Agriculture in Hokkaido

Hokkaido University
Sapporo, Japan

Agriculture in Hokkaido (Second edition 2009, v2)
Printed byLaboratory of Crops Science, Research Faculty of Agriculture, Hokkaido
University
N9 W9 Kita-Ku, Sapporo 060-8589, JapanNOTICENo part of this work may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by anymeans, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, microfilm, andrecording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without
permission in writing from the contributors.

CONTENTS
EDITORS and CONTRIBUTORSv

PREFACEvi

Chapter 1
Characteristics of Ecological System
1. What is Hokkaido Island?
2. Vegetation
3. Biodiversity Features
4. Importance of Conservation

Masashi Ohara
1-1
1-3
1-9
1-13

Chapter 2
Cultivation of Field Crops
1. History
2. Present status

Kazuto Iwama
2-1
2-7

Chapter 3
Cultivation of Horticulture Crops
1. Fruit tree
2. Vegetables
3. Flower

Hajime Araki
3-1
3-5
3-11

Chapter 4
Forage Crops
1. History of Hokkaido’s grasslands
2. Forage Crops
3. Breeding Program
4. Utilization of Forage Crops
5. Status and Future Prospects

Toshihiko Yamada
4-1
4-3
4-13
4-17
4-19

Chapter 5
Livestock Production
1. Dairy
2. Beef cattle
3. Pigs
4. Chickens
5. Sheep
6. Horses

Hiroki Nakatsuji
5-1
5-5
5-7
5-7
5-9
5-9

iii

Chapter 6
Agricultural Machinery Technology
Takashi Kataoka
1. Beginning of Mechanization in Agriculture in Hokkaido
6-1
2. Tractor
6-7
3. Agricultural Machinery for Different Operations
6-9
Chapter 7
Agricultural Economy
Yasutaka Yamamoto
1. Food Self-Sufficiency Ratio and Producer Support in Japan 7-1
2. Hokkaido’s Agriculture in Japan
7-3
3. Farms in Hokkaido
7-5
4. Multifunctionality of Agriculture
7-9iv

EDITORS and CONTRIBUTORS
Editor and Chapter 2

Kazuto Iwama

Professor, Laboratory of Crop Science, Research Faculty of Agriculture,
Hokkaido University
Chapter 1

Email:iwama@res.agr.hokudai.ac.jp

Masashi Ohara

Professor, Course in Ecological Conservation, Faculty of Environmental Earth
Science, Hokkaido University
Chapter 3

Email:ohara@ees.hokudai.ac.jp

Hajime Araki

Professor, Section of Bioresource Development, Field Science Center for
Northern Biosphere, Hokkaido University
Chapter 4

Email:araki@fsc.hokudai.ac.jp

Toshihiko Yamada

Professor, Laboratory of Bioresource Exploitation and Utilization Research,
Field Science Center for Northern Biosphere, Hokkaido University
Email:yamada@fsc.hokudai.ac.jp
Chapter 5

Hiroki Nakatsuji

Associate Professor, Laboratory of Animal Production system, Research Facultyof Agriculture, Hokkaido University
Chapter 6

Email:nakahiro@anim.agr.hokudai.ac.jp

Takashi Kataoka

Associate Professor, Laboratory of Crop Production Engineering, Research
Faculty of Agriculture, Hokkaido University
Email:tkataoka@bpe.agr.hokudai.ac.jp
Chapter 7

Yasutaka Yamamoto

Associate Professor, Laboratory of Agricultural and Environmental, Research
Faculty of Agriculture, Hokkaido University
Email:yamay@agecon.agr.hokudai.ac.jp
Associate Editor

Hiroshi Uchino

Post-doctoral Researcher, Laboratory of Crop Science, Research Faculty ofAgriculture, Hokkaido University
Technical Editor (English editing)Jai Gopal

Former Invited Professor, Research Faculty of Agriculture, Hokkaido Universityv

PREFACE
Agriculture in Hokkaido dawned in 1868; the time when the Meiji
Government was established. Warriors who were deprived of their positions by
the new government after the Meiji Revolution, and farmers who could afford
only small area in the main islands of Japan, immigrated to Hokkaido. They
cleared the land and planted crops facing sever winters of Hokkaido. Presently,
Hokkaido leads agriculture in Japan, proudly tops the production of rice, wheat,potato, beans, sugar beet, vegetables, and especially dairy products.
The people of Hokkaido, however, shall never forget that it is the hard workof their predecessors for more than hundred years that has earned the present
position for Hokkaido. At the same time, misunderstanding between immigrants
and native Ainu people, and environmental degradation caused by reclamationof Hokkaido, should be matters of concern.
This book describes past, present and future of Hokkaido's agriculture. The
articles for this have been contributed by the professors outstanding in theirrespective fields in Hokkaido University. All chapters have been written in a
simple language and illustrated with relevant photographs. Though this bookhas been produced as a textbook for the foreign students at Hokkaido
University, it can serve a wide range of readers. It will be a great pleasure for us
if this book is read by all concerned including visitors to this lovely land of
Hokkaido.
Representing the contributors, Kazuto Iwama
March 2009vi

Characteristics ofEcological System
Masashi Ohara
Course in Ecological Genetics
Faculty of Environmental Earth Science
Hokkaido University
Email:ohara@ees.hokudai.ac.jp

Chapter 1
Characteristics of Ecological System
Masashi Ohara
The island of Hokkaido is the northernmost in the Japanese archipelago. It
faces the Sea of Okhotsk and is separated from Honshu by the Tsugaru Strait
and from Sakhalin by the Soya Strait. The lowlands of Hokkaido represent atransitional zone between cool temperate forests in the south and sub-arctic
forests in the north. The mostly upland eco-region of Hokkaido is situated in the
cold-temperate and sub-arctic/sub-alpine climate zones. This chapter introduces
the importance and uniqueness of wildlife and ecosystem of Hokkaido.
1. What is Hokkaido Island?
(1) Where and how big is this?
The map (Fig. 1-1) shows that Hokkaido is located between 41°21'N and
45°33'N latitude, and 139°20'E and 148°53'E longitude. It is in the same latitude
as Portland, Oregon (USA), Toronto (Canada) and Rome (Italy). The area of
Hokkaido is 83,451 km2, which is 22% of the total land area of Japan. The
population of Hokkaido is 5.69 million (cf. 11.77 million in Tokyo) and 32% (1.856
million) of people live in Sapporo city, which is the capital of Hokkaido. The
population density of Hokkaido is roughly 68 people/km2 compared to 5384
people/km2 of Tokyo.
(2) Geography
Hokkaido is a biogeographically important region. The central Hokkaido has
mainly mountains and highlands. It includes the Taisetsu mountain range (Fig.
1-2), which has the highest summit Mt. Asahidake (2291 m ASL), the Tokachi
mountains and east Taisetsu mountains. The Taisetsu mountain range is also
called the "The Roof of Hokkaido". In the north of the central highlands is the
Kitami mountain range. Towards the Sea of Japan runs the Teshio mountain
range from north to south. In the south of the central highlands stretch the sharp

1-1

1-2

ridges of the Hidaka mountain range,140 km toward cape Erimo. The Yubari
mountain range lies parallel to the west of the Hidaka mountain range. These
spinal mountains that run from cape Sohya to cape Erimo, are truly the
backbone of Hokkaido, and undoubtedly influence the climate and vegetation of
Hokkaido.
In eastern Hokkaido, there is Shiretoko peninsula, which has been
designated as a world heritage site. The Akan volcanoes are in thesouthernmost part of the Chishima volcanic zone. In the southwest area of the
Ishikari lowland zone, there is a chain of active volcanoes such as Mts. Tarumae,
Usu, Koma (Fig. 1-3), Yohtei and the Niseko ranges. Because of volcanic
activities in Hokkaido, there are many crater lakes, namely Shikotsu, Toya (Fig.
1-3), Kussharo, Akan and Mashuu.
(3) Climate
Hokkaido has four distinct seasons like the rest of Japan. As it lies in far
north, it generally has cooler summers, and cold, snowy and blustery winters(Fig. 1-4). The average temperature in August is around 22°C (72°F), while in
January it ranges from -12°C to -4°C (10°F to 25°F) depending on elevation andlatitude. Unlike the other major islands of Japan, Hokkaido is normally notaffected by “Tsuyu” and typhoons in the rainy season. During winter, passage
through the Sea of Okhotsk is often disturbed by large ice floes broken loose
from the Kamchatka peninsula. Due to high winds that occur during winter, airtravel and maritime activity almost come to a halt in the northern coast of
Hokkaido.
2. Vegetation
Since the geographical structure of Hokkaido is complex with mosaic
distributions of volcanic, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks, this island has
been historically providing a variety of habitats for wildlife. It has interesting
Japanese Islands, Sakhalin and Kurile, and its flora and fauna are a mixture of
species from southeastern Asia, Siberia and North America. The southern sea
barrier, Tsugaru Strait, is the bio-geographical boundary, “Blakiston Line”, which
has interrupted the migration of many animals between Hokkaido and Honshu,

1-3

1-4

the main island of Japan. On the other hand, in the northern barrier, Sohya Strait,a land bridge was frequently formed in the glacial epoch. Hokkaido is located ina zone of high snowfall and this has facilitated a mixture of summer-green
deciduous trees and evergreen coniferous trees. Actually, the mixed forest of
this island is considered to be the richest in species among all temperate andboreal vegetations of the world.
(1) Boreal coniferous forests
This forest cover is dominated by Asian spruce (Picea jezoensis) andSachalin fir (Abies sachalinensis). These are distributed at high altitudes ofTaisetsu and Hidaka mountain ranges as well as at comparatively lower
elevations of Sohya, Kushiro and Nemuro districts. Dominance of Picea
jezoensis increases at higher altitudes with increasing levels of stability.
Conifer forests are found up to an elevation of approximately 1,500 m in
Hokkaido; above this point alpine conditions predominate. Stone pine (Pinus
pumila) forms low (1-2 m) and dense growth in alpine areas, with poorly
developed undergrowth, but vigorous mosses on the ground. The abrupt changeof the landscape from high forests to low lying Pinus pumila shrubs is impressive
and can be easily recognized. In the alpine zone, the coniferous species are
sometimes accompanied by deciduous broad-leaved shrub communities. The
main associations found are of birch-alder (Betula ermanii-Alnus maximowiczii)
andmountainconspicuouslyashof(Sorbussambucifolia).

Alpineheathscomposed

nigrumdwarf

shrubs(Arcterica

Empetrumandnana-Loiseleuria procumbens association) are found at some of the highest
altitudes (Kudo 1993).
The sub-alpine coniferous forests that used to extend up to thenortheastern hills and plains in coastal areas, for the most part, have been cut
down. However, compared to the rest of the country there still remain relatively
intact large tracts of forests in Hokkaido. Mt. Daisetsu National Park is the largest
national park in Japan covering several volcanic mountains with extensive
spruce and fir forests on its slopes.
(2) Deciduous forests

1-5

1-6

The lowlands of Hokkaido represent a transitional zone between cooltemperate forests in the south and sub-arctic forests in the north with the
exception of the Oshima peninsula. This eco-region covers low hills and plains of
Hokkaido. The lowland deciduous forests of the island are dominated by oaks
(Quercus – especially Mongolian oak Quercus mongolica var. crispula),
basswoods (Tilia japonica), elm (Ulmus davidiana) and ash (Fraxinus
mandshurica), typically with undergrowth of dwarf bamboo (Sasa species). Thebase of the peninsula forms a boundary known as the Kuromatsunai line
(Tatewaki 1958; cf. Fig. 1-1). The beech (Fagus crenata) forest, representative
forest type in the cool-temperate zone of Japan, is the only forest present
throughout the Oshima peninsula, which is situated south of Kuromatsunai
lowland. This is a striking northern limit for the distribution of this species.
The campus of the Hokkaido University is located in the center of Sapporo
city developed on the drainage basin of two big rivers, Ishikari and Toyohira, in
Ishikari plain. In the campus, there are many large elm (Ulmus davidiana), maple(Acer mono) and ash (Fraxinus mandshurica) trees, which prefer mesic and richsoil (Fig. 1-5).
In spring as days become longer and temperature rises, brown deciduous
forests and fields of Hokkaido start to turn green. The forest floor in particular,brightens as scores of wild flowers, “the spring ephemerals”, bloom in April andMay. These flowers open, and leaves unfurl for a few days only. During this shortperiod, the spring ephemerals show many unique and different ecologicalfeatures (cf. Fig. 1-5). Although most of the species of Araceae are common intropical regions, Lysichiton camtschatcense (Fig. 1-5a) of this family is adapted
to cool temperate regions, having unique life forms. Erythronium japonicum is
one of the representative spring woodland perennials of Japan (Fig. 1-6b). The
large showy pinkish flowers of this species have been attracting many flower
lovers. Corydalis fumariifolia (Fig. 1-6c) has deep blue palate, arranged inracemose inflorescence of 1 to 15 flowers. Each flower has a spur in which
nectar collects. Nectar attracts bumblebees, which is an important pollinator. A
representativewild

flowerof

Hokkaido

worth

mentioningisTrilliumcamschatcense (Fig. 1-6d). This flower can be seen on the main campus and in
the Botanical garden of Hokkaido University. This flower figures in the emblem of

1-7

1-8

Hokkaido University. In May, one finds Trillium camschatcense in bloom
everywhere in Hokkaido (Fig. 1-5). In late spring (early June), lily-of-the-valley,
Convallaria keiskei with aromatic white flowers starts to flower (Fig. 1-6e). In
summer (during July) in deciduous forests, one finds tall plants (1.5–2.0 m high)of Cardiocrinum cordatum (Fig. 1-6f) with large conspicuous flowers.
(3) Mixed conifer-hardwood forests
The conifer-hardwood forest is a mixture of boreal evergreen conifers andtemperate deciduous hardwoods that differ in life forms but grow in the sameplace (Fig. 1-7). However, in some cases, the mosaic-like areas of pure standsof different species growing adjacent to one another are also called mixed
forests. The mixed forests can be seen not only in the Far East including
Hokkaido, but also in southern Scandinavia and northern parts of Eastern
Europe, and those between the Great Lakes regions and the northernmost of theAppalachian mountains of North America. Tatewaki (1958) named this type offorest zone the “pan-mixed forest zone”, which is more commonly known as the“hemi-boreal zone” (Hamet-Ahti et al. 1974) or the “boreo-nemoral forest
ecotone”

emphasizing the transitional aspects (Uemura 1993).

3. Biodiversity Features(1) Flora
There are 2,250 species of higher plants (including ferns, gymnosperms
and angiosperms), and it is important to note that the central mountain ranges in
Hokkaido harbor many rare and endemic flora particularly in areas withserpentine

rocks.

For

example,Salix paludicola,

chickweed(Stellaria

pterosperma), aconite (Aconitum yamazakii), and Draba nakaiana are endemic
to Mt. Daisetsu. The flora of Mt. Apoi also contains by far the greatest number ofendemics of Hokkaido, and is one of the most distinct among the serpentine
communities of Japan. Some of the remarkable serpentine relics are
Hypochoeris crepidioides, Callianthemum miyabeanum, Crepis gymnopus,
Rhamnus ishidae, Betula apoiensis, Viola hidakana, and Primula hidakana.
(2) Mammals

1-9

1-10

There are approximately 62 species of mammals in this eco-region. These aremostly small mammals such as microbats, rodents, rabbits, and small mustelids.
Red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) are also present. There is also an endemic
subspecies of a more widespread Sika deer (Cervus nippon yesoensis)(Kamamichi 1996; Hilton-Taylor 2000). Japan's largest mammal species theYezo brown bear (Ursos arctos yesoensis) is found only in this eco-region. The
Yezo brown bear is considered a subspecies and is also found in theneighboring Russian controlled islands. The brown bear is an area-sensitive
focal species for conservation planning as its population has restricteddistribution in the lowland eco-region where they tend to overlap with humanareas.
There is also an endemic sub-species of Pika (Ochotona hyperborea
yesoensis) and Sable (Martes zibellina brachyura). Pika is a remnant of theglacial age and has a very narrow habitat range in the central mountains aroundMt. Daisetsu. The Japanese sable is threatened by breeding with the Japanesemarten (Martes melampus) introduced in Hokkaido.
(3) Birds
In Hokkaido, more than 400 species of birds are thought to habit and/or
breed (Brazil 1991; Birdlife International 2000). A number of species found in
Hokkaido is associated with northern latitudes and are not seen in the rest ofJapan. These include vulnerable Stellar’s sea eagle (Haliaeetus pelagicus),
white-tailed sea eagle (Haliaeetus albicilla), common merganser (Mergus
merganser), tufted puffin (Lunda cirrhata), hazel grouse (Tetrastes bonasia),
three-toed woodpecker (Picoides tridactylus), and willow tit (Parus palustris)(Higuchi et al 1995; Hilton-Tayler 2000). An endemic sub-species of hazel
grouse (Tetraste bonasia vicinitas) is also found in Hokkaido (Higuchi et al.
1997).
Blakiston's fish owl (Keputa blakistoni) is a rare, endangered bird found in
this eco-region. Its habitat-range is believed to be limited to the Hidaka mountainto Nemuro and the Shiretoko peninsula.
The endangered red-crowned Japanese crane (Grus japonensis) is
considered a natural national bird and a symbol of happiness and longevity.

1-11

1-12

Hokkaido’s red-crowned crane is a permanent resident of the lowland east coastof the island, whereas the mainland population of red-crowned cranes ismigratory.
4. Importance of Conservation(1) Factors responsible for extinction of wildlife
A variety of causes, independently or in concert, are responsible forextinction of wildlife. Historically, overexploitation was the major cause of
extinction; although overexploitation is still a factor. Habitat loss is another major
problem of today. Many other factors can contribute to species extinctions as
well, including disruption of ecosystem interactions, pollution, loss of genetic
variations, and catastrophic disturbances, either natural or man-made. The
action of one factor predisposes a species to be more severely affected byanother factor. For example, habitat destruction may lead to decreased
birthrates and increased mortality rates. As a result, populations become smaller,
and more fragmented and isolated making them more vulnerable to disasters
such as floods or forest fires, and also to inbreeding. The loss of genetic
variation through genetic drift, further decreases the population fitness. So,
which factor causes the final coup de grace may be irrelevant as many factors
and interactions between them may have contributed to a species’ eventual
extinction.
(2) What is happening in Hokkaido?
As mentioned above, Hokkaido is geographically, geologically andbiologically interesting and unique island, and there is much precious wildlife
including endemic species. However, after the rapid settlement of the Japanesein the Meiji era (1868-1912), natural forests were quickly replaced by farmlands
and plantations, and some animal species such as the gray wolf and European
river otter are now extinct. Tokachi plain in eastern Hokkaido, is a very active
area for agriculture (adzuki bean, soybean, sugar beet and so on) and dairy
farming. Anthropogenic land conversion (e.g. road construction and agriculturaldevelopment) has resulted in highly fragmented landscape with a large numberof forest remnants, many of which are smaller than 1 ha (Tan 1994)(Fig. 1-8).

1-13

1-14

Loss of habitat by a species frequently results not only in decrease inpopulation, but also in fragmentation of the population into unconnected patches.
A habitat may become fragmented in non-obvious ways, when roads and humanhabitation intrude the forest. This often results in disastrous consequences forwild life. The conservation status in Hokkaido is not satisfactory, andfragmentation of wildlife habitat is thought to be very substantial.
Habitat loss and degradation in the form of continued agricultural andindustrial development constitute the principal threats to red-crowned cranes in
Hokkaido. However, adoption of two active habitat management measures i.e.
winter feeding stations and the installation of conspicuous markers on utility lines
have allowed the Japanese red-crowned crane population to increase. These
actions have reduced the rate of mortality from near extinction to approximately
60% (Swengel 1996).
Only 30% of the Blakiston's fish-owl nesting sites are protected within
national parks or wildlife protected areas, and there is no regulation for generalprotection of the owl habitats. Well developed mixed forests have often been
exploited for human establishments. Wild life has also been heavily affected bygrazing by horses and cattle. Rapid decline in the population of endemic hazel
grouse subspecies has been observed and it is probably due to the replacementof natural deciduous mixed forest with pine (Larix leptrepis) plantations forseveral decades.
Population of brown bears has been affected by hunting for sport andvehicular disturbances, but the greatest threat is the conversion of hardwood
habitats into conifer plantations. Efforts directed at public education regarding
human-bear interactions and the need to conserve and plan around bears’
habitats have been identified as priorities.
(3) Harmony in agriculture and conservation
Development of agricultural fields and conservation of forests is antagonist
to each other. However, we need to combine the both. Species populations in
isolated patches may go extinct unless efforts are made to re-colonize these. It
has become clear that isolated patches of habitat lose species far more rapidly
than large preserves do. Corridors may assist dispersal between patches, and

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maintaining connectivity among habitats has become one of the importantfeatures of conservation biology. Conservation biologists recently have promoted
the criterion of so-called “mega-reserves”, large areas of land containing a coreof one or more undisturbed habitats. The key to devoting such large tracts ofland for long periods is that the operation of reserve should be compatible withlocal land use. Thus, while no economic activity is allowed in the core regions of
the mega-reserve, the rest of the reserve may be used for nondestructive
harvesting of resources i.e. sustainable resource harvesting. Linking reserved
areas to carefully managed land zones creates a much larger total patch of
habitat than would otherwise be economically practical, and thus addresses the
key problem created by habitat fragmentation. Accordingly, joint management of
biodiversity and economic activity is essential. The ecological challenge ofconservation biology is to develop adequate management plans for individual
species and ecosystem, whereas the challenge for the government is to broaden
the movement so as to harmonize agricultural land use with conservation ofnatural habitats for wildlife in Hokkaido.
References
Birdlife International (2000) Threatened birds of the world. Lynx Edicions,
Barcelona and Cambridge, UK.
Brazil, M. (1991) The birds of Japan. Smithsonian Institution Press, Wasington
DC.
Hamet-Ahti, L., T. Ahti, and T. Kopponen (1974) A scheme of vegetation zones
for Japan and adjacent regions. Annales Botanici Fennici 11:59-88.
Higuchi, H., J. Minton, and C. Katsura (1995) Distribution and ecology of birds ofJapan. Pacific Science 49:69-86.
Higuchi, H., H. Morioka, and S. Yamagishi (1997) Encyclopedia of animals inJapan Volume 4: Birds II. Heibonsha Limited Publishers, Tokyo, Japan.
Hilton-Taylor, C. (2000) The 2000 IUCN red list of threatened species. IUCN,
Gland, Switzerland & Cambridge, UK.
Kamamichi, T. (1996) Encyclopedia of Animals in Japan Volume 1: Mammals I.
Heibonsha Limited Publishers, Tokyo, Japan.

1-17

Kudo, G. (1993) Introduction to Alpine Plants. In: Biodiversity and Ecology in theNothernmost Japan. (Higashi, S., Osawa, A. and Kanagawa, K. eds.).
Hokkaido University Press. pp. 61-73.
Swengel, S.R. (1996) Red-crowned crane. In: The cranes: Status, survey andconservation action plan. (Meine, C.D. and G.W. Archibald, eds). IUCN,
Gland, Switzerland, and Cambridge, U.K. 294 pp.
Tan, Y. (1994) Present condition of the forest islands in Obihiro. Report of the
Obihiro Centennial City Museum 12: 1-8 (in Japanese with English summary)
Tatewaki, M. (1958) Forest ecology of the islands of the North Pacific Ocean.
Journal of Faculty of Agriculture, Hokkaido Univeristy. 50: 371-486.
Uemura, S. (1993) Forests and plants of Hokkaido: floral dynamics and ecologyof mixed conifer-hardwood forest zone. In: Biodiversity and Ecology in theNothernmost Japan. (Higashi, S., Osawa, A. and Kanagawa, K. eds.).
Hokkaido University Press. pp.21-35.

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Cultivation of field crops
Kazuto Iwama
Laboratory of Crop Science
Research Faculty of Agriculture
Hokkaido University
Email:iwama@res.agr.hokudai.ac.jp

Chapter 2
Cultivation of Field Crops

Kazuto Iwama
1. History(1) Until the middle of 19th century
In ancient days, local peoples called “Ainu” lived in Hokkaido. They originallycame from the northern parts of Asia, such as Siberia and Karafuto, and they
were mainly dependent on hunting. In the 16th century, so called “Japanese”
governed by Tokugawa Shogun regime immigrated to the southern part of
Hokkaido (Fig. 2-1), Matsumae, and established the domain of Matsumae. They
used to export natural products such as seaweeds “Konbu” (Fig. 2-2), fishes andanimal skins produced by local people of Hokkaido, and imported rice for staple
food from main islands of Japan. Some fishermen and merchants, who generally
visited coastal areas of Hokkaido during the summer, also used to cultivate
vegetables in a small area near their residences. Although they wanted tocultivate rice, the cultivars introduced from the main islands did not grow well in
Hokkaido because of cold climate.
In the 18th century, some foreigners mainly Russians used to visit someports of Hokkaido, e.g. Hakodate and Kushiro (Fig. 2-1), and bought water andsome vegetables. Potato was their favorite vegetable. As a result its cultivation
increased in areas near the ports. A historical book written in the mid 19th
century in Hakodate, reported more than 100 ha under potato cultivation in
Hokkaido. Russians also introduced some potato cultivars to Hokkaido, e.g.
‘Kushiro-murasaki’, which is different from the present-day potato cultivars.
(2) Establishment of Meiji government
In the mid 19th century, the Tokugawa Shogun regime collapsed and the Meiji
government governed throughout Japan including Hokkaido. The Meiji
government established the Hokkaido Development Office, “Kaitakushi”, in2-1

◎WAKKANAIAbashiri

Kamikawa
Sorachi◎
ASAHIKAWA

Ishikari◎ABASHIRI◎KUSHIRO◎SAPPORO◎OBIHIRO

Tokachi◎HAKODATE◎MATSUMAE
Fig. 2-1. Map of Hokkaido.

Arrows; district name , Double circles; city name.

Fig. 2-2. Seaweeds “Konbu”

Fig. 2-3.

exported to main islands of Japan.

(Historical Village of Hokkaido)

2-2

Central office of “Kaitakushi”.

Hokkaido and set up its central office in Sapporo in 1869 (Fig. 2-3). The“Kaitakushi” enhanced immigration from main islands of Japan to Hokkaido; thus
the population of Hokkaido increased rapidly (Table 2-1). From 1869 to 1936,
about 3 million people immigrated to Hokkaido, and half of them were farmers.
Some immigrants were called “Tondenhei”, meaning the soldier for protection
and cultivation of land (Table 2-2, Fig. 2-4). “Tondenhei” were mainly warriors(“Samurai”) of defeated Tokugawa Shogun regime of Tohoku and Hokuriku
areas of Honshu Island (Fig. 2-4). Some villages and cities of Hokkaido werenamed based on the places of origin of the immigrants in Japan.
“Kaitakushi” founded Sapporo Agricultural College (presently a part of
Hokkaido University) in 1876, and invited professors from abroad, mainly from
USA. The most famous professor was Dr. William Smith Clark, a former
president of Massachusetts Agricultural College in USA. In 1878, he became thefirst vice-president of Sapporo Agricultural College, and inculcated a frontier
spirit in young students coming from main islands of Japan. His words "Boys Be
Ambitious", to the students when he left the college, became famous and show afrontier spirit. The students educated at Sapporo Agricultural College became
leaders of Japan not only in agriculture but also in many other fields of higheducation and western thought. A few examples are Dr. Inazou Nitobe(pedagogy and economics), Mr. Kanzou Uchimura (philosophy and religion) and
Mr. Takeo Arishima (literature).
(3) The spread of rice cultivation
The invited foreign professors studied the land and the climate of Hokkaido.
They recommended an agriculture system similar to the North America, i.e.
cultivation of upland field crops such as wheat and potato, and dairy farming.
They considered that rice cultivation was not suitable for Hokkaido because of
too cool climate. However, most of the immigrants from main islands of Japan
did not like to change to a crop other than rice as a staple food. In addition, rice
culms could also be used to produce winter snowshoes and ropes (Fig. 2-5).
Because of the strong demand for rice by the immigrants including merchants
and industry people, the market price of rice in Hokkaido was much higher thanof other cereals. Therefore, farmers continued trials with rice cultivation. In 1873,

2-3

Table 2-1. Population in Hokkaido.
Year
Japan Hokkaido Ratio Note
(million) (million) (%)
1600
12
0.01
0.08
1)
1721
31
0.02
0.06
1850
0.08
2)
1873
34
0.12
0.36
1884
37
0.23
0.61
1903
47
0.99
2.13
1918
56
2.05
3.68
3)
1930
64
2.81
4.36
1940
72
3.23
4.49
1950
83
4.30
5.16
1960
93
5.04
5.39
1970
104
5.18
5.00
1980
117
5.58
4.76
1990
124
5.64
4.57
1997
126
5.70
4.52
4)
2000
127
5.68
4.48
1)The start of Tokugawa shogun regime.
2) The end of Tokugawa shogun regime.
The Meiji government started in 1867.
3) Fifty years since Kaitakushi opening.
4) The maximum population in Hokkaido.

Table 2-2. Cultivating area of field
crops in Hokkaido (1000ha).
Total Rice
Upland
Year
%
crops
1882
20
1894
38
3
8
35
1900 10399941910 224
35 16
189
1918 387
67 17
321
1919 402
73 18
329
1920 380
81 21
299
1930 473 187 40
2861940 530 181 34349
1950 402 144 36
2581960 554 197 36357
1967 539 247 46
293
1968 532 259 49
274
1969 531 266 50
2651970 463 206 45
257
1980 445 154 35
290
1990 480 146 30
334
2000 424 135 32
289

Fig. 2-4. Clearing of forests land (topleft figure), a village of “Tondenhei”(top right figure), and a farmhouse of
Iwama family immigrated from Sendai
district (left figure).
(Historical Village of Hokkaido)

2-4

Mr. Kyuzo Nakayama, an immigrant from Tohoku area and manager of a horse
station at Shimamatsu near Sapporo, succeeded in selecting from theintroduced cultivars of Tohoku area a rice cultivar ‘Akage’, which was tolerant tocool weather (Fig. 2-5).
In 1892, Mr. Tuneaki Sako, head of the financial division in “Kaitakushi”,
decided to enhance rice cultivation in Hokkaido and provided financial support
for this. In 1886, “Kaitakushi” also established agricultural experiment stations
throughout Hokkaido, and rice breeding was officially started. The breeders at
the experimental stations initially practiced selection in cultivars introduced fromthe main islands of Japan, mostly from Tohoku area. In 1915, they started a pureline selection program to produce genetic purity for superior characteristics.
The breeding by making crosses between the selected cultivars was started in
1913, just after the discovery of Mendelian laws by H. de Vries et al. in 1900.
Using these methods, superior cultivars with high tolerance to cool climate andpests, and having high yield and adaptability to Hokkaido’s climate were
progressively developed. As a result, rice cultivation rapidly increased
throughout Hokkaido, and in 1930 it reached to about 200,000 ha with a total
production of 432,000 ton and per capita availability of 150 kg, which was
equivalent to per capita average of Japan (Table 2-3).
(4) The cultivation of upland field crops
In the northern and eastern parts of Hokkaido, i.e. Kitami, Abashiri and Tokachi(Fig. 2-1), rice cultivation could not be established because of very cool climate.
Here, however, some upland crops such as potato and wheat achieved higher
yield than in the main islands of Japan (Table 2-4).
In the early 20th century, Baron (“Danshaku” in Japanese) Kawata, presidentof a ship building company in Hakodate, imported many potato cultivars from
Europe and USA to examine their adaptability in his experimental field near
Hakodate. Among these, ‘Irish Cobbler’ bred in 1876 in USA, proved to be an
early bulking and high yielding cultivar with good culinary quality. It was rapidly
adopted by the farmers near his experimental field, who named it‘Danshaku-imo’ (Baron potato, Fig. 2-6). Official potato breeding also started in
the early 20th century at the Hokkaido Agricultural Experiment Station. Cultivar

2-5

Fig.

2-5.

Memorial

rice

field

at

Shimamatsu (top figure), where Mr. Kyuzou
Nakayama succeeded in selecting a ricecultivar ‘Akage’, and some products (matand snowshoes) from rice straw (leftfigure).

Table 2-3. Rice cultivation in Japan and Hokkaido.
Japan
Hokkaido
Note
Year
Area
Yield Production
Area Yield Production(1000ha) (t/ha) (1000t/ha) (1000ha) (t/ha) (1000t/ha) (%)
1887
1.8 1.74
3
1890
1.9 2.895
18942664 2.346236
3.2 2.55
8 0.1
1900
2731 2.24
6122
9.1 1.97
18 0.31910
2834 2.42
6855
34.8 2.12
74 1.1
1920
2960 3.11
9205
81.2 2.00
178 1.9
19303079 3.18
9790
186.8 2.31
432 4.4
19403004 2.98
8955
181.3 1.62
293 3.3
1950
2877 3.27
9412
143.6 3.27
470 5.0
1960
3124 4.01
12539
197.1 4.01
790 6.3
19673149 4.53
14257
246.6 4.52
1114 7.8 1)
19683171 4.49
14223
258.6 4.74
1227 8.6 2)
19693173 4.35
13797
266.2 3.51
934 6.8 3)
19702836 4.42
12528
206.4 4.43
914 7.3 4)
19802350 4.12
9692
154.2 3.85
594 6.1
19842290 5.17
11832
154.7 5.51
853 7.2
1990
2055 5.09
10463
146.3 5.40
790 7.5
2000
1763 5.37
9472
134.9 5.40
729 7.7
1) The maximum production in Japan. 2) The maximum production in Hokkaudo.
3) The maximum cultivation area in Japan and Hokkaido.
4) The start of the policy for reducing rice cultivation.

2-6

‘Benimaru’ with high starch yield, and cultivar ‘Norin 1’ having high yield andresistance to late blight disease were released in 1937 and 1943, respectively(Fig. 2-6). These and cultivar ‘May Queen’ introduced in 1908 from UK were
widely cultivated not only in Hokkaido but also in the other parts of Japan, andare still sharing about 50% of total potato area in Japan.
In the main islands of Japan, wheat is generally cultivated after harvesting
rice. While in Hokkaido, it is cultivated mainly in upland fields, from September toAugust as winter wheat and from April to August as spring wheat. Since climate
for the wheat cultivation in Hokkaido is different from that in other areas of Japan,
many cultivars were introduced from Europe and North America to examine theiradaptability in Hokkaido. In the early 20th century, a number of letters requesting
seeds of wheat cultivars were written by Dr. Takajirou Minami, the first professorof Crop Science Laboratory in Hokkaido University. Official breeding of wheat
was started in 1920 at the Hokkaido Agricultural Experiment Station, and many
cultivars from crosses among imported cultivars were released. Cultivar‘Akasabi-shirazu’ bred in 1927 was highly tolerant to red rust disease and wascultivated throughout Hokkaido. Cultivar ‘Norin 35’ bred in 1938 had hard grain
and was thus suitable for bread making. Cultivar ‘Hokuei’ bred in 1954 had avery short culm and thus high tolerance to lodging. This enabled the use a large
amount of chemical fertilizers and dense planting, resulting in a rapid increase inyield from 2.4-3.0 ton/ha to 4.2-4.8 ton/ha at the experimental level.
Hokkaido became a leading producer of several other crops also. Flax had
been cultivated in Hokkaido in the late 19th century and exported to foreigncountries as a raw material for fiber production. About two third of peppermint of
the world was produced in Kitami area in the early 20th century. Althoughpeppermint and flax are not cultivated now, farmers and related industries hadearned a lot from their cultivation and this contributed for the progress of
Hokkaido agriculture.
2. Present status
The area under field crops in Hokkaido is 640,000 ha, which is 13% of total area
under field crops in Japan (Table 2-5). The number of farmers in Hokkaido is
52,000, about 3% of total number of farmers in Japan (Table 2-6). Thus the

2-7Table 2-4. Cultivating area and yield of potato and wheat in Japan and Hokkaido.
PotatoWheat
Japan
Hokkaido
Japan
Hokkaido
Year
Area
Yield
Area
Yield
Area
Yield
Area
Yield
(1000ha) (t/ha)(1000ha) (t/ha)(1000ha) (t/ha)(1000ha) (t/ha)
1887
16.4
6.5
2.3
9.9
387.2 1.08
1897
28.6
7.6
10.2 10.7
454.4 1.15
1.9 1.43
1907
58.3
9.5
23.8 10.9
440.3 1.38
10.1 1.36
1916
102.7 10.2
57.9 11.0
527.6 1.53
16.5 1.23
1926
96.6
8.9
45.0
8.2
463.7 1.74
9.1 1.43
1930
103.0 10.1
45.2
9.4
487.4 1.72
13.5 1.62
1940
166.0
9.9
83.5
9.5
834.2 2.15
34.2 1.28
1950
192.4 12.7
75.5 15.1
763.5 1.75
29.8 1.32
1960
204.3 17.6
89.3 20.2
602.3 2.54
15.0 2.07
1970
158.8 22.7
69.8 31.0
229.2 2.07
11.7 1.03
1980
123.4 27.7
64.7 37.4
191.1 3.05
87.6 3.21
1990
115.8 30.7
67.5 38.5
260.4 3.65
120.9 4.14
2000
94.6 30.6
59.1 36.6
183.0 3.76
103.2 3.66

Fig. 2-6.

Display of potato varieties cultivated in Hokkaido.

‘Irish Cobbler’; left side of top row, ‘May Queen’; right side of second row,
‘Benimaru’; left side of third row, ‘Norin 1’; left side of bottom row.
(National Agricultural Research Center for Hokkaido Region)

2-8

average farm size in Hokkaido is about 20 ha, which is more than 10 times theaverage farm size in Japan, and almost equivalent to that in many European
countries. Hokkaido is the top producer of both rice and many field crops inJapan. Mechanization has enhanced the efficiency of crop production. The
status of each field crop in Hokkaido is explained in the following sections.
(1) Rice
Rice is cultivated on 119,000 ha of irrigated paddy fields in Hokkaido (Fig. 2-7),
which is about 7% that of Japan (Table 2-7). In Hokkaido, rice is cultivatedmainly in the central parts, i.e. Ishikari, Sorachi and Kamikawa (Fig. 2-1).
Although Hokkaido is one of the most northern areas of the world cultivating rice,
yet the yield level is high. Hulled grain yield in Hokkaido is 5.7 ton/ha, while theJapanese average is 5.3 ton/ha and the world average is about 2.5 ton/ha (Table
2-7). Presently, Hokkaido is the top producer of rice in Japan, contributing 8% of
the total production.
Hokkaido has achieved an outstanding position in rice production as a resultof continuous efforts for a long period since the Meiji period. By breeding
improved cultivars and improving the cultivation methods, tolerance to cool
weather has been enhanced (Fig. 2-8). Present-day rice cultivars of Hokkaido
have much higher tolerance to cool weather than the old ones. In 1993, theunusual cool weather of Hokkaido caused a severe damage to rice growth, andthe average yield was only 40% of the mean of previous five years. However, thereduction in yield was much smaller in the present-day cultivars than in the oldones (Fig. 2-9). Keeping in view the weather forecasts from agriculturalextension centers, many farmers practiced water blanket method to maintainhigh level of water in fields and this protected young panicles containing infant
flowers from low temperature (Fig. 2-10). Had the farmers not grown improved
cultivars and followed improved cultivation method, they had harvested no grainin 1993. This could have led to a famine similar to those that occurred more than
50 years ago.
In the present decade, special attention has been paid to improve the eating
quality of steamed rice of Hokkaido. It has been improved by two factors,
breeding and climate change. The objective of rice breeding in Hokkaido has

2-9Table 2-5. Agricultural land area in 2005.
Japan Hokkaido Ratio(1000ha)
(%)
Total
4692
1169
25
Puddy field
2556
228
9
Upland field
2136
941
44
Field crops 1173
412
35
Fruit tree
332
3
1
Grass
631
525
83

Table 2-6. Average farm size ofcommercial farmers in 2005.
Japan Hokkaido Ratio(%)
Land area 3447
966
28(1000ha)Number of 1963
52
3
farms
(x1000)
Average
1.76
18.59 1056
Land area(ha)

Table 2-7. Rice production in Hokkaido in 2005.
Area
Products
Yield(1000ha) (1000ton) (kg/ha)
Japan total
1702
9062
5324
Hokkaido total
119
683
5731
Ratio (%)
7
8
108
SorachiRatio (%)
Kamikawa
Ratio (%)

54
46
31
26

318
47
184
27

5865
102
5875
103
Fig. 2-7. Rice harvestingwith combine in paddy
field.

Fig. 2-8. Rice ears with fertile grain (left figure) and unfertile grains (rightfigure) at the end of growing season. (Photographs of Dr. T. Satake)2-10

been changed since 1980s because of a rapid decline in the demand of rice inJapan. Rice production in Japan exceeded the consumption in 1970. Since thenthe Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fishery (MAFF) has imposed restriction
on rice cultivation (“Tensaku”, changing rice cultivation to other crops)
throughout Japan (Table 2-3). Before 1970, the main objective of rice breeding in
Hokkaido was to enhance tolerance to cool weather. Breeding to improve eating
quality was paid little attention for a long period. As a result, the main cultivar‘Ishikari’, which contributed about 60% of rice production in Hokkaido in 1970s
had lower eating quality relative to the leading cultivars such as ‘Koshihikari’ and‘Akita-komachi’ grown in the main islands of Japan. Therefore, the MAFF
imposed the maximum restriction on cultivation of rice in Hokkaido, which
accounted for about 50% of paddy fields. It resulted in a rapid reduction in rice
area in Hokkaido, from 266,000 ha in 1969 to 135,000 ha in 2000 (Table 2-3).
To cope with the above situation, since 1980s, the rice breeding in Hokkaido
has been targeted to improve the eating quality. Farmers’ union of Hokkaido
contributed money to set up new and efficient equipments at the breedingstations of Hokkaido Agricultural Experiment Station to test the eating quality(mainly amylose content). As a result of these efforts by both researchers andfarmers, a new rice cultivar ‘Kirara 397’ with improved eating quality was
released in 1988. Its quality was, however, still lower than that of ‘Koshihikari’.
However, because of low production cost resulting from large field size andmechanization of cultivation, ‘Kirara 397’ could be sold at a much cheaper rate
than that of ‘Koshihikari’. This raised its popularity throughout Japan, especiallyat first food restaurants such as “Yoshinoya”. Since then, new cultivars such as‘Hoshinoyume’, ‘Nanatsuboshi’ etc. with more superior quality have beenreleased one after another in Hokkaido. The latest cultivar ‘Yumepirika’, released
in 2008, has an excellent quality, equivalent or better than ‘Koshihikari’ grown inmain islands.
Another factor that improved the eating quality of rice produced in Hokkaido
is the change in climate, which is a global phenomenon. In general, the eating
quality of rice depends on the proportion of amylose and protein, which control
the stickiness and softness of steamed grains. The best combination forJapanese consumers is 16.5% of amylose and 6.0% of protein. Low

2-11

Percent of fertile grains

Fig. 2-9. Relationship between
the released year of cultivars
and the percentage of fertile
grainsat

Kitamura(open

square) and Kamikawa (closed
circle) in 1993.
(Iwama et al. 1998)
Released year of cultivar

Fig. 2-10. Paddy fields maintaining irrigation water at a high depth to protect
the temperature decrease in the young panicle (left figure), and artificial
climate regulation facilities to examine the mechanism of cool weather
damage in rice panicles (right figure) at the Kamikawa Agriculture Experiment
Station.

(Photographs were provided by Dr. H. Tanno)

2-12temperature during the ripening period of grain from August to September in
Hokkaido frequently restricts the decrease of amylose and protein in grains.
However, global climate change has caused some increase of temperature insummer and autumn. This has helped the cultivars with improved eating quality
to express their full genetic performance. In the southern parts of Japan, on thecontrary, summer temperature sometimes exceeds those required for normal
grain development and thus results in lower quality. It is hoped that Hokkaido will
become a leading rice producer area of Japan in the next decade not only forquantity but also for quality of rice produced.
(2) Wheat
Wheat is cultivated in116,000 ha in Hokkaido, which is 54% of total area of
wheat in Japan (Table 2-8). In Hokkaido, wheat is mainly cultivated in thenorthern and eastern parts i.e. Kitami, Abashiri and Tokachi (Fig. 2-1), where it iscultivated in upland fields. Wheat is also cultivated in paddy fields in the central
part of Hokkaido i.e. Ishikari, Sorachi and Kamikawa (Fig. 2-1).
Average yield (4.7 ton/ha) of wheat in Hokkaido is much higher than in theother parts of Japan (3.4 ton/ha). It contributes 62% of total wheat production ofJapan. Two types of wheat, winter wheat and spring wheat are grown in
Hokkaido. Winter wheat is sown in the first fortnight of September. Before snow
fall, the plants grow to 10 cm and have 6 to 8 leaves (Fig. 2-11). After snow fall,snow-cover protects the plants from severe low temperature of winter. Snowmelts in April and the plants start growing again, and reach the heading stage inearly June. The harvesting is done from late July to early August. The
development of improved high yielding cultivars at the Hokkaido Experimental
Station has led to a rapid increase in wheat production in the current decade.
The latest cultivar ‘Kitahonami’ (Fig. 2-12) has high grain quality comparable toAustralian Standard Wheat (ASW), which is suitable for making Japanese
noodles. This cultivar was released in 2007, and its hulled grain yield recorded
more than 10 ton/ha in farmer’s fields.
Spring wheat is sown after snow melts in April. It grows rapidly, reaches theheading stage in late June, and is harvested in mid August. As spring wheat gets
much shorter growth period than winter wheat, the average yield (hulled grain) of

2-13

Table 2-8. Wheat production in Hokkaido in 2005.
Area
Products
Yield(1000ha) (1000ton) (kg/ha)
Japan total
214
875
4097
Hokkaido total
116
540
4676
Ratio (%)
54
62
114
TokachiRatio (%)
Abashiri
Ratio (%)
SorachiRatio (%)
Kamikawa
Ratio (%)

46.2
40
26.2
23
15.6
14
12.7
11

231.2
43
148.2
27
61.3
11
44.3
8

5004
107
5656
121
3929
84
3488
75

Fig. 2-11.

Winter wheat fieldin Tokachi in late autumn.

Fig. 2-12. High yielding winterwheat cultivar ‘Kitahonami’ at the
ripening stage.

Fig. 2-13. Drill seeding machine (top figure)and harvester (bottom figure) used in wheat
cultivation at big farms in Hokkaido.
(Bottom figure was provided by Prof. Y.
Shibata of Hokkaido Univ.)

2-14

spring wheat in Hokkaido is about 30 ton/ha. However, spring wheat has highprotein content and thus there is a strong demand for this from bread makers.
Presently, spring wheat shares less than 10% of wheat area in Hokkaido, mainlyin the central part, i.e. Ishikari and Sorachi. In these areas, early winter sowing(“Syotou-maki”) of spring wheat is increasing. The spring wheat is sown justbefore snow fall in late autumn, and it germinates just after snow melting in early
spring. Since the growing period becomes slightly longer in early winter sowing
relative to general spring sowing, the yield increases about 20%. The latest
cultivar ‘Harukirari’ released in 2007 has high grain quality almost comparable tothe imported Canadian wheat used for bread making, and it is expected toincrease the spring wheat cultivation in Hokkaido.
The cultivation of wheat in Hokkaido is fully mechanized as in Europe.
Seeding is done with a drill planter and harvesting with a combine (Fig. 2-13).
The average labor requirement of wheat is about 30 hours per ha, which is thelowest among field crops in Japan.
(3) Potato
Potato being adapted to cool climate is cultivated in all areas of Hokkaido.
Hokkaido has 56,000 ha of potato, sharing 64% of potato area in Japan (Table
2-10). Average potato yield in Hokkaido is much higher (39 ton/ha of freshtubers) than in other parts of Japan (20 ton/ha); thus Hokkaido contributes 78%
of Japan’s potato production.
Depending on the usage, three types of potatoes are cultivated in Hokkaido:
table potatoes (for household usage), processing potatoes (for chips and Frenchfries), and starch potatoes (for starch), with 16, 22 and 47% of potato area of
Hokkaido, respectively. The leading cultivars for table potato are ‘Danshaku-imo’and ‘Kitaakari’, for processing are ‘Toyoshiro’ and ‘Sayaka’, and for starch
production is ‘Konafubuki’ (Fig. 2-6). Presently, the production of starch potatoes
is decreasing because of severe competition with the imported potato starch andcorn starch, which are cheaper. On the other hand, the production of processing
potatoes is increasing because of the increase in consumption of chips andFrench fries, especially by young generations.
Hokkaido is also famous for the production of seed tubers. The National

2-15

Table 2-9. Potato production in Hokkaido in 2005.
Area
Products
Yield(1000ha) (1000ton)(ton/ha)Japan total
87
2749
31.6
Hokkaido total
56
2151
38.6
Ratio (%)
64
78
122
TokachiRatio (%)
Abashiri
Ratio (%)
Shiribeshi
Ratio (%)
Kamikawa
Ratio (%)

23.6
42
18.2
33
4.5
8
3.4
6

831
39
730
34
136
6
119
6

35.2
91
40.1
104
30.7
79
35.0
91

Fig. 2-14. Propagation of virus-free seedlings in-vitro condition (top figure)and microtubers produced from transplanted seedlings (bottom figure) at
the National Center for Seeds and Seedlings in Hokkaido.

Fig. 2-15.

Planting of seed potato (top left), cultivation of rows to prevent

weeds (top right), spraying of pest sides (bottom left) and harvesting (bottom
right) of potato in Hokkaido. (Left figures were provided by Prof. Y. Shibata)2-16

Center for Seeds and Seedlings (NCSS) is producing seed tubers at four
farms located at Shiribeshi, Kitahiroshima, Iburi and Tokachi in Hokkaido (Fig.
2-14). The tubers produced at these farms are sold to progressive farmers, who
propagate the seed tubers under the inspection of the Plant Protection Office ofMAFF. Only these farmers are permitted to sell their potato produce as seedtubers to other farmers. The seed tubers produced in Hokkaido are used not
only in Hokkaido but also in the other parts of Japan.
Mechanization of potato cultivation is progressing in Hokkaido. Planting andharvesting are done with automatic machines attached to big tractors (Fig. 2-15).
The average labor requirement of potato cultivation is 100 hours per ha, andonly about 50 hours per ha for production of starch potatoes in big farms.
(4) BeansThree kinds of beans, soybean, adzuki bean and kidney bean (Fig. 2-16, Fig.
2-17), are cultivated in Hokkaido on a total area of 60,000 ha comprised of
28,000 ha with soybean, 23,000 ha with adzuki bean and 9,000 ha with kidneybean (Table 2-10). Although beans are sometimes damaged by cool weather,
they enrich soil by nitrogen fixation in their root nodules. Therefore, theircultivation is useful as it helps to maintain wheat-potato-sugar beet crop rotation
system for 4 years in upland fields in Hokkaido.
Hokkaido contributes 23% of total soybean production of Japan (Table 2-11).
In Japan, soybean is generally cultivated in lowland fields used for ricecultivation. In Hokkaido, however, soybean is cultivated in both low land fields
and upland fields. Tokachi is the main area of soybean cultivation in upland fields
accounting 22% of total soybean area of Hokkaido. Soybean yield in Hokkaido is
2.5 ton/ha, which is much higher than an average of 1.5 ton/ha in the other partsof Japan. The present leading cultivar of soybean is ‘Yukihomare’ bred in 2001. It
has a determinate growth habit and large grain size (about 350 mg). The grains
are mainly used for traditional Japanese foods, such as “tofu” (soybean pudding)and “Natto” (fermented soybeans) (Fig. 2-17), and brewing of “miso” (soybean
paste) and “shoyu” (soy sauce). A special cultivar ‘Suzumaru’, of very small grain
size (about 100 mg), is used for making “Natto”.
Adzuki bean originated in Japan and is cultivated only in Hokkaido. Japanese

2-17

Table 2-10. Cultivating area and yield of beans in Hokkaido.
SoybeanAzuki bean
Kidney bean
Year
Area
Yield
Area
Yield
Area
Yield
(1000ha) (t/ha)(1000ha) (t/ha)(1000ha) (t/ha)
1894
8.8 1.72
15.4
1.05
1.8 1.94
1900
29.2 1.66
30.1
1.60
9.5 1.66
1910
76.9 1.23
52.1
1.29
13.6 1.56
1920
102.0 1.33
53.5
1.33
57.9 1.08
1930
80.2 1.49
46.7
1.51
91.5 1.45
1940
85.5 0.84
40.5
0.86
90.3 0.92
1950
86.1 1.41
19.6
1.40
33.1 1.38
1960
68.0 1.59
60.5
1.63
78.0 1.68
1970
10.0 1.62
43.8
1.55
67.5 1.75
1980
23.1 1.65
29.9
1.26
20.0 1.50
1990
12.7 2.60
40.4
2.38
20.3 1.48
2000
16.2 2.66
30.0
2.53
11.3 1.21
2006
28.1 2.49
22.8
2.46
8.9 2.03

Total
Area
(1000ha)
26.0
68.8
142.6
213.4
218.4
216.3
138.8
206.5
121.3
73.0
73.4
57.5
59.8

Table 2-11. Soybean production in Hokkaido in 2005.
Area
Products
Yield(1000ha) (1000ton) (kg/ha)
Japan total
134
225
1679
Hokkaido total
21
52
2483
Ratio (%)
16
23
148
Kamikawa
Ratio (%)
TokachiRatio (%)
SorachiRatio (%)

5.0
23
4.7
22
4.5
21

12.0
23
13.3
25
11.0
21

2424
98
2824
114
2428
98

Fig. 2-16. Soybean at the
ripening stage.

Fig. 2-17. Grains of soybean (topleft), adzuki bean (top right) andseveralkindsofkidney(bottom).

Fig. 2-18. Traditional Japanese foods made from soybean
grains, Tofu (left) and Natto (right).

2-18

beans

call this “Adzuki”, because of its small grain size. Adzuki bean is used to makefestive red rice and bean jam. The leading adzuki bean cultivar is ‘Erimoshozu’.
The yield and quality of Japanese adzuki bean are much higher than theimported adzuki bean, which is mainly from China. However, Hokkaido’s adzuki
bean is more than 7 times expensive than the imported ones. The annual
variation in yield is large because of variation in damage due to cool weather.
The need thus is to assure stable production and reduce the cost of production.
Compared with wheat and potato, there is little mechanization of beancultivation, particularly for harvesting (Fig. 2-19). As a result, the average labor
requirement, for example of soybean cultivation is more than 100 hours per ha.
This results in much higher price of soybean produced in Hokkaido compared tothe imported ones, mainly from USA and Brazil. The use of harvester speciallymodified for beans is increasing in big farms of Tokachi and Ishikari.
(5) Sugar beet
Sugar beet (Fig. 2-20) is cultivated on 69,000 ha in Hokkaido, and there is noarea under sugar beet in other parts of Japan (Table 2-12). The average yield is
53 ton/ha, which is as high as in Europe. It is used to produce sugar underprotection of the Japanese government. Sugar beet area is mainly in thenorthern and eastern parts of Hokkaido i.e. Tokachi and Abashiri (Fig. 2-1). In
these areas many factories to produce sugar from sugar beet are located.
The sowing method of sugar beet in Hokkaido is typical. To regulate thenumber of plants per hill, seedlings are first grown in paper pots in a nursery bed
and then transplanted in fields. This also reduces weeds. The transplanting ispartly mechanized, but complete mechanization is needed to reduce theproduction cost. Although the yield of the crop grown from direct seeding isabout 20% lower than that in the transplant-crop, direct seeding with seedingmachines is increasing to reduce the production cost. Improvement in seeding
methods and development of cultivars adapted to direct seeding is underway.

2-19

Fig. 2-19. Drying the harvested soybean (Niozumi in Japanese) in fields
before threshing.

Table 2-12. Beet production in Hokkaido in 2000.
Area
Products
Yield(1000ha) (1000ton)(ton/ha)Japan total
69
3673
53.1
Hokkaido total
69
3673
53.1
Ratio (%)
100
100
100
TokachiRatio (%)
Abashiri
Ratio (%)
Kamikawa
Ratio (%)

Fig. 2-20.

30.6
44
27.4
40
4.6
7

1637
45
1531
42
232
6

53.5
101
55.9
105
50.2
95

Sugar beet field in early autumn at Kitami.

2-20

Cultivation of
Horticulture Crops
Hajime Araki
Section of Bioresource Development
Field Science Center for Northern Biosphere
Hokkaido University
Email: araki@fsc.hokudai.ac.jp

Chapter 3
Cultivation of Horticulture Crops
Hajime Araki
1. Fruits
Fruits have a lot of nutritional elements, anti-oxidants, vitamin C anddietary fibers, which inhibit cancer-inducing substances. These also contain K
which promotes Na release for maintaining blood pressure. The Japanese
government has published guidelines, stating the importance of eating at least
200 g of fruits everyday for good health. This standard can be fulfilled by eating
either one piece of apple or a cluster of grapes or 40 pieces of cherry or one
piece of pear or 7 pieces of prune or 2 pieces of orange a day.
Fruit farming in Hokkaido was started upon the advice of Horace Capron,
the Commissioner and Adviser to the Development Commission. Many kinds ofsaplings were imported mainly from United States. Primary fruit trees were apple,
grape and cherry, which were grown mainly in the southern (Nanae), and central
Hokkaido (Yoichi, Niki, Sohbetsu, Mashike and Takikawa) (Fig. 3-1, 3-2). Fruitacreage, mainly of apple, peaked to about 7,000 ha in the 1960’s. Subsequently,
it decreased and was only 3,152 ha in 2004. This was due to the disease valsa
canker, freezing damage, urban sprawl and decline in the market price. Acreageof grapes remained comparatively stable. On the other hand, cherry acreage
increased to 630 ha; 1.6 times of that in 1990 (Fig. 3-3). Many orchard farmers in
Hokkaido have been trying modern methods including growing dwarf trees ofapple and cherry for saving physical labor, building greenhouses for early
harvest of grapes and putting plastic sheet roofs for preventing cracking ofcherry fruits due to rain. These days many consumers visit orchards to enjoy
fruit picking and buy fresh fruits, especially apple, cherry, grape, blueberry etc.
(1) Apple
Apple cultivars bloom in second half of May, and fruits are harvested from
August to November (Table 3-1). In Honshu island, the main island ofJapan, ’Fuji’ is the most popular cultivar. Over 50% of total apple production is in
Honshu Island. In Hokkaido, many other apple cultivars are also grown.
There, ’Fuji’ is not the main cultivar.

3-1

1

2

3

4

5

6

Fig. 3-1. Main fruit trees
produced in Hokkaido
1.Apple (‘Hacnine’)
2.European pear (‘Brandy wine’)
3.Cherry (‘Nanyo 2’)
4.Grape (‘Cambell early’)
5.Blueberry
6.Honey berry (haskap)

Apple
CherryPear
Grape
MashikeAsahikawa
Honey berry
KitamiPrune
Yoichi,
FuranoNiki
Takikawa Ikeda

Fig. 3-2. Production area of main
fruit trees in Hokkaido

SapporoDate,
Sohbetsu
Acreage (ha)1600

Hakodate

Grape

1200

Cherry800

Table 3-1. Harvest season of apples in Hokkaido
400
Month
Cultivars
August'Natsu-no-beni', 'Natsu-no-mai'
0
September 'Kitakami', 'Tsugaru'
Octoberearly 'Sansa', 'Akane', 'Senshu', 'Jonathan',Himekami',
middle 'Red gold', 'Golden delicious', 'New jona gold', 'Hacnine',late 'Orin', 'Mutsu'
November 'Fuji'

1

Apple

1990

2000

2005

Fig.3-3. Change of production
acreage in apple, grape andcherry in Hokkaido

Fig.3-4. Dwarf apple.
Grafting with dwarf root
stock in apple nursery
production(1). Lodging
of dwarf apple tree by
typhoon because ofpoor root system(2).

2
3-2In general, fruits of early harvested cultivars are sour and can not be
stored for long time. ‘Tsugaru’, a typical middle harvest cultivar, produces big
and sweet fruits. ‘Hacnine’ (Hokkaido Apple Clone No. 9) that had originated in
Hokkaido, was established by the Hokkaido Central Agricultural Experimental
Station in 1985. Approximately 93% of the apples are sold fresh and only
remaining 7% are used for processing, mainly for juice and jam.
Rootstocks M9, M26 and JM7 etc. have been used for production of
dwarf trees. Dwarf trees are convenient for spraying fungicides and pesticides,
pruning, training and also for harvesting of fruits (Fig. 3-4). These can also be
planted at higher density. However, due to their weak rootstock, some dwarf
apple trees fell down during typhoon no.18, which attacked Japan in 2004 with awind velocity of more than 40 m/s.
(2) Cherry
Although cherries are more expensive compared with other fruits, yetthese have been popular among many consumers. Cherries are harvested fromearly July to early August. Some famous cultivars such as ‘Sato-nishiki’,‘Beni-shyho’ and ‘Nanyo’ etc. are very sweet, and their price can be more than
1,000 yen/kg. A new cultivar named ‘June Bride’ has been developed by the
Hokkaido Central Agricultural Experimental Station. This cultivar is harvested inlate June, fairly earlier than other cultivars. It also has higher tolerance to lowtemperature. It sets well by pollination with almost all cultivars that are grown in
Hokkaido. In order to protect cherry fruits from cracking by rains, cultivation ofcherry under poly-tunnels (of height more than 2.5 m) is increasing (Fig. 3-5).
Besides, dwarf cherry is gradually spread by using dwarf root stock (Fig. 3-6).
(3) Grape
In Hokkaido, grapes production per year is 10,000 t of which 38% isprocessed into wine and juice. The main cultivars for fresh use are ‘Delaware’,‘North-black’, ‘North-red’, ‘Buffalo’, ‘Portland’, ‘Niagara’ and ‘Tabiji’, while ‘Seibel
13053’, ‘Seibel 5279’, ‘Kerner’, ‘Muller Thurgar’ and ‘Zweigelt Rebe’ are mainly
processed into wine. Hokkaido has the highest grape production for wine inJapan. There are many wineries, big and small, near grape farms in Hokkaido.
Gibberellin is sprayed on grape wines for production of seedless grapes,
especially of early cultivar ‘Delaware’.

3-3

Fig.3-5. Field work forcherry production. 1.
Working with extension
Ladder. 2. High tunnel forrain shelter.

1

2

１

2

３

Fig.3-7. Fruit of raspberry (1), haskap (2) and cherry (3).
Fig.3-6. Dwarf production in Cherry. 1. Cherry
tree grafted with ordinary root stock cultivar‘Colt’ 2. Dwarf tree grafted with ‘Chishima’ .
Table 3-2. Change of Production
acreage of main vegetable in Hokkaido
Vegetables

2
70

2000

1500

Acreage60

amount

50
40

1000

30
20

500

10
0

0
1980

1990

2000

2005

Fig.3-8 Change of production Acreage andproduction amount of vegetable produced in
Hokkaido
3-4

Acreage (1,000 ha)

Production amount (1,000 t)

1

Japanese radish
C arrot
C hinese yam

Production Acreage (ha)
1,990
2,000
2,005
5,410
5,090
4,390
5,680
6,410
5,140
1,490
1,890
2,130

C abbage
W elsh onion
O nion

1,870
801
11,7002,800
1,100
12,8001,680
868
11,600

Asparagus
B roccoli
Pum pkin

4,540
474
6,620

2,330
683
8,080

1,850
1,680
8,090

Sw eet corn
Tom atoM elon14,500
459
2,030

9,940
687
2,020

8,780
780
1,610

Table 3-3. Change of production
acreage of vegetables produced ingreenhouse and high tunnel, Hokkaido
Vegetables
TomatoCucumberWelsh onion

1990
152
136
49

Strawberry
Watermelon
Melon
Spinach

105
286
592
445

Acreage (ha)2000 2005
424
575
127
130
174
134
123
140
1093
703

117
181
1079
740

4) Other fruits
Prune, blueberry and honeyberry (haskap) are gaining popularity among
health conscious Japanese. Honeyberry locally called ‘haskap’ had originated in
Hokkaido. Production of blueberry, raspberry and honeyberry is increasing as
these are used for cakes (Fig. 3-7). Honeyberry grows wildly in Hokkaido.
Farmers cultivate the plants collected from mountains. However, harvesting ofhoneyberry is labor intensive because of the small size and soft texture of themature fruit. Hokkaido University has been carrying out selection of individual
plants from native honeyberries to breed cultivars with bigger and tastier fruits.
2. Vegetables
The cool climate in summer and autumn has made Hokkaido the main
supplier of vegetables. The vegetable production accounted for 15.4% of total
agricultural production in Hokkaido. Approximately 70% of vegetables producedin Hokkaido are transported to other islands in Japan. Hokkaido can be proud of
its high share in Japan’s vegetable production: onion (51%), sweet corn (23%),
carrot (24%), Japanese radish (11%), Chinese yam (29%) and melon (15%)（Table 3-4）.
The acreage of vegetables has been expanding in Hokkaido since 1970
(Fig. 3-8). In 1995, area and production of vegetables reached a maximum of
66,000 ha and 1,876 t, respectively. Area under major vegetables was:Japanese radish: 5,400 ha, carrot: 5,700 ha, onion: 12,000 ha, pumpkin: 6,600
ha and sweet corn: 14,500 ha (Table 3-2). However, due to labor shortage andlow sale price in 2006, area and production reduced to 55,000 ha and 1,592 t,
respectively. Compared to 1995, the production of Japanese radish, cabbage
and sweet corn reduced, whereas that of Chinese yam (Nagaimo), pumpkin,tomato and broccoli increased. In recent years, vegetable production has beenstable and valued at 1,600-1,700 billion yen, which accounted about 8% of total
vegetable production in Japan.
Use of greenhouses (GH) and high tunnels (HT) are increasing, andthese covered an area of 2,900 ha in 2005 (Table 3-3). The average area of GH
and HT per farm is about 20 a. Tomato, cucumber, welsh onion, strawberry,watermelon and spinach are mainly produced in GH and HT.
(1) Onion
Growing of onions in Japan started in Sapporo in 1871 on a trial basis. On

3-5

Table 3-4. Comparison of output of vegetable produced in
Hokkaido and other prefectures
Vegetable
Onion
Sweet corn
CarrotOutput (Billion Yen)
Total
1st
2nd
3rd
73.2 Hokkaido 37.0
Hyogo 8.5
Saga 7.8
30.9 Hokkaido 7.2
Chiba 3.9
Ibaraki 2.5
60.8
Chiba 15.4 Hokkaido 14.7 Tokushima 6.6

JapaneseJapaneseradish
radish 106
Chinese yam
44.9
Melon
90.2

Chiba 14.2
Aomori 14.9
Ibaraki 18.4

Hokkaido 14.3 Kanagawa 9.7
Hokkaido 13.1
Chiba 3.9
Hokkaido 13.9 Kumamoto 13.2

Fig. 3-10. Harvest and washing ofcarrot, Otofuke Town, eastern
Hokkaido

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

Fig.3-9. Onion production 1,2.Growing of Seedlings with plastic tray in plastic tunnel
from March to May. 3.Planting machine. 4. Growing of onion plant in summer. 5,6.
Mature of onion bulb and under-cutting before harvest for effective drying on the field.
7,8. Harvest of onion bulb and storage in September. 9. Clean up of bulb formarketing.
3-6

commercial basis production began in 1878, after the success of the cultivar‘Yellow Globe Danver’. Later, this became the ancestor of modern Hokkaido
cultivars. In 2005, onion’s acreage was11,600 ha.
Cultivars’ choice depends on the growing season i.e. spring or autumn.
In Hokkaido, onion is grown during spring. Seeds are sown in late February or
early March, transplanted in May and harvested in September. Onion cultivationis completely mechanized from sowing to harvest, and also packing (Fig. 3-9).
The Hokkaido Agricultural Experimental Station has developed a new onion
cultivar 'Quer rich', which has higher content of quercetin than the ordinary
cultivars. Quercetin has anti-thrombus effect.
(2) Carrot, Japanese radish and Chinese yam
These vegetables are mainly produced in the Tokachi region of eastern
Hokkaido. Carrots as well as radish are harvested, and also washed and packed
using automatic machines (Fig. 3-10).
Seed tubers of Chinese yam are planted in May and harvested in
October-November (Fig. 3-11). Chinese yam has sticky texture, which is goodfor various traditional Japanese foods. This vegetable can be stored for a long
period at low temperature and is transported to Honshu Island and exported tosouth-eastern Asian countries.
(3) Cabbage and welsh onion
Cabbage is also mainly cultivated in Tokachi region. Nurseries are grownin greenhouses and transplanted by planter. However, harvesting is done
manually (Fig. 3-11).
Welsh onion is one of the traditional materials for Japanese food. Usually,
welsh onion is added to noodles such as soba, udon etc. The nursery of welsh
onion is transplanted by a unique planter and ridging is performed 2 or 3 times
until harvest to produce white leaves. This activity is called ‘blanching cultivation’(Fig. 3-11).
(4) Pumpkin
Pumpkin is popular among people of all ages. However, its cultivation
involves tedious activities such as arranging lateral shoots and harvesting inlarge fields. To solve such problems, a new cultivar named ‘TC2A’ (commercialname ‘Hottoke Kuritan’) with short internodes and fruiting at lower nodes has
been developed by the National Agricultural Research Center for Hokkaido

3-7

1

2

3

4

5

6

７

8

9

Fig. 3-11. Vegetables grown outside field in summer. 1. Sweet corn, 2. Cabbage, 3. Lettuce,
4. Welsh onion (banching onion), 5. Japanese radish called ‘Daikon’, 6. Yam called‘Nagaimo’ 7. Immature soybean called ‘Edamame’ 8,9. Asparagus , Hokkaido University
established a new cultivar named ‘Yujiro’, with cooperated with National Agricultural
Research Center for Hokkaido Region and Hokkai Can Co., Ltd.

1

2

3

Fig. 3-12. Melon and watermelon produced in Hokkaido
1. Orange-colored melon 2,3. Ordinary and black peel-watermelon

3-8Region.
(5) Asparagus
Though asparagus is an important vegetable of Hokkaido, its acreage has
decreased remarkably after the 1990’s. Asparagus if grown continuously on thesame field for years, its productivity decreases. Thus it needs to be replanted in
new fields. Since this involves time and money, which are constrains for the
traditional farmers who have gone old now, little replanting has been
undertaken.
The production of green asparagus, however, is increasing as newcultivars were imported from United States and Europe (Fig. 3-11). Long-term
harvesting of asparagus by cultivating in high tunnels has been established. The
production of green asparagus is higher than its demand, whereas the demand
for white asparagus for use as salad is increasing.
(6) Strawberry
Strawberry cultivars are of two types: i) flowering only for short period andii) those flowering nearly through out the year. Almost all cultivars in Japan
flower for short period. Strawberry is harvested from December to April in
Honshu islands and from May to June in Hokkaido. In summer, a large amountof strawberry is imported. For strawberry production both in summer and autumn,
all season flowering cultivars such as ‘Pechika’ and ‘HS183’ are now cultivatedin Hokkaido. These are planted from May to July. Now strawberries are grownon high beds for comfortable work (Fig. 3-13). Strawberries are mainly used for
cakes.
(7) Melon and watermelon
Melon is one of the symbolic fruits of Hokkaido. In 2003, melon was
cultivated on 1,760 ha. The cultivar called ‘Spicy’ came from the United States in1922. A hybrid between ‘Carter’s Earl’s Favourite’ and ‘Spicy’ was developed by
the Hokkaido Agricultural Experimental Station in 1935. It became the basecultivar of Hokkaido. ‘Yubari King’, the most popular brand in Japan, is one of its
progenies. It has orange and soft flesh (Fig. 3-12). Large quantities of delicious
melons are produced in Hokkaido and transported to all over Japan from July to
September. Unique watermelon with black peel and red fresh is cultivatedaround Iwanai town (Fig. 3-12).

3-9

1

2

3

4

5

6

Fig. 3-13. Strawberry in high tunnel. 1. Nursery 2, 3. Production by low bed and high bed.
4,5,6. Many fruits attacked in one cluster and fruit thinning for large fruit production.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

Fig. 3-14. Tomato production and tomato fair. 1.Grafting in young seedling 2.Training of
tomato plant in high tunnel. 3. Growing tomatoes. 4,5. Hand packing of tomato
6. Automatically packing of small size tomatoes. 7. Tomato fair held at supermarket. 8.
Middle size tomato for cooking. 9. Harvest season of processing tomato

3-10(8) Tomato
Tomato is produced in glasshouses and high tunnels in order to prevent
their damage by rain (Fig. 3-14). Previously, tomatoes were harvested about 7
days before full maturity in order to maintain their hardness and freshness tillthese reach consumers. But these tomatoes used to loose their original flavor
and taste. Now tomato cultivars, such as “Momotaro” have been developed,
which are good enough to maintain their hardness, freshness, as well as flavor
and taste for some duration even when these are harvested at their full maturity.
These cultivars are becoming very popular.
Main production areas of tomatoes are near Hakodate, Takikawa andBiratori. Processing of tomatoes into juice, and as boiled etc. is increasing
Tomato fair is held for commercial purpose every year.
Hokkaido now has the policy to promote ‘Clean Agriculture’, which isfriendly to environment. The objective is to reduce the use of chemicals andfertilizers, so as to produce safe agricultural products. In vegetable production,
plastic mulch or plant residue mulch is used for effective weed control, and net
covering is used for pest control (Fig. 3-15). Farmers who do not use chemicals
and fertilizers can label their products as ‘Yes Clean’ (Fig. 3-16).
3. Flowers(1) History of flower production
Flower cultivation in Hokkaido started in 1875 when an American, Lewis
Barman, planted 74 foreign species in a greenhouse at Sapporo Agricultural
School. In those days, flowers were also grown in some parks. After World War
II, the demand for flowers increased. Farmers living near the cities began
growing flowers. After 1960’s, with rapid economic growth, the flower production
increased. In 1965, cut-flower production became one of the substitutes to ricecultivation. Since 1975, ‘Baby’s Breath’ of Hokkaido has received maximum
nationwide awards. Hokkaido supplies large shipment of cut-flowers to otherprefectures from summer to autumn. Flower production is also carried out as apart-time job by rice farmers.
(2) Flower calendar in Hokkaido
Main flowers produced in Hokkaido are shown in Fig. 3-17 and Fig. 3-18.
Cut-flowers are produced mainly from May to November except Alstroemeria

3-11

1

2

3

4

5

6

Fig. 3-15. Some materials for reduction of application of agricultural chemicals. 1.
Mulching of plastic film 2. Covering by non-woven fabric at juvenile stage 3. Black
sheet for controlling weeds 4. Yellow light for confusing flight of moth. 5, 6. Setting of
net for protecting from some insets

1Fig. 3-16. Yes! Clean label
certificated as the vegetableproduction with reduced fertilizer
and agricultural chemicals(1).
Green manure plants areincorporated to modify of soil
properties before vegetableproduction (2).

2

1

2

4

5

3

6

Fig. 3-17. Main flowers produced in Hokkaido. 1.New lily cultivar named ‘Kita-kirari’,
2,3. Alstroemeria, 4. Prairie gentian, 5. Carnation, 6. Cyclamen
3-12and Freesia, both of which have year-round production (Table 3-5). Farmers
grow seedlings for cut-flowers in greenhouses or high tunnels in winter andtransplant them in early spring. Some farmers transplant them in winter itself forforced production.
Cool summer weather of Hokkaido allows farmers to supply flowers toother prefectures where it is still off-season. The climate of Hokkaido gives
flowers a vivid color, thereby creating a huge demand for theses in Honshu.
Shipments from Hokkaido in July-September, 2005 accounted for 60% of the
174 million yen cut-flowers production in Japan in that year. In 2005, in Hokkaido
flowers were grown on 694 ha and production earned 12.9 billion yen, of which
72% was from cut -flowers, and 18% from potted flowers and seedlings (Table
3-6).
Some companies have large greenhouses (Fig. 3-21) with modern
facilities for regulating temperature, humidity and nutrition etc. Expensive flowers
like orchids and fruits with high quality can be produced under these conditions.
However, their running and maintenance cost is too high (Fig. 3-21).
(3) New cultivars and technology
1) Lily cultivar
Hokkaido Ornamental Plants and Vegetables Research Center in Takikawa
city, has developed a new lily cultivar ‘Kita-kirari’ in 2002 (Fig. 3-17). This cultivar
produces small flowers. The petal is vivid reddish-orange with small dark-brownspots. The inflorescence is compact raceme, and thus this cultivar is suitable forJapanese traditional flower arrangement ’Ikebana’, and small bouquets. This
cultivar produces more cut-flowers per unit area than other lily cultivars becauseof its numerous branches.
2) Wet-transporting system
Maintenance of freshness in cut-flowers is important, especially, whiletransporting them by trucks (73% of total transportation) from Hokkaido to big
cities in Honshu islands. In order to achieve this a small space in which water isstored is set in each packing case so that cut-flowers are able to absorb waterand remain fresh (Fig. 3-18). A chemical solution ‘PAT’ (Plant Active
Technology), is added to vases to prolong the life of cut-flowers.
3) Cultivation under artificially prolonged days
Long-day treatment has been used to control flowering time in

3-13

Table 3-5. Production season of main flowers in Hokkaido
FlowerCut Baby's breath
Carnation
Statice

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun
●
●
●
●
●
●

Jul
●
●
●

Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●

●
●
●

●
●
●

●
●
●

●
●
●

●
●
●

●
●
●

●
●
●

●
●

●
●

●
●

●
●

●
●

●
●

●
●
●

●
●
●

●
●
●

●
●
●

●
●
●

●
●
●

●

●

●

●

●

●

●
●
●

●

●

●
●
●

●
●

●

●
●
●

●

●

●
●
●

●
●
●

●
●
●

●

●

●

●

●
●

●
●

●
●

Prairie gentian
Alstroemeria
Lily
Stock
Antirrhinum
Turip
Freesia
Color
Rose

●

●

●

●

●

●

●

●

●

●

●

●
●

Delphynium
CosmosSunflower
Sweet pea
Gladiolus
Sunder sonia
Pot●

Cyclamen
Poinsettia
Primula●●●LavenderLily of the valley

1

3

●
●

●

●
●
●

●

●

2

4

5

6

Fig. 3-18. Flower production and baby’s breath in wet transportation. 1.Tulips in box,
2.Statics, 3.Lily, 4.Prairie gentian, 5.Carnation, 6. Wet transportation

3-14

Chrysanthemum. This technique was adapted in Delphinium and Prairie gentian
flowers in autumn in Hokkaido. ‘Long-day treatment’ elongates inter-nodes ofDelphinium. In Prairie gentian, the same technique prevents blasting of theflower buds and helps them have fine blooms.
4) Flower parks
There are many flower parks in Hokkaido: Lily park in Sapporo, Lavenderpark in Furano, Tulip park in Kami-yubetsu, moss phlox in Takinoue, Sunflower
park in Hokuryu and English style garden in Uni town (Fig. 3-19).
(4) Future
The flower production in Hokkaido has been growing and these areproduced all over Hokkaido. However, these days demand of cut-flowers is
unstable due to recession, spread of flower production in the whole country andincrease in imported flowers etc. On the other hand, the demand of flowers forhome-gardening and room decoration is increasing. In order to stabilize thedemand, it is important to have access to the marketing information and an
efficient distribution system. These days, many events are organized forexchanging information among farmers, consumers and designers etc. (Fig.
3-20).
Acknowledgement
I would like to thank to Mr. Yutaka Inagawa, Fruit tree section, Hokkaido
Central Agricultural Experiment Station, Mrs. Ryoko Suzuki, Ornament Plant
Section, Hokkaido ornamental plant and vegetable research center and Mrs.
Naho Murata, Local crop breeding research team, National Agricultural
Research Center for Hokkaido Region for their suggestions and photographs.

3-15

1

4

2

3

5

6

Fig. 3-19. Flower garden in Hokkaido. 1,2.Lavender and Salvia (Furano city)
3,4. Yuni garden (Yuni town), 5,6. Marygold and sunflower (Nakafurano town)
Table 3-6. Change of production acreage inflowers in Hokkaido
Flowers
Production acreage (ha)
1990
2000
2005
Cut flower
421
700
629
Potted flower
15
34
21
Seedlings for garden
14
50
44
Flower farmer
Fig. 3-20. Festival of baby’s breath for
expanding of production and consumption.

2,737

1

2

3

4

5

6

2,402

1,946

Fig. 3-21. Modern facilities. 1 Plastic high tunnel with roof, 2. Moving bench, 3.Warm duct,
4.Filter for shading, 5. Liquid fertilizer application, 6. Tomato production with drip irrigation.

3-16

Forage crops
Toshihiko Yamada
Laboratory of Bioresource Exploitation and Utilization Research
Field Science Center for Northern Biosphere
Hokkaido University
Email:yamada@fsc.hokudai.ac.jp

Chapter 4
Forage Crops
Toshihiko Yamada
Grassland farming is one of the important activities in Hokkaido’s agriculture.
Grasslands cover 45% of cultivated area of Hokkaido. About 83% of thegrasslands of Japan are in Hokkaido alone (Fig. 4-1). In eastern and northern
Hokkaido where rice cultivation can not be undertaken due to cool climate, dairy
farming based on grasslands is the major agricultural activity. It accounts for
91.5% of the total agricultural output. Size of dairy farms in these districts iscomparable to those of European countries. Grasslands in Hokkaido consist of
perennial forage grasses such as timothy and orchardgrass, and perennial
forage legumes such as white clover, red clover and alfalfa. In upland areas
such as Tokachi district, maize is grown as an annual forage crop for use as
silage for animal feed. In this chapter, forage crops cultivated in Hokkaido aredescribed.
1. History of Hokkaido’s grasslands
The cultivation of forage crops in Hokkaido was first recorded in 1869.
Gaertner, a Prussian (now German), cultivated some forage crops in Nanae
near Hakodate. At the Sapporo Agricultural College (now Hokkaido University)
the cultivation of forage crops whose seeds had been imported by Dr. William S.
Clark from Massachusetts, USA was started in 1877. Dr. Edwin Dun (Fig. 4-2),
who has been called the father of Hokkaido’s dairy farming, established the
Makomanai Livestock Farm in 1876. In 1887, forage crops were cultivated atseveral livestock farms in Hokkaido. In those days, forage grasses such as
timothy and orchardgrass were grown in grasslands. Timothy was grown mainlyfor production of hay for use as feed of horses. Orchardgrass was used for both
hay production and grazing by cattle. However, after the World War II, due todecrease in horse population cultivation of timothy declined. In 1955, thegrassland area was only 80,000 ha. During 1960’s, the consumption of animal

4-1

Grassland

Upland523,000 ha(45%)

416,000 ha
(36%)

Paddy
Field

227,000 ha(19%)

Cultivated area of Hokkaido 1,166,000ha(25% in Japan)
Fig.4-1. Cultivated area in Hokkaido.

Fig.4-2. Edwin Dun Memorial Museum at Makomanai,
Sapporo. The materials used at Makomanai Livestock
Farm in those days are displayed.

4-2

products such as milk and meats increased drastically due to the influence ofwestern life-style and economic development. After 1956, grasslands weredeveloped on a large scale in eastern Hokkaido with the support of Japanese
government and World Bank. So called ‘Pilot Farm Program’ was carried out
using big machinery to develop grasslands. Later, a number of grasslands were
established every year, which had an area over 500,000 ha by the end of 1980’s(Fig. 4-3). In the 1970’s, for the establishment of grasslands in the eastern
Hokkaido near Abashiri, orchardgrass was cultivated, because of its high forage
yield. But, in 1975, severe winter conditions of the region killed orchardgrass
plants in many swards. Subsequently, cultivation of timothy, a winter hardy
species, was undertaken in this region, and now it covers more than 70% of thegrasslands of Hokkaido. Timothy has high forage quality and is a suitable feed
for high milk yielding cows (super cow); thus it is a preferred forage crop forgrasslands.
2. Forage crops
Table 4-1 shows the current acreage of forage crops in Hokkaido.
Perennial forage crops as well as annual maize are important for forage
production in Hokkaido.
(1) Perennial forage crops
Timothy and orchardgrass are cool season grasses. These are cultivatedas important perennial forage crops in Hokkaido. Hokkaido has two distinct
climate zones. During winter, the western Hokkaido has thick snow cover(non-frozen soil zone); thus orchardgrass and perennial ryegrass are grown
there. The eastern Hokkaido has less snow cover (frozen soil zone). Here
winter hardy species such as timothy and meadow fescue are common (Fig.
4-4). Perennial forage legumes such as red clover, white clover and alfalfa areusually cultivated as a mixture with grasses. They play an expanded andinvaluable role in the nitrogen economy, animal productivity and sustainabilityof grasslands.
Main perennial forage crops grown in Hokkaido are listed below.
1) Timothy:

4-3

Fig. 4-3. Grassland in the eastern Hokkaido -view from an
observatory point, ‘Kaiyou-dai’ in Nakashibetsu-town.
Table 4-1. Acreage of forage crops in 2006 (ha).
Japan

Hokkaido

Forage grasses & legumes

787,300

569,700

Maize

85,20036,600

Sorghum

34,300158

Oat & Rye

62,08045,618Forage turnip339

0

Others27,381

10,024

Total

996,600

662,100

West area

East area(Snowing Area)(Low temperature area)

Orchardgrass
Perennial ryegrass

Mountains
Timothy
Meadow fescue

SapporoFig. 4-4. Two different climate conditions in winter anddistribution of cultivated grasses.

4-4

Scientific name: Phleum pratense L.
Japanese name: Oh-awagaeri
Timothy (Fig. 4-5) is the most important grass in the Hokkaido region andnow occupies more than 70% of Hokkaido’s grasslands. This species is well
adapted to humid and temperate area with severe winters, and thus does not
grow under dry or hot conditions. Timothy is one of the most winter-hardy
cool-season grasses. LT50 (the temperature at which half of plants are killed)
was lower than -25oC for samples of timothy collected in December (Fig. 4-6).
Thus timothy can be cultivated steadily in the coldest areas of the eastern
Hokkaido. It is used mostly for hay and silage. Timothy has high palatability
and forage quality. However, it has poor re-growth after cutting. It is notsuitable for grazing pasture. It is very compatible with red clover.
In the past, early flowering cultivars of timothy had been popular in
Hokkaido. Delayed harvest due to simultaneous heading and flowering often
results in lower forage quality. Forage quality reduces drastically after
flowering. Therefore, intermediate and late flowering cultivars of timothy havebeen developed. Now cultivars with different maturity periods are available(Fig. 4-7). Thus, now a farmer can harvest timothy grasslands at the optimaltime.
2) Orchardgrass (Alias: Cocksfoot)Scientific name: Dactylis glomerata L.
Japanese name: Kamogaya
Orchardgrass (Fig. 4-8) is well adapted to humid and temperate regions.
It has moderate tolerance to heat and drought, and higher shade tolerance
than most of other forage grasses. LT50 of orchardgrass is higher than that oftimothy (Fig. 4-6). It can not survive severe winters of the eastern Hokkaido.
Orchardgrass shows high yield and good response to fertilizers. It has
relatively good palatability and forage quality. Orchardgrass is used primarily
for hay and grazing pasture. It is compatible with alfalfa, white clover and red
clover.
Area under orchardgrass in Hokkaido has declined in the past three
decades because of its relatively poor winter hardiness and decrease in the

4-5

Fig. 4-5.

Timothy.

△：Timothy (Senpoku)●: Orchardgrass (Okamidori)○：Orchardgrass (Akimidori)□：Perennail ryegrass (Revelle)Fig. 4-6. LT50 (the temperature at which half of plants
is killed) in three species of grasses.

Extreme
early

Early

Intermediate

Late

9 June19 June24 June26 June

4 JulyKunppuNosappu
Senpoku

Akkeshi

Kiritappu

Natsusakari

Data in Kunneppu-town

Fig. 4-7. Ear emergence in timothy cultivars released
at the Hokkaido Pref. Kitami Agric. Exp. Station.

4-6

forage quality resulting from delayed harvest. However, recently orchardgrasshas gained attention due to its high productivity and earlier heading timecompared to timothy. Keeping in view the growing periods of timothy andorchardgrass, grasslands with a combination of these two may result in highherbage production.
3) Perennial ryegrass
Scientific name: Lolium perenne L.
Japanese name: Hoso-mugi
Perennial ryegrass (Fig. 4-9) is the most important grass species inwestern Europe and New Zealand. In Hokkaido, its use as forage has been
limited to the northern Hokkaido, Tenpoku area which is a non-frozen soil zone
due to heavy snow cover. It does not tolerate low fertility, drought and heat stress,
as well as severe winters of eastern Hokkaido. LT50 of perennial ryegrass issubstantially poorer than that of timothy and orchardgrass (Fig. 4-6). This
species has high digestibility and palatability as well as resistance to treading bygrazing animals. It is grown in gazing pasture mainly as mixture with white clover,but is also used for hay and silage production.
4) Meadow fescue
Scientific name: Festuca pratensis Huds.
Japanese name: Hiroha-no-ushinokegusa
Meadow fescue (Fig. 4-10) has characteristic good re-growth after cutting
and winter survival. This species is generally grown mixed with orchardgrass
and timothy as a companion crop in Hokkaido. However, this is also a
promising grass for grazing pasture in eastern Hokkaido where cultivation of
perennial ryegrass is difficult.
5) Alfalfa (Alias: Lucerne)
Scientific name: Medicago sativa L.
Japanese name: Murasaki-umagoyashi
Alfalfa (Fig. 4-11) is called ‘Queen of forage’ because of its good forage
quality and high protein content. It does best on soil with fine to medium

4-7

Fig. 4-8.

Orchardgrass.

Fig. 4-9. Perennial ryegrass.

Fig. 4-10.

Meadow fescue.

4-8

textures that are moderately to well drained and neutral or alkaline. It tolerates
drought and is very winter hardy. Alfalfa is well adapted in the USA. However, it
is not adapted so well in Hokkaido due to acidic and wet soil conditions. But
breeding has led to the development of cultivars adapted to Hokkaido
conditions. New cultivars, ‘Makiwakaba’ and ‘Haruwakaba’ have shown good
performance in Hokkaido region and area under these cultivars has increased.
Mono-cultivation as well as mix-sowing of alfalfa with grasses such asorchardgrass is practiced. Alfalfa is mainly used for silage production. It is notsuitable for grazing.
6) White clover
Scientific name: Trifolium repens L.
Japanese name: Shiro-tsume-gusa
White clover (Fig. 4-12) is the most important forage legume for mix-sowing
in temperate grasslands of the world. It is well adapted to humid temperate
climate. White clover is grown throughout Hokkaido. Cultivars are classified forleaf size: small (wild), medium (common) and large (ladino). Small types are
dwarf and have very prostrate habit, and are not very productive. These areused for intensive grazing pasture. Medium types are intermediate in size
between small and large types, and are used for silage or grazing pasture.
Ladino types have larger leaves and longer petioles, and are more productive.
These are used for hay and silage production.
7) Red clover
Scientific name: Trifolium pratense L.
Japanese name: Aka-tsume-gusa
Red clover (Fig. 4-13) is a short-lived perennial forage legume widelydistributed in temperate grasslands. It has good winter hardiness, but poor
tolerance to high temperature and drought. This species is grown throughout
Hokkaido. Cultivars are classified into two growth habits, medium andmammoth. Medium types flower earlier and produce two or three harvests,
while mammoth types flower much later and typically produce a single harvest.
Red clover has high palatability and nutritive value. Its poor persistence (only

4-9

Fig. 4-11. Alfalfa.

Fig. 4-12. White clover.

Fig. 4-13. Red clover.

4-10

two to three years), however, is disadvantageous. It is used for hay and silage
production, and also for grazing.
8) New forage species
A new forage legume ‘Galega” (Galega orientalis Lam.) has been recently
introduced from Estonia and registered as a recommended forage cultivar for
Hokkaido (Fig. 4-14). This species shows good persistency and highadaptability under mixed cultivation with timothy in Hokkaido. However, it has
slow establishment, which needs to be improved through breeding.
(2) Annual forage crops
In Japan, corn (maize) and sorghum are important annual forage crops.
Maize is grown mainly in Hokkaido in an area of 36,600 ha. It is mainly
cultivated on uplands in the Tokachi district. In Hokkaido, sorghum is grown ina very limited area because it requires warm temperature in summer. Rye andoat are also cultivated as forage crops, but currently their acreage is not large.
Therefore, only corn is described here.
1) Corn (Alias: Maize)
Scientific name: Zea mays L.
Japanese name: Toumorokoshi, Toukibi
Corn (Fig. 4-15) is world’s third leading cereal crop, after rice and wheat.
However, unlike rice and wheat, corn is consumed mainly as feed for livestockrather than as human food. Corn is often classified into six groups based uponendosperm characteristics. These are dent, flint, flour, pop, sweet and waxy
corns. Sweet corn has high sugar in kernels and is grown for humanconsumption. Dent and flint corns are mainly used for animal feeds. About
40% of the world’s corn is grown in the USA, and mainly (over 90%) for grain.
But in Japan including Hokkaido, corn is cultivated for the production of silage.
The whole plants are harvested when kernels are in yellow-ripe stage. Allcommercial cultivars are hybrids. Mainly early maturing (75-110 days) hybrids
are grown because in Hokkaido accumulated temperatures during growing
season (16 May–10 Oct) are low (2,000 – 2,500 oC). In eastern Hokkaido, very

4-11

Fig. 4-14. New forage legume Galega in Hokkaido(Photograph by Dr. K. Okumura).

Fig. 4-15. Corn field in Tokachi district (Photograph by Dr. K. Koinuma).

4-12early maturing types (75 days) are cultivated. Seeds of many hybrid cultivars
come from the USA and Europe. Sweet corn is also cultivated in Hokkaido.
3. Breeding program
Plant breeding is the intentional genetic manipulation of plant species inorder to create desired phenotypes for specific purposes. Improvement ofvarious agronomical characters such as yield, quality, and disease and insect
resistance by breeding is essential for stable and high production.
Breeding programs on orchardgrass, meadow fescue, alfalfa, redclover, and white clover are now carried out at the National Agricultural
Research Center for Hokkaido Region (NARCH). Breeding of timothy is doneat the Hokkaido Pref. Kitami Agric. Exp. Station (timothy), and also by some
private companies. Main breeding objectives for perennial forage crops are
winter hardiness, yield, forage quality, persistency and disease resistance.
Evaluation of plants/accessions introduced or collected from Hokkaido region
and foreign countries is undertaken at experimental fields (Fig. 4-16), andsuperior genotypes with desired characteristics are selected. New breedinglines thus developed at the breeding stations are tested for local adaptationand specific characteristics such as suitability for grazing and cold toleranceetc., at several experimental sites throughout Hokkaido (Fig. 4-17). Based on
the data from these evaluations, high performing breeding line(s) areregistered as a recommended variety(ies) for general cultivation in Hokkaido.
(1) Perennial forage crops
Many forage crops are polyploids and obligate out-breeders. Conventional
breeding of forage crops is mainly based on synthetic varieties developed
through poly-crosses among superior selected genotypes (Fig 4-18).
1) Timothy
Recent breeding objectives of timothy are lodging resistance,mix-sowing ability with forage legumes, re-growth in summer and good seedproduction. Lodging results in bad forage quality. Lodging resistance is alsoessential for mechanical harvesting.

4-13

Fig. 4-16. Experimental field forselection of timothy. Hokkaido
Pref. Kitami Agric. Exp. Station.

Fig. 4-17. Experimental field for
local adaptability test of timothy.
Hokkaido Pref. Konsen Agric. Exp.
Station.

Half-seb family
recurrent selection

Synthetic variety
methodevaluation
evaluation
polycrosspolycrossprogeny test

Varietypolycross

Varietyprogeny test

Fig 4-18 Breeding methods in perennial forage crops.

4-142) Orchardgrass
Water soluble carbohydrate (WSC) is an important trait for the nutritive
value of forages because of its relation to palatability, digestibility andfermentation quality of silage. The WSC content and its composition are also
correlated with freezing tolerance. The WSC content of orchardgrass is lower
than that of other temperate grasses. Thus at NARCH the breeding programaims at increasing the content of WSC, and some promising breeding lines
with high content of WSC have been developed. A new orchardgrass cultivar
with high WSC content is likely to be released soon. There is generally anegative correlation between freezing tolerance and plant vigor in autumn (Fig.
4-19).

Recently, a new cultivar ‘Harunemidori’ with both good winterhardiness and high production in autumn has been released. This cultivar
showed a rapid increase in freezing tolerance in late autumn (Fig. 4-20).
‘Harunemidori’ is an ideal cultivar for Hokkaido region, which is located at midlatitude and has severe winter cold.
3) Perennial ryegrass
Recently, the Hokkaido Pref. Tenpoku Agric. Exp. Station has releasedavariety, ‘Pokoro’, which has moderate winter hardiness and high herbage

production for grazing pasture. Figure 4-21 shows perennial ryegrass attacked
by snow mould fungus, which is a major winter disease in Hokkaido. The newcultivar is resistant to snow mould and thus yields higher than susceptible
ones.
4) Forage legumes
The breeding objectives of forage legume, white clover are winterhardiness and persistency. Red clover is improved for persistency, winterhardiness and compatibility for mix-cultivation with timothy. Breeding of alfalfa
is aimed at improving persistency, yield, resistance to pepper spot andtolerance to trampling by heavy agricultural machinery. These legumes arepollinated by insects, mainly bees.

4-15

N Northern Europe

C Central Europe

E Eastern Europe

W Western Europe

J Japan-14

LT50(oC)

-15

W

-16
C
-17

C
C C
CC N E

J
N

-18
-19

J

N
N

-20

0

1

2

J

W W
W
W

W
W

CC
C

EJ
N

3
4
5
6
Autumn plant vigor

7

Fig. 4-19. Relationship between freezing tolerance (LT50) and plant vigor
in ochard grass populations during autumn (from Nakayama et al. 1997).
-20.0
Freezing tolerance（LT50:oC)

-18.0
-16.0
-14.0

Harunemidori
Hokkai-28-12.0

Wasemidori-10.0

Akimidori

-8.0
-6.0
10.25

11.8

11.22
Date

12.6

Fig. 4-20. Change of LT50 in four cultivars oforchardgrass during autumn

Fig. 4-21. Winter pathogen, snow mould disease inperennial ryegrass. Left two rows: resistant cultivar,
right two rows: susceptible cultivar.

4-16

(2) Corn
All corn cultivars are hybrids. Hybrid is the first generation progeny froma cross involving inbred lines. The objectives of corn breeding in Hokkaido are
improvement in growth at low temperature, yield, lodging resistance andforage quality. Hybrids have been developed from single crosses between highyielding inbreed lines of dent corn and northern flint having good growth at low
temperature (Fig. 4-22).
4.

Utilization of forage crops(1) Grazing management
Grazing

(Fig.

4-23)

management

involves

manipulation

of

the

soil-plant-animal complex to achieve the desired results. Grazing is not common
in Japan including Hokkaido because it is not feasible to produce enough milk
from limited lands. An intensive grazing system has been developed at NARCH
combining short rotational grazing with silage production. Herbage production
differs from season to season; from spring flush to summer slump. Utilization ofsward for short rotational grazing and silage production in time of spring flush isreliable and efficient (Fig. 4-24). Such an intensive grazing system using‘Harusakae’, a new winter-hardy meadow fescue cultivar has been establishedfor eastern Hokkaido under a research project supported by the Ministry ofAgriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (Fig. 4-25).
(2)

Preservation of forage as hay and silage
Forage crops are harvested two or three times in a year, and stored for use

as a consistent, reliable and predictable feed supply system for confinement
feeding to dairy and beef animals. Common forms of storage are hay (usuallywith less 20% moisture) and silage preserved by anaerobic fermentation.
Maturity stage at harvest is considered to be the primary factor affecting forage
quality. Generally, forage quality declines with increase in growth stage of forage
crops. Fig. 4-26 illustrates a typical relationship between quality and maturity
stages based on cell wall components (fibrous constituents) and digestibility.
The general trend is that digestibility declines with increase in maturity, while
fibrous constituents increase. The best harvest time for good forage quality with

4-17

Dent corn

Northern flint
corn

self

self

S6

S6

x

Hybrid corn

Fig. 4-22. Single cross hybrid corn
seed production (Breeding programat NARCH).

Fig. 4-23. Grazing (Photographby N. Sato).

SpringSummer and autumn

Short rotational grazing andharvesting for conserved feed.

Grazing in entire sward andsupplement feed harvested in
Spring（From NARCH)

Fig. 4-24. Intensive grazing system.

Fig. 4-25. Experiment on intensive grazing systemusing meadow fescue in Tokachi district(Photograph by T. Matsumura).

4-18

high herbage production is heading stage. In Hokkaido, relatively earlier harvest
at booting to heading stage has been recommended for cultivation of timothy.
1) Hay harvest
Moisture content in fresh forage crops is often 75 to 85%. Thus a large
amount of water must be removed to produce hay. Weather is one of theimportant factors for drying. First crop-cutting time in Hokkaido is the middle ofJune to early July. Unlike other parts of Japan, Hokkaido normally does not haverains in June-July and thus has relatively low humidity. Therefore, timothy isharvested in June-July to produce high quality of hay.
2) Silage production
Silage is forage preserved by anaerobic storage, usually under conditions
that encourage fermentation for conversion of sugar to organic acids such aslactic, acetic and propionic acids. The lactic acid bacteria are mainly involved infermentation. Silage system is widely used for preserving forage in Hokkaido.
Corn is harvested for whole crop silage. Fig. 4-27 shows corn harvest andmaking of whole crop silage in Tokachi district. Silage production is easier than
hay production because there is no requirement of several good weather daysfor drying. The production of chopped silage has been mechanized; so labor
inputs are lower than for hay. Because of lower mechanical losses in silage
production, harvest losses are lower than in hay production. Wrapped roundbales (Fig. 4-28) and bunker silos (Fig. 4-29) are often seen in Hokkaido.
5.

Status and future prospects
In a couple of past decades in Hokkaido as well as in other parts of Japan,

number of cow and cattle per farm has increased and number of farmers has
decreased. Thus dairy farming and beef production in Japan depend largely on
imported feed (Table 4-2). Some mega-farms (annual production 1,000 t milk perfarm), which use mainly imported feeds have appeared in Hokkaido recently.
Due to this a large number of problems have arisen in animal production
including environmental pollution by animal wastes and serious animal diseases
such as foot and mouse disease and bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE).
The self-sufficiency rate of animal feed has been decreasing. The fundamental

4-19

Digestibility

Cell Wall Components

Dry matter (DM)Digestible DM

Vegitative

Fig. 4-26.

BootingHeading

Early Flowering

Late Flowering

Effect of maturity on forage quality in grasses.

Fig. 4-27. Harvest of corn to make whole crop silage in Tokachi district(Photographs by Dr. N. Fujita).

Fig. 4-28. Wrapped round bales forgrass silage (Photograph by
M. Takayama).

Fig. 4-29. Bunker silo for grasssilage covered with polyethylene
and used tires.

4-20

of dairy farming is nutrient cycling based on the involvement of thesoil-plant-animal complex. Most of the nutrients contained in the forages andconsumed by the animals are recycled to soil as urine and dung (Fig. 4-30).
The dependence on concentrated imported feeds has caused too muchaccumulation of nutrients in soil leading to environmental pollution such asvolatilization and nutrients runoff to rivers. During 2007-2008, the price ofimported corn grains for animal feed had drastically increased. This was due toshortage in supply from USA as grains were used for ethanol production. Thus
self-sufficiency in forage production is essential for secure and safe animal
production. This requires developing new forage cultivars with higher
productivity and quality. There is an urgent need to establish an efficient system
for utilization of animal waste. Biogas systems with methane fermentation havebeen installed in some farms of Hokkaido (Fig. 4-31). Methane gas is used forfuel and electricity generation. Establishment of a sustainable grassland-farming
system is essential in Hokkaido.

4-21

Table 4-2. Demand-supply of animal feed in Japan.
(TDN base unit: 1,000 t)
DemandSupply25,529
Roughage

Domestic

4,272

Concentrate

Domestic
materials

1,905

Importedmaterials

4,076

total

5,981

Total
Imported

10,253

Rouhhage

1,269

Concentrate

14,007

Total

15,276

Roughage total

5,541

Concentrate total

19,988Feed self-sufficiency rate

40.2 %Net domestic feed selfsufficiency rate

24.2 %

TDN: total digestible nutritions

Without nutrient inflow fromthe outside system
Light(From MAFF)

Over capacity of nutrient inflow
from the outside system
Light

Grass

Fertilizer

Grass

Concentrate
feed

feed
nutrients
Soil
Soilurine & dungurine & dung
Milk

Volatilizationand nutrients runoff
Environment pollution

Fig. 4-30. Nutrient cycling systems in dairy farm.

Fig. 4-31. Biogas system with methane fermentation.

4-22

Milk

Livestock production
Hiroki Nakatsuji
Laboratory of Animal Production System
Research Faculty of Agriculture
Hokkaido University
Email:nakahiro@anim.agr.hokudai.ac.jp

Chapter 5
Livestock Production

Hiroki Nakatsuji

Hokkaido is a major area of livestock production in Japan. According to
Statistics on Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (Table 5-1), in 2006, thelivestock production of Hokkaido was of 502 billion yen, accounting for 18.6% of
the total livestock output of Japan, and was the highest among Japan’s 47
prefectures. Dairy farming holds a dominant position in Japan’s livestock
production.
There is a large area of grasslands in Hokkaido, accounting 72.7% of thenational area of grasslands. In 2006, the number of dairy farmers was 8,590 andthere were 859,100 dairy cattle, which meant 100 cows per farm. Dairy farms in
Hokkaido are shipping 3,798,123 metric tons of milk (Table 5-2), that is, 46.7% ofJapan’s total milk production (Table 5-1).
1. Dairy
It is said that dairy farming in Hokkaido began with the milking of “Nanbu
Cattle” in Hakodate city in 1857. In 1873, Mr. Edwin Dan, an agricultural expert
from United States, arrived as an advisor with commissioner Capron. He taught
the system of livestock production to Hokkaido’s people for 9 years. He laid thefoundation for dairy farming by introducing “Durham“ (Shorthorn) cows, whichwere used for both milk and beef in the United States.
In 1878, the Sapporo Agricultural College imported “Ayrshire” milking cows.
In 1889, for the first time in Japan, the college imported “Holstein” cattle (3females, “Shikishima”, “Sazanami” and “Chidori”; 2 males, “Akitsushima” and“Yamato”: as named in Japanese). Their descendants can be seen in thepresent barn of the Experimental Farm, Field Science Center for Northern
Biosphere (FSC), Hokkaido University (Fig. 5-1). “Holstein” is now the major

5-1

Table 5-1. Hokkaido's share of grassland area and livestock production in Japan.
Unit
Hokkaido (A) Japan (B) Share (A/B), %Land Area
Grasslands
1,000 ha
565
777
72.7
Gross Agricultural Output
Gross Output
1,066
8,806
12.1
Livestock Output
billion yen
502
2,702
18.6
Milk
279
666
41.9
Number of Livestock raised
Dairy Cattle
859
1,635
52.5
Beef Cattle
467
2,755
17.0
Pig
1,000 head
522
9,620
5.4
Layer
7,959 176,867
4.5
Race Horse
10
10
95.9
Quantity of Livestock Product
Milk
1,000
3,798
8,134
46.7
Beef
metric ton
74
500
14.8
Statistics on Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (MAFF, 2006)

Table 5-2. Yearly changes in livestock production in Hokkaido. (Units: head, ton)Year

Dairy Cattle
No.
Milk
Production

Beef Cattle
No.
Dressed
Carcass

1965
317,690663,546
13,6907,711
1975
614,800 1,447,640
125,460
17,778
1985
807,800 2,603,483
245,000
57,330
1995
882,900 3,443,060
430,400
92,034
2000
866,900 3,645,698
413,500
74,528
2004
863,500 3,821,238
446,800
75,0502005
857,500 3,861,101
447,700
74,111
2006
859,100 3,798,123
467,000
73,613
Statistics on Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (MAFF)

1

Pig

Layer
Chicken
Egg

No.

Dressed
CarcassNo.

163,390438,010604,000
582,400
546,100
535,400
521,900

18,79357,40087,09578,18772,222
72,39070,61570,617

3,839,000
6,041,000
7,633,000
8,313,000
8,237,000
7,474,000
7,959,000

34,48078,98992,194
112,581
110,781
107,147
105,738
106,0673

2

Fig. 5-1. Experimental Farm of Field Science Center for Northern Biosphere (FSC),
Hokkaido University.
1. Dairy cattle barn.

2. Grazing of lactating dairy cows.

5-2

3. Milking of cows.

breed of milking cows in Japan (Fig. 5-2).
In 1960s, the westernization of the Japanese diet increased the demand formilk and dairy products. To cope with this, modernization and the expansion of
dairy farms and improvement of grasslands were undertaken. Facilities
equipped with modern machinery were set up.
However, as farm sizes expanded, high labor requirement in dairy farming
had become a significant problem in Hokkaido (Fig. 5-3). To overcome this, a
farm-helper association was set up in each region to allow farmers regularholidays and to prepare for accident and/or disease. However, certain problems
as described below have been observed in the efficient utilization of thegrassland ecosystem.
In Hokkaido, the number of dairy cattle has gradually increased over the
past 30 years, while the area of grasslands has remained nearly constant (Fig.
5-4). The milk yield per cow per 305 days has markedly increased from 6,000 kg
in the mid 1970s to the present 9,000 kg. Over the same period, the amount ofconcentrates fed has also greatly increased (Fig. 5-5). As a result, theself-sufficiency rate of feed (on a Total Digestible Nutrients [TDN] basis) in dairy
farming has decreased from 75% in 1975 to 55% in 2004. Clearly theremarkable increase in milk production could not have been achieved in
Hokkaido without the genetic improvement of Holstein cows as well as the heavy
consumption of imported concentrates. The present situation has led toenvironmental pollution by extra feces and urine, which cannot be absorbed andutilized by plants.
The supply of safe milk can be sustained and achieved only by returning to
the fundamentals of dairy farming, that is, by producing milk primarily throughthe soil-grass-animal interaction based on land use, without relying on thepresent concentrate based milk production system. Grazing is now being
recognized as a sustainable production system in harmony with the environment.
Grazing is a labor saving management system. The cows on pasture directly
affect the soil-grass-animal interaction. The productivity grazing is generally
regarded to be lower than forage harvesting. Sustainable grazing systems
should aim not only to be harmony with the environment, but also to increase
pasture productivity while maintaining sward characteristics.

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Fig. 5-2. Holstein.

Fig. 5-3. Large-scale dairy farm “Mega farm” in Tokachi district in Hokkaido.

x 10 3 heads
x 10 3 ha

Dairy cattle

Grassland

808

858

1,000

kg/305d/cow

9,199
7,114

8,000

615
530

601

Conc. supplied

10,000800
600

Milk yield

607

6,000

400

5,900
3,139

4,000

200

2,000

0

1,349

2,193

0
1975

1985

2004

1975

Fig. 5-4. Number of dairy cattle
and area of grasslands (including
forage-crop field) in Hokkaido.

5-4

1985

2004

Fig. 5-5. Mean milk yield andconcentrate supplied during thelactation of Holstein cows in
Hokkaido.

Dairy farming is an activity based on the grassland ecosystem, in the same
way as crop farming is based on the agro-ecosystem. As crop production isusually measured as the yield per unit area cultivated, the milk production should
be expressed as the yield per unit area used for forage production, in addition to
the yield per cow. In the case of grazing, milk production from pasture should be
defined as milk yield per unit area of pasture. There have been many reports ofmilk production per unit area of pasture in United Kingdom and New Zealand,
although only limited data are available in East Asia. However, we have almost
completed compilation of such data from our researches of dairy farms in
Hokkaido, and a series of grazing experiments were carried out in theExperimental Farm of FSC, Hokkaido University. Results of the studies will be
discussed during the lecture.
2. Beef cattle
It is said that the raising of beef cattle was started in 1858, when “Nanbu
Cattle” was introduced in Nanae town in the southwestern region of Hokkaido.
“Japanese Brown Cattle” (Katsumoo-Washu) (Fig. 5-6) and “Japanese
Shorthorn” (Nihon-Tankakushu) (Fig. 5-7) were also introduced to complement
fishermen’s unstable incomes.
Since 1960s, with rapid economic growth the demand for beef in Japan has
increased. The number of castrated male “Holsteins” as beef cattle increased
the most in Hokkaido. In addition, during 1960s, new foreign breeds such as“Aberdeen-Angus” (Fig. 5-8) and “Hereford” (Fig. 5-9), which have a high abilityof forage utilization, were imported and experimented with grazing andhigh-forage-based diets, especially in Hokkaido. The Shizunai Livestock Farm of
FSC located in Hidaka district, 150 km to the southeast of Sapporo, has kept
about 100 heads of “Hereford” till now. Experiments were conducted oncomparison of the grass-fed-beef (lean meat) production system with grazingon the mountain-slope pasture in summer and high forage based diets
including mainly corn silage in winter.
Since 1991, when the Japanese beef market was opened to foreign trade,the meat produced from Holstein and the foreign breeds lost competitivenessagainst the imported beef, owing to similar quality. At present, “Japanese Black

5-5

Fig. 5-6. Japanese Brown Cattle(Katsumoo-Washu).

Fig. 5-7. Japanese Shorthorn(Nihon-Tankakushu).

Fig. 5-8. Aberdeen-Angus.

Fig. 5-9. Herford.

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Cattle” (Kuroge-Washu) (Fig. 5-10), which is raised and fattened by high grain
based diets, is popular, producing high quality beef (with marbling) thatcompetes with imported beef.
In 2006, the number of beef cattle farmers was 3,000 in Hokkaido. There
were 467,000 heads of beef cattle and 73,613 metric tons of beef dressedcarcasses were produced (Table 5-2), accounting for 17.0 % and 7.9 % of thetotal beef cattle raised and beef dressed carcasses produced in Japan,
respectively (Table 5-1). Both the number of beef cattle raised and beef meatproduced are the highest in Hokkaido among Japan’s 47 prefectures.
The strategies for cost reduction, the establishment of Hokkaido Brand Beef,
and the expansion of markets will be important in order to prepare forinternational competition. Due to globally soaring grain prices the grass-fed-beef
production system with grazing and high-forage-based diets must be recognizedonce again as a low cost production system, which is also a sustainableproduction system in harmony with the environment. Like milk production, asustainable supply of safe beef can be achieved only by returning to thefundamentals of beef production, that is, by producing beef primarily through thesoil-grass-animal interaction based on land use, without relying on theconcentrate-based beef production system.
3. Pigs
In 2006, Hokkaido’s pig farms had 521,900 pigs, accounting for 5.4% of thenational total (Table 5-1). These were distributed amongst 323 farmers, andproduced 70,617 metric tons of pork dressed carcasses (Table 5-2).
Almost all pigs raised in Hokkaido are hybrids, in particular “three-way
crossbreds” among “Landrace” (Fig. 5-11), “Large White” (Fig. 5-12) and “Duroc”(Fig. 5-13). Purebreeds of “Landrace” sows and “Duroc” boars can be seen at
the Experimental Farm of FSC. The number of SPF (Specific Pathogen Free)
pigs is increasing leading to production of safe and delicious pork.
4. Chickens
In 2006, the number of egg-laying hens was 7,959,000 in Hokkaido,
accounting for 4.5% of the national total (Table 5-1). There were 93 poultry farms,

5-7

Fig. 5-10. Japanese Black Cattle(Kuroge-Washu).

Fig. 5-11. Landrace.

Fig. 5-12. Large White.

Fig. 5-13. Duroc.

5-8

egg production was 106,067 metric tons (Table 5-2). As the number of farmers
has decreased, the scale of operation has expanded. Some breeds of
egg-layers that can be seen at the Experimental Farm of FSC are “White
Leghorn” (Fig. 5-14) and “Rhode Island Red” (Fig. 5-15).
Chicken meat production started in earnest in the late 1980s, when large
companies moved to Hokkaido from other prefectures. The number of chickens
for meat production was 30.51 million in 2005, with broiler chickens accounting
89% of the total chicken meat produced.
5. Sheep
In 2006, there were 6,452 sheep and 197 sheep farmers. The major breedof sheep for meat production is “Suffolk” (Fig. 5-16).
Almost all sheep meat consumed in Japan is now imported from Australia
and New Zealand because of low prices. However, fresh and delicious lamb isbecoming more popular in Hokkaido, and good quality wool is sought after forhand-made fabrics. Even though there are relatively few sheep in Hokkaido,
they contribute significantly to tourism as popular sightseeing attractions.
6. Horses
Hokkaido is the center of racehorses with 9,838 “Thoroughbreds” (Fig. 5-17),
accounting over 90% of the total horses in Japan. There were 1,109 horse farms
in 2006. Due to the recession in Japan and increase of importation etc., thenumber of horses raised in Hokkaido has been declining since 1991.
There is also a native horse in Hokkaido, “Hokkaido-Washuba” (Fig. 5-18).
It is dubbed “Dosanko”, which means a person born in Hokkaido. They are smallin size and were introduced into Hokkaido from the main land of Japan about
200 or 300 years ago. They are kept outdoors all year round and used as
packhorses. Their population was 1,468 in 2006, accounting about 75% of thetotal number of all Japanese native horses (8 breeds). Since 1950, the Shizunai
Livestock Farm of FSC has about 80 horses of this breed, including about 30
mature mares, to maintain bloodline. Now, new usages of Hokkaido native
horses are being considered, including endurance, trekking and horse riding byhandicapped persons etc.

5-9

Fig. 5-14. White Leghorn.

Fig. 5-15. Rhode Island Red.

Fig. 5-16. Suffolk.

Fig. 5-18. Hokkaido Native Horse(Hokkaido-Washuba: “Dosanko”).

Fig. 5-17. Thoroughbred.

5-10Agricultural Machinery
Technology
Takashi Kataoka
Laboratory of Crop Production Engineering
Research Faculty of Agriculture
Hokkaido University
Email:tkataoka@bpe.agr.hokudai.ac.jp

Chapter 6
Agricultural Machinery Technology

Takashi Kataoka

1. Beginning of Mechanization in Agriculture in Hokkaido(1) History of College Farm of Sapporo Agricultural College
Dr. William S. Clark, who was the president of Massachusetts
Agricultural College in the U.S., was invited as vice-president of the Sapporo
Agricultural College. He came with two other professors, Dr. Wheeler and Dr.
Penharrow, in July 1876. The Sapporo Agricultural College was established on
August 4, 1876.
On September 8, 1876, Dr. Clark requested the governor to build awell-equipped farm system. The ownership of the college farm was transferredfrom the governor to the college. The college had two different types of farms.
The first farm was used for students’ training in crop production, and the second
was used as a model for dairy farming in Hokkaido. A new barn (Fig. 6-1) was
got constructed by Dr. Clark as a model for dairy farming in Hokkaido.
Prof. Brooks was invited to the Sapporo Agricultural College inFebruary, 1877 and Dr. Clark left Sapporo in April, 1877. Prof. Brooks suggested
the construction of a corn barn (Fig. 6-2). He also imported many types ofagricultural implements and tools for crops and cattle in May, 1877. He led
both education and training on modern agriculture in Japan, and a considerable
fruitful knowledge was generated from 1877 to 1879.

The clock tower and themodel barn of the Sapporo Agricultural College were built in 1877. Besides cornbarn, other houses were also built and a new dairy farming system waspracticed. Fig. 6-3 shows the tower silo used for making silage.
In 1969, the buildings of the second farm of the Sapporo Agricultural
College were designated as “National Important Cultural Properties”. In 2001,
these were recognized as “Treasures of Hokkaido, and Properties for Future”.

6-1

Fig. 6-1. The Model Barn.

Fig. 6-2. Corn Barn.

Fig. 6-3. Tower Silo.

6-2

Today, these are well known in Japan and considered as important heritages.
(2) The Model Barn
The Sapporo Agricultural College was the first to have the model barn.
The building was originally named “The Delivery Room and the Stable”. However,Dr. Clark, the first vice-president of the college, named it “The Model Barn”
because he thought this as the symbolic model of the modern agriculture in
Hokkaido. Following Dr. Clark’s suggestion, Professor Wheeler, the second vicepresident of the Sapporo Agricultural College, designed this building on thepattern of the barn of Massachusetts Agricultural College. Now, there are sometennis courts next to the university library. That is the place (depression) where“The Model Barn” was built in 1876. It was a two storied wooden building with a
total floor area of 555 m2 with gabled roofs. Later, the “The Model Barn” wastransferred to the present place.
Such buildings in those days generally had a basement for the pig
breeding, vegetable storage, excreta bin, space for making compost and so on.
The first floor had sheds for cows and horses, cow breeding rooms, somestables for working horses, and delivery rooms. There was a long passage in the
middle of the second floor, dividing it into two. At both sides of the passage were
hay rooms. Since that passage was connected to the outer road, any horse
wagon was able to come directly into the building from outside. That systemrelieved the workers from the hard task of carrying the hay up to the top floor. At
the same time, it had only one way both for entry and exit toward slope so thatno wagon could enter from the other side. The passage was provided withseveral holes on both sides. The holes were used by the workers to drop the hay
to the first floor. There was also a garret in the building, which we might call “thethird floor”. It was used as hayloft. The wooden rail for the hanging-lift was
attached to the underside of its roof beam. There was an impressive fine
sculpture of cow head on the outer wall of the model barn.
Currently, the model barn is utilized as a museum, and many old
agricultural tools and machineries are on display in it. Fig. 6-4 shows one of theoldest tractors in Japan, which is a McCormic Deering Tractor imported in 1926.
It had the engine of 4,650 cc, 24.8 PS (18.2 kW), and the weight of 2,282 kg.

6-3

Fig. 6-4. One of Oldest Tractor in Japan, McCormic Deering Tractor.

Fig. 6-5. Wheat Reaper (Re-build Specimen).

6-4

Mitsui Farm in Shari-town (near Shiretoko Peninsula), Hokkaido, was the first
farm to import a tractor in Japan in 1915.
Fig. 6-5 shows the specimen of a wheat reaper imported by Mr. Capron
for the Sapporo Agricultural College. He was an American who played
pioneering important role in the history of Hokkaido in 1880s.
(3) Museums of Agricultural Machinery in Hokkaido“Tuchi no Yakata” listed as “Treasures of Hokkaido, and Properties for
Future” in 2004 is the Museum of Soils and Plows of the world, which is in
Kami-furano town at the center of Hokkaido. Since this museum also displays
more than 50 tractors of the world, it helps us to understand the history of the
tractor’s progress and soil tillage equipments. Fig. 6-6 shows the imported
steam-engine tractor made in Canada, which is still able to move. Fig. 6-7 is of afour-wheel driven tractor of Benz named as a “Unimog”. This tractor belonged to
the Laboratory of Agricultural Machinery, Hokkaido University, and was in use forthe students’ experiments and laboratory until 20 years ago. We can see amodel of corn cultivation (Fig. 6-8) on the wall of the museum.
Historical Village of Hokkaido (Hokkaido Kaitaku no Mura) located at
Atsubetsu-ku in Sapporo has historical buildings concerning Agriculture. The
breeding house for the silkworm, the European style barn for the sheep and theballoon frame barn for the cattle are some important structures at the museum,and these help to understand the modern agriculture system in Hokkaido. For
more details please see the website http://www.kaitaku.or.jp/info/info.htm.
The museum ‘Baron Archives’ (Danshaku Shiryokan) in Hokuto city
near Hakodate city presents the history and the equipments of potato cultivation
used in Hokkaido (Fig. 6-9). Baron Ryokichi Kawata (1856~1951), an engineerof shipbuilding studied potato production at Oshima-tobetsu district of Kamiiso
town (now Hokuto city). He imported big agricultural machines and equipmentsfrom United States of America and Europe. His farm was one of the biggest
private farms in Hokkaido about 90 years ago. He had an improved variety ofpotato “Danshaku-imo”, which is well known in Japan. Mr. Kawata also imported
the oldest steam-engine car from USA, shown in Fig. 6-10.

6-5

Fig. 6-6.

A Steam–engine Tractor.

Fig. 6-7. Benz tractor, “Unimog”, usedin Hokkaido University.

Fig. 6-8.

A Corn Growing Model.

Fig. 6-9 Danshaku Shiryokan.

6-6

2. Tractor(1) History of Tractor Development
Steam was the first source of power for an engine. James Watt, aScottish engineer, improved the primitive steam engine and its peripheraldevices for commercialization in late 18th century. A portable steam engine (Fig.
6-11) was used for thrashing in the U.S. in 1850s. That was not a self-mobile
system. It was towed by animals. The first tractor with a steam engine wasdeveloped in the U.S. in 1858. The crawler type tractor with a steam engine wasalso developed in the U.S. in 1873. Cable plowing (Fig. 6-12) was a major work
done by tractors at that time.
Since tractors were too heavy, plowing by mounting the plow directly on
the tractor would have caused the machine to sink in the field. Therefore, two
tractors placed at both ends of a field and with the plow swinging on a cable
towed to both tractors were used for plowing the field by moving tractor from one
end to the other. Tractor was also used as power source for thrashing.
In 1876, Otto first presented the theory of the four-cycle sparking
ignition engine system in Germany. Fig. 6-13 shows one of the oldest gasoline
engine tractors in the U.S.
R. Diesel, a German, invented in 1893 the compression ignition engine
system known as the “Diesel Engine”. The diesel engine had the advantages ofa high constant load and slow engine traveling speed as compared to thegasoline engine. Because of this, in the early 20th century, power source of the
tractor was rapidly changed from the gasoline engine to the diesel engine.
However, at that time, the tractor was used for only drawing trailers or a powersource for plowing and thrashing.
In 1922, R. Bosch invented the fuel pump system for the diesel engine
in Germany. This innovative technology significantly improved the performanceof diesel engines, resulting in higher power and a compact size. Fig. 6-14 showsa typical three-wheel tractor of early 1900s. The tractors with the PTO (PowerTake Off) shaft for the power driven implements became popular as a general
purpose tractor for power-tilling, seeding and weeding in addition to plowing andthrashing. The standards of PTO were established by the ASAE (The American
Society for Agricultural Engineers) in 1927.

6-7

Fig. 6-10. The Oldest Steam-engine Car.

Fig. 6-11. Portable Steam Engine(1849).

Fig. 6-12. Cable Plowing (English, 1859).

Fig. 6-13. Froelich Tractor (1892).

Fig. 6-14. McCormic Deering Farmall
Tractor (1924).

6-8

The other two important innovative technologies regarding tractor
development were the installation of the rubber air tire (Fig. 6-15), and thehydraulic three-point hitching system. The rubber air tire was invented by J.
Dunlop in 1877. The hydraulic three-point hitching system was invented byMassey Ferguson Company in Great Britain in 1935. Tractor became a multi
purpose vehicle for drawing trailers as well as driving mounted type agricultural
implements. The installation ratio of the rubber air tires in the market of tractors
had been more than 95 % until 1940.
(2) Present Tractors
Fig. 6-16 is a typical style of the present tractor with four-wheel drive
system (4WD). The turbo charged diesel engine is of 3,989 cc with afour-cylinder water cooled system, and 95 PS (69.9 kW)/2,200 rpm. The weight
is 3,510 kg. The current biggest tractor in the world has 350 PS (257.3 kW).
It is equipped with many electrical controls for operation. For example,
the hydraulic steering control, the hydraulic three-point hitching control including
draft-control for plowing and the level and depth controls for the rotary tiller,
all-speed governor for the constant engine speed control, the shifting system fortransmission, and the hydraulic assist pedals. All electronic functions arecontrolled by a computer. Furthermore, the automatic air-conditioning systemand the radio are installed in the cabin to let the driver do his/her job comfortably.
It thus differs from the classic tractor of McCormic Deering to a great extent (Fig.
6-4).
The tractor size is identified by the “horse power” of the engine. The
required horse power is strongly related to the field size. The average tractor
size is about 25 PS (18.4 kW) for paddy farming in Honshu island, whereas forthe upland farm in Hokkaido, it is about 75 PS (55.1 kW). It is about 150 PS(110.3 kW) in the Great Plains of the U.S. The tractor size also vary for thedifferent operations of crop cultivation.
3. Agricultural Machinery for different operations(1) Tillage
The objectives of soil tillage are to prepare a suitable seedbed, to

6-9

Fig. 6-15. Allis-Chalmers B Tractor (1938).

Fig. 6-16. Iseki Tractor T-950 (95 PS, 1997).

6-10

eliminate competition from weed growth, and to improve physical conditions of
the soil. It may also involve removal, burial, or incorporation of manures and crop
residues in the soil. The tillage operation may loosen, compact, or pulverize thesoil. The best system of tillage is one which accomplishes these objectives withthe least expenditure on labor and power (Martin et al., 1976).
In general, the tillage is divided into two stages, primary tillage andsecondary tillage. The moldboard plow is a typical implement for the primarytillage (Fig. 6-17). The disk-plow is also used in relatively bigger farms as in the
U.S. and Western Europe. The major function of the plow is turning the soil
up-side down. The depth of the plow is generally 30 to 45 cm. Because theseeds of weeds go into the deep zone of the soil, soil turning reduces weed
emergence. The residues of crops and the fertilizers on the surface are alsoburied into soil. The disk-plow is inferior to the moldboard plow in terms of its
working ability. The former can perform smaller job than the latter. The latter canturn the soil more widely (Jacobs, et al., 1983). However, because the disks inthe disk-plow rotate, it’s required drafting force is smaller than that of the
moldboard plow.
In secondary tillage, tines/blades driven harrow such as power harrow(Fig. 6-18) is used to make soft and flat seedbeds. The feature of this type is thatit has the vertical drive shaft. The important function of the harrow is to pulverize
the soil. The tilled clod size distribution should be decided according to the seed
size, and this requires adjustment of the driving conditions of the implements,
which include its working speed, its spinning speed and its cultivating speed.
The pulverization and the clod size distribution affect the moisture content of the
top soil for seed germination. The rotary tiller (Fig. 6-19) Which has thehorizontal drive shaft is popular in Japan. It has been developed as tillage
machine for the paddy fields of East Asia. The Japanese rotary tiller has
C-shaped rotary blades called Nata-zume. The European type rotary tiller has
L-shaped blades. The advantages of Nata-zume are lesser entwining of the
straws on the blade, and reduced soil cutting resistance from firm soils such as
the clayey soil of paddy fields. The performance of the rotary tillers made inJapan is quite different from tillers of other countries. The tillage depth of therotary tiller is about 15 cm. It tills only the topsoil.

6-11

Fig. 6-17. Two-furrow Moldboard Plow of Reversible Type(Sugano-Noki, TROY1921DC).

Fig. 6-18. Power Harrow

Fig. 6-19. Rotary Tiller (Breviglievi, PRONTO-260).

6-12

In Hokkaido, plowing is done in late autumn, while rotary tillers or the
power harrows are used for making seedbed of fine soil in spring. Since snow
melting on the ground surface generally starts in the middle of April, farmers do
not have enough time for both primary and secondary tillage before seeding.
Two to three weeks are required for tillage.
(2) Sowing Implements
The general seeding mechanism operates as follow: (i) the double disk
openers make the furrow, (ii) the seed is placed, (iii) the soil covering device
close the furrow, and (iv) the press wheel compacts the surface soil. The seeder
with fertilizer applicator (Fig. 6-20) is popular for sowing beans, corn and sugar
beet. The combination of implements saves time. The seeder releases seeds
using the vacuum aeration mechanism. It ensures good seeding keeping
constant distance between seeds, and proper seeding depth. Fertilizer
applicator is attached to most of the seeders and seeding implements. The
variable rate control system for dusting or spraying fertilizers has beendeveloped.
The drill is used for sowing of wheat, barley and grass, and planter fortransplanting potatoes and nursery. Special transplanters with uniquemechanisms are available for transplanting nurseries of sugar beet, carrots,
onions and other vegetables. This advanced technology promotes sustainable
and environment friendly agriculture.
(3) Weed, Insect and Disease Control Implements
Fig. 6-21 shows a sprayer attached to a utility vehicle having 14.5 PS(10.7 kW), four-wheel drive and four-wheel steering system (4WS). It is possible
to attach a rotary weeding system to this vehicle, and this can be used for bothupland and paddy fields because of its high ground clearance. It is used forspraying chemicals against weeds, insects and diseases. The swirl nozzle iscommonly used to produce minute particles of spray.
The tine-type weeding machine is used for mechanical weeding.
Mechanical weeding reduces the use of chemicals, and thus promotes the
production of organic and safer agricultural products. The weeding machine

6-13

Fig. 6-20. Air Seeder with Fertilizer for Four-rows (Tabata, TJEVS-4LR).

Fig. 6-21. Utility Vehicle (Sprayer Version, Iseki JK-14).

6-14

(Fig. 6-22) has special rotating tines for weeding between rows and also
between plants in a row. However, it requires high operational skills, andweeding needs to be done every week. Mechanical weeding system has lower
working speed and weed removal performance.
(4) Harvester
There are different types of harvesters for various crops. Fig. 6-23
shows self-propelled combine harvester for wheat, beans, corn and other grain
crops. The combine cuts the crop, feeds the crop to the thrashing cylinder,
thrashes the seeds/grains from the seed head, separates the seeds/grains fromthe straw, cleans the seeds/grains, and handles the clean seeds/grains until
these are loaded into a truck or trailer for transportation (Jacobs, et al., 1983).
The word “combine” means the combination of the cutting and thrashing devices.
The cutting head of the cutter and the pickup reel need to be replaced for
different crops. The standard harvesting width is about 5 m. The Berry Company
in the U.S. built the first self-propelled combine harvester with the straw-burning
steam engine in 1866.
Fig. 6-24 is of a potato harvester. The blade of the harvester digs the
potato tubers, and the tubers and soil are separated through several ladderconveyers to a storage tank. The workers on the harvester sort good tubers fromgreen and damaged ones, and clods.
Since every crop requires different harvesting mechanism, farmers
prepare harvesters for the various crops they cultivate, although a harvester isused only for one to two weeks in a year. Many types of harvesters have beendeveloped, for example, for sugar beet, radish, lettuce, onion, cabbage, tomato,
carrot etc. (Fig. 6-25).
(5) Forage cultivation
1) Hay production
Previously, cube bale was used in haymaking. Now, roll bale is used.
The roll bale is better than cube bale because the harvesting speed of theharvester can be increased. Since roll bale is larger than a cube bale, thenumber of bales is lower. Transportation and handling operations are reduced

6-15

Fig. 6-22. Weeding Machine (Nichinoki-Seiko, NAK-5).

Fig. 6-23. Combine Harvester (New Holland, CS-540).

Fig. 6-24. Potato Harvester (Toyo-noki).

6-16

thereby saving time and labor (Culpin, 1975).
The hay harvesting involves cutting the grass using a mower (Fig. 6-26),
turning it over for thorough drying using a gyro-type hay tedder (Fig. 6-27),
making the windrows using a rake and making the roll bale using a roll baler (Fig.
6-28).
2) Silage production
Silage is a high protein feed produced from grasses and crops for the
livestock. Grass silage is produced by wrapping roll bales in plastic films using
wrapping machine. Fig. 6-29 shows the roll baler with the wrapping machine.
This combined machine system has

become popular because it saves timeand cost. The roll bales wrapped with plastic films start fermenting and result ingrass silages due to the action of lactic acid. The materials are covered with theplastic sheet to avoid aeration for production of good amount of lactic acid byfermentation. This methodology is preferred than the sealed tower silo method
because it can be adapted to variable quantities of grasses and crops, andalso involves less work for loading and unloading operations.
Corn for silage is harvested by the forage harvester, shown in Fig. 6-30.
The forage harvester chops both stalk and leaves of the corn. The wagon trackor the wagon towed by a tractor should run in parallel to the harvester totemporarily store the harvested material before the harvested corns are put into
the bunker silo. The bunker silo is easier to use and maintain than tower silo.

References
Culpin C. (1975) Profitable Farm Mechanization, Crosby Lockwood Staples.
Jacobs C. and W. Harrell (1983) Agricultural Power and Machinery, McGraw-Hill
Book Company.
Martin J. H, W. H. Leonard and D. L. Stamp (1976) Principles of Field Crop
Production, Macmillan Publishing.

6-17

Fig. 6-25. Carrot Harvester (Kubota).

Fig. 6-26. Mower.

Fig. 6-27. Gyro-Tedder.

Fig. 6-28. Roll Baler.

Fig. 6-29. Roll Baler with Rapping

Fig. 6-30. Forage Harvester Mounted

Machine System.

on Tractor.

6-18Agricultural Economy

Yasutaka Yamamoto
Laboratory of Agricultural and Environmental Policy
Research Faculty of Agriculture
Hokkaido University
E-mail: yamay@agecon.agr.hokudai.ac.jp

Chapter 7
Agricultural Economy

Yasutaka Yamamoto
The main objectives of this chapter are to contribute to a better understanding of
Hokkaido’s agriculture sector and the role it plays in the economy.
1. Food self-sufficiency ratio and producer support in Japan(1) Food self-sufficiency ratio in Japan
Japan’s food self-sufficiency ratio is the lowest among the major advanced
countries (Fig. 7-1). Japan’s food self-sufficiency ratio on a calorie basis has
decreased from 60% in 1970 to 40% in 2000. This reduction was due to thetendency of domestic production to shift to relatively higher value added
agricultural products such as vegetables and livestock products (MAFF, 2007a).
The changes in dietary habit and increased imports of agricultural products havealso caused a decline in the food self-sufficiency ratio.
(2) The level of producer support in JapanThe Japanese government seems reluctant to reduce Japan’s agricultural tradebarriers because Japan has a comparative disadvantage in agricultural
production compared to relatively land-abundant developed countries such as
the United States and Australia, or relatively labor-abundant developing
countries such as China (Yamamoto, Sawauchi and Masuda, 2007). Therefore,
Japan has been using tariff and non-tariff trade barriers in order to increase
domestic producer prices of agricultural products and increase domestic
agricultural production. Increased producer prices have led to more intensive
agricultural systems in Japan.
Table 7-1 shows that high tariffs remain on farm and food-sector

7-1200 %

180

176

160
140

132

120

100

96

80
60

60

53

40

40

48

20
0

1970

Japan

1980

1990
Hokkaido

2000

FranceGermany

United Kingdom

The United Statesyear

Fig. 7-1. Food self-sufficiency ratios on a calorie basis
Source: MAFF, Website (http://www.maff.go.jp/j/zyukyu/zikyu_ritu/012.html,
http://www.maff.go.jp/j/zyukyu/zikyu_ritu/013.html, http://www.maff.
go.jp/j/zyukyu/zikyu_ritu/zikyu_10.html).

Table 7-1. Ad Valorem tariffs of different commodities on bilateral basis (1997)

Commodity
Rice
Wheat
Cerial grains
Other crops
Raw milk
Cattle & sheep
Other livestock
Rum meat
Other meat
Dairy products
Other foodResource products
Manufacturing products
Services

Japanese tariffs onimports from Korea
409
249
20
38
0
149
5
36
58
287
38
7
2
0

Source: GTAP Database Version 5.4.

7-2

Unit:%

Korean tariffs onimports from Japan
5
3
304
74
0
31
10
75
22
26
45
10
8
0

commodities in Japan (Yamamoto, Sawauchi and Masuda, 2007). The highest
Japanese tariffs on imports from Korea are levied on rice (409%). Commodities
whose tariffs are higher than 100% in Japan are rice, wheat, cattle & sheep anddairy products.
The percentage Producer Support Estimate (PSE) is the key indicatorused to measure support to agricultural producers (OECD, 2008a). It expresses
the estimated monetary value of policy transfers from consumers and taxpayers
to producers as a percentage of gross farm receipts. The percentage PSE issuited to analyze changes in the level of support in the OECD area across time,
as well as the levels of support across individual OECD countries.
In the OECD countries, support to producers, as measured by thepercentage PSE, was 29% in 2004-06, implying that agricultural support
increased farmers’ gross receipts in OECD countries by more than one quarter(Fig. 7-2). In Japan, PSE has declined from 64% in 1986-88 to 55% in 2004-06,
but almost twice the OECD average. There continued to be a considerable
diversity in the level and composition of support among OECD countries. This
reflects in part the wide variations in farm structures, natural environments,socio-economic conditions and trade positions (OECD, 2008a). In 2004-06,
Australia and the United States had percentage PSE of 20% or below, while
Japan and the European Union had support levels that were 30% or above.
2. Hokkaido’s agriculture in Japan(1) Agriculture’s share of Economy
While Hokkaido’s agriculture has played an important role in Hokkaido’s regional
economy, the size of agriculture has declined relative to the rest of the economy.
Total economic output in Hokkaido has grown faster than its agricultural output,
leading to a decline in agriculture’s share over time.
Gross value added for agriculture, forestry and fisheries as a percentage
of total Gross Prefectural Product for Hokkaido have declined from 7.5% in 1980
to 3.6% in 2005 (Fig. 7-3). Gross value added for agriculture, forestry andfisheries as percentage of total Gross Domestic Product for Japan has declined
from 3.8% in 1980 to 1.5% in 2005. The trends of relative decline in agriculture’s

7-3

70

%
64

60

1986-88

2004-06

55

50

41

40

38

34

30

29
22

20
8

10

14
5

0

Japan

Australia

European
Union

UnitedStatesOECD

Fig. 7-2. Producer support estimates by countries
Source: OECD, PSE/CSE database.
Note: Data show the percentage share of Producer Support Estimates in GDP.

35

%

30
25

20
15
10
5

0

7.5
3.6
1.5
year
2005

3.7
1980

1990
Japan
China
United States

2000
Hokkaido
Republic of Korea

Fig. 7-3. Agricultural share of economy
Source: United Nations Statistics Division, National Accounts Main Aggregates
Database. Economic and Social Research Institute Cabinet Office, Annual
Report on National Accounts and Annual Report on Prefectural Accounts.
Note: Each value shows agricultural share of Gross Domestic Product in Japan, China,
Republic of Korea, and the United States, and agricultural share of Gross
Prefectural Product in Hokkaido.

7-4

share of economy are also found in other countries such as China, Republic ofKorea and the United States.
(2) Contributions of Hokkaido to Japan’s agriculture
While the trends of relative decline in agriculture’s share of economy are found in
Hokkaido, Hokkaido has played the most important role in Japan’s agriculture.
Hokkaido is called ‘Japan’s biggest food supplier’ for products such as
wheat, soybeans, adzuki beans, sugar beet, corn, carrot, potatoes, onion,
pumpkin, milk, beef, and racehorse. Average size of Hokkaido’s farm household
is the biggest in 47 prefectures of Japan mainly due to relatively abundant land
resources compared with the rest of Japan.
An examination of the relative contributions and characteristics of
Hokkaido’s agriculture to Japan reveals that (Table 7-2):-about one quarter of Japan’s cultivated land and more than 80% of Japan’s
grasslands exist in Hokkaido;-average cultivated land per farm in Hokkaido is more than ten times of theaverage cultivated land per farm in Japan;-around 10% of agricultural gross output is produced in Hokkaido;-Hokkaido produces more than 40% of Japan’s raw milk, more than 60% ofJapan’s wheat and potatoes, and more than 80% of Japan’s adzuki beans andsugar beet; and-around half of Japan’s dairy cattle exist in Hokkaido.
3. Farms in Hokkaido(1) Number of farms
The number of commercial farm households1) in Hokkaido declined from 95
thousand in 1990 to 52 thousand in 2005 (Table 7-3). The number of commercial

7-5

Table 7-2. Comparisons between agriculture in Hokkaido and Japan
Content
Land area
Cultivated land
Paddy field
Upland field
Grasslands
Cultivated land per farm
IncomeNational (prefectural) income

Unit
1,000 ha1,000 ha1,000 ha1,000 hahabillion yen

Agricultural income
billion yen
Gross agricultural output
Gross output ( A )=( B )+( C )billion yen
Crop output ( B )billion yen
Livestock output ( C )billion yen
Quantity of agricultural production
Rice
1,000 tWheat
1,000 tPotato1,000 tSoy bean
1,000 tAzuki bean
1,000 tSugar beet
1,000 tRaw milk
1,000 tBeef
1,000 tNumber of livestock raised
Dairy cattle
1,000 head
Beef cattle
1,000 headPig
1,000 head
Layer
1,000 head

Hokkaido Japan
A
B
1,166
227
939
523
19.8

A/B

4,671 25.0%
2,543
8.9%
2,128 44.1%
627 83.4%
1.3 1523.1%

SourcesYear ofReference
Survey
2006
2006
2006
2006
2005

397

3,263

12.2%

Economicand Social
2004 ResearchInstitute ,Hokkaido
2005 MAFF

1,066
564
502

8,806
6,037
2,702

12.1%
9.3%
18.6%

2005
2005
2005

MAFF

644
514
2,008
70
56
3,923
3,798
74

8,546
7.5%
837 61.4%
2,598 77.3%
231 30.3%
63 88.9%
3,923 100.0%
8,134 46.7%
500 14.8%

2006
2006
2006
2006
2006
2006
2006
2005

MAFF

2005
2005
2005
2005

MAFF

14,308 361,013

856
1,635
467
2,755
522
9,620
7,787 176,955

4.0%

52.4%
17.0%
5.4%
4.4%

Source: Hokkaido prefectural government, Agriculture in Hokkaido, Japan 2007.

7-6

MAFF

farm households in Japan declined from 3,835 thousand in 1990 to 1,963
thousand in 2005 (Table 7-4). The number of commercial farm households inJapan and Hokkaido declined by about 50% between 1990 and 2005.
In 2005, about half (52%) of Hokkaido’s commercial farm households
engaged in full-time farming. More than three quarters (77%) of Japan’scommercial farm households engaged in part-time farming.
(2) Income of farm households
In Japan, until 1998 the key policy statements described the main objective ofagricultural policy as “to enable farmers through increased farm income to enjoy
equal standards of living with workers in other industries” (OECD, 2003).
Fig. 7-4 illustrates total income per farm household in Hokkaido and therest of Japan. In 2005, total income per farm household in Hokkaido (6,551
thousand yen) was about 1.3 times larger than in the rest of Japan (4,971
thousand yen). Agricultural income per household in Hokkaido (5,150 thousandyen) was about 4.7 times larger than in the rest of Japan (1,101 thousand yen).
However, non-agricultural income in the rest of Japan was larger than in
Hokkaido.
Hokkaido was developed by immigrants from other parts of Japan after
the Meiji Restoration. It has maintained its proportion of full-time farmhouseholds because the decline in the number of farm households has led to anincrease in average farm size (Tama and Carpenter, 2007). The economic
theory says that farm households that can support themselves on agricultural
income alone will remain and others will leave farming; it has worked in the caseof Hokkaido. This theory, however, has not held true for others parts of Japan,
where small-scale farming has been maintained by compensating for income
shortfalls from farming with off-farm employment by household members.
(3) Size of farms
Fig. 7-5 and Fig. 7-6 show the shares of number of rice farm households by sizeof cultivated land in Hokkaido and in the rest of Japan. The size of rice farmhouseholds in Hokkaido is much larger than in the rest of Japan. In 2005, the7-7Table 7-3. Number of farm households classified by full-time and part-timein Hokkaido
Unit: thou. household, %
Year

Total

1990
2000
2005
2005/1990

a=b+c
95
63
52
0.54

Full-time
farm householdbb/a*100
43
45%
29
46%
27
52%
0.64
-

Part-time
farm householdcc/a*100
53
55%
34
54%
25
48%
0.47
-

Source: MAFF, Census of Agriculture and Forestry.
Table 7-4. Number of farm households classified by full-time and part-timein Japan
Unit: thou. household, %
Year

Total

1990
2000
2005
2005/1990

a=b+c
3,835
2,337
1,963
0.51

Full-time
farm householdbb/a*100
592
15%
426
18%
443
23%
0.75
-

Part-time
farm householdcc/a*100
3,243
85%
1,911
82%
1,520
77%
0.47
-

Source: MAFF, Census of Agriculture and Forestry.
thousand yen

7,000
6,000

6,551

1,401
4,971

5,000
4,000
3,000

5,150

3,870

Non-Agricultural
incomeAgricultural income

2,000
1,000

1,101

0
Hokkaido

Rest of Japan

Fig. 7-4. Total income of farm household per farm (2005)
Source: MAFF, Report of Statistical Survey on Farm Management and Economy(Statistics on Type of Management).
Note: Non-agricultural income = non-agricultural income + income of relational
agriculture + annuity, presents, gifts, etc.

7-8

share of number of rice farm households that cultivated more than 10 ha was
44% in Hokkaido. In the rest of Japan, the share of rice farm households thatcultivated more than 10 ha was less than 1%. In 2005, the share of number ofrice farm households that cultivate less than 1 ha was 52% in the rest of Japan.
Fig. 7-7 and Fig. 7-8 show the shares of number of the dairy farmhouseholds by herd size in Hokkaido and in the rest of Japan. The size of dairy
farm households in Hokkaido is much larger than in the rest of Japan. In 2005,
the share of number of dairy farm households that raised 50-99 milking cows
was about half (47%) in Hokkaido. In the rest of Japan, the share of dairy farmhouseholds that raised 50-99 milking cows was only 12%.
(4) Costs of production
Fig. 7-9 and Fig. 7-10 show the production costs per 60 kg of brown rice and per
100 kg of raw milk in Japan and Hokkaido. Costs of rice as well as raw milk
production are lower in Hokkaido than in Japan since the size of farms in
Hokkaido is larger than in Japan. As per famous economic law ‘economies ofscale’, larger is the size of farms, lower is the production cost per agricultural
output.
4. Multifunctionality of agriculture
The concept of "multifunctionality of agriculture" recognizes important potential
benefits of agriculture in addition to the production of food, which is essential forhuman living. Agriculture and rural areas in Hokkaido besides producing
agricultural products are playing a number of important roles including
preservation of the natural environment and biodiversity, development offavorable landscapes, provision of recreational and educational opportunities tourban people, etc. Such benefits from multifunctionality of Hokkaido’s agriculture
was estimated at around five hundred billion yen per year, which is about half ofthe gross agricultural output value in Hokkaido (Demura, Sato and Iwamoto,1999).
There is growing concern about fulfillment of the multifunctionality ofagriculture due to stagnation of agricultural production and the decline in

7-9

1990

5

35

40

21
0-1 ha

2000

6

30

31

33

1-5 ha5-10 ha2

2005

10 ha22

0%

31

20%

40%

44

60%

80%

100%

Fig. 7-5. Share of number of rice farm households by size of cultivated landin Hokkaido
Source: MAFF, Census of Agriculture and Forestry.

1
1990

59

40
2

2000

59

39

0-1ha
1-5ha
5-10 ha

2
2005

52

0%

20%

10 ha-

45

40%

60%

80%

100%

Fig. 7-6. Share of number of rice farm households by size of cultivated landin rest of Japan
Source: MAFF, Census of Agriculture and Forestry.

7-10

community functions (MAFF, 2007a). More efforts should be directed to further
promote the understanding of the multifunctionality of agriculture.
Notes1) The term of “farm household” used here refers to a household that operates
farming with 10 ares and more of cultivated land on the survey date or ahousehold whose agricultural product sales amount to a specific value (e.g.
500,000 yen in 2005) and over in a year prior to the survey date, even with its
cultivated land being below 10 acres (MAFF, 2007b). Since 1990 Census, the“farm household” is further divided in two categories: “commercial farmhousehold”, which is a farming household mainly producing agricultural products
for sales, and “noncommercial farm household”, which is a farming household
mainly producing agricultural products such as rice for its own use (MAFF,
2007b).
The “full time farm household” applied in the statistics on number ofcommercial farm households is defined as a farm household, which has nohousehold member engaged in other jobs than farming (MAFF, 2007b). The“part-time farm household” is defined as a farming household, which has one ormore household members engaged in other jobs than farming (MAFF, 2007b).
References
Committee for the Japanese Agriculture Session, XXI IAAE Conference (1991)
Agriculture and Agricultural Policy in Japan, University of Tokyo Press.
Demura, K., K. Sato and H. Iwamoto (1999) “Valuing Public Benefits from
Agriculture in Hokkaido,” Review of Agricultural Economics, Vol. 55. (inJapanese).
MAFF (2007a) Annual Report on Food, Agriculture and Rural Areas in Japan
F.Y.2006, MAFF. Available at http://www.maff.go.jp/e/annual_report/pdf/fy
2006_rep.pdf (last access 16 January, 2009).
MAFF (2007b) The 81st Statistical Yearbook of Ministry of Agriculture Forestry
and Fisheries, MAFF.
OECD (2000) Agricultural Policies in OECD Countries: Monitoring and

7-11

1
1990

7

66

2000 3

26

41

1-9
head

48

8

10-49
head
50-99
head

2005 3

38

0%

20%

47

40%

60%

100
head-

11

80%

100%

Fig. 7-7. Share of number of dairy farm households by herd size in Hokkaido
Source: MAFF, Census of Agriculture and Forestry.

1990

35

61

4

2000

18

70

11 2

2005

18

68

12 2

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

1-9
head

10-49
head
50-99
head

100
head-

100%

Fig. 7-8. Share of number of dairy farm households by herd sizein the rest of Japan
Source: MAFF, Census of Agriculture and Forestry.

7-12

Evaluation 2000, OECD.
OECD (2001) Environmental Indicators for Agriculture: Volume 3 Methods andResults, OECD.
OECD (2003) Farm Household Income: Issues and Policy Responses, OECD.
OECD (2008a) Agricultural Policies in OECD Countries: At a Glance 2008,
OECD.
OECD (2008b) Agricultural Support, Farm Land Values and Sectoral
Adjustment: The Implications for Policy Reform, OECD.
Okada, A. (1981) Japan’s International Trade of Agricultural Products, Japan
FAO Association.
Tama, S. and V. L. Carpenter (2007) Japanese Agriculture from a Historical
Perspective, Tsukuba-Shobo.
Yamamoto. Y., D. Sawauchi, and K. Masuda (2007) “Does Agricultural Trade
Liberalization under FTA Reduce Pollution from Agriculture? : The Case of
the Japan-Korea FTA,” Selected Paper prepared for presentation at theAmerican Agricultural Economics Association Annual Meeting 2007.
Available at http://ageconsearch.umn.edu/bitstream/9969/1/sp07ya02.pdf.
(last access 16 January, 2009).

Acknowledgement
The author thanks Dr. Daisuke Sawauchi for invaluable assistance in collecting
and processing data and constructive comments on earlier drafts.

7-13

yen/60kg
20,00016,75017,5002,965

15,00012,044

12,500

5,012

10,000

2,013
3,458

7,500
5,000

8,773

6,573

2,500
0
Japan

Material cost, etc.

Hokkaido

Labor cost

Other cost

Fig. 7-9. Production cost of rice (2005)
Source: MAFF, Report of Statistical Survey on Farm Management and Economy(Production Cost of Rice Wheat and Barley).

yen/100kg
8,000

6,000

4,000

2,000

7,580

6,894

1,951

1,691

2,393

2,363

3,236

2,840

0
Japan
Feed cost
Other material cost

Hokkaido
Labor cost

Fig. 7-10. Production cost of raw milk (2006)
Source: MAFF, Report of Statistical Survey on Farm Management and Economy(Production Cost of Livestock).

7-14