Environment & Poverty Timeswww.grida.no

ENVIRONMENT
07&POVERTY TIMES
07 2012

UNEP/GRID-Arendal

UNEP/GRID-Arendal
Box 183, N-4802 Arendal
NorwayFebruary 201220 pages

Tel: +47 47 64 45 55
A periodic
by UNEP/GRID-Arendal
Fax: +47
37 03 50 publication
50
E-mail: grid@grida.no

Contents

Water footprint

UkrainePage 2–3

Water stress and water management
More than 2.8 billion people are projected to facewater stress or water scarcity by 2025. Are we heading for a freshwater crisis, and what can be done toprevent it?

Philippines
VietnamJapan

Page 4–5

Industrial use of freshwater

Laos

Korea, Democratic
People's Republic

The use of freshwater resources for industrial purposes is an area where there is ample room for
efficiency gains, and where improvements are now
happening faster than in other regions of the world.

Kyrgyzstan
China

Page 6–7

India

Water for manufacturing
Malaysia

Pakistan

Saudi Arabia

Moldova
BangladeshBlue and Grey water footprint for the
Industry sector in selected Asian countries

Iraq
Iran
Indonesia
Kazakhstan

Sri Lanka
Korea,
Republic

Milion of cubic metres per year
82 00033 000

MyanmarMongolia

7 000

Page 8–11

Water pollution and sanitation
Water pollution and sanitation have huge repercussions
both for local ecosystems and humans. We feature
possible solutions, opportunities and creative action.
Page 12–13

Community based initiatives
Community based initiatives focus on behaviouralchange needed to ensure real and sustainableimprovements. The ideal is local solutions leading
to improved sustainability.
Page 14–15

Syria

Water security
The Blue Water Footprint refers to consumptionof blue water resources (surface and groundwater)
along the supply chain of a product.

Uzbekistan
Tajikistan

The use of water for manufacturing creates increased
competition between water users and other demands.
In many cases it can also lead to pollution andecosystem degradation. There is a need for solutions
to challenges such as water recycling, sanitation andwater efficiency.

ThailandThe Grey Water Footprint refers to pollution andis defined as the volume of freshwater that isrequired to assimilate the load of pollutants given
natural background concentrations and existing
ambient water quality standards.

Russian Federation

Source: Water Footprint Network database, accessedon December 2011.

Water security will soon rank with other main security
concerns. The world community must elevate theissue of water for peace policy.
Page 16–19

Water security in Asia
Climate change, melting glaciers, contaminatedwater and water intensive industry and agriculture
are some of the threats to water security in Asia in
the future. But action is taken in local communities,
by nations and regions.

Low carbon, smart solutions and green growthfor sustainable water management in Asia
In the past decade the Asia-Pacific region
has become the largest consumer of natural resources in the world. This includes
water, raw materials and energy resources.
The East Asia Climate Partnership (EACP),
an international development-cooperation
project supported and facilitated by South
Korea in cooperation with the UNEP Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, aims
to address the challenges associated withthe use of natural resources. The purposeof the partnership is to share thinking andstrategies for green growth through practical
approaches and technological solutions fora resource-efficient and low-carbon futurein East Asia.
EACP is fostering strategic alliances forgreen growth, developing a water management and capacity building platform forwater accounting, and supporting demonstration projects for waste management andwastewater treatment tools.
In 2012 the most vibrant, fast growing
economies in the world are in Asia andthe Pacific. At a regional and national level,
many countries are working to decouple
economic development from environmental
degradation. There is mounting pressure on
freshwater resources, which can be attributed to greater economic and industrial activ-

ity, population growth, improved standardsof living, and the effects of climate change.
Research has shown that improved resourceefficiency and green growth, through moresustainable consumption and production,
can help to decouple economic growth fromenvironmental pressures. Research, business, civil society and government clearly allplay a role in paving the way to a low carbon,socially inclusive and resource-efficientgreen economy.
Asia’s share of world material consumption
grew from just under 25 per cent in 1975 tomore than 53 per cent in 2005, accounting
for nearly 85 per cent of global growth overa 30-year period. Energy use in Asia andthe Pacific has grown too since 1970 at acompound annual growth rate of 3.9 per
cent, whereas the equivalent rate in the restof the world was only 1.4 per cent.
The Resource Efficiency: Economics andOutlook for Asia and the Pacific initiative,
launched in September 2011, highlights concern about the rate of water withdrawals in
China, India, Pakistan and Sri Lanka. From1985 to 2000 total water withdrawals increased
by around 25 per cent in the region. Scenarios
suggest that rising water extraction will put
many river basins under severe stress by 2025

and that groundwater levels will continue tofall. UNEP and the other organisations behind
the report estimate that per capita resource
consumption of ‘materials’ in the region needs
to be some 80 per cent lower than at present
to achieve sustainable development.
The EACP partnership is addressing these
dynamics by promoting green growth, innovative integrated approaches and low
carbon solutions.
Project activities have enhanced environmental sustainability and better managementof resources in recipient countries. These
partnerships have successfully assisted
countries in deploying green-growth andgreen-economy concepts by developing policy
statements and national action plans on sustainable consumption and production. They
have also identified activities to encourage
investment and public-private partnerships.
With the green-growth attitude embedded,
we may look forward to more investment andinfrastructure, to low-carbon, green-growthtechnologies associated with water-resource
management and development. This should
contribute to new green jobs in the region.
Water resources are unevenly distributed in
the region. With climate change increasingly
causing drought and precipitation, enhanced

water efficiency and management is a challenge not only for direct water users, water
managers and policy makers, but also forbusiness and consumers. Access to cleanwater, reliable water accounting systems, andappropriate sanitation are essential to humanwellbeing. It is consequently vital for Asia tobuild capacity and develop infrastructure formanaging water.
Political leadership and commitment,
backed by local project teams, are key toeffective implementation. To bring aboutchange, teams need a mix of technical staff,
community representatives, policy-makers
and private sector input.
This publication, which has been preparedas an EACP outreach activity, is a development-cooperation project supported by theGovernment of South Korea through the
Korea International Cooperation Agency(KOICA) and facilitated by UNEP. The aim
is to share the green-growth paradigm inEast Asia in order to enable sustainableeconomic development whilst coping withclimate change.

Environment & Poverty Times

07 2012Water stress and water management

More than 2.8 billion people are projected to face water stress or water scarcity by 2025, with annual water supply of less than 1700 m3 per person. The reasons are many and include
population growth, global warming, eutrophication and agriculture. Are we heading for a freshwater crisis, and what can be done to prevent it?

The wastewater treatment pond at the Frangipani Langkawi resort. Frangipani/Kuvinn Mallar Armugam

Efficient water management in
the Frangipani Langkawi resortand spa
By Anthony K. H. Wong and Tui Ai Ling
At the Frangipani Langkawi resort andspa in Malaysia, sustainable management
practices are used to ensure that guests
enjoy their holiday and also learn aboutsustainability. Achieving sustainability inwater supply and reducing dependence
on government-supplied treated water isa key objective. This is done through theharvesting of rainwater, landscaping andnatural wastewater treatment.
Water tanks for harvesting rainwater
Rainwater is harvested for irrigation purposes.
Currently 85 water tanks, comprising 70
large tanks (3 331 litres) and 15 small tanks(2 082 litres), are installed around the resort.
Rainwater from these tanks is channelled totaps located around the resort area. Storage

Global water footprint standard – An important step towards
solving the world’s ever increasing water problems
The first global water footprint standard, a scientifically credible methodology that will makeall water footprints comparable, has gained international support from major companies,
policy makers, NGOs and scientists. The Water Footprint Assessment Manual: Setting the
Global Standard was launched in February 2011. It was developed through a joint effort by theWater Footprint Network and its 139 partners, assisted by scientists at Twente University in the
Netherlands. It shows how individuals, companies and nations can measure their contribution to water use conflicts and environmental degradation in river basins around the world.
The water footprint – the amount of freshwater used in the goods and services consumed orused in production – is helping companies to reduce water use where it is most wasteful, andbanks to assess water-related risks prior to making investments and governments to improvewater management. Individuals can use the water footprint to understand how much water they
are using through the food they eat, the clothes they wear, and the consumer goods they buy.
‘The global water footprint standard helps us all know more about how much water we use,
where it comes from and how we can take steps to make our water footprint sustainable, toensure that the world’s people and natural ecosystems will have the freshwater necessary to
thrive well into the future,’ said Ruth Mathews, Executive Director of the Water Footprint Network.
Partners from business, civil society, government, global institutions and academic organisations are working with the Water Footprint Network to push for improvements in water
use efficiency, pollution reduction and sustainable water management. As more pressure isput on freshwater resources, using the standard in all sectors and in all river basins will be
increasingly important. The publication of this standard helps individuals, businesses andgovernments take steps towards a sustainable water footprint.
Source: The Water Footprint Network (www.waterfootprint.org).

capacity for recycled water is 264 411 litres.
As government-supplied water is charged at
US$ 0.40 per cubic metre, the resort saves
a dollar for every 2 500 litres of rainwater
harvested. As a result, water bills have been
halved. Rainwater is harvested from the roofof the restaurant and is channelled to watertanks located at the public toilets to be used forflushing. Excess rainwater is used to wash thepool deck daily and to fill the swimming pool.
Underground water for watering theorganic garden
During the dry season, well water is channelled to wetlands to dilute the waste discharge before further natural treatment by
the aquatic plants in the pond. The water inthe pond is used for watering the lawn andthe plants in the resort. The wells are also
used for irrigating the resort’s organic farm.
Landscaping
Weather patterns and temperatures affectwater consumption. For example, water use
increases during the dry season as a resultof increased transpiration and evaporationfrom plants and the soil. Landscaping canbe used as a water conservation strategy byselecting different types of water plants tocleanse and filter the water. Plants such as
water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes), water
lily (Nymphaea), vetiver (Chrysopogon zizaniodes) and water spinach (Ipomoea aquatica)
living in the pond help to stabilize the soil,
manage water quality, and protect against
soil erosion, pests and weeds. Irrigationis scheduled in the early morning and lateevening to reduce evaporation.
Water storage at the fish pond
The water used in the fishpond is direct rainwater, which goes through a simple conven-

Environment & Poverty Times

07 201223

UNEP/GRID-Arendal

Water runoff from the road enters the pathway design for conventional, natural and zero-energy consumption filtering system. Frangipani/Rosli Azimad

tional sand filtering system incorporated in
the drainage system. The pond also has a rolein harvesting rainwater. Excess rainwater fromthe road and pond flows into an undergroundstorage compartment in front of the pond.
This compartment is filled with sand, stones
and corals that purify the water by eliminating
heavy metal components before it is pumped
back into the fishpond. Excess water is used toirrigate plants around the front office and in
the surrounding landscaped areas.

Monthly water consumption per room
4
Cubic metres
Dollars
3
2

1
0

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

2011
(until Oct)

Graph 1 shows a clear reduction in average
consumption of government-supplied water.
The dip in water consumption in 2008 is
attributable to resort renovations. The rainwater harvesting system contributed to adecrease in water consumption throughout
these years. Water consumption increasedslightly again in 2010 when a new salt waterpool was built. In addition, the weather washotter that year, which caused an increase inwater intake by plants and lawns.
Wastewater treatment system
The Frangipani Langkawi resort and spa has
its own man-made wetland, which is used totreat the wastewater in the resort. There are
two types of wastewater – black water and grey
water. Black water generally refers to sewage
waste, whilst grey water is the wastewaterfrom sinks, baths and the laundry. The wetland covers an area of approximately 2 370
square metres with a maximum depth of
between 1.2 and 1.7 metres depending on theseason. It is the first of its kind to be built in
Malaysia. The wetland water is continuously
monitored with help from the local public
university and private laboratories to ensurethat water quality meets Malaysian standards.
A test on wastewater from the wetland carriedout by a private laboratory in August 2011
showed that almost 99 per cent of E coli
bacteria were eliminated.
Further reductions in water consumption are possible
While the unit price of water has increased
by 20 per cent, the resort has successfully
halved water usage. The average monthly
water consumption for each occupied room
dropped from 3.62 cubic metres in 2006 to
2.7 cubic metres in 2010. With on-going initiatives and improvements, the resort hopes
to reduce government-supplied water usage
by a further 20 per cent. Future plans include
channelling the rainwater from the ultraviolet (UV) light filtration system to the resort’s
main water tank to reduce dependence on
government-supplied water.
About the authors: Anthony K. H. Wong, a wellknown environmentalist for the past 38 years, isthe Group Managing Director at the Frangipani
Langkawi resort and spa and Adjunct Professor at
Taylor’s University and Universiti Utara Malaysia.
Tui Ai Ling is an environmental officer at theFrangipani Langkawi resort and spa, and holds a
BSc (Honours) degree in environmental sciencefrom Universiti Malaysia Sabah.

Smart water metering
To conserve water it is vital to understand how, when and why water is used. Smart water
metering can be an essential tool for measuring and monitoring water use.
How does a smart meter work?
By definition, smart metering is a concept that combines two distinct elements: meters that use
new technology to capture water use information and a communications system that can capture
and transmit this information immediately as it becomes available, or almost immediately. Conventional water meters count each kilolitre of water as it passes through the meter but they are notable to record when consumption takes place. Smart meters, on the other hand, quantify wateruse during a defined period of time and record data on consumption, demand and time of use.
How are data communicated?
Smart meters can communicate the captured data to a broad audience (for example, utility
managers, power marketers, facility authorities) through a variety of methods including radio
frequencies, telephone wires and mobile technology, local computer networks and the Internet.
How can smart metering help conserve water?
Information from smart water meters can:• improve understanding of water consumption and flow patterns;• track, predict and change trends in demand;• warn of high and low flows and highlight anomalies; and,• identify leaks and other waste minimization opportunities.
Water users who know their actual consumption during particular periods are better able tounderstand and reduce their water costs. The challenge, however, is to educate water users
about the benefits of smart metering and encourage its use. As smart metering becomes morewidespread, water conservation awareness will improve. This may also create an incentive fordomestic and business consumers to save precious potable water.
Smart water metering gaining ground
According to a report from Pike Research, the worldwide installed base of smart and smartenabled water meters will grow to 31.8 million by 2016, up from 5.2 million in 2009. By the endof that period, the cleantech market intelligence firm forecasts that smart water meters willaccount for 31 per cent of all new water meter shipments. Growth is expected in Asia. For example
Mumbai plans to install 300 000 units and may increase deployment to 1.2 million units.
Sources: Smart metering: A significant component of integrated water conservation systems, by Elisa Idris (http://
www.cwwt.unsw.edu.au/ywp2006/papers/YWP%202.3.pdf). Installed base of smart water meters to surpass 31 million
by 2016, press release from Pike Research (http://www.pikeresearch.com/newsroom/installed-base-of-smart-watermeters-to-surpass-31-million-by-2016). Executive summary: Smart water meters. Advanced metering infrastructure
for water utilities: market drivers, technology issues, deployment case studies, key industry players, and market forecasts (http://www.pikeresearch.com/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2010/07/SWAT-10-Executive-Summary.pdf).

Environment & Poverty Times

07 2012

Industrial use of freshwater
The use of freshwater resources for industrial purposes is an area where there is ample room for efficiency gains, and where improvements are now happening faster than in other regions of the world.

Wastewater management
on an industrial estate
By Prabha Panth and Rahul A. Shastri
Industry is under increasing pressure fromenvironmental authorities and the generalpublic to reduce pollution. But pollution control and treatment increases operating costs
for companies, many of which are small
and operate with narrow profit margins. If
businesses refuse to comply, they can facepenalties from government agencies. Polluting companies can find themselves with adilemma – pollute and save on compliancecosts but risk paying penalties, or treat pollution thereby avoiding penalties but increasing short-term expenditure.
However, pollution control does not necessarily only impose costs on companies; it cangenerate savings, which could outweigh thecost of pollution treatment. In this case, companies will be able to reduce pollution andthe overall stress on the environment, whilst
making savings and increasing their profits.
The three broad methods of wastewater
management available to companies are:• recovery of wastewater;• recovery and recycling of waste fromwastewater; and,• compliance with water pollution abatement measures.
Each of these methods involves costs, butalso brings economic benefits. Recoveringand recycling wastewater saves costs on
freshwater inputs, recovering waste fromprocess streams generates profits or saves
on input costs, and complying with waterpollution abatement measures enables companies to avoid penalties. These methods are
not mutually exclusive and a company may
use more than one of them.
Wastewater recycling on the Bollaramindustrial estate
In 2005-7 we carried out a study at the Bollaram industrial estate, a heavily polluted,
water-scarce industrial estate in the Medak
district of Andhra Pradesh, India. Each ofthese wastewater management methods
was examined separately to estimate its economic impact on the polluting companies.
In water-scarce regions, industrial units
recycle their wastewater since they may nothave access to freshwater. By recycling wastewater, factories on the estate can increasesavings on freshwater – both in physical andmonetary terms.
We found that nearly 66 per cent of theestate’s total daily freshwater input wasrecycled by just 83 of the 135 industrial

units. Total monetary savings through wastewater recycling amounted to US$ 12 680 a
day for these 83 units. Net savings came to
US$ 12 560 a day or US$ 4 585 000 a year.
Industry location policy
In certain industries such as pharmaceuticals or chemicals, released effluents may
contain many types of toxic pollutants,
which have to be removed before the wastewater can be recycled. This raises the costof wastewater treatment, and discourages
recycling. Our analysis showed that not
only did such industries recycle the lowest
amount of wastewater (1 per cent in thechemical industry), but they also used themost freshwater on this industrial estate(55 per cent), subsequently released as effluent. We found that cleaner industries,
such as metal, stone, steel and engineering, used only nine per cent freshwater, but
accounted for more than half (56 per cent)of the recycled water in Bollaram. This was
possible thanks to continuous recycling ofwastewater in these factories.
These findings are important for industry
location policy. Industries that are highly
water-intensive and which recycle only asmall proportion of their wastewater should
not be allowed to locate in water-scarce areas.
On the other hand, metal, stone, steel andengineering industries, which have highrates of wastewater recycling, will not put
heavy pressure on the environment in termsof freshwater use.
Waste recovery
To reduce pollution, companies can recoverwaste material from effluents. This not only
reduces the concentration of pollutants inthe wastewater, but also earns profits forthe company. Important chemicals andmaterials can be recovered and either reusedor sold as inputs to other industries. The
amount earned through selling or reusing
the recovered wastes will quickly cover thecost of recovery.
Only 11 of the 135 factories operating in
Bollaram attempted to recover and recycle
waste from process streams. After extensive
surveys of other companies throughout theworld producing the same products as in
Bollaram, we found that there was still scope
to recover and reuse at least 41 more materials from the wastewater of 83 more factories
at Bollaram. These include chemicals suchas caustic soda, organic solvents, salts, acids
and calcium chloride.
Profit from recycled materials divided by

1086

Why do industrial companies continue topollute in spite of stringent environmental
laws and high penalties? Controlling pollution means an increase in costs, while
not controlling it means that this amountis saved. But there is the chance of beingcaught and having to pay penalties. Riskneutral companies will weigh the probabilityof being detected and the amount they will
have to pay for not complying against thecost of immediate compliance. If the former
two are high, companies will be wary about
non-compliance. If they are low, companies
will break environmental laws.
In our study we found that the probability ofa violating factory being caught in Andhra
Pradesh was just above 40 per cent. Since thechance of being caught was low, companies
continued to default on pollution control. We
compared the cost of immediate compliance(effluent treatment costs) with the expected
cost of penalties.

More than 5 000
2 000 to 5 000
1 000 to 2 000

2100 to 200
50 to 100

RubberEngineering Fertiliser
Pharmaceutical Paper
Chemical
Steel
Resin
PCB
Food

Operating profit
per month (2006/7)

500 to 1 000
200 to 500

Figure 1

Pollution deterrents
The third conventional method of wastewater management is pollution abatement,
implemented through the government’s
command and control policy. There are anumber of industrial pollution laws in India. These are enforced at state level by statepollution control boards. Inspections arecarried out periodically and non-compliant
units are either closed down or their waterand power supplies are cut off until they
become compliant again. However, reportsof high levels of industrial pollution still
haunt this region, showing the low levelof compliance.

Industrial group by employment size
Percentage
More than 5 000
1 000 to 5 000
500 to 1 000
100 to 500
0 to 10040

It is clear that there is considerable scope forchemical units to recycle waste. The sameis true, though to a lesser degree, for thepharmaceutical and steel units. If all theseunits recycled materials from their effluents,
they would increase their profits and reduce
their pollution load.

Profits, penalties and cost of compliancein Bollaram IE

Rates of return on waste recycling
across industries
Industrial units
12

the cost of recycling per year was estimatedfor all 41 materials that could potentially berecycled from the 83 factories. The rate of
return for different recycled materials ranged
from less than 10 per cent to over 5 000 per cent,with an average return of around 800 per centa year. The payback period of investing in
waste recovery and cleaner production methods ranged from an immediate return on
investment to around five years. For several
materials, the payback period was less thana year. Figure 1 shows the potential rates ofreturn for recycled waste materials acrossdifferent industries in Bollaram.

Minimum detected
deterrent penalty
Compliance cost
per month0

Foam
TextilesFigure 2

10

20

30
40
Million Rupees

50

60

70

Environment & Poverty Times

07 201245

UNEP/GRID-Arendal

Did you know?

Water supply...

t Global Investment in smart water meters to reach $4.2 billion by 2016.
t Research shows that consumers react
to the technology, curbing water use by atleast 15 per cent just with the meter switch.
(Source: Pike research)

Average water consumption
and water treatment facilities
in selected Asian cities

Hetauda, Nepal
Lekhnath, Nepal

Bharatpur, Nepal

Litres per capita
160

Jabalpur, India

Calbayog, Philippines

40t In order for the Millennium Development Goal related to drinking water andsanitation to be met by 2015, 961 million urban dwellers must gain access toimproved water supply, and 1 billion to
improved sanitation.
(Source: UNESCO)

Indore, India
Sayabouly, Lao PDR

t For every $1 invested in water andsanitation, $4 is returned in increased
productivity (UNDP).

Xieng Ngeun, Lao PDR
Phine, Lao PDR

Banda Aceh, Indonesia(Source: UN WWAP, 2009)

Kathmandu, Nepal

Pokhara, Nepal

Colombo, Sri Lanka

Song Cau, Vietnamt The total available water resources for
the Northeast Asia Region (Japan, Republic of Korea, China, Mongolia) are 3 351 km3,
about 0,3 per cent of the global total.
t Per capita water availability is 2 221 m3,
about 25,7 per cent of the world´s average.

Thap Cham, Vietnam
Cam Ranh, Vietnamt The total water use in Northeast Asia is684,3 km3, or 29,7 per cent of the global total.

Gwalior, India
Ho Chi Minh, Vietnam(Source: UNEP, Facts and figures from “Freshwater
Under Threat: Northeast Asia” Report)

Dhaka, Bangladesht Freshwater ecosystems sustain a large
number of identified species and provide
more than US$75 billion in goods andecosystem services for people but are
increasingly threatened by a host of water
quality problems.

Bhopal, India...and wastewater
treatment

Makati City, Philippines(Source: Vié et al., 2009)

Kunming, China

Wastewater treatedt Globally, 96 per cent of the urban world today
uses improved drinking water resources.

Puer, China
Jinghong, China

Cubic metres per day,per 10 000 inhabitants
1 000
500

t Some 250 to 500 million m3 of drinking
water get lost in mega cities each year.
Saving this amount could provide an
additional 10 to 20 million people withdrinking water in each mega city.

Bhopal, India
Indore, India

100
Kathmandu, Nepal
Ho Chi Minh, Vietnam
San Fernando City, Philippines
RICCARDO PRAVETTONI - 2011

We estimated the minimum deterrent
penalty across eight different workforce
sizes for factories operating in Bollaram.
We compared the cost of compliance, theexpected penalty and the overall operating
profits of the company. From Figure 2 it canbe seen that the expected penalty (maroonbar) is higher than the cost of compliance(green bar) for all factory sizes. This meansthat if the company is caught not complying
then its deterrent payments will be greaterthan the amount it would have spent on
pollution control.
The dark blue bar shows the profits of thecompanies. Since one of the penalties is toshut down production, this bar shows theloss that companies would bear if closed
down for non-compliance. The expected
loss of operating profits alone should therefore be sufficient to make polluters comply
with regulations. Also, the high profit levels
suggest that all companies could easily
bear the cost of compliance. Our analysis
shows that, in theory, the present form ofpenalizing errant companies by stopping
production, together with the rate of detection of violation in Andhra Pradesh, should
be sufficient to deter companies from violat-

Pokhara, Nepal

Dhaka, Bangladesh
Hetauda, Nepal

ing water pollution laws. This appears to betrue for the factories belonging to all eight
size segments.
In spite of this, violation of water pollution
laws appears to persist. Many factories thathave been closed for violation of pollution
control acts often remain closed for a longtime. There may be two explanations for
non-compliance. First, violating companies
may be risk-takers that gamble with the law
even after the minimum deterrent penalty
is imposed. The only way of deterring themis to further increase the detection rate.
Second, the operating profits of a violatingcompany may be less than the minimum
deterrent penalty, and far below the averagefor their size segment. Factories that remainclosed are likely to have an operating profit
below than the cost of compliance. Thus,
low profitability appears to be a plausible
reason for the continued violation of pollution laws. If this is so, improvement of
economic benefits (a company’s operating
profits) would seem to go hand-in-hand withenvironmental compliance.
Economics of wastewater
It is extremely important for industrial

Source: Asian Development Bank, Asian Sanitation Databook 2008.

units to recycle wastewater, since there aremany arid regions where industrial estates
have been set up with little regard for water
resources. There are industries that not only
have low freshwater consumption, but also
recycle their wastewater. When feasible, it
can be advantageous for such industries tobe located in water-scarce areas.
The economics of recycling waste showsthat it is highly profitable to recycle. Not
only are the profit rates high, but also thepayback period for companies is relatively
short, often less than a year.
Penalties for water pollution are theoretically sufficient to act as a deterrent. Whenfactories are closed down, companies lose
their profits as long as they remain noncompliant. The cost of compliance is usuallysignificantly lower than the expected cost ofpenalties. This should encourage companies
to implement pollution control on the basisthat it costs less than the penalties.
About the authors: Dr (Ms) Prabha Panth is Professor of Economics at Osmania University, Hyderabad, India. Dr Rahul A. Shastri is Professorof Economics and Joint Director at the National
Academy of Development, Hyderabad, India.

t The water footprint of an individual,
business or nation is defined as the total
volume of freshwater that is used to produce the foods and services consumed by
the individual, business or nation. A water
footprint is generally expressed in terms ofthe volume of water use per year.
(Sources: UN-Water Decade Programme on Advocacy and Communication (UNW-DPAC), UNESCO)t Virtual water is the water ‘embedded’in commodities. Producing goods andservices requires water; the water used to
produce agricultural or industrial products
is called the virtual water of the product.
The production of 1 kilogram of:– rice requires 3 000 litres of water– maize requires 900 litres of water– wheat requires 1 350 litres of water– beef requires 16 000 litres of water.
(Source: UNESCO)t 60 per cent of the world´s 227 biggest
rivers have interrupted stream flows dueto the dams and other infrastructure.
Interruptions in stream-flow dramaticallydecrease sediment and nutrient transport
to downstream stretches, reducing water
quality and impairing ecosystem health.
(Source: UN-WWAP)t 60 per cent of China´s 660 cities areshort of water.
(Source: The Asia Water Project)Environment & Poverty Times

07 2012Water for manufacturing
The use of water for manufacturing creates increased competition between water users and other demands. In many cases it can also
lead to pollution and ecosystem degradation. There is a need for solutions to challenges such as water recycling, sanitation and water
efficiency. Increasing water efficiency and reduction of water footprint will often also lead to increased energy efficiency.

Resource efficiency in theleather industry
By Kris Schneider
In China, the Low Impact to Environment(LITE) classification system is helping theleather manufacturing industry to implement efficiency measures in the planningand design phase, significantly improving
water and energy efficiency whilst reducing
the overall environmental impact.
China’s leather industry at a glance
The world’s major bovine and performanceleather manufacturers have relocated toChina and neighbouring low-cost, developing countries such as Vietnam, Thailand andIndia, making Asia the centre of global leather production. China is the world’s largest
producer of bovine hides and performanceleather and also the world’s leading trader offinished leather. Statistics for 2010 show thatthe gross industrial output value for China’s
leather industry was US$ 115.14 billion,

an increase of 26.9 per cent year-on-year.
Imports in the industry were valued at US$
6.11 billion (34 per cent growth year-on-year),while the value of exports increased by 33.8
per cent to US$ 53.83 billion.
China’s leather industry is composed of various sectors ranging from leather and
fur as natural by-products, to chemicals,
machinery, equipment, spare parts, andcomponents and commodities for footwear
and apparel.
Since becoming a member of the World
Trade Organisation, China has introduced
various reforms, with the implementationof policies, market-based instruments, andinstitutional frameworks to boost industrial
growth. Leather industry manufacturing
data show that energy consumption per unitof GDP fell by 44 per cent between 2001
and 2007, and energy intensity per value

added unit improved by 52 per cent during
the same period.
China’s 12th five-year plan: key industrial targets
China’s 12th five-year plan outlines a needfor economic restructuring through implementation of a low-carbon development
strategy. Emphasis will be on green andenergy efficient industrial growth, withdomestic consumption boosted througha facilitated breakthrough in strategic
emerging industries. An indicative target
for the value-added output of the service
sector is 47 per cent of GDP, representing an increase of 4 per cent. To boost
innovation, expenditure on research anddevelopment will be increased to 2.2 percent of GDP. China aims to increase theproportion of non-fossil fuels in primaryenergy consumption to 11.4 per cent andto cut water intensity (water consumed per

Industry water withdrawal

IsraelMongolia

LebanonAfghanistan

Lao PDR

Turkmenistan

Kyrgyzstan

MyanmarTajikistan

Syrian Arab Republic

Saudi Arabia

Bangladesh

Iran

Democratic People's Republic of Korea

35 00018 000

Uzbekistan

Chile
Republic of Korea

ThailandKazakhstan

Iraq
Philippines

Japan

Indonesia

RICCARDO PRAVETTONI 2011

Milion cubic metres per year

Singapore

Pakistan

India

Water withdrawal by Industry
sector in selected Asian
countries

3 000

Malaysia

UkraineRussian Federation

Source: FAOSTAT, accessed December 2011

Environment & Poverty Times

07 201267

UNEP/GRID-Arendal

Remarkable resource efficiency: Case study – LITE
Manufacturing system
ISA Leather was the winner of the China Leather Industry Innovation Award in 2009 andrecipient of 2nd prize in the 2010 Energy Efficiency Awards of the German Energy Agency,
sponsored by the German Federal Ministry of Economics and Technology (BMWi).
By applying best practice technologies, life cycle costing and appropriate management
methodologies, it is possible to reduce energy consumption by 75 per cent and water consumption by 50 per cent. Below are some examples of improvements in energy and water efficiency in the tanning industry.
Water management: to save water, a closed-loop system can be implemented to reuseprocess water, while oil can also be recovered and used as input for steam generation.
All that is required when reusing water is appropriate cleaning and proper monitoring ofwater quality. Constructed wetland technology can also be used to treat wastewater andat the same time produce biomass energy.

unit of value-added industrial output) by 30
per cent. Finally, it intends to reduce energy
consumption per unit of GDP by 16 percent and to cut carbon dioxide emissions
per unit of GDP by 17 per cent.
Energy and water efficiency are key tosustainability and profitability
Uncertainty persists in the business environment in the face of climate change andthe aftermath of the financial crisis. Most
small and medium-sized enterprises inemerging economies are reluctant to invest
in greening their production. In the leather industry, as in many other industries, theinitial step towards eco-profits and businesssustainability is to capitalize on opportunities generated by smarter and more efficientmanufacturing methods.
Energy and water represent the main
operating costs in the tanning industry.
Very few tanneries are investing resources,
time or money in improving their energy
and water efficiency and waste management. Most tanneries use an end-of-pipe
approach by increasing their wastewater treatment capacity or installing air filters
to filter emissions from finishing equipment that uses cheaper conventional spraying machines.
The LITE leather classification in China
The LITE classification was developed todemonstrate that significant process improvements are possible in the tanning industry inorder to reduce the environmental impact ofleather production. Several demonstration
projects have been implemented since 2007
by the leather company Guangzhou Tan Tec
Leather Ltd. and its new plant, Heshan Best
Way Leather Ltd. in Guangdong, China. The

LITE classification provides informationfor each kind of leather, addressing CO2
emissions and water consumption, and was
implemented as a pioneer project to ensure
greater transparency for customers. Based onmonitoring and analysis of existing processes
it has led to major reductions in water andenergy consumption.
Given the success of the pioneer project,
the company implementing the classification made further investments in training
and know-how transfer to meet public
interest. This initiative could open the way
for replication of the LITE classification
so that other industries can improve theirenvironmental management and energy
design and promote green value chain
procurements, in cooperation with suppliers and customers.
In today’s business world, market prices
do not reflect the full cost of processing
inputs and outputs. While economic interests and share values drive sustainablebusiness growth, the principle of the LITE
classification is to encourage eco-efficiency
and resource productivity. By sharing
the positive effects of its experience, the
LITE classification supports customers
in responsible sourcing and downstream
green consumption. Furthermore, it helps
to transform our re-industrialisation programme through service innovations sothat companies can create eco-profits by
doing more with less.
About the author: Kris Schneider is co-founding
partner of ISA/Tan Tec leather (http://www.
liteleather.com/) and a research fellow at China’s
Research Institute of Economic Transition (http://
www.crcet.com/english_index.htm).

With wetland biological treatment, all nitrogen in the effluent is eliminated, while chemical
oxygen demand (COD) is biologically degraded from 240 to 40 parts per million. Additional savings are made on chemicals otherwise needed for wastewater treatment andon electricity to run traditional water treatment facilities (energy savings are translated
into 12 800 kg COD a year, equivalent to savings of 56 000 kWh and 153 000 kWh fornitrogen removal).
Equipment: by changing re-tanning vessels, the water needed in the process can be
reduced by 50 per cent. The energy required for this kind of drum is less than 25 percent of the energy used by a conventional drum. In addition to cost savings for freshwater,
fewer chemicals are required, and wastewater volume is reduced, leading to savings intreatment and waste disposal costs.
Process control and data command: automatic dosing systems control water volume andtemperature. For management control, virtual monitors are installed on each machine,
while data reporting and graphic analysis are available in real time, including online/onscreen error messaging, ready to be sent by e-mail and SMS to operating units whenevererrors occur or limits are exceeded.
Leather drying: leather is dried on toggle dryers or vacuum dryers. Vacuum drying technology has been improved over recent years and low temperature dryers are now available
on the market. These dryers require less energy than conventional vacuum dryers.
Finishing: conventional spraying machines require auxiliaries to dilute the chemicals before they are sprayed on the leather. The spraying process has an efficiency of only 50 per
cent, causing the emission of chemicals into the air. Alternative direct coating application
machines can now be used. These machines apply the chemical undiluted onto the surfaceof the leather and thus have no air emissions. Energy consumption on the drying side isalso considerably reduced.
Facility management: facilities are designed as green buildings and integrated into the
local natural environment. Energy costs are reduced through investment in industrial
solar hot water systems and biomass energy generation.

Did you know?
t In 2011, China vowed to limit its water use to 670 billion cubic metres (177 trillion gallons) annually over the next decade.
(Source: The Asia Water Project)t South Korea made huge investments in water and sanitation during the 1960s, when its
per capita income was the same as Ghana’s, and during that decade, under-five mortality
more than halved, while the number of medical staff stayed virtually the same.
(Source: Harvard Business Review “China leads the Clean Economy Race”, September 23, 2010)

Environment & Poverty Times

07 2012Water pollution and sanitation
Water pollution and sanitation have huge repercussions both for local ecosystems and humans. The sources of pollution are many, and thecost of cleaning contaminated water can be high and energy intensive. We feature possible solutions, opportunities and creative action.

Ecological sanitation
By Ryuichi Fukuhara
Wastewater management has received
increasing attention in recent years, as theglobal water crisis concerns not only thequantity but also the quality of available
freshwater. Rising water demand for urbanization and food production is resulting in
unregulated and illegal discharge of untreated wastewater to the environment, whichcontaminates freshwater resources. In Asia
there is growing concern that inappropriate wastewater management will hamper
sustainable socio-economic development.
Promising decentralized solutions
Remarkable progress in sanitation has been
made in big cities over the past decades.
However, this development is still not keeping
pace with the needs and impacts of an everincreasing urban population. It is estimatedthat 84-89 per cent of wastewater is discharged
untreated, reaching freshwater and coastal
water areas. The negative economic impacts oflack of sanitation cost several percentage pointsof national GDP in some Asian countries.

To promote sustainable sanitation, the project addressed urine reuse for pilot cultivation in
local farms. Ryuichi Fukuhara
agriculture, thus preserving soil fertility,
assuring food security, minimizing waterpollution and use of synthetic fertilisers, andsometimes recovering bio-energy.

The demonstration of ecological sanitationand other decentralized sanitation projects
in the Philippines, funded by the KoreanInternational Cooperation Agency, addresses
wastewater management issues by adopting
small-scale environmentally sound technologies at a local community level on a pilot basis.
Unlike Asian megacities, where sanitation
coverage is relatively good, most peri-urban
and rural areas lack appropriate wastewater
management. Centralized treatment systems
require a dense population to be cost-effective
and are not realistic solutions for these areas.
Alternative solutions are needed. Decentralized wastewater treatment systems (DEWATS)
and ecological sanitation (Ecosan) have been
identified as promising options to balancesocio-economic development and provision ofbasic services for less privileged communities.
Integrated approaches
DEWATS and Ecosan are approaches to sanitation rather than just technical hardware
package. DEWATS is based on a combination of treatment options such as a biogas
digester, an anaerobic baffled reactor (seefigure), an anaerobic filter and a planted
gravel filter. These components are selectedon the basis of their reliability, longevity
and tolerance of inflow fluctuations. Most
importantly, these treatment principles
dispense with the need for sophisticatedFifty households from five local communities
in La Union Province took part in demonstration of an ecological sanitation system.
A urine-diverting dehydration toilet was
installed in each home. Ryuichi Fukuharacontrol, maintenance and technical energy
inputs. Ecosan is based on the systematicreuse and recycling of water and nutrientsas a hygienically safe, closed-loop and holistic alternative to conventional sanitation
solutions. Ecosan systems enable nutrientsto be recovered from urine and faeces for

Gas release
Inlet

Gas space

OutletDEWATS is based on a combination of treatment principles such as a biogas digester, an anaerobic baffled reactor, an anaerobic filter, and a planted gravel filter.

Ventilation

Urine

Entry Door
Feces

Ventilation
Pipe

Ash
Collection DoorA urine-diverting dehydration toilet.

Feces

Success through cooperation
The project owes its success to the active participation and involvement of stakeholders.
Thanks to the longstanding efforts of people
at the Bauang Municipality, the town is now
recognized as a model for decentralized
wastewater treatment systems and ecologicalsanitation and receives many visitors, including some from abroad. This recognition
encourages users, farmers, local communities and government staff to further improve
the performance of existing facilities andpromote their achievements. This virtuous
cycle boosts the sustainability of activities.
UNEP-IETC will analyse and systemize thisbest practice for further implementation ofsimilar activities.
Acknowledgements: The author would like toexpress his sincere appreciation to Mr Danilo
Lapid, Head of CAPS, and his colleagues as wellas to Martin de Guzman III, Mayor of Bauang Municipality, his staff and local community members
for their work in implementing this project. The
author is grateful for the generous contribution
by KOICA, which enabled UNEP-IETC and CAPS
to implement the project.

Urine Diversion
Bowl

Urine

The UNEP International Environmental
Technology Centre (UNEP-IETC) in Osaka,
Japan implemented the project in collaboration with the Centre for Advanced Philippines Studies (CAPS). Fifty households fromfive local communities in La Union Province
took part in a demonstration of ecologicalsanitation. A urine diverting dehydration
toilet (UDDT, see figure) was installed in eachhousehold, and the local community members received the instructions on UDDT operation and maintenance as well as potential
reuse of diverted urine in their gardens. The
project also mobilised financial and othersubstantial contributions from the Bauang
Municipality and other partners to install acommunity-based decentralized wastewater
treatment system. To promote sustainable
sanitation, the project also looked at thequestion of urine reuse for pilot cultivation
projects in local farms. These components
were supplemented by an awareness raising
campaign among toilet users, local farmers
and government officials through community meetings and training workshops.

About the author: Ryuichi Fukuhara is Programme Officer at UNEP’s International Environmental Technology Centre (IETC).

Environment & Poverty Times

07 201289

UNEP/GRID-Arendal

Young kids learn water knowledge. PUBPrime Minister Lee Hsien Loong visits Integrated Pavilion on city development during SIWW 2011. PUB

Research and development. PUB

The Singapore water story
By Michael Toh
With over 5 million people living in an areaof just 710 square kilometres, managing
Singapore’s water resource is no mean feat.
In the 1960-70s the island faced a myriadof water problems, most of them associatedwith accelerated urbanization: water shortages, flooding and pollution of its rivers.
Today the situation is vastly different. By
investing in water technology and adopting
an integrated approach to water management over the past 40 years, Singapore
has developed a diversified and sustainable
water supply system. The Four National Taps
system provides Singaporeans with good,clean drinking water at the turn of a tap.
The name refers to water from four different
sources: rainwater from local catchments;
imported water; recycled water (NEWater);and desalinated water.
Currently about two-thirds of Singapore’sland area is water catchment, with thecompletion of Singapore’s first reservoir inthe city – the Marina Reservoir – which wascommissioned by then Minister Mentor Lee
Kuan Yew on 20 November 2010, as well as
the Punggol and Serangoon reservoirs. A
widespread network of 32 major rivers andmore than 7 000 km of drains and canals
channel storm water to 17 reservoirs that
supply the city with drinking water.
A new chapter
PUB, Singapore’s national water agency, wasamong the first in the world to purify treatedwastewater using advanced membrane technology to produce ultra-clean, high-grade
reclaimed water that we brand as NEWater.
Introduced in 2003, it heralded a new erain Singapore’s water history. The water has
been vetted by more than 65 000 scientifictests, surpassing even the World HealthOrganisation standards for drinking water.
NEWater is supplied primarily for non-domestic use in wafer fabrication parks, industrial
estates and commercial buildings, where it isused for industrial and air-cooling purposes. A
small percentage is mixed with raw reservoir
water before being treated for drinking water.
NEWater can currently meet 30 per centof Singapore’s water needs. The plan is toexpand NEWater capacity so that it meets
40 per cent of Singapore’s water demandby 2020 and 50 per cent of water demandby 2060.
Desalinated water
Desalinated water was added to Singapore’s
water sources in 2005, with the openingof Singapore’s first desalination plant. Its
second and largest desalination plant with acapacity of 320 million litres a day is underconstruction and expected to be ready in2013. By 2060 Singapore plans to increase
desalinated water capacity so that the Fourth
National Tap can meet at least 30 per cent ofwater demand.
Mr Khoo Teng Chye, Chief Executive of PUB,
attributed Singapore’s success to several
factors. He said, ‘we believe that innovation is important and have always placedemphasis on R&D and investing in technology. PUB has worked hard over the last
40 years to overcome our water challenges
and it is through strong political will, good
governance, effective implementation anda motivated workforce that we have beenable to put in place a robust and sustainablesupply of water in Singapore.’
Managing demand
Simply putting the infrastructure in placeis not sufficient to secure Singapore’s watersupplies. Demand management is also
imperative for sustainability. In a study
carried out for the United Nations Human
Development Report in 2006, Stockholm
Water Prize laureate Professor Asit Biswas
highlighted this as a key ingredient in
Singapore’s effective water management.
‘Singapore is one of the very few countries
which looks at its water supply in totality,’he said. ‘One of the main reasons why it
is successful in managing its water supply
is the concurrent emphasis on supply anddemand management.’
The country’s holistic approach to water
resource management includes a water demand management programme,
which incorporates proper handling of thetransmission and distribution network tominimize losses, as well as implementing
water conservation measures. This hasbrought about a considerable reduction in
unaccounted-for water, down from 11 percent in the 1980s to less than five per cent
today, one of the lowest levels in the world.

they are now a haven for water sports suchas kayaking and wakeboarding.

Water pricing
Key to demand management is pricing waterat its true value. Singapore believes that water must be priced appropriately to prevent
misuse and wastage. But at the same time,targeted assistance is also provided to theunderprivileged in the form of utility rebates,
to ensure that the poor are not deprived of a
supply of clean water.

To better integrate water into the urban
environment and bring people closer towater, PUB has embarked on a long-term
initiative called the Active, beautiful, cleanwaters (ABC waters) programme, which willtransform the country’s drains, canals andreservoirs into vibrant streams, rivers andlakes, creating beautiful new spaces for thecommunity’s enjoyment.

In 1991 the government introduced a water
conservation tax (WCT) as a pricing tool todiscourage excessive consumption of water.
In 1997 a fundamental pricing review was
conducted with the aim of recovering the fullcost of production and supply, and to also
reflect the higher cost of alternative watersupply sources. This underlying ‘marginalcost’ principle reinforces the message thatwhen demand goes up and existing sourcesof supply run out, the next drop of water, or
the marginal source, will come at a higher
price. The WCT was adjusted to reflect thedifference between the prevailing water tariff
and the marginal source (which was desalinated water). Over a four-year period from1997 to 2000, water tariffs were adjusted tocurrent levels. The water-borne fee (WBF) isa fee collected to offset the cost of treatingused water and for the maintenance andextension of the public sewerage system.

In addition PUB launched a lifestyle magazine called PURE to stimulate public interest in water issues. A mascot named Water
Wally helps spread the water messages to theyoung in a lively and interactive way.

Educating the publicSingapore considers its people to be joint
stakeholders of their water resources andalso actively seeks to engage the community
in its water management efforts.
In 2004 a series of public education programmes were launched to encourage water
conservation through daily habits. These
efforts have shown results: per capita consumption of water in households has incheddownwards, from 165 litres a day in 2003 to
154 litres a day now. The long-term target isto reduce daily per capita water consumption
to 147 litres a day by 2020.
Individuals and organisations are also encouraged to adopt the island’s waterways, totake care of them and learn the value of keeping them clean. PUB also actively promotes
recreational activities at its reservoirs and

The goal of these initiatives is to encourage
Singaporeans to bond with water, so thatthey will cherish and better appreciate this
precious resource.
Singapore, the global hydrohub
Over the years, Singapore has managed toturn its water woes from vulnerability toa strategic advantage, and more recently,
a growth industry for the country. The
Singapore government has identified thewater industry as a new growth sector forthe country’s economy. A total of US$ 362.4
million has been allocated to water R&D
since 2006 to develop Singapore into a hub
for water technologies. The country is now
a hotbed for water technologies, home to a
thriving cluster of more than 70 Singapore
and international water companies.
To raise its profile as a global hydrohub, PUB
has hosted the annual Singapore International Water Week for the past four years.
This event is a global platform for water
solutions, bringing together policymakers,
industry leaders, experts and practitioners
to address challenges, showcase technologies, discover opportunities and celebrateachievements in the water world. The event
is a major step in PUB’s efforts to develop
Singapore into a vibrant and thriving hub
for water technologies.
About the author: Michael Toh is Director of theIndustry Development Department of Singapore’s
national water agency (PUB). For more information, visit www.siww.com.sg.

Environment & Poverty Times

07 2012Water pollution

Towards the Millennium Development
Goals: from sanitation to a safe environment
By Pierre Flamand
In many developed countries the seweragesystem is the main system used for wastewater treatment. Data on sewerage coveragein European countries such as Denmark, theUK and the Netherlands show that seweragesystems in these countries cover more than90 per cent of the population. Japan has alittle-known but different and interesting
profile, which is rooted in its unique history.
Growth of cities
The history of human waste treatment inJapan from ancient times to the present day
has been closely linked to the growth of cities.
Human waste problems, like those of otherhousehold wastes, are an intrinsic part ofhuman communities. In early times, humanwaste was simply discharged as natural waste.
But over time a system gradually developed
whereby human waste was used as fertiliser
for agriculture. To secure food supplies forcities, agriculture developed in suburban
areas during the Edo Period (17th to mid-19th
century). These areas in turn received humanwaste as manure, giving rise to a circular flowof resources. The high-volume, low-cost human manure available from large cities wasindispensable to the growth of commercial
farming, since Japanese agriculture lacked
a self-regenerating soil fertilization process.
The flow of urban human waste for farmuse as manure continued to increase until
the end of the Edo Period (19th century), but
this system gradually started to collapse in
the early 1900s. Among contributing factors
were the difficulty securing farm labour due
to the population exodus to industrial cities,
an imbalance in supply and demand caused
by a reduction in farmland in suburban areas,
and the introduction of chemical fertilisers.

Inspecting septic tanks during a field visit in
Bhutan. Japan Sanitation Consortium

Sanitation field assessment in Indonesia.
Japan Sanitation Consortium

Consequently, human waste generation began
to exceed demand in some cities, giving rise
to environmental and public hygiene problems. Some city governments took over the
responsibility of human waste collection anddischarged it into sewers or the ocean. Sewer
systems in those days were almost non-existentor only intended for the treatment of household wastewater (excluding human waste) andindustrial effluent. The discharge of humanwaste into public sewers was undertaken as an
emergency measure due to the lack of other facilities or means for disposing of human waste.

and other health hazards. Improvement ofpublic hygiene was recognized as one of themost urgent national policy goals. In response
the central government put forward a numberof policy measures to promote mechanizedhuman-waste transportation, the sanitary
treatment of human waste and combined treatment of human waste and wastewater. Humanwaste finally came to be treated and disposedof in a hygienically sound manner within asocio-economic framework. Japan’s very firsttreatment facility for human waste and night
soil was built in Metropolitan Tokyo in 1952.
Today around 1 100 facilities are operating allover the country, treating human waste andsludge in a hygienically sound manner. For
comparison, more than 2 070 wastewater
treatment plants are now operating in Japan.

Shift in demandWith the decline in demand for the use ofhuman manure on farms and the resulting
supply/demand imbalance in human waste,
problems associated with the inappropriate
handling of surplus human waste began toappear around 1950, in the form of environmental pollution as well as the spread ofwaterborne diseases, parasitic infestations

The use of sewerage facilities rapidly expanded and in the late 1980s they became
the main sanitation system used in Japan.
Through massive investment (1 per cent

Proportion of population using an improved sanitation facility
2008
Goal 2015

JSC’s aim is not to sell technology. Its main
goal is to assess and advise on sustainableways to improve local sanitation conditions
while advocating for sanitation to become ahigh-profile political issue. More specifically,
JSC aims to promote the empowermentof local communities through education,
training and knowledge exchange, in order to create demand-driven systems. By
developing strong networks and sharing
our success stories, together we can take a
big step towards achieving the Millennium
Development Goals for sanitation.

Southern Asia
Eastern Asia
World average
Sout-easthern Asia
Weastern Asia!0

Knowledge hub for sanitation
Building on Japan’s expertise in sanitation,
the Japan Sanitation Consortium (JSC) isa newly established organisation that wasinternationally recognized in 2009 as the
Asia-Pacific Water Forum’s knowledge hub
for sanitation in the region. Knowledge Hubs
is a network of regional water knowledge
hubs, including 17 hubs with various areas ofexpertise. It was initiated by the Asia-PacificWater Forum – a non-profit, non-partisan,
non-political organisation – to generate andshare knowledge while developing capacity
in various fields of water science domains.
JSC is a unique organisation because its areaof expertise covers basic sanitation (toilets),
as well as on-site and off-site sanitation. JSC
aims to support countries of the Asia-Pacificregion with low access to sanitation throughinformation sharing and advice. The aim isto enable them to acquire the knowledge andcapacity to develop and diffuse sanitation systems in order to improve public health andliving conditions and reduce water pollution.
Holistic approach
Treatment of human waste and wastewaterrequires a holistic approach, its ultimate
aim being to preserve the quality of water resources. Decisions such as the choice of toilet and selection of (individual or collective)
treatment processes should not be made on acase-by-case basis, but rather from a broader
perspective that takes into consideration theoverall development and sustainability of thesystem and its impact on the environment.
Furthermore with rising demand for water,
efficient use of this resource has become anurgent goal and one that can be achievedby reducing daily consumption per capita
and reusing and recycling water throughappropriate wastewater treatment. Equallyimportant is public awareness on health andhygiene issues, the development of sanitation policy – including legal, regulatory andinstitutional structures – and the training ofexperts and staff so that they have the properlevel of expertise in managing waste-waterand sludge treatment systems.

Millennium Development Goals
Access to sanitation in Asia0of GNP invested annually – equivalent to
the defence budget), numerous national
subsidies, and an appropriate legal and institutional framework initiated through strong
political determination, Japan achieved total
sanitation coverage within 40 years. The
sewerage system now accounts for morethan 70 per cent of total sanitation coverage,
whereas decentralized systems such as thejohkasou system and night-soil collection
and treatment system cover the rest of the
population (20 per cent and 10 per cent,respectively). By combining various systems
designed to meet different needs and specificlocal conditions, enhanced by tremendous
technological development, Japan has effectively addressed water-related issues. Today
in Japan, people can drink water from thetap and enjoy a safe and sound environment.

20

Source: UN, The Millennium Development Goals Report, 2011

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

About the author: Pierre Flamand is a survey
staff member at the Japan Sanitation Consortium,
mainly involved in international networking andcountry sanitation assessments in the Asia-Pacific.

Environment & Poverty Times

07 2012

10 11

UNEP/GRID-Arendal

Appropriate sanitation technology for
improvement of health and the environment
By Anita Jha
Quoting a pre-millennium opinion poll,
Time Magazine reported that people voted
the toilet the most important inventionof this century – more important thanlife-saving drugs, space vehicles and themobile phone. In other words, the toilet ishumankind’s top achievement. This is true
because it has helped considerably reduce
the age-old practice of open defecation inmost countries, including India.
Inadequate sanitation, poor hygiene
It is estimated that as many as 2.7 billion
people in the world or two-fifths of the global
population do not have access to adequate
sanitation and that 1.5 billion suffer fromparasitic worm infections stemming fromhuman excreta and solid wastes in the environment. In developing countries an estimated 2.2 million people, mostly children,
die every year from disease associated with
open defecation, inadequate sanitation andpoor hygiene.
If sanitation is poor in developing countries,
it is because Western solutions have often
been used. These responses are often noteconomically, culturally or socially suitable
for local conditions. For instance, seweragesystems developed in the West are often
inadequate and inappropriate for developing countries with different habits, social
practices and water constraints. An alternative system is consequently required. The
system developed in the 1970s by Sulabh International, a non-government organisation,
has proved to be an acceptable technology
for human waste disposal, winning broad
recognition from many national as well asinternational organisations.
Open defecation and scavengers
Poor sanitation coverage is primarily due tolow awareness, coupled with a lack of accessto affordable sanitation technology. In India
only a few towns have appropriate sewerage systems, and some use bucket toilets
and septic tanks. The two systems that areprevalent on a large scale are defecation in
the open, and manual cleaning of humanexcreta by a class of people called ‘scavengers’. They clean dry toilets and manually
carry human faeces.

It is believed that the practice of scavengers
manually cleaning excreta has existed for
4 000 years in India. They were treated as‘untouchables’, the lowest of the low in India’s
caste hierarchy. The practice continues eventoday in some places. Ironically the scavengers
were humiliated and insulted, even by those
who employed them to clean toilets in theirhomes. They had to clean bucket toilets before
sunrise, so that nobody could see them ortouch them. They had to live on the marginsof the village or town. There was no questionof their going to school or entering temples topray. Finding an alternative method of disposalof human excreta that would liberate thesescavengers and rehabilitate them into otheroccupations has posed major challenges.
A sanitation breakthroughSome of these challenges are being addressed by Sulabh International, which
was founded by Dr Bindeshwar Pathak. A
major breakthrough was achieved in 1970
when Dr Pathak developed and demonstrated two-pit pour-flush toilet technology
for on-site disposal of household humanwaste. This became popularly known as theSulabh toilet (see box). The technology issimple, economically affordable and sociallyacceptable. It replaces the bucket toilet andscavengers no longer required to clean andcarry excreta by hand.
In 1974 Sulabh started converting bucket
toilets into Sulabh toilets in cooperation withthe government in Patna, Bihar state, India.
The switch to Sulabh toilets has meant a big
relief for many scavengers, now released
from a humiliating task. The programme
has steadily gathered momentum and it iscurrently estimated that more than a million scavengers have found work in otheroccupations and joined the mainstream ofsociety. About 7 000 are also receiving school
education and vocational training in various
trades such as tailoring, embroidery, plumbing, beauty care and cooking.
Reaching out
Sulabh has reached millions of people
with more than 1.2 million bucket toilets.
In addition the Government of India andstate governments have built more than
54 million toilets using the Sulabh design.
To achieve this widespread impact, Sulabh

The Sulabh twin-pit, pour-flush toilet
The Sulabh toilet requires only 1-1.5 litres of water to flush per use, thus saving a substantial amount of water. There are two pits, only one in use at a time and the otherkept as a standby. When the first pit is full, the flow of human waste is switched overto the other. In the first one, the waste turns into manure after two years, containing nitrogen, potassium and phosphates. It works as a bio-fertiliser. The impact on
health also seems to be positive, as cases of jaundice are reported to have dropped
significantly in places where Sulabh toilets are in use.
Advantages of the Sulabh toilet• Hygienically and technically appropriate, socio-culturally acceptable.
• Affordable and easy to build with locally available materials.
• Design and specifications can be modified to suit the householder’s needs and budget.
• Can adapt to various physical, geological and hydrogeological conditions.
• Free from health hazards, with no pollution of surface or groundwater, if proper
precautions and safeguards are taken during construction.
• Can be located within the premises as it is free from foul smells and pests suchas flies and mosquitoes.
• Can be installed on the upper floors of houses.
• Pits are generally designed for a three-year de-sludging interval, but if required, canbe designed for a longer period or can be reduced to two years.
• Easy, simple, low-cost maintenance.
• Needs only 1–1.5 litres of water for flushing, while conventional flush toilet needs
12 to 14 litres.
• Needs less space than a septic-tank toilet system.
• Householders can clean the pits and dispose of sludge.
• Produces rich fertiliser and soil conditioner.
• Easily connected to sewers when the area is connected.
• Low-volume flushing cistern may be attached to avoid pour-flushing.

Scavengers are being retrained for other occupations, with vocational training for various
trades such as tailoring, embroidery, plumbing, beauty care and cooking. Sulabh Internationalsocial workers have visited households toeducate people on the benefits of giving up
bucket toilets.
Efforts have also focused on schools where
the absence of toilet facilities results in highdropout rates among girl students. Sulabh
has tried to reverse this trend by providing
toilet facilities in the schools. In all Sulabh
has produced more than 7 500 public toilets,with NGOs and governments also installing
many more similar toilets. The Sulabh design not having been patented may be usedby anyone without permission.
Biogas technology and Sulabh effluent
treatment technology
Human waste from public toilets, highrise buildings, hostels and hospitals can berecycled using a simple technology, which
includes on-site treatment of effluents andbiogas generation. The excrement is refinedby a biogas digester and converted into a
usable fuel. The system organically breaks
down faeces into trapped biogas that can beburned to provide cooking fuel and electric-

ity. The water discharged from the biogas
digester is treated using Sulabh Effluent
Treatment (SET) technology, passing througha sedimentation chamber, a sand filtration
tank, charcoal and finally ultraviolet rays. The
biochemical oxygen demand of the wastewater is consequently less than 1 mg/l. The
wastewater is pure containing phosphorus,
nitrogen and potash. Its nutrients can raise
farm productivity, but it can also be used as afertiliser for flowerbeds and kitchen gardens.
A holistic approach
Achieving universal sanitation coverage
requires close cooperation between local governments and communities or local NGOs.
Neither the government nor the NGOs cancomplete the task alone. Technical as well
as social problems need to be tackled, in aholistic manner. The strategy developed by
Sulabh can easily be replicated in other developing countries to improve the sanitation
status and quality of life.
About the author: Anita Jha is Senior Vice-President
at Sulabh International Social Service Organisation.

Environment & Poverty Times

07 2012

Community based initiatives
Community based initiatives focus on behavioural change needed to ensure real and sustainable improvements – investing in community mobilisation raising awareness that the actions of individuals and communities does make a difference. The ideal is local
solutions leading to improved sustainability.

Collection of surface run-off water by the ponds made for groundwater recharging (Chak Ramnagar village, Bharatpur). RSNH Photo Library

Water conservation throughcommunity participation
By Satya Prakash Mehra
To resolve local environmental problems,
especially related to water, the scientificcommunity must consider available traditional options and solutions. In Project
Boond the Rajputana Society of Natural
History (RSNH) has combined traditional
Banjara knowledge with advanced modern
water-harvesting techniques Sustainablecommunity structures for collecting andstoring water were built keeping local environmental conditions in mind.
From floods to droughts
Bharatpur, the eastern gate of Rajasthan,lies in the Yamuna flood plain, at the con-fluence of three rivers: Ruparail, Banganga
and Gambhiri. The region has a history offloods and droughts. The frequency of thesenatural phenomena changed in the late
1990s and early 2000s, with fewer floods
and more droughts. The main cause wasalmost certainly human interference in thenatural flow patterns of the rivers, including
the building of dams. By the mid-2000s,
water inflow from all the rivers feeding
Bharatpur had been reduced to nothing, resulting in an acute shortage of surface water
all over the region. Due to the shortage of
surface water people started exploiting theunderground water table. The failure of themonsoon – with a lack of rainfall – madematters worse.

RSNH took on the challenge of raisingawareness of the need to save water in theregion. In 2007 an RSNH youth team surveyed the downstream areas of the earlier
existing rivers to assess how people view
water conservation and the importanceof the Keoladeo National Park, a World
Heritage and Ramsar site. The park also
faced the threat of water shortages. The
park’s forest management team used thebaseline data collected from the surveyquestionnaire to identify gaps in research,highlighting the need for a change in public
attitudes to water conservation. It was also
apparent that long-term solutions to local
problems of water scarcity were needed tochange mindsets.

Community-led total sanitation – An innovative methodology for mobilising communities
Community-led total sanitation (CLTS) is an approach that helps communities completely eliminate open defecation. Communities are assisted
in the conduct of their own appraisal and analysis of open defecation and take their own action to end open defecation.
At the heart of CLTS lies the recognition that merely providing toilets does not guarantee their use, nor results in improved sanitation andhygiene. Earlier approaches to sanitation set high initial standards and offered subsidies as an incentive. But this often led to uneven adoption,
problems with long-term sustainability and only partial use. It also created a culture of dependence on subsidies. Open defecation and the cycleof faecal-oral contamination went on spreading disease.
In contrast, CLTS focuses on the behavioural change needed to ensure real and sustainable improvements – investing in community mobilization instead of hardware, and shifting the focus from toilet construction for individual households to the creation of ‘open defecation-free’
villages. By raising awareness that as long as even a minority continues to defecate in the open, everyone is at risk of disease, CLTS triggers thecommunity’s desire for change, propels them into action and encourages innovation, mutual support and appropriate local solutions, thus
leading to greater ownership and sustainability.
CLTS was pioneered in 2000 by Kamal Kar, a development consultant from India, together with the Village Education Resource Centre, a partnerof WaterAid Bangladesh, while evaluating a traditionally subsidized sanitation programme in a village in Bangladesh. The approach spread
fast in Bangladesh where informal institutions and NGOs play a key role. The World Bank’s Water and Sanitation Programme (WSP) played an
important part in extending the project to neighbouring India and subsequently to Indonesia and parts of Africa.
Source: The CLTS website http://www.communityledtotalsanitation.org

Environment & Poverty Times

07 2012

12 13

UNEP/GRID-Arendal

Promoting traditional solutions with
Project Boond
Project Boond was carried out in the villageof Chak Ramnagar and changed the lifestyleof the deprived Banjara community, also
known as the gypsy community of India.
The Oil Industry Development Board(OIDB), the Drought Relief Trust (DRT) andBharat Petroleum Corporation Ltd (BPCL),
through their corporate social responsibility programmes provided financial support
for the participatory community work to
resolve water problems along with theexpertise involvement of Natural Solutions
consultants.
Banjaras are known for their age-old
practices of water harvesting, carried out
throughout the desert state of Rajasthan.
With passing time the community has lost
the traditional knowledge of its forebears
due to a lack of interest from the scientificcommunity and government policies. It is
now open to doubt whether many water-harvesting structures will provide sustainable,
long-term solutions. Unplanned structures
are worthless in a context of climate change
and monsoon failure. On the other handage-old structures (old wells) in Rajasthan
are still major sources of water even during
the drought period.
The project implemented approaches rooted
in traditions from Rajasthan, which rely on
natural solutions to solve water problems.
Ponds were built to collect and store water, but were made in a way conducive togroundwater recharging. The deep infiltration of the surface water through kuccha
constructions – traditional, bio-compatible
materials – recharges groundwater, in a way
which reduces the salinity problems of thearea. Only minimal use was made of cementbased concrete and other materials that stop
water percolation, with a high proportion ofmaterials that encourage natural seepage.
The reservoir systems were designed to trap
every drop of rainwater without checking its
downstream movement.
Before Project Boond the target site had only
one well, with saline water (the concentration rising from slight to moderate between
winter and summer). It had not been used
for human consumption for the past decade. After improvements were made to
groundwater recharging and surface-water
harvesting, the conditions changed. Saline
water was improved to freshwater and is
now consumed by villagers. Similarly, traditional well-digging know-how combinedwith advanced assessment techniques led

Village pond filled with surface run-off water and nearby well, inspected by community youth leader Surjit Singh. RSNH Photo Libraryto the construction of a new well yielding
freshwater. This well is important because all
the nearby underground pumps have saline
water. It is now not only feeding the target
village, but also allowing people from nearby
villages to collect water from it. The reservoir
developed in the village is designed so thatas much water as possible can be harvested
from nearby open areas, thus helping thefields to retain their moisture content for
longer. Livestock is getting freshwater fromthe reservoir all year long.
Community involvement
Project Boond encouraged community
participation through camps to motivate
the various target groups in the village. The
camps featured street theatre, screening offilms and documentaries, lectures, one-day
events related to the environment and so on.
Children and women were the main targets,as they cannot move out under prevailingsocial conditions. Women are the first to
feel the impact of water scarcity, as they are
responsible for collecting and managing
water use in their families.

It is also interesting to note that many of thechildren from villages involved in the project
played an important role in encouraging
their parents to work for a safer and moresustainable future. To this end the RSNH
organized meetings and programmes withchildren. The RSNH team, taught the children that they – not old people – will have tocope with future problems. So the children
should demand that the older people in theirfamily help them to a safer future. Women
often face more immediate problems thanmen regarding access to water. As a result
more women became involved in development work through self-help groups.
Impact on the region
The villagers of Chak Ramnagar took partin building work, so Project Boond generated extra income for deprived villagers, anadditional asset for the community. Sincecompletion of the drought-proofing work,
the women have saved time previously
spent collecting water, thus contributing
more effectively to other activities. Thanks to
improved groundwater conditions the land

was fit for crops requiring more water. The
most significant impact was the reduction
in irrigation time due to the soil’s moisture
content. Furthermore they revived local plant
species, especially various types of grass(Desmostachya bipinnata, Vetiveria zizanioides, Saccharum spontaneum and Saccharum
munja). These species help bind the soil aswell as retaining moisture. In addition totheir ecological importance these species
are of economic value to the local community. Some are used for traditional Banjara
artefacts, which appeal to visitors and tourists. So with improved water conditions thevillage is also protecting local plant species
and reviving the site’s original ecologicalconditions. These activities entailed public
participation in practices to preserve livelihoods derived from local natural resources,
fulfilling the aims set by global conservation groups for World Heritage at Keoladeo
national park.
About the author: Satya Prakash Mehra is Advisor for the Rajputana Society of Natural History
and Manager for Project Boond.

UNICEF supports rainwater harvesting forfamilies on remote islands in Indonesia
By Suzanna Dayne
This article was previously published on the
UNICEF website: http://www.unicef.org/
infobycountry/indonesia_42209.html
The island of Alor is just two short flights
away from Bali, and yet it is a world away
in terms of clean drinking water, one of themost basic necessities.
Climate-change experts warn that the problem could get worse. It rains here a mere
four months a year, and residents often
resort to collecting water from local streams.
The only alternative used to be buying waterfrom small tanker-trucks which travel roundthe island. ‘If it’s the dry season we have towalk five kilometres from early morning,and sometimes we don’t get home till noon,’says Juliana, a homemaker. ‘I have to bringthis 20-litre can. Sometimes it’s enough,sometimes it isn’t.’

a community effort. First, local residents aretaught how to build the tanks, which collectwater run-off from tin roofs. They then fan
out to different villages and build more tankswith the help from residents.

Teachers at the local school say children
often have to help and then they are too tired
to study. ‘We used to have to go down to theriver in the morning before school,’ said Lahal Ayub Bain, a junior high school student.
‘Then we’d take a quick bath and take waterback home. Then we could go to school.’

It takes just a couple of days to build a tankfor a home. The system can supply enoughwater for drinking and cooking for a family
to last most of the year.

A community effort
UNICEF is working on the island to help
families like Lahal’s through its rainwater harvesting programme. Rainwater harvesting is‘Every house has one’The people on Alor say the tanks havechanged their lives. Ema Dolpali lives on
nearby Pura Island in a simple home withher husband and two children. There are no
streams or water trucks, so the entire village
had been relying on one well for all its waterneeds. ‘Our ancestors lived up the mountainbut then they moved further down, and the
population increased, so we had to add awell – but the water was often salty,’ shesays. ‘Now we have help from UNICEF and
we are very happy with the rainwater tanks.
Every house has one, so we rarely have to
go to the well.’
The rain clouds are beginning to gather overthe island and suddenly it starts to pour.
Children run out of their homes to wash
their faces, splash and play in the puddles.
In this part of Indonesia, a rainy day is nota day to stay indoors.
About the author: Suzanna Dayne is UNICEF
correspondent in Indonesia.

Environment & Poverty Times

07 2012Water security
Water security will soon rank with other main security concerns. The world community must elevate the issue of water for peace policy.
As the demand for freshwater grows and in the absence of clear consensus on how best to use shared water resources for the benefitof all, that competition can create severe disputes.

The Third Pole – Hindu-Kush
Himalaya narrative
By Lawrence Hislop
The Hindu-Kush Himalaya (HKH), sometimes referred to as the ‘Third Pole’, is oneof the most dynamic and complex mountainsystems in the world. It contains the largest
amount of snow and ice found outside thePolar regions, including more than 100 000
square kilometres of glacier cover, and thesources of ten of the largest rivers in Asia.
This mountain system, stretching 3 500
kilometres through some of the world’s
wettest and driest environments, risingeight vertical kilometres through nearly
every life zone existing on Earth, and at thegeographical centre of the largest and densest concentration of humanity, is recognized
as an extremely fragile environment andparticularly vulnerable to global warming.
Potential impacts of climate change
Uncertainties about the rate and magnitude ofclimate change and potential impacts prevail,but there is no question that climate change
is gradually and powerfully changing the ecological and socio-economic landscape in the
Himalayan region, particularly in relation towater and ecosystem services, with significant
implications for mountain communities andlivelihoods, as well as downstream users,
including women. Ultimately the changes
that take place in the mountains impact theavailability of resources downstream.
In the mountain areas the influence ofchanging climate has to be understood in theoverall context of change due to modernization (communications, transport, infrastructure, monetization, etc.) and migration, bothof which affect traditional cultural patterns
and gender relations. Climate change is one
among many other drivers of change, which
also need to be taken into account. Moreover,it has to be recognized that climate change,
while exposing the region to severe adverse
impacts, may also create opportunities,
which need to be identified and leveraged.

Recent flood events in the Hindu Kush-Himalaya region

Dushanbe

CHINA

TAJIKISTAN

Kabul
AFGHANISTANNEPALNew Delhihi

PAKISTAN

KarachiBANGLADESH
INDIA

Dhaka
MYANMAR

Hindu KushHimalaya region

LAOS

Mumbai

Glaciers
THAILAND

Lakes

People involved in flood events(2008-2010)

Killed
1 000

300

50

10

Affected(Thousands)

Note: data for both killed and affected people may not
be available for all the events shown.
Sources: ICIMOD, Information on the Occasion of World
Environment Day, 2007; ICIMOD online database, accessed
July 2010; OCHA, 2010; BBC Press review, 2010.

Extreme vulnerability to natural hazards
among countries in South Asia is cyclicaland repeatedly causes major setbacks in thesocioeconomic and equitable developmentof the region. According to UN estimates
major disasters may cut the GDP of countries in the region by up to 20 per cent.
Climate change is expected to increase boththe frequency and magnitude of hazards
leading to disasters. It calls for speedy action
to help communities cope with such largescale disturbances.
Mudslides and unstable ground inducedby floods (see figure above) are serious
threats to low-income settlement areas.
The rough topography of the Himalayas
combined with the precariousness of many
homesteads, due to low incomes, makes theregion a particularly flood-sensitive area.
Moreover, the risks of death and destruction are increased by the fact that people,
after floods, often rebuild on the samerisk-prone areas.

Poor and marginalized groups such as mountain populations, particularly women, are vulnerable to climate change. Lawrence Hislop

Implications for human well-being
Climate change impacts in the HKH region
are particularly severe due to the large number of people depending on climate-sensitive
livelihoods such as agriculture. Here, morethan 20 per cent of the population live below
the poverty line, amounting to around 260
million people. Recent studies conclude thatthe Himalayan region and its downstream
areas, including the Indo-Gangetic plains,
the grain basket of South Asia, are also particularly vulnerable to climate change. Morethan 1.3 billion people live downstream fromthree of Asia’s major rivers and these people
are strongly dependent on agriculture for
their livelihoods.
Poor and marginalised groups such as themountain populations and inhabitants ofdownstream flood plains are particularly
vulnerable to climate change. Mountain
livelihoods are much more susceptible toenvironmental and economic change thanare livelihoods in the plains. Poverty in themountains is exacerbated by climate change.
Women are often more exposed and vulnerable to the impacts of climate change andenvironmental degradation. From a povertyreduction perspective, coming to grips withthe expected increase in climate-induced
disasters is an important step towards being
prepared to face it.
About the author: Lawrence Hislop is Head of
the Polar Programme at UNEP/GRID-Arendal.

Environment & Poverty Times

07 2012

14 15

UNEP/GRID-Arendal

Millennium Development Goals and water

Economic impacts of poor sanitation

In 2000 governments committed to a wide range of Millennium Development Goals (MDG)
that rely upon access to water. They also made a specific commitment to halve the numberof people without access to clean water and adequate sanitation by 2015.

Together, Cambodia, Indonesia, the Philippines and Vietnam lose an estimated US$ 9 billion
a year because of poor sanitation (based on 2005 prices). This amounts to around 2 percent of their combined GDP, varying from 1.3 per cent in Vietnam, 1.5 per cent in the Philippines, 2.3 per cent in Indonesia and 7.2 per cent in Cambodia. The annual economic impact
of inadequate sanitation is approximately US$ 6.3 billion in Indonesia, US$ 1.4 billion in
the Philippines, US$ 780 million in Vietnam and US$ 450 million in Cambodia. In thesefour countries, the total value of this impact is US$ 8.9 billion per year. In 1991 a cholera
epidemic swept through most of Peru and cost US$ 1 billion to control.* If one-tenth of thisamount (US$ 100 million) had been spent on providing sanitation services, the epidemic
would not have occurred.

The 2010 update on progress towards the water-specific goals reports that 884 million – nearly
1 billion people – lack access to clean drinking water. When it comes to sanitation, 2.6 billion
people do not have access to improved sanitation services. One in seven of those people
without access to adequate sanitation services live in rural areas (WHO/UNICEF 2010).
At the current rate of investment progress, the Millennium Development Goals for sanitation
will be missed by 1 billion people. Most of these people live in sub-Saharan Africa and Asia.
Significant progress has been made in India and China (WHO/UNICEF 2010).

Water – Investingin natural capital
From Chapter 3, Water, Towards a Green
Economy: Pathways to Sustainable
Development and Poverty Eradication(UNEP 2011). Available at www.unep.org/
greeneconomy
Over the past two years the concept of agreen economy has moved into the mainstream of policy discourse. Heads of stateand finance ministers increasingly speak
about the green economy; it is referred to in
the text of G20 communiqués and discussed
in the context of sustainable development
and eradicating poverty.
UNEP’s green economy report, Towards
a Green Economy, aims to debunk several
myths and misconceptions about “greening”
the global economy, and provides timely
and practical guidance to policy-makers
on what reforms they need to unlock the
productive and employment potential of agreen economy. Perhaps the most prevalent
myth is that there is an inescapable trade-off
between environmental sustainability andeconomic progress. There is now substantial
evidence that the greening of economies
inhibits neither wealth creation nor employment opportunities. On the contrary, many
green sectors provide significant opportunities for investment, growth and jobs. For thisto occur, however, new enabling conditions
are required to promote such investments inthe transition to a green economy, which inturn calls for urgent action by policy-makers.
Key messages in the water chapter
Water, a basic necessity for sustaining life,
goes undelivered to many of the world’s poor.
Nearly 1 billion people lack access to clean
drinking water; 2.6 billion lack access toimproved sanitation services; and 1.4 million
children under five die every year for lack ofaccess to clean water and adequate sanitation

services. At the current rate of investment
progress, the Millennium Development Goalfor sanitation will be missed by 1 billion people, mostly in sub-Saharan Africa and Asia.
The existing inadequacies in provisionof water and sanitation services generateconsiderable social costs and economic inefficiencies. When people do not have access towater, either large amounts of their disposable income have to be spent on purchasingwater from vendors or large amounts oftime, in particular for women and children,
have to be devoted to carting it. This erodes
the capacity of the poor to engage in otheractivities. When sanitation services are inadequate, the costs of water-borne disease arehigh. Cambodia, Indonesia, the Philippines
and Vietnam, for instance, together lose
about US$ 9 billion a year because of poor
sanitation – or approximately two per centof combined GDP. Access to reliable, cleanwater and adequate sanitation services for
all is the foundation of a green economy.
Continuing current practices will lead toa massive and unsustainable gap between
global supply and demand for water withdrawal. This is exacerbated by failure to collectand treat used water to enable subsequentuses. With no improvement in the efficiencyof water use, water demand is projected toovershoot supply by 40 per cent in 20 years
time. Historical levels of improvement inwater productivity, as well as increases insupply (such as through the constructionof dams and desalination plants as well as
increased recycling) are expected to address
40 per cent of this gap, but the remaining 60
per cent needs to come from investment ininfrastructure, water-policy reform and thedevelopment of new technology. In the absence of such investments or policy reforms,
water crises will be even more serious.

*The epidemic also spread into several other countries in South, Central and North America.
Source: World Bank, Water and Sanitation Programme (2008) and Tropp (2010) in UNEP (2011) Green Economy Report.

The five key dimensions of water security: indices and analysis
Key dimension 1: household water security
Measured by access to water supply and sanitation services across rural and urban communities and all income groups, with additional research in selected countries on sustainability
and new indicators explored for peri-urban and rural areas.
Key dimension 2: economic water security
Measured by efficiency and productivity of the major water-using sectors: agriculture, industry,and energy, with new indicators explored for allocative efficiencies to sustain security.
Key dimension 3: urban water security
Measured by supply efficiency, water-treatment technique, storm drainage and public involvement, with new indicators explored in a ‘water sensitive city’ framework.
Key dimension 4: river health
Measured as the capacity of river basins to maintain their functions and services underpressure and threat from pollution and land-use change, with new performance indicators
explored for river basin stewardship.
Key dimension 5: water resilience
Measured by risk and resilience from water-related disasters – floods, droughts, windstorms
and storm surges – with new indicators explored for adaptive capacity.
Water Security Index
Measured as an aggregate of the five key dimensions, with sub-regional comparison andhotspot analysis, and additional applications explored for cities, river basins and regions.
Source: Asian Development Bank
http://www.adb.org/Documents/Brochures/Water-Brief/awdo-a-preview.pdf
See also the article on Asian Water Development Outlook 2011 on page 18-19.

The availability of an adequate quantity ofwater, of sufficient quality, is a service provided by ecosystems. The management of,and investment in, ecosystems is therefore
essential to address water security for bothpeople and ecosystems in terms of water
scarcity, the over-abundance of water (floodrisk) and its quality.
Accelerated investment in water-dependent
ecosystems, in water infrastructure andin water management can be expected to
expedite the transition to a green economy.
Modelling suggests that, under the green
investment scenario, global water use canbe kept within sustainable limits and all the
MDGs for water achieved in 2015. With anannual investment of US$ 198 billion on
average over the next 40 years, water use
could be made more efficient, enabling increased agricultural, biofuel and industrial
production. By 2030 the number of people
living in a water-stressed region would befour per cent lower than under ‘businessas-usual’ conditions and up to seven percent less by 2050.
When investment is coupled with improvements in institutional arrangements, withentitlement and allocation systems, more
extensive payments for ecosystem services,
and improved water charging and funding
arrangements, the amount which needs to
be invested in water can be significantly
reduced. Moreover opportunities to improvewater management are being underminedby a significant proportion of water management policies and measures in other sectors,
such as input subsidies. Resolving global
water supply problems is heavily dependent upon the extent to which agricultural
water-use can be improved. Irrigated land
produces 40 per cent of the world’s food and,as populations grow, a significant proportionof this water will need to be transferred tourban, commercial and industrial uses.

Micro-scale infrastructure provision in Western Jakarta

Recent experience of private companies providing water to households

In Jakarta, Indonesia, a significant proportion of the population lives in informal settlements.
While the government does not want to legitimize the unlawful occupation of land, it realisesthat access to safe water and sanitary conditions is necessary. A private water utility, PALYJA,
is responsible for the water supply in Western Jakarta and is expected to supply water to all
residents, including those in informal settlements. To this end, PALYJA has a water-supply
contract with the government whereby it is paid for the cost of delivering water to users, andfor building and maintaining the necessary infrastructure.

The Phnom Penh Water Supply Authority in Cambodia has seen major changes between 1993
and 2009. The number of connections increased seven-fold, non-revenue water fell from 73
per cent to 6 per cent, collection efficiency rose from 48 per cent to 99.9 per cent, and total
revenues increased from US$ 300 000 to US$ 25 million, with a US$ 8 million operating
surplus. After receiving initial grants and soft loans from international financial institutions,the utility is now self-financing. Tariffs increased steeply in the early years, but they have been
held constant at around US$ 0.24 per m3 since 2001, because the combination of service
expansion, reduced water losses and high collection rates has guaranteed sufficient cashflow
to cover debt repayment and capital outlay.

As part of this process, PALYJA is trialling the provision of access to groups of informal houses
by establishing community-based organisations. Each organisation is given access to a single
master water meter and is responsible for the management of the community’s water-supply
infrastructure as well as paying for the volume of water taken. MercyCorps has helped connect
38 households to a single meter, while USAID’s Environmental Service Programme (ESP) has
brought 58 households together. Once established, the community signs a supply contract
with PALYJA, with a special tariff arrangement to account for the fact that many households
are using a single meter. Under this arrangement, both sides benefit: the community getsreliable access to an affordable waste supply, while PALYJA supplies a large number of houses
with water at much lower overhead and administrative costs.
Source: Fournier et al. (2010) in UNEP (2011) Green Economy Report

Balibago Waterworks Systems serves around 70 000 customers in a rural area of the Philippines. The business has grown by reaching out to adjacent towns and villages and asking each
community if it would like Balibago to build a network to supply them with piped water. When
Balibago does this, it begins by showing the community its regulated schedule of tariffs. The
community is then asked whether it wants access to piped water and is prepared to pay thescheduled price for access. Balibago has found that in many cases communities, which mightpreviously have relied on hand pumps and wells, now see this as an attractive proposition.
It makes good sense for the company’s investors too.
Source: Adapted from Global Water Intelligence (2010)

Environment & Poverty Times

07 2012Water supply in Asia in the future
Climate change, melting glaciers, contaminated water and water intensive industry and agriculture are some of the threats to water
security in Asia in the future. But action is taken in local communities, by nations and regions. What is being done, or can be done, tobring about a more sustainable future for water supply in Asia?

Climate-proofing wastewater treatment facilities is necessary in the face of climate change. Manila Water Company, Inc., one of the two
private concessionaires in the Manila metropolitan area, built an elevated facility to counter increased threats from flooding and overflowing rivers. Steve Griffiths

Revolutionisingwastewater managementin Asia-Pacific
By Maria Corazon Ebarvia and Anand
Chiplunkar
Parts of this article were first published in
the Asian Development Bank online water
e-newsletter for April 2011 and September
2011 (http://www.adb.org/Water/
enewsletter.asp?tab=2011#archive)
Many Asian and Pacific countries sufferfrom both the greatest lack of water and thepoorest quality. Some 477 million people in
the region have no access to a safe water supply, and 1.8 billion people have no access toimproved sanitation, according to the 2010
Joint Monitoring Report.
Most Asian cities also lack the infrastructure
to collect, treat and dispose of wastewater
properly. Open defecation, lack of improved
sanitation, and inadequate wastewater
management systems pollute the samewater bodies that we use for drinking, fishing, bathing and swimming. The AsianDevelopment Bank’s (ADB) Water Operational Framework consequently highlights

expanded wastewater management and reuse, including hygiene sanitation, as one of
the solutions to avert the water crisis in Asia.
Promoting a change of mindset for asanitation revolution
The sanitation and wastewater challenge is athreat to sustainable development. Although
there are opportunities to make sanitation
investments sustainable, taking advantage offavourable circumstances, a sanitation revolution is nevertheless needed with a completechange of mindset. At present good sanitation polices are being held back by lack ofinvestment, poor operation and maintenance,
coupled with the view that investing in sanitation and wastewater management is a deadend. A shift can be achieved by reducing costs
through efficiency gains, by recovering biogas
and using it to meet most of the operational
power requirements of treatment plant, andby boosting revenue through recovery ofnutrients and productive use of biosolids.
ADB has proposed a Regional Capacity Deve­lopment Technical Assistance scheme to pro-

mote an Asia-Pacific wastewater management
revolution. It aims to speed up wastewater
investments by disseminating examples ofexisting sustainable projects (knowledge
drive); promote technology options for different applications and end products (technology
drive); develop business briefs for sustainable
investment opportunities in typical existing
environments in Asia (financing and incentives
drive); and raise awareness through advocacy
not only to develop capacity but also to organize
meetings for all stakeholders to give substanceto identified business opportunities.
There are beacons of hope shining frominitiatives, large and small, in small villages
and major urban centres. The Second ADB –Developing Member Countries and Partners
Sanitation Dialogue (held in Manila on 23-25
May 2011) showcased working models forhousehold and environmental sanitation,and demonstrated ways to turn the sanitation challenge around.
It is critical to move away from high-energy solutions, or no treatment at all, towards somethingEnvironment & Poverty Times

07 2012

16 17

UNEP/GRID-Arendal

Enabling conditions, such as supporting an economic regulatory framework (ensuring collection of user fees and a fair return on investment),
and a Supreme Court decision requiring all related government agencies and utilities to clean up Manila Bay, have spurred investments insewerage, wastewater and septage management. Private concessionaires in the Manila metropolitan area are investing millions of dollars toincrease coverage and improve the water quality of rivers and the bay. Steve Griffiths

Constructed wetlands are a cost-effective wastewater treatment option, especially in per-urban and rural areas where land is available but
capital may be a constraint. At Bayawan, a second-class component city, the local government raised funds to build and operate a reed-bed
system in a coastal village. The treated wastewater is stored to supply water for gardens in the village and for fire-fighting. Steve Griffiths
affordable and doable. Many local governments
are turning towards decentralized wastewaterand sludge treatment facilities, which offer
more operationally effective solutions. Constructed wetlands, reed beds and duckweed
systems also provide low-cost treatment. Treatedwastewater from these systems is used for flushing toilets, watering plants, irrigation and firefighting, with savings on water bills.
A significant factor in successful public-private
partnership projects is the enabling environment and economic regulatory frameworkprovided by government, which reduces
investment risks. In the Philippines private
concessionaires will be investing about
US$ 2 billion to improve environmental sani­
tation in the Manila metropolitan area, even
without government subsidy. These companies
have also treated septage, sludge and biosolids,
turning them into organic soil-conditioners.
In Surat, India, domestic wastewater will betreated and sold for industrial use by a concessionaire. This will allow recovery of costs, improve water quality and augment water supply.
Biogas digesters connected to toilets supply
energy for lighting and cooking in manyrural areas in the region. Safe fertiliser from
eco-san toilets has turned some farmers into
entrepreneurs.
Examples that have allowed households togain access to improved sanitation include:innovative financing mechanisms as an incentive for households to invest in on-site sanitation systems and cities to invest in wastewater
management systems; the socialized corpus
fund in Orissa, India; a microfinancing andrevolving fund in central Vietnam; a revolving
credit pool scheme in Sri Lanka; output-based
aid in Nepal; and emerging social financing
schemes across Asia. To make sanitation
more viable, user fees are now being levied incities in China, Malaysia, Philippines andVietnam. Wastewater treatment facilities canearn income by generating energy as well asfrom carbon credits through the Clean Deve­lopment Mechanism. ADB has also developed
mechanisms, such as the operational support
fund in Pakistan and viability gap fund in
Kyrgyzstan, to allow utilities to recoup costs
and become a sustainable business.
Achieving sustainable sanitation
These success stories are still outweighed by
the challenges that remain. The need for effective and lasting partnerships and collective
efforts is increasingly urgent. The Sanitation
Dialogue, in Manila on 23-25 May 2011, emphasized the need for public-sector decisionmakers to work outside traditional silo-based
approaches. Several key messages stand out
in the Dialogue for implementing the Asia
Wastewater Management Revolution. It isessential to obtain commitments from political leaders and finance ministries to prioritize
sanitation investments. The socioeconomicand environmental costs of inaction on sanitation must be brought home to policy-makers
and those who allocate budgets. Benefits
derived and lessons learned are available fromcountries which have adopted national and/or
city sanitation policies and strategies.
It is time to move away from traditional
business methods. Sanitation does not end
with the provision of household toilets, but

includes wastewater collection, treatment,
disposal and/or reuse, and maintenanceof assets. Public and private-sector utilities
alike must adopt a corporate approach to service delivery. Governments must introduce
the necessary regulations and institutionalarrangements, to reduce risks and cover
operating and maintenance costs.
Wastewater management can make a substantial contribution to water security, as well
as food and energy issues. Wastewater must
be seen as a resource with potential financial
returns – from augmenting water supply for
irrigation, power cooling, industrial and nonpotable uses to producing fertiliser and energy– and opportunities for green employment.
It is vital to raise public awareness andmobilise the community. Stakeholder consultations, involvement and partnerships
are critical to overcome taboos and achieve
success by motivating communities, creating demand for improved sanitation andbuilding consensus on solution options.
Nor should the link between technology, andpolitical and social knowledge be overlooked.
Technology options are not widely known.
The lack of capacity to select appropriatetechnologies and apply them to local conditions has resulted in either political indifference or failed projects. For many Asian cities,
solutions can be implemented in phases overtime, both in terms of upgrading and rollingout new systems to provide greater treatment
and coverage. Circumstances vary from one
area to the next, providing an opportunity to
try a range of solutions.

Public funds must be optimized, with consideration for targeted subsidy schemes.
Public-funded support should supplement
sanitation markets, not replace them.
Government incentives should be better
geared to private-sector requirements, especially for long-term investments. Costs canbe recouped through innovative financing
mechanisms. The poor are willing to pay,
if they are given affordable, flexible payment terms.
Capacity must be developed, particularly at
local level. Such development – in sewage
treatment and proper reuse, packaging
bankable projects, procurement, asset
management and contract management– is essential to the short-term successand long-term sustainability of sanitation
improvements.
The Sanitation Dialogue revealed real, ongoing developments, which prove that household sanitation, wastewater management
and reuse are economically and financiallyrewarding, and debunk the assumption thatsanitation is an investment dead-end. In achanging world, innovative approaches andnew currents of thought offer alternative
avenues for decision-makers to explore.
Thus, with enough attention and action
from policy-makers, and financial movers
and shakers, Asia may well be on its way toa wastewater management revolution.
About the authors: Anand Chiplunkar is principal
water supply and sanitation specialist, and Maria
Corazon Ebarvia is a sanitation and wastewater
management specialist at ADB.

Environment & Poverty Times

07 2012Water supply in Asia in the future

Asian Water Development Outlook
2011, a preview
By Wouter Lincklaen Arriens
The forthcoming Asian Water Development
Outlook 2011 will, for the first time, provide
a comprehensive quantitative and analyticalview of the current state of water security
in the countries of the Asia-Pacific region.
Targeted to ministers of finance and planning, the document will provide guidelines
for investment with better governance toincrease water security in the years to come.
The Outlook, preceded by the inaugural
edition in 2007, was commissioned by the
Asian Development Bank (ADB) and theAsia-Pacific Water Forum (APWF), in advance of the second Asia-Pacific Water Summit in February 2012 in Bangkok, Thailand.
Five key dimensions of water security
Ten of Asia’s leading knowledge centres
have joined the collaborative team effort
to produce the Outlook, with input fromadvisers in all five sub-regions. In 2009 thisteam released their guiding vision for water
security. ‘Societies can enjoy water security
when they successfully manage their water
resources and services to:• satisfy household water and sanitationneeds in all communities;• support productive economies in agriculture and industry;• develop vibrant, liveable cities and towns;• restore healthy rivers and ecosystems; and• build resilient communities that can adapt
to change.’
These five dimensions listed above dependon better governance. With better governance come better prospects of prosperity
and lower poverty, greener growth, and resilience to the unprecedented transformations
unfolding in the region, including climate
variability and change.

ADB
many of the benefits from access to a clean,readily available water supply.
The social and economic returns on investments in water supply and sanitation
services are huge and compelling. At household level, every US$ 1 earns up to US$
46 in benefits to a poor family. For local
and national economies, the savings fromhealth care costs and gains from productivity, investment and competition are well
documented. Without strategic governanceto boost investments, increase social capitaland human resources, and ensure connectivity in ‘the last mile’, the crisis of inequitableand unsustainable services will deteriorate.
Leaders already have good, proven examples
from within the region which show what canbe achieved with the right mix and level ofinvestments, and smart governance.

The kind of governance needed to guide investments, however, is not much in evidence
in the region. The Outlook aims to inspire
finance and planning leaders. The economic
and social rationale for pursuing water security is strong and concerns everyone fromhouseholds and communities, through business sectors and cities, to river basins andincreasingly integrated sub-regions. Water security is vital for food and energy security, andfor more efficient industry and agriculture.
A preview of findings andrecommendations
Findings and validations have been collected from this first step in quantifying
the region’s water security levels. Three
key findings and recommendations arepreviewed here. They were presented to theWater Crisis and Choices Conference at ADB
Headquarters in October 2010.
Pervasive inequity holds back household water security
Official figures are not telling the wholestory of increased access to water supply andsanitation services as part of the Millennium
Development Goals. Where improvements
are achieved, they are often not provided
equitably. Urban and upper classes are connecting to services at a much higher rate
than rural and poor households. As a result,programmes that aim, but fail, to deliver
drinking water and sanitation facilities topoor households can actually exacerbate thesocial injustice that still characterizes many
cities and villages. There are also doubts
about the sustainability of the services onoffer and their real impact on households’social development. For example, if poor
sanitation is not addressed, it cancels out

The poor state of many rivers threatens
economic prosperity
Poor river health is a legacy of more than acentury of development practices, which havefailed to protect the integrity of natural and human systems in the region’s river basins. Water
pollution affects the economies, livelihoods,
and health of people in unprecedented ways.
Research shows that 80 per cent of the region’srivers are polluted or otherwise compromisedby unsustainable growth. Economic development, urbanization and climate change will
exacerbate the challenges facing river-basin
management in the coming decade.

ADB

Most countries in the region have alreadyadopted policies and legislation to foster
integrated water resources management(IWRM) in river basins. Choices must now
be made, supported by investment and better
governance, to use IWRM processes in river
basins to deliver balanced economic, social,and environmental results. To reduce pollution, nothing short of a ‘wastewater revolution’ will produce the necessary results. This

Environment & Poverty Times

07 2012

revolution calls for investments, incentives
to promote the right technologies, and better
governance. Leaders can draw inspirationfrom within the region to mobilise humanand financial resources to transform theirrivers; and in so doing, protect their economies, livelihoods and people.
High disaster risk and low resiliencesap economic development.
The Asia-Pacific region experiences moredisasters than any other region in the world.
Rapid growth, urbanization, environmental degradation and climate change havebrought new risks to the region’s water security. Several countries, especially Pakistan

18 19

UNEP/GRID-Arendal

and many Pacific island states, exhibit ahigh risk and low resilience to water-related
disasters. Climate variability and change
are expected to create even more hotspots
in the region.

tems will help communities build their own
ability to mitigate, adapt and recover quickly
from water-related hazards and disasters.
A repository of research and perspectives
The Asian Water Development Outlook 2011
will offer a wide range of findings and recom­
mendations covering all key dimensions ofwater security, illustrated with case studies
from across the region, and supported by
an extensive bibliography. The print publication will be supplemented by a DVD and a
website. Plans are being made to transformthe current research into a full-time regional
programme to support leaders in the AsiaPacific region for the years to come.

The region’s leaders have already agreed to
the Hyogo Framework of Action (2005–15).
Physical risks can be managed through a
combination of structural and non-structural
solutions. Financial risks can be managed
through pre-arranged agreements thatallow governments to respond swiftly, suchas catastrophe reserve funds and catastrophebonds. Credit for livelihood diversification,
structural measures and early warning sys-

Contributors: Assisting the author, Ravi Narayanan, Vice-Chair of the Asia-Pacific Water Forum
Governing Council is co-chairing the team producing the Asian Water Development Outlook 2011.
Ramesh Ananda Vaidya, Senior Adviser at theInternational Centre for Integrated Mountain
Development (ICIMOD), is the lead writer forthe main report. More information is available
on www.adb.org/water.
About the author: Wouter Lincklaen Arriens is
Lead Water Resources Specialist at ADB, and is
co-chairing the team producing the Asian Water
Development Outlook 2011.
*See also the box about the five dimensions ofwater security on page 15.

Watering Green Growth in Asia
Through efficient resource management
China
2,1

Indonesia
Industry as percentage of GDP, 2005

0,95

50

2,1
Thailand

1,3
3,5
40

Cambodia

4,2Vietnam

4,90,87
Mongolia

30

Japan

Singapore

Philippines

0,94
1,1 Lao PDR

20

10

0,6

0,87

0,7

Ecological Footprint
Global hectares per capita

0,8

0,9

1,0

Human Development Index, 2005
Source: World Bank, Global Footprint Network, online databases, accessed December 2011.

Resource Efficiency: Economics andOutlook for Asia Pacific – Water
Report published in September 2011
While the Asian and Pacific region strives forfurther economic growth, the region facessome of its toughest development challenges
in the coming decades. Population growth,changing water regimes and climates, andrising demand for energy, water and otherbasic necessities are likely to intensify overthe next few decades.
In the forthcoming Resource Efficiency
Economics and Outlook for Asia Pacific, produced by the United Nations Economic andSocial Commission for Asia and the Pacific,
Chapter 4, Water, explores trends in water
withdrawals in various sectors of the region
in the past, and predicts future trends. Someof the findings are presented here.
Water use across Asia and the Pacific
The report outlines the important factors
impacting water resources in the Asia-

Pacific region. In particular it looks atnatural resource endowment; pollution;
increased water usage; changing patternsof consumption; water extraction rates; ecological efficiency of water use; and long-termsustainability of water supply.
Many countries have been extracting waterin an unsustainable manner by withdrawing
more water per year than is available fromrenewable sources. The situation is serious
in Central Asia, particularly in Uzbekistan,
Turkmenistan and Tajikistan. These countries are already withdrawing more water
per year than is available from renewablesources. In South Asia, Pakistan, India and
Sri Lanka have also seen a large surge inextraction. In North East Asia large volumesof withdrawals indicate that China has also
been extracting water rapidly.
Agriculture takes a big percentage of thewater withdrawals in the region (81.5 percent of annual water withdrawals from1998-2002). Central Asia had the largest
water-intensity value for agricultural use at
18 315 litres per US$, coupled with the lowest productivity. Central Asia was using 63
per cent of total renewable water resources,more than twice the extraction of the othersub-regions (1998-2002).
Emerging trends
Water withdrawals are predicted to decline indeveloped nations but rise in their developing counterparts, further increasing pressure on water resources. By 2025 demand
for water withdrawal is set to rise by a factorof 1.3 in agriculture, 1.5 in industry and 1.8
for consumers.
An unsustainable trend is emerging in theregion with increasing water withdrawals
leading to over-extraction. The situationis serious in Central Asia, South Asia andincreasingly so in North East Asia. In par-ticular Central Asia is experiencing serious
challenges related to water use, with thehighest extraction for agriculture in the region. Central Asia also has the highest extraction per capita, and the lowest rate of water
efficiency and productivity for the region.
A need for international and crosssector collaboration
Today many river basins are already understress, complicated by strong competition for scant water resources between
households, industry and agriculture. All
sectors are expected to increase requirements for water withdrawal in the future.
Consequently, many of the world’s transboundary river basins will be stressed or
highly stressed, and the competition forthese resources will cause ongoing tension
between nations. These transboundarywater issues should be addressed in an
equitable and transparent manner using anegotiated international process.

Environment & Poverty Times

07 2012Water Management in Asia and Green Growth 20

Moving towards a low carbon green growth
Energy efficiency in Asia selected countries

GDP per unit of energy use
Constant 2005 PPP $ per kilogram of oil equivalent

2.9

Mongolia

1980
2009

0.9

3.7

China
4.8

3.6

3.7

4.3

Indonesia

Vietnam

4.8

Thailand
3.0

5.1

5.2

5.7

Cambodia

India

5.2

Malaysia
5.1

5.4

South Korea
5.6

6.4

7.9
7.0

Philippines

12.5

7.9

Japan

Singapore

Source: World Bank, online database, accessed December 2011.

RICCARDO PRAVETTONI - 2011

Dear reader,
Clean, safe and accessible water for all isessential for a healthy life, livelihoods andcommunities everywhere. Water Management and Resource Efficiency for Green
Growth in East Asia is the focus for the
7th issue of the Environment & Poverty
Times. GRID-Arendal has been working
with UNEP Regional Office for Asia andthe Pacific to identify inspiring examples
and stories implemented by individual
business, communities, governments andorganisations in the region.
The last decades have taught us that due
to a lack of sustainability perspectives
in economic development or poor infrastructure, every year millions of people diefrom diseases associated with inadequate
water supply, sanitation and hygiene. Clean
freshwater resources are depleted or are inaccessible resulting in water scarcity, poor
water quality and inadequate sanitation. By
2050, at least one in four people is likely
to live in a country affected by chronic orrecurring shortages of freshwater – manyof them in South and East Asia.
This issue of Environment & Poverty Timesfeatures stories about water management,

Environment & Poverty Times No. 7
policies, and practices for clean technologies to trigger a Low Carbon Green Growth
path in South and East Asia.
You can read snapshots of inspiring cases
highlighting themes such as water footprint,
the use of water for industrial purposes,
water pollution and community based
initiatives. Stories show that significant
gains can be made by introducing measuresfor efficiency and green growth, whilstbuilding resilience and supporting moresustainable livelihoods and reduce poverty.
Environment & Poverty Times aims to be ofinterest not only to professionals working
in the area of sustainable development,
but also to the general public. By providing stories, interviews, maps, charts, andpictorials it attempts to demonstrate someof the potential wealth of perspectives andinitiatives in the region.
If you want to read this or previous issuesof the Environment & Poverty Times on
the net, please stop by at http://www.grida.
no/publications/et – and tell your friends!
Enjoy reading!

Published by GRID-Arendal
The UN House, Teaterplassen 3
PO Box 183
N-4802 Arendal
Fax: +47 37 03 50 50
www.grida.no
grid@grida.no
Chief Editor: Anne Solgaard
Editorial team: Rannveig Rivedal Nilsen, Janet Fernandez Skaalvik (GRID-Arendal),Stefanos Fotiou, Tunnie Srisakulchairak (UNEP Regional Office for Asia & the Pacific)
Editorial support: Laura Carlon, Sahon Flan
Copy editors: Harry Forster and Sheila Carrodus, Interrelate, Grenoble
Editorial Committee: Le-Huu Ti (UN Economic and Social Commission for Asia andthe Pacific), David Molden (ICIMOD), Ermina Sokou (UN Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific), Michael Rock (Bryn Mawr College)
Cartography: Riccardo Pravettoni
Illustrations: Nieves Lopez
Special thanks to all contributors without whom this work would not have been possible.
The views expressed in this publication are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of
UNEP, GRID-Arendal or any co-operating agency. The designations employed and the presentation of material
do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of UNEP, GRID-Arendal or co-operating
agencies concerning the legal status of any country, territory or city or its authorities, or concerning thedelimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. Mention of a commercial company or product in this paper does
not imply endorsement by UNEP or GRID-Arendal. The use of information from this publication concerning
priority products for publicity or advertising is not permitted. GRID-Arendal would appreciate receiving a
copy of any publication that uses this publication as a source.

Printed at Agderposten Trykk, Norway
February 2012. 6,000 copies
Also available online atwww.grida.no/publications/et/ep7

This publication was prepared as an outreach activity under East Asia Climate Partnership (EACP), which is South Korea's international development-cooperation project. Through the partnershipwith developing countries, it aims to share the green growth paradigm to the Asian region in order to have sustainable development while coping with climate change.