Basis of Structural Designfor Buildings and Public Works

October 2002

Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and TransportPreface
In Japan, technical standards for the design of structures have been separately developed forvarious types, such as public works structures and building structures, or steel structures,
concrete structures and foundation structures. Though this has been effective from the aspectof optimizing structural design of each type of structure, the presence of technical standards
for every single type of structure may impair the accountability of design, which has been
increasingly advocated in recent years.
The Government Procurement Agreement of the WTO (World Trade Organization) requires
government organizations of member countries to observe the international standards
formulated by the International Organization for Standards (ISO), in which standardization ofdesign and construction is also in progress. Moreover, the European Committee forStandardization (CEN), with an eye to the post-unification European market, is formulating
unified standards of design and construction that are very likely to be proposed as ISO
standards. The policy of these international standards under formulation tends toward
establishment of general technical standards common to most structures while formulating
technical standards for each type of structure in regard to matters specific to thecharacteristics of each type.
Considering these situations as a background, a committee comprising specialists fromvarious fields in the building and civil engineering domains, as well as a secretarial committee,
was organized in December 1998 to formulate this “Basis of Structural Design,” acomprehensive code covering various fields and structure types. The committee formulated its
interdisciplinary discussion for three years into this code, while addressing theabove-mentioned trend towards international technical standardization. This code will, we
hope, continuously contribute to further discussion across frameworks of various fields
through revisions of Japanese standards, converging into internationally viable technicalstandards.
Co-chairmen

NAGATAKI Shigeyoshi
OKADA TsuneoiCommittee on Basis of Structural Design for Buildings and Public Works
Committee
Co-chairmen

NameAffiliation

Shigeyoshi NAGATAKI

Professor, Department of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Niigata
University
Professor, Department of Architecture and Building Engineering, Shibaura
Institute of Technology
Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Graduate School of Engineering,
University of Tokyo
Professor, Department of Design and Architecture, Faculty of Engineering,
Chiba University
Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Nagoya University

Tsuneo OKADA
Steel Structure

Yozo FUJINO
Koichi TAKANASHI

Concrete
Structure

Tadaaki TANABE
Shigeru UEDA
Shunsuke OTANIGeotechnicalEngineering
Earthquake
Engineering
predecessor

Osamu KUSAKABE
Yoshihiro SUGIMURA
Tatsuo OHMACHI
Masanori HAMADA
Takao NISHIKAWA

predecessor

Yutaka MATSUSHIMA

Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Science andEngineering, Tottori University
Professor, Department of Architecture, Graduate School of Engineering,
University of Tokyo
Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Tokyo Institute of Technology
Professor, Department of Architecture and Building Science, Graduate Schoolof Engineering, Tohoku University
Professor, Department of Built Environment, Interdisciplinary Graduate
School of Science and Engineering, Tokyo Institute of Technology
Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, School of Science andEngineering, Waseda University
Professor, Department of Architecture and Building Science, Graduate Schoolof Engineering, Tokyo Metropolitan University
Professor, Institute of Engineering Mechanics and Systems, University ofTsukubaAffiliation is the last one during their term of office.

iiCommittee on Basis of Structural Design for Buildings and Public Works
Secretarial Committee
Name
Steel Structure

Naotsugu SATO
Nobuyuki HIRAHARA

Predecessor Kazuhiro NISHIKAWA
Tetsuro ONOPredecessor Kazuo INOUE
Hisashi OKADA
Predecessor Hiroyuki YAMANOUCHI
Concrete
Tamon UEDA
Structure
Predecessor Keitetsu ROKUGOU
Hirotaka KAWANO
Hiroshi YOKOTA
HirozoMIHASHI

Mizuo INUKAIPredecessor Hiroshi KURAMOTO
Predecessor Hisahiro HIRAISHI
Geotechnical
Makoto SUZUKI
Engineering
Predecessor Kenji MATSUI
Nobuyuki TSUNEOKA
Predecessor Hiroshi MIKI
Yoshiaki KIKUCHI
Fumio KUWABARA
Mikio FUTAKI
Predecessor Masahito TAMURA
Earthquake
Shin’ichiro MORI
Engineering
Predecessor Ryoji ISOYAMA
Shigeki UNJOH
Susumu IAI
Yuji ISHIYAMA
Izuru OKAWA
Predecessor Masanori IIBA

Affiliation
Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Science andEngineering, Chuo University
Team Leader, Bridge Structure Research Team, Structures Research Group,
Public Works Research Institute, Ministry of Construction
Head, Bridge Division, Structure and Bridge Department, Public Works
Research Institute, Ministry of Construction
Professor, Department of Architecture, Nagoya Institute of Technology
Professor, Department of Architecture and Architectural Systems, Graduate
School of Engineering, Kyoto University
Director, Department of Structural Engineering, Building Research Institute,
Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport
Director, Codes and Evaluation Research Center, Building Research Institute,
Ministry of Construction
Associate Professor, Division of Structural and Geotechnical Engineering,
Graduate School of Engineering, Hokkaido University
Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Gifu University
Team Leader, Structural Management Technology Research Team,
Construction Technology Research Department, Public Works ResearchInstituteHead, Structural Mechanics Division, Geotechnical and Structural Engineering
Department, Port and Airport Research Institute
Professor, Department of Architecture and Building Science, Graduate Schoolof Engineering, Tohoku University
Senior Researcher, Building Department, National Institute of Land andInfrastructure Management, Ministry for Land, Infrastructure and Transport
Head of Standards and Accreditation System Division, Building Department,
National Institute for Land and Infrastructure Management, Ministry of Land,
Infrastructure and Transport
Director, Codes and Evaluation Research Center, Building Research Institute,
Ministry of Construction
Senior Researcher, Izumi Research Institute, Shimizu Corporation
Chief Engineer, Foundations and Tunnels Division, CTI Engineering Co., Ltd.
Team Leader, Soil Mechanics Research Team, Material and GeotechnicalEngineering Research Group, Public Works Research InstituteHead, Soil Mechanics Division, Materials and Construction Department,
Public Works Research Institute, Ministry of Construction
Head, Foundations Division, Geotechnical and Structural Engineering
Department, Port and Airport Research Institute
Professor, Department of Architecture,,Nippon Institute of Technology
Director, Building Department, National Institute for Land and InfrastructureManagement, Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport
Head, Geotechnical Engineering Division, Department of StructuralEngineering, Building Research Institute, Ministry of Construction
Associate Professor, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering,
Ehime University
General Manager, Environmental and Natural Disaster Mitigation Engineering
Department, Japan Engineering Consultants Co., Ltd.
Team Leader, Earthquake Engineering Research Team, Earthquake Disaster
Prevention Research Group, Public Works Research Institute
Director for Special Research (Disaster Prevention), Port and Airport ResearchInstitute
Professor, Division of Structural and Geotechnical Engineering, Graduate
School of Engineering, Hokkaido University
Chief Research Engineer, Department of Structural Engineering, Building
Research InstituteHead, Evaluation System Division, Codes and Evaluation Research Center,
Building Research Institute, Ministry of Construction

Affiliation is the last one during their term of office.

iii

CONTENTS
1. General ･････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････1
1.1 Scope ･････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････1
1.2 Basic requirements of design ･･････････････････････････････････････････････2
2. Limit states ･･････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････4
2.1 General ･･･････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････4
2.2 Ultimate limit states ･････････････････････････････････････････････････････8
2.3 Serviceability limit states ･････････････････････････････････････････････････9
2.4 Restorability limit states ･･････････････････････････････････････････････････9
3. Actions･････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････13
3.1 Definitions････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････13
3.2 Calcification of actions ･･････････････････････････････････････････････････17
3.3 Treatment of actions ････････････････････････････････････････････････････17
3.4 Load combination ･･････････････････････････････････････････････････････19
4. Seismic design･･･････････････････････････････････････････････････････････22
4.1 Seismic performance ････････････････････････････････････････････････････22
4.2 Method of indicating ground motion levels ･････････････････････････････････33
5. Method of verifying performance ････････････････････････････････････････････34−Annex1

Definitions− ･･･････････････････････････････････････････････････35−Annex2

Summary of Discussion at Committee Meetings− ･･････････････････････37

1.

General1.1. Scope
This “Basis of Structural Design for Buildings and Public Works” covers structures in generaland provides the basic direction for establishing and revising technical standards related tostructural design. In principle, this “Basis of Structural Design” requires explicit treatment of
the fundamental performance requirements of structures, such as safety, and the factors
affecting the performance of structures. The concept of reliability design shall be applied as abasis for verifying compliance to performance requirements.
(a)This “Basis of Structural Design” covers structures in general in both building and public
works fields. The term “structure” is here defined as “organized construction works
designed to provide intended functions while resisting actions.”(a) This “Basis of Structural Design” is a comprehensive framework, which covers both fieldsof buildings and public works, and shows the basic issues necessary to establish or revise
the technical standard of design for each type of structure. In other words, it is equivalent
to so-called “Code for Code Writers.” Some of the basic issues may not be necessary for a
specific technical standard of a structure. This ”Basis of Structural Design” leaves
selection of the necessary issues to the code writers for an individual structure.
(b) Whereas the design of a structure is a comprehensive work taking account of not only
safety, serviceability and restorability but also landscape, impact on the environment,
economic efficiency, etc., this code only covers “structural design” considering
serviceability, safety, restorability, etc., as specified in Sec. 1.2.
(c) The fundamental performance requirements of structures and the factors affecting theperformance of structures are required to be treated in an explicit manner to ensuretransparency and accountability of decision making about public structures in terms ofstructural design, as these have recently become increasingly in demand.
(d) The requirement for “applying the concept of reliability design as a basis” is intended for“considering limit states and maintaining the probability of exceeding the limits within
permissible target ranges during the design working life in consideration of uncertainty ofthe external actions and resistance of the structure”. Setting the basis of this “Basis of
Structural Design” on reliability design ensures international validity of Japanese design
standards. It also enables the results of studies worldwide to be incorporated in Japanesedesign standards. It is important to refer to reliable data in the process of setting the basis
1

on the reliability design concept. It is also important to accumulate such data and open it
to the public for this purpose.
1.2. Basic requirements of design
When designing a structure, the design working life of the structure should be specified, andthe following fundamental performance requirements (1) to (3) should be ensured for the
specified period.
(1) Safety of human life in and around the structure is ensured against foreseeable actions(Safety).
(2) The functions of the structure are adequately ensured against foreseeable actions acting on
structures (Serviceability).
(3) If required, continued use of the structure is feasible against foreseeable actions byrestoration using technologies available within reasonable ranges of cost and time
(Restorability).
(a) When designing a structure, specifying a design working life is required.
(b) (1) and (2) above refer to fundamental performance requirements for safety andserviceability, respectively.
(c) The concept of safety is based on “human safety,” with the requirement being “safety ofhuman life in and around the structure,” including prevention of collapse of constructedstructures that are normally unmanned into the concept of safety.
(d) (3) above describes a fundamental performance requirement of “restorability” in addition
to the other fundamental performance requirements, safety and serviceability.
The requirement for restorability is intended to control the level of damage, thereby
enabling continued use of the structure by repairing damage to the structure from theforeseeable actions using appropriate techniques within reasonable cost and time.
In earthquake-prone Japan, designing public facilities that would restore their functions
shortly after an earthquake to allow their continued use is an example of design taking
account of restorability. Restorability as a fundamental performance requirement can also
be recognized from the standpoint of avoiding the situation in which a great number ofbuildings are on the verge of collapse after an earthquake, requiring demolishing andrebuilding.
(e) It should be noted, though not specified as a requirement, there is a concept of requirement2

for structural integrity, or ability of a structure not to be damaged to an extent
disproportionate to the original cause, such as local failure producing a fatal effect on theentire structural system. This concept is included in ISO 2394 as a fundamental
requirement. Such a concept should also be considered as a part of the fundamental safety
and restorability requirements.

3

2.

Limit states

2.1. General
Limit states to be verified shall be the ultimate limit states, serviceability limit states, andrestorability limit states. The limit states shall be selected according to the purposes of thestructure to be designed.
(a) In some technical standards in the civil engineering field, fatigue limit states are paralleledwith ultimate limit states and serviceability limit states. However, this code includes
fatigue in the ultimate limit states and serviceability limit states, regarding it as a varietyof action causing limit states (see Table 2-1).
(b) When designing, engineers do not have to consider all of the above-mentioned limit states,
but are required to select limit states according to the characteristics of each structure.
Table 2-1

Limit states

States beyond which the stability of the structure is no longer
retained under structural failure or large deformation expected
to result from foreseeable actions, threatening safety of humanlife in and around the structure
Limit states Fatigue limit states (caused by fatigue damage
under
due to repeated variable actions)specific
Durability limit states (caused by damage due todesignthe influence of environmental action)
situation
Fire resistance limit states (caused by damage due
to fire)(b) Serviceability limit States beyond which the functions of the structure no longer
states (serviceability)
fulfill their purposes under expected responses to foreseeable
actions
Limit states Fatigue limit states (caused by fatigue damage
under
due to repeated variable actions)specific
Durability limit states (caused by damage due todesignthe influence of environmental action)
situation
Fire resistance limit states (caused by damage due
to fire)(c) Restorability limit States beyond which the structure can no longer be restored bystates (restorability)
repair using technologies available within reasonable ranges ofcost and time(a) Ultimate limit
states (safety)(c) The requirement for selection of limit states to be verified according to the purpose of thestructure is intended for permitting changes of limit states to be verified depending on thetype of structure as given in Table 2-2. For instance, the fatigue limit state can be a4

predominant condition for bridges, whereas it is mostly of no concern for generalbuildings excepting vibration control members.
Table 2-2

Example of selecting limit states by structure type
Generalbuildings○

Bridges

Debrisbarriers○

Banking…

Ultimate limit states○○
Limit states
Fatigue limit○
under specific states
designDurability△△△
situation
limit states
Fire resistance○limit states
Serviceability limit states○○○
Limit states
Fatigue limit△
under specific states
designDurability○
situation
limit states
Fire resistance△limit states
Restorability limit states○○△○
Note 1) “○” denotes applicable limit states. “△” denotes selectively applicable limit
states.
Note 2) In this example, the serviceability limit states are not selected for debris
barriers, as their intended function of retaining debris is fulfilled unless theyturn over or collapse. However, such structures as slit dams for debris flow
control may require consideration of abrasion.
Note 3) Limit states should be selected from among those given in the tableaccording to the characteristics of the structure as the above-mentioned
example of debris barriers.
Supplementary Note:(1) Examples of limit states in Draft ISO
The latest draft of ISO DIS 19338: Performance and Assessment Requirements for
Acceptance of National Standards on Structural Concrete (for vote between October 2001 andMarch 2002) proposed by ISO TC 71/SC 4 specify five types of limit state: ultimate limit
state (structural safety), serviceability limit state, restorability limit state, durability limit state,fire resistance limit state, and fatigue.

5Supplementary note: Examples of limit states specified in domestic technical standards – Part 1

Japan Society of Civil Engineers
Standard Specifications for Concrete
Recommendations for Design of Steel
Structures (2002)
Structures (1997)
1. Ultimate
limit states

States beyond which a structure or structuralelement is undergoes failure, toppling,buckling and/or major deformation, thereby
losing stability and/or functions

States beyond which a structure or structuralelement undergoes failure or is subjected tomajor deformation or displacement, losing
stability and/or functions.

The Japanese Geotechnical Society
References by Research Committee for Limit
State Design of Foundation Structures (1996)

Ex: States beyond which sectional failure ofpiles occurs.
States beyond which part of thesuperstructure and foundations undergoes
rupture of critical sections, loss of stability,transformation into a mechanism, etc., during
an earthquake of a level encountered once inthe working life.

1’. Ultimate
limit states
during anearthquake

2.
Restorability
limit states

3.
Serviceability
limit states

Limit states beyond which a structure or
structural element is no longer durable orproperly usable due to excessive cracking,displacement, deformation, and/or vibration.

Limit states beyond which a structure or
structural element is no longer usable due toexcessive deformation, displacement, and/or
vibration.

3’.
Serviceability
limit states
during anearthquake

4. Fatigue
limit states
RemarkLimit states beyond which a structure or
structural element undergoes fatigue failure
due to repeated action of variable loads.

Ex: Limit states beyond which cracking ofpiles exceeds the permissible value; limit
states beyond which deleterious deformation
occurs in the superstructure.
Limit states beyond which running safety ofvehicles cannot be ensured during anearthquake encountered several times during
the working life of the structure due todamage/displacement of members of thesuperstructure and foundations.

Limit states beyond which a structure or
structural element sustains fatigue damage due
to repeated loading, losing its functions.
Distinction of limit states during anearthquake from other limit states is required,
but no definitions are provided.

6

Architectural Institute of Japan
Recommendations for Limit State Design ofRecommendations for Ductility Assurance
Steel Structures (1998)
Seismic Design of Reinforced Concrete
Structures (Draft) (1999)
Limit states within which safety of human life Limit states related to the structural safety ofbuildings. Limit states of the ultimate
is ensured in consideration of uncertain
load-bearing capacity of steel structures should
factors, e.g., maximum possible ground
be considered.
motions in the region.

Safety – ultimate limit states
Safety corresponds to ultimate limit states in
the performance evaluation items for life
protection. The design objectives will therefore
be “no collapse” and “withstand verticalloads.” It corresponds to “severe damage” interms of damage degree of structures and “onthe verge of collapse” by P-δ deformation
limits. For structural elements, it corresponds
to the deformation limits of hinged elements
and the limit states of causing brittlenessfailure of columns.
Limit states of response specified to control
damage during an earthquake
Restorability (reparability) – design limit states
Restorability (reparability) is a performance
evaluation item for controlling the damagelevel. The limit states corresponding to this arereferred to as design limit states, damage
control limit states, or reparability limit states.
To be precise, this should be specified byquantifying the damage levels of structural
materials and non-structural materials in
consideration of the repair cost required after
an earthquake, i.e., to make the repair
financially feasible.
Limit states of response specified to permit
continued use of a structure nearly
unconditionally.
Serviceability – serviceability limit states
Serviceability is an item of performance
evaluation to ensure continued use of astructure. Serviceability limit states are design
criteria imposed on structures to ensureserviceability, within which the structure is
scarcely damaged after an earthquake andremains nearly unconditionally usable. For
general structures, the requirements may
include limiting the response within the elastic
limits. Requirements regarding cracking arealso essential for reinforced concrete
structures.

Limit states related to serviceability/
habitability of buildings. Serviceability limit
capacity and serviceability limit deformationof steel structures and limit states (permissible
limits) regarding the floor vibration and rollingof building floors should be considered.

Building Research Institute

1. Ultimate
limit states

1’. Ultimate
limit states
during anearthquake
2. Restorability
limit states

3.
Serviceability
limit states

3’.
Serviceability
limit states
during anearthquake3”. Long-term
serviceability
limit states
4. Fatigue limit
statesSupplementary note: Examples of limit states specified in domestic technical standards – Part 2

General Report on “Development of New Building
Structure Systems” in MLIT’s General Technology
Development Project (1998)(1) Safety- Purpose of performance requirements: Avoid risks tohuman life in and around the structure (life protection)- Contents of performance evaluation: Adequately prevent
failure of structural frames, building members, equipment,
fixtures, and ground to ensure safety

Railway Bureau, MLIT
(Formulated by Railway Technical Research Institute)
Design Standard for Railway Structures – Concrete
Design Standard for Railway Structures – Foundation
Structures (1999)
Structures and Earth Retaining Structures (2000)

States beyond which a structure or structural element isfractured or inclined, involving buckling and/or major
deformation, thereby losing stability and/or functions.

States beyond which foundations lose stability and/or
functions, or their displacement exceeds the yield point,under loads, other than earthquake loads, that rarely act
during the design working life.

Ports and Harbors Bureau, MLIT
(Published by Japan Port and Harbor Association)
Technical Standard for Port and Harbor Facilities (1999)
States beyond which failure occurs under the maximum
load.

States beyond which foundations sustain irreparable
damage, losing stability and/or functions, due to a major
earthquake that acts during the design working life.
(2) Restorability- Purpose of performance requirements: Ensure ease ofrestoration from damage of buildings caused by external
actions (property conservation)- Contents of performance evaluation: Adequately control
deterioration and damage of structural frames, building
members, equipment, fixtures, and ground (within
specified ranges) to ensure building restorability(3) Serviceability- Purpose of performance requirements: Ensure thefunctions and habitability of buildings(Functions/habitability assurance)- Contents of performance evaluation: Adequately
eliminate functional damage and perceived malfunctionsof structural frames, building members, equipment,
fixtures, and ground to ensure serviceability

States beyond which a structure or structural element is nolonger durable or properly usable due to excessive
cracking, displacement, deformation, and/or vibration.

States beyond which foundations lose the required
serviceability and/or durability, or exceed the limits within
which the displacement is regarded as elastic, under loads
that occasionally act during the design working life.

States beyond which relatively light inconvenience, suchas excessive cracking, occurs due to loads of a scale thatoccasionally act during the design working life.

States beyond which foundations lose serviceability and/or
durability, or their displacement exceeds the yield point,due to a medium-scale earthquake that acts during thedesign working life.
States beyond which foundations lose the required
serviceability or durability under loads that act constantly
or for a long time during the design working life.
Limit states beyond which a structure or structural element
undergoes fatigue failure due to repeated action ofvariable loads.

Remark7

States beyond which failure similar to that beyond theultimate limit states occurs due to repeated loads that act
during the design working life.

2.2. Ultimate limit states
Ultimate limit states shall refer to states beyond which the stability of a structure is no longer
retained under structural failure or large deformation resulting from foreseeable actions,threatening the safety of human life in and around the structure.
They shall include limit states beyond which the stability of a structure is no longer retained,threatening the safety of human life in and around the structure, due to the following damage(limit states under specific design situations):- Fatigue damage resulting from repeated loading of variable actions (Fatigue limit states)- Damage resulting from environmental actions (Durability limit states)- Damage resulting from fire (Fire resistance limit states)(a) It is possible to separately specify limit states under a specific design situation for eachcause of ultimate limit states, such as fatigue limit states, durability limit states, and fire
resistance limit states. In this code, however, these are regarded as states composing
ultimate limit states, since they represent varieties of actions causing ultimate limit states.
(b) The reason why fatigue and other limit states are treated explicitly in this code as limit
states under specific design situations is that fatigue failure can be a decisive condition forcertain structures. Also, since limit states under a specific design situation are regarded as
independent limit states in certain technical standards in Japan, consistency with suchstandards was taken into consideration.
(c) As stated in 1.2 (Basic requirements of design), the concept of safety is based on safety ofhuman life. Accordingly, ultimate limit states are specified as states beyond which safetyof human life in and around the structures, including unmanned ones, is threatened.

8

2.3. Serviceability limit states
Serviceability limit states shall refer to states beyond which the functions of the structure nolonger fulfill their purposes under responses to foreseeable actions. They shall include thelimit states beyond which serviceability of the structure is no longer retained due to thefollowing damage (Limit states under specific design situation):- Fatigue damage resulting from repeated loading of variable actions (Fatigue limit states)- Damage resulting from environmental actions (Durability limit states)- Damage resulting from fire (Fire resistance limit states)
It is possible to separately specify limit states under a specific design situation for each cause
of serviceability limit states, such as fatigue limit states, durability limit states, and fire
resistance limit states. In this code, however, these are regarded as states composing
serviceability limit states, since they represent varieties of actions causing serviceability limit
states.
2.4. Restorability limit states
Restorability limit states shall refer to states beyond which continued use of the structure by
repair using technologies available within reasonable ranges of cost and time is no longer
feasible under damage resulting from foreseeable actions.
(a) Restorability limit states are limit states regarded as being located between serviceability
limit states and ultimate limit states (see Fig. 2-1).
(b) Restorability limit states are intended to specify the conditions corresponding to function
restoration emphasized in public works structures and the conditions for retention ofproperty values emphasized in building structures. Conditions in which a structure is
repaired to tentatively restore its functions in a short time (emergency restoration) for
temporary use but is eventually reconstructed are not included in restorability limit states.
Such restoration is regarded as temporary use of a structure in ultimate limit states orsimilar states.
(c) “Technologies available within reasonable ranges of cost and time” were specified to limit
the cost to a certain range, since any structure can be restored by applying new9

technologies to be developed or by using unlimited money and time.
(d) As shown in the example of selecting limit states in Table 2-2, limit states should beselected according to the characteristics of the relevant structure. For restorability, themain consideration may be, for the time being, verification of the design of structures forwhich rehabilitation or repair after an earthquake should be considered.
(e) In both fields of building and civil engineering, the limit states that are currently
recognized as requiring explicit treatment as restorability limit states are only those underseismic action. For instance, limit states for damage due to environmental action(durability) are currently not explicitly treated but included in the detailed structural
specifications. For this reason, durability limit states are not specified as limit states under
specific action in the category of restorability limit states in this code. However, explicit
specifications for limit states regarding fatigue, durability, and fire resistance may proceed
towards adoption as targets of the current detailed specifications in certain fields. In such acase, it is appropriate to include the framework of limit states under specific design
situations in the restorability limit states.
Supplementary Note:
In the discussion of restorability limit states under seismic action, the following
understandings in the building and civil engineering fields were presented:
Understanding in - The civil engineering field pays attention to the state in which thecivil engineeringfunctions of public works structures (infrastructures) can be restored
field
shortly after an earthquake to permit their continued use.
- For instance, the JSCE Standard Specification for Concrete Structures
requires that structures be restorable shortly after an earthquake with noneed for strengthening.
Understanding in - The building field pays attention to the state in which structures can bebuilding field
repaired with cost small enough to retain their values as assets.
- Restorability limit states are significant to avoid the situation in which agreat number of buildings are on the verge of collapse after anearthquake, requiring demolishing and rebuilding- In regard to restorability of damaged functions, non-structural members
and finishing materials should be considered.

10Definitions of limit states in ISO 2394
Limit states
GeneralISO 2394
The structural performance of a whole structure or part of it should generally
be described with reference to a specified set of limit states which separate
desired states of the structure from undesired states.
The limit states are divided into the following two categories:a) ultimate limit states, which correspond to the maximum load-carrying
capacity or, in some cases, to the maximum applicable strain or
deformation;b) serviceability limit states, which concern the normal use.
The effect of exceeding a limit state may be irreversible or reversible. In theirreversible case, the damage or malfunction associated with the limit state
being exceeded will remain until the structure has been repaired. In thereversible case, the damage or malfunction will remain only as long as thecause of the limit state being exceeded is present. As soon as this cause ceases
to act, a transition from the undesired state back to the desired state occurs.
Ultimate limit Ultimate limit states include:
statesa) loss of equilibrium of the structure or of a part of the structure, considered
as a rigid body (e.g. overturning);b) attainment of the maximum resistance capacity of sections, members orconnections by rupture (in some cases affected by fatigue, corrosion, etc.)
or excessive deformations;c) transformation of the structure or part of it into a mechanism;d) instability of the structure or part of it;e) sudden change of the assumed structural system to a new system (e.g.
snap through).
The effect of exceeding an ultimate state is almost always irreversible and thefirst time that this occurs it causes failure.
Serviceability Serviceability limit states include:
limit statesa) local damage (including cracking) which may reduce the working life of
the structure or affect the efficiency or appearance of structural or
non-structural elements; repeated loading may affect the local damage,e.g. by fatigue;b) unacceptable deformations which affect the efficient use or appearance ofstructural or non-structural elements or the functioning of equipment;c) excessive vibrations which cause discomfort to people or affectnon-structural elements or the functioning of equipment.
In the cases of permanent local damage or permanent unacceptable
deformations, exceeding a serviceability limit state is irreversible and the firsttime that this occurs it causes failure.
In other cases, exceeding a serviceability limit state may be reversible andthen failure occurs as follows:a) the first time the serviceability limit state is exceeded, if no excess is
considered as acceptable;b) if the excess is acceptable but the time when the structure is in theundesired state is longer than specified;c) if the excess is acceptable but the number of times that the serviceability
limit state is exceeded is larger than specified;11d) if a combination of the above criteria or of some other relevant criteria
occur.
These cases may involve temporary local damage (e.g. temporarily wide
cracks), temporary large deformations and vibrations.
Design criteria for serviceability limit states are generally expressed in termsof limits for acceptable deformations, accelerations, crack widths, etc.

12

3.

Actions

3.1. Definitions
Action shall refer to the following:- An assembly of concentrated or distributed mechanical forces acting on a structure (Direct
action).
- The cause of deformations imposed on the structure or constrained in it (Indirect action).
- The cause of deterioration of the materials of the structure (Environmental action).
Loads shall refer to action on the structure converted as required to an assembly of
mechanical forces directly applied to the structure through a model for assessing the response
characteristics of the structure to be used as input for static calculation of sectional forces,
stress, and displacement for design purposes.
(a) In the present code, the terms “action” and “load” are clarified by the above definitions toprovide common grounds for discussion across the fields. As defined above, the conceptof action was adopted as the basis for common argument, since the “load” partiallydepends on the characteristics of the relevant structures when converting from action.
(b) The history of design may have begun with the examination of how “weight (loading)”
ought to be supported, and the technology may then have outgrown the concept of“weight.” The term (concept) “action” was therefore introduced to international standards,
while many Japanese design technical standards have used the term “load” to represent awidened scope of the concept. At this moment, it is difficult to set a single boundary
between these terms applicable to all fields. Counterforces and reactions are also treateddifferently in each field. Section 3.1 (Definitions) does not intend to provide a unified
guideline for the boundaries but narrows the defined range of action, and Section 3.2(Classification of actions) presents the classification of variability as a basis of introducing
the concept of reliability design.
(c) According to these definitions, actions can be input into a model for evaluating the
response characteristics of structures either directly or after being converted into loads.
For instance, loads are not employed when directly considering the actions of earthquake
ground motions, wind, and waves on structures in a dynamic analysis or when considering
displacements directly as actions for structures affected by ground subsidence.

13

Table 3-1 Difference between action and load
Action- Common to both building and civilengineering fields, due to being
unconnected to the characteristics ofstructures (However, predominant action
varies depending on characteristics).

Load- Basis of the design of structures; variable
depending on the characteristics ofstructures.
- May be simplified by modeling or forreasons of design calculation.

(d) Indirect actions include expansion and contraction caused by temperature changes,
prestress, and subsidence.
(e) Environmental action is included in the actions to be considered for verifying
serviceability and safety, though ISO 2394 treats them as “environmental influences”
instead of environmental action.
Supplementary note
The definition of “action” differs from that of “action” in ISO 2394. Whereas this code
includes the environmental influences in actions, ISO 2394 defines action as follows:-

An assembly of concentrated or distributed mechanical forces acting on a structure(direct action).

-

The cause of deformations imposed on the structure or constrained in it (indirect
action).

ISO 2394 also describes in the section of “Action models” that a basic action variable, F0, istransformed to action, F, by variables and a function, which depend on the structuralproperties, as given below. According to ISO 2394, action (e.g., wind pressure) is derived
from a basic action variable (e.g., wind velocity) and a variable necessary for transformation(e.g., a variable in the velocity-pressure relationship). However, the description does notclarify the relationship between “load (e.g., wind load) and action (e.g., wind pressure)” with
confusion about the definitions and the use of the terms. The definition of “action” in thiscode provides a clearer relationship than that in ISO 2394. The same term “action” is adopted
in this code despite the difference from ISO’s concept of the term, because it will help
stimulating the discussion of the subject in the future.

14F = φ (F0 , ω )where

F = action
F0 = basic action variableω = a variable that transforms a basic action variable to action e.g. (variablefor converting wind velocity into wind pressure)15

3.2. Classification of actions
Actions shall be classified into permanent action, variable action, and accidental action.
(1) Permanent action
Action that is likely to act continuously throughout the design working life and for which thevariation in magnitude is small compared with the mean value; or for which the variation
tends to be monotonic increases or decreases throughout the design working life of thestructure until the action attains a certain limit value.
(2) Variable action
Action for which the variation in magnitude during the design working life is neither
negligible in relation to the mean value nor monotonic.
(3) Accidental action
Action that is difficult to predict by probabilistic and statistical techniques but cannot besocially disregarded.
(a) The difference between permanent and variable actions is the magnitude in variation of
the action during the design working life. Accidental action is action whose frequency
distribution of occurrence is difficult to predictor for which predicting

or analyzing

frequency distribution is meaningless. Representative examples are as follows:
Permanent action:dead weight of structures, prestress, etc.

Variable action:wind, snow, earthquake ground motion, etc.

Accidental action:rock fall, collision, maximum ground motion, fault
displacement, etc.

It should be noted that environmental action may be regarded in some cases as variableaction, though it is generally designated as permanent action.
(b) Whereas the magnitude of action on most structures is selected in consideration of thefrequency of occurrence over time, facilities against debris flow and refuge facilities are
not designed by verifying safety against actions with a low possibility but designed tofunction against exceptional actions that should be socially prepared for (accidental
actions). In other words, accidental actions should be considered on the basis of such a
concept that they are risks to be socially addressed.
(c) Various arguments have been presented as to whether earthquake ground motions shouldbe treated as variable action or accidental action. Since this code is based on the conceptof reliability design, ground motions should be basically designated as variable action.
16

(d) Such extraordinary ground motions may be treated as accidental actions that it is difficult
to treat them probabilistically, while they are introduced as design ground motions in suchcountries as Japan and the United States where seismic engineering and seismic design
technology have been well developed. ISO 3010 (Seismic action on structures) requiresthat seismic actions be treated as either variable or accidental actions.
3.3. Treatment of actions
A structure shall be designed against actions for which consideration is deemed necessary
either by social judgment or by judgment of the owner of the structure.
Variable actions that can be statistically assessed shall preferably be expressed using a
specified reference period as return expectation values for this period, or as fractile forprobability of non-exceedance during this period.
Though statistic assessment is inapplicable to accidental actions, explicit indication shallpreferably be made by a method easily understandable.
(a) Each action is required to be considered in the design according to the necessity for social
address and judgment of the owner. The reason for dependence on the social necessity andthe judgment of the owner of the structure is that safety of structures involves social
commitment even for private structures, such as residential structures in general.
(b) Among the several methods available for expressing the characteristic values of variableactions, the expected values in terms of return period for a specified reference period or
the probability of non-exceedance is preferably required.
(c) The concept of reference periods for actions is a convenient technique for utilizing
probability models obtained from data. For ultimate limit states, a relatively longreference period may be adopted in comparison with the design working life for
estimating a large action that rarely occurs. On the other hand, a reference period
corresponding to actions that occurs relatively frequently may be adopted forserviceability limit states. For instance, the magnitude of an action may be assessed interms of the probability of non-exceedance for a reference period of 50 years to assume
representative values when the span of accumulated data is no more than 40 years. As forthe assessment of actions regarding serviceability limit states, a variable action with aprobability of exceedance of 95% for a reference period of 1 year may be adopted for
representative values. While this is a concept relative to the concept of design working life,17they should be appropriately related in order to carry out reasonable design.
Introduction of the method of partial factors is recommended later in this code in Chapter
5 (Method of performance verification) to ensure a certain level of reliability. By thismethod, representative or characteristic values defined for a certain reference period andmultiplied further by load factors (possibly 1.0) are used for design. The meaning of thereference period and representative values may therefore vary depending on whether or
not the method of partial factors is adopted.
ISO 3010 provides two examples of treating seismic action on structures in parallel in its
Appendix A (Informative): one in which different reference periods are given to theultimate limit states and serviceability limit states during an earthquake, while unifying
the load factors, and the other in which the reference period is unified while the loadfactors are differentiated (see Tables 3-2 and 3-3). However, it should be noted that mostseismic design codes in Japan and the United States assume the level of ground motions
for verifying the ultimate limit states using the concept of the maximum ground motion
instead of a variable action, which permits the expression of return period.
Table 3-2

Load factors and representative values for magnitudes of ground motion: Example
1
Limit states
ImportanceLoad factors
Representative
Return period
value
Ultimate limitHigh
1.5 – 2.0
0.4
500 years
statesMedium
1.0
Low
0.4 – 0.8
ServiceabilityHigh
1.5 – 3.0
0.08
20 years
limit states
Medium
1.0
Low
0.4 – 0.8

Table 3-3

Loading coefficients and representative values for magnitudes of ground motion:
Example 2
Limit states
ImportanceLoad factors
Representative
Return period
value
Ultimate limitHigh
3.0 – 4.0
0.2
100 years
statesMedium2.0
Low
0.8 – 1.6
ServiceabilityHigh
0.6 – 1.2
limit states
Medium0.4
Low
0.16 – 0.32(d) This code also provides later in Chapter 4 (Seismic design) a seismic performance matrix,
in which the design ground motion level is basically required to be explicitly indicated based18

on the probabilistic and statistical technique. The level of reliability of the eventually obtainedlevel of the ground motion is required to be explicitly indicated in either case of adopting themethod in which each ground motion level is directly set (only the characteristic values are
given) or the method in which characteristic values obtained from the common reference
period are multiplied by different load factors.
3.4. Load combination
The basic rule of load combination shall be as follows:In addition to the permanent load, the predominant load (variable load or accidental load)
shall be assumed to take the maximum design value (fractile value, social target value, etc.).
Other loads (variable loads or accidental loads) shall be set at the most probable values thatare appropriate for combining with the predominant load.
In the case where the application of a load nullifies the effect of another load, load
combination may not have to be considered.
(a) This section is titled “Load combination,” instead of “Action combination,” because
combinations of loads or load effects converted from actions, rather than actions as they
are, are considered in actual design practice. In most international standards, load
combinations are discussed without clearly defining “loads” with respect to “action.”
Meanwhile, in this code, environmental action is regarded parallel to direct and indirect
actions. Actions should in some cases be regarded as combination of actions depending on
the purposes, characteristics, and importance of structures, such as the effects of direct andindirect actions in a deterioration environment. Each of these should be verified by anappropriate method.
(b) The load combination specified here is the basic rule and does not necessarily have to be
applied to all structures. Since design in the building and civil engineering fields cover an
extremely broad spectrum of structures, this rule does not always have to be observed insuch design conditions as shown in table 3.4.

19

Table 3-4 Examples of exceptions to load combination rule
Structures for which serviceability limit state isconsidered for loads with low probability of exceedance
Structures for which serviceability limit state isconsidered for extremely rare accidental events- Dams- Tide embankment- Rock shed
- Facilities against debris flow(c) The requirement “In the case where the application of a load nullifies the effect ofanother load, load combination may not have to be considered” applies to the case where,
for instance, the loads do not have to be combined when stresses in a concrete structure
due to temperature loads are released by cracking or yielding of the concrete during anearthquake.

20

Supplementary noteISO 2394’s definitions of terms related to action (loads)
a. Constituents of representative values
Representative valuesof an action

Characteristic value of an action
Combination value
Frequent value
Quasi-permanent valueb. Definitions of terms
TermactionDefinition
1) An assembly of concentrated or distributed mechanical forces acting
on a structure (direct action).
2) The cause of deformation imposed on the structure or constrained in it(indirect action).
permanent
1) Action which is likely to act continuously throughout a given reference
actionperiod and for which variations in magnitude with time are small
compared with the mean value.
2) Action whose variation is only in one sense and can lead to some
limiting value.
variable action
Action for which the variation in magnitude with time is neither negligible
in relation to the mean value nor monotonic.
accidental
Action that is unlikely to occur with a significant value on a given structure
actionover a given reference period.
representative
A value used for the verification of a limit state.
value of anNote: Representative values consist of characteristic values, combination
actionvalues, frequent values and quasi-permanent values, but may also consistof other values.
combination
Value chosen, in so far as it can be fixed on statistical bases, so that thevalue
probability that the action effect values caused by the combination will be
exceeded is approximately the same as when a single action is considered.
frequent value
Value determined, in so far as it can be fixed on statistical bases, so that:- the total time, within a chosen period of time, during which it isexceeded is only a small given part of the chosen period of time; or- the frequency of its exceedance is limited to a given value.
quasi-permanent Value determined, in so far as it can be fixed on statistical bases, so that thevalue
total time, within a chosen period of time, during which it is exceeded is of
the magnitude of half the period.
reference period A chosen period of time which is used as a basis for assessing values ofvariable actions, time-dependent material properties, etc.
design working Assumed period for which a structure or a structural element is to be usedlife
for its intended purpose without major repair being necessary.
Load
Set of design values used for the verification of the structural reliability for
combination
a limit state under the simultaneous influence of different actions.

21

4.

Seismic design

4.1. Seismic performance
In seismic design, the specified seismic performance shall be explicitly indicated, and theground motion level corresponding to the performance shall be specified.
One or more suitable seismic performance shall be selected from the limit states given in
Chapter 2 according to the purposes of the structure to be designed. The earthquake groundmotion level corresponding to these performance should be determined in the standard
seismic performance matrix given in Table 1 in consideration of the characteristics of thestructure including its importance.
The level of ground motion should be expressed as a result of assessment in terms of thefrequency of events to be experienced during the design working life of the structure(treatment as variable actions). This does not apply to the case where the expression in termsof frequency of events to be experienced during the design working life is inappropriate(treatment as accidental actions).
Table 1 Standard matrix for seismic performance
Seismic performance

Functions to achieve
the purposes of thestructure are ensured(Serviceability limit
states)Ground motion level
Treatment Ground motion assessedasas being experienceable
variableseveral times during
actions
design working life of
the structure
Ground motion assessed
as being rarely
experienceable during
design working life of
the structure
Ground motion assessed
as being scarcely
experienceable during
design working life of
the structure
Treatment Ground motion assessedasas the maximum level
accidental ever experienceable byactions
the structure

22

Continued use of thestructure is feasible
by restoration using
technologies
available withinreasonable ranges ofcost and time
(Restorability limit
states)Stability of thestructure is retained
intact and safety ofhuman life in andaround the structureis ensured(Ultimate limit
states)(a) From the standpoint of emphasizing the importance of seismic design in the design ofstructures in Japan and disseminating the seismic design technology accumulated in Japan,
seismic design is treated as an independent chapter.
(b) Table 1 provides a basic framework of ground motion levels and seismic performance
permitting selection of a seismic performance matrix according to the characteristics of thestructure to be designed (see supplementary note on page 22, 23).
(c) The ground motion levels in Table 1 are basically required to be indicated by thefrequency of variable actions that the structure to be designed is expected to experienceduring its working life. In the report on “Long-term evaluation of Nankai trough” by the
Headquarters for Earthquake Research Promotion, however, the return period of a
maximum level earthquake in the relevant area is assessed to be around 100 years. In sucha case, it is inappropriate to express the ground motion level in terms of the frequency ofoccurrence during the design working life of the relevant structure. Attempts have also
been made in recent years, particularly for important structures, to directly assess theground motion levels to be considered by combining the theoretical ground motions
representing the fracture processes of the hypocenter and various observation results.
Accordingly, the box for “ground motion assessed as the maximum level everexperiencable by the structure” in Table 1 should be selected when it is appropriate to
explicitly indicate the ground motion level by the concept of the maximum ground motion(treatment as an accidental action) instead of the concept of frequency (treatment asvariable action).
(d) When treating ground motion as accidental action as stated above, the reliability levelshould preferably be accountable with respect to the purpose of the structure, design
working life, and other design conditions including other actions.
(e) “Ground motions assessed as being scarcely experienceable during the design working lifeof the structure” and “ground motions assessed as the maximum level ever experienceable
by the structure” in Table 1 may confuse the designer, as they both imply maximum levelsof ground motions. However, these do not have to be simultaneously considered in mostcases. Either can be selected depending on the purpose, importance, location, etc., of thestructure. The three levels of ground motions regarded as variable actions are arranged in
the table to indicate that the ground motions in a lower box are greater. However, “groundmotions of the maximum level” assumed as accidental actions are difficult to link to one of
the above-mentioned three levels, as it is difficult to treat in a probabilistic and statistical23

manner and cannot necessarily be labeled as “rare” from certain aspects.
It should be noted that these two concepts lead to different calculation processes.
Verification could be carried out by both processes when an exceptionally long design
working life is assumed or when particularly careful design is required, such as the case ofstructure B in the supplementary note in page 23. However, such double-verification is notnormally required.
(f) The expression “ground motion assessed as being experienceable during the design
working life of the structure” for ground motion levels includes the possibility ofassessment by setting a ground motion level to be addressed by the design, estimating thereturn period of such a ground motion for comparison with the design working life, andjudging as “extremely rarely experienceable during the design working life.” In otherwords, the ground motion levels to be addressed by the design should not necessarily bederived from the frequency of occurrence during the design working life (see 4.2 (Methodof indicating ground motion levels)).
(g) The specific magnitude of the ground motion assessed as “being scarcely or extremely
rarely experienceable during the design working life of the relevant structure” can bevaried depending on the design working life, importance, etc., of the structure. In otherwords, the definition of “scarcely” and “extremely rarely” are not fixed but should beclarified for individual structures.
(h) “Ensuring the retention of the function to fulfill the purposes of the structure” isconsidered to be a standard requirement against a “ground motion assessed as being
experienceable several times during the design working life of the structure.” However,alternative requirements may be possible in certain regions for a ground motion with thesame frequency, such as “limiting the damage to a predetermined level (restorability limit
state),” “preventing collapse (ultimate limit state),” and preventing fatalities due to damage
to the structure (ultimate limit state).” Indicating the relevant ground motion level andseismic performance level on the basic matrix is useful in such a case as well.
(i) Though three seismic performance levels are provided to represent the serviceability limit
state, restorability limit state, and ultimate limit state, seismic performances more in detail
may also be specified for certain structures.
Supplementary note 1
An image of different positions in the matrix for structures for different uses

24

Structure A
Seismic performance

Ground motion level
Treatment Ground motion assessedasas being experienceable
variableseveral times during
actions
design working life of
the structure
Ground motion assessed
as being rarely
experienceable during
design working life of
the structure
Ground motion assessed
as being scarcely
experienceable during
design working life of
the structure
Treatment Ground motion assessedas the maximum levelasaccidental ever experienceable by
the structure
actions

Functions to achieve
the purposes of thestructure are ensured(Serviceability limit
states)Continued use of thestructure is feasible
by restoration using
technologies
available withinreasonable ranges ofcost and time
(Restorability limit
states)Stability of thestructure is retained
intact and safety ofhuman life in andaround the structureis ensured(Ultimate limit
states)√√

Structure B
Seismic performance

Functions to achieve
the purposes of thestructure are ensured(Serviceability limit
states)Ground motion level
Treatment Ground motion assessedasas being experienceable
variableseveral times during
actions
design working life of
the structure
Ground motion assessed
as being rarely
experienceable during
design working life of
the structure
Ground motion assessed
as being scarcely
experienceable during
design working life of
the structure
Treatment Ground motion assessedasas the maximum level
accidental ever experienceable byactions
the structureContinued use of thestructure is feasible
by restoration using
technologies
available withinreasonable ranges ofcost and time
(Restorability limit
states)Stability of thestructure is retained
intact and safety ofhuman life in andaround the structureis ensured(Ultimate limit
states)

√

√

√

25

Supplementary note 2
Ground motion levels and seismic performance levels specified in various technical standards
in Japan(1) Ground motion levels(a) JSCE Standard Specifications for Concrete Structures [Seismic Design] (1996)
Level
Description
Level 1 ground motion Ground motions with a magnitude that would be encountered several
times during the service life of structures
Level 2 ground motion Ground motions with a magnitude that would be rarely encounteredduring the service life of structures(b) Specification for Highway Bridges [Seismic Design] by the Japan Road Association(JRA) (March 2002)
Level
Description
Level 1 ground motion Ground motion with a higher probability of occurrence during theservice life of a bridge
Level 2 ground motion Strong ground motions with a lower probability of occurrence during
the service life of a bridge
Type I: earthquakes occurring at tectonic plate boundaries andaffecting large areas
Type II: near-field inland earthquakes(c) Enforcement Ordinance of Building Standard Act (April 2000)(Calculation of permissible stress, etc.)
Level
Primary design level
Secondary design level

Description
Coefficient of shearing force: in principle 0.2 (Local factor: 0.7-1.0)
Coefficient of shearing force: in principle 1.0 (Local factor: 0.7-1.0)(Critical load-bearing capacity calculation)
Level
Primary design level
Secondary design level

Description
Earthquakes that may be encountered once or more during theperiod when a building exists
Earthquakes that may occur scarcely(d) Guidelines for Ductility-based Seismic Design of Reinforced Concrete Structures by
the Architectural Institute of Japan (AIJ) (August 1999)
Level
Level 1
Level 2
Level 3

Description
Moderate earthquakes that may occur several times during the service life
Major earthquakes that may be encountered once in the service life
Maximum possible ground motions (e.g., 1995 Hyogoken-Nanbu Earthquake and1891 Nobi Earthquake due to inland active faults)26

(e) AIJ Proposal for Improvement of Disaster Prevention Performance of Buildings andCities (Third Proposal) (January 1998)
Level
D
C
B
A
S

Description
Ground motions that may be encountered several times during the service life
Ground motions regarded as intermediate between B and D
Ground motions that may be encountered once during the service life
Ground motions that may rarely be encountered during the service life
Ground motions that may scarcely encountered during the service life(f) JSCE Proposal for Seismic Standards for Public Works (Third Proposal) (June 2000)
Level
Description
Level 1 ground motion Ground motion that a structure is required to withstand without
damage (Second Proposal)
Level 2 ground motion Maximum ground motion conceivable for present and future at thesite (Third Proposal)(g) Basic Plan for Disaster Prevention by the Central Disaster Prevention Council(July 1995), Part 2 “Measures against Earthquakes”
Level
General ground motion
Ground motion of ahigher level

Description
Ordinary ground motion with a probability of occurrence of onceor twice during the service life of a structure
Ground motion of a higher level resulting from a great near-fieldor marine earthquake with a lower probability of occurrence(h) Notification about the Details of the Technical Standard of Port Institutions(April 1999)
Level
Level 1 ground motion
Level 2 ground motion

Description
Ground motion with a higher probability of occurrence during theservice life of a facility
Strong ground motions with a lower probability of occurrence
during the service life of a facility(2) Seismic performance(a) JSCE Standard Specification for Concrete Structures [Seismic Design] (1996)
Seismic performance
Seismic performance 1
Seismic performance 2
Seismic performance 3

Description
Functions are retained intact requiring no repair after an earthquake.
Functions are restorable in a short time requiring no strengthening
after an earthquake.
The entire system of the structure does no collapse during anearthquake27

(b) JRA Specification for Highway Bridges, Part V “Seismic Design” (March 2002)
Seismic performance
Seismic performance 1
Seismic performance 2
Seismic performance 3

Description
Soundness as a bridge is not impaired by an earthquake
Damage by an earthquake is limited and the functions as a bridge
can be recovered promptly
Damage by an earthquake is not fatal for the functions as a bridge(c) Enforcement Ordinance of Building Standard Law (April 2000)(Calculation of allowable stress, etc.)
Level
Primary design level
Secondary design level

Description
Structural integrity is not damaged (within the allowable stress)
Collapse of building is prevented to protect human life.

(Critical load-bearing capacity calculation)
Level
Primary design level
Secondary designlevel

Description
Building superstructure is not damaged (damage limit displacement).
Collapse of building superstructure is prevented to protect humanlife (safety limit displacement).

(d) AIJ Guidelines for Ductility-based Seismic Design of Reinforced Concrete Structures(August 1999)
Seismic performance
Description
Level 1
Continued use is unconditionally possible.
Level 2
Damaged to a certain extent but the damage is controlled to a level
below the planned damage limit.
Level 3
Safety of human life is ensured.
(e) AIJ Proposal for Improvement of Disaster Prevention Performance of Buildings andCities (Third Proposal) (January 1998)
Seismic performance
Description
1
No damage
2
Light damage
3
Moderate damage
4
Failure/collapse
Light damage: Lightly damaged but no injury or functional damage to the building.
Moderate damage: Significant damage to the building but scarcely involves casualties. The
functions of the building may fail.
Failure/collapse: The damage may not be restorable. Casualties may be involved.
(f) JSCE Proposal for Seismic Standards for Public Works Structures (Third Proposal) (June
2000)
28

Seismic performance
Description
Level 1 ground motion All structures are required in principle to sustain no damage. (Second
Proposal)Level 2 ground motion Important structures and structures for which early restoration isnecessary are required to be restorable in a relatively short time,even if they sustain damage or residual plastic deformation after anearthquake. Other structures are required in principle to prevent
collapse of the entire system of structure, even if they are damaged
to an unrestorable degree.
(g) Basic Plan for Disaster Prevention by the Central Disaster Prevention Council (July
1995), Part 2 “Measures against Earthquakes”
Seismic performance
General groundmotionGround motion of ahigher level

Description
Freedom from severe obstruction to the functions is required as abasic objective.
Freedom from severe impact on human life is required as a basic
objective.

(h) Notification on the Details of the Technical Standard of Port Facilities(April 1999)
Seismic performance
Seismic performance 1
Seismic performance 2

Description
Required stability of a facility is secured and its sound functions are
retained intact.
Suffered damage is slight, and its functions are promptly
recoverable after an earthquake to retain the intended functions.

Supplementary note 3
Basic Plan for Disaster Prevention by the Central Disaster Prevention Council
The Basic Plan for Disaster Prevention formulated by the Central Disaster Prevention Council
in July 1995, which provides the national policy and plan for earthquake disaster management,
gives the concept for ensuring earthquake resistance of structures and facilities in its Article 1of Part 2 “Countermeasures,” Chapter 1, Section 1 “Construction of Quake-resistant Country
and Cities.” The entire text of the concept is given as follows:
Concept for Ensuring Earthquake Resistance of Structures and Facilities
When planning enhancement of the earthquake resistance of the country and cities, it isnecessary to ensure earthquake resistance structures and facilities, such as buildings, public
works structures, communication facilities, lifeline facilities, and facilities related to disaster29

prevention. Though the method of seismic design of these structures may vary depending on
their type and purpose, the basic concept should be as follows:-

Seismic design of structures and facilities should address both general groundmotions that may be encountered once or twice during their service lives and groundmotions of a higher level resulting from great near-field or submarine trench-type
earthquakes with a lower probability of occurrence.

-

Structures and facilities should be designed with the basic objective of preventing
major disruption to the functions under general ground motions and grave impact onhuman life under ground motions of a higher level.

-

Moreover, a greater margin of seismic performance should be provided against
higher-level ground motions for important structures and facilities. Such structuresand facilities include those whose functional disruption can be a significant obstacle
to emergency operations or can have significant impact on economic activities overwide areas, such as regions and the entire country, and buildings accommodating
many people.

It should be noted that ensuring earthquake resistance includes measures to ensure integrated
system security, such as maintaining replaceability and providing backup systems, in addition
to the above-mentioned seismic design of individual structures and facilities.

30

Supplementary note 4
Examples of seismic performance matrices(1) Vision 2000, USA*
Earthquake design
Earthquake performance level
level
Fully operational
OperationalLife safe
Near collapse●❍❍❍
Frequent (43 years)■●❍❍
Occasional (72 years)★
■●❍
Rare (475 years)★
■●
Very rare (970 years)❍: Unacceptable performance; ●: Basic objective; ■: Essential/hazardous objective;★: Safety critical objective* Guidelines established by the Structural Engineers Association of California.
(2) Seismic design guidelines for port structures**
Performance Grade
Grade S
Grade A
Grade B
Grade C

Design earthquake
Level 1Degree I: Serviceable
Degree I: Serviceable
Degree I: Serviceable
Degree II: Repairable

Level 2Degree I: Serviceable
Degree II: Repairable
Degree III: Near collapse
Degree IV: Collapse

Note “Grade S” denotes the highest importance. And “Grade C” denotes the lowest
importance.
** Guidelines established by the International Navigation Association.

31

4.2. Method of indicating ground motion levels
The specified ground motion level should be explicitly indicated in terms of return period orprobability of non-exceedance assumed in the design (treatment as variable action).
When treating ground motions as accidental actions, the level of reliability of thecharacteristic values finally adopted in the design shall be accountable.
(a) As stated in Chapter 3, ground motions are basically regarded as variable actions in thiscode, as it is based on the concept of reliability design. For this reason, the method of
indicating ground motion levels employs in principle a probabilistic approach using suchparameters as return periods. This is consistent with the probabilistic methods mostly
employed for expressing other actions using return periods and other parameters.
(b) It should be noted that the method specified in this section is the method of indicating the
ground motions. The method of setting the ground motion does not necessarily have to be
based on a probability approach. As stated above, an alternative method is also possible inwhich the ground motion level to be considered in the design is directly set by combining
the theoretical ground motion representing the fracture processes at the hypocenter andvarious observation results.
(c) When earthquake actions are regarded as accidental actions, it is impossible to assess themin terms of return period or probability of non-exceedance. Nevertheless, the level ofreliability of the characteristic values of the ground motion finally adopted in the design
should preferably be accountable.

32

5.

Method of verifying performance

Various formats have been proposed for verifying performance, among which no particularformat is specified at the current stage. However, in consideration of future accumulation ofdata related to uncertain factors of various kinds, this code recommends that the verification
method considering reliability, such as the method of partial factors, is incorporated in thetechnical standard related to design in an appropriate form.

(a) A growing trend is set towards reliability design, being led by ISO 2394. Transparency
and accountability in regard to decision making have become increasingly required for
public structures. In consideration of the aspect of ensuring transparency andaccountability in structural design, it was decided that the method of partial factors berecommended here as one of effective methods. The method of partial factors referred toin this code is a method in which the scatter (distribution) of basic components of
response values and limit values including load-bearing capacity and serviceability are
considered to determine partial factors of design parameters in order to ensure targeted
fundamental performance requirement with a certain reliability. The method of partial
factors corresponds to so-called level I of reliability design, but applying level II or III is
not restricted either.
(b) Assuming a uniform safety factor for variable actions and permanent actions may notlead to the same levels of performance requirements between structures for which thevariable actions have predominant effects and those for which permanent actions havepredominant effects. These problems can be clarified by introducing the method of partial
factors.
(c) Various partial factors are conceivable depending on the properties of the structure to be
designed. ISO 2394 provides the following factors as examples of partial factors:

33

ISO 2394
Load sidea d = a norm ± ∆a
θ sd = γ sd

Load-bearing capacity side
Rd = R( f d , a d ,θ rd )fd = fk γ m
a d = a norm ± ∆aθ rd = 1 γ rd

γ f : load factor

γ m : material factor

S d = S (Fd , ad ,θ sd )Fd = γ f ⋅ Fr

± ∆a : geometric scatter± ∆a : geometric scatterγ sd : model uncertainty factor of load 1 γ sd : model uncertainty factor
load-bearing capacity
effect( γ n : importance factor of structure)

34ofAnnex1

Definitions

Some of the terms used in this Basis of Structural Design for Buildings and Public Works aredefined as follows:
Term
Definition
fundamental
In a wide sense, this term refers to a concept that includes structural andperformance
functional performance requirements necessary for the use of a structure
requirement
without inconvenience, including such conditions as the landscape andenvironment. In this Basis of Structural Design for Buildings and Public
Works, however, it refers to an essential performance required for the
structure, for which verification is conducted in the structural design.
design working
Assumed period for which a structure is to maintain the specified
life
functions as a basis for design. During this period, the structure is required
to be usable for its intended purpose by normal maintenance withoutmajor repair being necessary.
safetyPerformance of a structure to protect human life in and around thestructure from the assumed actions. Defined in relation to ultimate limit
states.
serviceability
Performance of a structure to adequately function without inconveniencein service under the assumed actions. Defined in relation to serviceability
limit states.
restorability
Performance of a structure by which continued use of the structure under
the assumed actions is technically feasible by repair within reasonable
cost. Defined in relation to restorability limit states.
limit states
States beyond which a structure no longer satisfies the design performancerequirements.
ultimate limit
Limit states beyond which stability of a structure is impaired due tostatesfailure, major deformation, or loss of equilibrium of forces of its structuralmembers and safety of human life in and around the structure is no longer
ensured.
serviceability
Limit states in which the required serviceability of a structure is retained
limit statesand its intended functions are ensured.
restorability limit Limit states in which continued use of a damaged structure is possible bystatesrepair with technologies available within reasonable cost and time.
limit states under Types of serviceability and ultimate limit states specifically designated by
specific design
the process or action causing the limit states.
situation
fatigue limit
Limit states caused by fatigue damage due to repeated variable actions.
statesdurability limit
Limit states caused by damage due to the effect of environmental actions.
statesfire resistance
Limit states caused by damage due to fire.
limit states
actionGeneric term for “causes of mechanical forces acting on the structure,”“causes of deformation of the structure,” and “causes of deterioration of
the materials of the structure (environmental action).”load
Action converted to set of mechanical forces directly applied to thestructure for use as input values in the static calculation using load models
to determine the sectional forces, stress, and displacement for the purposeof design.
35

Term
Definition
permanent action Action that is likely to act continuously throughout the design working
life of a structure and for which variations in magnitude with time aresmall compared with the mean value; action whose variation is marginal
and can lead to some limiting values; or action that is inclined tomonotonic increase or reduction in a certain direction throughout thedesign working life.
variable action
Action whose variation in magnitude with time is neither negligible inrelation to the mean value nor monotonic.
accidental action Action that is unlikely to occur with a significant value on a given
structure in the design working life; action whose occurrence is difficult topredict by statistical techniques but not socially negligible.
reference period A chosen period of time used as a basis for probabilistically assessing
values of variable actions, time-dependent material properties, etc., tospecify representative values.
representative
A value specified for specific purposes, such as verification of a limit
value of anstate.
actionNote: Representative values may be used for verification as they are or bybeing further multiplied by a load factor, depending on the technique to be
adopted in the performance verification.
Note: Representative values consist of characteristic values, combination
values, frequent values and quasi-permanent values, but may consist ofother values.
characteristic
Principal representative value.
value of anNote: It is chosen on a statistical basis, so that it can be considered to haveactiona specified probability of not being exceeded towards unfavorable values
during a reference period, or on acquired experience, or on physicalconstraints.
load combination Set of design values used for the verification of the structural reliability
for a limit state under the simultaneous influence of different actions.
fractile value
A value of a random variable at which the cumulative probability of theobservations of the variable is less than the value. The fractile is often
given as a percentage.
seismic
Performance related to deformation, damage, etc. under seismic action.
performanceverification
Set of activities performed to confirm whether or not a structure fulfills
the fundamental performance requirements. Confirmation is generally
made by comparing the response values to an action with the limit valuesof load-bearing resistance, serviceability, etc., but may also be made by
the judgment of the designer based on field experience and test results.
method of partial Calculation format in which allowance is made for the uncertainties andfactors
variabilities assigned to the basic variables by means of representativevalues, partial factors and, if relevant, additive quantities.

36

Annex2

Summary of Discussion at Committee Meetings

It was decided at the committee meetings and secretarial meetings that the following items
would be selected as “essential items,” for which matters common to building and civilengineering fields and matters common to various construction types, such as steel andconcrete, would be brought up for discussion by the committee consisting of members
representing various fields.
Essential items
Fundamental performancerequirements
Limit states
Actions (loads)
Verification methods, e.g.,
method of partial factors
Seismic design

Summary of discussion
Determination of fundamental performance requirements
for design
The types of limit states to be covered
Determination of the basic manner in which actions(loads) are treated
Concept of verification methods, such as the method ofpartial factors
Concept of seismic design on an international level

Meanwhile, international technical standards for structural design tend toward establishmentof general technical standards common to most structures while formulating technicalstandards for each type of structure in regard to matters specific to the characteristics of theeach type.
A typical example of such a trend is the Eurocode currently being formulated by the European
Committee for Standardization (CEN), in which Eurocodes 0, 1, and 8 are common to alltypes of structure .

37

Eurocode 9: Design of aluminum structures

Eurocode 7: Geotechnical design

Eurocode 6: Design of masonry structures

Eurocode 5: Design of timber structures

Eurocode 4: Design of composite steel and concrete structures

Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures

Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures

Eurocode 0: Basis of Structural Design
Eurocode 1: Actions of structures

Eurocode 8: Design of structures for earthquake resistanceFig. Entire system of Eurocode standards
In ISO, the general principles on reliability (ISO 2394) were formulated as a counterpart ofEurocode 0.
The arguments presented for the Basis of Structural Design for Buildings and Public Works
are intended to make it serve as an intermediary between the current Japanese systems andinternational ones of technical standards.

38