs that was not dependent on any

were recorded on a CD-ROM, if the file system on the CD-

specific hardware or OS.

ROM differed from that of the computer, the recorded data

Technologically, by introducing the idea of a file set called

could not be read from the disc. This was a serious situation.

a volume, it was possible to have multiple volumes on one

When CD-ROMs were first put into use, the level to which

title or, conversely, have a single volume spanning multiple

the software would be developed to fit the file system was

CD-ROM titles (multi-volume). The ISO 9660 file structure,

left to the discretion of the software developers. As a result,ordered as “root directory → directory → file”, was managed

manufacturers produced their own software with almost no

by a “structure containing descriptive information relating tothought to compatibility.

the file system”, known as a volume descriptor. Taking the

There were high hopes that the long-awaited, precious,

characteristics of the CD-ROM drive into account, thehigh-capacity, low-price CD-ROM media would open up

pointers to the directories and files in the file system were

new markets that had not previously existed, such as databasecreated in advance using a path table. This allowed file accesspublications and multimedia software. The challenge ofwith as little seeking as possible by the optical pickup.

somehow ensuring PC compatibility crossed the border

Improvements were made to the High Sierra Format and it

between the media industry and the computer industry. Therewas standardized in 1988 as ISO 9660. The format has since

was a strong push to standardize the logical format at the

been widely used as the standard logical format for CD

necessary file system level in order to use the CD-ROM as amedia. Fig. 3-4-5 shows the basic ISO 9660 structure.

medium for exchanging general data. In an unprecedented
Path table

move for in the highly self-reliant computer industry, rival
companies came together to establish a system to

Root directorycommercialize the CD-ROM as soon as possible withindustry-wide support. Such was the appeal of the CD-ROM.

Directory

Directory

Directory

The first step towards compatibility was to adopt thephysical format of the CD-ROM as an international standard.

Directory

Directory

Directory

Directory

Directory

Directory

The International Standards Organization (ISO) andInternational Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) formulated
ISO/IE 10149:1989 as a basis. The European Computer
Manufacturers Association (ECMA) adopted ECMA-130,
based on ISO 10149, while the Japan Industrial Standards(JIS) did the same with JISX6281:1992. Similar industrial
standards were adopted by many countries around the world.
The CD-ROM standard may have started out at consumer
level, but its official adoption by the ISO in the form of ISO
10149 elevated the CD-ROM physical format to international
standard status.
The second step towards compatibility was unification oflogical formats. In May 1986, Philips and Sony, together withprominent computer manufacturers including Microsoft,
DEC and Apple Computer, proposed a logical format named
High Sierra Format, after Del Webb’s High Sierra Hotel andCasino in Lake Tahoe, California, where the first meeting
was held. This specified a common file system structure for

38

File

File

File

File

File

File

File

File

File

File

File

File

Fig. 3-4-5 ISO 9660 Basic File StructureWith ISO 9660 formulated as the international standard
logical format for CD-ROM, file sharing by CD-ROM wasimmediately possible. However, there were later issues withlong file names. The standard originally allowed for filenames with a maximum of 32 characters, although the early
CD-ROMs gained popularity as PC peripheral devices in the
MS-DOS environment, which generally used the MS-DOS
8.3 format for file names (8-character file name + 3-character
extension). To resolve this issue, various logical formats were
proposed with extended specifications added. One format
proposed by Microsoft was the extended logical format“Joliet” used in the Windows environment. Joliet made it
possible to record file names up to 64 characters long on CD-

National Museum of Nature and Science Survey Report of Systematization of Technology, Vol. 25 2018. MarchROM, while maintaining compatibility with ISO 9660 as alogical format. It also extended the directory structure from 8
layers to unlimited. However, while the CD-R and CD-ROM
read function was standardized in the Windows 95 CD filesystem (CDFS) and worked without any problem in the
Windows environment, there were compatibility issues in
non-Windows environments. Accordingly, this was
unsupported by Apple Computer, and even the Ministry ofLand, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism and othergovernment agencies endorsed ISO9660 or JIS 0606 and did
not recognize Joliet-compatible logical formats for the public
electronic application system under the e-Japan strategy. The
unfortunate reality was that while the CD-ROM (CD-R/RW)
optical disc industry had to maintain compatibility, it was
being drawn into disputes in the computer industry.
In 1995, the Optical Storage Technology Association(OSTA) in the United States proposed Universal Disc Format(UDF) Ver1.0, an optical disc file system developed based on
ISO 9660 as a Magneto-Optical disc (MO) file system. This
was adopted as the file system for DVDs and has made asignificant contribution to maintaining compatibility with
CD-R/RW/CD-ROM.
References
1) “Zukai Konpakuto Disuku Dokuhon [An Illustrated
Compact Disc Reader]” Nakajima Heitarō and Ogawa
Hiroshi, Ohmsha (1996)
2) “Saishin Ōdio Gijutsu [The Latest Audio Technology]”

Kadō, Fujimoto, Shimada and Kimizuka (eds.), Ohmsha(1991)
3) “Dejitaru Ōdio no Zen Chishiki [Everything There is toKnow About Digital Audio]” Kakizaki Keiji, Byakuya
Shobo (2016)
4) “Historical Development of Laser Disc (LD) Technology
with Respect to Efforts to Hasten Its Technological
Development and Practical Application (Survey Reporton the Systemization of Technologies)” Matsumura
Sumitaka (2014)
5) “Ayamari Teisei Fugō to sono Ōyō [Error Correction
Codes and their Applications]” The Institute of Image
Information and Television Engineers (ed.), Ohmsha(1996)
6) “Kokusan Kamera Kaihatsu Monogatari [The Story ofJapanese Camera Development]” Ogura Iwao, Asahi
Shimbun Publications 684 (2001)
7) “Handōtai Rēzā Kaihatsu Monogatari [The Story of
Semiconductor Laser Development]” Katayama
Tadanori, Sharp Technical Journal No. 99 (2009)
8) “DVD Dokuhon [A DVD Reader]” Tokomaru Haruki,
Yokogawa Fumihiko and Irie Mitsuru, Ohmsha (2003)
9) “CD no Ayamari Teisei [CD Error Correction]” Sako
Yochirō, Journal of the Society of Instrument andControl Engineers Vol. 28, No. 9 (Sep 1989)
10) “Dejitaru Ōdio Jiten [A Dictionary of Digital Audio]”Japan Audio Society, Ohmsha (1989)
11) “Hikari Disuku no Shōrai Tenbō [Future Outlook for
Optical Discs]” Ihashi Takao, Journal of the Japan
Society of Information and Communication Research
No. 31 (May 1995)
12) “Wakaru Handōtai Rēzā no Kiso to Ōyō [Understanding
the Basics and Applications of Semiconductor Lasers]”
Hirata Shōji, CQ Publishing (2001)
13) “Compact Disc: System Aspect and Modulation” J.P.J.
Heemskerk and K. A. Schouhamer Immink, Philips Tech
Rev. 40-6 (1982) 157-164

Systemized Survey on the Development and Practical Application of Compact Disc (CD) Technology

39

4

Establishing Disc Production Methods

The CD-DA production process generally requires thefollowing six working steps.
(1) Premastering(2) Mastering(3) Substrate molding(4) Depositing(5) Protective coating(6) Printing
When the CD-DA went on sale in October 1982, there wasa rush to prepare software titles. Most of the production
equipment had been designed experimentally, a completechange from the existing LP record production environment.
Early compact disc production was also still largely
experimental. Recording density was around the same as thesemiconductor lithographs at the time. Production had to be
carried out in a clean environment. Processing was mostly
done offline, a far cry from the online processing carried out
in the integrated production systems of today. However, theaim was for CD media to have the same recording density as
the semiconductors of the day. The industry grew byabsorbing all the available expertise from semiconductor
production. Producing CD media, required to distribute highvolumes of digital information, was a large-scale equipment
industry requiring the ultimate in production efficiency with aproduct turnaround time of several seconds per disc. This
challenge in improving efficiency took production
technology to breaking point. As a result, most of today’s
production facilities were updated in the 1980s and 1990s andproduction continues on the latest production equipment. The
investment into cutting-edge facilities capable of producing
tens of millions of discs per month has lasted 30 years to thepresent day. In that sense, unfortunately, very few of the pastfacilities that would usually be examined for a technology
systematization report are still in existence. Fig. 4-1 shows anexample of the latest production facilities still used to
produce CD media at Sony DADC Japan (Shizuoka).

4.1 Premastering
The premastering process is the process of preparing theoriginal master for CD-DA or CD-ROM. From the early daysof the CD until around 2000, most original masters were Umatic. U-matic is an analog video cassette with a ¾ inch tape,originally mainly for business use. Around 1980, when the
CD standard was being considered, the only media that could
hold large volumes of data similar to a CD were these kindsof analog videos. Since they would record the digital signal 1
and 0 as a video signal, a PCM processor was used to convert
the 1 and 0 digital signal into a video signal, which was thenrecorded by the VTR as digital data. As mentioned
previously, the CD sampling frequency of 44.1kHz(3×254×60=44100) had to be determined by the video signal,as the U-matic video recorder was used to produce the mastertape. In pursuit of good sound, every studio in the CDrecording industry used the U-matic for a mastering machine.
In 1982, the U-matic BVU-800 was paired with the PCM1600 processor.
Later, computer-based equipment was introduced into
master production. The emergence of the writable CD-R,
playback compatible with the CD, saw the adoption of thepremastered CD (PMCD), using CD-R as the master, fromthe early 1990s. In addition to the usual information recorded
in CD-DA format, the CD-R also recorded master
information (such as track start and end information) in thearea after the lead-out in CD-ROM format. Having theimportant information written in CD-ROM format with higherror correction reduced the read failure rate during pressing.
Although the PMCD required a special CD-R drive andwriting software, it steadily took hold as it used theinexpensive CD-R as its media. However, the CD-DA
industry began to notice issues with the difference in soundquality between the master PMCD and the pressed CDs.
There are inherent differences in the physical structures ofpressed CDs and CD-Rs, meaning that the playback
conditions are not entirely the same. There was a major
debate over the constant called sound quality, which cannot
be evaluated quantitively, regardless of digital signal
processing. The master is the “container” by which theFig. 4-1 DADC (J) Production Facilities

40

original recording from the studio is transported to thepressing plant. Ground-breaking efficiency in masterNational Museum of Nature and Science Survey Report of Systematization of Technology, Vol. 25 2018. Marchproduction was achieved using a computer produced by

are few disputes over the sound quality of the DPP master

American venture Sonic Solutions, with software to correct

itself. As a computer file, it is also easy to use and can bevarious noise generated on the PMCD master. This had the

expected to remain the main master format used for theadvantage of being able to check that the master disc wasforeseeable future. Fig. 4-1-2 shows a photograph of a basic

complete before being recorded to CD-R. PMCD is still usedsignal transmitter at a production plant, with thefor CD production today. A CD-R master disc such as aaforementioned U-matic master signal system in the center.

PMCD is necessary for CD-ROMs, which have a lot of data.
The software from Sonic Solutions has been very useful for
creating masters for applications (such as games) where
content on separate, compatible data discs is repeatedly
checked. This software has played a major role in the spreadof CD-ROM titles. Fig. 4-1-1 shows a photograph of the
Sonic system using a Macintosh, released by START Lab (ajoint venture between Sony and Taiyo Yuden).

Fig. 4-1-2 Signal Transmitter

4.2 Mastering
The mastering process is the most important process up to
producing the original recording. It involves the following
procedures.
i) Resist coating of the glass discii) Cuttingiii) Developing and adheringiv) Creating a metal disc (electroplating)v) Stamping / cleaning
Fig. 4-1-1 PMCD Sold by Sonic Solutions

Fig. 4-2-1 shows an overview of CD production processes.

Advances in PCs in the 2000s made it possible for

Photoresist

computer-based mastering systems to save master data as

Glass substrate

Glass substrate

Glass master

Metal master

Metal master

StamperGlass master

Metal mother

Metal mother

Laser cutting

files on computer. The main format used for this was Disc
Protection Protocol (DPP). This master format developed byAmerican company Doug Carson & Associates, Inc. wasoriginally designed for equipment used at pressing plants. As
studio mastering systems gradually became compatible with
DPP output, it became the de facto standard. Since DPP

Stamper

Aluminumreflective layer

comprised files managed by computer, the data could besaved to hard disk, server or CD-R in CD-ROM format.
Master data could also be sent long distance or overseas via
the internet. This has become the main current means of
producing master data. Unlike the PMCD, the DPP format
cannot be played directly on an ordinary CD player. There

Polycarbonate resin

Polycarbonate resin

Protective Aluminumlayer reflective layer

Polycarbonate resin

Label printing
Aluminumreflective layer

Protective
layer

Polycarbonate resin

Fig. 4-2-1 CD Production Processes

Systemized Survey on the Development and Practical Application of Compact Disc (CD) Technology

41

The first procedure is i) resist coating of the glass disc.

(wavelength 457.9nm) and He-Cd lasers (wavelength

The disc used is made from highly polished glass. Macro

441.6nm). As the lasers converge on the disc, the photoresist

flatness and microscopic surface roughness are carefully

is exposed to the light at that point. Switching the lasers oncontrolled according to the compact disc format. The disc isand off exposes only the areas that the light hits, making it

uniformly coated with photoresist that is sensitive to different

possible to record a signal. As gas lasers are used for CD

lights. This is achieved by spin coating, an old technology.

laser beam recording, a component called a light modulator is

The disc is rotated while the photoresist solution is applied

required to turn the light on and off. In principle, acoustic

from the circumference ad shaken off by the high-speed

optical modulators (AOM) are used for ultrasonic waves androtation. The thickness of the photoresist layer iselectro-optical modulators (EOM) are used for electro-optical

approximately the depth of the pits. Since this is analog

effects. However, these require high voltage and special caretechnology, consistently producing a film coating with ais needed for safe operation. The laser beam recording

thickness of wavelength λ/4 = 0.1μm ± 0.01μm requires

objective lens also has a high numerical aperture of arounddetailed attention to photoresist concentration, solvent

0.9 to converge the light. Essentially, etching elliptical pits

concentration, rotation speed control, temperature andwith a track pitch of 1.6μm in blanks areas requires ahumidity management and other factors. This must be carried

circumference precision of 1.6μm ± 10%, or ± 0.16μm. At

out in a strictly controlled clean room to prevent physicalthe time, there were no bearings that could support thedefects from foreign matter or scratches. The disc iscreation of a perfect circle at submicron level. The emergencetransferred to cutting. Everything from transportation to laserof ferrofluid bearings and subsequent trial and error has

beam recording (LBR) is done by automation in the clean

added another decimal place of accuracy, used in DVD androom, as there is a risk of contamination from dust or otherBlu-ray masters. Since all of the CD family are recorded at aforeign matter with humans present. Fig. 4-2-2 shows aconstant linear velocity (CLV), the location of the beam isphotograph of an automated transportation robot and laser

detected from the center of the spindle shaft during mastering

beam recorder used in modern CD production. Fig. 4-2-3

and the revolution speed changes according to mastershows a structural diagram of laser beam recording.

diameter. This technology accumulated in the form ofexpertise contributing to the design of the laser beamrecorder, which came into being by pairing computers withhighly precise mechanisms and highly accurate location
sensors. Japan was the only country to achieve this ultraprecision laser beam recording system. While it formed thebasis for the development of the Japanese optical discindustry, in reality a boomerang phenomenon was occurring,in which changes in industry structure saw used laser beamrecorders being offered to overseas markets.
As this technology developed, a new technology calledphase transition mastering (PTM) was introduced in the Bluray-era laser beam recorders in the 2000s. This system was aFig. 4-2-2 Laser Beam Recording (using automatedtransportation robot)MusicsourceTransporting mechanismLightmodulator

MirrorFocusing
servo

CD/DVD signal
generator

Track pitch movement at eachrotation of the spindle motor

Objective lensRotation

Subcoding signal
generator

CD/DVD content

Calculation ofrotation speed
from pickup
location

Pickup location
detection

ComputerGlass platewithphotoresist
coating

create a master disc, which was then cut using a laser beamrecording system with a 400nm wavelength blue
semiconductor laser. The introduction of PTM made a major
contribution to simplifying the disc production process. The
system was even used to achieve pits with a 0.32μm track

Spindlemotor
Rotation
speed
control

Fig. 4-2-3 Laser Beam Recording Diagramii) The cutting process involves exposing the photoresist to
light. The light sources used for the CD family are Ar lasers

42

recording. This technology used a thin thermally reactive
inorganic resist layer evenly sputtered over a silicon wafer toSecondary high-frequency
laser krypton
He-Cd laser
Ar laserclever combination of optical recording and thermal

pitch on Blu-ray, previously not thought possible. Even
higher density is being developed for use as Blu-ray archive
media. The technology is characterized by the ultra-precisionof the mechanism. Since it uses a semiconductor laser,
recording can be achieved by modulating the semiconductor
laser itself, thus eliminating the potentially hazardous AOM
and EOM and making the system simpler overall. Although it

National Museum of Nature and Science Survey Report of Systematization of Technology, Vol. 25 2018. Marchmay be travelling upstream in technology, attempts are being

are made. As the stamper is used as the metal mold for themade to apply this technology to CD mastering in theresin, it has its inner and outer diameters machined andinsatiable pursuit of increased productivity. Practical

reverse side polished. Polishing the reverse side is

implementation is probably not too far off. PTM technology

particularly important, as any unevenness on the rear surface

is a Japanese technology that has made a significant

will transfer through as unevenness on the signal surface after

contribution to higher density optical discs. Kashiwagi

molding. It is polished to a mirror finish.
The completed stamper undergoes inspection of its
physical, electrical and other properties, with strict criteria forgood and inferior products. Successful stampers move on to
the substrate press molding process. Fig. 4-2-4 shows
automated metal master production equipment. Fig. 4-2-5
shows the inner and outer diameters of a stamper being boredout. Fig. 4-2-6 shows the stamper manufacturing process,from glass master to stamper. Of course, the stamper
produced undergoes strict inspection before moving on to
substrate molding. Fig. 4-2-7 shows a stamper inspector.

Toshiyuki of Sony was one of the engineers awarded a Medalof Honor with Purple Ribbon for this achievement in 2016.
The laser beam recorder that made this technology possible isan ultra-precision device that could have only been produced
in Japan. It is now being exported overseas.
The remaining procedures iii) developing and adhering, iv)
creating a metal disc (electroplating) and v) stamping /cleaning are carried out as part of the same sequence. The
details of these are omitted here, as they are essentially thesame as for laser discs, discussed in Survey Report on the
Systemization of Technologies Vol. 21 “Historical
Development of Laser Disc (LD) Technology with Respect toEfforts to Hasten Its Technological Development andPractical Application”. However, mention will be made ofsome differences due to differences in diameter. The
developing and adhering procedure involves development
processing of the 0 and 1 signal created by the laser beamrecorder turning off and on. In the areas touched by the laser
light, the photosensitive material begins to dissolve, exposing

Fig. 4-2-4 Automated Metal Master Production

the glass plate below. The areas no touched by the laser
remain hard. This is called the glass master. Controlling thedevelopment conditions that affect pit precision is of course
an important parameter. After developing, the glass master isbaked and the shape of the pits becomes permanent. A metal
master is produced from the glass master through anelectroplating process (electroforming). The glass plate iscovered with silver conductive film and immersed inelectroforming fluid. A current is passed through, causing
nickel to precipitate on the surface of the glass, thereby
transcribing the shape of the pits onto a nickel disc. This isFig. 4-2-5 Boring Out Inner and Outer Diameters

called the metal master, which is finished off by washingaway the remaining photoresist and removing the silver
electrodes. The quality of the metal master is of course
significantly affected by the composition of the electrolytic
solution. It is important to control the quality of the nickel
sulfamate and other component ingredients.
The metal master is used to produce a similarlyelectroplated metal mother. Since the metal mother has
mirrored pit shapes from the metal master, the same
technology is then used to produce the stamper from themetal mother. The number of stampers is determined by the
number of CDs to be produced. If several hundred thousand
CDs are to be produced within a short time, several stampers

Fig. 4-2-6 Stamper Production

Systemized Survey on the Development and Practical Application of Compact Disc (CD) Technology

43

Fig. 4-2-7 Stamper Inspector

4.3 Plastic Substrate Molding
Plastic substrate molding involves (3) substrate molding,(4) depositing, (5) protective coating and (6) pressing. When
optical discs are produced, many replicas are molded from asingle stamper. As technology improved over the years, thishas become a valuable field of technology capable of mass
production. The most important process is (3) substrate

Substrate molding machines for CD media are usuallyscrew type injection molding machines. Fig. 4-3-1 shows adiagram of an injection molding machine. Injection molding
machines operate in a sequence of four processes: 1) moldclamping, 2) injecting, 3) dwelling, 4) cooling and 5) moldreleasing. The machines currently used for CD media are 50ton electric injection molding machines. The transition fromhydraulic machines to electric machines came after many
years of trial and error. This has made the production systemeasier to maintain and led to greater CD productivity andhigher mass production. Fig. 4-3-2 shows an injection
molding machine currently used by Sony DADC Japan. The
main conditions for molding include (1) cycle time, (2) metal
temperature, (3) clamping pressure, (4) cooling time, (5)cylinder temperature, (6) injection rate and (7) injection
pressure. The cycle time is directly related to productivity
and is set to a target value, while the other molding
conditions are determined by repeated operation to find the
optimal parameters. Only the skill and experience of theengineer can achieve this. Of course, the shape and size of themetal disc mold have to be accurate, with high molding
efficiency and durability. Cycle time and disc performanceare determined by mold performance. Mold structure,
dimension accuracy and surface treatment are importantfactors that come with experience.
Pellets

NozzleStamper

HeaterHoppermolding. For CD media, the substate material used is usually

Hydraulicpressure

polycarbonate resin, a high-performance plastic. The specialof over 87%, (3) birefringence of less than 20% of the phase
contrast, (4) heat deformation temperature of 130-140°C, and(5) moisture absorption of less than 0.15%. Optical disc grade

Movinginclude (1) refractive index of 1.58, (2) optical transmittance

Stationary

characteristics of optical disc grade polycarbonate resin
Screw

Heatingtube

Fig. 4-3-1 Injection Molding Diagram

refers to a grade of resin developed to have fewer foreigncontaminants at submicron level and to inhibit deterioration
or deformation of the aluminum reflective film, making it
more reliable for longer and increasing transfer precision.
Melt fluidity during molding is also an important parameter
relating to pit formation and orientation. A melt flow index(MFI) of 20 or higher is recommended. This polycarbonate
was difficult to develop. Only a few manufacturers in Japanto develop and produce it, including Teijin Chemicals and
Mitsubishi Chemical Engineering. To prevent contaminationof the polycarbonate resin, it was taken directly from thefactory in pellet form and carefully put in silos. Recent
attempts to improve CD-DA sound quality have meant a

44

Fig. 4-3-2 Electric Injection Molding Machine

Depositing refers to the depositing of an aluminum

search for a higher molecular weight polycarbonate resin.

reflective coating onto the signal surface of the disc. The discSome discs have been marketed under brand names such as

standard specifies 70% reflectance. The coating is deposited

HPCD, but this has been a marketing tactic with no actualin a layer around 100nm thick using a sputtering method. In-

quantitative improvement in sound quality.

line sputtering is now possible as part of a series of processes,

National Museum of Nature and Science Survey Report of Systematization of Technology, Vol. 25 2018. Marchwhich has markedly improved production efficiency. Fig. 4-

strictly managed in a dedicated building with earthquake and3-3 shows an in-line sputter coating machine used today. The

fire protection measures in place. This not only provides anprocess after this is applying a protective coating. This isultimate data archive, but also ensures that there is a systemachieved by applying a UV-curable resin (several microns

for dealing with repeat orders at any time. Fig. 4-3-6 shows

thick) by spinning or spraying, and then hardening it under

the first CD-DA disc to be sold in Japan in October 1982. It

UV light. Extra care must be taken when handling the edges

is a Japanese music title called “A Long Vacation”, producedof a disc with protective coating. Any moisture penetrating

by DADC Japan’s predecessor CBS Sony Records at its plantfrom the edge can affect the aluminum reflective coating andin Shizuoka. Its product number 35DH1 is made up of 35,

impact the reliability of the disc. The final process is printing

representing the price of ¥3500, D referring to digital, H

the label on. For CD-DA in particular, a label that matches

referring to Japanese music (hōgaku in Japanese), and 1

the music is a valuable piece of art. Special printing is carriedreferring to the catalog serial number. This title made a nameout with consideration given to color scheme and shading.

for itself at the start of Japanese CD history, 35 years ago.

Printing will make users want to buy and keep a disc.
Printing is often carried out by multicolor screen printing or
offset printing. A lot of work goes into finishing off thecompleted product, and no perfect solution has yet beenfound for this step.

Fig. 4-3-4 Inside the Master Storage Building

Fig. 4-3-3 In-Line Sputter Coating Machine

Optimizing the shape of the signal (pits) when the disc ismolded is strongly linked to disc performance. The ideal pit
shape is rectangular with a depth of λ/4 to maximize thereflectance. Calculating using λ = 780nm and thepolycarbonate refractive index of 1.5 gives a figure of around
100nm. However, since the stamper is electroplated and has
to be transcribed, the pits actually have a sloping edge like a

Fig. 4-3-5 Master Storage

football stadium. For CDs, there are nine types of pit length,
described above, due to EFM modulation (0.873.18μm/linear velocity 1.25m/s), with a pit width of 0.8μm(1.6μm track pitch). Due to the analog process of developing
the photoresist, the pit lengths on the stamper are longer andshorter in the track direction when viewed under microscope.
This means that the read signal varies in accuracy andrequires technology to correct the asymmetric variation. A
technical solution has been found is currently being workedon that involves intentionally lengthening the pits (around1.4×).
The finished CD-DA disc is shipped out after being
inspected by an inspecting machine. At Sony DADC Japan,
all original master discs produced to date are stored andFig. 4-3-6 Japan’s First CD-DA Disc

Systemized Survey on the Development and Practical Application of Compact Disc (CD) Technology

45

References
1) “Zukai Konpakuto Disuku Dokuhon [An Illustrated
Compact Disc Reader]” Nakajima Heitarō and Ogawa
Hiroshi, Ohmsha (1996)

462) “CD Famirī [The CD Family]” Nakajima Heitarō, Ihashi
Takao and Ogawa Hiroshi, Ohmsha (1996)

National Museum of Nature and Science Survey Report of Systematization of Technology, Vol. 25 2018. March

5

Overview of the CD Family

The CD-DA is the origin of all CD media. Tracing along a
hypothetical technology road map, the CD family has grownwith the formulation of the various CD media standard“books”. There are generally quite a few twists and turns
from the emergence of a new technology until its acceptanceas a standard part of the CD family. The development of the

Red Book (CD-DA standard)books for the CD family was not through systematic

Yellow Book (CD-ROM standard)

Green Book (CD-I standard)

technology planning, but instead was in many cases decided
on in a more fluid manner, affected by market principles andthe power balance between manufacturers. Even with thebooks or standards in place, in some cases the product has
never been seen on the market. Despite the trouble taken toformulate the book, the product was not well received on themarket. Not uncommonly, in some cases the product is nolonger sold or the service no longer provided. There is asaying that “after the tiger dies, its skin remains”. In the sameway, a discontinued CD product leaves its name in history:“after the CD media product comes to an end, the CD family
book remains”.
While “book” is a simple word, there has been a huge
range of factors in the process and background leading up to
formulation and it can be a little difficult to understand the
purpose why these were formulated. In other words, in orderto understand the history of the CD family, you need tounderstand not only the technical “book” itself, but also thepolitical aspects behind the book.
The CD family standards are entitled “___ Book”, butthere is no clear definition of the basis for the colors of thebooks, except for the Red Book standard for CD-DA. WhenSony and Philips held their technical meetings to discuss CD
specifications, the folders containing the handouts happened
to have red covers. At some point, they happened to startreferring to the “Red Book”. The CD book color may havestarted out by accident, but the subsequent Yellow Book andGreen Book were “chosen because they were obvious colors
that were not red”. These names are simply practical. Fig. 5-1

White Book (Video CD standard)

Orange Book (CD-R/RW standard)

Fig. 5.1 Main Standard Books Related to CDs(1) Foundational technology books. This category includes
the Red Book (CD-DA), the Yellow Book (CD-ROM),
the Green Book (CD-I), the Scarlet Book (SACD) and
the Purple Book (DDCD). This group is distinguishedby being relatively organized due to pre-existing
standards.
(2) Books for organizing/combining specifications. These
were formulated to organize/combine technologicaldevelopments by multiple companies. Books in thisgroup include the White Book (Video CD), the Orange
Book (CD-R) and the Blue Book (CD-Extra). This
group is distinguished by dealing with the relationships
between several CD media standards.
(3) Books for combining the CD family. This group wasformulated to integrate and unify previously developed
new products and services into the existing CD familysystem. Accordingly, these standards often take the formof extensions to books. This group includes the Super
Video CD, Photo CD and CD-BGM parts of the White
Book. This group is distinguished by later additions tobooks of existing products and services out ofshows the main standards related to CDs.

consideration for the market. As a result, this group is

5.1 CD Book Categories

CD family even though the actual product or service has

also characterized by having standards that remain in the
been discontinued from the market.

There are three main groups of books in the CD family.

There is also a “bridge format”, the first derived group.
The bridge format is an extended format designed to maintaincompatibility between several existing “books” to allow new

Systemized Survey on the Development and Practical Application of Compact Disc (CD) Technology

47technology to gain popularity. These include CD-ROM XA

was no multimedia CD standard or book. The same was true

and CD-I Ready. This group is distinguished by strategic

for the “Subcode CD”. Subcode does not refer to any

additions to books from product seeds rather than existing

particular member of the CD family, but is used as a generalproducts or services. As a result, the boundary lines become

term for the members of the CD family that use a subcode

blurred between the CD media originally designated by thearea (CD-G, CD-EG, CD-MIDI, CD Text). However, thebook and that designated by other standards. This is not often

subcode standard is provided for in the Red Book.

understood clearly. Fig. 5-1-1 shows a diagram of the CD
family.

There are two main types of CD formats, with standards
determined independently by different manufacturers.

Electronic book

Optical technology

standards, with additional extensions added.

CD single

Video CD

(1) Those fundamentally based on the “CD family”
Specifically, this refers to CD-ROMs for gaming

Photo CD

machines. To protect business profitability with

Purple Book

exclusive software distribution rights, CD-ROMs for

Orange Book
Recordable CD
Green Book

gaming machines have a warning message on the CD-

Red Book

Yellow Book

Software technology
CD tree

LSI technology

audio CD player. The game program is placed on disc
Digital technology

Signal processing
technology

Fig. 5-1-1 CD Family Diagram

5.1.1

DA track on the inner perimeter to prevent misuse in an

Phase Contrast Microscopy

The CD family is a concept first mentioned by Philips. It
refers to different standards discussed and formulated bybeyond that point, with copy protection in place. This
unique section is designed to prevent duplication. This
technology is based on the CD-ROM specifications, but
has an independently developed technology element.
Sony has a separate license agreement for this business.
(2) Those physically based on CD media but with

Sony, Philips and other licensers to designate how CD media

independent specifications. From a strict CD family

is used. Specifically, it is used to refer to all CD formats, such

perspective, these are not CD formats, but have been

as CD-DA, CD-ROM, CD-I and video CD. “Book” is the

proposed for market reasons. Hardware manufacturers

popular name for the specification documents that designate

can make no guarantee regarding compatibility. This

the standards for the CD family. A system logo, discussed

category includes copy controlled CDs and enhanced

later, and the specification documents are provided based on

CDs, or CD-DA discs with a CD-ROM area on them.

a license agreement. However, multiple CD standards may

Thus, there are some CDs outside the CD family (books).

sometimes be designated to a single user. For example, theThe development of the game market over the past two

Red Book (CD-DA) prescribes other members of the CD

decades has made this a valuable area of CD production thatfamily, including CD-G and CD Text. Currently, with CD

has supported CD factories as CD-DA production has

media more generalized, essential book content provided for

dropped worldwide. Fig. 5-1-2 shows the correlation in thein ISO and JIS standards and licenser patents expiring, it is

CD family as seen by the correlation between discs andbecoming possible to obtain technical information for parts ofplayers.

books without a license agreement.
Meanwhile, when a specific group proposes a concept, it
can be difficult to understand. The “multimedia CD” concept
was proposed by the multimedia CD consortium (CD media
promotion association). “Multimedia CD” was a general term

5.1.2

CD Family System

Looking at how various CD standards were formulated
and how the CD family has been structured over time reveals
that like all products, the CD family has a life cycle.

used for CD-I, Video CD, Photo CD and CD-G, but there48

National Museum of Nature and Science Survey Report of Systematization of Technology, Vol. 25 2018. MarchCD-DA variations

CD-DA extensions(data, still images, audio)(plus videos)

CD familyrecording

CD-I 1986
Green Book

CD 1981 Red Book
(74 minutes)

CD single

CD-ROM 1985 Yellow Book

(20 minutes)

subcodeR-W

CD-ROM
drive
Photo CD 1990

video 5minutes,audio 20
minutesVideo CD 1993 (74minutes)Orange Book

Audio only

CDV
playerCD
player

Display

CDG
playerFloppydisc

Display

CD-ROM
drive

CD-I
playerVideo CD
playerHostcomputer

Display

Display

Input key

(Number after name indicates year standardization achieved.)

Fig. 5-1-2 CD Family Correlation Diagram(1) CD Family Introduction Period

issues because the products and standards were developed at

The CD family introduction period began in 1980 with thethe same time, and it took a lot of labor and costs to set right.

formulation of the book that would later become the(The later Orange Book had the same issue, and a promotion

foundation for CD media and lasted through to 1985. The

group was formed to implement a solution.)

Red Book in 1980 determined the basic specifications for CD(3) CD Family Maturity Period

media. The Yellow Book in 1982 determined the basic

From 1990 onwards, CD media were developed withspecifications for data recording. The Green Book in 1985

various specifications. These were consolidated andidentified the concept of multimedia “interactive”, making

follow up books were formulated to maintainCD media easier to work with. The common characteristiccompatibility. This period is called the maturity period.

here is that the standards were formulated before the product

Since the technological foundation for CD media had

was developed. In making these CD family products, thealready been laid, companies worked on their own

infrastructure was first laid out in the standards and thendevelopments based on the foundation. These products

product development moved forward accordingly.

appeared to have the same functions and external(2) CD Family Growth Period

appearance, but in reality these products were

The period called the “growth period” began in 1985 andcontinued through to around 1990. In this period, various CD

incompatible and created discord in the market. To
resolve this, books were formulated to act as a mediator.

family products emerged and diversified based on the basic

Books formulated during this period include thebooks formulated in the introduction period. This period isOrange Book (CD-R) in 1990, the White Book (video

characterized by standards being added to by extending the

CD, CD-IDV) in 1993 and the Blue Book (CD-EXTRA)

existing books. Extensions to the Red Book include CD-G in

in 1996.

1985, CD-EG in 1991, CD-V in 1987 and CD singles and
CD-MIDI in 1990. Extensions to the Yellow Book include

Although it took some time, the CD family has become variously

CD-ROMXA in 1989. Extensions to the Green Book include

diverse. The next-generation audio system SA-CD (super audio CD,

CD-IDV and CD-BGM in 1992. The common characteristics

Scarlet Book) was formulated in 1999 in response to demand for

between these is that developing the applicable productimproved quality in recorded music. Essentially derived from theresulted in the emergence of new products not covered by the

Red Book, this improved system adopted a new audio encoding

existing books. Specifications were added in accordance withformat called direct stream digital (DSD), as well as a sampling

the products. In many cases, there were initial compatibility

frequency of 2822.4kHz and a playback frequency range of DC to

Systemized Survey on the Development and Practical Application of Compact Disc (CD) Technology

49

above 100kHz. With the DVD standard formulated around 1996, thetwo businesses were starting out at the same time, resulting in
opposition to DVD audio. A standard emerged for a disc with twolayers, a CD layer and an SACD layer (both 0.6mm thick, with a
total thickness of 1.2mm). The greatest feature of an SACD player
was that it could handle both CD-DA and high quality super audio
CD. There are still users today who prefer high quality audio, andsoftware titles are still being sold in this format.

CD media recording capacity was considered to be highvolume (around 0.65GB) in 1982. As multimedia data later
became more widespread, it was noted that the capacity
would not be enough. To address this need for high volume
media, the double density CD (DDCD) standard wasformulated, approximately doubling the capacity of CD
media to 1.3GB. The standard enacted in 2000 was called the
Purple Book, and licenses began to be issued for it. Although
the DDCD standard belongs in the CD family, playing it
required a special DDCD drive and there were also issues
with the cost of the media and the half-finished state of themedia capacity. Sony and Yamaha brought out DDCD

5.1.3

CD Family and Logos

As mentioned above, many diverse formats have been
produced in the CD family, starting with CD-DA. For each
CD related product, a “system logo” has been produced toshow that the product has been based on the respective CD
standard. These system logos represent all CD-relate
products. In granting a license for essential patents related toCDs, Sony/Philips grant access to the “three sacred treasures”
of CD technology: the consent agreement, the written
standards, and the system logo. As well as administering
these, the companies also provide standard test discs, updates
to the written standards and compatibility verification of CDrelated products. These efforts in maintaining and preserving
standards ensure the compatibility of CD family products.
Accordingly, the system logo on CD related products provesthat an official license agreement has been signed. Fig. 5-1-4
shows the main system logos and marketing logos.
Essentially, each logo comprises the words “compact disc” inthe center with a name underneath to indicate the intended
use, for example “digital audio” or “digital video”.

products, but these were overtaken by the higher capacity
DVD drives and media and the DDCD did not take hold. Fig.
5-1-3 shows the correlation between the CD-ROM standards.
From a technological perspective, these can be categorized as

CD graphics

Photo CD

either various application specifications built on from the Red
Book, or completely different technology, represented by theVideo CD

Orange and Scarlet Books.

MPEG-1 videos

MPEG-1 videos
CD Text

Super Video CD

Video CD

CD ExtraVideo CD-ROM

Super Video CD

Fig. 5-1-4 CD-Related System Logos and Marketing
Logos
Various games

The marketing logo is present alongside the system logo.
The marketing logo is a logo established by relevant industry
groups in collaboration with the licenser with the aim ofpromoting the business in the industry. A good example is the
CD-I marketing logo, the first instance of a marketing logo,
proposed in 1992 by the market promotion committee of the
CD-I Consortium Japan. The video CD marketing logo wasestablished in 1994 as a logo to be used on video CD players
and video CD software titles based on the video CD standard

Fig. 5-1-3 Correlation between CD-ROM Standards

2.0. Initially, these logos were only used in Japan, but as thevideo CD business expanded into China, India, Taiwan,
Singapore and into the Middle East, the familiar video CD“seashell logo” began to be used around the world. Marketing

50

National Museum of Nature and Science Survey Report of Systematization of Technology, Vol. 25 2018. Marchlogos were also established for Super Video CD and video

media manufacturing costs and invigorated the CD market to

CD-ROM, although these had limited use as these businesses

the point that it is a major industry.

did not expand as widely.

5.2 Organization of the Main Books (Standard
Books)

5.2.2

Yellow Book (CD-ROM)

The Yellow Book determines matters relating to CDROM, which has general data recorded on it in information
tracks in place of the audio information recorded on CD-DA.

From the perspective of historical CD development, there

The Yellow Book only stipulates the physical format of theare three main books (standard books): the Red Book (CD-

CD-ROM, not the logical format. Accordingly, for the CD-DA), the Yellow Book (CD-ROM) and the Orange Book

ROM to be useful as a media device, it was necessary to(CD-R). These three standard books have made a major

determine various logical formats over and above the Yellow

contribution to the development of the CD family, bringing in

Book. The CD-ROM data format stipulated in the Yellow

a very significant amount of business and dramaticallyBook includes the mechanical and physical properties of thereforming the world.

disc, disc size and material quality, disc recording
characteristics, data track format, error detection and

5.2.1

Red Book (CD-DA)

correction characteristics, information coding and optical

The Red Book is generally referred to as the CD-DA
standard book, although it stipulates two main categories of
information related to CD specifications.

characteristics for playing back information.
Original user data recorded on CD-ROM has a CD-ROM
error correction code added and is then scrambled. The data

The first is determining the characteristic specifications forthen has an audio error correction code added. This two-stage

music CDs. This is the CD-DA standard book aspect. As wellprocess makes it possible for CD-ROM and CD-DA to be

as specifying the music sampling frequency, channel number,compatible, as well as ensuring the high reliability needed forrecordable frequency band and other necessary systemdata recording. The CD-ROM physical format based on thespecifications for digital audio discs, the book also specifies

specifications in the Yellow Book was later adopted as thethe cross interleaved Reed-Solomon code (CIRC) error

international standard for the “120mm playback optical disccorrection method for data recorded on the disc and the EFM(CD-ROM)”. As mentioned previously, as the international

modulation format. It also specifies the maximum number ofstandard, it has achieved industrial standard status in manysongs that can be recorded on a disc (99 songs) and thecountries.

interval between tracks. By stipulating these standards insuch detail, the Red Book ensures CD-DA productcompatibility between manufacturers. This laid thefoundation for the widespread of use of CD media seen

5.2.3

Orange Book (CD-R)

Strictly speaking, the Orange Book is divided into Part 1
and Part 2.
Part 1 deals with CD-MO (magneto-optical recording

today.
The second is determining the specifications shared by CD

media not compatible with CD). Part 2 deals with CD-R

media. This is the CD media standard aspect. The standard(recordable media compatible with CD). The CD-MO

specifies physical disc characteristics, such as thickness andstandard formed the basis for the MiniDisc (MD) system

possible material used, as well as stipulating the disc signal

released by Sony in 1992. Part 2 is the standard for CD-R,

recording format with each frame (block) comprising 2353B

mutually compatible with CD. Since the technical details ofand that the data is written from the inside to the outside.

CD-R are covered in Chapter 7, only an outline of how the

These specifications are not limited to CD-DA but shared bybook was formulated is given here.

all CD media and form the basis for compatibility. For

Following the basic agreement between Sony and Philips

example, the required specifications for disc material are

regarding CD-WO, electronic component manufacturer Taiyo

mentioned but the material is not specified, nor is the discYuden asked Sony to include the organic dye recordable

production method. As a result, manufacturers havemedia it was developing into the CD-WO standard. Sony had

competed to improve disc material and innovate theirconnections with Taiyo Yuden through digital audio pioneer

manufacturing equipment, which has led to reduced CD

Nakajima Heitarō, who was then the president of Aiwa.

Systemized Survey on the Development and Practical Application of Compact Disc (CD) Technology

51

Acknowledging Nakajima’s request to give priority to CD-

Nakajima Heitarō as president, and began providing media

compatible development, young Taiyo Yuden engineersand hardware sales and services. Ironically, the CD-R “media

Ishiguro Takashi and Hamada Emiko developed an organicfrom hell” has been most commonly used by manufacturers

dye recording layer that somehow met the 70% reflectanceof games and published software titles in the soft content

requirement and the technology to directly attach the newindustry. The problem of illegal copying cannot be stopped,

gold reflective film. They also optimized the organic dye for

and while some point out the harm caused to the soft content

the recording film and successfully solved the difficult

industry, the CD-R has demonstrated its “ill repute” well.

challenge of reducing the jitter component due to the steep

Start Lab engaged in exclusive sales of Taiyo Yuden’s highrising edges of the signal pits, thereby achieving CD

quality R-media (made in Japan) and special services for R-

compatibility.

media. The venture’s 26-year mission came to an end in

CD-compatible media is the double-edged sword of the

March 2016 with the rapid transition to a networked society.

soft content industry. For those who favor preventing illegal
copying, it is despised as “the media from hell”. However,
CD-ROM businesses that experienced rapid growth would
never have been able to produce soft content with CDcompatible CD-R media. This is all due to Sony deciding inAugust 1988 to develop a recording drive and working with
Philips on standardization. The company shared its
technology with Philips, carried out verification testing andofficially released the new specification document Orange
Book Part 2 in May 1989. The CD-R became a business.
After many twists and turns, Sony and Taiyo Yuden

References
1) “Konpakuto Disuku: Sono 20-nen no Ayumi [TheCompact Disc: Its 20-year History]” CDs21 Solutions(2005)
2) “CD Famirī [The CD Family]” Nakajima Heitarō, Ihashi
Takao and Ogawa Hiroshi, Ohmsha (1996)
3) “Onkyō Gijutsu-shi [History of Sound Recording]” Mori,
Kamekawa and Kimizuka, Geidai Press (2011)
4) “Kōmitsudo Hikari Disuku ni kansuru Kenkyū [A Studyon High-Density Optical Discs]” Watanabe Tetsu,
University of Tokyo doctoral dissertation (Engineering)(2007)

established the joint venture Start Lab (Sony Taiyo Yuden
Advanced Recording Laboratory) in June 1989 with

52

National Museum of Nature and Science Survey Report of Systematization of Technology, Vol. 25 2018. March

6

Emergence and Scope of CD-Related Business

While Fig. 6-1 shows the general trends in optical discsystems, it is difficult to determine the extent of CD-related
business. The optical disc system started with the laser disc(LD) in the early 1980s. CD-related business began in the fallof 1982 with the launch of the CD-DA player by Sony andwent on to form a major market. The CD offered highcomputer compatibility, with factors such as good random
accessibility. It also answered the demand for an inexpensive
recording medium. As a result, the CD-ROM took center
stage as an external memory device for computers, storing
digital data in place of audio data. This led to a dramaticincrease in hardware and software. The CD-ROM recording

6.1 Trends in Optical Disc Systems(Hardware)

In the early 1980s, optical discs suddenly became thecenter of attention. This was the point in time when there wasa demand from Hollywood and others in the film industry fordisc-based (non-copiable) film distribution to replace VTRbased film distribution. The 30cm diameter laser disc (LD)appeared on the market, known in the early days as the“record with pictures”. However, despite efforts by Pioneer,
Philips and other companies, there was never a huge market
for the LD, due to the difficulty of the video software

capacity of around 0.65GB was equivalent in character countbusiness and the fact that it was in competition with the VTR.

to around one and half years’ worth of newspapers. A major

A specialized professional market did emerge for the LD,feature was the ability to duplicate this vast amount of data inhowever, and it was used for various applications, including

several seconds. This “printing revolution” formed a major

the karaoke industry and education industry, due to its highindustry, with the greatest impact on the printing andcomputer compatibility because of its good random

publishing industry since Gutenberg. CDs were also used inaccessibility. This business continued through to the early

the field of gaming. CD-ROM use by consumers began in

2000s. Around the mid-1990s, LD players were given the1994 with the launch of PlayStation by Sony Computerability to play CDs, which allowed the consumer business ofEntertainment. The CD-ROM business expanded
dramatically, extending from games and electronic
publications to GPS vehicle navigation systems.

LD / CD-DA compatible players to continue.
6.1.1

Trends in Tabletop Players

Under the circumstances described above, Sony launched
the CDP101 tabletop player in October 1982, six months
after the CD-DA standard was published, signaling the
beginning of the CD-DA business. The high price of¥168,000 and the shortage of software titles meant that only alimited number of users could purchase it, but the first lot ofseveral thousand were somehow accepted by the market, an
indicator for later manufacturers. The CDP101 was a highly
perfected machine with the following technical features.
Fig. 6-1 Trends in Optical Discs

Section 6.1 below discusses the major trends in consumer(1) Stable playback function using a shaft-sliding optical
pickup(2) Slide-loading disc transport mechanism

optical disc hardware and the related business. Section 6.2(3) Highly sophisticated 3-chip LSI circuit design

describes the portable CD players that brought CDs to the(4) The world’s first 780nm semiconductor laser

world. Section 6.3 outlines the emergence of CD-related(5) Small mini-component size

businesses, while 6.4 provides an overview of other

This model had a major impact. It was recognized by all

businesses that emerged as a result of the CD-ROM.

companies as the standard model, with most tabletop players
sold after that incorporating features such as a slide-loadingmechanism. The main components of the optical element anddigital LSI also had a significant impact on other companies.
Although production volumes were not high, this

Systemized Survey on the Development and Practical Application of Compact Disc (CD) Technology

53commemorative piece of technology was a “milestonealso rapidly reduced the cost, making it possible tomodel” in CD player mass production.

incorporated into portable CD players and causing the market

The signal processing LSI used in this model was a three-

to boom. The successful mass production of semiconductor

chip configuration. The CX-7933 chip was used for the EFM

lasers and three-chip LSI signal processors were key

demodulation circuit, the CX-7934 was used for controllinginnovations to the mass production of CD players. In thatand interpolating the exchange between RAM and data. The

sense, the completion and launch of the CDP-101 was the

CX-7935 was used for CIRC error correction. At the time,

fruit of Japanese technological prowess, not just Sony. It was

Fujitsu was the only cutting-edge enterprise capable ofa glowing landmark achievement in the history of CD

producing LSI with around 10,000 gates using the MOS

technology development. Table 6-1-1 shows theprocess. The N-MOS process made it possible to reduce thespecifications for the DAD three-chip LSI.

chip size to around 4×6mm for a 20-70 pin DIP plastic
package. The issue with the large, unstable circuit board used

All CD player production technology starts here. For

in the prototype was resolved with this chip size. This

example, the technology for attaching the optical pickup

remarkable feat was a clear demonstration of the level ofneeds to be accurate enough to account for any measurement

Fujitsu’s technological prowess at the time. Another key parterror due to adhesive shrinkage. This requires a vast amountin the player was the DA converter. The 16-bit consumer DAof accumulated experience, and only Japanese companies

required nine levels of LPF, which was difficult to design andhave the ability to produce optical components with suchcost more than $1000. However, from around 1986, as

high precision. Production of optical pickups has increased

players became more generic, digital filtering technology was

since 2000, and more are being produced overseas.

incorporated into the DA converter. LSI also underwent

However, it is difficult to pass on the experience needed

successive generations of technology revolutions, making it

for the precise adhesion technology in this field, and it

possible to hold around 30,000 gates on a single chip. Thisremains as a field of expertise for Japanese companies.

Table 6-1-1 DAD Three-Chip LSI Specifications and Photographs
CX-7933
CX-7934
CX-7935
DAD player
DAD player data control
DAD player error
demodulation circuit& interpolation
correction
Process
N-MOS
N-MOS
N-MOS
Chip size
4.0mm x 4.2mm
6.0mm x 5.3mm
5.8mm x 5.7mm
Package
28-pin DIP plastic mold
70-pin FP plastic mold
28-pin DIP plastic mold
Operating speed
4.32 MHz
2.16 MHz (original
2.16 MHzoscillation 8.64 MHz)Power supply voltage
5V single power supply
5V single power supply
5V single power supply
Power consumption
350 mW
550 mW
720 mW
Output level
TTL compatible
TTL compatible
TTL compatible
Functions•
EFM data•
Interface with RAM•
Super strategy
demodulation
CIRC signal (error•
Control of writing
detection and•Subcode signal
data to RAM andcorrection)
demodulation
reading data fromRAM•
Frame sync
detection, dropout•
Mean interpolation
protection and•
CLV reference
interpolation
signal generation•
Interface signal•
Interface signal togeneration
the D/A converter
Name
Use

54

National Museum of Nature and Science Survey Report of Systematization of Technology, Vol. 25 2018. MarchAlthough production is carried out overseas, it is done withcomplete, incorporating development and design. The tirelesstechnical guidance from Japan. In 1983, Yamaha launched aefforts of engineers paid off and the product took shape.

tabletop CD player (CD-X1) for under ¥100,000, thus

However, the costs were calculated to be far in excess of theheightening market expectations. Other companies followed

target price. Everyone on the technology team was at theirsuit with tabletop CD players of their own. This overlappedwits’ end.

with the launch of portable CD players, discussed later. CDs

Sony had invested heavily in development since launchingwere initially targeted at middle-aged adults, but with thethe CD player. This project was the highest priority in the CD

price band now successfully halved, CDs began to attract

business, and it had to succeed no matter what. Company

younger audiences and female users, previously the mainstay

president Morita Akio gave strict orders. “We can’t stop now.

of the record market.

The price will come down when we mass produce it. Set the

As a leading company in this field, Sony played a major

sale price under ¥50,000 and we’ll spread the initial lossrole in expanding into new markets. Consequently, theacross all of Sony.” Morita was finely attuned to the market,

company significantly expanded the scope of its productand experience had taught that consumer products soldplanning. The company launched the CDP-5000S

extremely well when the price was under ¥50,000. In the fall

professional CD player in 1983 (¥1.8 million), followed byof 1984, the portable CD player D-50 Discman (¥49,800) was

the CDP-701ES (¥260,000) and the CDP-501ES (¥168,000)

released to the world. As Morita had expected, the D-50 didin the high-end ES series. After these came the successor

sell extremely well. The hardware cost dropped rapidly,tabletop players, the CDP-111 (¥145,000) and the CDP-11S

accompanied by a rapid increase in CD software titles. This(¥115,000). The CDP-102 (¥89,800) and CDP-103 (¥84,800)

product should be commemorated for creating a space in thewere added to the lineup in 1984, followed by the launch ofworld for the CD-DA business. The portable CD player was

the CDP-33 (¥54,800) in 1985. In a short space of just overknown as the Discman. There was rapid growth in model

three years, the player price dropped to a third, invigorating

numbers, accompanied by further downsizing of batteries andthe CD market, with increasing numbers of companies

power-saving technologies, resulting in its being essentiallyjoining in.

the same size as the CD casings. This led to the world’s first

Having previously established the concept of a small,easily portable music player product with its Walkman
cassette tape player, Sony turned its attention to the mostimportant idea for the 120mm compact disc: a portable CD

100-hour playback capable devices. Today, the D-50, like the
CDP-101, is carefully stored and displayed at the Sonymuseum. Fig. 6-1-1 shows the CDP-101, launched by Sonyin 1982, and the D-50, launched in 1984.

player that would allow anyone to enjoy CD music anywhere.
Although there was much anticipation for such a product, thelevel of technology at the time meant that portable CDplayers were beyond anyone’s wildest dreams. Despite this,engineers began to resolve each challenging issue with novel
ideas.
Specifically, the following challenging issues had to besolved.
(1) Ultra-downsizing the optical pickup(2) Developing a PWM drive system to reduce electricity
consumption(3) Developing the technology to prevent servo
disturbance and skipping while the player is being
carried around(4) Developing smaller and more energy efficient secondgeneration LSI(5) Developing a special battery for the power supply
In making the commercial product, Ōsone Kōzō, head ofSony’s audio division at the time, encouraged his engineers
to develop the technology so thoroughly and with such highdensity and integration that if a prototype were to besubmerged in a tank of water, no bubbles would come out.

Fig. 6-1-1 CDP-101 and D-50

This resulted in a major project that took three years to

Systemized Survey on the Development and Practical Application of Compact Disc (CD) Technology55

CD title production in the introductory period began withCBS Sony went global, including the United States. Toshiba

only four companies, in 1982 (CBS Sony, Polydor, Nippon

EMI supported a CD production plant in the United

Columbia and Toshiba EMI). Two years later, in 1984, there

Kingdom. Such was the superiority of Japanese CD

were 22 companies. When they were first released, CD titles

production technology.

sold for ¥3800 for digital recordings and ¥3500 for digitized

As mentioned previously, companies were actively

analog recordings. Imported discs were ¥4000-4200. CD

investing into portable CD players. This had a significant

titles, too, were highly priced. Since most record companies

impact on the tabletop player business. Perhaps because it

were subsidiaries of electrical manufacturers, they were quick

was the golden age of the audio market, around five to ten

to note the digitization trend and actively invested into thistabletop CD player models were being designed each year.

revolutionary new product called the CD, acquiring

However, there was difficulty in reducing costs. From aroundtechnology and further refining the production of titles. As a

1985, when the benefits of LSI mass production began to takeresult, by the end of 1984, production capacity had increased

effect as a result of the D-50, Sony was able to design

and there were around 4000 CD titles available on the

products for prices in the vicinity of ¥50,000. The subsequent

market. At the same time, various policies were put in placelaunch of the CDP-33, mentioned above, and the CDP-510

to encourage the spread of CD titles. Famous recordings byaided the popularity of the product. In 1986, competition

conductors such as Bruno Walter and Wilhelm Furtwängler

between companies grew more intense. Players such as thewere remastered on CD and were well received. In November

CDP-M30 started being sold for around ¥30,000. As price

1984, the retail price was lowered for these “retail adapted

competition intensified further, the market grew. The releaseproducts”. This resulted in a turning of the tide for analog LP

of CD single titles in 1988 drove further expansion in thesales in the classical music market as it truly became a CD

youth and female user markets. According to RIAJ,

market. According to statistics from the Recording Industry

production of 8cm CD singles reached 110 million in 1992,

Association of Japan, 6.36 million CDs were produced infive years later. Production peaked in 1997 at around 168

1984 for a total sum of ¥14.4 billion. In terms of total sales

million. This phenomenon was made possible by the low cost

revenue, analog LPs still outsold CDs by 88.6 to 11.4. Thereand ease of use of CD players. The players had made a huge

was rapid growth in the CD market from 1985, with CDtransition from conventional tabletop machines into the realm

production in Japan reaching more than 20 million discs,

of general audio products. These were personal user devices,

three times higher than the previous year. In 1986, this figuresuch as the CD radio cassette player. CD software was also

grew to over 45 million, rivalling LP records. In 1987, CD

rapidly expanding into a large-scale market. Album

production reached 65 million, more than double that of LP

production reached around 210 million, securing a central

records. CDs had gained a firm foothold in the market. Fig.

position for CDs in the music industry.

6-1-2 shows the trends in CD and LP sales, taken from

However, Sony was also developing products such as the

documents by the Recording Industry Association of Japan.

ES series, mentioned earlier, for the high-end audio arena andmillion units

a specialized market was taking shape. High-end audio
players, starting with the CDP-701ES in 1983, were designed
for the best possible sound quality. These models were very
highly priced at over ¥100,000. When the higher soundquality super audio CD (SACD) was released in 1999, theSACD compatible players SCD-1 (¥500,000) and SCD777ES (¥350,000) were put to market, followed by the DVPS9000ES (¥200,000) and SCD-555ES (¥180,000) the
following year. Specialized manufacturers overseas later
1990

1989

1988

1987

1986

1985

1984

1983

1982

1981

Fig. 6-1-2 Trends in CD/LP Record Sales(from RIAJ data)

The global leaders in Japanese CD production technology

56

modeled their ¥100,000 to ¥1 million CD players on thesemachines. SACD discs used two-layer technology with two
0.6mm discs attached together. These were positioned firmly
in the CD family under the Scarlet Book, although theydiffered from the CD standards in the strictest sense. They

began to shift their production bases overseas. Nippon

required special players and could not be played on existing

Columbia and JVC expanded into the United States, while

CD players and so were limited to certain areas. As a result,

National Museum of Nature and Science Survey Report of Systematization of Technology, Vol. 25 2018. Marchthese high-quality CDs unfortunately never achieved(2) Roulette type CD changers hold 3-5 CDs on a roulettewidespread popularity. However, the underlying 1-bit

disc that makes the changer function possible. Due tosampling direct stream digital (DSD) technology was

the simple method of disc change is simple and therecognized as prior art when it came to later high-quality

advantage of the discs being visible, this system

music distribution online.

became the main one used in tabletop players. The

6.1.2

C5M (¥54,800) in 1987 and was used in a number ofdesign was first introduced to the market in the CDP-The Emergence of Players with Changers

CD changers first appeared in late 1986, due to theabundance and widespread popularity of CD software titles.
Sony’s first CD changer model was the CDP-C10(¥110,000), designed to play 10 consecutive CDs. The fivedisc CDP-C50 (¥44,800) was also launched on the market.
This model was especially popular in North America, and a
new market was formed.
CD changers can be broadly categorized into three types:(1) the magazine type, (2) the roulette type and (3) thestorage type.
(1) Magazine type CD changers hold 5-12 CDs in a
magazine and are noted for easy disc handling. Thesemodels until the CDP-C535 (¥49,800) in 1993.
Marketed as a tabletop player, there are still a few
being produced today. This features some examples of
unique Japanese technology, including the fixed discchuck mechanism that allows stable playback ofmultiple discs, the dust-proof shutter mechanism toprotect the optical pickup from dust and dirt and thedisc peeling mechanism, environmental
countermeasures for deserts and other special climate
areas overseas. Fig. 6-1-4 shows a five-disc roulette
player. Fig. 6-1-5 shows examples of a disc peelingmechanism and a dust-proof shutter mechanism.

were first built into tabletop players. The technology
reached its pinnacle in 1988, with the CDP-C100(¥79,800), CDP-C900 (¥49,800) and CDP-C910(¥49,800). Later devices for car audio had additionalfeatures, such as anti-vibration technology and built-in
memory to aid against skipping. These significantly
expanded the high-quality car audio market. Even
today, there are still in-car CD players with magazine
type CD changers, although they now have evolved
further in various ways, such as integrating navigation
into the audio server. Fig. 6-1-3 shows a magazine
type CD player and a magazine type car CD player.

Fig. 6-1-4 Five-Disc Roulette Type Player

Disc peeling mechanism

Fig. 6-1-3

Magazine Type CD Player and Car CD Player

Fig. 6-1-5 Dust-Proof Shutter Mechanism and Disc
Peeling Mechanism(3) Storage type changers were introduced around 1993
and were designed to hold around 100-400 CDs. The
discs are stored one by one in a circular storage area,
Systemized Survey on the Development and Practical Application of Compact Disc (CD) Technology

57

with a number of devices used to minimize the storage[Fig. 2]

[Fig. 1]

Plan view of main section

space. This was the culmination of unique Japanesetechnologies. The CDP-CX100 (¥100,000) was
brought out with a 100-disc changer and was wellreceived in the North American market in particular.
Later, in 1995, the improved CDP-CX100F waslaunched. The CDP-CX200F (¥59,800) was launchedbetween 200 CDs. The ultimate CDM62 was capableof storing and changing 400 CDs and became a major
talking point.
This changer type mechanism was uniquely developed in[Fig. 3]

1…Recording and playback device
2…Disc storage system
3…Transportation system
4…Lock system
5…Disc gap press-widening system
6…Loading system
7…Disc holding system
8…Recording and playback system

in 1996, making it possible to store and change[Fig. 4]

Enlarged plan view of main section

Japan. Pioneer also released products in this field. Thesechangers had extremely high precision mechanical design,with a dual deck able to store up to 400 CDs and play theSide view of main section

selected CD in an instant. Fig. 6-1-6 shows a 400 CDchanger.

Fig. 6-1-7 Patent No. 3951500 400 CD Changer
Mechanism

This was the Sony D-50 and it created a sensation. Sony had
experience in implementing high density technology, having
produced the cassette tape Walkman. This small, lightweightplayer had sound quality to rival that of the tabletop CD
players. With functionality including an LCD panel to display
Fig. 6-1-6 400 CD Changer

Japan has the technological monopoly in this field, withpatents including Patent No. 3541515 and Patent No.
3951500. These are quite complex mechanisms and difficult
to explain. Essentially, the patents are for a mechanism inwhich a robotic arm takes out one of the 400 discs and puts itin the CD drive chuck to play it. Fig. 6-1-7 shows a diagramfrom Patent No. 3951500, used as a reference for latersystematized technology.

6.2 The CD Walkman that Made the CD
FamousIn 1984, two years after the emergence of the compact
disc, the CD player itself was limited to being a luxury item.
A portable player then emerged that was surprisingly as thin
as four CD cases, yet had high sound quality.

the current track number and playing time, this device not
only offered a real sense of the unique user-friendliness ofCDs, it also offered specifications from a user’s perspective,
such as being able to connect to an amplifier or radio cassette
player as an audio output.
Besides this high functionality, what took people aback
was the extraordinary price of ¥49,800. Making full use of
integrated circuits, low power consumption, fewer parts andother gradually acquired technologies had resulted in a
product that was even attractive to those who had given up
hope of affording a CD player. The small size and user
friendliness combined with a high quality design that would
go on to attract many followers. The level of completion of
the product meant that a broad range of music lovers, not justthe hi-fi enthusiasts, could easily enjoy digital sound. These
factors together triggered a new CD media boom around theworld. This chapter outlines the lineup of technology that led
to the “CD Walkman”. Since the main target for development
was the optical pickup, it goes without saying that the historyof the CD Walkman is the history of microminiaturization

58

National Museum of Nature and Science Survey Report of Systematization of Technology, Vol. 25 2018. Marchand ultra-lightweight development of the optical pickup. Fig.

indispensable. The actuator bobbin generated heat, requiring

6-2-1 shows the development of the optical pickup, from thea highly heat-resistant resin. “Fortron” was used for its highhistorical He-Ne gas laser pickup, designed and developed

precision moldability, necessary for making components

for the CD player before the emergence of the semiconductor

smaller and lighter. The new material improved the resonancelaser around 1980, to the miniaturized optical pickups of thecharacteristics of the bobbin and made it possible to reduce

early 1990s.

the number of parts in biaxial actuators. “Fortron” hasexcellent heat, flame and chemical resistance, as well as
having low ionic impurities and superior solder heat
resistance. Because of this, it is being used more frequently ina variety of applications, particularly for electronic
components used in severe conditions. Fig. 6-2-2 shows afirst-generation pickup and its components. The centralcomponent is the mechanical unit, made up of the discrotation motor, the resin optical pickup unit and the opticalFig. 6-2-1 Optical Pickup Progress

6.2.1

pickup slide base.

Development of Optical Pickups for Portable
CD Players

The emergence of the D-50 resulted in the price of CD
players dropping across all companies. Software titles also
went on sale in large numbers. The CD business was fully

Coverdeveloped across the entire industry. However, the D-50
required a large adaptor when carried around and was alsoquite heavy. It was still a long way from being a fully
portable, easily carried product.
The optical pickup in the D-50 was a so-called generic

Holder (Fortron®)
Bobbin (Fortron®)

Optical pickup slide base(glass fiber polycarbonate)

Fig. 6-2-2 First-Generation Pickup Components

product, designed with specifications that could be applicableto various different applications. To make it smaller andlighter, it had to be optimized for the CD Walkman. A special
design task force was put together to work on creating a
dedicated CD Walkman pickup. The team tried to develop
the technology by simply testing things out. It took three
years to complete. On top of this, there were a few challenges
to be resolved before mass production was possible. The
team ended up having to prototype five or six optical pickup
models. Eventually, the team completed the first-generation
optical pickup unit, weighing 8 grams. Although the mostimportant devices in the optical pickup are the semiconductor
laser and the objective lens (from glass lens to asphericalplastic lens), these fell to different divisions of the company
to industrialize. The main goal for this development was tomake the optical pickup unit smaller and lighter. This beganwith testing whether the zinc diecast slide base for thegeneric optical pickup could be replaced with a resin version.
Using resin instead of metal not only made the part lighter,but also more moldable, which reduced the amount of
secondary processing, thereby reducing the cost. As a result,glass-reinforced polycarbonate was selected for the slide basein the first-generation optical pickup. There were many
benefits to using resin, including better responsive and power
conservation. These benefits made the use of resin

The second-generation pickup was a continued
development of the first-generation pickup to make it smaller,
lighter and more functional. The performance aims weregreater stamina (lower power consumption), faster reading
and lower susceptibility to skipping. To achieve these aims,
the second-generation pickup (1) had two models of optical
pickup slide base, one made from the existing glass
reinforced polycarbonate and the other made from a metal“Vectra alloy”. (2) The bobbin material changed from
Fortron® to Vectra®, with superior mechanical and vibration
absorption properties, while the holder continued to be madefrom Fortron®. This resulted in a more lightweight opticalunit that weighed around 8 grams with the metal slide baseand around 4.5 grams with the Vectra material. Since thebobbin was made of Vectra, it had a high Young’s modulus.
While other resin materials (such as PPS resin) had a highYoung’s modulus, they had little internal loss, which meant
they had poor vibration properties. Only Vectra performed
well in this regard. The two models of second-generation
optical pickup, one with a thin metallic optical pickup slidebase and one with a thicker resin slide base, were usedvariously for different types and models of CD Walkman. To
be able to read faster than the first-generation pickups, they

Systemized Survey on the Development and Practical Application of Compact Disc (CD) Technology

59

had to have a higher resonance frequency for eachlighter, as well as offering better vibration properties andcomponent. The higher revolution of the disc rotation motor

costing less. With the ultimate ideal type now achieved, allmeant greater vibration. To minimize the effects of this, eachslide bases were transitioned to the Vectra alloy and are stillpart had to be made a higher grade. The main reason for

produced in this form today. Progress was also made in areasusing Vectra alloy for the optical pickup slide base was its
extremely high hardness, heat resistance and chemical
resistance. The resin itself was flame retardant, with all
grades having V-0 level properties. It also had very high thinmoldability with little burring. It took a lot of effort andongoing trial and error to reach this point in material
selection, with a lot of technical support. It was not a matterof individual component characteristics, but of finding an
optimum solution for the pickup as a whole, combined withother parts and also taking part adhesion properties into
account to produce superior vibration properties. Fig. 6-2-3
shows a CD Walkman with a second-generation pickup, as
well as the optical pickup slide base, holder (Fortron) andbobbin (Vectra) that make up the optical pickup unit.

other than pickup development. The CD Walkman was being
thoroughly investigated in all aspects, including size,
electricity consumption (stamina) and skipping. The issue ofskipping was an essential feature that spelled life or death for
the CD Walkman. Technological development in this area
continued, resulting in a “G-Protection” skip guard function.
Today, the system is complete, with music able to be enjoyedwith little concern for skipping even with vibration frombeing carried about or jogging. This technology ischaracterized by having a buffer memory of several seconds
for CD-DA playback. Even if the system skips, the music
data is played back from the buffer memory until the optical
pickup returns to the original track. Although the systemservo had the gain enhanced to prevent skipping, it was still
possible for the track or focus to jump for some reason,
losing the original signal. The buffer memory system wasdeveloped as a means to combat this. While this could beconsidered to be audio delay-line technology, it is theultimate degree of perfection in playback technology, playing
back with the user unaware of the skipping, as if nothing had
happened. Fig. 6-2-4 shows a CD Walkman with a thirdgeneration pickup. Fig. 6-2-5 shows the parts that make up athird-generation optical pickup.

Fig. 6-2-3 CD Walkman with Second-Generation Optical
Pickup

The third-generation pickup emerged in the summer of2001. It was the complete optical pickup for the CD
Walkman, both in performance and in cost. This pickup madeit possible to take the CD Walkman from 15.5mm to 13.4mm
thin. The pickup also only weighed 3 grams. Following
thorough analysis of vibration properties, the material used

Fig. 6-2-4 CD Walkman with Third-Generation Optical
Pickupfor the bobbin was special grade Vectra® with low
anisotropic vibration properties, thus improving performance.
A lightweight Vectra alloy material with good vibration
properties was used for the optical slide base. For the second-

60

6.2.2

Development of the CD Walkman

The history of the “Discman” portable CD player began ingeneration pickup, the only consideration for optical slide

the fall of 1984 with the release of the D-50. In that sense, thebase material selection was the vibration and strength of thehistory of the portable CD player is the history of the Sony

individual component. For the third generation, consideration

CD Walkman itself. Examining the technology systems has

was also given to compatibility with adhesives and layout

shown that the development process can be broadly divided

balance with other parts. As a result, the third-generation

into four stages. This is the case for Sony, who pioneered in

optical pickup was successfully made thinner, smaller andthis field, and the same is true of many Japanese household

National Museum of Nature and Science Survey Report of Systematization of Technology, Vol. 25 2018. Marchappliance manufacturers. These stages largely align with the

CD player. The design emphasized a unique shape andgenerations of optical pickup. The period from 1985, when

operability. When playing a 12cm disc, the disc would

the Discman was first commercialized using the genericjut out from the player as it rotated. At the same time,

pickup described previously, through to the early 1990s was

CD-DA disc production surpassed LP record

the “dawn era” of the Discman. The period from the early

production in 1987. On top of this, CD players ranged

1990s, when the first-generation optical pickup wasfrom popular-priced models to 8cm CD models andsuccessfully developed and commercialized, through tohigh-performance models. There were even higharound 1996 was the “growth era” of the Discman. The

sound quality models featuring digital soundperiod from 1996, when the second-generation pickup wasprocessing (DSP) and low-frequency sound playback

introduced, through to the early 2000s was the “maturity era”,

models with TV/FM/AM tuners. All these different

when the name changed from Discman to CD Walkman.

models began to emerge in the dawn era.

Finally, the period from around 2000, when the third-(2) The Discmans of the growth era were the models

generation ultimate optical pickup was introduced andlaunched from around 1990 to around 1996,

conversion to other media was considered, through to 2005-

distinguished by the second-generation optical pickup.

2006 was the “conversion era”. Through these four stages,

The D-J50, launched in 1991, featured the newly

which span 20 years in time, portable music playback devices

developed, significantly smaller and lighter opticalhave fulfilled their mission and transitioned to second-

pickup. This made it possible to achieve a thickness ofgeneration media (IC memory, internet, etc.). Even now,

14.8mm, only slightly thicker than a CD case (10mm).

portable CD players are being produced overseas more or less

Regardless, this jacket-sized CD player had a form thatas toys, sold for $10-20. This simply shows how things

felt more rigid than any player before it. However,inevitably change with time.

although the design attempted to come as close as
possible to the outer edge of the CD itself, this could
not be achieved with the technology of the time. This
Bobbin (Vectra®)Cover

era is characterized by many models having a mixed
design that was rounded at the front, like a CD, andrectangular at the back. The D-111 in 1992, the D-321
in 1993 and the D-777 in 1995 had the same external

Holder (Fortron®)
Optical pickup slide base (Vectra®)Fig. 6-2-5 Third-Generation Pickup Components(1) The portable player of the dawn era was essentially amodel derived from the D-50. There were manymodels with different color variations and increasingly
longer playback durations. The D-50 MK-II in 1985
had a change in design to make it smaller and more
lightweight. The D-30 released in 1987 and the D-20
and D-40 in 1988 were popular-priced models, coming
in at under ¥30,000. These also offered over six hoursof playback. The use of CD players in cars was
spreading, with a focus on sound quality. Sonylaunched the high sound performance D-600 model for
in-vehicle use in 1987. Designed for in-car
performance and operability, this was anunprecedented new design, powered from the cigarette
lighter socket. The high-end D-2001 model featured abuilt-in 50W amplifier. With the favorable reception of
the 8cm CD, particularly in Japan, the D-88 portable
CD player was launched in 1988 as a specialized 8cm

design, using carbon fiber to make it lighter. Thesemodels were 18.5mm thick, weighed 175g and used
sports-specification 10-second electronic shockprotection (ESP) to prevent skipping. This era is alsocharacterized by issues with power consumption.
Power conserving technology continued to develop
and by 1996 had reached a level where 10 hours of
playback was possible with AA alkali batteries.
However, power conserving technology is a continual
challenge for portable devices and developments canbe expected to continue in future. Another feature ofthis era was the MD Link function that made it
possible to connect to the MiniDisc launched in 1992.
The function to connect with other devices was an
attempt to further extend the world of portable CDplayers. The D-848K “CAR Discman” launched in
1995 was the definitive in-car model, featuring
electrical opening and closing of the tray, 15 types ofdigital signal processing (DSP), anti-skipping
protection and a substantial repository of accessories.
The growth era was further supported by the launch of
the popular-priced D-131, selling for around ¥13,000

Systemized Survey on the Development and Practical Application of Compact Disc (CD) Technology61

in 1995, followed by the D-140, D-153, D-155, D-330,

model launched in 2005. A number of models emerged

D-340 and D-365 in succession.

at this time that were capable of intelligent and(3) The portable CD players of the maturity era underwent

convenient playback of high-quality sound,a change in name from the existing term “Discman” toimplementing specifications for compatibility with

“CD Walkman” in 1997. These CD players featured

ATRAC3 or MP-3 audio compression technology andsecond-generation optical pickups and the newly

specifications for CD-R/RW playback. However, thedeveloped ESP2 anti-skipping system. This was a new

mission of the portable CD Walkman started coming

era of renewed function and design.

to a close in 2005-2006. Products and technology in

The early D-E500 CD Walkman was capable ofthis field have been replaced by IC memory andaround 40 hours of continuous playback using four AA

continue on in the form of smaller, lighter music

batteries and was also compatible with MD Link. The

playback devices or as a function on mobile phones. In

design remained the same round-fronted, rectangular-that sense, the “CD” has been dropped from “CDbacked shape, although it had aluminum alloy panels

Walkman”, returning simply to “Walkman” with theand at 24.8mm thick, it was the size of two CD jewel

inevitable transition to the next generation of media.

cases. The D-E700 and D-E800 were later developed
from this model and served as the pattern type forpromoting the CD Walkman brand. A new brand, the
WIDDIT series, was proposed in 1998. Expansion into
new fields continued with the release of the D-5WD, a
new model devoted to being carried around.
Meanwhile, the D-E900 achieved new levels ofholdability at 20.1mm thick and weighing 175g. An
adapted multifunctional model, the D-V8000 was
launched in 1998, allowing playback of both music

Although a survey report on the systematization oftechnology ought to collect all Japanese resources
impartially, it has not been possible to collect materials in thisfield from anywhere but Sony, due to the reorganization anddissolution of Japanese electrical goods manufacturers.
Unfortunately, the report has had to focus unilaterally on theSony CD Walkman.
(1984)and video CDs and adding a touch of color to thelineup of the maturity era.
(4) The conversion era began with the D-E01, launched in
1999 to commemorate the 20th anniversary of the
Walkman (from the cassette tape era). This model
achieved the idea of a CD Walkman finally having thesame round shape as a CD. It was packed with featuresthat were carried over to later models, such as the
newly developed G-Protection skipping prevention,slide-in disc loading and a round design. The optical

1987
D-20
5-hour continuous playback & expanded
color variations

1987
D-600
Vehicle use specifications and packed withaccessories
In-vehicle model powered from thecigarette lighter socket. Unprecedented
design features connections and operability
specifically for vehicle use.

pickup was the small, lightweight third-generation
design. The overall player had a beautiful shaped-up
design that was only 19mm thick, weighed 167.5g andwas 130mm in diameter. This design was taken to

1988
D-88
World’s smallest and lightest
8cm CD size player

Fig. 6-2-6 Portable CD Players of the Dawn Era

further extremes in the D-EJ2000, released in 2002.
Launched as an ultrathin model, it had a seamlessFig. 6-2-6 shows representative portable CD players of thecasing and full magnesium body that was only

dawn era. Fig. 6-2-7 shows representative portable CD

13.4mm thick and weighed only 115g. This model had

players of the growth era. Similarly, Fig. 6-2-8 and Fig. 6-2-9

a significant impact on later designs. Significant

show representative CD Walkmans of the maturity era anddevelopments had also been made in power

conversion era, respectively.

conservation and battery technology. The D-NE800
was launched in 2003 with the new gumstick nickel
metal hydride battery (NH-10WM) capable of around130 hours of continuous playback. This technology
was carried over into the D-EJ720 high sound quality

62

National Museum of Nature and Science Survey Report of Systematization of Technology, Vol. 25 2018. March

6.3 Emergence of the CD-ROM
The emergence of the CD-ROM as a new form of
1991
D-J50
Ultrathin model asthin as a CD jacket

recording media was a major event, akin to the arrival of theblack ships for software developers and a kind of

1993

Renaissance for the software industry. As software
1995

1995

developers agonized over how to store their programs, FM
audio data and graphics data on the existing floppy disks that
only held 1-1.4MB, the arrival of the CD-ROM with around
540 times the storage capacity of a floppy disk must have
bewildered them no end. They were now faced with thepreviously unimaginable problem of what to store on
something with such huge capacity and what kind of
programs they would have to develop to satisfy users. A

1995

request came at the time to develop multimedia titles for the

1995“CAR Discman” packed
with new features

Fig. 6-2-7 Portable CD Players of the Growth Era(1997)(1998)FM Towns, a computer produced by Fujitsu with a built-in
CD-ROM drive. For the software industry, still finding its
way forward, even the idea of multimedia came as a major
shock. Fujitsu had confidence in the potential for the CDROM and established a “Hypermedia Center” in Tokyo and1998
D-E900Thin, light and very portable

in San Francisco to provide information on CD-ROM title
development and to support the production of CD-ROM
titles. While CD-ROM titles can now be produced easily athome, at that time this required specialized equipment that1998
D-V8000
You can even take Video
CDs with you

cost over ¥10 million. These Hypermedia Centers had a hugerole to play in this and were the greatest contributor toencouraging the production of CD-ROM titles. Besides
games, a great variety of titles were developed, one of which
was called Hyper Planet, a planetarium simulator combining
1998
D-5WD
New brand“widdit” modelFig. 6-2-8 CD Walkmans of the Maturity Era
D-E101 (1999)

a vast amount of star data, photographs and backgroundmusic. This outstanding work is still talked about today. The
title won the Minister of International Trade and Industry
Award at the first Digital Content Grand Prix and has beenused as a teaching tool in a great number of schools.

20th anniversary model withnew features addedThus, the emergence of the new high-capacity CD-ROM
recording media introduced people to the first multimedia
titles, incorporating audio data, graphics, photographs andvideos. A different style of development (much like movie
production) was introduced to the software industry and usedin many markets, including PCs, games, vehicle navigation,
film, education and electronic publishing. Huge numbers of
D-NE800 (2003)

Capable of 130 hours
continuous playback

titles were produced in the early 1990s and introduced to themarket, causing a so-called CD-ROM Renaissance thatcarried on into the 21st century.

(2002)

2005
D-EJ720High sound quality model poweredby a single battery

Fig. 6-2-9 CD Walkmans of the Conversion Era
Systemized Survey on the Development and Practical Application of Compact Disc (CD) Technology

63

6.3.1

Multimedia PC Application

Information System (VIS) by Tandy in 1992, but were not

At one time, PCs were not at all good with audio, still

very widespread and the market faded away within a few

images, videos and other so-called multimedia information.

years. In Japan, the most representative TV computer is theThis was due to the following reasons.

Towns-Marty, launched by Fujitsu in 1993. While basically(1) Slow CPU processing speed

compatible with the FM Towns multimedia PC, there were

(2) Low internal memory capacity

limited titles available. Fig. 6-3-3 shows the Towns-Marty,(3) No established format for multimedia data

which bore a striking resemblance to the CD-ROM gaming(4) No OS with a standard multimedia function

machines at the time. Later, Fujitsu Ten also commercialized

Another major factor was that multimedia data was

the Car Marty, a Marty-compatible vehicle navigation device.

sizeable and there was no suitable recording media for PC
handling, even from a cost perspective. By using the CDROM as a delivery media, it was finally possible to achieve“multimedia title” software products. CD-ROM title
distribution provided favorable conditions for electronic
publishing businesses to enlarge and spread. PC multimedia
titles led to the growth of the CD-ROM market and the
spread of the “multimedia PC” in a positive way.

FM-Towns (Fujitsu)

The first multimedia PC with a CD-ROM drive as standard
was the FM Towns launched by Fujitsu in February 1989,
followed by others in 1991, including the PC-98 Multi by
NEC and Quadra 900 by Apple Computer. Many othercompanies later followed suit with multimedia PCs of theirown, such as the PS/V series by IBM Japan in 1994, and themarket suddenly boomed.

PC-98 Multi (NEC)Another factor behind the spread of multimedia CD-ROM
titles was the fact that PC manufacturers were hedging
various risks for manufacturers of CD-ROM software titles,
establishing multimedia production studios and renting theseout at low cost. As a result, CD-ROM titles rapidly increased
and grew more diverse. Fig. 6-3-1 shows various multimedia

Quadra 840AV (Apple Computer)

PCs with CD-ROM drives built in. Fig. 6-3-2 shows amultimedia studio established by NEC.
While multimedia PCs were simply an extension of
conventional PCs, just with a built-in CD-ROM drive, there
was also another type of hardware called the player PC,
which also had an internal CD-ROM drive. These wereoperated by a game pad instead of a keyboard and connected
to a household TV rather than a monitor for a display screen.

PS/V Vision (IBM Japan)

These were also known as TV computers. These existed

Fig. 6-3-1 Multimedia PCs (with CD-ROM) from Various

overseas, such as the Commodore Dynamic Total Vision

Companies(CDTV), launched by Commodore in 1991, and the Video64

National Museum of Nature and Science Survey Report of Systematization of Technology, Vol. 25 2018. March

In 1995, the MPC Level 3 was published for MPEG-1
movie playback compatibility. As a result of the strong
promotion of the MPC specifications, the multimedia CDROMs requiring independent hardware to operate had been
eliminated. The CD-ROM drive became a standard feature on
PCs, and multimedia became so well established that the term
“multimedia” was no longer needed. With recordable andrewritable CD media superseding floppy disks, CDs secured
Fig. 6-3-2 NEC Multimedia Studiothe perfect position as everyday PC media.
Multimedia PCs came in desktop and laptop form. In the
golden age of the early 2000s, around 200 million were being
produced each year. Almost all of them had CD-ROM drives(CD-R/RW drives), which were smaller in size and offered
faster signal reading speeds during playback. The
competition for speed began with user demand for 4× fasterand culminated in the emergence of products 48× faster in

Fig. 6-3-3 Towns-Marty (Fujitsu)

CD-ROM drives came down in price and wereincreasingly fitted into PCs as standard. As CPU speeds
increased and hardware with AV functions emerged, the PC
itself rapidly evolved into a multimedia machine in the late
1990s. However, PC manufacturers each used their own
multimedia designs and the issue arose of CD-ROM software
compatibility not being maintained. To resolve this situation,
the multimedia PC (MPC) specification was created as a PC
standard specification to ensure multimedia software would
operate in the Windows environment and to ensure CD-ROM
software compatibility. The MPC specification provided thenecessary guidelines for IBM AT compatible machines tooperate multimedia software. The MPC Marketing Council(MPCMC) was established as an MPC promoting
organization led by Microsoft to facilitate the spread of MPC.
Microsoft published the MPC specifications in 1990. The
MPCMC published an expanded version, Level 2, in 1993.
The specifications were as follows.

2005. Drive control technology had reached its highest peak.
The ordinary CD standards stipulated that the outermost
edge of the disc should rotate at around 200rpm due toconstant linear velocity (CLV). For instance, if a disc with a
50mm radius is read at 48×, the rotation speed is around9600rpm, which equates to 2 × π × 50 × 9600 × 60 ≈
180km/hour. This would require tracking the pits at the
average speed of a bullet train, which would have a very highlevel of technical difficulty. To resolve this, the CD standards
stipulated an average data reading speed of around 1.2Mbps
for 1× and around 60Mbps for 48×. While the signal would
not be unreadable using today’s technology, it was difficult toachieve with the level of technology at the time. Ideas weredevised to resolve non-reading issues, such as adding asafeguard circuit to automatically slow down the rotation
speed to enable reading. The competition over speed also
took place for CD-R/RW drives, sometimes resulting ininsufficient recording power and optimal write strategy
design failures. Speeds of over 24× in particular had stablewriting technology, but the writing did not meet the productspecifications. Realistically, 16× was the highest stable(1) CPU: 80486SX (25MHz) or higher

writing speed. Mass production was achieved by adding a(2) Memory: 4MB or higher

recording film to CD-R/RWs that allowed stable writing in(3) Hard disk: 160MB or higher

this range (around 30Mbps). The CD-ROM/CR-R/CD-RW(4) Audio: 16-bit digital sound / MIDI
(5) Graphics: 640×480 dot, 65,536 colors(6) Interface terminals: Serial, parallel and joystick

drive speed competition had become detached from reality.
On top of that, PC manufacturer cost requirements were very
tight. The competition came to an end once drive
manufacturers overstretched and then lost motivation tocontinue developing, perhaps because the cost competition
was all that remained. There were many drive manufacturers
at that time. The main companies were widespread, from

Systemized Survey on the Development and Practical Application of Compact Disc (CD) Technology

65Sony (Optiarc, a joint venture with NEC), NEC, Pioneer,

could be freely developed and marketed, leading toMatsushita (Sanyo), Mitsumi and Teac in Japan, to Toshibasuccessive new genres in game software. As story content

Samsung and Hitachi LG in Korea and Lite-On in Taiwan.

became more complex, software developers found they

However, only two companies, Pioneer (for business) andlacked sufficient memory to store the data.

Lite-On, remain active in this business today. This is an

The first household game machine distributed on CD-

indicator of how severe the “cost pressure” has been in thisROM was the PC Engine CD-ROM developed by NEC

area. Fig. 6-3-4 shows a CD-ROM drive unit and block, theHome Electronics in 1988. With the PC Engine CD-ROM,

main proponent of business at the time. As can be seen, it is

NEC took the strategy of making a product to rival gamestructured with the rotation motor at the center, along withmachines and game PCs for a market dominated at the time

the optical pickup and its powertrain and control IC. As theseby the Famicom and the MSX computer. Using CD-ROM

were fitted internally (or externally) to every PC, production

had the following advantages.

was huge, reaching around 200 million units a year at its(1) Substantial increase in recordable program and data

peak. However, technology moved on and data recording

size, allowing the game to effectively utilize sound,media changed, and businesses that were unable to keep withphotographs and animated video

the times had no choice but to consolidate. More recently, therapid spread of the internet and broadband has meant that

(2) CD-ROM was lower in cost than the conventional
semiconductor ROM

even quite large software can be distributed over the internet(3) CD-ROM could be mass produced in a short timerather than packaged media. In that sense, technology is(4) CD-ROM is more suited to smaller scale production

increasingly being used as appropriate for the situation and it
is a matter of exploring the potential for coexistence

than semiconductor ROM
However, there were some candid observations from gamealongside areas where the use of CD-ROMs has been wellusers, particularly that the data transmission rate was slow.

established.

Based on the prediction that (1) the CD-ROM drive would be
able to handle this as technology progressed, there would be(2) a dramatic decrease in the cost of internal RAM thatwould allow for a large read buffer to be implemented. If (3)audio compression and video playback circuits could be
implemented on a chip, these could be played back easily as
the game went along. In addition, (4) the rapid developmentof the PC would result in a better development environment,
which would allow more complex games to be developed
more easily. As a result, the game machine market made asudden switch to CD-ROM software. The CD-ROM
MemoryD/Aconverter

Driver
Focus
Buffermemoryfor household game machines. Fig. 6-3-5 shows the PC

PickupServo DSP

Computerovercame its drawbacks to become the main delivery media

MatrixSpindlemotor

Engine CD-ROM system (NEC Home Electronics).

Tracking
AccessSpindleRecording waveform
shaping

Fig. 6-3-4 CD-ROM Drive Unit (provided by Sony)

6.3.2

Household Game Machines that Support CDROM

The household game machine market began in the UnitedStates with the Atari VCS in the 8-bit CPU era. Later, a
global market was established for the Nintendo Famicom

Fig. 6-3-5 PC Engine CD-ROM2 Systemthrough a brilliant market strategy. A market also formed for
PC game software in the field of entertainment. PC games

66

National Museum of Nature and Science Survey Report of Systematization of Technology, Vol. 25 2018. MarchBefore the CD-ROM arrived, the main household gamemachine delivery media was semiconductor cartridges that
stored several megabytes. In the unique game industry
business model, these were the greatest revenue setback forgame manufacturers. Production of ROM software cartridges
was controlled by the game manufacturers with license
agreements. Nothing from production numbers to inventory
could be actioned without approval from the game
manufacturers, who held control of all information. Somegame manufacturing companies achieved huge profits under
this system. Given such circumstances, an alternative

Fig. 6-3-6 3DO Real (Matsushita Electric)

Multimedia computers with inbuilt CD-ROM drives

delivery media to the ROM cartridge naturally gained

started gaining popularity around the same time as householdattention, and external CD-ROM drives were commercialized

CD game machines. The secret to popularity was having thefor household game machines. CD-ROMs also benefited

killer content sought after in the game industry whilegame manufacturers in various ways. They could besecuring multimedia titles for household game machines. As

produced quickly, and their small size reduced transportationa result, hardware platforms lost their uniqueness, as theand storage costs. Not only that, the ability to produce insoftware could be used on either system. There was anothersmaller numbers meant companies could be flexible to the

key factor that made it difficult to distinguish between

needs of the market and produce more as needed. With

hardware platforms. Game software manufacturers were in aagreement on both sides, the household game machine

hurry to recoup their production costs, which had increased

delivery media rapidly transitioned from ROM cartridge to

as a result of adapting to multimedia, and were offering their

CD-ROM.

new software to multiple hardware manufacturers. The
turning point came with the emergence of the so-called next-

A movement began of leveraging CD media compatibility

generation game machine. The appearance of the PlayStation,and multimedia capabilities to turn household game machinesreleased in December 1994 by Sony Computer Entertainment

into generic home entertainment players. One such platform(SCE), and the Dreamcast, released in 1998 by Sega, quickly

was the Sega Saturn, launched by Sega in November 1994.

drew the household game market to these hardware devices.

Sega partnered with several third-party consumer electronics

These platforms successfully secured a stable group of users

manufacturers under production and marketing licenses.

by essentially encapsulating the game software and having

Hitachi oversaw production of the CPU, while JVC andexclusive games that were not available on other hardware

Yamaha oversaw the mega drive. The idea was for an all-systems. The release of the PlayStation 2 in March 2000 andinclusive home entertainment system. A similar situation was

the Xbox by Microsoft in 2001 signaled a transition tohappening overseas. Commodore in the United States

platforms with higher capacity DVD-ROMs. The delivery

launched the CD-32 (using the Amiga multimedia computer),media began to transition from CD-ROM to DVD-ROM.

compatible with various kinds of CD media. This gained a

However, since the ROM drives are backwards compatible,

high share of the market, especially in Europe. The

CD-ROM games remain popular, especially in overseas

multimedia, all-inclusive multi-player was established in themarkets, and CD-ROM game titles are still in full production

United States in 1990 with the launch of the 3DO Interactiveat disc factories. Fig. 6-3-7 shows the PlayStation 2 (SCE).

Multiplayer by the 3DO Company. It was marketed in Japan
in 1994 by Matsushita Electric as the 3DO Real, and again by
Sanyo as the 3DO Try. These household multi-player CDROM game machines were impeded by conflicts between
various hardware standards and no main platform wasestablished. Fig. 6-3-6 shows the 3DO Real integrated CDROM household game machine (Matsushita Electric).
Systemized Survey on the Development and Practical Application of Compact Disc (CD) Technology

67

logical writing format, named after Japan’s first minted
copper coins) was established as the standard format forelectronic publication on CD-ROM, and efforts were made to
introduce CD-ROM publications. In July 1987, a CD-ROM
edition of the Japanese dictionary Kōjien, jointly developedby Iwanami Shoten, Sony and Fujitsu, was released to themarket, triggering greater interest in CD-ROM publications.
The Kōjien CD edition was made up of a Sony CD-ROM
drive fitted externally to a Fujitsu Oasys Japanese language
word processor, allowing access to dictionary data. Thisdictionary is highly regarded as the technology that laid thefoundation for later CD-ROM publications. Fig. 6-3-8 shows
the Wadōkaichin and Mohan Roppō CD-ROM editions(Iwanami Shoten).
Fig. 6-3-7 PlayStation 2 (Sony Computer Entertainment)

6.3.3

CD-ROMs and Electronic Publishing

Electronic publishing on CD media was made possible by
the digitization of the publication and printing process.
Previously, publication involved producing block copies for a
printing manuscript using a typesetting machine andphotographs from the manuscript. The block copies were thenused to produce a plate-making film, which in turn was used
to produce printing plates for printing. A computer
typesetting system (CTS) was developed to computerize theblock copy production and revision process, making it more
efficient. As Japanese-language word processors andcomputers had already begun to be used for editing, thesemanuscripts in electronic data could be converted to CTS
data, making printing and publishing much faster. Although
there were compatibility issues, as publisher and printing
companies built up their CTS data, it was the natural next
step for them to process this data and reuse it for electronic
publishing. At the same time, there were high hopes fortransitioning to CD media, which was easy to duplicate andeffective to mass produce. However, the reality was that there
were several technological hurdles, with the following
challenges proving difficult to resolve.
(1) Slow CR-ROM drive speed meant data reading tooktime(2) There was no established logical format for CD
publications and separate reading software was
required(3) It was unclear how to handle intellectual property
rights for electronic publications

Fig. 6-3-8 Wadōkaichin and Mohan Roppō CD-ROM
Editions for PC-98 (Iwanami Shoten)

Since CD-ROM drives were slow at the time, a special
logical format was required for CD media. This was called
the WING format. Based on this format, two types of logicalformat were established to form the basis of later CD-ROM
publications. These were the electronic book (EB) format andthe EPWING format. The EB format was an electronic
publication format proposed by Sony, using encased 8cm
CD-ROMs and a specialized portable player with a built in
LCD screen. The format introduced EB electronic books
containing characters and images, EBXA with ADPCM
audio compression compatibility and S-EBXA with expanded
display for color images. Fig. 6-3-9 shows a Sony EB player
being used with XA audio to play example English sentences
for travelling. There was a steadily growing playback
environment for EB compatible players, with Matsushita
Electric and other household electronics companies bringing
out special viewers for EB. Software was also released that
could be played on the FM Towns and Japanese word
processors. However, increasing capacity and decreasing
prices for IC memory triggered a technological revolution in
the early 2000s, spelling the end for the portable CD-ROM
dictionary.

Prompted by the standardization of the CD-ROM Yellow
Book, the Japan Electronic Publication Association (JEPA)
was established in 1986, mainly consisting of publishers. The“Wadōkaichin” (Japanese language compatible CD-ROM

68

Fig. 6-3-9 EB Player “Pelala” (Sony)

National Museum of Nature and Science Survey Report of Systematization of Technology, Vol. 25 2018. March

The EPWING format was a standard electronic dictionary

LD was an analog system, the disc size was very large atformat proposed by the EPWING Consortium. The EPWING

30cm in diameter and there was limited scope for reducing

Standard Version 1 was published in 1991 as the industry

the size of the machines. This prompted the move tostandard for using 12cm CD-ROM electronic dictionaries oncommercialize video recording on the smaller diameter CD

PC, word processor, workstation and other hardware. In July

media.

1996, the standard was registered as JISX4081 “Retrieval

The first to emerge was the CD-V, standardized in 1987.

Data Structure for Japanese Electronic Publication”.

The CD-V is a standard in the CD family, an extension of

EPWING was originally intended to be used on PC with

CD-DA to allow analog video recording. Essentially, it was a

EPWING compatible retrieval software. The specifications

hybrid CD, with the area towards the inner diameter

have been expanded to include support for audio and video

containing CD-DA audio data and the area towards the outerdata in addition to characters and images, and the content candiameter containing analog video data (of around fivealso be copied to hard disk. The format is still used today.

minutes). CD-V players were also compatible with LDs.

Thus, growth in the CD-ROM electronic publication

Pioneer launched a so-called CLD player that played both LD

market has revolved around reference publications such as

and CD-V. Although CD-Vs were used to sell music software

dictionaries and yearbooks, as well as photograph collections.

together with videos promoting the artist, the medium did not

Above all, a major factor for this expansion in playbackachieve widespread popularity. The CD-V music format

environment was the multimedia PC with its standard built-in

formed the basis for the 20-minute audio CD single.

CD-ROM drive. With this growth in playback environment,
major changes began to happen, such as the Ministry of Posts
and Telecommunications including a CD-ROM with its
White Paper Information and Communications in Japan in
1993. At the same time, there was also a rapid increase in CD
publications for hobbies and practical applications. Where
previous CD-ROM publications had mainly consisted ofconverting existing publications to CD-ROM, these titles
made use of the multimedia aspects of sound and video. CDROM production costs were also decreasing, allowing them
to be used for supplementary content in journals andperiodicals. All at once, CD-ROM publications became aneveryday item. They are still used today to provide
supplementary content for various publications. The digitalcontent made possible through electronic publishing has
shifted to downloadable electronic publications and ondemand publications since around 2000. A new deposit copy
system established on March 31, 2000 means that copies of
CD-ROMs and other package-type electronic publications
must be provided to the National Diet Library.

6.4 Interactive Title Pages for CD Media(Video-CD/CD-I/GPS Imaging Market)

Video recording on optical disc was first achieved with

Quite separate from this, progress was being made on
developing digital video recording. An early digital video
compression/decompression technology was Digital Video
Interactive (DVI). Research and development for DVI beganaround 1984 at the RCA David Sarnoff Research Center. The
technology was announced at the second international
conference on CD-ROM (hosted by Microsoft). The division
was acquired by GE, and then again by Intel in 1988. DVI
and CD-ROM became a combined product. Unlike MPEG,
the video compression technology had variable compression
with two compression algorithms, PLV and RTV. PLV had ahigh image quality with a compression ratio of 160:1 andcould display a 718×480 pixel JPEG image. DVI technology
had the advantage of not limiting the OS and CPU. There
were no limitations on the function or storage medium in any
environment, including MS-DOS, Windows 3.0 and OS/2.
DVI became known around the world as the technology thatmade it possible to record 72 minutes of natural images andaudio on CD-ROM. In the CD family, DVI is a standard CDROM that complies with the Yellow Book with no special
extension to the logical format, although playback required a
special decoding board. The format featured full-frame, fullcolor video playback at 30 frames per second.
DVI production required the use of Intel equipment or

analog discs. The main video disc was the laser disc (LD),equipment licensed from Intel due to the proprietarybrought out by Pioneer in 1981. The video content businesscompression technology used. In September 1989, an Intel

expanded, with commercial software produced for enthusiasts

DVI studio was opened in Japan in the former Marunouchi

of movies, anime and music. Professional use of the system

Building in Tokyo. The studio was used for software

included karaoke and museum exhibits. However, since theproduction. The DVI technology promotion association

Systemized Survey on the Development and Practical Application of Compact Disc (CD) Technology

69

DAVIS was established, and in October 1991, a standard

distribution (DVD) media. Developers were aware of thespecifications book was published for DVI playback

situation and that it would be some time before DVD became

machines. This equipment was most widely used for karaoke.

widespread. The Video-CD (VCD) was developed on the

In 1992, Nippon Columbia launched “DVI Karaoke”.

idea that there would be scope for such a business to develop

Development continued on MPEG-2 and other image

in the meantime. There were four VCD licensers, known ascompression technology, although DVI was the cutting-edge,

the 4C: Sony, Philips, Matsushita Electric and JVC. The first

all-purpose technology of the day. In 1992, it was combined

three were the manufacturers and promoters of CD-I, whilewith the INDEO image compression format. At that time,

JVC had developed the karaoke system that combined CDeach company was developing and announcing its own

and MPEG-1 and earned a position in the 4C through this

digital image compression format. In 1991, Apple Computer

technology. The VCD was clearly positioned in the “properdeveloped QuickTime 1.0. The following year in 1992,

pedigree”.

Microsoft launched Video for Windows. Although this madeThe competition over digital video standards came to ait possible for computers to display digital videos, there wereclose with the formulation of the international MPEG

hardware limitations. This was an “only just” level, withstandard. MPEG is an acronym for Motion Picture Expert

display made possible by dropping partial frames. Fig. 6-4-1

Group, the standardization committee formed by the ISO andshows a DVI exhibit (at the 1990 international multimedia

IEC. The digital video standard put forward by this groupconvention). This chapter mainly discusses the application of

became known in turn as the MPEG. There are different

CD media in the field of video, including Video-CD (6-4-1),

MPEG standards according to resolution and encoding rate,

CD-Interactive (CD-I), business technology with anincluding MPEG-1, MPEG-2, MPEG-4 and MPEG-7. Theinteractive function (6-4-2), and CD media and GPS (6-4-3).

final draft for the MPEG-1 format was completed in March
1993 and decided on as the format for recording digital video
to CD media. However, MPEG-1 is purely a digital video
compression encoding system and nothing is stipulated as to
how to actually make it into a product. As a result, there wereconflicting proposals over various incompatible CD-ROM
products. To settle the confusion, the White Book standard
was formulated, officially incorporating the Video-CD into
the CD family.
The first MPEG-1 compatible CD-ROM product was aprofessional karaoke system. With the formulation of theWhite Book, VCD had become the main form of digital video
in the karaoke industry. Later, with the growing popularity of
karaoke on demand, VCD simply became the media for

Fig. 6-4-1 DVI Exhibit

6.4.1

Emergence of Video-CD (MPEG1)

Needless to say, the history of the CD is “a history ofcompatibility”, or perhaps “a history of proper pedigree”. The
CD business has always been carried forward according to a“system”. In the 1990s, the CD-Interactive (CD-I) businessreached a major turning point, and a new lineage came into
being, with CD-I as the junction point. This was the video
CD (VCD). VCD is characterized in that it is a MPEG-1
digital video disc that shares the same logical format as CD-I,
but with limited highly interactive functions. At this time, all
the focus was on developing the next-generation digital video70

providing background images. Meanwhile, VCD was gaining
popularity in the consumer electronics market as the delivery
media for digital video content. To begin with, VCD had
issues with poor encoding technology, poor image quality
and block-noise caused by frames dropping out (due to the
1.2Mbps signal speed). This was unsuited to the Japanesemarket, which was accustomed to high image resolution.
Video content distribution in Japan transitioned to DVD andbroadband internet.
However, in countries in Asia and the Middle East, there
are many areas where the vast territory and lack ofcommunication and broadcasting infrastructure means thatpackaged media is the only available video content.
Accordingly, the video CD has become more popular than

National Museum of Nature and Science Survey Report of Systematization of Technology, Vol. 25 2018. Marchthe VTR, as its smaller size and low cost has made it better

were exported out of China. Accordingly, they were officiallysuited to physical transportation and delivery. Large markets

incorporated into the CD family with the Super Video CD

formed in China and India, making the VCD the main video

extension to the White Book in 2000. The Video CD 2.0,

distribution media. It has proven particularly popular in

based on the SVCD, was designed to play on a CD-ROM

China, where there was previously no video market. As thedrive, so its data transmission speed was limited to aroundeconomy grew, it showed promising signs of becoming a new

1.5Mbps (the maximum transmission speed under the CDform of entertainment. The advance into China wasstandard). This meant the image quality was around the sameaccompanied by efforts to make the Chinese government andas that of a VHS video. By contrast, the SVCD used MPEG-2

local manufacturers aware of the ideas and rules aroundcompression and had a transmission rate of 2.6Mbps, almost

licensing, patents and royalties, which were not strictly

double that of the CD. Although this limited playback time toobserved for CD-DA, and to understand the mechanisms ofaround 35 minutes, it was cheaper than DVD and“legal compliance”. From 1997 to 1999, ten rounds ofconsequently served as a bridging format. However, it was

negotiations were held with the available points of contact

never brought into production by the 4C. In that sense, thewith the Chinese government, which were the National

Super VCD was only a final draft format and lacked the

Research Institute and the Ministry of Industry andspecifications for a video content distribution media. As theInformation Technology. One member of the negotiation at

DVD rapidly dropped in price, the SVCD lost its only

the time recalled making the following appeal. “China

advantage and came to an end. Delegations to theunmistakably has enough of a role to play as one of thenegotiations have recalled experiencing how difficult it wasworld’s leading manufacturing bases. To get its own brands

negotiating with the Chinese government. Fig. 6-4-2 shows aout into the world market, the Chinese government needs to

VCD capable mini component system (Matsushita Electric)

carefully guide its manufacturers to take licenses and patents

used for VCD household use.

seriously. If not, Chinese manufacturers will always remain
domestic manufacturers, never able to join the WTO andnever able to shake off the stigma of markets rampant withpiracy and imitations.” These “wasted effort” negotiations
and marketing tactics were successful, and the VCD player
market grew rapidly in China. Sales of around 5 million units
in 1996 tripled to around 15 million in 1997. However,successive domestic de facto standards began to appear in

Fig. 6-4-2 Video CD Mini Component System (Matsushita
Electric)

China, based on the VCD, and the market grew more
convoluted. To resolve the mayhem, the Chinese government
came up with the “Chaoji Video CD” (October 1998) andproposed it as an IEC standard.
The Chaoji VCD standard that enabled recording video
and audio data on CD media compressed in MPEG-2 format
to achieve a higher image resolution and sound quality than
VCD. Unlike the CD standards, this standard included
specific Chinese guidelines, which left the 4C concerned
about compatibility. However, the 4C combined the Chaoji
VCD standard with the Super VCD standard Version 0.9(4C/SVCD) in December 1998 and began consulting with the
Chinese government about IEC standardization. Approval
was given at the meeting of the IEC in Beijing in December
1998, and Super VCD (IEC/SVCD) became an international
standard. The IEC/SVCD standard is in the same subset as
Chaoji VCD and 4C/SVCD. Unfortunately, Chaoji VCD

6.4.2

Professional Interactive Applications (CD-I
etc.)

CD media completely changed the face of professional
karaoke. “Karaoke with pictures” using LD and VHD analog
video discs rapidly grew in use from around 1982, as thisnew technology made it possible to play the music and lyrics
together. However, the video discs were around 30cm indiameter and required a lot of storage space, which meant
they were not highly popular with smaller businesses.
Accordingly, there was much anticipation over the
emergence of a compact karaoke system that used CD media.
The first professional karaoke system using CD media
used the CD-Graphic (CD-G), introduced around 1986. CDG karaoke displayed computer graphic (CG) still images andlyrics in sync with the music.

standard software titles had issues with licensing when they
Systemized Survey on the Development and Practical Application of Compact Disc (CD) Technology

71

Fig. 6-4-3 VCD Karaoke System (JVC KX-DV100)

This was very popular with smaller businesses, and a newFig.

6-4-4 Portable CD-I (Sony IVO-V10)

Meanwhile, attempts have long been made in sales

market came into being. However, as karaoke culture became

promotion to provide information using video. In 1979,

more well established, there was a demand for systems that

American automotive companies led the way in sales

could play videos. The CD-I system was completed in 1992,

promotion with an LD system with improved random accesscapable of storing several thousand karaoke tracks.

and capable of playing videos. In Japan, search terminals

Companies began announcing their own “CD video karaokeusing computers and LDs emerged around 1984 and began tosystems” using the MPEG-1 standard that had finally been

be used as electronic catalogs and various kinds of guides.

standardized. These commercialized systems had large-scaleThis system that combined PCs with VDs was known as theautomatic changers and central control systems, but theinteractive video disc (IVD). Later, CD media began to bedetailed specifications varied slightly from company toused in this field. The emergence of CD-I, DVI and othercompany, making the software titles incompatible. With

multimedia CDs made it possible to provide information

concerns that incompatible new releases would causeinteractively. As an example, in 1989 Fiat, Renault, Peugeot

confusion, the White Book was formulated in 1993 to ensureand other automotive companies in Europe started using CD-

compatibility between CD-I extensions, CD-ROXMA and

I to provide vehicle maintenance training software with

VCD. The karaoke format VCD eventually became themultilingual functions. This is a good example of meeting theindustry-wide standard, and business expanded. The VCD

need for interactive multilingual training with a view towards

was developed at the same time as the automatic discEU integration in 1992. Many countries have made similarchanging system. Around 1995, karaoke on demand emerged,

efforts for information services such as travel guides.

with the background images provided on VCD and the music

In Japan, Philips launched the professional tabletop CD-I

and lyrics distributed by telecommunications (ISDN). This

player in August 1991. The following year, Sony released thesystem rapidly grew in use. As networks became faster, andwith broadband connections now available, it became
commonplace for karaoke systems to be 100% distributed bytelecommunications, thus bringing the role of interactive CD
media to an end. Fig. 6-4-3 shows a professional VCD
karaoke system.

IVO-V10 portable CD-I player, while Kyocera brought out
the CD-I200. Professional CD-I players had RS-232C ports
and specifications capable of connecting with touch panels,
card readers, printers, communication networks and othersystems. In October 1991, NEC launched the MM-P1, which
supported its own NID video, while JVC brought out themultimedia presenter DM-P10, which supported MPEG-1
video. These were widely used in promotion areas. Thus, at a72

National Museum of Nature and Science Survey Report of Systematization of Technology, Vol. 25 2018. Marchtime when notebook PCs were still highly priced and not

system, based on the cutting edge, real-time, multitasking-widely used, interactive multimedia CD players were being

capable OS-9 used in consumer electronics at the time.

widely used for presentations and other areas of business due

Consumer software titles were designed for that purpose, andto their high maneuverability and ease of operation. Fig. 6-4-

Philips launched the CD-I505 consumer use player. However,

4 shows the Sony IVO-V10 portable CD-I player.

it ultimately lost out to Microsoft and other PC manufacturers

The CD-Interactive (CD-I) began with the publication of
the Green Book CD-I standard, announced at theinternational CD-ROM convention in 1986. As previously
mentioned, the Green Book standard stipulated the details on
how to store and manage information (digital content) on
CD-ROM, what system to use and how to control (operate) it.
With the CD-I operating as an information device using a 16bit PC, this was the household electronics manufacturers’
approach towards a CD-ROM. As a household appliance, it
had to be simple to operate without freezing up as PCs did.
Accordingly, the standards contained very detailed
specifications. Unfortunately, these strict specifications
limited the production environment and consequently
inhibited the progress of the CD-I, as can be imagined.
However, the CD-I managed to achieve a glimpse of theworld of multimedia. Many people still hold the CD-I as theforerunner of multimedia. One pioneer who promoted thegrowth of multimedia made the following assertion. “I thinkmost of what we call multimedia and IT concepts today
started with the CD-I. What is different between then and
now is that the processing speed has become faster as the
CPU has progressed, which has markedly increased storage
capacity. Most of the other concepts were achieved in the
CD-I, and what we have today is an extension of that.” Thefollowing statement was also made on multimedia software
titles. “Deduction only makes up about 20% of whatessentially should be the ‘selling point’. The other 80% is the
man-machine interface, or interactive design.” The dispute
over multimedia that came out in the late 1980s was strongly
linked to CD media, which was transitioning out of its
infancy into a growth period. Today, there are countless
excellent software titles lying dormant, overshadowed by theinternet and IT. The hope is that this outstanding multimedia
content pioneered in the CD-I will eventually be put to use invarious areas.
The CD-I was also a challenge against the PC faction’s
iron grip on the OS by electronics manufacturers (such as
Sony, Philips and Matsushita), who predicted the advent of amultimedia era. They valiantly aspired to create a system that(the US government PC strategy), and the business came toan end.
6.4.3

CD-ROM and GPS (Vehicle Navigation
Market)

The vehicle navigation market came into bloom with CD
media and GPS. GPS stands for “global positioning system”
and is the cornerstone technology of vehicle navigation
systems. The system receives signals from four or more
American military satellites orbiting at 21,000km and thencalculates the longitude and latitude of the vehicle bytriangulation. The navigation system takes the vehicle
location information provided by the GPS, collates it with adigital map and displays it on a monitor to guide the driver tothe destination.
Digital map data is essential for vehicle navigation
systems, and the CD-ROM provided the optimal low-cost,small-sized, high-capacity recordable and distributable
media. Another reason for adopting CD-ROM media vehicle
navigation systems was to add value in the automotive
market. In other words, there was a need to stimulate demandfor vehicle navigation systems that worked with the newly
developed car CDs as soon as they came on the market.
Development on vehicle navigations systems was driven
forward by automotive manufacturers and car audio
manufacturers. As such, the digital map data CD-ROM media
was also in the format decided on by the automotive
manufacturers and car audio manufacturers. This led tocompatibility issues between map data formats. To resolve
this, Sony, Kenwood and other car audio manufacturers
joined with Zenrin and other map data providers to establish
a navigation system association. The unified CD-ROM map
format (integrated navigation standard) formulated by the
association became the industry standard format approved by
the majority of members. However, other members, including
Toyota, Nissan and Shobunsha, proposed the CD and CRT
applied format (CD CRAFT), while Pioneer proposed its own
Carrozzeria format and continued to commercialize its own
products.

operated and functioned without the complexity of a PC

Systemized Survey on the Development and Practical Application of Compact Disc (CD) Technology73As better gyro sensor performance reduced location

inevitably increased. From around 2005, when CD media

discrepancies and as mass production began to lower the

storage capacity reached its limits, the natural progression

price, vehicle navigation systems began to be more widely

was to gradually transition to higher capacity DVD media.

used. Another factor for this widespread usage was the

Vehicle navigation systems also began connecting with real

growth of the “aftermarket” and ongoing standardization oftime information sources (VICS in Japan) for up to dateroad map data. Combined with this, some CD-ROM roadinformation on delays and traffic restrictions. As it became

map formats had been released and various platforms werepossible to access traffic information in real time, map

emerging that were compatible with CD media. If a platform

information had to be updated to the latest data. CD andwith a CD-ROM drive could run vehicle navigation software,

DVD media are naturally limited in information updates, as

it could run a vehicle navigation system using CD-ROM roadthe map information has to be delivered by packaged media.

maps. The main platform manufacturers developed vehicle

Because of this, cheaper navigation systems were released

navigation system functions to add further value.

with built in hard disks. A further advantage with the spread

As an example, the CD-I vehicle navigation system wasof the internet has been the continuing integration between

announced by Fujitsu Ten at the Tokyo Motor Show invehicle navigation and the internet, making it possible toAugust 1989. The system was commercialized by Maspro indownload the latest map information online and check the

October 1993. When the CD-I was standardized in 1986,

latest traffic information there. However, this has not spelled

nobody was working with interactive material. Since CD-I

the end for the CD-based vehicle navigation systems thattechnology characteristically enabled the interactive handlingbreathed life into CD media, and the industry has continuedof various data and content on consumer devices, Fujitsu Ten

to this day.

resolved to work towards a next-generation vehicle
navigation system using CD-I technology.
For a vehicle navigation computer that would operate CDROM, Fujitsu Ten and Fujitsu customized the Fujitsu FMTowns-compatible Marty into the Car Marty, a specialized
vehicle navigation computer. The system went on sale in
1994. There were also car navigation systems on VCD. The
Delu:ga Mini portable VCD player by Funai Electric could be
used for navigation by means of a special GPS antenna andelectronic maps. The platforms grew for CD vehicle
navigation, and systems began to offer other applications inaddition to road maps. Simply providing location information
was the basic feature for navigation systems. Voice guidance
was added to this, followed by a range of content withinformation from sightseeing to fine dining and every kind of
store. Based on the idea of added-value map information, themultimedia capabilities of the CD platform made it possible
to diversify into a wide range of in-car entertainment,

References
1) “Konpakuto Disuku: Sono 20-nen no Ayumi [TheCompact Disc: Its 20-year History]” CDs21 Solutions(2005)
2) “CESA Gēmu Hakusho [CESA Game White Paper]”Computer Entertainment Supplier’s Association
3) “Maruchimedia Shijo ni kansuru Chōsa Kenkyū Hōkoku
[Research Report on the Multimedia Market]”Multimedia Association of Japan
4) “Walkman Chronicle” Sony Magazines (2009)
5) “Bideo CD Kikaku (Dōga ya Seishiga wo Tsukatte
Taiwagata Sofuto Jitsugen) [Video CD Standards(Achieving Interactive Software Using Video and Still
Images)]” Ihashi Takao, Nikkei Electronics (No. 594)
(Nov. 1993)
6) “DVD Demystified” Taylor, Jim; Nexus InterCom(trans.), Seiunsha (2003)

including karaoke and games. As a result, the amount of data74

National Museum of Nature and Science Survey Report of Systematization of Technology, Vol. 25 2018. March

7

Emergence of Recordable CDs

Around 1983, when CD-DA related businesses began to berecording film. This could be categorized further into

established, debate arose over how to place the following

modulation and magnetic modulation. Practicalobjectives. One objective was formulating specifications for

implementation was achieved with magnetic modulation. A

using CD media, with its then ground-breaking high capacity

constant-intensity laser was used to heat up a preparedof 650MB, as a special form of computer-readable memory

recording film (vertically magnetized film) to the point where(CD-ROM). Quantization was 16-bit, an integral multiple ofthe direction of magnetism could be altered. The magnetic

8-bit, rather than 14-bit, which meant that data was read in 8-

field was then altered in the direction of the current flowing

bit units. This made it more suitable as a computer memory.

through the magnetic head. Signal reading was achieved by

The other objective was research on recordable CD discs.

illuminating the recording surface with a less intense laser.

Developers had hopes and dreams pinned on recording their

The polarization plane of the reflected light would alter in theown music and digital content a small disc, as implied by the

direction of magnetization due to the Kerr effect. The alteringname CD. Nakajima Heitarō, the lead CD developer, recalled

intensity of the reflected light could then be detected as a

the following. “When we were developing CDs at Sony andsignal.

finally getting it out to the world, I saw the ‘next dream’ for

Incidentally, the development of recording film has been

the CD. The CD system we first developed recorded

mainly achieved by engineers specializing in physics, applied

professional software onto disc and we sold these together

physics, chemistry and chemical engineering. Engineers with

with the players. That was how the business was, and we

expertise in metal film are often employed by electrical andwere able to provide users with fairly high quality sound. But

mechanical manufacturers, as these fields are essential toI had growing doubt as to whether ‘audio’ simply meant

semiconductor manufacturing. Engineers with expertise inbeing able to listen to professionally performed music. People

amorphous materials and organic dyes are often employed bywho really want to enjoy audio probably also want to try

chemical companies or parts manufacturers. A major

making their own music and want the very best they can get.

determining factor in the development direction taken by

I thought it would be good if we could make a system that let

different companies in developing recording film was thepeople put together an album of songs by their favorite artist“philosophy” of the engineers or researchers. Since Sony hador their favorite performances, or let people in a music clubresearchers with expertise in sputtering and deposition and arecord their own music on CD just for themselves, just likelong history of magnetic recording technology, the company

they would on a normal tape recorder.” (from “Jisedai Ōdiotended towards magneto-optical recording and developed

ni Idomu [The Challenge for Next-Generation Audio]”products from the 5.25ʺ and 3.5ʺ MO through to the MiniDisc

Nakajima Heitarō, Fuun-sha)(MD) using magneto-optical technology. At the same time,

Various companies began developing recordable discs
from the early 1980s. There were three broad categories ofthese. The first and most widely used was called direct
cutting, which involved perforating a low-melt-point metal
film with a laser. The second was called DRAW, which
involved illuminating an amorphous recording film (GeTeSbmaterial) with a laser. The areas illuminated with the laser
would change from crystal to amorphous. An optical head
would detect the difference in reflection due to the change inphase. Although it could not achieve high reflectance, thissystem was very good for its signal stability. The third wascalled magneto optical, which involved a combination of heatfrom a laser and magnetic properties for recording on aferrimagnetic layer. TeFeCo material was used for thechemical/parts manufacturers such as Mitsubishi Chemicals
and Taiyo Yuden had experience in organic dyes, anddeveloped the CD-R technology discussed below, which
formed a major market. This is a rare case of engineeringexpertise at different companies successfully forming
different markets.

7.1 Organic Dye and CD-R (CD-Recordable)
Various attempts have been made to record digital data
onto optical disc. To begin with, the main method used was
to use a metal recording layer and perforate pits in this metal
layer with a laser. This method had a huge advantage in thatit did not require a development process and could be playedback immediately after recording. The recording film was

Systemized Survey on the Development and Practical Application of Compact Disc (CD) Technology

75generally made of a metal layer with a high melting point and

CD-MO compatible with the CD. A further issue was that ifhigh thermal conductivity. In 1977, Philips achieved therecordable CDs were CD-compatible, there was a risk of

direct read after write (DRAW) system using a recording film

violating the copyrights of artists and record companies (andmade from tellurium (Te) with a low melting point and low

CD-ROM content holders). Recordable CDs were intended tothermal conductivity. Significantly, the Philips DRAW

“fulfill new dreams beyond the CD”, but their development

system was not only a professional digital data recording

and standardization was by no means straightforward. The

system, it was also a forerunner of consumer “low-level laser

creation of the CD-R not only presented a technologicaland optical disc” systems. This predicted the emergence ofchallenge, but also a mountain of other issues, including

semiconductor lasers for CDs and set the direction for Philips

political challenges, rights issues, cultural hurdles and market

in its development of recordable optical discs.

challenges.

With the Philips DRAW system, the recording film shiftedfrom high melting point metal to low melting point metal.
Moving on from this, the focus fell on replacing the metal
recording film with organic dyes, which is the main systemused today. The development of organic dye DRAW discs
accompanied an increased demand for optical document
filing (although this never became a major market). Basic
research had been done by computer manufacturers, media
manufacturers and chemical manufacturers before the CD-R
was developed. In 1988, Taiyo Yuden completed a means of
CD-R media using cyanine organic dye. The only reason
media manufacturers and chemical manufacturers were able
to dive straight into the CD-R market is that these companies
had already been researching the use of organic dyes as arecording film for DRAW discs. There were several historic
breakthroughs in CD-R media. For example, instead of thelaser perforating the recording layer as it had done
previously, the organic dye recording layer used somecompletely different concepts. These included using organic
dye for the recording film, using a gold reflecting layer(initially) and having a non-air sandwich structure (discussed
later). With this major technology change, the system thenmet the 70% signal reflectance requirement for CD-DA
compatibility, which had seemed unattainable.
To begin with, CD-R was a “surprise technology” with noofficial roadmap by Sony or Philips. Before that, the twolicensers Sony and Philips had been searching along acompletely different path for recordable CDs. Philips, which
had come up with the DRAW system, had been working on
the CD-WO (brand name CD-PROM, CD Program ROM), a
DRAW CD with a metal recording film, designed to be used
like a CD-ROM, while Sony had been working on the CDMO, a magneto-optical writable CD, and its extension
product, the MD. The direction of development taken by thetwo companies were completely at odds, but a more serious
issue was that it would be highly technically difficult,perhaps impossible, to make the CD-WO, CD-PROM and

76

7.1.1

Recordable CD Standardization ProcessSony proposed a recordable CD technology conference.
Following the commercialization of the CD, many companies
were working on researching, developing and implementing
recordable optical discs. This had resulted in rapid
improvement in recording bit density and performance andincreased the feasibility of practical implementation. In June
1986, Sony and Philips held a meeting on recordable CDs atthe Philips headquarters in Eindhoven. The aim of themeeting was to share the companies’ respective development
progress, although at this point in time the two companies
had very different objectives for developing recordable CDs.
Philips’ main aim was to develop a recorder for Yellow
Book standard CD-ROM media. To ensure better ROM drive
compatibility, Philips put forward the idea of write-oncephase change media (CD-WO). Meanwhile, Sony had two
research and development groups within the company. One
group, the pro audio group, was developing a recorder for
creating CD and CD-ROM proof discs and a recorder for
professional archive discs. The other group was developing amagneto-optical technology (CD-MO) recorder as acommercially viable consumer audio disc recorder.
Given the different expectations of the two companies, theitems discussed at the first meeting included (1) how toinclude disc speed and position information on the disc, (2)whether the information should be written on the land or thegroove, and (3) what form of media was suitable. However,this was simply an avenue for exchanging ideas andspeculating on each other’s intentions by reading theirexpressions.
The second meeting was held in Tokyo the same year on
September 30 and October 1. This time Sony shared its dataon the rapidly developing CD-MO and proposed an“embossed” method for recording rotation speed and position
information by forming pits on the land, having considered
CD-MO media to be unsuited to groove recording. In return,

National Museum of Nature and Science Survey Report of Systematization of Technology, Vol. 25 2018. March

Philips proposed a “wobble” method that detected discrotation speed by making the track deviate slightly on its
course. The wobble method is also known as absolute time inpregroove (ATIP). The track deviates at a maximum
amplitude of 60μm and a frequency of 22.05kHz, while the

The discussion had thus far had established that the
wobble method was the method to use to ensure thelegitimacy of the technology as far as the standardization of
the CD-WO was concerned. Sony was not agreeable to this,having envisaged a rewritable format.
However, Philips’ intention was for “anyone to be able toabsolute time digital information used in CDs is recorded inplay their own music easily on a CD player”, and this was

FM modulation with 1kHz deviation. On comparing the two

Nakajima’s line of thinking as well. If music was easy todiscs, the companies agreed that the land and wobble signal

record but not easy to play back on the increasingly

were good ideas. The companies also agreed that recordable

widespread CD player, then recordable CDs would be of little

CDs should be rewritable rather than simply writable.

value as a recording media format. The “CD of the future”

However, Sony favored the strategy of going ahead andenvisaged by Nakajima would be CD compatible. The CD-commercializing the CD-MO, while Philips favored

WO was not yet entirely compatible with existing CDs, but it

compatibility with existing CDs for the time being andplayed a very significant role in demonstrating the idea that

presented a road map that involved promoting the CD-WO“writable CDs should be CD compatible”.

and then releasing rewritable phase change media as theSony and Philips took very different approaches totechnology developed. In any case, Philips viewed phaserecordable CDs, especially the CD-WO, both in terms ofchange discs as a core technology in recordable CDs.

technology and direction. This difference began to be bridged
as the two companies used their expertise to improve thePhase change discs can be categorized as (1) “L to H”
media, in which the reflectance of the recorded area is higher

technology, such as optimizing the shape of the groove andthe shape of the writing spot. This led them to a point where

than the unrecorded area, and (2) “H to L” media, in which

they could agree on the wobble method for CD-WO address

the reflectance of the recorded area is lower than theposition. The main specifications were established at a

unrecorded area. The two companies agreed that (1) L to H

meeting in February 1987. The rest of the year was spent

was better for groove recording and (2) H to L was better for

running verification testing on the main specifications. The

land recording. Philips was strongly in favor of the CD-WO,

companies reached a basic agreement in November 1987 andwhich combined L to H media and groove/wobble recording,sent out the specifications to licensers the following

for greater CD player compatibility. However, the group at
Sony who had been developing the CD-MO consumer
recorder did not agree with Philips’ proposal. At the time,magneto-optical media was very promising, both in terms ofmarketability and future prospects, and the CD-MO was a
direct descendant of that technology. CD-MO technology had
characteristics to rival CDs in recording density, number ofoverwrites, media lifespan and other factors. A comparison of
the wobble and embossed address methods revealed thefollowing.

February. At this stage, Philips branded the CD-WO as the
CD-PROM and started on computer-related sales. Sonydecided to stop developing the CD-WO due to development
resource constraints, although it continued to develop its
basic CD-MO technology. The MiniDisc (MD) was launched
in 1992 with ATRAC audio compression technology.
7.1.2

Recordable Discs Before CD-R

Around four years before the creation of the CD-R,(1) The wobble method required fewer drive changes, but

Yamaha started developing the programmable disc system

the groove shape, recording signal and servo needed to(PDS), a CD-compatible recording system. In 1984, mostbe optimized

recording systems were still analog and digital recording(2) The embossed method allowed greater distinction
between the address area and recorded area, but thedrive was more complex and differed from the CDformat.

systems were yet to emerge. The key technologies for CDcompatible systems were (1) CD-compatible recording discs,(2) optical pickups for recording, and (3) LSI. Yamaha hadrecording pickup technology and LSI technology, andapproached Fuji Photo Film with the idea of developing themost important technology: CD-compatible discs. Although it
was very difficult to achieve both the high reflectance needed
for CD compatibility and recording at a linear velocity of
1.2m/s, within about three years it was looking promising.
Fundamentally, this was a direct cutting type of write once

Systemized Survey on the Development and Practical Application of Compact Disc (CD) Technology

77disc, achieved by directing a laser onto the recording film toimages. Depending on distribution factors, this revolutionary

form the pits. However, there was no standard for CD-

system could hold up to 50 songs and around 7200 stillcompatible recording standard. To ensure the disc was CD

images on a disc. Around 70 discs were completed for thiscompatible, the developers had to buy up CD-ROM drives
and CD players and then spend time running as many
compatibility tests as possible. For example, the first
generation had a protective sheet on the recording surface toprevent scratches and dust, but this meant that the air pressure
characteristics could not be checked. Since the companies
lacked the appropriate testing facilities, the developers had to
go to the trouble of taking the PDS device up to the 5th
Station on Mt Fuji to carry out recording tests.
The main uses for the PDS were for debugging CD-ROM
and CD-DA and small quantity electronic publishing of avariety of works. It was even considered for an on-demandseries in the short space of one year. This would have been
impossible to accomplish without the PDS, whose CD
compatibility remains a talking point to this day. A studiofacility with six PDS writers was actively producing various
CD-ROM, VCD and CD-I titles until around 2002. The
contribution made by this technology has been immeasurable.
The system developed to be more user friendly, with a double
speed PDS recorder announced in 1992 and an SCSI
compatible interface added, eventually becoming used as aprofessional audio recorder as well.
The PDS was a CD-compatible system developed before

map writing service for vehicle navigation. The PDS was first

the CD-R. As a specialized business machine, it was neverannounced as a CD-compatible recording system at the firstcommonplace. However, it was such a valuable optical discelectronic publishing system exhibition in April 1987. The

system that it is no overstatement to say that the CD-R only

announcement of the world’s first CD-compatible system hadcame into being because of it. Fig. 7-1-1 shows the Yamahaa major impact on the CD industry. The first PDS wasprogrammable disc system (PDS), a piece of industrial

released in 1988, around six months after it was announced,
at a price of ¥2.3 million for the system and ¥7000 per disc. It

heritage.

was made up of a drive unit and an encoder unit. Multiple
drive units could be connected to one encoder unit, making it
possible to create multiple copies of the same disc at the sametime. However, including the PCM recorder, encoder andother peripheral equipment, the system cost more than ¥10
million, which meant it was a recording system more aimed
at publishers than everyday users.
The launch of the PDS radically shortened the debugging
time in electronic publication and made a significant
contribution to the development of the CD-ROM. The CD-

Fig. 7-1-1 Yamaha Programmable Disc System (PDS)

ROM discs made at the factory had to be debugged. The costof debugging could be calculated based on how many
improvements were made and how much it cost. With each
prototype costing around ¥500,000 and debugging taking an
average of five times, this could total up to ¥2.5 million. Eachprototype cycle could take from two weeks to two and a halfmonths. By contrast, the PDS system could produce a CDcompatible disc in about an hour at a price of ¥7000. Thiswas revolutionary tool was warmly welcomed by the CDROM software industry. The PDS system was used mostactively in the development of the CD-IA500 CD-I karaoke
player and CD-I karaoke software series, launched by
Nikkodo (now BMB) in December 1991. The CD-I karaoke
player was capable of continuously playing both music and

78

7.1.3

The Emergence of CD-R

Following the announcement of the basic agreement
between Sony and Philips on the CD-WO, Sony received aproposal from electronic device manufacturer Taiyo Yuden to
see if the organic dye writable media the company wasdeveloping could be used in the CD-WO. The link between
Taiyo Yuden and Sony was Nakajima, then president of
Aiwa. Taking a gamble on the possibility and prospects ofrecordable CDs becoming the next CDs, Nakajima
approached companies that were prototyping recordable discs
to provide CD-compatible resources (from “Jisedai Ōdio ni
Idomu [The Challenge for Next-Generation Audio]”).
However, the responses from the companies were not what

National Museum of Nature and Science Survey Report of Systematization of Technology, Vol. 25 2018. MarchNakajima had hoped. There were many negative responses,
as companies prototyping recordable discs were unable to getpast the 70% reflectance requirement for CD compatibility,or found it an absurd goal to begin with, as light passing
through the recording layer was absorbed. Other companies
would not associate with newcomers to optical technology.

raised the temperature in the area it contacted, causing theorganic dye to dissolve and disappear. Rather than simply
melting, this caused an instant “implosion” that altered theshape of the polycarbonate substrate. In other words, thisdesign not only altered the physical properties of the organicdye, but also the shape of the substrate, and achieved therequired CD reflectance of 70% or higher (degree of

Most companies were not willing to work together, althoughmodulation). This most important point in the principle of

Taiyo Yuden aimed to achieve CD compatibility

CD-R playback, occurred unexpectedly in this “product ofchance” by altering the shape of the substrate. The phase
contrast (contrast in reflected signal intensity) made possible

Despite the circumstances, Taiyo Yuden was committed todeveloping a write-once, read many (WORM) disc usingorganic dye, and was the only company aiming towards CD
compatibility. The company had developed CD-R around1985 and was focused on developing a CD-compatible
writable CD in accordance with Nakajima’s wishes.
Successful development has always come about as a “productof chance”. The product usually goes unseen and unnoticed.
At the time, the Aiwa office was located in Ikenohata, Taito,
about a five-minute walk away from some of Taiyo Yuden’s
research facilities in Kuromonchō. Nakajima made good useof any spare moments he had as a busy company president
and would often visit the laboratory in Kuromonchō, where
he enjoyed talking to the engineers, checking development
progress and giving advice where appropriate. The “productof chance” in the close proximity of the two locations led tothe success of the project. As mentioned previously, therecordable optical discs at the time used the same direct
cutting method as the CD-WO, in which the recording film
itself had grooves etched in it by the laser. This method of
perforating the recording layer is called the air sandwich
method. Under the laser, the recording layer would undergo
rupture, dissolving, expanding, contracting and other physicalchanges that generated air. The disc had to have a special
structure designed to let this air escape. It was very difficult
to develop this type of disc while maintaining the CDcompatibility specifications of 70% or higher reflectance and1.2mm disc thickness. However, Ishiguro Takashi and
Hamada Emiko, the young engineers at Taiyo Yuden, kept
experimenting at the laboratory in Kuromonchō in pursuit of“Nakajima’s dream”.

by this change in shape in turn made it possible to achieve
higher reflectance. This was nothing short of a Columbus’egg.
The shape of the written pits affected the sound quality ofthe signal recorded on the disc. Usually, the optical clarity of
the rising and falling of the pits affects the S/N and jitter ofthe signal being read. Since recording was done by a small
semiconductor laser, lack of edge clarity could be achallenge. Using an organic dye with a high refractive index
worked well to make the pit edges optically appear to rise andfall more sharply than they actually did. While the signal
recorded on CD-R was digital, it relied on a high number ofanalog factors, including the characteristics and thickness ofthe organic dye and the accuracy of the pregroove on thepolycarbonate substrate. This method of disc recording wasvery good for mass production. As facilities developed, theprice of media rapidly dropped from $100 in 1990 to around$1 in 2000. Production volumes rose rapidly, and the industry
grew. The write-once (WO) function was more effective thecheaper the disc cost. Unlike paper, there was no need toerase and reuse. Because of this, and because of the shortrecording time, these discs became the main form ofrecordable media.
At Taiyo Yuden, Ishiguro and Hamada were awarded the
National Commendation for Invention: Science andTechnology Prize (2000, Japan Institute of Invention andInnovation) and the Nakajima Heitarō Prize (CDs21
Solutions) for their commendable achievements. Hamada wasalso awarded the Optics and Quantum Electronics
Achievement Award (Takuma Award) in 2002 in recognitionof contribution to applied physics. Meanwhile, the inventionof the CD-R was registered under patent numbers 2134979,

What made Taiyo Yuden revolutionary was simply
breaking through the “common sense barrier”. They removed
the air space thought to be crucial to recordable optical discs
and directly attached an organic dye recording layer to a newgold (later silver alloy) reflective layer. This was a simple
idea, but it caused a breakthrough unlike any existing
technology. In technical details, the laser directed at the disc

2137118 and 2135363. Fig. 7-1-2 shows a piece oftechnology history: the world’s first CD-R disc by Taiyo
Yuden (1988).
7.1.4

CD-R Structure and Recording/Playback
Principle

Fig. 7-1-3 shows the CD-R structure proposed by Taiyo
Yuden compared to the CD.

Systemized Survey on the Development and Practical Application of Compact Disc (CD) Technology

79the groove prior to recording and the pits formed in thegroove after recording.

Fig. 7-1-2 The World’s First CD-R Disc (1988)

Clamping
area

The main difference between the pressed discs is the green,

Programarea

Lead-outarea

Extent of ROM player access
Extent of R recorder accessdark green or blue color of the CD-R recording/playback
area. This is very different from the shining silver of pressed

Lead-inarea

Fig. 7-1-4 CD-DA/CD-R Disc Layout

CD-DA or CD-ROM discs. Simply put, the colored recording
surface physically changes as the laser turns on and off,
leaving a mark (the material burned off). The on and off isrecorded on the disc as in digital data 0 and 1.
Protective
layer
Reflective
layer
Organic dye
layer

CD-R disc

Pit

Groove (land)

Substrate

Fig. 7-1-3 CD and CD-R Disc Structure
Before recording80

After recording

The CD-R structure is made up of the follow four layers.
(1) Polycarbonate substrate(2) Organic dye layer(3) Reflective layer(4) Overcoat (protective layer)

affects the performance of the CD-R. The CD-R also has a

Depending on the disc, an additional protective layer maymeans of collecting the dye in the pregroove and using it inFig. 7-1-5 CD-R Image

The shape and precision of the pregroove significantly

be added to increase the commercial appeal of the disc.

the recording. The organic dye characteristic to the CD-R is

Although the organic dye in the CD-R recording layer hascoated onto the polycarbonate substrate using a spin coating

been given a lot of attention, it is the molding precision of themethod (coating formed by rotation). The spin coated layer is

1.2mm polycarbonate substrate that significantly affects the

not uniformly thick, as it differs inside and outside theoverall characteristics of the CD-R. The transparent substrategroove, with the dye intentionally collected in the groove.

is etched with a very fine micro-order guide groove known as

The difference in land and groove coating thickness isthe pregroove, which subtly deviates with FM modulation.

utilized to increase the reflectance to CD level. This

The laser follows this groove while recording. Fig. 7-1-4

difference significantly affects the recording properties. Forshows the CD-R layout, while Fig. 7-1-5 shows a CD-R

example, the thinner amount of coating outside the pregroove

image. The disc layout is designed to optimize recording,makes that area less sensitive to recording, thereby serving aswith the inner lead-in area containing a power calibration

a boundary for the pits and improving the recording quality.

area (PCA) and program memory area (PMA). These are

In that sense, the recording properties of the CD-R are notused to calibrate the recording data. The CD-R image shows

simply determined by the thickness of the coating and the

National Museum of Nature and Science Survey Report of Systematization of Technology, Vol. 25 2018. Marchshape of the pregroove, but also a wide range of very analog
factors, including the physical properties of the organic dye
used, the characteristics of the solvent, process control andspin coating specifications. High quality CD-R production
required a lot of experience and expertise. Japanesecompanies led the development of this market. Fig. 7-1-6

thereby raising the credibility of the media product overall.
Incidentally, a project was carried out make good use of
the poor peeling properties to retrieve the expensive gold
film. Inspired by the gold collected from the sandals of gold
miners in Sado, chemical engineers eagerly set about
experimenting by trial and error. At the end of 1996, justwhen a proper retrieval method was about to get under way,shows the CD-R manufacturing process. Everything fromthere were indications that mass production was going tomolding the substrate to applying the organic dye andincrease and that the price of CD-R discs was going to drop.

forming the reflective layer requires a lot of expertise. ThisAs a result, in 1997, the material used in the discs underwent

manufacturing process was only achieved by building up
technology. Mass production is a matter of process industry.
As production costs decreased, the expertise was exported
and transferred overseas along with the machinery as
production bases were gradually shifted offshore.

careful review and the expensive gold reflective layer was
replaced by a silver alloy. Although this dropped the price toless than one third, from around ¥1000 per disc to around¥300 per disc, it also turned the situation into a “phantom
gold gaining tale”. The several hundred grams of gold
collected in the experiments were cast into a golden nameseal for Nakajima Heitarō, which is still used today, carefully

Mastering process
Resist coating

Cutting

Substrate molding and coatingprocess

Deposition process

Printing process

stored away. This situation provided inspiration for other

Glass disc
Creating a metal
disc(electroplating)

Developing
and adhering

Stamping andcleaning

Substrate
shaping

Organic dye coating(spin coating)

PC resin

Dye solvent

Reflective coating(sputtering)
Reflective coatingtargetProtective coating(spin coating)
Top coating material

opportunities to reuse materials. A system was later
developed for retrieving the valuable polycarbonate substratematerial. However, there were instances of collected
substrates being sold off to China and other places for a highprice, leaving the idea of retrieval at an impasse. The
information written on CD-R also needed to be disposedsafely, and products emerged like the “Mr. Crunchy”
shredder. Fig. 7-1-7 shows the gold seal of Nakajima Heitarō,

Printing (screen
printing)

a reminder of the gold collecting anecdote.

Ink

Packaging process (1)Bulk packaging

Sleeve film etc.

Internal and external packaging

Packaging process (2)Package wrapping

Internal and external
packaging

Jewel case
Front card
Back card
Wrapping film

Shipment

Fig. 7-1-6 CD-R Disc Manufacturing Process

Seal impression

One of the most important elements in the CD-R was thereflective layer. In the early 1990s, when CD-R production
was still low, most discs had reflective layers of thin gold
film. To begin with, gold was chosen because it worked wellfor the refractive index of the organic dye, the reflectance andthe recording wavelength. Most discs today have reflective
layers of thin silver alloy film, mainly because it lowered thecost of mass production. Another reason was to improve
peeling. If tape were applied to the protective coating on
early CD-R media and then peeled off again, the gold layer
would peel off with it. This poor peeling property made themedia difficult to handle. However, using silver alloy
significantly improved the disc’s resistance to peeling,

Fig. 7-1-7 Gold Seal of Nakajima Heitarō

The organic dye used in the CD-R had to have an opticalconstant that maximized the reflectance in the wavelength
range corresponding to the substrate with a refractive index
of 1.59 and the 780nm laser. It also had to be compatible withsolvents. The world’s first CD-R, made by Taiyo Yuden,
used an organic substance called cyanine. If cyanine had been

Systemized Survey on the Development and Practical Application of Compact Disc (CD) Technology

81the only organic dye, there may have been more peacefulcompetition in the CD-R industry (the Orange Book Part II
Ver 1.1 provides specifications for cyanine dye). Unlike
inorganic substances, it is possible to control the molecular
structure of organic substances to alter their properties little
by little. Unwilling to be bound by patents, media
manufacturers and chemical manufacturers developed theirown organic dye products for CD-R using their own productsthat were easier to work with. These included the organicdyes phthalocyanine and azo. Fig. 7-1-8 shows the molecular
structure of organic dyes used in CD-R.
CyanineThe optical pickups in the CD-R drives varied between
companies. Media manufacturers also used different organicdyes. These differences came to light when issues arose withthe spot size shape and the write strategy (pulse pattern for
signal writing) being incomplete. This became a major
practical problem when the different factors began to overlap,
and the media would not record or play. A disastrous
situation arose where there was no compatibility, despite thefact that the CD-R was essentially supposed to be CDcompatible. To resolve this dire situation, drive
manufacturers and media manufacturers developed theOrange Study Group to examine the technical specifications
for CD-R and created the Orange Forum (a voluntary
association named after the common name of the standard,
the Orange Book, with participants from 50 relatedcompanies, chaired by Ihashi Takao of Sony). The weighty
matter of CD-R compatibility was left to these groups toresolve.

Phthalocyanine

7.1.5

Disc Identification Method

The Orange Study Group had been in existence for around
two years before the Orange Forum was established. The
study group was a place for likeminded drive and media
manufacturers to share ideas. Many CD-R engineers werehighly independent and struggled with resistance in their own
companies but found support in this rare group. If a CD-R
engineer proposed something new, there would be strongly
voiced opinions from the company. “Don’t we already haveAzo

write-once media?” “Have you resolved the copyright issue?”“Let’s just stop developing the CD-R.” “Commercializationis unthinkable!” No progress was being made at all. On top of
that, the issue with compatibility only served to increase the“I told you so” reaction.
Sony had been developing the CD-MO, and even at Sony82

there was slander, with comments ranging from “CD-R

Fig. 7-1-8 Molecular Structure of CD-R Organic Dyes
(Cyanine, Phthalocyanine and Azo)

traitor” to “Are you trying to ruin software manufacturers?”

Although CD-R properties are determined by more thanjust the organic dye, there are subtle differences between
these three types of dye (cyanine, phthalocyanine and azo) interms of the speed of their response to light. There are slightdifferences between each dye in the shape of the mark thatappears on the disc when exposed to the laser and in the riseand fall of the edges. These become apparent in the effectthey have on the write speed. If the mark is not recorded
properly with the target position, shape and depth, the signal
becomes corrupted, with increased jitter and deviation
affecting the error rate. Jitter refers to any variation in thelength of the recorded mark relative to the theoretical position
value. Deviation refers to a bias in distribution. These values
are stipulated in the Red Book as basic physicalspecifications for the playback signal.

at other companies. However, the foresight and solidarity of

One can only imagine it was the same or worse for engineers
the members of the Orange Forum were powerful againstcompany resistance, and they were determined to resolve thecompatibility issue and turn it into a business. The significant
growth of the CD-R business was actually triggered by theforesight and rebellious spirit ignited in the engineers as aresult of company resistance. They formed strong bonds
outside of their companies and created a foothold for businesspromotion. Although there were other favorable conditions,such as an expectant market, it would have been a very rarecase in the history of Japanese industry if this alone had
driven the CD-R business in the face of significant resistance.
Incidentally, the members at the time got on very well andNational Museum of Nature and Science Survey Report of Systematization of Technology, Vol. 25 2018. Marchstill hold CD-R media meetings to this day. There were“bullied members” from Sony, Matsushita, Pioneer, TDK,
Ricoh, Taiyo Yuden, Mitsubishi Chemical, Mitsui
Chemicals, JVC, Philips and Mitsubishi Electric.
The aims for founding the Orange Forum were to facilitate
Disc ID usedinteraction and information exchange between CD-R

Disc ID not used

manufacturers, to resolve the disc and drive compatibility
issues and to benefit end users. Accordingly, it was the duty
and one of the main research topics of the Orange Forum toFig. 7-1-9 Effect of Using Disc ID

eliminate all theoretical, physical and logical compatibility
issues. Specific activities included formulating a standard

The idea of incorporating a disc identification method todisc identification method, which then appeared in theenable the drive to recognize the media was not limited to

products of each participating company.

disc and drive compatibility issues. It could also be used to

The disc identification method defines the so-called

determine whether the write speed should 2×, 4× or 8× (or“identity” of the disc. The identity is imprinted on the dischigher) and to ensure optimal recording in cases where there

beforehand. The drive reads the identity to ascertain thewas a major change in the disc recording properties throughcharacteristics of the disc it is trying to write to. The dye
characteristics are particularly important. If the drive were to
write to a phthalocyanine disc in a way that was optimized
for a cyanine disc, the result would be of poor quality andplayback would not be compatible. The proposal to read theidentity of the disc and record on it using the optimum
method was revolutionary. Fig. 7-1-9 shows the effectivenessof using disc ID. This confirms a wider and more stable error

an alteration in the dye. This system achieved the idea of“being able to adapt flexibly to technological advances” andwas a unique plan devised for the CD-R, as there were
multiple types of organic dyes and multiple types of opticalheads used for recording.
Following this, the drive actually determined the power ofthe laser directed at the disc (OPC, PMA) using a technology

rate in relation to recording power. Table 7-1-1 shows acalled optimum power control (OPC). It would then write thesample disc ID code list. The table also shows where eachactual signal. There were two methods of do this. One was tocompany’s information was stored. For example, start time of

apply the initial OPC value to the entire recording area. The

lead-in: 97:23:00 (9a:bc:de), where 9a:dc:d represents theother was called “running OPC” and involved using a low-

media manufacturer and e represents the organic dye

powered laser to detect the state of the recording surface

material.

(changes in reflectance due to foreign matter or uneven dye
coating) and then adjusting the laser power as needed. The
Table 7-1-1 Disk ID Code List

running OPC method is the main method used today. It is
now capable of taking in the individual characteristics of themedia and maximizing those characteristics when writing to
the disc.
In 1995, there were seven manufacturers registered forDisc ID. This number rose rapidly from around 1997, and by
2003 there were around 73. Today, most media
manufacturers around the world are registered for Disc ID,
and all drive manufacturers use Disc ID. In 1998, extended
specifications were formulated to use outer circumference
address information to distinguish between disc types. This
made it possible to increase the number of possible media
manufacturer Disc IDs from ten to unlimited. Disc ID
became vital to ensuring CD-R recording and playback
compatibility and has been adopted by drive manufacturers

Systemized Survey on the Development and Practical Application of Compact Disc (CD) Technology

83and media manufacturers around the world, allowing users tocomputer. By upgrading the drive version, the discuse CD-R with confidence.

identification method and write strategy could be refreshedwith the latest information. This method was the same as that

Disc ID came into being at the Orange Forum and wasused for PC uploaded programs. The firmware upgrade waslater managed by CDs21 Solutions (the Orange Forum

downloaded from the drive manufacturer’s website andsuccessor organization). Very unfortunately, the Disc ID

installed on the CD-R drive. Thus, various technologies

method was not patented. There are still regrets to this day

started out with improving compatibility and resulted inthat no patent was filed for this rare invention that ensuresproviding end users with the best possible recording

perfect compatibility by using a disc ID to record recording

environment, based around the disc identification method.

film properties and other necessary information in advanceThis was well on the way to resolving the major issue withand then optimizing the recording based on this information.

CD-R compatibility.

At the time, it was a proposal by the Orange Forum andHowever, end users’ expectations of increased write speed

invented by everyone together. There was no inventor that

presented a new compatibility challenge. A stable write speed

could be identified, as the Orange Forum was an

required very advanced media and drive technology. The

unincorporated organization and could not own patent rights.

common opinion was that there were two technologies to be

Since this valuable technology resolved the issue of CD-R

improved to increase CD-R speed: media sensitivity andcompatibility, the anticipation was that many companies

mechanical precision. Increasing media sensitivity by simply

would want to use it. Everyone involved had this common

increasing its responsiveness to light would make theunderstanding, and so there was hesitation over applying forrecorded pit marks unstable. If the sensitivity were too high,a patent. Considering that the technology was used in aroundthe recording film would become too fragile. Similarly,

10 billion discs per year in CD-R alone, as well as identicalincreasing the speed by simply writing the signal faster thantechnology used to ensure compatibility in DVD-R and Blu-

before would cause interference between the written area andray-R, the revenue from royalties would have been an

the area being written. It was exponentially more difficult toenormous sum. Looking back, the reason why the group did

manage the heat of the media. If the recorded pits were to

not push for a patent application may have been largely due

deform, waveform distortion would occur. Depending on theto the personality of the chair at the time (Ihashi). In any

level of distortion, recording would not even be possible. CD-

case, it remains a matter of regret, simply because this was a

R write speeds increased rapidly from 8× to 16× and 32×, but

valuable piece of technology in the history of the optical discthis did not necessarily mean that the drive responded

industry.

accurately. Various self-regulating technologies weredeveloped for different drives, such as recording at a reduced
speed. Recording the signal at the optimal speed ensured

7.1.6

Policies to Ensure Compatibility

compatibility with efforts from both sides, drive and media.

Combined initiatives between drive manufacturers andmedia manufacturers and improvements in related technology
were successfully eliminating the major challenge on the

7.1.7

Practical CD-R Examples

market, disc and drive compatibility. Nevertheless, the CD-R

The first dream for the CD-R when the idea was firstwas growing at a tremendous rate, and the number of discconceived was to enable anyone to make an audio CD easily.

and drive manufacturers was also growing in full force.

With its high audio quality, easy operation (ease of random

Spurred on by this growth, drive write speed was also making

access) and durability, the CD-R is best suited to recording

rapid advances, from 2× to 4× and 16×. With the CD-R

music. For music fans, the “CD had status”, although to trueadvancing so rapidly, there were many cases in which themusic lovers, whether professional or amateur, skilled or

combinations of disc and drive were simply not compatible.

novice, the “CD-R had status”. It was also the friendliest

To prevent this inconvenient situation from occurring as

format in that it allowed them to record music for themselves.

much as possible, the CD-R drive could be made compatible

The following are a few typical examples of practical CD-R

with firmware version upgrades for the inbuilt PROM. CD-R

usage.

drive firmware was the control software responsible for theactual recording function and it received instructions from a84

National Museum of Nature and Science Survey Report of Systematization of Technology, Vol. 25 2018. MarchFirst, there were widespread uses that made the CD-R into

Third, the CD-R is used in professional fields, especiallythe most used audio CD of all. One example was that sincefor medical applications. It has become so commonplace thatpeople could easily make their own recordings, it was widely

now when a patient asks a doctor for photographic data, theused to make recordings of piano recitals and other music

data is given on a CD-R. A pioneer in this field was theperformances. In many cases, music students were made to

Cardiovascular Institute, well known nationally andrecord their actual performance or voice recital and submit itinternationally as an institution that specializes inon CD-R instead of submitting a report. Another common

cardiovascular diseases. In 1998, the affiliated hospital set up

example is the karaoke booth. The karaoke booth businessa Siemens computer network server system based on DICOM

began with people singing but is now incorporating means of

Ver 3.0 (the standard format for digital imaging in therecording as well. It is now common for people to record

medical field) and a cardiac diagnosis system (automatedtheir own singing and distribute the recording on CD-R

cardiac output measurement, ACOM) using CD-R. Digital

among their friends, either to showcase their skill or to test

imaging has progressed to the point where it can be used fortheir progress. With the karaoke industry having alreadymedical applications in place of the conventional film (X-ray,

shifted its business target to include meeting rooms foretc.). The captured data is sent to the server, where it is stored

business and private use rooms, it has become a practicein a 1.7TB MO jukebox and can be copied to CD-R as

grounds for music students. The performance or practice isneeded. The main advantage of this system is that any data

recorded on CD-R and used for distribution or submission. In

written in DICOM format onto CD-R, which is standardized

this way, the CD-R has gained a position as an irreplaceable

and inexpensive, can be read by any computer in the world.

recording medium for music lovers.

This became the standard system, and similar digital systems
began to be introduced into medical institutions around
Japan. It would not be possible to share medical data without

Second, the CD-R drew attention in relation to digital

the CD-R. The secure data storage and international playback

photos and other high capacity media. With digital cameras

compatibility makes the CD-R very valuable in the medical

growing more widespread in use in the 1990s, the highcommunity. Later, as the medical industry became

capacity CD-R began to be used for storing the captured data.

increasingly more digital, almost all medical institutions

Many people were of the opinion that the CD-R with its

came to have digital databases, with CD-R used as

capacity of just under 1GB was well suited for usability.

distributable media.

Digital photographs have now become far higher inUses in other professional fields include the CD-R and

resolution, and the less than 1GB recording capacity of the

CD-ROM system created by the Japan Patent Information

CD-R is no longer enough to store the recorded data. People

Organization (JAPIO) in 1996. This fast and reliable service

are transitioning to DVD-R and Blu-ray-R, although there areis used to provide customers with their needed information

many everyday users still using CD-R. Some digital

extracted from vast amounts of patent data. Fig. 7-1-10 shows

photography professionals are “visual creators” who goa set of 500-disc CD-R/CD-ROM changers used for thisbeyond simply storing recorded data to create digital

service. One unit such as these would be used bycompositions with special effects. These experts are acutely

photographers for small scale applications.

aware of the need for technology to build databases that caneffectively select and sort every shot photographed. To that
end, some professionals manage their own databases using

Finally, the CD-R can be used as a distribution media

500-disc CD-R/CD-ROM changers. Since the data stored isanywhere, networked society or not. Fig. 7-1-11 shows a

the original image, the CD-R/CD-ROM is optimal, as it is notphotograph from a press report during the Iran-Iraq War atsusceptible to virus or data loss. The CD-R in particular has

the beginning of the 21st century.

been lauded as being an “excellent changeable media that canbe played anywhere”. CD-RW, DVD-R and other types of
discs are also used as needed, although there is a lot of
confidence in the CD-R for product delivery, as it cannot betampered with by third parties.

Systemized Survey on the Development and Practical Application of Compact Disc (CD) Technology

85

laser is also used in the CD-RW phase change method,changing the recording material from crystalline toamorphous. Rewriting is possible because the recording layer
can undergo subsequent phase changes. Although both CD-R
and CD-RW are easy to use technology, there are parts tothem that are completely different. As such, this chapter
discusses CD-RW technology and its distinguishing
characteristics.
Fig. 7-1-10 Japan Patent Information Organization CDR/CD-ROM Changers

7.2.1

CD-RW Phase Change Recording Principle

The rewritable function of CD-RW happens as the name“phase change” implies. The signal is recorded using changes
in phase. Incidentally, “phase” means “an area in a physicalsystem that has uniform and clear boundaries and is distinct
from other areas”. Also, “parts of a physical system that haveexactly the same physical or chemical properties are in thesame phase”. Specifically, the signal is recorded on CD-RW
using a physical transition between crystalline andamorphous structures. Amorphous means a physical state thathas no crystalline structure. Some alloys have atoms thatremain in a liquid state despite being solid. Phase change
recording uses a laser to induce physical changes between
crystalline and amorphous in this type of alloy. During
playback, a laser is used to read the difference in reflectanceFig. 7-1-11 CD-Rs on the Iran-Iraq War

Vast amount of resources (data) were stored and sent on CDR and used to clarify situations. The article commented thatsince this was highly classified data, the safest delivery
method was to take it by hand. Storing vast amounts ofnewspaper information on small, light CD-R meant there was

between the two phases. Specific phase change materials
include quaternary alloys such as silver-indium-antimonytellurium (Ag-In-Sb-Te). Fig. 7-2-1 shows the CD-RW discstructure. The basic structure is similar to the CD-R in thatthe substrate has a pregroove and the recording layer issandwiched between upper and lower protective layers. A
protective UV coating is applied on top.

no danger of it being falsified or erased along the way,
Groovemaking it possible to safely exchange confidential
information. This comment confirmed again the advantage of
the CD-R. In the present day, with society fully networked,
the CD-R is used for storing and distributing highly

UV coating layer
Upper protective layer

Printed surface

Lower protective layer

Recording layer

Aluminum reflective layer

SubstrateLand

confidential data that must not be overwritten, serving as asecurity measure for the recorded data. For this reason, the
CD-R continues to be used and goes on fulfilling its purpose.

7.2 The Emergence of CD-RW
CD-RW stands for “compact disc rewritable” and is thefirst rewritable member of the CD family. CD-RW is oftengrouped together with CD-R as CD-R/RW. On CD-R, a laser
makes physical changes in the organic dye coated on the discsurface. These changes are recorded as digital information. A

86

Fig. 7-2-1 CR-RW Disc Structure

The phase change recording principle was proposed by
Stanford Ovshinsky in 1968. Ovshinsky identified thedifference in optical properties, such as refractive index, andelectrical properties, such as conductivity of the respective
states of chalcogenide materials. The first practicalimplementation of this principle was research by Yamashita

National Museum of Nature and Science Survey Report of Systematization of Technology, Vol. 25 2018. March

et al. of Matsushita Electric, using a tellurium oxide material.

Erasing data recorded on CD-RW involves a technology

Licensing the Ovshinsky patent was expensive, and manycalled the one-beam direct overwrite method. Phase changing

companies gave up investigating this technology, althoughmaterial has a temperature that is not enough for melting, but

Matsushita Electric, Ricoh and Hitachi continued developing.

enough for crystallization (around 200°C for the erase power

This led to the CD-RW and phase-change disc (PD, a special

level). The material is heated to this level using a lower

computer disc developed by Matsushita) and paved the way

intensity laser and cooled gradually, allowing the amorphousfor the next generation of DVD-RW and RAM.

phases to return to being crystalline phases, able to be

The phase changing material begins as a crystalline

recorded again.

structure. During recording, a laser traces the pregroove andexposes the disc to the EFM modulated signal. Fig. 7-2-2
shows the phase change recording principle. The CD-RW
recording principle can also be explained using a temperature
profile. The crystal phase is rapidly heated to melting point toproduce an amorphous state with irregular atoms. If theamorphous state is rapidly cooled, the atoms do not have thechance to reorganize, producing a frozen amorphous state.
This is the amorphous phase recording mechanism. If thematerial is heated to a mid-range temperature rather than tomelting point and then cooled relatively slowly, the atoms are
given time to return to form into their original crystal phaseagain. Thus, phase change recording essentially involves
highly controlled heating and cooling to produce amorphous
phases. This results in highly reflective crystalline structuresand less reflective amorphous structures. The difference
between these structures can be detected as a signal. Despite
the crystal phases being highly reflective, the reflectance of
the CD-RW is only around 10-15%, nowhere near the levelof reflectance of the CD and CD-R (65% or higher) in the
780nm wavelength range. This requires some form ofcountermeasures on the drive side. When the CD-RW was
introduced, there was a proposal for a multi-read standard,mentioned later.

7.2.2

CD-RW Recording Format (Write Strategy)

The write strategy refers to how the power of the laser iscontrolled during recording. The recording principle varies
according to the properties of the disc. There are different
optimum control methods for CD-R and for CD-RW. The
EFM signal recorded on the disc is made up of a physicallength from 3T to 11T and a space, as mentioned previously.
Essentially, the switching off and on of the laser should
correspond to the EFM signal. However, the CD-RW
requires subtle, precise control over heating and cooling andwill not record properly if the laser simply matches the EFM
signal without some adaptation. If it were exposed to the raw
EFM signal, the areas that require rapid cooling would
undergo slow cooling, which would distort the shape andedges of the pit marks, leading to a deterioration in jitter anddeviation. The signal would be close to what it should be, but
not close enough. The CD-RW is unique in that the accuracyof the signal is determined by the positioning of the edge
even more so than by the sharpness of the pit and land edges.
CD-RW recording requires the edges to rise steeply and thecenters to be written with as little unevenness as possible.
Fig. 7-2-3 shows an example CD-RW write strategy (laser
power control). This is the CD-RW multi-pulse recording

Temperature

method. For example, when recording a 4T EFM signal, theTemperature
Slow coolingRapid cooling
Melting point

Melting point

Crystallization point

Crystallization point

laser power first reaches melting point, then rapidly cools for
1T, followed by “0.5T→rapid cooling→0.5T”. This isrepeated three times for 4T, and twice for 3T. The “nT”

Time

Time

signal records with a pulse of “nT-1”. The initial 1T intervalis the time required for the recording material to reachmelting point, since it has cooled. As soon as the crystalline

Energy level

phase becomes amorphous, the laser turns off to rapidly cool

Amorphous state

the material and freeze it in the amorphous state. This precise

Activation temperature

Reflectance 1
Crystal state
Reflectance 1 ≠Reflectance 2

laser power control is necessary for CD-RW recording.

Reflectance 2

Fig. 7-2-2 Phase Change Recording Principle

Systemized Survey on the Development and Practical Application of Compact Disc (CD) Technology

87However, the challenge with CD-RW is that phase change
recording is in principle not compatible with ultrafast

EFM signal

recording, which makes writing to CD-RW slower thanwriting to CD-R.

Write power

Erase power

7.2.3

Playback Compatibility with Multi-Read

Optical disc playback essentially involves a laser reading aBias powersignal from differences in reflectance. If a designatedAmorphousreflectance can be achieved and the physical and logical

Crystalline

formats are the same, then playback compatibility is

Reference:guaranteed. However, there is a major difference in

CD-R Write Strategy(Orange Book Part II)

reflectance between CD-R and CD-RW. Where CD-R
maintains reflectance of around 65% or higher, CD-RW only
maintains reflectance of around 15-20%. The CD format
Fig. 7-2-3 CD-RW Write Strategy

based on the Red Book stipulates reflectance of around 65%

The CD-R has a laser power during recording of 4-11mW

or higher to ensure playback compatibility. Without resolving(Orange Book Part II), while CD-RW has 8-14mW (Orange
Book Part III). According to the standard, the CD-RW
requires a higher powered laser, although CD-R recording at
8× can require laser power of over 20mW (around 18mW for
highly sensitive media at 8×). The CD-RW can record ataround 14mW, and it is better for a system to be able to write
data at lower power. Using a high power laser increases thecost of the drive, making the system less consumer-oriented.
There are also technical concerns, such as reducing thephysical change cycle (cyclability) of the recording layer,
making it less durable. CD systems are fated to be low laser
power systems. Fig. 7-2-4 shows an electron
photomicrograph of the signal recorded on a CD-RW disc(supplied by Ricoh).
CD-RW applications include substituting large capacity

this issue, the CD-RW would become an unrelated media,
despite recording the identical signal to the CD. Current
technology is not capable of raising the reflectance of CDRW to 65% or higher. Using a more powerful laser toincrease the reflectance would damage the recording layer.
One method devised has been to increase the amp gain
(sensitivity) of the drive. However, simply increasing thegain at will also increases the noise, which lowers the S/Nratio. Meticulous amp design has made it possible for thesystem to adequately maintain the S/N ratio of the circuits.
This drive-side method is called “multi-read” and has been
relatively easy to commercialize, introduced on the market as
the “multi-read CD-ROM drive”. In fact, many CD-ROM
drives meet the multi-read standard, and almost all drives thatare 16× or higher are “multi-read CD-ROM drives”.

floppy disks and audio cassettes, CD authoring proof discs
and backup/storage. It is not a substitute for a hard disk. As
such, recording layer cyclability of up to around 1000 times
is considered to be sufficient. The idea of a “substitutesector” was introduced to the CD-RW. If a sector on the discwas unsuitable for recording, the CD-RW file system (UDF)
would automatically allocate a new sector in place of theunsuitable sector. This system was not difficult to implement.

Fig. 7-2-4 Signal Recorded on CD-RW Disc88

National Museum of Nature and Science Survey Report of Systematization of Technology, Vol. 25 2018. MarchRandom read write access
Data is not necessarily connected.
Similar to hard disk or MO recording.
Media must be formatted before recording.
Note that this drops the capacity from 650MB to
530MB.

Disc at once
Sequential write
Track at once
Track

Track

Packet write

Fig. 7-2-5 CD-R Recording Method

SessionSession

Program area

SessionSingle session
Lead inLead out

Fig. 7-2-6 Single Session and Multi Session

The CD-RW emerged as a commercial product in 1997
and a playback environment for it was rapidly established. It
is estimated that by early 2000, around 70% of newly
purchased household PCs in Japan had multi-read CD-ROM
drives. There is no data available on how many household
CD-DA players supported multi-read, although consumer
audio CD-R/RW recorders could play CD-DA data recorded
on a PC CD-RW drive. DVD drives played a role in multiread compatibility, with some DVD players and DVD-ROM
drives also capable of playing CD-RW discs. In that sense,
the CD-RW had an important position as the bridge between
CD and DVD.
7.2.4

(1) Disc at once method, which writes the entire disc’s
worth of data to disc all at once and does not allow socalled postscripts to be added afterwards(2) Track at once method, which writes in track units andallows additional writing(3) Packet write method, which allows writing in packet
units (such as bars of music)
Fig. 7-2-5 illustrates the three methods. Run in and run out
refer to where the data “joins”. These are guard areas
designed to serve as buffers for areas where error protection
is not possible. The (2) track at once (TAO) method differs
significantly from the (1) disc at once (DAO) method in thatit records the data first and then writes the lead in and leadout areas. This is closely linked to the “multi session”
recording method. A session refers to a unit combining lead

CD-RW File Format

A technology unique to CD-RW is the method of writing
to disc. This is compatible with hard disk random read write
access (although not strictly the same). Since the CD is
fundamentally an audio disc, it has a “sequential write”
recording method. CD-R follows the CD, with recording
spiraling from the inner diameter of the disc to the outer
diameter. As follows, there are three sequential writein, user data and lead out. Multi session means several suchsessions on a disc. The recording method used for creating a
multi session disc is TAO. Fig. 7-2-6 shows the concepts ofsingle session and multi session. The first system to use themulti session concept was the Photo CD by Americancompany Kodak. The Photo CD is widely known as theOrange Book Part II multi session compatible format.

methods for CD-R, all of which are incapable of allowing
only a portion of the written data to be altered.

Systemized Survey on the Development and Practical Application of Compact Disc (CD) Technology

89

It is also possible to write to CD-RW using these CD-R

[Present Status and Potentiality of Phase Change

recording methods (1) to (3). The distinguishing feature ofMaterial for High Density Recording]” Yokomori

the CD-RW, rewriting to disc, is best achieved using

Kiyoshi, Journal of Magnetics Society of Japan 98-6

rewritable packet units. This requires a file system similar toa hard disk or magneto-optical disc (MO). To make(1997) 29-36
3) “Optical Information Encoding In Amorphousmaximum use of the rewriteable characteristics of the CD-

Semiconductor” S. R. Ovshinsky, Topical Meeting On

RW, intelligent data management is used, whereby if a

Optical Data Storage (1973) MB5-1

certain block is unreadable or unwritable for some reason,

4) “Hikarijiki Disuku Sōchi to Sono Ōyō Shisutemu

that block is disabled and the data is written to another block.

[Magnetic Optical Disc Devices and their Application

The ability to write and erase the data in each block is called

Systems]” Ihashi Takao and Yazawa Takeshi, Eizōjōhō

“random read write”. The file system used in CD-RW that(1987 Vol. 19 No. 15)

makes this random read write possible is the universal disc

5) “A Writable Compact Disc Digital Audio System” K.

format (UDF) standardized by the Optical Storage

Nakagawa, K. Osato, K. Urayama and T. Ihashi, AES

Technology Association (OSTA) in the United States.

preprint #2174 (G-3) (March 7, 1989)
6) “CD-R/RW Official Guidebook” Orange Forum, Exceed

References
1) “Shinki Hikari Kiroku Baitai CD-R (Sono Zairyō
Kaihatsu to Kiroku Kikō no Kaimei) [New Optical
Recording Media: CD-R (Understanding its Material
Development and Recording Mechanism)]” Hamada
Emiko, University of Tokyo doctoral dissertation(Engineering) (1998)

Press (1999)
7) “CD-R Interchangeability Test Report” A. Inoue, J.G.F.
Kablau, J.P.J. Heemskark, H. Ogawa and H. Yamauchi,
Topical Meeting on Optical Data Storage Technical
Digest (1992)
8) “OplusE No. 365 Archive Optical Storage Feature”
Advanced Communication Media (2010)

2) “Sōhenka Disuku Gijutsu no Genjō to Shōrai Tenbō90

National Museum of Nature and Science Survey Report of Systematization of Technology, Vol. 25 2018. March

8

Establishing ISO Standards for Estimating theLife Expectancy of Optical Media

Optical discs such as CD-R/DVD-R are a means of storing
various types of text data, still images from digital cameras

testing method in 2007 as ISO/IEC 10995. It had taken
around five years to get to this point, thanks to the admirable

and videos from digital television. As such, demand for thismedia has grown significantly. However, there were concerns

efforts of everyone involved in attending countlessinternational meetings and developing the technical theories.

in Japan and overseas over the reliability of this media, due tothe fact that there were many short-lived media products on

Fig. 8-1 shows a correlation diagram of all this activity.
Despite the support of NIST and others, it is very rare for an

the market that did not meet quality standards, as well as thefact that there were no specific standards on product lifespan.

ISO standard to be established from a proposal fromvolunteer organizations. Meanwhile, optical disc production

Recording media for long term digital archive data storage
must have a long lifespan, high capacity, fast data transfer

was increasing worldwide, which meant that inferior products
were being introduced to markets all over the world in therate and low price. Optical discs showed a lot of promise, as
they had high capacity and a low price, and recording andname of “globalization”. Deciding on a standard for
estimating disc lifespan, which had never been done before,

playback devices for them were available worldwide. Aninternational standard was established to specify a quality

was a very useful means of countering this situation.
Currently, at the request of manufacturers everywhere, theevaluation method for optical discs so that they could bepromoted as a recording media for long term storage. The

Archive Disc Test Center (ADTC), an NPO, provides a thirdparty site for impartial lifespan estimate testing in accordancecommon goal of everyone in the industry was to ensure that
optical discs evaluated by that international standard werewith ISI 10995/18297. This has gained much confidence
from users as a result.

good for long term storage.
Initiatives for optical disc reliability began in Japan in theearly 1990s, when the Ministry of International Trade andIndustry (now Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry)

Osaka
Sangyoestablished a research group to standardize a system for
gauging optical disc media. Later, prominent companies also

Ministry ofInternational Tradeand Industry (MITI)

started engaging in research towards standardization. In the
United States, the National Institute of Standards andTechnology (NIST) and other organizations began
researching the use of optical discs with the aim of storing
images electronically. This resulted in the formulation of“Compact disc - Method for estimating the life expectancy ofOrganization jointly created by CDs21 and OSTA

based on the effects of temperature and relative humidity” by
ISO Technical Committee 42. This was enacted andFig. 8-1 Correlation of Activity to do with Establishing thestandardized in 2002 as ISO 18927.

8.1

From 2000, CDs21 Solutions, a voluntary group
established by optical disc related companies (chaired by
Nakajima Heitarō) started conducting independent
experiments on the lifespan of CD-Rs on the market, with theaim of organizing the disarray among the quality and lifespanof products on the market. From 2005, the knowledge gained
from these experiments was used to develop optical disc
lifespan testing methods, in collaboration with American
optical disc organizations OSTA and NIST. A proposal was
made to the European Computer Manufacturers Association(ECMA) in 2006. Following deliberation, the methods werestandardized as ECMA-379. Later, ECMA-379 was proposedto the ISO, and officially established as an international

ISO Standard

Lifespan Estimating and Causes for Faults
in Optical Discs

An optical disc fault is defined as “a point at which digital
data cannot be restored from the reproduced signal due tophysical factors that occur due to aging of the characteristicsof the recording film etc. during long-term storage in a
general storage environment”. The mean time to failure(MTTF) represents the general lifespan of a product and isdefined in JIS Z8115 as the “average value of the lifespan of
non-repair items”. Non-repair items are “items that cannot orwill not be repaired if a fault occurs”. In order to avoid being
unable to recover the data from the failure, the optical discfailure time is not defined as the MTTF, but as the operatingtime with a failure rate of 5% (survival probability of 95%).
This method of estimating the lifespan involves accelerated

Systemized Survey on the Development and Practical Application of Compact Disc (CD) Technology

91how long a reaction will continue for.

rate of 5%, followed by statistical processing of the data. Fig.
8-2 shows the general concept of lifespan estimation.

American chemist Henry Eyring (b. 1901 in Mexico)developed the activated complex theory (transition state

Expected lifespan

Number of discs destroyed

testing with environmental temperature changes with a failure

Ambient temperature

theory). The activated complex theory focuses on thetransient chemical species that break apart near the peak ofFailure rate distribution
Expected lifespanactivation in the reaction. These transient species are called
the activated complex or transition state. In activatedcomplex theory, a reaction is a two-stage process in which
the reactant and the activated complex are considered to inTime
ISO lifespan (5% failure)Fig. 8-2 Concept of Lifespan Estimation

The initial quality of an optical disc before any time passes
is maintained by stipulating the amount of jitter the discshould have. For ROM discs, this is during manufacture. For

equilibrium.

A + B ↔ AB‡ → P (2)Here A and B are reactants, AB++ is the activatedcomplex and P is the product. Fig. 8-3 shows the reaction
cross section according to activated complex theory. The
Eyring formula is given below.
Activated complex

R and other recordable discs, this is after recording. The jitter
value correlates to the data error rate. This makes it possible
to know the quality of the data recorded on the disc without
any demodulation signal processing. As mentioned

spite of initial errors, errors from deterioration and errors
from defects such as scratches or foreign matter on the disc

Energypreviously, CDs have an error correction code added to them.
This has been standardized to enable stable data playback in

Activation energy

Reactant

surface. Accordingly, optical disc faults are considered as thepoint when error correction becomes impossible. As
stipulated, CDs should have no more than 220 C2 errors andDVDs should have no more than 280 parity of inner code (PI)errors. At these figures, a decision is made as to whether thedisc has a fault or not. The main physical factor that
deteriorates optical disc lifespan is moisture coming in fromthe exterior or the substrate. This causes a chemical reactionthat alters the characteristics of the recording film or thereflective layer. When the cause of deterioration follows
chemical kinetics, the relationship between the resulting
stress and the reaction speed can be modelled using theArrhenius equation or the Eyring model. This makes it
possible to test the estimated lifespan using accelerated
testing under temperature and humidity stress.
Swedish scientist Svante Arrhenius (b. 1859) is known
around the world for the Arrhenius equation, which expresses
the temperature dependence of reaction rates using activationenergy. In 1903, Arrhenius was awarded the Nobel Prize in
Chemistry for his electrolytic theory of dissociation.
t = AeΔh/kT (1)Here t is the rate constant, A is the pre-exponential factor,
Δh is the activation energy, k is the Boltzmann constant(8.617×10-5 ev/k) and T is the absolute temperature (inkelvins, 273.15+degrees Celsius). In the Arrhenius model,
formula (1) above can be used to express the temperaturedependence of rate constants for many chemical reactions. A
general model has been created based on this to determine

92

Product

Reaction coordinates

Fig. 8-3 Reaction Cross Sectiont = ATaeΔh/kTe (B + C/T) x RH

(3)Here, t is the rate constant, A is the pre-exponential factor,
T is the pre-exponential humidity factor, Δh is the activationenergy, k is the Boltzmann constant, Ta is the absolutetemperature, B and C are exponential factors for relative
humidity and RH is the relative humidity.
A simplified version of the Eyring formula is used in
ISO/IEC 10995, mentioned later.
t = AeΔH/kTeB x RH (4)Generally, the Eyring formula can be extended as follows.
t = ATaexp {ΔH/kT ∔ (B + C/T) x S1 + (D + E/T) x S2+…}
(5)
Related stresses as well as humidity can also be added.

8.2 ISO/IEC 10995

ISO/IEC 10885 (referred to as 10995 below) prescribes theevaluation methods for estimating the lifespan of CD-R/RW,
as well as DVD-R/-RW/-RAM/+R/+RW. The lifespanestimated here is the expected lifespan of a product stored at
an ambient temperature of 25°C and relative humidity of
50% with a lower confidence interval of 95% where thesurvival probability is 95%. For DVD-R/RW, the lifespan is

National Museum of Nature and Science Survey Report of Systematization of Technology, Vol. 25 2018. March

(6)This can be further modified with ln(t) given as y, ln(A) as
a0, ΔH/k as a1, 1/T as x1, B as a2 and RH as x2 to be
represented as follows.
y = a0 + a1x1 + a2x2
(7)This can be thought of as a multiple regression equation
with two explanatory variables. When undertaking multiple
regression analysis, the required number of individuals can becalculated as four or more based on equation (8) below, giventhat there are two explanatory variables in equation (7).
Number of individuals – explanatory variables – 1 = numberof individuals – 2 – 1 > 0(8)
According to this, Eyring model accelerated testing mustbe accomplished with a minimum of four temperature andhumidity conditions. 10995 stipulates finding the mean
logarithmic value of failure time under four conditions of
85°C 85% RH, 85°C 70% RH, 65°C 85% RH and 70°C 75%
RH. Fig. 8-4 shows a summary of lifespan estimation using
the Eyring model.

ln (failure time)

Average lifespan estimate (25°C/50% RH)

Regression line

Ambient temperature (1/kelvin)Fig. 8-4 Summary of Lifespan Estimate Using the Eyring
Model

10995 indicates the analysis procedures for determining
the estimated lifespan, assuming that lifespan data
distribution follows log-normal distribution. Accelerated
testing is conducted on sample optical discs under the four
conditions given above and a retrogression equation is used
to determine the time until failure. The order statistic medianrank method is used for the cumulative distribution of the
failure data. A log-normal graph is used for the cumulative
distribution of the data for each condition. These are used tocheck if the values are within the assumptions.
More specifically, the lifespan data for each condition isrepresented as a line on a log-normal graph. The incline of
the line represents the logarithmic standard deviation. This isequal if the samples are taken from the same parent
population. Checking this ensures that the failure under eachcondition falls within the 10995 model. Fig. 8-5 shows anexample of cumulative failure distribution.

Median rank critical value

follows.
ln(t) = ln(A) + ΔH/KT + B x RH

ln (failure time)
Fig. 8-5 Cumulative Failure Distribution

The log-normal graph shows the log average values for the
failure data under each of the conditions. Multiple regression
analysis can be used to find the constant term and partial
regression coefficient, or ln(A), ΔH/k and B in the simplified
Eyring equation. The obtained constant term and partial
regression coefficient can be used with the simplified Eyring
equation to find the estimated lifespan for complement
conditions by entering values of absolute temperature
281.15K (25°C) and 50% RH.
The acceleration coefficient of the failure data (the ratio
between the average lifespan estimate from accelerated
testing and the average lifespan estimate under storage
conditions) is calculated for each condition and the lifespandata normalized for complement conditions. At 25°C 50%
RH with a confidence interval of 90%, the lifespan can be
estimated, assuming a confidence level of 95% survival. Fig.
8-6 shows an example of normalized lifespan estimate using
the acceleration coefficient.

Median rank critical value

the length of time until the number of PI errors makes
playback impossible.
A simplified Eyring formula takes a natural logarithm asln (failure time)

Fig. 8-6 Estimated Lifespan Normalized by Acceleration
Coefficient

8.3 Archive Disc Test Center (ADTC)
The Archive Disc Test Center (ADTC) is an independent
third-party not-for-profit organization (NPO) established inAugust 2008 to carry out optical disc lifespan estimates anddecide whether the disc is capable of long term storage. With
users wanting to use optical discs to store recorded data, this

Systemized Survey on the Development and Practical Application of Compact Disc (CD) Technology

93decision helps these users to determine whether a disc is

All digital data recording media has a lifespan. Whensuitable for long term storage. The ADTC laboratory started
operating in March 2009. As well as testing CD-R/RW, thedigital data is stored long term, the state of the recording
must be checked every few years. If it has deteriorated, then

ADTC laboratory also conducts accelerated testing based on
ISO/IEC 18926, an extension of ISO/IEC 10995 intended forthe data must be recorded onto a new recording medium.
Optical disc data migration is provided for in ISO/IEC 29121

estimating DVD-R/RW/RAM lifespan. There are plans toprogressively extend the range of discs that can be tested.

and JIS Z 6017. These standards also recommend
maintaining continuity by checking for optical discArchival grade optical discs (lifespan of 30 years or more)are issued with a certificate and logo as shown in Fig. 8-8.

deterioration and re-recording data as necessary.

The laboratory also has a monitoring function to confirm thatthe discs sold on the market are actually certified discs. This

The ADTC continues its activities in 2017. The test center
laboratory is established in the laboratory of Prof. Irie

is done by selecting discs with the logo from the market andcarrying out lifespan testing on them. If a breach is

Mitsuru of Osaka Sangyo University, who made a significant
contribution to the ISO standardization of lifespan estimation.

discovered, the company is instructed to discontinue sales
and is subjected to measures including losing the right to use

Every year, five or six different optical discs are tested forlifespan estimates based on ISO/IEC 10995 (18926), which

the logo. Fig. 8-7 shows the ADTC laboratory. There are
multiple thermostatic chambers for accelerated testing, as

serves to improve the quality of archive grade optical discs.
There is no doubt that the unobtrusive activities of the ADTC

well as error measuring equipment, all of which is used toestimate disc lifespan from the data provided.

secured the position of the optical disc as long term storage
media and have laid the foundation for the widespread use ofa more consistent quality of optical discs. There is now
greater demand for impartial third-party testing rather thanin-house evaluations, and the demand for the ADTC
continues to grow. It is very significant that one of thebidding conditions for government and university archive
businesses is usually to “use recording media evaluated by an
impartial third-party organization”.
References

Fig. 8-7 ADTC Laboratory

1) “Konpakuto Disuku: Sono 20-nen no Ayumi [TheCompact Disc: Its 20-year History]” CDs21 Solutions(2005)
2) “Chōki Hozon Baitai to shite no Hikari Disuku no
Hinshitsu Hyōka to Jumyō Suitei [Quality Evaluationand Lifespan Estimate of Optical Discs as Long-term
Storage Media]” Ihashi Takao and Suzuki Toshio, Tokyo
City University Journal of the Center for Information

Fig. 8-8 Certification Mark Issued by the ADTC

Studies No. 12 (Mar. 2011)
3) “OplusE No. 365 Archive Optical Storage Feature”
Advanced Communication Media (2010)
4) ISO/IEC10995, ISO/IEC18927

94

National Museum of Nature and Science Survey Report of Systematization of Technology, Vol. 25 2018. March

9

The Cultural Revolution Triggered by the CD

Chapter 6 discussed the emergence and scale of the CD

This suggests that since the CD was at the center of digitalbusiness, covering the introduction of CD media and the CD
family to the market, the emergence of successive new

discussions and that the two words appeared in articles
together. The CD was indeed considered to be the symbol ofproducts with various new features added and how thistechnology became established on the market. In that sense, it

digital technology. This also led to a rise in use of the term
“analog” to refer to existing technology. While watches andis no overstatement to say that the spread of CD media itself
was a cultural revolution. This revolution brought about byother digital products also emerged, these were simply
products with digital displays and had little to do withCD media can be categorized into three main areas: (1)digital culture, (2) interactive culture and (3) recordable (R)developments that led to the creation of digital society.
CD digitization of music triggered a “baptism” in digital

culture.

culture and widespread popularity. According to the NHK
lifestyle survey conducted every five years, there were subtle

9.1 Digital Culture and CD-DA

changes in consumer lifestyles as a result of music
digitization. This included questions on “change in the time

Due to its major impact, the achievement of the CD-DA is
at the forefront of the “popularization of digital culture”. In
the 1980s, the leading product that embodied the term
“digital” was the CD. The term “digital” became more widelyused as the CD grew in popularity. Fig. 9-1 shows thenumber of articles in which the words “CD”, “digital”,“multimedia” and “IT” appeared in four newspapers
published by Nihon Keizai Shimbun: “Nihon Keizai
Shimbun”, “Nikkei Financial Daily”, “Nikkei Business
Daily” and “Nikkei Marketing Journal”. This data indicates
how far these words and concepts had entered economic andindustrial topics. It is clear that the words “CD” and “digital”
appeared in articles in the early 1980s. Through to the mid1980s, the number of articles mentioning “CD” and “digital”
showed a similar growth trend (phenomenon (1)).
(Year)

CD
DigitalMultimedia
IT

Phenomenon (2)spent listening to CDs or other music”. The time spent
listening to music during the week for people in their 20s and
30s peaked in 1990 and gradually declined, while time spent
listening to music during weekends continued to increase
through to 1995, suggesting some influence from theemergence of the CD. One possible factor for this is that theliving environments of these young people were affected by
the waves of digitization that came with the CD, and theirlifestyles changed as a result.
As mentioned previously, the CD family expanded as new
functions were added to CDs. The CD-ROM emerged in
1985, followed by the CD-I in 1986 and the CD-R in 1989.
This resulted in an increasing number of articles about CDs
in the late 1980s as various CD media products became thetopic of attention as the embodiment of “digital culture”. At
this stage, the word “digital” was already in common use as aconcept word. It was even used to express personality traits,
such as a “digital personality” or a “digital person”. As text,
images and data became digitized as well as music, the term
“digital” became more commonplace. As a result, this term
no longer appeared in newspaper articles at the same growing
rate as CDs (phenomenon (2)). Fig. 9-2 shows the trends inPhenomenon (1)music media production sales (in Japan) for the 20 years
between 1984 and 2004. CD-DA discs peaked in 2000 at
around ¥500 billion, although it was over ¥400 billion foraround 10 years, which indicates the scale of the business.
(Articles)
Source: Nikkei Telecom 21

Fig. 9-1 Four Words Mentioned in Articles in Four
Newspapers Published by Nihon Keizai Shimbun(1980-1993)

This proves how far digital culture had permeated as a resultof the CD-DA disc. Fig. 9-3 shows the trends in domestic CD
player production volumes. Production also peaked in 2000,
at 18.64 million units, with 15 million units produced eachyear in the five years before and after. Sales reached as highas ¥276 billion in 1998. With a scale of business at over ¥200
billion, this major industry continued for a decade andcontributed to the spread of digital culture.

Systemized Survey on the Development and Practical Application of Compact Disc (CD) Technology95(¥100 million)

Records (analog discs)8ʺ CDs12ʺ CDs
Tapes(Articles)

CD
DigitalMultimedia
IT(Year)

Phenomenon (4)Fig. 9-2 Trends in Music Media Production Sales(Year)(10,000 units)

Phenomenon (3)Fig. 9-3 Trends in Domestic CD Player Production

As digitization continued, it was used for material otherthan music, with various expressions coming into being. The
CD family expanded, and the “multimedia” concept emergedwith it. The term “multimedia” also appeared in newspaper
articles in the early 1990s. As this word appeared, the word“digital” also reappeared frequently (phenomenon (3), Fig. 94). Fig. 9-4 shows the number of articles in which four words(Year)
Fig. 9-4 Four Words Mentioned in Articles in Four
Newspapers Published by Nihon Keizai Shimbun (19942003)

9.2 Interactive Culture and CD-ROM/CD-I
As touched on in Chapter 6, CD-ROM and CD-I began to(“CD”, “digital”, “multimedia” and “IT”) appeared in four

emerge with the idea that multi-information = multimedia.

newspapers published by Nihon Keizai Shimbun in the

CD products with various functions began to emerge anddecade from 1994 to 2003. Multimedia was a new concept

spread to provide multimedia infrastructure. These

based on the idea of digital. It was used to represent the“multimedia CDs” laid the foundation for informationindustry in the 1990s, and the CD family played a major roledevices. Multimedia CDs handle multiple types ofin its embodiment. In short, digitization began with music

information and are equipped with an “interactive” function,

information and came to include characters and images.

thus offering new levels of operability and enjoyment. This“Multimedia” was a necessary next step to include all of thisfunctionality was essentially an extension of the search

digitized information. However, times change, and it sounds

function developed from the CD-DA “song selection

a little old fashioned now to say one has CDs. However,function”. As a result, various software and product functions

networked society is lacking substance. All information is

emerged that offered a bidirectional operability, as if the user

hidden away in the cloud, invisible. We need to take anotherwere interacting with the machine. The term “interactive

look at what the culture was that was ushered in by CDs we

multimedia” emerged to describe the concept of that function.

could actually see, and at what it means to have digital

Of course, a search function was already a standard

technology that hones our sensitivity and works our fivefunction in the world of computing. However, computerssenses.

were not as widespread for household use as they are now,and there were fewer opportunities for people to experiencesuch interactive functions. These experiences came about
through multimedia CDs, such as photo CD, CD-G, CD-96

National Museum of Nature and Science Survey Report of Systematization of Technology, Vol. 25 2018. MarchROM, CD-I and VCD. Previously, computer games could

rehearsal for creators for networked society. In that sense,

only be enjoyed as arcade games at certain locations.

multimedia CDs and other packaged media laid theSoftware developers used every skill they had to make itfoundation for today’s networked society. Although it took

possible for users to enjoy arcade-like bidirectional

place gradually, since the year 2000 this cultural revolution

interactivity at home. This developed into a major industry

has been accompanied by a rapid uptake in the concept ofalmost instantly. At this stage, a succession of products was“information technology” (IT) in place of multimedia. Shownemerging with various interactive multimedia functions,as phenomenon (4) in Fig. 9-4, this is truly a result of cultural

including dictionaries and other electronic publications withrevolution.

search functions, vehicle navigation through advances inGPS, educational software and other CD-ROM titles andhousehold karaoke. In a general sense, these multimedia CDs
were an indication of new developments that could well be

9.3 R (Recordable) Culture and the Most
Widespread Medium in History

Floppy disks (FDs) and magnetooptical disks (MOs)called a new civilization or “interactive culture”. One

gained widespread use as recording media for computers.

machine that played a role in this development was the

Their successor, the CD-R, emerged in the fall of 1989.

multimedia PC, a computer with a built-in CD-ROM drive.

Details of the technology are outlined in Chapter 7

From around 1990, software products with shorter lifespans“Emergence of Recordable CDs”. A researcher specializing

emerged, such as 8cm CD singles and CD-ROM titles issued

in cultural theory made the following statement: “Until now,with magazines. The culture became more “consumable-

all media thought up and popularized by people has beenoriented”, with mass production, mass consumption and mass‘unseemly’. In that sense, it is a great delight to see andisposal increasing. Digital culture became convenience‘unseemly’ media (CD-R) born into the CD family.” The

culture. Once curiosity was satisfied, the item had no further

researcher also pointed out that “thanks to the CD-R, we

use and was simply thrown away. This everyday occurrence

finally have real media that the adventurous can make use

was a side effect of delivering high volumes of content onof!” In Nakajima Heitarō’s memoranda, he says that when he

CD-ROM. Nevertheless, the CD-ROM hardware market

was explaining the successful development of the CD-R to

rapidly expanded from around 1994, as shown in Fig. 9-5.

the RIAJ, it was criticized as the “media from hell”. It is not

This huge market totaled over ¥1.8 trillion (including thedifficult to imagine that this would have been very

PCs), with CD-ROM drives installed on all computers.

‘unseemly’ media to those who had to protect their(Year)

copyrights. Even at Sony, who had taken part in thePCdevelopment, there were concerns about the potential for

Vehicle navigation devices
Electronic book players
CD-ROM TV game machines

illegally copying software, as the company had the CBS Sony

Cartridge TV game machines
VCD players
Professional VCD karaoke machines
Professional karaoke on demand machines

record company under its umbrella at the time. The media
had an ‘unseemly’ air from the outset, to the extent that fullscale commercialization was delegated to Start Lab, a joint
venture with Taiyo Yuden (Sony Taiyo-Yuden Advanced
Recording Laboratory). In the words of the cultural theory
researcher mentioned above, “the unseemlier it is, the more
real the media”.
The CD-R spread rapidly in use due to the following
conditions.
(1) It maintained compatibility with the CD family(¥100 million)

Fig. 9-5 CD-ROM Hardware Market Trends

This interactive functionality provided significant
possibilities for representation in software using suchfunctions. Systems for carrying out various experiments andchallenges and having them evaluated on the market gave riseto new types of software creators. As mentioned in 6.4.2,
such trends were put to use in web and content creation in the
networked society that followed. This served as a kind of(2) It was possible to exchange data in Windows,
Macintosh, UNIX and other environments(3) The price was able to drop around 1997
(4) High speeds of up to 48× were possible for media anddrive(5) The infrastructure was already in place due to the
popularization of CD-R compatible drives
While the CD was mainly intended for use in place of
floppy disks, as IT society spread, it rapidly expanded in use
to various other applications, including digital cameras,
personal music, saving and sharing PC data and electronic

Systemized Survey on the Development and Practical Application of Compact Disc (CD) Technology

97filing for public institutions. By the year 2000, a decade after

However, there is strong demand for high quality

its release, total worldwide production reached 10 billion,

Japanese-made CD-Rs and there are some applications forsecond only to the analog medium of “paper” as a recording

businesses that seek quality over price (such as data

and delivery medium. This was entirely due to its robust

archives).

compatibility and standardization as a recordable medium.
Fig. 9-6 shows the main global trends in recording media for

Fig. 9-7 shows the advantages and disadvantages of thethe 10 years between 1993 and 2003 (with reference to

CD-R system (1) and how the playback environment was

research by Fujiwara-Rothchild, Ltd.) and how rapidly thisestablished for many CD-R/RWs. Worldwide estimates inmedium spread. The CD-R market grew rapidly in scale from2001 indicate that CD-R/RW drives were built into or

around 1998, with a product reaching 10 billion for the firstconnected to around 50 million multimedia PCs, with atime in human history. This statistic has a certain margin of

playback environment including around 1 billion CD players,

error, although according to information from the research

1 billion CD-ROM drives and around 300 million othercompany the figure is somewhere between 9 billion and 11

devices such as game machines and DVD players, totaling tobillion, which is the revised figure published by CDs21

a system of over 2 billion devices on which playback was

Solutions. According to figures tabulated manufacturer bypossible. This vast system formed the basis for the peak in

manufacturer, the actual volume is almost 30% higher. With

2003 at 10 billion discs. Fig. 9-8 shows the advantages andestimates including the low quality CD-Rs produced by

disadvantages of the CD-R system (2) in terms of illegal

backdoor Asian manufacturers, some information suggests

copying and rampant piracy. The data is based on the IFPI

that production peaked at over 14 billion. Global production

piracy report, which states that around 2.8 billion packaged

in 2003 compared by region reveals overwhelmingly highCDs are sold each year, while ordinary users make aroundproduction in Asia, especially Taiwan, with Asia accounting

3.8 billion illegal CD-R copies. This is the unfortunate

for 89% (Japan 8%, Taiwan 52%, India 11%, other 18%),‘unseemly’ reality. The advantages and disadvantages of theEurope accounting for 9% and the Americas 2%. Taiwan

CD-R system are what makes it a true media.

took on a national strategy of expanding its optical discproduction facilities by buying up large amounts of used2001 market

Japanese equipment and creating its own production system.

CD-R/RW discs 5 billion
CD-R ¥70-80
CD-RW ¥100-120

CD-R/RW drives 50 million

As a result, when production costs peaked in 2006 and thendropped, as is inevitable for the equipment industry, Japanesemanufacturers could not stay competitive in price. Taiyo
Yuden stopped production in 2015, spelling the end of

Total 1 billion units

Japanese-made CD-Rs and the end of the Japanese CD

Total 1 billion units

Total 300 million units

production industry itself.
(100 million)

Audio cassette tapes
Video cassette tapes

Fig. 9-7 Effects of the CD-R System 1

The first stage of demand for CD-R had a huge impact on
software production for multimedia CD rather than simply
for its function as a recording media.

(Year)

Fig. 9-6 Global Scale Market Trends in Recording Media98

National Museum of Nature and Science Survey Report of Systematization of Technology, Vol. 25 2018. MarchIllegal copies & piracy situation

Resource: IFPI Piracy Report
Young Lab (AV-IT almanac)

Estimated number of CD package sales, CDs pirated bybusinesses and illegal CD-Rs made by ordinary users(million discs)

Illegal CD-Rs made by ordinary users
2002 around 3.8 billion

CDs pirated by businesses
2002 around 700 million

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

CD package sales
2002 around 2.8 billion

Fig. 9-8 Effects of the CD-R System 2

As mentioned in 7.1.2, in the early 1990s, the CD-R

This basic learning of to handle information is thought tosignificantly reduced the amount of time and cost spent on

be one of the cultural factors that allowed a smooth transition

the verification and checking processes in at the prototype

into IT/networked society.

stage in multimedia CD software production. Since the CD-R
was compatible with the CD family, it was possible to verify
and check software as soon as it was prototyped. This
provided a system that gave an accurate prediction of thecompleted disc, thus offering “revolutionary convenience” tomultimedia CD production. So many CD-Rs were used in
manufacturing game software that without the CD-R, there
would have been none of the CD-ROM games that later took
the world by storm. In fact, the early CD-R business is said tohave started with game software production. As it grew morewidespread in use, people became familiar with digital
software, had interactive experiences and accessed

References
1) “Ongaku Media no Seisan Kingaku no Suii [Trends inMusic Media Production Value]” Recording Industry
Association of Japan
2) CD Purēya no Seisan Suii [Trends in CD Player
Production]” Machinery Statistics, Research Institute of
Economy, Trade and Industry
3) “Konpakuto Disuku: Sono 20-nen no Ayumi [TheCompact Disc: Its 20-year History]” CDs21 Solutions(2005)

information in digital archives.

Systemized Survey on the Development and Practical Application of Compact Disc (CD) Technology

99

10 Conclusion
This year marks 35 years since the CD emerged in the fallof 1982, and the time has gone quickly. Throughout 20 yearsof improvements, the CD family has continued to expand andgrow. This system is unusual in that it has brought about
huge business. Throughout the history of technology,
consumer media has had a lifespan of around a generation(25 years). In that sense, the CD was destined to be replaced
by a new generation of media in the early 2000s. However,no next generation of package media for distributing music
has emerged to date. In the world of audio, despite the current
networked/IT age, the CD-DA is still at the core of thebusiness, and many music artists continue to put out albums
on CD-DA. There is no clear answer as to why this media has
had such a long lifespan. Perhaps this package media is the
optimum means of distributing music content. Perhaps themusic and systems created using the technology 35 years ago
have yet to be fully appreciated. However, technology did
advance in the last 35 years. The Super Audio CD (SACD)
was proposed in 1999 in response to demand for optical discs
with better sound quality. The proposal involved using direct
stream digital (DSD) coding technology and the latest A/Dconversion technology to reduce digital noise and produce
much higher quality audio, but it did not grow widely in use,perhaps because of the limited playback environment due todownward compatibility.
The past 35 years have seen major technological advancesin recording density. Recording capacity increased by six
times to 5GB on a DVD in 1996, then a further five times to
25GB on a Blu-ray disc in 2003. Multiple layers werestandardized, making it possible to hold almost 10GB on
DVD and 50GB on Blu-ray. Further advances in layering
technology allowed up to three or four layers on a disc andrecording capacity of over 100GB. Fig. 10-1 shows acomparison of these technologies. This capacity size is best
suited as a distribution media for high resolution video
content. For music content, DVD audio and Blu-ray audio
standards have been created to enable high sound quality thatcan support 24-bit sampling at 192kHz, although this is a
specialized media and not widely used for music distribution.
This field of music is known as “high resolution music” andis mainly limited to the “computer audio” genre anddownloaded from online. Today, listeners use smartphones toaccess large volumes of music data online, download themusic they like and enjoy a reasonable quality of sound.

Fig. 10-1 Comparison of Recording Density between
Technologies

Meanwhile, in the world of CD-DA, people still want goodquality music. There are always comments such as, “Themusic sounds harsh” or “There’s no bass coming through”.
Today, there are fans who prefer the bygone LP records toCD, and are returning to analog music. However, it isextremely difficult to express in quantitative terms what
“good music” is. Various attempts have been made in the past
to solve this challenge, but it is an “eternal question” thatwould require going as far as quantifying the unconscious
human mind, which no studies have done. As far as
challenges remaining for CD-DA, the first is to speed up
research on “the human condition”. That is to say, the only
criterion for defining “good sound” is the way the listenerfeels. If the mechanism that determines how the listener
regards “good sound as good sound” cannot be identified,there is little point continuing the discussion. Unfortunately,
there is no system that can measure human feelings.
Experimental attempts have been made in the past to measurebrain waves and pulse waves for any fluctuations and map
the spectral components on a 1/f incline, but this does notprove that the listener was in a good state of mind or felt
comfortable. There have been reports of attempts to measure
the state of mind in connection with sympathetic andparasympathetic nerve activity, but no clear results haveemerged. This technology has been used in brewing toincrease the enjoyable taste components of wine and sake,but it is unclear how far it can apply to understanding
people’s state of mind. There has been a recent proposal to100

National Museum of Nature and Science Survey Report of Systematization of Technology, Vol. 25 2018. Marchdevelop a new technology to detect brain waves (pulse

The third challenge is working out how to shift thewaves) from the ear. The only place to fit this sensor on theposition of optical discs in an expanding broadband network

human body would be in the ear, near the brain, which would

environment. Optical discs are already no longer the main

allow researchers to detect various information that has notform of computer recording device, having been overtaken by

previously been known. Experimentally, this would provide asemiconductor memory. There has been a recent drop in thestable signal. If it were possible to sense the pulse waves

exchange of information on CD-ROM, which dominated the(brain waves) while the subject was listening to musicworld until around 2006. The standard built-in PC CD-R/RW

through headphones, this could facilitate rapid advances indrives and CD-ROM drives are now becoming an external

the field of health as well as the field of research on thedevice. In the field of electronic publishing, optical discs still

human state of mind. The technology to do this just needs tohold their position as a means of distributing additional

be completed.

information with books and publications due to their being a

The second challenge is to account for “inaudible sound”.
The sampling frequency on CD was set at around 20kHz,
based on medical evidence that this is the upper limit ofhuman hearing. However, human hearing ranges varies fromperson to person between, with some people even able to hearultrasonic waves at 30-100kHz. The CD system was also
designed on the assumption that ultralow frequency
vibrations below the lower limit of 10 Hz could only be heardby animals. However, a major topic in recent research has
been how humans handle this “inaudible sound”. There is ahypothesis that inaudible sound in itself can contain some
important hidden information. There are hopes that it will bepossible for technology to provide the key to understanding
this area of sound quality. Fig. 10-2 shows the “distributionof sounds/vibrations that affect humans”. While this also
depends on acoustic pressure, it is evident that ultralow
frequencies below 10 Hz and ultrasonic frequencies near
30kHz are within the human audible range. Further, a music
includes a vibration range over 100kHz and it is possible thatthese ultralow frequencies may overlap with the sounds of the
body (pulse, breathing) and be perceived as noise. Further
research is required on how to quantify this “inaudible
sound” and to develop a technology system for it.

rapid means of publishing multimedia, as mentioned
previously. However, in the future, as information is handled
through broadband networks, this data will be incorporated
into the cloud system and the media will become completely
invisible. The discussion continues as to what kind of role 1100GB optical discs will play and whether their position willcontinue to exist, even for music content, video content andelectronic publications. However, package media such as
CDs is a tangible form of media. Music is full of sensations.
The album liner notes convey the creator’s intentions andthoughts on the product. The product even has a smell to it.
In that sense, there is a possibility that real optical discs willcontinue to play a leading role in fields where sensation ispart of the product, such as music artists publishing albums
on CD. For example, first-generation CD-ROM gamesoftware is very popular in places such as Europe. As a result,
there are cases of CD-DA production plants now solely
producing CD-ROM game software. There is no clear answer
as to why game enthusiasts still enjoy CD-ROM games. One
reason could be that there is more pleasure in a game with
substance (allowing the user to feel the feelings of the
manufacturer) than in playing an online game with nophysical substance. Meanwhile, in places like the UnitedStates, DVD video content is now being sold off cheaply inbargain sales and package deals. There is not even a “crumb

Acoustic pressure dB
Hearingof sensitivity” in this market, as the core of the business
Unpleasantsoundmigrates to Netflix and other online video distribution
services. In any case, the focal question for CDs and otheroptical disc systems with a “best before” date is how to

Noise, vibration

maintain any utility value in the future. Fig. 10-3 shows aMusicdiagram of the relationship between optical discs andSounds of thebody

networks.

Frequency Hz

Fig. 10-2 Distribution of Sounds/Vibrations that Affect
HumansSystemized Survey on the Development and Practical Application of Compact Disc (CD) Technology

101

Expanding broadband network environment

This standard was adopted into Japanese standards as

BS digital

Games

Music

Movies

JIS8605 “Compact Disc Digital Audio Systems”, as well as
the CD-related industry standard by the Recording Industry
Electronic
publishing

Association of Japan (RIAJ) as RIS204 “Audio CD Label
Optical discs

Content and Format” and RIS203 “Compact Disc
Accessories”. The lifespan estimate standard ISO/IEC 10995

Wireless
LAN

Internetand ISO/IEC 18926 have also been adopted into JIS
standards.

Fig. 10-3 Network and Optical Discs

Finally, a noteworthy movement is the use of optical discs
by data centers, the trump card of the network age. This
began with the awareness of economic loss involved inhaving so-called cold data, or high volume data that is usedvery rarely, stored long term on hard disk data systems bydata center operators. Systems were set up to handle
cartridges of several terabytes, made up of 10 optical discs(Blu-ray) each holding around 100GB. A robotic system isthen used to search for necessary information as needed andretrieve it in an instant. The greatest point of difference is thecost per bit unit, including the cost of hard disk electricity
consumption and maintenance costs. Generally, lifespan is
also an important parameter for data that is recorded once andonly has a low frequency of use. There remains a demand for
optical discs that have passed the ISO lifespan test described
previously. While this is categorized as business use for
optical discs, the production scale is expected to be huge.
According to reports, around 80% of all data held by data
centers is cold data. A new challenge is expected for opticaldiscs to preserve and store this vast amount of data that is
rapidly growing.
The CD is a soldier of fortune that appeared in the last two
decades of the 20th century. The family grew and the businessexpanded significantly, leaving a new networked / IT society
as a parting gift. However, even today, no new media has
emerged to take the place of the CD in the music industry:
there were no CDs before the CD, and there will be no CDs
after the CD. Three major companies in Japan continue to
produce CD-DA (CD-ROM), Sony DADC Japan, MemoryTech and JVC/Kenwood.
Philips was awarded the IEEE Milestone Award in 2009 inrecognition of its contribution to CD technology. This award
was for formulating the CD international standard
ISO/IEC908 “Compact Disc Digital Audio”. Fig. 10-4 showsa photograph of the Milestone Award presented to Philips.

102

Fig. 10-4 IEEE Milestone Award Presented to Philips

The challenge with a systematized survey report on CD
technology is that much has been left out. A systematizedsurvey requires surveying and reporting on a great number ofCD-related businesses. However, the technology of three
decades ago and the organizations, engineers and resourcesfrom the different companies involved have all disappearedin the relentless restructuring of the electronics industry. Only
Sony/Philips had any traces left, which has unfortunately
meant that the content of the report and the technology
system may come across as somewhat biased, as this has
been the only reference information to draw from. Other
reference materials include “Konpakuto Disuku: Sono 20-nen
no Ayumi [The Compact Disc: Its 20-year History]”, acommemoration of the first 20 years of the CD, published by
CDs21 Solutions (with the present author as its secretary),
which has also already played its part and closed its doors.
The content and chronology are recorded in minute detail,with heartfelt thanks to the editors at the time. The “CDR/RW Official Guidebook”, published by the Orange Forum,of which the author served as secretary prior to the foundingof CDs21 Solutions, is also referred to in Chapter 7(Emergence of Recordable CDs). Again, heartfelt thanks go
to the editors for the extremely detailed content.
This systematized survey report on CD technology comeswith sincere gratitude for three decades spent in CD-related
businesses, captivated by the beam of light.

National Museum of Nature and Science Survey Report of Systematization of Technology, Vol. 25 2018. MarchReferences

The CDs21 Solutions publication “Konpakuto Disuku:

1) “Zukai Konpakuto Disuku Dokuhon [An Illustrated

Sono 20-nen no Ayumi [The Compact Disc: Its 20-year

Compact Disc Reader]” Nakajima Heitarō and Ogawa

History]” was a significant and frequently cited reference

Hiroshi, Ohmsha (1996)

source. As I was also involved in some products that were
never made into commercial products, this survey report was

Acknowledgements
On December 9, 2017, as I neared the end of writing thissurvey report, Nakajima Heitarō, major contributor to theJapanese audio industry and inaugural chairman of the Japan
Audio Society, passed away.
He had been my mentor during my many years at Sony,my most respected advisor awaiting the completion of thissurvey report, and a veteran in the industry from whom I
learnt a lot. The contributions made by Dr. Nakajima to thefield of audio, especially in the development of digital audio(CD), are beyond words. With heartfelt condolences I willremember him in prayer. At the same time, I would like toexpress heartfelt gratitude for his aid in completing thisa means of making mention of these. My heartfelt thanks to
the many companies that worked with me, to the many
people involved in editing, and to the members of the
publishing editorial committee, especially Mr. Nishizawa
Toshiharu and Mr. Taniguchi Isao in their central roles.
Finally, my dear friend Dr. Heemskerk of Philips, who as
chief engineer was the leader of the technical field from the
beginning of CD development. He was well-versed in“Japanese English”, and was involved as an engineer increating all of the standards from CD-DA to CD-R. I am sovery grateful to him for providing all of the materials still
held by Philips for compiling this survey report.

survey report, as his notes and publications appear in various
places in this report and have been a major source ofreference material. When this report is finally complete, I will
present a copy to him at his grave first of all.
I would like to express sincere thanks to Mizushima
Masahiro, former head of Sony R & D, who took very
detailed notes at the Sony/Philips meetings discussed in
Chapter 2. This level of detail in notetaking was priceless,and made it possible to recreate the situation for future
generations. For Chapter 4, I received much support fromPresident Ishihara, Mr. Yasuda Yōichi and Okamura
Yasuhiro of Sony DADC in providing materials andexplanations. My deepest thanks to them for graciously
allowing me to photograph their new facility.

Dr Nakajima Heitarō

For Chapter 6 on the emergence of CD-related businesses,
I could mainly only write about how Sony’s businessexpanded. I am deeply grateful to division manager
Matsumoto Yoshinori, head, Mr. Sekine Kazuhiro and Mr.
Hasu Toshiya of Sony V & S, as well as former employee
Mr. Fukuyama Yutaka, for providing materials and a wealthof advice.
For Chapter 7, I received a lot of material from Mr. Arai
Tōru of the intellectual property division of Taiyo Yuden. I
am profoundly grateful for his information and technology
resources on electronic components manufacturers’ 50-year
struggle with recording media production. For Chapter on

Dr J. Heemskerk and the author

standardizing lifespan estimates, I am very grateful to havereceived enthusiastic assistance from the start from Prof. Irie
Mitsuru of Osaka Sangyo University, who made significant
contributions to formulating the ISO standard and eveninvolved me in the operation of the ADTC.

Systemized Survey on the Development and Practical Application of Compact Disc (CD) Technology103

CD Related Chronology
1877

Dec: Edison (USA) invents the phonograph (tinfoil cylinder recorder)

1937

Reeves (UK) discovers the pulse-code modulation (PCM) principle

1951

LP record launches (Japan)

1952

Oct: Japan Audio Research Society founded; renamed Japan Audio Society (JAS) in 1953

1953

Feb: NHK commences television broadcasting

1956

Schnell (Germany) invents polycarbonate

1958

Townes and Schawlow (USA) publish optical maser (laser) theory

1960

Jul: Maiman (USA) successfully demonstrates solid state (ruby) laser oscillation

1961

Industrial production of polycarbonate begins
NEC successfully demonstrates Japan’s first ruby laser oscillation

1962

Successful semiconductor laser demonstration (USA)1963

SP record production ends

1964

Philips (Netherlands) develops the compact cassette tape

1969

NHK STRL announces the world’s first professional digital audio tape recorder1970

Teldec (Germany) and others announce TeD format video discs

1972

Mar: Nippon Columbia develops the PCM digital recorder
Sep: Philips announces the optical video disc (VLP format)

1974

First PCM digital recording in Europe
Philips/MCA announce unification of optical video disc standards

104

1975

First commercial digital recording in the USA using PCM digital recording
Sony launches Betamax

1976

Sony announces PCM processor prototype
Single records (EP) reach 100 million
JVC launches VHS

1977

Sony launches PCM processor PCM-1
Oct: Three groups, Sony, Hitachi/Nippon Columbia and Mitsubishi Electric/TEAC/Tokyo Denca, exhibit
optical DAD prototypes at the All-Japan Audio Fair
Philips develops the optical DAD (ALP format)

1978

Mar: Sony launches PCM processor PCM-1600
Apr: DAD committee launched (15 companies)
Sep: JVC announces electrostatic video disc VHD format and electrostatic DAD (AHD format)

1979

Mar: Philips demonstrates optical DAD (115mm diameter concept model)
May: Consumer PCM processor standard established
Aug: Sony/Philips start discussions on CD specification policies
Oct: Sony announces a 30cm DAD capable of 13 hr 20 min playback

1980

May: Sony/Philips reach a basic agreement on CD format specifications
Jun: Pioneer USA launches the household LD player VP-1000
Jun: Three formats proposed by DAD committee: CD, AHD & MD

1981

Jan: Red Book (CD-DA) standard proposed
Apr: DAD committee ends evaluation of three formats (51 companies participating)Apr: Sony/Philips hold a CD demonstration in Salzburg
Jun: Sony/Philips officially announce the CD in New York
Oct: CD and AHD format prototypes exhibited at the All-Japan Audio Fair
Oct: Pioneer launches household LD player in Japan

1982

Aug: Red Book (CD-DA) announced
Sep: Red Book made public
Oct: Sony launches the tabletop CD player CDP-101, followed by other companies releasing their own CD
players
Oct: CD format proposed for IEC standardization

1983

May: Red Book subcode channels R-W standardized
Oct: Yellow Book (CD-ROM standard) proposed
In-car CD players start appearing in high-end vehicles

1984

Apr: CD-G standard proposed
Sep: Pioneer announces LD/CD compatible player
Nov: Sony launches low-price portable CD player D-50 (leads to widespread popularization of the CD player)
Daiichi Kosho and Nikkodo launch business CD karaoke

National Museum of Nature and Science Survey Report of Systematization of Technology, Vol. 25 2018. March

1985

Jan: Philips/Sony/Microware Systems agree on CD-I standardization
May: DEC manufacturers the first CD-ROM drive
Sony/Philips announce Yellow Book (CD-ROM standard)
Victor Music Industries launches business CD-G karaoke

1986

May: High Sierra Group proposes the High Sierra Format
May: Philips/Sony announces provisional Green Book (CD-I standard) version
Jun: Sony/Philips hold the first recordable CD standardization meeting
Microsoft holds the first international conference on CD-ROM (USA)ISO establishes International Standard Recording Code (ISRC)

1987

Sony/Philips add CD-V standard to the Red Book
Sony/Philips add CD-single specifications to the Red Book
Feb: Sony/Philips determine CD-WO specifications
Mar: GE (USA) announces DVI technology at second international conference on CD-ROM
Jun: Green Book (CD-I standard) proposed
Oct: CD-V player launched
Nov: Sony/Philips announce basic agreement on CD-WO standard

1988

Feb: Sony/Philips Blue Book (CD-WO standard) proposed
Feb: CD single title launched
Apr: ISO 9660 standardized
Aug: Sony/Philips/Microsoft agree on CD-ROMXA development
Aug: Sony/Taiyo Yuden agree on recordable CD standardization and propose it to Philips
Sep: Taiyo Yuden announces recordable CD
Sep: Sony/Philips propose 8cm CD-ROM and cartridge
Oct: Green Book specifications determined, CD-I player prototype disclosed

1989

Mar: Sony/Philips/Microsoft propose CD-ROMXA standard
Apr: Sony/Philips distribute provisional Orange Book specification documents
Jun: Sony/Taiyo Yuden establish joint venture Start Lab, commence CD-R manufacturing service
Oct: Sony/Philips announce first edition of the Green Book
Dec: DAVIS established to promote DVI

1990

Jan: CD-MIDI standard added to the Red Book
Jun: First international conference on CD-I held (London)
Jul: Orange Book Part 1 (CD-MO standard) and Part 2 (CD-WO standard) announced
Jul: Sony launches the Data Discman
Sep: Philips/Kodak announce the photo CD system
Sep: CD single standard and CD-V single standard added to the Red Book
Nov: Japan Standards Association establish JISX0606-1990
Microsoft formulates basic specifications for MPC
Toyota, Nissan, Nihon Denso and Sumitomo Electric announce an automotive navigation system (Naviken
format)Sony/Philips/Microsoft hold the first “Multimedia Conference on Interactive CD”

1991

Mar: CD-ROMXA standard added to the Yellow Book
Mar: CD-I Consortium Japan established
Oct: Household CD-I player and software titles launched in USA
Oct: First “International CD-I Publishing & Developers Conference & Exposition” held
Nov: CD-MIDI operating standard established (EIAJ)
Dec: Nikkodo launches business CD-I karaoke system
Dec: Ban announced for CD rentals of American labels and new releases
Hardware manufacturers work together to achieve compatible CD-R drives and media

1992

Apr: Philips Japan launches consumer CD-I player CDI205 and CD titles
Jul: Orange Book Part 2 (CD-R standard) announced
Sep: Kodak Japan starts photo CD service in Japan
Oct: Pioneer launches the world’s first 4× speed CD-ROM changer
Oct: Daiichi Kosho, JVC and other companies launch business CD video karaoke
Optical Storage Technology Association (OSTA) founded in the USA
Sony launches business portable CD-I player “Intelligent Discman”

1993

Mar: White Book Ver 1.0 (karaoke CD standard) announced
Aug: White Book Ver 1.1 (video CD standard) announced
Oct: White Book Ver 1.1 (video CD standard) standards book distributed
ISO MPEG-1 standard (ISO11172) announced

1994

Jan: Orange Book Part 2 Ver 2.0 (speed mode standard) standardized
Jun: White Book Ver 2.0 (standard video CD with PBC function) announced
Nov: 13 CD-R drive/media manufacturers launch the “Orange Study Group” for ensuring compatibility andexamining standards
Dec: Sony Computer Entertainment launches the PlayStation

Systemized Survey on the Development and Practical Application of Compact Disc (CD) Technology

105

106

1995

Jan: Seven companies, including Toshiba, Matsushita Electric and Pioneer, announce the next-generation
optical disc “SD format”
Jan: CD-ROM approved for publication appendices
May: Orange Study Group standardizes the “Disc Identification Method” to ensure compatibility
Aug: Sony/Philips/HP/Mitsubishi Chemical/Ricoh announce CD-E (CD-RW)
Dec: Nine companies, including Matsushita/Toshiba and Sony/Philips, agree to unify the next-generation
optical disc DVD standards. Standards group “DVD Forum” established at the same time.

1996

Mar: Orange Study Group renamed, 24 manufacturers establish the Orange Forum
Jun: Open MPEG Windows Forum proposes video CD-ROM standard
Sep: CD text standard added to the Red Book
Oct: Orange Book Part 3 (CD-RW standard) announced
Nov: Matsushita Electric and Toshiba launch DVD players

1997

Apr: Four licensers and Hitachi announce the “Video CD Internet Guidelines Version 1.0 1997”
Apr: 10 companies, Matsushita Electric and Sony, announce unified DVD-RAM standard
Oct: Pioneer launches the world’s first DVD-R drive
Dec: CCC commences DVD hardware/software rentals

1998

Aug: Orange Book Part 3 Ver 2.0 (CD-RW4× speed mode standard) announced
Dec: Sony/Philips, Matsushita Electric and JVC announce Super VCD standard Ver0.9
Dec: Orange Book Part 2 Ver 3.1 (CD-R4× speed mode standard) announced

1999

Feb: DVD Forum establishes DVD audio format
Mar: Sony/Philips announce the Scarlet Book (Super Audio CD standard)
May: Sony launches SA-CD player
Oct: Pioneer launches DVD audio player
Nov: IEC approves Super VCD as international standard (IEC/SVCD standard)

2000

May: Orange Book Part 3 Vol 2 Ver 1.0 (CD-RW high speed mode standard) announced
Jun: Matsushita Electric launches the world’s first DVD-RAM video recorder
Jul: Sony/Philips announce Purple Book (Double Density CD standard)

2001

Mar: CDs21 Solutions established (merge between the Orange Forum and MMCD)
May: Orange Book Part 2 Vol 2 Ver 1.0 (CD-R high speed mode standard) announced
DVD video sales surpass video cassette sales

2002

Feb: Blu-ray Disc standards group BDF (Blu-ray Disc Founders) established (participated by Sony/Philips,
Matsushita Electric, Hitachi, Pioneer, Samsung, LG Electronics and Thomson)
Mar: Copy controlled CD (CCCD) titles launched
Sep: Orange Book Part 3 Vol 3 Ver 1.0 (CD-RW ultra speed mode standard) announced

2003

Apr: Sony launches Blu-ray standard video recorder (BDZ-S77)
Apr: CDs21 Solutions announces recommended standards for optical cards (card CD-R)

2004

May: CDs21 Solutions announces that worldwide CD-R disc production topped 10 billion in 2003

National Museum of Nature and Science Survey Report of Systematization of Technology, Vol. 25 2018. MarchCompact Disc (CD) Confirmed Location of Production Technology Historical Resources

No.

Name

Year
manufactured

Manufacturer

Type ofresource

Status ofresource

Location

Systemized Survey on the Development and Practical Application of Compact Disc (CD) Technology

1

CD player CDP-101

1982

Sony
Corporation

Massproduced
product

On display

Sony Archives,
Kitashinagawa,Shinagawa, Tokyo2

CD compact player
D-50

1984

Sony
Corporation

Massproduced
product

On display

Sony Archives,
Kitashinagawa,Shinagawa, Tokyo

3

Super Audio CD
player SCD-1

1999

Sony
Corporation

Massproduced
product

On display

Sony Archives,
Kitashinagawa,Shinagawa, Tokyo

Reason for selection
Sony’s first CD player, launched at the cutting edgeof the industry. The player was released with theworld’s first 50 titles on CD from CBS/Sony. Withfeatures such as side loading, this player established
the basic pattern for CD players and is marked as
the commemorative model, with later CD history
considered to have started with this model.
The portable CD player that triggered the sudden
rise in CD popularity. Having achieved significant
downsizing and successfully marketed at drastic
prices, this player drove major expansion of themarket and boosted the mainstream adoption of CDmusic media.
The first model of Super Audio CD (SACD) player,
developed to be the successor to the CD with higher
sound quality. Although the SACD itself was notwidely adopted, the underlying direct stream digital(DSD) codec technology was well received for its
high sound quality and was a forerunner in theevolution of high-resolution audio.

107