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新聞用紙製造技術の系統化調査
Survey on Technologies Developed in Newsprint Production in Japan飯田

清昭

Kiyoaki Iida■

要旨

紙は 2000 年前に発明されてから文明の媒体として普及してきた。 そして、 産業革命の時代を経て、 大量生産の技術が開発され、 現在へとつながっている。
日本では、 7 世紀に伝わり手漉き和紙として発展するが、 一方では明治時代と共に西欧流の機械力による大量生産方式の技術が導入され、 製紙産業が生まれ変わった。 しかし、 第 2 次世界大戦により壊滅状態となる。
その中から、 いち早く世界第 2 位の生産国にまで復興した。 近年の中国の大躍進により 3 位となっているが、依然として世界の中で重要な紙の生産国である。
紙は、 毎日眼にするためその変化に気づかないが、 50 年前のものと比較すると原料や品質が大きく変わっており、また、生産設備も飛躍的に高性能化・高効率化している。 この報告では、この戦後の技術開発を対象とする。
1950 ‐ 60 年代は、 国内材を原料とし、 原木の集荷の容易な場所に日産 100 ‐ 200 トンの工場が全国に分散 ・存在していた。 紙の需要が増してくると、 原料不足に見舞われた。 また輸入関税が徐々に廃止され、 国際競争が課題となってきた。 その過程で、 決定的に産業の形態に影響を与えたのは海外からの専用船によるチップ輸入であった。 これは日本の独自開発技術であるが、 これにより国内原料に縛られずに、 大型の設備を持ち、 パルプから紙までを一貫して生産する工場が可能となった。 その結果、 生産量も日産 3000 トンになる世界レベル
での大型工場が生まれてきた。
さらに、 日本は狭い国土で、 1 億人が世界トップレベルで紙を使用している （一人当たり紙消費 ： 240kg/ 年）。
この大量の古紙が身近で入手できることが利点となる。 1980 年以降、 新聞古紙を新聞用紙の製造に利用することを可能にし、 新たな競争力を生み出した。 現在、 新聞用紙の古紙パルプの使用率は 70％に達する。 この独自の形態 （チップ輸入と古紙利用） を生み出したことが世界に伍して製紙大国であり続けることを可能にした。
この原料の開発とともに日本の製紙産業を支えたものに生産技術がある。 生産技術とは、 生産性の高い設備を（設備の生産性）、 効率よく操業し （操業効率）、 信頼性のある製品を競争力のある価格 （コスト・パフォーマンス）
で市場に供給することであろう。 まず、 生産性の向上について考察する。 1960 年以降は米･欧で開発された設備が日本の代表的な設備メーカーの手により日本に導入されることとなる。 日本の製紙産業は、 それらの設備を世界に率先して導入して、 そのつど設備を大型化し、 生産性を改善してきた。 例えば、 1950 年代の抄紙機は幅 3.5m で抄速 300m/ 分程度が標準であったが、 2000 年では 10m 幅で 1800m/ 分が稼動している。 そこには、新設備の可能性を評価し、 実用化する能力と、 それに投資するリスクをとる意思があったといえる。 また、 その過程で、 単なる設備の購入者でなく、 製造上の必要な改良・開発を、 関連する産業と一緒になって追求してきた。
そして、 日本で積み上げられたノウハウが世界に広がっていたものも数多くある。 そこには、 技術開発を通して関連する業界との間に深い信頼が存在している。
実は、 その設備を効率よく操業しているところに日本の技術の特徴がある。 日本では抄紙機の総効率 90% 以上が普通であるが、 海外ではまずありえない数値である。 これは、 単に抄紙機のみでなく、 工場全体が適切に管理運営されてはじめて可能で、 長年を通してつくりあげられた工場の文化とでも言うべきものがそれを支えている。 そして、 この工場文化は、 技術交流や海外投資により少しずつ海外に広まっている。
もう一つの特徴は、製品の信頼性である。 これには、日本の新聞社の品質要求の厳しさが大きく作用しているが、ユーザーニーズをできる限り満足させる姿勢が日本独自の信頼性の高い製品を生み出し、 国際商品である新聞
用紙がほとんど輸入されない状況になっている。
このように独自の形態を作り上げてきた日本の製紙産業は、新しい局面に立たされている。 紙（新聞用紙を含め）は GDP と共に需要が増加し、 製紙産業はそれを足場に国内市場の確保を目標にしてきた。 しかし、 今後は、今までのような国内市場の伸びが期待できないことから、 国際的な展開が求められる。 それには、 世界的に見ると特殊な日本のユーザーの要求を満たしながら、 国際的に価格競争できる製品を開発する技術力が求められる。

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Abstract

Paper and the process of making it were invented 2,000 years ago. Since then, paper has been used worldwide
as a carrier of information for civilization. The process of making paper was modified to that of mass production in
the industrial revolution and was developed to recent modern papermaking.
The original papermaking method arrived in Japan in the 7th century and evolved as the hand-made washi
industry until the Meiji era. Then, the mass-production process was introduced from abroad, and a new kind of
paper industry started in Japan. That industry was completely ruined in World War II. The paper industry,
however, quickly recovered and became the second largest producer in the world within a short time. Though therecent big expansion in China forced Japan to the third largest producer, Japan is still an important player in theworld.
As we see paper everyday, we do not notice that its quality is quite different from that of fifty years ago. The
process of making paper also advanced significantly resulting in increased productivity and efficiency of
production. The technological development of manufacturing paper in the last fifty years is the subject of thispaper.
In the 1950s and 1960s, paper mills in Japan were located in areas where wood resources were available, andtheir capacities were 100 to 200 tons per day. Then, increasing demand for paper caused a wood shortage, andthe newsprint market became open to imports as tax barriers were gradually reduced. The Japanese paperindustry had to compete with technological efforts. One important technological development in the industry,
which started in 1964, was to import wood chips from abroad by chip carriers. The industry became free from thelimit of domestic wood supply and could build large integrated pulp and paper mills near ports, which could harborlarge ships. Now, several mills are producing more than 3,000 tons of paper per day, which is the largest
production capacity in the world.
The population of Japan is about 127 million people. They live on small islands and consume 240 kg of paper per
capita in a year. This means that a large amount of waste paper is available. The technology of recycling old
newsprint to newsprint production has been developed since the 1980s. Now, up to 70% of the total pulp ofJapanese newsprint is recycled fiber. This unique use of the resources, imported chips and recycled fiber, enables
Japan to remain one of the biggest paper producers in the world.
Along with the resource development, technological efforts in production in the paper industry have also helped
Japan to be competitive internationally. The technological capability of production is defined as having equipmentof high productivity, operating it with high efficiency, and producing products with high reliability and good cost
performance.
In the 1960s, Japanese equipment makers became licensees of the leading foreign equipment suppliers andintroduced the newest technologies to the Japanese paper industry. Japanese paper companies were open andquick to invest in those technologies and improve their productivity. For example, ordinary paper machines in the
1950s were 3.5 m wide and ran at the speed of 300 m/min. In 2000, the widths were 10 m and the running speeds
were 1,800 m/min. That demonstrates that Japanese paper companies were able to understand the benefit andrisk of investing in new technologies. They also worked together with suppliers, modified the equipment, andaccumulated know-how about the equipment, some of which were transferred worldwide. There has been atrustful relationship between paper companies and equipment suppliers in Japan.
One of the characteristics of the Japanese technology is to operate equipment with a high efficiency. Operating
efficiencies of paper machines in Japan have been more than 90%, and that figure is very rare in other countries.
This efficiency is dependent on efficient paper machine operation as well as on the fact that mills are properly
managed from material supply to product delivery. That is like culture nurtured in the mill, which is graduallytransferred abroad by technological exchange and overseas investment.
The other characteristic is the reliability of the product. Though strict quality demands made by Japanese news
printers have been enforced, the industry has been eager to satisfy customers as much as possible. This attitude
results in a product of high reliability, so few newsprint supplies are imported.
The unique development of the Japanese paper industry faces a new circumstance. Historically, the domestic
market was expanding along with the GDP. The industry wanted to control the market by itself, and that
happened. As the domestic market became saturated, a need to compete in the world market arose.
Technological expertise, which makes products competitive internationally, is needed. At the same time, there isa need to satisfy Japanese customers who demand quality.

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Contents

1. はじめに3

2. 製紙の技術史概説 ： 発明から産業の持続性まで

4

3. テーマ選定の背景と調査の視点

6

4. 基礎技術の解説

95. 新聞用紙製造６０年の変遷

16

6. 技術開発１ ： 原料開発

19

7. 技術開発２ ： 抄紙機に見られる技術開発

30

8. 技術開発３ ： 生産技術と工場操業文化

43

9. その他の特徴的な技術開発

46

10. まとめ ： 他国の製紙産業形態と日本の製紙産業形態の比較

49

11. 典型的な抄紙機における新聞用紙生産の操業記録

51

12. 系統化図及び年表

58

付録 ： 製紙技術遺産登録候補一覧

66

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デジタル・スチルカメラの技術発展の系統化調査
Historical Development on Digital Still Cameras

大川元一

Motokazu Ohkawa■

要旨

画像は、 人間だけが情報伝達手段として駆使できる文化である。 人類はまだ文明を持たなかった太古の時代から、 画像によって情報を交換し、 伝達し、 記録するという文化を有していた。
カメラは情報としての画像を手軽に、 かつ正確に記録するための手段として産まれ、 発展してきた。
レンズやピンホールで光学的に結像させて手書きで像をなぞって記録するカメラオブスキュラをカメラの原点とするが、 1839 年に発表された最初のカメラであるダゲレオタイプ （Daguerreotype） から 2000 年の初期に到るまで、カメラは光化学反応を利用した画像記録機器として技術発展を遂げた。
一方では 1981 年に二次元光電変換素子 （イメージセンサ） を用いて画像を電気信号に変換し、 専用のフロッピディスクに記録する電子カメラ （フロッピカメラ） が発表された。 これは、 従来の化学反応を用いた画像記録か
ら電子的な画像記録という新方式を採用した最初のカメラであった。 しかし、 すでに市場に出ていたビデオカメラの技術を転用して、 その一画面を静止画像として記録してテレビ画面で見るための機器であり、 記録画質は従来のカメラ （銀塩カメラ） に及ばず、 特記すべき特徴を持つものでもなかった。
同時期に、 記録画質の向上を目的として画像信号をデジタル化して記録する試みが東芝から発表された。
これは、 それまでの電子カメラがアナログ記録であったのに対してデジタル記録を採用したために記録再生時におけるドロップアウトなどによる画質劣化は防止することができたが、 記録媒体は磁気テープであり、 画像信号の圧縮方式も未熟であったため記録再生に時間がかかった。 更に画質はテレビ再生用の画質であったため、 実用にはならなかった。
1980 年代後期には、 大容量の不揮発性半導体メモリであるフラッシュメモリ （Flash memory） が開発され、 画像をデジタル信号として電子的に半導体メモリに記録するデジタル ・ スチルカメラ （DSC） が発表されたが、 画像信号の圧縮効率が低く、 価格が 100 万円以上と非常に高価な上に、 画像はそれまでと同様にテレビ画面での再生を目的としたものでプリントして記録する用途には不十分であったため、 銀塩カメラの代替となるような機器ではなかった。
1992 年には画像信号の圧縮方式として高効率で高性能な JPEG が世界標準として制定され、 それを用いた
DSC 用の統一規格が日本から提案された。 同時にメモリやイメージセンサの価格も低下し、 1995 年にカシオから
QV-10 が 65,000 円で、その翌年には QV-10A が 49,800 円で発売され、民生用 DSC 市場を拓くきっかけとなった。
1990 年代中期は、 パーソナルコンピュータ （PC） が急速に普及し始め、 それに伴ってインターネットによる画
像コミュニケーションの頻度も増大した時期でもあったと同時に、 テレビや DVD など家庭電子機器のデジタル化が進み、 デジタル情報化時代に入った時期でもあった。
DSC は単に従来の銀塩カメラの画像記録方式を電子記録に変えたという事実に留まらず、 PC、 インターネット、プリンタなどのデジタル環境における画像取り込み端末としての地位を確立した。 また画像処理において PC を対象とすることで画像のサイズの制限が無くなり、 画質が著しく向上したこともあって、 急速に銀塩カメラにとって替り、2000 年には生産額で、 2002 年には生産台数で銀塩カメラを追い抜き、 現在は年間 1 兆円を超える産業となっている。 更に、 DSC の技術やフォーマットなどは携帯電話にも転用され、 画像通信機器として新しい分野を拓いた。
新しい画像情報機器である DSC が日本で生まれ、 日本で成長して世界を制覇していることは特記すべき事実である。 この背景には、 日本が培ってきたカメラ技術に加えて、 世界市場をリードしてきた日本の電子機器メー
カが市場に参入したことで、 DSC という新らしい機器の技術開発において日本が先導できたこと、 および日本主導で統一規格を制定し、 消費者に対して規格不統一に起因する不要な買い控えを払拭できたことで、 各メーカ
が規格内での技術競争に注力できたことなどが挙げられる。

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Abstract

Imaging is the culture which only human beings can make use of freely. Our ancestors had possessed theculture to exchange, communicate, and record information by means of images since primeval age when they had
no civilization at all.
The camera was invented, and has evolved as a tool to record images easily and accurately.
The origin of the camera goes back to Camera Obscura which was a tool to draw a picture, tracing an image
which focused on a screen in a dark box through a pin hole or a lens. Cameras had been developed as tools torecord images by means of an opto-chemical reaction since Daguerreotype, the first camera, was announced in
1826 until early 2000s.
On the other hand, in 1981, an electronic camera also known as the "Floppy Camera", which converts thecaptured images to electronic signals by an image sensor and records it on an exclusive floppy disc, wasdeveloped. This Floppy Camera was the first camera which adapted electronic still pictures recording apart fromconventional silver halide cameras.
However, the Floppy Camera, which appropriated the technologies employed in existed Video Cam Coders toview images on a TV screen, didn't have enough image quality to replace the silver camera market.
At almost the same time, Toshiba announced a prototype to record images digitally for the sake of improved
image quality. It indeed made improved image quality possible by means of digital signal processing instead of
traditional analog ones, preventing dropout occurring in the recording and reproduction stages. However, it wasof no practical use because of the recording media, which was an audio cassette tape, and poor image
compression technology. It took long reproduction time with poor image quality which was provided just forimage playback on a TV screen.
In late 1980s, Flash Memory, which is a non-volatile semiconductor mass storage, was developed and a digitalstill camera (DSC) which records image signals in the semiconductor memory was announced. But it could not
replace the silver halide cameras because of poor image compression efficiency, high expense over 1 million yen,and poor image quality which was not enough for printed images just enough for viewing on a TV screen.
JPEG, a image compression technology with high efficiency and high performance, was published as aninternational standard in 1992, and a standard for consumer DSCs which adopted the JPEG was proposed fromJapan. At the same time, the price of memories had decreased, then QV-10 which was launched in 1995 with asales price of 65,000 yen and QV-10A launched in the next year with 19,800yen triggered the expansion of theconsumer DSC market.
The middle of 1990s was a period in which personal computers showed rapid expansion and then frequency to
exchange images between computers through internet increased. It was also a period in which digital electronic
appliances such as DTV's and DVD's started spreading into the Digital Information Ages.
The DSC is a device which not only makes good use of merit of digitalization, but also a device which
established a status as a picture capturing peripheral in a digital environment surrounded by PC's, the internet
and printers. As the restriction of image size had been removed on a PC screen, and reproduced image quality
has remarkably improved, now the annual total DSC market exceeds 1 trillion yen, catching up with silver halide
cameras in 2000 at an amount, and in 2002 at total production. Technologies and format developed for DSC'shave been transferred into mobile phones opening up a new market field of image communication devices.
It should be noted as the back ground of the fact that the DSC matured in Japan and conquered the world
market, that the technologies required for DSCs had been fostered in Japan. Japan was able to maintain theleadership of this market by Japanese electronics manufacturers who had been leading the world market place andwho entered into the DSC market. In addition to this, it can be mentioned that Japanese industries played aleading role in unifying DSC standards to avoid unnecessary confusion among DSC users, which accelerated thefair competition of DSC manufacturers to concentrate on the improvement of technology.
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Abstract

1. はじめに
2. 画像文化の歴史
3. デジタルとフーリエ変換
4. カメラの歴史
5. デジタル ・ スチルカメラ （DSC） の構成
6.DSC の特徴
7.DSC の関連技術とその系統化

69
70
72
76
85
90
94

8. 画像圧縮およびフォーマット
9.DSC に関する標準化
10.DSC の今後
11. 考察および謝辞
デジタルスチルカメラの系統図
資料１ 登録候補一覧
資料２ 年表

108
117
119
124
126
127
128

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醤油製造技術の系統化調査
Development of Soy sauce Manufacturing Technologies

小栗朋之

Tomoyuki Oguri■

要旨「醤」 の文字が初めて現れたのは、 今からおよそ 3000 年前の周王朝 （BC800 前後） の記録 「周礼」 であり、6 世紀初頭の 「斉民要術」 には醤油のルーツと云われる 「醤」 と 「豉」 の製法がみられる。
これらの製法は飛鳥時代に日本に伝わり、 「日本の醤」 として育ち、 「醤」 は平安時代の後半には、 塩、 酢、酒と共に調味料の一つとして大きな地位を占めるようになっている。 その後 「醤」 は更に発展を続け、 安土桃山時代の 1597 年には 「易林本節用集」 と云う本に、 「醤油 （シヤウユ）」 として始めて出現する。 現在の醤油の基本的な製造法は、 各種の書物によれば 18C 後半には確立されていたと考えられる。
醤油が生業として営まれたのは室町時代の末 1530 年代からで、 西では湯浅、 堺、 龍野、 小豆島、 東では銚子、野田等利根川、 江戸川の流域で発達し、 文政年間 （1819 ～ 29） には関東地廻り醤油が、 関西下り醤油を凌駕して江戸市場を席巻するようになっている。
明治、 大正、 昭和初頭までの近代の醤油製造は、 明治中期までは江戸時代の延長であったが、 それ以降は醤油業にも科学的な思考が芽ばえ、 試験場が各地に設立され科学的な管理が始まり、 種麹や酵母の製造 ・ 配布等がおこなわれるようになる。 一方、 設備も圧搾をさきがけとして原料処理、 製麹、 仕込、 製成・火入、 詰、輸送と全ての工程で近代化が進み始めた。 大正から昭和の初期にかけて、 家業は組織化されて会社となり、 当時としては驚異的な近代化された工場が各地に建設される。 しかしながら、 工場の設立は 1920 （大正 9） 年以降生産過剰をもたらし、 過当競争時代を迎えることとなる。
1937 （昭和 12） 年 7 月の盧溝橋事件を契機として日華事変が起こり、 太平洋戦争をはさんだ苦難の時代を迎える。 戦時体制に入る前年の 1940 （昭和 15） 年に、政府は物価統制の一環として醤油に始めて 「規格」 をもうけ、販売価格も指定した。 その規格の推移は、 苦難の時代をよく物語っている。
終戦後の 1948 （昭和 23） 年、 GHQ 放出の脱脂ミールを巡って業界の危機を迎えるが、 半化学、 半醸造の新しい製造技術 「新式 2 号法」 が発明、 公開されその危機は救われた。
1955 （昭和 30） 年になると画期的な 「NK 式蛋白質処理法」 が開発 ・ 公開され、 本来の醸造法による醤油の製造が主流として復活することとなる。 これより醤油産業の技術革新時代が幕開けとなり、 醤油製造の全工程に亘り設備が刷新され装置化が進んでいった。
醤油の輸出は、 オランダ東インド会社が 1647 年に長崎の出島より台湾商館へ搬送したのが最初と云われ、 ヨー
ロッパへはオランダへ 1737 年に初出荷されている。 しかしながら、 醤油はヨーロッパへはもっと早くに紹介され、フランスのルイ 14 世が宮廷料理の隠し味として使ったという話があるように、 貴重な調味料として珍重されていたようである。 太平洋戦争で輸出は一旦中止されるが、戦後は 1949（昭和 24）年にアメリカに向けて始めて再開され、以後順調に世界各国に広がっていった。
一方、 醤油が海外で本格的に生産されたのは、 1906 （明治 39） 年に日本醤油株式会社が建設した朝鮮の仁川工場が最初である。 その後、 国策等により中国、 東南アジアの各地にも工場が建てられたが敗戦と共に全て接収されてしまう。 太平洋戦争以後はアメリカを中心として現地の人々に醤油が普及し、 1972 （昭和 47） 年にはアメリカのキッコーマン工場が誕生している。
日本の市場は、 食生活の欧米化と生活様式の多様化、 高齢化と少子化等により醤油の消費量は逐年減少しているが、 海外では需要の増大と業界各社の工場建設により現在では海外生産量は年間 20 万 kl 以上と急激に伸長し、 国内生産の四分の一に近づいてきている。 今や醤油は、 世界の調味料として日本の食文化を伝えると共に、 世界の食文化との融合を果たしつつあると云える。 本稿では、 このように国際食品として育ってきた本醸
造のこいくち醤油、 うすくち醤油を中心として、 醤油が発達してきたあゆみと、 醤油産業が微生物工業として装置化されて来た過程、 更には醤油がグローバルビジネスとして発展している姿を振り返ってみることとした。

国立科学博物館 技術の系統化調査報告 第10集

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■

Abstract

We can find the word "Shou" in the book "Shurai" written about 3,000 years ago (800BC、 in the Shu Dynasty).
Furthermore, the manufacturing method of "Shou" and "Shi" which is called the origin of soy sauce is describedin the book "Seimin- youjutsu" published around the beginning of the sixth century AD. These methods weretransferred to Japan from China in the Asuka period, and from them the Japanese condiment called "Hishio" wasdeveloped at the end of the Heian period. Consequently, this condiment became as popular as salt, vinegar andsake. Japanese hishio continued to develop after that and appeared as the Kanji "Shauyu" in the book "Ekirinbon
Setuyoshu" in 1597 in the Azuchi-Momoyama period. According to many old books, the basic manufacturingmethod of shoyu (soy sauce) had been established by the end of the 18th century. Soy sauce manufacturing was
carried out in family-run businesses from about 1530 in the Muromachi period and was developed in the west
areas of Yuasa, Sakai, Tatsuno and Shodoshima,and in the east areas of Choshi and Noda near the Edo and Tone
rivers. In the period from1819 to 1829, the shoyu known as "Kantojimawari" soy sauce overtook the"Kansaikudari" soy sauce to dominate the Edo market.
Though the manufacturing method of soy sauce in the Meiji and Taisho periods and at the beginning of the
Showa period was the same as that used in the Edo era, scientific theories and processes were introduced in many
fields, even in the shoyu industry, and the construction of shoyu laboratories began in various districts.
These laboratories began to introduce scientific controls and also to distribute cultured yeast and lactic acidbacteria. Additionally, modernization of production facilities started, first in the pressing area and then in theother processes of raw material cooking, koji making, shikomi, refining, and so on. Towards the end of the Taisho
period and the beginning of the Showa period, many family businesses began to systematize their production andthey constructed modernized factories in various regions. However, so many of these factories were constructedthat overproduction and competition resulted.
The crisis in relations between Japan and China started when the Rokokyo incident occurred in July 1937.
Subsequently, the shoyu industry went through a very tough period during the Second World War. The
government introduced standards for shoyu ingredients and set the sales price as a means of price control for the
first time in 1940, just before the war. The change in those standards reflects the history of that difficult periodvery well. The crisis in the shoyu industry was saved by a new production method called "shinsiki-2go" whichused chemical and fermentation technology. The shoyu industry still went through a difficult period though, after
defatted soy beans supplied by the General Headquarters (GHQ) were distributed in 1948 after the war.
In 1955, the epoch-making soybean cooking method known as "NKshiki -tanpakushitsushoriho" was developed
and disclosed therefore, the original naturally brewed production method once again became the standard
process. This was the period when technology innovations began in the shoyu industry and the equipment was
renewed for the entire production process.
Exports of shoyu are said to have taken place for the first time in 1647 from Dejima,Nagasaki. They were sentby the Dutch East India Company of the Netherlands to a firm in Formosa, present-day Taiwan. The first cargo
for the Netherlands was shipped in 1737. However, soy sauce had been introduced in Europe prior to that, andwas most likely a very valuable seasoning. In fact, legend has it that Louis XIV,King of France used soy sauce asa secret taste in the royal cooking. Despite having been interrupted by WWII, soy sauce exports to the U.S.A
resumed in 1949 and proceeded smoothly there and to all parts of the world.
The production of soy sauce in a foreign country took place for the first time in Korea in 1906 at the Jinsen
factory, which was built by a Japanese shoyu company. After that, several factories began to make soy sauce in
China and Southeast Asia in line with national policy, but those factories were taken over with Japan's defeat in
the war. The use of soy sauce prevailed in the American market mainly after the Second World War, and a
Kikkoman factory was eventually established in the U.S.A in 1972. The consumption of soy sauce in the Japanesemarket has been decreasing year by year, due to the westernization of the Japanese diet, diversification oflifestyles, and a society with a graying population due to the lower birth rate. On the other hand, the production
volume of soy sauce in foreign areas is rapidly approaching 200,000kl per year, about one fourth the amount ofdomestic production, because of the increase in consumption and the construction of factories in foreigncountries. Through soy sauce, Japanese food culture is being transmitted to foreign countries and soy sauce isalso forming a fusion with the native food culture in those countries.. I tried to look back in this paper regarding"Koikuchi shoyu" and "Usukuchi shoyu" on the forward progression of soy sauce that has developed from oldtimes,the process of soy sauce manufacturing that has been modernized and molded into a brewing industry andthe recognition of soy sauce that has expanded into a global business.

国立科学博物館 技術の系統化調査報告 第10集

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Contents

1. まえがき131

2. 醤油発達のあゆみ

132

3. 近代の醤油製造 （明治～昭和初頭まで）

140

4. 苦難時代の醤油製造 （太平洋戦争後の約 20 年間）

155

5. 技術革新時代の醤油製造 （昭和 30 年～現在まで）

162

6. 醤油の輸出と海外での製造

197

7. 醤油製造技術の系統化と登録候補一覧

202

8. あとがき206
国立科学博物館 技術の系統化調査報告 第10集

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Systematic Survey on Newsprint Production
Technologies in Japan1
Kiyoaki Iida

 Abstract
Since its invention two millennia ago, paper has become near-universal as the medium ofcivilization. Paper-making was industrialized in the Industrial Revolution, transformed throughthe development of mass-production technologies, and continues to be developed and refinedeven today.
In Japan, the methods for hand-made paper, known as “washi,” were brought to the country
back in the 7th century and gradually evolved over the centuries, but the paper industry would
be transformed with the introduction of mass-production using Western European-style machinetechnology after the Meiji Restoration. While World War II left Japan's paper industry in ruins,
it rose swiftly from the ashes to become the world’s second-largest paper producer. Though
China’s recent economic surge has left Japan in third place, Japan remains one of the mostimportant paper producers in the world.
Paper is something we use every day, so we may not notice how it changes, but compared tohalf a century ago, the materials and quality are very different, and the production equipment
has also improved its performance and efficiency by leaps and bounds. It is this technologicaldevelopment in the sixty years following the war that is the focus of this paper.
In the 1950s and 1960s, paper mills in Japan were located throughout the country in areas
where wood resources were available, and their capacities were 100 to 200 tons per day.
However, increasing demand for paper caused a wood shortage, and the newsprint market also
slowly opened to imports as tariffs were gradually abolished. So the Japanese paper industry
found itself having to compete internationally. One important development in the industry was
importing chips from overseas by chip carriers, a trend which started in 1964. Freed from thelimitations of Japan’s domestic wood supply, the industry was now able to build large integrated
pulp and paper mills near any port which could handle these large ships. Now there are several
mills which produce upwards of 3,000 tons of paper a day, giving them the largest production
capacity in the world.
There are about 127 million people in the crowded islands of Japan, who consume amassive 240 kg of paper per capita each year. This means, however, that there is no shortage of
waste paper available. The technology for recycling old newsprint for newsprint production wasdeveloped back in the 1980s. Now, up to 70% of the total pulp of Japanese newsprint is recycled
fiber. This unique use of the twin resources of imported chips and recycled fiber enables Japanto remain one of the biggest paper producers in the world.
Along with this development of resources, technological improvements in paper production
have also helped Japan to remain competitive internationally. The technological capability of
production is defined as having equipment with high productivity, operating it at high efficiency,
and producing products with high levels of reliability and good cost performance. In the 1960s,
Japanese equipment makers licensed the newest technology from leading overseas equipment
suppliers and introduced it into the domestic paper industry. Japanese paper companies weresome of the first in the world to invest in those technologies and improve their productivity. For
example, standard paper machines in the 1950s were 3.5 m wide and ran at a speed of 300
m/min. In 2000, they were 10 m wide and ran at 1,800 m/min. That shows that Japanese paper
companies were willing to take the risk of investing in new technologies. They also worked withthe suppliers to modify the equipment, gaining an expertise in the equipment which could thenbe transferred worldwide. A relationship built on mutual trust has developed between paper
companies and equipment suppliers in Japan.
One of the characteristics of Japanese technology is to operate equipment at high efficiency.

The operating efficiencies of paper machines in Japan are commonly more than 90%, a level
which is very rare in other countries. This efficiency comes from efficient paper machine
operation, as well as from the fact that mills are managed properly, from material supply to
product delivery. This culture of efficiency, nurtured in these mills, has been gradually spreadabroad through technology exchanges and overseas investments.
The other characteristic of Japanese technology is the reliability of the products. One of themain reasons for this is the strict quality demands made by Japanese newspaper printers, but theindustry has been eager to satisfy clients to the greatest extent possible. This attitude results in
extremely reliable products, trusted by clients, so there is little need to import newsprint fromoverseas.
However, a new situation now confronts the Japanese paper industry, and the unique way inwhich it has developed. Historically, the domestic market had expanded in step with the GDP.
The industry’s goal was to use that demand to control the market, which it was able to do. But
with the domestic market saturated, the paper industry is now required to compete in the global
market. To this end, the industry needs both the technological expertise to make its products
competitive internationally, and at the same time, the quality and reliability that will continue tosatisfy demanding Japanese clients.
 Profile
Kiyoaki Iida
Senior Researcher, Center of the History of JapaneseIndustrial Technology, National Museum of Natureand Science, Tokyo
1960

1960
1965

1990
1993

2003

Graduated from the University of Tokyo,
Department of Engineering (Applied
Chemistry)
Jujo Paper Company Ltd.
Master’s degree at the University ofToronto, Department of Engineering(Chemical Engineering and Applied
Chemistry)
General Manager, Central Research, Jujo
Paper Co. Ltd.
Executive Director, Japan Technical
Association of the Pulp and Paper
Industry (JAPAN TAPPI)
RetiredFrom 1990 to 2000, part-time lecturer at the Kyushu
University.
Coordinates the project for preserving and publicizing
technical archives and heritages of the Japanese paperindustry, which JAPAN TAPPI is promoting.
Awards1985 JAPAN TAPPI Award
1986 JAPAN TAPPI Award

Contents
1
2

Introduction .............................................................. 3
A short history of paper making: from its
invention to industrial sustainability ..................... 53 Significance of the theme and perspectives of thestudy ........................................................................... 8
4 Descriptions of basic technologies ...................... 12
5 History of newsprint production over the last 60
years ......................................................................... 20
6 Technological development part 1: pulp
resources.................................................................. 24
7 Technological development part 2: paper
machines.................................................................. 38
8 Technological Development Part 3: Production
Technology and Mill Operation Culture ............ 56
9 Other technologies in the paper industry ............ 60
10 Summary: International comparison of paperindustry business models ...................................... 65
11 Operational data for a typical newsprint machine68
12 Evolutionary chart and chronological table ....... 74
Appendix: List of Candidates for Registration as
Newsprint Manufacturing Technology ............... 87

Systematic Survey on Digital Still Cameras

2
Motokazu Ohkawa

 Abstract
Imaging is a culture that only humans can freely make use of as a means of communicating information, andfrom ancient times – even prior to the birth of civilization – we have exchanged, communicated, and recorded
information by means of images.
The camera was invented and has evolved as a tool for recording images easily and accurately.
Although the origin of the camera goes back to the camera obscura, which was used to draw a picture by tracing
an image focused on a screen in a dark box through a pinhole or a lens, since the advent of the Daguerreotype, thefirst real camera, which was announced in 1839, until the early 2000s, cameras have developed as tools forrecording images using a photochemical reaction technique.
It was during 1981 that an electronic camera was announced that converted captured images to electronic signals
by means of an image sensor and recorded them to a dedicated floppy disk. Known as the “Floppy Camera,” thiswas the first camera to record images using a method other than the photochemical reaction technology employedwith conventional silver halide cameras.
However, the still images grabbed from the analog video signal by the Floppy Camera, which appropriated thetechnologies employed in existing video cameras to view images on a TV screen, was unable to produce images ofsufficient quality to replace conventional cameras.
At almost the same time, Toshiba announced a prototype that recorded images digitally, and unlike the traditional
analog technology used in electronic cameras, which suffered from dropout in the recording and reproduction
stages, the digital signal processing techniques employed actually improved image quality. However, as image
playback was slow due to the recording media (audio cassette tape) and poor image compression technology
employed, and the fact that images were displayed on a TV screen, it was of no real practical use.
In the late 1980s, flash memory, a type of large-capacity non-volatile semiconductor storage, was developed anda digital still camera (DSC) that electronically recorded digital image signals on such media was announced.
However, this too was unable to replace silver halide cameras due to poor image compression efficiency, theextremely high cost (1 million+ JPY), and image quality that was still just enough for viewing on a TV screen andnot high enough for printing purposes.
JPEG, a high-efficiency/high-performance image compression technology, was established as an international
standard in 1992, the same year that Japan proposed its use as a standard for consumer DSCs. At the same time, theprice of memory dropped and Casio's launch of the QV-10 at a price of 65,000 JPY in 1995, followed by the
QV-10A at 49,800 JPY in 1996, triggered the expansion of the consumer DSC market.
During the mid-1990s, with the rapid popularization of the personal computer and the advent of the internet,
exchanging images electronically became more common, and the development of digital electronic appliances, suchas DTVs and DVDs, brought on the Digital Information Age.
The DSC is not simply a device that records images electronically rather than using the photochemical method
employed with conventional silver halide cameras, but has established itself as an image-capturing peripheral in adigital environment that is capable of interacting with computers, the internet and printers. Furthermore, as DSCs
are designed to work with PCs rather than being confined to working with TVs, restrictions in terms of image size
have been removed, and image quality has remarkably improved to the extent that DSCs have quickly come toreplace silver halide cameras, with total annual sales and production exceeding those of silver halide cameras in2000 and 2002 respectively. Today, DSCs boast annual sales in excess of 1 trillion JPY and the technologies andformats developed for DSCs have already been transferred into mobile phones, opening up yet another new market:
image communication devices.
It should be noted that the DSC, which was born in Japan and has gone on to conquer world markets, was made a
reality by the various technologies developed by Japanese industries. Furthermore, as Japanese electronics
manufacturers pioneered this field, they have made it possible for Japan to maintain leadership in this market, andwith the standardization of DSC specifications, consumers will no longer put off buying products for reasons of
future incompatibility, and DSC manufacturers are free to concentrate on improving their technology within an
established framework.

 Profile
Motokazu Ohkawa
Chief Researcher, Center of the History of JapaneseIndustrial Technology, National Museum of Natureand Science

1
2
3
4

1962

5
6
7

1988
1991

1995
2000
2007

2

 Contents

Graduated from the Physics Department of
Tohoku University's Faculty of Science andthe same year joined Tokyo Shibaura ElectricCo., Ltd. (now known as Toshiba
Corporation), where he was engaged in the
research of acoustics at the company's Central
Research Laboratory. After that he wasengaged in the development of CATV, etc., at
the Consumer Electronics Research Center.
Engaged in digital camera development.
Digital Camera Technology Committee
Chairman of JEITA (Japan Electronics andInformation Technology Industries
Association) (originally JEIDA: Japan
Electronic Industries Development
Association). ISO TC42 expert.
Relocated to the High-tech Visual Promotion
Center.
Camera & Imaging Products Association(CIPA) technical adviser.
Resigned from CIPA. Chief Survey Officer,
Center of the History of Japanese Industrial
Technology, National Museum of Nature andScience until stepping down at the end of
March 2008.
Chairman of the Japan Color Standardization
Committee (JSA) during that time.

Introduction .................................................... 3
The History of Image Culture ........................ 5
Digital and Fourier Transform ....................... 8
The History of the Camera ........................... 13

DSC Structure .............................................. 25
DSC Characteristics ..................................... 31
DSC-Related Technology and
Systematization ............................................ 36
8 Image Compression and Formats ................. 53
9 Standardization of DSCs .............................. 65
10 The Future of DSCs ..................................... 68
11 Discussion and Acknowledgements ............. 74
DSC Genealogy .................................................. 77
Appendix 1. List of significant models. ............. 78
Appendix 2. Chronology .................................... 79

National Museum of Nature and Science Technology Systematization Survey Report Vol.10 2008.March