J Intl Cooper Agric Dev 2016; 14: 20–29

Journal ofInternational Cooperation for
Agricultural Development

Review

Rice Cultivation in Bangladesh: Present
Scenario, Problems, and Prospects
Israt J. Shelley1,2), Misuzu Takahashi-Nosaka1), Mana Kano-Nakata3,4),
Mohammad S. Haque5) and Yoshiaki Inukai1)
1) International Cooperation Center for Agricultural Education, Nagoya University, Nagoya, Japan
2) Department of Crop Botany, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh, Bangladesh
3) Graduate School of Agricultural Sciences, Nagoya University, Nagoya, Janpan
4) Institute for Advanced Research, Nagoya University, Nagoya, Japan
5) Department of Biotechnology, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh, Bangladesh
Received October 31, 2015 Accepted February 10, 2016
Abstract. Bangladesh has an agrarian economy in which rice is the dominant crop. Rice is the staple food, reflected in thehigh per capita rice consumption in this country. The nutritional demand of the majority of people is met with rice. Over its
long history, rice production in Bangladesh has gradually changed in terms of yield potentials, cultivation techniques, andcropping patterns. Despite pressure from overpopulation, the country has reached self-sufficiency in rice production. In thisreview, we focus on the present status and future prospects of rice cultivation in Bangladesh.

1. Introduction
Bangladesh is an agrarian country. About 76% of thepeople live in rural areas, and 47.5% of the total manpower
is involved in agriculture. In Bangladesh, agriculture contributes 19.3% of the gross domestic product (GDP) of thecountry (Bangladesh Finance Bureau, 2014).
Bangladesh has a long history of rice cultivation. Riceis grown throughout the country except in the southeastern
hilly areas. The agroclimatic conditions of the country
are suitable for growing rice year-round. However, thenational average rice yield is much lower (2.94 t/ha) thanthat of other rice-growing countries (BBS, 2012).
Rice is the staple food for about 156 million people ofthe country. The population growth rate is 2 million peryear, and if the population increases at this rate, the total
population will reach 238 million by 2050. An increase intotal rice production is required to feed this ever-increasing
population. At the same time, the total cultivable land isdecreasing at a rate of more than 1% per year owing to
the construction of industries, factories, houses, roads,
20 J Intl Cooper Agric Dev 2016and highways. On the other hand, due to urbanization,
food habits tend to change, demanding the cultivation of
new crops that must share land used for rice cultivation.
Therefore, attempts should be made to increase the yield
per unit area of rice. Moreover, due to climate change,
agriculture is facing different adverse conditions, such as
drought, flood, salinity, extreme temperature stress, andlow soil fertility. In these circumstances, policies should be
implemented to increase rice production in a sustainable
manner for the food and nutritional security of this highly
populated country.

2. Present status of rice cultivation in
Bangladesh
2.1. Agroclimatic conditions: rainfall and temperature

Bangladesh has a tropical climate with considerable
variation in climatic parameters, such as temperature andrainfall. The total area of the country is 14.86 million ha(147,570 square kilometers), and the cultivable area is 8.52
million ha. The cropping intensity of the country is 191%.

The country receives plenty of rainfall, although it is
not evenly distributed across region or season. The average annual rainfall is about 2,320 mm and varies between
1,110 mm in the northwest and 5,690 mm in the northeast(FAO, 2010). Most of the rains occur during the monsoon
season, between mid-June and September (Fig. 1A). Thereis very little rain between November and March, and theperiod between April and May has pre-monsoon rain withthunderstorms.
Bangladesh has distinct summer and winter seasons.
Maximum summer temperatures range between 35–41°C
during the months of April and May. In May 2014, the temperature reached 42.5°C, the highest temperature recordedin 60 years. December to February are the cooler months
with average daily temperatures of around 15–20°C andnight temperatures of 10–12°C. However, in north, thetemperature drops below 10°C.
2.2. Rice growing seasons and crop calendar

There are three rice-growing seasons in Bangladesh:aus, aman, and boro. Aus is the pre-monsoon upland ricegrowing season under rainfed conditions. The aus rice isdirect or broadcast seeded during March and April after
the pre-monsoon shower and harvested between July andAugust (Fig. 1B). Some areas under aus cultivation haveshifted to irrigated boro rice because of the high yieldpotential of the latter.
The monsoon-season rainfed rice is the aman, whichis the most widespread, including along the coastal areas.
Aman is planted in two ways: direct seeding with aus in
March and April and transplantation between July andAugust. Both types are harvested from November throughDecember. However, late flooding can reduce the area ofaman, and the absence of rain during summer also reduces
aus growing area.
Boro is the dry-season irrigated rice planted from
December to early February and harvested between April
and June. Earlier, boro was grown in the very low-lying
areas with residual water from the wet season and irrigatedmanually using surface water in times of water shortage(Fujita, 2010). Such traditional boro rice was transplanted
after the recession of floodwater in November and harvested from April to May. In the mid-1960s, the modern highyielding rice variety IR-8 was introduced into Bangladesh
agriculture, primarily for boro using irrigation. Then,
beginning in 1970, another International Rice ResearchInstitute (IRRI) bred variety IR-20 was introduced tofarmers for the aman season. Since 1973, the Bangladesh
Rice Research Institute (BRRI), in partnership with IRRI,
has been engaged in adaptive research to evaluate elite genetic lines under the IRRI-managed International Network
for Genetic Evaluation of Rice (INGER). Under the brandFig 1. Agroclimatic conditions and rice calendar of Bangladesh.
A. The line graph (continuous line) shows monthly maximum
temperature (°C) and the broken line shows monthly minimum temperature (°C); the bar graph showing the mean
monthly precipitation (mm) throughout the year.
B. The above block arrows indicate the different kinds ofstresses induced by the agroclimatic parameters throughout the year and the lower block arrows with dashes
represents the rice crop calendar of Bangladesh.

name BR, and later BRRI dhan, it has released varietiesthat suit the agro-ecological conditions in Bangladesh(Hossain et al., 2013). Many IRRI lines were well suited in
Bangladesh for the boro season, such as BR1, BR3, BR14,
BRRI dhan28, and BRRI dhan29. However, IRRI varieties
did not perform well in the aman season; therefore BRRI
scientists crossed international elite lines with traditional
land races and developed many reliable varieties, BR11
being one of the most popular.
Simultaneously, irrigation systems have been developed
gradually in Bangladesh since the 1960s. Surface-water
irrigation using low-lift pumps began in the mid-1960s
and continued until the mid-1970s. After this period, thedevelopment of groundwater irrigation by tube wells acJ Intl Cooper Agric Dev 2016 21

celerated, and the rapid diffusion of shallow tube wells
throughout the 1980s boosted the cropped area and yieldof dry-season boro rice dramatically (Fujita, 2010). With
the introduction of ground water irrigation systems andthe incorporation of modern high-yielding varieties,
dry-season boro rice gained popularity (Fig. 2). The ricecropping pattern of Bangladesh has changed—areas once
occupied by the rainfed aus gradually shifted to boro cultivation (Fig. 3B). As a result, the contribution from eachseason also changed—aman rice previously contributed
a major portion of total rice, but boro is now the major
contributor to total rice production in the country, despite
aman coverage area being greater (Fig. 3A). Aus, aman,
and boro rice were recently reported to account for 7%,
38%, and 55%, respectively, of the total rice production
in Bangladesh (Risingbd, 2014). In the year 2013–2014,
rice production was 34.3 million t (Bangladesh Finance
Bureau, 2014). Bangladesh has made notable progress insustaining respectable growth in rice production, and thisgrowth in production has originated mostly from the shift
from low-yielding traditional to high-yielding modern varieties when irrigation facilities were developed (Hossain
et al., 2006).
Another factor contributing to the increase in total riceproduction by irrigation and modern rice varieties is thechange in the rural economy. In neighboring countries,
the Green Revolution occurred during the 1960s and 70s.
Bangladesh’s green revolution occurred only during the
1980s owing to the rapid diffusion of shallow tube wells
for the irrigation of dry-season boro and modern rice
varieties. The development of the rural economy, driven
by the full-scale diffusion of the Green Revolution, led to
an increase in agricultural wage (Fujita, 2010). However,
Hossain et al. (2006) showed that by the year 2001–2002,

Fig 2. Ground water irrigation system in Bangladesh.
Watering the rice fields by shallow tube-well for dry
season high yielding boro rice cultivation.

the coverage of modern rice varieties reached 65% of therice-cropped area—80% for the dry season and 51% for
the wet season; thus, the Green Revolution in rice cultivation is not yet complete in Bangladesh.
2.3. Rice cultivars

The BRRI, Bangladesh Institute of Nuclear Agriculture(BINA), and the Bangladesh Agricultural University(BAU) and other universities are trying to improve rice cultivars with high yield potential and resistance to different
biotic and abiotic stresses (Table 1). BRRI has developed
69 rice varieties, BINA 17, and BAU 2. In addition to theseFig 3. Trends of rice production and rice cultivated area over time in Bangladesh.
A. Production of rice in different growing seasons i.e., aus, aman, and boro and total production of rice for the period 1949 to 2014.
B. Trend of rice cultivated area in different growing seasons and total cultivated area for the period 1971 to 2006.
(From Fujita, 2010; Different issues of Gain reports, 2010-2015).

22 J Intl Cooper Agric Dev 2016

Table 1. Modern rice varieties of Bangladesh

modern high-yielding varieties, there are many traditional
rice cultivars in Bangladesh with wide adaptability for thediverse agro-ecological conditions. However, with the increase in population, much more rice is needed, and modern rice should replace many of the traditional varieties toachieve this. More than 1000 traditional rice cultivars are
now being grown in Bangladesh and are maintained by
farmers due to their wide adaptability, superior grain quality, and resistance to abiotic and biotic stresses (Hossain
and Jaim et al. 2009). However, these rice cultivars havevery low yield (less than 2.0 t/ha) and are mostly grownin aus and aman seasons. These traditional cultivars areusually grown in less suitable areas, such as coastal areas,
lands that have no irrigation system, and under deep-waterconditions.
Irrigation is widely used throughout Bangladesh except
in salt-affected areas. The precondition for growing highyielding varieties in boro season is proper water management. In favorable ecological areas, about 92% of the
farmers use irrigation; of these, only 28% own irrigationequipment, while 62% buy irrigation water (Hossain etal., 2013). In 2008, the national irrigation coverage was
J Intl Cooper Agric Dev 2016 23

5.05 million ha, about 60% of total cultivable land, withgroundwater covering 79% and surface water 21% (FAO,
2010). Different kinds of irrigation systems prevail in the
country, such as deep-tube well, shallow-tube well, lowlift pumps, and also some traditional irrigation systems. A
detailed account of irrigation systems in Bangladesh has
been described by Fujita (2010).
Little scope now exists to increase total rice production
by increasing irrigated areas. However, we could increase
the irrigated area by at most about 70% because of salinity
and land elevation constraints. The farmers of salinity-affected areas prefer to use traditional rice varieties because
they tolerate salinity. Although Bangladesh has an agrarian
economy, about 89% of total farm-holdings are below 2.49
acres in size (Kashem, 2013). However, socioeconomic
factors, such as the predominance of small and marginal
farmers and tenancy cultivation in agrarian structure,
did not impede the adoption of modern rice varieties in
Bangladesh (Asaduzzaman, 1979; Mandal, 1980; Hossain
et al., 2003; Alauddin and Tisdell, 1996). Moreover, themajor constraints to the adoption of rice modern varieties
were in fact logistic factors such as a lack of irrigation
facilities in the dry season and the topography, which affects flood depth and salinity of the soil in coastal areas(Hossain et al., 2006).

3. Factors affecting rice cultivation
3.1. Drought

Drought is one of the major abiotic constraints for rice
grown under rainfed conditions in Bangladesh and causes
a substantial reduction in yield. The retardation in crop
growth caused by water stress at the seedling stage canbe overcome, but water stress at the reproductive stage
can cause substantial reduction in rice yield. Transplanted
aman usually suffers from water stress at the reproductive stage or at early ripening phases, reducing crop yieldphases (Fig. 1B). A crop growth simulation model showeda yield potential of 7.218 t/ha with early transplanting on 1
June, under low water stress during flowering and maturity
stage, while high water stress during flowering, maturity,and both flowering and maturity stages results in yield
reduction of 46%, 37%, and 73%, respectively (Mahmood
et al., 2004). Aus rice could suffer from drought any timefrom the seedling to reproductive stages, as the crop is
direct-seeded and grown under rainfed upland conditions(Biswas, 2014). However, the traditional aus varieties
have some tolerance to drought and can overcome drought
if some rain occurs in June. The yield potential of theserice varieties, however, is very low.

24 J Intl Cooper Agric Dev 2016

3.2. Flood

Flash floods affect 24% of rainfed lowland aman rice
areas, mainly at the seedling stage. The unpredictable
rainfall often affects aman transplanting. Heavy rainfall
and flood causes aman crop damage at the seedling stage
and also delays planting. Flood affects aus rice during
harvesting. Partial or complete crop losses were common
for aus rice production due to pre-harvest sprouting andsubmergence of the crop field. Flash floods also affectboro rice production in the low-lying Haor area during
harvesting.
3.3. Salinity

The coastal area covers about 20% of the country, which
is about 30% of the net cultivable area (Haque, 2006). In
the dry season, soil and river water salinity increase, while
it decreases during the monsoon season. Land use varies
temporally and spatially with season. Due to salinity, thecoastal area remains fallow during winter. Wet-season
aman is the main crop, and farmers mostly use traditional
rice varieties, which can withstand salinity but have a poor
yield. Moreover, nutrient deficiencies, especially those of
N and P, imposed by salinity are quite dominant. Amongthe micronutrients, Cu and Zn are limited in saline soils,
causing a substantial reduction in yield.
3.4. Extreme temperature stresses

Rice grows normally between a critical temperature
range of 20°C and 35°C, and varies with genotype, durationof critical temperature, diurnal changes, and physiological status of the plant (Yoshida, 1981). Surprisingly, rice
plants encounter both low and high temperature stresses
in the different growing seasons in Bangladesh (Fig. 1B).
The stage most sensitive to low-temperature injury is the
panicle initiation stage, causing spikelet sterility. The stage
most sensitive to high-temperature is the flowering stage,
also causing spikelet sterility. However, both low- andhigh-temperature stresses at the vegetative stage affectgrowth and development of the rice plant, which can berecoverable at later stages.
In Bangladesh, early boro rice often faces low-temperature stress at the vegetative as well as reproductive stage(Nahar et al., 2009a). Late aman faces low-temperaturestress at the reproductive stage that causes increased spikelet sterility, subsequently decreasing yield (Nahar et al.,2009b). In contrast, late boro and aus often encounter hightemperature stress at the reproductive stage. Simulated
crop model studies showed that an increase in air temperature would significantly decrease the productivity of boro
rice in Bangladesh (Mahmood, 1998).

3.5. Soil fertility

Soil fertility is declining in Bangladesh due to intensive
agriculture, imbalanced use of chemical fertilizers, limited
addition of crop residues, and limited practice of greenmanure cropping. The rate of organic matter depletion is
also high because of the hot and humid climate. Bangladesh soils are deficient in some essential elements such as
N, P, K, and S, which are limiting factors, among which
N is the most limiting factor. With time, new elements areadded as limiting nutrients in Bangladesh soil. Recently,
Mg, Zn, and B were also reported to be limiting in many
areas (Jahiruddin and Satter, 2010). Rice production without fertilizer has been declining over time in Bangladesh(BRRI, 2007–08); supplemental fertilization is essential tokeep up the rice production.
3.6. Pests: insects, pathogens and weeds

Rice plants are often infested by various pests. Insects area major constraint of rice production. The brown plant hopper (Nilaparvata lugens), rice stem borer (Sciropophagaspp.), green leaf hopper (Nephotettix spp.), white-backed
plant hopper (Sogatella furcifera), rice gall midge (Orseolia oryzae), rice hispa (Dicladispa armigera), and riceleaf folder (Cnaphalocrocis medinalis) are common insect
pests of rice in Bangladesh (Alam, 2013, Nasiruddin andRoy, 2012, Fatema et al., 1999, Kamal et al., 1993, Alam,
1981, BRRI 1997, 2000, 2001, 2007, 2009). Bacterial leaf
blight, sheath blight, leaf blast, sheath blast, tungro, andstem rot are major diseases. Weed infestation is high in
aus rice. Sometimes rodents also attack aman rice during
the harvesting period, substantially reducing the yield. In
contrast, boro is the best rice-growing season, in whichpest infestation is lower and which gives the highest yieldunder irrigation.
3.7. Multiple stresses

Multiple stresses are prevalent in rice cultivation in
Bangladesh. Farmers of Bangladesh practice year-round
farming, often limiting land available for the timely planting of the next crop. An early monsoon and excessive
rainfall can cause flooding, which is harmful to young
seedlings, while a late arrival usually leads to severe water
stress (Mahmood et al., 2004). In addition, delayed transplanting of aman decreases spikelet fertility and reduces
yield due to cold stress at the flowering stage (Nahar et al.,2009b). In the case of boro, early-planted crops face lowtemperature stress at vegetative as well as reproductive
stages and late-planted ones face high-temperature stressat the reproductive stage. In addition, the fertility status of
most saline soils is low to very low with respect to organic
matter content and N, P, Cu, and Zn availability (Haque,2006).

4. Strategies to overcome problems
associated with rice cultivation
4.1. Management and cultural practices

Rice productivity and total rice production in Bangladesh still have scope to increase if the proper crop
management systems are followed. Farmers do not follow
the integrated use of improved management practices suchas time of planting, use of quality seeds, balanced use offertilizers, and control of weeds and pest. There is a yield
gap between the farmer’s field and the yield potential of aparticular variety. A CERES-Rice model showed that rainfed aman rice BR11 planted at planting dates of 1 June, 1
July, 15 July and 15 August had yield potential of 6.9, 5.0,
3.6, and 1.8 t/ha, respectively, from 1975 to 1987 (Mahmood et al., 2003). The results also reveal that regional
yield variations and yield vulnerability for a particulartransplanting date exist. The main reason for the yield
reduction due to delayed transplanting is the water stressat flowering and maturity stages (Mahmood et al., 2003).
Another study was conducted to elucidate the effects ofmoisture stress on rainfed aman rice productivity. The
average yield potential for a 1 June transplanting date andunder low-water stress at flowering and maturity stages is
7.2 t/ha; potential yield reduction is 37%, 46%, and 73%
for high water stress during maturity, flowering, and bothflowering and maturity stages, respectively (Mahmood etal., 2004).
Moreover, global climate is changing; researchers aretrying to understand the possible effects of climate change
on rice yield in Bangladesh using crop simulation models
in different growing seasons. For example, irrigation-dependent boro rice is vulnerable to changes in temperature(Mahmood, 1997). A DSSAT model study reveals that, due
to increases in daily maximum and minimum temperature,boro rice yield will reduce 20% and 50% for the years 2050
and 2070, respectively (Basak et al., 2010). A comparative
study of YIELD and CERES-Rice models showed thatthe rice productivity at Mymensingh predicted by YIELD
is higher than that predicted by CERES-Rice, while theproductivity estimates for Barisal by these two models arealmost identical (Mahmood et al., 1998). The author mentioned that inconsistent management practices, differencesin soil characterization procedures, method of dry matter
estimation, and the range of diurnal temperature variation
played an important role in productivity estimates. For the
Mymensingh region, the CERES-Rice model estimates adecrease in productivity by 9.7% and 22.7% for a 2 and
4°C increase in air temperature, while the YIELD model
estimates a yield reduction of 14.1% and 21.6%, respectively, for these temperature increases (Mahmood et al.,1998).
J Intl Cooper Agric Dev 2016 25

During the dry season, boro rice is grown under a constant stagnant-water condition in the field. The main sourceof water for irrigation is groundwater. The groundwater ofBangladesh is now under threat—the water table in someregions of the country, such as in Dhaka, is depleting eachyear by as much as 3 m (BADC, 2006). In the near future,
it will be a significant threat for the country. The introduction of water-saving technology in rice production is anefficient method to keep the underground water table ina safe zone. Instead of flood irrigation, alternate wet anddry (AWD) methods of irrigation can be used. In addition,
surface water should be reserved in ponds and small rivers
in the rainy season and used for aman rice cultivation,
especially at the flowering stage. BRRI has developed
rainwater harvest technology for rainfed aman cultivation
during the flowering stage to mitigate drought (Biswas,2014). This technology should be disseminated to farmers
throughout the country.
The fertility of Bangladesh soil is deteriorating day byday. Fertilizers should be applied based on soil tests. With
the intensification of crop production, farmers use more
fertilizers without an understanding of the actual requirements of the soil. Instead of the use of the normal urea, theurea super granule is an effective to reduce fertilizer use
for optimum yield (Paul et al., 2013; Qurashi et al., 2013).
To prevent organic matter depletion, we should incorporate crop residues with soil and need to grow short-duration
green-manure crops. For sustainable crop production, we
need to use organic and inorganic fertilizers in the soil ina balanced manner.
Agriculture in Bangladesh is labor-intensive (Fig.
4). During both planting harvesting, laborers are scarce,
which often affects the timely planting and harvesting ofcrops. Farmers sometimes fail to remove weeds before thecritical stage of crop-weed competition, which may cause
substantial reductions in the ultimate yield. Crop damage
also occurs in rice during the post-harvest period owing
to dependence on the weather. Improved post-harvest
technology can reduce crop loss as well.
4.2. Genetic approaches to the improvement of ricecultivars

Available seeds, fertilizers, irrigation water, and pesticides are the major inputs for rice production. More than
50% of the farmers in Bangladesh use seeds from theirown harvest. The Bangladesh Agricultural Development
Corporation (BADC), the main government organization in charge of producing and marketing quality seeds,
contributes only about 25% of the seeds planted (Hossain
et al., 2012). Moreover, the socioeconomic conditions of
the farmers of Bangladesh are not stable. Therefore, it isvery difficult for small farmers to afford the cost of seeds,
26 J Intl Cooper Agric Dev 2016

Fig 4. Labour-intensive rice farming activities in Bangladesh.
A. Aman rice harvesting by the farmers.
B. Straw carrying after threshing.

fertilizers, pesticides, and irrigation water. The availabilityof these agricultural inputs is also sometimes restricted in
the market.
As mentioned above, high-temperature and drought
stresses can be avoided by changing the transplanting dateor growth period. Sometimes it is difficult to plant riceat the optimum sowing time owing to lack of water, or
excess water in the case of aman. As described in section
3.7, multiple stresses occur simultaneously in the field aswell. Researchers therefore must create new rice varieties
tolerant to multiple stresses.
No rice variety so far developed in Bangladesh canwithstand temperature stresses. Spikelet sterility is a common phenomenon in rice cultivation in Bangladesh. It wasprevalent in the past but was not rectified. With climatechange, high temperature has become a major concern tocrop production worldwide. In Bangladesh, temperature
influences rice production in all growing seasons (Fig.
1A). Therefore, we need to take necessary action as soon
as possible. The development of cold tolerant and hightemperature tolerant rice varieties is recommended.
The researchers at BRRI, BINA, BAU, and DU areworking to improve rice cultivars by incorporating tolerance to drought, flood, and salinity. Scientists at BRRI and
BINA have developed numerous rice varieties with sometolerance to submergence (BRRI dhan51, BRRI dhan52,
Binadhan-11, and Binadhan-12 for boro), drought (BRRI
dhan55 for boro; BRRI dhan42, BRRI dhan43, and BRRI
dhan48 for aus; BRRI dhan33, BRRI dhan56, and BRRI
dhan57 for aman), and salinity (BRRI dhan40, BRRI
dhan41, BRRI dhan47, Binadhan-8, and Binadhan-10 forboro and BRRI dhan53 and BRRI dhan54 for aman, Table
1). Some premium rice varieties, such as aromatic rice
(BRRI dhan50 for boro and BR5, BRRI dhan34, BRRI
dhan37, BRRI dhan38, Binadhan-9, and Binadhan-13
for aman) and, recently, Zn-enriched rice (BRRI dhan62
for aman and BRRI dhan64 for boro), have also beendeveloped by the researchers of BRRI by a cross-breeding
method using local traditional varieties.
Of the different growing seasons, boro gives the highest average yield of 4 t/ha, which is still much lower thanthose of leading rice-growing countries like Japan and
China. We need to increase the yield of boro. On the other
hand, the water table is depleting and, in the near future,
will be a significant threat for boro rice cultivation underflooded irrigation conditions. Therefore, we should further
introduce drought tolerance in the popular boro varieties aswell as find new high-yield lines that can tolerate drought.
At the same time, we need to introduce low-temperature
tolerance for early boro and high-temperature tolerance forlate boro.
Aman is the second largest contributor to total riceproduction. BR11 is the most popular variety, but it issusceptible to drought and low temperature. A major QTL(quantitative trait locus), SUB1 (Submergence tolerence1),
explaining about 70% of phenotypic variation in submergence tolerance, has been identified and fine-mapped onto
chromosome 9 in the submergence-tolerant indica ricecultivar RF13A (Xu and Mackill, 1996; Nandi et al, 1997;
Xu et al., 2000). The SUB1 locus has been introduced in
popular varieties of southeast Asia by the backcrossing
method and marker assisted selection (Neeraja et al.,2007, Iftekharuddaula et al., 2011). The SUB1 gene has
been introduced into BR11 and was released as BRRI
dhan52 for flood tolerance. This variety is very importantfor early planting and, by its use, farmers could reduce thecost of replanting and acquire a high yield even with complete submergence for two weeks (Ismail et al., 2013). In
contrast, in regions in which early planting is not possible
owing to lack of rain, late planting is an obvious solution.
To overcome the water and low-temperature stress at flowering and maturity, we need to introduce drought and cold
tolerance. In this aspect, gene pyramiding is important toovercome multiple stresses.

Enhancement of upland rice cultivation with high yieldpotential is another important approach to increase riceproduction. In Bangladesh, some traditional rice varieties are grown in the aus season as upland rice, but theiryield is very low. We can improve this widely adaptable
upland rice by cross-breeding with high-yielding varieties
and selection in local field conditions via marker-assisted
techniques and by QTL analysis. A survey revealed thatmany traditional popular varieties are under threat ofextinction owing to their lower yield and profitability thanthose of the improved varieties (Hossain et al., 2013). The
improvement in the yield potential of upland rice may
increase production and reduce its cost.
Besides this, many traditional aromatic rice varieties
with fine grain are grown in the aman season. This rice has
extra value for consumers, but its yield is also very low. If
we can incorporate high yield potential in these varieties,
it will contribute to increase total rice production as wellas meet consumer demand.
Researchers are trying to identify useful traits and use
them for the improvement of rice. Recently, iron-enrichedrice lines have been identified from local traditional rice
varieties (Jahan et al., 2013). These iron-rich lines canbe utilized in a breeding program, and their use can also
reduce malnutrition in Bangladesh. Therefore, these traditional rice varieties are important genetic resources that
could be used in breeding for the improvement of rice in
Bangladesh.
Further, farmers demand the incorporation of highyield, quality consumption, and early maturity traits in
an improved variety (Hossain, 2012). However, when
researchers consider improving a variety, they emphasizea particular trait. To meet the demands of farmers, we needto accumulate many desirable traits in a single line. For
this purpose, gene pyramiding is an efficient techniquethat might facilitate the incorporation of multiple desirable
characteristics in the same line.
4.3. Strengthening communication between researchersand farmers

The agricultural knowledge and information system
integrates agricultural education, farmers, researchers, andextension workers to harness knowledge and informationfrom various sources for better farming and improved
livelihood (Kashem, 2013). Strengthening the linkage between research and extension is important to disseminate
the available technologies to farmers and also to understand the farmers’ demands for technology. The spread ofmodern varieties has contributed to a growth in rice yieldof 2.3% per year over the last three decades, which has
helped Bangladesh achieve favorable food security despitehigh population growth (Hossain, 2006). When researchers
J Intl Cooper Agric Dev 2016 27

are aware of the actual needs of the farmers of a particularregion, they can set their research objectives accordingly.
In addition, technologies developed by researchers shouldbe transferred efficiently to the farmers through extension
workers. Moreover, regional and international cooperation is needed to exchange knowledge and technology toincrease rice production in a sustainable manner.
In conclusion, although Bangladesh is self-sufficient inrice production, yield is low. Bangladesh has the potential
to boost rice production and export, which can contributeto the national economy. Targeted breeding is essential toaccommodate the diverse environments of Bangladesh.
The development of more high-yielding, early-maturing,drought-resistant, salt-tolerant, disease-resistant, submergence-resistant, cold-tolerant, high-temperature-tolerant,
and nutrient-rich varieties will further boost rice production and nutrition. In addition, proper crop management
strategies will enhance rice production.

Acknowledgements
We thank Prof. Dr. Muhammad Alamgir HossainDepartment of Crop Botany, Bangladesh Agricultural
University for sharing the information about Bangladesh
rice cultivation.

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