Unit 2. A Bibliography of JapaneseClassics
OCHIAI Hiroshi, National Institute of Japanese Literature

Summary
Texts produced in Japan until 1867 (the last year of the Edo period: 1603–1867) are collectively
known as the Japanese classics (Nihon koten baku 日本古典籍). This corpus of Japanese classics
spans more than 1,200 years of Japanese literary history, beginning with the earliest Japanesetext, the Hokke Gisho 法華義疏. This unit covers the basic issues that warrant consideration
while engaging with this corpus.

1. Constitutive Elements of Japanese Classics
Physical Elements
These are the elements that constitute a physical book. Many of these elements were initiallypresent, while others were added or modified later.
Sōtei 装訂

Shokei 書型

Sōtei means ‘bookbinding’. This is the format in which the book wasassembled from paper sheets and other elements. Japanese classics fall into
three broad sōtei formats: kansubon 巻子本, orihon 折本, and sasshibon 冊子
本 (see 2).
Shokei means ‘book size’. Sasshibon books generally had a standardised size.
Size formats for manuscripts included shihanbon 四半本 and rokuhanbon 半
本六. Size formats for printed books from the Edo period include ōhon 大本

and hanshibon 半紙本. Non-standardised formats include tatenagabon 縦長本, tokudaibon 特大本, and tokushōbon 特小本.
Hyōshi means ‘book cover’ or the outer element that covers and binds the
Hyōshi 表紙
pages containing the main text.
Other elements Other elements include mikaeshi 見返し, asobigami 遊紙, tobira 扉, hanshin
版心, nodo 咽, koguchi 小口, and se 背.

Ryōshi 料紙

Ryōshi means ‘sheet material’—the material on which the main text was
written (excluding the book cover).

Content Elements
These are non-physical elements related to the content of the book, including textual elements.
As with physical elements, many of these were initially present, and others were added or
modified later.
Shomei 書名

Shomei means ‘book title’. Japanese texts generally displayed a title(daiki 題記). These titles are broadly divided into two categories: 1)
gedai 外題 (‘outer title’), which appear on the front cover, and 2)
naidai 内題 (‘inner title’), which appear inside the body of the book.
Naidai are further divided into subcategories based on where they are
positioned inside the book.
Gedai 外題
Gedai are titles that appear on the front cover. Some gedai were
written on an attached strip called a daisen 題簽, while others were
written directly on the cover.
Mikaeshidai 見返し題
A subcategory of naidai, mikaeshidai are titles that appear on the maemikaeshi 前見返し or the information displayed on the overleaf of thefront cover. Mikaeshidai are generally absent in early printed books
and pre-Edo texts.
Jodai 序題 and batsudai 跋題
Jodai and batsudai are subcategories of naidai. Jodai are titles thatappear before a jo 序—a foreword—while batsudai are titles thatappear before a batsu 跋—an afterword.
Mokurokudai 目録題
A subcategory of naidai, mokurokudai are titles that appear in thetable of contents.
Kanshudai 巻首題
A subcategory of naidai, kanshudai are titles that appear at the start ofthe main text. Narrowly defined, kanshudai are usually naidai.
Bidai 尾題A subcategory of naidai, bidai are titles that appear at the end of themain text.

Hashiradai 柱題 (a common term for hanshin shomei 版心書名)
Hashiradai are titles that appear on the ‘pillar’ (hashira 柱), which
denotes the ‘centre of the printing plate’ (hanshin 版心), for a leaf ofprinted sasshibon texts. Hashiradai is a common but informal term
and is often used as shorthand for ‘book title’. Hanshin shomei is amore apposite term.
Honbun means ‘main text’. The main text can include illustrations andHonbun 本文
may, in some cases, consist entirely of pictures. It differs from thenarrow meaning, in which the main text is juxtaposed with annotative
elements.
Mokuroku means ‘table of contents’— the element listing the chapter
Mokuroku 目録
or section titles. Multivolume titles sometimes display a separate tableof contents in each volume or a consolidated table of contents for allvolumes in the first volume.
Chosaku jōhō 著作情報 Chosaku jōhō means ‘authorship information’. This information
includes the author’s name and the publication’s background. It issometimes written by the author and added later at other times. It canbe found between the kanshudai and main text, after the main text, oron the mae-mikaeshi.
Jo 序 and batsu 跋
Jo 序 means ‘foreword’, and batsu 跋 means ‘afterword’. Forewords
and afterwords were generally written by the authors or someone
connected to them. However, sometimes people from distinguishedfamilies (meika 名家) were asked to write them, or they were added
later.
An okugaki is a note containing information such as the date, name,Okugaki 奥書
and circumstances of transcription, added at the end of a manuscriptby a person involved in transcribing the book. They are divided into
hon-okugaki 本奥書 and shosha-okugaki 奥書書写 (see 3).
Kanki means ‘publication details’. Like a colophon, it contains
Kanki 刊記
information such as the date of publication and the publisher’s details.
Kanki can appear at the end of the book or on the mae-mikaeshi.
A shikigo is a note added by the holder of the book. It can appear at
Shikigo 識語
the end of the book as an okugaki does. In other cases, it appears in the
opening section or the margins (see 3).
Kaki’ire can be ruby for Chinese script or annotative glossing or otherKaki’ire 書き入れ
notes added between lines or in the margins. Some kaki’ire are uniqueto a particular edition. In other cases, the kaki’ire were copied acrossfrom the original manuscript or another edition.
Shozō jōhō 所蔵者情報 Shozō jōhō means ‘holder information’. Book holders would indicate
their ownership of the book by stamping it with a seal known aszōsho-in 蔵書印 or affix a holder’s signature known as a shozōshomei 所蔵署名.

2. Sōtei (Bookbinding) Formats Used inJapanese Classics
Distinctive Bookbinding Features of Japanese Classics
Three features distinguish sōtei 装訂 or classical Japanese bookbinding formats from those usedin other classical texts of the world:
1. Numerous sōtei formats were used. There are three main categories (kansubon, orihon, andsasshibon) and numerous subcategories within the sasshibon category.
2. Early sōtei formats remained in use across a wide timespan. When new formats wereintroduced, they did not supersede older formats; the older formats continued to be usedalongside newer ones.
3. Some sōtei formats were exclusive to manuscripts and were not used in printed books,
while others were used in printed books but only for certain genres. These features relate to
the fact that in classic Japanese literature, manuscripts prevailed as the primary format, andprinted books were derived from them. In China and Europe, the advent of printing allowed theprinted book to replace the former as the dominant form of publication. However, in Japan, themanuscript continued to be valued for centuries.
The categories and subcategories of sōtei are outlined below. ‘Never for print’ indicates that theformat was exclusive to manuscripts. ‘Rarely for print’ indicates that the format was used inprinted books but not commonly observed.

Kansubon formats

Kansubon 巻子本Rarely for print

Definition: A format similar to the Western scroll, the kansubon
comprises a length of horizontally aligned sheets, pasted together edge
to edge, and then wound around a central roller called a jiku 軸. The
reader unrolls the pages from left to the right, with the jiku held to theleft. In a design feature known as the hassō 八双, the outer edge of thehyōshi (front cover) is folded to form a flap, and a thin strip of bamboo
or other arboreal material is inserted within. A string is then attached tothe core strip to tie it.

Notable features: The reader can unroll the pages as far as desired.
However, it may take time for them to access a specific passage ofinterest. Annotative text can be added to the reverse side of a page,
known as the shihai 紙背.
History: The kansubon format was first used for the earliest extant
Japanese text, the Hokke Gisho (7th century). All Japanese texts were
kansubon until the Nara period (710–94).
Use: Kansubon remained a popular format even in later times,
particularly for primarily pictorial publications (such as emaki 絵巻) andthose related to religion or the arts. It arguably lent itself well to theesoteric nature of certain religion- and art-related texts—its format
prevented easy access to the contents. This format was primarily
reserved for manuscripts. It is sometimes used in printed books but only
in a limited range of texts; these include Buddhist sutras and mokokubon
模刻本 (printed copies of manuscripts).
Notes: Note that some kansubon were reassembled from dismantled
sasshibon (particularly, sensōbon). In such cases, this may be labelled inparentheses—e.g. ‘kansubon (sensōbon alteration)’ 巻子本 (袋綴改装).
When a kansubon has been altered from a sensōbon, it is relatively easy
to discern this from the fold running down the centre of the page.

Tsugigami 継紙
Rarely for print

Definition: Like the kansubon, this format comprises a length ofhorizontally aligned sheets that have been pasted together edge to edge.
However, this format differs from the kansubon—instead of using a jiku
or front cover, the sheets are simply fastened.
Notable features: This format has similar features to the kansubon,
except that it is simpler because it lacks a jiku and front cover.
Notes: When the sheets are rolled like a kansubon, the format issometimes known as misō kansubon 未装巻子本 or makigami 巻紙.
However, tsugigami is a more apposite term, as not all tsugigai arerolled up like a scroll.

Orihon formats

Orihon 折本

Definition: The orihon comprises a length of horizontally aligned
sheets in a format similar to a concertina book. They are pasted together
edge to edge and folded in alternating directions (mountain, then valley,
and so on) at regular intervals.
Notable features: The reader can expand the book as far as desired.
Although the sheets are spliced similarly to the kansubon, unlike akansubon, the reader can quickly access the page of interest, similar to
how one may access part of the concertina brochure. Another differenceis that both sides of the page can be used in the same manner.
History: The earliest extant examples of the kansubon format is from thetwelfth century. One is Benshō’s 1158 transcription of the Shinshū JōdoŌjōden 新修浄土往生伝, held by the Tōdai-ji temple.
Use: Kansubon remained a popular format in later times, but there are
no known publications that exclusively used orihon. Both handwritten
and printed Buddhist sutras often used this format, reflecting theinfluence of printed sutras in China.
Notes: Note that some kansubon were reassembled from dismantled
sasshibon (particularly, sensōbon). In such cases, this may be labelled inparentheses—e.g. ‘kansubon (sensōbon)’ 折本 (巻子本改装). When akansubon had been reconstructed from a sensōbon, it is relatively easy tospot this from the fold running down the centre of the page.

Orijō 折帖
Never for print

Definition: The orijō comprises a length of thick sheets of a particularsize. The sheets are aligned horizontally, bound together, and folded
along the joint.
Notable features: Like the orihon, the reader can quickly access thesection of interest, and both sides of the page can be used in the samemanner.
History: Picture books known as tekagami 手鑑 started being publishedaround the close of the Muromachi period (1336–1573). The orijō likely
came into use around then.
Use: This format was adopted in picture books such as tekagami andtanzakujō 短冊帖, which were designed as material for aesthetic
appreciation and not as reading material. There are no known cases of a
printed book using this format.

Notes: The orijō is morphologically similar to the orihon but is different
in that the joint and the fold are unrelated in orihon.

Senpūyō 旋風葉

Definition: The senpūyō comprises an orihon with a cover (hyōshi)wrapping the entire book.
Notable features: The inner sheets are concertinaed, like the sheets of an
orihon, but they do not expand to the left and right like a concertina.
Instead, the pages flutter out like the wings of a butterfly, with the gutter
at the centre. This meant the reader could view only one or two pages at
a time. Another difference is that the reverse side was not used.
Use: This format was probably only used for Buddhist sutras.
Notes: Examples of this format are rare. This format is distinguishedfrom the orihon because, although the pages are formed in the sameway, the senpūyō bears few of the features of an orihon, suggesting that
it is a different format. It can also be considered an uncommon form of
the orihon.

Sasshibon formats

Fukurotoji 袋綴

Definition: In this format, the sheets are each folded in half and stacked.
The loose edges (the edges on the opposite side of the fold) are thenstitched together with thread or paper strips called koyori 紙縒, forminga spine. After provisionally fastening the sheets with koyori, the spine
would sometimes be bound once more with thread.
History: Instances of this format start to appear during the eleventh
century in the latter part of the Heian period (794–1185). The earliest
example is Kahō’s Sho Butsu-bosatsu Shakugi 諸仏菩薩釈義 (a 1094–
95 reproduction formerly held by Shōren-in and an edition currently
held by Shōren-in). Earlier samples generally use koyori for binding.
Threads began to be used during the middle of the Kamakura period(Kamakura period: 1185–1333).
Use: Fukurotoji binding was used in both manuscripts and printed
books. It was the most common bookbinding format in classicalJapanese literature.

Notes: This format typically used thin, low-quality sheets.

Origamitoji 折紙綴
Rarely for print

Definition: This format is similar to fukurotoji, except that the sheets areorigami (folded landscape or half-sized). The spine-side edges werebound with thread or koyori, as with fukurotoji.
Notable features: The pages are wide and slender, with an aspect ratioof around 1:3 (this would be around 2:3 in the case of half-sized sheets).
History: Instances of this format start to appear during the early
fourteenth century, at the end of the Kamakura period. One earlyexample is the Renga Kaishi 連歌懐紙 (held at Shōmyō-ji).
Use: This format was mostly used for manuscripts, although it wasoccasionally used for ledgers and records. Memo sheets used for writingverse (such as renga and haikai) use this format. Origamitoji wassometimes used in printed books but only for certain genres. This
included popular fiction, known as ukiyo-zōshi 浮世草子, published by
Hachimonjiya 八文字屋, as well as printed records.
Notes: This format typically used thin, low-quality sheets. However, thememo sheets used for writing verse comprised thicker and better-quality
sheets, including those known as tori-no-kogami 鳥の子紙. Ledgers that
adopted this format are often known as nagachōtoji 長帳綴 or
yokochōtoji 横帳綴, but origamitoji is appropriate to use as a genericterm for this format.

Decchōsō 粘葉装
Rarely for print

Definition: In this format, the sheets are folded in half, stacked, and thenglued together (rather than stitched) at a gluing tab near the fold. Thistab is called norishiro 糊代.
Notable features: The way the pages are folded and glued together
creates an alternating pattern in which the right and left pages (recto andverso) of one folio would open up to the spine (se), followed by those of
the next folio, which would open up to the norishiro tab, and so on.
History: Publications using this format started appearing in the tenthcentury, in the middle of the Heian period. One early example is the
Sokusai Goma Shiki 息災護摩私記 (a manuscripts created in 937 held
at Ishiyama-dera). Initially, this format was used often for Buddhist texts
and poetry books. In the Meiji period (1868–1912), the format was used

in a Buddhist text that set out the rites used in the Shingon
denomination: the Masugatahon 桝形本.
Use: This format was reserved for Buddhist texts, including Kōya
publications and publications of the Jōdo denomination.
Notes: As both sides of the page were written on, this format used thick
paper to prevent the printed ink from being seen from the other side of
the page.

Recchōsō (orRetsujōsō) 列帖装
Rarely for print

Definition: In this format, several sheets (five to ten) were stacked, andthe stack was then folded in half. Multiple folded stacks (each known asa hito-kukuri 括一り or hito-ori 折一) were then bound together withthread.
Notable features: You could increase the number of leaves/folios (chō丁) by adding more kukuri (as people would with a daifukuchō 大福帳,
for example).
History: Examples of this format include the tenth-century Buddhist
publications Kongō Yakusha Giki 剛薬叉金儀軌 and Ichiji Giki 一字儀
軌 (both held by Ishiyama-dera), the eleventh-century Buddhist
publication Atsuzōshi 造敦紙 (held by Kanshū-ji), and the eleventhcentury poetry compendium Kokin Waka Shū 古今和歌集 (Sekidobon
edition).
Use: Examples of this format in printed literature are limited to texts
such as yōkyoku 謡本 (Noh lyrics), shōmyō 声明 (incantations used in
Shingon Buddhism), and wasan 和讚 (Japanese translations of Buddhist
hymns, used in Jōdō Buddhism).
Notes: As both sides of the page were written on, this format used torino-kogami, a strong tissue known as choshi 楮紙, and other thick paper.
The stacks were typically bound together by punching four holes near
the fold (two at each end) and passing the thread through them. In theearliest examples, koyori was used instead of thread. These examples are
sometimes called tecchōsō 綴葉装. The name tecchōsō is not anappropriate term to refer to a specific sōtei format because it iscommonly used in sasshibon formats other than decchōsō and gajōsō.

Origami-recchōsō 折 Definition: This format is similar to recchōsō, except that it uses sheets
folded in half.
紙列帖装
Never for print

Use: There are no known cases of a printed book using this format.
Notes: Typically, thin paper was used. It is inappropriate to call thisformat sōyō-recchōsō.

Gajōsō 画帖装

Definition: In this format, sheets are folded in half and then glued
together at the norishiro tab, outside the edges parallel to the fold.
Sometimes, both sides of the fold were glued too, as with decchōsō.
Notable features: This format is similar to oribon and orijō, except thatthe reverse side of the page is not used.
History: Examples of this format started appearing in the 18th century,of the latter Edo period, meaning the format came relatively late.
Use: This format was used for picture books so that multiple images
could be displayed on a single, seamless page. Most examples are
printed, and a few are manuscripts.
Notes: Given the rarity of this format among classic Japanese texts, it
may have first emerged in printed books.

Other sasshibon formats are outlined below.
Tanyōsō 単葉装
Rarely for print

Definition: In this format, sheets are stacked, unfolded, and bound at theedge with thread or koyori.
Use: This format was not associated with any particular genre.
Notes: As both sides of the page were written on, this format used thick
paper that prevented the printed ink being seen from the other side of thepage.

Sōyōsō 双葉装
Never for print

Definition: This format is similar to decchōsō—the sheets are folded inhalf and stacked, but the folded ends are bound together, using thread or
koyori, but without gluing. Accordingly, unlike the decchōsō, no set of
facing pages would ever open up to the spine (se).

History: This format came into use during the Heian period. An earlyexample is a kashū 家集 (waka poetry collection) from the Reizei familycollection.
Use: This format is often seen in Buddhist texts of the Tendai and JōdōShinshū denominations. There are no known cases of a printed bookusing this format.
Notes: Some sōyōsō books are the product of repairing a decchōsō bookafter their pages came unstuck. These cases should be categorised
separately from sōyōsō.

Origami-sōyōsō 折紙 Definition: This format is similar to sōyōsō, except that it uses origami
sheets.
双葉装
Rarely for print

Notable features: The pages are folded in the landscape format, creatinga 2:3 aspect ratio.
History: This format came into use during the Muromachi period.
Use: The format was adopted in a wide variety of genres of handwritten
literature. It rarely features in printed works. These rare cases include
Rokujō Yōmon 六帖要文 and Shichijō Yōmon 七帖要文 (both printed
from a movable type known as ko katsuji ban 古活字版).
Notes: This format typically used thin paper.

Tanjōsō 単帖装
Never for print

Definition: This format is similar to recchōsō, except that it comprises
only one folded stack.
History: This format came into use during the thirteenth century, aroundthe early to middle part of the Kamakura period. Examples include the
Tōroku Shū 藤六集 and Toshiyuki Ason Shū 敏行朝臣集 (both from the
Reizei family collection). This format may have come into use after therecchōsō did.
Use: The format was adopted in a wide variety of genres of handwritten
literature, including Buddhist texts, poetry, and yōkyoku. There are no
known cases of a printed book using this format.
Notes: Where the recchōsō typically had four holes around the fold, atanjōsō book has only two.

Challenges faced by researchers for sōtei formats inJapanese classics
Categorising and defining the formats: Categorisations and definitions must be coherent andconsistent.
Naming the formats: Names must be coherent and consistent.
In each case, you must consider the historical context (when, how, and why the format came intouse) and how the format relates with other physical and textual elements of the book.

3. Okugaki and Shikigo in Manuscripts,
Kanki in Printed Books
Shaki in manuscripts, kanki in printed books
In printed books, the kanki (colophon) was typically printed at the end of the book, but it was
sometimes printed on the mae-mikaeshi. Regardless of where it appeared, information about the
publication of the book should always be called ‘kanki’. An equivalent rule applies inmanuscripts. Specifically, information about the transcription sometimes appears in locations
other than the end of the book or scroll. Wherever it appears, the information should be calledshaki 写記 for consistency. Thus, in the hierarchy of nomenclature, shaki is a category above
okugaki (such that the latter is a subcategory of the former) and is the counterpart of kanki for
manuscripts.
Nevertheless, where kanki were often printed in the mae-mikaeshi (instead of, or as well as, atthe end of the book), the equivalent for manuscripts was almost always an okugaki—written at
the end of the book or volume. Accordingly, I primarily use the term okugaki to refer to suchinformation.

Hon-okugaki and shosha-okugaki
Okugaki in manuscripts are subdivided into hon-okugaki 本奥書 and shosha-okugaki 書写奥書.
Hon-okugaki were added to the original manuscript. In the context of handwritten Japaneseclassics, an original manuscript is called the hon 本; hence, hon-okugaki implies ‘okugaki fromoriginal manuscript’. Conversely, shosha-okugaki are okugai concerning a transcript. Shoshaokugaki are unique to a particular transcription. In other cases, an identical hon-okugaki
sometimes appear across multiple manuscripts.
No other subcategories exist; an okugaki can only ever be a hon-okugaki or shosha-okugaki. If
multiple identical okugaki exist, the earliest can be considered the hon-okugaki. Other indicationsof a hon-okugaki include the okugaki being preceded by the word honden 本云 and the scribe’sname being proceeded by the character 判 (a note indicating that a kaō 花押 signature waswritten there). However, the latest instance of an okugaki may not always be a shosha-okugaki(i.e. it may not always be the okugaki that was written in a transcript of the original manuscript).
When a hon-okugaki was transcribed, the scribe would not always indicate that the okugaki wasa transcription. In other words, a scribe’s name is not always signed when they transcribe an
original manuscript. Similarly, when there is only one okugaki, it does not necessarily imply that
it is a shosha-okugaki. The question arises: how can you tell whether the okugaki is a honokugaki or shosha-okugaki?
Unfortunately, there is no single, assured rule of thumb for determining this. In most cases, you
would depend on your experience, considering a range of factors such as paper quality, ink,
calligraphic style, and book cover. The same goes for dating a transcript that lacks an okugaki.

Okugaki and shikigo
In printed books, a note about the book and its authorship should always be called a shikigo,
regardless of where it appears. The same rule applies to manuscripts; information about the bookand its authorship, which was written after the time of transcription, should be called a shikigo
for coherence and consistency regardless of where it appears. Some may then wonder how ashikigo, appearing at the end of a manuscript, can be distinguished from an okugaki. A rule ofthumb is that the note is only an okugaki if it indicates the transcription date and the scribe’s
name.
Some shikigo state how the book in question differs from or is similar to other books, how theperson in question obtained the book, that the person was bequeathed the book, or if the person
identified the book’s author.