Hydrogen fact sheet – Gulf
Cooperation Countries (GCC)
Saudi-Arabia | Oman | United Arab Emirates | Qatar
Kuwait | Bahrain

Authors
Christoph HeinemannDavid Ritter
Dr. Roman Mendelevitch
Kaya Dünzen

In cooperation with:

Freiburg/Berlin,
28.02.2022

Contact
info@oeko.de
www.oeko.de
Head Office Freiburg
P. O. Box 17 71
79017 Freiburg
Street address
Merzhauser Straße 173
79100 Freiburg
Phone +49 761 45295-0
Office Berlin
Borkumstraße 213189 Berlin
Phone +49 30 405085-0
Office Darmstadt
Rheinstraße 95
64295 Darmstadt
Phone +49 6151 8191-0

Hydrogen fact sheet – Gulf Cooperation Countries (GCC)

Table of Contents
1

Convergence & Divergence with the EU & comparing the countries7

1.1

Aspects for all GCC countries

7

1.2

Saudi Arabia

8

1.3

Oman

9

1.4

United Arab Emirates (UAE)

9

1.5

Qatar

9

1.6

Kuwait9

1.7

Bahrain10

1.8

Indicators and comparing the countries

10

1.8.1

Current CO2-emissions of electricity generation

10

1.8.2

Current RES-E shares

11

1.8.3

Comparing socio-economic and political indicators

12

1.8.4

H2 production potentials

14

1.8.5

Supply costs for hydrogen

15

2

Detailed Information – Country Factsheets

17

2.1

Information that is relevant for all GCC

17

2.2

Saudi Arabia

17

2.3

Oman

21

2.4

United Arab Emirates (UAE)

24

2.5

Qatar

27

2.6

Kuwait30

2.7

Bahrain

32

3

Appendix

35

4

Literature

38

2

Hydrogen fact sheet – Gulf Cooperation Countries (GCC)

Conclusions
The GCC countries (Saudi Arabia, Oman, United Arab Emirates UAE, Kuwait, Qatar and Bahrain)
all have investigated the option to export hydrogen or derivatives. However, there are no specifichydrogen strategies published, while strategies are planned or under preparation in Oman, Kuwait
and UAE.
The framework conditions for a future hydrogen economy in the GCC countries and the export
potential can be described by the following:
1. The GCC countries do have vast potentials for green as well as blue hydrogen. Greenhydrogen has highest potential in countries with large available space (Saudi Arabia, Oman,
UAE, Kuwait). Blue hydrogen can be produced in most countries (except for Bahrain) due toavailability of domestic natural gas production.
2. Due to domestic cheap natural gas, experience in CCS technology and at least partly
available infrastructure (LNG ports, pipelines) blue hydrogen can be expected to be
produced at low costs.
3. Most of the GCC countries have their own refineries and chemical industry where hydrogen
could be used to produce low-carbon chemical products. Hence, they are likely to generatedomestic demand for low-carbon hydrogen in the future. However, production potentials forgreen or blue hydrogen largely exceed the possible domestic demand, which makes exports
feasible.
4. Energy carriers are the main export goods for most GCC countries. Therefore, exportinghydrogen and its derivatives is of strong economic interest.
5. The GCC countries do not only look into the European market for hydrogen and derivatives,
as shipping distance to Asian markets or other off-takers are similar. Therefore, it isquestionable in which way business-cases for hydrogen production will adapt to European
regulations (such as RED- II). This contrasts with regions like North Africa where the bonding
to the EU off-take market can be expected to be much stronger.
6. There is no integrated hydrogen strategy of the GCC states. However, there arecollaborations and MoUs between single members of the GCC in place aiming at joint efforts.
7. Compared to other potential regions of hydrogen production, the cost of capital is relatively
low in the GCC countries. This lowers the production costs of hydrogen. However, this does
not necessarily reduce the hydrogen market prices.
Even though there are no hydrogen strategies in place, there are several main strategies that canbe drawn from the publications, press releases and presentations available:
1. Hydrogen from natural gas will be the short to midterm focus for the GCC countries. Evenhydrogen from converted crude oil and petroleum products is seen as an option in the shortterm.
2. Green hydrogen will be the mid to long term focus for countries with large, low-cost RES-E
potentials. However, Bahrain and Qatar likely do not have sufficient RES-E potentials to
produce green hydrogen for exports.

3

Hydrogen fact sheet – Gulf Cooperation Countries (GCC)

3. Ammonia is seen as the most promising export product as it can be shipped with existing
vessels.
Hydrogen based on natural gas or even crude oil is a feasible option for Saudi Arabia, UAE,
Qatar and Kuwait. However, the term “blue hydrogen” is defined in multiple ways and differs fromcurrent regulation on blue hydrogen in Europe. Especially, how to deal with the captured CO 2 isdefined quite broadly while all the following options are referred to as blue hydrogen:•

Storing CO2 underground or in solid rock (Oman)•

Storing CO2 in operating oil or gas fields for enhanced oil or gas recovery (all GCC)•

Using CO2 in the chemical industry to produce for example methanol or plastics. If those products
are burnt later (as plastics or as fuels) the CO2 emissions are not reduced overall.

All of today’s CCS facilities in the GCC countries use CO2 for enhanced oil or gas recovery.
Accordingly, the White Paper for the Kuwait hydrogen strategy describes the following gains fromenhanced oil recovery technologies: Maximize recovery of its oil reserves, extend the life of its
oilfields and attain (potentially) carbon-neutrality for its petroleum exports (provided a
disproportionate amount of CO2 is injected for every barrel of oil recovered).
This definition for blue hydrogen found in the GCC clearly deviates from the European
regulation. The current “Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) 2018/2066 on the monitoring
and reporting of greenhouse gas emissions”1 states in Article 49 that CO2 emissions can only besubtracted if•

stored in a long-term geological storage or•used to produce precipitated calcium carbonate, in which the used CO2 is chemically boundIn addition, the Proposal for a “DIRECTIVE OF THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT AND OF THE
COUNCIL amending Directive 2003/87/EC establishing a system for greenhouse gas emission
allowance trading within the Union, Decision (EU) 2015/1814 concerning the establishment andoperation of a market stability reserve for the Union greenhouse gas emission trading scheme andRegulation (EU) 2015/757”2 states that•

For carbon capture and utilisation that “[…] surrender obligations do not arise for emissions of
CO2 that end up permanently chemically bound in a product so that they do not enter theatmosphere under normal use.”•

Also Recital 13 states that: “Greenhouse gases that are not directly released into the atmosphereshould be considered emissions under the EU ETS and allowances should be surrendered for
those emissions unless they are stored in a storage site in accordance with Directive 2009/31/EC
of the European Parliament and of the Council13, or they are permanently chemically bound ina product so that they do not enter the atmosphere under normal use.”1

https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:02018R2066-20210101&from=EN
https://eur-lex.europa.eu/resource.html?uri=cellar:618e6837-eec6-11eb-a71c01aa75ed71a1.0001.02/DOC_1&format=PDF

2

4

Hydrogen fact sheet – Gulf Cooperation Countries (GCC)➔ There is a need to define and discuss with the GCC countries which CCS options are
suitable for GHG-reductions and which are in line with the European Hydrogen
Strategy.
➔ Blue hydrogen comes with a need to monitor methane emissions in the whole value
chain.
Green hydrogen needs renewable electricity and water. Electricity systems of the GCC countries
are dominated by electricity generation from natural gas and oil. This results in high specific GHG
emissions of electricity generation in the GCC countries which are about twice as high compared tothose of the EU. The uptake of RES-E has hardly started in the GCC countries (867MW in 2018).
The United Arab Emirates account for the largest part (589MW) of the RES-E capacity of all GCC
countries, however, the respective RES-E share in electricity generation (2018) is still as low as
about 1%. The planned and projected RES-E plants add up to a substantial uptake (6.732MW mainly
solar PV) of RES-E within the next 5 to 10 years. But again, the share of RES-E generation in theelectricity mix will remain low. Saudi Arabia’s goals aim the highest with 50% RES-E share in 2030.
➔ The current and future low share RES-E indicates that an additional uptake of RES-E
generation for producing green hydrogen will be essential.
➔ This situation highlights the importance of defining criteria for RES-E input for hydrogenproduction. This is especially important for grid integrated electrolysis plants. However,production of green hydrogen can also be a chance to accelerate the uptake of RES-E withinthose countries.
All the GCC countries studied show high water stress in almost all parts of the countries. Alreadytoday, sea water desalination plants produce large amounts of fresh water in the GCC countries. In
fact, GCC countries are leading the world with about 40% of the total world desalinated water3.
Especially the Arabian coast of the Persian Gulf hosts over 800 sea water desalination plants
already. Additional sea water desalination plants will be needed to cover the water demand to
produce green hydrogen. Scientific literature indicates that brine disposal already is a significant risk
to local marine ecosystems4. Sustainability standards for sea water desalination plants are needed
to make sure, that additional plants will not worsen impacts on local marine ecosystems. In addition,
the Arabian coast of the Persian Gulf as well as the Red Sea hosts several protected marine
ecosystems. These need to be protected from substantial disposal of brine.
Shipping is expected to be the only transport option towards Europe in the short to midterm. This
will increase landing costs in Europe5 compared to expected costs from countries that could export
pure hydrogen via retrofitted pipelines (such as Morocco). Furthermore, transport via ship will reduce
the options of which products can be exported in the short and midterm. It is expected that ammonia
could be the most feasible product to be exported until large scale vessels for transportation ofliquified hydrogen or LOHCs and related port infrastructures are available. Even though transportdistance from Saudi Arabia to Europe is much shorter due to access to the Red Sea, overall transport

3

4

5

https://www.greenjournal.co.uk/2020/02/gcc-countries-are-leading-the-world-in-desalination-with-around40-of-the-total-world-desalinated-water/
Roberts, David A.; Johnston, Emma L.; Knott, Nathan A. (2010): Impacts of desalination plant discharges
on the marine environment: A critical review of published studies. In: Water research 44 (18), S. 5117–
5128. DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2010.04.036.
Hydrogen Council (H2C) (Hg.) (2021): Hydrogen Insights. A perspective on hydrogen investment, market
development and cost competitiveness. McKinsey & Company, zuletzt geprüft am 18.02.2021.

5

Hydrogen fact sheet – Gulf Cooperation Countries (GCC)

costs will not vary substantially between the GCC countries. This is because the shipping costs are
dominated by infrastructure and conversion losses (e.g. liquification) which are relevant irrespectiveof the shipping distance. The option of a new pipeline has been put on the table by the NEOM projectand could be a long-term option6.

6

6

EWI (2020) assume cost of pipeline transport (0,64 $/1000km/kg H2) for a high cost new pipeline (forhydrogen). If we assume that a high costs new pipeline needs to build to transport hydrogen from Saudi
Arabia towards Italy (about 4,000km) the costs for transport would be about 2,56$/kg H2. This translates
to ~65€/MWh H2. This would even exceed costs for shipping liquified hydrogen assumed in EWI (2020) to
be about 46€/MWh H2.

Hydrogen fact sheet – Gulf Cooperation Countries (GCC)1
1.1

Convergence & Divergence with the EU & comparing the countries
Aspects for all GCC countries
Overall Convergence & Divergence with EU hydrogen strategy

Convergence
Divergence• Potentials for low cost green hydrogen are• The uptake of hydrogen in short- and midterm willenormous while domestic demand is expected tolargely be based on blue hydrogen and not on
be much lower than economic production potential
green hydrogen• Existing experience in blue hydrogen andammonia• The definition of blue hydrogen is not clear andbroadly used by GCC countries.

• Existing experience in LNG terminals and export
infrastructure• Negative environmental impacts due to necessary
sea water desalination and brine disposal can bea concern if not addressed appropriately• Green hydrogen economy could speed up the
RES-E uptake in GCC countries.

• The lack of pipeline transport-options will lead toshipping of ammonia, liquified hydrogen or otherderivatives. This leads to relatively high landing
costs at ports in Europe.

Strengths

Weaknesses
Electricity• Large low-cost potentials for electricity from Windand PV and therefore green hydrogen (except for
Bahrain and Qatar which cannot be assumed to
be bulk producers of green hydrogen)• Potentials for combination of PV and wind toachieve high full load hours of technologies andhence low production costs.

• Almost no uptake of RES-E to date in all GCC
countries and hence limited experience in RES-E
technologies and infrastructure• High specific THG-emission factors of gridelectricity in all GCC countries

Transport• Existing LNG and natural Gas infrastructure inplace in most GCC countries• No pipeline network for transporting natural gas
towards Europe that could be retrofitted• Experience in handling ammonia• Exports of pure hydrogen will be costly due to highshipping costs. Other derivatives such as
ammonia or methane or even e-fuels might
therefore be the more realistic focus.
Water• Experience with large scale sea water
desalination plants in all GCC countries• High water stress throughout the GCC countries
and even large areas with arid conditions• Research and development of sea water
desalination with zero liquid discharge (NEOM)
which would lower environmental impact of brine
disposal• High density of sea water desalination plants
especially in gulf region with resulting large
discharge of brine• There are large areas that are classified asprotected marine areas in Gulf as well as Red Sea

7

Hydrogen fact sheet – Gulf Cooperation Countries (GCC)

Strengths

Weaknesses
where impacts from brine disposal should be
avoided.
Socio-economics• Production of green hydrogen could foster the• Bahrain is not likely to export hydrogen.
uptake of RES-E within the GCC countries which • Qatar can only export blue hydrogen andoverall show very low shares of RES-E up to now.
derivatives.
• The GCC countries expressed that exports of• Socio-economic indicators that could indicate
green or blue hydrogen and derivatives can be aeconomic participation etc. are not available
steppingstone for moving away from exporting
fossil fuels while securing jobs, know-how andincome.
Hydrogen Strategy & Economy• First hydrogen and ammonia projects alreadystarted• No specific hydrogen strategies in place yet• The hydrogen economy will not focus on Europe• Experience in refining and chemical industries can
as shipping distance to other regions (e.g. Japan)
be used in hydrogen economy
are similar. Therefore, the GCC countries are notbound to the European hydrogen market andspecific (sustainability) criteria.

1.2

Saudi Arabia
Convergence & Divergence with EU hydrogen strategy• Saudi Arabia will be ready to export green
ammonia (NEOM) from 2025 onwards.

• Potential to deliver blue hydrogen in the short term
as well as green hydrogen in the long term.

• Potentials for low cost green hydrogen areenormous while domestic demand is expected to
be way lower than production potential.

• The uptake of hydrogen will largely be based onblue hydrogen.

• Compared to other GCC countries shorter
shipping distance to Europe via Red Sea.
• Research and development of sea water
desalination with zero liquid discharge which
would lower environmental impact of brine
disposal.
• First hydrogen and ammonia projects alreadystarted (eg. NEOM).

• Definition of blue hydrogen is very broad (CCU &enhanced oil and gas recovery).
• Negative environmental impacts due to sea water
desalination can be a concern if not addressed
appropriately.
• The lack of pipeline transport-options will lead toshipping of ammonia, liquified hydrogen or otherderivatives. This leads to high landing costs at
ports in Europe.
• Less experience with and extend of natural gas
infrastructure (pipelines and LNG harbours)
compared to other GCC countries.

8

Hydrogen fact sheet – Gulf Cooperation Countries (GCC)

1.3

Oman
Convergence & Divergence with EU hydrogen strategy• No hydrogen strategy published yet.
• But several planned projects for the next years.

• Potential to deliver blue hydrogen in the short term
as well as green hydrogen in the long term.

• Export will play a major role (as an alternative forexisting fossil gas exports).

• Exporting plans only with non-EU countries for thetime being.

• Existing LNG port.

• No hydrogen strategy but planned.
• Definition of blue hydrogen is very broad (CCU &enhanced oil and gas recovery)

1.4

United Arab Emirates (UAE)
Convergence & Divergence with EU hydrogen strategy• Highest ambitions in RES-E uptake• Targets 25% of global hydrogen fuel market by2030• Potential to deliver blue hydrogen in the short term
as well as green hydrogen in the long term.

• Definition of blue hydrogen is very broad (CCU &enhanced oil and gas recovery)• UAE and Germany have signed a joint declarationof intent (JDI) for clean hydrogen and its derivatesin Nov. 2021
• Dubai Electricity and Water Authority (DEWA) will
release its strategy on hydrogen in 2022
• Hydrogen Leadership Roadmap announced in
Nov. 2021 by Ministry of Energy and Infrastructure(MOEI) at COP26 in Glasgow

1.5

Qatar
Convergence & Divergence with EU hydrogen strategy• Short term potential for exporting blue hydrogendue to existing experience and first projects• Potential mainly on blue hydrogen• Limited midterm option to export green hydrogendue to missing RES-E potentials• Definition of blue hydrogen is very broad (CCU &enhanced oil and gas recovery)

1.6

KuwaitConvergence & Divergence with EU hydrogen strategy• Short term potential for exporting blue hydrogendue to existing experience and first projects• Potential to deliver blue hydrogen in the short term
as well as green hydrogen in the long term.
• Definition of blue hydrogen is very broad (CCU &enhanced oil and gas recovery)

9

Hydrogen fact sheet – Gulf Cooperation Countries (GCC)

1.7

BahrainConvergence & Divergence with EU hydrogen strategy• Export not mentioned in documents• Blue hydrogen only based on crude oil if at all• No midterm option to export green hydrogen due
to missing RES-E potentials

1.8

Indicators and comparing the countries

In the following sections we compare the countries studied based on various data sets.
1.8.1

Current CO2-emissions of electricity generation

The current specific CO2-intensity of electricity generation for the GCC countries is shown in Figure1-1. All GCC countries show higher CO2-intensity of electricity generation compared to the EU-27
average. Electricity generation is based mainly on natural gas (as well as associated gas) and oil.
The data shows that producing hydrogen via electrolysis using electricity from the grid will lead tosignificantly higher CO2-emissions in all countries studied compared to the European situation. This
indicates the importance of additional RES-E generation within those countries. This would makesure that CO2-emissions are not increasing due to increased generation of electricity by fossil power
plants to cover additional demand caused by hydrogen production.
Figure 1-1:

Specific CO2-intensity of electricity generation [2017]

800
700

tCo2/MWh

600
500
400
300
200
100
0
United ArabEmirates

Bahrain

Kuwait

Oman

Qatar

Saudi Arabia

EU-27

Source: IEA CO2 from combustion https://www.iea.org/data-and-statistics/data-product/greenhouse-gas-emissions-from-energy#ghgemissions-from-fuel-combustion

10

Hydrogen fact sheet – Gulf Cooperation Countries (GCC)

1.8.2

Current RES-E shares

The current RES-E share in electricity generation is shown in Figure 1-2. The data shows that RESE uptake has hardly started yet in the GCC countries. The installed capacity of RES-E plants in 2018accounted for 867 MW (UAE with the largest share of 589 MW).
Figure 1-2:

RES-E share of electricity generation [2018]

40%
35%
30%
25%
20%
15%
10%
5%
0%
United ArabEmirates

Bahrain

Kuwait

Oman

Qatar

Saudi Arabia

EU-27

Source: own compilation based on data from IRENA Database

However, there is a substantial number of projects in the pipeline for 2025 (6,732MW) mainly in the
United Arab Emirates, Oman and Kuwait (see Figure 1-3). Most planned projects are solar PV
plants.
Figure 1-3:

RES-E project pipeline in GCC countries

11Hydrogen fact sheet – Gulf Cooperation Countries (GCC)
Source: (IRENA 2019)

1.8.3

Comparing socio-economic and political indicators

In the following, we focus on country-specific aspects related to socio-economic development andgovernance.
Good governance is key to ensure low-cost and reliable supply of green hydrogen and to prevent
negative side-effects for sustainable development. We thus also compare different relevant
governance indicators: these include regulatory quality, political stability, control of corruption andenvironmental performance in Figure 1-4 also taken from the same source. In both figures, the rangeof the EU-27 Member-states is indicated. All indicators are described in detail in section 3 in the
appendix. Most indicators for the GCC countries are within the range of the EU-27.
➔ Saudi Arabia and Bahrain rank very low in “Political stability and absence of terrorism andviolence”.
➔ The Environmental Performance in the GCC countries is reported to be lower than theperformance in the EU-27. This indicates that issues such as monitoring of methane
emissions, brine disposal of sea water desalination plants and respect of protected areas arehighly relevant if hydrogen is produced in the GCC countries.

12

Hydrogen fact sheet – Gulf Cooperation Countries (GCC)

Figure 1-4:

Economic, regulatory, environmental and human development Indicatorsand HDI

100

90

80

Percentile Rank (best = 100)

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

WGI Regulatory
QualityWGI Political
Stability and
Absence ofViolence/Terrorism

Saudi Arabia
Qatar

WGI Control ofCorruption

Oman
KuwaitYale Environmental
Human
Performance Index Development Index(EPI) Score(HDI)
United Arab Emirates
BahrainSource: own compilation based on data from world bank13

Hydrogen fact sheet – Gulf Cooperation Countries (GCC)

1.8.4

H2 production potentials

The technical production potentials to produce green hydrogen for the GCC countries shown in
Figure 1-5 are exclusively based on solar irradiation and wind speeds. They do not consider otherconstraints like access to water and do not account for technological, socio-economic or ecologicalfactors. Some of these constraints are considered in Figure 1-6.
➔ The main share of the potential is based on PV technology.
➔ Saudi Arabia stands out with high overall RES-E potentials and a substantial share ofpotential for wind power.
Figure 1-5:

Theoretical yearly production potential for gaseous hydrogen by country

70.00060.000TWh H2 hu

50.00040.00030.00020.00010.000

Saudi Arabia

Oman

United ArabEmirates
PV

Qatar

KuwaitBahrainWind

Source: own compilation based on data from (EWI 2020)

Figure 1-6 shows the annual production potential reported for gaseous hydrogen production by the
PtX Atlas from Fraunhofer Institute. While this source also estimates production potentials on windspeeds and solar irradiation for RES-E production, values in the PtX Atlas are much lower comparedto the theoretical production potentials reported in Figure 1-5. The main driver that reduces thepotential areas for hydrogen production is the limitation to areas that are reported to have low water
stress by the World Resource Institute. Only areas with low water stress levels are eligible to beconsidered for hydrogen production within the GIS analysis of the PtX Atlas. The PtX Atlas also
takes into account distance to infrastructure, cities and the coast (please see https://devkopsys.de/ptxatlas/#methodik for detailed information). Further, other competing uses are taken into account as well
as distance to possible export infrastructure. This explains the difference in magnitude between thetheoretical potential (Figure 1-5) and an export potential (Figure 1-6).
➔ High production potentials (650 to 900 TWh H2) are seen in Saudi Arabia, Oman and theUnited Arab Emirates while Kuwait shows lower production potential (300 TWh H2).

14

Hydrogen fact sheet – Gulf Cooperation Countries (GCC)➔ Qatar and Bahrain do not show any potential for green hydrogen production. This is due tothe various limitations the PTX Atlas sets, described in the section above.
➔ Saudi Arabia show high potentials sources by RES-E from PV and Wind combinations at thecoast of the Red Sea.
➔ Oman shows a mix of potentials using PV at coastal location and PV and Wind combinations
at the coast.
➔ The United Arab Emirates, however, only show potentials by making use of PV at the coast.
➔ Kuwait is expected to have potentials based on PV and Wind combinations at the sea.

TWh H2 hu

Figure 1-6:

Annual potential for producing gaseous hydrogen

1.000
900
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
Saudi-Arabia

Oman

PV/Wind combination | at coast

United ArabEmirates

Qatar

PV/Wind combination | inland water

KuwaitPV | at coast

Bahrain
PV | inland water

Source: Data based on (Fraunhofer IEE 2021)

1.8.5

Supply costs for hydrogen

Figure 1-7 shows the total supply costs for gaseous hydrogen from the GCC countries to Italy(chosen, because ports are in place and could be connected to the European Hydrogen Backbone)
in 2030 based on data from EWI 2020.
Hydrogen production costs are reported to be in the same range for the selected countries (about
100 €/MWh H2).
Transport costs vary slightly due to the larger shipping distance from the Gulf to Europe. However,as the main share of transport costs are due to conversion and reconversion of hydrogen into atransport-medium (Liquid, ammonia, LOHC) which accounts for about 75% of the transport costs,
the shipping distance does not alter the overall transport costs significantly.

15

Hydrogen fact sheet – Gulf Cooperation Countries (GCC)

Figure 1-7:

Total supply costs of gaseous hydrogen incl. transport to Italy in 2030

120€/MWh hu H2

100
80

46

49

52

52

51

52

50

48

51

48

51

54

Saudi-Arabia

Oman

United ArabEmirates

Qatar

KuwaitBahrain

60
40

20
0

Production costs (Capex & Opex) (RES-E & Electrolysis)

Transport costs to EU (Italy)

Source: Own calculations based on potential-weighted average production costs for optimistic cost case and low temperatureelectrolysis from:
Supply Costs for Low-Carbon Hydrogen. Institute of Energy Economics at the University of Cologne (EWI). Köln. Online verfügbar unter
https://www.ewi.uni-koeln.de/cms/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/EWI_WP_20-04_Estimating_long-term_global_supply_costs_for_lowcarbon_Schoenfisch_Braendle_Schulte-1.pdf, zuletzt geprüft am 03.09.2021

16

Hydrogen fact sheet – Gulf Cooperation Countries (GCC)

2

Detailed Information – Country Factsheets

2.1

Information that is relevant for all GCC

Trade agreements with GCC and Europe
As trade agreements between the EU and the GCC states are common for all GCC states, they are
not documented in the specific country fact sheets.
•

The GCC countries have formed their own customs union and are working towards the goal ofcompleting an internal market.

•

A structured informal EU-GCC Dialogue on Trade and Investment was launched in May 2017.

•

The World Bank classifies the six GCC countries as high-income economies. Therefore, they do
not benefit from preferential access to the EU market under the EU's (GSP7).

•The EU-GCC Dialogue on Economic Diversification has been working since 2019 to develop
connections and to build partnerships based on the exchange of EU experience and expertiseto assist GCC countries in their economic diversification strategies.

Transportation
The transport of the generated hydrogen involves similar issues for the GCC countries. Most
countries have LNG and infrastructure for natural gas.8 However, there is no transport network forgas to Europe, which could be transformed for the transport of hydrogen. Accordingly, the onlytransport option is by ship. The fastest way would be a route from the Red Sea to the MediterraneanSea, and finally Italy. Italy provides an entry port into the European hydrogen distribution network(EWI 2020). Although the transport distance from Saudi Arabia is the shortest, the calculated costs
for the remaining GCC states differ only marginally9. However, transportation by ship increases thecost of imported hydrogen in general. In addition, ship transport limits the transported derivatives toammonia, methane or e-fuels.

2.2

Saudi Arabia

Trade
Main export partners [%of trade volume $]10

• China (20,1%)• EU (12,0%)• India (11%)

Main export goods [% oftrade volume $]11

• Crude Petroleum (63,3%)• Refined Petroleum (9,6%)• Ethylene Petroleum (4,9%)

7

Generalised Scheme of Preferences
see Figure 9
9
see Figure 1-7
10 https://oec.world/en/profile/country/sau ; EU as a trading partner is calculated proportionally from themember states of the EU in Europe.
11 https://oec.world/en/profile/country/sau
817Hydrogen fact sheet – Gulf Cooperation Countries (GCC)

Hydrogen strategy and economy
Existing hydrogenstrategy• None to date

Existing bilateralhydrogen agreements• Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) establishing cooperation on hydrogen
between Germany and Saudi Arabia.12• The German Government funded the electrolysis technology of the Project“Element One” which is part of the NEOM Project. 13• A MoU has been signed by Saudi Arabia’s ACWA power and OQ (Oman’sstate-owned energy company) to conduct a feasibility study to produce green
ammonia in Dhofar (Oman).14• Saudi Aramco signed a MoU with Japanese ENEOS to consider a CO 2-freehydrogen and ammonia supply-chain.15

Existing projects16 (incl.
Blue hydrogen)Green hydrogen• ? MW | announced start 1993, not operating | HYSOLAR Pilot• ? MW | started 2020 | Yanbu
Blue ammonia• ? MW | 2020 | First shipment of blue ammonia to Japan as part of pilot study| Saudi Aramco17

Planned projects [up to2030] 18 (incl. Blue
hydrogen)Green ammonia and hydrogen• 2,000 MW | starting date 2025 | Data for overall NEOM project• 1,5 GW | starting date not documented | Helios Green Fuels as part of
NEOM19Blue hydrogen• ? MW | starting date not documented | Saudi Aramco• Other undefined project: Saudi Aramco wants to develop gas field for bluehydrogen20

support schemes orfunding facilities forclean hydrogen• None to date12

https://www.bmwi.de/Redaktion/EN/Pressemitteilungen/2021/03/20210311-altmaier-signs-memorandumof-understanding-on-german-saudi-hydrogen-cooperation.html
13 https://www.bmwi.de/Redaktion/DE/Pressemitteilungen/2020/12/20201216-altmaier-uebergibtfoerderbescheid-fuer-internationales-projekt-fuer-gruenen-wasserstoff.html
14 https://www.spglobal.com/platts/en/market-insights/latest-news/energy-transition/120821-Saudi Arabiasacwa-power-omans-oq-to-study-hydrogen-project-in-dhofar
15 https://www.spglobal.com/platts/en/market-insights/latest-news/electric-power/032521-japans-eneossigns-mou-with-aramco-to-develop-hydrogen-ammonia-supply-chain
16 IEA Hydrogen Project Database 2020 and 2021
17 https://marketingstorageragrs.blob.core.windows.net/webfiles/Hydrogen-Handbook_MiddleEast.pdf
18 IEA Hydrogen Project Database 2020 and 2021
19 https://iea.blob.core.windows.net/assets/e57fd1ee-aac7-494d-a351f2a4024909b4/GlobalHydrogenReview2021.pdf (page 136)
20 https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2021-06-27/aramco-says-timing-of-next-blue-ammonia-cargodepends-on-buyers

18

Hydrogen fact sheet – Gulf Cooperation Countries (GCC)

Potential branches fordomestic hydrogen
demand• (strategy& 2020)) suggest for Saudi Arabia to have low domestic demand forgreen hydrogen due to cheap electricity and natural gas resources.
• Refineries (~10% of export volume) as well as some processes of thechemical industry (~20% of export volume) can use low-carbon hydrogen to
reduce the THG-footprint of end-products. However, the question is if the
trade partners will ask for products with low THG footprint.
• In the project NEOM it is planned to use hydrogen and derivatives in thetransport sector and as energy storage.

Exporting potential instrategy [TWh per year]• No strategy yet• However, official statements do not see a significant uptake even of bluehydrogen before 203021

Main Hydrogenproduction technology in
focus• Saudi Arabia officials stated that blue hydrogen will be the relevant export
business-case in the short to mid-term. However, bulk exports of bluehydrogen are not expected before 2030.
• Green hydrogen in the long-term.

Primary focus of export
substance• Ammonia (blue ammonia has been shipped to Japan in 2020)• Other derivatives

Production potential forblue hydrogen• Saudi Arabia has the sixth largest proven natural gas reserves in the world(behind Russia, Iran, Qatar, US and Turkmenistan). The natural gas
production has increased steadily over the last decades while the share of
associated gas (in connection with crude oil production) has dropped
especially since 2015.22• This shows that potential for blue hydrogen is high. Especially because firstprojects with CCS technologies have been carried out and blue ammonia
has been shipped to Japan already.
• However, transport infrastructure for natural gas such as pipelines andshipping are not as developed as in other GCC countries such as Qatar.
• There is experience in CCS technology: The Uthmaniyah CO 2-EOR
Demonstration compresses and dehydrates CO2 from the Hayiyah NGL
natural gas liquids recovery plant. Operations started in 2015, it captures
about 0.8 Mtpa. CO2 is transported via pipeline to be injected into an oil field
for enhanced oil recovery.23

21

https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2021-06-27/aramco-says-timing-of-next-blue-ammonia-cargodepends-on-buyers
22 https://www.eia.gov/international/content/analysis/countries_long/Saudi_Arabia/saudi_arabia.pdf
23 https://co2re.co/FacilityData

19

Hydrogen fact sheet – Gulf Cooperation Countries (GCC)

Transportation to Europe
in hydrogen strategy

There is no strategy yet.
Pipeline• There are no existing natural gas pipelines from Saudi Arabia towards
Europe.
• However, there are first comments that piping hydrogen towards Europe
through Egypt and North Africa could be an option. 24
Shipping• Shipping from Saudi Arabia to Europe is the option most referred to inliterature.
• (McKinsey & Company 2021)) assumes a transport distance of 8,700km
from the Red Sea to Rotterdam. In case of using liquid hydrogen or LOHC as
the transport medium, costs for transport (1.6 – 2.7 USD/kg H2) more thandouble the cost for hydrogen production (~1.5 USD/kg H2). ShippingAmmonia is a low-cost option but only if ammonia is not reconverted intohydrogen in the destination country.
• Compared to the other GCC states, Saudi Arabia’s shipping distancetowards Europe is much shorter (~ 2,000km less) as is has access to the
Red Sea. This will result in lower shipping costs.
• Shipping distances from GCC countries would decrease if a European
Hydrogen grid is connected to harbours in the Mediterranean Sea. However,
the main costs for shipping arise from converting hydrogen into transportablestates (liquid) or other mediums (LOHC).
• The Ministry of Energy (Saudi Arabia) stated that the shipping of ammonia islikely to be the most relevant transport option. 25

Key actors• Saudi Aramco (state owned energy company)• ACWA Power (a Saudi Arabian power plant developer)• NEOM project (Air Products, an American chemical company, is a major
player)• KAPSARC (a Saudi-Arabian Research center)• Ministry of Energy of Saudi Arabia

Sustainability issues and potential conflicts 26
Water conflicts• The maps show a high density of population along the coast with highdensity of sea water desalination plants already. Sustainable and additionalsea water desalination for hydrogen production will be a major challenge.

Water stress level• Most areas are arid or show high water stress. Saudi Arabia is one of themost water scarce nations.27• In the project NEOM desalinated sea water is to be used, however zeroliquid discharge is envisaged.

Land conflicts• None documented in Environmental Justice Atlas• Densely populated coastal area pressured due to water stress28• Marine protection zones both in the Red Sea and Persian Gulf 29 compete forwater use24

https://www.rechargenews.com/markets/Saudi Arabia-could-pipe-green-hydrogen-to-europe-to-keepleading-energy-role/2-1-972920
25 Stated in a bilateral work-shop
26 Main source is the Environmental Justice Atlas: https://ejatlas.org/
27 https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2214999615012217
28 See Fehler! Verweisquelle konnte nicht gefunden werden. and Fehler! Verweisquelle konnte nicht
gefunden werden.
29 See https://www.protectedplanet.net/region/AF

20

Hydrogen fact sheet – Gulf Cooperation Countries (GCC)

Socio-economic• None documented in Environmental Justice Atlas

Existing and futureenergy system &decarbonisation
strategy

2018

2030

Total gross electricity
387 (0)No projections available
production (netimports)30 [TWh]RES share in gross
0
50%32
31
electricity generation[%]
CO2 intensity of gross652
Not available
electricity generation[gCO2/kWh, 2017]33
Largest fossil fuel-based
Natural gas (58%) 50% natural gas34 (switch from oil)electricity generation
Mainly based on associated gas(share in total
Oil is the other dominant source
generation)]
CO2 emissions from247 (130)
Not available
electricity and heatproduction (from otherenergy industry own use,
manufacturing industries
and construction)[MtCO2, 2017]35
Goals decarbonisation• Reduction of 278 MtCO2e probably below a baseline scenario
for 203036 (NDC
• Climate Action Tracker estimates this target as an increase of 146–275%
discussion) and net zerocompared to 1990 levels
targets• Net zero target for 2060 announced

2.3

Oman

Trade
Main export partners [% of tradevolume $]37

• China (46,2%)• India (7,9%)• Japan (6,5%)

Main export goods [% of tradevolume $]38

• Crude Petroleum (47,8%)• Petroleum Gas (14,4%)• Refined Petroleum (6,9%)

Hydrogen strategy and economy

30

IEA (2021): Electricity Information Statistics. https://doi.org/10.1787/elect-data-en
IRENA (2020): Renewable Energy Statistics
32https://www4.unfccc.int/sites/ndcstaging/PublishedDocuments/Saudi%20Arabia%20First/KSA%20NDC%2
02021%20FINAL%20v24%20Submitted%20to%20UNFCCC.pdf
33 Calculated as CO emissions from electricity and heat production divided by gross electricity generation.
2
34https://www4.unfccc.int/sites/ndcstaging/PublishedDocuments/Saudi%20Arabia%20First/KSA%20NDC%2
02021%20FINAL%20v24%20Submitted%20to%20UNFCCC.pdf
35 IEA (2020): IEA CO Emissions from Fuel Combustion Statistics. https://doi.org/10.1787/co2-data-en
2
36 https://climateactiontracker.org/countries/Saudi Arabia/targets/
37 https://oec.world/en/profile/country/omn
38 https://oec.world/en/profile/country/omn
31

21

Hydrogen fact sheet – Gulf Cooperation Countries (GCC)

Existing hydrogen strategy• No strategy yet, but planned• National hydrogen feasibility study to be finished by end of 2021 39• National hydrogen alliance (Hy-Fly) established40

Existing bilateral hydrogen
agreements

MoU with Saudi Arabia's ACWA Power to conduct a feasibility study
on hydrogen projects to produce 1 million tons of green ammonia
annually41. A further MoU between ACWA and Omanoil and Air
Products was signed in Dez. 2021 to produce green hydrogen in
Oman’s Salalah Free Zone.42
MoU with Japanese firm Sumitomo for blue hydrogen plants 43

Existing projects44 (incl. Blue
hydrogen)

None documented

Planned projects [up to 2030] 45(incl. Blue hydrogen)Green Methanol• 250 MW | Starting 2026 | Hyport@Dupm
Green hydrogen• ? MW | starting date not documented | Oman Green Energy Hub• ? MW | starting date not documented | PDO’s solar-panelled carpark• ? MW | starting date not documented | Amin Solar Renewable
Energy Project• 4,7-14 GW | starting 2028 | Oman green H2 projectGreen ammonia• ? MW | starting 2023 | Port of Duqm NH3 plant
Green ammonia and hydrogen• 25 GW | starting 2028 | InterContinental Energy, OQ, EnerTech 46• ? MW | starting date not documented | ACME47
Blue hydrogen• ? MW | starting 2023 | Sumitomo Oman; using flare gas andproducing for the local market

support schemes or funding
facilities for clean hydrogen

None to datePotential branches for domestichydrogen demand

The main branch is the national oil and gas industry (whether for local
demand or export)

Exporting potential in strategy[TWh per year]

No strategy yet

Main Hydrogen production
technology in focus• Green hydrogen• Blue hydrogen

39https://www.zawya.com/mena/en/projects/story/PROJECTS_Omans_national_hydrogen_feasibility_study_t

o_be_completed_by_end_2021-ZAWYA20210610110721/
https://www.pdo.co.om/en/news/pressreleases/Pages/Oman%E2%80%99s%20Hydrogen%20Alliance%20to%20Drive%20National%20Hydrog
en%20Economy.aspx
41 https://www.spglobal.com/platts/en/market-insights/latest-news/energy-transition/120821-Saudi Arabiasacwa-power-omans-oq-to-study-hydrogen-project-in-dhofar
42 https://www.arabnews.com/node/1981956/business-economy
43 https://www.sumitomocorp.com/en/africa/news/release/2021/group/14290
44 IEA Hydrogen Project Database 2020 and 2021
45 IEA Hydrogen Project Database 2020 and 2021
46 IEA 2021. Global hydrogen Review 2021. https://iea.blob.core.windows.net/assets/e57fd1ee-aac7-494da351-f2a4024909b4/GlobalHydrogenReview2021.pdf
47 IEA 2021. Global hydrogen Review 2021. https://iea.blob.core.windows.net/assets/e57fd1ee-aac7-494da351-f2a4024909b4/GlobalHydrogenReview2021.pdf
40

22

Hydrogen fact sheet – Gulf Cooperation Countries (GCC)

Primary focus of export substance• Ammonia• Hydrogen

Production potential for bluehydrogen• Approx. 0.4% of world gas reserves48• Large CO2 storage potential in Hajar Mountain49

Transportation to Europe inhydrogen strategy•••

Key actors• Ministry of Energy and Minerals• Petroleum Development Oman
• Energy and petroleum companies: OQ, Oman LNG, BP Oman,
Oman Shell and Total Energies Oman
• Research: Sultan Qaboos University and GUTech

No strategy yet
But existing LNG infrastructure with Qalhat LNG Terminal
In the short-term shipping could be a sufficient export option toEurope.

Sustainability issues and potential conflicts 50
Water conflicts• None documented in EJ Atlas

Water stress level• Water stress levels in Oman are diverse, ranging from small lowmedium water stress areas in Dhofar and A Sharqiya to high water
stress levels and arid regions. Risk for water shortages is high.
• Water stress level is high in densely populated areas of the coastal
region (except A Sharqiya region).
• Potentials for renewables are highest in the arid regions of Dhofar.

Land conflicts• None documented in EJ Atlas• Densely populated coastal area in the Gulf of Oman overlaps withmarine protection zones.51• Protected Areas for terrestrial species overlap with potential
renewable energy production zones in Dhofar. 52

Socio-economic• None documented in EJ Atlas

Existing and future energy
system & decarbonisation
strategy
Total gross electricity production(net imports)54 [TWh]RES share in gross electricity
generation55 [%]CO2 intensity of gross electricity
generation [gCO2/kWh, 2017]56

2030532018

38 (-0.0)

44 TWh

0

20%

456

Not available

48

https://www.worldometers.info/gas/#gas-reserves
https://mega.online/en/articles/carbon-capture
50 Main source is the Environmental Justice Atlas: https://ejatlas.org/
51 See https://www.protectedplanet.net/region/AF and Fehler! Verweisquelle konnte nicht gefunden
werden.
52 See https://www.protectedplanet.net/region/AF and Fehler! Verweisquelle konnte nicht gefunden
werden.
53https://www4.unfccc.int/sites/ndcstaging/PublishedDocuments/Oman%20Second/Second%20NDC%20Re
port%20Oman.pdf
54 IEA (2021): Electricity Information Statistics. https://doi.org/10.1787/elect-data-en
55 IRENA (2020): Renewable Energy Statistics
56 Calculated as CO emissions from electricity and heat production divided by gross electricity generation.
2
49

23

Hydrogen fact sheet – Gulf Cooperation Countries (GCC)

Largest fossil fuel-based electricity
Natural gas (97%)
80% fossil gas
generation (share in total
generation)]
CO2 emissions from electricity and
16 (25)
Not available
heat production (from other energy
industry own use, manufacturingindustries and construction)[MtCO2, 2017]57
Goals decarbonisation for 2030
Reduction of 7% in 2030 relative to BAU, with total GHG emissions(NDC discussion) and net zerocapped to 116.486 MTCO2e in 2030
targets.58
Upstream oil and gas sector in Oman aspire a net zero target for
2050.

2.4

United Arab Emirates (UAE)

Trade
Main export partners [% of tradevolume $]59•••

India (10,8%)
Japan (9,6%)
Saudi Arabia (7,22%)

Main export goods [% of tradevolume $]60•••

Crude Petroleum (23,1%)
Refined Petroleum (13%)
Gold (8,63%)•

Dubai Electricity and Water Authority (DEWA) will release its
strategy on hydrogen in 202261
Hydrogen Leadership Roadmap announced in Nov. 2021 by
Ministry of Energy and Infrastructure (MOEI) at COP26 in
Glasgow62
Targets 25% of global hydrogen fuel market by 2030

Hydrogen strategy and economy
Existing hydrogen strategy••
Existing bilateral hydrogen
agreements•••

UAE and Japan signed a cooperation agreement in Apr. 2021 to
explore opportunities in hydrogen development 63
UAE and Germany have signed a joint declaration of intent (JDI)
for clean hydrogen and its derivates in Nov. 2021 64
UAE and Russia signed a JDI in Nov. 2021 to collaborate onhydrogen development65

57

IEA (2020): IEA CO2 Emissions from Fuel Combustion Statistics. https://doi.org/10.1787/co2-data-en
58https://www4.unfccc.int/sites/ndcstaging/PublishedDocuments/Oman%20Second/Second%20NDC%20Re
port%20Oman.pdf
https://oec.world/en/profile/country/are
60 https://oec.world/en/profile/country/are
61 https://www.thenationalnews.com/business/energy/2021/09/13/dewa-to-release-its-green-hydrogenstrategy-in-2022/
62 http://wam.ae/en/details/1395302988986
63 https://www.moei.gov.ae/en/media-centre/news/11/4/2021/a-cooperation-agreement-between-uae-andjapan-to-explore-the-opportunities-available-in-the-field-of-hydrogen-development.aspx#page=1
64 https://www.bmwi.de/Redaktion/EN/Pressemitteilungen/2021/11/20211102-new-hydrogen-task-forcegermany-and-united-arab-emirates-to-expand-bilateral-energy-partnership.html
65 https://www.spglobal.com/platts/en/market-insights/latest-news/energy-transition/111821-uae-russia-inkagreement-to-partner-on-hydrogen-development-amid-net-zero-pledges
5924Hydrogen fact sheet – Gulf Cooperation Countries (GCC)

Existing projects66 (incl. Blue
hydrogen)Green hydrogen• 1,25 MW | started 2020 | Mohamad Bin Rashid Solar Park• ? MW | started 2020 | StudyPilot• ? MW | started 2019 | Air Liquide, Khalifa University, Al Futtaim
MotorsBlue hydrogen• ? MW | started 2009 | BP
Other hydrogen• ? MW | started 2016 | Al Reyadah CCUS

Planned projects [up to 2030] 67(incl. Blue hydrogen)Green hydrogen• 20 MW | starting 2022 | Masdar City green H 2• ? MW | starting date not documented | TAQA-Emirates Steel Green
H2
Blue hydrogen• ? MW | starting 2025 | Ruwais, Fertilglobe, ADNOC• 800 MW | starting date not documented | Kizad Helios,
Thyssenkrupp
Green ammonia• ? MW | starting 2024 | Khalifa Industrial Zone Abu Dhabi (KIZAD)
Other hydrogen• ? MW | starting 2025 | Bee’ah waste-to-hydrogen

Support schemes or funding
facilities for clean hydrogen

None to datePotential branches for domestichydrogen demand• Synthetic fuels• Steel industry

Exporting potential in strategy[TWh per year]

No strategy to date

Main Hydrogen production
technology in focus

Since green hydrogen “remains in its infancy requiring an international
collaboration to accelerate its development” 68 “blue is the colour fornow”69. But green hydrogen is envisaged to play a significant role for
UAE’s 2050 Net-Zero goals. Blue and green hydrogen and ammonia
production are included in UAE’s roadmap.

Primary focus of export substance• None to date
• Roadmap highlights export of blue hydrogen and derivates to meet
UAE’s 2050 Net-Zero goals70

66

IEA Hydrogen Project Database 2020 and 2021
IEA Hydrogen Project Database 2020 and 2021
68 http://wam.ae/en/details/1395302988986
69 https://www.wfw.com/articles/hydrogen-in-the-uae/
70 http://wam.ae/en/details/1395302988986
67

25

Hydrogen fact sheet – Gulf Cooperation Countries (GCC)

Production potential for bluehydrogen• Experience with CCS since 2016
• Seventh-largest proved reserves of natural gas in the world 71• Coming into operation in 2016 the first commercial CCS facility inthe iron and steel industry. It involves the capture of CO 2 using highpurity CO2 produced as a by-product of the direct reduced ironmaking process. The compression facility has a capture capacity of
0.8 Mtpa. The CO2 is transported via pipeline to be used forenhanced oil recovery. Abu Dhabi National Oil Company isdeveloping its second CCUS facility in the UAE. It will capture 1.9
to 2.3 Mtpa of CO2 from its gas processing plant for EOR(Enhanced Oil Recovery) and will be operational due in 2025. 72

Transportation to Europe inhydrogen strategy• No strategy to date
• But existing LNG harbour in Abu Dhabi (which is currently
substantially extended)• However, JDI of UAE and Germany implies a strategy for transportof hydrogen.
• In the short-term shipping could be a sufficient export option toEurope.

Key actors

•
•
•
•
•

MOEI
DEWA Dubai Electricity and Water Authority
Khalifa University
TAQA, BP, Thyssenkrupp
Leadership roadmap states to continue public-private-partnerships(ADNOC, Mubadala, ADQ and DEWA).

Sustainability issues and potential conflicts 73
Water conflicts• None documented in EJ Atlas

Water stress level• Most of UAE is under high to extreme water stress with arid areas.
• High potentials for solar energy overlaps with water critical areas.
• Water scarcity is extreme, and competition cannot be excluded
since water stress is high in densely populated areas.

Land conflicts• None documented in EJ Atlas• Densely populated coastal region pressured by water stress• Protected Area for terrestrial species in the border triangle of UAE,
Oman and Saudi Arabia overlaps with greatest renewable potential
for solar energy.74 Densely populated coastal region of Abu Dhabi
includes five marine protected areas.

Socio-economic• None documented in EJ Atlas

Existing and future energy
system & decarbonisation
strategy
Total gross electricity production(net imports) [TWh]75

71

2018

2030

136 (0.0)

Not available

https://www.eia.gov/international/analysis/country/ARE
https://co2re.co/FacilityData
73 Main source is the Environmental Justice Atlas: https://ejatlas.org/
74 See https://www.protectedplanet.net/region/AF and Fehler! Verweisquelle konnte nicht gefunden
werden.
75 https://www.irena.org//media/Files/IRENA/Agency/Publication/2015/IRENA_RRA_Mauritania_EN_2015.pdf
72

26

Hydrogen fact sheet – Gulf Cooperation Countries (GCC)

RES share in gross electricity
generation [%]76

1

CO2 intensity of gross electricity
generation [gCO2/kWh, 2017]77
Largest fossil fuel-based electricity
generation (share in total
generation)78

658

n.a. for 2030
2050: 44%
Not available

Natural gas (98%)

n.a. for 2030
2050: 38% fossil gas
12% “clean coal”
89 (66)
Not available

CO2 emissions from electricity andheat production (from other energy
industry own use, manufacturingindustries and construction)[MtCO2, 2017]79
Goals decarbonisation for 2030
23.5% reduction below the BAU scenario in 2030 (505% above 1990
(NDC discussion) and net zerolevel excl. LULUCF)
targets80
Net zero target for 2050 announced

2.5

Qatar

Trade
Main export partners81 [% of tradevolume $]• Japan (17,1%)• South Korea (15,6%)• India (13,6%)

Main export goods [% of tradevolume $]82

• Petroleum Gas (57,5%)• Crude Petroleum (20%)• Refined Petroleum (10,7%)

Hydrogen strategy and economy
Existing hydrogen strategy(Although Qatar does not have a specific hydrogen strategy), they
are studying several aspects:• Blue hydrogen 83• Hydrogen production from biomass and electrolysis• SMR process powered by solar thermal energy with carbon
capture84• LNG-Hydrogen synergies85

Existing bilateral hydrogen
agreements• H2Korea and QatarEnergy signed a MoU to expand and enhance
the hydrogen supply chain.
• QatarEnergy and Shell are to explore hydrogen projects in the UK76

https://www.irena.org//media/Files/IRENA/Agency/Publication/2015/IRENA_RRA_Mauritania_EN_2015.pdf
77 Calculated as CO emissions from electricity and heat production divided by gross electricity generation.
2
78 https://www.irena.org//media/Files/IRENA/Agency/Publication/2015/IRENA_RRA_Mauritania_EN_2015.pdf
79 IEA (2020): IEA CO Emissions from Fuel Combustion Statistics. https://doi.org/10.1787/co2-data-en
280 https://climateactiontracker.org/countries/uae/targets/
81 https://oec.world/en/profile/country/qat
82 https://oec.world/en/profile/country/qat
83 https://www.rvo.nl/sites/default/files/2020/12/Hydrogen%20in%20the%20GCC.pdf
84 https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0360319921033061
85 https://www.qnrf.org/en-us/Newsroom/Research-Matters-Newsletter/qnrf-community-227

Hydrogen fact sheet – Gulf Cooperation Countries (GCC)

Existing projects86 (incl. Blue
hydrogen)

Qatar National Research Fund: Solar Hybrid Hydrogen Production
Cycle with In-situ Thermal Energy Storage87• Research focused on technologies that can produce hydrogen
directly from solar energy in an economically and environmentallyfriendly way.
• Contribute to Qatar’s visionary efforts in diversifying energy use
by including renewable energy sources for the clean production offuels and commodities

Planned projects [up to 2030] 88(incl. Blue hydrogen)• None in Databasesupport schemes or funding
facilities for clean hydrogen• Qatar National Research Foundation (QNRF) plans to launch afund dedicated to exploring the prospects and opportunities forhydrogen energy in Qatar89

Potential branches for domestichydrogen demand• QatarEnergy: responsible for the development of the oil and gas
industry in the State of Qatar and beyond. It produces liquefied
natural gas (LNG), natural gas liquids (NGL), gas to liquids (GTL)
products, refined products, petrochemicals, fertilizers, steel andaluminium.
• Steel production90: 2.3 million tonnes per year
• Aluminium production91: 660.000 tonnes per year
• Qatar Fuel Additives Company (QAFAC): its plant produces
Methanol and Methyl Tertiary Butyl Ether. QAFAC plant
implements Carbon dioxide recovery and reuses the recovered
CO2 in its methanol production.
• Methanol production92: 1.01 million tonnes per year
• Qatar Fertiliser Company (QAFCO): QAFCO together with its
subsidiaries is engaged in the production of ammonia, urea,
melamine and formaldehyde condensates.
• Ammonia production93: 2.7 million tonnes per year

Hydrogen Exports in strategy [TWhper year]No strategy to date

Main hydrogen production
technology in focus94

Blue hydrogen

Secondary hydrogen production
technology in focus

SMR process powered by solar thermal energy with carbon capture

Primary focus of export substance• Gaseous hydrogen• Ammonia

86

IEA Hydrogen Project Database
https://www.qnrf.org/en-us/spotlight-7
88 IEA Hydrogen Project Database
89 https://www.zawya.com/mena/en/projects/story/
PROJECTS_QNRF_plans_to_launch_a_fund_for_exploring_hydrogen_prospects_next_yearZAWYA20210603041018/87

90https://iq.com.qa/en/about-iq/iq-group-companies/steel/qatar-steel-company/

91 https://www.qatalum.com/Products/Pages/default.aspx

92

https://www.qafac.com.qa/annual-sustainability-reports
https://iq.com.qa/en/about-iq/iq-group-companies/fertiliser/qatar-fertiliser-company-qafco/
94 The locations with high potentials can be drawn from the maps in the following chapter showing the PV
and Wind energy potential.
9328

Hydrogen fact sheet – Gulf Cooperation Countries (GCC)

Production potential for bluehydrogen• Great potential due to large natural gas resources• CCS experience: Starting in 2019, Qatargas separates CO 2 in the
Ras Laffan LNG production from its North Field. The CO2 captureand storage capacity is about 2.1 Mtpa. 95• Qatar defines hydrogen that is produced based on natural gas
with CCS for enhanced oil recovery and CCU (CO2 used to
produce for example Methanol) as blue hydrogen.
• Fugitive methane emissions in the blue hydrogen chain will be
relevant and independent data is necessary

Transportation to Europe inhydrogen strategy

LNG/LPG terminals96:• Ras Laffan Industrial City
• Mesaieed Industrial City
In the short-term shipping could be a sufficient export option toEurope.

Key actors• QatarEnergy: is a state-owned petroleum company of Qatar. The
company operates all oil and gas activities in Qatar, including
exploration, production, refining, transport, and storage.
• Qatar Fuel Additives Company• Qatar Fertilizer Company• Ministry of Environment and Climate Change• Ministry of Energy and Industry

Sustainability issues and potential conflicts 97
Water conflicts

Regarding the production of green hydrogen by electrolysis, one of
the most challenging aspects in Qatar is the water availability:• Qatar has the largest GTL plant in the world, with the capacity to
produce 280,000 barrels of water as by-product of its activities.
This could be a potential water source that can be integrated with
H2 production through electrolysis98.
• Total capacity of Desalinisation plants of Qatar: 2.27 million
Imperial Gallons per Day (MIGD)99

Water stress• Level of water stress in Qatar is critical100

Land conflicts• None documented in EJ Atlas• Densely populated coastal area of Doha under pressure for water
scarcity101• Protected area for terrestrial species may interfere with renewablepotentials for solar energy102

Socio-economic• None documented in EJ Atlas

Other• Local protests and concerns about environmental impacts oflarge-scale sand mining at the north-western coast

95 https://co2re.co/FacilityData
96 https://www.qatarenergy.qa/en/MarketingAndTrading/QPSPP/Pages/LPG.aspx
97

Main source is the Environmental Justice Atlas: https://ejatlas.org/
Green hydrogen for industrial sector decarbonization: Costs and impacts on hydrogen economy in Qatar
99 Desalination in Qatar: Present Status and Future Prospects
100 http://www.fao.org/sustainable-development-goals/indicators/642/en/
101 See Fehler! Verweisquelle konnte nicht gefunden werden. and Fehler! Verweisquelle konnte nicht
gefunden werden.
102 See https://www.protectedplanet.net/region/AF and Fehler! Verweisquelle konnte nicht gefunden
werden.
98

29

Hydrogen fact sheet – Gulf Cooperation Countries (GCC)

Existing and future energy
system & decarbonisation
strategy
Total gross electricity production(net imports)104 [TWh]RES share in gross electricity
generation105 [%]CO2 intensity of gross electricity
generation [gCO2/kWh, 2017]106
Largest fossil fuel-based electricity
generation (share in total
generation)]
CO2 emissions from electricity
production and heat (from otherenergy industry own use,
manufacturing industries andconstruction) [MtCO2, 2017]107
Goals decarbonisation for 2030
(NDC discussion)

2.6

20301032018

48 (0.0)

Not available

0

Not available

486

Not available

Natural gas (100%)

Not available

22 (44)

Not available

25% reduction for 2030 compared to BAU scenario
No net zero target announced

KuwaitTrade
Main export partners [% of tradevolume $]108• China (20,2%)• South Korea (16%)• India (14,7%)

Main export goods [% of tradevolume $]109• Crude Petroleum (69,7%)• Refined Petroleum (10,6%)• Planes, Helicopters, and/or Spacecraft (4,03%)

Hydrogen strategy and economy
Existing hydrogen strategy• White paper on Hydrogen Strategy published in Jan. 2021 by
Kuwait Foundation for the Advancement of Sciences (KFAS)(short version110)• Preparations for an adaptable Kuwait National hydrogen Strategy(KNHS)

Existing bilateral hydrogen
agreements• Planned feasibility studies for flagship export projects to Asia
(Japan/South Korea) and Europe (Germany/Netherlands)• Planned engagement with industry players operating in bluehydrogen and ports that promote hydrogen trade routes

103 https://www4.unfccc.int/sites/ndcstaging/PublishedDocuments/Qatar%20First/Qatar%20NDC.pdf
104 IEA (2021): Electricity Information Statistics. https://doi.org/10.1787/elect-data-en
105 IRENA (2020): Renewable Energy Statistics
106 Calculated as CO

2 emissions from electricity and heat production divided by gross electricity generation.
107 IEA (2020): IEA CO Emissions from Fuel Combustion Statistics. https://doi.org/10.1787/co2-data-en
2
108 https://oec.world/en/profile/country/kwt
109 https://oec.world/en/profile/country/kwt
110 https://www.tresor.economie.gouv.fr/Articles/04a6e749-3ebf-4024-b663-e8f0e6c5be60/files/1eefadd0-

39bc-41e0-946b-500c4b04cf4a30

Hydrogen fact sheet – Gulf Cooperation Countries (GCC)

Existing projects111 (incl. Blue
hydrogen)

None mentioned in IAE database

Planned projects [up to 2030] 112(incl. Blue hydrogen)

None mentioned in IAE databasesupport schemes or funding
facilities for clean hydrogen• None yet

Potential branches for domestichydrogen demand

The White Paper states the following demands:• Co-firing with CH4• H2 gas turbines• Seasonal energy storage• District cooling• Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles

Hydrogen Exports in strategy [TWhper year]

None to date

Main hydrogen production
technology in focus

According to the white paper,• low-cost blue hydrogen is seen as a large opportunity• green hydrogen based on solar and wind is possible and largescale demonstration projects are envisaged• blue hydrogen from converted crude oil and petroleum products is
mentioned needs further investment

Primary focus of export substance• Both green and blue hydrogen are expected to be produced.
Kuwait has a great natural potential for blue hydrogen, since it
exploits oil and gas. Renewable potentials (Wind and PV) arealso given.113

Production potential for bluehydrogen• There are no CCS projects in database114• However, the White Paper on hydrogen emphasis the need forresearch on CCUS. It is to be defined how CCU can provide forblue hydrogen.
• Kuwait defines hydrogen that is produced based on natural gas
with CCS for enhanced oil recovery and CCU (CO2 used to
produce for example Methanol) as blue hydrogen.
• Fugitive methane emissions in the blue hydrogen chain will be
relevant and independent data is necessary

Transportation to Europe inhydrogen strategy

None to date yet• Since a partnership with Germany and the Netherlands is planneda transportation strategy can be expected in the future.
• In the short-term shipping could be a sufficient export option toEurope.

Key actors• Kuwait Foundation for the Advancement of Sciences (KFAS)• Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research (KISR)• Kuwait National Petroleum Company (KNPC)• Kuwait Integrated Petroleum Industries Company (KIPIC)White paper states to further explore public-private-partnerships andengage with local private companies.

111 IEA Hydrogen Project Database
112 IEA Hydrogen Project Database
113 see Fehler! Verweisquelle konnte nicht gefunden werden.
114 https://co2re.co/FacilityData31

Hydrogen fact sheet – Gulf Cooperation Countries (GCC)

Sustainability issues and potential conflicts 115
Water conflicts• None documented in EJ Atlas

Water stress• Most of Kuwait is considered arid with low water use. In those arid
areas lay high potential for renewables (especially wind).
• High water stress can be identified in densely populated areas.

Land conflicts• None documented in EJ Atlas• Protected area on the boarder to Iraq hold great potential forrenewable energy production from wind.116

Socio-economic• None documented in EJ Atlas

Existing and future energy
system & decarbonisation
strategy

2018

2030

Total gross electricity production
74 (0.0)
Energy demand will triple118(net imports)117 [TWh]RES share in gross electricity
015%120119
generation [%]CO2 intensity of gross electricity
595
Not available
generation [gCO2/kWh, 2017]121
Largest fossil fuel-based electricity
Natural gas (59%)
Not available
generation (share in total
generation)]
CO2 emissions from electricity and43 (32)
Not available
heat production (from other energy
industry own use, manufacturingindustries and construction) [MtCO2,
2017]122
Goals decarbonisation for 2030
7.4% reduction below the BAU scenario in 2035
(NDC discussion) and net zeroNo net zero target announced
targets

2.7

Bahrain

Trade
Main export partners [% of tradevolume $]123• United Arab Emirates (30,5%)• Saudi Arabia (12,3%)• Japan (7,6%)

Main export goods [% of tradevolume $]124• Refined Petroleum (41,6%)• Raw Aluminium (14%)• Crude Petroleum (5,1%)

115 Main source is the Environmental Justice Atlas: https://ejatlas.org/
116 See https://www.protectedplanet.net/region/AF and Fehler! Verweisquelle konnte nicht gefunden

werden.
117 IEA (2021): Electricity Information Statistics. https://doi.org/10.1787/elect-data-en
118 https://www.iea.org/policies/6106-kuwait-renewable-energy-target
119 IRENA (2020): Renewable Energy Statistics
120 https://www.iea.org/policies/6106-kuwait-renewable-energy-target
121 Calculated as CO

2 emissions from electricity and heat production divided by gross electricity generation.
122 IEA (2020): IEA CO Emissions from Fuel Combustion Statistics. https://doi.org/10.1787/co2-data-en
2
123 https://oec.world/en/profile/country/bhr
124 https://oec.world/en/profile/country/bhr

32

Hydrogen fact sheet – Gulf Cooperation Countries (GCC)

Hydrogen strategy and economy
Existing hydrogen strategy

No specific hydrogen strategy in place• MoU signed between Air Products and NOGA holding (investment
and business development arm of National Oil and Gas Authority(NOGA)) in Nov. 2020 with the aim to use hydrogen to decarbonise
the transport sector125

Existing bilateral hydrogen
agreements•

Existing projects128 (incl. Blue
hydrogen)Green hydrogen• 0,005 MW | started 2009 | BAPCO: R&D

Planned projects [up to 2030] 129(incl. Blue hydrogen)Green hydrogen• ? MW | starting date not documented | US Air Products

support schemes or funding
facilities for clean hydrogen

None to datePotential branches for domestichydrogen demand• Transportation130• Refineries and chemical industry

Exporting potential in strategy[TWh per year]

Bahrain is likely to be an off-taker of hydrogen rather than exportinghydrogen

Main Hydrogen production
technology in focus• Bahrain is a very small country with hardly any potential to produce
bulk green hydrogen based on wind or solar PV power.
• The publications available reference to “sustainable” or “clean”
hydrogen.131

Primary focus of export substanceNo export ambitions defined

Production potential for bluehydrogen• Bahrain has proven reserves equivalent to 5.8 times its annual
consumption. This means it has about 6 years of gas left (at current
consumption levels and excluding unproven reserves).132• However, blue hydrogen from crude oil could be an option

Transportation to Europe inhydrogen strategy

No export ambitions defined

Key actors• BAPCO (Bahrain Petroleum Company)• Ministry of Energy (NOGA)

Bahrain and India signed a MoU in Jul. 2018 for cooperation in
renewable energy126 including hydrogen127

Sustainability issues and potential conflicts 133
Water conflicts• Land reclamation projects pollute surface water and decreasewater quality

Water stress level• Bahrain shows extremely high water-stress on the whole country
level.

125 https://www.gasworld.com/air-products-and-nogaholding-focus-on-hydrogen-in-bahrain/2020168.article
126 https://www.albawaba.com/business/india-signs-strategic-bahrain-saudi-renewable-energy-co-operation-agreement-1409646
127 https://www.idsa.in/issuebrief/india-national-hydrogen-mission-n-gcc-lpriya-270821
128 IEA Hydrogen Project Database
129 IEA Hydrogen Project Database
130 https://www.gasworld.com/air-products-and-nogaholding-focus-on-hydrogen-in-bahrain/2020168.article
131 https://www.albawaba.com/business/india-signs-strategic-bahrain-saudi-renewable-energy-co-operation-agreement-1409646
132 https://www.worldometers.info/gas/bahrain-natural-gas/
133 Main source is the Environmental Justice Atlas: https://ejatlas.org/

33

Hydrogen fact sheet – Gulf Cooperation Countries (GCC)

Land conflicts• Land reclamation projects pressures local fishery and livelihoods offishing communities and coastal area
• Potentials for renewable energy of solar energy are the highest in
densely populated areas of Riffa and the Central region134

Socio-economic

None documented in the EJ Atlas

Existing and future energy
system & decarbonisation
strategy
Total gross electricity production(net imports) [TWh]RES share in electricity
generation137 [%]2030135136

2018

30 (0.2)

Not available

010% of peakcapacity 2035
Not available

CO2 intensity of electricity
698
generation [gCO2/kWh, 2017]
Largest fossil fuel-based electricity
Natural gas (100%)
Not available
generation (share in total
generation)]
CO2 emissions from electricity and
20 (5)
Not available
heat production (from other energy
industry own use, manufacturingindustries and construction)[MtCO2, 2017]
Goals decarbonisation for 2030 or “the Kingdom of Bahrain strives to avoid and reduce emissions in its
2050 (NDC discussion) and net
economic development”
zero targets
Net zero target for 2060

134 See Fehler! Verweisquelle konnte nicht gefunden werden. and Fehler! Verweisquelle konnte nicht

gefunden werden.
135https://www4.unfccc.int/sites/ndcstaging/PublishedDocuments/Bahrain%20First/NDC%20of%20the%20Ki

ngdom%20of%20Bahrain%20under%20UNFCCC.pdf
136 https://www.ief.org/news/international-energy-forum-commends-bahrain-for-net-zero-2060-pledge
137 IRENA (2020): Renewable Energy Statistics

34

Hydrogen fact sheet – Gulf Cooperation Countries (GCC)

3

Appendix

Description of Indices used in fact sheets
Indicator/Index publisher

SourceLink

Calculation

GDP per capita

World
Bank

World Development
Indicatorslink

GDP per capita is gross domestic
product divided by midyear population.
GDP is the sum of gross value added by
all resident producers in the economy
plus any product taxes and minus any
subsidies not included in the value of the
products. It is calculated without making
deductions for depreciation of fabricatedassets or for depletion and degradationof natural resources. Data are in current
U.S. dollars.

Human
Development
Index

UNDP

Human Development
Report 2020

link

The Human Development Index (HDI) isa summary measure of averageachievement in key dimensions ofhuman development: a long and healthy
life, being knowledgeable and have adecent standard of living. The HDI is thegeometric mean of normalized indicesfor each of the three dimensions.

WGI Regulatory World
Quality 2019Bank

Kaufmann, Daniel andlink
Kraay, Aart and
Mastruzzi, Massimo, The
Worldwide GovernanceIndicators: Methodology
and Analytical Issues(September 2010).
World Bank Policy
Research Working
Paper No. 5430,
Available at SSRN:
https://ssrn.com/abstract=1682130

Percentile Rank 0 - 100, where 0 reflects
the lowest, 100 the highest rank.
Describes the ability of the government
to formulate and implement soundpolicies and regulations that permit andpromote private sector development.
Based on e.g. price controls,
discruminatory taxes, extent of market
dominance, investment freedom, ease ofstarting a business governed by local
law, reulatory burden.

WGI PoliticalWorld
Stability andBank
Absence ofViolence/Terrori
sm 2019

Kaufmann, Daniel andlink
Kraay, Aart and
Mastruzzi, Massimo, The
Worldwide GovernanceIndicators: Methodology
and Analytical Issues(September 2010).
World Bank Policy
Research Working
Paper No. 5430,
Available at SSRN:
https://ssrn.com/abstract=1682130

Percentile Rank 0 - 100, where 0 reflects
the lowest, 100 the highest rank.
Perception of the likelihood of politicalinstability and/or politically motivatedviolence including terrorism. This
perception is based on a wide scale ofindicators such as armed conflicts,
violent demonstrations, social unrest,
security risk rating, government stability,
political terror scale, protests and riots.

Unemployment
rate (% ofpopulation)

International Labour
Organization, ILOSTAT
database

Unemployment refers to the share of thelabor force that is without work but
available for and seeking employment.
Definitions of labor force andunemployment differ by country.

World
Bank

link

35

Hydrogen fact sheet – Gulf Cooperation Countries (GCC)

Povertyheadcount ratio
at $3.20 a day(% ofpopulation)

World
Bank

link
World Bank, Global
Poverty Working Group.
Data are compiled fromofficial government
sources or are computedby World Bank staff
using national ( i.e.
country–specific )poverty lines

Poverty headcount ratio at $3.20 a day is
the percentage of the population livingon less than $3.20 a day at 2011
international prices. As a result ofrevisions in PPP exchange rates, poverty
rates for individual countries cannot becompared with poverty rates reported inearlier editions.

GINI Index

World
Bank

World Bank,
Development ResearchGroup. Data are basedon primary household
survey data obtained
from government
statistical agencies andWorld Bank country
departments

link

Gini index measures the extent to which
the distribution of income amongindividuals or households within an
economy deviates from a perfectly equal
distribution. A Gini index of 0 represents
perfect equality, while an index of 100
implies perfect inequality.

GINI Index
Rank

Index
Mundi

World Bank,
Development ResearchGroup. Data are basedon primary household
survey data obtained
from government
statistical agencies andWorld Bank country
departmentslink

Ranked by the Data published by WorldBank

Access toenergy (% ofpopulation)
2019

World
Bank

World Bank, Sustainable
Energy for All ( SE4ALL) database from theSE4ALL Global Tracking
Framework led jointly by
the World Bank,International Energy
Agency, and the Energy
Sector Management
Assistance ProgramlinkElectrification data are collected fromindustry, national surveys andinternational sources

Yale
Environmental
Performance
Index (EPI)

Yale
University

Environmental
Performance Index is a
registered trademark of
Yale University

link

The EPI is based on 32 performanceindicators across 11 issue categories(e.g. Air Quality, Waste Management,
Climate Change, Biodiversity & Habitatetc.). The Index shows at national level
how close each country is to set
environmental policy targets.

WGI Control ofCorruption
2019

World
Bank

Kaufmann, Daniel andlink
Kraay, Aart and
Mastruzzi, Massimo, The
Worldwide GovernanceIndicators: Methodology
and Analytical Issues(September 2010).
World Bank Policy
Research Working
Paper No. 5430,
Available at SSRN:
https://ssrn.com/abstract=168213036

Percentile Rank 0 - 100, where 0 reflects
the lowest, 100 the highest rank. The
extent to which public power is used for
private gain based on individual
variables such as corruption among
public officials, puplic trust of politicians,
corruption Index etc.

Hydrogen fact sheet – Gulf Cooperation Countries (GCC)

Main Export
Partners &Goods

Observato BACI by CEPII Research linkry ofand Expertise on the
Economic World Economy
Complexity (OEC)The database is built on the data directly
reported by each country to the United
Nations Statistical Division (Comtrade)37

Hydrogen fact sheet – Gulf Cooperation Countries (GCC)

4

Literature

EWI - Institute of Energy Economics at the University of Cologne (2020): Brändle, G.; Schönfisch,M.; Schulte, S. Estimating Long-Term Global Supply Costs for Low-Carbon Hydrogen. Instituteof Energy Economics at the University of Cologne. Köln, 2020. Online available athttps://www.ewi.uni-koeln.de/cms/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/EWI_WP_2004_Estimating_long-term_global_supply_costs_for_lowcarbon_Schoenfisch_Braendle_Schulte-1.pdf, last accessed on 3 Sep 2021.
Fraunhofer IEE - Fraunhofer-Institut für Energiewirtschaft und Energiesystemtechnik (2021):
Gerhardt, N.; Bonin, M. von; Pfennig, M. PTX-ATLAS: Weltweite Potenziale für die Erzeugung
von grünem Wasserstoff und klimaneutralen synthetischen Kraft- und Brennstoffen. FraunhoferInstitut für Energiewirtschaft und Energiesystemtechnik. Kassel, 2021, last accessed on 8 Jun
2021.
IRENA - International Renewable Energy Agency (ed.) (2019). Renewable energy market analysis:
GCC 2019. Abu Dhabi, 2019, last accessed on 15 Dec 2021.
McKinsey & Company (2021). Hydrogen Insights, A perspective on hydrogen investment, market
development and cost competitiveness. McKinsey & Company. Hydrogen Council (ed.), 2021,
last accessed on 18 Feb 2021.
strategy& (2020). The dawn of green hydrogen, Maintaining the GCC’s edge in a decarbonizedworld. strategy&, 2020. Online available athttps://www.strategyand.pwc.com/m1/en/reports/2020/the-dawn-of-green-hydrogen/the-dawnof-green-hydrogen.pdf, last accessed on 7 Dec 2021.

38