沿岸海洋生態系の保護と管理に関する国際シンポジウム（エメックス国際シンポジウム in バンコク）
開

会

式

基調講演

分科会−科学

分科会−社会経済分科会−立法と政策

パネル討論

シンポジウム質疑応答

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

沿岸海洋生態系の保護と管理に関する国際シンポジウム（エメックス国際シンポジウム in バンコク）の開催結果の概要
the International Symposium on Protection and Managementof Coastal Marine Ecosystem
財団法人国際エメックスセンターは、国連環境計画(UNEP)

UNEP EAS/RCU and Internaitonal EMECS Center held

とともに「沿岸海洋生態系の保護と管理に関する国際シンポ"the International Symposium on Protection and Management

ジウム」をタイ国バンコク市内で平成12年12月12日及び13日

of Coastal Marine Ecosystem" in Bangkok , Thailand fromの２日間にわたって開催しました。

December 12, 2000 through December 13, 2000.
In the Opening Session, Police Lieutenant General Viroj

本シンポジウムの開会式では、主催者あいさつとともに、

Pao-In, the Deputy Prime Minister of Thailand, chairman of

タイ副首相 ウィロー氏及び在タイ日本国特命全権大使 赤尾

the Thai Marine Policy and Restoration Committee and H.E.

信敏氏から祝辞を頂きました。４つの基調講演の後、３つのMr. Akao Nobutoshi gave the opening addresses. After the 4

分科会で、東アジア地域の国々や国際機関から招待した延べ

keynote speeches, the invited 38 participants from ASEAN

38名の有識者より発表等が行われました。２日間を通じて、

countries, China, Korea and Japan made presentations in the

マングローブの伐採や水産資源の乱獲、水質汚濁等で危機にthree parallel sessions. During this 2 days symposium, about
200 participants including citizens, researchers, administrators,

瀕している東アジア地域の沿岸海洋生態系に関する現状やそand students, etc. had deep discussion the future approach withの解決に向けた各国や国際機関、研究者の取組状況及び問題

each other to solve the Ecosystem problems in this region such

点、並びに将来への展望について、一般市民及び学識経験者、

as Mangrove protection, Over-fishing, Water Quality, and

政策立案者、学生等、延べ約200名の参加を得て議論を深め

recognized the present status.

ることができ、シンポジウムは大きな成功を収めました。

Title

当センターでは、このシンポジウムを通じて、タイ国におInternational Symposium on Protection and Management

ける将来のエメックス会議開催に向けた地元の意欲を確認でof Coastal Marine Ecosystems

きました。
Organiser
United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)
１ シンポジウム名称

East Asian Seas Action Plan Regional Coordinating Unit

沿岸海洋生態系の保護と管理に関する国際シンポジウム(EAS/RCU)（通称：エメックス国際シンポジウム in バンコク）

International Center for the Environ ment M anage ment of Enclosed Coastal Seas (Internatioal EMECS

２ 主催者

Center)

財団法人国際エメックスセンター
UNEP EAS/RCU

Coorganiser
The Thai Mairne Policy and Restoration Committee

３ 後援団体Office of Environmental Policy and Planning (OEPP),

タイ海洋政策及び回復に関する委員会

Ministry of Science, Technology and Environment

タイ科学技術環境省

Chulalongkorn University

チュラロンコン大学

Southeast Asia Programme in Ocean Law, Policy and東南アジア海洋法・政策・管理プログラム（SEAPOL）

management(SEAPOL)

3

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

４ 助成団体Sponserthe Japan Environment Corporation’s Japan Fund for Global

環境事業団地球環境基金

Environment
５ 開催趣旨Objectives

アジア太平洋地域の人口の60％以上は沿岸域に住んでMore than 60% of the population of the Asian and Pacific

おり、沿岸海洋生態系はこの人口を養うのに不可欠なな

region live in coastal areas, and coastal marine ecosystems

資源を提供している。しかしながら、増大する圧力に対

provide critical resources to support this population. Howev-

して、沿岸及び海洋生態系は、警戒すべき速度で崩壊し

er, due to increasing pressure, the coastal and marine
ecosystems are degrading at an alarming rate. Protectionている。沿岸海洋生態系の保護と適切な管理は、沿岸資and proper management of marine coastal ecosystems are

源の合理的な利用と持続的な発展のための重要な要素でessential elements for the rational use of coastal resourcesある。

and sustainable development.
Date

６ 開催日

12-13 December, 2000 (2 days)

2000年12月12日及び13日（２日間）

Venue
７ 場 所

Siam City Hotel, Bangkok, Thailand

タイ王国バンコク市内（サイアム・シティ・ホテル）
Opening Address
Police Lieutenant General Viroj Pao-In

８ 概 要

The Deputy Prime Minister of Thailand（１） 開会式

Chairman of the Thai Mairne Policy and Restoration

・主催者あいさつ

Committee

国連環境計画アジア太平洋地域所長

H.E. Mr. AKAO Nobutoshi

ニルマル・アンドリューズ氏

The Japanese Ambassador to Thailand
Mr. Nirmal Andrews(財)国際エメックスセンター副理事長

The Regional Director

寺畑 建雄

for Asia and the Pacific of the United Nations

・来賓あいさつEnvironment Programme

タイ国副首相・タイ海洋政策及び回復に関する委
員会委員長

Mr. Takeo TERAHATA

ウィロー・パオイン氏

在タイ日本国特命全権大使

Vice-Chairman of the Board of Directors,
International EMECS Center, Japan

赤尾 信敏氏Keynote speech（２） 基調講演

No.1

立法と政策、科学、社会経済のテーマで４名の基The Role of Law in the Protection of Coastal Ecosystems,

調講演が行われました。

by Dr. Robert Beckman, Singapore＜基調講演者と講演テーマ＞

No.2

・ロバート・ベックマン氏

Attempt to Compare Environmental Quality of Many
Enclosed Water Areas Related to Aquacultural Activities（シンガポール国立大学法学部教授）

in Japan - An Example of Coastal Management of「沿岸生態系の保護における法律の役割」

Environmental Conditions Using Principal Component・大和田紘一氏（東京大学海洋研究所教授）

Analysis, by Professor Dr. Kouichi Ohwada, Japan「日本における水産養殖に関する多くの閉鎖性

No.3

水域の環境比較の試み」

Economic Valuation of Coastal Marine Resources in
Developing Countries： Some Observations, by Dr.

・スパチット・マノピモク氏

Supachit Manopimoke, Thailand（タマサート大学経済学部教授）
No.4「発展途上国における沿岸海洋資源の経済価値」

Regional Co-ordination in Protection and Management・ヒュー・カークマン氏（UNEP EAS/RCU）

of Coastal Marine Ecosystem in the East Asian Seas

「東アジア地域の沿岸海洋生態系の保護と管理

Region, by Dr. Hugh Kirkman, Co-ordinator, UNEP

における地域調整について」East Asian Seas Regional Coordinating Unit

4

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem（３） 分科会

Session Theme

第１日目の午後及び第２日目の午前では、社会経

1. Socio-economic importance of marine coastal ecosystems

済、立法と政策、科学のテーマに基づく３つの分科
including ecosystem valuation, e.g. mangroves, coral reef,

会が同時開催されました。

seagrass and wetlands；ア) 社会経済の分科会「マングローブや珊瑚礁、藻場、干潟などの生態(i) Conservation and restoration of marine coastal

系評価を含む海洋沿岸生態系の社会経済的な重ecosystems；

要性」(a) 海洋沿岸生態系の保全と回復(ii) Sustainable use of marine coastal ecosystems；(b) 海洋沿岸生態系の持続的利用(iii) Economic valuation of coastal ecosystems；(c) 沿岸生態系の経済上の評価(iv) Community-based management of coastal resources(d) 沿岸資源の地域レベルでの管理
発表者：盛岡 通氏（大阪大学大学院工学研究科教授）を含む延べ10名

2. Legal requirements and implications for protection andイ) 立法と政策の分科会
management of coastal marine ecosystems；「沿岸海洋生態系の保護と管理のための法律上の(i) Legislation and policy making for protection and

要件と関係」(a) 沿岸海洋生態系の保護と管理のための立法

management of coastal marine ecosystems；と政策策定(ii) Legal requirement and enforcement；(b) 法的要求と施行(iii) Agency collaboration for Co-ordinated policy(c) 調整された政策展開のための省庁間協力
発表者：荏原 明則氏（神戸学院大学法学部教

development

授）を含む延べ10名
ウ) 科学の分科会
3. Scientific and technical understanding for protection and「沿岸海洋生態系の保護と管理のための科学的及び技術的理解」

management of coastal marine ecosystems(a) モニタリングと海洋生物生息地のアセスメ(i) Monitoring and marine habitat assessment；ント(b) 海洋保護地域(ii) Marine protected areas；(c) 沿岸海洋生態系の消滅による環境影響(iii) Impact on the environment caused by the loss(d) 海洋汚染の沿岸資源に対する影響

of coastal marine ecosystems；

発表者：柳 哲雄氏（九州大学応用力学研究室(iv) Impact of marine pollution on coastal resources

教授）を含む延べ14名（４） 全体会議と閉会式
第２日目の午後からは全体会議が以下のとおり行
われました。
・各分科会での発表並びに討議の概要報告
・基調講演者によるパネル討論
進行役 熊本 信夫氏（北海学園大学長）
・主催者によるとりまとめ

９ 発表者・参加者
基調講演者を含め、日本からは４名、中国、韓国からは３名、アセアン諸国からは１カ国２名を原則に選定を行った。また、ASEAN事務局、START Regional Center、Wetland International等からの発表も含めた。

5

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

プログラム
PROGRAMME
第１日目

12月12日(火)(Day 1 - Tuesday 12 December 2000)

09：00‑10：00

開会式
Opening Session

10：00‑10：20

休憩
Coffee break

10：20‑10：50

基調講演１「沿岸生態系の保護における法律の役割」
ロバート・Ｃ・ベックマン（シンガポール国立大学法学部、准教授）
Keynote speech 1：
The Role of Law in the Protection of Coastal Ecosystems, by Dr. Robert
Beckman, Singapore

10：50‑11：20

基調講演２「日本における水産養殖に関する閉鎖性水域の環境比較の試み−主要構成要素分析を用いた沿岸域環境状態管理の例−」
大和田 紘一（東京大学海洋研究所、教授）
Keynote speech 2：
Attempt to Compare Environmental Quality of Many Enclosed Water Areas
Related to Aquacultural Activities in Japan ‑ An Example of Coastal
Management of Environmental Conditions Using Principal Component Analysis,
by Professor Dr. Kouichi Ohwada, Japan

11：20‑11：50

基調講演３「発展途上国における沿岸海洋資源の経済評価」
スパチット・マノピモケ（タマサット大学経済学部、教授）
Keynote speech 3：
Economic Valuation of Coastal Marine Resources in Developing Countries：
Some Observations, by Dr. Supachit Manopimoke, Thailand

11：50‑12：20

基調講演４「東アジア海域諸国の沿岸域海洋生態系保護と管理の地域調整
ヒュー・カークマン（国連環境計画東アジア海域地域調整機構、コーディネーター）
Keynote speech 4：
Regional Co ‑ ordination in Protection and Management of Coastal Marine
Ecosystem in the East Asian Seas Region , by Dr. Hugh Kirkman, Coordinator, UNEP East Asian Seas Regional Coordinating Unit

12：30‑14：00

昼食
Lunch

9

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

14：00‑18：00

分科会
１ 社会経済の分科会
マングローブや珊瑚礁、藻場、干潟などの生態系評価を含む海洋沿岸生態系の社会経済的な重要性
２ 立法と政策の分科会
沿岸海域生態系の保護と管理のための法律上の要件と関係
３ 科学の分科会
沿岸海洋生態系の保護と管理のための科学的及び技術的理解
Parallel Sessions
Session 1 ： Socio ‑ economic importance of marine coastal ecosystems
including ecosystem valuation, e.g. mangroves, coral reefs, seagrass andwetlands
Sessio n 2 ： Legal require m ents and im plications for protection andmanagement of coastal marine ecosystems
Session 3 ： Scientific and technical understanding for protection andmanagement of coastal marine ecosystems

18：30‑20：00

レセプション
Symposium Reception

第２日目

12月13日(水)(Day 2 - Wednesday 13 December 2000)

08：30‑12：30

分科会（続き）Parallel Session （cont.）

12：30‑14：00

昼食
Lunch

14：00‑15：30

各分科会からの報告
Reports of the Parallel Sessions

15：30‑15：50

休憩
Coffee break

15：50‑16：50

パネル討論
Panel Discussion

16：50‑17：30

シンポジウムとりまとめ
Summary of the Symposium

17：30‑18：00

閉会式
Closing of the meeting10International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

１ 社会経済の分科会
PROGRAMME FOR SESSION 1
マングローブや珊瑚礁、藻場、干潟などの生態系評価を含む海洋沿岸生態系の社会経済的な重要性
Socio-economic Importance of Marine Coastal Ecosystems Including Ecosystem
Valuation, e.g. Mangroves, Coral Reefs, Seagrass and Wetlands

第１日目 12月12日(火) (Day 1 - Tuesday 12 December 2000)
座長 スパチット・モノピモケ Chairman：Supachit Manopimoke
14：00‑14：25「瀬戸内海における沿岸域環境資源の保存と回復
盛岡 通（大阪大学大学院工学研究科環境工学科、教授）
Conservation and Restoration of Coastal Environment Resources in the Seto
Inland Sea, by Tohru Morioka, Japan

14：25‑14：50「韓国における沿岸域の持続可能な管理に向けて」
ナム・ジェンゴ（韓国海事研究所）
Towards the Sustainable Management of Coastal Areas in Korea, by Jungho
Nam, R. Korea

14：50‑15：15「インドネシア東部における共同体を基盤とした管理「サジ」の復活」
アグス・ヘリ・プルノモ（農業・社会・経済センター、インドネシア）
Refashioning Sasi, a Community‑based Management in Eastern Indonesia,
by Agus Heri Purnomo, Indonesia

15：15‑15：45

休憩
Coffee break

15：45‑16：10「カンボジア・コーコン県のペアム・クラサオップ自然保護地域におけるマング
ローブ資源の参加型管理に関する技術レポート」
キム・ノン（カンボジア環境省）
Technical Report on Participatory Management of Mangrove Resources inPeam Krasaop Wildlife Sanctuary, Koh Kong Province, Cambodia, by Kim
Nong, Cambodia

16：10‑16：35「ベトナムにおける海洋保護域の状況と将来」
ヴォ・シ・チュアン（海洋学研究所、ベトナム）
Status and Prospective of Marine Protected Areas in Viet Nam, by Vo Si
Tuan, Viet Nam

16：35‑17：00「タイにおける沿岸域統合管理の推進」
チュニ・スリサクチャイラク（国連環境計画 RRC‑AP、アジア工科研究所）
Enhancement of integrated Coastal Zone Management in Thailand：institutional
Aspects, by Tunnie Srisakulchairak, Thailand

第２日目 12月13日(水) （Day 2 - Wednesday 13 December 2000)
座長 盛岡 通 Chairman：Tohru Morioka
09：00‑09：25「ブルネイ・ダルサラーム国の海洋生態系の社会経済的重要性」
サブリ・ハジ・モハメッド・タハ（ブルネイ・ダルサラーム漁業省漁業局）
The Socio‑economic Importance of the Marine Ecosystems of Brunei Darussalam,by Sabri Haji Mohd. Taha, Brunei Darussalam

09：25‑09：50「メコン川河口域におけるマングローブの持続可能な管理のための解決策に関する考察」
ヴォ・トリィ・チュング（森林資源・環境センター、ベトナム）
How and What Solutions for Sustainable Management of the Mangroves in
Mekong River Estuaries, by Vo Tri Chung, Viet Nam
11International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

09：50‑10：15「沿岸域及び海洋環境におけるASEANの国際協力」
ケスラット・スカサム（ASEAN事務局、環境担当上級職員）
ASEAN Co‑operation on Coastal and Marine Environment, by Kesrat Sukasam,
ASEAN Secretariat

10：15‑10：35

休憩
Coffee Break

10：35‑12：30

グループ討議Group discussion

２ 立法と政策の分科会
PROGRAMME FOR SESSION 2
沿岸海洋生態系の保護と管理のための法律上の要件と関係
Legal Requirements and Implications for Protection and Management of Coastal
Marine Ecosystems

第１日目 12月12日(火) (Day 1 - Tuesday 12 December 2000)
座長 ロバート・ベックマン Chairman：Robert Beckman
14：00‑14：25「生物多様性条約のジャカルタ・マンデートおよび東アジア海域におけるその実
施」
イナ・ビナリ・プラノト＊、ザイナル・アリフィン＊＊（ ＊国家環境省、 インドネシア 、 ＊＊ 海洋学研究開発 センタ ー‑LIPL、 インドネシ
ア
The Jakarta Mandate of the Convention on Biological Diversity and its
Implementation for the East Asian Seas Region , by Ina Binari Pranoto,
Indonesia

14：25‑14：50
Legal Requirements and Implication on Protection of Coastal Ecosystem, by
Qiulin Zhou, China
14：50‑15：15「韓国 における 沿岸海洋生態系 の 保護 と 管理 の 法的枠組 み 」 バン ・ タエ ・ ジン
（海洋環境部、海事問題・漁業省、韓国）
Legislative Framework for the Protection and Management of Coastal Marine
Ecosystems in Korea, by Taejin Bang, Korea

15：15‑15：45

休憩
Coffee break

15：45‑16：10「沿岸域海洋生態系の保護と管理に関するミャンマーの環境関連法と規制の役割
問題と制約」
ウ・ウィン・ラット（養殖開発と環境コンサルタント、アクアボンド社）
The Role of Myanmar's Environment Related Laws and Regulations inProtection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystems ： Issues andConstraints, by U Win Latt, Myanmar

16：10‑16：35「日本における沿岸管理システムと生態系保護」
荏原 明訓（神戸学院大学法学部）
Coastal Management System and Ecological Preservation in Japan, by Ebara
Akinori, Japan

12

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

16：35‑17：00「カンボジアの沿岸域・海洋環境の現状「新規政策と管理戦略」」
ヴァン・モニネス（沿岸域調整機構長官、ナショナルコーディネーター沿岸域環
境管理−カンボジア計画、環境省、カンボジア）
The Status of Cambodia's Coastal and Marine Environment："Emerging Policies
and Management Strategies", by Vann Monyneath, Cambodia

第２日目 12月13日(水) (Day 2 - Wednesday 13 December 2000)
座長 ヴァン・モニネス Chairman：Vann Monyneath
09：00‑09：25「沿岸海洋システム利用における軋轢：タイ」
スラポル・スダラ（チュラロンコン大学海洋科学部、タイ）
Conflict in Coastal Marine Systems Utilization：Thailand, by Suraphol Sudara,
Thailand

09：25‑09：50「社会・経済・文化的観点から見たタム・ギアン・ラグーンの生物資源管理」
トン・タット・パプ（フエ科学大学生物学部、ベトナム）
Management Biological Resources in Tam Giang Lagoon from a Socio‑Economic
Cultural Viewpoint, by Ton That Phap, Viet Nam

09：50‑10：15

休憩
Coffee Break

10：15‑10：35「マングローブを過小評価する途上国政府」
J.E.オング＊、W.K.ゴング＆H.C.チャン（マレーシア大学海洋・沿岸研究セン
ター・政策研究センター）
Governments of Developing Countries Grossly Undervalue Their Mangroves?
by Ong Jin Eong, Malaysia

10：35‑11：00「マレーシアにおけるマングローブ資源の保全と開発と管理問題と挑戦と機会」
タン・ キム・ ホイ＊、 モ ー ド・ ニザム ・ バシロン（ マレー シア海事研究所、沿岸・海洋研究センター）
Conservation , Development and Management of Mangrove Resources in
Malaysia ‑ Issues, Challenges and Opportunities, by Tan Kim Hooi, Malaysia

11：00‑12：30

グループ討議Group discussion

３ 科学の分科会
PROGRAMME FOR SESSION 3
沿岸海洋生態系の保護と管理のための科学的及び技術的理解
Scientific and Technical Understanding for Protection and Management of Coastal
Marine Ecosystems

第１日目 12月12日(火) (Day 1 - Tuesday 12 December 2000)
座長 ジャエ・リョン・オウ Chairman：Jae Ryoung Oh
14：00‑14：25「タイ湾における海洋の状態の季節的変動」
柳 哲雄（九州大学応用力学研究所）
Seasonal Variation of Oceanic Condition in the Gulf of Thailand, by Tetsuo
Yanagi, Japan

14：20‑14：50「南シナ海の資源の減少は回復可能か？持続可能な管理へのアプローチ」
E.D.ゴメス（フィリピン大学海洋化学研究所）
Is the Degradation of Resources in the South China Sea Reversible? ：Approaches to Sustainable Management, by Edgardo Gomez, Philippines
13

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

14：50‑15：15

休憩
Coffee Break

15：15‑15：45「沿岸域のダイナミックな環境の監視と分析におけるRSとGIS技術の利用」ジェ・チェン＊、 チャオヤン ・ ファン、 リシン・ ファン（青島海洋大学 リモ ー トセン
シング研究所、中華人民共和国）
Use of Remote Sensing and GIS Technology in the Monitoring and Analysis
of Coastal Dynamic Environment, by Ge Chen, China

15：45‑16：10「タイ湾における汚染問題」
ピアムサック・メナスヴェタ（チュラロンコン大学科学部海洋科学科、タイ）
Pollution Problems in the Gulf of Thailand, by Piamsak Menasveta, Thailand

16：10‑16：35「沿岸生態系の保護における法的要件およびその含意 中国の事例」
リアンミン・ファン（中国科学アカデミー南シナ海海洋研究所）
Legal Requirements and Implications on the Protection of Coastal Ecosystems‑ A Case in China, by Liangming Huang, China

16：35‑17：00「パール河口域でのプランクトン生態系の最大汚濁域の動的課程の影響に関する予備研究」
ジアピン・ファン（中国科学アカデミー南シナ海海洋学研究所）
Preliminary Study on The Effect of Dynamical Processes of The Maxmium
Turbidity Zone on Plankton Ecology in The Pearl River Estuary, by Xiaoping
Huang, China

第２日目 12月13日(水) (Day 2 - Wednesday 13 December 2000)
座長 E.D.ゴメス Chairman：Edgardo Gomez
09：00‑09：25「韓国の沿岸域環境における有機スズの影響」
ジャエ ・ リョン ・ オウ ＊ 、 ウォン ・ ジュン ・ シム （韓国海洋研究開発研究所（KORDI））
Effects of Organotins in the Coastal Environment of Korea, by Jae Ryoung
Oh, Korea

09：25‑09：50「香港と中国における藻場の保全と管理の困難さ」
フォン・チン・ワイ（環境資源管理、香港）
Difficulties of Seagrass Conservation and Management in Hong Kong andChina, by Fong Ching Wai, Terence, Hong Kong, China

09：50‑10：15「SEAMCAT：東 アジア 海洋沿岸生態系 の 保全 と 管理支援 のためのメタデ ー タ
カタログ」
ジュディス・ カー クマン（チュラロンコン大学環境研究所東南アジアSTART地
域センター）S E A M C A T ： A M etadata C atalogue to A ssist the C onservation andManagement of East Asian Marine Coastal Ecosystems, by Judith Kirkman,
START Regional Center

10：15‑10：35

休憩
Coffee Break

10：35‑11：00「岩礁修復、保全、設置のための珊瑚苗床」
ウォルフ・ヒルバーツ（ISPMCME）
Biorock Coral Nurseries for Reef Restoration, Conservation, and Initiation,
by Wolf Hilbertz, ISPMCME

11：00‑12：30

グループ討議Group discussion

14

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

開会式あいさつOpening Ceremony［ウィロー・パオイン副首相］

護と適切な管理により、沿岸資源の合理的な利用と日本国大使赤尾閣下、参加者の皆様、ならびに会

持続可能な発展を目指す重要な一歩でございます。

場の皆様。

タイ国政府は常にこれらの活動に注目しているとい

タイ国政府を代表致しまして、このシンポジウム

うことを、皆様方にお知らせしておきたいと思いまの開会を宣言できますことはこの上ない喜びでござす。皆様方にはこのシンポジウムだけでなく、サイいます。冒頭にあたりまして、関係各機関、各地域

ド・エンタテインメントの活動にも参加し、楽しい

センター、各組織の皆様、特に国連環境計画、財団

ひと時を過ごされますよう祈ってやみません。この法人国際エメックスセンター、チュラロンコン大学、

シンポジウムが成功のうちに終わりますように、おタイ海洋政策及び回復に関する委員会（The Thai

祈り申し上げます。ありがとうございました。

Marine Policy and Restoration Committee）、タ［赤尾信敏大使］

イ科学技術環境省環境政策計画局（OEPP）、東南
アジア海洋法・政策・管理プログラム（SEAPOL）

ウィロー副首相閣下、アンドリューズ国連環境計の皆様方に対し、このシンポジウム開催に際し、ご画アジア太平洋地域所長、ご来賓の皆様ならびに会尽力ならびにご協力を頂きましたことを感謝申し上

場の皆様。この沿岸海洋生態系に関する国際シンポげます。このシンポジウムは、沿岸海洋生態系の保ジウムの開会にあたり、皆様方に奉仕できますこと［Mr. Pao-In］

coastal ecosystem. Please note that the Thai Government

His Excellency, Mr. Akao, from Japanese Embassy,

always keeps eye apparently to these activities. I

participants, Ladies and Gentlemen. On behalf of thesincerely hope that the participants will enjoy thisThai government, I am pleased to open this symposium.

symposium and that they may find time to enjoy

I would like to congratulate these agencies, regional

activities of side entertainment as well. I wish thiscentres, and organizing bodies: the United Nation

symposium will be successful. Thank you.

Environment Programmes, International Centre for［Mr. Akao］

Environment Management on Enclosed Coastal Sea,
EMECS, Chulalongkorn University, Thai Marine Policy

Thank you very much, Your Excellency, Deputy

and Restoration Committee, Office of the Environment

Prime Minister Mr. Viroj, Mr. Andrews, Regional

Policy and Planning, and South Eastern Asian Programme

Director of UNEP, guests, ladies and gentlemen. It is

on Ocean Law , Policy and Management, for the

my pleasure to serve you as opening of the International

cooperative efforts in organizing this symposium. This

Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal

symposium marks important step to rational use of

Marine Ecosystems. The symposium has been sponsoredcoastal resources and sustainable development by

by UNEP, International EMECS Centre in Japan, withmeans of protection and proper management of marine

close cooperation of the Government of Thailand,17International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

はこの上ない喜びでございます。このシンポジウム

機関からの出席者もいらっしゃいます。東アジアのは国連環境計画、日本の財団法人国際エメックスセ

政府間協力は、過去２年の間に着実に増加しており、ンターが主催し、タイ国政府、チュラロンコン大学

特にちょうど１年前のマニラでの国家元首・政府首およびSEAPOLとの協力 により開催 されたもので脳会議を期に進展しております。そのとき国家元首ございます。

・政府首脳の方々が、様々な分野において協力を強

まず最初に、お忙しいスケジュールにも関わらず、化していくことを決めました。これには、経済、貿

副首相閣下にご臨席の栄を賜りましたことに対して、

易、政治、人材開発、文化の分野が含まれておりま

心からの感謝の意を表したいと存じます。バンコク

す。そのとき環境の分野については、特に言及はさに住んでいる人なら誰でも知っていることですが、れませんでした。しかしながら、環境の保護と保全

政治家、特に副首相のように政府や党の要職についなくしては経済開発は意味をなしません。それゆえ、ておられる方は、現在選挙運動の真っ最中であり、私は環境保護もかならず東アジア国際協力の主要な

大変忙しくしておられます。それにも関わらず、時議題となるものと確信しております。この意味にお間を割いてこちらに駆けつけて頂きましたことを大きまして、私は本日そして明日のシンポジウムが東変感謝いたしております。

アジア諸国間の将来にわたる協力の礎になるものと

私は今日二つの点についてお話したいと思ってお考えております。

ります。まず最初に、東アジアの国際協力について第二点といたしまして、議論自体の内容に関してお話します。このシンポジウムの参加者は主としてお話し申し上げます。太平洋周辺諸国の人口の60％

東アジアの学者と専門家であり、中には若干の国際以上が沿岸地域に居住しています。沿岸地域開発のChulalongkorn University, and SEAPOL.

to strengthen their cooperation in various areas: economic

At this point, I particularly would like to express

area , trade area , political area , human resource

sincere gratitude to Deputy Prime Minister for coming

development, and cultural area. They didn’t specificallyto this session, in spite of his very busy campaign.

mention environmental area but without protection of

As everybody living Bangkok knows that politicians,

environment and conservation, economic development

particularly somebody at high post in government or

doesn’t have a meaning therefore I am sure thatparty like Deputy Prime Minister must be very busy

environmental protection will also emerge as one ofbecause he is in the midst of election campaign, but

the major subject of such East Asian cooperation. In

we are very grateful for his taking some time to comethat sense, I think today’s and tomorrow’s symposium

here.

here is to set a good stage for future cooperation of
East Asian countries.

I have two points that I want to say today. One
is the East Asian Cooperation. Tthis symposium is

Secondly, for the substance of discussion itself,

attended by scholars and experts primarily from East

more than 60% of the population of Pacific Ocean

Asia, some from International Organisations. East

region lives in coastal areas. As a result of increasing

Asian cooperation at government level has been steadilypressure to develop coastal areas, there are many

increasing in particularly last two years, starting from

reports that coastal regions and marine ecosystem havethe head of states and governments meeting which

been destroyed at alarming rate. There are also warnings

took place in Manila just one year ago. The head of

about the danger of rise in sea level due to global

states and governments at that time committed themselves

warming. Therefore a response from global basis will

18

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

圧力が増した結果、沿岸地域と海洋の生態系の破壊

このシンポジウムでは、それぞれのセッションのが極めて深刻化しているという報告がなされていま

テーマは、この地域において長きにわたり存在するす。また地球温暖化による海面上昇の危機に対する問題を浮き彫りにしています。それは海洋生態系の警告も出されております。それゆえ、このような問

社会経済的重要性、沿岸海洋生態系の保護と管理の題の解決のためにグローバルな対応が必要となって法的要件およびその言外の意味、ならびに沿岸海洋

きております。このような理由から、沿岸地域を共生態系の保護と管理のための科学的・技術的理解で有する東アジア諸国は、より一層広範な協力を促進ございます。この場におきまして、本日そして明日、

し、情報交換を進めて行かなければなりません。日

報告者と参加者の間で情報と意見の交換がおこなわ

本国政府は、環境保護と保全の分野において、国際れますが、これにより東アジア諸国の密接かつ広範協力を促進する用意があり、それには沿岸海洋生態

囲にわたる関係を構築することができるようになる系の保護と管理が含まれております。日本国政府は、ことが期待されております。将来において、東アジ

政府開発援助（ODA）の供与に際して、沿岸保護

ア地域において沿岸海洋生態系に関する、さらにグを含む環境の保全を優先するようになってきており

ローバルなネットワークを構築する動きが高まるこます。このような状況のもとで、財団法人国際エメッとを私は希望しております。また、沿岸資源の有効

クスセンターが国連環境計画とともに、このバンコ

利用と持続可能な発展の要となる、沿岸海洋生態系

クの地において、本日そして明日、シンポジウムをの保護と管理の重要性に対する認識が高まることも開催いたしますことは大変時宜にかなったことでご期待しております。このシンポジウムのような活動ざいます。

を通じて、これらの目標の達成に必要となるパート

be needed to resolve these problems. For this reason,for protection and management of coastal marine

greater efforts to promote wide ranging cooperation

ecosystems, and scientific and technical understanding

and exchanging of information in this field are needed

for the protection and management of coastal marine

by East Asian countries which share common coastal

ecosystems . It is expected that exchanging theregion . The Government of Japan is prepared to

infor m atio n a n d vie w s a m o n g sp ea k ers a n dpromote international cooperation in the area ofparticipants here today and tomorrow will contributeenvironment protection and conservation including theto the building cross and wide ranging relationships

protection and management of coastal marine ecosystems.

among the nations in East Asia. It is my hope that

The Government of Japan has been shifting its priority

in future further progress will be made toward thein the provision of its Official Development Assistanceformation of global-based network relating to coastal

more in favour of conservation of environmental

marine environment in East Asian region. I also expect

protection including coastal protection. Under thesethat the awareness will be raised on the importancecircumstances, it is indeed timely that Internationalof protection and management of coastal marine

EMECS Centre has joined with UNEP in sponsoring

ecosystems as a key element for the rational use of

the symposium in Bangkok today and tomorrow.

coastal resources and sustainable development. I wish

The themes of individual sessions for thisthe partnership which is needed to achieve these goals

symposium reflect long standing problems in thiswill be established through activities such as thisregion, that is the social economic importance of

symposium. Thank you very much.

marine ecosystems, legal requirement and implications

19

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

ナーシップが構築されることを願ってやみません。

がコンセンサスに基づいて採択し、受け入れることありがとうございました。

ができる世界的な価値観が必要になってきております。

［ニルマル・アンドリューズ所長］

国際水域の問題につきましては、大気汚染に関す敬愛するウィロー・パオ・イン副首相閣下、赤尾る国連気候変動枠組み条約の問題に関して、世界が信敏日本国大使閣下、寺畑建雄様、私の同僚である

歩んできた道にそって発言をしたいと存じます。現カークマン氏、熊本教授、卓越した代表団の皆様、在明らかになりつつあるのは、世界は多くの問題にならびに会場の皆様。本日、皆様方をこの極めて重非常に強い関心を払っているということでございま

要なシンポジウムにお迎えすることができますことす。最も重要なのはもちろん社会経済的な要因です。

は、この上ない喜びでございます。また、冒頭にあ

私はシンポジウムの一つのセッションが、全面的にたりまして、環境という分野は、国境という政治的社会経済問題、沿岸海洋生態系に関する諸問題にいな区分があいまいになってきている分野ではなかろ

かに影響力を行使するかというテーマに焦点を絞っうかということを申し上げておきたいと存じます。

ていることを大変嬉しく思っております。1995年に万人の理解するところでは、特に大気や国際水域とは世界は初めて陸上の活動による海洋汚染の問題をいった領域において、これら諸問題の越境的な性格

取り上げました。それ以来、より慎重で保守的な行がより明確になってきております。さらに、環境問動を取りながら、グローバルな計画を実行して行こ

題の多くの分野における挑戦に立ち向かうためには、うとするコンセンサスが生まれています。このグロー

多くの国々、主要な活動主体、ならびに利害関係者

バルな計画実施の行動は、今ではさらに後退してい［Mr. Andrews］

international water is concerned, exactly on the lines

Honourable Deputy Prime Minister, Mr. Viroj

that world has proceeded on the question of the United

Pao-In, His Excellency, Mr. Nobutoshi Akao, theNations Framework Convention of the Climate Changehonourable ambassador of Japan in Thailand, Mr.

put into air pollution. It is becoming more and more

Takeo Terahata, my colleague, Mr. Kirkman, Prof.

evident that there are number of things which the

Kumamoto, Distinguished delegates, ladies and gentlemen.

world is very very concerned about. The most, ofI’ll be most happy to welcome all of you to thiscourse, significant one is the social-economic factor.

very important seminar today. I am also urged to say

I am very glad to see that one of the sessions isthat perhaps one area where the political demarcations

being devoted entirely for the social-economic factors,

provided by boundaries of countries become quite blur

how to impinge on different issues concerning coastal

is the area of environment. We all see, more andand marine ecosystems. In 1995, the world first took

more especially in the areas such as air and international

up the question of land-based pollution of the oceans.

waters, the trans-boundary nature of all these problems

There has been a consensus to go ahead with a more

makes it more and more clear to everybody. And

deliberate and more concertive action on the global

what is required to face up to the challenges in manyplanning action. The global planning action has recededsuch areas of environment is in fact a world view,

much further now that the governments are absolutely

which is acceptable, which is adopted through consensus

resolute that the resolution has to be found, and theyby the countries, major groups, and by stakeholders.

thought while we will see a lot of action on that

I would like to say, as far as the question offront. In 1997, two years later, in the Rio+5, the20International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

ますので、諸国の政府は解決を模索する決意を固め、を 地元 で 、 また 国境 の 内側 で 見出 さなければなら

この方面において数多くの活動がおこなわれるものない問題 なのです 。 しかし 、 この点 は 優 れた 代表と予想しております。２年後の1997年には、リオ＋であり、専門家である皆様方に、国際水域と沿岸海５において、世界はリオプロセスの見直しという大洋生態系に必要な国家の活動と国際活動の協働作業

きな出来事を経験しました。この会議では諸国の政と統合をいかに成し遂げるか、というテーマでさら府が集まり、どのような問題が発生しているのかをに議論を深めて頂かなければなりません。国連環境

自ら決定し、調べようとしましたが、会議出席者全計画における私の同僚であり、名高い科学者である

員が一致して認めたのは、海洋の問題が最も重要な

ヒュー・カークマン氏が過去数年にわたって、有能問題であるということでした。陸上の活動による海なチームと共に、南シナ海におけるジョイントプロ

洋の汚染と同様に沿岸問題が扱われ、また船舶や海ジェクトやその他の活動を通して、これらの問題に

洋交通等による海洋汚染の問題も扱われました。全

継続的に取り組んでこられたことに誇りを感じておてが一つの問題、つまりどのようにして世界はこのります。

問題に取り組むのか、ということに絞られました。

財団法人国際エメックスセンターはこの問題に対

これもまた、私が最初に特定の問題が国境を越えたして非常に大きな関心を示していますが、私もこの問題であることを主張した時に、なぜその重要性をシンポジウムが成功するものと確信しております。

強調したかという理由であります。しかし、同時に財団法人国際エメックスセンターと我々国連環境計

多くのことが国家レベルでなされるべきであるとい

画の過去の活動の経験は、日本国政府がこの問題にう主張もあります。環境問題とは、まさにその解決関心を寄せるのに貢献しました。私はこのことを喜world also witnessed a great event, that was a review

between the national actions and international actionsof the Rio process. At that meeting when the governments

required for international waters and coastal marine

got together to decide for themselves and see whatecosystems. I am very proud to say that my colleague

are the various emerging issues. The number 1 issue

within UNEP, Mr. Hugh Kirkham, a scientist with awhich everybody realised with paramount importancegreat repute, is continuously working with these issues

was the Oceans. The land-based pollution of oceans

and through joint projects in South China Sea as wellas well as the coastal issues, and, of course, the question

as many other endeavours which has taken place lastof pollution within oceans from things such as ships,

three, four years and his able team.

marine transports etc. All get down to one question,

As well as what the great interest in this matter

how does the world tackle these issues. That also

shown by the EMECS, I have no doubt this is going

brings me to the point why I did highlight the

to be a successful seminar. The past experience ofimportance in my first point of trans-boundary nature

EMECS activities as well as our own have greatlyof certain issues. There is also a point that many

encouraged the Government of Japan. I am one ofthings have to be tackled at national level. The

those who are really happy, and this moment to sayenvironment indeed is one area where the solution

that, while in Japan , there is a reorganisation ofhas to be found locally and within national boundaries.

ministries next year. Number of ministries has been

But this, I think, has to be further elaborated upondownsized to make it more rational. I could be wrong,by the distinguished delegates and experts how

but I think a number of ministries that is finallyasynergisation , how integration can bring about

going to be there is fourteen, and one of the ministry21

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

ばしく思っている中の一人であり、今この場で、日［寺畑建雄副理事長］

本では来年省庁再編がおこなわれると言えるのを嬉ウィロー副首相閣下、アンドリューズ国連環境計

しく思っています。省庁の数が合理化により減らさ

画アジア太平洋地域所長、日本国大使赤尾閣下、なれるわけです。間違っているかもしれませんが、最らびに会場の皆様。

終的に14の省庁が残り、そのうち、環境省だけが新たに設置されると聞いております。これはまた現在

沿岸海洋生態系に関する国際シンポジウムの開会の環境庁が省に昇格することを意味しています。国にあたり、ここバンコクのサイアム・シティ・ホテ

連環境計画と環境問題、特に沿岸海洋生態系に関すルで、皆様に一言申し上げることはこの上ない喜びる事業への日本の多大なる援助と支援、そしてホスでございます。私は、このシンポジウムを国連環境ト国であるタイの支援に対して、私は国連環境計画の同僚と共に、感謝の意を表したいと思います。ま計画とともに主催します財団法人国際エメックスセ

た私共はその支援がこれからも続くことを期待してンター副理事長でございます。

おります。我々は、このシンポジウムに引き続き、

まず、ウィロー副首相並びにタイ海洋政策及び回それに相応しい活動を実行していくことをお約束い
復に関する委員会委員長閣下、日本国大使赤尾信敏

たします。本日および明日の皆様方の討論が成功の内に終わり、将来の世界を導いて行くことができる

閣下におかれましては、お忙しいスケジュールの中、成果が得られますことを待ち望んでおります。ありこのシンポジウムにご臨席賜りましたことを感謝申がとうございました。

［Mr. Terahata］

is going to be the Ministry of Environment which is
the o nly ne w m inistry . T hat also m eans theYour excellency Mr. Viroj Pao-In, Deputy Primeappropriation of the Environment Agency of Japan to

Minister of Thailand; Dr. Nirmal Andrews, Regionala ministry. Based on our experience of great assistanceDirector and Representative of the United Nations

and support provided by Japan to all the work ofEnvironment Programme,Your excellency Mr. Akao

UNEP as well as the work on environment, especially

Nobutoshi, Japanese Ambassador to Thailand, andin coastal and marine ecology, as well as a great

many other distinguished guests, ladies and gentlemen:

support that we find is from the host country, Thailand,
I have this very happy moment to announce that my

It’s my great pleasure to say a few words tocolleague from the UNEP and myself greatly appreciate

you here at the Siam City Hotel in Bangkok, upon

the support, and we look forward to its continuous

the occasion of this International Symposium on Protec-

availability to us in the coming years. We, on ourtion and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystems.

part, promise that this seminar will be followed up

I am speaking to you as a representative of thewith the action that it deserves. I wish you all theInternational EMECS Center, the sponsor of the symposium

success today and tomorrow in your deliberations andtogether with the United Nations Environment Programme.

look forward to the results which no doubt can guide
us in the future world. Thank you very much.

I would like to extend a special welcome to yourexcellency Mr. Viroj Pao-In, who, in addition to his
position as Deputy Prime Minister, is also the chair

22

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

し上げます。

ランド州ボルチモア、さらに1997年にスウェーデン

また、東南アジア諸国及び中国、韓国、日本から・ストックホルム、そして1999年にトルコ・アンタの発表者の皆様、並びにアセアン事務局や南東アジルヤで開催することを通じ世界の科学者、研究者等

ア海洋法・政策・管理プログラム（SEAPOL）、そのネットワークを構築してきました。センターではの他の国際機関の代表者の皆様、そして今日シンポ

又、調査事業やニュースレターの発行、ホームペー

ジウムにお越し頂きました会場の皆様に感謝申し上ジの作成などを促進しています。さらに国際協力事げます。

業団の研修を実施し、今日、母国で活躍している多国際エメックスセンターは、1994年11月に神戸でくの研修生を受け入れてきました。

生まれました。その目的は、瀬戸内海やタイ湾、バ

これらの実績が認められて、この４月に財団法人

ルト海等の世界の閉鎖性海域における環境管理に新国際エメックスセンターは日本の内閣総理大臣に認しい展望をもたらすことにあります。センターでは、められた非営利団体となり、それによって一層の活「エメックス会議」として知られる世界閉鎖性海域

動を促進することとなりました。当センターの活動

環境保全会議を、1990年に神戸で、第１回会議を開については、配布しているパンフレットを見ていた

催したのを皮切りに、引き続いて、1993年にメリー

だければ幸いです。

of the Thai Marine Policy and Restoration Committee,

management of the Seto Inland Sea, the Gulf ofas well as your excellency Mr. Akao Nobutoshi, theThailand , the Baltic Sea and other enclosed orJapanese ambassador to Thailand. Thank you for

substantially enclosed coastal regions in the world.

taking time from your busy schedules to attend today’s

The Center has carried on the tradition of the first

symposium.

two International Conferences on the Environmental
Management of Enclosed Coastal Seas, known as the

I would also like to take this opportunity to

EMECS conferences, held in Kobe in 1990, and inagain thank the speakers from the ASEAN nations,

Baltimore, Maryland in 1993, by sponsoring the third

China, Korea and Japan. I would also like to welcome

EMECS conference in Stockholm, Sweden in 1997,

the representatives from the ASEAN secretariat, theand the fourth EMECS conference in Antalya, Turkey

Southeast Asia Programme in Ocean Law, Policy andin 1999, and by working to create an international

Management (SEAPOL) and other international

network of academic researchers. The Center alsoorganizations. And finally, I would like to express

promotes survey activities and issues a newsletter,my gratitude to all of you for coming to this symposium

and has created a web site. In addition, the Center

today.

offers training courses for the Japan International
Corporation Agency (or JICA) that accept many trainees
from the nations represented here today.

The International EMECS Center was set up in
the city of Kobe in November, 1994. Its purpose is

In recognition of these activities, in April, 2000 theto bring about new prospects for the environmental

23

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

国連環境計画と当センターのジョイントで主催す理解していただけると思います。会場のみなさん!!

るこのシンポジウムは、アジア・太平洋地域に焦点

今ここに成功疑いなしのシンポジウムを当地バンコを当てた財団法人化後の最初の国際活動であります。

クで開催しますが、これが、将来エメックス会議を

この会議のテーマ、つまりは沿岸海洋生態系の保護

タイで開催するための布石、あるいは第一歩になると管理の問題解決のためには、異なる政治体制、社ものと期待しております。こういった期待を胸に、会条件を持つアジア・太平洋地域の国々が広域的な財団法人国際エメックスセンターは、アジア地域に協力や情報交換を促進し、南は珊瑚海から北は日本

おける沿岸海洋環境に関する広域的なネットワーク

海にいたる私たちが共有するアジアの沿岸地域におの構築やこの地域の国々との親密で広域的な関係構

ける持続的な開発の展望を維持することが重要です。

築を一層進めていきたいと思います。

このような状況のもとで、環境事業団地球環境基

さらに、財団法人国際エメックスセンターは、第金の助成によって、国連環境計画とともにこのシン

５回エメックス会議を11月19日から23日にかけて、ポジウムを主催することができますことは喜ばしい

神戸市内において開催します。会議の詳細の情報は、限りです。プログラムをご覧頂ければ、各分科会テー

配布している第１回アナウンスメントをご覧くださマがこの地域の長期的な問題を反映していることをい。来年、皆様に神戸でお会いできることを楽しみ

International EMECS Center was granted approval by

and informational exchanges, and that they maintainthe Prime Minister of Japan to become a nonprofit

the perspective of sustainable development in Asia, infoundation, an event which will aid the Center inwhich they share a common coastal region from thefurther promoting its activities. We have distributed

Coral Sea and South China Sea in the south up to

International EMECS Center pamphlets today, so please

the Sea of Japan in the north.

take a look at them to learn more about the Center’s
Under these circumstances, I am gratified that

activities.

the International EMECS Center, through grants provided
This symposium , organized jointly by theby the Japan Environment Corporation’s Japan FundInternational EMECS Center and the United Nations

for Global Environment, has organized this symposium

Environment Programme, is the first internationalin Bangkok , together with the United Nations

activity focused on The Asia-Pacific region to be

Environment Programme. As you see in the Program,

undertaken by the Center since it became a nonprofit

the session themes reflect the long-standing problems

foundation. To resolve the theme of this conference,of the region. Now ladies and gentlemen! Now thatnamely, the environmental problem of the protection

we hold the sure-to-be-successful symposium here inand management of coastal marine ecosystems, it is

Bangkok, I hope this symposium can pave the way

crucial that the countries in the Asia-Pacific region

for and develop into the EMECS Conference to bewith very different political systems and social andheld in Thailand . With this hope in mind , theeconomic conditions, promote wide-ranging cooperation

International EMECS Center will continue to work

24International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystemにしています。
最後になりましたが、本日のシンポジウム開催にあたり、多大なご協力をいただきましたタイ政府、
チュラロンコン大学、SEAPOLに感謝申し上げます。ありがとうございました。

symposium a reality.

for further progress in the construction of a wideranging network relating to coastal marine environm-

Thank you very much.

ents in the Asian region, and to build close and wideranging relationships with the countries in this region.

In addition, the International EMECS Center willsponsor the 5th EMECS Conference to be held from
November 19th through November 23rd, 2001 in thecity of Kobe, Japan. Detailed information on theconference is contained in the First Announcementthat has been distributed to you. I very much lookforward to seeing you all at the conference in Kobe
next year.

Finally , I would like to express my deepest
gratitude to the government of Thailand, Chulalongkorn
University and the Southeast Asia Programme in
Ocean Law, Policy and Manage- ment (SEAPOL) for
their immense cooperation in helping to make today’s

25

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

沿岸生態系の保護における法律の役割
ロバート・C・ベックマン准教授
アジアー太平洋環境法センター（APCEL）副理事
シンガポール国立大学法学部
13 Law Link, Singapore 117590
E- mail：lawbeckm@nus.edu.sg
序 論

文書には、ラムサール条約、世界遺産条約、UNESCO

沿岸域生態系保護における法の役割は、グローバ

生物圏計画、IMO国際海事機構条約およびFAOのルな視野に立って考察しなければならない。1982年

責任ある漁業に関する行動規範がある。本稿第１部の国連海洋法条約や1992年の生物多様性条約といっでは、これらの国際文書について検討し、沿岸域生たグローバルな条約は、海洋および沿岸域環境とそ態系との関わりを明らかにする。

の生物多様性を保護・保全する法的枠組みを確立し多くの沿岸諸国は、グローバルな領域において必ている。いくつかのグローバルな行動計画には、沿要とされるアプローチや行動計画を採択し、それら岸資源の持続可能な開発と保全のために、海洋環境を実施することがきわめて困難であり、その原因がの保護を目指す統合的・有機的視野にたったアプロー

自国の制度上、法律上の問題にあると認識している。

チおよび統合地域管理と海洋保護区域といった管理

各国による沿岸域生態系のよりよい保護のために、手段の採用が必要である。他のグローバルな文書も、

グローバルな組織は様々なガイドラインを作成し、沿岸域生態系の保護について規定している。これら

勧告を行なってきた。その中には、海洋保護区域のTHE ROLE OF LAW IN THE PROTECTION OF COASTALECOSYSTEMS
Assoc. Prof. Robert BECKMAN
Deputy Director, Asia- Pacific Centre for Environmental Law (APCEL)
Faculty of Law, National University of Singapore
13 Law Link, Singapore 117590
E- mail：lawbeckm@nus.edu.sg
INTRODUCTION
The role of law in the protection of coastal
ecosystems must be viewed in its global context.
Global conventions such as the 1982 UN Convention
on the Law of the Sea and the 1992 Biodiversity
Convention establish a legal framework governing theprotection and preservation of the marine and coastal
environment and its biological diversity. Several global
programmes of action call for the adoption of an
integrated holistic approach to the protection of themarine environment, and for the adoption of management tools such as Integrated Area Management andMarine Protected Areas in order to sustainably develop
and conserve coastal resources. Other global instruments also provide for the protection of coastal ecosystems.

These instruments include the Ramsar Convention, theWorld Heritage Convention, the UNESCO Biosphere
Programme, IMO Conventions and the FAO Code of
Conduct on Responsible Fisheries. In the first part ofthis paper I examine these international instruments
and explain their relevance to the protection of coastal
ecosystems.
Many Coastal States find it extremely difficult toadopt and implement the approaches and action plans
called for in the global area because of institutional
and legal problems within their countries. Globalorganizations have issued guidelines and recommendations to enable States to better protect coastal ecosystems,
including guidelines for establishing a legal frameworkfor Marine Protected Areas. In the second part of this29

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

法的枠組みを確立するためのガイドラインが含まれ含まれている。

ている。本稿第２部では、沿岸域諸国の制度的・法

国連海洋法条約は、沿岸域諸国が主権を主張しう

的問題および沿岸域生態系を保護するための法体系

る様々な種類の海域、およびその区域における沿岸をいかに確立するかについてのガイドラインと勧告

域諸国の権利、管轄権および義務を定めた。本条約について説明する。

によって、沿岸域諸国には、12海里の領海と200海

本稿第３部では、沿岸域生態系の保護に際して、里の排他的経済水域を主張する権利が認められた。

地域協力の推進が必要あるいは望ましいものかにつ

領海は沿岸国の主権に属するが、このような主権は、いて考察する。まず最初に、東アジア海域における領海を航行するすべての国の船舶の権利を認めなけ

協力推進のモデルとしうる国連環境計画（UNEP）

ればならない。沿岸国は、領海内の海洋および沿岸

地域海域計画について概説する。さらに、地域協力

域環境の保全のために法令を制定することができるの利点について考え、この地域の国々が地域海域条が、ここでもまた、領海の無害通航権を規制する権約および保護区域に関する議定書の採択を検討する

利に制限があることを認めなければならない。

ように提言する。

200海里の排他的経済水域は、沿岸国の主権に属

海洋･沿岸域生態系保全のためのグローバル･レジーム

さない。この水域は「特別な法制度」に服し、沿岸グローバルな枠組みレジームと行動計画

国は同水域において生物資源や非生物資源の探査お1982年国連海洋法条約

よび開発をおこなうことができる。沿岸国には法令
１

国連海洋法条約（1982 UNCLOS） は1982年に採を制定する管轄権があるが、制定可能な法令は、生択され、1994年に発効した。2000年10月30日現在、

物資源および非生物資源の探査、および開発する権

同条約締約国は135カ国にのぼり、その中にはカン利に関連するものに限られている。他の国々には航ボジアとタイを除く東アジア海域のすべての国々が行の自由および上空飛行といった伝統的な公海上のpaper I explain the institutional and legal problems in
Coastal States, and the guidelines and recommendations on how they can establish a legal regime toprotect coastal ecosystems.
In the third part of this paper I consider whether enhanced regional cooperation is necessary or desirable in the protection of coastal ecosystems. I firstreview the UNEP Regional Seas Programmes thatmight be used as models for further cooperation in
the East Asian Seas region. I then examine the advantages of regional cooperation, and propose that Statesin this region should consider adopting a Regional
Seas Convention and a Protocol on Protected Areas.

1982 UNCLOS established the types of maritime
zones that can be claimed by Coastal States, as wellas the rights, jurisdiction and obligations of Coastal
States in the various zones. It gave Coastal States
the right to claim a Territorial Sea of 12 nautical
miles and an Exclusive Economic Zone of 200 nautical
miles. The Territorial Sea is under the sovereignty of
the Coastal State, but such sovereignty is subject tothe right of ships of all States to pass through the
Territorial Sea. The Coastal State has the right topass laws and regulations to protect and preserve themarine and coastal environment within its TerritorialSea, subject to restrictions on its right to regulate
ships exercising passage rights through its waters.
The 200 nautical mile EEZ is not under thesovereignty of the Coastal State. It is a ’specific legal
regime’ in which the Coastal State has the right toexplore and exploit the living and non-living resources.
The Coastal State has jurisdiction to pass laws andregulations only in so far as they are connected to
its right to explore and exploit the living and non-living resources. Other States have the right to exercise
traditional high seas freedoms in the EEZ, such as
freedom of navigation and freedom of overflight. The

GLOBAL REGIMES TO CONSERVE MARINE &COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS
Global Framework Regimes and Action Plans
1982 UNCLOS
The 1982 United Nations Convention on the Lawof the Sea (1982 UNCLOS)１ was adopted in 1982
and entered into force in 1994. As of 30 October
2000, there were 135 Parties to the Convention, including all of the States in the East Asian Seas region
except Cambodia and Thailand.

30

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

自由を排他的経済水域で行使する権利がある。沿岸

国連海洋法条約にはまた、権利の行使および義務

国が排他的経済水域において他国船舶による汚染をの履行において、締約国は相互協力しなければなら規制するための法令制定権は、きわめて制限されてないとする幾つかの規定がある。南シナ海に面したいる。

国にとって最も重要な規定の一つが第123条である。

海洋および沿岸域の生物生息地と生態系の保全に

この規定によると、半閉鎖海に面した国は、直接に関して、国連海洋法条約にはいくつかの重要な規定

または適当な地域的機関を通じて、次のことにつとがある。まず、締約国は海洋環境を保護し、保全すめる。

る一般的な義務を有するとされる。第２に、いずれ・ 海域の生物資源の管理、保全、探査及び開発をの国もあらゆる発生源からの海洋環境の汚染を防止調整することするため、利用することができる実行可能な最善の・ 海洋環境の保護及び保全に関する自国の権利の手段を使い、かつ自国の能力に応じ、すべての必要

行使及び義務の履行を調整すること
アジェンダ21、第17章（1992年）

な 措置 をとらなければならない 。第 ３ に 第 194 条（５）の規定であり、このような措置には、「希少リオ・デ・ジャネイロで開催された、「1992年球

又はぜい弱な生態系及び減少しており、脅威にさらサミット」で採択された行動計画であるアジェンダ

されており、又は絶滅のおそれのある種その他の海21２の第17章は、幾つかの点において重要な前進と洋生物の生息地を保護し及び保全するために必要な」なった。

ものが含まれる。

第一に、それにより明らかになった事実は、海洋

この規定は、海洋環境の保護および保全に際し、および沿岸域資源の管理を目ざす最近のアプローチ

締約国は生態系アプローチを採らなければならない

が、必ずしも持続可能な開発の達成を可能にするもとした、本条約で唯一の規定である。

のではない点が明らかになった。さらに、世界の多right of Coastal States to pass laws to regulate pollution from ships of other States in the EEZ is severely restricted.
With respect to the conservation of marine andcoastal habitats and ecosystems, 1982 UNCLOS has
several important provisions. First, it provides that
States have a general obligation to protect and preserve
the marine environment. Second, it provides that States
have an obligation to take all measures as are necessary to prevent pollution of the marine environment fromany source, using for this purpose the best practicablemeans at their disposal and in accordance with theircapabilities. Third, it provides in article 194(5) thatsuch measures：shall include those necessary to protect and preserve
rare or fragile ecosystems as well as the habitat ofdepleted, threatened or endangered species and otherforms of marine life.
This is the only provision in 1982 UNCLOS
which recognizes that States should take an ecosystemapproach in protecting and preserving the marine
environment.
1982 UNCLOS also has several provisions placing obligations on States to cooperate with each other inthe exercise of their rights and in the performance of
their obligations. One of the most important as far as
States bordering the South China Sea are concerned
is Article 123. It provides that States bordering a ’semi-enclosed sea’ shall endeavour, directly or throughan appropriate regional organization：・ to co-ordinate the management, conservation,
exploration and exploitation of the living resourcesof the sea;・ to co-ordinate the implementation of their rights
and duties with respect to the protection andpreservation of the marine environment.
Agenda 21, Chapter 17 (1992)
Chapter 17 of Agenda 21２, the programme ofaction adopted by States at the 1992 Earth Summit
in Rio de Janeiro, was a significant advance in several
respects.
Firstly, it made it clear that current approaches
to the management of marine and coastal resources
have not always proved capable of achieving sustainable development, and that coastal resources and thecoastal environment are being rapidly degraded anderoded in many parts of the world. (paragraph 17.4)

31

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

くの地域で沿岸域資源の状況や環境が急速に悪化し、権下にある、海洋生物の生物多様性と多産性および蝕まれつつあるということも明らかになった。
（第17生息地を守るための措置を講じなければならないと

節４）した。これらの措置には、海洋生物多様性の調査、第二は、このアジェンダが規制または統合的管理

絶滅の危機に瀕している種および危機的状況にあるという体制を確立するためのアプローチを示唆して

沿岸域・海洋の生物生息地の調査一覧表、保護区域いるという点である。その規定によると、各沿岸国の設定と管理、科学的研究の支援およびその成果のは沿岸域と海洋地域およびその資源の統合的管理と広報活動が含まれうる。
（第７節７）

持続可能な開発を目的とした適切な調整方法を、地1992年生物多様性条約

域レベルおよび国家レベルで確立し、また必要とあ

生物多様性に関する条約（生物多様性条約）は、らば、その方法の強化を考えなければならないとい1992年にリオ・デ・ジャネイロで開催された地球サうことである。アジェンダはまた、統合的沿岸域管

ミットで採択された。2000年12月５日現在、同条約

理と開発のための国別ガイドラインを作成するにあの締約国は179カ国で、そのなかにはブルネイ・ダ

たって、締約国がこれまでの経験に鑑み、状況に応

ルサラーム、タイを除く東アジア海域のすべての国

じて協力しなければならないと述べる。
（第17節６）が含まれている。

第三に、小地域、地域間、地域もしくはグローバ

生物多様性条約の目的は、生物の多様性の保全、

ルな枠組みにおける国際協力や調整の役割は、沿岸その構成要素の持続可能な利用および遺伝資源の利域や海域での統合的管理および持続可能な開発を促用から生じる利益の公正かつ衡平な配分にある。生進する沿岸国の努力を支援し、補うことだとした。

物多様性条約は、生物多様性のあらゆる側面に着目（第17節．10）

した、法的拘束力をもつ初めてのグローバルな包括

第四に、アジェンダは、沿岸域の国が、国内管轄的協定であり、この場合の多様性とは、種内、種間Second, it suggested an approach for establishinga situation of governance or integrated management.
It provided that each coastal State should consider
establishing , or where necessary strengthening ,appropriate co-ordinating mechanisms for integrated
management and sustainable development of coastal
and marine areas and their resources, at both thelocal and national levels. It also stated that Statesshould cooperate, as appropriate, in the preparationof national guidelines for integrated coastal zone
management and development, drawing on existing
experience. (paragraph 17.6)
Third, it provided that the role of international
cooperation and coordination within a subregional,
interregional, regional or global framework , is tosupport and supplement national efforts of coastal
States to promote integrated management and sustainable development of coastal and marine areas. (paragraph17.10).
Fourthly, it provided that Coastal States should
undertake measures to maintain biological diversity
and productivity of marine species and habitats undernational jurisdiction. These measures might include
surveys of marine biodiversity, inventories of endangered

species and critical coastal and marine habitats;establishment and management of protected areas; andsupport of scientific research and dissemination of its
results. (paragraph 7.7)
1992 Biodiversity Convention
The 1992 Convention on Biological Diversity(Biodiversity Convention) was adopted at the Earth
Summit in Rio de Janeiro in 1992３. As of 5 December
2000, 179 States were Parties to the Convention, including all of the States in the East Asian Seas Region
are Parties except Brunei Darussalem and Thailand.
The objectives of the Biodiversity Convention
are the conservation of biological diversity, the sustainable use of its components, and the fair and equitable
sharing of the benefits arising out of the utilizationof genetic resources. The Biodiversity Convention is
the first global, legally binding comprehensive agreement to address all aspects of biological diversity：
genetic resources, species, and ecosystems. It establishes
a proactive, holistic, cross-sectoral and ecosystem-based
approach to conserving and sustainably using their
biological resources.
The Biodiversity Convention establishes a frameworkof general obligations that Parties are obligated to32

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

および生態系の多様性をいう。同条約は生物資源の国際的レベルでは、本条約に基づいて、締結国の条

保全と持続可能な利用のためのアプローチを確立し約実施を手助けするための制度が設けられている。

たが、それは、生態系に基づき、積極的で有機的な、その制度には、事務局、開発途上国への援助を行な

しかも分野の違いを超えたアプローチである。

う資金供与制度、情報センターおよび科学的問題と生物多様性条約は様々な義務の枠組みを確立して技術的問題に関する補助機関（科学上・技術上の助おり、締約国は国家レベルでさらに詳しく義務を制

言に関する補助機関で、SBSTTAの名で知られて定していかなければならない。締約国は包括的、国いる。）が含まれている。さらに同条約は、条約を家的な生物多様性戦略および行動計画を作成し、そ批准したすべての締約国から成る締約国会議（COP）

れを実施することが求められている。さらに次のこを設立した 。COPの役割は 条約の管理 であり、目とも求められている。つまり、締約国は自国の生物

下のところ、年１回の会議を行って、条約の実施状

多様性を特定し、研究し、監視すること、保護区域況を検討し、実施を担保することである。

を設定すること、生物多様性に対して重大な影響を生物多様性条約は、国連海洋法条約により確立さ及ぼす活動を規制もしくは管理すること、そして提れた法的枠組みおよび他の国際的文書との一貫性を案されているプロジェクトの生物多様性に対する影保つように起草された。条約は、国連海洋法条約で響を判断すること、である。同条約はまた、締約国具体化された海洋法に矛盾しないように、締約国はが特別な措置を講じて、通常の資源の利用を守ると一貫して同条約を実施しなければならないと明確に共に、地元先住民の共同体に残る知識、技術革新お規定している。

よび慣習を保護するように求めている。生物多様性

ジャカルタ・マンデート 1995）

条約は、国家による条約の実施を助け、継続的な国

生物多様性条約には、海洋および沿岸域における際協力を促進するための国際的な構造を確立した。

生物多様性の維持に関していかなる特定の規定も含

elaborate in more detail at the national level. Partiesare required to develop and implement comprehensive
national biodiversity strategies and action plans. Parties
are also required to identify, research and monitor
their biodiversity; to establish protected areas; toregulate or manage activities with significant adverse
effects on biodiversity; and to conduct assessments ofthe biodiversity impacts of proposed projects. The
Convention also requires Parties to take special measures
to protect customary resource uses, and the knowledge,
innovations and practices of local and indigenous
communities.
The Biodiversity Convention establishes aninternational structure to support national implementation and to promote continued international cooperation.
At the international level, institutional mechanisms are
set up under the Convention to assist the Parties intheir implementation efforts. The institutional mechanisms include a Secretariat, a financial mechanism toprovide assistance to developing countries, an information clearinghouse, and an advisory body on scientificand technical matters (known as the Subsidiary Body
on Scientific, Technical and Technological Advice, or
SBSTTA). In addition, the Convention established a

Conference of the Parties (COP) comprised of all theStates that have ratified the Convention. The COP
serves as the Convention’s governing body, and currently meets once a year to review and strengthen
implementation of the Convention.
The Biodiversity Convention was drafted so as
to be consistent with the legal framework establishedin 1982 UNCLOS and with other international instruments. It expressly provides that Parties shall implement it consistently with the law of the sea, whichis embodied in 1982 UNCLOS.
The Jakarta Mandate (1995)
The Biodiversity Convention does not containany specific provisions on the conservation of marine
and coastal biodiversity. At their second Conferenceof Parties (COP) in Jakarta in 1995, the Parties agreed
on a programme of action for implementing the
Biodiversity Convention with respect to marine andcoastal biodiversity. This programme is referred to as
the Jakarta Mandate on Marine and Coastal Biodiversity, or "The Jakarta Mandate".４
The Jakarta Mandate recommended a "checklist"of actions that Parties should take to fulfill their obligations under the Biodiversity Convention in marine

33

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

まれていない。1995年にジャカルタで開催された第の活用を奨励した。IAMには、海洋および沿岸域

２回締約国会議（COP）において 、締約国は、海での資源管理をめざす、分野の違いを超えて統合さ洋および沿岸域における生物多様性に関する生物多れた調整的アプローチが含まれている。それはまた様性条約実施のための行動計画に合意した。この計

広範囲にわたる利害関係者に影響を及ぼし、その関画は、「海洋および沿岸域における生物多様性に関係者の中には、地域、地方政府機関、連邦政府の機するジャカルタ・マンデート」あるいは「ジャカル

関、地域および先住民の共同体、非政府組織、そしタ・マンデート」と呼ばれている。

て民間組織が含まれている。ジャカルタ・マンデー

ジャカルタ・マンデートは、海洋および沿岸域環

トは広範囲に及ぶ活動および脅威という問題に焦点

境において、生物多様性条約上の義務を履行するたを当てているが、それには森林伐採、農業、土地利めに、締約国がとるべき行動の「チェックリスト」

用計画、産業活動、自治体の活動、漁業がある。

を勧告した。勧告のテーマは特に５つの分野に及ん

海洋および沿岸の保護区域（MPA）は、保護をでいる。すなわち、海洋および沿岸域の統合的管理、目的として指定され、そこでは、保護目的達成のた養殖、異種、海洋生物資源および海洋保護区域であめに、活動や資源利用が規制されている。資源利用

る。海洋・沿岸域生物生息地の保護に最も関連が深と活動に対する制限の種類やレベルに応じて、様々

い ２ つの 分野 は 、海洋 および 沿岸域の 統合的管理

なMPAが存在する。MPAについては本稿第２部に（IAM）と海洋保護区域（MPA）である。

おいて詳細に論じる。
地理的地域保全に関するグローバルな文書

ジャカルタ・マンデートは、海洋および沿岸域における生物多様性に対する人間の影響、さらにはこ海洋および沿岸域の生物生息地と生態系の保護にの生物多様性の維持と持続可能な利用という問題に関するグローバルな制度でも、特定の地理的地域の取り組むうえで最もふさわしい枠組みとして、IAM

保護・保全を目的とした多くのグローバルな文書がand coastal environments. The recommendations cover,in particular, five thematic areas：integrated marine
and coastal area management, mariculture, alien species,
living marine resources and marine protected areas.
The two areas that are of the most relevance to theconservation of marine and coastal habitats are Integrated
Marine and Coastal Area Management (IAM) andMarine Protected Areas (MPAs).
The Jakarta Mandate encouraged the use of IAM
as the most suitable framework for addressing humanimpacts on marine and coastal biodiversity and for
promoting conservation and sustainable use of thisbiodiversity. IAM involves an integrated, cross-sectoral,
and coordinated approach to managing marine andcoastal resources. It is a process that involves a wide
variety of stakeholders, including local, provincial andfederal government agencies, local and indigenous
communities, non-governmental organizations, and theprivate sector. It addresses a wide range of activities
and threats, including logging, agriculture, land-use
planning , industrial and municipal activities , andfisheries.
Marine and Coastal Protected Areas (MPAs) areareas that have been designated for protection, in

which activities and uses of the resources in the area
are regulated to achieve conservation objectives. Manydifferent categories of MPAs exist, based on the typeand level of restrictions on resource uses and activities.
MPAs will be discussed in more detail in the second
part of this paper.
Global Instruments on Conservation of Geographic
Areas
The global legal regime relevant to the protectionof marine and coastal habitats and ecosystems also
includes a number of global instruments designed toconserve and protect specific geographic areas.
1971 Ramsar Convention on Wetlands
The 1971 Convention on Wetlands of International
Importance, Especially for Waterfowl, was adopted in
Ramsar, Iran, on 2 February 1971. It is popularlyreferred to as the Ramsar Convention. The Ramsar
Convention entered into force in 1975, and as of 27
November 2000, has 123 Parties５, including all of
the States in the East Asian Seas Region except Brunei
and Singapore. More than 1000 wetlands have been
designated for inclusion in the List of Wetlands ofInternational Importance (Ramsar Sites), covering some73 million hectares.

34

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

存在する。

おこなっている。

湿地に関する1971年ラムサール条約

条約の正式名を見れば、もともとこの条約が、水「特に水鳥にとり国際的に重要な湿地に関する条

鳥に生息地を提供するための湿地の保全と賢明な利約」は、1971年２月２日にイランのラムサールで採用に重きをおいていたことがわかる。しかし、長年択された。この条約は一般にラムサール条約と呼ばにわたり条約はその適用範囲を広げ、湿地の保全とれている。ラムサール条約は1975年に発効し、2000

賢明な利用に関わるあらゆる側面を対象とするよう

年11月27日現在、締約国５は123カ国で、その中にになり、さらに、生物多様性全般の維持と人間の共はブルネイとシンガポールを除くすべての東アジア

同体の福祉のために、湿地は極めて重要な生態系で海域の国が含まれている。1000以上の湿地が、国際あると認識するにいたった。

的に重要な湿地（ラムサール・サイト）に係る登録

東アジア海域の国々にある沿岸湿地には、ラムサー

簿に掲げられ、その総面積は7300万ヘクタールにおル・サイトの指定を受けたものがあり、その中にはよぶ。

以下の湿地が含まれている。

ラムサール条約の主な意思決定機関は、すべてのコー・カピクおよび提携諸島（カンボジア）

締約国の代表からなる締約国会議である。UNESCO

ドンチャイガン自然保護区（中国・海南省）「ラムサーが本条約の寄託先であり、条約の運営は、

マイ・ポ沼沢およびインナー・ディープ・ベイ（中ル事務局」として知られる事務局に委ねられている。

国・香港）

事務局はスイスのグランドにある国際自然保護連盟

オランゴ島野生生物保護区（フィリピン・セブ島）

・世界自然保護連合（IUCN‑The World Conserva‑

トゥバタハ・リーフ国立海洋公園（フィリピン）tion Union）の本部内に置かれている。事務局は、

スアン・トゥイ自然湿地保護区（ベトナム、ナムハ）

締約国会議および条約常任委員会の権限下で活動を

1972年世界遺産条約

The main decision-making body of the Ramsar
Convention is the Conference of the Parties, which iscomprised of delegates from all the Member States.
UNESCO serves as Depositary for the Convention,
but its administration has been entrusted to a secretariat
known as the "Ramsar Bureau", which is housed in
the headquarters of IUCN-The World Conservation
Union in Gland, Switzerland. The Secretariat acts under
the authority of the Conference of the Parties and theStanding Committee of the Convention.
The official name of the Convention reflects its
original emphasis on the conservation and wise useof wetlands primarily to provide habitat for waterbirds.
Over the years, however, the Convention has broadened
its scope to cover all aspects of wetland conservation
and wise use, recognizing wetlands as ecosystems thatare extremely important for biodiversity conservationin general and for the w ell being of hu m ancommunities.
Several coastal wetlands in countries in the East
Asian Seas have been designated as Ramsar Sites,
including the following：Koh Kapik & Associated Islets(Cambodia), Dongzhaigang Nature Reserve (Hainan,
China), Mai Po Marshes & Inner Deep Bay (HongKong, China), Olango Island Wildlife Sanctuary (Cebu,
Philippines), Tubbataha Reefs National Marine Park
(Philippines), and Xuan Thuy Natural Wetland Reserve(Nam Ha, Vietnam).
1972 World Heritage Convention
The Convention Concerning the Protection of theWorld Cultural and Natural Heritage is a UNESCO
Convention that was adopted by the General Conference of UNESCO in 1972. It is popularly known as
the World Heritage Convention.６ As of 1 October
2000, 161 States are Parties to the Convention, including all of the States in the East Asian Seas Region
except Brunei Darussalam and Singapore.
The Convention covers both cultural heritage andnatural heritage sites of outstanding value. Sites which
can be designated as natural heritage sites under theConvention include sites with outstanding physical,
biological, and geological features; habitats of threatened
plants or animal species and areas of value on scientificor aesthetic grounds or from the point of view ofconservation. The criteria for selecting natural heritage sites require that they be of sufficient size andcontain the necessary elements to ensure the integrityof ongoing ecological and biological processes. For

35

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

世界の文化遺産および自然遺産の保護に関する条からなる世界遺産委員会がおこなう。

約は、1972年のUNESCOの総会で採択されたUNESCO

本条約は、世界遺産一覧表に記載された文化遺産の条約であり、一般には世界遺産条約６として知ら

および自然遺産の保全を行なうための基金を設立しれている。2000年10月1日現在、161カ国が条約締約ている。この基金は、さまざまな種類の援助や技術国となっており、その中にはブルネイ・ダルサラー

協力のために使うことができ、その目的には、保護

ムとシンガポールを除く東アジア海域のすべての国措置を立案するための専門的研究の実施、保全もし々が含まれている。

くは修復技術についての地元専門家の養成および自条約の保護の対象となるのは、きわめて価値の高然公園保護のための機材の供与がある。 東アジア

い文化遺産や自然遺産を持つ地域である。条約に基海域においては、海洋および沿岸域の数カ所が世界

づいて自然遺産に指定されうる地域には、際立った遺産に指定されている。この中にはウジュン・クロ

地形学的、生物学的、地質学的特長を持つもの、絶ン国立公園（インドネシア）、コモド国立公園（イ

滅の危機に瀕している動植物の種の生息地および学

ンドネシア）、トゥバタ・リーフ海洋公園（フィリ

術上、保存上、または景観上の観点から見て、価値ピン）およびハ・ロング湾（ベトナム）がある。

の高い地域が含まれる。自然遺産選定の基準は、そUNESCO 人間と生物圏プログラムの地域が十分の広さを持ち、生態的および生物的プ

人間と生物圏（MAB計画）は、法的拘束力を有

ロセスの進行を担保するために必要な要素を含んでする条約に基づくものではない。これはいわば、研いることである。例えば、この基準に基づいて珊瑚

究および研修のための学際的計画の一つであり、そ礁として指定されるためには、海藻、マングローブの目的は、自然科学および社会科学において、生物あるいは近接する他の生態系が必要となろう。こう圏資源の合理的利用と保全、さらには人間と環境とした地域の選定は、関係国の同意を得て、政府代表のグローバルな関係改善のための基盤作りにある。

example, the criteria may require that a coral reef
designation should include seagrass, mangrove or other adjacent ecosystems. An international committee ofgovernment representatives selects the sites with theconsent of the State concerned.
The Convention establishes a fund for the conservation of the cultural and natural sites on the list ofWorld Heritage Sites. The fund can be used for various
kinds of aid and technical co-operation, including the
conduct of expert studies to plan conservation measures,the training of local specialists in conservation or
renovation techniques, and the supplying of equipment for the protection of a natural park.
In the East Asian Seas Region, several sites inmarine and coastal areas have been designated as
World Heritage Sites. These include Ujung Kulon
National Park (Indonesia), Komodo National Park
(Indonesia), Tubbatha Reef Marine Park (Philippines),and Ha Long Bay (Vietnam).
UNESCO Man and the Biosphere Programme
The Man and the Biosphere (MAB) Programme７
is not based on a legally binding treaty or convention.
It is an interdisciplinary programme of research andtraining intended to develop the basis, within thenatural and the social sciences, for the rational use
and conservation of the resources of the biosphere,
and for the improvement of the global relationshipbetween people and the environment. The overall
programme is guided by the MAB International Coordinating Council consisting of 34 Member Stateselected by the UNESCO General Conference. Programme
activities are conducted in more than 100 countries
under the direction of their MAB National Committees
or focal points.
Biosphere Reserves include terrestrial as well as
coastal and marine ecosystems. Biosphere Reserves
are areas where, through appropriate zoning patterns
and management mechanisms, the conservation of
ecosystems and their biodiversity is combined withthe sustainable use of natural resources for the benefit
of local communities. The programme for Biosphere
Reserves includes relevant research, monitoring, education and training activities. Biosphere Reserves areintended as a tool for implementing the concerns ofAgenda 21, the Convention on Biological Diversity
and other international agreements.
The future development of the World Network
of Biosphere Reserves is guided by the Strategy and36

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

この計画全体の運営は、UNESCO総会で選ばれた34

2000年11月現在、94カ国に391の生物圏保護区がの 加盟国 からなる MAB 国際調整協議会（ MAB

存在した。一部の生物圏保護区は、全体あるいはそInternational Co‑ordinating Council）によって行の一部が、ラムサール・サイトもしくは世界遺産になわれる。計画に明記された活動は、MAB重点活も指定されている。東アジア海域の国々にある生物

動全国委員会（MAB National Committees or focal

圏保護区で、以下に述べるものには沿岸域と海洋域

points）の指示に従って、100カ国以上で行われてが 含 まれている 。 ヤンチェン （中国） Nanji 諸島

いる。

（中国）
、シャンコウ・マングローブ（中国）、コモ

生物圏保護区には、陸上、沿岸域および海洋の生、シベルト≪Siberut≫（インド
ド（インドネシア）

態系がある。生物圏保護区とは、適切な線引きと管、プエルト・ガレラ（フィリピン）
、パラワ
ネシア）

理機構によって、生態系とその生物多様性の保全が、ン（フィリピン）、ラノング（タイ）およびカン・

地元共同体に有益な天然資源の持続可能な利用と一。
ギオ≪Can Gio≫マングローブ（ベトナム）

体化する地域である。生物圏保護区のための計画に

その他の関連するグローバルな文書

は、関連の研究、監視、教育および研修活動がある。

陸上での活動から海洋環境を保護するためのグロー

生物圏保護区は、アジェンダ21、生物多様性条約おバルな行動計画（1995年）（GPA）

よびその他の国際条約での関心事を実行するための陸上での活動から海洋環境を保護するグローバル

手段とみなされている。

行動計画（GPA）は、1995年９にワシントンで開生物圏保護区の世界的ネットワークの将来は、1995催されたグローバルな政府間会議で採択された。国年３月セビリャで開催された「生物圏保護区に関す連環境計画（UNEP）に授けられた任務は、調整のる国際会議」で作成された世界的ネットワークのたための努力を率先して行い、GPA調整事務所を設めの戦略的および法的枠組みによって決まる。

立することであった。GPAの包括的で多岐にわた

Statutory Framework for the world network drawn up
at the International Conference on Biosphere Reserves
held in Seville in March 1995.
As of November 2000 there were 391 biospherereserve sites in 94 countries. Some Biosphere Reservesites are also wholly or partially Ramsar sites orWorld Heritage sites. The following Biosphere Reservesites in States in the East Asian Seas Region include
coastal and marine areas： Yancheng (China) Nanji
Islands (China), Shankou Mangrove (China), Komodo(Indonesia) , Siberut (Indonesia) , Puerto Galera(Philippines), Palawan (Philippines), Ranong (Thailand),and Can Gio Mangrove (Vietnam).
Other Relevant Global Instruments
Global Programme of Action for the Protectionof the Marine Environment from Land-based
Activities, 1995 (GPA)
The Global Programme of Action for the Protection of the Marine Environment from Land-based
Activities (GPA) was adopted at a global intergovernmental conference in Washington in 1995.８
The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)
was tasked to lead the coordination effort and to establish a GPA Coordination Office. The comprehensive,

multi-sectoral approach of the GPA reflects the desireof Governments to strengthen the collaboration andcoordination of all agencies with mandates relevant to
the impact of land- based activities on the marine
environment.
The GPA is designed to be a source of conceptualand practical guidance to be drawn upon by national
and/or regional authorities for devising and implementing sustained action to prevent, reduce, control and/or
eliminate marine degradation from land-based activities.
One of the issues addressed by the GPA is
Physical Alterations and Destruction of Habitat. The
objective of the GPA on this issue is to：(a) Safeguard the ecosystem function, maintain the
integrity and biological diversity of habitats which
are of major socio-economic and ecological interest
through integrated management of coastal areas;(b) Where practicable , restore marine and coastal
habitats that have been adversely affected byanthropogenic activities.
The GPA suggests several actions, policies andmeasures that should be taken at the global, regionaland national levels to address the issue of physicalalteration and destruction of habitats. At the national37

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

るアプローチは、陸上での活動が海洋環境に及ぼすという問題に取り組むために、グローバルな規模で、影響についての指示をうけたあらゆる機関の協力と地域でさらに国家で実施すべき幾つかの行動、政策、調整を強化したいという、各国政府の願いを反映し措置を提案している。国家について、GPAは、ア

たものである。

ジェンダ21第17章に従って、国家による活動、政策

GPAは、陸上での活動による海洋環境の悪化を

および対策には、沿岸域の統合的管理のための計画防止、減少、規制および/あるいは除去するために、の作成、採択、実施が含まれなければならないとす

持続的な活動を考え、実施するために、国および/る。GPAはさらに、このような計画には以下の事

または地域当局が作成する概念や実践に関する指針

柄が含まれねばならないとする。

の基本とするために制定された。

（ａ）生物生息地の保全および生物多様性を維持す

GPAが取り組む問題の一つに、動植物生息地 のるための、沿岸域における海洋保護区域の設

物理的変化 および 破壊 がある 。 この 問題 に 関 する

定

GPAの目標は次のとおりである：（ｂ）人間の活動によって、動植物が減少もしくは（ａ）沿岸域の総合的管理により、生態系の機能を絶滅した沿岸域の生物生息地の回復

保護し、社会経済上および生態学上のおもな

GPAはまた、この問題について地域レベルで行

関心事である、生物生息地の保全と生物多様なうべき特定の活動について勧告する。GPAは、性を維持すること

このような地域的行動には、危機的状況にある生物（ｂ）実行が可能な場合は、人為改変的活動による生息地の保護を目的とする、次のような地域的規模

悪影響を受けた海洋および沿岸域の生物生息のアプローチの決定と採用が含まれなければならな地を回復することいと規定する。

GPAは、動植物生息地の物理的改変および破壊（ａ）海洋および沿岸保護区域の地域的システム

level, the GPA recommends that the actions, policies
and measures of States should include the formulation,
adoption and implementation of programmes for
integrated coastal area management, in accordancewith Agenda 21, Chapter 18. The GPA further statesthat the programmes should include (a) the establishment of Marine Protected Areas in coastal areas tomaintain the integrity and biological diversity of theirhabitats; and (b) restoration of coastal habitats thathave suffered decline or loss as a result of humanactivities.
The GPA also recommends specific actions at
the regional level to deal with this issue. It provides
that regional actions should include formulation andadoption of regional-scale approaches to safeguarding
critical habitats such as：(a) Regional systems of marine and coastal protectedareas;(b) Regional programmes of action and protocols on
important species and habitats.
FAO Code of Conduct on Responsible Fisheries
The Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries９
was unanimously adopted on 31 October 1995 by the
FAO Conference. The Code provides a necessary

framework for national and international efforts toensure sustainable exploitation of aquatic living
resources in harmony with the environment and in amanner that is consistent with applicable global instruments. It is global in scope, and is directed toward
members and non-members of FAO, fishing entities,
subregional, regional and global organizations, whether
governmental or non-governmental, and all persons
concerned with the conservation of fishery resources
and management and development of fisheries. It
provides principles and standards applicable to theconservation, management and development of all
fisheries.
The General Principles stated in the Code include
two which are of particular relevance to the conservation of marine and coastal ecosystems and habits：
・ All critical fisheries habitats in marine and fresh
water ecosystems, such as wetlands, mangroves,reefs, lagoons, nursery and spawning areas, should
be protected and rehabilitated as far as possible
and where necessary.
・ Particular effort should be made to protect such
habitats from destruction, degradation, pollution
and other significant impacts resulting from38

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem（ａ）重要な種と生物生息地に関する地域的な行動

ローブ、珊瑚礁、潟湖、養殖場および産卵場

計画および議定書のような、すべての重要な漁業資源の生息地

FAO責任ある漁業に関する行動規範

は、可能な限り、かつ必要な場合には、保護「責任ある漁業に関する行動規範」10は1995年10され回復されなければならない。

月31日に、FAOの会議において満場一致で採択さ・ とりわけ、水産資源の健全性、生育能力を脅かれた。この規範は、環境との調和をはかりつつ、適す人間の活動に起因する破壊、劣化、汚染お用可能なグローバルな文書に矛盾しない方法で、水よびその他の重大な影響から、それらの生息

生生物資源の持続可能な開発を確実にするための、地を保護するために努力が払われるべきであ

国家的および国際的努力に必要な枠組みを規定する。

る。

同規範の範囲はグローバルであり、FAOの加盟国

国際海事機関条約

および非加盟国、漁業を行なう政治的実体（台湾を国際海事機構（IMO）条約は、汚染による 影響指す）、政府・非政府機関を問わず小地域、地域おをうけやすい特定の地域において、船舶による油濁よびグローバルな機関、および水産資源の保全と漁汚染の脅威を軽減するための様々な制度を確立する業の管理と発展に関わるすべての個人に向けられて機会を沿岸国に与えている。IMO条約 において 、いる。同規範はすべての漁業の保全、管理および発船舶に特別な規則が適用される２種類の海域が存在展のために適用可能な原則と基準を規定している。

する。両方とも沿岸国が科学的・技術的証拠を提出

規範に述べられている一般原則には、特に、海洋した後にIMOが設定する。

および沿岸域の生態系と生物生息地の維持に関連す

第１の海域は、「船舶による汚染の防止のためのる２つの原則が含まれている。

国際条約73/78」２（MARPOL 73/78） に 規定 され・ 海洋および淡水生態系にある、湿地帯、マングる「特別海域」である。この海域は次のように定義

human activities that threaten the health andviability of the fishery resources.
Conventions of the International Maritime
Organization
The conventions of the International Maritime
Organization (IMO) give Coastal States an opportunity
to establish regimes in certain vulnerable coastal areas
to reduce the threat of oil pollution from ships. Under
the IMO conventions there are two types of areas thatcan be established where special rules will apply toships. Both types are established by the IMO after
the submission of scientific and technical evidence by
the Coastal State.
The first is "Special Areas" under the International
Convention on the Prevention of Pollution from Ships,
or MARPOL 73/78.10 A Special Area under MARPOL
73/78 is defined as follows：a sea area where, for recognized technical reasonsin relation to its oceanographic and ecological condition and to the particular character of its traffic, theadoption of special mandatory methods for the prevention of sea pollution by oil, noxious liquid substances,or garbage, as applicable, is required.
Special Areas are provided with a higher levelof protection from such discharges from ships that
other areas of the sea. Special Areas can be establishedby the IMO if it can be shown by scientific andtechnical evidence that they are vulnerable to pollution
by discharges from ships, and that special mandatory
measures of protection are required. Several areas,such as the Black Sea, Mediterranean Sea, Baltic Sea
and the Wider Caribbean Area, have been designatedby the IMO as Special Areas.11
The second area where special IMO rules canapply to ships are Particularly Sensitive Sea Areas,or PSSAs. A PSSA isan area that needs special protection through the
IMO because of its significance for recognized ecologicalor socio-economic or scientific reasons and which
may be vulnerable to damage by international maritime
activities.
If an area is designated as a PSSA, "associatedprotective measures" may be ordered by the IMO.
Associated protective measures are international rules
and standards that are within the purview of the IMO
which regulate international maritime activities for theprotection of the area at risk . Examples of suchmeasures are discharge restrictions, routing measures,

39

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystemのある海域

されている。
海洋学上および生態学上の条件並びに交通の特殊性

海域 が 特別過敏海域 に 指定 されると 、 IMO がに関連すると認められた技術上の理由により、石油、「関連保護措置」を発令することとなる。関連保護

有毒液体または廃物による海洋汚染の防止のため、措置とは、危険にさらされている海域を保護するた

適用可能な場合、特別の義務的な方法を採用するこ

めに、国際海運活動 を規制 するIMOの 権限内の 国とが要求される海域

際的規則および基準のことをいう。

特別海域は他の海域に比べ、船舶からのこのようこのような措置の例として、廃棄物の制限、ルーな廃棄物から高度に保護されている。科学的・技術ト設定措置、運行基準および禁止される活動の特定的証拠により、海域が船舶からの廃棄物による汚染がある。これらの措置の内容は、個々のPPSAの必の影響を受けやすいこと、そして保護のための特別要性に応じて決定されなければならない。現在までな 強制措置 が 必要 であることが 証明 できる 場合、に、２つの海域がIMOからPSSAとして指定されてIMOは特別海域を設定することができる。黒海、

おり、それはオーストラリアのグレート・バリア・

地中海、バルト海および大カリブ海域のような海域

リーフ海洋公園とキューバのサバナ・カマゲー群島

が、IMOによって特別海域12に指定されている。

の海域３である。

船舶にIMOの 特別な 規則を 適用できる 第２の 地

特別海域およびPSSAは、沿岸から12海里以遠に域は、特別過敏海域（PSSA）である。PSSAの定ある、沿岸国の排他的経済水域内に位置する海洋保義は次のとおりである：

護区域にとって重要な制度である。海洋保護区域が条約が認める生態学上、または社会経済的あるいは特別海域もしくはPSSAの指定を受けなければ、船科学的理由により、IMOによる特別な保護を必要と

舶は、船舶による汚染防止および船舶航行の安全にし、かつ国際的海運活動の被害を受けやすい可能性

関するIMOの通常の規則に 従えばよいのだ。国連

operational criteria and prohibited activities. Suchmeasures must be specially tailored to meet the needsof the particular PPSA. To date two areas have been
designated by the IMO as PSSAs − the Great Barrier
Reef Marine Park in Australia and the Sabana-Camaguey
Archipelago in Cuba.12
Special Areas and PSSAs are important tools forMarine Protected Areas that are located beyond 12
nautical miles from the coast, in the EEZ of a Coastal
State. Unless a Marine Protected Area is designatedas a Special Area or PSSA, ships need only comply
with the normal IMO rules on the prevention of pollution from ships and the safety of navigation of ships.
Coastal States are not permitted under 1982 UNCLOS
to impose regulations on ships in their EEZ which
are stricter than the normal standards under the IMO
conventions.
NATIONAL MEASURES TO CONSERVE COASTALECOSYSTEMS
Common Institutional and Legal Problems
Almost all of the global instruments discussed
above call for an integrated, holistic approach to theconservation and management of marine and coastal
resources. Unfortunately, the institutional frameworkand legislation in many countries make such an
integrated approach extremely difficult. Among thecommon problems with respect to laws and institutionalarrangements are：(a) Most governments are organised along sectorallines, with departments such as fisheries, agricultural,
forestry, mining, transportation, tourism, industry,etc, and there is usually little integrated planningand coordination among the various sectors.
(b) There are usually different laws and institutions
governing marine areas and land areas, as well
as fresh water resources and marine resources.
Although the marine and land ecosystems in the
coastal zone are closely interrelated, this is often
not reflected in the law due to long -standing
reasons founded on property law systems andinstitutional tradition.
(c) There is often an overlap in the powers of thelocal, provincial and national governments withrespect to planning and regulation of activities in
the coastal zone. National governments are usually
responsible for planning ocean space, and provincial
and local governments are responsible for land
use planning in the coastal zone.

40

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

海洋法条約に基づき、沿岸国は、排他的経済水域を接に関連しているが、この事実は財産法制度

航行する船舶に対して 、IMO条約に基 づく通常 のおよび制度的伝統に基づいた古くからの理由

基準よりも厳しい規制を課すことは許されない。

により、法律にあまり反映されていない。

沿岸域の生態系維持のための国家による措置（ｃ）沿岸域での活動の計画と規制に関して、地元、各国に共通する制度的および法的問題

地方および中央政府の権限はしばしば重複す

上述のグローバルな文書の大部分は、海洋およびる。通常、中央政府が海域の利用計画の責任

沿岸域における資源の保全と管理を目ざす統合的でを負っており、地元および地方自治体が沿岸

有機的なアプローチを必要としている。残念ながら、域の土地利用計画の責任を負っている。

多くの国の制度的枠組みと法律が、このような統合（ｄ）一部の国では、地元先住民の伝統的権利を含

的アプローチの実現を極めて難しくしている。法律

めて、沿岸域および海域の所有権や利用に関および制度的取り決めに関する各国に共通の問題にする深刻な問題が生じる場合がある。このたは、以下に述べるようなものがある。

め、沿岸域生態系の保全と管理を目的とした（ａ）どの国の政府組織も縦割りに分野分けされ、統合的で有機的なアプローチを取ることが難

漁業、農業、林業、鉱業、運輸省、観光、産しくなっている。

業などの担当機関がおかれている。このため、要約すれば、多くの国で、沿岸域において制度的

通常は、さまざまな部門の間で統一的な計画

および法的混乱が存在するということである。さま

立案や調整はほとんどおこなわれない。

ざまなレベルの政府が制定する分野の異なる法令の（ｂ）海洋と陸上、さらには淡水水産資源や海洋資

モザイク状態が存在することが多々あり、それが沿源は、すべて異なる法律や制度で規律される。

岸域の土地、水域および資源に適用されている。ま

沿岸域の海洋生態系と陸上生態系は互いに密た、これらの法令の執行責任を有する組織もさまざ(d) In some countries there may be serious issues
with respect to the ownership and use of coastal
land and marine areas, including traditional customary rights of local and indigenous peoples, thatmake it difficult to adopt an integrated holistic
approach to the conservation and management ofcoastal ecosystems.
In summary, in many countries there is institutional
and legal disorder in the coastal zone. There is oftena mosaic of sectoral laws and regulations from various
levels of government which are applicable to coastal
land, waters and resources. There is also a range ofinstitutions responsible for the implementation of theselaws and regulations. This results in legislative overlaps,
inconsistencies, gaps and uncertainties, as well as
failures in the administration and enforcement of laws
and regulations.
This situation makes it extremely difficult forStates to adopt an integrated holistic approach to planning, conserving and managing resources and habitats
and ecosystems in marine and coastal areas. Therefore,
it is often very difficult for governments to actually
implement the recommendations set out in the global
instruments discussed above, even when they havethe political will to do so.
Legislative approaches for the conservation of
ecosystems
Before new institutional and legal approaches
to conservation of coastal ecosystems such as
Marine Protected Areas can be adopted, it isusually necessary to do a thorough review ofthe existing legal and institutional framework inthat country. The legal approach to take in agiven country will depend in part on the existing institutional framework and laws, as well ason the country's culture , tradition and legal
processes. Before adopting model legislation fromother countries, it is important for governments
to ensure that such legislation is consistent withthe existing legal framework in their country,
and that the new legislation being proposed canbe effectively administered and enforced in theircountry.
Various approaches can be considered in order to conserve to coastal habitats and ecosystems.
Which approach is best for a particular country
will depend upon its existing legislative frameworkand its legal traditions and procedures. Among

41

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystemまである。この結果、法律の重複や一貫性のなさ、くし、しかも提案される新たな法律を効果的に運用

内容の食い違いやあいまいさだけでなく、法令の運し、執行できるようにすることが重要である。

用と執行に不備が生ずる。

沿岸域生物生息地および生態系を保全するために、こうした状況から、海洋および沿岸域の資源、生さまざまなアプローチが考えられる。どのアプロー

物生息地および生態系に関する計画立案、保全、管チが個々の国家にとって最適であるかは、現行の法理を目的とした、統合的で有機的なアプローチを国的枠組み、法的伝統および手続きに依る。その選択

家がとりづらくなっている。それゆえ、各国政府が肢としては以下のものが考えられる。

実際に上記のグローバルな文書に述べられた勧告を（ａ）特別な沿岸域管理立法

実施することは、それをおこなおうとする政治的意（ｂ）特別な沿岸域保全規定を含む資源管理立法

思があるとしても、極めて困難であることが多い。

（ｃ）環境に関する一般的な法律における沿岸保全

生態系保全のための立法的アプローチ

規定

海洋保護区域のような、沿岸域生態系保護を目ざ（ｄ）海事および漁業に関する法律における沿岸域

す新たな制度的および法的アプローチの採用が可能

保全規定になる前に、通常その国の現行の法的および制度的（ｅ）沿岸水域に適用可能な土地利用計画法

枠組みを徹底的に検証することが必要となる。ある（ｆ）海洋に関する補足計画手続き

国がとるべき法的アプローチは、その国の文化、伝（ｇ）公的な海事領域に対する特別な法制度

統および法的プロセス同様に、現行の制度的枠組み

沿岸域生態系保全のための計画

や法律にある程度左右されるものとなろう。モデル

沿岸域生態系の保全と持続可能な開発を計画するとなる他国の法律を採用する前に、各国政府がこのに際し、自然の残る地域と生態系の保護について規ような法律と自国の現行の法的枠組みとの矛盾をな定することは極めて重要である。沿岸域の土地利用

the options are the following：13(a) special coastal management legislation;(b) resource management legislation with specificcoastal conservation provisions;(c) coastal conservation provisions under generalenvironmental legislation;(d) coastal conservation measures under marine or
fisheries legislation;(e) land-use planning legislation that is applicable tocoastal waters;(f) complementary planning procedures for the sea;(g) special legal regimes for the public maritime
domain.
Planning for conservation of coastal ecosystems
It is critically important to provide for the protection of natural areas and ecosystems when planningthe conservation and sustainable development of coastal
ecosystems. When preparing strategic and local planning documents that define land use and occupation in
the coastal area, competent public authorities must
give priority attention to protecting sensitive sites andbiological corridors. Coastal planning should define
all areas important for conservation and precisely
delimit sites to be protected in order to build a systemof protected areas within the broader context of coastal
conservation and management.
It is important to consider what types of protectedareas should be established. This will depend in parton the conservation objectives that are to be achievedin each area. When considering the management
objectives of protected areas, it is useful to considerclassification categories established by the IUCNWorld Commission on Protected Areas. The ICUN
classifies protected areas into six management categories,
according to their conservation objectives, as follows：14(a)Strict nature reserves or wilderness areas(b)National parks(c)Natural monuments(d)Habitat/species management areas(e)Protected landscapes/seascapes(f)Managed resource protected areas
The designation of sites to implement international
conventions may also support coastal planning objectives.
Governments should seriously consider the pros andcons of designating particular areas in the coastal zone
as Ramsar Sites, World Heritage Sites or Biosphere
Reserves. If sites are designated under such special
international regimes, it may bring needed financial

42

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystemと占有を規定する戦略的および地域的計画文書を作（ｄ）生物生息地/種の管理地域成する場合、権限ある公的機関は、環境悪化の影響（ｅ）景観保護地域/海域を受けやすい地域や生物回廊の保護を優先しなけれ（ｆ）管理資源保護区域

ばならない。沿岸域の計画立案では、保護区域制度

国際条約を実施する地域の指定が、沿岸域計画立を構築するために、沿岸域保全および管理という幅案の目的を支援する場合もある。各国政府は、ラム

広い視野にたって、環境保全に重要なすべての地域

サール・サイト、世界遺産地域もしくは生物圏保護を指定し、保護の対象となる地域を厳密に画定しな地域として沿岸域の特定地域を指定することについければならない。

て、賛否両論を真摯に考慮しなければならない。こどのような種類の保護区域を設定しなければならのような特別の国際的管理制度に基づいてサイトがないかを考慮することは重要である。保護区域のタ指定された場合、必要な財政的および技術的援助がイプは、それぞれの地域で達成されなければならな

その国にもたらされる場合がある。しかし、海洋おい保全目的にある程度左右されるだろう。保護区域

よび沿岸域における保護区域の設定は、国際的に重の管理目的を考える場合、国際自然保護連盟の世界

要なサイトのみに限定されてはならない。保護区域

保護区域委員会（ IUCN World Commission on

は、国家および地域にとって重要な生物生息地のたProtected Areas）が定めた分類が役に立つ。ICUN

めに設定されなければならない。

は、自らの定めた保護目的に従って、保護区域を以沿岸域生態系保全のための海洋保護区域の設定

下17の６つの管理範疇に分類している

海洋および沿岸域の生物生息地や生態系を保全す（ａ）厳密な自然保護区もしくは原生環境保全地域

るための海洋保護区域の設定を目ざす場合、各国は（ｂ）国立公園

上述の幾つかの制度的・法的問題に取り組まざるを（ｃ）天然記念物

得ないだろうand technical assistance into the country. However,
the establishment of protected areas in marine andcoastal areas should not be limited to the to internationally important flagship sites. Protected areas should also
be established for habitats of national and local importance.
Establishing Marine Protected Areas to conserve
coastal ecosystems
In order to establish Marine Protected Areas toconserve habitats and ecosystems in marine and coastal
areas , States will have to address some of theinstitutional and legal problems discussed above.
First, jurisdictional problems will have to beaddressed. In many countries the authorities competent to take regulatory conservation measures on land(e.g. nature conservation agency, provincial governments) often have no mandate or delegated authority totake complementary measures in maritime areas. It istherefore impossible to extend terrestrial protectedareas beyond the high water mark or to enact protection measures for intertidal or marine habitats unless
new legislation is enacted.
Second, there may be uncertainties relating tothe ownership of the sites. If the sites are in private

hands, it may not be possible to guarantee their longterm protection through exclusively regulatory controls.
It may be necessary to formalise long-term rights ofpublic ownership over such sites and develop a mechanism to make ownership of such sites inalienable.
Third, there may be problems of a lack of secure
title and control because of customary ownership andusage rights of local and indigenous peoples. Where
customary law and practices are consistent with thegoals and objectives of the MPAs, they should berecognised. Whenever possible, the local communities
should be brought into the planning, management andenforcement processes for MPAs.
Fourth, there are likely to weaknesses or gaps inthe legislation necessary to establish MPAs. Many
countries have no legal basis for the establishment of
MPAs or Biosphere Reserves. Therefore, new legislation will usually be required.
IU C N G uidelines on Developing a Legal
Framework for MPAs
In 1999 the IUCN published GUIDELINES FORMARINE PROTECTED AREAS, World Commission
on Protected Areas, Best Practice Protected Area
Guidelines Series No. 3 (Edited and coordinated by43

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

第一に、管轄権をめぐる問題に取り組まなければ

計画立案、管理および実施に、地元共同体を参加さならない。多くの国々では、土地保全のための規制せるべきである。

措置決定権を有する当局（例えば、自然保護事務所

第四に、MPA設定に必要な法律に問題点がありや地方政府）が、海洋での補足措置を講じるだけのうる。多くの国々には、MPAもしくは生物圏保護

権限を委任もしくは委譲されていないことがよくあ区を設定するための法的基盤がまったく存在しない。

る。それゆえ、新たな法律が制定されない限り、陸それゆえ、通常は、新しい法律の制定が必要となろ

上保護区域を高水位線以遠にまで拡大したり、潮間う。

あるいは海洋の生物生息地の保護策を制定すること

MPAのための法的枠組みの創設に関する国際自然は不可能である。

保護連盟（IUCN）のガイドライン

第二に、その区域の所有権がはっきりしない場合

1999年にIUCNは、「海洋保護区域設定のガイドがありうる。当該区域が私有地である場合、もっぱ

ライン、保護区域に関する世界委員会、最高実践保ら規制での管理によって、長期的な保護の保証は難護区域ガイドライン・シリーズNo.３」を発表した。

しいだろう。このような区域に対して、長期的な公（Graeme Kelleher編集・共著）。IUCNのガイドラ

的所有権を正式に設定し、所有権譲渡が不可能となインにより、MPAの法的枠組みの創設に関して、るような制度が必要かもしれない。

以下の勧告がおこなわれた。

第三に、地元原住民に習慣上の所有権と使用権が１．極めて大規模なMPAを設定するというアプロー

あるために、安定した所有権の主張や管理ができなチをとる場合、それぞれのMPAを、個別の法いという問題が生じよう。慣習法や実行がMPAの律文書により創設するのか、MPA全般におよ

目標や目的に合致する場合、これを承認しなければ

ぶ包括的な法律により創設するのかを決定しなならない。可能な場合はいつでも、MPAのためのければならない。

the MPAs.
9.The legislation should address directly the coordination and linkage with other bodies, especially inthe management of the coast and of fishing rights.
10. Legislation should include provisions to control
activities which occur outside an MPA and which
may adversely affect features, natural resources
or activities within an MPA.
11. National legislation should have the following
attributes：
・ Use of terms
・ Management and Zoning Plans
・ Public participation
・ Preliminary research and survey
・ Research, monitoring and review
・ Compensation
・ Financial arrangements
・ Regulations
・ Enforcement, Incentives and Penalities
・ Education and Public Awareness
REGIONAL MEASURES TO CONSERVE COASTALECOSYSTEMSUNEP Regional Seas Programme
UNEP's Regional Seas Programme was first

Graeme Kelleher). The IUCN Guidelines made thefollowing recommendations on developing a legal
framework for MPAs：
1. If the approach of very large MPAs is chosen,
decide whether each MPA will be created by aseparate legal instrument or whether to create
umbrella legislation for MPAs in general.
2.If the approach of a network of small MPAs ischosen, consider establishing them on the basisof community action, supported by legislation.
3.Whichever of the above options is chosen, a policy
for conservation and management of the marine
environment as a whole is needed. This may haveto take a legal form.
4.Make sure that the legislation states explicitly thatconservation is the primary objective of the MPAs.
5.Changing the primary objective should be decided
only by recourse to the highest body responsible
for legislative matters in the country.
6.Ensure the legal framework is consistent with thenation’s traditions.
7.The legislation should take an international perspective.
8.The legislation should create the legal foundation
for the institutions that will establish and manage

44

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

２．小規模なMPAのネットワークを構築するといて、他の機関との調整および連携に直接取り組うアプローチをとる場合、法律の後押しを受け、まなければならない。

地域共同体の活動に基づいてMPAの設定する

10．法律には、MPAの外で起こり、かつMPAの特ことを考えなければならない。

色、天然資源もしくは活動に悪影響を及ぼす恐３．上記のいずれのアプローチを選んでも、全体とれのある活動を規制するための規定がなければしての海洋環境の保全と管理のための政策が必ならない。

要である。このような政策は、法という形態を11．各国が定める法律には以下のような特質がなけとらなければならないだろう。

ればならない。

４．MPA設定の主たる目的が保全にあることを、・ 用語の用い方

必ず法律に明記しなければならない。

・ 管理および区分計画

５．主たる目的の変更は、その国の法律制定に関す・ 大衆の参加る事柄に責任を有する機関によってのみ、決定・ 予備研究および調査されるものでなければならない。

・ 研究、監視および検証

６．法的枠組みが国民的伝統に必ず合致するように・ 補償しなければならない。

・ 資金調達７．法律制定は国際的視野に立っておこなわなけれ

・ 規則

ばならない。

・ 実施、優遇策および罰則

８．法律は、MPAを設定し管理する制度のための・ 教育および一般市民の認識の向上
沿岸域生態系保全のための地域対策

法的基礎を作らなければならない。
９．法律は、特に沿岸域および漁業権の管理におい

国連環境計画（UNEP）地域海域計画

launched in 1974. 15 Since then, 14 Regional Seas
Areas Programmes have been established under UNEP
auspices ： Black Sea, Caribbean, East Africa, East
Asia, Kuwait, Mediterranean , North East Pacific,
North West Pacific, Red Sea and Gulf of Aden ,South Asia, South-East Pacific, South Pacific, Upper
South-West Atlantic, and West and Central Africa.
Three similar agreements amongst developed countries
are also in place (Arctic, OSPAR for the North-East
Atlantic, and HELCOM for the Baltic). Of the 14
UNEP Regional Seas Programmes, all have actionplans except the North-East Pacific and the Upper
South-West Atlantic.
Of the 14 Regional Seas areas, 9 have adopted
regional conventions - Black Sea, Wider Caribbean,
Eastern Africa, Kuwait, Mediterranean, Red Sea &Gulf of Aden, South-East Pacific, South Pacific, andWest and Central Africa. There are no regional conventions for East Asia, South Asia or the North East
Pacific.16
These regional conventions are more comprehensive
than the global environmental conventions. They coverissues ranging from chemical wastes and coastal
development to the conservation of marine animals

and ecosystems. The regional conventions often provide
a broad framework for cooperation. They are supplemented
by protocols on specific issues or problems such aspollution from land-based activities.
UNEP has recognized that the Regional Seas
conventions and the Global Programme of Action thePrevention of Pollution of the Marine Environment
from Land-Based Activities (GPA) need to be closely
linked. Some of the goals of the GPA can be realized
through the activities of the Regional Seas Programmes,
and the GPA can help to promote greater support for
activities and coordination at the regional level. Thereis also recognition that collaboration between the
Regional Seas conventions and action plans and theglobal conventions on the marine environment should
be strengthened.
There are two Regional Seas Programmes thatmight be looked upon as models for the conservationof coastal and marine habitats and ecosystems in East
Asia. The first is the Wider Caribbean Region. The
basic legal framework for the cooperation is set out
in the Convention for the Protection and Development of the Marine Environment of the Wider Caribbean
Region (the Cartagena Convention).17 The legal instru-

45

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

国連環境計画（UNEP）の地域海域計画にはじめは、化学廃棄物や沿岸域開発から、海洋動物と生態18て着手したのは、1974 年のことだった。それ以来、系の保全にまでおよぶ。しばしば地域条約では、協14の地域海域計画がUNEPの後援を得て創設された。

力のための幅広い枠組みが提起され、陸上での活動

それは黒海、カリブ海、東アフリカ、東アジア、クによる汚染といった特定の問題に関する議定書が詳ウェート、地中海、北東太平洋、北西太平洋、紅海

細を補っている。

およびアデン湾、南アジア、南東太平洋、南太平洋、

UNEPは、地域海域条約および陸上での活動によ

北部南西太平洋および西部中央アフリカである。先る海洋環境汚染の防止のためのグローバルな活動計

進諸国 の 間 でも 同様 の 協定 が ３ つ 締結 されている画（GPA）を密接に結びつける必要性をすでに認（北極、北東大西洋に関するOSPAR、およびバル

識していた。GPAの目標の中には、地方海域計画。UNEPの14の地域海域計
ト海に関するHELCOM）に基づく活動を通じて実現しうるものがあり、さら画のうちで、北東太平洋および北部南西大西洋を除にGPAは、地域レベルでの活動と調整に対する幅

いて、すべての計画には行動計画ができている。

広い支援の促進に貢献することができる。また、地14の地域海域のうちで、９つの海域は地域条約を域海域条約と行動計画および海洋環境に関するグロー

採択している。その地域は、黒海、大カリブ、東アバルな条約との間の協調関係を強化しなければなら

フリカ、クウェート、地中海、紅海およびアデン湾、ないとも考えられている。

南東太平洋、南太平洋および西部中央アフリカであ東アジアにおける沿岸域および海洋の生物生息地

る。東アジア、南アジアもしくは北東太平洋18につと生態系の保全のためのモデルと見なしうる地域海

いては、地域条約は存在しない。

域計画が2つある。一つは、大カリブ地域である。

これら地域条約は、グローバルな環境条約に比べ協力のための基本的法的枠組みが、「大カリブ海域て、より包括的である。地域条約が対象とする問題の海洋環境保護と開発のための条約」（カルタヘナ

ment which is of special interest is the 1990 Protocol
Concerning Specially Protected Areas and Wildlife(1990 SPAW Protocol).18 The 1990 SPAW Protocolhas been internationally recognized as the mostcomprehensive treaty of its kind. Adopted in Kingston,
Jamaica by the member governments of the Caribbean
Environment Programme on 18 January 1990, the 1990
SPAW Protocol preceded other international environmental
agreements in utilizing an ecosystem approach toconservation.
The 1990 SPAW Protocol acts as a vehicle toassist with regional implementation of the broader
and more demanding global Biodiversity Convention.
The objective of the Protocol is to protect rare andfragile ecosystems and habitats, thereby protecting theendangered and threatened species residing therein.
The Caribbean Regional Co-ordinating Unit pursues
this objective by assisting with the establishment andproper management of protected areas, by promoting
sustainable management (and use) of species to prevent
their endangerment and by providing assistance to thegovernments of the region in conserving their coastal
ecosystems.
The second region that might be used as amodel is the Mediterranean Region. The basic legal
framework for cooperation is set out in the Convention
for the Protection of the Marine Environment and the
Coastal Region of the Mediterranean (Barcelona Convention). 19 It was adopted on 16 February 1976 andentered into force on 12 February 1978. It was revisedin Barcelona, Spain, in June 1995 as the Convention
for the Protection of the Marine Environment and the
Coastal Region of the Mediterranean. 20 The 1995
Convention is not yet in force. In addition to the
Regional Convention, several protocols dealing withspecific issues have been adopted for the Mediterranean.
Of particular interest is the Protocol Concerning
Mediterranean Specially Protected Areas (Mediterranean
SPA Protocol) , 21 which was adopted in Geneva
Switzerland, on 2 April 1982, and which entered into
force in 1986. This Protocol was revised in Barcelona
on 9-10 June 1995, and is known as the Protocol
Concerning Specially Protected Areas and Biological
Diversity in the Mediterranean (1995 Mediterranean
SPA Protocol).22
The 1995 Mediterranean SPA Protocol is noteworthy
for two reasons. First, it is the first regional marine
instrument to incorporate many elements from the46

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem条約）19で 明らかにされた 。特 に 興味深いのは 、ることにより、この目的の実現を目指している。

「特別保護区域 および 野生生物 に 関 する 議定書」

モデルとなりうる第2の地域は、地中海地域であ（1990年SPAW 議定書）20である 。同議定書 は 、る。協力のための基本的法的枠組みは、「地中海のこの種の条約としては最も包括的な条約として国際

海洋環境および沿岸地域の保護のための条約」（バ

的に承認されている。この条約は1990年１月18日に、

ルセロナ条約）21に述べられている 。同条約は1976

ジャマイカのキングストンでカリブ海環境計画参加

年２月16日に採択され、1978年２月12日に発効した。

国政府が採択したものであり、他の国際的環境条約

その後、1995年６月に、スペインのバルセロナで、に先がけて、環境保全のために生態系上のアプロー「地中海の海洋環境および沿岸地域の保護のためのチを採用した。

条約」22として改定された 。1995年条約 はまだ発効

1990年SPAW 議定書 は 、 より 包括的 で 、 しかもしていない。地中海についいては、この地域条約の要求の高いグローバルな生物多様性条約の地域的実

ほかに、特定の問題に関する幾つかの議定書が採択

施を後押しするための手段として機能している。同された。特に興味を引くのが、「地中海の特別保護議定書の目的は、希少で、しかも外部からの影響を区域に関する議定書」（地中海SPA議定書）23である。

うけやすい生態系および生物生息地を保護すること

この議定書は、1982年４月２日にスイスのジュネーであり、その結果、そこに生息する種で、絶滅の危ブで採択され、1986年に発効した。その後、1995年

機に瀕しているものを保護することにある。カリブ

６ 月 ９ 日、10日 の 両日、 バルセロナで 改定 され 、海地域調整ユニットは、保護区域の設定と適切な管「地中海の特別保護区域および生物多様性に関する理を支援し、種が絶滅の危機に直面しないように、議定書」（1995年地中海特別保護区域議定書）24とし種の持続可能な管理（および利用）を促し、さらにて知られている。

沿岸域生態系の保全にあたって、地域政府を援助す

1995年 の 地中海SPA議定書は 、２ つの 点で 注目

Biodiversity Convention. In this respect it is a regional
vehicle for implementing the Biodiversity Convention
in marine and coastal areas in the Mediterranean.
Second, it contemplates the possibility of designatingareas lying partly or wholly on the high seas. This
reflects the fact that most of the Mediterranean remains
high seas because EEZ boundaries have yet to beagreed upon by the bordering States.
Advantages of Regional Cooperation
There is general recognition in the global instruments that regional cooperation is necessary to protect
and conserve marine and coastal habitats and ecosystems.
In fact, as pointed out earlier, because the South
China Sea can be considered a semi-enclosed sea under1982 UNCLOS, States bordering the South China Seathat are Parties to 1982 UNCLOS may be under alegal obligation to cooperate in order to fulfill their
obligations to protect and preserve the marine environment.
The 1995 GPA also called for action at theregional level to deal with pollution of the marine
environment from land-based activities. Chapter 17 ofAgenda 21 also called for regional cooperation.
International experts such as the IUCN have also

recognized that regional cooperation is desirable in
the establishment of Marine Protected Areas. The
marine and coastal ecosystems of countries within thesame geographic region often extend across maritime
boundaries of States. They also have common ecologicaland oceanographic characteristics. What happens in
one country’s marine and coastal zone may have asignificant impact on a marine and coastal ecosystem
in a neighboring country. The destruction of breeding
grounds of marine living resources in one country
could effect the sustainable development of such
resources in other countries. Also, many marine species,
such as sea birds and marine turtles, migrate acrossthe maritime zones of several States. For these reasons,all of the Coastal States within a region have acommon interest in cooperating to safeguard marine
and coastal ecosystems and habitats.
By cooperating with one another and by coordinating the establishment and management of MPAs, thecountries within a region can address common problems
and deal with issues of common interest. Experts areof the view that MPAs work best when they aredeveloped within an integrated coastal area or a large
marine ecosystem management plan.

47

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystemに値する。第一に、同議定書が、生物多様性条約のの汚染に取り組むため、地域レベルでの活動を求め

多くの要素を地域海域に初めて取り入れたことであている。さらにアジェンダ21の第17章も、地域協力

る。この点に関して、本議定書は、地中海の海洋おを呼びかけている。

よび沿岸域における生物多様性条約実施のための地

国際自然保護連盟のような国際的な専門家集団も、域的な手段である。第二に、この議定書は、その一海洋保護区域設定において、地域協力が望ましいと部もしくは全部が公海上にある地域を、特別保護区認めた。同じ地理的地域内にある諸国の海洋およびに指定する可能性を想定していることである。この沿岸域生態系は、しばしば海洋上の国家の境界を越ことは、排他的経済水域の境界について、まだ近隣えて存在する。しかも共通の生態的特徴や海洋学的諸国が合意に達していないために、地中海の大部分特徴を持っている。ある国の海洋および沿岸域でのが依然として公海であるという現実を反映している。

出来事が、隣国の海洋および沿岸域生態系に重大な地域協力の利点

影響をもたらす場合もある。ある国の海洋生物資源

一般的に、グローバルな文書では、海洋および沿の繁殖地が破壊され、他の国々による同じ資源の持

岸域の生物生息地と生態系の保護・保全のために地続可能な開発に影響を及ぼすこともありうる。また、

域協力が必要と考えられている。実際、すでに指摘

海鳥やウミガメのような海洋に棲む種の多くは、数したとおり、国連海洋法条約では、南シナ海が半閉カ国の海洋を移動する。このような理由から、ある

鎖海とみなされるため、同条約の締約国である南シ地域の沿岸国はすべて、海洋および沿岸域生態系とナ海周辺諸国は、海洋環境を保護・保全する義務を生物生息地を保護するための協力に共通の関心を抱履行するために、協力をおこなう法的義務を負うこいている。

とになろう。

互いに協力し、MPAの設定と管理について調整

1995年のGPAも、陸上での活動による海洋環境をおこなうことで、一つの地域内の国々は共通の問

There may be several practical reasons why
countries in the East Asian Seas Region may want toconsider adopting a regional action plan or convention
to establish a network of MPAs. First, it would enable them to share experiences and to develop models
that are the most suitable for the region. Second, itwould create public awareness about the need toprotect and preserve marine and coastal habitats andecosystems and the benefits of regional cooperation.
Third, if MPAs are placed on the regional agenda
under regional conventions , national government
officials are likely to give them a higher priority.
Fourth, if MPAs are part of a regional programme,
it is more likely that funding and technical assistancewill be available from international development
agencies.
An Action Plan for the East Asian Seas Region
23
was adopted in 1981.24 Within the past two years
the Regional Coordinating Unit for the East Asian
Seas has made significant progress in developing its
programme , especially in the South China Sea .
Therefore, the time may be ripe for the countries inthis region to draft and adopt a regional framework
convention as well as a Protocol on Specially Protected

Areas and Biological Diversity.
CONCLUSION
There are numerous global instruments which
provide States in this region with a framework forpreserving and protecting the marine environment ingeneral, and for conserving and managing marine andcoastal resources in a sustainable manner. The ratification and effective implementation of these instruments
should be a priority for all countries in the region.
The conservation of marine and coastal habitats
and ecosystems is for the most part a matter forgovernments at the national, provincial and local levels.
The two most important management tools are integrated
coastal area management and the establishment of
MPAs. The global instruments have provided guidelinesthat can be followed by States in developing acomprehensive, integrated holistic approach to the
problem.
At the same time, enhanced cooperation at the regional
level is also necessary to protect and conserve marine
and coastal habitats and ecosystems. As has been
demonstrated in the Mediterranean and in the Wider
Caribbean, the UNEP Regional Seas Programme canbe an important mechanism for enhancing regional

48

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

題に対処し、共通の関心事である問題に取り組むこ域調整ユニットは、特に南シナ海における計画の作とができる。専門家の見解では、MPAが最も円滑成において、重要な進歩を遂げた。それゆえ、このに機能するのは、一つにまとまった沿岸域もしくは地域の国々が特別保護区域と生物多様性に関する議大々的な海洋生態系管理計画においてMPAを創設

定書および地域的枠組みに関する条約を起草し、採する場合である。

択する時期は熟しているかもしれない。
結 論

東アジア海域の国々が、MPAのネットワークを設定するために地域行動計画もしくは条約の採択を

この地域の国々に、海洋環境全般の保全と保護、考えようとしているのには、幾つかの実際的な理由

および持続可能な方法で海洋資源と沿岸域資源を保があろう。まず、そうすることで、様々な経験を共全・管理するための枠組みを提供する、多くのグロー有し、地域に最もふさわしいモデルを生み出すことバルな文書がある。これらの批准と効果的な実施は、ができるだろう。第二に、海洋および沿岸域の生物

この地域の全ての国々にとって最優先課題でなけれ生息地や生態系保護の必要性や地域協力の恩恵が、ばならない。

一般的 に 認識 されるようになるだろう 。第三 に 、海洋および沿岸域生物生息地と生態系の保全は、MPAが地域条約で地域の課題として取り上げられ主として国、地方、地元政府がおこなうべき職務でれば、国家政府がそれをこれまで以上に優先する可ある。２つの最も重要な管理手段とは、沿岸域の統能性がある。第四に、MPAが地域計画の一部にな合管理とMPAの設定である。グローバルな文書は、

ると、国際的開発機関から資金や技術の援助がうけこの問題に対する包括的で統合的な、しこも有機的られる可能性がさらに高くなる。

でもあるアプローチの検討にあたって、国家が従い25

26

東アジア海域のための行動計画 は1981年 に採うるガイドラインを提供してきた。

択された。過去２年間で、東アジア海域のための地

同時に、地域レベルにおける協力の強化も、海洋

cooperation in marine conservation. Therefore, the time
may be ripe for the countries in this region to adopt
a Regional Convention and Protocol for SpeciallyProtected Areas.

Programme, see http：//www.unesco.org/mab/
8 For information on the 1995 Global Programme of
Action, see http：//www.gpa.unep.org/
9 For the text and other information on the FAO
Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries, see http：//www.fao.org/fi/agreem/codecond/codecon.asp
10 For information on MARPOL 73/78, see thebackground article from IMO Focus on the IMO
web page ： http ： //www .imo.org/imo/focus/1997/
marpol.pdf
11 For the guidelines on the designation of Special
Areas, see IMO Assembly Resolution A.720 (17thSession, 1991), Guidelines for the Designation ofSpecial Areas and the Identification of Particularly
Sensitive Sea Areas.
12 For guidelines on the designation of PSSAs, see
IMO Assembly Resolution A.720 (17th Session,1991), ibid., and IMO Assembly Resolution A.885(21st Session, 1999), Procedures for the Identification of Particularly Sensitive Sea Areas and the
Adoption of Associated Protective Measures andAmendments to the Guidelines Contained in Resolution A.720(17).
13 From draft document by Clare Shine of the Cent-

1 For the text and current status of 1982 UNCLOS,
see the web page of the UN Division for Ocean
Affairs and the Law of the Sea at http：//www.un.
org/Depts/los/losconv1.htm
2 For the text of Agenda 21 and other UNCED documents, see http：//www.igc.apc.org/habitat/agenda21/
index.html
3 For the text, current status and other informationon the Biodiversity Convention, see the web pageof the Secretariat in Montreal at http：//www.biodiv.
org.
4 For information on the Jakarta Mandate, see http：//www.biodiv.org/jm.html
5 For text, status and other information on the Ramsar
Convention, see http：//www.ramsar.org/
6 For text, status and other information on the World
Heritage Convention, see http：//www.unesco.org/
whc/nwhc/pages/home/pages/homepage.htm
7 For information on the UNESCO Man & Biosphere

49International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

および沿岸域生物生息地と生態系の保護のために必and the Adoption of Associated Protective Measures

要である。地中海や大カリブ海域で実証されたとおand Amend‑ments to the Guidelines Contained in

り、国連環境計画の地域海域計画は、海洋保全でのResolution A．720（17）．

地域協力を促進するための重要な手段になりうる。
それゆえ、この地域の国々が、地域条約および特別保護区域のための議定書を採択する時期は熟しているかもしれない。
1 For the text and current status of 1982 UNCLOS，
see the web page of the UN Division for Ocean
Affairs and the Law of the Sea at http：//www.
un.org/Depts/los/losconv1.htm
2 For information on MARPOL 73/78，see thebackground article from IMO Focus on the IMO
web page：http：//www.imo.org/imo/focus/1997/marpol.pdf
3 For guidelines on the designation of PSSAs，see IMO Assembly Resolution A．720（17th Ses‑
sion，1991），ibid.，and IMO Assembly Resolution
A.885 （21st Session，1999），Procedures for the
Identification of Particularly Sensitive Sea Areas

ch/seas/main/med/medspaii.htmll
23 For background on the East Asian Seas Region,
see the A Global Representative System of Marine
Protected Areas - Volume 3, Marine Region 13：
East Asian Seas, A Report to the World Bank
Environment Department (Editors：Chris Bleakley
and Sue Wells) http：//www.environment.gov.au/
marine/marine_protected/nrsmpa/mpa/chap13.html
24 For background information see the web page of
the Regional Coordinating Unit for the East Asian
Seas Action Plan at http：//www.roap.unep.org/easrcu/index.htm

er for Environmental Law, entitled Environmental
Security of Coastal, Marine and Island Ecosystems.
Coastal Conservation：Policy and Legal Tools (draft
copy provided to the author by Clare Shine).
14 For Guidelines on the management categories, see
the following IUCN publication on the IUCN web
page：http：//wcpa.iucn.org/pubs/pdfs/IUCNCategories.
pdf
15 For general information on the Regional Seas
Programme, see http：//www.unep.ch/seas/rshome.
html
16 For a full list of Conventions and Protocols, see
http：//www.unep.ch/seas/main/hconlist.html
17 For the text of the Cartegena Convention, see http：//www.cep.unep.org/law/cartnut.html
18 For the text of the 1990 SPAW Protocol, see http：//www.cep.unep.org/law/spawnut.html
19 For the text of the Barcelona Convention, see http：//www.unep.ch/seas/main/med/medconvi.html
20 For 1995 revised text, see http：//www.unep.ch/seas/main/med/medconvii.html
21 For the text of the 1982 SPA Protocol, see http：//www.unep.ch/seas/main/med/medspap.html
22 For the 1995 revised text, see http：//www.unep.

50

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

日本の養殖事業における閉鎖水域の環境質の診断
主要構成要素分析を用いた環境状態の沿岸域管理例
大和田

紘一

東京大学海洋研究所
1-15-1 Minamidai, Nakano- ku, Tokyo 164-8639 Japan
Tel：81 3 5351 6353, Fax: 81 3 5351 6482
E- Mail：ohwada@ori.u- tokyo.ac.jp
日本水産資源保護協会は長期にわたる研究をおこれた環境データの主要構成要素分析がデータとしてない、養殖にかかわる閉鎖水域の環境状態の診断と加えられたのである。この分析の質的向上と残され全体的な質の比較をおこなってきた。「有機物汚染

た課題について論じる。

指標」は水底特性志向環境ファクターを選択してま

１．日本の盛んな養殖事業ず計算された。 これにはCOD、全硫化物（ TS）、

1998年の日本漁業白書の報告によると、6,684千

イグニション・ロス（IL）、全窒素（TN）、全リントンの総漁獲高のうち、1,227千トン（18％）が養（TP）、および含水率が含まれる。そしてこれに水殖によるものである。その漁獲高は、のり（Porphyla）

産庁がおこなった10の閉鎖水域から得られた選択さが397千トン、ホタテ貝が226千トン、牡蠣が199千

DIAGNOSIS OF ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY OF ENCLOSED WATER
AREAS RELATED TO AQUACULTURAL ACTIVITIES IN JAPAN- AN EXAMPLE OF COASTAL MANAGEMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL
CONDITION USING PRINCIPAL COMPONENT ANALYSIS Kouichi OHWADA
Ocean Research Institute, University of Tokyo
1-15-1 Minamidai, Nakano- ku, Tokyo 164-8639 JapanE- mail：ohwada@ori.u- tokyo.ac.jp
Abstract
Japan Fisheries Resources Conservation Association has long been conducting a study to makediagnosis of environmental conditions of enclosed
water areas related to aquaculture and compare thequalities as a whole. ’Organic Pollution index’ wasfirst calculated from the selection of bottom quality
oriented environmental factors, such as COD, Total
Sulfide (TS), Ignition Loss (IL), Total Nitrogen (TN),Total Phosphorus (TP) and Mud Content (MC), andfrom principal component analysis of the environmental
data from 10 representative enclosed areas surveyed
by Japanese Fisheries Agency in 1985. Improvements
have been made for obtaining Organic Pollution Index,

Z1, from 1995 with 10 another representative enclosed
water areas, reducing the numbers of environmental
factors for principal componenet analysis, and precise
definition of sampling and analysis methods. Calculation methods and some remaining problems will be
discussed.
1.High activity of aquaculture in Japan
Japanese Fisheries and Aquaculture Production
Annual Statistics for 1998 (2000)1）reports that in 6,
884 thousand tons of the total production, 1,227
thousand tons or 18% come from marine aquaculturalactivity. The aquaculture production was obtained from
culture of Porphyla (397 thousand tons), scallops (226thousand tons), oysters (199 thousand tons), yellowtails

51

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

トン、ブリが147千トン、赤鯛が83千トン、わかめ

この水域での水循環は、沈殿物を取り除くのに十分（Undaria）が77千トン、こんぶ（Laminaria）が51

な強さはない。これら地域がかかえる最も深刻な問千トン等である。全漁獲高を円換算すると、1998年

題は、海底での有機物の堆積であり、それは魚が食で5460億円となり、その内訳はブリ（1420億円（26べ残した餌の魚籠からの大量流出、および貝類の養％））、海藻類（ Porphyla, Undaria, Laminari）

殖による沈殿物に加えて、陸上の栄養物の排出によ（1160億円（21.2％））、赤鯛（651億円（11.9％））、

る富栄養化に起因するものである。このような条件

ホタテ貝（400億円（7.3％））、真珠（353億円（6.5が時として魚病や赤潮を引き起こすのである。Ito％））、牡蠣（329億円（6.0％））等となっており、とImai（1995）は、底質での有機物の堆積と底質か

日本における重要な水産資源となっている。このよら水中へ放出される硫化水素の毒性の影響によって、うな養殖を営む海域が日本中、ほぼ津々浦々に存在繰り返される養殖牡蠣床生産が減少していることをしている。

指摘している 。牡蠣床 の 条件悪化と 改善 の 試 みが２．環境の状態

Kusuki（1981）によって研究されまとめられた。

日本で養殖がおこなわれているほとんどの地域は、

表 １ は 減少 する 底質 の 有害影響 をまとめている 。

比較的閉じられた湾や浅海沿岸水域に点在している。

（Hata 1962）(147 thousand tons), red seabreams (83 thousand tons),
Undaria (77 thousand tons), Laminaria (51 thousandtons) and so on. Total production counted by Japanese
Yen were 546 billion yen in 1998, which have been
occupied by yellowtails ( 142 billion yen, 26.0 %),seaweeds (Porphyla, Undaria and Laminaria) (116billion yen, 21.2%), red seabreams (65.1 billion yen,
11.9%), scallops (40.0 billion yen, 7.3%), pearls (35.
3 billion yen, 6.5%), oysters (32.9 billion yen, 6.0%)
and so on . These items are the main importantaquaculture in Japan. Such culture areas distributed in
the enclosed water areas in almost whole Japan from
north to south.
2.Environmental conditions
Most of the aquaculture areas in Japan are locatedin relatively enclosed bays and coastal waters with aneritic environment. Water circulation in such areas
is not strong enough to remove deposited substances.
The most serious problem is the accumulation oforganic matter on the bottom due to vast dischargeof unconsumed food from fish cages and deposited
substances from shellfish cultures in addition to an
eutrophication caused by discharge of nutrients fromland sources. Ito and Imai (1955)2） reported the decline
in productivity of oyster beds by repeated culture,
due to accumulation of organic matter in the sediments and toxic effects of hydrogen sulfide released fromthe sediments into the water. Deteriorated conditionsof oyster beds and efforts for their improvement havebeen studied and summarized by Kusuki (1981). 3）
Table 1 summarizes harmful effects of decreased bottom
quality (Hata 1962).4）

Table 1 Harmful effects of deteriorated bottom quality
Surface
Water
BottomSediment

Regeneration of nutrients and organic matter⇒

Eutrophication⇒ Occurrence of
Liberation of vitamins, Fe‑chelate, and⇒ ed tides
minute organic matter⇒ Death of mid‑& bottom‑water
Decrease of Oxygen⇒ Layer fish
Liberation of H2S
Decomposition of Org matter
Consumption of DO → Death of Benthic fish⇒↑
Sulfate reduction
H2S

52

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

３．水底特性志向環境ファクターを取り入れた閉鎖な要素であるZ1が次式で得られた。

水域環境特性比較の試み

Z1=a（COD）＋b（IL）＋c（TS）＋d（TN）

日本の水産庁では、1974年以来、多くの閉鎖性水＋e（TP）＋f（MC）

域における環境状況を調査するため、３年間の大きa：0.310 b：0.170 c：0.868 d：0.273

なプロジェクト「漁場改善に関する基礎環境調査」

e：0.141 f：0.166を実施した。これらのデータは、日本漁業資源保護

主な要素（Z1）は、76.3％の分散で説明できる

協会によって解析され、1985年に「底質環境質の改ことが分かった。全データは標準化され、それぞれ

善のためのガイドライン」として発表された。このの 観測点 から 得 られた 標準 Z1 は 、「有機汚濁指標

課程において、主な要素解析が、このプロジェクト（Organic Pollution Index）」と呼ばれ、次のようで調べられた６つの底質に起因する環境指標、すなに算出される。

わち 、COD、全硫化物（TS）、 イグニション ・ ロ

Organic Pollution Index ＝ 0.310×（ COD −ス（IL）、全窒素（TN）、全リン（TP）、および泥23.5）／23.5＋0.170×（IL−11.7）／11.7＋0.

率を用いて紹介された。 代表的な10の水域におけ

868×（TS−0.504）／0.504＋0.273×（TN−る1,231の観測点から得られた全てのデータから主1.82）＋0.141×（TP−0.618）／0.618＋0.166

3.Attempt to make diagnosis of environmental
quality of enclosed areas with botto m
quality oriented environmental factors
Japanese Fisheries Agency has conducted 3-years
big project "Basic Environmental Survey for the
Improvement of Fisheries Grounds" to assess environmental
conditions of a lot of enclosed water areas since 1974.
These data have been analyzed by Japan Fisheries
Resources Conservation Association and "Guideline
for the Improvement of Bottom Environmental Quality" was announced in 1985.5） In this process, principal
component analysis was introduced with 6 bottom
oriented environmental factors observed during theabove project, namely COD, Ignition Loss(IL), Total
Sulfide(TS), Total Phosphorus(TP), Total Nitrogen(TN)and Mud Content(MC). Inputting all the data from 1,
231 stations in the 10 representative enclosed water
areas, principal component, Z1, was obtained with thefollowing formula;
Z1= a(COD) + b(IL) + c(TS) + d(TN) + e(TP)+ f(MC )a：0.310 b：0.170 c：0.868 d：0.273 e：0.141
f：0.166
It was found that principal component (Z1) explains
76.3% of variances. All the data were standardized,

and the standardized score, Z 1, from each station
was called ’Organic Pollution Index’, and was calculated
as follows;
Organic Pollution Index= 0.310 x (COD-23.5)/23.5 + 0.170 x (IL-11.7)/11.
7 + 0.868
x (TS-0.504)/0.504+ 0.273 x (TN-1.82)/1.82 +0.141
x (TP-0.618)/0.618 + 0.166 x (MD-68.3)/68.3
To evaluate the Organic Pollution Index obtained
through principal component analysis, COD and TS
data were selected as external criteria for evaluation,
because COD and TS values have been used for the
Water Quality Criteria for the Protection of Aquatic
Living Resources (1983),6） in which the areas below
20 mg/dry g in COD and 0.2 mg/dry g in TS areconsidered as clean, the areas between 20 and 30 mg/dry g in COD and between 0.2 and 1.0 mg/dry g in
TS as starting eutrophication, and the areas above 30
mg / dry g in COD and 1.0 mg / dry g in TS as
eutrophicated. So the COD and TS data from all thestations in the 10 representative enclosed water areas
were plotted on a graph with COD as abscissa andTS as ordinate as shown in Fig. 1. The Z1 scoresobtained from the same 10 representative enclosed

53

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

×（MD−68.3）／68.3

れる。また、CODで30mg/dry g、TSで1.0mg/dry

主要要素の解析によって得られた有機汚濁指標をg以上は富栄養化状態である。従って、10の代表的評価するため、CODとTSデータが外部評価のためな閉鎖性水域における全ての観測点からのCODとTSの判断基準として選別された。なぜならば、COD

デー タを 横軸 にCOD,縦軸に TSでプロットした 図とTS値は水生生物資源の保護のための水質基準にが図１である。Z1値も、同じグラフ上に記してい使用 されてきたからである 。 その 中 で 、 COD でる。Z1値と水質基準の比較から、Z1値は次のよう20mg/dry g、TSで0.2mg/dry g未満は良好な 水に評価されるであろう。
Z1値 < 0域と考えられ、CODで20‑30mg/dry g、TSで0.2‑

良好

1.0mg/dry gは富栄養化が始まっていると考えら

富栄養化進行

0 < Z1値 < 1

富栄養化状態

1 < Z1値

このガイドラインでは、ふたつの重要なコメントが将来の課題として指摘されている。
１つ目は、プロジェクトを通じて得られた全底質環境ファクターでの底水域の貧酸素状況

図１：日本における10の代表的な閉鎖性水域での全ての状態から得られたCOD,TSに 関 する 有機汚濁指標、Z1値 の分布。異 なる印 は水域の違いを示す。

new approach for the diagnosis of environmental
quality of enclosed waters have been discussed
until 2000. Improvements have been made forFig.1 Distribution of values of 'Organic Pollution Index', Z1
obtaining Organic Pollution Index, Z1, as follows
scores, related to COD and TS taken from all the; (1) collection of environmental data from 10
stations in the 10 representative enclosed water
areas in Japan. Various marks show the differences
another representative enclosed water areas, (2)of the areas.
precise definition of sampling and analysis
areas were also plotted on the same graph. From themethods, (3) reducing the numbers of environmental
comparison of Z1 scores with water quality criteria,
factors for principal component analysis, (4) introducZ1 scores could be evaluated as follows：tion of diversity index for macrobenthos, H’, (5) preparAClean areas
Z1 scores<0
ing four combinations of data sets for calculation ofAreas starting eutrophication
Z1, (6) use of the lowest concentration of dissolved
0<Z1 scores<1
AAreas eutrophicatedoxygen above 1 m from the bottom as external criteria
1<Z1 scores
In this guideline two important comments havefor the evaluation of Z1 scores. When applying thisbeen pointed out for future consideration. First commdiagnosis method for environmental quality to a newent was the lack of direct measurement of microbial
water area, data of precise environmental factors areactivity leading to oxygen-deficient bottom waters in
not always available. So only four measurements ofall the bottom environmental factors observed during
environmental factors were selected; COD and Ignition
the project. Second one was the lack of method to
Loss (IL) for indication of organic matter content,
clarify how deteriorated bottom environment would
Total Sulfide(TS) for degree of anaerobic condition,
influence harmful effects to benthic organisms mediated
Mud Content (MC) for bottom water current. In addiby bottom water current.
tion diversity index of macrobenthos (H’) was introduced
Then another committee for the conservation of
to know if the conditions permit any organisms tobottom environment was organized in Japan Fisheries
survive or not. Calculation of Z1 scores from fourResources Conservation Association in 1993, and a
combinations of parameters, namely two sets of three54

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

による微生物活動の直接的な測定値がないことであつのデータセットを準備した、（６）Z1値評価のたる。２つ目は、底質の劣化した環境がどのようにベめの外部基準として底から１ｍ上の最も低い溶存酸

ントスへ底水流によって引き起こされる悪性影響を素濃度を利用した。新しい水域に対する環境質診断

もたらすかを明確にする方法がないことである。

手法を採用するとき、正確な環境ファクターのデー

底質環境の保全のためのもうひとつの委員会が日

タはいつも得られるとはかぎらない。そこで、環境

本漁業資源保護協会によって1993年に設置され、閉ファクターの４つの測定値、つまり、有機物濃度の鎖性水域における環境質の診断のための新しい手法指標 としての COD とイグニション ・ ロス （ IL ）、が2000年まで議論された。有機汚濁指標Z1を得る

anaerobic状況のための全硫黄（TS）、底水流のたために次のような改善が施された。（１）さらにもめの泥率（MC）だけが選択された。加えて、マイう10地点の代表的な閉鎖性水域の環境データを収集

クロベントスの多様性指標Ｈがその状況下で有機物

した、（２）サンプリング及び解析手法の正確な定が生存できるか否かを知るために導入された。３つ義をおこなった、（３）主な要素解析の環境ファクのパラメータの２セットと各セットへのＨの追加でター数を減少させた、（４）マイクロベントス多様ある４つのパラメータセットからのZ1値の算出が性指標Hの導入を行った、（５）Z1算出のための４

このプロジェクトで試行された。もうひとつの重要

parameters, and addition of H’ to each set, were triedin this project. Another important point was the changeof external criteria for the evaluation of Z1 scoresfrom concentrations of COD and TS to the lowest
concentration of dissolved oxygen above 1 m fromthe bottom in that area. Special attention was focussed
for the frequent analysis of vertical profile of DO
concentrations in the worst seasons, such as July,

August and September. Table 2 shows a manual forthe data collection during the new test surveys at the
new 10 representative enclosed water areas from 1995
to 1999. Table 3 shows the methods of principal
component analysis and the results of the proportionof Z1 scores (%) obtained. It was found most of theZ1 scores calculated with these methods explained atleast 73.8 % of the variances.

Table 2 Manual for the data collection：Summer time when water physically
Periods of sampling
Stratifies and bad bottom condition occurs
Sediment sampling：Eckman‑Birge of Smith‑McIntire grab sampler→ surface 0‑2 cm
Chemical study→ 1/10 m2 or 1/50 m2
Macrobenthos
Analysis：O2 consumption by alkaline KMnO4
COD：AVS test column （Gastec 201H）
TS（Total Sulfide）：Loss of weight （%） after ignition at 550oC for 6hr
IL（Ignition Loss）：Remaining weight （%） after passed through aMC（Mud Content）
250 mesh （0.063mm）（Diversity index of macrobenthos）
H'：

DO at a depth above 1m from bottom：the lowest concentration
through one week interval
Observation during summer*

s：number of species in the sample
pi：probability of one individual belongs to species i55

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

な点は、底から１ｍ上の最も低い溶存酸素濃度に対れたZ1値 を示している。非常 に良い相関が得られするCODとTS濃度から算出されるZ1値評価のためていることから、Z1aとZ1eはDO濃度に関連づけての外部基準の変更である。７月、８月、９月といっ算出された。同様な関係がIL,TS,MC,COD指標とた悪条件でのDO濃度の縦方向のプロファイルの頻Z1b及びTS,MC指標とZ1fの関係でも得られている。

繁な解析に特別な注意が払われた。表２は、1995年（図３） この関係から次の条件が導かれる。
Z1 < 0 及 び

から1999年にかけて実施された新しい10の代表的な

正常な沈殿物

閉鎖性水域における調査でのデータ収集方法を示し> 4.3mg/L 又は 3.0 ml/Lている 。表 ３ は 、主 な 要素解析 の方法 と得 られた栄養化した沈殿物

Z1値（％）割合の結果を示している。これらの方< 4.3mg/L 又は 3.0 ml/L

Z1 > 0 及 び

最低DO

最低DO

法で算出された大部分のZ1は、少なくとも73.8％

表４は、環境ファクターセットに基づく新しい水の分散値で説明できることが判明した。図２は、10域に適用したZ1値算出令のいくつかを示している。

の代表的な日本の閉鎖性水域で得られたIL,TS,MC,

底から１ｍ上の最も低い溶存酸素濃度とZ1値算出

H指標（それぞれを横軸に、また縦軸には底から１に基づく新しい環境状況の判断を行うことはむしろｍでの最低DO濃度をプロットしている）で算出さ容易である。1985年の「底質環境質の改善のためのTable 3 Methods of Principal Component Analysis （PCA）and the Results
Formula of principal component

Proportion （%）

IL , TS , M C , H'IL , PCA with correlation matrix
TS , MCZ1a=0.508（IL）+0.510（TS）+0.513（MC）‑0.466（H'）
Z1b=0.588（IL）+0.559（TS）+0.584（MC）

74.7
81.2

COD, TS, MC, H'COD, PCA with correlation matrix
TS , MCZ1e=0.504（COD）+0.513（TS）+0.506（MC）‑0.474（H'）
Z1f=0.582（COD）+0.568（TS）+0.580（MC）

74.2
79.9

Explanatory variables

Method of analysis

Calculations for Z1 scores

Z1a = 0.508（IL‑7.99）/4.52+0.510（TS‑0.51）/0.60+0.513（MC‑64.9）/30.5‑0.466（H'‑2.69）/1.30
Z1b = 0.588（IL‑7.99）/4.52+0.559（TS‑0.51）/0.60+0.584（MC‑64.9）/30.5
Z1e = 0.504（COD‑20.9）/15.4+0.513（TS‑0.51）/0.60+0.506（MC‑64.9）/30.5‑0.474（H'‑2.69）/1.30
Z1f = 0.582（COD‑20.9）/15.4+0.568（TS‑0.51）/0.60+0.580（MC‑64.9）/30.5

Fig. 2 shows the Z1 scores obtained from the
10 representative enclosed waters in Japan calculatedwith Index of IL, TS, MC and H’, and COD, TS,
MC and H’ respectively, and plotted on graphs Indicesas abscissa and the lowest concentrations of DO at
1 m above bottom as ordinate. From the very goodcorrelations observed, Z1a and Z1e were calculatedwith relation to DO concentrations. Similar relationships were obtained in Z1b and Z1f scores calculatedwith Indices of IL, TS and MC, and COD, TS andMC respectively (Fig. 3). These relationships lead tothe following diagnosis;

Sediments of normal conditionZ1 score<0 and Lowest DO>4.3mg/L or 3.0ml/L
Eutrophicate sediments
Z1 score>0 and Lowest DO<4.3mg/L or 3.0ml/L
Table 4 shows some examples of calculation ofZ1 scores applied to new water areas based on the
combinations of environmental factor sets. It is rather
easy to make diagnosis of environmental condition of
the new water areas based on calculation of Z1 scoresand the lowest DO concentration of those areas at 1
m above the bottom.

56

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

図２：日本の代表的な新しい10の閉鎖性水域の全状況から算出されたZ1値、横軸にZ1値、縦軸に最低DO濃度をプロットしている。異なる印は水域の違いを示す。
左：IL,TS,MC,Hで算出されたZ1a
右：COD,TS,MC,Hで算出されたZ1e
Fig. 2 Z1 scores calculated from all the station in the 10 new representative enclosed areas in Japan plotted as
Z1 value as abscissa and lowest DO concentrations as ordinate. Various marks show the differences of theareas.
Left：Z1a calculated with IL, TS, MC and H'
Right：Z1e calculated with COD, TS, MC and H'

図３：日本の代表的な新しい10の閉鎖性水域の全状況から算出されたZ1値、横軸にZ1値、縦軸に最低DO濃度をプロットしている。異なる印は水域の違いを示す。
左：IL,TS,MCで算出されたZ1b
右：COD,TS,MCで算出されたZ1f
Fig. 3 Z1 scores calculated from all the station in the 10 new representative enclosed areas in Japan plotted as
Z1 value as abscissa and lowest DO concentrations as ordinate. Various marks show the differences of theareas.
Left：Z1b calculated with IL, TS and MC
Right：Z1f calculated with COD, TS and MCTable 4 Examples of calculation of Z1 scores
1.Sediment with 21.8 mg/g in COD, 1.26 mg/g in TS, 85.4% in MC and 2.21 bit in H’
Z1e = 0.504x(21.8-20.9)/15.4+0.513x(1.26-0.51)/0.60+0.506x(85.4-64.9)/30.5-0.474x(2.21-2.69)/1.30 = 1.19
2.Sediment with 9.71% in IL, 1.26 mg/g in TS, 85.4% in MC and 2.2 bit in H’
Z1c = 0.508x(9.71-7.99)/4.52+0.510x(1.26-0.51)/0.60+0.513x(85.4-64.9)/30.5-0.466x(2.21-2.69) = 1.98
3.Sediment with 3.7 mg/g in COD, 0.01 mg/g in TS and 20.0% in MC
Z1f = 0.582x(3.7-20.9)/15.4+0.568x(0.01-0.51)/0.60+0.580x(20.0-64.9)/30.5 = -1.98
4.Sediment with 2.10% in IL, 0.01 mg/g in TS and, 20.0% in MC
Z1d = 0.588x(2.10-7.99)/4.52+0.559x(0.01-0.51)/0.60+0.584x(20.0-64.9)/30.5 = -2.09

57

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

ガイドライン」で指摘された環境ファクターの選定についてはいくつかの問題がまだ残っているが、この手法は、診断の要求に応えて、日本漁業資源保護
協会から全国の水産関係者や自治体に配布された。
これは、主な要素解析を利用した閉鎖性水域の環境状況に関する沿岸管理の一例である。この手法は日本や少なくとも温帯地域で使用できる。しかし、熱帯地域の水域での環境質の診断に対しては、たぶん、その気候条件に応じた他の手法を作る必要がある。
熱帯に属するアジア諸国において、マングルーブやエビ養殖等の環境状況の診断ために、そのような手法が必要となるであろう。
（事務局仮訳）

References
Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries. 2000.
Japanese Fisheries and Aquaculture Production
Annual Statistics for 1998.(in Japanese)
Ito, S. and T. Imai. 1955. Ecology of oyster bed. I.
On the decline of productivity due to repeatedcultures. Tohoku J. Agric. Res. 5：251-268.
Kusuki, Y. 1981. Fundamental studies on the deterioration of oyster growing grounds. Bull. Hiroshima
Fish. Exp. Stn. 11：1-93.(in Japanese)
Hata, Y. 1986. Improvement of bottom quality. In
A. Murakami ed. Regulation of Nitrogenand Phosphorus Release into the Enclosed
Marine Waters from Fisheries Viewpoint.
Koseisha-Koseikaku, 134-149.(in Japanese)
Japan Fisheries Resources Conservation Association.
1985. Guideline for the Improvement of
Bottom Environmental Quality. (in Japanese)
Japan Fisheries Resources Conservation Association.
1983. Water Quality Criteria for the Protection of Aquatic Living Resources. (in Japanese)

Although there still have some problems for theselection of the environmental factors pointed out in
the Guideline for the Improvement of Bottom
Environmental Quality 1985,5） this manual has been
distributed to each prefecture and aquaculture people
in Japan from Japan Fisheries Resources Conservation
Association for the request of diagnosis. This is one
example of coastal management of environmental
conditions of enclosed water areas using principal
component analysis. This manual can be used in Japanor at least in the temperate regions. However, fordiagnosis of environmental quality in the tropical waters, probably other methods fitting to this climate
condition are necessary to be produced. I hope suchmethods will become available here to make diagnosisof the environmental conditions of shrimp culture andother aquaculture areas as well as mangrove swamps
in the tropical Asian countries.
Acknowledgement
I would like to thank Japanese Fisheries Agency
and Japan Fisheries Resources Conservation Association
to give permission to write this paper. I would also
like to thank Dr. Kyoichi Tamai and Mr. Hideharu
Tamori for their encouragement and discussion.

58

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

発展途上国における沿岸海洋資源の経済評価
スパチット・マノピモケ
タマサット大学経済学部
Prachan Road, Bangkok 10200, Thailand
E- Mail：smano@econ.tu.ac.th

本稿の基礎となる前提は、多くの途上国で起こっらかな事実は、十分な実証的研究がまだおこなわれている沿岸域海洋資源の破壊は深刻であり、資源のておらず、途上国が抱える緊急の課題に取り組むた

希少性と環境保護の機会コストを考えると、政策決めの政策を、経済的に評価することができないとい定者が資源の総合的な経済的価値および問題予防策

うことである。また本稿は、途上国の沿岸域海洋資または軽減策の利益とコストを考慮することが重要

源の経済的評価をめぐって存在する深刻なギャップである、ということである。本稿は途上国においておよび概念的問題を明らかにするものであり、これ沿岸域海洋資源の経済的評価をおこなう際の概念的、を裏付ける詳細なデータと議論を用いて、いくつか

実証的側面に関する文献および概念の使用法、政策の考察をおこなうことにする。

形成と実施に関する研究を概説するものである。明ECONOMIC VALUATION OF COASTAL MARINE RESOURCES
IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES：SOME OBSERVATIONSSupachit MANOPIMOKE
Faculty of Economics, Thammasat University
Prachan Road, Bangkok 10200, Thailand
E- Mail：smano@econ.tu.ac.th

This paper is based on the premises that theconcepts and studies for policy formulation anddegradation of coastal marine resources in many parts

implementation. It is found that there is yet an adequateof the developing world are potentially serious, andbody of empirical studies to support the economic

that the scarcity of resources and the opportunity

assessment of policies to deal with the most pressing

costs of environmental protection make it important

issues facing developing countries today . The

for policy makers to consider the total economic value

paper also identifies the serious gaps and the conceptualof the resources as well as the benefits and costs ofissues surrounding economic valuation of coastal

preventing or reducing the problem. The paper reviews

marine resources in developing countries. A number

the literature on both the conceptual and empiricalof observations are provided with supporting detail

aspects of the economic valuation of coastal marineand discussion.

resources in developing countries and the use of the59International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

沿岸域・海洋生態系の保護と管理における地域での調整
ヒュー・カークマン
コーディネーター
国連環境プログラム
東アジア海域調整ユニット
国連ビル，Rajdamnern通り
Bangkok 10200 ，Thailand
E- mail：kirkman.unescap@un.org
概 要

アジア海域調整機構の加盟国の要件はUNEPのそれ

UNEPは、世界の環境保護における国連の指導的とは異なる場合がある。

機関 である 。このような 役割を 担う 機関 として 、理想論を言えば、EAS/RCUは、この地域の沿岸

UNEPは天然資源の保護、回復、持続可能な資源利域におけるすべての保全、管理もしくは改善計画の用および管理を、指導し調整し、時として規制しな実態を把握したいと考えている。それは必ずしも計ければならない。東アジア海域調整ユニット（EAS

画へのEAS/RCUの参加を意味するものではないが、/RCU）は、東アジア海域の海洋および沿岸域での調整、意思の確認、そしてある程度の関与は可能で環境保護について、加盟各国から権限を委任されてあろう。EAS/RCUのビジョンは、同じ計画ができいる。加盟国は、会合を開いて、その行動計画の実たり、計画が重複する可能性を少なくしたり、ある施を認め、提案し、これを援助する。実際には、東いは防ぐ目的で、海洋環境の回復・保護・管理のた

REGIONAL COORDINATION IN PROTECTION AND MANAGEMENT
OF COASTAL MARINE ECOSYSTEMS
Hugh KIRKMAN
Coordinator
United Nations Environment Programme
East Asian Seas Regional Coordinating Unit
United Nations Building, Rajdamnern Avenue
Bangkok 10200, Thailand
E- mail：kirkman.unescap@un.org
Abstract

UNEP.

UNEP is the lead UN agency in environmental

Ideally, the EAS/RCU would like to know of every

protection in the world . As such it must direct,

conservation, management or amelioration plan in thecoordinate and sometimes control the protection, restora-

coastal areas of the Region. This knowledge would

tion, sustainable resource use and management of

not necessarily mean participation but it could involve

natural resources . The East Asian Seas Regional

coordination, communication and some involvement.

Coordinating Unit (EAS/RCU) has a mandate fromThe EAS/RCU vision is for a regional metadata baseits member countries to protect the marine and coastalon all marine parameters and coordination of efforts

environment of East Asian Seas. Member countries

to restore, protect and manage marine environments

endorse, suggest and assist with implementation of

to reduce or prevent overlapping and duplication of

the Action Plan at their meetings. In fact, the require-

projects.

ments of the Coordinating Body of the Seas of East

Other UNEP agencies with a keen interest in the

Asia member countries may differ from those of

East Asian Seas are Global International Waters

60International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

めのさまざまな努力の調整と海洋に関するすべての金なども含まれている。

要素について、地域メタデータベースの作成に関す

本稿ではEAS/RCUの役割および将来の目標と義るものである。

務について述べる。
序 論

東アジア海域に強い関心を持つ他のUNEP機関としては、グローバル国際水域アセスメント、海洋汚

東アジア海域における海洋環境問題解決への努力

染の原因となる陸上での活動のためのグローバル行

は、どちらからと言えば、私が考えるフットボール

動計画、ならびにさまざまな国連開発計画に基づく発祥の様子に似ている。たくさんの人々が−その多活動がある。国連以外ではNGOや政府機関がある。

くがフットボールを持って−、大きな不規則な形をNGOの活動は、特定の分野に限られたり、国連としたフィールドで、好き勝手にボールを蹴っている

同じ目的をもつ場合があろう。政府機関が、海洋環姿を想像してみよう。フットボールがなくて、ボー

境の保全を唯一の目的としていることはあまりない。

ルがほしいと思っている人がいる。そうかと思えば、どちらかといえば、政府機関は、開発、経済成長、

とんでもない方向へボールを蹴ってしまった人がい資源開発や多くの社会経済的事項を優先するであろる。そのボールを受けたのが、ボールを持っていなう。

い人で、持ち主に向かってボールを蹴り返す者もい

EAS/RCUはまた、海洋環境の保全に役立つ計画

れば、そうでない者もいる。これが、地域の環境問を率先して行なうよう、加盟国から求められている。

題を解決しようというビジョンを持っていた人々が海洋環境 の 悪化 を 緩和 するための 重要 な 資金源 は30年前におこなっていた、今と違って、どちらかとGEFである。 また、資金提供機関には 拠出国や 基言えばでたらめな努力なのだ。

Assessment, Global Plan of Action for Land-basedin the East Asian Seas were rather like the way that

Activities that pollute the sea and various United Na-

I imagine football to have originated. Imagine a number

tions Development Program activities. Outside the UNof people, many with footballs, kicking them indiscriminent-

are NGO’s and government agencies. NGO’s may be

ly around a large irregularly shaped field. Some don’tvery specific in their activities or have similar aims

have footballs and want one to kick. Others kickto the UN. Government departments very often dotheir balls out of control and the balls are taken by

not have as their sole requirement the conservation

those without balls and may or may not be kickedof marine environments. Rather they may have developm-

back to the owners. These are the different, rather

ent, growth, resource extraction and many socio-economic

haphazard efforts that were being made by people ofpriorities

vision thirty years ago to solve the region’s environmental
problems.

The EAS/RCU is also asked by member countries
to initiate projects that may help preserve marine

Then the people kicking the footballs back realise

environments. GEF is the main source of large funds

that it is fun to direct a ball somewhere and that thefor reducing marine environmental degradation. Fund-receiver can admire their expertise at returning theing agencies also include donor countries and founda-ball. Now develops a partnership with the balls being

tions.

kicked between two. Some of the environmental groups

This paper describes the role of the EAS/RCU

are beginning to realise that sharing efforts can makeand its future aims and obligations.

a larger impact on the issues.

Introduction

Soon, returning to the football analogy, this pairing
broadens to the ball being kicked between more thanEfforts at solving marine environmental problems

61

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

そこでフットボールを蹴り返す人は、ボールをど

幾つかの規則が作られ、プレーしやすいようにグ

こかにめがけて蹴れば面白いということに気がつく。

ラウンドには線が引かれ、チームの動作が規制され、さらに、見事にボールを蹴り返せば、ボールの受けゴールを決めるというアイデアが提案され、受け入

手は感心する、ということも。かくして、二人の間れられる。これでフットボールのチームができあがでボールを蹴りあうことで、パートナーシップが生るわけだが、まだまだへたくそで、試合などできそまれる。一部の環境グループは、ともに努力すれば、うにないにでたらめなチームで、しかも出場選手の環境問題により大きな影響を与えることができると名簿もろくに備えていないときている。これが、諸いうことに気づき始めている。

国が条約というかたちで―EAS/RCUの場合には行

ここでフットボールの喩えに話を戻すと、二人で動計画というかたちで―合意を結ぶ場合の実態なの蹴りあっていたボールを、やがてそれ以上の人数でだ。

蹴るようになる。すると、二人一組になって巧みにチーム同士の対戦を見物する観客が現われ、やがパスを繰り返してボールを支配すれば、別のグルーて彼らは、金を払えと要求される。チームは、ユニプからボールを奪い、自分たちのものにできると気フォームが欲しくなり、他の競技場への移動の手段

づく。こうして２つのチームが別々に動くようになが必要となり、誰が試合に出場し、誰が控えにまわり、ますますフットボールがおもしろくなるわけだ。

るかが知りたくなる―監督が必要になるのだ。経験

今や環境グループは、より大きな問題に取り組んでと訓練を積めばチームの力は向上するのだから、今

おり、チームを組むことによってさらに多くの成果

度はコーチが必要になる。こうしてプロのフットボーをあげている。

ルチームができあがるわけだ。このフットボール・

two. Then, a partnership realises it can take a ballexperience and education so a coach is needed. Now

away from another group and keep it from them by

you have a professional football team. In this rather

skilful passing and ball control. The two groups areloose analogy of the football team , the coach and

now working as two separate teams and having moremanager is the EAS/RCU. In the case of the manager,

fun. Environmental groups are now tackling larger

finding funding and setting directions for the teamproblems and achieving more by forming teams.

and, in the case of the coach, as a coordinator ofSome rules are made, the ground is marked out

activities going on in the region.

for ease of playing and limits put on the teams’

COBSEA in East Asian Seas

activities and the idea of goals presented and accepted.

The Coordinating Body of the Seas of East

Now we have a football team - but a very unskillful,

Asia（COBSEA）secretariat had, as its mandate,

unfit and haphazard team with no real roster as to

the Action Plan of the COBSEA. This Plan set

with whom the game is played. This is where countries

out the necessary directions that the East Asian

make agreements between themselves in the form ofSeas Regional Coordinating Unit should take forconventions or, in the case of the EAS/RCU an actiona regional body to coordinate efforts at conserva-

plan.

tion and management of the East Asian Seas.
People start to watch teams oppose each other

The EAS/RCU is responsible to focal points inand money is asked for from the spectators. The teameach country and it is its duty to communicate

wants a uniform, transport to other venues and a

all activities carried out by the EAS / RCU toknowledge of who to play and who not to play - athese focal points. Since 1981, when the Action

manager is required. The team will improve with

Plan was first conceived, until 1994 five countries

62International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

チームのたとえで言えば、、コーチと監督がEAS/

よって承認され、現在のEAS/RCUの指針となって

RCUにあたる。監督については、資金を調達しチーいる。

ムに指示を与えることが仕事であって、コーチは、COBSEAは、毎年開催される会議で参加国が指地域でおこなわれている活動の調整役にあたる。

定した金額を、寄付国が払い込む信託基金の設置に

東アジア海域のCOBSEA同意した。寄付を行なうこの10カ国からの寄付金で東アジア海域調整委員会（COBSEA）事務局は、は、EAS/RCUの人件費や運営費を賄うことができ

COBSEA行動計画に関する権限を委任された。こない。不足分として、UNEPによって、環境基金のの計画は、地域機関が東アジア海域の保全と管理の一部が供与されている。参加国は専門的意見、技術ために行なう努力を調整するために、東アジア海域

的知識、そして時には活動計画の活動に参加するよ

地域調整機構が下すべき必要な指示を明らかにしてう求められる。参加国が広い範囲に分散しており、いる。EAS/RCUは各国での中心となるべき活動に時として活動への参加がままならないため、各国間責任を負い、自らが行なうすべての活動を、これらの関係は、必ずしも理想どおりではない。

の活動現場に伝える義務を負う。行動計画が初めて

東アジア海域の多岐にわたる問題を特定するため考えられた1981年から1994年までの間に、５カ国がに召集された様々な専門家会議で、参加国からの専

COBSEAに参加した。その５カ国とは、インドネ

門家は、動植物生息地の消失、汚染および水産資源

シア、マレーシア、フィリピン、シンガポールおよの乱獲といった問題があることを認めた。これらのびタイである。1994年には、さらに５ヶ国が加わっ

問題が、長期計画（UNEP 2000）、および「南シナた。それは、オーストラリア、カンボジア、中国、

海およびタイ湾における環境悪化傾向からの回復」

大韓民国およびベトナムである。そして1999年には、のためにGEFが 資金提供 した新 しい計画の 基礎 と改定された行動計画および長期計画がこれら諸国になった。さらに、陸上での活動の影響から東アジア

participated in COBSEA - Indonesia , Malaysia ,and overexploitation of fisheries. These issues are thePhilippines, Singapore and Thailand. In 1994 fivebase of the Long-term Plan (UNEP. 2000) and themore countries joined - Australia, Cambodia, China,

new GEF funded project for "Reversing Environmental

Republic of Korea and Viet Nam. In 1999 a revised

Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and theAction Plan and Long-term Plan was endorsed by the

Gulf of Thailand". Furthermore, the Global Programme

countries and this is the direction of the EAS/RCU

of Action Regional Programme of Action for thenow.

Protection of the Marine Environment of the East
The COBSEA agreed upon setting up a Trust

Asian Seas from the Effects of Land-based Activities

Fund into which contributing countries paid a contribu-(Nollkaemper, 1992) specifies pollution as a majortion nominated by them at the annual COBSEA meet-

issue and is concentrating on the socio- economic

ings. The sum of this amount from the ten contribut-

effects of sewage at the moment. The International

ing countries is not enough to support the EAS/RCU

Coral Reef Action Network (ICRAN) and funding fromin staff and office expenses. The difference is provided

the US is also pointed at reversing degradation of

by UNEP from the Environment Fund. The member

coral reefs and developing sustainable management

countries are asked to contribute expertise, technicalpractices.

knowledge and sometimes actions to the Action Plan.

The Issues

Relationships are not always ideal due to the wide

Sometimes I feel that the efforts made by all

spread of the countries and the lack of commitment,

the government departments, NGOs and UN agencies

in some cases, of member countries.

are rather like a band-aid on the problems of theAt various experts’ meetings called to clearly

East Asian Seas. In one place 80,000 ha of mangrove

identify the various issues in East Asian Seas, experts

have been removed for shrimp farms and, in another,from member countries identified habitat loss, pollution

100 ha have been restored by a community group.

63International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

海域の海洋環境を保護するための地域行動計画のグりしているが、それは、このようなことをする人々

ローバルな行動計画（Nollkaemper，1992）は、汚が食物を必要としているからである。彼らにほかに染を重要な問題と位置づけ、現在は、下水の社会経

何ができようか。 珊瑚の白化がこの地域全体で起済的影響に全力を注いでいる。国際珊瑚礁活動ネッ

こっており、再生する珊瑚もあるが、再生しない珊

トワーク（ICRAN）と合衆国からの資金も、珊瑚

瑚もある。珊瑚が死滅するのは、おそらく陸地から礁の状態を改善し、持続可能な管理の方法を編み出流れ出た過剰な栄養物によって藻類が繁殖したからすことに向けられている。

であろう（Done，1992：Hughes，1994）。他の珊

様々な問題

瑚や海藻類は、光合成を妨げるかあるいは直接生物時として私は、あらゆる政府機関、NGOや国連を窒息させる、過剰な堆積物が原因で死滅する。土

機関による努力が、どちらかと言うと、東アジア海

木工事、森林伐採や農業での悪しき慣行において、域の諸問題にとっては一時凌ぎにすぎないのではな

流去水を予防する措置がとられなかったために堆積いかと思うことがある。ある場所では、海老の養殖物の量が増加した（Nowlis他 1997）。

のためにマングローブが80，000ヘクタールにわたっ

多くの業務用および食用の魚、甲殻類が養殖されて伐採され、またある場所では地域共同体のグルーている地域は、こうした資源の実態を我々が把握しプの手で、100ヘクタールが再生されている。伐採

ないうちに破壊されつつある。海藻床は海中にあり、されるマングローブの総数は、間接的にではあるが、旅行者にとって魅力的なものではないが、そこにはアメリカ、欧州および日本での海老の価格で決まる。

最終産物−人間の食べ物−に至る生物連鎖の一部を他の要素も、間接的に動植物生息地の消失に影響を形成する生物があふれているのだ（Erftemiejerお及ぼしている。

。押し網や堆積物、そしてここ
よびAllen共著1993）

珊瑚礁が爆破されたり、シアン化物で汚染されたでもまた高栄養物が海藻を死滅させると言われていThe amount of mangrove cut depends indirectly onhuman food (Erftemiejer and Allen, 1993). Push nets,

the price of shrimp in the US, Europe and Japan.

sediment loads, again, and high nutrients are known

Other factors also indirectly affect the loss of habitats.

to kill seagrasses (Chansang and Poovachirano, 1994).

Coral reefs are being blasted or poisoned with

A flag for seagrasses is the dugong which has almost
disappeared in most countries.

cyanide because the people doing this need to eat.
What else can they do? Coral bleaching is occurring

Fishing effort, we are told by FAO, is so greatthroughout the region, some corals will recover, somethat 60% of the fishing fleet could be removed andwon’t. The corals that die will probably have been

the same number and volume of fish would be caught.

killed by algal turfs enhanced by excess nutrients run

What do we do with the people who worked those

off from the land (Done, 1992：Hughes, 1994). Other

60% of the fishing fleet? How do they live? Thencorals and seagrasses are killed by excess sediment

again how will future generations live when the stocks

loads which either prevent photosynthesis or directly

are gone?

smother the living organisms. Sediment loads increased

Communities that happily and sustainably lived

by lack of run-off precautions in civil engineering,by the coast and used the organisms from coral reefs,

deforestation and bad farming practices (Nowlis et al.,seagrass beds and mangroves have now grown in size1997).

where their previous practices are unsustainable. Better

The nursery areas for many commercial and foodhealth care, higher birth survival, migration to thefish and crustacea are being destroyed before we evencoast and plain greed has led these communities toknow how much of these resources are there. Seagrassoverexploit their limited resources.

beds lie below the sea and are not attractive to

I said earlier that the efforts being carried out

tourists but are teeming with life that is part of thecurrently in the East Asian Seas are rather like a band-chain of organisms leading to the end product -aid on a great wound. What can be done? Rather

64International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

る（ChansangおよびPoovachirano共著1994）。海藻る援助を利用して、人々にお金を払い、海洋環境ののありかを教えてくれるのは、ほとんどの国で絶滅悪化させる行為を止めさせることができるだろう。

しかかっているジュゴンである。

しかし、もちろんそんなことは許されないし、社会

FAOによると、漁業努力は非常に盛んで、漁船構造と人間の尊厳の破壊につながる。しかし、このの数を60％削減しても、現在と同じ漁獲高を上げる

原則に関連する様々なテーマは機能するかもしれな

ことができる。削減される60％の船で操業していたい。何事をするにも、上からも下からも刺激がある

人々をどうすればいいのか。 彼らはどうやって暮はずだ。共同体自身がこれら生態系を持続不可能ならしていくのか。 それでは、もう一度尋ねよう。

方法で利用している事実に気づき、それに変わる方

今いる動植物がいなくなってしまったら、未来の人法を見つけることができるようにしなければならな

間はどのようにして暮らしていくのだろうか。

い。各国政府は、常に適切な法律を執行し、地域共

珊瑚礁、海藻床、マングローブ林から取れる生物

同体に関連する新しい政策を生み出していく必要がを利用してずっと幸せに暮らしてきた共同体が、かある。支払った金が、実際に環境管理と回復のため

つての暮らしを続けられなくなる例が、最近増えてに使われるような利用者負担の政策を導入すべきできている。医療が向上し、乳幼児の死亡率が低下し、ある。環境に対する影響の評価を真摯におこない、沿岸域に人々が移住して過食気味になると、これら独立した機関が検証しなければならない。

の共同体は限られた資源を乱獲するようになる。

我々には何ができるだろうか。まず、資源の実態

今、東アジア海域でおこなわれている努力が単なを把握し、海洋国立公園としてふさわしい地域を残る一時凌ぎにすぎないことは、すでに述べた。では、しておくために、海洋動植物生息地の正確な地図を我々に何ができるのだろうか。かなり理想的ではあ

作らなければならない（Kirkman，2000）。このよるが、近年、東アジア海域に供与されているあらゆ

うな公園は、単なる公園以上の役割を果たすに違い

idealistically, we could use all the aid that is current-

may be buffer areas for fishing, conservation areas

ly coming into East Asian Seas and pay people notfor large numbers of species, areas set aside as

to do the things that are degrading the marine environm-

demonstrations for education, research or to illustrateent. This is not, of course, acceptable and destroys

the productivity that can be achieved given suitablesocial structure and dignity but themes on this principle

management. Second the marine environment should

may work. For anything to be done the impetus must

be monitored to detect trouble spots, to determine

come from the top and the bottom. The communities

background information when there is no disturbance,themselves must be taught to see the unsustainable

to determine the quantities of a pollutant entering theuse they are now putting these ecosystems to and be

systems, and to determine the effects of remedial

able see alternatives. The governments must start enforc-

operations once it is decided to act to reduce pollution

ing their usually adequate legislation and developing

or disturbance.

new policies that involve the communities. User pays

The sea has been used as a dumping ground forpolicies should be introduced where the payments are

decades, we cannot completely stop that but how

actually returned for environmental management andmuch pollution and disturbance can the marine environ-

restoration. Environmental Impact Assessments shouldment take? The usual definition of this is the assimilative

be taken seriously and reviewed by independent review-or carrying capacity of the marine environment (Masini

ers.

et al., 1992; GESAMP, 1986). This is the amount of
What can be done? First the marine habitatsa non-toxic man-made pollutant that can be dumped

should be accurately mapped so that resources can bewithout unacceptable change. Of course "unacceptable"measured and representative areas for marine national

is a qualitative term that must be defined by manag-parks set aside (Kirkman, 2000). These parks musters before scientists and regulators can set a limit on

serve a purpose other than just being parks. They

the amount of pollution. Assimilative capacity ensures

65International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

ない。また、漁業のための緩衝地帯、多数の種の保いう言葉は、科学者や規制担当者が汚染量の上限を全地域となる可能性があるし、あるいは環境教育や決める前に、管理者が定義しなければならない量に

研究用に、または適切な管理がおこなわれれば達成関する用語である。同化能力がわかれば、それぞれできる多様な動植物の繁殖を分かりやすく説明するの汚染源から入る量ではなく、汚染物質の総量が必ための場として確保しておくことになるかもしれな

ず考慮されることになる。すなわち、ある海藻の消い。第二に、問題の起こりやすい地域を見つけるた

失が受け入れられないほどの変化と判断され、1リッ

めに、環境に混乱が起こらない場合はその遠因となトル中に含まれる2マイクログラムを超える硝酸性る情報を確定するために、生態系に入り込んだ汚染

窒素（nitrogen nitrate）が原因で、海中の植物を物質の量を確定するために、そして汚染もしくは環覆うように海藻が増え、結局海中の植物は死滅する

境の混乱を削減するべく何らかの行動を起こすとのと判断される場合、水中の濃度が２マイクログラム

決定がでれば環境回復作業の効果を判断するために、・アトムをこえないあいだは、何トンの硝酸塩を投海洋環境を監視しなければならない。

棄できるかをただちに計算しなければならない。工海は何十年もの間、ゴミ捨て場となってきた。我場や下水からの出る全ての硝酸の合計を考慮したう々は完全にそれをやめることはできない。しかし、えで、必要な規制をおこなわなければならない。

海洋環境は、どの程度の汚染や環境の混乱に耐えら

東アジア海域におけるUNEP EAS/RCUの役割れるのだろうか。 これは通常、海洋環境の同化も結論として、EAS/RCUの事務局には、参加各国

しくは許容能力として定義される（Masini他1992；

からの支援と同じような価値しかないといえる。地

。これは、投棄しても受け入れら
GESAMP，1986）

域調整という概念は理解がむずかしく、その実施はれないほどの変化を起こさない、非毒性の人工汚染

もっとむずかしい。では、我々に何ができるのだろ物の量である。もちろん、「受け入れられない」とうか。我々は調整という言葉にどのような意味をこthat the sum of pollutants is taken into account not

Even if this were possible it is not likely that thethe amount going in from each source i.e. if it is

EAS/RCU is large enough in staff and resources todecided that loss of any seagrass is an unacceptablecarry out the task. The EAS/RCU is a UNEP agency

change and that nitrogen nitrate over 2 micrograms

whose mandate is to work on a regional basis. Thereper liter will cause growths of seaweed over theis conflict between many government agencies andseagrass which will eventually kill the seagrass, thenthis is well out of a regional mandate to solve, asa calculation has to be made as to how many tons

are the conflicts between different levels of govern-of nitrate can be dumped before the water concentra-

ment.

tion exceeds 2 microgram atoms. The total of all the

Ideally, the EAS/ RCU should know of every

nitrate from factories and sewage dumping must thenactivities directed towards managing, conserving, restor-

be taken into account and the necessary regulations

ing and exploring the science of the East Asian Seas.

made.

This is impossible but it is always worthwhile having

UNEP EAS/RCU’S role in East Asian Seasa dream.
References

In conclusion, the secretariat of the EAS/RCU
can only be as good as the support from member

Chansang, H. and Poovachiranon, S. 1994. The

countries. Regional coordination is a difficult concept

distribution and species composition of seagrass beds

to grasp and an even more difficult task to implem-

along the Andaman Sea coast of Thailand. Phuket

ent. What do we mean by coordination? Is the EAS

Marine biological Centre Research Bulletin, 59：43-/RCU expected to bring together every government

52.

agency, non government organisation, consultancy andDone, T.J. 1992.Phase shifts in coral reef communities

donor to ensure that there is no overlap or duplicationand their ecological significance. Hydrobiologia, 247

in projects designed to assist the marine environment.

：121 132.

66

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

めているのだろうか。EAS/RCUは、すべての政府
機関、非政府組織、諮問機関、資金提供者を協力させ、海洋環境を守る目的で作られた様々な計画が、部分的にあるいは全体的に重複しないようにすると思われているのだろうか。たとえそれが可能だとしても、EAS/RCUがその任にあたれるほど、十分なスタッフを擁し、十分な財源を持つことはないだろう。EAS/RCUは、UNEPの一機関であり、地域に基盤をおいた活動を任されている。多くの政府機関の間に対立があり、異なったレベルの政府間の対立と同じように、地域的な活動を行なう組織にゆだねられた権限では、その解決は不可能である。
理想を言えば、EAS/RCUは、東アジア海域の科学の管理、保全、回復および探査のためのあらゆる活動を把握しておくべきだろう。これは不可能なことだが、夢を持つことは、いつでもそれだけの価値があるものだ。

Erftemeijer, P.L.A. and Allen, G.R. 1993. Fish fauna

Nollkaemper, A. 1992. Marine pollution from land-of seagrass beds in south Sulawesi, Indonesia. Records

based sources ： towards a global approach. Marineof the Western Australian Museum, 16：269-277.

Pollution Bulletin 24：8-12.

GESAMP . 1986. Environmental capacity an

Nowlis, J.S., Roberts, C. Smith, A.H. and Siirila,

approach to marine pollution prevention. Reports andE. 1997. Human-induced impacts of a tropical storm

studies 30. FAO Rome. pp. 49.

on nearshore coral reefs. Ambio, 26：515-521.

Hughes, T.P. 1994. Catastrophes, phase shifts

UNEP. 2000. Vision and Plan - A Systematicand large scale degradation of a Caribbean coral reef.

Approach. Long-term Plan of East Asian Seas Regional

Science, 265：1547-1551.

Coordinating Unit. EAS/RCU, UNEP, Bangkok, Thailand.
22pp.

Kirkman, H . 2000. Seagrass mapping and its
application to conservation. In：Towards Sustainable
Management of the Straits of Malacca. M. Shariff,
Y.M. Yusoff, N. Gopinath, H.M. Ibrahim and R.A.
Nik Mustapha (eds), Malacca Straits research andDevelopment Centre (MASDEC), Universiti Putra
Malaysia, Serdang, Malaysia. 239-247.
Masini, R.J. Simpson, C.J., Kirkman, H., Ward,
T. and Crossland, C. 1992. The concept of "assimilative
capacity" as a management tool in temperate coastal
waters of Western Australia. Environmental Protection
Authority, Perth, Western Australia, Tech. Series 48.
Pp. 18.

67

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

瀬戸内海における沿岸域環境資源の保存と回復
盛岡通

大阪大学大学院工学研究科環境工学科
2-1 Yamadaoka Suita, Osaka 565-0871, Japan
Tel：81 6 6879 7676, Fax：81 6 6879 7679
E- Mail：morioka@env.eng.osaka- u.ac.jp
１． 瀬戸内海の環境変化

これらの措置によって、産業部門からのCOD汚過去十年で瀬戸内海の水質は向上したが、干拓に染物質の排出は瀬戸内海環境保全特別措置法が成立起因する、藻場や干潟のような海生生物が豊富な地したときと比べると半分以下になり、汚水処理場の域での沿岸域環境資源の悪化が見られた。

建設や他の汚染防止措置が家庭から排出される汚水の量を着実に減らしている。

1.1 水質「赤潮」の発生は、瀬戸内海全体で頻繁に発生し瀬戸内海の水質向上のために、特定のプラントのていた頃と比較すると、年間で平均発生数が40％に設置と稼動、COD物質の総排出量の規制、窒素と減少している。その結果、水を取り巻く環境は深刻

リン削減の行政指導といった規制同意システムの導な危機的汚染状態から比較的改善された状態に転じ入によって分離水及び非分離水の領域で汚染物質のたと判断できる。

排出は減少している。

しかしながら、瀬戸内海の富栄養化の原因は、海CONSERVATION AND RESTORATION OF COASTAL ENVIRONMENT RESOURCES IN THE SETO INLAND SEA
Tohru MORIOKA
Department of Environmental Eng., Graduate School of Eng. Osaka University
2-1 Yamadaoka Suita, Osaka 565-0871, Japan
Tel：81 6 6879 7676, Fax：81 6 6879 7679
E- Mail：morioka@env.eng.osaka- u.ac.jp
1.Environmental Changes in the Seto Inland
Sea
Past decade shows improved water quality but
deteriorated coastal environmental resources in termsof most biologically productive areas such as seaweed
beds or tidal flats due to land recreation in the Seto
Inland Sea.

and non-point sources sectors.
Attributable to these measures, the COD pollutant
loads from industrial sectors have been reduced toless than half the amount recorded when the Seto
Inland Sea Environmental Conservation Act first went
into effect, and progress in sewerage construction andother pollution prevention practices have also caused
a steady reduction in the amount of domestic sewage
loadings.
"Red tides" are also down to 40 % of theaverage yearly number of occurrences compared towhen these occurred frequently across the entire Seto
Inland Sea. Consequently, water environment is judged
to be turned into the relatively improved from severely
polluted crisis situation.

1.1 Water Quality
In order to improve water quality in Seto InlandSea, pollutants emissions have been reduced by meansof regulation-compliance system concerning installationand operation of specified plants, total mass flow
control of COD matters, and administrative guiding
for nitrogen and phosphorous reduction in all point71

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystemに流れ込む有機汚染物質およびいわゆる「内部生産」

このうち、藻場の40％と干出平底地の70％は干拓おと呼ばれるものである。これは窒素とリンの排出増よび産業開発、港湾開発などによる浚渫等の人間のによる植物プランクトンの繁殖によって引き起こさ活動によって失われたものである。

れている。その結果、近年ではCODの環境目標達

1999年現在、瀬戸内海沿岸には約17,500ヘクター

成値においても、毎年の赤潮の発生においても変化

ルの藻場と約11,700ヘクタールのの干出平底地があがほとんどなく、瀬戸内海の水質は満足の行くレベ

り、それぞれ全国の9％および22％を占めている。

ルには達していない。さらに、減酸素塊がいくつか
２．環境政策の新しい潮流の海域で季節的に発生している。

日本では1993年に新しい環境基本法が、それまで
1.2 藻場・干出平底地の公害防止基本法に変わり制定された。これは環境保全特別法は、かなりの程度、藻場と干出平底地管理に関する全国レベルでの基本理念、さまざまなの保全に貢献しており、これは海洋生物資源の保護

経済部門の役割、主要政策および政策推進の措置をと渡り鳥の生息地での生存にとり重要な条件である。

定めたものである。1994年にはこの法律を基礎にし瀬戸内海保全特別法の発効以来、藻場と干出平底地て環境基本計画が確立された。

の消失の進行は緩やかになったが、約1,300ヘクター

環境基本法は、社会・経済活動に起因する環境へ

ルの藻場（全国消失面積の21％）および約800ヘクの負荷を軽減する活動を呼びかけており、これは自タールの干出平底地（全国消失面積の21％）が、1978

発的な、あるいは同意に基づいた責任をすべての経年から1991年の13年間に瀬戸内海から失われている。

済部門が等しく分かち合い、共同体、地域、およびHowever, eutrophication in the Seto Inland Sea
results both from organic pollutants inflowing to thesea and from the so-called "internal production," i.e.,
phytoplankton propagation due to increase loading of
nitrogen and phosphorous. As a result, there has been
little change in recent years in either the level ofachievement in environmental goals of COD or
occurrences of red tides each year, and so the water
quality in the Seto Inland Sea does not show
satisfactory level. Moreover, oxygen-depleted masses
occur on a seasonal basis in some areas.

Sea during the 13 years between 1978 and 1991. Of
these, 40% of the seaweed beds and 70% of the tidal
flats w ere lost due to changes brought about
by anthropological activities in the form of land
reclamation, or dredging for industrial or port/harbordevelopment.
There were only approximately 17,500 hectaresof seaweed beds and approximately 11,700 hectaresof tidal flats in the Seto Inland Sea coastal regionsin 1999, amounting to 9% and 22% of the total in
Japan.

1.2 Seaweed Beds/tidal Flats
The Conservation Act contributes to preserve, tothe considerable extent possible, the seaweed beds
and tidal flats that are important for conserving marine
biological resources and fostering migratory birds inhabitation space. Although the rate at which seaweed
beds and tidal flats are disappearing has slowed since
the Seto Inland Sea Conservation Act went into
effect, approximately 1,300 hectares of seaweed beds
(amounting to 21% of the loss nationwide) andapproximately 800 hectares of tidal flats (21% of theloss nationwide) have disappeared from the Seto Inland

2.New Trends in Environmental Policy
In Japan, in 1993 the new Basic Environment
Law was established in place of the Basic Pollution
control Law to indicate nationwide fundamental
philosophy on environmental management, the role ofvarious economic sectors, principal policies and meansfor promotion. In 1994, a Basic Environmental Plan
based on this law was established.
The Basic Environment Law calls for actions to
reduce the burden on the environment caused by socioeconomic activities with the voluntary or compliancebased responsibilities equally shared by all economic

72

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

社会が環境、社会、経済の面で持続可能な発展を遂

自然砂浜、釣り場およびその他の失われた自然と触げることを目的とするものである。

れ合う場が回復され、環境にやさしいデザイン原則

この新法の掲げる究極的環境管理目標は、汚染防によって再開発されている。これらの活動は、次に止や自然保護のような従来の概念よりはるかに進ん述べる基本指針に基づき、十分に考慮して進めていだものである。環境管理の概念に関して、この法律

かなければならない。

は以下に述べる点の必要性を明らかにしている。
2.1 人間の住む環境の中の大気、水、土壌、生物圏、

3.1 ターゲット地域

および自然環境の質、 レベルおよび状態が十分満悪化した環境を回復するという観点から、これら足の得られるものであることを確保する。

の対策を進めるには、産業開発や港湾開発によって2.2 動植物の生物多様性を確保し、地域の自然と社

深刻な自然環境の悪化が起こった地域に焦点を当て

会の状況に合致するさま ざまなタイプの特徴的ななければならない。

自然環境を計画的に保全する。
2.3 レクリエーション、エコツアー、環境志向の高

3.2 プロジェクト遂行の組織

い活動などに一般市民が 参加する機会を増やす。

瀬戸内海の海域は公的に所有された土地であり、現在まで、環境管理の努力は国および地方公共団体

３．過去数十年に失われた環境回復の対策

によっておこなわれてきた。国および地方公共団体

藻場や干出平底地やその他の貴重な生態学的空間

は、過去において損なわれた環境の回復に主導的役を回復する試験的試みが実践されてきた。さらに、割を果たし続けなければならないが、同様に市民や

sectors, in order to develop communities, regions andsocieties with environmental and socio - economic
sustainability.
The new law extends ultimate environmental
management goals much further than the previous
concepts of preventing pollution and protecting nature.
Regarding environmental management concept, the law
identifies the public need to：spaces. Furthermore, natural sandy beaches, fishing
spots and other places for contact with nature thathave been lost, have been restored and sometimes redeveloped on environment-conscious design principles.
These activities must be based on the following basic
guides for full consideration approach.
3.1 Targeted Regions
From the standpoint of restoring deteriorated
environment, these measures promotion should focus
on areas whose natural environment has been remarkably
deteriorated due to industrial or port/harbor development.

2.1 Ensure the air, water, soil, biosphere andnatural medium of human environment being maintainedin satisfactory quality, level and condition；
2.2 Ensure biodiversity of fauna an flora andpreserve m any types of characteristic naturalenvironments systematically in accordance with thenatural and societal conditions of the region；and
2.3 Provide accessible opportunities for people
to come in contact friendly with nature in recreation,
eco-tours or environment-conscious actions.

3.2 Organization for Project Implementation
The ocean regions in the Seto Inland Sea are
publicly owned, and up to now environmental
management efforts have been conducted mainly by
the national government and local governments. Whilethe national government and local governments should
continue to play a leading role in restoring theenvironments that have been damaged in past, it isimportant for them to coordinate these efforts withvoluntary actions of citizens and private businesssectors.

3. Measures to Restore Environment Damaged
in Past Decades
There have been trial practices to restore theseaweed beds, tidal flats and other precious ecological73

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

民間企業の自発的な活動との協調も重要である。

このような場合は、十分な研究をおこない環境に悪影響を与えない適切な時と場所でテストがおこなえ

3.3 計画の実施るようにしなければならない。

過去の活動の正の側面と負の側面を将来の目標とする環境を作るために必要とされる活動と統合する

3.5 持続可能な管理の適切な維持ことが重要である。藻場や干出平底地などの環境回

自然環境は、回復されたものにせよ、包括的な保復には時間がかかるため、これらの回復活動は中長

全措置によって一部開発されたものにせよ、適切に期的な計画に基づいておこなわれなければならない。

管理をおこない環境の完全な回復を図らなければならない。さらに、流体力学とエコロジカルな潜在効

3.4 適切な技術の選択

果が自然環境の人工的回復に関して、まだ科学的に

地形、資源利用パターン、水質、潮流、地域に生実証されていないため、環境回復の効果とインパク息する生物など、陸地と海洋の特性に基づいて適切トに関する研究は適切な監視を通しておこなわなけ

な技術を選択しなければならない。環境改善の技術ればならず、持続可能な沿岸管理のための健全な環開発および回復工学の達成レベルは、工学的パフォー境技術を開発し、改良し、蓄積していかなければな

マンスと社会経済的実現可能性の視点から評価しならない。

ければならない。また、新しい視点から見たデザイ（事務局仮訳）

ン技術、建築技術の研究やパイロットケースによる試験的実験を通した効果の確認も期待されている。

3.3 Execution on Planned Scheme
It is important to integrate the past efforts
having beneficial impacts and adverse effects withrequired actions towards target environment in the
future. As environmental restoration of seaweed beds,
tidal flats etc. will take time, these restoration actions
must be done on a planned basis from a medium-and
long-term perspective.

a location where they will not give adverse effects tothe environment.
3.5 Adequate Maintenance for Sustainable
Management
The natural environments that have been restoredor partially d eveloped in the co m prehensive
conservation practices must be appropriately maintained
so that the environment continues to fully recover. In
addition, as hydrodynamical and ecological potential
effects of artificially recovering natural environments
are not yet understood on the scientific base, theeffects and impacts of restoring environments must be
studied through appropriate monitoring, for the purposeof d e v elo pin g, i m pro vin g a n d a c c u m ulatin genvironmentally sound technologies for sustainable
coastal management.

3.4 Selection of Adequate Technologies
Appropriate technologies must be selected basedon land and ocean characteristics：topography, resources
use patterns, water quality, tidal currents, the biologicalhabitats in the area in the process of choosing measures.
Achievement level of technologies development ofenvironmental remediation and restoration engineering
should be considered in this evaluation process fromthe viewpoint of engineering performance and socioeconomic feasibility. Also promising is the study ofdesign and construction technologies from new
perspectives and the confirmation of their effectivenessthrough demonstration tests or pilot practices. In suchcases, sufficient study should be conducted to ensurethat the tests are done at an appropriate time and in74

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

韓国における沿岸域の持続可能な管理に向けてナム・ジュンゴ
韓国海事研究所
NFFC B/ D, 11-6, Shinchun- dong, Songpa- ku, Seoul, 138-730, KOREA
E- Mail：jhnam@kmi.re.kr
善計画ならびに定期的見直しを含むものである。
この法を基礎にして国家ICM計画が2000年9月に立てられた。国家ICM計画実施に伴う活動は既に実行されており、これらの活動には、例えば、沿岸域開発計画の中止、地方でのICM計画の立案、干出湿地帯保護地域指定のための包括的評価、沿岸環境管理地域（CEMA）の指定と管理、オーシャン・コ
リア21（海洋の持続可能な開発のための国家的枠組
み計画）などが含まれている。こうした活動に加えて、海洋資源の持続可能な利用への一般市民の意識が高まり、地方政府を含む利害関係者がICMの実施に大きな関心を寄せている。故に、沿岸域管理法を含むICM計画が窓口となり、韓国沿岸域の持続可能な利用の機会が開かれることを期待することができる。

開発志向の沿岸利用の結果、海洋生態系の悪化、干出泥質平底地の喪失、大規模かつ長期にわたる赤潮の発生などを引き起こした。このような問題およびその他の海事関連問題に、より効率的に対処する
ため統合的沿岸域管理（ICM）が1990年代中頃より
国家計画要綱に取り入れられ、韓国政府は包括的な海洋問題を取り扱う海事問題・漁業省を1996年に設立した。
さまざまな沿岸域問題に適切に対応するため、海事省は1996年から1998年にかけて沿岸域評価プロジェ
クトを実施し、1999年初頭には沿岸域管理法を制定した。沿岸域管理法の機能は、沿岸域資源と空間の合理的利用に関する基本的・包括的ガイドラインを提供することである。本法は主として沿岸域の範囲、他の法律との関係、制定のプロセスおよび国家と地域レベルにおけるICM計画の内容、および沿岸域改

TOWARDS THE SUSTAINABLE MANAGEMENT OF COASTAL AR
EAS IN KOREA
Jungho NAM
Korea Maritime Institute
NFFC B/ D, 11-6, Shinchun- dong, Songpa- ku, Seoul, 138-730, KOREA
E- Mail：jhnam@kmi.re.kr
plan at national and local levels , and coastal
improvement projects and periodic evaluation.
The National ICM plan based on the Act wasestablished in September 2000. Concomitant actions
to the National ICM plan implementation are being
execute d , e . g ., can cellatio n of m ajor coastal
development projects, establishment of local ICM plans,
comprehensive assessment for designation of tidal
wetland protected areas, designation and managementof Coastal Environmental Management Areas (CEMA),
establishment of Ocean Korea 21 (the national framework
plan for the sustainable development of ocean) etc. In
addition to the above actions, public awareness on
sustainable use of marine resources has been enhanced
and stakeholders including local governments have
paid serious attention to ICM implementation. Thus
it can be expected that the ICM regime inclusive of
Coastal Management Act will be a window of opportunity
for sustainable use of coastal areas in Korea.

The development-oriented coastal utilization resultsin deterioration of marine ecosystem , loss of tidal
mudflat, occurrence of large-scale and long-standing
red-tides etc. To deal with such problems and othermaritime related affairs more efficiently, integrated
coastal management (ICM) system has been incorporated
into national planning regime since the mid 1990s,
and Korean government created the Ministry of Maritime
affairs and Fisheries in 1996 for comprehensive
handling of marine issues.
To adequately respond to various coastal issues,
the Ministry carried out coastal assessment projects
from 1996 to 1998, and enacted the Coastal Management
Act in early 1999. Coastal Management Act functions
as a framework act that provides fundamental andcomprehensive guidelines on rational use of coastal
resources and space. Main components of the Act
include the scope of coastal areas, relationship toother laws, establishment process and contents of ICM

75

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

インドネシア東部における共同体を基盤とした管理「サジ」の復活
アグス・ヘリ・プルノモ
農業・社会・経済センター
Jalan A. Yani 70, Bogor, Indonesia
E- Mail：purnomo@sfu. ca or aherip@yahoo.com
きている。その理由はそれが収穫を維持したいという地元住民からの圧力と衝突するからである。ここで提示される政策オプションは、共同管理の枠組みを通じて「サジ」に科学的見識を与え、収穫禁止を解除するというものである。また、本稿では、このオプションを実施する広範な機会が存在するとことが述べられている。コンピューターによるシミュレー
ションの結果、収穫禁止をするよりもある程度収穫をする方がよいという結果がでている。さらに、ある調査によるとこのシミュレーションの結果や他の科学的情報を「サジ」に組み込むことが望ましいという指摘がある。こうしたシミュレーションで得た科学的情報を、外部の専門家のものではなく共同体のものにする共同管理を成功に導くほとんどの要因
は成功の可能性を示唆している。

本稿 はインドネシア 東部沿岸域における 高瀬貝（Trochus niloticus）の管理問題を明らかにし、政策オプションを提案するものである。本稿では二つの管理システムを検討する。そのひとつは「限定的収穫プラン」であり、これは「サジ」という共同体の伝統を引き継ぐものである。もうひとつはインド
ネシア 政府 の 立案 による 「非収穫政策」 である 。
「サジ」のシステムでは、収穫制限が地方固有の価値に基づいた規制に従って、共同体が実施する強制力を伴った形で行われる。このシステムは、かつてはうまく機能していたが、現在では高瀬貝の繁殖を持続させるには非効率的なものになっている。その理由は地元共同体が高瀬貝の価格変化に対応する適切な収穫調整を行う基盤を失いつつあるからである。
政府の政策では、政府諸機関の強制により収穫禁止が実施されているが、この政策も非効率的になって

REFASHIONING SASI, A COMMUNITY-BASED MANAGEMENT IN
EASTERN INDONESIA
Agus Heri PURNOMO
Center for Agro- Socio- Economy
Jalan A. Yani 70, Bogor, Indonesia
E- Mail：purnomo@sfu. ca or aherip@yahoo.com
This paper exposes management problems ofThis policy, too is ineffective because it collides withtrochus (Trochus niloticus) in coastal areas of Eastern

local pressures to maintain harvests. The policy option

Indonesia , and suggests a policy option . T w oproposed here is that scientific knowledge is added to

management systems are reviewed ：limited harvest

sasi through a co-management framework, and thatplans which follows a community tradition called sasi

harvest banning should be canceled. It is shown in；and no-harvest policy designed by the Indonesian

this paper that there is a range of opportunity to

government. In the sasi system, harvest restrictions

implement such an option： A computer simulation

are placed with enforcement carried out by communities

shows that certain rates of harvest are better thanaccording to regulations derived from local values.

banning. Furthermore, a survey indicates that theThis system, once worked quite well, has now becomeprospect of incorporating this simulation result, or

ineffective in promoting trochus sustainability because

other scientific information, into sasi is good：Most

communities are loosing basis to make proper harvest

factors determining success of co- management that

adjustments in response to changes in trochus price.

would allow transfer of such simulation scientific

In the government policy, harvest banning is in effect

inputs , to communities from external experts arewith enforcement performed by government agents.

positive.

76International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

南シナ海における沿岸域および海洋環境管理 ADB5712REGの諸目的
第二段階−カンボジア・コンポーネント
M.ウィーラー＊、P.J.マクナミー、M.コーサル
ウェットランド・インターナショナル−アジア太平洋
3 a39 Kelana Centre Point, Jalan SS7/19, Kelana Jaya Selangor, Malaysia
E- Mail：matt@wiap.nasionet.net
本稿はカンボジア王国における、アジア開発銀行

環境省（MoE）がカンボジアにおけるこのプロによる地域技術援助の第一段階において行われた、グラムの執行機関であった。環境省は1999年２月か

幾つかの重要な勧告を実施するためにおこなわれたら2000年３月まで、グローバル環境コンサルタント

プログラム（ADB 5552‑REG、南シナ海における（GEC）株式会社およびウェットランド・インター

沿岸域および海洋環境管理/1994年２月から1996年

ナショナル−アジア太平洋からの技術支援を受けて６月実施）の活動を要約したものである。この地域いた。カンボジアにおけるこのプロジェクトの主要に対する技術支援の目的は以下のとおりである。

な成果は沿岸域・海洋環境管理および沿岸・海洋保

１）南シナ海の西側における沿岸域・海洋資源の持護地域設立の国家的戦略プランであった。これらの続可能な利用の推進

計画の準備は、幾つかの活動の支援を受けており、

２）沿岸域・海洋環境資源の保護と管理の地域協力

その中にはプレア・シアヌーク国立公園における実の推進

験プロジェクトが含まれ、これは戦略的保護地域の

３）沿岸域・海洋環境資源の持続可能な管理のため計画において推奨されている幾つかの主要な手法をの地域的技術支援の参加国の能力の向上

試すためのものであった。

OBJECTIVES OF ADB5712 REG COASTAL AND MARINEENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEAS,
PHASE II - CAMBODIA COMPONENTWHEELER M. ＊, McNAMEE P.J., KOSAL M.
Wetlands International - Asia Pacific
3 a39 Kelana Centre Point, Jalan SS7/19, Kelana Jaya Selangor, Malaysia
E- Mail：matt@wiap.nasionet.net
This paper summarizes the activities conducted inenvironmental resources on a sustainable basis. The

the Kingdom of Cambodia under the Asian Development

Ministry of Environment (MoE) was the Executing

Bank programme designed to implement a number ofAgency in Cambodia for the programme. It was

the important recommendations made in the first Phase

supported by technical assistance from GEC Globalof this regional technical assistance (ADB 5552-REG,

Environmental Consultants Ltd. and Wetlands International

Coastal and Marine Environmental Management in- Asia Pacific from February 1999 to March 2000.

the South China Sea, February 1994 to June 1996).

The major outputs of the project in Cambodia were

The objectives of this regional technical assistancea national strategic plan for coastal and marine

were to i) promote the sustainable use of coastal andenvironmental management and a national coastal andmarine resources in the western portion of the Southmarine protected area plan. The preparation of these

China Sea；ii) promote regional cooperation in theplans was supported by a number of activities

protection and management of coastal and marine

including a demonstration project in Preah Sihanouk

environmental resources；and iii) increase the capacity

National Park to test some of the key approachesof countries participating in the regional technicalrecommended in the strategic and protected area plans.

assistance to manage their coastal and marine

77International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

カンボジア・コーコン県のペアム・クラサオップ自然保護地域におけるマングローブ資源の参加型管理に関する技術レポート
キム・ノン
カンボジア環境省
E- Mail：PMMR@bigpond.com.kh
マングローブ資源の参加型管理（PMMR）のプ

また、 コー コン 県、保護地域（PA's）管理、共同

ロジェクトが1997年12月にコーコン県にあるペアム

体を基盤とした沿岸域資源管理（CBCRM）イニシ・クラサオップ自然保護地域（PKWS）において実

アチブ、および持続可能な生計の問題に関心のある施された。国家環境省スタッフ、県の技術スタッフ

人たちが、この事例から学びさらに研究を進めるこおよびカナダ人プロジェクト・アドバイザーによりとが期待されている。

構成された学際的チームが、持続可能な生計および

PKWSはユニークなマングローブ生態系を誇りに管理の問題に焦点を当てたPKWSの参加型研究（PR）しており、1993年にはカンボジアの保護地域（PA's）のプロセスを促進している。資金提供者であるカナのシステムの一部に指定された。この地域はかつて

ダの国際研究開発センター（IDRC）の提示した条は天然資源が豊富であったが、違法な採取活動によ件の一つは、PMMRの研究を技術レポートの形式

りマングローブ生態系およびその資源に依存する共で文書化するというものであった。それゆえ、この同体の生計は脅威にさらされている。このプロジェ

技術レポートは1997年12月から2000年２月までPMMR

クトはPKWSの資源利用について理解を深める試み

チームによって行われた研究の集大成となっている。

として、また生計と資源管理活動に関して、共同体

TECHNICAL REPORT ON PARTICIPATORY MANAGEMENT OF
MANGROVE RESOURCES IN PEAM KRASAOP WILDLIFESANCTUARY, KOH KONG PROVINCE, CAMBODIA
Kim NONG
Ministry of Environment, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
E- Mail：PMMR@bigpond.com.kh
The Participatory Management of Mangrove

PMMR team from December 1997 until February 2000.

Resources (PMMR) project was implemented in Peam

It is hoped that those interested in Koh Kong province,

Krasaop Wildlife Sanctuary (PKWS), Koh Kong

Protected Areas (PA’s) Management, Community-based

province in December 1997. Consisting of national

Coastal Resource Management (CBCRM) initiatives

Ministry of Environment staff, provincial technicaland sustainable livelihood issues can learn and further

staff and Canadian project advisors, this inter-disciplinary

this research.

team facilitates a participatory research (PR) process

PKWS boasts a unique mangrove ecosystem, andin PKWS focusing on sustainable livelihood andwas designated as part of Cambodia’s system of PA’s

management issues. One of the requirements from thein 1993. Although this area was once rich in naturalfunder, Canada’s International Research Development

resources, illegal extraction activities threaten theCenter (IDRC), is that PMMR’s research be documented

mangrove ecosystem and the livelihood of communities

in the form of a Technical Report . Hence , thisdependent upon its’ resources . This project wasTechnical Report compiles research undertaken by theestablished as an attempt to learn more about resource

78International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystemとの協力を推進する試みとして設立されたものであは移住者と地元住民だけではなかった。タイからのる。このレポートは読者にPMMRプロジェクトのビジネスの圧力もあったのである。水辺資源、木材、

目的と活動を紹介するものである。さらに重要なこ

違法に生産されたマングローブの木炭を含む、PKWSとは、このレポートでは、このリサーチ・プロセスのほとんどの資源は、タイの市場に売られていったを通じて用いられた研究の方法論が議論され、分析のである。カンボジア人は金儲けをすることを期待されているという 点 である 。 このプロジェクトはして、この地域に魅力を感じ続けているのである。

PMMRチームによって進められ、地元のイニシア

不幸なことに、資源は急速に枯渇し、現在ではPKWS

チブおよび可能な選択肢を文化の視点から見て適切の資源から生計を立てることは困難になっている。

な形で支援するものである。このプロジェクトは過PMMRチームはPKWSにあるいくつもの村で調程と結果の両方を重視して実施されている。

査をおこなった。自然保護地域の村人たちは、それ

コーコン県はカンボジアの他の諸地域とは隔絶しぞれの村の固有の特徴にもかかわらず、互いに結びており、比較的人口が少ない。近年までPMMRプ

ついている。PKWSに村人が住むにはさまざまな理

ロジェクトが行われているコーコン県の東部地域に

由があった。あるものは長期的居住者として、またはボートでしかアクセスできなかった。破壊をもた資源を利用しやすいために、また漁業に従事できるらしたクメール・ルージュ（KR）の政権が倒れたので、また政府の公務員なので（海軍、陸軍、警察、後、一部の農民がカンボジア各地の土地不足のため

政府職員）、あるいはまたこの地域に住む家族を頼っに、沿岸域にある豊潤な資源により生計を立てるこて移り住んだのである。ここに移り住んだ移住者のとを期待して、コーコン県に移住して来た。しかし一部はPKWSを故郷と考えている。その一方で自分ながら、マングローブと水辺資源に関心を抱いたのの生まれ故郷に帰るプランを持っている人もいる。

usage in PKWS, and to work with communities on

resources - there is also business pressure from Thailand.

livelihood and resource management activities. This

Most resources from PKWS, including aquatic resources,

report introduces the reader to PMMR project goals

logs and illegally produced mangrove charcoal, areand activities. Importantly, the research methodology

sold to the Thai market. Cambodian’s continue to be

employed throughout the research process is discussed

lured to the area in the hopes of making a profit.

and analyzed. This project is driven by the PMMR

Unfortunately, resources have been rapidly depleted,team , and supports local initiatives and potential

and it is now difficult for local people to earn aalternatives in a culturally appropriate manner. This

livelihood from resources in PKWS.

project is both process and output driven.

The PMMR team has worked in a series of

Koh Kong province is isolated from other parts

villages in PKWS. Villages in the Wildlife Sanctuaryof Cambodia and relatively unpopulated. Until recently,

are inter-connected, although villages definitely holdone could only access eastern Koh Kong province,

their own unique characteristics. Villagers live in PKWS

the area where the PMMR project works, via boat.

for a variety of reasons：as long-term residents, for

After the catastrophic Khmer Rouge (KR) regime someresource extraction opportunities, for fishing opportunities,

villagers, faced with landlessness in other parts offor govern m ent w ork (navy , military , police ,Cambodia, migrated into Koh Kong hoping to earngovernment officials) or following family to the area.

a living from the lush resources found in the coastal

Some in-migrants consider PKWS their home whereas

area. However, migrants and local villagers were notothers plan to return to their birth province .

the only people interested in mangrove and aquatic

Understandably, villagers hold different interests and79International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

村人たちの環境に対する関心と関係が異なるのは当に売られて行く。また、マングローブの木材は家屋然のことである。環境への関心が高まるにつれ、村の建築、木炭と緑のイガイ類の養殖に用いられてい人たちにも政府機関にもPKWSのマングローブ資源る。

を保護するために行動を起こさなければならないと残念なことに、水辺資源は急速に枯渇してもいる。

いう要求が高まってきている。これ自体は積極的なカンボジアとタイのトロール船による非合法な沖合一歩であるが、資源の利用により大きな利潤を得てい底引き網漁は、海底を壊し、水生動植物の深刻ないる「権力者」集団に、資源保護イニシアチブが長減少を助長している。地元の漁民の漁にでる時間は、期的には利益になるということを説得することが、10年前と比べて非常に長くなっている。魚の減少に依然として残された課題である。

伴って、一部の漁師は漁獲高を増やすために、非合PKWSにはさまざまのマングローブ種、水辺生物、法のシアン化合物や手榴弾を使った漁法をおこなう

陸上生物、サンゴ、海藻、水鳥が生息しており、こようになっている。

れは極めて多様なすばらしい生態系である。PKWS

これらの問題を解決する方法はおそらくあるだろの地元住民が持っている伝統的知識の多くはKRとう。例えば、小さな漁具を使って海藻床やサンゴを急速な移住民の流入によって失われてしまった。し守り、捕らえた魚が無駄になるのを最小限にするこ

かしながら、この地域への新参者でも環境に関するとができる。木炭生産のための植林も、考えられる

断片的な知識は持っており、長年の努力の蓄積の結解決策の一つである。また、政府当局や地元住民が果、人々は異なるマングローブ種とその利用に関すマネージメント・イニシアチブを考慮しているので、る知識を持つようになっている。マングローブ種のそうなると養殖事業もおこなうことができる。限定

主要な用途は木炭の生産であり、それはタイの市場されたテストが過去2年間におこなわれてきたが、

connections with their environment. As environmental

then sold to the Thai market. Also, mangrove woodawareness has increased, there is a growing demandis used for house construction, charcoal and green

from both villagers and government authorities tomussel culture.

work towards measures that will protect the mangrove

Unfortunately, aquatic resources are also rapidly

resources of PKWS. While this is a positive step, it

depleting. Illegal offshore trawling activities from both

remains a challenge to convince ’power’ players who

Cambodian and Thai trawlers wreck the sea-bottom

benefit greatly from resource extraction of the long-and contribute to the significant decline in aquatic

term benefits of resource conservation initiatives.

species . Local fishers now spend far more time

PKWS is diverse in mangrove species, aquatic

fishing then they did ten years ago. In response to

species, upland species, corals, sea grass and waterfowl.

fish declines, some local fishers are resorting to illegal

This is a diverse, fascinating ecosystem. Much of thecyanide and grenade fishing in the hopes of earning

traditional knowledge held by local residents in PKWS

higher fish returns.

has been lost because of the KR and the rapid in-

Perhaps there are ways to address some of thesemigration into the area. However, even new-comers

issues. For example, small-scale fishing gear helps toto the area hold bits and pieces of environmental

maintain sea grass beds, corals and minimize theknowledge, and as a cumulative effort people arewaste fish that are caught. Silviculture for charcoal

able to shed insights into different mangrove species

production is another possibility. And, as governmentand how they can be used. The predominant use of

authorities and local people consider management

mangrove species is for charcoal production that is

initiatives, aquaculture activities can then be possible.

80International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

夜間のPKWSには安全上の問題がある。さらに市場

ジェクト・レビューの第一段階と時を同じくしてお調査を進めれば、市場の変動およびタイ市場に出荷

こなわれた。新たな共同体を基礎とした沿岸域資源できる可能性のある種が分かるようになるであろう。

管理（CBCRM）および参加型研究（PR）のコンセ

環境保護を支援する立法には限界がある。一部のプトがマングローブ資源参加型管理（PMMR）チー

法案は起草中であったり、つい最近成立したばかり

ムにとっていかなるものかを考え、ペアム・クラサ

であるが、こうした法的文書の配布は最小限に抑え

オップ自然保護地区（PKWS）がどれほど隔絶したられている。さらに、文書がプノンペンで作られて地域にあるかを考えると、非常に多くのことがこのいるので、しばしば地方や沿岸諸共同体のニーズに2年間で達成されたと言える。このチームは更に技適合しないことがあるのである。「保護地域管理の術支援を必要としているが、PMMRチームの努力

準法令」案は、どの資源がどこで利用可能なのかをによって、地元、県、国家レベルの機関が地元住民示すゾーニング・システムを通じてPKWSの住民にから学び、対話することが可能になるプロセスが促影響を与えることになるだろう。法律は重要ではあ進されていったのである。住民は地元でイニシアチ

るが、それと同様に重要なのは、地元住民が資源保ブを取ることを奨励されているため、実際に、PKWS

護策に基づき行動することを可能にするシステムのの共同体から学べることが多くなっている。村人た構築である。幸運なことに、このコンセプトはカン

ちが自らの問題を分析し、ますます自信をもって自ボジアにおいて支持を得つつあり、共同体が資源保らの考えや解決方法を発表して行くにつれて、資源護策に関して関連する諸機関と共に活動することが保護の技法を維持しながら、収入を生み出す活動を期待される。

可能にする方法が見つけられるようになっている。

この技術レポートの最終的承認は、PMMRプロ

A limited amount of testing was introduced duringcommunities will be able to work with relevant

the past two-years, although siting is a problem given

authorities in resource protection measures.

security issues in PKWS at night. Further market

The finalizing of this Technical Report coincided

surveys will shed insight into how the market fluctuateswith an internal phase 1 PMMR project review .

and potential species that could be sold to the Thai

Considering how new Community - based Coastal

market.

Resource Management (CBCRM) and PR concepts

Legislation supporting environmental protection isare for the PMMR team and how isolated PKWS is,limited. Although some legislation is either being

a lot has been accomplished over the two-year period.

drafted or has just been passed, dissemination of these

While the team continues to need more technicallegal instruments is minimal. Moreover, legislation is

support, the PMMR team has facilitated a process thatdrafted in Phnom Penh and often does not meet thee n a bles lo c al , pr o vin cial a n d n atio n al le v elneeds of rural, coastal communities. The draft sub-government authorities to learn from and dialogue

decree on Protected Area’s Management will affectwith local people. Villagers are being encouraged tovillagers in PKWS through a zoning system thattake local initiatives；indeed, a lot can be learned fromdictates what resources can be used where. Although

the communities of PKWS. As villagers analyze theirlegislation is important, it is equally important toproblems and become more confident in voicing theirdevelop systems that allow local villagers to work on

ideas and solutions, measures allowing for income

resource protection measures. Fortunately, this concept

generation activities while supporting resourceis gaining ground in Cambodia and it is hoped thatconservation techniques can be found.

81International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

ベトナムにおける海洋保護域の状況と将来
ヴォ・シ・チュアン
海洋学研究所
01 Cau Da, Nha Trang, Viet Nam
E- Mail：thuysinh@dng. vnn. vn
ベトナムにはすでに沿岸と海洋地域に位置する23の保護地域がある。この中で、１ヶ所は世界遺産として、もう１ヶ所はユネスコの生物圏保護地域、後の１ヶ所はラムサール地域として、また２ヶ所は国立公園として指定されている。しかしながら、海洋保護地域システムは公式にはまだ確立されてはいな
い。R@Rプロジェクトの基準に基づくと、良く管理されていると考えられる地域は2ヶ所に過ぎず、13ヶ所 の 管理効率 は 中程度 とされている 。 ADB5712‑
REGプロジェクトはベトナム沿岸域・海洋保護地
域（MPA）プランおよび海洋保護地域（MPA）プ
ランを作成したが、それによると８ヶ所の既存の保護地域の海洋部分の拡大が提案され、６ヶ所の新しい保護地域を設け、20ヶ所の優先エリアの管理を実施している。このプランの実施によって保護されるべき海洋エリアは43,400ヘクタールから263,312ヘ
クタールへと拡大されることになる。漁業省に権限が与えられ、11ヶ所の新しい保護地域の設定とともに、さらに海洋環境に焦点を当てたMPAシステムの作成を命じられた。近年、ベトナム政府と海外の援助機関はベトナムの海洋保護地域にさらに多くの関心を払っている。例えば、世界銀行はホン・ムン
地域 を 「 ベトナムにおける 試験的海洋保護地域（MPA）」プロジェクトを実施する地域として選んだ 。将来 の 沿岸域生態系 の 効率的管理 のために 、MPAの発展にさらなる支援が得られるものと期待されている。

STATUS AND PROSPECTIVE OF MARINE PROTECTED AREAS
IN VIET NAM
Vo Si TUAN
Institute of Oceanography
01 Cau Da, Nha Trang, Viet Nam
E- Mail：thuysinh@dng. vnn. vn
Viet Nam has 23 existing protected areas locatedareas. The marine areas to be protected will increasein the coastal and marine regions. Among them, there

from 43,400ha to 263,312ha after implementing thewere one area recognized as World Heritage, one asplan. The Ministry of Fisheries has been authorized

UNESCO Biosphere Reserve, one as Ramsar site andto prepare the Plan for MPA System with more focus

two as National Park. The marine protected area system,

to marine environment with 11 areas proposed as new

however, has not been established formally. Based on

establishment. Recently, Viet Nam Government andthe criteria of R@R project, only two areas wereoversea donors are paying more attention to marine

considered being good management and 13 ones belong

protected areas in Viet Nam. For example, World

to medium level of management effectiveness. The

Bank selected Hon Mun to implement the projectproject ADB 5712- REG compiled the Viet Nam"Pilot Marine Protected Area (MPA) in Viet Nam".

Coastal and Marine Protected Area (MPA) Plan, in

More support has been expected to develop MPAs

w hich there w ere proposals to extend m arine

for effective management of coastal ecosystems incomponent of 8 existing areas, new establishment ofnear future.

6 areas and management enforcement of 20 priority

82

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

ブルネイ・ダルサラーム国の海洋生態系の社会経済的重要性
サブリ・ハジ・モハメッド・タハ
漁業局
漁業省
Muara BT1128, Brunei Darussalam
E- Mail：sabri_taha@fisheries.gov.bn
ブルネイ・ダルサラーム国は南シナ海に面した小とする圧力が、政府の方針である経済の多角化によさな沿岸国である。ブルネイ・ダルサラームは大きり徐々に強まっている。近隣諸国の経験から見て、な汚染から保護され、台風の進路から離れた自然のブルネイ・ダルサラームはこれらの資源を持続可能

ままの海洋生態系に恵まれている。その130キロのな方法で開発する覚悟を決めることができる。ブル

海岸線から広がる38,600平方キロメートル以上の海

ネイ・ダルサラームの沿岸域の統合的管理プランは、

洋環境を有し、海洋生態系とそれに伴なう資源は管国がこれらの資源を無制限な開発から確実に保護す

理と持続可能な保存の最優先事項となっている。ブることに努力をしている証拠である。このプランのルネイ・ダルサラームは、海洋資源がほとんど開発

下で、生態系と資源の管理に十分な注意が払われてされていないという点で幸運である。

いる。

しかしながら、これらの資源を十分に開発しよう

THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF THE MARINE ECOSYSTEMS OF BRUNEI DARUSSALAM
Sabri Haji Mohd. TAHA
Fisheries Station
Department of Fisheries
Muara BT1128, Brunei Darussalam
E- Mail：sabri_taha@fisheries.gov.bn
Brunei Darussalam is a small coastal state front-

However, the pressure to fully exploit theseing the South China Sea. Brunei Darussalam is blessed

resources is increasing in line with the government’s

with pristine marine ecosystems that are well protected

effort to diversify its economy. With lessons learned

from major pollution and away from the path offrom neighbouring countries, Brunei Darussalam cantyphoons. With an area of more than 38,600 sq. km

prepare itself to develop these resources in aof marine environment projected by its 130 km

sustainable manner. The Integrated Management Plan

coastline , the marine ecosystems and associatedfor the Coastal Zone of Brunei Darussalam is a testimony

resources are of prime concern to be managed andof the country’s effort to ensure that these resources

conserved sustainably. Brunei Darussalam is fortunate

are safeguarded against uncontrolled exploitation .

that most of its marine resources remain under

Under the Plan, the management of the ecosystems

exploited.

and resources are given due attention.

83

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

メコン川河口域におけるマングローブの持続可能な管理のための解決策に関する考察
ヴォ・トリィ・チュング
森林資源・環境センター
Hanoi, Viet Nam
Asia Forest Sustainable Management Network
E- Mail：votrichung@yahoo.com
メコン川には主要な河口が9つあり、南ベトナムのメコンデルタの沿岸地域におけるユニークな河口域を形成している。この河口域は地元住民によって巨大な米作地帯に横たわる「９匹の竜」と呼ばれており、ほとんどがメコン川河口域の沈泥の沖積土であり、マングローブが長い時間をかけて生育している。
マングローブは生態学的バランスを維持するダイ
ナミックな役割を果たしており、沿岸域における自然災害を軽減するのに役立っている。一方、マングローブ林を切り倒すことなく、豊かな実りが地元共同体の生計を助けている。
この地域のマングローブは、戦争とそれに続く常軌を逸した新経済地域開発計画によって非常に大きな打撃を受けた。1990年以来のベトナムの国家戦略の見直しの期間に、最重要政策の一つとして「エコロジーと経済の安定したバランスを保ち、環境破壊に敏感な沿岸地域および上流の分水嶺地域に焦点を当てる」という政策が打ちだされた。メコン川河口域のマングローブは、いくつかの成功を収めた政策と地元住民とのマングローブの共同管理と開発に重点をおいた効果的な解決策によって、開発され保護されてきた。ベトナム最大の都市であるホー・チ・
ミン市の近くにある30,000ヘクタールのマングロー
ブ林の一部はユネスコの生物圏保護地域に指定されたばかりである。

HOW AND WHAT SOLUTIONS FOR SUSTAINABLE MANAGEMENT
OF THE MANGROVES IN MEKONG RIVER ESTUARIESVo Tri CHUNG
Forest Resources and Environment Center
Hanoi, Viet Nam
Asia Forest Sustainable Management Network
E- Mail：votrichung@yahoo.com
There are nine major mouths of the MekongRiver as unique estuaries on Coastal zone of Mekong
delta in Southern Viet Nam, which was named by
local people as "Nine Dragons" laying in large ricefield. Almost alluvium of the Mekong river silt on
estuarine areas where mangroves develop time by time.
The mangrove have functional dynamic role inecological balance maintaining and could mitigate somuch natural disasters in coastal zones. Other side,
almost wealthy useful products without logging inmangrove forest could be real livelihood for local
communities.
The mangroves of those areas used to be destroyed
seriously by warfares and next unreasonable new
econo mic zone develop m ent planning . D uring

renovation of state strategy trend in Viet Nam, since1990 up to now, one of the most importance policies
as "Must keeping the stable balances between Ecology
and Economy, focused sensitive areas Coastal Zones
and upper Watershed Areas". The mangroves of
Mekong river estuaries have being developed andprotected with different successful policies and effective
solutions which emphasize on local communities joint
management and development of mangroves, where
are their clear benefits and responsibilities. One partof that mangrove system as over 30,000 hectares ofarea nearby of biggest city of Viet Nam as Ho Chi
Minh City has just identified by UNESCO as Biosphere
Protected Areas.

84International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

生物多様性条約のジャカルタ・マンデートおよび
東アジア海域におけるその実施
イナ・ビナリ・プラノト＊、ザイナル・アリフィン＊＊
国家環境省
Jl. DI Panjaitan, Kebon Nanas, Jakarta 13410, Indonesia
E- Mail：climate@cbn.net.id＊＊
海洋学研究開発センター−LIPI, Indonesia
海洋と沿岸域生物多様性に関するジャカルタ・マ

種であり、これらは海洋と沿岸域の生態系が直面すンデートは、海洋と沿岸域の生物多様性の重要性にる問題の軽減を支援する目的で展開されたものであ関するグローバルなコンセンサスであり、生物多様る。本稿は海洋と沿岸域の生物多様性の重要性およ性条約の実施に関する閣僚宣言の一部である。これ

びこの地域の海洋と沿岸域の資源の現状を概説する

は1995年11月 にジャカルタで 開 かれた 締約国会議

ものである 。COPの第四回会合 で採択 されたジャ（COP）の第二回会合で 採択されたものである 。

カルタ・マンデートの作業プログラムおよび最近開ジャカルタ・マンデートのプログラムには五つのテー

かれた第五回会合で採択されたプログラムも詳述す

マが含まれ、統合的海洋・沿岸域管理（IMCAM）、る。

海洋・沿岸域生物資源（MCLR）、海洋・沿岸域保護区域（MCPA）、海中養殖/海面養殖および不明

THE JAKARTA MANDATE OF THE CONVENTION ON
BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY AND ITS IMPLEMENTATIONFOR THE EAST ASIAN SEAS REGION
Ina Binari PRANOTO＊ and Zainal ARIFIN＊＊＊

State Ministry for Environment, Indonesia.
Jl. DI Panjaitan, Kebon Nanas, Jakarta 13410, Indonesia
E- Mail：climate@cbn.net.id＊＊
Research and Development Center for Oceanology - LIPI, Indonesia
The Jakarta Mandate on Marine and Coastal

Species, are developed to assist in mitigating the

Biological Diversity is a global consensus on the

problem faced by marine and coastal ecosystem. The

importance of marine and coastal biological diversity

paper outlines the importance of marine and coastal

and is a part of the Ministerial Declaration on the

biological diversity and status of the marine andimplementation of the Convention on Biologicalcoastal resources in the region. The programme ofDiversity, as adopted by the Conference of the Parties

work for the Jakarta Mandate as adopted during the(COP)at its second meeting held in Jakarta in November

fourth meeting of COP a well as the recent programme

1995. The programme of the Jakarta Mandate cover-adopted at COP5 will be elaborated.
Qiulin Zhou

ing the five themes namely Integrated Marine andCoastal Area Management (IMCAM), Marine andCoastal Living Resources (MCLR), Marine and Coastal
Protected Areas (MCPA) , Mariculture, and Alien

85

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

韓国における沿岸海洋生態系の保護と管理の法的枠組み
バン・タエ・ジン
海洋環境部
海事問題・漁業省
Seoul, Korea
E- Mail：yun71 @orgio.net
1996年に統合的海洋管理のために海事問題・漁業的枠組みの分析を試みるものである。分析の焦点は、省（MOMAF）が創設されて以来、韓国政府は沿「海洋汚染防止法」、「自然環境保存法」、ならびに岸域海洋生態系の保護と管理のための法的枠組みを「湿地帯保存法」にあてられており、これらは沿岸強化してきた。政府が取った主なイニシアチブには、海洋生態系に関する三つの主要な法律である。包括「湿地帯保存法（1999）」、「沿岸域管理法（1999）」

的な概論が、それぞれの法の枠組み、沿岸海洋生態および「海洋汚染防止法」の修正が含まれている。

系の保護と管理に関する主要な介入および関連する

これらのイニシアチブは、海洋生態系の質の低下や諸機関の責任について展開され、さらに、それぞれ人の手による損傷に関して、さまざまな利害関係者の法に基づいて実行される政策実施手段および実施が存在するという認識によって推進されてきた。本

活動を説明し、評価をおこなう。

稿は沿岸海洋生態系の保護と管理に対する韓国の法

LEGISLATIVE FRAMEWORK FOR THE PROTECTION AND MAN
AGEMENT OF COASTAL MARINEECOSYSTEMS IN KOREA
BANG, Tae Jin
Faculty of Law
National University of Singapore
13 Law Link, Singapore 117590
E- Mail：lawbeckm@nus.edu.sg
Since the creation of integrated ocean governance,

legislative framework of Korea for the protection and

the Ministry of Maritime Affairs and Fisheries

management of coastal marine ecosystem. The focus(MOMAF) in 1996, Korean government has strengthenedof analysis has been given on ’Marine Pollution

the legislative framework for the protection andPrevention Act’, ’Nature Environment Conservation

management of coastal marine ecosystems. Major

Act’ and ’Wetland Conservation Act’, which are theinitiatives include the enactm ent of ’ W etland

three major laws regarding coastal marine ecosystem.

Conservation Act (1999)’ and ’Coastal Management

Comprehensive description is given on the framework

Act (1999)’ and the amendment of ’Marine Pollutionof each law, major interventions for protection andPrevention Act’. These initiatives have been fostered

management of coastal marine ecosystem , andby a wide recognition of various stakeholders on the

responsibilities of concerned agencies. In addition,

degraded quality of marine ecosystem and the impaired

policy measures and implementation activities taken

human uses . This paper attempts to analyze theaccording to each law are described and evaluated.

86International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

沿岸域海洋生態系の保護と管理に関する
ミャンマーの環境関連法と規制の役割 問題と制約
ウ・ウィン・ラット
養殖開発と環境コンサルタント
アクアボンド社
P.O Box 5, Amphur Muang, Ranong 85000, Thailand
E- Mail：aquabco@cscoms. comと沿岸域海洋生態系との調和を達成するために、こうした問題は適切に取り組まなければならないが、さまざまな障害が依然として残っている。それゆえ、既存の環境関連法の役割が生態系の保護にとって極めて重要になっている。しかしながら、実際には、これらの法規の実施と執行の効果はその限界により大きく減少するのである。不十分な財政と人的資源、弱い執行力と法律の適切なメカニズムの欠如あるいはその不完全さが重大な困難の原因としてあげられるように思える。法の執行と沿岸域の管理が非効率的になれば、ベンガル湾とアンダマン海の生態系は極めて大きな危険に直面することになると言える。
本稿は関連する主要な問題と制約について論じ、あ
わせて現在の諸問題に対処するために採りうる管理戦略を提案するものである。

ミャンマーでは、環境問題担当の省庁を創設する過程に入っているが、一方では環境問題国家委員会（NCEA）が環境問題を扱う政府の中核・調整機関として活動している。環境保護法はまだ公布されていないが、現在のところ環境保護の内容を持つ部門
別のいくつかの法律と規則がある。これらの既存法
規は、持続可能な海洋資源の管理という視点が欠けているか、沿岸域海洋生態系の保全と管理に関して、効力がないものとみなされている。地域の事情に合わせて作られた、一つの経済部門だけを開発する沿岸地域全体に見られる開発活動は、部門別に定められた環境保護法規に必ずしも一致するものではない。
さらに、地方の社会経済的活動、越境貿易、国境地
域の再居住化プログラムが生態系の全面的な環境悪化を助長していないとは言えない。社会経済的発展

THE ROLE OF MYANMAR’S ENVIRONMENT RELATED LAWS
AND REGULATIONS IN PROTECTION AND MANAGEMENT OF
COASTAL MARINE ECOSYSTEMS：ISSUES AND CONSTRAINTSU Win LATT
Aquaculture Development and Environmental Consultants
Aqua Bound Co., Ltd.
P.O Box 5, Amphur Muang, Ranong 85000, Thailand
E- Mail：aquabco@cscoms. com
Myanmar is in the process of forming Ministrylevel Environment body while National Commission
for Environmental Affairs (NCEA) serves as a national
focal point and coordinating agency for environmental
matters. Although environmental protection law is yet
to be promulgated, currently, there are several sectoral
laws and regulations that contain portions on environmental
protection. These existing laws are either lacked invision of sustainable management of marine resources
or considered weak especially in the area of prevention and management of coastal and marine ecosystems.
Localized uni-sectoral development activities across nation’s coastal areas are not always in line even withenvironmental regulations defined in sectoral laws. In
addition, local socio-economic activities, trans-boundary trade and border area rehabilitation programmes
are not less in contributing overall environmental
degradation to the ecosystems. Whilst the issues need

to be addressed properly in order to achieve harmony
between socio-economic development and protection
and management of coastal marine ecosystems, various
obstacles still remain. Therefore, the role of currently
available environment related laws have become vitalin protection of the ecosystems. However, in practicethe effectiveness in implementation and enforcementof those laws are largely reduced by limitations.
Insufficient financial and human resources, weak
enforcement and lack or incomplete appropriate mechanism in laws appear as major difficulties. If enforcement of the laws and management of coastal zones
become ineffective, the future of the Bay of Bengal
and the Andaman Sea ecosystems are at high risk.
This paper discusses related major issues and constraints,
and provides with possible management strategy todeal with current problems.

87International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

日本における沿岸管理システムと生態系保護荏原明訓
神戸学院大学法学部
Ikawadani- cho, Nishi- ku, Kobe City
Hyogo Prefecture 651-2180 Japan
E- Mail：ebara@law. kobegakuin.ac.jp
1999年、国会は海岸法改正をおこなったが、2000
年 2 月 には 国土庁 が 日本 のすべての 沿岸域 を 含 む「総合的沿岸域管理計画作成のガイドライン」を作成した。これらは日本における新たな沿岸域管理シ
ステムを明らかにするものである。ここでは日本における沿岸域管理システム、特に法体系を紹介しようと思う。また、新しい法体系の概念も提示したい。
まず、三つの主要な点について指摘しよう。第一に歴史的、基本的問題、第二に1999年以前の法令および法的諸原則、第三に新たな法制度である。 第一の歴史的基本的問題とは、誰が沿岸域を所有しているのか、誰が沿岸域管理の責任を持っているのか、諸機関はどのように沿岸域の管理をおこなうのか、ということである。第二に、1999年以前の法規と法的原則について論じる。わが国には包括的な沿岸域管理法はなかったが、四つの管理法、すなわち海岸法、港湾法、漁港法および河川法があった。しかしながら、これらの法規は限定的な沿岸域にしか適用されない。我々は建設省ないし都道府県知事が「公物法」の原則に基づいてその地域の公的利用を管理すべきであると考えてきた。第三が新海岸管理シス
テムである。改正海岸法は「公共海岸区域」のシス
テムを導入している。その結果、すべての海岸が４つの法律で規制され管理されている。国土庁が「総合的沿岸管理プラン作成のガイドライン」を作成し、それがすべての沿岸に適用されている。したがって、
総合的な沿岸管理協議会が数年のうちに発足し、総合的な沿岸管理計画を作成することになるだろう。
結論として、私は日本の経験のメリットとデメリッ
トを指摘し、新たな沿岸管理システムにいくつかのアイディアを提案したい。

COASTAL MANAGEMENT SYSTEM AND ECOLOGICALPRESERVATION IN JAPANEbara AKINORI
Kobe- Gakuin University, Faculty of Law
Ikawadani- cho, Nishi- ku, Kobe City,
Hyogo Prefecture 651-2180 JAPANebara@law. kobegakuin.ac.jp
the Fishery Port Act and the River Act, though fourActs apply the limited coastal area. There is extensive
coastal area where four acts did not apply. We thinkthat Departments of Construction or Governors maintainthat area for the public use on the basis of "Kobutsuho" doctrine. The third is new coastal management
system. The Coastal Act Amendment adopts "public
coast" system. So all coastal area is regulated andmaintained by four acts. National Land Agency makes"the guideline to make the Integrated Coastal
Management Plan" which covers all coastal area inJapan. So integrated coastal management conferences
will be established in order to make comprehensive
coastal management plans in a few years. In my
conclusion, I will point out some merits and demeritsof Japanese experiences and propose some ideas to
new coastal management system.

In 1999, the Diet passed the Coastal Act Amendment,
and in February 2000, National Land Agency makes"the guideline to make the Integrated Coastal
Management Plan" which covers all coastal area inJapan. They reveal new coastal management system
in Japan . I would like to introduce the coastalmanagement system, especially legal system in Japan.
And I will present new ideas of legal system. I will
point out three major points. The first is historicaland fundamental issues, second is Acts and legal
doctrines before 1999 and third is new legal system.
The first point is historical and fundamental issues,e . g ., who is an owner of coastal land , who has
responsibility of maintain coastal lands, how do theagencies maintain coastal lands? The second is Acts
and legal doctrines before 1999. We did not havecomprehensive coastal management act, but fourmanagement laws, the Coastal Act, the Harbor Act,

88

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

カンボジアの沿岸域・海洋環境の現状「新規政策と管理戦略」
ヴァン・モニネス
沿岸域調整機構長官、ナショナルコーディネーター
沿岸域環境管理−カンボジア計画
環境省#48, Preah Sihanouk Street, Tonle Bassac
Chankarmon, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
E- Mail：MONYNEATH@bigpond.com. kh
枠組みの設定について検討するものである。

本稿はカンボジアにおける現在の主要な沿岸域および海洋環境の問題を提示し、迫り来る開発の圧力に対して沿岸域と海洋資源の適切な管理をおこなう
政策、法律、制度的能力の欠如に焦点を当て、これらの問題に対処するために政府が打ちだした政策上の反応に言及するものである。本稿はカンボジアにおいて未だ形成途上にある沿岸政策と管理戦略に含まれる諸要素および現在現れつつある沿岸域管理のTHE STATUS OF CAMBODIA’ S COASTAL AND MARINEENVIRONMENT：" EMERGING POLICIES AND MANAGEMENTSTRATEGIES"
Vann MONYNEATH
Head, Coastal Coordinating Unit and National Coordinator
Environmental Management of the Coastal Zone- Cambodia Project
Ministry of Environment and Danida#48, Preah Sihanouk Street, Tonle Bassac
Chankarmon, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
E- Mail：MONYNEATH@bigpond.com. kh

This paper presents the major current coastal andstrategies in Cambodia, which are still to be formulated,marine environmental problems in Cambodia andand the beginning of a coastal zone management

highlights the present lack of policy, and legal andframework, which is emerging.

institutional capacity to properly manage coastal andm a ri n e r e s o u r c e s i n th e f a c e o f i n cr e a sin g
development pressures and touches on the policy
response being developed by the government to addressthese problems. The paper looks at the elements
involved in the coastal policies and management

89International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

タイにおける環境管理政策および沿岸域海洋生態系の持続可能な利用計画
ナワラット・クライラパノンド、パッタリン・シャンガイスク
沿岸域・海洋資源グループ
環境政策・計画局
科学・技術・環境省
60/1 Soi Phibun Wattana 7, Rama VI Road, Bangkok 10400, Thailand
E- Mail：nawarat@oepp.go.th or neric@oepp.go.th
水準の向上と保全に関する政策および将来へのプラン（1997‑2016）は、マングローブ林、サンゴ礁、藻場ならびに絶滅の危機に瀕している動植物などの沿岸域生態系のバランスの維持を強調しながら、沿岸域の資源管理と保全を目指したものである。一連の個別の管理プランもこれらの問題に対処するため作成され、導入されている。しかしながら、これらの政策や計画に基づく沿岸海洋生態系の持続可能な利用は、ある程度は可能である。最大の障害は、我々が常に求めている地元共同体の参加と協力ではな
く、政治的意思の欠如と行政上の問題なのである。

タイがグローバリゼーションの波に打ち勝つ、経済開発をおこなう圧力を受け始めたのは30年以上も昔のことであった。開発活動によって沿岸域・海洋
資源の濫用と枯渇が起こり、環境の悪化が生じた。
マングローブ林、サンゴ礁、藻場ならびに海洋生物
資源は、不健全な沿岸域水産養殖、観光、施設開発
プロジェクトにより収奪されていった。1987年の中頃になってやっと沿岸域・海洋資源の保全と復元の努力がおこなわれ、「沿岸域資源管理の実験行動計画」が作成された。続いて10年の間に、いくつかの
沿岸海洋資源と環境管理に関する政策と計画が、関連政府諸機関と内閣によって承認された。国家環境

ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT POLICY AND PLANNING
FOR SUSTAINABLE USE OF COASTAL MARINEECOSYSTEMS IN THAILAND
NAWARAT KRAIRAPANOND＊ and PATTARIN SANGHAISUKCoastal and Marine Resources Group
Office of Environmental Policy and Planning
Ministry of Science, Technology and Environment
60/1 Soi Phibun Wattana 7, Rama VI Road, Bangkok 10400, Thailand
E- Mail：nawarat@oepp.go.th or neric@oepp.go.th
It was more than 30 years that Thailand had
undergone through economic development pressure tocompete with globalization. Development activities
have caused the overuse and depletion of coastal andmarine resources, and its environmental degradation.
Mangrove forests, coral reefs, seagrass beds, as wellas living marine resources, have been exploited fromunsound coastal aquaculture , tourism and facility
development projects. It was not until mid 1987 thatan effort to conserve and rehabilitate coastal andmarine resources was initiated, and then a "Pilot
Action Plan for Coastal Resources Management" wasformulated . Subsequently, within a 10- year time,several policies and plans for coastal marine resourcesand environmental management have been endorsedby concerned government agencies and the Cabinet.
Policy and Prospective Plans for Enhancement andConservation of National Environmental Quality (19972016) aims for coastal resources management andconservation with an emphasis on the balance ofcoastal ecosystem, such as mangrove forests, coral
reefs, seagrass beds, endangered flora and fauna. Seriesof particular management plans have also developed
and being initiated to cope with the problems .
However, a sustainable use of coastal marine ecosystems
under those management policies and plans is, to somedegree, implementable. A major hindrance is lackingof political will and administration problems rather
than participation and cooperation of local communities,
which all of us always seek for.

90International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

沿岸海洋システム利用における軋轢：タイ
スラポル・スダラ
海洋科学部
チュラロンコン大学
Bangkok 10330, Thailand
E- Mail：ssurapho@chula.ac.th
タイ湾とアンダマン海を含むタイ海域は世界の中藻場、サンゴ礁の環境悪化や泥質の海底などが資源でも最も海洋資源の豊かな海として知られていた。

の減少の原因となっている。マングローブの破壊のタイ人は自らが消費する分だけでなく、輸出用とし原因はさまざまな活動によるものであるが、特に急てもこれら天然資源を収穫してきた。そして近年で速に拡大したえびの水産養殖が主な原因である。底はタイは世界市場でも 最大の海産物の輸出国になっ

引き網漁業とさで網漁により、藻場と泥質の海底のている。しかし、この過程で適切な管理が行われず、条件が破壊されたのである。これらの漁では海底の現在ではタイ海域における乱獲の問題が指摘されて表面を網で引いたり押したりするため、海面より上いる。沿岸域資源の減少の原因は多すぎる漁船によの生態系に変化をもたらしたのである。これらの漁り、漁へ強い圧力がかかるだけではなく、沿岸域ので捕獲される魚には、貴重な種ではあるが雑魚と呼生態系の悪化にもよるものである。マングローブ、

ばれている若い成魚や稚魚も含まれている。これがCONFLICT IN COASTAL MARINE SYSTEMS UTILIZATION：THAILAND
Suraphol SUDARA
Department of Marine Science
Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand
E- Mail：ssurapho@chula.ac.th
Thai waters, both in the Gulf of Thailand andbeds, coral reefs as well as the muddy bottom, all

the Andaman Sea, used to be considered among thecontributing to the reduction of resources. Mangroves

most productive areas of the world. Thais have been

had been destroyed by various activities but rapid

harvesting natural resources from coastal areas not

shrimp farming expansion seems to be the major

only enough for their consumption but also for export

cause. Bottom trawlers as well as push-net boats haveand lately the marine products exported from Thailand

been causing destruction to the seagrass beds as wellrank top in the would market. Doing so, without

as the muddy bottom condition. Since they would beproper management, there are now evidence of over-dragging or pushing their nets through the surface

fishing in the Thai waters. The cause of deteriorationlevel of the sea bottom , changing the top levelto the coastal resources is not only through the highecosystems. Their catches contain trash fish whichpressure of catch by too many vessels but theusually included the young adult or juvenile stages

degradation of coastal ecosystems；mangroves, seagrassof valuable species . This is a major cause of91

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

沿岸漁業資源の破壊の主たる要因である。沿岸域生態系は実際に互いに結びついているのである。一つの生態系の破壊、例えばマングローブの破壊は、沿岸漁業資源の減少をもたらすものなのである。それゆえ、沿岸資源の保護においては沿岸域生態系全体の保全を目指さなければならない。そればかりではなく、沿岸域の土地利用もまた海洋資源の破壊をもたらすことがある。桟橋、防波堤等の構造物も設計を誤ると、浜の深刻な侵食をを引き起こすことがあるのである。沿岸域の開墾も大量の堆積物が、近隣の沿岸生態系に流出する主な原因となることがある。
海岸線から遠く離れた人間の居住地や、家庭排水や工業廃棄物も沿岸資源を破壊することがある。したがって、このような問題の予防や解決のためには統合的沿岸域管理が極めて重要なのである。

destruction to coastal fisheries resources. The coastal
ecosystems actually interconnected to each other.
Destruction to one, such as mangroves, could resultin the deduction of coastal fisheries resources. Therefore,
protection of the coastal resources must aim atconservation of the w hole coastal ecosyste ms
altogether. Not only that, coastal land use could also
result in destruction to marine resources. Coastal
constructions, such as piers, wave protection walls,
etc., if unproperly designed could result in severe
erosion of the beaches. Coastal land clearing could
be the major course of heavy sediment transported on
to the near by coastal ecosystems which would leadto destruction. Human settlements, even though somemight be further away from the coast line but domestic
as well as industrial pollution could result in
destruction to coastal resources. Therefore, integrated
coastal zone management is very important toprevent or to solve such problems.

92International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

社会・経済・文化的観点から見た
タム・ギアン・ラグーンの生物資源管理
トン・タット・パプ
生物学部
フエ科学大学27 Nguyen Hue street, Hue City, Viet Nam
E- Mail：slarmes@dng.vnn. vn
タム・ギアン・ラグーンはアジア最大のラグーン

ンの資源の乱開発を減らす方法と考えている。人口（潟湖）のひとつであり、チュア・ティエン−フエが増加した結果、環境条件は悪化している。水産養県にある面積22,000ヘクタールのラグーンである。

殖はラグーンの資源管理に厄介な問題をもたらしてこのラグーンは、直接・間接的に周辺地域や湖上のいる。

舟に住む30万人の人々に生活の糧を提供している。

本稿はラグーン資源の特性と水面権に関する政策、ラグーンの生態系は非常に複雑であり、その理由はラグーン資源の管理に伴う社会経済的変化を提示す

人間の活動が多様であり、集中しているだけでなく、るものであり、ラグーンの資源管理に適していると多様な自然環境が存在しているからである。天然水考えられる管理レベルについて議論するものである。

生資源の枯渇と増加する住民のニーズを満たすため、共同体を基盤とした沿岸域資源管理（CBCRM）は、ラグーンでは水産養殖が発達した。地元の政府は養一見すると、近年のラグーン管理の中心的戦略であ殖がラグーンに住む人たちの収入を増やし、ラグーるが、これについても焦点を当てて検討する。

MANAGEMENT BIOLOGICAL RESOURCES IN TAM GIANGLAGOON FROM A SOCIO-ECONOMIC CULTURAL VIEWPOINT
Ton That PHAP
Department of Biology
Hue University of Sciences
27 Nguyen Hue street, Hue City, Viet Nam
E- Mail：slarmes@dng.vnn. vn
The Tam Giang lagoon, one of the biggest inof the lagoon resources. As a consequence of theAsia, is located in Thua Thien-Hue province, Vietnam

increased exploitation, environmental conditions havewith an area of 22,000 ha. It provides sources ofdeteriorated. Aquaculture entails complicated problems

living directly or indirectly for about 300,000

in lagoon resources management.

habitants living around its surrounding land and on

This paper presents the lagoon resource properties

boats on the lagoon. The lagoon ecosystem is very

and the policies on water area rights, the socio-economic

complex because not only human activities are diversechanges related to the management of lagoon resources.

and intensive but also natural environment displays

The management levels, which would be consideredvery high heterogeneity. Aquaculture is being developed

as suitable for lagoon resources management, arein the lagoon to overcome the depletion of natural

discussed . Community - Based Coastal Resources

aquatic resources and to satisfy the demand of theManagement (CBCRM), apparently, as a central strategy

increasing population. The local government considersof the lagoon management in recent years, is also

it an alternative measure to improve lagoon dwellers

highlighted.

income and a means of reducing random exploitation

93

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

マングローブを過小評価する途上国政府
J. E. オング＊, W. K. ゴング & H. C. チャン
Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800 Penang, Malaysia
E- Mail：jeong@usm.my
熱帯では大きな割合（例えばマレーシアでは約50％）で、マングローブが海岸線に生えている。これが与える印象は、マングローブ生態系が非常によく見 かけられるということである 。 しかし 現実 には（陸域の割合から計算すれば）もっともマングロー
ブが豊かな南・東南アジアとオーストラリア（合計
すると世界のマングローブの50％を占める）でも、マングローブの生息地域は全体の0.4％でしかない。
それゆえ、マングローブ生態系が存在するのは非常に稀なのである。この事実に、マングローブの数ある経済的役割（林業と漁業資源）および生態的役割（炭素吸収や沿岸保護）を加えると、マングローブ
は極めて高い価値を持つ産品であるということになる。歴史的に見て、マングローブは蚊や害虫のあふれるひどい湿地帯として見られており、他の用途に使うのが一番よいと考えられていた。こうした考え

方は既に流行遅れとなっているが、マングローブは依然として過小評価されており、特に途上国政府の評価は低い。しかし、マングローブが自生する幾つかの途上国では、法律によって万全に保護されてい（オーストラリアとアメリカ合衆国）。なぜ先進る。
国だけがマングローブの価値を認識しているのだろうか？ なぜ新興富裕国であるシンガポールや香港は、破壊されたマングローブの再生のために資金を出す準備をしているのだろうか？ 途上国政府がこのことに目覚めるのはもう遅すぎるのであろうか？
ここでは「政府」という言葉が重要である。なぜな
らこのようなことをすべて実行するには強い政治的意思が必要だからである。基本的な前提であるかもしれないが、エコロジーや経済以上に重要なのである。以下にその議論を続ける。

GOVERNMENTS OF DEVELOPING COUNTRIES GROSSLYUNDERVALUE THEIR MANGROVES?
J. E. ONG＊, W. K. GONG & H. C. CHAN
Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800 Penang, Malaysia
E- Mail：jeong@usm.myv e r y m u c h u n d e r v al u e d , e s p e ciall y b ygovernments of developing countries. In much of theworld, mangroves are not considered to be a valuableasset by governments. Yet in the few developed
countries where mangroves occur, they are completely
protected by law (e. g. Australia and the U . S. A .).
Why is it that only the developed countries recognise
this value? And why are some newly rich like
Singapore and Hong Kong prepared to spend millions
to restore their mangroves that have been destroyed?
Is it to o late fo r th e d e v elo pin g c o u ntries’
governments to wake up to this? "Governments" isthe operative word because the whole exercise require
strong political will. Much more so than ecology andeconomics , though they may be the fundamental
reasons. Discussion follows.

In the tropics , m angroves fringe a large
percentage (e.g. close to 50 % in Malaysia) of thecoastline. This gives the impression that the mangrove
ecosystem is very common. In reality (measured asa percentage of land area), even in a region where
they are most abundant like South & Southeast Asia
and Australia (where some 50 % of the world’s
mangroves occur, mangroves constitute a mere 0.4%of the land area of this region . Thus mangrove
ecosystems are rare. This, combined with their numerous
economic (e.g. forestry and fisheries resources) andecologic (e.g. carbon sink and coastal protection) roles,
should make mangroves a highly valued commodity.
Historically, mangroves have been considered as bad
swampland full of mosquitoes and other vermin andso is best reclaimed for other uses. Although thisconcept is no longer in vogue, mangroves are still

94

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

マレーシアにおけるマングローブ資源の保全と開発と管理問題と挑戦と機会
タン・キム・ホイ＊、モード・ニザム・バシロン
マレーシア海事研究所
Unit B-06-08 - B-06-11, Megan Phileo Avenue
12, Jalan Yap Kwan Seng
50450 Kuala Lumpur
Malaysia
E- Mail：tankhlbc@tm.net.my
本稿はマレーシアにおけるマングローブの現状、マングローブとそれに関連する動植物の居住環境管理システム、政策、法規、およびガイドラインをは、一般大衆のこれら貴重な資源の社会的経済的重概説し、マングローブ、漁業とマングローブの関係

要性についての理解の高まりにも関わらず、悪化しおよびその経済的評価の環境的、社会・経済的重要続けている。原因として含まれるものには、人口増性を議論し、マングローブの喪失と衰退の根源的な加、土地利用の変化、不適切で矛盾の多い政府の政原因と帰結を検証し、教育、現実認識、共同体参加

策、持続不可能な木材の伐採、沿岸の埋め立て、お（共同管理）、統合的沿岸域管理（ICZM）およびよび水産養殖・工業・都市・港湾開発への産業構造

地域協力に焦点をあてるものである。

の転換などがある。マングローブ開発に代わる代替

CONSERVATION, DEVELOPMENT AND MANAGEMENT OF
MANGROVE RESOURCES IN MALAYSIA - ISSUES, CHALLENGESAND OPPORTUNITIESTAN Kim Hooi＊ and Mohd Nizam BASIRON
Maritime Institute of Malaysia
Unit B-06-08 - B-06-11, Megan Phileo Avenue
12, Jalan Yap Kwan Seng
50450 Kuala Lumpur
Malaysia
E- Mail：tankhlbc@tm.net.my

This paper reviews the status, management systems,

community participation (co-management), integrated

policy, legislation and guidelines for mangroves incoastal zone management (ICZM) and regional

Malaysia；discusses environmental and socio-economic

cooperation.

im portance of m angroves , fisheries - m angrove

Mangroves and associated habitats continue to beconnection and their valuation；examines underlying

degraded despite the general public’s better understanding

causes and consequences of mangrove loss andof the complex social, economic, and environmental

degradation ； provides the prospects for m ore

importance of these invaluable resources. The causes

sustainable use of mangrove resources；and highlights

include population pressure and landuse changes,

th e i m p ortan ce of ed u catio n a n d a w are n ess ,inappropriate and conflicting government policies,

95International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

的開発案を、政策決定者に比較してもらうためのよ
り良い情報の提供をねらったマングローブの価値に関する調査が、過去十年の間に、大学や援助機関によって活発に行われてきた。予知可能な将来においてマングローブの減少を防止することはできないが、これを管理し、悪影響を最小限にとどめる機会はたくさんある。代替案の中には既存のマングローブ林の保護と管理、マングローブ・エコ・ツーリズムの振興、マングローブにやさしい水産養殖、地元共同体の積極的な関与による喪失地域の復元、ICZMの実施および地域協力の拡大などが含まれる。

unsustainable logging activities, coastal reclamation,and conversion to aquaculture, industrial, urban andport development. Research on mangrove valuation
intended to provide policy makers with better
information to compare development alternatives forthe mangroves, has been conducted actively over thelast decade by universities and donor agencies. While
it is impossible to stop mangrove degradation in theforeseeable future, there are many opportunities forbringing it under control and minimizing its negative
impacts . Alternatives include the protection andmanagement of remaining forests, the promotion ofmangrove ecotourism and mangrove-friendly aquaculture,
the rehabilitation of degraded areas with active
involvement of local communities, the implementationof ICZM, and the enhancement of regional cooperation.

96

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

タイ湾の海況の季節的変動
柳哲雄

応用力学研究所
九州大学
Kasuga 816-8580, Japan
Tel：81 92 583 7932, Fax：81 92 583 7492
E- Mail：tyanagi@riam. kyuhsu- u. ac.jp
もうひとつは、タイ湾奥北東部バンパコン河口域の河口循環流の季節変動に関する数値実験である。
1995年９月11、12日と1996年４月19日にタイ政府港湾局が行った、バンパコン河口域の水温・塩分観測
デ‑タを用いて、診断モデル計算を行った。塩分垂直分布 の 季節変動 から 、 バンパコン 河口域 が 雨季
（９月）には塩水くさび河口型に、乾季（４月）には軽度成層河口型に分類されるということがわかった。数値実験結果から、雨季には河口循環流が強化され、雨季、乾季ともに河口近くでは鉛直混合がよく起こっていることが明らかとなった。河口循環流
は陸から負荷されたリンや窒素を沖合いに移流させるだけでなく、バンパコン河口域の栄養物質を海底層から有光層に押し上げる役割も果たしている。

本稿においては、タイ湾の海況の季節的変動に関する二つの研究を紹介する。
一つは水温・塩分観測データの解析結果である。
1995年９月および1996年の４月−５月にSEAFDEC（東南アジア漁業開発センター）がタイ湾西部とマレー半島の東部海岸海域81点において詳細な水温・塩分観測を行った。デ‑タ解析の結果、タイ湾の成層度合いの水平的分布は主として潮流混合と水深に依存していて、成層が９月よりも４‐ ５月に発達す
るのは海面温度の上昇によることがわかった。また
タイ湾と南シナ海の海水交換が最も大きくなるのは
４‐ ５月で、それは河口循環流の強化と南西モンスー
ンによる鉛直循環流の組み合わせによるためである
こともわかった。

SEASONAL VARIATION OF OCEANIC CONDITION
IN THE GULF OF THAILAND
YANAGI Tetsuo
Research Institute for Applied Mechanics,
Kyushu University
Kasuga 816-8580, Japan
Tel：81 92 583 7932, Fax：81 92 583 7492
E- Mail：tyanagi@riam. kyuhsu- u. ac.jp
Two studies on the seasonal variation of oceanic
condition in the Gulf of Thailand are presented inthis paper.
One is the analysis of intensive hydrographic dataobtained in the western part of the Gulf of Thailand
and the east coastal sea of Peninsula Malaysia during
September 1995 and April-May 1996 by SEAFDEC(Southeast Asia Fisheries Development Center) .
Horizontal distribution of the degree of stratificationis governed mainly by the tidal mixing and the water depth and the stratification is more developed in
April-May than in September due to larger sea surface
heating. Water exchange between the Gulf of Thailand
and the South China Sea is increased in April-May
due to the coupling effect of intensified estuarine
circulation and vertical circulation due to the southwest
monsoon.
Another is the diagnostic numerical experimenton the seasonal variation of estuarine circulation in
the Bangpakong Estuary at the northeastern part of
the head of the Gulf of Thailand. Hydrographic datain the Bangpakong Estuary obtained on 11-12 September
1995 and 19 April 1996 by Harbor Department ofThailand are used in this study. Vertical distributionof salinity suggests that the Bangpakong Estuary canbe categorized as the salt wedge estuarine type inwet season (September), and the slightly stratified
one in dry season (April). Results of numericalexperiments show that stronger estuarine circulation
can be found in wet season, and vertically well mixing occurs near the river mouth in both seasons.
Estuarine circulation not only advects the loaded
phosphorus and nitrogen from land to the offshore
area but also upwells the nutrient from the bottom
layer to the euphotic layer in the Bangpakong
Estuary.

97

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

南シナ海の資源の減少は回復可能か？
持続可能な管理へのアプローチ
E. D. ゴメス
海洋科学研究所
フィリピン大学
Diliman, Quezon City, Philippines
E- Mail：edgomez@msi01.cs.upd.edu.ph
南シナ海は世界最大の周辺海の一つであり、東にへの違法な漁業者の侵入や海南省政府の漁業振興策

フィリピン、北に中国、西にベトナムといった、世などを見ても明らかである。南シナ海の真中に散ら界で有数の沿岸部人口増加率の高い国々に囲まれてばる小さな群島や浅瀬は周辺諸国の本土から離れている。これらの国々にはかなりの数の漁業船団が存いて、また特にスプラトリー諸島やパラセル諸島周在し、この準閉鎖海域の漁業資源を収奪している。

辺の領土をめぐる紛争により、担当する管理当局おフィリピンでは商業的生産の25％以上がその西側のよび法の執行機関はこの地域の大部分における漁業

海で捕獲されたものであり、この漁業への圧力はま活動の適切な規制ができなかったし、やりたがらなだ続くものと思われる。中国では、南東部におけるかったのである。その結果、行き過ぎた非合法で破沿岸地域の急激な人口増加により、ますます漁業へ

壊的な漁業が、例外ではなく、一般的におこなわれの依存が高まっており、それは香港の海洋保護地域ている。このような持続不可能な収奪的漁業がおこ

IS THE DEGRADATION OF RESOURCES IN THE SOUTH
CHINA SEA REVERSIBLE?：APPROACHES TOSUSTAINABLE MANAGEMENT
E. D. GOMEZThe Marine Science Institute
University of the Philippines
Diliman, Quezon City, Philippines
E- Mail：edgomez@msi01.cs.upd.edu.ph
The South China Sea, one of the largest marginal

dependent on fisheries production, as evidenced byseas of the world, is surrounded by countries withillegal fishers invading the marine reserves of Hongthe highest population growth in their coastal zones,

Kong and the decision of Hainan province to increase

including the Philippines to the east, China to theits fishing efforts in a significant manner. Due to thenorth, and Viet Nam to the west. All these countries

distance of the small island groups and shoals in thehave substantial fishing fleets that exploit this semi-

middle of the South China Sea from the mainland of

enclosed sea. For the Philippines, more than 25% of

the bordering states and because of the disputes about

its commercial production comes from its western seas

the territorial boundaries particularly around theand this fishing pressure is expected to continue. For

Spratlys and the Paracels, management authorities andChina, the rapidly growing coastal population on its

law enforcers have been unable or unwilling tosoutheastern sector is becoming more and more

properly regulate the fishing efforts in much of the98International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

なわれていることを考慮すると、沿岸生態系の置かれている状況は継続的に悪化し、資源は枯渇の一途をたどっている。現在の領有紛争の状態は、海洋生物資源とそれが依存する生態系にとって悪い前兆である。それゆえ、持続可能な管理措置が緊急に必要になっている。ほとんどの国家は、紛争を引き起こ
すことなく、本国の沿岸を管理する措置をすぐにとることができる。より深刻なのは、対立する諸国が南シナ海の真ん中にある漁業資源、特にアジア大陸から離れた礁、群島、諸島周辺の漁業資源の管理のための計画を共同でおこなわなければならないということである。本稿はこれを実現するさまざまなア
プローチを概説するものである。

region . As a consequence, excessive, illegal, anddestructive fishing are often the norm rather than the
exception. In the light of such unsustainable extractive
activities, coastal ecosystems are continually being
degraded and the resources being depleted. The statusof the present territorial disputes bodes ill for themarine living resources and the ecosystems on which
they depend. Hence, sustainable management measures
are urgently needed. Most nations can take immediate
steps to manage their mainland coasts as this can bedone without disputes breaking out. More seriously,
the contesting nations m ust plan together the
management of the fishery resources in the middle of
the South China Sea, particularly those around thereefs, shoals and islands some distance from the Asian
continent. The paper outlines various approaches on
how this might be approached.

99International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

沿岸域のダイナミックな環境の監視と分析におけるRSとGIS技術の利用
ジェ・チェン＊、チャオヤン・ファン、リシン・ファン
海洋リモートセンシング研究所
青島海洋大学
5 Yushan Road, Qingdao 266003, China
E- Mail：gechen@public.qd.sd.cn
リモートセンシング（RS）と地理情報システム（GIS）技術の到来および急速な発展のおかげで、
過去20年の沿岸海洋環境の監視と分析はかなり進歩した。本稿では東・南シナ海および北西太平洋におけるRSとGIS使用の結果を提示する。第一に、高性能高分解能ラジオメーター（AVHRR）から得られたデータによる海面温度イメージがジオサット高位計のデータから得られた潮位変異性マップと共に用いられて、前線、渦、湧昇といった、東・南シナ海における中規模の要素分析に用いられている。陸棚
前線、熱塩前線、河口域前線、潮流前線、湧昇前線の５つのタイプの前線が確認されている。これらの前線の特性と形成が分析され、３つの中規模の渦のデータが得られ、これらの原因と発達を分析する。
良く知られている浙江沿岸の湧昇の特筆すべき特徴
はAVHRRとジオサット高度計の両方で観察される。
沿岸の湧昇と潮位の変化の関係について議論される。
次に、TOPEX高度計により6年間おこなわれた極めて正確で継続的な風と波のデータを用いて、GISに基づいた分析と東・南シナ海の予測システムが開発される。10年、50年、100年周期の海上風速と波浪高が推測される。地上観察を通じた妥当性検証は、高度計によって得られた強度の風と波の計測不確実
性はそれぞれ10％と5％であり、現在の質と継続性をもってすれば、衛星高度計データは沿岸海洋環境の理解と予測に極めて有効であると言える。

USE OF RS AND GIS TECHNOLOGY IN THE MONITORING AND
ANALYSIS OF COASTAL DYNAMIC ENVIRONMENT
Ge CHEN＊, Chaoyang FANG, and Lixin FANG
Ocean Remote Sensing Institute
Ocean University of Qingdao
5 Yushan Road, Qingdao 266003, China
E- Mail：gechen@public.qd.sd.cn
are examined. Remarkable signatures of the well-known
Zhejiang coastal upwelling are observed by bothA V H R R an d G eosat alti m eter . T h e p ossible
relationship between coastal upwelling and sea levelchanges is discussed. Second , using six years of
TOPEX altimeter wind and wave data with unprecedented
accuracy and continuity, a GIS- based analysis andprediction system is developed for the China Seas.
The 10-, 50- and 100-year return values of sea surface
wind speed and significant wave height are estimated.
Validation against in situ observations indicates thatthe uncertainties of altimeter-derived extreme winds
and waves are at the levels of 10 % and 5 % ,respectively, suggesting that satellite altimeter data,with present quality and duration, are already very
useful in understanding and prediction of coastal
marine environment.

Substantial progress has been made in them o n it o ri n g a n d a n al y sis o f c o a stal m a ri n eenvironment during the past two decades, thanks tothe advent and rapid development of remote sensing(RS) and geographical information system (GIS)
technologies. In this paper, results of RS and GIS
applications in the China Seas and Northwest Pacific
Ocean are presented. First, sea surface temperature
images derived from Advanced Very High Resolution
Radiometer (AVHRR) data, in conjunction with sea
level variability maps derived from Geosat altimeterdata , are used to investigate mesoscale features ,including fronts, eddies and upwelling, in the China
Seas. Five types of fronts are identified, namely, shelfbreak front, thermohaline front, estuarine front, tidal
front and upwelling front. The characteristics andformations of these fronts are analysed. Three mesoscaleeddies have been captured, their causes and evolution100International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

タイ湾における汚染問題
ピアムサック・メナスヴェタ
科学部海洋科学科
チュラロンコン大学
Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand
E- Mail：mpiamsak@chula.ac.th
よう。

富栄養化は今日のタイ湾内部で最も深刻な問題である。富栄養化の原因は大都市から河口域に流れ込

１．ベースラインと監視む有機排水の流入である。湾の外部では、魚の水銀

２．水質基準の設置

濃度が天然ガス生産プラットフォームの近海で上昇

３．汚染物質の汚染源、経路、量の確認していることが判明した。この地域の5‐ 10％の魚４．汚染の管理、解消、自然の復元

がFAOの設定した許容限界基準（ぬれたときの体

現在のところ、タイは20年にわたってこのような重の0.5ug/g）よりも多い水銀に汚染されていた。

プログラムを実施しているが、いくつかの要素を強

この金属の監視プログラムはそれゆえ不可欠である。

調しておかなければならない。

海洋汚染問題の軽減は以下に述べる重要な要素を含む、包括的プログラムによっておこなうことができ

PULLUTION PROBLEMS IN THE GULF OF THAILAND
Piamsak MENASVETA
Department of Marine Science, Faculty of Science
Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand
E- Mail：mpiamsak@chula.ac.th
Eutrophication is the most serious problem ofimportant components：1. Baseline and monitoring；the inner gulf of Thailand nowaday. Eutrophication is

2. Water quality criteria establishment；3. Identification

caused by the discharge of organic wastewaters fromof sources, pathways, and quantity of pollutants；andbig cities into the river estuaries. In the outer gulf,

4. Pollution control, abatement, and rehabilitation. So

mercury concentrations in fishes were found to elevate

far Thailand has implemented such a program forin the vicinities of natural gas production platforms.

more than two decades, but certain components are

About 5 - 10% of fishes in these vicinities had mercu-

needed to be emphasized.

ry concentrations higher than the standard acceptable
limit set by the FA O ( 0.5 ug / g wet weight) .
Monitoring program on this metal is therefore essential.
The problems of marine pollution could be alleviatedthrough a comprehensive program which includes these101International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

沿岸生態系の保護における法的要件およびその含意
中国の事例
リアンミン・ファン
南シナ海海洋学研究所
中国科学アカデミー
West Xianganag Road, 510301, China
E- Mail：hlm@scsio.ac.cn
中国の急速な国民経済の発展、特に沿岸地域にお（２）法的側面に焦点を当て、沿岸域生態系の管理の不完全さを分析する

ける発展に伴ない、沿岸域生態系はますます深刻な環境に対する圧力にさらされている。沿岸域生態系（３）沿岸域生態系保護の分野における中国の現在の諸政策に関して論評するの保全および保護と経済開発とのバランスをどのよ
うとり、持続可能な発展を図るかということが中国

結論として言えることは、生態系管理のために、の中央政府と地方政府の重要な課題となっている。

特に政策・法規・管理手法の観点から、次に何をす

本稿の目的は以下に述べる３点である。

るべきかということが強調されるであろうというこ（１）沿岸地域における急速な経済開発にかんがみ、とである。

中国の沿岸生態系の現状の背景をなす情報を提供する

LEGAL REQUIREMENTTS AND IMPLICATIONSON THE PROTECTION OF COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS- A CASE IN CHINA
Liangmin HUANG
South China Sea Institute of Oceanology
The Chnese Academy of Sciences
West Xianganag Road, 510301, China
E- Mail：hlm@scsio.ac.cn
Along with the rapid development of nationalar e a s ； (ii) a n al y zi n g th e d e ficie n c y in t h eeconomy in China, and particularly in coastal areas,

management of coastal ecosystem, with focus on thethe coastal ecosystem is confronted with increasingly

legal aspect；(iii) commenting on the current efforts

serious environmental pressure. How to balance economicin China in the field of coastal ecosystem protection.

development with the preservation and protection of

In the conclusion, emphasis will be laid on what isthe coastal ecosystem for sustainable development has

required next in the ecosyste m m anage m ent ,become an important challenge to the Chinese

especially in terms of policies , legislation , andgovernment, both central and local. This paper aims

management approaches.

at ： (i) providing background information on thecurrent status in coastal ecosystem in China in thecontext of rapid economic development in the coastal

102

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

韓国の沿岸域環境における有機スズの影響
ジャエ・リョン・オウ＊、ウォン・ジュン・シム
韓国海洋研究開発研究所（KORDI）
Ansan P.O.Box 29, Seoul 425-600, Korea
E- Mail：jroh@kordi.re. kr
韓国は世界でも有数の造船国であるにもかかわらた。トリブチルスズ（TBT）とトリフェニルスズ

ず、TBTを基に作られたよごれ止めペイントが2000（TPT）の濃度はそれぞれ48〜2,800ng/gと<3〜1,

年３月から使用禁止となった。この研究の主たる目

820ng/gであった。二枚貝 のTBT平均濃度はTPT

的は、韓国沿岸の海生生物へのブチル及びフェニルの平均濃度の3.5倍であった。韓国沿岸の26箇所かスズ化合物の影響を調査し、海生生物に対するこれら採取され分析されたヒトデ（Asteria pectinifera）

らの化合物の毒性を研究することである。ブチルスのサンプルには、検出可能な量のBTsとPTsが含ま

ズ化合物（BTs）は、韓国沿岸の67箇所から採集されていた。ヒトデのTBTとTPTの全体的な濃度はれたイガイ（貽貝）および牡蠣のサンプルから検出<3〜323ng/gと8〜835ng/gであった。ヒトデにおされた。一方、フェニルスズ化合物（PTs）の値はけるモノブチルスズ（MBT）、ジブチルスズ（DBT）

67箇所のうち26箇所において検出限界を下回ってい

およびTBTの平均的組成は86％>8％>6％と減少す

EFFECTS OF ORGANOTINS IN THE COASTALENVIRONMENT OF KOREA
Jae Ryoung OH＊ and Won Joon SHIM
Korea Ocean Research & Development Institute (KORDI)
Ansan P.O.Box 29, Seoul 425-600, Korea
E- Mail：jroh@kordi.re. kr
TBT-based antifouling paints were banned since(TPT) concentrations were 48 to 2800 ng/g and <3

March 2000 in Korea, although Korea is one of theto 1 8 2 0 n g / g , res p e ctiv ely . T h e m e a n T B T

leading shipbuilding countries in the world. The major

concentration in bivalves was 3.5 times higher thanobjectives of this work are to assess the exposure ofthat of TPT. The starfish (Asteria pectinifera) samples

marine organisms to butyl- and phenyltin compounds

analyzed from 26 sites in the coast of Korea containedon the coast of Korea and to study on the toxic

detectable amount of BTs and PTs. Overall ranges ofeffects of these compounds on marine organisms.

TBT and TPT concentrations in starfish were <3 toButyltin compounds (BTs) were detected from the

323 ng / g and 8 to 835 ng / g , respectively . Meanmussel and oyster samples collected from 67 sites oncompositions of monobutyltin (MBT), dibutyltin (DBT)the coast of Korea, whereas phenyltin compounds

and TBT in starfish were in decreasing order of 86(PTs) were below detection limits at 26 out of 67% > 8% > 6%, whereas TPT, diphenyltin (DPT) andsites. Overall range of tributyltin (TBT) and triphenyltinmonophenyltin (MPT) were in order of 75% > 17%103

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

るが、TPT、ジフェニルスズ（DPT）、モノフェニルスズ（MPT）の減少は75％>17％>8％の順であった。アクキ貝科のイボニシ（Thais clavigera）のインポセックスの頻度は２つの基準地では0％であったが、61箇所のうち47箇所でインポセックス発生率
は100％を記録している。港湾や造船所の付近におけるインポセックス発生率は比較的高かった。イボ
ニシのTBTとTPTの濃度は、それぞれ5〜508ng/gと3〜2,460ng/gであった。インポセックスと有機
スズとの間に有意の肯定的関係が得られた一方で、オスとメスの性比率とインポセックス発生率との関係は否定的なものであった。人の手のついていない
水域 に 生息 していたイボニシを 港 に 移 した 際 に 、
TBTとTPTがイボニシに蓄積され、インポセック
スを誘発したのである。この事実は、この種をTBTとTPTによる汚染の悪影響を示すバイオインジケー
ターとして用いる可能性が十分にあることを示している。

> 8 %. Frequency of imposex in rock shell, Thais
clavigera, was 0% at two reference sites, but at 47
out of 61 sites, frequency of imposex was recorded
as 100%. The degree of imposex was relatively highat the sites near a harbor and a shipyard. TBT and
TPT concentrations in T. clavigera ranged from 5 to
508 ng/g and from 3 to 2,460 ng/g, respectively. A
significant positive relationship was found between
degree of imposex and organotin concentration, whereas
a significant negative relationship was obtained between female to male sex ratio and the degree of imposex.
During a field transplantation of T. clavigera from apristine area to a port, TBT and TPT were accumulated
in T. clavigera, and imposex was induced. This species
shows considerable potential as a bioindicator speciesof the adverse effects of TBT and TPT contamination.

Fong Ching Wai, Terence104International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

SEAMCAT：東アジア海洋沿岸生態系の保全と管理支援のためのメタデータカタログ
ジュディス・カークマン
東南アジアSTART地域センター
チュラロンコン大学環境研究所
Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand
E- Mail：jkirkman@loxinfo. co.th
東南アジアSTART地域センター（SEA START

政策の発展および情報を提供するためのセンターとRC） は、1996年 に「START開設 のためのSEA地

して働くことにあります。

域委員会」によって設立され、バンコクのチュラロ

情報活動の一環として、センターはウェブでアクンコン大学に本拠を置いています。また、このセンセスできるメタデータのカタログを作成しています。

ターは学際的地域センターのグローバルネットワー

メタデータ、すなわちデータの概説とその位置確認

クの一部を構成し、科学的資源を動員して、政策のは生態系、特に海洋沿岸生態系の管理に極めて重要発展を支援する科学的評価実施のための枠組みの構なツールであります。

築に貢献するものであります。このセンターの関心

長い時間をかけて、東アジア地域のデータが収集は、グローバルな変動データの統合およびモデルのされましたが、ほとんどのデータの存在箇所および提供ならびに、グローバルな転換をおこなうための

その質は知られていませんでした。データ収集にはSEAMCAT：A METADATA CATALOGUE TO ASSIST THE
CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT OF EAST ASIAN
MARINE COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS
Judith KIRKMAN
Southeast Asia START Regional Centre
Environmental Research Institute
Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand
E- Mail：jkirkman@loxinfo. co.thSouth East Asia START Regional Centre (SEA

As part of its information role, it has created a

START RC) is an NGO, created in 1996 by SEA

web accessible metadata catalogue. Metadata, theRegional Committee for START (SARCS) and is

description and location of data , is an extremely

located at Chulalongkorn University in Bangkok. It is

important tool in the management of ecosystems

part of a global network of multidisciplinary regional

especially marine coastal systems.

centres that mobilise scientific resources to help

Over time a lot of data have been collected inprovide the framework to make scientific assessments

the East Asia region , the location and often theto support policy development. Its focus is to provide

quality of most of the data is unknown. There is asynthesis and modelling of global change data, andm ajor in vest m ent in data collectio n an d thisact as a centre for global change policy development,

investment must be managed.

and information.

SEAMCAT is addressing this need. It is a project105

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

非常に大きな投資がおこなわれており、この投資は管理しなければなりません。
SEAMCATはこの要請に応えています。SEAMCAT
はGEF, UNDPおよびUNEPによって資金提供を受けたプロジェクトであり、DIFフォーマットのNASAのグローバル・チェンジ・メタデータ・ディレクト
リーに基づいたものであります。これは人々が参加をし、メタデータを共有するプロセスの一部となっております。これは参加者が自分の持つデータの存在を広報し、自らの組織のもつ科学的見識に対する認知を受け、国際的なレベルでは、国際条約および合意を支援する場でもあります。これらが参加者が得ることができるメリットであります。SEAMCATを東アジアにおいてなくてはならない資源にするためには、皆様の参加が必要なのです。

sponsored by GEF, UNDP and UNEP and is basedon the NASA Global Change Metadata Directory in
DIF format. It is part of a process in which people
need to participate, to share their metadata. It is avenue where participants can advertise the existenceof their data, gain recognition for their organisation’s
scientific expertise and, at an international level,
support internal agreements and conventions. These
are among the benefits participants can gain. To make
SEAMCAT an invaluable resource in East Asia weneed your participation.

106

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

沿岸域および海洋環境におけるASEANの国際協力
ケスラット・スカサム
上級職員、環境担当
ASEAN事務局
70 A. Jl Sisingamangaraja, Jakarta 12110, Indonesia
Tel：（62-21 ） 724-3372 ext 278 Fax：（62-21 ） 739-8234
E- mail：kesrat@aseansec.org
ASEANによる環境問題での国際協力は、1977年に第一次ASEAN下位地域環境プログラムを実施したことから始まる。ASEANの環境協力では、沿岸域・海洋環境問題が優先課題として取り上げられた。
『ASEANビジョン2020』は、2020年までに「地域の環境、天然資源の持続性、人々の高い生活水準を確保するための持続可能な発展のメカニズムを確立した、きれいで緑豊かなASEAN」の構築を目指している。この点に関して、ASEANは「ハノイ行動計画」および「環境に関する戦略行動計画1999‑2004」を採択した。これらの文書は沿岸域・海洋環境の統合的保護・管理のためのアクションプランおよび地域的 な 枠組 みを 発展 させる 目標 を 設定 している 。

ASEANが明らかにした協力枠組みの7つの優先課
題は次のとおりである。
a） サンゴ礁、海藻、マングローブb） タンクからの原油スラッジとバラスト水c） 固体・液体廃棄物管理d） クリーン技術e） 沿岸域侵食f） エコ・ツーリズムg） 保護された海洋領域を含む沿岸域湿地帯
ASEANは戦略的に自らを、他の機関や組織と協力・調整をおこない、アジア諸海域の沿岸および海洋資源の保護の効率性と費用効果の向上を図る機関であると位置づけている。

ASEAN COOPERATION ON COASTALAND MARINE ENVIRONMENT.
Mr. Kesrat Sukasam.
Senior Officer, Environment
ASEAN Secretariat
70 A. Jl Sisingamangaraja, Jakarta 12110, Indonesia
Tel：(62-21 ) 724-3372 ext 278 Fax：(62-21 ) 739-8234
E- mail：kesrat@aseansec.org
ASEAN Cooperation on the Environment started

develop regional framework and action plan forin 1977 with the implementation of the first ASEAN

integrated protection and management of coastal andSubregional Environment Programme. Coastal andmarine environment. ASEAN has identified seven priority

marine environmental issues have received high priority inareas in its cooperation framework including：a) coral

the ASEAN environmental cooperation. The ASEAN

reef, sea grasses, mangrove；b) oil sludge from tanks

Vision 2020 envisioned "a clean and green ASEAN

and ballast water；c) solid and liquid waste managementwith fully established mechanisms for sustainable； d) clean technology ； e) coastal erosion ； f) eco-development to ensure the protection of the region’s

tourism；and g) coastal wetlands including protectedenvironment, the sustainability of its natural resources,

marine areas. ASEAN has strategically positioned itself

and the high quality of life of its peoples" by theto collaborate and coordinate with other agencies andyear 2020. In this regard, ASEAN adopted the Hanoi

organizations to increase efficiency and cost effectiveness

Plan of Action and the Strategic Plan of Action on

in protecting coastal and marine resources in the Asianthe Environment, 1999-2004, outlining objectives to

seas.

107

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

パネル討論
Panel Discussion［熊本氏］

ことがありますが、自分が外交や交渉の技能を全くでは、ここで会場の皆様と討論をおこないたいと持っていないことに気が付きました。ですから、こ思います。パネリストに対してコメントや質問があれも科学者が身に付けるべきもう一つの技能のようりましたら、またこれまでの発言や基調講演に関しに思います。このような場合、この問題に対処するてご意見がありましたら、ここでお願いします。

には、最後に目標を達成するために多くの技能を身に付けなければならないと考えます。これが第一点［質問者１：マレーシア政府関係者］です。

ありがとうございます。科学者と管理者の役割に第二点は、諸国間の調整の欠如という問題です。

関してですが、科学者と政策形成者との間の橋渡し

これは本当のことだと思います。私はあなた方がおっがきちんとなされていないということに私は同意ししゃったことに完全に同意します。しかし、時折気ます。多分、これは管理者が補わなければいけないがつくのは、協力を渋るというよりは、どの省庁が、部分なのだろうと思いますが、往々にして管理者自またどの機関がこうした国際協力の窓口になるのか

身にその能力がないことがあります。これは本当にということに関して全く知識がないことがあるとい問題であると思います。この橋渡しをするというこうことであります。例えば、国連環境計画の活動をと、科学を政策形成者にわかりやすく解説するもう例にとると、マレーシアにおける国連環境計画の活一つの技能について、集中的に考えて行かなければ動は、通常、環境省が窓口になっており、そこに焦ならないと思います。また、法的な問題に関しては、

点があてられています。ですから、国連環境計画の

私の経験上、上司に従っていくつかの交渉に臨んだ活動に関する情報は全て我々の役所に届き、我々が［Prof. Kumamoto］

the science to policy-makers. Also, in terms of legal

I suppose it is time to open discussion to theissues, I have just followed my supervisor to couple

floor. So, if you have any comment or question toof negotiations, and I realised that I don’t have any

the panellists or you want to state all you views on

skill to do in the way of diplomacy and negotiations.

previous statements or keynote speeches, please do so

So, I guess, this is another skill. In this case, I think,right now.

in order to coop this problem, a lot of skills we needin order to reach the goal at the end. That is one.

［Q1］

The second one is regarding with the lack ofThank you very much. Regarding with the role

coordination between countries. That’s true. I agreeof scientists and the role of the managers, sometimes

fully with what you said. But sometimes also there

I agree that there is a missing bridge between scientists

is a kind of, not reluctant, but there no knowledge

and policy-makers. Perhaps this is the one that manag-

about which ministry and which institutions supposed

er should do, but then sometimes also manager itself

to be the gate for one of the activities, for example

doesn’t have any capability. That is really a problem.

UNEP. The UNEP activities in Malaysia usually will

I guess this is the bridge that one what we have tobe taken by the Ministry of Environment that should

concentrate on thinking about another skill to interpretbe the one who is the gate or national focal point.

111

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

広報活動をおこない、委員会を創設したりします。

ます。

もちろん、これは常にうまくいくとは限りません。
我が国では、他の諸機関も様々な会議に参加してい［ベックマン氏］

ることがあるのを知っていますが、彼らがどの会議どちらの問題に対するコメントになるか分かりまに出席しているかという情報が入手できていないのせんが、問題の原因の一部は縦割り行政にあると思です。また彼らの方も我々から情報を得てはいませいます。我々はすでに環境を悪化させる汚染の大きん。このような状況ですので、我々は国内外においな原因は、森林伐採、未処理下水、農薬や肥料にあて、我々の活動に対する認識を高め、どの省庁があることを知っています。しかし、いつも思うのです

る活動の窓口になっているかということを理解できが、以下のようなことが何ヶ国で起こっているでしょるようにした方がよいと思います。ありがとうござうか。農業省の人たちが自分たちの活動が環境に与いました。

える影響を本当に理解していない。会議に出席して、汚染の問題について学習しているのは国連環境計画の人たちだけで、農業省の人たちは会議に全く招待［熊本氏］
今挙げられた二点を要約しますと、第一は監督機されていない。林業は土砂堆積の主要な原因である関がどこになるかという問題ですね。これは大変重が、林業担当の役人は自分たちの活動が海洋環境に要な問題で、私共も長い間議論をしてきました。第

与える影響について助言を受けているのでしょうか。

二は、調整の欠如ですね。これはさまざまな組織のほとんどの国で、そんなことは行われていないでしょ間の関係についての問題です。ベックマン博士、そう。伝えたいメッセージが伝わらず、関係者の理解れぞれについてコメントを頂けますでしょうか。大が得られないのです。林業省の役人は、木材の伐採

和田博士にはその後にお話を続けて頂きたいと思い量が増えると昇進し昇給するのです。誰一人として

So any information related to the UNEP activities

of relations among organisations. Dr. Beckman, would

get to our office and we are the one who will makeyou like to make some comment on each?

dissemination or we might establish committee as［Dr. Beckman］

necessary. Of course this is not always perfectly working,but sometimes I know that in my country many of

I am not sure which it will do, but a part ofother agencies also attending other meetings. We

problem is the sectoral divisions. We all know thatthought giving us that they are invited this and that.

the large amount of pollution that degrades environment

They are also not getting any information from us

is from logging, from raw sewage, from agricultural

because they don’t give us any information. In thispesticides and fertilisers. But I wonder how manycase , perhaps we need within country a kind ofcountries would do as follows. People in agriculturalawareness, but also from outside world, we have toministries actually do not understand the impact ofsee which channel, which focal point (should be thetheir activities on environment. It is only the focalgate) for one of activities. Thank you.

point for UNEP that is attending the meetings andlearning about the pollution, but agricultural ministry［Prof. Kumamoto］

would never be invited to those meetings. The forestry

To narrate on two points. First, which amongis causing a great deal of sedimentation problem, butconcerned organisations. That is quite important problem

have the forestry official been advised on the impact

and we’ve discussed long long time. The other pointof their activities on marine environment? In mostwas the lack of coordination. That is under the aspect

countries, probably not. The message is not getting

112

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

彼らの活動が、環境全体や海洋環境に対してどんなた人たちを会議に出席させ、自分達が国内で権限を破壊的な影響を与えているかを問いただしたりはしもたないものについて議論やトレーニングをおこなないのです。ですから、誰かが彼らを教育しなけれうことは皆様の税金の無駄遣いです。なぜ運輸省はばならないのです。

その会議に招かれなかったのでしょうか。それは運どのように彼らを教育すべきかは私には分かりま

輸省が担当省庁ではなかったからです。ですから、せん。しかし、乗り越えなければならない課題がい誰かが何とかしてこの縦割り行政を打破して行かな

くつかあると考えています。その一つが縦割り行政ければならないのです。他の国々では、おそらくマです。私はその役割を担うのがNGOか科学者だとレーシアでは、天然資源は州が独占的に管理してい思っています。誰かが担当窓口より向こうに情報をます。しかし州政府の役人はそうした会議に招かれ伝えなければならないのです。私は何年か前、あるませんし、国の役人も招かれません。我々は適切な会議に出席したことがあります。そこでは船舶が廃人材と関係省庁を探す方法を考えなければならない

棄したごみによる汚染の取り扱いについて議論してのです。我々は誰が実際に力を持っていて、状況をいました。その会議は国連環境計画か、どこかの機変えることができるかを明らかにしなければならな

関の主催で開催されていたため、担当窓口になったいのです。問題に関して権限を持たない人たちに話

省庁は環境関連省庁だったと思います。ですから、すのではなく、このような人たちと話をしなければ諸国の政府は環境省の人間を会議に出席させていまならないのです。

した。しかし、ほとんどの人が船の側に近づいたこともなく、またその汚染水域を見たこともない人た［熊本氏］

ちでした。しかし、彼らはその会議で船舶からの汚ベックマン博士は主に政府のさまざまな機能の間染を規制する話し合いをしていたのです。そういっの関係と、省庁間の関係等についてお話くださいまout and people don’t understand. The forestry department

pollution from ships. That wasted everyone’s money

officials will be promoted or got a raise if they increase

to bring those officials to the meeting to be trained

the amount of logs cut. No one is asking them what

about things that they have no power to change withina detrimental effect of the activities are on the environment

their own countries. Why wasn’t the Ministry of

as a whole and marine environment. So somebody

Transport invited? Because they were not the focal

has to educate them.

point. So somebody has to overcome this sort ofI am not sure how it should be done, but I thinksectoral divisions. In other countries, maybe in Malaysia,

these are some of the problems that I see there has

the natural resources are exclusively in state control,

to be overcome. It is the sectorial division. I could

but state official has never been invited to these meetings

see that that maybe it’s the NGOs or maybe it’s scientists.

so as national officials. I think we have to find a

Somebody has to reach out beyond the focal point.

way to bring the right people in. We have to identify

I’ve been to a meeting couple years ago and we were

who are the movers and shakers that can actuallytalking about handling pollution from dumping fromchange things. Let’s try to talk to them, rather than

the ships. Because it was sponsored by UNEP ortalk to the people that can’t do anything for the

somebody, so the focal point was sure the UNEP

problem.

and environment ministries. So governments sent people［Prof. Kumamoto］

from Ministry of Environment. Mostly people havenever been near a ship. They’ve never been near the

Dr. Beckman mentioned mainly about the relationshipwater. They were there to talk about how to control

between government functions and between departments

113

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

した。もう一つの重要な問題は科学者と政府関係者［質問者２：タイからの参加者］との間の橋渡しです。大和田博士、これらについて

私はこの問題に対して解決法や解答があるとは思お話し頂けますでしょうか。

いません、と申しますのは、自然システムの悪化の原因となる問題は、長年にわたって存在しているからです。多くの人にこの問題を理解してもらおうと［大和田氏］
科学者とさまざまな組織の橋渡しをするのは大変する際には十分注意しなければなりません。自然の重要だと思います。また協力の必要もあると思いまシステムを自国民の利益のために保全するのは、彼す。東シナ海のような国際的な活動舞台においては、らが果たすべき役割であるからです。科学者は多く

多くの国が参加していますが、東京湾のようなとこの場合、意思決定者に解答を提供しません。なぜな

ろでも、どのように協力すべきかという点で、いつら、科学者は常に確証がなければ何も話さないからも激論を戦わせています。異なる省庁から多くの人であります。ですから、科学者は、意思決定者に対がやってきて、それぞれの方法による東京湾の利用して、少なくともその内容に関する手がかりを与えを主張しており、科学者も常に異議を申し立てます

るために、所有する情報を提供する方法を身に付けし、地元は地元で違った構想を描いているのです。

なければならないのです。私は頂点に立つ意思決定

私共はいつも協力をおこなうための情報の共有がま者、例えば大臣や政界の大物が、環境問題で何が起だできていないと感じています。ですから、このよ

こっているかを理解できないとは思いません。海洋

うな場合には、ジャナミ博士の見解である、地元のにおいて問題が起こっていることは、ある面では、人たちも含めて議論をしようという見解に賛成しま

理解しているのです。しかし彼らは常にもっと重要

す。それこそが、おそらく、将来の解決策になり、なものがあると考えているのです。ですから、このこの問題の解決につながるものと希望しています。

ような場合、自然のシステムが国民の幸福にとってand so forth. The other aspect which we are keen to［Q2］mention is the bridge between scientists and government

I think we cannot find one solution or answer toofficers. So Dr. Ohwada would you mention about

this problem because the problems of causing degradation

those?

to natural systems that have been going on years after
years. But we have to be very careful of trying to［Dr. Ohwada］

get people to realise that. It’s their role to play in

I agree it is very important to bridge between

order to conserve the natural system for their own

scientists and organisations, and the needs of collaboration.

benefit of their people. Scientists most of the time

In such international fields such as East China Sea,cannot give the answer to decision-makers because

there are many countries come together, but even inscientists always have to be certain before saying

the Tokyo Bay, we always have big discussions how

something. So scientists have to learn also to supply

to do that. Many people from different ministries will

information on what they have for decision-makers sohave their own ways to utilise the area, and scientists

that at least they get something to think. I don’t

also dispute, and society think different. We always

believe that top decision-maker like ministers or big

think that we still have a lack of information to shareguys will not understand what’s going on. I think they

together for collaboration. So in such case, I agree

realise the problem happen in the ocean in certainthat in such discussion, the local people will attend

aspect. But they always think that something is more

together. That is probably a future solution, and I

important. So in this case, I think we have to work

hope it will be the solution to the problem.

harder in order to make them realise that this system

114

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

非常に重要なシステムであることを、理解させるよ［質問者３：タイ水産省・国際海洋研究所］

うに努力をしなければならないと考えています。し議長、 ありがとうございます 。 タイ 水産省 のかし、残念なことながら、我々科学者はそれをなし

チョー・サップ・フィルと申します。またタイの国

えていないのであります。また、我々は他の組織、

際海洋研究所にも所属しております。先ほどカーク

例えばNGO、に常に依存することはできません。

マン博士が政府諸機関の間の調整が欠けているといなぜならNGOは時としてさまざまな問題に否定的うお話をされました。この点に関しては異論を唱え見解を持っているからであります。彼らは常に反対

る方はいないと思います。しかし、私自身の例を述ばかりしている集団であるからです。ですから、関べさせて頂きますと、現在40歳であり、政府の役人

係者全員を一同に集めることが重要です。それは簡としてのキャリアは半分を過ぎたところでございま

単なことではありません。我々がそれに対処する方す。私は政府諸機関の間の調整がそれほど欠如して法を見つけられるとは思いません。しかし、我々はいたとは思いません。私は水産省に入省して以来ずっ少なくとも情報を提供し、どんな努力をおこなうこと、タイ北東部の熱帯雨林プロジェクトにおいて、とができるかを提示することはできます。我々は常農業省のいくつかの部局で仕事をしてまいりました。

に協力をして行かなければなりません。ですから、

私はそこで、いくつかの部局が調整をおこない、共一つの解決策を目指すのではなく、少なくとも、彼同で事業をおこなう例を見てきました。しかし、難らにこの地球の生態系が人々の幸福にとって極めてしい面は実際にあります、と言うのは我々はみんな

不可欠なものであることを理解させるべきだと思っ所属する省庁が違い、持っている知識も異なるといています。

うことであります。我々は自分達の知識をそれぞれの分野で生かそうとします。例えば、私は漁業分野
で、林業省の役人は林業の分野で自らの知識を生か

is one of the system which is very important to the

Ocean Institute of Thailand. Dr. Kirkman has mentioned

national well-being which we, scientists, cannot do

about the lack of coordination between governmentthat as yet. And also we cannot depend on otheragencies. I think that nobody refuse your claim ingroups, for example, we cannot depend on NGO all

this aspect. However if I put myself as a case study,

the time because sometime NGO do have negative

I am 40 years of age and I am half way through myview of looking at things they always say no toworking career as a government official. I think the

everything. So the reason is very important in ordercoordination among government agencies was not too

to have everybody together. It is not easy. I don’t

bad in the past. I have been involved since the beginning

think we could find the solution to coop with that.

when I started my career with the Department of

But at least we should try to bring the information

Fisheries; I had to work with several departments inout, trying to show them what’s the effort which can

the Ministry of Agriculture on the rain forest project

happen. We have to try to work together at all time,in the North East of Thailand. I found that the coordination

so I don’t think we should look for one solution, atamong several departments. However, I think theleast make them realise that this ecosystem is very

difficulty do exist because we are on different crowns,

vital to their well-being of the people.

we have different knowledge. We were trying to frameon our knowledge on each areas, for example, I will［Q3］

frame myself in fisheries and forestry officers frame

Thank you Mr. Chairman. I am from Departmentof

themselves in forestry. We don’t really know integration

Fisheries in Thailand, and also from International

among different subjects. I think once we become

115International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

します。しかし、我々にはこれらの異なる分野をどリアが異なるだけでなく、政府機関から派遣された

うやって統合するかという方法が分からないのであ人も多く、一部にはNGOや大学から派遣された人ります。もっと重要なポストについたら、我々はよもいました。プログラム初日から共にさまざまなこ

り協力を緊密にして行かなければなりません。しかとを学びました。

し、20年も同じ部署にいるとはっきりと自分の分野

我々は海洋学、水産学、港湾管理、水上交通などが決まってしまいますので、調整をおこなうことはについて学びました。また、海洋管理に関するあらますます難しくなるでしょう。しかし、この会議にゆる事柄を学びました。政策に関しても、交渉のシ出席されている方々は、自分たちの知識が無駄になっミュレーションを学びました。また、共同管理など

たとお考えになり、解決法を探してこの会議に参加についても学びました。このようなプログラムに参していらっしゃるのではないかと思っております。

加したのはこの時が初めてでした。今では、どのよ

過去二年間、私はカナダのハリファックスで行わうにすれば人々の専門の分野が分かるかも分かるよ

れた、カナダの国際海洋研究所が主催する国連海洋

うになりましたし、今やそのことを知るべき時代に

法アジェンダ21というトレーニングプログラムに参なっています。異なる分野を統合するためには、我

加いたしました。このプログラムは省庁間の協調を々は他の人たちが何をやっているかを理解する必要達成する一つの方法になるだろうと思っています。

があります。なぜ沿岸警備隊が人を救助するために国際的なプログラムで、世界中から集まった80人の常に準備をおこなうのか、原油流出が養殖に対して人たちが参加していました。私はアジアから出席しどのような影響を与えるのか、ということを理解すた一人で、このトレーニングプログラムのクラス代る必要があります。ですから、これが我々の考える表でした。そこで分かったことは、皆の意見が異なべき方向なのではないかと思います。また、私は人るだけでなく、知識も異なるということでした。キャ材開発のための投資が最も重要だと思っています。

senior officer, we have to integrate more, but weuniversity. We have learned things together since thebecome far away from coordination because we will

beginning. We learned Oceanography, Fishery, port

have really clear frame after 20 years for myself.

management, transportation. We learned everything on

But I think the people in this forum have been wasted

ocean management. Even for policy, we learned how

a lot in their knowledge so that they are here together

to simulate the negotiation. We learned about joint

trying to find a solution.

government and so on. I never attended this type of

Last two years, I attended the training programmething before. Now we became realised that we canin Halifax, Canada, so-called United Nations Convention

see how people frame themselves in this world, andon the Law of Sea: Agenda 21, organised by

it is time to know that. In order to integrate, we reallyInternational Ocean Institute of Canada. I found thatneed to understand other people what are they doing,

the organisation is perhaps a way to achieve thewhy the coastguard need to prepare all the time tocoordination. Because of its international basis, wego to help people, what would be the effect of thehave 80 people from around the world participating

oil spill to aquaculture. So perhaps this is the way

in the training programme. I was the one from Asia

that we should think about. And I think the humanand I was the representative of the class in the training

resources investment is the most important. You haveprogramme. I found that we have different opinions,to start to educate people form early work career,

not only in opinion, but also in knowledge. We werefor example, in the International Ocean Institute (IOI),

from different career, many people from government

they already provide training for 20 years, and theagencies, some people from NGO, some people frommost successful person is the Prime Minister of116

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

キャリアについた早い時期から若い人たちを教育しだと思います。また、所属する省庁の違いにもかかて行かなければなりません。例えば、国際海洋研究

わらず、このトレーニングにより、若い職員達が共所（IOI）では20年にわたってこのようなトレーニ通の知識を持ち、最終的に環境の悪化についてあるングを提供していますが、卒業生の中で最も成功し共通の理解ができるようになるというのも大切なこた人物はタンザニアの首相になっています。私もトとだと思います。そういうご趣旨の発言でございま

レーニングを終えて2年後に国際海洋研究所のタイしたね。それはまったく大切なことだと思います。

・オペレーショナル・センターの所長になりました。

第二質問者のポータストラポン博士は、唯一の解

私は来年からすぐこの仕事に取り掛かかるつもりで決法などない、とおっしゃいました。確かにそのとす。我々は10年、20年単位の長期計画を立てており、おりだと思います。しかし、一つ博士に質問がござ

その時にはさまざまな省庁からの若い職員があふれいます。私は25年前にタイにやって来たのですが、ることになるだろうと思っております。我々は次の20年、30年前の状況を考えてみますと、私の質問は10年から20年の間に、政府機関の職員だけでなく、異なる価値に対する共通理解というようなものとは

様々な職業の人たちも集める努力をおこないたいと違うものになろうかと思います。30年前、我々はこ思っております。このシンポジウムにおきましても、のような問題について議論することなどありません

このようなトレーニングについて考慮して頂ければでしたが、現在ではそれもできるようになっていまと考えております。ありがとうございました。

す。ですから、もし25年前のタイにおける異なった価値に対する共通の理解に関して、何かご存知のこ［熊本氏］とや気づかれたことがございましたら、お話し願え

このようなトレーニングが2年間カナダでおこなないでしょうか。

われたということを理解するのはかなり重要なこと

Tanzania who is one of the alumni of this trainingof environment degradation. That is your point. I

programme. And for myself after two years I finish

suppose that’s quite important.

training programme, I became IOI director of Thailand

Q2 person mentioned that there is no one solution.

operational centre. I think I am going to start myI agree with you. But I have one question to you.

work right away next year. We plan for long term

Comparing such kind of problem twenty, thirty years

future, for example, 10 to 20 years that we will be

ago when I came year 25 years ago in Thailand, butfilled by young people from several departments. From

my question today is entirely different from such kind

now, we hope that next 10 or 20 years we will getof common understanding of different values. 30 years

strong effort of people in difference occupations, notago, we didn’t discuss this matter at all, but now weonly in government agencies. I think perhaps thiscan do that. So if you have some knowledge or

symposium has to think about this kind of training.

impression of such kind of common understanding ofThank you.

different values 25 years ago in Thailand, if you havesome comment about that, we really appreciate it.

［Prof. Kumamoto］［Q2］

I suppose it is quite important to understand suchkind of training is a course for two years in Canada

25 years ago , our resources were still very

and to share the common knowledge among young

abandoned, so people did not care. Everybody was

officers even they belong to different departments,

trying to get them. As I mentioned in other block,and finally we may come to some common understanding

the greediness of the people is one of the crucial

117

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem［質問者２］［質問者４］

25年前、我々の資源は放置されており、人々も全

私は、ベックマン博士に質問させて頂きたいと思く気にかけていませんでした。皆がその資源を使おいます。私たちはこのシンポジウムで、法の執行力

うとしていました。他の分科会で申し上げましたよの決定的な欠如という話を聞きました。環境保護にうに、人々の貪欲さが決定的な要因でした。私はあ関する法令、法律、協定などはほとんどの国にありる会議、国家レベルでの会議、に参加していました

ます。しかし、重要なのはその執行です。法の執行が、そこでは違法なクローリングボードの合法化がは単に法律家の仕事ではありません。その点にはご議論されていました。その会議に参加していた全員

同意いただけるかと思います。地域社会―科学者、が、特に教育機関からの出席者が、「我々はそんな社会経済学者、教育者、地元の地域共同体の人々―ことはできない。なぜならもうすでに大量の違反者はその執行に対してどのような役割を果たしうるのがいるからだ」と言っていました。しかし、その日でしょうか。

の終わりには、それが合法化されてしまいました。
［ベックマン氏］

何故だか分かりますか。その理由は、当時の副首相がヒップスがたくさんあるところの出身であったか

我々が環境関連法やMPAの保護などを見るとき、らです。そうです、彼はその機会を最大限に利用し執行力がまったくないとは思いません。しかし、よたのです。こういうわけで先ほど我々はこのようなり近代的な表現を使えば、規制の応諾の促進と言う決定を下す人たちを説得しなければならないと主張言葉になるかと思います。私の考えでは、西洋のやしたのです。このようなことをやりたい放題にさせり方―「命令と規制」と呼ばれているもの―例えばることはできないのです。ありがとうございました。

恒久的免許制度、逮捕、罰金などをその要件とする
もの―には時として危険が伴うということです。アpoint . Everyone in the room , particularly from

community may have for enforcement, such as scientist,

education institutions, they said "no, we cannot do

and also other part of people like social-economists,that because now we have too many of them already".

like a local community.

But at the end of the day, the decision was made［Dr. Beckman］

that we have to legalise them . You know why?
Because the Deputy Minister at that time was from

I would like to comment before excusing myself.

the area all those were. So he wanted to get most.

If we look at environmental laws, protection of MPA,

This is why we have to try to convince more people

and so on, I don’t think there is no enforcement,that such a kind of decision, we cannot let them dobut the m odern w ords w ould be to pro m ote

as easy as it was. Thank you.

compliance with the rules. I think one of the danger
is that we try to take sometimes the Western methods［Q4］− what we call "command and control" − which

I’ll give Dr. Beckman a question. We heard dur-

requires permanent licence, arrest fines and so on.

ing this symposium , there is very strong lack of

My observation after so many years in Asia, thatenforcement. There are legislation, laws and acts indoesn’t really work here to have system-based licensing,almost all countries relating to the environment

and inspections and fines will result in insulting people.

protection . But the enforcement is the clue . The

Sometimes the result is in favour for the new middle

enforcement is not only the duty of lawyers, youclass and inspectors and so on because white envelopes

may agree with me , what kind of role the otherare passed. This corruption problem, I think, has to118

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

ジアで長年にわたり観察をしてまいりますと、この題、特に政治体制の違いが環境管理や環境問題におようなシステム化された免許制度や査察や罰金といいて、特定の国を支援するか否かの口実にされてきうものは結果的に人々を侮辱し、うまく機能しないました。生態系の保護と管理において、政治的問題ということがわかります。時には、そのような措置

や政治体制の違いを議論に含めようとすれば、モラが新興中産階級や査察官の利益になることがありまル的側面をそれに適用しなければなりません。これす。なぜなら袖の下が渡されるからです。この腐敗はアジアだけでなく、世界中で起こっていることでという問題は、真剣に取り組んで行かなければならす。例えば、ミャンマーは超大国が政治力で生み出ない問題です。また考えなければならないのは、こした副産物によって大変苦しめられています。そののような罰金や罰則や免許制度を設けずに、いかに

結果、環境管理の進展のようなものがまったく見らして規制の応諾を推進するかという問題であります。

れないのです。このような政治的理由が、沿岸海洋

そしてそれには、地元共同体との協力や奨励金制度

生態系を含む環境の管理や保護に対する援助をおこなどを考えなくてはなりません。こうすることによっ

なわない口実として述べられてきました。ですから、て、規制に従うことが経済的利益をもたらすので、私の質問は、このような政治的な問題が環境管理に人々が関心を持つようになるのです。
「命令と規制」

おいて正当性を有するものかどうか、ということでの手法を続けようとしても、それはただうまくいかあります。我々はこの問題を真剣に考えなければなないことが多くの国で証明されています。

りません。これは単にミャンマーの問題であるばかりでなく、他の国々の問題でもあるのです。他にも［質問者５：ミャンマーからの参加者］

超大国の政策に必ずしも同調しない国はあるわけで政治問題と沿岸海洋生態系を含む環境管理との関すから。ありがとうございました。

連について議論したいと思います。通常政治的な問

seriously be addressed. And what we should be looking

and management of ecosystems. It is usually happened

at is what are the methods you can promote compliancearound the world, and it is not just in Asia. For

without these fines and punishment and licence by

example, in Myanmar itself has been suffered seriously

involving local community, and by providing economic

by political by-product made by superpowers. As a

incentives, so that it becomes the interest of the people

result, there is no such development in environmental

to comply with the rules because of the benefit ofmanagement. Such political reasons have been given

economy by complying. I think if you follow theas excuses not to offer or lender any support or assistance"command and control", it is simply proved that inin management or protection of environment, including

many countries, it does not work.

coastal and marine ecosystems. So the question iswhether the political issues are valid in managing［Q5］

environment. We should look at it very seriously. It’s

What I would like to discuss is the political issues

not just Myanmar the case, but also other countries,

and connection at management of environment including

I believe. There are many countries which are notcostal and marine ecosystems. Usually political issues

always be in line with other superpower’s policy.

especially the political differences always have beenThank you.

the excuses for supporting or not supporting any［Q6］

countries for environmental management or environmental
problems. The moral aspect should be applied if you

Mr. Chairman. I am little bit uneasy and I try towant to include political issues or differences in protection

formulate what it is. The emphasis on this meeting is

119International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem［質問者６：サンゴ礁の専門家］です。もし我々が温暖化ガスを排出しつづけ､それ議長、私はこのシンポジウムに居心地の悪さを感を抑制できなければ、我々は保護などできないし、じており、その理由を説明したいと思います。このこれがサンゴ礁のかかっている病気の第一の原因な会議は「保護」という概念を強調しています。私はのです。地球温暖化は大きな脅威です。ですから、サンゴ礁に取り組んで26年になりますが、現在まで保護の問題はもはや中心的課題ではなく、現存するに、ほとんどのサンゴ礁は危機に瀕しています。まものをどうやって救い出すか、我々に何ができるか

すます悪化しているのです。過去にその保護を試みを考えなければなりません。これに関しては誰も知たことがありますが、今している話は昨年のことで、らないと思います。私は将来の会議のテーマとして、特にサンゴ礁に関するものです。これはゆゆしき問

この問題を中心的問題として取り上げることを提案

題でありますが、もう時効が過ぎています。我々にします。もうすでに保護の段階ではありません。なはパラダイムの転換が必要なのです。我々は「保護」

ぜなら我々は特にこれらの資源を保護することに失から、私に言わせてもらえば、現存する環境の「緊敗したからです。また正直に申し上げれば、ここか急救助」という考え方に移行して行かなければなりらどうやって進んでよいか分からないということもません。我々はまだ保護について語っていますが、告白したいと思います。ありがとうございました。

サンゴ礁を保護することはできないし、保護できなかった、ということを知っています。この会議では、ハーグにおける温暖化ガス排出管理の交渉が失敗し［熊本氏］
将来の会議のテーマに関する重要な提案をありがたことについて触れられることが余りありませんでとうございました。私もあなたに同意します。

したが、これもその原因の一つです。地球温暖化は続いているのです。これは確認された科学的な事実"protection". I work for 26 years on leafs. All the

rescue what we have and how do we go about it. I

leafs are hardening so far. We tried in those days

think no body know that. I would suggest that perhaps

protection. I think we are talking about yesteryear,

in the future meetings, we make it as a central issue.

especially with respect of coral leafs. It’s problematic

Not protection any longer, because we failed protecting

which is not valid any longer. I think we need aespecially these resources. And we don’t know how

paradigm shift. We have to go from "protection" toto proceed from here if we are honest. Thank you.

perhaps something which I might call "emergency［Prof. Kumamoto］

rescue" of what we have. We are talking still aboutprotection, but we know that you cannot protect, andThank you mister for very important suggestion

we failed to protect coral leafs. There was a very

for our future conference. I agree with you. Anybody

little talk in this conference about the failure of thewant to comment or answer?

negotiation in the Hague on the emission control. So［Dr. Kirkman］

this is part of it. Global warming continues. It’s anestablished scientific fact. If we continue the green

I wanted to give you an example that has to dohouse emissions, and if there is not containment, wewith what Dr. Suraphol told us when he was talking

will fail to protect and these are the prime reasons

about it earlier.

for the coral leaf diseases and so on. Global warming is

In Australia, 28 years ago, nobody know what

the main threat. So I think the question of protection

sea grasses were. There were two scientists in theis no longer the centre but it should be an effort towhole of Australia working on sea grasses. I was

120

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem［カークマン氏］

リアでは、政治家はいつも海藻のことについて話す

オーストラリアでは28年前、海藻について知ってのです。我々はオーストラリアのこの現状を誇りにいる人は誰もいませんでした。オーストラリア全体

思っています。なぜなら我々はメディアを使ったかで、海藻を研究している科学者は２人しかいなかっらです。我々は別に嘘をついたわけではありません。

たのです。私はその当時、海藻の研究はまったくしそんなことをしてはいけないからです。すぐに見破ておりませんでしたが、ある湾で底引き網を使ってられます。しかし我々は、時として特定の発見を強

若いえびを調査していました。そこで私は海藻の表調し、「この地域の大部分にはこのような海老がい

面に100倍もの数の若い海老がいることを発見しまて、それはそこにこれだけの海藻があるからだ」としたが、海藻のことは誰も知りませんでした。そこ訴えてきたからです。しかし、やがて徐々に政治家

で私がオーストラリアで海藻を研究する３番目の科

や学校の先生、科学者達が海藻に取り組み、地域全学者になったのです。私の言いたいのは、その９年

体を発展させて行ったのであります。 これは単に後、我々はオーストラリア全国海藻シンポジウムを海藻のことだけにとどまりません。これが私のオー開催したということです。そこには108人の研究者

ストラリアでの経験です。ありがとうございました。

が集まり、28年後、西オーストラリアでは、海洋環［熊本氏］

境について議論をする際に海藻のことについて言及
しない政治家はいなくなりました。そんなことはもカークマン博士、ありがとうございました。議論

う見られず、海洋環境について議論するとき、どこに関してコメントなどがないようでしたら、カーク

かで必ず海藻のことを話すのです。それはちょうどマン博士に昨日と本日のセッションの議論の総括を

ヨーロッパにおいて、鯨やタツノオトシゴの話をすして頂きたいと思います。

るのと同じようなものです。しかし、南オーストラ

not working on it at all, but I was told to troll infound and said "much of the area has these prawns

a bay looking for juvenile shrimps, and we found thatis where in fact more". But gradually, slowly, politicians,

100 time more juvenile shrimps on sea grasses which

school teachers, scientists began to develop a whole

nobody knew anything about. So I was then the third

region working on sea grasses. Now, this doesn’t only

scientist to work on sea grasses in Australia. My

apply to sea grasses. This is my experience in Australia.

point is that 9 years later, we had national sea grass

Thank you.

symposium. There were 108 people at that meeting.
［Prof. Kumamoto］

28 years later, in Western Australia, there is nopolitician to stand up and talk about marine environment

Thank you, Dr. Kirkman. If we don’t have any

without mentioning sea grass. This does not happen.

comment on the discussion, I would like to ask Dr.

Every time they talk about marine environment, they

Kirkman to summarise all the discussions of themention sea grass in somewhere, much in the samesessions of today and yesterday.

way that people in Europe would mention whales or［Dr. Kirkman］

sea horses. But in southern part of Australia, politicians
always talk about sea grasses.

First of all, you’ve heard the summarisation of

We are very proud of that in Australia because

these sessions. The first session was about the social-

we used the media. We didn’t exactly tell lies because

economic part of the proceedings. We talked about

that’s not a way to do. You’ll get caught out. But

regional and central government with policy of integrated

we sometimes exaggerate the particular findings wecoastal sea management and legislation with protected121International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem［カークマン氏］てがテーマでした。いくつかの事例では原因が分かまず最初に、皆様はすでにこの２つのセッション

らないため、その地域では汚染源を特定する作業がの要約を聞いておられます。第一のセッションでは、続いているという話をしました。ここでも公共教育

議事のうち社会経済的部分を取り扱いました。我々の必要性が確認されましたが、他の場でもこの点はは沿岸海洋管理の政策に関して地方政府と中央政府強調されています。地域間調整を強化するための推について論じ、保護された海域に対する法制につい奨策として、我々は新しい技術をできるだけ使ってて議論をしました。そして、我々は資源、資源の利います。アメリカのGPS信号のスクランブルが解除

用、資源の枯渇を表す小さな図を使って議論しまし

されたおかげで、新しい人工衛星が次々打ち上げらた。そして、我々が責任を負っている様々な活動をれ、我々は非常に有利な立場にあります。海洋保護

その図に当てはめ、資源と枯渇について議論しまし

水域では、人工のサンゴ礁などについても警戒をした。

なければならないことが指摘されました。しかし、フアン博士が報告した第二のセッションでは、地

これは閉鎖された人工のサンゴ礁に関する話の一つ域における沿岸管理の法的要件について議論しましでした。我々はまた絶滅の危機に瀕した種を養殖すた。ここでは、我々は能力が目標であるということ

る技術の開発についても経験しました。

を議論しました。このグループは能力開発、立法化

私の会議の総括は、この地域の基盤に関するものの取り組み、政策形成について、最下層、政治家、です。この地域における問題は極めて似通っており

政策形成者や科学者を含むユーザーや利害関係者のます。国によって若干の違いがあるとはいえ、我々持つあらゆる側面から、議論をおこないました。

は類似した熱帯生態系を取り扱っており、かなりの第三のセッションでは、ウェイ氏から科学に関す類似性が、地域の抱える問題、その原因、そして我る報告を聞きました。現在の環境悪化の状況につい々ができることに見られます。タイは別として、こarea. And there was nice little diagram with very

with strengthening coordination, we use new technology

small one which showed resources, use of various

as much as we can. The new satellites are going up

resources, and depletion. And they joined them up in

all the time with the unscrambling of the GPS, we’vevarious activities that we are responsible for resources

got a big advantages there now. In the marine protected

and depleted them.

areas, it was pointed out that how careful we have

The second session which Dr. Huang reported on

to be with artificial leafs. But this was one of thewas the legal requirements of the region for thetalks on contained section of artificial leafs. We also

management of the coast. In that, we talked about

experienced some development of technology for culturing

the capacity is the goal. The group talked about capacity

threatened spices.

building, working on the legislation, and policy-making

My summary of the meeting has to do with thefrom all aspects of the users or stakeholders from theregional basis. The problems here in this region arebottom, from the politicians, from policy-makers, andvery similar. There are slight differences from one

from scientists.

country to another, but we are dealing with tropicalIn the third session, we heard from Mr. Wei

ecosystems, and there is considerable amount of

about science. What is the current situation of degradation

similarities both in the problems, the causes, and what

? We don’t know in some cases, so the identification

we can do about it. Some of these problems, apartof pollution is going on in the region. The fact again

from Thailand, are due to the enclosed sea or partlyis that we require public education, and this was

enclosed sea. This was one of the reasons that thisemphasised in another talks as well. For the recommendation

meeting was sponsored by EMECS. EMECS would

122

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

れらの問題の一部は閉鎖性・準閉鎖性海域によってければならず、他国から借りてきて、自分たちのも引き起こされている問題であります。これがこの会のにしたものであっても、法制に関して、人々が何議が財団法人国際エメックスセンターの主催で開催を利用できるか分かるようにしなければなりません。

されている理由でもあります。財団法人国際エメッ

地域協力、いくつかの問題に対しての条約や協定のクスセンターはこの地域が大きなエメックス会議を

必要性についても議論をしました。大和田博士は様サポートできるかどうかを検証し、それが可能かど々な形態の汚染について論じ、同じく「自己汚染」

うかを試していました。私は科学的見地から言っての概念を提示しました。それは大変よい問題提起でも、疑うことなく、財団法人国際エメックスセンターあったと思います。そして問題解決には知識が鍵とはこの地域にこれらの問題に取り組む科学者が存在なると発言しました。我々は知識を持ってはいるが、することを認めたと確信しています。ですから、こその知識を慎重に使わなければならない、と論じまの地域での科学の発展はすでに大きなシンポジウムした。それから誰かがいくつかの組織について議論を開催できる段階に至っているのです。

をし、それらにいかにまとまりがないか、というこ

それから我々はパネルディスカッションを行いまとを論じました。また地域における科学者の役割にした。どうやら私がパネルディスカッションを総括

ついても議論がおこなわれました。それから我々はしなければならないようですので、その総括を総括

パネルディスカッションにはいりました。これは私し、会議を終了したいと思います。ですから、すばがこの会議で得たものの総括としては十分だと思い

やくパネルディスカッションを総括したいと思いまます。どうもありがとうございました。

す。
我々は海洋保護水域とその水域の計画段階について議論をしました。秩序だった制度と法制を作らな

investigate whether this area could support a large

pollution in its many forms and referred early to the

EMECS meeting and whether it was in fact eligible.

"self-pollution" similarly. I think it was a good one.

I am sure scientificly without any doubt at all that

And the key are the knowledge to solving the problem.

EMECS would agree that this area certainly has the

So we do have that knowledge, but we have to use

scientists to come at the problems. So the scientific

it in a very careful way. Then someone else spoke

development is at the stage to hold a large symposium.

about couple of institutions and how they weren’tvery well organised. Also the role of scientists in the

And we had the panel discussion. I suppose you

region was discussed. We then went into a discussion

want me to summarise the panel discussions, andwith panel. I think we had enough of me on that.

summarise my summary, and close the meeting. So

So thank you very much. I think that is reasonable

very quickly I summarise the panel discussions.

summary of what I obtain from this meeting. Thank

We talked about the marine protected areas andyou.

planning stages of marine protected areas. Ordered
institutions and legislations should be made so thatpeople know what is available as far as using legislationeven from other countries, and bringing them into
their own. We spoke regional cooperation and thenecessity of convention or agreement in the region
for some of the problems. Dr. Ohwada mentioned

123

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

閉会式
Clo sin g［熊本氏］
二日間にわたる、この特別なシンポジウムのすべてのセッションをとても上手にまとめて頂きありがとうございました。これより閉会式に入りたいと思います。
皆様、我々はこれで「沿岸・海洋生態系の保護と管理に関する国際シンポジウム」の全てのスケジュー
ルを終了いたしました。それではこのシンポジウムを閉会するに当たって、メナスヴェタ博士とカーク
マン博士に短い閉会のスピーチを頂きたいと思います。メナスヴェタ博士、お願い致します。

［Prof. Kumamoto］
Thank you very much for very nice summarisationof the all sessions of this special symposium of twodays. I would like to proceed to closing session.
Now ladies and gentlemen. We finished all of
our schedule of this International Symposium ofprotection and management of coastal marine ecosystems.
It’s the time to close our symposium with shortclosing remarks by Dr. Menasveta and Dr. Kirkman.
Dr. Menasveta please.

［メナスヴェタ氏］「沿岸・海洋生態系の保護と管理に関する国際シンポジウム」が終了しました。組織委員会の一員として、私はこのシンポジウムの成果に大変満足いた
しております。このシンポジウムは国家の適切な保護を通じて、沿岸資源の合理的利用と持続可能な開発を目指す最初の重要な一歩であります。これらのセッションにおける討議と議論は、極めてすばらし
い着想、専門知識、情報の交換の場となりましたが、これにより将来の実りある地域協力が生み出されるものと信じております。我々は昨日の朝、副首相がお帰りになる際お会いして、お話をしました。その際副首相から沿岸海洋生態系の悪化に対して非常な懸念を抱いており、より一層の地域協力を進めたい、とのお話を伺いました。私はこのシンポジウムが彼の願いを幾分かなえたのではないかと思っております。このシンポジウムの成功は、2003年にタイで開かれることが予定されている第６回エメックス会議への道を切り拓くものと考えております。今回の会
議を主催した諸機関が、次の第６回エメックス会議も全面的に支援して下さることを願っています。その一方で、この場をお借りしまして、来年11月に神戸で開かれることになった第５回エメックス会議のメンバーとして、この会議に皆さんをご招待いたしたいと存じます。ありがとうございました。

［Dr. Menasveta］
The International Symposium on protection andmanagement for coastal and marine ecosystem is now
came to a conclusion. As a member of organisingcommittee, I am very pleased with the outcome ofthis symposium . This symposium is the first andimportant step toward the rational use of coastal
resources and sustainable development through proper
national protection. Deliberations and discussions inthese sessions have resulted in a very good exchangeof ideas, expertises and information which could leadto a fruitful regional cooperation in the future. We
contacted the Deputy Prime Minister before he left
this meeting yesterday morning, and he expressed hisconcern about degradation of coastal marine ecosystems
and wished to see more regional cooperation on thismatter. I think this meeting has more or less fulfilled
his wish. The success of symposium can also clear
a way for the 6th EMECS conference which is now
considered to be held in Thailand in 2003. I hopethat the present sponsoring agencies will have full
support for this 6th EMECS conference. Nevertheless,as a member of the 5th EMECS conference whichcame to be held in Kobe next November, I would
like to take this opportunity to invite all of you toattend this conference. Thank you.

［カークマン氏］
皆様、私の話は十分に聞かれたことと存じます。
熊本教授、メナスヴェタ博士、そして会場の皆様。

［Dr. Kirkman］
I am sure you heard enough from me. Prof.
Kumamoto, Dr. Menasveta, ladies and gentlemen. I

127

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

皆様は今回の会議が大変な成功であったことに同意してくださるものと思います。私はまず各セッションの報告者の方々に心から感謝申し上げたいと存じます。それぞれのセッションの議長も大変上手に議事を進めていただき、感謝いたしております。また、
今日の午後にそれぞれのセッションの要約と概略を報告してくださったリポーターの皆様、大変な量の仕事だったと思いますが、ご苦労様でした。今日の午後の議長を務められたスラポール博士、またこのセッションの議長を務められた熊本教授、大変感謝
しております。ありがとうございました。
我々はすべての問題に関して、皆様の着想、新しい研究、視点を聞かせていただきました。今回の会
議の主催者である財団法人国際エメックスセンターも満足されたことと思います。この地域の大学関係者にも参加していただいたことは明らかです。三つの大学から多くの学生が参加してくれました。とてもすばらしいことです。彼らは最も重要であるセッションの部分に積極的に参加してくれました。我々と財団法人国際エメックスセンターは、こうした若い人たちをこのような会議に呼ぶことは大変重要なことであると思っています。我々は彼らの参加にとても満足しています。国連環境計画および財団法人
国際エメックスセンターを代表して、エメックスの次の神戸での会議の成功を祈りたいと思います。これをもちまして閉会の言葉とさせて頂きます。ありがとうございました。

am sure you all agree that the meeting has been mostsuccessful and I must thank most sincerely the speakers
at each of sessions. The chairmen of each session
ran them very well, I must thank them too. And therapporteurs of each sessions whom we heard earlier
this afternoon, giving use the summary and overview
of each session did considerable amount of work. I
must thank them for their great deal of work. This
afternoon’s chairman, Dr. Suraphol, I am very gratefulfor you too, and Professor Kumamoto for this session
as well. Thank you.
We heard your ideas, new research, and angles
on all the problems. We have satisfied EMECS in
their sponsoring of this meeting. It was very clearthat universities in this region came to our meeting,and there were many students here from three
universities. I am very pleased to see them. I mustsay they listened to the most important part of themeeting which were the sessions. We and EMECS
felt bringing these young people into a meeting likethis is the most important. We are very pleased with
their attendance. I would like to wish, on behalf of
UNEP, EMECS for all the best in the next big meetingin Kobe. With that I would like to close. Thank you.
［Prof. Kumamoto］［熊本氏］
シンポジウムを終える前に、少しお礼の言葉を述べさせて頂きたいと存じます。まず全ての参加者と関係諸機関の皆様に感謝申し上げます。このようなご支援がなければ、この重要なシンポジウムをタイで開催するという目標の達成は不可能であったことでしょう。この点から、私は国連環境計画東アジア
海域地域調整機構、タイ政府科学技術環境省環境政策計画局、東南アジア海洋法・政策・管理プログラム、チュラロンコン大学に感謝したいと存じます。
加えて、私の個人的な感謝の気持ちを、ここバンコ
クでシンポジウムを開催するのにご尽力いただきましたカークマン博士、フアン博士、メナスヴェタ博士に捧げたいと思います。最後に皆様方を来る2001
年11月に神戸で開催される第５回会議にご招待いた
したいと思います。皆様とは神戸で、あるいは2003
年にここバンコクでお会いできることを期待しております。本当にありがとうございました。

Before close this symposium , let me allow to
express in a few words to our participation. Appreciation
to all the participants and concerned organisations.
Without such support we could not achieve our goal
to organise this important symposium here in Thailand.
From this point, I would like to express our appreciation
to United Nations Environment Programme/East Asian
Seas Regional Coordinating Unit, Office of Environment
Policy and Planning, South East Asian Programme in
Ocean Laws, and Chulalongkorn University. In addition,
I would like to express my personal appreciation to
Dr. Kirkman, Dr. Huang, Dr. Menasveta who substantiallypromoted to organise symposium here in Bangkok.
Finally, I would like to invite all of you to the 5th
conference in Kobe in coming November 2001. I also
would like to see you in Kobe or here in Bangkok
in 2003. Thank you very much indeed. Thank you.

128

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

OBJECTIVES OF ADB5712REG COASTAL AND MARINEENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT IN THE SOUTH
CHINA SEAS, PHASE II - CAMBODIA COMPONENTWHEELER M.＊, McNAMEE P.J., KOSAL M.
Wetlands International - Asia Pacific, Malaysia
E- Mail：matt@wiap.nasionet.net
◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

This paper summarizes the activities conducted in the Kingdom of Cambodia (Cambodia) under ADB 5712-REG Coastal and Marine
Environmental Management in the South China Sea, Phase 2. Designed to implement a number of the important recommendations madein the first Phase of this regional technical assistance (ADB 5552-REG, Coastal and Marine Environmental Management in the South China
Sea, February 1994 to June 1996), the objectives of this regional technical assistance were to：1) Promote the sustainable use of coastal and marine resources in the western portion of the South China Sea；
2) Promote regional cooperation in the protection and management of coastal and marine environmental resources；and3) Increase the capacity of countries participating in the regional technical assistance to manage their coastal and marine environmental
resources on a sustainable basis.

Implementation and Outputs of ADB 5712-REG Activities in Cambodia
The Cambodia Ministry of Environment (MoE) was the Executing Agency in Cambodia for ADB 5712-REG. It was supported bytechnical assistance from GEC Global Environmental Consultants Ltd., in association with the World Wide Fund for Nature - Internationaland Wetlands International - Asia Pacific according to the overall Terms of Reference for ADB 5712-REG. This technical assistanceprovided for 32.5 person-months of and 14.5 person-months of national and international consultant support, respectively, for Cambodia fromFebruary 1999 to March 2000. Draft plans were submitted to the Bank and to Cambodia in October 1999 and provincial and national
workshops were held in December 1999 to review the draft plans. The draft plans were also reviewed at a regional workshop on coastal
and marine environmental management held in Sanya City in March 2000, after which this final report was prepared.
The major outputs of ADB 5712-REG in Cambodia were a national strategic plan for coastal and marine environmental management
and a national coastal and marine protected area plan as one component of the overall strategic plan. The preparation of these plans was
supported by：a coastal community survey；the compilation of a coastal and marine environmental management database for Cambodia；
and a demonstration project in Preah Sihanouk National Park to test some of the key approaches recommended in the strategic and protectedarea plans.

Strategic Coastal and Marine Environmental Management Plan for Cambodia
The coastal and marine sector is extremely important to Cambodia’s economic development. For example：
1) 75% of the households in the four coastal provinces/municipalities rely on the primary sector, agriculture, fishing, and forestry, as themain source of employment and income. Coastal and marine biodiversity resources are important to these households；
2) Coastal and marine biodiversity provides substantial benefits to local communities and the country of about US $12 million in benefits
per year for the major coastal and marine ecosystems of Cambodia. This translates to about US $162 per household per year for all
residents living in the coastal districts in which these ecosystems occur. Coastal and marine biodiversity generates significant flows ofbenefits to local households and communities；3) Sihanoukville has been designated as one of three priority economic development areas of the country (along with Phnom Penh andSiem Reap)；4) Sihanoukville port is the major national marine port of the country；and5) Coastal areas are often the focus of tourism and Cambodia is no exception. The Ministry of Tourism’s national tourism plan delineates
eight areas as tourism development priorities；three of Cambodia’s four coastal provinces/municipalities are included in these areas：
Sihanoukville, Kep, and the coastal area of Kampot Province. These areas also include the offshore islands of these provinces/municipalities.
Unlike its most of its southeastern Asian neighbors, Cambodia’s relatively low population, still abundant productive natural resources,
and current development situation are all advantages in its economic development. If it wishes, Cambodia can use these advantages tolearn from the experiences of its neighbors how to build institutions, develop and implement policies and laws, and appropriately designand deliver investments and technical assistance for the coastal and marine environment sector. A good foundation has already been laidby Cambodian institutions, supported by donors, in setting up the first pieces of the legal framework for environment, as well as incapacity building, community participation, and protected areas.
Yet, there is much to be done in the area of coastal and marine environmental management in Cambodia：
1) The data and information base is extremely weak and lacks any spatial or temporal continuity on which planning and management
decisions can be made；2) Cambodia’s coastal residents, relying almost exclusively on productive natural resources, are extremely poor and lack much of the basics
required for daily living：adequate food and water；employment；health care, education；transportation；and environmental sanitation；3) While civil society is beginning to return to many parts of coastal Cambodia, resource extraction remains under the influence of powerfulpeople and organizations；4) Despite the lack of quantitative information, there are signs that the health and integrity of productive natural resources - forests；wetlands；and fisheries - in coastal and marine Cambodia are beginning to become adversely affected by human activities；5) The fiscal and budgetary realities of present-day Cambodia make it unlikely that solutions to these issues will come entirely from thegovernment；and6) Lack of especially skilled and experienced human resources in the field of coastal and marine environmental and natural resourcesmanagement and conservation.
The Strategic Plan for Coastal and Marine Environmental Management in Cambodia presented in this report sets out a proposal for
removing these constraints so that Cambodia’s current advantages can be realized.

258

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

The overall goal of the Cambodia Strategic Plan for Coastal and Marine Environmental Management is：

Achieve poverty alleviation and economic development in the coastal provinces of Cambodia
The Strategic Plan contains six major components, each with a specific set of objectives：
Strengthen and Rationalize the Institutional, Legal, and Policy Framework
Component 1：Legal, Policy, and Objective 1.1 for Natural Resource and Environmental Management
Strengthen the National Coastal Steering Committee and Set Up Cambodia
Institutional Framework
Objective 1.2 Coastal and Marine Resources Fund
Strengthening the Capacity for Basic Environmental and Natural Resources
Component 2：Data and Informa‑ Objective 2.1 Management
Objective 2.2 National Coastal and Marine Biodiversity Assessment
tion Management
Objective 2.3 Coastal and Marine Information Management System
Component 3：Integrated Coastal Objective 3.1 Prepare Coastal and Marine Functional Zoning Plans
and Marine Management Plans for
Objective 3.2 Implement, Monitor, and Revise Plans
Coastal Provinces
Objective 4.1 Initial Community Level Infrastructure Rehabilitation
Component 4：Community Developm‑ Objective 4.2 Community Development and Livelihood Improvement
Protected Area Community Development and Livelihood Improvement
ent and Livelihood Improvement
Objective 4.3 （linked to Component 6：Coastal and Marine Protected Areas）
Objective 5.1 Fisheries and Aquaculture Licensing System
Component 5：Community‑Based
Objective 5.2 Enforcement
Coastal and Nearshore Fisheries
Objective 5.3 Establishment of Coastal Fishery Reserve System
Management
Objective 5.4 Coastal and Nearshore Fisheries Infrastructure Support
Component 6：Coastal and Marine Objective 6.1 Implement Investment Program for Coastal and Marine Protected Areas
Protected Areas
Objective 6.2 Strengthen Legal, Policy, Institutional Framework for Protected Areas

Coastal and Marine Environmental Management Plan
The overall aim of the Cambodia Coastal and Marine Protected Area Plan is to alleviate poverty in the coastal provinces of Cambodia
by formalizing and strengthening Cambodia’s coastal and marine protected area system and simultaneously providing opportunities forcoastal rural household and community economic development. To achieve this aim, the following must be met：
1) Enhancement of existing physical, biodiversity, land use, and socioeconomic information in the coastal and marine areas of Cambodia
to enable formal planning and management of the entire coastal and marine protected area system；2) Formalization of a coastal and marine protected areas system for Cambodia through establishing a system of six reserves currently
estimated to a cover a total of 388,700 ha；3) Identification and, if appropriate, establishment of additional marine reserves in the most important sites within the EEZ of Cambodia
to complete the marine protected areas system；4) Extensive and comprehensive upgrading of all marine and coastal protected area sites presently identified with respect to biological andsocioeconomic assessments, management plans, zoning, boundary demarcation, infrastructure and other facilities；
5) Local community participation in all aspects of protected areas management including livelihood support, and community development
programs for approximately 24,000 households and 120 villages, respectively；6) Development of a cadre of approximately 360 sufficiently and appropriately trained management, administrative and technical staff inthe system of six reserves；7) Elaboration of the legal, institutional, and policy framework for protected area management in Cambodia. This includes institutionalarrangements for protected areas management and consistent organizational arrangements within protected area management boards thatare based on functional requirements for reserve management；
8) Effective ongoing biological and socioeconomic monitoring.
The Plan has three objectives as defined in the overall Strategic Plan for Coastal and Marine Environmental Management：
1) National coastal and marine biodiversity assessment (This is an objective of Component 2：Coastal and Marine Data and Information
Management under the Strategic Plan for Coastal and Marine Environmental Management. It would need to be completed as a first partof implementing the overall Coastal and Marine Protected Area Plan and is therefore included here.
2) Investments for the six currently identified coastal and marine protected area reserves to initiate or upgrade management and protectionof biodiversity, plus concomitant investments in community development and economic livelihood support for communities using thenatural resources of the existing protected areas；and
3) Strengthening the legal and institutional framework for protected area planning and management.
Based on the lessons learned from the experience with other natural resource management projects in the region, support for the protection agency is necessary but not sufficient to ensure effective implementation of a plan for protected areas. The need to effectively improve
the income status of the adjoining communities, particularly the more vulnerable (poorer) ones, requires a combination of extension, credit
and social support tied in with environmental promotion, and legal, policy and contractual measures to ensure that incentives exist for joint
protection. To this end, it is proposed that investments in protected areas and in community development and economic livelihood support
would be secured with the development of joint agreements between communities, protected area management boards, andgovernments for protecting biodiversity resources within designated protected areas.

Justification of the Plans
INTERNATIONAL OBLIGATIONS
Cambodia has endorsed several international conventions and as such is obliged to fulfill its commitments to these conventions；three
are of relevance to the implementation of these Plans：
United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea Cambodia is a signatory to this Convention. These Plans will enable Cambodia
to adhere to a number of the articles of UNCLOS, specifically those pertaining to：conservation and preservation of the marine

259

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

environment (Part XII Section 1 Articles 192, 197, 199, and 200)；monitoring and environmental assessment (Article 4)；prevention,
reduction, and control of pollution (Articles 207 to 208)；and sustainable exploitation of marine resources (Article 62)
The International Convention on Biodiversity Conservation This convention calls on all countries to develop and implement national
plans for biological diversity conservation and set forth and implement a plan of action for aspects for priority attention. Cambodia
acceded to this Convention on 9 February 1995. These Plans include a review of marine and coastal biodiversity resources in the
country to assure adequate coverage of these resources is incorporated into Cambodia’s system of protected areas and also provide
for establishing sustainable management of Cambodia marine fisheries resources
Convention on Wetlands of International Importance This Convention came into force for Cambodia on 23 October 1999. The
Convention calls on all countries to set aside and manage those areas that are important to migratory waterfowl and waders. The
coastal and marine protected area plan includes the Peam Krasop Wildlife Sanctuary that contains the Koh Kapik Ramsar Site.

THE NATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL ACTION PLAN FOR CAMBODIA (1998-2002)
The NEAP proposed an ambitious short-term action program that for a number of reasons has fallen behind in implementation.
Nevertheless, recommendations in the NEAP are a further endorsement of the strategies and actions developed in these Plans for natural
resources and environmental management in coastal and marine Cambodia. Coastal Fisheries Management and Biodiversity and Protected
Areas are two of the six thematic areas in the NEAP；NEAP recommendations for these thematic areas are：Coastal Fisheries Management- Updating fisheries regulations on the entry of domestic and foreign commercial boat operators into the fisheries.
- Protect critical marine and coastal areas.
- Strengthen the capacity of the DoF to manage the fisheries.
- Provide non-fishing economic opportunities in coastal communities as a way to reduce fishing pressure.
Biodiversity and Protected Areas- Preparation and enactment of legislation on the operational aspects of protected area management.
- Train the staff of the MoE and other agencies involved in biodiversity conservation within and outside protected areas.
- Establish a trust fund or endowment to provide long-term financing for conservation programs.
- Prepare and implement management plans for priority areas of high biodiversity conservation significance.
- Special mention was given to Preah Sihanouk and Bokor National Parks, and the Koh Kapik Ramsar site in Peam Krasop Wildlife
Sanctuary.
These Plans provide detailed direction and guidance for meeting these recommendations contained in the Cambodia NEAP, throughComponent 5, Community-Based Coastal and Nearshore Fisheries Management and Component 6：Coastal and Marine Protected Areas of
the national Strategic Plan.
CONTRIBUTION TO SUBREGIONAL BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION
Allowing for the fact that data is somewhat out of date for some of these ecosystems and incomplete for others, the overall level ofprotection afforded to the known area of ecosystems is very high；50% of the known area of major coastal and marine ecosystem in
Cambodia are protected under the current protected area system. In addition, Cambodia’s overall coastal and marine ecosystem
protectionxlvii is greater than that proposed across the entire subregion for mangroves and other coastal wetlands. Even without extensionof the existing coastal and marine protected area system, Cambodia’s protection of its mangrove and other coastal wetland resources would
be higher than the average level of protection throughout the Subregion that would be achieved with the implementation of all four plansin the subregion.
NATURAL RESOURCE SECTOR
Cambodia’s coastal and marine resources will improve as a result of implementing these two Plans：
Improvement of Coastal and Marine Natural Resources with Coastal and Marine Protected Area System- Enhancement of existing physical, biodiversity, land use, and socioeconomic information in the coastal and marine areas ofCambodia to enable formal planning and management of the entire coastal and marine protected area system；- Formalization of a coastal and marine protected areas system for Cambodia through establishing a system of six reserves
currently estimated to a cover a total of 388,700 ha；- Identification and, if appropriate, establishment of additional marine reserves in the most important sites within the EEZ of
Cambodia to complete the marine protected areas system；- Extensive and comprehensive upgrading of all marine and coastal protected area sites presently identified with respect to biologicaland socioeconomic assessments, management plans, zoning, boundary demarcation, infrastructure and other facilities；- Elaboration of the legal, institutional, and policy framework for protected area management in Cambodia. This includes institutionalarrangements for protected areas management and consistent organizational arrangements within protected area management boards
that are based on functional requirements for reserve management.
Improvement of Coastal and Marine Natural Resources with Community-Based Coastal and Nearshore Fisheries
Management- Detailed fisheries resource assessments in fisheries and aquaculture zones- Improved licensing system for both capture fishers and aquaculture operations based on long term sustainable yield estimates forfishing and aquaculture zones- Fishing communities organized into self-regulating associations for monitoring, surveillance and patrol- Basic surveys for identification of fisheries of habitats, fishery reserves in the coastal and marine areas- Surveys, data collection, and identification of reserve boundaries for conservation of fishery resources and fishery resource conservation for these reserves.

Poverty Alleviation and Economic Development
It is understood and accepted that providing increased economic opportunities to the rural poor is a necessary prerequisite to achieving sustainable management of Cambodia’s productive coastal and marine resources and the protection of Cambodia’s important coastal
and marine ecosystems. A number of components of these Plans are directed towards poverty alleviation and economic development：
1) The Plans would provide livelihood support to approximately 200 villages in coastal Cambodia, representing approximately 25% of thetotal population of the coastal provinces and municipalities. About 50% of this would be achieved through the Coastal and Marine
xlvii

as a proportion of known existing ecosystem area

260

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

Protected Area Plan, targeting villages and households living within or adjacent to the six designated protected areas. The remainder
would be achieved through poverty alleviation programs in villages that would be identified as priorities for assistance in coastal
Cambodia；
2) Improvement in basic rural infrastructure throughout coastal Cambodia：roads；markets；health centers；schools；and water supply；and
3) Investments in appropriate and modest value added activities in the fisheries sector to increase the benefits accruing to fishing households.

EMPLOYMENTEmployment in coastal and marine areas of Cambodia would benefit from these Plans in six ways：
1) The community development and poverty alleviation activities (Component 4 of National Strategic Plan) would use local labor resources,
labor-intensive methods to help absorb under-employment and demobilizing military；2) The extensive training and capacity building built into the Plans would increase the employability of beneficiaries；3) The coastal and marine protected area plan would increase direct employment in protected area management and employ a cadre of
sufficiently and appropriately trained management, administrative, and technical staff in the system of six reserves；
4) Properly implemented, the Plans will ensure the creation of an enabling environment for private sector and public participation in coastal
and marine resource management, thereby increasing private sector employment in the coastal and marine sector；
5) Indirect and induced employment would undoubtedly increase as a result of investment in the coastal and marine areas of Cambodia；and6) Natural resource sector-dependent employment would increase with increasing health of Cambodia’s coastal and marine biodiversity
resources.

PUBLIC PARTICIPATION AND COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
The Plans will ensure full local community participation in all aspects of coastal and marine environmental management, including
livelihood and community development programs, and this will be strengthened in the legal, policy, and institutional framework of theprovince. Specific programs would have a positive impact on coastal communities living in surrounding areas in a number of ways. In
addition, public awareness and appreciation for the conservation values of Cambodia’s coastal and marine areas would increase, andenvironmental and educational opportunities for the public and youth in particular would improve.

Additional Benefits
Additional expected benefits to these Plans are：1) Coastal and marine functional zoning will improve the likelihood that economic development can proceed in the study area in a rational,
and sustainable manner；
2) Improved data and information on productive natural resources and important ecosystems in the provinces will enable ongoing improved
resource management decisions to be made；3) Increased local responsibility for and control over the management and protection of productive natural resources of coastal and marine
Cambodia；
4) Improved capacity of local institutions for coastal and marine environmental planning and management；
5) Beneficiary involvement in implementation of the Plans and training of beneficiaries in stewardship of coastal and marine resources；
6) Recognition that sustainability requires support of communities；
7) Assigning priority to coastal and marine biodiversity conservation as a necessary requirement for economic development；and
8) Increased capacity in and strengthened linkages among key local institutions.

ECONOMIC JUSTIFICATION OF COASTAL AND MARINE PROTECTED AREA PLAN
Preliminary analyses indicate that the coastal and marine protected area plan is modestly economically feasible. At a 12% discountrate, the economic Net Present Value is = $1.01 million. At this rate, for every $1 of cost, there will be $1.06 of benefit；the economic
rate of return (EIRR) is estimated at 13%. This is an acceptable rate of return, given the fact that it does not include all the direct
benefits to beneficiaries that would be derived from the poverty alleviation activities that are a part of the coastal and marine protectedarea plan.

Assuring Sustainability
The long-term sustainability of these Plans will be enhanced by：
1) Concomitant institutional, policy, and legal strengthening of overall framework for coastal and marine environmental management
2) Development of institutional and human resource capacity to implement the activities required for biodiversity protection；3) Development of ownership and commitment at the local level to the objectives of the Plans；and
4) Promotion of alternative livelihood opportunities for communities to reduce pressure on key coastal and marine biodiversity resources.
Key to the success of the above would be participatory planning, collaboration among key stakeholders；community empowerment
would result from information sharing, consultation, and collaboration.
Implementation of the Plans will have significant positive environmental impacts to Cambodia’s environment. There may be someenvironmental impacts caused by some of the civil works and facilities construction, but these are expected to be local and either
insignificant or mitigable. It is expected that environmental guidelines of Cambodia would be followed through the construction and operation of the civil works and facilities.
Modest resettlement is currently assumed for the Coastal and Marine Protected Area Plan. If more detailed design studies confirm theneed for resettlement of any magnitude whatsoever, leaving households where they are and developing livelihood alternatives andcommunity development programs should be considered as an alternative. Failing that, a Resettlement Action Plan would need to be prepared,
and this plan would require and environmental and social assessment, including assessment of impacts at the receiving sites, would need
to be conducted as part of detailed design.
There is potential in the Coastal and Marine Protected Area Plan for negative impacts caused by possible increased levels of humanactivity within the protected areas, particularly those which are coastal tourism destinations. The recommendations are to：・ Ensure that environmental assessments of all types of human activities contemplated for protected area are conducted as part of261

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

preparation of protected area management plans；and・ Ensure the coastal and marine protected area management plans include limits for human activities for activities such as tourism
within the protected area and that these limits are strictly enforced.

Implementation and Future Activities
PARTNERSHIPS AND CO-MANAGEMENT：THE GUIDING PRINCIPLEThe Government of Cambodia alone will not be able to implement these Plans in a way that provides the maximum benefits to its
coastal residents and to the country as a whole. The multi-sectoral nature of the Plans almost guarantees this, and yet this is exacerbatedby severe constraints of capacity；reach of civil government to local levels, and availability of financial resources.
Partnerships among the various stakeholders offer a way to overcome these constraints. The list of stakeholders includes：
1) The government sovereignty over land and resources and setting the basic legal, policy, and regulatory framework within which theother stakeholders operate；2) Local communities whose livelihood depends on the availability of productive natural resources and who have to live with theconsequences of investment and resource allocation decisions；
3) ILIs providing the initial investments that will be required；
4) Donors providing technical assistance support；
5) The private sector as sources of funds, influence, and expertise - particularly true in the case of coastal Cambodia for tourism, fisheries
products, and perhaps even small scale sustainable enterprises；and6) NGOs as a conveyors of public information；technical advice；providing linkages among stakeholders；and monitoring.
Experience has shown elsewhere that all stakeholders are necessary；they will all be necessary for coastal and marine environmental
management in Cambodia. Wherever possible, incentives should be created for all stakeholders to remain involved and to bring their besttalents and skills to the tasks at hand.
RECOMMENDED NEXT STEPSThe National Strategic Plan for Coastal and Marine Environmental Management and the National Coastal and Marine Protected Area
Plan should be viewed as important steps in an ongoing process of：examination of environmental issues；priority setting；project definition；and evaluation for Cambodia’s coastal and marine area. The challenge is to ensure that this process is maintained.
Like elsewhere, coastal and marine environmental problems in Cambodia are multi-sectoral, involve numerous constituencies；involve
policy and legal issues；and involve great uncertainty with respect to the adequacy of scientific information. A number of initialdevelopment activities have taken place in coastal Cambodia. These have made and continue to make important impacts on certain partsof the overall situation, such as capacity and local awareness. The results of these initiatives have made it possible to produce these Plans.
Now, the RGC and donors will need to commit to longer projects and initiatives according to these Plans. These Plans set out theenvironmental priorities for coastal Cambodia. It is therefore appropriate to use the document as a basis for planning and coordinating
activities in the coastal and marine environment sector in Cambodia.
It is recommended that the NCSC and the Ministry of Environment could conduct the following activities upon receiving this report：
1) Translate and improve the Khmer version of the reports and produce versions of these reports that are more useful for ongoing consultation and implementation in Cambodia (actual international consultant reports are generally not appropriate for this work and the format
needs to be modified to suit Cambodia conditions)；
2) Provide ongoing support to MoE for the preparation of program documents for input to the second Five Year National Development
Plan；3) Preparation of program documents for submission to the Council of Ministers for formal national government approval of the RETA
outputs. This would require inter-ministerial meetings and revision of the program documents to address the comments made in thesemeetings；and4) Consultations between MoE the Council of Ministers and Ministry of Planning with respect to second Five-Year National Development
Plan and approval of the RETA outputs.

Subsequent steps could consist of：1) Applying to national, provincial, and international organizations for project establishment and required funding；2) Implementing activities using the expertise gained in doing technical assistance through both ADB 5712-REG and the results of the firstphase, ADB 5552-REG；
3) Establish demonstration projects for initial implementation of the plans；and4) Conduct a campaign to promote the involvement of major stakeholders in coastal and marine environmental management.
Complementary to this would be regular review of progress being made on the action items identified in the Plans as a part of theregular planning and coordination activities of the country.

262

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

THE ROLE OF MYANMAR’S ENVIRONMENT RELATED LAWS AND REGULATIONSIN PROTECTION AND MANAGEMENT OF COASTAL MARINEECOSYSTEMS：ISSUES AND NEEDSU Win LATT
Aquaculture Development and Environmental Consultants
Aqua Bound Co., Ltd.
P.O Box 5, Amphur Muang, RANONG, 85000, THAILAND
E- mail：aquabco@cscoms.com
◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

Myanmar is in the process of forming Ministry level Environment body while National Commission for Environmental Affairs (NCEA)
serves as a national focal point and coordinating agency for environmental matters. Although environmental protection law is yet to be
promulgated, currently, there are several sectoral laws and regulations that contain portions on environmental protection. These existing laws
are partially equipped with vision of sustainable management of marine resources especially in the area of prevention and management ofcoastal and marine ecosystems. Localized uni-sectoral development activities across nation’s coastal areas are not always in line even withenvironmental regulations defined in sectoral laws. In addition, local socio-economic activities, transboundary trade and border area rehabilitation programmes are not less in contributing overall environmental degradation to the ecosystems. Whilst the issues need to be addressed
properly in order to achieve harmony between socio-economic development and protection and management of coastal marine ecosystems,
various obstacles still remain. Therefore, the role of currently available environment related laws have become vital in protection of theecosystems. However, in practice the effectiveness in implementation and enforcement of those laws are largely reduced by limitations.
Financial support and human resources, administrative enforcement and integrated appropriate mechanism in laws appear as major deficiencies.
If enforcement of the laws and management of coastal zones become ineffective, the future of the Bay of Bengal and the Andaman Sea
ecosystems are at high risk. This paper discusses related major issues and constraints, and provides with possible management strategy todeal with current problems.

1. Introduction
Coastal and marine areas of Myanmar have very diverse ecosystems composed of evergreen forests, wetlands, mangroves, coral reefs,
seagrass beds and sandy beaches. These ecosystems are distributed within approximately 12 million hectares of coastal areas of six statesand divisions of Myanmar.
Similar to some of the South East Asian countries, Myanmar coastal environment of today is faced with variety of serious threatsand problems. Degradation of coastal and marine environment has resulted from wide range of pollution sources such as sewage, nutrient
runoffs, synthetic organic compound, sediments, litter and plastic, and oil/hydrocarbons (DOLF, 1998). In addition, conversion of coastalmangroves and wetlands to other purposes such as agriculture, aquaculture, settlement and infrastructure development poses serious danger
to the coastal and marine ecosystem. Non-sustainable localised uni-sectoral development activities in coastal areas are also worsening thealready deteriorating situation of coastal marine ecosystems.
Most needed integrated multi-disciplinary approach and stakeholder coordination as well as cooperation in major issues such as land
use planning, resources utilization and management, coastal zone management and sustainable development are yet available. Therefore,
there is an urgent need to manipulate those issues before the situation reach to ecosystem boiling point.
Myanmar, in the post-Rio period, like many other countries in the Asia Pacific region, has responded to the emerging challenges ofachieving sustainable development by reshaping environmental governance to make it more suited to integrating the environmental anddevelopment concerns of the country. The coastal and marine environmental issues, which are mentioned previously, are regarded as partof the country’s whole environmental problems. In order to coordinate with related agencies, a national environment body, National
Commission for Environmental Affairs (NCEA) has emerged in 1990.
Environment management, which plays vital role in sustainable development mechanism, is fairly new in Myanmar. However,environmental law is not totally strange to Myanmar, as the nation’s sectoral laws have either in parts or segment on environmental protection. The environmental management pattern in Myanmar is largely sectoral with existing laws relating to environmental management being
formulated and administered by the ministries and departments concerned. For instance, the Ministry of Forestry is responsible for forest
management including wild life conservation, while Ministry of Industry Controls and regulates industrial activities and pollution. The
Ministry of Health is responsible for environmentally related issues. Conservation of marine and freshwater fishery resources is carried out
by the Ministry of Livestock and Fisheries whilst the Ministry of Labour controls the pollution of environment from factories (NCEA, 1999).
The environmental protection and management part is either weak or unavailable in most sectoral laws, except the forest law of 1992.
For example, laws under the Ministry of Livestock and Fisheries emphasize in capture fisheries by regulating fishing. None of the portionof the fisheries laws covers conservation, management and research sector regarding the protection and management of coastal and marine
ecosystems.
Implementation of laws, especially enforcement of standards and environmental quality, is critical for the success of any environmental
protection regime. Supplementary legislation on sectoral aspects of environmental management is necessary to bridge the gaps in theframework laws and to provide practical guidelines and criteria to the enforcement agencies. In addition, Myanmar Agenda-21 has statedthat there is a need for new laws and mechanisms for enforcement and implementation in order to harmonize current environmental trends
and conditions. Accordingly, in line with Myanmar Agenda 21, the environmental protection law was drafted by NCEA in coordination
with the UN-ESCAP and UNEP and soon to be approved by the cabinet.
Most countries in the region have laws to cover sector-specific environmental problems and issues (ESCAP, 2000). Institutional
mechanisms for achieving this integration are, therefore, of paramount importance. Formulation and implementation of appropriate policies
and programmes, enactment of laws, rules and standards for enforcement of policies and creation of delivery mechanisms for implementation of plans and enforcement by institutions provide credibility and stability to the environmental regime.
In this paper, environmental related sectoral laws are described from the environmental protection viewpoint and some development
activities that contradict environmental sustainability are mentioned. It also highlights the role of environmental related sectoral laws inprotection and management of coastal and marine ecosystems in Myanmar.

187

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

2.Environment Related Laws and Regulations：Is Coastal Marine Ecosystems Prioritized?
Environmental Institutions
Aware of the fact that environment and development are non-separable, Myanmar government pays more attention on environmental
affairs. As a result, NCEA has emerged as a coordinating agency collaborating closely with government ministries and departments inmatter relating to the environment. It also acts as the national focal point for environmental matters vis-a-vis other countries and internationalorganizations, coordinates the work of various relevant ministries and departments and reports directly to the Cabinet. The NCEA wasestablished with the following objectives：(i)To develop sound environmental policies in order to safeguard the environment and prevent its degradation;(ii)To set environmental standards, rules and regulations for pollution control;(iii)To formulate environment plans, programmes and strategies; and(iv)To promote environmental awareness and public participation in environmental activities.
There is neither a specific protection and management body or coordination unit that has multidisciplinary approach for coastal andmarine ecosystems. However, separate indirect responsibility on protection and management of marine environment scattered amongst
different ministries.
At the ministry level, the ministry of Science and Technology is empowered to designate its directorate to carry out environmental
research activities while the ministry of Forestry oversee the conservation and management of forest, biodiversity and wildlife. Protection,conservation and management of coastal and marine areas are under the responsibility of fisheries department of the Ministry of Livestock
and Fisheries.
Under the Ministry of Education, Marine Science Department of the University of Maw-la-myine is one and the only educational
institution in the country relating to coastal and marine activities. The department carries out research and development activities of themarine ecosystems.
Policy Formulation
Environment policy of a country shows its vision on environment and political will to achieve any set objectives of the country; thus
is an initial important part of environmental governance.
The National Environment Policy of Myanmar formulated by the NCEA has been proclaimed through the Gazette in accordance with
Notification No. 26/94 dated 5 December 1994, issued by the Government of the Union of Myanmar. The Policy Statement reads asfollows：
To establish scorned environmental policies utilization of water, land, forests, mineral, marine resources and other natural resources inorder to conserve the environment and prevent its degradation, the Government of the Union of Myanmar hereby adopts the following
policy："The Wealth of a nation is its people, its cultural heritage, its environment and its natural resources. The objective Myanmar’s
environment policy is aimed at achieving harmony and balance between these through the integration of environmental considerations into
the development process to enhance the quality of the life of all its citizens. Every nation has the sovereign right to utilize its natural
resources in accordance with its environmental policies; but great care must be taken not to exceed its jurisdiction or infringe upon theinterests of other nations. It is the responsibility of the State and every citizen to preserve its natural resources in the interest of present
and future generations. Environmental protection should always be the primary objective in seeding development."
The policy clearly shows the sustainable development vision in its statement and its reflection is seen in Myanmar Forest Policy,
which was notified in 1996. It was issued in view of the importance of the Myanmar Forestry Sector in enhancing national socio-economic
development, and formulated with the overall context of ecological balance and environmental stability, taking full cognizance of theforestry principles adopted at the United Nations Conference and Development (UNCED) in 1992. The Policy has identified six imperatives：(1) protection of soil, water, wildlife, biodiversity and environment; (2) sustainability of forest resources for the present and future generations; (3) basic needs of the people; (4) efficiency to harness, in the socio - environmentally friendly; (5) participation of the people inthe conservation and utilisation of the forests; and (6) public awareness about the vital role of the forests in the well being and socioeconomic development of the nation (MOF, 1996).
The Government ministries including the Ministry of Energy and the Ministry of Health, have also issued policies in which someprovisions for protection of environment have been included.
Environmental Related Laws
Since environmental law is not yet available in Myanmar, sectoral laws relating to environment are regarded as environmental protection laws. However as mention previously, these laws, in general, do not possess holistic vision on environmental management there by
only emphasizing on specific issues of related sector. Therefore, the affect of those laws on environmental protection is of indirect. For
example, the City of Yangon Development Law (1990), the City of Yangon Municipal Act (1992) and the Development Committee Law(1993) contains provisions relating to water pollution (Lwin, 2000). As the City of Yangon is located in coastal zone, prevention of pollution from the city is quite important for the sustainability of coastal marine ecosystems.
In addition, the Yangon Port Act (1905), the Canal Act (1905), the Embankment Act (1909) and the Ports Act (1908) provides
cleanness of inland waterways, hence, it prevent from increasing pollution level in the estuary and marine areas. Prevention of mangrove
deforestation can also be seen in the Salt Enterprise Law, which prohibits production of salt by means of wood fire or charcoal andpermits only solar salt.
Similarly, the Factories Act, 1951 has provisions whereby effective arrangement is required to be made in every factory for the disposalof wastes and effluence. Measures for the proper disposal of waste and effluence, and in particular, treatment of waste water from thetextile and chemical plants have resolved much of the environmental pollution problem that would have adverse impact on the coastal
marine ecosystems.
Provisions of these environmental related laws control the land based pollution sources, thereby protect coastal and marine ecosystems
indirectly. However, it is clear that some of the laws were promulgated before the WWII and are no longer comprehensive enough toencounter environmental problems of today. These laws are seriously needed to amend in line with current environmental situations. As
well, new laws and mechanisms for enforcement with sustainable development vision are also necessary to create.
Laws Related to Coastal and Marine Ecosystem Protection
Laws related to coastal and marine environments are described in different sectoral laws under two ministries：the Ministry of Livestock
and Fisheries, and the Ministry of Forestry. For instance, the Marine Fisheries Law (1990), the Freshwater Fisheries Law (1991), the Fish-

188

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

ing Rights of Foreign Fishing Vessels Law (1989), and the Aquaculture Law (1989) prohibit causing water pollution, harassing fishes andother marine organism and using explosive substances, poison chemicals and dangerous material in fishing. In addition, the Territorial Sea
and Maritime Zone Law (1977) provides measures for protection of marine environment, prevention and control of marine pollution. It also
endorses conducting scientific research and management of the marine environment. The Pesticide Law (1990) prohibits the use of pesticides
to catch or kill land or aquatic animals. The Pearl Law of 1995 protects and conserves water area of oyster fishing grounds from destruction and oyster from extinction.
The Forest Law of 1992 and the Protection of Wild Life and Wild Plants and Conservation of Natural Areas Law (1994) cover protection and management of mangrove forests in the coastal zones.
In fisheries sector, while some of directives and regulations emphasize in assuring fisheries revenue, others prevent overfishing by
declaring closed season and territories, restriction of fishing gear etc. However, those laws and regulations are weak in conservation measures
including protection of aquatic resources habitat. Apart from the laws mentioned above, there are also several directives from the ministry
in protection of marine resources however, those are more of ad hoc basis.
Appropriate law promulgated to protect some of coastal resources is the Forest Law of 1992 and the Protection of Wild Life andWild Plants and Conservation of Natural Areas Law (1994). These laws are considered quite comprehensive in protection andmanagement of mangrove forests as well as wildlife in Myanmar. However, Ministry of Forestry declared Lapi Islands as Marine National
Park under those laws although the island ecosystem has coral reef ecosystem domination. Logically, it should be under the Ministry ofLivestock and Fisheries however; the ministry has no administrative power to manage the park. In addition, there is no regulation or
coordination mechanism to allow collaboration between the two ministries in this case and hence, such mechanism is necessary to set up.
Moreover, in any of the fisheries laws, protection and management of other coastal marine ecosystems such as coral reefs, seagrass beds,
and sand beaches are not prioritized. Therefore, there is an urgent need to introduce new fisheries law that would ensure the protection,
management and sustainable utilization of coastal marine resources.
Latt (1998) stated that aquaculture can affect land, water bodies, seed quality and availability but in general, the level of impact
depends upon type of aquaculture system and level of intensification. Therefore, regulating aquaculture is also important for coastal andmarine environment. In this case, the Aquaculture Law of 1989 prohibits obstruction of waterways and prevents water pollution from theaquaculture activities. The directives of the Directorate of Fisheries have more specific regulation on pollution control as aquaculture
effluent can produce negative impact on the water environment. One of the regulations also prohibits clearance of mangroves for aquaculture.
However, currently no specific regulation prohibits mass collection of natural fish seedlings. Wild shrimp seedling (post larvae of shrimp)that supply to almost entire traditional shrimp farms in Rakhine State were collected from estuary areas since shrimp hatcheries in RakhineState have very low production capacity. The Directorate of Fisheries is trying to regulate the collection of wild seeds with limited success(Latt, 1999a).

3.Socio-economic and Development Activities vs. Legal Issues
Regarding the coastal and marine ecosystems, chapter sixteen of the Myanmar Agenda-21 has described three programme areas,
namely：strengthen sustainable use of coastal and marine living resources; promote environmental conservation and integrated managementof coastal resources and areas; and promote effective management of island ecosystems. Under each programme area, specific objectives
were set up and programme activities were outlined however, there is a need for appropriate national policies, legislation, infrastructure
and capability to manage, protect and sustainably use the coastal marine resources (NCEA, 1999).
In reality, effective implementation of the three programme areas is very difficult and unable to perform. As mentioned previously, in
general, there are five prominent laws under the Ministry of Life Stock and Fisheries enacted to ensure sustainable use of marine resources
and to promote aquaculture systematically. However, effective enforcement of those laws has been much limited by poor infrastructure,
insufficient skilled manpower and financial support. Until today, major tasks in protecting living marine resources are just chasing of illegal
poaching vessels and checking prohibited fishing gears. Protection of seagrass beds and coral reefs are almost non-existence apart fromdeclaration of Lampi Island National Marine Park and its surroundings as protected area. In protecting those area, illegal blast fishing,illegal charcoal production and logging in island ecosystems has been continuously halted by armed patrol units under the Defense
Ministry however, again limited resources and uncontrollable transboundary illegal trade undermine the effective enforcement.
Further more, in reality, the present scenario of coastal and marine environment of Myanmar is astonishing. Continued population
growth, fishery and agricultural development and human induced changes in the country are adding human impacts and increasing thepotential for marine pollution thorough direct discharge to estuaries and coastal areas. Degradation of coastal environment is mostly the
result of a wide range of activities on land and at sea (Aung, et. al., 1999).

Non Sustainable Development Activities
The present scenario of development activities within the coastal and marine environment is further described here to highlight how
some of those activities contradict with environmental related laws of Myanmar.
Marine Fishery
One of the localized uni-sectoral development activities that contradict with Myanmar Agenda-21 in coastal areas is capture fishery.
For example, in the past few years, the Divisional Economic Development Committee has increased issuance of fishing license in order toachieve local economic development and to obtain more foreign exchange in Tanintharyi coastal region while studies reveal that there isa clear decline in overall fishery resources in the area. Recent re-estimation of MSY by the Department of Fisheries clearly stated overfishing in Tanintharyi coastal areas and has recommended revoking demersal fishery awarded to foreign fishing fleets but to allow
expansion of local fisheries that has small individual fishing capacity (DOLF, 1999). However in Rakhine coastal region, DoF has
recommended to increase capture fishery production by allowing over 80% more fishing vessels based only on MSY obtained throughofficial fish landing. If capacities of illegal poaching by foreign fleets were considered, it would clearly see the current production far
more exceeding the MSY. Although volume of illegal poaching is hard to estimate, already there is a clear indication of decline infishery resources, according to unpublished data of seafood processing industry. In hot pursuit of economic development, sustainable marine
resources management becomes paralyzed in the absence of proper infrastructure, sufficient resources and effective management control
mechanism that enhanced by multi-sectoral coordination.
Moreover, fishing live marine organisms by artisanal fishery poses great threat to marine and coastal biodiversity as well as coral
reefs, apart from the industrialized commercial fishing. Mud crab fishery and life fish export of Coral fish, Grouper and Black Tiger Shrimp
breeders would be a prominent example to this issue. According to Tropical Ecosystem Research Project survey reports of DANCED (19982000), between 80 and 100 tons of life mud crab of both small and large sizes are being exported every month as Tanintharyi mangroves

189

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

serves as major mud crab seed source for soft shell crab farmings of a neighbouring country. Similarly in Rakhine State, 3,948 tons of
mud crabs have been exported in 1998-99 budget year alone through border trade (Latt, 1999b). Moreover, unconfirmed source reported
approximately 50 per cent of shrimp breeders used in hatcheries of Thailand comes from Myanmar. All those activities, although being
operated by most artisanal fishermen, have been affecting greatly to the stability of coastal marine ecosystems. Dynamiting coral fish, trampling and boat anchoring by those fishermen have contributed greatly contributed damage coral reefs apart from upland deforestation, littering and domestic sewage. Although the extent of coral reef destruction in the whole Taninthayi Division is not yet estimated, it isevident that large area of coral reefs within the Lampi Island Marine National Park boundary has been seriously damaged.

Mangrove Forests
Threat to mangrove ecosystems of different coastal zones of Myanmar is another major issue in the country. Agricultural expansion,
insufficient alternative energy supply, traditional shrimp culture and lack of environmental awareness have been prime causes of mangrove
deforestation. The country’s total mangrove areas were estimated differently as 385,993 ha (Oo, 1998), and 1,660,000 ha (Mackinnon, 1996
as quoted by Brunner, 1998) in the early 1900. Nevertheless, those mangrove areas shrunk to a much smaller size, reported by Haminlton
et al., (1984), and Than Htay & Saw Han (1984) as 652,000 ha and 570,070 ha respectively. In the 1990s, the total area again reduced
to 177,256 ha (Oo, 1998), 381,000 ha (Myint, 1995) and 420,000 ha (Mackinnon, 1996 as quoted by Brunner, 1998) in the 1990s.
Prime cause of mangrove deforestation is also different in different coastal zones and changes by period of time. In the early 1990s,
main cause of mangrove deforestation in Ayeyawady deltaic coastal zone was due to charcoal production and agriculture expansion. Inadequate
alternative source of energy supply in the country especially in major cities makes people to choose biomass fuel for cooking. Tremendous
amount of charcoal and fuelwood supplies to Yangon, Bago and Ayayawady Divisions comes from Ayeyawady mangroves while
approximately 80% of households utilize biomass fuel in the country (Han, 1995).
In this case, the Forest Law of 1992 has great positive impact on the rehabilitation of forests including mangroves in Ayeyawady
Division. In a country where majority of people is solely dependent upon natural resources, the role of such comprehensive law plays
paramount role. The law that recognizes needs of people and its participation in resources management is vital and now proven successful
at least in Ayeyawady Division due to collaborative efforts amongst stakeholders of both local, governmental and international origin. Suchsuccessful projects need to be highlighted and should implement in other area as well.
However, contrast scenario can be seen in Rakhine coastal zone where mangroves were heavily cut for developing traditional shrimp
culture especially in the 1990s. Over 7,000 ha of traditional shrimp ponds were developed in 1998-99 budget year alone, and almost allof them were converted from mangroves (Latt, 1999b). Much higher figure of mangrove deforestation rate exists in reality. (Departmentof Marine Science, University of Maw-la-myine, personal communication, 2000). The root of mangrove destruction in Rakhine coastal zone
is forced repatriation of refugees in the late 1980s and early 1990s. They introduced non-sustainable traditional trap and hold shrimp culture
brought from neighbouring country to Rakhine State where there was almost non-existence of such farming practice previously. In recent
years, the lucrative income of shrimp farming attracted indigenous people to adopt the non-sustainable farming practice resulted in destruction of mangroves. Although the Directorate of Fisheries is aware of the problem, local fisheries authorities stranded in deadlock situation
as repatriated refugees are operating the majority of farming area fearing that such corrective measure would result in international
criticism. Such situation prevents enforcement of the Forest Law of 1992 that protects and conserves mangroves.
Some international agencies also could not be spared from taking responsibility in mangrove destruction. Aung et al., (1999) statedthat the World Bank’s Paddy Project launched in the Ayeyawady delta in 1983 has caused serious negative consequences in the estuarine
ecosystems. The other, CDRT project of the UNDP that has aquaculture micro income project activities passed out wrong message of nonsustainable and ecologically damaging aquaculture practices to people in the remote townships of Rakhine State. This was mainly due toirregularities in implementation of such project component (Latt, 1999b).
Coral reefs, Seagrass beds and Island ecosystems
There were no comprehensive surveys on species composition, population and situation of coral reefs in Myanmar. However, earlier
reports (UNDP/FAO 1982, FAO 1983) described a diverse and well-preserved system of coral reefs, with some of the most spectacularreef formations in Southeast Asia. A more recent (1986) survey confirmed this impression (Fischer, 1997). In 1985, a study described 61
species and 31 genera of Hermatypic corals and four species in the genera of Ahermatypes from sites in the Mergui Archipelago. Again
in 1996, Wildlife Conservation Society (Myanmar) and University of California; USA has conducted survey on coral reefs in Tanintharyicoastal zone especially within the Myeik Archipelagoes. The field studies reveal serious destruction of coral reefs in some islands including Lampi Island Marine National Park due to non-sustainable fishing practices, upland deforestation and domestic waste (Fischer, 1997).
During the last 15 years, many reefs south of latitude 11 N has suffered much destruction. Especially within the island ecosystems of
Tanintharyi coastal zone, coral reefs, mangroves and fisheries resources are heavily exploited due mainly to its economic nature that has
direct impact from neighbouring country. As mention above, stringent rules and strict enforcement is not sufficient in controlling theresources of Taninthayi coastal and marine areas since the coast is about 1,200 km long. In addition, huge area of approximately 34,340
square kilometres covering Myiek Archipelago that consist of about 800 islands make any administration and law enforcement to work
almost impossible under the present situation. Another potential threat to coral reef ecosystems in Tanintharyi coastal zone is impact fromoil, gas and mineral exploration. The development of natural gas production and mineral deposits in watershed areas and in offshore could
have a significant impact in coming years (Oo, 1998). No effective measures and sustainable management of coastal marine resources byconcerned agencies exists to date apart from declaring ban on non sustainable fishing practices such as use of explosive by the
Department of Fisheries.
The Department of Marine Science of the University of Mawlamyine also conducted seagrass inventory survey. Some of the seasgrassecosystems are considered serious threat, as there is an extensive mangrove as well as up land deforestation in various coastal zones ofMyanmar. However, protection of the said ecosystem is not yet available since there is no specific law relating to this.
Another development activity that is considered major threats to coastal marine ecosystems and standing against the Forest Law and
the Wild Life Law is expansion of agriculture plantation. Those plantation projects do not possess proper coordinating mechanism amongst
related departments and institutions as well as multi-disciplinary approach in implementation. Especially Tanintharyi Division, where suchprojects are being developed, is sensitive to such large-scale development of socio-economic activities due to geographical characteristic of
its own. However those projects were approved without EIA and environmental impact mitigation measures although the division has
diversified and fragile ecosystems of both terrestrial and marine. In fact, the Forest Law of 1992 requires reforestation of deforested areaand prohibits any act that has threat to environment and biodiversity. Meanwhile, ministry of agriculture has a right to award large-scale
plantation as part of national plan. In such situation where a country does not require EIA for such case, project development methodology
and implementation strategy are vital to the environment. Otherwise, even land clearing would cause severe damage to adjacent coastal
and marine ecosystems as Taninthayi Division has over 5,000 mm of average annual rainfall. Such incidence reveals needs in reviewing

190International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

existing laws and appropriate amendments accordingly.
Main cause of island ecosystem destruction in Tanintharyi coastal zone has been logging in up land and mangrove areas and charcoal
production but recently shrimp culture emerges as potential threat to mangroves despite the forest and fisheries laws that prohibit mangrove
destruction and conversion to aquaculture. Poverty and lack of environmental awareness amongst indigenous and migrated people havebeen easily exploited by small and medium scale investors of neighboring country to harvest coastal marine resources in non-sustainable
manner. Raw material for all timber sawmills along the Thai coast adjacent to Tanintharyi Division totally relies on resources from
Myanmar as Thailand has total ban on its forest resources. Despite the stringent rules (by the local administrative authority) and harsh
penalties, illegal logging is continued to thrive in the island ecosystems and estuary mangroves along the border. Therefore, like in the
Ayeyawady mangrove case, there is an urgent need to have change in resources management strategy as well as environmental protection
law in order to have sustainable resources utilization and management in the Division.

Judicial System
In present Myanmar Judicial system, there are three levels of Courts; the Supreme Court, the State Court or Divisional Courts (including District Courts) and the Township Courts. Most of forest offences are tried initially by the Forest Laws in Township Courts and forcases, which are beyond the jurisdiction of the Township Courts, are tried by the State or Divisional Courts. The Supreme Court of theUnion of Myanmar, established under Section 3 of the Judiciary Law 1998, is the highest Court of Appeal and exercises both appellate
and revisional powers. It also has original jurisdiction and it is the one and only Court in Myanmar which can try the Maritime cases(Toe, 1999).
Special Courts are separately constituted by the Supreme Court to achieve speedy and effective trial and they have power to establish
Environmental Courts or Tribunals if it is required. However, even the Township Courts could play a very important role in implementing
environmental related laws by cooperating with various administrative institutions where administrative actions are recognized under somelaws.
Regarding criminal offences relating to environment, one must bring a case to one the Courts to prosecute. For example, public or adesignated person such as police or officer of either Forest Department or Fishery Department or any agency relating to environment should
inform the court for legal offences so that necessary action can be taken against those who violate the laws. In this case, limited infra
structure and resources availability further reduces the capability and efficiency of concerned authority who are enforcing laws. Moreover,
it is rather impossible neither to monitor negative environmental consequences resulted from development projects such as large-scale
agriculture plantation nor taking action against violators of environment related laws with present status.
In addition, just passing punishment to violators alone would not solve the problems. Educating people and provision of alternative
income generation would help them to abandon destructive exploitation of the coastal marine resources. Furthermore, international cooperation especially transboundary cooperation at both local and government levels in protection and management of coastal marine ecosystems
is of great importance and necessary.

4.Needs and Constraints：Effects on Local and Regional Marine Ecosystem
Present status of major development and legal issues on protection and management of coastal and marine environment is thoroughly
explained in the previous sections. And achieving good governance in coastal and marine sector would be certainly difficult not just only
for Myanmar but also for other countries as it involves wide range and variety of scope and multi-sectoral in character. Programmes toprotect coastal and marine environments are inherently difficult to implement because they tend to be compresive in scope and multisectoralin character. Because of the multiple uses of coastal and marine resources, policies must ensure a balance amoung various sectoral objectives(NCEA, 1999). There have been several efforts in promoting coastal and marine environmental protection in Myanmar, never the less,apart from some achievements several limitations still prevent from achieving such good governance.
There is some evidence of positive impact that resulted from present environmental related laws. For instance, since the promulgationof new forest law in 1992, the Forest Policy Statement of 1995 stipulated to increase the reserved forest to 30% of the country’s total
land area from the present status of about 15% and the Protected Areas System to 5% in the short term and 10% in the long term fromthe present status about 2% so as to ensure the security of forest resources. Mangroves are included in afforestation programme at a rateof 20,000 ha per year. Regarding international cooperation in the area of coastal zone, the Government, with the help of UNDP and FAO
has been making great effort in mangrove reforestation in the Ayeyarwady coastal areas. The Community Development of Ayeyarwady
Mangroves Project (UNDP/FAO/MYA 93/026) was a unique example that focuses on mangrove forest rehabilitation using community
participatory approach. Moreover, the UNDP’s Community Development for Remote Township Project (MYA 096/009) has Environment
Sub Project component that focuses on upstream environmental conservation and coastal aquatic ecosystem enhancement. These outcomes
clearly state the importance of close cooperation and coordination amongst local and international stakeholders.
Further more, the role of the Protection of Wild Life and Wild Plants and Conservation of Natural Areas Law (1994) has been
tremendous. A total of twenty-two wildlife sanctuaries and national parks have been declared by the government in accordance with thelaw (Gyi, et al., 1995). Amongst the twenty-two wildlife sanctuaries and national parks, the five, namely, Mainmahla Island Wildlife
Sanctuary, Thameehla island Marine Sanctuary, Moscos Islands Marine Sanctuary and Lampi Island Marine National Park is situated within
the coastal and marine area.
Despite some achievements mentioned above, some constrainsts remain still. First, weak legal, coordination and institutional mechanisms
and unavailability of environmental protection laws that cover all aspects of coastal and marine ecosystems appear as important limitation.
In addition, lack of policy measure and effective mechanism in the whole fishery sector leads to decline in marine resources. Similarly,
although the Science and Technology Development Law encourages to promote research and development on environmental conservation,
again there is no proper mechanism to implement it.
Second, insufficient resources：financial, skilled manpower etc. stand prominently amongst the limitations. In fact, protection andmanagement can be carried out at certain level if sufficient financial resource is available even with present environmental related laws.
Both in forestry and fishery sector, only few-trained personals are available and therefore, it is difficult to perform effectively evenextension services in the field.
Lack of appropriate infrastructure and awareness appear as another limitation. Poor infrastructure causes ineffectiveness in most sectors.
Although there are some extension activities by government and international agencies, it is still insufficient at this stage thus, resulted inlower level of awareness amongst stakeholders.
Last but not least is coordination and close operation amongst local and international stakeholders in promotion of sustainable coastal
and marine resources management and implementation of good governance programmes. The role and positive out comes of local andinternational stakeholders’ cooperation in protection and management of coastal marine ecosystems has been mentioned in previous paragraphs.

191

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

And, as it has complex ecosystems and multi-sectoral issues with inseparable boundaries, the role of cross-sectoral coordination and cooperation in both local and international level is vital.
The stated issues are to be tackled properly and act accordingly before time runs out. What, if the coastal and marine ecosystems of
Myanmar is not well conserved and managed! The answer is well predictable; there will be regional catastrophe in marine environment as
Myanmar’s coastal zone composed significant portion of Bay of Bengal marine ecosystem and later on to the Indian Ocean environment.
Although there are many uncertainties about the Bay’s ecological functioning, and lack of comprehensive, reliable data, continuous
harmful incidences in the Bay of Bengal derived from land and sea based sources is mounting pressure on to the health of marine
environment. For instance, in the port of Chittagong in Bangladesh, an estimated 6,000 tons of crude oil is spilled annually, while crude
oil residue and wastewater effluent from land based refineries amount to about 50,000 tons per year (Khan, 1993 as quoted by ESCAP,
1995). In addition, increased use of pesticides is leading to the transport of an estimated 1,800 tonnes of pesticides in to the Bay of
Bengal where they reappear as toxic residues in finfish and shellfish (Holmgren, 1994 as quoted by ESCAP, 1995). Nutrient pollution fromagriculture is also another major problems in the area. High sedimentation in estuary area is of great threat to marine ecosystems as well.
The Ayayarwady deltaic coastal zone has annual discharge rate of 250 million tonnes and the coast is building seawards at 5 kilometerper 100 year (Thwin, 1998). If the total sedimentation rate of Bay of Bengal were considered, there would be clear evidence that enormousthreat being made to marine environment.
Apart from those mentioned above, there are several other problems being faced in the Bay of Bengal, including over-exploitation,
unauthorized incursions by foreign fleets and reduction in catcher per unit of effort and habitat degradation. As the Bay of Bengal ischaracterized by a number of critically important areas of biological diversity, at least six of which have been identified as having regional
priority, it is indeed worth conserving the marine ecosystem by preventive measures. Since the Myanmar marine ecosystem is part of the
Bay of Bengal greater ecosystem, it deserves due attention.

5.Recommendations
Usually, it is easier to provide suggestion than taking action accordingly. Recommendations should be applicable and in line withpresent needs. Based on the present scenario described above and aiming to have overall achievement in pursuance of sustainable utilizationand management of coastal marine resources in Myanmar, the following suggestions and management strategy are recommended. Needs
and recommended management strategy are described separately.
First of all, management infrastructure, which deserve first priority is necessary however, some of recommended management strategies
could be utilized while the needs are being fulfilled. Development of national land use planing that considered multi-sectoral aspect andsustainable development vision in its concept is to start with. At the same time, more appropriate and workable institutional mechanismthat describes detailed responsibility for various sectors should be created. In addition, development of integrated coastal zone management(ICZM) body and speedy implementation in cooperation with related sectors of local and international agencies should also be done.
In case of Myanmar, development of human resources appears as one of the most important factor in management strategy. Such
resources in protection and management of coastal marine ecosystems could be acquired by collaborating with NGOs and institutions ofboth local and international. Using the skilled human resources, wide range of environmental education activities shall be promoted whilst
sustainable development extension services are provided in collaboration with all stakeholders. It should be bare in mind that sustainable
management of coastal marine resources is neither an easy task nor effort of one party/country, and previous success stories from Myanmar
and other countries prove that local and international stakeholder cooperation is vital and necessary. Only after promotion of environmental
awareness, further steps such as sustainable utilization, protection and management can properly be taken.
Moreover, as most coastal and marine boundaries are inseparable, transboundary collaborative efforts in research, development andenforcement activities are necessary at both local and national levels. Appropriate guidelines and mechanism should be laid down byconcerned governments to allow more simple and easier activities at local/micro level of transboundary nature so that most needy andurgent issues can be properly addressed and tackled by the stakeholders.
In pursuing such constructive efforts to protect coastal and marine ecosystems, political differences amongst all stakeholders should be
dropped with broader vision.

6.Reference
Aung, H., Thwin, S., Win, K, (1999). Strategies and Needs for EIA in Myanmar Marine Environment, paper presented at the Second IndoMyanmar Workshop on Oceanography, Goa, India, 27-29, September 1999.
Brunner, J. et al., (1998). Logging Burma’s Frontier Forests：Resources and the Regime. World Resources Institute, 1709 New York Ave.,
N. W. Washington, D. C. 20006, USA.
Chong, P. W. (1992). Land use implication in mangrove ecosystem. In：Workshop on Conservation and Rehabilitation of Mangrove
Resources in Myanmar,
17-18 December 1992, Yangon, Myanmar.
DOLF, (1998). Status of Livestock and Fisheries of the Union of Myanmar. Directorate of Livestock and Fisheries, Ministry of Livestock
and Fisheries, Yangon, Myanmar.
DOLF, (1999). Quarterly Report. Directorate of Livestock and Fisheries, Ministry of Livestock and Fisheries, Yangon, Myanmar.
ESCAP, (1995). State of the Environment in Asia and the Pacific 1995, Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific, United
Nations, New York.
ESCAP, (2000). State of the Environment in Asia and the Pacific 2000, draft report. Economic and Social Commission for Asia and thePacific, United Nations.
Fischer, K. (1997). Lampi Island National Park, Mergui Archipelago, Union of Myanmar：Recommendations for developing a management
plan.
Gyi, M. K. K., Win, S. (1995). Sustainable Forest management. In：National Conference on Environmental management, August 28September 3, 1995, Yangon, Myanmar.
Han, M. (1995). Fuelwood situation in Myanmar. In：National Conference on Environmental management, August 28-September 3, 1995,
Yangon, Myanmar.
Latt, W. (1998). Sustainable Aquaculture Management：a necessary part of the integrated coastal zone management. In：Tun, U. H., et al.
(ed.), Proceedings of the UNESCO Regional Seminar, ECOTONE VII：Integrated Coastal Zone Management in Southeast andEast Asia, 15-19 June 1998, Yangon, Myanmar.
Latt, W. (1999a). Some information on coastal zone ecosystems restoration in Myanmar. . In：Sumantakul, V. et al. (ed.), Proceedings of
the UNESCO Regional Seminar, ECOTONE VIII：Enhancing Coastal Ecosystems Restoration for the 21st Century, 23-28 May

192

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

1999, Ranong and Phuket Provinces, Thailand.
Latt, W. (1999b). The assessment of CDRT aquaculture projects, aquatic resources profile and aquaculture potential, NACA Consultant
Report of Environment Subproject (ESP), Community Development for Remote Township (CDRT), MYA/096/009, UNDP, July,
1999, Bangkok, Thailand.
Lwin, S. (2000). Exerts from laws relating to environmental protecting in the Laws of the Union of Myanmar.
MOF, (1996). Myanmar Forestry Policy, 1995, Policy Statement. Notification no. 21/96, 23rd February 1996, Ministry of Forestry, Yangon,
Myanmar.
NCEA, (1999). State of the Environment in Myanmar. Draft report prepared for ESCAP. National Commission for Environmental Affairs,
Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Yangon, Myanmar.
Oo, T. H., Thein, U. B., Wal, U. S. L. (1998). Agriculture situation in coastal areas of the Union of Myanmar. In：Tun, U. H., et al.
(ed.), Proceedings of the UNESCO Regional Seminar, ECOTONE VII：Integrated Coastal Zone Management in Southeast andEast Asia, 15-19 June 1998, Yangon, Myanmar.
Oo, T. P. (1998). Integrated coastal zone management：A case study of Ayeyarwaddy Delta Mangrove. In：Tun, U. H., et al. (ed.),Proceedings of the UNESCO Regional Seminar, ECOTONE VII：Integrated Coastal Zone Management in Southeast and East Asia,
15-19 June 1998, Yangon, Myanmar.
SLORC, 1989. The Aquaculture Law. The State Law and Order Restoration Council Law No. 24/89.
SLORC, 1989. The Fishing Rights of Foreign Fishing Vessels Law . The State Law and Order Restoration Council Law No. 11/89.
SLORC, 1990. The Marine Fisheries Law. The State Law and Order Restoration Council Law No. 9/90.
SLORC, 1990. The Pesticide Law. The State Law and Order Restoration Council Law No. 10/90.
SLORC, 1991. The Freshwater Fisheries Law. The State Law and Order Restoration Council Law No. 1/91 (4th March 1991).
SLORC, 1992. The Forest Law. The State Law and Order Restoration Council Law No. 8/92.
SLORC, 1994. The Protection of Wild Life and Wild Plants and Conservation of Natural Areas Law. The State Law and Order Restoration
Council Law No. 6/94.
SRUB, 1977. Territorial Sea and Maritime Zone Law. The Socialist Republic of the Union of Burma. (1977)
Thwin, S. (1998). Integrated coastal zone management：A case study of Ayeyarwaddy Delta Mangrove. In：Tun, U. H., et al. (ed.),Proceedings of the UNESCO Regional Seminar, ECOTONE VII：Integrated Coastal Zone Management in Southeast and East Asia,
15-19 June 1998, Yangon, Myanmar.
Toe, A. 1999. The Role of Judiciary in Promoting the Rule of Law in the Area of Environment in Myanmar. In：Southeast Asian Regional
Symposium on the Judiciary and the Law in the Field of Sustainable Development. 5 March 1999, Manila, The Philippines.

193

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

MARINE POLLUTION PROBLEMS IN THAI WATERS
Piamsak MENASVETA
Department of Marine Science, Faculty of Science
Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand
E- mail：mpiamsak@chula. ac. th
◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

Abstract
Eutrophication is the most serious problem of the inner gulf of Thailand nowaday. Eutrophication is caused by the discharge of organic
wastewaters from big cities into the river estuaries. In the outer gulf, mercury concentrations in fishes were found to elevate in the vicinities
of natural gas production platforms. About 5-10% of fishes in these vicinities had mercury concentrations higher than the standard
acceptable limit set by the FAO (0.5 ug/g wet weight). Monitoring program on this metal is therefore essential. The problems of marine
pollution could be alleviated through a comprehensive program which includes these important components：1. baseline and monitoring, 2.
water quality criteria establishment, 3. identification of sources, pathways, and quantity of pollutants, and 4. pollution control, abatement,
and rehabilitation. So far Thailand has implemented such a program for sometime, but certain components are needed to be emphasized.

INTRODUCTION
Thailand has two coasts. One curves around the scooped-out shore of the Gulf of Thailand and has a length of 1870 km. The otherlies along the shore of the Andaman Sea of the Indian Ocean and has a length of 800 km extending northwards form the Malaysianboarder to the Burmese boarder.
The Gulf of Thailand (Fig. 1) is roughly triangular and may be divided into two sections；the "inner gulf" and the "outer gulf". The
inner gulf is the apex of the Gulf of Thailand and is roughly square-shaped. It has an average depth of 20 metres and a slope of about
0.2 m per km. The surface area is about 10,360 km２；along its shores, aquaculture farms and fisheries abound. The runoff from Thailand’s
four principal rivers ends into the Gulf.
The industrial development, in and nearby the cities, is a major cause of migration ofpeople from rural areas to the cities. The sharp increase of population in the cities, coupledwith inadequate industrial wastewater treatment system, has resulted in water pollution problems
in the inner gulf.
Water pollution problems in the gulf are generally caused by two groups of activities,
i.e. land based and sea based. Land based activities include coastal urbanization, industrial
development, agriculture, drainage basin modification, and tourisms. Sea based activities include
seabed exploration and exploitation and the risk of petroleum and other toxic chemicaltransportation. This paper will address two current problems, i.e. eutrophication in the inner
gulf, and the contamination of mercury in the middle of the outer gulf.

EUTROPHICATION PROBLEM
Among the four rivers draining to the inner gulf, the Chao Phraya is the most polluted,
particularly in the river estuary area, due to the urban and industrial expansion. The Ta chinis becoming increasingly polluted due to accelerated industrial and agriculturaldevelopment, as well as urban expansion form the Bangkok area. The Mae Klong used tobe subjected to severe water pollution problem in the past, but now the problems are being
remedied by a proper management system. The Bang Pakong used to be the least affectedby pollution. However, the installation of the thermal power plant at the lower reach may
have altered the ecosystem of the estuarine area.
The major pollutants of the rivers are degradable organic wastes. The common effects
Fig.1 The Gulf of Thailand
are increased oxygen demand, input of pathogens, increased turbidity, and enrichment of
nutrients or in another word "eutrophication". Since the inner gulf is a semi-enclosed. The
wastes drained from the mentioned rivers tend to retain and accumulate. Decomposition thewastes results in the problem of eutrophication. Eutrophication can cause explosive bloom ofalgae sometime it is called "red tides".
Noctiluca scintillans (Fig. 2) and Trichodesmiun erythraeum were the two species ofplanktons which frequently bloom in the inner gulf (Suvapepant, 1995). Noctiluca usuallychanged the apparent color of water into dark green. This kind of plankton is not toxic fishand shellfish but the densed bloom can result in the anoxic condition. Besides the decomposition of the dead cells will release large amount of ammonia into the water and affect the
livelihood of marine animals nearby. The bloom of Trichodesmium will change the apparent
color of seawater into yellow-green color and later change into red-brown. Similar to Noctiluca,
only the anoxic condition will occur (Suvapepant, 1995).
Fig .2 Noctiluca , the plankton which
Blooming of diatoms could occur as a result of eutrophication. These diatoms were
frequently bloom in the innerrecorded for blooming in the inner gulf, e.g. WCosinodiscus Rhizosolenia, Hemidiscus,
gulf as a result of entrophication.
Chetoceros, and Ceratium. In January 2000, Ceratium furca blooming in the Chao Phraya river estuary covered a vast area and changed the apparent color of seawater into red.
According to Suvapepant (1995), 43 major red-tides were recorded during 1988-1995. Twenty-one red-tides were caused by Trichodesmium,
17 were caused by Noctiluca and the rest by diatoms. It was fortunate that most of red-tides are associated with anoxic condition. There
was only one incidence of toxic condition. In May 1983, paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP), after consuming the contaminated mussels in
the red-tide area of Pranburi river estuary was reported. Sixty-three people were ill and one died because of this incidence. Nevertheless,the specific plankton which was the causative agent of this PSP could not be confirmed.
The anoxic condition of algal bloom could cause a massive fish killed. In August 1991, there was a mass fish killed in the coastal

228

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystemarea of Cholburi. This incidence was due to a vast blooming of Noctiluca, covering the area from Bangsan district to Pattaya (Fig. 3).

MERCURY CONTAMINATION
Total mercury in seawater and sediment of the Gulf of Thailand is shownin Table 1. Considering the data obtained from several surveys, it can be foundthat the mercury concentration of seawater during the period form 1974-1980 iscomparable to the natural level as suggested by Kothny (1973), i.e. in the rangeof 0.01-0.38 ppb. High mercury concentrations (44.7-847 ppb) nevertheless werereported during 1983-1987. The levels were even higher than those detected in
Minamata Bay, Japan (1.6-3.6 ppb). Whether these reported data are valid, there
is a need for further clarification during sample collection and analysis. Most
mercury concentrations in the sediments were still within the acceptable limit of
0.3 ppm (Ministry of Transport, Japan, 1976), except certain locations such as
the Chao Phraya River estuary and the east coast of the Gulf. Higher mercury
concentrations in such areas might be due to the contamination from urban andindustrial areas.
Total mercury concentration in biota of the Gulf of Thailand are shown in
Table 2. In the coastal area, almost all mercury concentration in fishes were Fig.3 Apparent color of seawater caused by the bloom‑
lower than 0.2 μg/g wet. These concentrations could be regarded as a natural
ing of Noctiluca, Cholburi coast, 19th August
background of mercury in fish in general. Nevertheless fishes in the off shore
1991.
Table 1 Total mercury in seawater and sediment of the Gulf of Thailand
Total mercury in
Reference
Study period
Location
Seawater（μg/l） Sediment（μg/g wet）
Bang Pra Coast
Menasveta （1976）.
1974
0.015‑0.019
0.003‑0.069
Inner Gulf
Sidhikasem （1978）
1975 ‑ 1976
0.01‑0.11
Inner Gulf
Sidhikasem （1978）
1977
0.02‑2.00
Inner Gulf
Piyakarnchana et al. （1977）
1975 ‑ 1976
0.467
Chao Phraya
Menasveta （1978）.
1976
0.216+0.280
0.012‑0.264
Estuary
Estuarine areas
Sidhichaikasem and Chernbamrung （1983）
1979 ‑ 1980
0.24‑0.38
0.007‑0.017
Estuarine areas
1980‑ Mae Klong
0.23+0.1
Menasveta and Cheevaparanapiwat（1981）‑ Ta Chin
0.67+0.1‑ Chao Phraya
2.80+0.4‑ Bang Prakong
0.52+0.2
Bang Prakong
Bamrungrachirun et al. （1987a）
1983 ‑ 1984
44.7
0.14
Estuary
1983 ‑ 1987
E ast coast of th e 847.0
2.26
Bamrungrachirun et al. （1987b）
Inner Gulf
Inner Gulf
Jarach （1987a）
1983 ‑ 1987
0.2‑203.0
W est coast of the 0.1‑88.7
Jarach （1987b）
1984 ‑ 1986
Inner Gulfarea, in the vicinity of natural gas platforms, exhibited higher mercury concentrations. These fishes were caught and analyzed recently(ARRI, 1998). Between 5 - 10% of fishes at Erawan and Funan platforms had mercury concentrations higher than 0.5 μg/g. This concentration is the maximum permissible concentration in fish set by the FAO. The biological magnification of mercury was detected by several
reports. Fish of higher trophic levels bore higher residue than those in the lower trophic levels. This suggested that mercury might beconcentrated in the same manner as organic compounds such as organochlorine compounds, i.e. passed through and amplified by the foodchain.
A positive linear relation between size and mercury content of fish is well documented. However, for low levels of mercury in fish
(below 0.2 μg/g) no increase, or a very moderate increase in mercury content was found to occur as fish weight increased. As the levelof mercury increased, the mercury level in relation to the weight increased noticeably. At extremely high levels of mercury, caused bymanifest contamination, no relation to age or weight was found. This indicates that there is a threshold level of mercury in theenvironment, above which fish cannot eliminate mercury from their muscular tissues faster than it is incorporated and accumulation thus
occurs. This relationship also indicate that fish are adapted to a mercury concentration of less than 0.2 μg/g. All past data indicated thatthe maximum natural concentration in fish is 0.2 μg/g or less. It should be noted that 23.3% of fishes caught in the vicinity of thenatural gas platforms in the Gulf of Thailand had mercury above 0.2 μg/g.
In order to prove that mercury contamination in the middle of the outer gulf was due to natural gas production, an investigation wasmade by comparing mercury in fish caught from the natural gas production area and the coastal area, including from the Andaman Sea.
It was found that mercury in cobia (Rachycentron canadus) in the area of the natural gas production was significantly higher than theconcentrations detected in cobia of the coastal areas and the Andaman Sea (Pongplutong, 1999).

CONCLUDING REMARKS
There are several marine pollution problems in Thai waters, but the most notable ones that receive much attention now are the problemsof eutrophication in the inner gulf and the contamination of mercury in the area of natural gas production of the outer gulf.
Thailand has implemented a program on marine pollution control during the past three decades. Such as program includes basicallyfour components, i.e. 1. baseline and monitoring studies, 2. water quality criteria establishment, 3. identification of sources, pathways andquantity of pollutants, and 4. pollution control, abatement, rehabilitation. Nevertheless, the last two components need more emphasis.

229

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

Table 2 Total mercury in biota of the Gulf of Thailand
Study period
Location
Kind of biota
Bang Pra Coast
1974
3rd trophic
level fishes
4th trophic
level fishes
Chao Phraya Estuary
Fishes and shellfish
1976
Fishes and shellfish
1977 ‑1980
Inner Gulf
1978 ‑ 1979
River estuaries
Bivalves
1976 ‑ 1977
3rd trophic
Inner Gulflevel fishes
4th trophic
level fishes
Fishes and shellfish
1979 ‑ 1981
Inner Gulf
1980
Estuarine areas‑ Mae Klong
Mullets‑ Ta Chin
Mullets‑ Chao Phraya
Mullets‑ Bang Prakong
Mullets
1980
Estuarine areas‑ Mae Klong
Green mussels‑ Ta Chin
Green mussels‑ Chao Phraya
Green mussels‑ Bang Prakon
Green mussels‑ Hua Hin
Green mussels
1982 ‑ 1983
Inner Gulf
Bivalves
1982 ‑ 1986
Inner Gulf
Bivalves
1990
Sichang Island
Fishes
Mab Tapud
Fishesoff‑shore （Erawan） Fishes
Outer Gulf of Thailand Demersal Fishes
1997

Reference
Total mercury（μg/g wet）
0.003‑0.010
Menasveta（1976）.
0.002‑0.057
0.009‑0.205
0.002‑0.206
0.013‑0.120
0.002‑0.130

Menasveta（1978）
Sivarak et al. （1981）
Menasveta and Cheevaparanapiwat（1982）
Cheevaparanapiwat and Menasveta（1979）

0.010‑0.650
0.012‑0.051

Sidhichaikasem and Chernbamrung （1983）

0.04+0.03
0.07+0.04
0.15+0.06
0.08+0.03

Menasveta and Cheevaparanapiwat（1981）

0.07+0.04
0.09+0.03
0.21+0.06
0.09+0.04
0.04+0.03
0.001‑0.041
0.001‑0.153
0.012‑0.032
0.013‑0.049
0.055‑0.324
0.003‑0.93

Menasveta and Cheevaparanapiwat（1981）

Sivarak et al. （1984）
Boonyachotmongkol et al. （1987）
Menasveta （1990）
ARRI （1998）

References
Aquatic Resources Research Institute(ARRI. 1998. Mercury monitoring in the Gulf of Thailand, 1997. Final Report, Submitted to Mineral
Resource Dept. ：77 p.
Bamrungrachirun, R., Jarach, W., and Jringjit, K. 1987a. Heavy metals in seawater and sediments of the eastern coast of the Inner Gulfof Thailand. p 130-135 in Proceedings the 5th Seminar on Research in Water Quality and Quality of Living Resources in Thai
Waters；(7-9 July 1987). National Research Council of Thailand.
Bamrungrachirun, R., Jarach, W., and Jringjit, K. 1987a. Heavy metals in seawater and sediments of the Inner Gulf of Thailand. p 114121, ibid.
Boonyachotmongkol, T., Boriboon, P., and Rojpanthip, L., 1987. Total mercury in bivalves of the coastal areas of the upper Gulf Thailand.
p. 245-260 in Proceedings the 5th Seminar on Research in Water Quality and Quality of Living Resources in Thai Waters (7-9
July 1987). National Research Council Thailand.
Cheevaparanapiwat, V. and Menasveta, P. 1979. Total and organic mercury in marine fish of the upper Gulf of Thailand. Bull. Environm.
Contam. Toxicol. 23：291-299.
Jarach, W. 1987a. Heavy metals in seawater of the Upper Gulf of Thailand. p. 122-130 in Proceedings the 5th Seminar on Research inWater Quality and Quality of Living Resources in Thai Waters (7-9 July 1987). National Research Council Thailand.
Jarach, W. 1987b. Heavy metals in seawater of the Pranburi River Estuary and the Ban Leam coastal area. p. 67-74, ibid.
Kothny, E. L. 1973. Advance in Chemistry Series 123. American Chemical Soc., Washington D. C.
Menasveta, P. 1976. Total mercury in the food chain of Bang Pra coastal area, Chon Buri. J. Sci. Soc. Thailand 2：117-126.
Menasveta, P. 1978. Distribution of heavy metals in the Chao Phraya River Estuary. p. 129-145 in Proceeding the international Conferenceon Water Pollution Control in Developing Countries. Asian Institute of Technology.
Menasveta, P. and Cheevaparanapiwat, V. 1981. Heavy metals, organochlorine pesticides, and PCBs in green mussels, mullets, and sediments of river mouths of Thailand. Marine Pollution Bulletin 12：19-25.
Menasveta, P. and Cheevaparanapiwat, V. 1982. Heavy metals in bivalves collected from various river estuaries of Thailand. Report No.
RR-52-82, Institute of Environmental Research, Chulalongkorn Univ., 16 p. (Unpublished manuscript).
Menasveta, P. 1990. Total mercury in marine fishes collected from Sichang Island, Mab Tapud, and the Off-shore area of the Gulf ofThailand. A report to Petroleum Authority of Thailand. (Unpublished manuscript).
Ministry of Transport, Japan, (1976) Report on marine pollution surveys：results of surveys in 1974. Hydrographic Dept., Maritime Safety
Agency, Ministry of Transport, Japan, 30 p.
Piyakarnchana, T., Watcharangkul, R., and Ithikasem, A. 1977. Variation of lead, mercury and cadmium in seawater and sediment of the
Inner Gulf of Thailand. p. 146-154 in Proceedings the Seminar on Pollution Problems of Heavy Metals in Thai Environment (1315 Oct. 1977). Institute of Environmental Research, Chulalongkorn Univ.
Pongplutong, R. 1999. Mercury concentration is tissue of cobia (Rachycentron Canadus) from the Gulf of Thailand and Andaman Sea. M.
S. Thesis Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok.
Sidhichaikasem, S., and Chernbamrung, S. 1983. Contamination of heavy metals in the estuarine environment of the Inner Gulf of Thailand.
A report of Marine Fisheries Laboratory, Department of Fisheries, Bangkok 17 p. (Unpublished manuscript).
Sidhikasem, A. 1978. The analyses of heavy metals in seawater and sediment. In Proceedings the Symposium on Survey and Research of
Pollution in Thai Waters, National Research Council of Thailand.
Sivarak, S., Boriboon, P., Jangsawang, J., and Iswas, A. 1981. Mercury in marine fauna. In Proceedings the Symposium on Survey andResearch of Pollution in Thai Waters, National Research Council of Thailand.
Sivarak, S., Boriboon, P., and Rojpanthip, L. 1984. Total mercury in bivalves of the east coast of the inner Gulf of Thailand. p. 285-289
in Proceedings the 3rd Seminar on Research in Water Quality and Quality of Living Resources in Thai Waters (26-28 March
1984). National Research Council of Thailand.
Suvapepant, S. 1995. Red-tides and red-tides research in Thai waters. p. 1-11 in S. Suvapepant and T. Lertvidhayaprasit (editors), Redtides. Dept. of Fisheries, Bangkok. (in Thai)

230

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

THE STATUS OF CAMBODIA’ S COASTAL AND MARINE ENVIRONMENT：" EMERGING POLICIES AND MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES".
Vann MONYNEATH
Coastal Coordinating Unit and National Coordinator
Environmental Management of the Coastal Zone- Cambodia Project
Ministry of Environment and Danida, Cambodia
E- mail：MONYNEATH@bigpond.com.kh
◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

Abstract
This paper presents the major current coastal and marine environmental problems in Cambodia and highlights the present lack ofpolicy, and legal and institutional capacity to properly manage coastal and marine resources in the face of increasing development pressuresand touches on the policy response being developed by the government to address these problems. The paper looks at the elements involvedin the coastal policies and management strategies in Cambodia, which are still to be formulated, and the beginning of a coastal zone
management framework, which is emerging.

INTRODUCTION
During the past two decades was the complete destruction of institutions responsible for capable of managing the country’ s coastal
and marine resources. These include trained personnel, appreciate laws and regulations, enforcement capacity, and government structures
for the development of coastal and marine environmental policies and needed co-ordination for their implementation.
Cambodia does not yet have a compliment of coastal and marine environmental policies. By nature, policy development is a protracted
affair, which requires extensive dialogue within governments. It is a process that entails the development of legislation and the creation of
institutions and supporting structures. Cambodia is just at the start of the process. As a consequence the content of coastal and marine
issues and problems for instance logging, over exploitation of natural resources, administrative and management issues, infrastructure issues,
is for meantime less critical than developing the process by which the issues and problems can be managed. However, there is little room
for complacency as the development pressures are mounting rapidly. Any advantage that Cambodia currently enjoys will be rapidly lost
unless safeguards are put in place to allow inevitable economic development while ensuring the sustained quality of coastal and marine
environment and resources based.
This paper is divided into three sections. The first provides an overview of the major coastal and marine environmental issues. Second
identifies the existing legal, policy and institutional framework issues for managing and protecting coastal and marine ecosystem. The third
section addresses the elements involved in the coastal and marine policies and management strategies in Cambodia are still the beginnings
of a coastal zone management framework are emerging.

1.OVERVIEW OF COASTAL AND MARINE ISSUES
Cambodia is situated in Southeast Asia between 10o and 15o latitude North and 102o and 108o longitude east. The country occupies
about 181,035 km2 and has population 11.2 million persons. Cambodia shares a land border with Thailand on the Northwest, Lao PDR
on the Northeast and Viet Nam on the east and south.
The coastline of Cambodia extends 435-km along the Northeast shore of the shallow Gulf of Thailand between the Vietnamese andThai borders. The coastal zone consists of estuaries and bays and 64 islands of various dimensions, including three offshore islands ofTang, Pring, and Polowaii. Administrative boundaries of the coastal zone include Koh Kong province, Sihanoukville Municipality, Kampot
province and Kep Municipality. The total area of the claimed Exclusive Economic Zone is about 500,000 km２ as was declared on 6
February 1970 (SEAPOL, 1991).
The coastal climate of Cambodia is tropical monsoon, which is typically hot and humid. The average annual temperature is around
27oC with maximum average of 35oC in April and a minimum average of 19oC in December. Average annual precipitation varies from
2,000 to 4,000 mm. The season is from about June to October.
The coastal provinces and municipalities of Cambodia, Koh Kong, Sihanoukville, Kampot, and Kep, are no exceptions to the current
economic development situation of the country. The large town on the coast is Sihanoukville, which is being developed as a deep seaportand considered as one of the economic growth centres of the country.

1.1 Population Pressures
Statistic from the 1998 National Census indicate that 31% of the coastal population had their previous residence outside the place of
remuneration and of these, full 56% came from some other province or municipality in which they are currently living. Three percent of
the population of Kampot province moved there from another province or municipality in Cambodia, while 45% of the residents of KohKong are from another province. Furthermore, 84% of the respondents stated that they moved to their current place residence for economic
or security reasons. Coastal Cambodia, therefore is populated by great many inhabitants who may not have experience in the economic
activities of the coastal zone.
1.2 Coastal Economic development
The Royal Government’s goals for Sihanoukville municipality originally planned for economic development in Cambodia through therebuilding of urban growth, tourism, port expansion and industry.
・ Urbanisation
Investment in Sihanoukville municipality will lead to increased urban growth, as population from the rural areas move to tourism andassociated services for increased economic opportunities. The Urban environment infrastructure is current insufficient to meet therequirement of even the current urban population. Without appropriate investments, the environmental quality of this town will degrade.

199

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

・ Tourism development
Coastal Sihanoukville is a matter of great in importance to the future of Cambodia, both in term of economical and environmental
considerations. This development is expected to lead the way for Sihanoukville to develop as commercial centre, which would substantially
increase its population. The impact from this development may be affected to coastal inland resources, coastal water resources.
The number of tourists in the three coastal provinces has been estimated at 10,206. An approximately 9% growth in tourism arrivals
in Cambodia is Japanese, Taiwan, and Chinese. This indicated that the positive growth in the potential tourism development sector in the
country.
・ Port development
Coastal Sihanoukville port expansion development can make a contribution to the economy as a main hub for growth of maritime
transport, which should, in turn, attract manufacturing entries, but may also have an adverse impact on the surrounding environment. These
effects of new expansion port can be focused upon location, port construction and port operation. These lead to impacts on water quality,
coastal hydrology, bottom contamination, marine ecology, air noise, waste management and visual quality.
・ Industrial development
The industrial development zone was established in Sihanoukville called " Stung Hav-Sihanoukville Industrial Zone". This industrial
zone include petrochemical production, to exploit recently confirmed oil and gas reserves in the gulf of Thailand, food processing basedon the local fisheries in the area, timber processing, and re-manufacturing. However, these industries pose potential damage to theenvironment.
1.3 Coastal Poverty Issues
Villagers in 75% of coastal villages met food shortages. The mainly attribute this to natural disasters such as insects, storms, highwinds, and a dry season that lasted longer in recent years. On the other hand, coastal communities are also lack of infrastructure as manyof them lack such facilities as schools, hospitals, and paths in the village, and lack of electricity. The shortage of drinking waters along
the coast is related to this problem of inadequate rural infrastructure.
Many households in Cambodia’ s coastal villages are lack of regular and stable income. Many fishers are unable to fish more than
10-15 days/month because of the lack of security at sea and the incidence of natural disasters such as storm.
Many villages indicated the lack of stable prices and markets for products because of a lack of access for many coastal households
to markets beyond their local village. Involved in marine harvesting the people keep little of the marine catch for domestic consumption
and most of their catch is sold to local traders who then transport the products for sale at markets outside the villages.
1.4 Coastal Environmental Issues
・ Pollution
Sihanoukville urban locality of coastal city, solid and liquid wastes are discharged into the river and carried into the sea directly. In
addition, many agriculture and agro-industrial plants in the suburbs of the coastal city discharge organic residues into the coastal waterways
that runs into the sea. These substances are toxic to the marine plants and hazardous to fisheries.
Facilities to provide water, electricity, and sewage treatment have not kept pace with the increase in population in the coastal region.
Therefore, the sea has been used for untreated sewage disposal. This practice has resulted in water bodies becoming a potential hazard
to human health and marine life.
Coastal waters have been polluted by agricultural activities. The main causes are the release of pesticides and insecticides into thewater. Increases in agriculture yields have been accompanied by the increase in the use of artificial fertilisers and a variety of pesticides
and insecticides. This has resulted in surface and ground water contamination in this region and during periods of rainfall result in direct
run-off into the inland and coastal waters.
Pollution of coastal area from the industrial sector is relatively small in scale and magnitude compared to the problems of neighbouring nations. Most of the small-scale industries and handiwork are usually found situated along the shoreline of Tumnob Rolok Sihanoukvilleand along streams. The direct disposal of industrial waste, particularly liquid waste from Sihanoukville’s brewery, into the coastal
environment is viewed as a serious issue that needs to be addressed.
・ Degradation of natural resources
Fisheries：the fish stocks inshore waters may be over-exploited. Fish stock depletion is indirectly evidenced by fishermen selling theirvessels, which were shown that it is no longer economically viable to earn a living from fishing in inshore areas.
Another reason for stock depletion is likely related to the fishermen using gear, such as push nets and drag nets, in sea grass areas
which depletes the stocks of juvenile fish and destroys the sea grass ecosystem which is so vital to the existence of many fish species.
The degradation of juvenile fish stocks has a direct impact both on the future inshore and offshore mature stocks.
Use of harmful traditional methods：the use of harmful traditional methods for fishing, such as dynamite, fish poisons or intoxicants,
has also affected fisheries production. The uses of these methods in the inshore areas have resulted in the destruction of coral, mangrove,and wetland areas. These methods can destroy the important breeding grounds for the fish as well as the entire ecosystem needed tosupport the entire life cycle.
Mangroves：the total mangrove forest covers approximately 83,700 hacters in the coastal areas. Current studies indicate that throughhabitat degradation, the mangrove forests have been reduced by roughly 35-40% in Sihanoukville area. These mangrove forests are now
still being depleted due to uncontrolled exploitation for firewood and charcoal and reclamation for rice fields.
The main causes of degradation are driven by local economic activities. Some of the factors contributing to destruction of mangrove
forests are related to agriculture activities where people are clearing land by using the burning method. In addition to this mangroves are
cut for wood and charcoal production.
Beach and shoreline erosion occurs as a result of mining or removal of sand (silica sand) and this aggravates the effects of naturalprocesses related to wind, currents and waves. The removal of sand and the resulting beach erosion is remarkable in the Tuk Sap (20km, ESE of Sihanoukville), O Tres (15 km of SSE of Sihanoukville), and O Chru (East of Tuk Sap) regions.
Wildlife：wildlife habitats have also been destroyed by the war by the filling of mangrove areas for housing accommodation, by pollutionof marine environment and by some fishing and hunting activities. A large wildlife market exists including clouded leopard, sun bears,

200

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystemand species of primates, deer, snakes, and turtles taken from the parks.
Destructive fishing practices, collection of corals for trade, declining water quality due to unsustainable logging practices, and domestic
and industrial waste disposal under threaten Cambodia’s coral reefs.
Seagrasses：seagrasses are under threatened by destructive fishing practices including motorised push nets, shallow water trawling, andweighted bottom nets which rip up and destroy seagrass meadows.
The depletion of natural resources such as forests, fish, mangroves, and wildlife, coral reef, seagrass, which are the main coastal andmarine resources within the coastal area, has led to an overall decrease in socio-economic conditions.

1.5 Coastal and marine protected areas
The present system of coastal and marine protected areas in Cambodia comprises six reserves such national park, wildlife sanctuaries,
protected landscapes, multiple use areas. However, the major issues with respect to these protected areas are degradation of biodiversity
resources；lack of facilities and absent of infrastructure；no regulations specifying the process of protected area boundary determinationand delineation, and demarcation；and the current system has not developed from a consistent physical, biological, and socio-economic
information base with an objective of ensuring representative ecosystem coverage.

2.ADMINISTRATIVE AND MANAGEMENT ISSUES
2.1 Enforcement of existing laws
The environmental protection and natural resources management law is not adequately enforced. This is largely because of lack ofhuman and financial resources. The fisheries law has many good provisions for the protection of marine habitats and fisheries resources.
For instance, dynamite fishing, trawling in coastal water, pushing netting and cutting mangrove occurs daily, but are rarely prosecuted.
2.2 Decision-making processes
The decision-making process relating the development in the coastal zone is poorly defined, vague and ambiguous. It appears that,whatever the official mechanisms are high-ranking individuals can make decisions without consultation and participation. On the other hand,it appears to be conflict between provincial and national decision-makers with plans and policies developed independently by the two levelsof government.
2.3 Legal framework
A legal framework does exist for management of the coastal zone. There are laws on protected areas, fishing, industrial development,
land use, forestry, environmental protection and natural resources management, environmental impact assessment, water pollution control,and other important coastal zone issues. All governors and departments in all provinces and municipalities identified the lack of a legal
and policy framework for coastal zone management and administrative structure to implement it as a major constraint on coastal zone
management in Cambodia.
2.4 Lack of coastal zone planning
All provinces and municipalities are required to prepare Master plans. Planning has not occurred in the coastal zone. However, theplan prepared by provincial authorise specifies industrial, tourism, and residential zones but does not suggest any guidelines fordevelopment, standards or further plans.
Unplanned and uncoordinated development is occurring all along the coast, but is not yet viewed as a major problem because the rateof development is slow. However, it is envisaged that this lack of planning result in haphazard development and will be a source of serious
conflicts in the near future.
2.5 Lack of information about distribution and status of natural resources
Information on marine habitats such as coral reefs, seagrasses and endangered species are still limited. The distribution of such theseinformation and data both national and provincial levels are limited. Without information about what people are catching, it is notpossible to estimate where the fisheries are overfishing.
2.6 Lack of public awareness and participation and capacity
Many problems related to public and participation could be addresses. And actions to these should strengthen laws, raising publicawareness and doing research. Associated with this concern is a serious lack of technical capacity among government staff and minimal
resources to prepare and disseminate information. Participation is still low priority for most government officials, may be reflecting thehistorical lack of community participation in decision-making in Cambodia. The lack of participatory planning and management has meantthat some solutions to environmental problems are unsatisfactory.

3.CAMBODIA’S EMERGING COASTAL POLICY FRAMEWORKThe basic emphasis the Cambodian government at present is to attempt to clarify the lines of responsibility for activities thatcurrently transcend local, regional and national interests the intent is to manage and co-ordinate government actions, to clarify ministry
attributions, and to ensure administrative effectiveness and propriety. The existing restructuring of administrative tasks is directed reshaping the civil service, reforming the organisational framework for effective management, and reforming the regulatory mechanisms. The
effectiveness and efficiency of organising and managing planned coastal development and resources use is depending upon this successful
re-structuring of the state (reformed administration).

3.1 Legal, Policy and Administrative Frameworks
The Royal Government of Cambodia is being emerging to develop Cambodia become a state with a functional legal and administrative
system. Many Royal decrees, laws, sub-decrees and other legal instruments have been issued and are being developed. At the present, aprocess of making policy and law are done by a combination of national and international experts. These are law on Environmental Protection and Natural Resources Management, land law, Royal decree on the Creation and Designation of Protected Areas, Sub-decree on
Environmental Impact Assessment and Water control Pollution, Fisheries and Forestry laws, and Law on Land Management, Urbanizationand construction. On the other hand, Cambodia became a member of the Coordinating Body of the Seas of East Asia (1995), Association

201

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

of South East Asian Nation (1999), MARPOL (1994), Biodiversity convention (1994), CITES convention (1997), Ramsar convention (1999)
and Climate Change convention (1995).

3.2 Institutional Frameworks
The numerous institutions with statutory power or interests in coastal and marine areas give rise to the problems of overlap, gaps in
responsibilities and lack of co-ordination. The government has set up some organisational institutions in order to ensure overall co-ordination and co-operation of the different policies and measures taken by ministry levels of administration. Apart from the existing coastal
and marine co-ordination consists of the Ministry of Environment, Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries Coastal Co-ordinating
Unit and the National Coastal Steering Committee.
The Ministry of Environment (MoE) was established in 1993 to address issues of environmental management in the country, hold anumber of responsibilities with respect to the coastal zone, the most obvious being the general protection of the environment in the coastal
zone. More specific duties include the planning and management of the protected area system in the coastal zone. And its strategy isbased on the execution of sole and joint responsibilities in conjunction with other ministries concerned with specific aspects of natural
resources and infrastructure management.
The Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (MAFF) is the main ministry responsible for managing Cambodia’ s forests, including inundated forests mangrove, as well as wildlife and fisheries. Two departments of MAFF are directly relevant to biodiversity
management and protection in Cambodia. It is clear from the responsibilities of MAFF and MoE that close co-ordination between theministries and departments involved in nature conservation is essential to avoid conflicts and promote complementary activities towards
implementing the coastal protected area plans.
National Coastal Steering Committee (NCSC) is an attempt to deal with the multi-sectoral natural of coastal resource issues. This
committee was established in 1997 and meet on a quarterly basis. Members of this Committee include the Minister of Environment(Chairman), Under Secretaries of State from Ministry of Agricultural Forestry and Fisheries (vice Chair), Ministry of Tourism；Industry,
Mines and Energy；Public Works and Transport, Rural Development, Women’ s Affairs, Planning, Council of Development for Cambodia,
Governors of coastal provinces and others donors, NGOs and related coastal projects are observers. The NCSC is responsible for theoverall direction of coastal projects and activities. All members are asked to ensure the co-operation of their line ministries and provincial
authorities. The committee assisted by secretariat calls Coastal Co-ordinating Unit (CCU) was created 1996 in the Ministry ofEnvironment and is responsible for co-ordination of activities by international organisations, governmental agencies, and the private sectors
in the coastal area in Cambodia. Provincial working groups have been formed at the provinces and municipalities, these working groups
are supported by Danida coastal zone project in its ongoing technical assistance activities in the coastal zone.
3.3 Coastal zone management Cambodia-Danida project (2000-2002)
The Danish International development Assistance (Danida) under the Environmental and Disaster Relief (EDRF) initiated its support to
the Project environmental Management in the Coastal Zone.
Phase 1 was started in May 1997 and its outputs were trained provincial staff, initiated the development of information base in supportof management, conducted socio-economic studies and issue-specific case studies in the coastal zone and considered longer term Danida
support to coastal zone management.
Phase 2 was started in March 2000 and focused on three components：policy, legal and institutional framework；planning and environmental
management；and pilot project on community based resources management. These three components are ongoing to prepare laws and regulations source book in the coastal zone, user’s manual guide to the source book and coastal policy recommendations. Planning and environmental
management component is under producing physical framework plan and environmental profile for provinces and municipalities. There are
8 pilot projects will implement to Cambodia’s coast. Two have been testing with communities along the coastal zone, one is in Ream
National Park at Sihanoukville municipality and other in Peam Kraop Wildlife Sanctuary in Koh Kong province, they are both based onnatural resources management and alternative livelihood activities.

CONCLUSIONThe Royal Government’s goals directly place the major priority on the coastal areas for economic development. The new plans for
economic development through the rebuilding of infrastructure, tourism, industrial development and expansion of port, and oil and gas
explorations and exploitations. The impact of development conflicts will become evident, given the existing and potential planned coastal
economic activities due to the lack of development policy and legal framework guidelines, the lack of coastal zone planning, the lack oflaw enforcement, poor decision-making process, the lack of information and participation and capacity.
In order to start the coastal resources management process moving in sustainable direction in Cambodia, firm political and institutional
commitment at national, provincial and local levels will be important to the development of integrated coastal resources management
policy and management planning to focus on sustainable resources use. On the other hand, Cambodia has to maintain basic human needs,
and provide the possibility to satisfy the aspirations of its people for a better life；should ensure economic growth and development are
possible, without causing adverse changes to coastal and marine ecosystems.
Cambodian should design integrated coastal management approach is the key to promote sustainable use of its resources, it is the key
to sustain critically important coastal ecological processes, and the overall quality of the marine environment；it is the key to preserve
Cambodia’s biological diversity and ensure the quality of life for its people of present and future generations.

202

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

CONSERVATION AND RESTORATION OF COASTAL ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES
IN THE SETO INLAND SEA PLANNING AND POLICY PERSPECTIVES
Tohru MORIOKA Prof., Dr.Eng.
Dept.of Environmental Eng., Graduate School of Eng., Osaka Univ.
2-1 Yamadaoka Suita,Osaka 565-0871,JapanE- mail：morioka@env.eng.osaka- u.ac.jp
◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

Abstract
The Seto Inland Sea, which is one of most typical and large scale of enclosed sea in Japan, shows considerable improvement of water
quality, but has environmentally deteriorated condition of ecosystem or biological resources. Various types of coastal developments, even when
they are practiced with environmental consideration, have caused remarkably changed beaches, sandy beds and other peculiar shorelines
with fauna, flora and natural scenic beauty.The conservation policies have been implemented since enactment of The Seto Inland Sea
Conservation Law (1973, 1978), and the basic conservation plan of The Seto Inland Sea based on the Conservation Law, have the roleof guiding wastewater emission regulations, controlling shoreside land reclamations, and fostering environmental learning movements.This
paper characterizes functional targets, expected performances and gained results of conservation measures described in subsequent phasesof basic plan, and refers to new policy perspectives and emphasizes coastal environmental resources restoration in the 2000 amendment of
the Seto Inland Sea Conservation Plan, especially from the view points of sustainable coastal management.
Keywords：environmental resources management, restoration, the Seto Inland Sea, planning perspective, socio-economic valuation.

1.ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGES IN THE SETO INLAND SEA
Past decade shows improved water quality but deteriorated coastal environmental resources in terms of quantity and quality of most
biologically productive areas such as seaweed beds or tidal flats due to land development in the Seto Inland Sea.
1.1 Water quality improved
In order to improve water quality in the Seto Inland Sea, pollutants emissions have been reduced by means of regulation-compliancesystem concerning installation and operation of specified plants with end-of-pipe equipments, total mass flow control of COD matters inwatersheds, and administrative guiding for nitrogen and phosphorous reduction in all point and non-point sources sectors.
Attributable to these measures, the COD pollutant loads from industrial sectors have been reduced to less than half of the amountrecorded when the Seto Inland Sea Environmental Conservation Act first went into effect, as shown in Fig.1.Progress in sewerage construction
and other pollution prevention practices have also caused a steady reduction in the amount of domestic sewage loadings.
"Red tides" are also down to 40% of the average yearly number of occurrences compared to when these occurred frequently across theentire Seto Inland Sea.Consequently, water environment is judged to be turned into the relatively improved
from severely polluted crisis situation.
However, eutrophication in the Seto Inland
Sea results both from organic pollutants inflowing
to the sea and from the so-called "internal production," i.e., phytoplankton propagation due to increased
loading of nitrogen and phosphorous.As a result,
there has been little change in recent years ineither the level of achievement in environmental
goals of COD or occurrences of red tides each year,
and so the water quality in the Seto Inland Sea
does not show satisfactory level.Moreover, oxygendepleted masses occur on a seasonal basis in some
Figure 1 Decreasing Pollutants Loading in the Seto Inland Sea
areas.
1.2 Seaweed beds and tidal flats being disappearing
The basic indicators of the Seto Inland Sea, the Osaka Bay area most developed in the Seto Inland Sea, and the whole shoreline inJapan are compared with each other in table 1. The ratio of natural coastal line over total coastal line implies the degree of coastal development.
The Conservation Act contributes to preserve, to the considerable extent possible, the seaweed beds and tidal flats that are importantfor conserving marine biological resources and fostering migratory birds in habitation space.As shown Fig.2, lands reclaimed in the Seto
Inland Sea area accounts for more than 280 since 1965, and 448 since 1898.The NGOs for environmental conservation pay attention to
the average reclamation land volume more than 5 per year throughout the modern age.Although the rate at which seaweed beds and tidal
flats are disappearing has slowed since the Seto Inland Sea Conservation Act went into effect, approximately 1,300 hectares of seaweed
beds (amounting to 21% of the loss nationwide) and approximately 800 hectares of tidal flats (21% of the loss nationwide) have disappeared
from the Seto Inland Sea during the 13 years between 1978 and 1991.
Of these, 40% of the seaweed beds and 70% of the tidal flats were lost due to changes brought about by anthropological activities
in the form of land development, or dredging for industrial or port/harbor development.
There were only approximately 17,500 hectares of seaweed beds and approximately 11,700 hectares of tidal flats in the Seto Inland Sea
coastal regions in 1999, amounting to 9% and 22% of the total in Japan.
2.NEW TRENDS IN ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY
In Japan, in 1993 the new Basic Environment Law was established in place of the Basic Pollution Control Law to indicate nationwide fundamental philosophy on environmental management, the role of various economic sectors, principal policies and means for promotion.In 1994, a Basic Environmental Plan based on this law was established.
T h e B a sic E n v ir o n m e n t L a w c alls f o r a cti o n s t o r e d u c e t h e b u r d e n o n t h e e n v ir o n -131International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

Table 1 Change of Coastal Environmental Resources in the Seto Inland Sea Area
Tokyo Bay area
Osaka Bay area
1,380
1,529
・ Sea area
13,27918,585・ Adjacent land area
32.5
18.3
・ Land area population （million）
2,453
933
・ Population density （capita/）
1,563
993
・ Logistics in adjacent prefectures（million ton/year）‑
35
・ Fishery production （thousand ton/year）
63
67
・ Water quality goal achievement level （%）
51
19・ Red tide （event/year）
801
442
・ Coastal line （km）
12.9
16.5
・ Natural coastal line ratio （%）
360
117
・ Shallow sea less 10m in depth
26.1
7.7
・ Shallow sea ratio （%）
1.27
0.30
・ Seaweed beds ratio （%）
1.41
0.01
・ Tidal flats ratio （%）

Seto Inland Sea area
21,82767,223
35.3
524
2,342
594
78
89
6,912
53.5
2,527
11.6
1.14
0.51

Total area in Japan
‑
377,837
125.6
332
6,738
7,250
81
‑
‑
‑
‑
‑
‑
‑

ment caused by socio-economic activities with the voluntary or compliancebased responsibilities equally shared by all economic sectors, in order todevelop communities, regions and societies with environmental and socioeconomic sustainability.
The new law extends ultimate environmental management goals muchfurther than the previous concepts of preventing pollution and protecting
nature.Regarding environmental management concept, the law identifies the
public need to：(1)ensure the air, water, soil, biosphere and natural medium of humanenvironment being maintained in satisfactory quality, level and condition.
(2) ensure biodiversity of fauna and flora and preserve many types of
Figure 2 Lands Reclaimed in the Seto Inland Sea Area
characteristic natural environment systematically in accordance with
under Special Permits
the natural and societal conditions of the region, and(3)provide accessible opportunities for people to come in contact friendly
with nature in recreation, eco-tours or environment-conscious actions.
The policy orientation based on public needs identified first in the Basic
Environmental Law is to achieve environmental goal of water quality in terms of
COP, N, P and furthermore to minimize red tide events, which occurred in recent
years.
The red tide as excessible propagation of phytoplankton in eutrophicated conditions of receiving water is judged to be unstable change out of range of autonomous
ecosystem variation.The less the assimilation capacity of sensitive tidal flats orseaweed beds, the more the red tide seems to happen frequently.The remediation
or restoration of ecosystems in sandy beaches, silty tidal flats or seaweed beds
becomes a prioritized option of measures in the Seto Inland Sea area.
The basic Environmental Law emphasizes the citizens participation in voluntary
conservation movement, one example of which is shown in Picture 1 to illustrateclean-up action by a NPO.The activities of bird watching on these beaches or shore
sides, fishing festival or biological monitoring survey are highly appraised for Picture 1 Voluntary Clean‑up Activities （Kansai
environmental conservation in the Seto Inland Sea area.
Clean‑up Office）
The Basic Environmental Plan identifies four long-term management policy ends
as in loop-closing in material flow and metabolism, ecologically symbiotic coexistence, public and business sector participation in equal
partnership towards joint environmental action, international environmental sustainability aids, and shows policy guides and measures designed
to achieve these objectives.
The desired water environment are interpreted by comprehensive characteristics in terms of clean water quality, adequate water quantity,
conserved aquatic life, well-managed waterfronts for sustainable use.The shorelines in urban areas are suffered from rapid change of land
use patterns for industrial or business uses.As shown in Fig.3, for example, industrial and business activities in the Osaka Bay area haverequired additional coastal land development in shoresides.
Judging from scarcity of natural shorelines, the new environmental policy emphasizes that sandy beaches with ecological value should
be conserved, and that deteriorated waterfronts are expected to be recovered by means of ecological restoration practices.In addition toprotecting the safety of water environment from bacterial pollution or natural disaster damage, the law stresses the need to promotecomprehensive measures to reduce the load discharging in each stage of water usage, and preserve the aquatic ecosystem in water environment.

3.MEASURES TO RESTORE ENVIRONMENT DAMAGED IN PAST
DECADES
There have been trial practices to restore the seaweed beds, tidal flats and other precious ecological spaces.Furthermore, natural sandy
beaches, fishing spots and other places for contact with nature that had been lost, have been restored and sometimes re-developed on
environment-conscious design principles.These activities must be based on the following basic guides for full consideration approach.

132

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

3.1 Identifying appropriately target regions
From the standpoint of restoring deteriorated environment, thesepolicies initiatives should focus on areas where natural environmenthas been remarkably deteriorated due to industrial or port/harbordevelopment.For example, Picture 2 shows the typical practice oftidal flat restoration at the Hiroshima Itsukaichi Port area. This
artificial tidal flats 17.4 ha was supplied by the port authority in
1991, for the purpose of birds victims compensation against large
scale of land reclamation for port and industrial uses more than
150 ha, which enforced the original tidal flat with 7.1 ha to disappear.
Recently the restored silty beach affords citizens pleasures of watching so many migrated birds in winter as in the original tidal flat.
3.2 Strengthening governmental leadership or
initiatives in organizational aspects
The ocean regions in the Seto Inland Sea are publicly owned,
and up to now environmental management efforts have been
conducted mainly by the national government and local governments.
While the national government and local governments should continue
to play a leading role in restoring the environments that have beendamaged in past, it is important for them to coordinate these efforts
with voluntary actions of citizens and private business sectors.
The industrial activities in the 20th century in the Yagura area,
which locates in the north west part of Osaka City, have transformed
completely rural or agricultural land originally reclaimed by the farmdevelopment leader Mr.Yagura in 1778.The shore sides have been
occupied by industrial wastes derived from the great scale of production of steel- related, chemicals and machinery
manufactures.Picture 3 shows the pedestrian way,
the man-made small tidal pool and the scene of
Yagura green park in the front of densely-inhabitedarea. In this environmental restoration practice,corresponding to the private sectors’ efforts of
information disclosure related to chemicals safety
for public, the public sector’s initiatives of park construction are expected to be followed by collaboration of
preparing opportunity of accessibility to shoresides
through passage and voluntary greening activities
by private sectors.

Figure 3 Land Reclaimed in the Osaka Bay Area

3.3 Implementing actions on well-structured integrated planning scheme

Picture 2 Tidal Flat Practice at Hiroshima Itsukaichi Port Area

Picture 3 Yagura Green Park with Tidal Pool and Pedestrian Way

It is important to connect the past efforts having beneficial impacts and adverse effects withrequired actions towards target environment in the
future.As environmental restoration of seaweed beds,
tidal flats etc.will take time up to it’s completion,these restoration actions must be done on a planned
basis from a long-term perspective.
The environmental restoration, which covers
whole processes of planning, designing, execution
and appraisal, should be supported by fundamental
planning scheme of both of the economic/physicaldevelopment agency side and the environmental
protection agency side.For example, port and harborauthority has a function of formulating environmental
conservation and greening port management vision(see Table 4), and implementing the individual tidal
flat mitigation project, in consort with general guiding of the Seto Inland Sea environmental conservation plan by Japan Environment Agency, and alsowith more detailed policy orientation in the local
environmental plan of the related prefecturalenvironmental agency.

3.4 Choosing appropriate technologies
Appropriate technologies must be selected based on land and ocean characteristics：topography, resources use patterns, water quality,
tidal currents, the biological habitats in the area in the process of choosing measures.Achievement level of technologies development ofenvironmental remediation and restoration engineering works should be considered in this evaluation process from the viewpoint ofenvironmental performance and socio-economic feasibility.Also promising is the study of design and construction technologies from new
perspectives and the confirmation of their effectiveness through demonstration tests or pilot practices.In such cases, sufficient study should133

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

be conducted to ensure that the tests aredone at an appropriate time and in a location
where they will not give adverse effects tothe environment.
In the case of the Tokushima airport
extension project, extended airport facilities
could not be constructed without destructionof the sandy beach where citizens haveenjoyed water-related recreations. For theadequate practice of mitigation approach, theFig.4 Transplantation of Local Peculiar Ve
south side beach is planed to be restored by Picture 4 Submerged Breakwater
getations for Mitigation Practicemeans of laying sand on the deteriorated Planned in Tokushima Airport Project
beach.
The hydro-dynamical condition have sensitive effects of probable recession of front line of sandy beach due to violent wave force instorms.The waterbreak was usually constructed for the purpose of protecting sandy beach from violent waves. The construction of theconventional waterbreak are liable to limit the exchange of the inside sea water with the outside water, and to accompany obstacles in
the open ocean view. In the examination of strategic environmental assessment of this project. The submerged structure of waterbreak is
judged to be preferable to the conventional one, because it make water easily flow in and out of the waterbreak as illustrated in Picture 4.

3.5 Preparing reasonable and effective follow-up actions and maintenance for sustainable management
The natural environment that has been restored or partially developed in the comprehensive conservation practices must be appropriately maintained so that the environment continues to fully recover from the deterioration.In addition, as hydro-dynamical and ecologicalpotential effects of artificially recovering natural environment are not yet understood on the scientific base, the effects and impacts of restoring environment must be studied through appropriate monitoring, for the purpose of developing, improving and accumulating knowledge ofenvironmentally sound technologies for sustainable coastal management.
In the case of the Tokushima airport extension project as shown in Fig.4, the locally scare plants named as Kohbou lawn, Kohbou
wheat and others which are typical species on sand slope are enforced to face to endangered situation.Therefore, it is requested to transplant them and foster them in the considerably long period before the construction practices starting time.Field survey and experiments onbiomass, biodiversity and ecological vulnerability have been performed, in order to gain adequate informations of biological mitigation
practices.Environmentally sound technologies of maintenance, improvement and recovery would be much more developed for sustainable
city management.
4.EVALUATING BENEFITS OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESTORATION
Environmental restoration projects require the sufficient monetary funding and financial support.Who pay these costs?
decision-making on mitigation site, project size, engineering options and others holds efficiency and equity or not?

The

4.1 Economic efficiency of environmental restoration
Public projects are recently evaluated by means of cost benefit analysis or it’s derivative application methods. The benefit of the target
project are quantified in terms of money, by using increased production amount, saved expenditure cost or other econometrical substitutes
in the comparison with those in the baseline condition.
Furthermore, the environmental benefit due to environmental restoration project is quantified by other complicated methods including
the travel cost method(TCM) for recreational uses of restored environmental resources, the hedonic price method for amenity services ofenvironmental resources, and the contingent valuation method(CVM) for non-use, bequest, or altruistic benefits attributable to restoredecological quality.
Public decision-making on
regional development projects is Table 2 Illustrative Alternative Comparison
expected to indicate not only
Benefits
Costs
Benefit/Cost ratio
monetary direct benefits and costs Alternatives
DirectIndirect non
DirectIndirect non
Internal
Includingbut also external environmental
monetarymonetarymonetarymonetary
only
externald a m a g e c o sts o r r e st o r e denvironmental benefits which are
200
100
2.0
2.3
１
＋30
０
not directly tradable on the
200
200
―――
―――
200
95
２
０
０
95
95
observable conventional market.
100―――
For example, Table 2 shows
200
90
10
2.0
３
０
90
the typical comparison sheet of
250
250
―――
―――
250
120
20
４
０
120
140
alternatives of a waterfront
development project. The alternative *base line for reference
1 which has the reasonable degreeof monetary direct benefits associated with additional mitigation costs and non-monetary environmental benefits, is judged to be superior toother alternatives 2, 3 and 4. The alternative 4 having the maximum monetary benefit and relatively high value of the internal cost-benefit
ratio, had been chosen in the economic growth first society.
4.2 Valuating ecological resources of tidal flats
The reclamation projects of tidal flats or sandy beaches become topics of regional social concerns in the Seto Inland Sea area andother coastal areas. The disappearance of tidal flats due to solid waste landfill or urban development is acceptable or not? The operationof solid waste landfill supports industrial and urban activities to discharge solid waste. Are there other alternatives of waste management
such as prevention, reducing, reuse, recycle and/or another landfill operation in inland areas?
The value of ecological resources of tidal flats has been measured in terms of willingness-to-pay price in environmental economy in
the growing stream of environmental awareness and raised public concerns on bio-diversity and scarcity of local species. In Japan, a gooddeal of discussion on pros and cons of land reclamation in shoresides have been observed in Isahaya (Saga), Wajiro (Fukuoka), Fujimae(Nagoya, Aichi), Sanbanse (Tokyo, Chiba) and other tidal flats. In the case of the Fujimae tidal flats, the ecological value of tidal flats is
estimated to be more than 2000 million US＄ by a researcher.Because the contingent valuation method or any of other valuation methods

134International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystemhas week points of quantification Table 3 Examples of Valuation of Tidal Flatsbias, the decision-making process
Flats orMeasured
Estimated
Location
Researchers
is requested to improve directbeachesvalue
resource value
evaluation of environmental
Kuriyama
6,555‑
296 billion
resources in cost-benefit analysis, Fujimae tidal Nagoya City
flats
et.al.
¥12,060
yen/yearstrategic environmental assessm（1998）/person/year （national）
ent, and post-audit practice.
9.0 bil.yen/year
Table 3 shows examples of（Nagoya City）
evaluating the tidal flat andother seashore areas in the east Shiokawa
Toyohashi
Morioka¥11,160
3.9 billion
Mikawa bay, and represents that tidal flats
City,Aichi
et.al.（1998） /person/year
yen/year
the total use value for recreational
Pref.
（WTP;EV）（Toyohashi City）
activities remains smaller thanthe level of the non-use value Mikawa green Toyohashi
Morioka¥4,800
1.7 billionof ecological bequest or the exist- coastal park
City, Aichi
et.al.（1998） /person/year
yen/yearence value of natural dignity itself
Pref.
（Toyohashi City）
in the traditional local communi- Tsukimigaok Tokushima
Morioka¥1,200（TCM） 12 billion
ty.
beach
Pref.
et.al.
¥2,590（CVM） yen/year（1996）/person/year

Methodology
CVM forexistence value

CVM forexistence value
CVM foruser's value
TCM and
CVM foruser's value

5.NEW POLICIES OF THE SETO INLAND SEA BASIC CONSERVATION PLAN AND THE SETO INLAND SEA
PORT AND HARBOR ENVIRONMENTAL PLAN
In 2000, Japan Environment Agency (2001, Ministry of Environment) and Japan Bureau of Port and Harbor, Ministry of Transport(2001 Ministry of Land and Transport) established the new environmental plans related to the Seto Inland Sea. First, Japan Environment
Agency amended the Seto Inland Sea Basic Conservation Plan, which consists of dual aims as water quality conservation and natural scenic
landscape conservation, and indicates categorized nineteen policies.
Table 4 shows that shallow shore beds and natural beaches are expected to be conserved in article 3, and that the avoidance, reducing impacts, and mitigation practice should be examined in environmental impact assessment of land reclamation in article 5, and furthermorethat lost or damaged environmental resources once served as valuable amenity assets are requested to be recovered or restored in article
8 in the Basic Conservation Plan.
Table 4 Aims and Basic Policies of the Seto Inland Sea Basic Conservation Plan and the Seto Inland Sea Port and Harbor
Environmental PlanTitle of plan
the Seto Inland Sea Basic Conservation Plan
the Seto Inland Sea Port and Harbor Envir
onment Plan
Background of in‑agency Basic Environment Plan
Principal Guide of Eco‑port
initiative
Report of Seto Inland Sea Conservation Council
Report of Port Council
Basic concept
Future generation must inherit sound environment
Future generation must inherit sound environ‑
Lost environmental resources should be recovered
ment
Sustainable development in the Seto Inland
Sea area
Aims characterized
Good water quality
Form ulating coastal area w here hu man
Conserved scenic beauty
activities harmonious with natural environ‑
ment
Region‑wide collaboration among ports andharbors in the Seto Inland Sea area
Major policies
Water pollution control
Water and sediment purification
characterized
Scenic landscape conservation
Conservation and restoration of biological
Shallow shore beds conserved
environment and niche
Marine sand extraction control
Clean marine surface
Land reclamation with environmental consideration
Landscape conservation
Waste landfill with environmental consideration
Protecting historic heritage
Sound water cycle in basin management
Public accessibility improvement
Restoration of lost environmental resources
Emission reduction in regional environment
Environmental protection in islets
Sound waste landfill management
Sewerage construction
Treatment of left boats
Harmful bottom sediment removal
Scientific research promotion
Water quality monitoring
Technology development for conservation
Research development initiatives
Information disclosure and communication
Citizens involvement
Environmental learning initiatives
Information disclosure
Area‑wide collaboration
International collaboration
Financial aid

5.1 Promoting scenic beauty recovery and coastal redevelopment with environmentally upgraded assets
The Seto Inland Sea area is designated as area-wide beautiful National Park.For example, the left in Picture 5 shows typical landscapeof human settlement in harmony with small green islands. Regional development requires physical infrastructures of roads, ports, industrial
e state s a n d o t h e rs a s s h o w n i n th e s c e n e o f A k a s hi g r e at b ri d g e. T h e s a n d y b e a c h w h ic h w a s
recovered in an associated coastal redevelopment project (1998), gives comfortable recreation and sport services seen brilliantly against theblue sky and the bridge.
5.2 Enhancing environmental restoration practices
The nearly 2% of total sea area of about 23 thousands km2 have been reclaimed, and at the same time more than 45% of coastal

135

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

Picture 5lines have been occupied by industrial or residential uses. In
order to ensure tidal flats and seaweeds beds on the principleof the total net zero loss, more numbers of ecological restoration projects are desired for biological habitat improvement ineach coastal zone in Japan. Several experiences of geologicaland hydraulic engineering works have brought about taking rootof seaweeds or florae, immigration of benthos and other mesoorganisms, and inhabitation of birds or fishes.
The illustrated examples in pictures, shows remarkableincrease of observed species or sure evidence of settlement ofendangered species：91 species of birds and an Asari clam in
Kasai Seashore Park, 230 species of birds in Osaka South Port
Bird Garden, a scarce lizard-like goby in prepared tidal flat ofGushikawa, and thickly grown seaweeds on gentle banks ofKansai Airport.

Scenic Beauty in Regional Development

5.3 Strict applications of environmental impact assessment
The strictly applicable process of environmental impact assessment (EIA) has exerted favorable effects on effective performance ofenvironmental conservation.The EIA practice is much more emphasized as one of available effective policies in conservation of ecologicalsystems.
Five typical examples of performances of EIA or other related policy implementation in coastal development in Table 5, imply thatthe evolutional process of environmental conservation policies should include wide range of avoidance, reducing impacts and so-called
mitigation.
5.4 Capacity building of voluntary environ
Environmental conservation should be promoted
by not only governmental regulation and management
but also citizens and business sectors voluntary initiatives.
Environmental learning is a key issue of widely
covered environmental movement.In recent 20 years,
public and societal concerns on marine environment
have been raised and become tied with voluntary actions.In 1974, the severe event of oil spill due to apetroleum tank breakage happened in Seto Inland Sea,
and again in 1997 the Japan Sea shore area faced tooil spill contamination due to a Russian tanker accident.The former gave damages of more than 15,000
million yen including one of fish-raising industries,
and the latter did 35,000million yen.The scenes of
emergency actions differ in personal characters of
rescue parties and relieved targets.The latter includes
that voluntary citizens actions aid damaged waterfowls
Picture 6 Biological Restoration Projects
and plants in Picture 7.
In the Seto Inland area , various types ofenvironmental learning programs are put into practice.For example, Picture 8 shows the scene of plankton sampling and microscope examination in young generation eco-club initiative.Voluntary action are expected to be supported by information disclosure and communication
support system, Concerning the Seto Inland Sea issues, the Setouchi Net is available by anyone.The Setouchi Net includes topics in whatis new, answers to probable questions, provide environmental information, communication plaza, research data base, interface and address,
home page links.The ecological restoration and environmental recovery actions are subject to be stimulated by raised environmental literacy
capacity of citizens and business sectors.

Table 5 Minimizing Environmental Impacts Attributable to Formal EIA or Formal EA's Advice in Development Councils
Development plan
Possible damage
Performance of EIA or others
Tsukinoura bay ,Ikuno Island ,Hiroshima （1979）
Tomita section ,Imabari Port （1987）
Itsukaichi section, Hiroshima
Port （1986）

38 ha of reclamation by coal Seaweeds and tidal flats should Plan cancelled
ash landfill
be lost34 ha of reclamation for port
and urban redevelopment
154ha of reclamation for port,
industrial estate, urban renova‑
tion and park
Dejima section , Hiroshima 129ha of reclamation for port,
Port （1996）
business use and park

N at u r al b e a c h of 5 6 0 m in
Odagahama should be lost
Tidal flats of 7.1ha should be
lost

Shifting location of reclamation
work by 200m far
Prepared 17.4ha of tidal flats
for mitigation

2.2ha of seaweed beds and 0. Same area of tidal flats and5ha of tidal flat should be lost 2.9ha of seaweed bed werepreparedIndustrial zone , Wakayama Coal power plant sited and Disappeared seashore andPre p are d la g oo n , bioto pe ,o p eratio n pla n , inste a d of forecasted impacts reduction artificial seaw eed beds and（1997）
neighboring steel industry reloca‑ due to steel industry relocation other 24 relevant countermeasurestion permitted in past136

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

Picture 7 Who Have Concerns on Monetary and Ecological Damages
in Two Oil Spill Events?

Picture 8 Young Generations Participation Initiative

References
Tohru Morioka, Water Quality Management in Lake Biwa Basin：Proc.of Shiga Conf.'84 on Conservation and Management of World
Lake Environment, pp.167‑182, 1984.
Tohru Morioka, Effective Adaptation Strategy to Sea Level Rise Risk：Forecasted Impacts and Strategies Learned from Experiences ofFlood and Land Subsidence in Japan, Impact of Sea Level Rise on Cities and Regions ：Proceedings of the First International
Meeting 'Cities on Water' Venice, December,11‑13, pp.117‑124, 1989.
Tohru Morioka, New Policies of Environmental Conservation and Development in Coastal and Bay Areas, Setonaikai, No.9, pp.5‑11,（in Japanese）1997.
Tohru Morioka,Tsuyoshi Fujita, et al, Cost‑Benefit Analysis of Natural Beach Deteriorated, Mitigated and Restored in Coastal Multi‑
Purpose Development Project, Environmental Systems Research,Vol.25,pp105‑110,（in Japanese）1997.
Tohru Morioka,Tsuyoshi Fujta, et al, Empirical Analysis for Evaluating Coastal Environmental Improvement Projects by Contingent Valua‑tion Method：Environmental Systems Research,Vol26, pp577‑580,（in Japanese）1998.

137

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

TOWARDS THE SUSTAINABLE MANAGEMENT OF
COASTAL AREAS IN KOREA
Jungho NAM
Korea Maritime Institute
NFFC B/ D, 11-6, Shinchun- dong, Songpa- ku, Seoul, 138-730, KOREA
E- mail：jhnam@kmi.re.kr
◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

Development-oriented coastal utilization has resulted in deterioration of marine ecosystem, loss of tidal mudflat, occurrence of largescale and long-standing red-tides, etc. To deal with such problems and other maritime related affairs more efficiently, integrated coastalmanagement (ICM) system has been incorporated into national planning regime since the mid 1990s.The Korean government also createdthe Ministry of Maritime Affairs and Fisheries in 1996 for comprehensive handling of marine issues.
To adequately respond to various coastal issues, the Ministry carried out coastal assessment projects from 1996 to 1998, and enacted
the Coastal Management Act in early 1999. Coastal Management Act functions as a framework act that provides fundamental andcomprehensive guidelines on rational use of coastal resources and space.Main components of the Act include geographical scope of coastal
areas, relationship to other laws, contents and establishing process of ICM plan at national and local levels, coastal improvement projects,
and periodic evaluation.
The National ICM plan based on this Act was established in September 2000.Concomitant actions to the National ICM plan implementation are being executed, e.g., cancellation of major coastal development projects, establishment of local ICM plans, comprehensive assessment for tidal wetland protected areas, designation and management of Coastal Environmental Management Areas (CEMA), establishmentof Ocean Korea 21 (the national framework plan for the sustainable development of ocean), etc.In addition to the above actions, publicawareness on sustainable use of marine resources has been enhanced and stakeholders including local governments have paid serious attention to ICM implementation.Thus, it can be expected that the ICM regime inclusive of Coastal Management Act will be a window ofopportunity for sustainable use of coastal areas in Korea.

I.INTRODUCTION
The current management regime for ocean and coastal areas incorporates integration coastal management to enhance the efficiency andthe effectiveness of coastal resources and space utilization.The concept of integration coastal management (ICM) has emerged from theAgenda 21 of 1992, which became the normative guideline for coastal states to utilize their resources.Since the Agenda 21 of 1992,
international agencies such as UNEP, UNDP, IMO, World Bank, FAO, IAEA, etc.have applied ICM to their policies.ICM also has been
supplemented by the Biodiversity Convention of 1993; the Global Program of Action for the Protection of the Marine Environment fromLand-based Activities; and the United Nations Agreement on Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks of 1995.
In addition, coastal states have prepared various measures to implement ICM.Sorensen (1997) reported that 180 ICM efforts had been
initiated by approximately 90 coastal nations and semi-sovereign states and these efforts were relatively even distributed around the worldexcept Africa region.Costal states in East-Asian region also have given concerted efforts to establish and implement ICM since 1992.Coastal
nations in East-Asian region have been challenged by various coastal management issues, such as coastal erosion, over- exploitation ofnatural resources, natural habitat loss, marine ecosystem degradation, and user conflicts.However, they have difficulties in formulating
appropriate institutional mechanisms, which enable integrated management to be workable.
The Republic of Korea is a leading country in incorporating ICM concept into national planning regime and establishing integrated
coastal management system (Hong & Chang, 1997, Cicin-Sain and Knecht, 1998, Lee, 1998).ICM concept was introduced in the mid 1980s by oceanographers and marine policy researchers.The Korean Government prepared management arrangements and policies to apply the
ICM to various fields on coastal utilization; enactment of the Marine Development Basic Act of 1987, preparation of National Agenda 21,
formulation of the New Marine Policy Direction toward the 21st Century, and the creation of the Ministry of Maritime Affairs and Fisheries(MOMAF) in 1996.
The establishing ICM was accelerated by the creation of MOMAF, which carried out national coastal assessment projects from 1996
to 1998.Based on the assessment results, Korean government enacted ’the Coastal Management Act’ in 1998.To successfully implement the
Coastal Management Act, National Plan on Integrated Coastal Management was established in September 2000 through being reviewed by
National Commission on Natural Environment Conservation.Although coastal-related affairs of ten governmental agencies were integrated
into MOMAF by implementing the Coastal Management Act and the National ICM plan, for the successful implementation of ICM regime,
Korea needs to enhance its planning and management capacity at national and local levels and to build public awareness among NGOs,
residents, fishermen, and industries.
This paper is written to illustrate ICM mechanism development mechanism, of Korea and major components of the Coastal Act andthe National ICM Plan.In addition, purpose of the paper includes sharing Korean experiences for establishment of ICM regime with othercountries.

II.ICM MECHANISM DEVELOPMENT IN KOREA
Introduction of ICM concept and needs for ICM
For past two decades, the first major goal of Korea was to establish a self-reliant industrial nation and transform itself from anagricultural backwater into a modern industrial economy to provide a decent way of life for its people.Such exploitation-rather than development-oriented economic policy, however, brought a lot of adverse impacts on coastal resources and space, such as coastal environment
degradation, tidal wetlands loss, common occurrence of large-scaled and long-standing red-tides, increase of eutrophication, and decrease offishery production.Especially, loss of tidal wetlands by indiscernible reclamation became a pending issue associated with in sustainable
development of coastal areas (Table 1).
Table 1 Loss of tidal wetlands during past one decade in Korea
Year

1987（A）

1998（B）

Area

２

２

2,815 km2,393 km

138

B‑A

Portion of loss
２

‑ 422 km15%

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

As degradation of coastal environment and resources became one of main policy issues to be urgently dealt with, Korea slowly drew
lessons from the developed countries and realized that, when undertaking economic development, great attention must be paid to theenvironmental protection (Hong and Lee, 1995). This change of coastal utilization policy can be attributed to introduction of the ICM
concept and the policy recommendations by oceanographers and marine policy researchers.The paradigm of coastal zone management was
novel one to Korean government in that coastal zone included both land and marine components, that coastal management concerned withboth development and conservation, and that coastal management involved various sectors and disciplines.However Lee (2000) assessed that
Korean government was not ready to experiment with such innovative management framework and did not implement the policy recommendations made by academia until the early 1990s.

Agenda 21 and incorporation of ICM into national planning regime
What drove establishment of the integrated coastal management? The Agenda 21 of 1992 contributed to increasing the interest of
Korean government on applying the ICM concept to national planning regime, and enhancing public awareness on sustainable utilizationof coastal resources.Since the Agenda 21 played a key role in introduction of ICM concept into their coastal management framework(Cicin-sain, 1993; Hong and Lee, 1995; Miles, 1999), Korean government also could not be free from the international mega trends. The
fact that the ICM paradigm received international recognition in explicit way gave credibility and reliability on the paradigm for Korean
government to formulate a policy arrangements such as ’New Marine Policy Direction toward the 21st Century’ in 1995 and ’the Marine
Development Basic Plan’ in 1996, and to address the national need for establishing institutional mechanisms of ICM (Lee, 2000).Thus theneeds for establishing ICM were emerged from as follows;
・ Development-oriented national policy causing the concentration of population and industrial activities on coastal zone
・ Appearance of problems such as degradation of coastal water quality, loss of marine habitat, and multiple use conflicts
・ Setoral and somewhat fragmented governance system that can not effectively address those issues since coastal zone is governed bynine ministries based on about 50 laws
・ Increase of the need for improving coastal governance system since the Rio Declaration of 1992, and・ Recommendation of establishing national ICM mechanism by international community based on Chapter 17 of Agenda 21.
Korean government created the Ministry of Maritime Affairs and Fisheries to comprehensively cope with various marine issues emerged
from adverse impacts due to past development-oriented policies, and to adequately address the above coastal management issues.ICM
establishment can be defined as a core part of integrated affairs carried out by the newly created ministry.To effectively implement thenational plan of developing integrated coastal management system, MOMAF also took over the authority of coastal management from the
Ministry of Construction and Transportation in March 1997, and established Division of Coastal Zone Management in May 1997.

III.ESTABLISHMENT OF NATIONAL ICM REGIME- Coastal Management Act and National ICM Plan Coastal Assessment and Enactment of the Coastal Management Act
Korean government carried out coastal assessment projects from 1996 to 1998.In the first phase of the assessments of 1996, coastalzone assessment was made on the West Coast regarding coastal ecosystem, resources, uses, human impacts, and natural hazards.Comparative
analysis was also made on existing institutional arrangements of coastal management.In the second phase of 1998, coastal zone assessment
was carried out on the South and East Coast.The assessment results include as follows：
・ Korea has a relatively long coastline measuring 11,542 km, due to its indented coastal shape on the west and south coast (Table
2),・ Presently coastal zone in Korea accommodates 45 ports, 415 fishing ports, 25 coastal cities, 22 industrial complexes, and about 33
percent of total Korean population, and・ Provided that Korea keeps pursuing ocean-oriented development policy, it is projected that by the year of 2005, more than 40 %of total population and 50% of total GDP will occupy the coastal zone.
Based on the assessment results on coastal areas, the draft of the Coastal Management Act was prepared by the MOMAF throughconsultation with stakeholders including relevant ministries, experts from various fields, non-profitable organizations and other interest groups.
Korean government enacted ’Coastal Management Act’ in February of 1999, which functions as a national mechanism for implementing
the concept and the principles of integrated coastal management. The Act has entered into force since September 1999.
The main components of the Act include：・ National policy of coastal management
・ Coastal management boundary・ National ICM pan, its major components and establishment process
・ Local ICM plan and establishment process
・ Coastal improvement project・ Coastal management council at national and local levels
・ Periodic inspection and evaluation
National Policy of Coastal Management
Korean government emphasizes that the Act has to contribute to ensuring sustainable development on coastal areas through integrationof several dimensions (Cicin-sain, 1993; Cicin-sain and Knecht, 1998)：
・ Integration among coastal uses (e.g., port development, fisheries, coastal tourism, marine ecosystem protection, industrial activities
on coastal land, agriculture etc.)
・ Integration between the land and the sea sides
・ Integration between various institutional arrangements relevant to coastal uses
・ Integration of governance system
・ Integration among nations, and・ Integration between disciplines (interdisciplinary approach)
Incorporation of integration concept into coastal management will lead to improve current institutional mechanism and implementation
capacity as integration is not just centralization of authority (Imperial, 1999).Integration is a mechanism to lead to：・ Maximizing management capacity in cooperation with user groups, national and local authority,
・ Achieving goals and objectives for sustainable development,
・ Forming a more complete, harmonious, and coordinated entity, and139

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

Table 2 Characteristics of coastal areas in Korea
Total
Land side
Islands
National Land
Coastal city & county
Tidal wetlands
EEZ
Depth
Geographic feature
Geological feature
Depth
Geographic feature
Geological feature
Resided Is.
Non‑resided Is.

11,542
6,228
5,314
99,39331,8702,393
286,543
Shallow
Deeply indented coast
Tidal mudflat
Deep
Simple‑lined coast
Sandy beach
479
2,691
45,830National
12,466
Coastal city & county* 27% of national
population
27.3% of national employees
National complex
75% of total national
Local complex
37% of total local
Commercial ports
50
Fishing harbors
2,239
40 （50% of total power plants）

Coastline （km）

Area （km２）
Naturalcharacteristics

West and South coast
East coast
Islands （number）
Population（1,000 indv.）

Socio‑economic

Employees

characteristics

Industrial complex
Ports & harbors
Power plants （number）

・ Establishing science-based management system.
As the integration gives an emphasis on coordination and harmonization between components of coastal systems, the Coastal Management Act functions as a framework mechanism on institutional arrangements pertinent to coastal management.Korean government anticipatesto achieve goals for sustainable development of coastal areas through the above integrated management system.In this regard, the purposeof the Act is to preserve the coastal environment, ensuring sustainable development, and promote various values of coastal resources.

Coastal Management Boundary
Coastal management boundary on the Coastal Management Act is determined, based on a basic concept that the coastal boundary
incorporating landward and seaward components.In this regard, the coastal area includes coastal water and coastal land.Coastal water embracesfrom shoreline to the outer limit of national territorial water (12 nautical miles), and coastal land basically covers uninhabited islands and
500 meters inland from shoreline.In the case of fishing harbors, ports, industrial complexes and coastal cities, coverage of the coastal land
extends to 1,000 meters inland from shoreline.For more effective management of coastal areas, coastal management boundary needs toinclude coastal watershed for addressing adverse impacts on coastal areas originated from socio-economic activities within the watershed.By
applying the integrated approach to defining coastal boundary, holistic and comprehensive management can be pursued.In this regard, Lee(2000) pointed out that Coastal Management Act has been successful only in a limited fashion in incorporating both natural subsystems
and the socio-economic subsystems within its management boundary.
Integrated Coastal Management Plan at National and Local Levels
Integrated coastal management plan at national level (hereinafter National ICM plan) is formulated by the Ministry of Maritime Affairs
and Fisheries through the deliberation of the National Coastal Management Council (chaired by the Vice-Minister of MOMAF) and theapproval of the Environmental Conservation Committee (chaired by the Prime Minister).The draft of the National ICM plan is required tohave consultation with various governmental agencies, local governments, non-profitable and profitable organizations, experts and coastal
residents before official deliberation of the National Council.Main components of the National ICM plan should include as follows：・ Coastal land boundary
・ Planning area
・ Basic policy statement of coastal management
・ Strategies for coastal conservation, sustainable use and development
・ Restriction on coastal use activities, and support for coastal community according to other laws
・ Coordination and harmonization of individual policies or initiatives made by other governmental agencies or local governments, and・ Basic policy direction on coastal improvement project
The newly established National ICM plan leaded to change towards integrated management system from traditional management.In thecase of designation of coastal protected areas, 128 coastal areas have been designated as various types of coastal protected areas including
nine costal wetlands, 64 specially protected islands, 18 natural habitats, and 47 environmental ecosystem areas.In addition, coastal development projects having caused coastal problems were cancelled or coordinated under the Plan.Especially, 61 coastal reclamation projects havebeen cancelled, and 26 coastal development projects also have been cancelled including construction of industrial complexes and large-scaled
coastal tourism complexes.In addition, to adequately address coastal deterioration and to improve quality of marine environment, Korean
government has designated four Marine Protected Areas (MPA) and five Special Management Areas (SMA).With regard to MPA and SMA,
Marine Pollution Prevention Act was amended in February this year and management plans on the areas is being prepared by MOMAF.
The Plan has required establishing ICM plan at local level on ten coastal areas with strong user conflicts.According to this management policy, local governments or related governmental agencies should formulate the Local ICM plan through deliberation of Coastal
Management Council at both national and local levels when they pursue new or previously designed development projects on the areas(Table 3).
Coastal Improvement Projects and Periodic Inspection
For improving quality of life on coastal areas through support of coastal communities, the National ICM plan includes basic policy
direction of coastal improve-ment project that is categorized as three types of projects：protection of coastline from natural hazards, improvem-

140

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

Table 3 National and local plans of ICM in Korea
Type of plan
Planning area

National Plan

Local Plan

Overarching guidelines

Action plan of national plans

Coastal boundary on the Act

Coastal management areas at local level

Formulation

Minister of Maritime Affairs and Fisheries

Head of local governments

Approval

National Coastal Management Council
Environment Conservation Council

Local Coastal Management Council
National Coastal Management Council

Maine components

Enforcement

Coastal land boundary
Planning area
Vision and strategies for sustainable
management
・ Restriction on coastal use activities, andsupport for coastal community according
to other laws
・ Coordination and harmonization of coastal
activities
・ Basic policy direction on coastal improve‑
ment project・・・

Since September 2000

・
・
・
・
・

Re‑designation of local planningboundary
Vision and strategies for sustainable
management at local levels
Management arrangements for
implementing national plan on local area
Detailed restriction on coastal use activities,
and support for coastal community
according to other laws
Coordination and harmonization of coastal
activities

Under preparation of plans

ent and restoration of deteriorated coastal environment, and development of environment-friendly waterfronts for enhancing public access tocoast.According to the Coastal Management Act of Korea, Minister of Maritime Affairs and Fisheries establishes Coastal Improvement Plan
through deliberation of National Coastal Management Council every ten years.MOMAF formulated Coastal Improvement Plan in September
2000 and will enter into force in 2001.Funding from MOMAF can be made available to local governments when they implement coastal
improvement projects on the Coastal Improvement Plan.
The improvement projects will contribute to enhancing quality of life on coastal areas by directly and visibly supporting coastal
communities at low income as the basic objective of ICM is to maximize long-term economic and social benefits (Burbridge, 1997).Coastal
residents will be included in important constituency for settling ICM regime.
Korean government has pursued the principle of adaptive management to successfully implement the National Coastal Management Plan
and Coastal Improvement Plan.The principle was incorporated into the Act in the form of ’periodic inspection of coast and assessment of
performance’.Many experts pointed out that evaluating ICM efforts and programs is effective tool for ensure adaptive management inmanaging coastal resources (Olsen, 1993; GESAMP, 1996; CRC, 1997).As Sorensen (1993) noted that ICM should be a program and not
one-time project, the newly established ICM regime of Korea is expected to ’sustainable mechanism’ by performing ’periodic inspection’.
To meet the objectives of the inspection, Korean government needs to juxtapose detailed guideline to the periodic evaluation and to develop
evaluation indicators in various fields (Vandermeulen, 1998), which enable public officials to understand and carry out their jobs relevant
to ICM regime.By doing so, the advanced evaluation system should be incorporated into ICM system of Korea.

Concomitant actions to establishment of ICM regime
Harmonization and collaboration between coastal authorities is one of integral elements for evolving newly established ICM mechanism(Sorensen, 1997; Chua, 1999; Imperial, 1999).As the National ICM plan of Korea functions as basic guidelines for sustainable development through wise use of coastal resources, relevant institutional arrangements should also be incorporated into the ICM mechanism atoperational level.Amendments of each laws and development of efficient management tools should be ensued by relevant governmental
agencies as well as by private sector inclusive of NGOs, costal community and profitable societies.Policies change in some fields
pertinent to coastal management occurred in parallel with establishment of National ICM regime, including cancellation of large-scaled
coastal reclamation projects, revision of coastal development projects, comprehensive assessment of tidal-mud flats, and survey on marine
debris.
Cancellation of the reclamation projects is an important indicator showing a shift in attitude and philosophy for managing coastal areas.
Coastal waters of 2,622 km2 equivalent to area of existing tidal wetlands have been reclaimed to meet the need for farming lands andindustrial complexes.Although the reclamation of coastal areas provided spaces for agricultural, industrial, and urban activities, it resulted
in a lot of adverse environmental impacts including the loss of valuable tidal-mud flats, the destruction of natural habitat and mariculture
grounds, and the coastal pollution.Implementation of the large-scaled reclamation is partially originated from strong competition to use
coastal space, but mainly lack of awareness on unique values of coastal resources.
In addition, Korean government and other stakeholders recognized that national institutional mechanism should be formulated to preservetidal-mud flats especially located in west coast of Korean Peninsula.In 1999, Wetlands Conservation Act was prepared and has entered into
force since February 2000.Comprehensive assessment of tidal wetlands has been carried out since 1999, and based on the assessment
results, Korean Government will establish strategies and prepare management plans, for using and managing the wetlands in sustainable
manner.
One of major concomitant actions to establishment of National ICM regime is amendment of Marine Pollution Prevention Act in 1999.
The past Prevention Act coped in very limited fashion with coastal pollution problems including algal blooming, decrease of fisheries
resources, eutrophication, pollutants discharge from coastal land, and increase of heavily polluted sites.To effectively address the above
problems, watershed management approach was introduced into the amended Prevention Act.According to the Act, nine areas were designatedas Coastal Environment Management Areas (CEMA) inclusive of five Special Management Areas (SMA) and four Marine Protected Areas(MPA).The definitions of MPA and SMA are as follows that：
・ MPA is coastal waters in relatively pristine and good ecological conditions which need to be preserved and protected continuously,
and・ SMA is coastal waters which do not meet water quality standards, impose significant risks or potential risks to human health,ecosystem integrity and coastal uses, and thus need special management measures for restoration.
To improve marine environment and protect ecosystem of coastal areas, Korean government prepared ’Strategic Plan for CEMA’ in
April 2000 that functions as management principles and strategies for coastal environment.Action Plans for managing two pilot areas of
CEMA will be formulated and implemented next year through consultation with governmental agencies, local governments, and user groups141

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

within those areas.To enhance implementability of the action plans and achieve objectives of the Strategic Plan, intensive investment will
be executed in the fields of constructing treatment facilities construction, raising public awareness, monitoring and research for measuring
carrying-capacity, cleaning mariculture grounds etc.
Establishment of ICM regime has been also supported by recently formulated ’Ocean Korea 21’, as the national framework plan forthe sustainable development of ocean.As successful implementation of ICM is essentially required to achieve sustainable development ofmarine and coastal resources, ICM implementation is one of strategic actions for Ocean Korea 21.ICM mechanism of Korea will bemoreover strengthened by implementation of Comprehensive Plan for Marine Environment Preservation that is being prepared by MOMAF.
The Comprehensive Plan will enter into force in 2001.
In the case of public participation and awareness enhancement, Agenda 21 of 1992 asserted that public involvement in resourcesmanagement would have a pivotal role in ensuring the sustainable world, through Chapter 23 to Chapter 28.In Korea, public awareness on
ICM has been rapidly raised since the mid 1990s in the recognition of the fact that coastal resources including wetlands could provide
present generation as well as future generation with various opportunities for sustainable development.With regard to NGOs’ activities,
most of them paid a strong attention to preservation and protection of natural ecosystem on inland areas before the mid 1990s.NGOs havemade concerted efforts, however, to protect the wetlands from various development-oriented coastal activities since the mid 1990s as 33%
of valuable wetlands in Korea have disappeared by reclamation projects during the past decade (MOMAF, 1998).For interactive networking
between coastal NGOs, the Network for Coastal Conservation as a coordinating body has been recently established to exchange information
on marine environment conservation and to enhance their capacity for achieving sustainable development.In addition, they operate education
program to their members and coastal citizens, and perform periodic monitoring to marine debris through support of MOMAF.Although
their participation in ICM planning and implementation still remains relatively minimal, they are expected to play a major role in establishing sustainable ICM mechanism.
The science-policy interaction as one of unique feature of ICM components has been applied to ICM mechanism of Korea.Integration
between science and policy is considered to be a basic principle for guiding the wise use of coastal resources.As Cicin-sain and Knecht(1998) stated that one of the strengths of ICM process is its reliance on accurate information and data, building science and informationbase is highly associated with leading to rational decision-making on coastal management (Olsen, 1993; GESAMP, 1996; Chua, 1999).
For building knowledge-base of ICM, Korea government carried out comprehensive assessment on coastal areas in the field of naturalsciences and social sciences, and established coastal geographic information systems (GIS) inclusive of various coastal information by
putting assessment results into the system.To improve the pre-existing GIS system, the basic plan for establishment of coastal GIS system
was formulated by MOMAF in 1999.The coastal GIS system includes basic maps on coastal areas, socio-economic activities, naturalenvironments etc, and will continuously add results of coastal assessment and monitoring to the GIS system. In addition, as more efficient
GIS system for decision-making on ICM needs to be developed, Korean Government is paying attention to establishment of decisionmaking support system which enable to enhance coastal management capacity of policy-makers and to build a knowledge base for ICM in
Korea (Mumby et al., 1995; Cicin-sain and Knecht, 1998; Fabbri, 1998).

IV.Conclusion
It can be said that ICM regime of Korea has been established through continuous efforts at National level since the mid 1980s andthat the ICM concept is appreciably being incorporated into planning regime at national level.It also can be stated that coastalmanagement of Korea has undergone some positive changes in terms of institutional arrangements and substantive policies.
Under these changes, Korean Government has successfully enacted the Coastal Management Act, and established the National ICM
Plan based on the Act.In addition, some concomitant actions have been taken to form ICM regime of Korea.Local governments and otherstakeholders are paying attention to implementation of National ICM plan and establishment of Local ICM plan.Thus, it can be expectedthat the newly established ICM regime will be a window of opportunity for sustainable use of coastal areas in Korea.
More concerted efforts, however, should be given to successful implementation of the National ICM plan and formation of fully
integrated management system.Implementation of management plans is very substantial part of ICM as Sorensen (1993) noted plans thatare not implemented are for the most part a waste of money.In this regard, Korean Government are facing new challenge to successful
ICM implementation through more explicit integration of institutional arrangements, building of management capacity, setting priority forresources allocation, and application of adaptive management.
Firstly, the integration in limited fashion is originated from unique social and political environment.Although MOMAF is a
responsible agency dealing with ICM, main authorities of other governmental agencies has not been fully integrated and coordinated into
National ICM regime.The agencies still maintain major responsibilities for coastal land management.
Secondly, lack of management capacity at local levels is due to the fact that Korean Government applied the top-down comprehensivemodel to establishing of ICM regime.Application of the top-down model might be considered to be very efficient approach in centralized
political system.Actually the top-down model played a key role in integrating institutional arrangements at national level in Korea.Institutional
integration at local level and participation in establishing National of local governments, however, were very minimal.Thus it needs toprepare detailed guidelines for planning and management at local level, and to operate education and training programs for local public
officials.
Thirdly, Lee (1999) pointed out that the resolution of analysis for priority setting for resources allocation had to be sacrificed although
guidelines for the setting was developed through the process of planning based on the Coastal Management Act.The tool for the priority
setting has to be developed through stronger coordination of related authorities, development of technology for optimal resources utilization,and valuation of coastal resources.
Finally, the adaptive management is an integral part of evolving ICM regime.Korean Government has applied the adaptive approachto implementation of ICM plans at national and local levels.Current ICM regime is lack of indicators for evaluation, guidelines of
performance monitoring by public officials, and feedback process for improving ICM regime.

V.References
Burbridge, P.1997.A generic framework for measuring success in integrated coastal management.Ocean & Coastal Management.Vol.37(2)：175-189.
Cicin-Sain, B.1993.Sustainable development and integrated coastal management.Ocean & Coastal Management.Vol.21：11-43.
Cicin-Sain, B.and Knecht, R.1998.Integrated coastal and ocean management：Concepts and Practices.Island Press, Washington D.C.515 pp.
Chua, T.E.1999.Integrated coastal management：an en effective mechanism for local implementation of coastal and marine environment
related international conventions.In：Proceedings of international conference on challenges and opportunities in managing pollution142

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystemin the East Asian Seas.(ed.by) Chua and Bermas.3-23.
Fabbri, K.1998.A methodology for supporting decision making in integrated coastal zone management.Ocean & Coastal Management.Vol.39：51-62.
GESAMP.1996.(IMO/FAO/UNESCO/IOC/WMO/WHO/IAEA/UN/UNEP Joint Group of Experts on the Scientific Aspects of Marine
Environmental Protection) The Contributions of science to integrated coastal management.Reports and Studies No.61.Rome：Foodand Agriculture Organization.
Hong, S.Y.and Chang, Y.T.1997.Integrated coastal management and the advent of new ocean governance in Korea ：Strategies forincreasing the probability of success.The International Journal of Marine and Coastal Law.Vol.12(2)：141-161.
Imperial, M.T.1999.Analyzing institutional arrangements for ecosystem-based management：lessons from the Rhode Island Salt Ponds SAM
plan.Ocean & Coastal Management.Vol.29：231-249.
Lee, J.H.2000.Developing national coordinating mechanism of integrated coastal management：Korean example.International workshop on
the development of APEC mechanism for integrated coastal management.September 21-22, Seoul, Korea.
Lee, J.H.1999.Policy issues and management framework of Chinhae Bay, Republic of Korea.Ocean & Coastal Management.Vol.38：161178.
Miles, E.L.1999.The concept of ocean governance：evolution toward the 21st Century and the principle of sustainable ocean use.Coastal
Management.Vol.27：1-30.
MOMAF (Ministry of Maritime Affairs and Fisheries) of Korea.1998.The Tidal Mud-flats in Korea (in Korean).28pp.
Mumby, P., Raines, P., Gray, D., and Gibson, J.1995.Geographic information systems：a tool for integrated coastal zone management in
Belize.Coastal Management.Vol.23：111-121.
Olsen S., Lowry, K., Tobey, J., Burbridge P., and Humphery, S.1997.Survey of current purposes and methods for evaluating coastalmanagement projects and programs.CRC (Coastal Resources Center).
Olsen, S.1993.Will integrated coastal management programs be sustainable; the constituency problem.Ocean & Coastal Management.Vol.21：201-225.
Sorensen, J.1993.The international proliferation of integrated coastal zone management efforts.Ocean & Coastal Management.Vol.21：45-80.
Sorensen, J.1997.National and international efforts at integrated coastal management： definitions, achievements, and lessons.Coastal
Management.25：3-41.
Vandermeulen, H.1998.The development of marine indicators for coastal zone management.Ocean & Coastal Manaement.Vol 39：63-71.

143

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

EFFECTS OF ORGANOTINS IN THE COASTALENVIRONMENT OF KOREA
Jae Ryoung OH＊ and Won Joon SHIM
Korea Ocean Research & Development Institute (KORDI)
Ansan P.O.Box 29, Seoul 425-600, Korea
E- mail：jroh@kordi.re.kr
◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

Abstract
TBT-based antifouling paints were banned since March 2000 in Korea, although Korea is one of the leading ship-building countries
in the world. The major objectives of this work are to assess the exposure of marine organisms to butyl- and phenyltin compounds onthe coast of Korea and to study on the toxic effects of these compounds on marine organisms. Butyltin compounds (BTs) were detectedfrom the mussel and oyster samples collected from 67 sites on the coast of Korea, whereas phenyltin compounds (PTs) were below detection limits at 26 out of 67 sites. Overall range of tributyltin (TBT) and triphenyltin (TPT) concentrations were 48 to 2800 ng/g and <3 to1820 ng/g, respectively. The mean TBT concentration in bivalves was 3.5 times higher than that of TPT. Frequency of imposex in rockshell, Thais clavigera, was 0% at two reference sites, but at 47 out of 61 sites, frequency of imposex was recorded as 100%. The degreeof imposex was relatively high at the sites near a harbor and a shipyard. TBT and TPT concentrations in T. clavigera ranged from 5 to
508 ng/g and from 3 to 2,460 ng/g, respectively. A significant positive relationship was found between degree of imposex and organotin
concentration, whereas a significant negative relationship was obtained between female to male sex ratio and the degree of imposex. During a field transplantation of T. clavigera from a pristine area to a port, TBT and TPT were accumulated in T. clavigera, and imposex
was induced. This species shows considerable potential as a bioindicator species of the adverse effects of TBT and TPT contamination.

1.INTRODUCTION
Contamination of organotins has been monitored in many countries since the early 1980s. Biomonitoring techniques are applied fororganotins monitoring due to their high bioconcentration characteristics. Organotin concentrations in biota are thousands of times higher thanthose in ambient water and also reflect the integrated information of exposure more than several months long. Bivalve organisms such asmussels and oysters have been used as monitoring organisms due to their ability of accumulation of organotins, sessile characteristics andwide distribution. Bivalves have been used to determine temporal and spatial variations of butyl- and phenyltin concentrations (Short andSharp, 1989；Wade et al., 1988；Page and Widdows, 1991；Fent and Hunn, 1991). Thus, analysis of organotin concentrations in bivalvesaround coastal waters should provide information that could assess the extent of organotin contamination.
Due to induction of imposex (imposition of male sexual organ on female) in gastropod species, TBT and TPT are classified as
endocrine disruptors (Oehlmann et al., 1996；Horiguchi et al., 1997). Because imposex is mainly caused by TBT, it is widely used as abiomarker. Many previous studies have shown positive dose-response relationship between TBT concentrations and degree of imposex inseveral neogastrpod species (Gibbs et al., 1987；Stroben et al., 1992). An increasing androgen level mediated the induction mechanism(Bettin et al., 1996). However, other compounds, for example acetic acid or copper-based antifouling paint, also induce imposex in Lepsiellavinosa in a laboratory exposure experiment (Nias et al., 1993). Furthermore, the relationship between TPT, as well as TBT, and degreeof imposex has not yet been evaluated with field samples.
In this study, butyltin- and phenyltin residues in bivalves collected from the coasts of Korea were quantitatively determined to reveal
the extent of organotins contamination. We also determined the extent of imposex caused by organotin contamination of T. clavigera foundin the coastal waters of the Korean peninsula. The relationship between TBT and TPT concentration and the degree of imposex wasinvestigated to evaluate use of this species as a specific biomarker for effect-based monitoring of both compounds. The relationshipbetween degree of imposex and sex ratio was also investigated to determine how the female population was affected by TBT and TPT
compounds.
2.MATERIALS AND METHODSSTUDY AREA
In order to monitor nationwide organotin contamination, biota samples
were collected from along the coast of Korea (Fig. 1). Most of major harbors
and shipyards in Korea were included in the sampling sites. Several wharves
for fishing boats were also included in sampling sites. In addition, there were
subjected more extensive survey for bivalves in Chinhae Bay, Kamak Bay andKwangyang Bay (Fig. 1).
SAMPLE COLLECTION
Two different kinds of target organisms were used to monitor organotin
contamination in the marine environment of Korea. Bivalves were used as asentinel species for basic monitoring. The target species depended on species
dwelling on the sampling sites. The sampling date, species, and sites weresummarized in Table 1. In case of bivalves, Mytilus coruscus and Mytilus
edulis were selected on the East Coast. On the South and the West coasts,
Crassostrea gigas were used as target species. Bivalve samples were collected
at 67 sites from January 1995 to October 1998 (Fig. 1). More than 20 individuals
were sampled at a site during low tide, immediately frozen in dry ice andtransferred to laboratory. They were kept in freezer at - 20 before analysis.
Thais clavigera (Neogastropoda：Muricidae) was selected to investigate
imposex, because the organism is widespread and abundant in Korea. The 61
sampling sites are shown in Figure 2. Information of samples were shown in
Table 2. They were sampled from January 1995 to May 1997. Sites 1 and 59,

241

Figure 1 Location of Bivalve Sampling Sites on
the Coast of Korea

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

Table 1 Summary of Bivalve Sampling Sites Along the Coast of Korea
Site
Name
Date
Species
East coast
Mytilus corsus
1
01/96
Breakwater of Sokcho Harbor
M. corsus
2
01/96
Yongumjung, Sokcho
M. corsus
3
01/97
Breakwater of Mukho Harbor
M. corsus
4
02/97
Breakwater of Chukbyun Harbor
M. corsus
5
07/96
Todong, Ulleung Island
Mytilus edulis
6
07/96
Cheodong, Ulleung Island
M. edulis
7
07/96
Hyunpo, Ulleung Island
M. edulis
8
07/96
Dok Island
M. edulis
901/96
Inside of breakwater, Uljin
M. edulis
10
01/96
Outside of breakwater, Uljin
M. edulis
11
01/96
Inside of breakwater, Pohang
M. edulis
12
01/96
Outside of breakwater, Pohang
M. edulis
13
02/97
Changsangpo, Ulsan
M. edulis
14
01/96
Breakwater of Onsan Harbor
South coastM. edulis
15
01/96
Cho Island, Pusan
Crassostrea gigas
16
06/97
Haengam, Chinhae
C. gigas
17
06/97
Kapo, Masan Bay
C. gigas
18
06/97
Shimri, Masan Bay
C. gigas
19
06/97
Chindong, Chindong Bay
C. gigas
20
06/97
Bumugae, Wonmunpo Bay
C. gigas
21
06/97
Shinri, Wonmunpo Bay
C. gigas
22
06/97
Sagok, Kohyonsong Bay
C. gigas
23
06/97
Obi, Kohyonsong Bay
C. gigas
24
06/97
Silchun, Chilchung waterway
C. gigas25
06/97
Uhori, Kadok waterway
C. gigas
26
08/95
Keumpo, Namhae Island
C. gigas
27
08/95
Namsang, Namhae Island
C. gigas
28
08/95
Kalwha, Namhae Island
C. gigas
29
08/95
Kalsa, Kwangyang
C. gigas30
08/95
Yumpo, Kwagyang
C. gigas
31
08/95
Yochun indutrial complex
C. gigas
32
08/95
Myodo, Yochun
C. gigas
33
06/97
Breakwater of Yosu
C. gigas
34
08/95
Muslmok, Yosu
C. gigas
35
06/98
Chakeum, Kamak Bay
C. gigas
36
06/98
Hyangdae, Kamak Bay
C. gigas
37
06/98
Chinmo, Kamak Bay
C. gigas
38
06/98
Kukdong, Kamak Bay
C. gigas
39
06/98
Soho, Kamak Bay
C. gigas
40
06/98
Sepo, Kamak Bay
C. gigas
41
06/98
Kulkuchi, Kamak Bay
C. gigas
42
07/97
Breakwater of Cheju HarborWest coastC. gigas
43
06/97
Koha Island, Mokpo
C. gigas
44
06/97
Youngkwang
C. gigas
45
06/97
KunsanC. gigas
46
06/97
Changhang
C. gigas
47
08/98
Muchangpo
C. gigas
48
08/98
ChukdoC. gigas
49
07/98
DaechonC. gigas
50
08/98
Kunip
C. gigas
51
08/98
SonghakC. gigas
52
07/98
Wonsan Island
C. gigas
53
08/98
Songdo, Chunsu Bay
C. gigas
54
08/98
Kasungkuchi, Chunsu Bay
C. gigas
55
08/98
Namgok, Chunsu Bay
C. gigas56
10/98
Yuldo, Chunsu Bay
C. gigas
57
10/98
Sahori, Chunsu Bay
C. gigas
58
10/98
Tumangdong, Chunsu Bay
C. gigas
59
07/98
Namdang, Chunsu Bay
C. gigas
60
07/98
Chunsu dam
C. gigas
61
07/98
Chunsu strait
C. gigas
62
07/98
Chunsu bridge
C. gigas
63
06/97
ManripoC. gigas64
05/98
Inchon North Port
C. gigas
65
05/98
Mansuk wharf
C. gigas
66
05/98
Mouth of North Port
C. gigas
67
05/98
Youngy Island
ah：harbor
bs：shipyard

242

Remark
ha
h
h
h
h

h
h
h, sb
h
h
h
h

s

h

h

h
h

h
h
h

h
h
h

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

Table 2 Summary of imposex measurement and organotin concentrations in Thais clavigera at total of 61sites on the coast of
Korea. See Figure 1 for sites. Remark：h, harbor area；s：shipyard area；hs：harbor and shipyard area.
Site
Number of% Female
RPL
TBT
TPhT
% Female
MFPLa
MMPLb with imposex Indexc（%） （ng/g）
REMARK（ng/g）
No.
Samples
1
30
50
0.0
9.6
0
0
24
3
h
2
24
67
5.8
9.4
100
62
94
28
h
3
30
50
10.8
13.5
100
80
198
210
4
28
68
1.3
4.9
84
26
12
15
5
25
48
1.5
7.6
17
20
27
21
6
30
33
5.1
10.1
70
51
44
91
7
23
26
8.4
11.2
100
75
174
8
8
28
57
0.5
6.0
6
7
12
11
9
24
42
0.9
15.4
50
6
29
11
h
10
26
31
10.0
15.5
100
64
336
67
h
11
26
19
10.1
14.6
100
69
250
118
12
25
60
4.0
13.5
87
30
8
21
13
25
40
1.0
6.0
40
17
5
8
14
24
33
8.2
13.2
88
62
33
19
15
25
20
11.3
13.8
100
82
34
9
16
24
21
6.1
9.6
100
63
75
17
17
25
48
2.0
11.3
58
18
13
10
18
26
62
0.9
12.8
25
7
13
16
19
25
24
6.0
10.8
100
56
57
173
20
24
25
7.2
8.2
100
88
205
244
hs
21
24
42
12.0
11.5
100
105
508
1860
22
25
56
8.1
10.8
100
75
60
234
h
23
25
40
9.3
11.1
100
84
197
373
24
25
24
7.1
9.9
100
72
130
220
25
25
80
4.1
8.7
100
47
44
109
26
24
42
5.2
12.7
100
41
86
146
27
23
39
6.8
8.2
100
83
100
218
28
26
35
4.8
8.3
96
58
94
221
29
24
50
3.4
11.3
100
30
27
176
30
24
67
2.3
6.4
88
36
28
217
31
25
64
6.5
11.7
100
55
45
312
h
32
25
28
8.2
8.9
100
93
78
723
h
33
20
30
7.7
10.6
100
72
59
238
h
34
24
13
9.8
10.5
100
94
142
395
h
35
27
30
8.9
10.0
100
89
86
491
h
36
20
35
10.0
9.5
100
105
131
387
37
20
30
7.7
9.1
100
84
62
266
38
20
35
8.8
10.9
100
81
45
142
39
21
33
7.4
8.3
100
89
48
116
40
22
32
7.4
8.8
100
84
129
358
41
17
29
7.5
7.7
100
97
56
785
42
20
10
8.0
9.1
100
88
55
380
‑d
‑
‑
43
10
0
11.0
82
502
44
20
30
6.7
8.9
100
76
95
170
45
19
11
10.1
9.8
100
104
414
244
s
46
25
20
11.5
12.6
100
91
269
259
47
25
24
11.5
10.6
100
108
178
358
48
20
25
9.4
11.0
100
85
186
281
49
22
36
6.4
9.7
100
67
23
46
s
50
24
8
9.0
9.9
100
91
322
77
s
51
26
23
10.6
10.6
100
100
354
269
s
52
28
11
9.4
11.3
100
83
439
220
s
53
27
19
9.1
9.7
100
94
261
159
54
35
37
7.3
11.5
100
63
81
49
hs
55
58
34
10.1
10.3
100
98
145
73
h
56
27
11
9.7
10.5
100
93
415
824
h
57
26
15
12.8
12.0
100
107
326
193
h
58
26
8
12.0
18.3
100
66
140
380
59
30
90
0.0
5.8
0
0
38
42
h
60
25
32
27.9
28.0
100
100
394
2460
h
61
25
64
16.9
26.2
100
64
165
191
aMFPL

：Mean female penis length cRPL (relative penis length) index (%) = MFPL / MMPL x 100
male penis length dNo females

bMMPL：Mean243

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

remote from harbor and ship traffic, are reference sites. The samples werecollected by forceps during low tide, stored in a Ziploc Ｒß bag, and then frozen
with dry ice.

Analytical procedure
The analytical procedure is a modification of method suggested by Stallard
et al. (1989) and Shim et al. (1998). Only a brief overview of these proceduresis presented here. The soft tissues removed from biota samples were combinedin amber bottles. The combined wet tissues were homogenized with a Tekmar
tissuemizer and weighed to about 5 g in 50 ml polypropylene centrifuge tubes.
Tripentyltin chloride was added to samples as a surrogate standard. For digestion, the samples were mixed with 6 N HCl and allowed to stand for 30 min.
The digested samples were extracted by shaking for 3 h with 20 ml dichloromethanewith tropolone (0.1%). After 10 min centrifugation (4000 rpm), 2 ml of organic
extracts were transferred to 15 ml glass test tubes and concentrated to about
25 μl under a gentle stream of nitrogen. The concentrated extracts were resuspended in 2 ml n-hexane and derivatized with 250 μl of 2 M propylmagnesium
bromide for 20 min. The remaining Grignard reagent was destroyed with 4 mlof 0.4 N sulfuric acid. The derivatized extracts were recovered by centrifugationand cleaned up on 1 g of activated florisil. During the florisil clean-up, theorganotin compounds were eluted twice with 2 ml of n-hexane. The cleaned
extracts were concentrated again and spiked with tetrabutyltin as an internal
standard, and then analyzed by GC/FPD.
The whole analytical procedure was validated by analyzing referencematerials (NIES11：sea bass, Leteolabrax japonicus) from the National Institute
Figure 2 Location of T. clavigera Sampling Sites onfor Environmental Studies of Japan.
the Coast of Korea
INSTRUMENTAL ANALYSISThe GC (HP5890 Series II) was equipped with a capillary column (SPB1, 30 m × 0.25 mm i.d. × 0.25 μm film thickness) and a flame photometric detector. The interference filter (Dietrich Optical) mounted
on the detector ranged from 600 to 2000 nm. Under splitless injection mode, 2 μl of sample was injected.
The oven temperature was programmed from 50 (2 min holding time) and heated to 150 (10 min holding time) at a rate of 10/min,and then heated again to final temperature of 240 (5min holding time) at 30/min. The injector and detector temperature were 225 and 250,
respectively. The carrier and make-up gas were helium. The hydrogen-rich flame consisted of hydrogen (170 ml/min) and air (100 ml/min).
Column head pressure was adjusted to 28 psi.
Recoveries of organotin compounds from spiked (0.3 μg Sn/g) in C.gigas samples ranged from 71 to 98% for butyl- and phenyltin
compounds. The method detection limits of the whole analytical procedure for C.gigas ranged from 1 to 3 ng/g.
Measurement of imposex
A sample size of 10 to 58 Thais clavigera from each site was used to measure frequency and degree of imposex. Shell length wasmeasured with Vernier calipers. The shells were cracked open with a titanium tool and the animals were removed. T.clavigera were sexedby appearance of a prominent female sperm-ingesting gland (Horiguchi et al., 1994). The penis of both female and male were cut, andpenis length was measured to the nearest 0.1 mm using Vernier calipers. The frequency of imposex females was expressed as apercentage. Whereas the degree of imposex was expressed by index of relative penis length (RPL)：[(mean length of female penis)/(meanlength of male penis) ( 100] (Bryan et al., 1986).
3.RESULTS
Butyl- and phenyltin residues in mussels and oysters (’95-’98 surveys)
The concentrations of butyl- and phenyltins in bivalves collected from 1995 to 1998 are summarized in Table 3. All the mussel andoyster samples analyzed contained detectable amount of butyltin compounds (BTs), whereas phenyltin compounds (PTs) were below detection limits at 26 out of 67 sites. Overall ranges of TBT and TPT concentrations were 48 to 2800 ng/g (mean±se, 566±573 ng/g) and< 3 to 1820 ng/g (161±325 ng/g), respectively. The mean TBT concentration in bivalves was 3.5 times higher than that of TPT. Overall
concentrations of dibutyltin (DBT) and monobutyltin (MBT) compounds, degradation products of TBT, ranged from < 2 to 1950 and from< 3 to 1270 ng/g, respectively. Concentrations of diphenyltin (DPT) and monophenyltin (MPT), degradation products of TPT, ranged from< 4 to 96 and from < 5 to 73, respectively. Total BT and PT concentrations (sum of tri-, di- and monoorganotins) ranged from 39 to
6020 ng/g and from nd to 2039 ng/g, respectively. Mean compositions of BTs was in order of TBT (71%) > DBT (18%) > MBT (11%).
TPT concentration also accounted for most of total PT concentration in bivalves. The spatial distributions of BTs are shown in Figures 3
through 7.
In comparison of BTs at three coasts of Korea, mean TBT level at the south coast was higher than those at the east and the west
coasts (Fig. 12). However, the mean total BT concentration was the highest at the East Coast. All the three BT concentrations were low
in oysters from the West Coast. The mean TBT and total BT concentrations in oysters from the West Coast are less than half of thosefrom the east and the south coasts. In case of PTs, both TPT and total PT concentrations at the south coast were higher than that at theeast and the west coasts (Fig. 12).
The overall TBT levels in bivalves were relatively high at sites near harbors and shipyards. DBT and MBT in bivalves showed similar
distribution patterns to that of TBT. TBT and DBT concentrations were highly correlated (r２ = 0.68；p < 0.01) as were DBT and MBT(r２ = 0.87；P < 0.01), respectively (Table 4). These correlations among butyltins demonstrate DBT and MBT are degradation products of
TBT. Phenyltins in bivalves, however, showed different distribution patterns from that of TBT. Although significant correlation was also
obtained between TPT and DPT, the correlation coefficients among PTs (0.02 < r２ < 0.33) were much lower than those among BTs (0.
66 < r２ < 0.87). Furthermore, no significant correlation (p > 0.05) was obtained between TBT and TPT.
FREQUENCY AND DEGREE OF IMPOSEXFrequency and degree of imposex in T. clavigera from 61 sites on the coast of Korea are shown in Table 2. The frequency of
imposexed females was greater than 80% at 51 sites. Only the two reference sites (Sites 1 and 59) had no females with imposex. With
the exception of the reference site (Site 1), the samples from 18 sites (Fig. 2a, Sites 1 through 18) on the west and southwest coast of244

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

Figure 3 Concentrations of Monobutyltin （MBT）,
Dibutyltin （DBT） and Tributyltin （TBT） in
Bivalves Along the Coast of Korea

Figure 4 Concentrations of Monobutyltin （MBT）,
Dibutyltin （DBT） and Tributyltin （TBT） in
Bivalve from Chinhae Bay

Figure 6 Concentrations of monobutyltin （MBT）,
dibutyltin （DBT） and tributyltin （TBT） inbivalve from Chunsu Bay

Figure 5 Concentrations of Monobutyltin （MBT）,
Dibutyltin （DBT） and Tributyltin （TBT） in
Bivalve from Kwangyang and Kamak
Bays.

Korea showed a frequency of imposex ranging from 6 to 100% and
RPL indices from 7 to 82% (Table 2). The overall frequency anddegree of imposex in this region are relatively low compared to theother sites and only Sites 3, 10, and 11 are located near harbors.
Samples from the 6 sites located on the East Coast of Korea (Fig.
2a) each had an imposex frequency of 100% (Sites 56, 57, 58, 59,
60, and 61) and RPL indices were higher than 60%, except for Site
59. Site 59 is a reference site that is far from boating activities,
whereas the other five sites are near harbors.

Figure 7 Concentrations of Monobutyltin （MBT）,
Dibutyltin （DBT） and Tributyltin （TBT） in
Bivalve from Incheon North Port andYongyu Island

ORGANOTIN CONCENTRATIONS IN THAIS CLAVIGERA
All the T.clavigera samples contained detectable TBT and TPT
compounds (Table 2). The concentrations of TBT and TPT in T.
clavigera range from 5 to 508 ng/g and from 3 to 2,460 ng/g,
respectively. TBT and TPT concentrations in the two reference sites
were 24 and 3 ng/g (Site 1) and 38 and 42 ng/g (Site 59), respectively. The mean concentration of TBT (mean±S.E. = 136±126 ng/g)
was about half that of TPT (267±398 ng/g). There was a low correlation coefficient (r２ = 0.27) between TBT and TPT concentrations in
T.clavigera. The TBT concentrations were higher than 200 ng/g near
harbors and shipyards (remarked in Table 2). Exceptionally elevated
TPT concentrations were also found at the sites near a harbor (Site60；2,460 ng/g) and a shipyard (Site 21；1,860 ng/g). However, the245International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

Table 3 Summary of organotin concentrations in bivalves from the coast of Korea. See text for abbreviations.
Concentration（ng Sn/g dw）
MBT
DBT
TBT
MPT
DPT
Min ‑ Max
nd‑1270
nd‑73
nd‑96
27‑1950
48‑2800
Mean （mean±sd）
122±197170±290566±57310±57
22±38
Composition （%）（mean±sd）
11±11
18±11
71±16
1±6
16±18
Table 4 Regression coefficient （R2）between concentration of each organotin compounds in bivalves.
Organotins
MBT
DBT
TBT
MPT
DBT
0.87＊＊aTBT
0.66＊＊
0.68＊＊
MPT
0.14
0.36
0.10
‑b
0.00
0.01
0.00
DPT
TPT
0.10
0.15
0.17
0.02
a＊＊99% confidence limit
bnot enough data

TPT
nd‑1820161±32583±19DPT0.33＊＊

Figure 8 Concentrations of monophenyltin （MPT）,
dipheyltin （DPT） and triphenyltin （TPT） inbivalve along the coast f Korea

Figure 9 Concentrations of monophenyltin （MPT）,
dipheyltin （DPT） and triphenyltin （TPT） inbivalve from Chinhae Bay

Figure 10 Concentrations of monophenyltin （MPT）,
dipheyltin （DPT） and triphenyltin （TPT） inbivalve from Kwangyang and Kamak bays

Figure 11 Concentrations of monophenyltin （MPT）,
dipheyltin （DPT） and triphenyltin （TPT） in
biv alv e fro m In c h e o n N orth P ort a n d
Yongyu Island

246

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

distribution pattern of TPT concentration was not closely related to
the locations of the harbor (e.g. Site 10) and shipyard (e.g. Site 50).
The overall TBT and TPT concentrations in T.clavigera were relatively low at Sites 1 to 18 except for Sites 3, 10, and 11 which arelocated near a harbor on the southwest coast of Korea (Table 2 andFig. 2a). TBT concentrations were relatively higher than those of TPT
in samples from the West Coast, but TPT concentrations were higher
in samples from the South and the East coasts.
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN DEGREE OF IMPOSEX ANDORGANOTIN BODY RESIDUES
Relationships between RPL indices and triorganotin concentrations
in T.clavigera are shown in Figure 13. These data provide supporting
evidence for the dose-response relationship of TBT and TPT in the
induction of imposex in T.clavigera. A curve of exponential rise to
maximum (y = RPLMAX×(1 - e‑αＸ)) fitted the best in the case (Fig.
13a, b and c). As both TBT and TPT were detected at all the sites
surveyed, it is difficult to determine which compound was the majorc o m p o n e nt in d u cin g i m p o se x in T . cla vig er a . T h e T B T
Figure 12 Mean concentrations of tributyltin （TBT）,(r２ = 0.63；p < 0.001) relationship with degree of imposex is strongtriphenyltin （TPT） and their degradation
er than that of TPT (r２ = 0.51；p < 0.001) (Fig.13a and b). The
products on the three coasts of Korea
highest regression correlation coefficient (r２ = 0.69；p < 0.001) was
obtained between RPL index and sum of TBT and TPT concentrations
in T.clavigera (Fig. 13c). In addition, the concentrations of TBT, TPT
and sum of TBT and TPT that caused half of RPLMAX, estimated from the models, were 35, 23, and 99 ng/g, respectively.
The percentage of females in the T.clavigera population at a site is apparently reduced as the concentrations of TBT and TPT increasein tissues (Fig. 14a and b). The sex ratio shows stronger relationship with TBT (r２ = 0.32；p < 0.001) than with TPT (r２ = 0.17；p< 0.05). The RPL index shows stronger relationship (r２ = 0.44；p < 0.001) with percentage of females (Fig. 14c) than with the TBTand TPT concentrations. With a respect to the percentage of female T. clavigera, the sample groups divided by 10% interval of RPL index
were compared to the reference group which showed less than 10% of RPL using student t-test (e.g. <10% RPL vs 10-20% RPL). The
percent female of each sample group of 80-90% and >90% RPL index was significantly different from that of the group of <10% RPL
in 99.9% confidence limit. The groups of 60-70% and 70-80% RPL showed significant difference with the group of <10% RPL in 95%
confidence limit, respectively. The percentage of female between the group of 50-60% RPL and the group of 10% RPL was significantly
different in 85% confidence limit. However, the other groups (10-20, 20-30, 30-40 and 40-50% RPL) showed no significant difference in
85% confidence limit.

Figure 13 Plots of relative penis length （ RPL ）index as a function of tributyltin （TBT）（a）, triphenyltin （TPT）（b） and sum oftributyltin and triphenyltin（c）concentrationsin Thais clavigera

247

Figure 14 Percentage of female Thais clavigera（% female）and as a functin of tributyltin（TBT）（a）, triphenyltin （TPT）（b）, andrelative penis length （RPL）index （c）

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

4.DISCUSSIONS
Status of organotin contamination in Korea
This study is the first report of TPT contamination as well as TBT in the marine environment of Korea except for the Chinhae Bay
System (Shim et al., 1998；Shim et al., 1999). TBT and TPT concentrations in the coastal environment of Korea are comparable to thosein developed countries when the concentrations were converted to tin basis (Table 5). However, BTs concentrations in mussels and oysters
from coastal waters in Korea were much higher than that in other Asian countries (Japan, Hong Kong, Thailand and Malaysia). TPT
concentration in mussels from Tokyo Bay, Japan was higher than the results in this study. TBT concentrations in bivalve was relatively
high at the innermost site of the enclosed bays where harbors or shipyards were located. Therefore, the primary source of TBT in themarine environment of Korea is believed to be antifouling agent leached from ship hulls.
The frequency of imposex was 100% at 46 out of 61 sampling sites, which was comparable to the results of Horiguchi et al. (1994)
in Japan. This high frequency of imposex and its wide distribution indicate that organotin contamination is widespread in Korea. The degreeof imposex appears to be closely related to boating and dry-docking activities, suggesting that antifouling paint applied to ship hulls wasa major source of organotin contamination. In addition, many scattered small wharves and the fishing vessel traffic may also be sources
leading to the wide distribution of imposex to the remote places from harbors and shipyards. The low degree of imposex as well as low
organotin concentration in T. clavigera on the west and southwest coast of Korea could be explained by high flushing efficiency. The tidal
range of the region exceeds about 3 meters compared to less than 1 m on the east and southeast coast of Korea (NORI, 1999).
In this study, a higher correlation coefficient was obtained between the RPL index and TBT than between the RPL index and TPT
in T.clavigera. However, it is difficult to conclude that TBT more strongly influences imposex in T.clavigera than TPT does. Even though
TBT and TPT concentrations in T.clavigera were not significantly (r２ = 0.09；p > 0.05) correlated, both compounds showed positive
relationships with the RPL index. Sites 1 through 18 at which both TBT and TPT concentrations were low showed less intensive imposex
either. Several sites in Kwangyang Bay and Chinhae Bay (e.g. Sites 32 and 41), where low TBT and high TPT concentrations were found,showed relatively high RPL indices. These results support the hypothesis that TPT has an effect on imposex induction of T. clavigera.
Although high degrees of imposex were measured in T. clavigera collected near a harbor (e.g. Site 35) and a shipyard (e.g. Site 45),
some sites remote from large harbor and shipyard also showed comparable frequency and degree of imposex (e.g. Site 49). Furthermore,
although imposex was observed in T. clavigera samples whose TBT concentrations were less than 20 ng/g (Sites 4, 8, 12, 13, 17, and 18),
but two reference sites whose TBT concentrations were 24 and 38 ng/g, respectively, showed no imposex female. These results indicatethat TBT and TPhT were not the only compounds to cause imposex in T.clavigera.
Female T.clavigera are masculinized, sterilized, and then died when their oviducts were fully blocked by abnormal male sexual organs(Horiguchi et al., 1994). These irreversible masculinizations and selective mortalities may cause an unbalanced female to male sex ratio.
In this study, the female to male ratio was significantly reduced as TBT and TPT concentrations increased and degree of imposex increased(Figs. 14a-c). T.clavigera could be recruited to a contaminated area from other pristine areas, because T.clavigera has a planktonic stage
as a veliger larva. However, the apparent decline of the female T.clavigera population observed in this study as a function of organotin
concentration indicates that organotin pollution may cause local extinction of this organism.
The TPT concentrations in this study are slightly higher than the results reported elsewhere, although there are little TPT concentration
Table 5 Concentrations of butyltins and triphenyltin compounds in bivalve molluscs collected worldwide （ng/g wet wt）
Concentration
Organism
Location
References
MBT
DBT
TBT
TPT
<5‑380<5‑1450CRASSOSTREA Gulf of Mexico, 1989‑ <5‑145naGarcia‑Romeo et al., 1993ab
1991
VIRGINICA<10‑5600
Chesapeake Bay, USA
nac
ndc
na
Espourteille et al., 1993
<5‑270<5‑660
Coastal estuaris, USA <5‑120naWade et al., 1988ab
80‑6350
Crassostrea
Coastal estuaries, UK,nanana
Waite et al., 1991
1986‑1989
gigas
53‑559250‑1350
188‑678
Chinhae Bay , Korea 19‑119
Shim, 1996ab
1995<2‑707<3‑1820
16‑2370
South and West Coast, <3‑533
This studyab
Korea, 1995‑1998<5‑1080
Mytilus edulis Pacific coast , U S Ananana
Short and Sharp, 1989
1986‑1987
20‑12040‑54020‑24028‑5930
Tokyo Bay, Japan,
Higashiyama et al., 1991
1989
1989
340‑1000
540‑2320
Lynher River, 1987‑
ndPage and Widdows, 1991a
6.8‑8052‑314
B ritis h C ol u m b ia , 8.2‑49
na
Stewart and Thompson, 1994a
Canada, 1990
<5‑1280<5‑1560
Coastal estuaris, USA <5‑1240
naWade et al., 1988ab<1‑340<1‑2300
na
Ritsema et al., 1991
E a s t e r n S c h e l d t , <1‑410
Netherland, 1988
<2‑1005
12‑2450220‑2600
Mediterranean, 1988
na
Tolosa et al., 1992a<3‑1520
27‑1950
48‑2800
East Coast , Korea , <3‑1270
This studyab
1996‑1997<2‑15174‑42649‑101
Mytilus corsus East Coast , Korea , 19‑447
This studyab
1996‑1997¨<4‑1740
6‑11500
28‑3200
et al., 1995ab
Dreissena
Freshwater, Netherland, <6‑860
Stab
1992
polymorpha64‑115Perna viridis
Coast of Hong Kong,nanana
Chiu et al., 1991
1989
14.2‑23.5
Coast of Malaysia,nananaTong et al., 1996
1992
<3‑45
1‑80
3‑680
Coast of T hailand ,na
Kan‑atireklap et al., 1997
1994‑1995
aDry weight basis
bExpressed in tin basecna；not analyzed, nd；no data shown248

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystemdata for gastropods in the literature (Fent and Hunn, 1991；Tolosa et al., 1992). Interestingly, TPT concentrations exceeded TBT at 40
out of 61 sites, indicating that the coastal waters of Korean peninsula are highly contaminated by the TPT compound. High TPT to TBT
concentration ratios suggest that T.clavigera is the suitable species to use for monitoring TPT as well as TBT.
In summary, bivalves in coastal waters of Korea is widely contaminated with butyl- and phenyltin compounds. TBT concentrations inbivalve were comparable to those in other countries. Spatial distribution of TBT and TPT concentrations biota was related to location ofharbors and shipyard. Widespread and high intensity of imposex in T.clavigera along the coast of Korea indicated that organotin contamination apparently affect marine organisms. The female to male sex ratios showed a negative correlation with organotin concentrations andthe degree of imposex. The obviously reduced female to male sex ratio in population of T.clavigera implied that local extinction of thisspecies may happen at the place highly polluted with organotins. A positive relationship was obtained between the degree of imposex and
TBT and TPT concentrations in this organism. This species accumulated both TPT and TBT to high concentrations, but even at concentrations of these compounds of less than 10 ng/g, imposex was present. This species is also widely distributed and abundant along the coastof Korea. Therefore, T.clavigera could be used as a target organism in an effect-based monitoring regime for both TBT and TPT compounds
in marine environment of Korea.

REFERENCES
Bettin, C., Oehlmann, J. and Stroben, E. (1996) TBT induced imposex in marine neogastropods in mediated by an increasing androgenlevel. Helgolander Meeresuntersuchungen, 50：299-317.
Bryan, G. W., Gibbs, P. E., Hummerstone, L. G. and Burt, G. R. (1986) The decline of the gastropod Nucella lapillus around southwest
England：evidence for the effect of tributyltin from antifouling paints. J. Mar. Biol. Assoc. U.K. 66：611-640.
Ellis, D. V. and Pattisina, L. G. (1990) Widespread neogastropod imposex：A biological indicator of global TBT contamination? Mar.
Pollut. Bull. 21：248-253.
Evans, S. M., Evans, P. M. and Leksono, T. (1996) Widespread recovery of dogwhelks, Nucella lapillus (L.), from tributyltin contamination in the North Sea and Clyde Sea. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 32：263-269.
Fent, K. and Hunn, J. (1991) Phenyltins in water, sediment, and biota of freshwater marinas. Environ. Sci. Technol. 25：956-963.
Gibbs, B. E., Bryan, G. W., Pascoe, P. L. and Burt, G. R. (1987) The use of the dog-whelk, Nucella lapillus, as an indicator of tributyltin(TBT) contamination. J. Mar. Biol. Ass. U.K. 67：507-523.
Horiguchi, T., Shiraishi, H., Shimizu, S. and Morita, M. (1997) Effects of triphenyltin chloride and five other organotin compounds onthe development of imposex in the rock shell, Thais clavigera. Environ. Pollut. 95：85-91.
Horiguchi, T., Shiraishi, H., Shimizu, M. and Morita, M. (1994) Imposex and organotin compounds in Thais clavigera and T. bronni inJapan. J. Mar. Biol. Ass. U.K. 74： 651-669.
Kan-atireklap, S., Tanabe, S., Sanguansin, J., Tabucanon, S. and Hungspreugs, M. (1997) Contamination of butyltin compounds andorganochlorine residues in green mussel (Perna viridis, L.) from Thailand coastal waters. Environ. Pollut. 97：79-89.
Kannan, K., Tanabe, S., Iwata, H. and Tatsukawa, R. (1995a) Butyltins in muscle and liver of fish collected from certain Asian andOceanian countries. Environ. Pollut. 90(3)： 279-290.
Nias. D. J., McKillup, S. C. and Edyvane, K. S. (1993) Imposex in Lepsiella vinosa from southern Australia. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 26：380384.
NORI (National Oceanographic Research Institute) (1999) Tide tables (coast of Korea). Pub. No. 510. Ministriy of Maritime Affairs andFisheries, Seoul, Korea, pp. 256, (in Korean).
Oehlmann, J., Fioroni, P., Stroben E. and Markert, B. (1996) Tributyltin (TBT) effects on Ocinebrina aciculata (Gastropod：Muricidae)：
imposex development, sterilization, sex change and population decline. Sci. Total Environ. 188：205-223.
Page, D. S. and Widdows, J. (1991) Temporal and spatial variation in levels of alkyltins in mussel tissues：a toxicological interpretationof field data. Mar. Environ. Res. 32： 113-129.
Shim, W. J., Oh, J. R., Kahng, S. H., Shim, J. H. and Lee, S. H. (1999) Horizontal distribution of butyltins in surface sediments froman enclosed bay system, Korea. Environ. Pollut. 106：351-357.
Shim, W. J., Oh, J. R., Kahng, S. H., Shim, J. H. and Lee, S. H. (1998). Accumulation of tributyl- and triphenyltin compounds in Pacificoyster, Crassostrea gigas, from the Chinhae Bay System, Korea. Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 35：41-47.
Short, J. W. and Sharp, J. L. (1989) Tributyltin in bay mussels (Mytilus edulis) of the Pacific Coast of the United States. Environ. Sci.
Technol. 23：740-743.
Stallard, M. O., Cola, S. Y. and Dooley, C. A. (1989) Optimization of butyltin measurements for seawater, tissue, and marine sediment
samples. Appl. Organomet. Chem. 3： 105-114.
Stroben, E., Oehlmann, J. and Fioroni, P. (1992) Hinia recticulata and Nucella lapillus. Comparison of two gastropod tributyltin bioindicator.
Mar. Biol. 114：289-296.
Tolosa, I., Merlini, L., de Bertrand, N., Bayona, J. M. and Albaiges, J. (1992) Occurrence and fate of tributyl- and triphenyltin compounds
in western Mediterranean coastal enclosures. Eviron. Toxicol. Chem. 11：145-155.
Wade, T. L., Carcia-Romero, B. and Brooks, J. M. (1988) Tributyltin contamination in bivalve from United States coastal estuaries. Environ.
Sci. Technol. 22：1488-1493.

249

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

GOVERNMENTS OF DEVELOPING COUNTRIES GROSSLYUNDERVALUE THEIR MANGROVES?
J. E. ONG, W. K. GONG & H. C. CHAN＊
Centre for Marine and Coastal Studies and *Centre for Policy Research
Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800 Penang, MALAYSIA.
E- mail：jeong@usm.my
◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

Abstract
In the tropics, mangroves fringe a large percentage (e.g. close to 50% in Malaysia) of the coastline. This gives the impression thatthe mangrove ecosystem is very common. In reality (measured as a percentage of land area), even in a region where they are mostabundant like South & Southeast Asia and Australia (where some 50% of the world’s mangroves occur), mangroves constitute a mere
0.4% of the land area of this region. Thus mangrove ecosystems are rare. This, combined with their numerous economic (e.g. forestry
and fisheries resources) and ecologic (e.g. carbon sink and coastal protection) roles, should make mangroves a highly valued commodity.
Historically, mangroves have been considered as bad swamp land full of mosquitoes and other vermin and so is best reclaimed forother uses. Although this concept is no longer in vogue, mangroves are still very much undervalued, especially by governments of developing countries. In much of the world, mangroves are not considered to be a valuable asset by governments. Yet in the few developed
countries where mangroves occur, they are completely protected by law (e.g. Australia and the U.S.A.).
Why is it that only the developed countries recognise this value? And why are some newly rich like Singapore and Hong Kong
prepared to spend millions to restore their mangroves that have been destroyed? Is it too late for the developing countries’ governments
to wake up to this? Governments is the operative word because the whole exercise requires strong political will. Much more so thanecology and economics, though they may be the fundamental reasons that mangroves are considered important.
Alternatively, international and non-governmental organisations could strengthen existing international conventions like the biodiversity
convention of UNCED or even institute a new one to specifically protect the world’s dwindling mangrove ecosystems.

INTRODUCTION
In the tropics, mangroves fringe a large percentage (e.g. close to 50% in Malaysia) of the coastline. This gives the impression thatthe mangrove ecosystem is very common. In a region where they are most abundant like South & Southeast Asia and Australia (wheresome 50% of the world’s mangroves occur), mangroves constitute a mere 0.4% of the land area of this region (Table 1). Even in thefour countries (Brazil, Bangladesh, Indonesia & Nigeria) where some 40% of the world’s mangroves are to be found, mangroves constituteonly 0.63% of these countries’ land area. There are only some 181,000 km２ of mangroves in the world (Spalding et al., 1997) which isequivalent to a mere 0.037% of the world’s surface area or 0.12% of the world’s total land area. Thus, in reality, mangrove ecosystems
are in the rare category, as far as ecosystems go. They should thus be considered valuable, based on their rarity alone.
Apart from being rare (and thus valuable) the mangrove ecosystem also plays many other important roles. These include：
maintenance of channel depth, sediment accretion and coastal protection, fish from mangrove water ways, natural cockle (Anadara granosa)
and oyster beds, bird sanctuary / migratory stops, fish nursery grounds and their support of adjacent coastal fisheries and the sequestrationof atmospheric carbon dioxide (e.g. Ong, 1993 & Ong, 1995).
Table 1 Comparing mangroves, population density, population growth, and per capita gross domestic product of selected "countries""Country"

Mangroves［,000km２］（%World）

Land［,000km２］

（100）
181
148,000
WORLD（23.5）
42.6
1,905
Indonesia
（3.2）
5.8
144
Bangladesh
（5.8）
10.5
924
Nigeria
（7.4）
13.4
8,512
Brazil（40.4）
72.7
11,485Sub‑total（6.35）
11.5
7,713
Australia（0.003）
0.005
378
Japan
（1.1）
1.99
9,373
USA
（7.5）
13.5
18,084Sub‑total（0.003）0.006
0.62
Singapore（0.0015）0.003
1.04
Hong Kong
（3.5）
6.4
330
Malaysia（23.5）
42.6
1,905
Indonesia* Purchase‑Power Parity （based on World Bank ratios）
Data mainly from Spalding et al. (1997) and Asiaweek 26 (45).

（%Land）（0.122）（2.24）（4.03）（1.14）（0.16）（0.63）（0.15）（0.001）（0.021）（0.075）（0.97）（0.29）（1.94）（2.24）

Popｎ.
Dens.
［No./km２］
40
117
897
134
20
‑
3
335
29
‑
6,407
6,250
67
117

Popｎ.
Gwth.
［%］
‑
1.6
2.2
2.9
1.9
‑
1.2
0.3
1.0
‑
0.7
2.3
2.4
1.6

Per Capita
GDP （PPP＊）
［US$］
‑
2,685
1,410
930
6,418
‑
23,14523,78033,872‑25,353
20,485
8,513
2,685

Thus their scarcity, combined with their numerous economic and ecologic roles, should make mangroves a highly valued commodity.
Historically, mangroves have been considered as bad swamp land full of mosquitoes and other vermin and so is best reclaimed forother uses. Although this concept is no longer in vogue, mangroves are still very much undervalued, especially by governments of developing countries. In much of the world, mangroves are not considered to be a valuable asset by governments. Yet in the few developed

206

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystemcountries where mangroves occur, they are completely protected by law (e.g. Australia and the U.S.A.).
In this paper we address the question as to why mangroves are still not generally recognised for their real worth and what could
possibly be done to overcome this.

THE VALUE OF MANGROVES
Is it possible to realistically put a value to any ecosystem? One can value ecosystems from the goods and services they produce.
There are many different goods and services produced by different ecosystems (Ewel et al.,1998) but not all the goods (and even less so
the services) have tangible market values. Still, we could first list the goods that a particular mangrove or ecosystem provides and thenproceed to assign a value to each of these goods. Amongst the goods produced by mangrove ecosystems are timber (for use as firewood
or conversion to charcoal or rayon), fish (like fin fish, cockles, crabs and prawns caught within the mangrove ecosystem), harvested forest
products like nipah (Nypa fruticans) fronds and sap (for sugar and subsequent alcohol and vinegar production). The list is short.
Timber is the most obvious goods derived from mangroves but, even so, not all mangroves can sustainably produce timber on a commercial
basis. Still, it is possible to put an economic value to mangrove timber (as timber or after conversion to value added products like charcoal
or rayon). One vital question is which value should be used：the value from mangrove wood chips or the value of rayon, the finishedproduct? It is also possible to put values to fish caught within the mangrove ecosystem but those harvested for local sustenance (which
may be substantial in certain systems) will not have market value.
Even with goods, the valuation is not straight forward but with services the problem is even more complex. Mangroves provide many
services. These include：an ecological buffer zone between land and sea, resting sites for migratory birds, fish nursery to both marine
and freshwater fish, nutrients to fish in adjacent coastal waters, carbon sequestration sites, storm protection, estuarine channel depth
maintenance (Wolanski et al.,1992) and sites for aquaculture. The list is long but all of these do not have any market value. Many
attempts have been made to put values to these services but more often than not these values are contentious.
How does one put a value to nutrients provided by mangroves to the fisheries of its adjacent coastal fisheries when it is not even
known how much of the adjacent coastal fisheries is dependent on this outwelled mangrove nutrients, and for that matter, how much
nutrients are outwelled from mangroves to its adjacent coastal systems (e.g. Simpson et al.,1997)?
We may be able to put some reasonable estimates of value in terms of the use of mangroves for ecotourism (it is possible to determine
how much is spent by eco-tourists) but how does one put a rational figure on the value of mangroves as a resting site for migratory birds? If the migratory birds are lost, it may be taken as potential loss in terms of fewer eco-tourists but do we also factor in the other sideof the coin；that migratory birds may carry infectious diseases (and the cost of eradicating and treating these diseases)?
With goods, if the price is contentious, market forces will ensure that the correct value will eventually surface. With services, there
is no market forces at play so the values will remain contentious and will not be resolved.
Still, it is obvious that mangroves have great value (both market and non-market) but it is only the exact quantum is contentious.
GOVERNMENTS PERCEPTION OF THE VALUE OF MANGROVES - SOME SCENARIOSThe Developed
Since most of the world’s developed countries are in Europe and Europe has no mangroves, there are very few developed countries
with mangroves. Australia, Japan and the U.S.A. are amongst the few developed countries who have mangroves (although the 5 km２
mangroves or 0.00013% of the land area in Japan is almost insignificant).
Australia has huge areas from the tropics to the temperate (presently, mangroves make up about 0.15% of the total land area) andalthough some of these mangroves were cleared during early European settlement (e.g. converted to grow sugar cane), mangroves are now
well protected by the government. Commercial fishing is not permitted within mangrove areas and should any mangroves need to beconverted to alternate uses, equivalent areas need to be rehabilitated or established.
In Japan, the mangroves are in the Okinawa prefecture and although they were used for tannin until about the middle of the twentiethcentury, they are now well protected. We were told that on Iriomote Island all the trees are tagged and being monitored by numerous
research groups.
In the U.S.A. most of the mangroves are in Florida (0.02% of the total land area is mangroves). There was significant loss ofmangroves through reclamation for agricultural and other uses until the 1970s and 1980s. Since then all mangroves (and salt marshes the temperate equivalent) are close to totally protected whether they grow in National Parks (like the Everglades National Park) or in some
private compound. Even the pruning of mangroves requires special permission from the relevant authorities (Note：some species ofmangroves like Rhizophora will die if their tops are loped off!).
What we see in all these developed countries is the realisation that mangroves are very valuable natural assets that require special
government protection.
The Newly Developed
Some 13% of Singapore (around the early nineteenth century) were covered in mangroves. In 1990, there were some 6 km２ (or justunder 1%) left (Spalding et al., 1997). Efforts are now being made to establish new mangroves.
Most of the mangroves in Hong Kong have been converted to other use and there is now less than 3 km２ (or less than 0.3% of
the total land area) of mangroves left (Tham & Wong, 2000). The only significant area of mangroves left is the Mai Po mangroves.
The mangroves are rather depauperate yet millions of dollars are being spent in management and rehabilitation.
The newly developed like Singapore and Hong Kong have also realised the value of mangroves and have given them the necessary
attention.
The Almost Developed
Malaysia is a nation with a relatively low population and substantial natural resources. She aspires to join the ranks of the developed
nations by the year 2020. There are some 6,400 km２ (or just under 2% of the total land area) of mangroves. We estimate that thisrepresents less than half of what originally (in the late eighteenth century) existed. Malaysia stands proud at having the Matang Mangroves- a rare example of a sustainably managed tropical ecosystem for timber production. There were also less than successful exploits likethe massive mangrove wood chips (for rayon production in Japan) extraction in Sabah and Sarawak (e.g. see Ong 1982). The Federal
Government has realised the importance and value of mangroves and has recently advised all State Governments (in Malaysia’s federal
system, land matter comes under the jurisdiction of the individual states) to refrain from using mangroves for other uses. Since there is
yet no legislation in place, there is still no strong legal protection.

207

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

The Developing
Most of the mangroves in the world are in the developing countries. In many of these countries, the population pressures are so
great that many of the mangroves have been destroyed or devastated. There are however still vast areas of pristine excellent mangroves
left in Indonesia (despite its huge population of over 200 million) and even Bangladesh (human population of around 130 million) withthe world’s largest continuous area of mangroves in the Sunderbans (some 4% of its total area of land is still under mangroves). Indonesia
has almost a quarter of the world’s mangroves or 2.2% of its total land area. In highly populated areas like the island of Java, population pressures (including the building of aquaculture ponds of ’tambaks’ ) have decimated the areas of mangroves but the single mostmajor threat is now the concessions given to the harvesting of huge areas of pristine luxuriant mangroves for wood chips (for the Japaneserayon industry). It must be noted that Indonesia has done quite a creditable job in having a relatively large number of national parks
for a developing country but the fact remains that much of Indonesia’s mangroves remain legally unprotected and are highly susceptible tothe very low returns from the mangrove wood chips industry.
DISCUSSION
Essentially many mangroves can provide a few very valuable goods such as timber (which is often converted to higher value charcoal
or to even higher value rayon) and fish. These are goods with market values that are determined by market forces. Mangroves also
provide a vast host of services ranging from fish nursery, migratory bird stops, storm protection, nutrients for adjacent coastal fisheries tocarbon sinks for mitigating the world’s increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide. Many of these services are difficult or impossible touncontentiously value as they cannot be transacted. Nonetheless they are still very valuable and their values can only be realised withgovernmental intervention. Whilst it is generally accepted that market forces should be left to dictate the values of most things, it is also
accepted that there are certain values that cannot be left to market forces and where market failures occur, responsible governments shouldintervene.
Somehow it seems that governments in developed and newly developed countries have realised that the non-market values provided
by the mangrove ecosystem are considerable (although their values may not be direct but one or two steps removed) and merits protection.
They have thus expended funds to rehabilitate or even recreate the system or have legislated to afford the mangrove ecosystem good
protection. They have realised that this aspect of the value of mangroves cannot be left to market forces.
The governments of developing countries on the other hand have continued to undervalue their mangroves by leaving the economics
entirely to market forces. Even for a almost developed country, like Malaysia (who at the same time has the enlightened belief thatmarket forces cannot be allowed to rule completely), there still appears a reluctance to intervene.
There seems to be a dilemma. The developing countries have a much greater stake to protect their mangroves since these are
valuable natural assets, yet little is being done. Why is this so? A lack of understanding?
First, it can be argued that most of the tropical developing countries have more mangroves (as a percentage of the total country area)
than those of the developed countries. Mangroves are not as scarce in these countries so they are consequently less valued. Perhaps it
would help if these countries take a more global view?
Second, most of these countries may perceive that there is little or no immediate benefit in protecting their mangroves. In fact, they
may perceive a loss of control and loss of right to use these mangroves. This may also be because of the misconception that protectionmeans the loss of use but in actual fact sustainable use is very much part of the concept of protection.
In the case of Malaysia, it may be political baggage：the problem of land being a state matter in a federal system. But surely, theState Governments must also be aware of the value of mangroves (they have been informed by the Federal Government, if no one else).
Why this lack of political will at the State level? Protection of certain sectors that tend to profit? Whatever, the source of this problemof the lack of protection of mangroves in Malaysia comes down to the state governments continuing to grossly under value mangroves.
For the developing countries the solution is also to get the governments (whether federal or state) to intervene with legislation and tofollow up by strictly enforcing the new laws. There has been enough done by various UN organisations as well as non-governmentalorganisations in the past 20 or so years, all over the world to inform governments about the value of mangroves so there is no longer
any excuse to plead ignorance. What is now needed is the political will for governments to intervene and save the mangroves so thatthe services provided by this unique ecosystem benefits the masses for generations to come rather than just a few in the present generation.
This is very much in line with the sustainable development concept in a number of recent international conventions that most
governments are now signatory to.
The alternative is for a more global approach：for an international convention to protect mangroves. One mechanism is to strengthen
the biodiversity umbrella of UNCED so that the mangrove ecosystems worldwide are given adequate protection by governments. At thesame time, there is also a need to ensure that governments that protect their mangroves are given adequate compensation by the international
community in recognition of their contribution to the health of the overall global environment. For this to happen, international organisations (like UNEP and FAO) and non-governmental organisations (like World Wide Fund for Nature and Wetlands International) would haveto take the initiative.
REFERENCES
Ewel, K.C., Twilley, R.R. & Ong, J.E. (1998). Different kinds of mangrove forests provide different goods and services. Global Ecology
an Biogeography Letters 7：83-94.
Ong, J.E. (1982). Aquaculture, Forestry and Conservation of Malaysian Mangroves. Ambio 11： 252-257.
Ong, J.E. (1993). Mangroves - a carbon source and sink. Chemosphere 27：1097-1107.
Ong, J. E. (1995). The ecology of mangrove management and conservation. Hydrobiologia 295：343-351.
Simpson, J. H., Gong, W. K. & Ong. J. E. (1997). The determination of net fluxes from a mangrove estuary system. Estuaries 20：
103-109.
Spalding, M.D., F. Blasco and C.D. Field (Eds).(1997). World Mangrove Atlas. The International Society for Mangrove Ecosystems, Okinawa,
Japan. 178 pp.
Tham, N. F.Y. and Wong, Y.S. (2000). Hong Kong Mangroves. City University of Hong Kong Press. 148 pp.
Wolanski, E., Mazda, Y. & Ridd, P. (1992). Mangrove hydrodynamics. pp. 43-62 in：A. Robertson and D. Alongi (Eds), TropicalMangrove Ecosystems. American Geophysical Union, Washington, D.C.

208

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

ASEAN COOPERATION ON COASTAL AND
MARINE ENVIRONMENT
Kesrat SUKASAM
Senior Officer, Environment, ASEAN Secretariat
70 A.Jl Sisingamangaraja, Jakarta 12110, Indonesia
E- mail：kesrat@aseansec.org
◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

ASEAN
The Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) was established on 8 August 1967 to cooperate in securing the region’s peace,stability and development.The current members of the Association are Brunei Darussalam, Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar,
the Philippines, Singapore, Thailand and Vietnam. The ASEAN Secretariat office is based in Jakarta, Indonesia.
ASEAN has evolved from the initially small machinery in 1967 into the large and diversified organization. ASEAN cooperation now
ranges from trade, industry, service, finance, economic and functional cooperation.Environmental protection and sustainable development isamong the priority areas of cooperation. ASEAN’s core cooperation approach in tackling problems and undertaking initiatives is throughconsultation and consensus. ASEAN members have also become more active in putting collaborative efforts in addressing problems andissues faced by the region.

ASEAN Cooperation on the Environment
ASEAN Cooperation on the Environment started in 1977 when the ASEAN Sub-Regional Environment Programme I was preparedand implemented by the ASEAN Experts Group on the Environment (AEGE) under the purview of the ASEAN Committee on Scienceand Technology. The First ASEAN Ministerial Meeting was held in 1981. The cooperation was further strengthened when the status of
AEGE was upgraded to the ASEAN Senior Officials on the Environment (ASOEN) in 1989.Since then the organizational structure of theASEAN cooperation in the field of environment consists of the ASOEN and its subsidiary bodies, the Meeting of the ASEAN
Environment Ministers and the ASEAN Secretariat (through its Environment Unit of the Economic and Functional Cooperation Bureau).
To carry out its function, ASOEN established three Working Groups namely：Nature Conservation and Biodiversity, Coastal andMarine Environment and Multilateral Environmental Agreement represented by concerned agencies from the member countries.The Working
Groups meet at least annually to discuss and plan collaborative programmes and activities.An organizational structure of ASEAN Environmental
Cooperation appears as annex 1.

Environmental priorities
At the 2nd ASEAN Informal Summit held in Kuala Lumpur in 1997, the ASEAN Heads of Government adopted the ASEAN Vision2020 which envisioned, among others, "a clean and green ASEAN with fully established mechanisms for sustainable development to ensure
the protection of the region’s environment, the sustainability of its natural resources, and the high quality of life of its peoples" by theyear 2020.
At the ASEAN Summit held in Hanoi in December 1998, the ASEAN Leaders also adopted the Hanoi Plan of Action (HPA) as thefirst six-year plan of action towards the ASEAN Vision 2020.Fifteen points of action are related to environment, which appears as annex
2.In this regard, the ASEAN Senior Officials on the Environment (ASOEN) developed an ASEAN Strategic Plan of Action on theEnvironment (SPAE), 1999-2004, in support of the objectives stipulated in the HPA.
The activities in the SPAE are grouped into the following five main areas： (a)Land / Forest Fires and Haze(b)Nature Conservation and Biodiversity(c)Coastal and Marine Environment(d)International Environment Issues(e)Other Environment Activities

COOPERATION ON COASTAL AND MARINE ENVIRONMENT
The coastal and marine environment of Southeast Asian countries is of vast mangroves, coral reefs and sea grasses, which are hatching grounds and nurseries for many species of marine organisms. These habitats provide, among others, food, employment and economic
welfare to people and serve as coastal barriers and pollution filters. Mangroves, sea grasses and coral reefs are now threatened by pollution,
exploitation and over-development of coastal areas in the region. Coastal and marine pollution caused by land and sea-based activities are
increasing in an alarming rate.
For ASEAN, the main challenge is how to maintain an optimal balance between development and conservation of natural resources in
the regional for present and future generations.
Followings are some of the various planned and on-going activities undertaken under the purview of the ASOEN and other relevant
ASEAN bodies.

ASEAN Senior Officials of the Environment (ASOEN)
The Strategic Plan of Action on the Environment,1999-2004 outlines two key objectives ：・ Develop a framework and improve regional coordination for the integrated protection and management of coastal zones by the year
2001
・ Develop a Regional Action Plan for the Protection of the Marine Environment form Land-based and Sea-based Activities by theyear 2004
The ASEAN Working Group on Coastal and Marine Environment (AWGCME), chaired by Thailand, has been tasked to coordinate
regional cooperation in addressing coastal and marine environmental issues. AWGCME has identified seven priority areas in its cooperation

165

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystemframework for the integrated protection and management of coastal zones, including：・ coral reef, sea grasses, mangrove
・ oil sludge from tanks and ballast water・ solid and liquid waste management
・ clean technology
・ coastal erosion
・ eco-tourism; and・ coastal wetlands including protected marine areas.
To achieve the objectives stipulated in the SPAE, the Working Group has formulated regional strategies and implemented various
planned and on-going activities as follows.
a) Information exchange/networking
The Internet-based information system is being developed to facilitate the exchange of information and experiences among theASEAN member countries especially on the identified seven priority subject areasb) Standard format on coral monitoring
ASEAN is considering the possibility to adopt the Data Acquisition Form developed by Thailand in coral reef and sea grasses
monitoring at the regional level.
c) Harmonization of criteria for identifying coastal and marine pollution "hotspots"
Several guidelines are being considered to be used as the criteria for ASEAN, including the one developed by the Global
International Water Assessment (GIWA) and the other by Thailand using its coastal water quality standards.
d) Develop the marine water quality standards for the ASEAN regione) Develop criteria aimed at designating areas to protect critical marine habitats and resourcesf) Develop guidelines for management and conservation plans for marine resources including community-based coastal surveillance forclean coastal environmentg) Develop a regional mechanism to enhance surveillance and follow-up action against illegal discharge including tanker de-sludging
activities at sea.

Committee on Science and Technology (COST)
The Sub-Committee on Marine Science under COST has implemented several regional programmes on coastal zone management including：・ The ASEAN-Australia Economic Cooperation Programme (AAECP) on Marine Science (1994-1998)
The project was built in three phases, focused on Coastal Living Resources, on Regional Ocean Dynamics, Marine Science andTechnology Management, and on Coastal Zone Environmental Resource Management.
Among the outputs were：the successful establishment of National Environment and Resource Information Centres (NERICs) inparticipating member countries (Brunei Darussalam, Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand and Viet Nam). The Centres
are responsible for collecting and managing data on coastal zones; the establishment of linkages between the NERICs and agencies
responsible for the management of the nation’s coastline; and the development of Directories on Coastal and Marine Data Metadatabases.
・ The ASEAN-Canada Cooperative Programme on Marine Science (1991-1999)
The project was originally focused on the establishment of environmental criteria for the protection of marine resources on certain
enterprises, including capture fisheries, aquaculture, tourism and recreation.
The succeeding phase, entitled Establishment of Environmental Criteria for Development and Management of Living Marine Resources& Human Health Protection, focused on the development of safe standards for the marine environment.A "Marine Water Quality
Criteria" for 18 parametersxl using local tropical species as test organisms have been formulated and being considered for adoption
by the ASEAN Senior Officials on the Environment (ASOEN)
・ The ASEAN-EU Cooperation Project entitled "Interdisciplinary Scientific Methodologies for the Sustainable Use and Management of
Coastal Resource System (1995-1999)
A "SimCoast Software" was developed.SimCoast is an expert system containing a set of rules and interdisciplinary protocols for
integrated coastal zone planning/decision-making facilitating cross-section and transect analysis.SimCoast was designed for use bycoastal zone managers, researchers, planners and policy makers protocols for integrated coastal zone planning/decision-making.

ASEAN Senior Officials Meeting on Agriculture and Forestry
The ASEAN Sectoral Working Group on Fisheries has implemented various activities in addressing fish and marine resourcesmanagement.
・ Promotion of Mangrove-friendly Aquaculture in Southeast Asian Countries
A series of workshop and training were conducted to discuss the status of utilization of the region’s mangrove areas for aquaculture
and problems encountered as well as recommendations for sustainable aquaculture in mangrove areas. A Second series of workshop
focusing on the effects of shrimp culture on mangroves has been planned.
・ Conservation and Management of Sea Turtles in Southeast Asian Countries
One of the major activities of the project is to test the suitability and acceptability to the region of various types of turtle excluding devicesxli. The suitability criteria tested included the device’s efficiency in excluding sea turtles from the catch as well as easein installation, transportation and storage.
Two additional activities have been planned for the coming years until December 2002, namely (i) Sea Turtle Hatchery Management
Study and (ii) Sea Turtle Statistics Management. The first activity aims at understanding the nesting ecology and incubation biology
of eggs and hatching sex ration from natural beach and artificial environment; evaluating management of hatchling production in
the study area; and formulating specific recommendation to help improve existing conservation practices. The second activity will
involve the establishment of a regional network on sea turtle and a regional GIS database.
・ Fish Trade and Environment
As results of the Preparatory meeting on Issues of International Fish Trade and Environment held in November 1999, ASEAN and
SEAFDEC have agreed to assist FAO in the in-dept analysis on whether fishery subsidies contribute to over-fishing or overxl

The 18 parameters include: ammonia, arsenic, bacteria, cadmium, chromium, copper, cyanide, dissolved oxygen, lead, mercury, nitrate/nitrite, oil andgrease, phenol, phosphate, temperature, suspended solids, tributyltin and zinc.
xli Three US’s (Anthony Weedless, Super Shooter and Bent Pipe) and two Mexico’s (Georgia Jumper and Mexican) were tested in comparison to theones designed by SEAFDECTD.

166

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

capacity fisheries. It is also agreed to support SEAFDEC’s to organize a regional meeting to discuss Sanitary and Phyto-sanitaryand other trade issues that are being formulated by WTO for the next multilateral trade negotiations.

Conclusion
The coastal and marine environment has received high attention in the ASEAN cooperation development agenda. ASEAN has also
progressed in developing and implementing regional strategies and activities to protect these valuable resources and to cope with the challengeof balancing environmental concerns with the imperatives of development. Considering that there are several initiatives planned andimplemented by regional and international agencies and organizations for sustainable development of Asian seas, ASEAN has strategically
positioned itself to collaborate and coordinate with those existing initiatives to increase efficiency and cost-effectiveness.ASEAN’s comparativeadvantage would be to mobilize strong commitments of its member countries for regional cooperation and good attention of the highest
bodies. ASEAN would also welcome further consultations with other partner agencies in this regard.

ANNEX 1
Organizational Structure of ASEAN Environmental Cooperation

ANNEX 2
Hanoi Plan of Action for Environmental Protection and Sustainable Development
1.Carry out the ASEAN Cooperation Plan on Transboundary Pollution with emphasis on the Regional Haze Action Plan by the year
2001.
2.Strengthen the ASEAN Specialized Meteorological Centre with emphasis on its ability to monitor forest and land fires and provide
early warning of transboundary haze by the year 2001.
3.Establish the ASEAN Regional Research and Training Centre for Land and Forest Fire Management by the year 2004.
4.Strengthen the ASEAN Regional Centre for Biodiversity Conservation by setting up networks of relevant institutions and carry out
collaborative training and research by the year 2001.
5.Promote regional coordination to protect the ASEAN Heritage Parks and reserves.
6.Develop a framework and improve regional coordination for the integrated protection and management of coastal zones by the year
2001.
7.Strengthen institutional and legal capacities to carry out Agenda 21 and other international environmental agreements by the year 2001.
8.Harmonise the environmental databases of member countries by the year 2001.
9.Carry out a regional water conservation programme by the year 2001.
10.Establish a regional centre or network to promote environmentally sound technologies by the year 2004.
11.Draw up and adopt an ASEAN Protocol on access to genetic resources by the year 2004.
12.Develop a regional Action Plan for the Protection of the Marine Environment from Land-based and Sea-based Activities by the year
2004.
13.Carry out the Framework to Achieve the Long-term Environmental Goals for Ambient Air and River Water Qualities for ASEAN
countries.
14.Enhance regional efforts in dealing with climatic change.
15.Enhance public information and awareness of and participation in issues on the environment and sustainable development.

167

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

MANAGEMENT OF BIOLOGICAL RESOURCES IN TAMGIANG LAGOONFROM A SOCIO-ECONOMIC CULTURAL VIEWPOINTTON THAT PHAP
Department of Biology
Hue University of Sciences
27 Nguyen Hue street, Hue City, Viet Nam
E- mail：slarmes@dng.vnn.vn
◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

Introduction
Tam Giang lagoon, which runs along the coast of Thua Thien Hue Province, Viet Nam, has an area of 22,000 ha and a length of
more than 60 km. On its eastern side, the lagoon is separated from the sea by sandy dunes with 2 openings：Thuan An and Tu Hien.
On the western side of the lagoon are rice fields and river estuaries. The area is unique in terms of landscape and biological resources.
Communities settled there to exploit the lagoon’s biological resources and farm on the sandy land at the edge of the lagoon.
At present, because of population pressure and a decrease in aquatic resources, government officials consider aquaculture as an alternativemeans of improving villagers’ income and reducing exploitation pressure on the lagoon. As a result, aquaculture has recently developed so
rapidly that it is having strong impact on attempts to promote a sustainable system of aquaculture production in the lagoon area.

The lagoon dweller communities and their fishing activities
According to published statistics, the lagoon dweller community has a population of 220,000, including 100,000 sampan dwellers and116,786 dwellers on land, which therefore can be divided into the two major groups：dwellers on land and dwellers on sampans.
1.The group of dwellers on land may be divided into Westbank and Eastbank groups. In terms of livelihood, Eastbank dwellers include
3 subgroups：- Sea-fishing people.
- Lagoon-fishing people.
- Farming people.
Similary Westbank dwellers consist of 2 subgroups：- Farming people.
- Lagoon-fishing people.
2.The groups of dwellers on sampans are fishers who lives on their sampan on the lagoon and who have no land to build a house. They
live together, forming small communities, based on their blood and occupation relations. Their communities are called "van". A leader ofthe "van"and a representative board are elected to manage community activities, such as organizing rituals or ceremonies, protecting rights
for "van" people. The poor households earn living by mobile-gear fishing (gill net, push-net, hook... which is called minor-fishing requiring small capital and investment. So the communities with this type of livelihood are called "minor-fishers community" (van tieu nghe).
On the other hand, the fishers with fixed-gears such as fish corral, bottom nets form major-fishing communities (van dai nghe) withlarger capital and investment.
Both major and minor-fishing communities live together on the water near the lagoon banks. All these people are called sampan people.
Not accepted by villagers on the main land as village members, sampan people had to gather on boats. Due to their origins, sampan
people were consider as people with "no land to live on and no land for graves". Vietnamese language has some contemptuous words(Nooc, ke nooc). This distinction between land and water people has existed for many centuries and still exists now though it is lessserious.
During the time of feudalism, the lagoon belonged to the state and communes around the lagoon managed it. All the fishing activities
carried out by sampan dwellers were put under a strict supervision of those communes’ authorities, who set taxes on various types of fishing. As for fixed-gear fishing, the communes’ authorities held auctions for allocating water surface use-right to fishers. The bidding rules
used to give priorities to those who were using the water, that is, the previous bidwinner. Therefore, the bidwinners used to use thewater for a long time and it was often transferred from one to another generation. The fishing area allocated for fix-gear fishing belongs
to households, which is considered as a type of private ownership. Mobile gear fisher (no money to win the auction) fished the waterspaceoutside of the fixed gear grounds. They were not limited within their commune boundaries but could fish throughout the lagoon. They
share the fishinground with some farmers who live around the lagoon. This can be seen as a form of open access. All activities wereremained stable thanks to the control by a management mechanism in which farming villages in charge of the "van" had close ties withfisher organization in their work of management.
After the April 1975, the lagoon became state-owned. The old institution was dissolved, the government abandoned the old administrative
structure, integrated Van of fishers into land based villages, the sampan dweller communities were added to agriculture cooperatives onland and were considered as sections specializing in fishery of agriculture cooperatives. All the fishing activities were brought under thecontrol and management of commune authorities. From now on the model of fishing were designed according to the pattern applied forfarming, which resulted in the formation of groups and big groups of fishing. In general, this form of resource management proves to beless effective.
For its favorable conditions such as large area, aquatic resource abundance and the closeness the lagoon has attracted a great populationof fishers who have come and settled down.
The life related to the environment and ecological resources of the lagoon has enriched the fishers’ knowledge of the characteristicsof this ecosystem like tide regime, aquatic organism behaviors. Beside, the common background, each group of fishers also has a deeper
knowledge of ecological features of the aqualife they are fishing. In other words, the lagoon fisher community has specialized, to someextent, in their fishing activities with their specific gears and fishing techniques suitable for each trade. It is this specialization that has
resulted in the division of the two groups, which share the dwelling places and fishing areas under the control and management of thelocal government, which keeps the productions activity in stability. There are currently 13 kinds of gears corresponding to 13 trades. For
the last 5 years the number of gears has kept increasing sharply and the resources were degraded strongly. The production before 1970
was about 3,000 tons/year. Since 1980, the yield has been reduced to 2,000 ton/year while the number of the labours engaged has increased
60,000 in 1980 up to 90,000 in 1993. High fishing intensity has resulted in the depletion of the lagoon resources and increased the203International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

difficulties of fisherfolk.
Present management system and the overexploitation of resources in Tam Giang lagoon：
According to the regulation on Protection of aquatic resources, dated April 25 1989 by the Socialist Republic of Viet Nam, the national
government is the highest management body that administrates the protection and development of aquatic resources through a system ofpolicies, strategies, socio-economic plans, technical applications and documents. The national government issues decree, resolutions, articles
and decisions regarding the protection and development of resources. Province and district governments issue decisions and announcements
appropriate to the local situation for enforcement based on national government documents (Ha Ky, 1994).
At present, Tam Giang aquatic resources are managed by a system of administrative and functioning bodies, with key roles played byprovincial People’s Committee (PC), district PC, Commune PC, Department of Fisheries, Division of Protection of aquatic resources, andDistrict bureaus of Agriculture or Fisheries. In general, regulations issued by local administration are few compared to those promulgatedby the national government. Local enforcement of national policies was not given much attention by local governments. A good working
relationship coordination among the above mentioned government institutions in the management and protection of aquatic resources of thelagoon is insufficient. Therefore, violations and conflicts in fishing activities are not resolved satisfactorily, thoroughly and promptly andoverfishing occurred.
In the present management, government has emphasized the role of people in management system. The notion that "people are theroot" is often emphasised by the government. Vietnamese government is promoting the role of people involved in management according
to the principle "people know, people discuss, people do and people supervised". Especially in recent years the government has encouraged
the development of democracy at grassroot level, commune and villages, aiming at upholding the role of people in management Although
the government has talked about the local roles in management of fishery, in reality, there is often a top-down management approach used.
This is one of the reasons why fishers pay little attention to implementing regulations on protection of the aquatic resources issued by thenational and local governments.

Aquaculture as a solution to the depletion of the biological resources
The year of l978 marked the beginning of the aquatic culture in the lagoon. The first species to be cultured was Glacilaria. Afterwards,
the shrimp was put into testing culture. The first companies to come were state-run and foreign ones. The popular culture models are
monoculture and semi-intensive culture with two principal species Gracilaria and tiger shrimp.
Present aquaculture methods are mainly ponds, net enclosures and cages. Ponds
Figure 2
are more common for the following systems：extensive, improved extensive and semiintensive. The area of production in the lagoon in 1996 are presented in figure 2.
Aquaculture is regarded as a pilot scheme, investigating the economic activity
for fisheries development in Thua Thien Hue. The Department of Fisheries in Thua
Thien Hue promotes semi-intensive culture in which villagers include aquaculture aspart of their livelihood portfolio and state-run companies supply seed and technicalsupport. This is the official strategy for aquaculture development in Thua Thien Hue
province.
In the past 5 years basic aquaculture techniques, acquired from training courses
held at the Fishery Extension Centre (Phu Tan), have enabled the lagoon fishers toexperiment and learn from other experienced aquaculturists. Step by step, they aredeveloping their own aquaculture practices that are characterised by low stocking
density and polyculture. Polyculture seems to be more sustainable than monoculture
as this reduces the risk of losing the whole crop due to disease. Common polyculture
patterns include ：shrimp (Penaeus monodon)/ crab (Scylla serata)/ fish (Siganus guttatus)/ seaweed (Gracilaria tenuispitata)；shrimp/seaweed
and shrimp/crab/fish. Grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella) and groupers and are cultured in cages.
This flexible approach is more appropriate to the environmental conditions of Tam Giang ecosystem and to the management andinvestment capacities of local people. This runs counter to previous aquaculture development (semi-intensive and monoculture) that waspreviously applied by state-run companies. Low intensity polyculture has resulted in increased economic benefits because investments forseed and feed are low, no improved techniques are required, product quality is good and the price obtained for the product is higher thanin high-density culture.
Meanwhile, aquaculture companies that relied on more intensive cultivation methods have had to abandon their ponds or rent them tofisherfolk；these companies are no longer involved in aquaculture development in Tam Giang lagoon. However, aquaculture production in
the lagoon is still regards as unstable and further research is required to address the associated problems.
Around the lagoon are larger communities of farmers, who had a habit of looking down on the sampan dwellers, and therefore ignored
the fishing. Also, the fishing by itself, could not guarantee the fishers’ life at that time. That is why most sampan dweller wished they
could settle down on land and earn their living by doing another occupation. This behaviours and thinking made the farmers unwilling toconsidered the fishing as an important livelihood as their farming - basic requirement for forming farming - fishing households. This is
why there exist two nearly separated communities of farmers and of fishers. The farmers have their livelihood linked with the farming
activities while the fishers earn their living by exploiting the lagoon resources. This is understand easily that, when fishing ground havereached a limit in their capacity for exploiters, the fishers who the first ones be attracted by aquaculture - an activity which could help
them to improved their lives.
The major-fishing households are the richest in the sampan dwellers’ communities. They are also very sensitive to the demands ofthe market to change their fishing for creating new ways and forms of aquaculture for a better life. They are, therefore in the lagoon fishing community, the first to be attracted by aquaculture. With their capital accumulated during their time of fishing, their understanding of
the lagoon environment and aqualife they easily took up to the new activity and have proved to be successful. The lagoon aquaculture
was born with the former fishers as the pioneers. And now they still play the most important part in the lagoon aquaculture activities.
Aquaculture were developed successfully, partly supported by some other policies such as：fishery extension policy：
The fishery extension program of Thua Thien - Hue was founded in l992 in order to assist the people in the development of theaquaculture in the province. The program has held many training courses on aquaculture techniques, and supplied capitals to poor households,
as well as encouraged and assisted local seed and fry production. Besides, the government has invested billions of VN doings in theconstruction of dikes and the planning of shrimp-rearing areas. It is generally accepted that the fishery extension program has contributed
its positive part to the success of the aquaculture in the lagoon.

204

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

Policy on resettlement of shampam people：
Since the hurricane of 1985, which caused serious damage to the lagoon communities in terms of materials as well as human lives.
The local authorities have carried out the policy of resettlement on land for some of the sampan dwellers such as providing land, construction materials and money to build houses. They have also been helped to have a livelihood in aquaculture.
Policy on allocation the land use right to farmers：
After 1988 the government issued some changes. The 64 CP. Decree allocates the land to farmers. The farmers have the right to use
an area for farming in a period 20 years. In that time, transferring exchanging, renting, inheriting or powning the right are acceptable.
Based on this decree, central and local government wrote strict stipulation on aquaculture area. All fishers and farmers living around thelagoon have the right to use an area for aquaculture. The policy on granting aquaculture area has promoted people to make efforts todevelop aquaculture to contribute towards improving fishers’ lives.
In brief, it can be concluded that the declining of the resources, the good fishery market has led the fishers to the aquaculture. And
the local government has played the part of the initiator, guide and assistant to the local fishers in the breaking through a completely newactivity of aquaproduction, aquaculture, in which they have hardly any experience.
Aquaculture development- a signal of the instability in fishing activity：
It is too soon to understand or to see early how aquaculture development would impact the environment and the natural resources.
What is immediately apparent to the aquaculture is that their lives are improving from the income they earn by doing aquaculture. Besides,
a process of privatization of the fishing ground has also begun- the transfer of community property rights to family or group ownershipand the exclusion of mobile fishers from the traditional fishing grounds. It is not difficult to understand why the situation has spawned
conflicts in the area, particularly between mobile fisher and aquacultures, both from the same villages. For the mobile gear fate has takena turn for the worse, the traditional fishinground have been steadily narrowed.
The development of the big van (of fixed gear fishers) and the small van (mobile gear fishers) in the lagoon has increased the gap
between the powerful and the powerless. The local commune budget has been dependent on the taxes of the fixed gear fishers. There fore,
all policies and regulations of fishing development have been so designed to cater to the need of the fixed gear fishers. In the process,the mobile gear fishers have been grossly neglected. The development of the aquaculture followed the old ways make fishing activity
become more complex.
Some suggestions for making strategies for management of biological resources in tamgiang lagoon：Thanks to the unique topography, in terms of salinity, the lagoon is divided into 3 distinctive areas：oligohaline, mesohaline andeuryhaline This creates a typically brackish water environment with valuable resources and a high potential for aquaculture.
Aquaculture has developed with its production continuously increasing, the fishers’ techniques and skills improved. With only two
species - the shrimp and the crab, aquaculture activity has changed the situation and position of the fishing in the lagoon. Its production
shares a proportion nearly as large as that of the fishing in some area of the lagoon. Therefor, the economic values of the lagoon mustbe evaluated based on the value of water for aquaculture as well as for fishing.
Besides, under pressure of aquaculture, the natural ecosystem is being converted to artificial ecosystem, which is requires additionalenergy to maintain its stability. And apparently, this artificial ecosystem is prone to become more insatiable due to the frequent instabilityof the lagoon mouth in some recent years. As can be seen in practice, the aquatic resources are becoming poorer；in 1979 alone, when
the Tu Hien inlet was filled up, several rearing ponds were neglected due to a decrease in the salinity. The flood of 1999 reopened theinlet and created another one has made the salinity become suitable for resuming the aquatic culture in Cau Hai area, while in other areas
the aquaculture operation was challenged with the fluctuations of salinity.
Aquaculture in the Tamgiang lagoon are exposing its instability of its environment under the impacts of insatiable inlets.
The following matters should be focused on while a policy for the lagoon resources management is outlined.
The management system of the lagoon requires highly applicable measures. So subecosystems and their stability should be identified.
Policies and strategies for aquatic fishing and culture should be based on the natural environment features of subecosystems to obtain ahigher adaptiveness as the successful management of all the subsystems means the success in the management of the whole system.
Pollnac said："It will be easiest in communities characterised by occupational multiplicity, that is communities where individuals practiceseveral strategies to gain a living" "The greatest difficulties will arise among those who are strictly fishermen, with little or no contact
with agricultural". However, fishing communities in Tamgiang lagoon shows that a strict fishers community are able to earn the living fromaquaculture, the pioneers approaching aquaculture succeed in doing aquaculture.
It can be say that the government strategy of development of aquaculture shows its important role in influence the conversion of
capture activities to aquaculture ones.
The agriculture management forms should not applied to the aquaculture for the distinctive future of this kind of production. The
fishers must have their important role in the management of the lagoon resources. There should be certain share of authority andresponsibility between the commune and the community. In other word, an application of the community-based management to subecosystems
of interest would upgrade the effectiveness and adaptiveness of management.
Though Tamgiang lagoon has great potential for aquaculture development which bring better incomes for producers, it should beunderstood that this lagoon has natural resources which have created the livelihood of a large community over many generations. If areasonable balance between aquaculture and fishing can not be maintained, and encroachment of lagoon water for aquaculture development
continues, degradation or even destruction of this ecosystem is unavoidable.

References：
John J. Poggie & Richard B.Pollnac,1989. Small-scale fishery Development：Sociocultural prerspectives.pp.1-13.
Gary Newkirk,1995. Management of biological Resources in TamGiang-Cau Hai lagoon systems,Thua Thien-Hue province,Viet Nam.Out of
the Shell, vol.5, No.1.pp.1-5.
Nguyen Xuan Hong,1996. Relation between formal and informal rules in management. Management of Biological Resources in Tamgiang
lagoon project to the International Development and Resources Centre (IDRC).pp.1-7
Nguyen Huu Thong,1996. Settlement of Sampan People on Tam Giang lagoon. Annual report of the Management of Biological Resourcesin Tamgiang lagoon project to the International Development and Resources Centre (IDRC).
Ton That Phap,1966. Development of aquaculture in Tamgiang lagoon, ThuaThien-Hue,Viet Nam. Annual report of the Management of
Biological Resources in Tamgiang lagoon project to the International Development and Resources Centre (IDRC). pp1-5.
Ton That Phap,2000. Nursing the seed of lagoon Management：Our story grows from our history. Hope takes Root：CBRM stories fromthe Southeast Asia . pp.1-12.

205

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

ENHANCEMENT OF INTEGRATED COASTAL ZONEMANAGEMENT IN THAILAND：INSTITUTIONAL ASPECTS
Tunnie SRISAKULCHAIRAK
Research Associate in Capacity Building Component
UNEP RRC- AP, Asian Institute of Technology
Patumthani Thailand
E- mail：tunnie@ait.ac.th
◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

Abstract
The concept of integrated coastal zone management (ICZM) is a specific management program that combines the idea of coastal area
management with coastal resource management.It refers to the geographic area defined by the enabling legislation for coastal management.
Also, it applies the concept of sustainable development and considers the interaction and relationship among socioeconomic issues,environmental well-being and operational feasibility, as key components in a system.It is important for coastal countries to employ ICZM
into their planning process for development, including Thailand, one leading coastal country in this region.
Institution is one major and initial key factor in a management program, it is also important for implementing integrated coastal zone
management.As the ICZM concept lies on a defined geographic area, institutional framework of that particular area becomes very substantial
and requires adjustment to suit ICZM.By using Thailand as a case study, this study was an attempt to raise the importance of institution
in implementing ICZM in a country and to propose an institutional arrangement to run ICZM programme.The methods employed to conduct
this study were secondary data review and institutional analysis.

Introduction
Importance of coastal areas has been recognized by all coastal countries.Especially, in tropical regions where coastal resources, suchas fisheries, mangrove forests and reefs are abundant and diverse.These areas are significant for aquatic and terrestrial living organisms interms of food, shelters and habitats. For human beings, the uses of these particular areas and their resources are expansive for various
development activities：local and national economic growth, recreational purposes, industrial production and social development.Depletionand deterioration of coastal areas and resources can occur when they are overused and conflicts over uses can also be created if uses are
unplanned.
Thailand has an extensive coastline on both sides that are opened to Thai Gulf on the east and the Andaman Sea on the west, covering area of 513,115 km2 within 24 provinces.(Sudara, 1998) These areas are important to the country in terms of economy and humansettlement.Major heavy industries such as steel, oil refinery and petrol chemical are located along coastline especially on the eastcoast.
Agricultural activities and tourism are also major economic activities in coastal areas that contribute large amount of income at both local
and national scales.Rapid economic growth and economic promotion of Thailand during the last 20 years have stimulated establishment of
economic activities and led these areas into intense pressure of area deterioration and resource depletion.
The government institutional framework, as a major component involving management program and practice, is a critical factor affecting the development process, including resource use patterns.Many studies and research had been done in coastal resource management
and scientific experiment of coastal resource.This study emphasized the recognition and the importance of institutions as one major
element in analyzing integrated coastal zone management and as one powerful mechanism in planning and management in facilitating
coordination among levels of government and their bureaucracies relevant to define specific resource conservation and economic
development activities.

Objectives and Methodology
The issues related to Integrated Coastal Zone Management in Thailand have appeared in form of resource management and activity
management e.g.mangrove management and tourism management.In order to enhance more practices of integrated coastal zone managementin Thailand, the study was aimed at 1) indicating and reviewing importance of institutional arrangement and 2) strengthening the roles andduties of local governmental agencies in managing natural resources in their own area context, which is recognized as a zone
management.
The study employed two major research methods：secondary data review and informal discussion with key informants, and one
technical analytical tool that is institutional analysis (Ostrom, 1993) of the existing institutional framework in Thailand.The secondary data
included existing policies and plans relevant to coastal resource management and technical books on institutions and integrated coastal zone
management.The interviewees for discussion were government officials of policy making and implementing levels.The institutional analysis
focused on the identification of rules, actors and actions actively involved in management.
Finally, this study used a case study of Ranong Province, which was based on the finding of the author’s master thesis, to define asa zone for management.The information and data gained from discussion and results of the analysis were used as basis for supporting
recommendation and conclusion of the study.

Results and Discussion
In the process of management, objectives and goals of the plans and programs are defined, plans are implemented and the monitoring
and assessment are processed under number of considerations depending on the overall country context; social background, regulations,policies and institutional framework.Specifically to integrated concept, there is no perfect single pattern or agent for resolution.Proper
management body will be arranged differently based on problems, needs and physical context.

Importance of Institutions in Integrated Coastal Zone Management
Hoozemans (1995) stated that the coastal area is considered as an interacting system of economic activities, physical processes, chemical

157

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

reactions and biological activity.Planning is considered to be an essential task in developing a balance of the system and institutionalarrangements for implementation of proposed measures is recognized as one major element in analysis for integrated coastal zone
management.(Hoozemans, 1995)
The nature and operation of institutions and their mode of decision making will have significant implications for the implementationof any strategies or plans.Good and specific institutions for any particular management context can create benefits, reduce conflicts andreflect needs of their people.They direct uses of resources that respond to the local conditions.For ICZM, key institutions are required togenerate, adapt and disseminate knowledge and technologies that are conducive to local conditions.Besides, good institutional arrangement
will issue effective policies that can represent local interests and reflect benefits.(Srisakulchairak, 1999)
Institutional Analysis of the Government Institution Framework in Thailand ：Specifically related to Integrated Coastal Zone
Management
Institutional analysis is a useful tool to understand how the community manages resources and how improvements can be made toencourage the sustainable uses of resources.Institutions are dynamic and diverse by physical and country context.Thailand has the administrative
system that combines the concept of centralization, decentralization, and deconcentration.(Chayabutr, 1998) It has aggregated its authority inthe central government agencies in a structure of ministries and offices. Also, the country has the local government, based on
decentralization, that allows people to participate in local administration under laws and regulations.Finally, Thailand also employs theconcept of deconcentration to deconcentrate some administrative authority such as decision making to the provincial level of administration.
The study divided the government administrative body into three levels：national, provincial and local.And, divided the duties and roles
into planning, implementation and coordination.
Ranong province was used as the study area for this study.The province is compact and dynamic in terms of economic activities
related to coastal resources and area.Mangrove forests and fisheries are outstanding coastal resources that contribute income to the province
and to the country.Dugong Dugong, an endangered species is found along coastlines of the province.Major threats to the existence of thoseresources are tin mining, overfishing by outsiders and by using destructive fishing gears, and conversion of on-going concessions for mining along coastlines in concession areas into intensive shrimp ponds.
The study identified of the existing institutional framework by rules that govern, actors who have authority or been entitled to govern,
and actions that are implemented.By using Ranong as the study case.The table 1 summarized the existing framework of how government
institutions at different levels work in Ranong.

Rules：
・ The central government in general issues rules, regulations and policies in relation to resource management.Most of the ’rules’ statedunder the central level in the table 1 are to be applied by relevant agencies of any level.The duration of the application is at least
five years.They act as guidelines to be conducted and to be followed by all agencies so that the development trend of the country
will go to the same direction.
・ The Provincial and Tambon five-year plans are issued accordingly to those from the central level.These plans are guidelines for
initiation of annual action plans for approval and budgets.

Actors：・The actors at the central level have influence over planning and policies and decision making.They have authority in making
decision on activities and budgets.
・ The provincial administrative system is a combination of deconcentration and decentralization.Provincial administration offices, whereministries at the central level have their representative offices, represent deconcentration of central power at certain extent.However,there is a provincial council where representatives are elected to perform the legislative function and advisory role to provincial
board.The decentralization is not obvious though the province has its own income.
・ The Tambon Council and Administrative Organization represent local government administration system.They have income, manage
their own budget, initiate their own plans and projects, prepare their own projects and implement their own programmes.
In Ranong, mangrove forests are very biologically abundant and physically expansive.It is recognized by UNESCO as a mangrove
biosphere reserve.Consequently, active actors include one mangrove research centre and three mangrove management units Royal
Forestry Department in the province.Also, there is fishery research station which aims to maintain and increase numbers of mud
crab species in the mangrove forest.This kind of agency, by regulations, does not depend on provincial or tambon administrative
organization or their plans.They are assigned directly by the ministry or department at the central level.But by courtesy, they workin consistence with provincial and local agencies.

Actions：・ The actions in the central level are still guidelines for 1) ministries and relevant agencies as national focal points of development
and 2) provincial and local administrative levels in issuing their master and annual plans.
・ Provinces and tambons have their master plans that are consistent with policies or actions created in the central level.The priority
can be categorized and proposed through their annual plans for approval and budgets, in case that their budget or capacity is
insufficient.

Discussion
Roles and duties of agencies at each level is guided by national law and regulations.Their actions are created accordingly by national
policies.Planning and implementation are major focus of management practices, while coordination and cooperation are a mobilizing toolfor catalyzing planning and implementation process as well as budgeting system.
The figure 1 illustrated the major tasks of actors in different levels.From the figure, Thailand has two approaches of planning andimplementation for planning：top-down and bottom-up.But they are not well integrated.The left side showed government agencies at threelevels：central, provincial and local and their tasks were stated on the right side.
・ The central level agencies mostly do decision and policy making roles.They deliberate sectoral, provincial and local objectives andthen initiate relevant plans and policies.In case of emergency, they set up cross-sectoral committees to examine and resolve the issues.
However, policies mostly are not in time for solving problems or do not respond to local needs and really concern local conditions
and benefits.

158

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

Table 1 Identification of Existing Institutional Framework in Ranong Province
Administrative Level
Rules
ActorsActions
Central・ The Constitution Law
・ The National Environmental
・ Office of National
Environmental Board
Quality Management Plan
・ The Enhancement and Conserva‑
tion of National Environmental ・ National Mangrove
1999‑2007
Quality Act 1992
Committee
M i n is t r y o f S c i e n c e ,・ The Forestry Act
・Technology and Environ‑・ The Cabinet Resolution on mangrovesment
・ N ational Econo mic and Social
Development Plans
・ Ministry of Agriculture
and Cooperatives
・ Thailand's Policy and Prospective
for Enhancement and Conservation ・ Ministry of Interiorof National Environmental Quality
1997‑2016
・ Policies , Measures and Action
Plans on National Coastal Environ‑ment and Resources
Provincial
・ Provincial Master Plans （5‑year ・ Provincial Council
・ Provincial Plans （annual
plan）
action plan）
・ Provincial Administration
Office ：・ Mangrove rehabilitation
program・ Policies and Planning
Section・ Cease of mining andmangrove concessions
・ Provincial Forestry
Office・ N on ‑ destructive andtraditional fishing gears
・ Provincial Fisheries Officedemonstration programs
・ Provincial Industrial
Office・ Research Centre
・ Aquaculture ResearchCentre・ Mangrove Forest Manage‑
ment Unit
Local
・ Tambon 5‑year Plan
・ Tambon Administration
・ Tambon Plans（annual
Organization
action plan）
・ Tambon Council
・ Pier construction
・ Villages
・ Canal excavation
・ Ecotourism promotion
Source：adapted from Srisakulchairak, 1999

・ The provincial level agencies perform coordinating role between central and local governments.They also act responsively to theirpolicies in controlling activities into the same direction, as well.In a way, the Provincial Council, as a legislative body, proposes
its own plans and issues its own policies while Provincial Administrative Organization acting as executive body will perform underpolicies made by Provincial Council.This ensures that policies will reflect local conditions and benefits because members of Provincial
Council are elected by local people.
・ The local level is based on decentralization concept of administration.They administrate themselves under small and limited budget.
They still financially rely on provincial and central governments through 1) proposing their plans additionally to provincial annual
plans and 2) directly requesting from concerned agencies.Though they have capacity to manage their resources and plan their landuse, limited capacity in terms of finance, technical knowledge and technology is a major constraint for them to fully operate integrated
planning and management.

Summary and Recommendation
Integrated Coastal Zone Management is a time-consuming process.It is an inter-disciplinary approach to consider, coordinate andintegrate the interests of all appropriate economic sectors.
The overall goal is to ensure optimum sustainable use Figure 1 The Existing Institutional Framework and their inter‑relationof coastal natural resources, perpetual maintenance ofhigh levels of biodiversity, and real conservation ofcritical habitats. And the main objective is to coordinate
the initiatives of the various sectors toward long-term
optimal socio-economic outcomes, including resolutionof conflicts between sectors and arranging trade-offs.
This paper studied importance of institutionalarrangement for integrated coastal zone management.
Along with the finding from institutional analysis, theinformal interviews and discussions were conducted withgovernment officials, especially at the provincial level.
Their opinions support the summary of the study thatprovincial level of administration can enhance integrated
coastal zone management.Summaries and key issues that
support the idea can be concluded as follows：・ It is recognized that there is no single pattern or
single unit to operate integrated coastal zone
management.(Clark, 1992)
・ There are several suggestions for structure of
institution to deal with coastal zone issues,recommended by Lowry (1989); to establish a159

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

new agency, to develop a lead agency and to rely on an inter-agency commission or council of equals or near-equals.
Consequently, the recommendation of this study is to strengthen the government agencies at provincial level as the institutional arrangement framework for ICZM.As mentioned, the provincial administrative bodies consist of representative offices from the central government
level as well as local people in the Provincial Council.The following are motives and potentials that identify the provincial government asinstitutional framework to run ICZM：・ They know the local conditions and understand current situation in their provinces.
・ They have their own income via tax collection and can request more through annual plans.
・ Their current roles of coordination and cooperation of integrated works have to be strengthened and more practical to facilitate themanagement.
・ Their administrative system is combination between deconcentration and decentralization that link local government and central
government.
・ It helps enhancing public participation and community management, also providing chances for local government in exercising
making their plans and policies.
・ More integrated plans and policies can be magnified and inconsistency of policies can be minimized.
・ Finally, network among themselves can be created and increased to facilitate works in the future.

Conclusion
Coastal resources are precious to all countries.The importance of integrated planning and management is considered an effective tool
to both prevent and cure any possible adverse impacts.Along with the concept of sustainability, integrated coastal zone management should
be encouraged in order to protect coastal environment, to improve quality of people’s lives, and to promote coordination and cooperation
among government and private agencies.

Reference
Chayabutra, Choowong (PhD).1997.Local Government in Thailand.Local Affairs Press of Local Administration.Bangkok.Thailand.261p.
Clark, J.R.1992.Integrated Management of Coastal Zones.FAO Fisheries Technical Paper.No.327.Rome.FAO.167p.
Community-Based Natural Resource Management Program Initiative.Institutional Analysis：Readings and Resources for Research Vol.5,
complied by Steve Langill.IDRC.Canada.p.68-90.
Hoozemans, F.J.M., Klein, R.J.T., Kroon, A., and Verhagen, H.J.1995.The Coast in Conflict .Coastal Zone Management Centre.CZM-Centre
Publication No.5.175p.
Lowry, K.1989.Issues in designing a coastal management program, p.191-204.In T.-E.Chua and D.Pauly (eds.) Coastal area management inSoutheast Asia：policies, management strategies and case studies.ICLARM Conference Proceedings 19, 254 p.Ministry of Science,
Technology and the Environment, Kuala Lumpur; Johor State Economic Planning Unit, Johore Bahru, Malaysia; and International
Center for Loving Aquatic Resources Management, Manila, Philippines.
Noranitipadungkarn, Chakrit.1981.Decentralization, Coordination and Development in Thailand, p.117-144.In G.S.Cheema (eds.).Vol 8：
Institutional Dimensions of Regional Development.279 p.United Nations Centre for Regional Development：Regional Development
Series.Maruzen Investment (Hong Kong) Ltd.Hong Kong.
Office of Environmental Policy and Planning.1997.Policy and Prospective Plan for Enhancement and Conservation of National Environmental
Quality, 1997-2016.Ministry of Science , Technology and Environment.Bangkok, Thailand.92p.
Office of Environmental Policy and Planning.1997.State of Coastal Resources in Thailand (Thai edition)：1996-1997.Integration Promotion
Technology Co.Ltd.Bangkok.83p.
Office of Environmental Policy and Planning.1998.The National Environmental Quality Management Plan.358p.(in Thai)
Ostrom, E., Schroeder, L., and Wynne, S.1993, Institutional Incentives and Sustainable Development：Infrastructure Policies in Perspectives.
Westview Press.US.266p.
Policy and Planning Section.Ranong Provincial Office.1999.Ranong Environmental Quality Management Plan.Ranong, Thailand.51p.(in Thai)
Srisakulchairak.1999.Design of an Institutional Arrangement for Integrated Coastal Zone Management in Thailand, A case study：Ranong
Biosphere Reserve.80p.AIT Thesis.
Sudara, S.1999. Who and What is to be involved in successful coastal zone management ：a Thailand example.Ocean & Coastal
Management.42(1999) p.39-47

Acknowledgement
My gratitude is given to Dr.Ganesh Shivakoti, my advisor and other committee members in polishing up my knowledge and skills.
Also, many thanks to Surendra Shrestha, Hugh Kirkman and Yihang Jiang in inspiring me to make this presentation.Finally, to my parents,
family and friends whose support and faith never fade away.

160

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

STATUS AND PERSPECTIVE OF MARINE PROTECTEDAREAS IN VIET NAM
Vo Si TUAN1, Ronald PETOCZ２ and Peter MCNAMEE２
1 Institute of Oceanography, Nha Trang, Viet Nam
E- mail：thuysinh@dng.vnn.vn
2 GEC Global Environmental Consultants Ltd., Canada
◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

Viet Nam has long history of protected areas with the first reserve - Cuc Phuong National Park established in 1962.Marine protectedareas, however, have not been paid attention for a long time.The sea is more important with every passing day.The threats to marine
resources have become higher in parallel. Actually, marine biodiversity, living resources have degraded widely and the natural based economic
activities (fishing, aquaculture, and tourism) have been impacted.Viet Nam government is aware the importance of MPA and promoting
actions for marine conservation.This paper is to review the existing status, plans and perspective of MPA system in Viet Nam.

1.History and existing status
Protected areas was considered as a tool to conserve coastal and marine ecosystems in Viet Nam in 1986 when some reserves
dominant by mangroves such as Ca Mau cape, Bac Lieu were established. In the some year, the 15,043 ha Cat Ba National Park wasapproved which included some 5,400ha of coastal waters making it the first protected area in the country with an approved marine
component. Further marine surveys conducted by the Oceanographic Institute in Haiphong have recommended an expanded marine
component for this park but this still waits formal approval.
Working together with the WWF-Viet Nam Program, the Institute of Oceanography in Nha Trang conducted surveys to plan similar
extensions of the important marine component of the Con Dao Islands National Park. This has been approved in principle and a tentative
zoning plan has been proposed for the park, which includes the marine environment.
Halong Bay was approved in 1994 as an UNESCO World Heritage Site comprising a thousand islands, it was proposed and established
for its landscape qualities.The area of this famous site reaches up 43.700ha including mainly marine environment.
Xuan Thuy wetland was approved as Nature Reserve by Viet Nam government and the recognized as Ramsar site in 1995.This area
is very famous in term of mangroves and migrant birds.The recent designation proposed to expand marine component about 1400ha but
not approved yet.
Can Gio mangrove forest was destroyed thoroughly during the war.It is considered, however, one of the best mangroves in Viet Nam
now by the trial to rehabilitate for more than 20 years.This area was recognized as Nature Reserve in 1990 by Viet Nam government andthen as Biosphere Reserve on 21 January 2000 by UNESCO.
At present time, there area 22 existing protected areas considered relatively as coastal and marine protected areas with the purpose
to conserve coastal forest, mangroves, seagrass beds and wetlands. Beside cat ba and con dao national parks and halong bay world
heritage, the others have not included marine areas.Marine components of former terrestrial reserves such as cat ba and con dao nationalparks have only recently been recognized as integral components of these protected areas, and even so must undergo further expansion
to cover critical marine habitats. At the present time, only a nominal proportion of viet nam’s coastal and marine resources are includedin the existing protected areas system.
The details of existing coastal and marine protected areas and their management effectiveness are showed on the table 1.Based on
Table 1 Existing Coastal and Marine Protected Areas in Viet Nam and Management Issues
Protection
Area Name
Year
Size（Ha）
Designate
Requirement
Ha Long Bay
Ba Mun
North Hai Van
South Hai Van
Son Tra Peninsular
Deo Ca ‑ Hon Nua
Ca Mau capeBac Lieu
Ong Trang
Dam DoiCat BaXuan Thuy
Cu Lao Cham
Binh Chau‑ Phuoc Buu
Con Dao
Vo DoiPhu Quoc
Can Gio
Tien Hai
pper U Minh
Thai Thuy
Thanh Phu

1994
1977
1993
1992
1977
1986
1986
1986
1993
1986
1986
1995
1986
1986
1984
1986
1986
1990
1995
1993
1998
1994

43,4002,153
14,49810,519
4,439
8,876
4,453
125
1,540
272
20,7007,686
1,544
11,29319,9983,757
14,957
42,63012,5009,794
13,697
8,823

World Heritage Site
Nature Reserve
Landscape PA
Landscape PA
Nature Reserve
Landscape PA
Nature Reserve
Managed Nature Reserve
Managed Nature Reserve
Managed Nature Reserve
National Park
Nature Reserve
Nature Reserve
Nature Reserve
National Park
Nature Reserve
Nature Reserve
Managed Nature Reserve
Nature Reserve
Nature Reserve
Nature Reserve
Nature Reserve

154

High
MediumMediumMediumHigh
Medium
High
High
High
High
High
High
High
High
High
High
High
High
High
High
High
High

Management
EffectivenessMedium
Low
Low
Low
Low
Low
MediumMediumMediumMediumMediumMediumLow
MediumHigh
MediumLow
High
Low
MediumLow
MediumInternational Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

the criteria of the project of reef at risk in southeast asia, only two areas (con dao national park and can gio biosphere reserve) areconsidered being good management and 13 ones belong to medium level of management effectiveness.Meanwhile, almost areas (18/22)
have needed high protection requirement.Be aware that all existing areas have been mainly designed for terrestrial biodiversity
conservation.In term of institutional arrangement, all existing protected areas of the country have been managed by forest protection
department (fpd) of ministry of agriculture and rural development (mard).The staff were mainly trained for terrestrial conservation.Up topresent, there has not been any agency responsible to marine conservation.It means that management effectiveness for marine
environment is lower than that showed in above figure.

2.The Plans for Future
The project ADB 5712-REG (phase 2) has proposed the national system including 30 coastal and marine protected areas in which
there area 6 existing ones of priority for only strengthened management, 8 existing ones of priority for expansion and strengthened
management, and new establishment of 6 protected areas.With this plan, the areas of marine ecosystems will be increased significantly(Table 2).The objectives and details of the plan were summarized by Vo Si Tuan et al.(in print).The report can be available from Viet
Nam MOSTE or WWF Indochina at Ha Noi.
Recently, Viet Nam Government authorized Ministry of Fisheries (MoFi) to develop National Plan for Marine Protected Areas.The
results of the project ADB 5712-REG have been used for a part of this plan.MoFi plan has emphasized the areas (15 areas listed) withdominance of marine components and supported mainly to coral reefs and seagrass beds.The plan included also a marine protected area in
Spratly achipelago.The plan is on the way to be approved by the government and then the problem of institutional vacuum will be solvedin near future.It means that Viet Nam will have two systems responsible to manage PA systems in forthcoming time.FPD of MARD
continues to do management of terrestrial PAs including mangroves, coastal forest ecosystem.MoFi will be responsible to the PAs on thesea with the objectives to conserve mainly coral reefs, seagrass beds, island ecosystems and marine living resources.Some of them are being managed by FPD at present time.

3.Opportunities
SIGNIFICANCE OF COASTAL AND MARINE BIODIVERSITY RESOURCES Many of Viet Nam’s coastal and marine reservescontain biodiversity values which have high value for national conservation. The BAP (Government of Viet Nam and GEF, 1995) indicatedfour marine reserves have high biodiversity significance and are worthy of priority attention for management：Con Dao, Cat Ba, Phu Quoc,
and Vo Doi. A portion of Cat Ba National Park forms part of the Ha Long Bay UNESCO World Heritage Site and is thus already ofhigh international importance. The recommended expansion of the reserve to include the biodiversity-rich outer islands in the bay willfurther emphasize the importance of the park to the region and to international conservation as a whole. Additionally the Tam Giang-Cau
Hai Reserve is being proposed as the country’s second Ramsar Site as a sister to Xuan Thuy, a Ramsar Site since 1995. Implementationof effective management in the above sites will rank all these protected areas as the most important coastal and marine sites in the
country and key sites for regional conservation in the South China Sea.
Table 2 Increase in coastal and marine ecosystem protection that would be achieved with Plan for Coastal and Marine PAsxxxiv
by project ADB 5712‑REG（phase 2）
Existing Protection
Proposed Protection
Ecosystem
Total Area （ha）
Area （ha）% TotalArea （ha）% TotalMangrove
Coral Reef
Seagrass
IslandOther Coastal
Wetlandsxxxv
Total

110,670
7,532
4,578
184,440

43,1151,000
039,09339
13‑
21

43,1854,500
2,660
75,303

39
60
58
41

108,530

11,227

10

50,59847415,750

94,435

23

176,246

42

COMMUNITY AWARENESS AND PARTICIPATION The coastal surveysxxxvi indicate a high community awareness of the major
issues affecting the decline in marine resources that impact their lives and perpetuate the poverty of coastal communities in Viet Nam.
This awareness will be an important asset in securing support of conservation initiatives in the coastal and marine protected areas thatindeed require community support. At the same time, however, those interviewed in these community surveys indicated that theirimportant concerns, not at all surprisingly, relate to infrastructure, credit, marketing issues, rural poverty, and environmental sanitation.
Only a few of approximately 20 issues raised by the coastal communities are related to biodiversity conservation and these were relatively
low priority. These results indicate that, to be successful in the long term, any protected area investment must address the basic socioeconomic
needs of rural coastal communities. Without this, these communities will continue to use the resources of designated protected areas fortheir own economic purposes.
TOURISM There are five priority coastal tourism zones in the coastal area of Viet Nam comprised of some 12 coastal
provincesxxxvii. 24 of the 39 existing and proposed coastal and marine Protected areas occur in these priority provinces, which indicates a
close relationship between the locations of these protected areas and the country’s overall tourism development plans. The total international
tourism visitsxxxviii in Viet Nam in 1993 were some 1.3 million people, increasing to over 2.7 million in 1998. Of these, international
visits to coastal provinces numbered some 970,00 people for 1993 and almost 1.7 million people in 1998, an increase of about 12% peryear over this period. The equivalent figures for domestic tourist visitsxxxix are 6.5 million for 1993 and 13.6 million in 1998. Domestic
visitors to coastal provinces increased from about 4 million people in 1993 to 7.7 million people in 1998, an increase of about 14% per
xxxiv

These estimates are made using best available coastal and marine ecosystem data available at the time this Plan was prepared; data are found in
GEC Ltd., WWF, and WIAP. 1999. ADB 5712-REG Phase 2. Socialist Republic of Viet Nam: Technical Annex 2: Viet Nam Coastal And Marine
Environmental Management Database. Report prepared for Asian Development Bank. 67 pp.
xxxv lagoons, estuaries, tidal mudflats, Melaleuca forest
xxxviTechnical Annex 1, op. cit.
xxxvii The National Tourism Master Plan designates the following 12 provinces in the National Tourism Zones: CTZ 1
Quang Ninh, Hai Phong, Thai
Binh; CTZ 2 Thua Thien, Quang Nam, Da Nang; CTZ 3 Khanh Hoa, Ninh Thuan, Binh Thuan; CTZ 4 HCM City, Ba Ria Vung Tau; and CTZ
5 Kien Giang.
xxxviii International tourist coastal province and total Viet Nam international visits are based on the total number of international tourist arrivals in all
coastal province destinations and in all Viet Nam destinations combined, respectively. International tourists who visit more than one province arecounted in each province. International tourists who visit more than one destination in a province are counted at each destination.
xxxix Domestic tourist coastal province and total Viet Nam domestic visits are based on the total number of domestic tourist arrivals in all coastal
province destinations and in all Viet Nam destinations combined, respectively. Domestic tourists who visit more than one province are counted ineach province. Domestic tourists who visit more than one destination in a province are counted at each destination.

155

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

year over this period.
Many of the protected areas ranked and selected as priority sites for development assistance by this project occur in priority provincesin the National Tourism Master Plan and are already targeted for tourism development. These protected areas will play a significant role
as tourism continues to develop and expand in the country. Environment is an important part of the tourism product that the country has
to offer. Successful tourism will therefore attempt to maximize profits while preserving the natural environment. The favorable locationsof protected areas will be an economic advantage to the private sector involved in the tourism industry. Preservation of the seascapes andbiodiversity values in the coastal and marine zone should be an important priority to government planners who recognize the significanceof their natural heritage to a successful tourism (visitor-oriented) economy.
INTERAGENCY COOPERATION AT THE LOCAL LEVEL There are some examples of successful protected area management at
the local level. For instance, joint agreements by local institutions to cooperate in management and protection to look after all institutional
needs already exist at Con Dao National Park. In this protected area there is a good deal of cooperation between the District People’s
Committee, the Fisheries Department, the National Park, the Navy, fishermen and other citizens. Improvement in the planning andmanagement of coastal and marine protected areas will require that local levels of organization - districts, communes, and villages - need
to be involved and to be allocated more responsibility for these activities. Joint institutional agreements and collaboration at the local level
can utilize scarce physical resources as well as ensure that at least one professional on the island is adequately trained in a required field,
such as environmental monitoring and management. Con Dao has a rudimentary cooperation structure in place around specific activities.
This foundation of collaboration can hopefully be extended and expanded to identify those areas of marine environmental management thatneed strengthening, with the ultimate goal being the conservation of the island resources and environment.
TRAINING Training opportunities for guards, rangers, area managers, technicians, and scientists have been made available through
GEF/UNDP projects and other projects implemented by the WWF, but these have thus far largely been focused on personnel assigned toforest reserves, with little attention to management staff in marine reserves. Under the GEF/UNDP/WWF project, three training facilities
have been established at Cuc Phuong, Cat Tien, and Bach Ma, and thus far some 2,000 guard level staff of forest reserves have benefited
from six week in-country short courses and another 12 Ms.level degree studies have been provided to senior level managers in Forestry.
Recently, six staff from Con Dao were sent to the Philippines for SCUBA training but as yet a similar training program and facilities forstaff in other marine reserves is required to mirror the good of the facilities and work in the forestry sector. Existing facilities in theseareas combined with practical field training in Cat Ba or Con Dao or both using their facilities can be used to offer at least part of theneeded training for staff of marine reserves. Trainers conducting training programs presently being offered by the Great Barrier Reef Marine
Protection Authority (GBRMPA), Australian Institute of Marine Science (AIMS), and the Coastal Zone Environmental and Resource
Management Project (CZERMP) in Viet Nam would have already developed course materials and manuals.

CONCLUSSION
The establishment and management of marine protected area system become an urgent requirement for biodiversity conservation andsustainable development of coastal zone of Viet Nam.The government has invested a number projects concerning with scientific baseline
and institutional arrangement of MPAs.There are also strong supports from international organizations.WB and DANIDA selected Hon Mun
area (Nha Trang) to be a pilot site of marine protected areas.Danish Environment Assistance program for Viet Nam has prepared someother projects to develop MPAs in framework of Integrated Coastal Management.More supports are appreciated to formulate MPA system
of Viet Nam in near future.

REFERENCES
Government of Viet Nam and Global Environment Facility, 1995.Biodiversity Action Plan. Ha Noi.VIE/91/g31.
Vo Si Tuan, Peter McNamee & Ronald Petocz, in print.On the coastal and marine protected areas plan for Viet Nam in the frameworkof the project ADB 5712-REG.Proceeding of Scientific Conference "Bien Dong - 2000".Nha Trang.19-22 September 2000.

156

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

PRELIMINARY STUDY ON THE EFFECT OF DYNAMICAL PROCESSESOF THE MAXIMUM TURBIDITY ZONE ON PLANKTON ECOLOGYIN THE PEARL RIVER ESTUARY
Xiaoping HUANG＊, Liangmin HUANG
South China Sea Institute of Oceanology
The Chinese Academy of Sciences
Guangzhou , 510301, P.R. China
E- mail：xphuang@scsio.ac.cn
◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

Abstract
This paper preliminarily studied the effect of dynamical processes of the maximum turbidity zone on plankton ecology in the Pearl
River estuary using the method of analyzing historical investigation data. The result indicated that the dynamic processes of turbulence
mixing, gravitational circulation, re-suspension and front have obvious influence on plankton ecology within the maximum turbidity zone in
the Pearl River estuary. The concentration of chlorophyll a, primary productivity, the amount of phytoplankton and zooplankton is 1.87mg/m３, 609mg/m２.d, 1055 (104cell/m３ and 319ind/m３ respectively in winter；1.98mg/m３, 86mg/m２.d, 84 (10cell/m３ and 129ind/m３
respectively in summer. The concentration of chlorophyll a, primary productivity, the amount of phytoplankton and zooplankton in maximum
turbidity zone are higher than in the near sea area. The plankton ecology within the maximum turbidity zone in the Pearl River estuary
is mainly controlled by dynamic factor. This aspect of research is one of the basic research of ecosystem dynamical processes and ecosystemmodel of estuary, and it is worthwhile to study deeply.

INTRODUCT
Since 1990s, a new international cooperated research plan ----Global ocean ecosystem dynamics (GLOBEC) has being formed under
the promotion of a few the international organizations (Wan, 1998；Wu et al., 1998；Zeng, 1998). The research field of GLOBEC mainly
is focused on the physical processes effect on plankton, and the interactions between physical processes and biological processes (Wan,
1998). Estuary is the area of frequent human activities, complex dynamical processes and frail ecology. The research of estuarine has been
gradually recognized since the research plan of LOICZ was put forward by IGBP (Liu et al., 1996). Estuary ecosystem is similar to marine
ecosystem in many aspects. However, because the abiological condition and transport processes are different, the structure of biologicalpopulation and spatial variation are also different, a special ecosystem is formed in the estuary. The special horizontal transport caused by
the interaction between the dynamics of river and ocean, front, stratification, tuburlance mixing are the important dynamical processes. The
functions of these processes in estuarine ecosystem have not been understood well, and they can’t meet the necessaries to establish estuarine
ecosystem model yet.
The maximum turbidity zone is one of the special dynamic phenomenon in tidal estuary. It is the cloudy waters in which the concentration of suspended particular matter is higher than in the upper river and down sea area, and it often moves upper and down regularly ina certain range. Maximum turbidity zone can been found in every tidal estuary in every climate condition in the world, specially it develops
very well in part mixing estuary and full mixing estuary (Sheng, 1995). The initial stage research of maximum turbidity zone has been
focused on deposition dynamics in estuary, then on the characteristic and regular pattern of geochemistry. In recent years, the research has
been focused on biogeochemistry, ecology and environment. The results indicated that：the maximum turbidity zone has the function ofenriching heavy metals and other pollutants (Alan et al., 1996；Fishes, 1991；Seylen et al., 1990). The pollutants can be absorbed byplankton, and then affects the whole estuary ecosystem by food chain. In other way, the maximum turbidity zone is the area for fish
spawning and growing, and that fish resource is abundant in the maximum turbidity (John, 1993；Julian, et al., 1989). Therefore, it is avery important work to study more deeply on plankton ecology within the maximum turbidity. Simultaneously, a few research results
indicated that the dynamic processes of turbulence mixing (Irihion et al., 1997；Cloern, 1987；Alpine et al., 1996；Ficher, et al., 1992
；Grobbelaar, 1985；Cole et al., 1984；Wofsy, 1983；Grobbelaar, 1990；), gravitational circulation (Ficher, et al., 1992；Tremblay, et al.,1997), re-suspension (Wofsy, 1983) and front (John, 1993；Flemming, 1993；Frank, 1992；Fever, 1986；Mann, 1988；Arthur, 1979；Ballet al., 1979) have obvious influence on plankton ecology within the maximum turbidity zone. The Pearl River Estuary is one of the largest
one in China, in which the maximum turbidity zone develops very well, and its moving range is large. In this paper, the effect ofdynamical processes of the maximum turbidity zone on plankton ecology in the estuary of Pearl River will be preliminarily discussed basedon historical data.
1.THE DYNAMICAL CHARIRESTICS OF MAXIMUM TURBIDITY IN THE PEARL RIVER ESTUAREY
The Pearl River is the third largest river in China and the largest river system flowing into the South China Sea. The Pearl Riverestuary lies in southern Guangdong Province. The estuary is located in a subtropical area, with annual rainfall ranging from 1600 to 2300
mm. The annual water flow rate of the river is about 11,100m３/s. The main Pearl River estuary (also called Lingdingyang) is a N-S bellshape area, with a N-S distance averaging about 49km and the E-W width varying from 4 to 58km(see Fig1). The whole estuary area iswithin the sub-tidal zone with strong fresh water and marine water interactions and circulation current along the west coast. The estuary
is complex in environmental and hydro-dynamical conditions, and the ecosystem is very frail.
The economy along the estuary has developed rapidly in the past two decades. The developed city Hong Kong and Macau are located in
the eastern and western side of the estuary respectively. The action of mankind has put tremendous pressure on the local environment. It
is very important to propose measure for strategic environmental control and management in the Pearl River delta region for the next
century. Plankton is the basic biology in the estuarine ecosystem, and it is also the main source of substance and energy for ecosystem.
So the research on dynamical processes of plankton ecosystem in the Pearl River estuary has great significance for practice and theory.
Many research results indicated (Sheng, 1995；Tian, 1986；Pang et al., 1999；Uncles et al., 1993)：gravitational circulation, flocculation deposition of silt, re-suspension caused by eroding of tidal current are the three main causes for the forming of maximum turbidity
zone. The research on maximum turbidity zone in the Pearl River estuary (Tian, 1986) showed that：during full tidal period, the total
positive pressure points to down river, and the inclined pressure always points to upper river, a zero point of pressure gradient exists inbottom water during full tidal period. The average inclined pressure is less than the positive pressure during full tidal period in the surface
water, and that the average inclined pressure is larger than the positive pressure in the full tidal period in the bottom water from the zero
point to down river. Therefore a net gravitational circulation forms, which the surface water flows to down river, and the bottom waterflow to upper river, under the co-operation of inclined pressure and the positive pressure. The sediment substance is main silt with high238

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystemcontent of water in bottom of Pearl River estuary. Especially in the upper layer sediment of 1-2cm, the inter-space of silt is high to 0.
586. Silt will enter water and became suspended status again when the tidal current is larger than critical value of sandy moving. The resuspend sandy will be conveyed and assembled by gravitational circulation in the bottom water, and will form maximum turbidity zone.
The clay in the estuary is easy to flocculate when the salinity is above 4, and salinity variation range of maximum turbidity zone in theestuary is 4-22. The content of fine grain is very high in the range of maximum turbidity zone, and this has a good relationship to flocculation of silt.

2.THE TERRITORY OF MAXIMUM TURBIDITY ZONE IN THE PEARLRIVER ESTUARY
From 1980s to 1990s, two large-scale multidisciplinary investigation of resource in
the Pearl River estuary were carried out, they are "Multidisciplinary Investigation of Coastal
Resources of Guangdong" and "Multidisciplinary Investigation of Island Resource ofGuangdong". The content of the two multidisciplinary investigations included hydrology,
chemistry, environment, climate, geology and biology. The characteristics of tidal dynamics,
mixing between fresh water and marine water, transportation of silt were analyzed in thereports of the two investigations (GCRIO, 1986；GIRIG, 1993). In recent years, several
investigations of hydrology and water quality were also carried out in the Pearl Riverestuary by Hong Kong government for the environmental impact assessment of some large
coastal projects. The above investigation data was also helpful to understand the hydrodynamics and environment condition furthermore.
In these results, there were few researches on maximum turbidity zone directly. According to the classification standard for estuary, the main estuary (Lingdingyang) belongs topartially mixing estuary during flood season, and fully mixing estuary during dry season(Tian 1986). During flood season, the salt water first enters into the estuary like a wedge
from Urmston Road (see Fig.1), then enters into the estuary from Lantau Channel after anhour. The maximum turbidity zone changes gradually with the variation of tidal period. Fig.1 The location of the Pearl River estuary
The maximum turbidity zone moves to the upper estuary in flood tidal period, and moves
to the down estuary in ebb tidal period. This moving distance is about 2-5km. In other way, the maximum turbidity zone is also affectedby the variation of runoff from river, the maximum turbidity zone moves to down estuary in flood season, and moves to upper estuary in
dry season. The moving distance is about 8-13km. The territory of maximum turbidity zone is mainly at the central area of the estuary.
In addition, the concentration of suspended particular matter is also affected by tide period and season. Generally, the concentration inflood tide is higher than in ebb tide, and the concentration in flood season is also higher than in dry season.
The territory of maximum turbidity zone illustrated above is only one the research results. Concerning the close relationship between
maximum turbidity zone and estuary front, the territory of maximum turbidity zone is possible different to the above result. In fact, thelater research results showed that (Ying, 1994；Ying, 1995) two kinds of density front exist in the main estuary (Lingdingyang). One is
the front between the fresh water and the fresh-marine mixing water；the other is the front between the fresh-marine water and marine
water. The first kind front exists at the area between West Shoal and West Channel. The fresh water from Jiao Men, Hongqi Men andHeng Men (the salinity is less than 2) run across the West Shoal, and encounter the fresh-marine water from Hu Men (the salinity is 230). The front, which is also called estuary shoal front, is formed by velocity shear and density gradient. This front starts from the area
near Humen, and stretches to the area near Zhuhai. The second kind front exists at the area between Neilingding Island and Lantau Island.
The forming mechanism of front is that：in the initial stages of flood tide, the high salinity water (the salinity is higher than 30) enters
into the estuary from Umrston Road and Lantau Channel successively, and encounters the fresh-marine water which restores near the northside of Lantau Island. According the latest result (Sheng, 1995), the main mechanism is silt source from land and salinity. Therefore,
territory of fresh-marine front is similar to the territory of maximum turbidity zone. In summary, the territory of maximum turbidity zone
is from the area near Hu Men to the north side of Lantau Island.
3.THE EFFECT OF DYNAMICAL PROCESSES OF THE MAXIMUM TURBIDITY ZONE ON PLANKTON IN THE
PEARL RIVER ESTUARY
The early research result about plankton in Pearl River estuary was mainly focused on the quantity, species, distribution and variation,and there were few researches on the relationship between plankton and environment condition, much less came down to plankton ecology
dynamics. In recent years, there were several researches focus on the structure and function of plankton ecology system, the relationshipbetween primary productivity and secondary productivity, the relationship between ecological characteristics of plankton and environment
condition (Huang et al. 1995；Huang, et al., 1995；Huang et al. 1997).
In later 1990s, several investigations on plankton ecology were carried out in the Pearl River estuary and adjacent waters, these data
are used in this paper to analyze the dynamical effects of maximum turbidity zone on plankton ecology. The main results are illustrated
in Tab.1. The transparency in inner estuary (Hu Men to Lantou Island, also the territory of maximum turbidity zone) is 0.6m and 0.8m
in summer and winter respectively, the transparency in outer estuary is 3.5m and 5.3m in summer and winter respectively, and thetransparency in Dapeng Bay is 9.0m and 3.9m in summer and winter respectively. In spite of the transparency in the sea area of inside
estuary is less than outer estuary and Dapeng Bay, the concentration of chlorophyll a, primary productivity, the amount of phytoplankton
and zooplankton in maximum turbidity zone are higher than in the adjacent waters. The concentration of chlorophyll a, primary
productivity, the amount of phytoplankton and zooplankton in maximum turbidity zone is 11.87mg/m３, 609mg/m２.d, 1055 (10４cell/m３
and 319ind/m３ respectively in winter；1.98mg/m３, 86mg/m２.d, 84 (10cell/m３ and 129ind/m３ respectively in summer. Therefore, theplankton ecology within the maximum turbidity zone in the Pearl River estuary is mainly controlled by hydro-dynamical factor.
Table 1 Biomass and environment parameters in the Pearl River estuary and adjacent waters
Primary
Phytoplankton
SeasonArea
Sal.
Tran.（m） Chl‑a（mg/m3） Productivity
Abundance2（mg/ m .d） （×104cell/m3）
Inner Sea
16
0.6
1.98
86
84
SummerOuter Sea
32
5.3
0.95
343
Dapeng Bay
24
9.0
0.32
104
275
Inner Sea
26
0.8
11.87
609
1055
WinterOuter Sea
33
3.5
0.78
175
Dapeng Bay
32
3.9
0.66
169
50

239

Zooplankton
Abundance（ind/m3）
129
222
430
319
276

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

4.CONCLUSION
It will be helpful for protecting estuarine ecosystem to develop ecosystem model. In recent years, ecosystem dynamics has beenrecognized as an important factor affecting marine ecosystem. Maximum turbidity zone is one of special dynamic phenomenon in tidal
estuary, and plankton ecology dynamic process in estuarine maximum turbidity zone is an important process in the research on estuarine
ecosystem dynamics. This paper preliminarily studied the effect of dynamical processes of the maximum turbidity zone on plankton ecology
in the Pearl River estuary using the method of analyzing historical investigating data. It is showed that the dynamic processes ofturbulence mixing, gravitational circulation, resuspension and front have obvious influence on plankton ecology within the maximum
turbidity zone in the Pearl River estuary. The concentration of chlorophyll a, primary productivity, the amount of phytoplankton andzooplankton in maximum turbidity zone are higher than in the adjacent waters. The plankton ecology within the maximum turbidity zone
in the Pearl River estuary is controlled by dynamic factor. This aspect of research is one of the basis of research of ecosystem dynamic
processes and model of estuary, and it is worthwhile to study deeply.
References
Alan D J, Thomas M P, 1994. Hydrodynamic influences on inter-annual chlorophyll variability in an estuary：Upper San Francisco Baydelta (California, U.S.A). Estuarine Coastal and Shelf Science, 39：595-618.
Alpine A E, Cloern J E, 1988. Phytoplankton growth rates in a light limited environment, San Francisco Bay. Marine Ecology Progress
Series, 44：167-173.
Arthur J F, Ball M D, 1979. Factor influence the entrapment of suspended material in the San Francisco Bay-delta Estuary, in：Conomos(ed.) San Francisco Bay：the urbanized estuary. American Association for the Advancement of Science, San Francisco, 143-174.
Ball M D, Arthur J F, 1979. Planktonic chlorophyll dynamic in northern San Francisco Bay and delta, in：Conomos(ed.) San Francisco
Bay ：the urbanized estuary. American Association for the Advancement of Science, San Francisco, 265-285.
Cloern J E, 1987. Turbidity as a control on phytoplankton biomass and productivity in estuaries. Continental Shelf Research, 7：1367-1381.
Cole B E, Cloern J E, 1984. Significance of biomass and light availability to phytoplankton productivity in San Francisco bay. Marine
Ecology Progress Series, 17：167-173.
Fever L J, 1986. Aspects of the biology of frontal system. Advance in Marine Biology, 23：163-299.
Ficher R, Edmnunds H M, 1992. Algal bloom in high turbidity, a result of the conflicting consequences of turbulence on nutrient cycling
in a shallow water estuary. Estuarine Coastal and Shelf Science, 35：577-592.
Fishes T R, 1991. Phytoplankton, nutrients and turbiding in the Chespeak, Delaware and Hudson estuarine. Estuarine Coastal and Shelf
Science, 32：187-206.
Flemming B P, 1993. Fronts in the Kattegat：the hydrodynamic regulating factor for biology. Estuaries, 16(1)：104-112.
Franks P J S, 1992. Sink or swim：accumulation of biomass at fronts. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 82：1-12.
Grobbelaar J U, 1985. Phytoplankton productivity in turbid water. Journal of Plankton Research, 7：653~663.
Grobbelaar J U, 1990. Modeling phytoplankton productivity in turbid waters with small euphotic to mixing depth ratios. Journal of Plankton
Research, 12：923-931.
Guangdong costal resource investigation office (GCRIO), 1986. Investigation report on coastal resources of Pearl River estuary. Guangdong
Science and Technology Press, Guangzhou.
Guangdong island resources investigation group (GIRIG), 1993. Investigation report on island resources of Pearl River estuary. Guangdong
Science and Technology Press, Guangzhou.
Guang Yuping, Gao Huiwang, Hong Shiuoet al., 1997. Elementary introduction on ocean ecosystem dynamics. Advance in Earth Sciences,12(5)：447-450.
Huang Liangmin, Chen Qingchao, Chen Dongjiao et al., 1995. A preliminary study on the relationships between basic biomass andenvironment near Humen waters of Peal River estuary. In：Research on the environment of the Pearl River and its coastal land,
Guangdong High Education Press, Guangzhou, 5-12.
Huang Liangmin, Chen Qingchao, Huang Chuangjian et al., 1995. A preliminarily study on the relationships between primary productivity
and secondary productivity in inner waters of Peal River estuary. In：Research on the environment of the Pearl River and its
coastal land, Guangzhou：Guangdong High Education Press, Guangzhou, 13-24.
Huang Liangmin, Chen Qingchao, Yin Jianqiang et al., 1997. Basic organism composition and environment status of Pearl River estuary
and adjacent water. Marine Environment Science, 16(3)：1-7.
Irihion X, Castel J, 1997. Light limitation and distribution of chlorophyll pigments in a highly turbid estuary：Gironde (SW France).
Estuarine Coastal and Shelf Science, 44：507-517.
John L L, 1993. Estuarine Front：How Important are they? Estuaries, 16 (1)：1-11.
Julian J D, Jean-Claude D, Grant R I, et al., 1989. Abundance of rainbow smelt (Osmerus mordax) in relation to the maximum turbidity
zone and associated macroplanktonic fauna of the middle St. Lawrence Estuary. Estuaries, 12 (2)：66-81.
Liu Yunrui, Hu Dunxing, 1997. Research on the interaction between land and ocean at coastal zone in China. Earth Science Pioneer, 4(12)：194.
Mann R, 1988. Distribution of bivale larvae at frontal system in the James River, Virginia. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 50：29-44.
Pang Dingan, Sheng Fangting, Mao Zhichang, 1999. The mechanism and character of turbidity maximum in the Changjiang River. Acta
Oceanologica Sinca, 21(4)：62-68[10] Seylen P, Hartin J H. Distribution of arsenite and fatal dissolved arsenic in Major Frekch esmanes. Marine Chemistry, 1990,29(2~3)：27~29.
Sheng Fangting, 1995. A new reconization of estuarine turbidity maximum in China. Advance in Earth Sciences, 10(2)：210-213.
Tian Xiangping, 1986. A study on turbidity maximum in Lingdingyangm estuary of the Pearl River. Tropic Oceanology, 5(2)：27-35.
Tremblay E, Legendre L, Therriault J C, 1997. Size-differential effect on vertical stability on the biomass and production of phytoplankton
in a large estuarine system. Estuarine Coastal and Shelf Science, 45：415-431.
Uncles R J, Stephens, 1993. Nature of the turbidity maximum in the Tammar Estuary, U.K. Estuarine Coastal and Shelf Science, 36：413431.
Wang Hui, 1998. Several basic problems of marine ecosystem modelling. Oceanologia et Limnologia Sinica, 29(4)：341-346.
Wofsy S C, 1983. A simple model to predict extinction coefficient and phytoplankton biomass in eutrophic waters. Limnology andOceanography, 28：1144~1155.
Wu Zengmao, Yu Guangyao, 1996. Research advances and basic features of the marine ecosystem dynamical models. Advance in Earth
Sciences, 11(1)：13-18.
Ying Zhipu, 1994. The sort of fronts and its effect on deposition in Lingdingyang of Pearl River estuary Tropic Oceanology, 13(2)：2531.
Ying Zhipu, 1995. Research on the characteristic of sediment dynamics in Lingdingyang of Pearl River estuary. Tropic Oceanology, 14(2)：76-81.
Zeng Cengkui, 1998. Marine science prospect in China. Oceanologia et Limnologia Sinica, 29(1)：1-8.

240

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

Seasonal Variation of Stratification in the Gulf of Thailand
TETSUO YANAGI１＊, SUHENDAR I SACHOEMAR２, TOSHIYUKI TAKAO３,
and SHUNJI FUJIWARA４
１ResearchInstitute for Applied Mechanics, Kyushu University, Kasuga 816-8580, Japan
Graduate School of Engineering Sciences, Kyushu University, Kasuga 816-8580, Japan
３ECHO Consulting Company Ltd., Kita- Ueno 2-6-4, Daitoh- ku, Tokyo 110-0014, Japan
４Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center, Fisheries Garden, Chendering, 21080 Kuala Terengganu, Malaysia
２Interdisciplinary

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

209

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

210

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

211

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

212

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

213

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

214

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

215

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

216

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

217

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

This paper is originally published in Journal of Oceanography, Vol No.57

218

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

L E G AL I N S T R U M E N T S F O R C O A S T A L BI O- C O N S E R V A T I O N
IN CHINAZHOU Qiulin
Third Institute of Oceanography, State Oceanic Administration
No. 178, Daxue Road, Xiamen, PRC, 361005
E- mail: qlzhou@jingxian.Xmu.Edu.Cn
◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

Abstract
This paper introduces the basic facts about marine flora and fauna in China and reviews the development of bio-conservation policies
in the past decades. The bulk part of the paper reviews the legal instruments for coastal bio-conservation in China and introduces the
progress of ICM and MPAs in China as they are two powerful tools for bio-conservation.

Basic Facts about Marine Flora and Fauna in China
Situated at the boundary of the Western Northern Pacific, the coastal waters of China is composed of the Bohai Sea, the HuanghaiSea, the Donghai Sea and the Nanhai Sea. Extending from the temperate zone to the tropical zone, the Chinese waters houses abundantmarine ecosystems and rich species.
China has 18 000 km of continental coastline and 14 000 km of island coastline. Along the coastline there are more than 1800
estuaries in various forms and of various sizes. Of them, there are about 60 estuaries at the mouth of a river of more than 100 km longand 16 sea-inputting rivers have each a drainage area of over 3000 km２.
Chinese coastal wetland is composed of intertidal zone and estuarine swamps, with a total area of 2,000,000 ha, of which the slity
tidal flat and swamps is about 1 670 000 ha and the rest is rocky tidal zone and coral reefs. The sandy and muddy tidal zone is madeof silty mud where abundant benthos live, especially shellfishes. The sandy and muddy zone acts as important spawning nursery and feeding grounds for commercial species. The rocky tidal zone, narrow and steep, consists of mainly rocks, has abundant benthic algae andshellfishes, as well as endemic fishes. The coral reef tidal zone is distributed mainly in the waters off Guangdong, Guangxi, Hainan andTaiwan. The silty tidal zone is mainly distributed in and around the estuaries or sheltered bays. In North China, the estuarine wetland is
distributed with large stretches of reeds and other herbal plants. In South China, the estuarine wetland is distributed with mangroves. The
wetland with rich plant communities has especially rich invertebrates and birds.
China has more than 5 000 islands, majorly rocky islands and minorly silty and coral reef islands. More than 90% of islands areclose to the continent with strong interaction of coastal waters and oceanic waters, resulting in good habitats. Some islands are distributedwith rare vegetation, birds, snakes and other higher organisms.
Chinese waters has complex ecosystems and rich species, taxa and communities (Tables 1 and 2). Based on the studies in the past
70 years, there has recorded in Chinese waters 20 278 species in 44 families and 5 kingdoms, of which animalia has most species (12794 species) and monera has least species (229 species).
Table 1 Number of marine species recorded in China
Kingdom & family
Number of species
MONERA
229
79
Bacteria
18
Actinobacteria
131
Cyanomycete
1
Oxybacteria
PROTISTA
Bacillariophyta
Pyrrophyta
Chrysophyta
Xanthophyta
Cryptophyta
Ciliophora
Sarcomastigophora

4,596
1,395
255
14
3
1
291
2,997

FUNGI
Yeast
Other fungi
Mycophycophyta

188
61
127
1

PLANTAE

1,203
443
153
194
11
3
399

Rhodophyta
Phacophyta
Chlorophyta
Pteridophyta
Gymnosperae
Angiospermae

Kingdom & family
ANIMALIA
Porifera
Coelenterata
Ctenophora
Platyhelminthea
Nemertea
Kinorhyncha
Nematoda
Acanthocephala
Rotifera
Priapulida
Annellida
SipunculaEchiurqa
Mollusca
Arthropoda
Bryozoa
Entoprocta
Brachiopoda
Phoronida
Chaetognatha
Echinodermata
Hemichordata
Urochorda
Chordata

Number of species
12,794
106
989
9
574
52
10
122
32
17
2
979
39
9
2,554
2,971
488
9
8
4
37
471
6
125
3,181

Among 24 families of animalia, three families such as Arthropoda, Chordata and Mollusca have each over 2500 species, and eightfamilies such as Coelenterata, Annellida, Platyhelminthea, Bryozoa, Echinodermata, Urochorda, Nematoda and Portifera each havemore than 100 species. The rest families each have less ten species.
The 6 families in plantae are composed of vascular plants and aglae. In the three families of algae, 794 species have been recorded.
Among 413 species of vascular plants recorded in the three families, only 40 species of mangroves and 13 species of seaweeds are true
vascular plants, while others are saline plants or coastal plants distributing in the beaches.

177

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

Not much has been carried out on the studies of fungi and it is difficult to give a complete picture of marine fungi in China as
only yeasts in the Bohai Sea and fungi on the rotten wood in Hong Kong were studied.
Only 5 000 species in 7 families in Protista are recorded. Of which, the studies on unicellular algae is more intensive, especially on
diatoms. With 1395 species have been recorded in Bacillariophyta, a complete picture of diatoms in different habitats has been obtained.
In the family of Pyrrophyta, 255 species have been recorded, among them some are HAB species. Both foraminifera and radiolaria in thefamily Sarcomastigophora have received more intensive studies as 2606 species distributing from ancient to modern times.
Table 2 Number of species of some taxa recorded in China's seas
Sea area/ taxa
China seas
Donghai Sea
Huanghai and Bohai seas
255
74（16）
117（33）Pyrrophyta443
112（49）217（94）
Rhodophyta435
101（25）288（73）
Hydromedusae
195
0
27（0）
Reef‑builders
1,115
130（57）565（142）
Snails450
108（36）228（58）
Opisthobranchia
101
14（2）
76（14）
Cephapoda
523
125（23）317（25）
Copepoda
476
49（4）138（20）Shrimps734
90（23）
305（75）Crabs
474
57（30）
139（44）Echinoderm
3,032
280（48）1,750（573）
Fish
Total
8,133
1,140(313)
4,167(1151)
Note: number in （ ）refers to number of endemic species recorded in the sea area.

Nanhai Sea
182（50）264（166）
307（106）
193（160）686（279）343（179）
82（24）
458（172）316（212）578（349）379（291）
1,825（687）
5,613(2675)

The studies of horizontal distribution of marine species in China show that the number of species increases from north to south.
Among 8133 species of 12 taxa in Table 2, some are distributed only in one sea area while others are found in all the Chinese waters.
The endemic species recorded are 313 species in the Huanghai Sea, 1151 species in the Donghai Sea and 2675 species in the Nanhai
Sea.
The Chinese waters act as the northern boundary of tropical species in the Indo-Pacific Oceans and the southern boundary of thewarm species in the Northern Pacific and some of the cold water species. AS indicated in Table 2, only 27 species of 195 species ofreef-building coral survive in the coastal water off Fujian, all fail to build reefs. The northern boundary for reef builders is the waters
around Hainan and south to Taiwan Island. This is true also for mangroves. Sea (Phoca largha) has 7 breeding grounds in the Northwestern
Pacific, with the southernmost one in the Liaodong Bay. Both herring (Clupea pallasi) and cod (Gadus macrocephalus) might not be foundin the Donghai Sea although they form fishing seasons in winter in northern Huanghai Sea. Furthermore, cold temperate species such as
Ophiura sarsi and Oregonia gracillis can only be found in the deep waters under the control of old waters masses in northern Huanghai
Sea.
Marine species in China is composed mainly of warm water species (tropical and subtropical species) followed by wide distributing
and warm water species and less of cold water species.

Brief History of Biological Conservation in China
Biological conservation in China started in 1956 when some congressmen proposed to "designate closed area for natural forest inorder to conserve natural vegetation for meeting the needs of scientific research. The motive was accepted and the Regulations Concerning
the Management of Hunting and the Regulations for Designating Closed Areas (Nature Reserve) of Natural Forest were drafted by the
Ministry of Forest in October of 1956. In the same year, the National Program of Science and Technology listed the establishment of andstudies on nature conservation and nature reserves as one of the basic research areas.
The State Council called for in its Directives to Positively Protect and Rational Use of Wildlife Resources in 1962 setting up nature
reserves for protecting rare and rare wildlife. In 1964, the State Council endorsed the Regulations Concerning the Conservation of Aquatic
Resources (Draft). The Regulation calls for the listing and protection of rare and commercial aquatic flora and fauna. In addition, theRegulation proposes to set up fishery close areas and protection of aquatic environments. In 1979, the Regulation was promulgated. In
1979, the Environmental Protection Law (Trial) was made public. In 1982, the Regulations Concerning Soil Conservation and the Marine
Environmental Protection Law were published. In 1984, the Water Pollution Control Law and the Forest Law were promulgated. In 1985,
the Grassland Law was published. In 1986 the Mineral Resource Law and the Law Concerning Land Management were made public. In
the same year, the Program for Nature Conservation was published after three years of hard work. Among 10 major targets for conservation, three have direct relation with marine biological conservation, namely the conservation of species, the conservation of swamps andcoastal intertidal flats and, the protection of seas. The Program has set guidelines and policies in China for nature and biodiversity conservation.
Legal Instruments for Marine Biological Conservation in China
The legal instruments for marine biological conservation in China may be analyzed from two aspects, policies and programs and laws
and regulations.
1. Policies and programs for marine biological conservation
China has made environmental protection and sustainable development as the basic state policy. As stated in The Development ofChina’s Marine Programs (State Council, 1998), China adopts the policy of "simultaneously planning and implementing the developmentof marine resources and the protection of the marine environment. China will work out a program for the coordinated development ofmarine resources and the protection of marine eco-environment and, in line with the principles of ’putting prevention first, combining prevention with control’ and ’making the causer of pollution responsible for treating it’, improve the monitoring, surveillance, law enforcement
and management of marine environment. Stress will be laid on strengthening the control of land-based pollutants and implementing thesystem for controlling the total quantity of pollutants, in order to prevent the marine environment degenerating." The introduction of the178International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystemfollowing three documents may give a picture how the basic state policy is implemented in China as regards with marine biological conservation.
National Program for Nature Conservation (Committee for Program for National Conservation, 1987) lays down the general policy formarine biological conservation. The Program advocates to "set up specialized agency to plan marine development and management in an
integrated way and from the long-term interests and to supervise the enforcement of marine laws and regulations." The Program calls forrehabilitation of fisheries resources by protecting spawning grounds and setting up protected areas of larval fishes and adopting measures
such as closed season and closed area. The Program urges governments at all levels and the relevant administration agencies to channel
the funds for protected areas into the master plan for social and economic development. In its Chapter of the Protection of Seas, theProgram describes the present state of environment and resources, analyzes the existing major issues and recommends the major countermeasures
to be taken. The countermeasures include 1) the overall planning and management of marine development; 2) the promotion of studies on
marine environment and resources; 3) the development with all efforts of coastal aquaculture and protection of coastal fishery resourcesand gradual development of offshore fisheries; 4) the strengthening of marine environmental protection and prevention of marine pollution; and 5) development of studies on island ecology in a planned way.
China’s Oceanic Agenda 21(SOA, 1996) takes the conservation of ocean living resources for sustainable utilization as one of its basic
policies. The Agenda determines to 1) establish marine protected areas of coral reefs, mangrove, grass bed and island and protected areas
in coastal spawning and nursery areas of commercial species in order to protected biological species and ecosystem ; 2) control resource
breakdown from wanton fishing by managing properly coastal artisan fisheries; 3) manage well the mariculture in the tidal flats and shallow
waters for the rational development and utilization of waters suitable for mariculture and develop clean mariculture technology for the
avoidance of self-pollution induced by mariculture; 4) improve methods and technologies in commercial fisheries and control thedevelopment of fishery economic at a moderate speed so as to maintain their production and the sustainable utilization of commercial
fishery resources for the coming generations; 5) develop ocean ranching technologies for artificial enhancement of high quality fisheryresources; 6) strengthen rational resource development and utilization and management in the exclusive economic zone. The Agenda makes
the conservation of marine biodiversity as one of the program areas, with the following activities.1) Make clear the basic conditions ofChina’s marine biodiversity and develop the assessment standards for marine biodiversity. Compile the list of China’s marine organisms
and carry out survey and systematic studies on the present state, habitat, distribution, quantity, variation patterns and the cause of being
endangered of the endangered species. On the basis of these surveys and studies, draw up the assessment standards and conservation norms
for China’s marine biodiversity. 2) Strengthen the conservation of ecosystem and species outside the marine protected areas. Develop theRegulations for the Management of China’s Marine Biodiversity Conservation. Conserve the rare marine species in China and in the world,
and the mangrove and coral reef ecosystem. 3) Set up information systems and monitoring systems for marine biodiversity. Carry out longterm dynamic monitoring of the species resources of marine ecosystems and develop gradually the monitoring system of marine ecosystem.
Establish national information system of marine biodiversity conservation and realize its networking with the correlative information systems
in the world. 4) Positively carry out international and regional cooperation in the conservation of marine biodiversity. Strengthen exchange
and cooperation in the fields of management, scientific research, technical development and transfer and personnel training of marine
biodiversity, including the cooperation and exchange between the transnational non-governmental organizations. 5). Carry out various forms
of demonstration projects for the conservation and utilization of marine biodiversity. Conduct education in the conservation of marine
biodiversity through activities of tourism, mariculture, integrated utilization and intensive processing of the living resources. Designate thetourist activities. Positively enhance both quantity and quality of conservation activities in order to obtain improvement of both biologicalconservation and development and to reach the unity of ecological, economic and social benefits. Promote popularization among the public
the sense of conscientious conservation.
China developed its Marine Biodiversity Action Plan (SOA, 1995) in 1995. The Action Plan describes the present state of marine
biodiversity and its conservation and the assesses the present state of marine biodiversity conservation, proposes the targets and tasks formarine biodiversity conservation and formulates the measures for implementing the Action Plan. The objectives of marine biodiversity
conservation are to maintain the richness of marine biodiversity, protect a variety of typical marine ecosystems, reserve and increase thestock of endangered and rare species, promote the sustainable development of marine biotic resources and others, create better environmental
conditions for various types of marine natural ecosystems and landscape and ensure the sustainable development of marine economy andraise the living standards of the people in the coastal areas, For meeting these objectives 7 strategies are being taken. 1) Strengthen
publicity and education for marine biodiversity conservation by mobilizing all social forces. 2). Increase the total financial input for marine
natural conservation; 3) Strengthen and perfect existing marine protected areas; 4) Build a series of new conservation zones for particularmarine ecosystems and for rare and endangered species; 5) Strengthen national coordination for marine protection and improve and upgrade policy, regulations and economic measures; 6) Strengthen basic research on marine biodiversity; 7) Strengthen information collection,
processing and service.
With a cooperative effort by the Ministry of Forestry and WWF commenced in 1989, A Biodiversity Review of China was published(Carey, 1996). The publication reviews the state of China’s biodiversity and the efforts both in place and planned to protect it. The Review
is divided into four parts. The first details the objectives and methods of the review, including a summary of the main aspects of biogeography
theory that were relevant to its preparation and the principles behind protected area system design. Part two provides an analysis of thecharacteristics of China’s biodiversity and the threats that face it. The bulk of the Review consists of part three which provides a detailed
province-by-province analysis of China. Part four has five chapters on special issues, including issues of marine protection. These issues
are considered of particular biodiversity significance and must be considered in terms of the whole country or large areas of the country,
rather than individual provinces. In its chapter of marine protection, a number of recommendations are made. 1) Island population should
kept under strict control and incorporated into the protection and tourism development. Tourism should be regulated by issuing restricted
numbers of permits and licenses, and all tourist activities should be away from core zones and minimized during the breeding seasons ofcritical species. Strict control of tourist-related pollution is required. The provision of tourist accommodation within protected areas is
generally not recommended. Tax or surcharges may be drawn from tourist agencies involved to raise finance for the operational costs of
the reserve. Where tourism development is already underway, the only method of reducing negative impacts on the environment is torestrict tourist activities to less sensitive areas like sandy beaches. Sewage treatment plants are essential for safeguarding water quality on
which both marine life and tourism depend. 2) Better conservation of reefs requires reserve border marking, strengthening of protection
law enforcement (through training, publicity and the provision of necessary equipment), arousing public awareness and the carrying out ofbaseline ecological studies necessary for drawing up sound management plans. Coral mining should also be controlled at the market end
and officials of the Oceanic, Industrial Commerce and Public Security Departments should stop trading of corals and coral products. 3)
A healthy, colorful coral reef will have much higher potential in attracting up-market and more profitable activities like diving and glassbottom boat tourism. At reef sites, permanent buoys should be installed to prevent anchor damage and guards are needed to prevent
damage while education officers promote environmental awareness to the public. 4) Elite tourism, involving water sports and diving, if

179

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystemmanaged well, should help generate sufficient incentive to keep the marine environment in a prime state. Unfortunately, in most areas
there is still a long way to go before the marine conditions can recover sufficiently for such tourism to be established. 5) In addition tocoral transplantation, which has been tried at a number of places, another less sophisticated method of coral reef recovery is the introduction of artificial reefs. Different objects, including old cars, boats, tyres, cement, PVC and pulverized fuel ash blocks have been used as
artificial reefs in various countries. Piled-up cent or PFA blocks have been shown to be best for coral settlement. It may therefore be
useful to lay down a series of artificial reefs, preferably of cement blocks, in certain reserves, especially on sandy or sandy-muddy bottoms
just below the existing coral zone so as to widen the shallow water band necessary for shallow water coral reef species and at the sametime attract marine life. The total surface area provided, substratum irregularity and orientation all play a role in affecting the success ofcoral settlement. 6) As far as seaweed reserves are concerned, action should be guided by the present situation of each reef ecosystem. In
general, cooperative management fueled by economic returns and local support should be strengthened, which in turn, will generate apositive feedback cycle for conservation and continuous exploitation to enhance each other. Studies on the general ecology of the algaecarrying reef and a monitoring program to determine the effects of continuous seaweed harvesting on the reef ecosystems are needed to
draw up management strategies for conservation and sustainable exploitation. It has been shown that rational harvesting practices involving
replanting of young material and cutting of the oldest would generate higher carrageenan yield per unit weight of seaweed.

2. Laws and regulations for marine biological conservation
The National Constitution revised in 1982 regulates in its Article 9 that: " the State protects the rational use of natural resources andrare flora and fauna and forbids any organizations and any individual to seize or damage natural resources by any means."
Under the umbrella of National Constitution, various laws and regulations have been promulgated to conserve biological resources(Table 3). Among them, the Marine Environmental Protection Law, the Fisheries Law, the Wildlife Conservation Law the Regulations
Concerning Nature Reserves and Regulations Concerning the Management of Marine Nature Reserve are more important instruments formarine biological conservation.
Table 3 National Laws and regulations related to marine biological conservation
Laws and Regulations
Promulgated byRegulations Concerning the Protection of Reproduction of Aquatic State Council in 1979
Resources
Environmental Protection Law（Trial）
National People's Congress in 1979
Marine Environmental Protection Law
National People's Congress in 1982 and revised in
1999
Regulations Concerning Environmental Protection in Offshore Oil Explora‑ State Council in 1983
tion and Exploitation
Regulations Concerning the Prevention of Pollution of Sea Areas by State Council in 1983
Vessels
Regulations Concerning the Dumping of Wastes at Sea
State Council in 1985
Fisheries Law
National People's Congress in 1986 and revised in
2000
Mineral Resources Law
National People's Congress in 1986
Regulations for the Implementation of the Fisheries Law
Ministry of Agriculture , Animal Husbandry and
Fisheries in 1987
Regulations Concerning Prevention of Environmental Pollution by Ship‑ State Council in 1988
breaking
Regulations Concerning Prevention of Pollution Damage to the Marine State Council in 1990
Environment by Coastal Construction Projects
Regulations Concerning Prevention of Pollution Damage to the Marine State Council in 1990
Environment by Land‑based Pollutants
Wildlife Conservation Law
National People's Congress in 1988
Regulations Concerning Sea Area Use Management
Ministry of Finance and State Oceanic Administra‑tion in 1992
Regulations Concerning the Implementation of the Wildlife Conservation State Council in 1993
Law
Regulations Concerning Nature Reserve
State Council in 1994
Regulations Concerning the Management of Marine Nature Reserve
State Science and Technology Commission in 1995

Marine Environmental Protection Law is enacted to protect and improve the marine environment, conserve marine resources, prevent
pollution damages, maintain ecological balance, safeguard human health and promote sustainable economic and social development. In its
revision in 2000, a new chapter, the chapter for marine ecological conservation was added. With eight articles, the chapter regulates therange and measures for marine ecological conservation, including the conditions for setting up marine protected areas and the issues needspecial attention in marine development. Article 20 of the law states that " the State Council and local People’s Governments at theProvincial level shall adopt effective measures to protect such typical and representative marine ecosystems as mangroves, coral reefs,
seaside wetlands, islands, bays, mouths of rivers that empty into the sea, important fishery waters, etc.; sea areas where rare and endangered
marine organisms are naturally and densely distributed; marine organisms existence areas with important economic value and marine natural
historic remains and natural landscapes of great scientific and cultural significance. For marine ecosystems with important economic andsocial values that have been damaged, efforts shall be made to renovate and recover them." The Law requires in article 24 that the"exploration and exploitation of marine resources shall be rationally distributed in accordance with marine functional zonation scheme andshall not bring about damages to marine ecological environment." The Law in its article 25 regulates the introduction of alien species bystating, "the introduction of marine animal and plant species shall conduct scientific argumentation to avoid damages to marine ecosystems."
The Law declares in article 28 that "the State shall encourage the development of ecological fisheries, popularize multiform ecologicalfisheries production methods and improve marine ecological conditions."
Fisheries Law was revised in 2000 (China Ocean News, 2000). The most important changes are three new articles, articles 16, 17

180

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystemand 29 and the revision of original article 27. Article 16 states that " the import and export of aquaculture seedlings should be subject
to the approval by the fisheries administrative department of the State Council or of the people’s governments of provinces, autonomous
region or municipalities directly under the State Council." Article 17 states that " the import and export of aquaculture seedling shouldpass a quarantine to prevent spreading of pests into and out of China. The introduction of genetic-transferred aquaculture seedlings shouldpass a safety assessment procedure." The original article 27 states," protection shall be provided to rare aquatic animals whose capture isbanned by the state. In case there is a special need to catch them, the matter should be handled in accordance with the relevant laws
and regulations." This article has been revised and turned into article 37 in the new version of the Law. It reads that " the state exercises
conservation as a higher priority of rare and endangered species such as Chinese river dolphin (Lipotes vexillifer) for preventing their extinction. The killing and hurt of wild aquatic animals under prior protection of the state is banned, In case that a wild aquatic animal underprior protection of the state should be fished for scientific research, acclimation for culture, exhibition or other needs should be handledin accordance with the Wildlife Conservation Law of the People’s Republic of China."
Wildlife Conservation Law, as the first national law for resource conservation, indicates a new development in the legislation of
wildlife conservation. According to the Law, the forestry administrative department of the State Council is responsible for the managementof land wild animals in China and the fishery administrative department of the State Council is responsible for the management of aquatic
wild animals in China. The Law regulates the classification and name listing of wild animals under protection(Table 4). Accordingly, thewild animals under state protection are classified into three types, namely rare and endangered species, beneficial wild animals and wild
animals with important economic value and scientific value. The Law states four major responsibilities of governments at various levels:
1) the responsibility of planning and formulation of conservation measures; 2) the responsibility to establish nature reserves; 3) the
responsibility to save wild animals when they subject to the threats of natural disasters; 4) the obligation of compensation for economic
losses caused by wild animals; and 5) the responsibility to prevent from damages by wild animals.
Table 4 Name List of Key Wild Animals under State Protection
Name of species
Level of protection
Name of species
Pinnipedia
II
Chelonia mydas
SireniaII
Eretmochetys imbricata
Dugong dugong
I
Bahaba flavolabiata
CetaceaII
Trachidermis fasciatus
Sousa chinensis
I
Hippocampus kelloggi
CetuceaII
Acipenser sinensis
Diomedea albatrus
I
Acipenser dabryanus
Pelecans spp.
II
Psiphurus gladius
Sula spp.
II
Branchiostoma belcheri
Phalacrocorax
II
Glassobalanus palybanchioporus
Pelagicus
Phalacrocorax niger
II
Saccoglossus hwangiauensis
Fregulu undrewsi
II
Cypraea tigrisb
Ciconia ciconia
I
Cassis cornutab
Ciconia nigra
I
Pinctada maxima
Haliaeetus leucoryphus
I
Tridancna cookiana
Haliaeetus albcillaI
Nautilus pompitius
Caretta caretta
II
Corallum spp.

Level of protection
II
II
II
II
II
I
I
II
I
II
II
II
II
II
II
I
I

Regulations Concerning Nature Reserves is a concrete step that China takes to implement the CBD in 1994. According to the Regulations, the state adopts a management system of nature reserve combining integral management and sector management. The environmental
protection administrative department of the State Council is responsible for the integral management of nature reserves in China and thesector administrative department of the State Council such as forestry, agriculture, geology, minerals, water conservancy and ocean affairs
are responsible for nature reserves within its own responsibilities. The Regulation states that the state will take economic and technicalpolicies and measures favorable for the development of nature reserves and channel the development plan of nature reserves into national
economic and social development plan.
Regulations Concerning the Management of Marine Nature Reserve consists of 23 articles covering all administrative and technicalaspects for the establishment and management of marine nature reserves. Its article 5 states," the state administrative department of marine
affairs is responsible for studying and developing national plan of marine nature reserves, examining the schemes and reports for establishing state-level marine nature reserves, approving the general development plan of state-level marine nature reserves and managing
exclusively the work on marine nature reserve in China." Its article 6 states" in an area that possesses one of the following characteristics,
a marine nature reserve may be set up: 1) Typical marine physiographic areas, representative natural ecosystem areas, as well as areas
within which natural ecosystems have been damaged to some extent, but may be recovered through efforts of protection; 2) Areas withhighly rich marine organism species, or areas where rare and endangered marine organism species are naturally and densely distributed; 3)
Sea areas, seashores, islands, seaside wetlands, mouths of rivers that empty into the sea and bays, etc. with special protection values; 4)Areas where marine natural remains of great scientific and cultural values are located, and 5) Other areas which call for special protection.
The above policies and laws and regulations indicate that China has set up its legal framework for coastal bio-conservation. However,just as the case before 1992 when the CBD was adopted, there is no a national framework law for bio-diversity conservation althoughvarious sector laws and regulations are dealing with some aspects of biodiversity conservation. The issue here is should China develop anational framework law for bio-diversity conservation like the CBD.

ICM and Marine Nature Reserves in China
At the first meeting of the Conference of Parties, held in the Bahamas in November-December 1994, it was decided that priority
attention should be given to coastal and marine ecosystems, given their dominant contribution to global biodiversity. The second
Conference of Parties, held in Jakarta, Indonesia, on November 6-17, 1995, gave further attention to issues related to coastal and marine

181

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

diversity (de Fontaubert, Downes, and Agardy, 1996) Although the convention itself does not make specific reference to ICM, a principle
outcome of the second Conference of Parties was Decision II/10, on "Conservation and Sustainable Use of Marine and Coastal Biological
Diversity." Among other recommendations, this statement, now called the Jakarta Mandate, encourage the use of integrated marine andcoastal area management as the most suitable framework for addressing human impacts on marine and coastal biological diversity and for
promoting conservation and sustainable use of this biodiversity (and ) encourages Parties to establish and /or strengthen, where appropriate,institutional, administrative, and legislative arrangements for the development of integrated management of marine and coastal areas, andtheir integration within national development plans.(UNEP, 1995 ).
As the Conference of Parties and the Subsidiary Bodies of the CBD continue their implementation of the convention, ICM is being
seen as an important tool in protecting coastal and marine diversity. For example, a group of experts met in Jakarta in March 1997 todiscuss, among other things, the formulation of guidelines for protecting coastal and ocean biodiversity within the framework of ICM. It
has become increasingly clear that biodiversity per se cannot be protected by specialized measures taken in isolation; rather, biodiversity
protection will need to be built into a broader, comprehensive management framework, such as that provided by ICM, for a successful
outcome( Biliana. Cicin-Sain and Robert W. Knecht, 1998)
Since 1994, China has been cooperating with UNDP for capacity building in ICM. The Xiamen Demonstration Site in the Regional
Program for Marine Pollution Control and Management in the East Asian Seas has achieved good results and praised by internationalorganizations for providing experiences for China and other countries to draw on for the work in this regard. In 1997, China cooperated
again with UNDP in implementing the project of Capacity Building for ICM in Northern South China Sea. The Project designated threedemonstration sites in Hailing Bay of Guangdong, Fangchenggang Port of Guangxi and Qinglan Bay of Hainan. The Hailing Bay Demo
Site focuses on the application of ICM for sustainable fisheries development and develops the management framework to ensure that thebay conditions remain conducive for aquaculture and fisheries development by preventing or reducing the harmful effects of illegal fishing,pollution and habitat destruction. Fangchenggang City acts as the Great Sea Pathway of the Southeast China and port development is ofhigh priority. The Project focuses on environmental management in Port, attempting to minimize environmental pollution arising from port
construction and operation, and habitat destruction due to reclamation of tidal swamps. At Qinglan Bay, the demo site aims at addressing
multiple resource-use conflicts, especially focusing on the conflicts of tourism, industrial development and conservation of coral and mangrove
resources. Overall the project is highly successful and the prospects fir activities being sustained are good.
In addition ICM, the development of nature reserves or protected areas have been regarded as another powerful tools for marine bioconservation as it has been demonstrated successful for bio-conservation for several decades..
According to Bulletin of Marine Environmental Quality in China at the End of 20th Century (SOA, 2000), up to 2000, China has
set up 73 MPAs of various types in coastal waters, covering a total area of 140 000 ha. Of them, 18 MPAs are under the managementof oceanic administration departments. The past experiences have indicated that the establishment of MPAs has not only generated
significant and positive impacts on improving marine environmental quality, conservation of marine biological resources and biodiversity
and fastening rehabitation, but also provided important bases for the development of science and culture, eco-tourism, eco-education andinternational cooperation.
Table 5 Marine Protection Areas in Coastal China
Number of MPAs
Location
Total
State‑level
Local‑level
945Liaoning
2
1
1
Hebei
1
1
Tianjin
7
1
6
Shandong
2
2
Jiangsu2
2
Shanghai
2
1
1
Zhejiang
918Fujian13
3
10
Guangdong
5
32Guangxi
21
3
18
Hainan
73
20
53
Total

References
Biliana. Cicin-Sain and Robert W. Knecht, 1998, Integrated Coastal and Ocean Management, Concept and Practices, Island Press
Carey Geoff (Ed). 1996, A Biodiversity Review of China, WWF International, WWF China Program and Hong Kong
China Ocean News, 2000, What has been revised in the Fisheries Law?
Committee for Program for National Conservation, 1987, National Program for Nature Conservation, China Environmental Science Press,
Beijingde Fontaubert, Downes, and Agardy, 1996, Biodiversity in the seas: implementing the convention on biological diversity in marine andcoastal habitats. IUCN Environmental Policy and Law Paper No. 32. Gland, Switzerland ; World Conversation Union
SOA, 1991, Collection of the Sea Laws and Regulations of the People’s Republic of China, China Ocean Press, Beijing
SOA, 1995, Marine Biodiversity Action Plan
SOA, 1996, China’s Oceanic Agenda 21, China Ocean Press, Beijing
SOA, 2000, Bulletin of Marine Environmental Quality in China at the End of 20th Century
State Council, 1998, The Development of China’s Marine Programs
UNEP, 1995, Report of the Second Meeting of the Conference of Parties to the Convention on Biodiversity, November, 6-17, Jakarta,
Indonesia, U.N. Doc. UNEP/CBD/COP/2/19, November 30. Nairobi, Kenya: United National Environmental Programme.

182

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK FOR MARINE ECOSYSTEMPROTECTION IN KOREA
BANG, Tae-Jin
MINISTRY OF MARITIME AFFAIRS AND FISHERIES
Republic of Korea
E- mail: yun71 @orgio.net
◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

1. Physical Characteristics and Management System of Marine Ecosystem in Korea
Korea has territorial waters of 447,000 km２, which is 4.5 times greater than the area of national land. In the west and south coasts,
wide area of coastal shelves (345,000 km２) has been developed, providing productive fishing ground and mineral resources. The coastal
extension of Korea marks up to 11,542 km including the coastline of more than three thousands islands.
Korean Peninsula borders Yellow Sea on the west coast, the East Sea on east coast and the Korean strait on the south coast. The
west coast is characterized by the wide and long-stretches of tidal mud flat under strong influence of tidal flow. Yellow Sea is semi-enclosed
sea, with the average depth of 44m, bordering China on the west. With the rapid development of industry along Korean coast and Chinese
coast, Yellow Sea has been recognized as one of the most vulnerable large marine ecosystem in the world.
The southern coastal waters are characterized by the presence of various semi-enclosed bays and islands. This unique physical settingof southern coast allowed the development of various kinds of coastal use activities such as aquaculture, fishing, port and coastal industries
at different levels of intensity.
The east coast is characterized by the narrow development of coastal shelf along the coast and the development of sandy beaches
and lagoons under strong influence of waves.
Korean coastal waters are classified into three classes according to water quality criteria such as pH, COD, DO, SS, fecal coliform,
Total-N, Total-P, oil and heavy metals (Table 1). The 1st class standard implies that coastal water is suitable for fisheries and mariculture.
The 2nd class standard sets for swimming and other recreational purposes. And the 3rd class standard sets for the use of industries andport activities.
Table 1 Seawater quality standards
Category

PH

I
II
III
All Areas（Hazardous
Substances）

7.8‑8.3
6.5‑8.5
6.5‑8.5（mg/l）

DO（saturation%）（mg/l）

<1
<2
<4

>95
>85
>80

<10
<25
‑

COD

SS

E.coli（MPN
100ml）<200<1000

NormalHexaneExtracts（mg/l）
ND
ND
‑

TP

TN

（mg/l）

mg/l）

<0.05
<0.1
<0.2

<0.007<0.015<0.03

Cd<0.01mg/l, As, Cr+6 <0.05mg/l, Zn, Pb<0.1, Cu<0.02, CN, Hg,
Organic phosphorous, PCB< Detection limit

According to the COD monitoring results of 1998, most of Korean coastal waters in west and south coast can be classified as thesecond class waters which are not suitable for fishing or aquaculture activities (MOMAF & Office of Prime Minister, 1999).
The degradation of coastal water quality have been caused by combined factors including increasing pollution load from land-based
activities, increasing oil-spills from shipping accidents, pollution load from aquaculture activities and the reduction of natural purification
capacity due to the loss of coastal wetland.
Since 1970s, there has been a rapid increase in land-based pollution due to the increase and concentration of human population andindustrial activities in a few coastal cities. The population growth rate in coastal cities marked three times higher than the national
average rate. As consequences, BOD loading to Korean coastal waters have increased about 40% during last decade, aggravating coastal
eutrophication and increasing the occurrences of red-tides in terms of aerial expansion and frequency.
Due to the increase in shipping activities, Korea has also observed the increase of oil-spill accidents. For example, annual accidents
in 1970s marked the average of 100 cases, while the rate has increased up to 600 cases in late 1990s. Coastal waters for aquaculture
ground have been also degraded due to intensive culture activities above the carrying capacity. Presently, about 8000 licenses are issued
for aquaculture activities for the coastal waters of 113,000 ha.
Korea has a wealth of tidal mud-flat on the west and south coasts (2,393 km２), which is a home to important fish species andmigratory birds. The coastal wetland has also served the function of purifying the incoming polluted waters from rivers and streams. Thisnational treasure has been threatened due to large-scale coastal development projects such as coastal reclamation and infilling, port
development and tourism development. The loss of coastal wetland would affect the fisheries resources as well as the carrying capacity ofcoastal waters.

2. Challenges for Managing Marine Ecosystem in Korea
2.1 Lack of Effective Management Measures responding to Increasing Pollutants Load
The sewage discharge to Korean coastal waters has been increased from 12,323,000m３/day in 1990 to 14,632,000m３/day in 1995,
and expected to mark 17,870,000m３/day in 2001. The BOD loading is expected to increase up to 7,184ton/day in 2001 from 6,030ton/
day in 1995. Despite of the continuous increase of land-based pollutants loading, wastewater treatment facilities along the coastal area
are still inadequate. At national level the sewage treatment facilities are provided at average rate of 66% in 1998, while the averagefacility rate in coastal area is only 39%, which is mostly at primary treatment level.
It has been observed that increasing the wastewater treatment facilities in quantity only have limited success in reducing land-based
pollution. Thus, considering the aggravating problems of coastal eutrophication, a pressing needs are identified to apply effective treatment

183

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystemmeasures for nitrogen and phosphorous. In addition, urgent attention should be paid in applying effective treatment measures for non-point
source pollution and combined sewage overflows during heavy rain.
In terms of monitoring and survey, it has been addressed that systematic survey of pollution sources and monitoring of marine pollution are still insufficient. Coordination among various types of marine survey or monitoring activities conducted by different agencies according to various legislation is in critical need. Lack of effective data quality assurance programme and an integrated information
management system of monitoring data has reduced the utility of monitoring and survey results for management purposes.

2.2 Lack of Integrated Management System of Effectively Addressing Land-Sea Interface Issues
Existing management measures for land-based pollutants do not take due consideration on the risks to marine ecosystem. Thus, there
is a need to expand and develop wastewater treatment facilities and technologies which are sensitive to the ecosystem characteristics andcarrying capacity of receiving coastal waters.
In addition, despite of emerging problems of new pollutants in coastal waters, such as POPs and endocrine-disruptors, countermeasures
are still inadequate in terms of technology and institutional capacity. Effective management strategies are needed to tackle the environmental
problems caused by endocrine-diruptors and Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs).
In the respect of institutional capacity, more efforts should be made for effective implementation of integrated management. Althoughvarious agencies for marine environment, fisheries, and maritime affairs are consolidated under Ministry of Maritime Affairs and Fisheries(MOMAF), sectoral responsibilities are still carried out under MOMAF separately through various departments and divisions. Such separate
work duties need to be more effectively coordinated and integrated at operational level. Integration for marine environment management
should extend to cover ship-based pollution such as oil-spills, implementation of International Conventions (e.g. IMO), environmental
management of aquaculture ground, port environment management, and marine ecosystem management, etc.
2.3 Lack of Knowledge-Base for Marine Environment Conservation
Despite the fact that the degradation of marine environment is taking place at rapid pace, there are not sufficient education institutions
for training marine environment experts. Marine environment management in Korea has been mostly the responsibility of government. Thus,
participation or investment of private sectors in marine environment has been very limited. To maximize the effectiveness of utilizing
existing resources, partnership should be built among relevant scientific agencies especially at local level. There is also a need to support
and promote local training centers and to build cooperative system among research agencies.
The existing scientific and technical capacity in Korea is insufficient to accurately determine conditions of marine environment. Thisis partly due to the lack of investment in developing technologies for marine environmental management and improvement. Existing
environment improvement measures still relies heavily on primary level of technology such as collection of solid wastes and dredging ofcontaminated sediments.
The participation of civil society groups in marine environment management is still limited and the level of public awareness is still
low. Conflict resolution relying on regulation and compensation has proven to be not effective. There are insufficient civil society organizations which have sound and genuine goals in conserving marine environment, and the supporting mechanism to promote and maintain suchorganizations is not adequately institutionalized.

3.Legal Framework for Marine Ecosystem Protection
The legislation relevant to marine environment management can be grouped into three categories(Bang, 1999). First category includes
the legislation which is oriented to preventing pollution. Main example of this category is Marine Pollution Prevention Act (wholly amended
1999). This Act is under the umbrella of Environment Policy Act. Relevant Acts in this category include Water Quality Conservation Act,
Waste Management Act on Disposal and Treatment of Sewage and Animal Wastes, Environment Impact Assessment Act, and Act on
Damage Compensation of Oil-Spills.
The Marine Pollution Prevention Act provides regulations to prevent marine pollution from various sources including sea-based activities
and land-based activities. This Act provides the mechanism of designating and managing coastal environment management areas, which
include marine protected areas and special management areas. The definitions of marine protected areas and special management areas areprovided in later part of this paper. This Act also provides the framework of marine pollution monitoring and water quality standards.
Second category includes the legislation oriented to ecosystem protection. Main example is Wetland Conservation Act(1999). This Act
is under the umbrella of Nature Environment Conservation Act. The main objectives of the Wetland Conservation Act are to protect wetland,
to protect livelihood of residents in wetland conservation area, and to enhance scientific understanding of wetland. Thus, the Act provides
the framework of conducting national survey on wetland ecosystem, and socio-economic characteristics. It also establishes the mechanismof designating ’Wetland Conservation Area’, and formulating and implementing ’Management Plan of Wetland Conservation Area’.
Third category includes the legislation oriented to regulating spatial uses of coastal land and water. Main example of this category is
Coastal Management Act (1999). This Act is under the umbrella of National Land Comprehensive Development Act, and relevant Acts
under this category include National Land Use Management Act, Public Waters Management Act, and Public Waters Reclamation Act.
Coastal Management Act was enacted to reduce multiple use conflicts related to coastal space uses, to restore the degraded coastal ecosystemand to prevent natural hazards. It provides the mechanism of integrated coastal management planning at both national and local levels,
conducting coastal zone improvement projects, and operating ’Coastal Management Council’ at both national and local levels.

4.P olicy Fra m e w ork for M arine Ecosyste m Protection - Strategic Plan for C oastal
Environment Management Areas
4.1 Framework of the Plan
4.1.1 Objective
The objective of this Plan is to formulate systematic and comprehensive management guidelines to improve marine environment andto protect ecosystem of coastal areas designated for ’Coastal Environment Management Areas (CEMA)’ including ’Marine Protected Areas(MPA)’ and ’Special Management Areas (SMA)’ (MOMAF, 2000).
4.1.2 Legal background
The Marine Pollution Prevention Act provides the legal authority of this Plan. The Act also establishes the basic management framework
for ’Marine Protected Areas’ and ’Special Management Areas’.
4.1.3 Characteristics of the Plan
This Plan is National Plan to be established by the Minister of the Maritime Affairs and Fisheries. This Plan is to serve as the184International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

implementation Plan of ’Ocean Korea 21’, which is the national framework plan for the sustainable development of oceans toward 21st
century as well as the implementation Plan of ’Five-year Marine Pollution Prevention Plan’.
4.1.4 Legal Process of Plan Formulation, Implementation, and Revision
Through consultation with heads of national agencies, provincial and local governments, the Minister of Maritime Affairs and Fisheries
formulates and implements the Plan every 5 years in close relation to ’Five-year Marine Pollution Prevention Plan’. The Plan should
maintain the adaptability for unforeseen changes and new scientific understandings and subject to revision in every 2-year period.

4.2 Coastal Environment Management Areas (CEMA)
4.2.1 Definition
CEMA is defined according to Article 4, para. 4 of Marine Pollution Prevention Act and consists of ’Marine Protected Areas’ and’Special Management Areas’.
Marine Protected Areas (MPA) is defined as coastal waters in relatively pristine and good ecological conditions, which need to bepreserved and protected continuously. Four bays on the west and south coast have been designated as MPA in February 2000, such as
Hampyong Bay, Wando-Doam Bay, Deuk-Ryang Bay, and Kamak Bay.
Special Management Areas (SMA) is defined as coastal waters which do not meet water quality standards, impose significant risks orpotential risks to human health, ecosystem integrity and coastal uses, and thus need special management measures for restoration. Five bayson the west and south coast have been designated as SMA in February 2000, such as Sihwa-Incheon Coastal Area, Kwang-Yang Bay,
Masan Bay, Pusan Coastal Area, and Wool-San Coastal Area.
4.2.2 Criteria for Designation of CEMA
The designation of MPA and SMA is conducted considering various environmental and socio-economic criteria such as water quality
standards, biological diversity and resources, coastal land utilization, pollutants loading, sea-use activities, etc.
4.2.3 Management Boundary of CEMA
In terms of physical and spatial Boundary, CEMA includes semi-enclosed bay waters and adjacent watershed areas where pollutants
directly influence coastal environment.
The scope of management actions covers environmental (water quality, sediment quality) management measures, resources (living
resources, space utilization) management measures, and institutional measures (human resources, organizational and financial resources).
4.3 Management Principles of Special Management Areas
4.3.1 Principle of Sustainable Development
This plan adopts the principle of conserving the functions and structures of ecosystem for the long-term and equal benefits of bothpresent and future generations in terms of environmental, socio-economic and cultural values.
4.3.2 Principle of Ecosystem Management
This plan adopts the principle of formulating and implementing management strategies taking due consideration of ecosystem diversity
and processes.
4.3.3 Principle of Precautionary ApproachThis plan adopts the principle of applying appropriate management measures to prevent potential risks based on limited available
knowledge and information on the impacts on coastal water and ecosystem.
4.3.4 Principle of Integrated Management
This plan adopts the principle of establishing integrated management system by addressing land-sea interface issues, coordinating among
relevant agencies, and involving stakeholders.
4.3.5 Principle of Building Partnerships
This plan adopts the principle of safeguarding common vision and interest, and ensuring transparency and accountability of policy
making process by building effective partnership among stakeholders.
4.4 Vision and Strategies
4.4.1 VisionThis Plan envisions Korean coastal waters to serve as sustainable resource base for ecologically responsible and economically viablemarine and fisheries activities, and to serve as high-quality amenity space by developing coastal waterfront in environmentally-friendly andaesthetically-sound manner.
4.4.2 Strategies
This Plan adopted following strategies for managing Korean coastal waters and ecosystem. According to following strategies, specificaction plan has been developed and implemented.
4.4.2.1 Strengthening the knowledge-base for coastal environment management
・ Establish integrated monitoring system for the effective management of marine environment and resources
・ Establish integrated information management system
・ Establish continuous monitoring system for pollutants of high risk
4.4.2.2 Establishment of comprehensive system of managing marine pollution sources
・ Secure wastewater treatment facilities and environmental infrastructures which are sensitive to marine ecosystem
・ Apply total quantity management system of pollutants loading
・ Develop effective management system for non-point pollution sources
・ Develop effective measures for managing pollution driven by aquaculture activities
4.4.2.3 Establishment of Optimal Environment Restoration Model considering Specific Characteristics of Coastal Ecosystems
・ Develop standard management model and approaches for coastal restoration
・ Apply integrated management of environment restoration related projects including both coastal water and watershed
4.4.2.4 Protection of Marine biodiversity
・ Establish the limit on allowable resources utilization for each coastal ecosystem
・ Designate habitat protection area (No-Take Zone)
4.4.2.5 Establishment of partnership among stakeholders at local level
・ Promote public and private environmental investments which have positive economic impacts on local economy
・ Establish and operate cooperative decision-making system involving government, academia, industry, and civil society groups
・ Develop public awareness and participation programs
4.4.2.6 Establishment of Systematic Planning and Management System

185

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

・ Standardize the planning and management process in Coastal Environment Management Waters
・ Apply effective evaluation system at multiple levels
・ Develop appropriate economic techniques and methodology for the valuation of environmental resources
4.4.2.7 Selection of a Pilot Management Areas and Focus Management Efforts
・ Resources to raise Cost-Effectiveness and Transferability
・ Select pilot management areas considering the feasibility and applicability of management measures
・ Secure the implementability of management measures by developing strategic action plans and applying priority actions
・ Develop regional cooperative management programs with relevant regional programs and international donors

5. Summary and Conclusion
This paper described the status of marine environment in general and addressed the main management issues with special
respect to marine ecosystem protection at land-sea water interface. The author explained the legal framework of marine ecosystem
protection, by grouping the relevant legislation into three categories: legislation oriented to marine pollution prevention, legislation
oriented to ecosystem protection, and legislation oriented to spatial use regulation. More specific explanation has been given toimportant legislation such as Marine Pollution Prevention Act, Wetland Conservation Act and Coastal Management Act. All theseActs have been wholly amended or enacted recently under the strong initiatives of MOMAF in integrating marine environment
management measures.
Since the creation of integrated ocean governance, Ministry of Maritime Affairs and Fisheries in 1996, major efforts have beensuccessfully initiated to establish integrated institutional framework for marine environment management. It seems that newly developed
framework provides more effective mechanism of integrated planning, especially in addressing the land-sea water interface issues.
However, more efforts remain to be made for integrating among different sectors, facilitating the participation of private sectors,
and enhancing the local capacity in marine environment management. In addition, more innovative efforts are needed to develop
optimal model of marine ecosystem protection and restoration, considering Korea’s unique characteristics of coastal uses.

References
Bang, T.J. 1999, Legal Framework of Marine Environment Management (Lecture Material for Marine Environment Government Official
Education).
Coastal Management Act, 1999.
Marine Pollution Prevention Act, wholly amended 1999.
MOMAF & Office of Prime Minister 1999. Handbook on Marine Environment Administration, pp.239.
Wetland Conservation Act, 1999.
MOMAF 2000. Strategic Plan for Coastal Environment Management Areas.

186

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

USE OF REMOTE SENSING AND GIS TECHNOLOGY IN THE MONITORING
AND ANALYSIS OF COASTAL DYNAMIC ENVIRONMENTGE CHEN, CHAOYANG FANG, AND LIXIN FANG
Ocean Remote Sensing Institute, Ocean University of Qingdao
5 Yushan Road, Qingdao 266003, China
E- mail：gechen@public.qd.sd.cn
◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

Abstract
Substantial progress has been made in the monitoring and analysis of coastal marine environment during the past two decades, thanks
to the advent and rapid development of remote sensing (RS) and geographical information system (GIS) technologies. In this paper, resultsof RS and GIS applications in the China Seas and Northwest Pacific Ocean are presented. First, sea surface temperature (SST) images
derived from Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR) data, in conjunction with sea level variability maps derived fromGeosat altimeter data, are used to investigate mesoscale features, including fronts, eddies and upwelling, in the China Seas. Five types offronts are identified, namely, shelf-break front, thermohaline front, estuarine front, tidal front and upwelling front. The characteristics andformations of these fronts are analysed. Two mesoscale eddies have been captured, their causes and evolution are examined. Remarkablesignatures of the well-known Zhejiang coastal upwelling are observed by both AVHRR and Geosat altimeter. Second, using six years of
TOPEX altimeter wind and wave data with unprecedented accuracy and continuity, a GIS-based analysis and prediction system is developed
for the Northwest Pacific Ocean. The 10-, 50- and 100-year return values of sea surface wind speed and significant wave height (SWH)
are estimated. Validation against in situ observations indicates that the uncertainties of altimeter-derived extreme winds and waves are at
the levels of 10% and 5%, respectively, suggesting that satellite altimeter data, with present quality and duration, are already very usefulin understanding and prediction of coastal marine environment.

1.Introduction
In the past few decades, there has been a growing recognition of the important role that mesoscale oceanic events, such as fronts,
eddies and upwellings, play in ocean circulation and marine aquaculture. Meanwhile, it is also becoming more evident that efficient investigation of these phenomena would almost be impossible without the technique of satellite remote sensing. It is understood that satellite SST
images have the capability of revealing the surface thermal structure of the ocean while satellite altimetry has the power of disclosing its
dynamic features such as wind, wave and sea level variation. Therefore, joint analysis of both data sources provides an effective way forstudying coastal and marine environment. The China Seas and the Northwest Pacific Ocean are particularly attractive for such studies
because of the coexistence of several types of fronts, eddies and upwellings within a relatively small area, which is likely attributed totheir unique geographical locations and hydrologic conditions.
Knowledge of extreme wind and wave climate of the global ocean is of increasing demand for a number of reasons. Oceanographersand meteorologists need it to better understand and more precisely predict many environmental phenomena and processes related to globalchange. It is of great concern by government officials for decision-makings with regard to the prevention and reduction of ocean disasters,
as well as sea-going rescue activities. Coastal and marine industry is another community to which wind and wave information isextremely important. Therefore, it is clear that understanding of the extreme conditions of wind and wave climate is of interest not only
scientifically to the research circle, but also economically to the government and industry.

2.Mesoscale Dynamic Features in the China Seas
2.1 Fronts
Front is a very common feature inboth open oceans and coastal seas. The
following types of fronts usually exist
in the coastal and continental regions：Shelf-break front, thermohaline front,
estuarine front, tidal front, and upwelling front. Almost all types of fronts exist in the China Seas. Based on theanalysis of both scientific literature andsatellite SST images, eight frontal zones
in the Yellow Sea and East China Sea
are identified and indicated in Figure
1 (numbers in Figure 1 correspond to
those in the following text), their major
characteristics are summarised below.
1) Kuroshio frontal zone (Figure2), which belongs to shelf-break front
located on the continental slope of theEast China Sea. It is a large vertical
frontal zone meandering around the 200m isobath with its maximum and minimum
intensities in summer and in winter,
Figure 1. Schematic chart showing therespectively.
b ath y m etry a n d circ ula ‑ tio n2) Zhejiang coastal frontal zone
system(Figure 3), which exists throughout the（winter pattern） of the eastern
year but has different causes between
China Seas.

224

Figure 2.SST （in ℃） image of 6：13UTC 29
August 1986 derived from AVHRR
data showing a front‑ eddy coupling
structure in the East China Sea.

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

Figure 3.（a） SST （in ℃） image of 6：18UTC 22 July 1986 derived from AVHRR data showing
Zhejiang coastal upwelling and its frontal zone , as well as a cyclonic warm
eddy in the Taiwan Strait；（b ） SST （in ℃） image of 5 ： 47 UTC 25 July 1986 derived from AVHRR data
showing Zhejiang coastal upwelling and its frontal zone.

winter and summer. In winter, it is an interface between the Zhejiang coastal water diluted from the ChangjiangRiver and the warm saline
water of the Taiwan Warm
Current (TWC). In summer,
the enhancement of the local
upwelling interacts with thepermanent TWC, giving rise
to a visible surface manifestation of this front.
3) Frontal zone between
the Yellow Sea Cold Current (YSCC) and the southwest
boundary of the Yellow Sea
W arm Current (YS W C)
(Figure 4). This is an unstable thermohaline frontal zone
whose characteristics, suchas shape, length and orientation largely depend on specifichydrometeorological situation,
particularly the annual andinter-annual variabilities of

the YSWC.
4) Frontal zone on the northeast boundary of the YSWC where warm water from the YSWC merges with cold water from thesouthwest branch of the West Korea Cold Current (WKCC) (Figure 4). This front, oriented almost latitudinally, can sometimes approachto the central part of the southern Yellow Sea and frequently displays vigorous transfrontal exchanges in forms of warm and cold jets andsmall eddy-like structures.
5) Frontal zone in the Tsushima Strait between the Tsushima Current (TC) and the southeast branch of the WKCC (Figure 4). It isa meandering thermohaline front throughout the year. Its dramatically variable SST patterns can be mainly ascribed to the high annual
variabilities of the two currents involved.
6) Shandong coastal frontal zone located around the east tip of the peninsula (Figure 4). The cause of this front also varies fromwinter to summer. In winter, it is generated by the interaction between warm flow from the YSWC and the cold coastal flow from theBohai Sea. In summer, however, it is likely to be produced by strong tidal mixing when the coastal current diminishes. This frontal zone
has its sharpest SST gradient in the east of the peninsula, then becomes divergent towards the south, eventually disappears in the southern
Yellow Sea.
7) The Changjiang River discharge front formed near its estuary (Figure 1). Basically this is a salinity front whose intensity largely
depends on the river runoff (Beardsley et al., 1983). In addition, the variations of the YSWC and YSCC also have certain impacts on it.
8) Tidal mixing front which occurs at the boundary of the tidally well mixed shallow water and the vertically stratified deeper water.
In the China Seas, tidal fronts mostly appear near the Jiangsu coast (Lie, 1989) and the west coast of Korea peninsula (Figures 1 and 4).
These fronts are easily recognisable in both infrared and visible satellite images because of their remarkable SST gradient and high turbidity of mixed coastal waters.

2.2 Eddies
A mesoscale eddy is defined as a rotational movement of a temperature-anomalous water mass with a horizontal scale of 100(300 km.
Since eddy plays a significant part in the exchanges of energy and substance between
ocean circulation systems and adjacent waters, it is one of the major foci in modern
oceanography.
In Figure 2, a cyclonic eddy with a spatial scale of about 150 km centered at(126°
E, 32°N) in the northern East China Sea, whose central temperature is 5℃ lower than the surrounding water, can be clearly identified. It is thought that the following two reasons may contribute to the formation of this eddy：i) The shear effect of
local current system, and ii) the southward extension of the Yellow Sea Cold Water
Mass (YSCWM).
It is worth to note that, in summer, when both the shear effect of the current
system and the southward extension of the YSCWM reach their maximum intensities,
the heavy surface spreading of the upwelled cold bottom water might, for a certain
period, prevent the northwest branch of the Kuroshio from penetrating into the Yellow
Sea. Meanwhile, to the east of the eddy, an intense shelf-break front with a SST
gradient of 5℃ per latitude/longitude grid is formed over the 200 m isobath. Thus,a distinct seasonal front-eddy coupling structure can be reasonably created on the edgeof the continental shelf in the northern East China Sea due to the combined effectsof current system, water mass and bottom topography (Figure 2). When autumn comes,
however, the impact of the eddy can no longer reach the surface, the YSWC will
return to the Yellow Sea as usual. This region is again back to its normal state ofcurrent confluence.
Figure 4.SST （in ℃） image of 5 ：51UTC 28
In Figure 5, a star-like anti-clockwise eddy with a diameter of nearly 150 km
January 1987 derived from AVHRR
located between 123°
E, 38°
N is evident. The central temperature of this
〜124°
〜39°
data showing thermohaline frontal
eddy is below 8℃, 4℃ lower than the surrounding waters. Time series of SST imzones in the eastern China Seas.
ages prove the continuing existence of this cold water patch from the end of October

225

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

to the end of November in 1987. The formation of this eddy seems to be closely
related to local bottom topography, since the water depth at the eddy center isabout 10 m deeper than the adjacent area. When the air temperature begins to drop
in autumn, the vertical mixing of the sea water enhances and the thermocline
structure starts to disappear, the bottom temperature distribution of this area is thenreflected at the surface in forms of a cold water core above the small basin.

Figure 5. SST （in （C） image of 11 ： 19 UTC 17
November 1987 derived from AVHRR
data showing a cyclonic cold eddy inthe northern Yellow Sea.

2.3 Upwelling
Upwelling is known as a continuous upward motion of ocean water. Although
the velocity of the flow is very small compared with horizontal current, it does play
an important role in the equilibrium of ocean circulation as well as in marine
aquaculture.
The most important upwelling in the China Seas is the Zhejiang coastal upwelling (Figure 3). Since summer thermocline prevails in the China Seas, the presenceof a sustainable cold water patch serves as a good indicator of the existence of
this upwelling. In Figure 3 we can see that the prominent upwelling zone is locatedbetween 25°
N. The upwelled surface water is 5℃ lower than the SST of the〜30°
TWC. Tracing the SST features of the two images (Figure 3(a) and (b)) separated
by three days, the surface off-shore spreading of the upwelled cold water is obviously visible. Coincidentally, on our sea level variability maps derived from Geosat
altimetry (Figure 6), a group of contour rings with high value in its center appears
in the upwelling area. Moreover, we find that the location of the variability maximum
moves one degree southward along the coast from the first year (November 1986
to November 1987) to the second (December 1987 to November 1988).

3.Extreme Wind and Wave Climate in the Northwest Pacific Ocean
Our analysis process is composed of six practical steps. The TOPEX wind and wave data are first sorted into 1°
×1°grid cells, resulting in approximately 10４ samples within each cell. In the following two steps, the probability density function (PDF) and the cumulative
probability density function (CPDF) of each grid are obtained by generating the corresponding histogram and cumulative histogram,respectively. In step four, the extremes of the CPDFs are fitted with a theoretical probability function. Next, the return values of extreme
wind and wave for a given duration can be calculated for each grid. Finally, regional maps of the return values can be constructed throughan optimal interpolation.
Figures 7 and 8 present the spatial distributions of the 10-, 50- and 100-year return wind speeds and SWHs of the Northwest Pacific
Ocean, respectively. The general pattern of all maps in these figures is dominated by regional structures with a clear trend of northward
increase. Maximum return values are found in the northeast part of the study area for the wind speed. A major portion of the East China
Sea also exhibits large extremes. Minimum return values are found in the tropical areas between 120°
E. Striking regional features〜130°
can be identified in the South China Sea where the Asian monsoon prevails. The difference between extreme wind speed and SWH of
the Northwest Pacific Ocean in terms of spatial distribution is somewhat surprising (see Figures 7 and 8). Two well-defined maxima of
SWH appear in the area south of Japan and in the East China Sea, respectively (Figure 8). Low extreme SWHs are found in the tropicalocean as well as in the Bohai Sea.

4.Concluding Remarks
Based on SST images derived from NOAA AVHRR data and sea level variability maps derived from Geosat altimeter data, anumber of mesoscale oceanic features, including fronts, eddies and upwelling, have been observed and analysed. Some results, such as thecyclonic cold eddy in the northern East China Sea, are in good agreement with in situ measurements；Some are discovered for the firsttime, for example, a cyclonic cold eddy in the northern Yellow Sea. The necessity and advantage of using multi-satellite data in theinvestigation of mesoscale activities arealso demonstrated in this research. Further
development of remote sensing technology
will no doubt lead to a better description
and understanding of the mesoscale dynamic
processes in the China Seas.
Using six years of TOPEX altimeterdata with unprecedented accuracy andcontinuity, the extreme values of windspeed and SWH are estimated for the
Northwest Pacific Ocean . The uniquecontribution of this study is perhaps thepresentation of a spatial pattern of extreme
wind and wave climate for this region.
Specific results include the 10-, 50- and100-year return values of sea surface windspeed and significant wave height. Validation against site measurements suggeststhat the uncertainties of the TOPEX-derived
extreme values are at the level of 10%
Figure 6. Sea level variability maps （in cm with an interval of 2 cm） of the eastern
for wind speed and 5% for SWH. As a
C h i n a S e a s d e ri v e d fr o m G e o s a t a lti m e tr y d u ri n g （ a ）result, it is time that satellite altimeter
November 1986 and November 1987, and （b） December 1987 and November
data be of practical and even operational
1988.

226

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

Figure 7.Return wind speeds of the Northwest Pacific Ocean
derived fro m six years （ 1993（ 1998 ） of T O P E X
altimeter data for a period of （a） 10 years, （b） 50
years, and （c）100 years.

Figure 8.Return SWHs of the Northwest Pacific Ocean derived
from six years （1993（1998）of TOPEX altimeter data
for a period of （a）10 years, （b）50 years, and （c）
100 years.

use in coastal and marine engineering.

Acknowledgements
This study is cosponsored by the NSFC’s National Science Grant for Outstanding Youth of China (Project No.：40025615) and the
Teaching and Research Award Fund for Outstanding Young Teachers in Higher Education Institutions of MOE, P.R.C.

References
Beardsley, R. C., Limeburner, R. and Hu, D. (1983) Structure of the Changjiang River plume in the East China Sea during June 1980. In
Proceedings of the International Symposium on Sedimentation on the Continental Shelf with Special Reference to the East China
Sea, Hangzhou, China, 12-16 April 1983, 1, 243-260.
Lie, H. J. (1989) Tidal fronts in the southeastern Huanghai (Yellow Sea). Continental Shelf Research, 9, 527-546.

227

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

HOW AND WHAT SOLUTIONS FOR SUSTAINABLE MANAGEMENT
OF THE MANGROVES IN MEKONG RIVER ESTUARIES?
Vo Tri CHUNG
Forest Resources and Environment Center
Asia Forest Sustainable Management Network
Hanoi - Viet Nam
E- mail：votrichung@yahoo.com
◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

− Hanoi − Viet Nam

161

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

1.Mangrove changed status on Time-lines Mekong River Delta - Viet Nam
Major timeas yearCurrent
areas inHectare1940

250,000

1960

149,000

Dominant
speciesof plant
Avicennia
Rhizophora
Bruguiera
CeriapsDense natural forest Rich biodiversi‑ 6 persons/1 km2 Natural primaryty and big wood trees natural' Mangrove
habitat of wild life

as above

as above

Avicennia
Excoecaria
Thespesia
Phoenix
Acanthus
Avicennia
Rhizophora
Bruguiera
Sonneratia
Lumnitzera

Typical Forest
structure and quality

Main pressures andimpacts on Mangrove

11 persons/1 Km2 in Mangrove area
‑ Fire‑wood an‑ Charcoal

Scattered wood trees, opened‑land To be destroyed by chemical agentsand shrubs
during war time and other weapons

1975

15,0001985

85,0001995

58,000as above

as above

87,000

Rhizophora
concentrated
Avicennia
Sonneratia

Application of much more reason a‑
Man ‑ made Mangrove reach the ble and new policies for Land use
optimum ecosystemand sustainable management of themangrove and coastal zones.

Reforestation by Rhizophora Medium Reforestation and Shrimp pond systemhave been realized parallelly ecologicalstyle
unbalance
More serious logging and destructionof mangroves for expansion of shrimp
ponds and Coastal new economic

Zones
1999

2.Ecological function of mangrove Forests
・ Mangrove forests are known to fulfill important ecological functions in the coastal zone and all estuaries - focused areas as Mekong
rives nine river mouths - preventing erosion and salty intrusion, supporting enrichment of the biodiversity and silted alluvium.
・ Mangrove areas offer a habitat or shelter to other plants and animals as optimum ecosystem for coastal flora and fauna.This
abundant food source is consumed by fish, prawns, crabs, mollucus, amphibians, reptiles, mammals using feeding strategies.Besides,
the mangroves are used as nursery sites for juvenile fish species.The leaf litter produced by the mangroves provides the basis of
their nursery value.Many commercially important fishes, crabs, prawns, various kinds of mollucus use mangroves as nursery grounds
and shelter during their juvenile stages.
・ Mangroves play an important role in regulatory by controlling water quality.They control water quality by attenuation of peaks innutrient discharge and sediments, neutralization of potential sulfuric acids by frequent flooding and maintenance of ground waterlevel and prevention of salt water intrusion.The anaerobic mangrove sediments also have the ability to trap heavy metals and pesticides
without harm to the trees.As a result, mangroves can incorporate, trap or immobilize inorganic nutrients, heavy metals or pesticides
that would otherwise flow towards the sea.

Coastal zone protection
Mangroves also play an important role in protecting the coastal communities from cyclones and storms.The waves and the currents
are weakened by mangrove roots and trees break up wave energy and the degree of wave reduction is proportional to the width anddensity of the forest the soil is not easily washed away or erode, placing large amounts of sediments in suspension and thereby increasingwater turbidity.
In Viet Nam, mangroves’ trees were planted to protect sea - dykes from erosion which are more effective and successful.So far theplanting and rehabilitation of mangroves for protection of coastal zones and estuaries in general and sea dykes in particular have only
achieved initial results.
Mangrove destruction and involved unbalances of ecosystem in Coastal areas
Mangroves were destroyed seriously by chemical agents during war time, almost in Mekong River delta.
Mangroves have been logging for timber, charcoal and other housing materials etc..
Mangroves were exploited fast for occupation of agricultural land and aquaculture.The large scale of mangrove areas in Mekong delta
were heavily destroyed due to over- exploitation productions for timber, charcoal, domestic consumption, export and coastal aqua culture
development (based on immediate benefits and short-term planning, unstable implementation).
1980 Reforestation of mangrove as 22,222 Ha.but replacement of natural mangrove for new agricultural land as 24,000 Ha.
1983 Reforestation of mangrove as 4000 Ha but clearing of natural mangrove as 21,000 Ha for new shrimp-ponds.
1987 Reforestation of mangrove as 6,000 Ha but continued exploitation of land and natural mangrove as 23,400 Ha for shrimp - ponds.
1992 Over 45,000 Ha of mangroves in Mekong delta, almost locations on estuaries and coastal sites, were replaced by shrimp - ponds
and short - term cultivation.
1995 Initial success of mangrove rehabilitation and protection by：
・ Major option reforestation programme
・ Long-term sustainable planning for coastal optimum ecosystem establishment
・ Serious regulation of mangrove conservation.

162

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

3.How and what solutions of mangrove sustainable development and management
・ Based on new official policies in the renovation strategy, the collaboration among major sectors (inter ministries) in the Nationalsustainable development programme of coastal zones in Viet Nam, as：* Long-term biodiversity conservation action plans;* Natural disaster control in coastal zones;* Keeping the stable balance between Ecological statement and Economic development;* Effective implementation of the Law on Forest resource Protection and Development, parallel actions on promotion of agro forestry and aquaculture - forestry;* Land - allocation for local households, state support local communities (by fund, technique, long-term planning making) on
implemented plans of reforestation;* Agro - forestry and Aquacultural extension services development, based on sustain able Eco - Eco Models (Mangrove forest
habitat, pond and irrigation, adapted crops);* Limited and control the spontaneous immigrants to the mangrove areas.
* The mangrove forest management activities are promoted as local community participatory with state functional institutions, which
follow reasonable regulation of "Benefits and Responsibilities" Mangrove forests are leased out to households under clearly spelledout benefit and responsibility sharing mechanisms for planting, management, protection and harvesting of productives.
* A directive on the technical procedure for the establishment and maintenance of mangrove forests was issued since 1984.In addition, in order to achieve these environmental objectives, regarding the rational use of natural resources and environmental protection in coastal zone, was enacted.
* In 1995, the Government promulgated a policy for the sustainable use of wetland areas in Mekong delta, almost focused estuarine
and coastal mangrove areas, as protected and reserved areas which are core - sites of coastal biosphere conservation.There are 8
sites of mangrove reserve areas around Mekong delta peninsula, which will became the core zones of coastal biodiversity protectedaction stations.Especially the unique mangrove forest of Can Gio district (Suburb of biggest city in Viet Nam as Ho Chi Minhcity) has just certified an International Biosphere Reserve by UNESCO in Nov 2000, its surface as 30,000 Ha.
* The mangroves adjoining the river estuaries and along the coast are important green belts and serve to protect human life,
properly and fields against coastal and river bank erosion, strong monsoons and storm floods.The government has therefore declaredstrict regulations to protect these forests.Apart from this, establishment of new plantations are encouraged and supported.
* The responsibility for coastal development and environmental protection in Viet Nam is delegated to the local administration andother involved sectors.They have formulated together a number of decisions, regulations, instructions and guide looks to protect,and limit the irrational utilization of mangroves in Mekong delta.
Nevertheless, shrimp raising for export has been very profitable and the conservation of mangrove forests to shrimp ponds continued
to increase rapidly as on models classified：protected forest, forestry - fishery, fixed cultivation land with mangrove bands.The existingstatement of mangrove development and management in Mekong delta has been pushing up successful environmental protection in coastal
zones and livelihood increasing for local communities.
・ For example as the action plan for local communities, management in Ca Mau province (Main coastal province in Mekong deltapeninsula) from 1995 to 2005)：
Long‑term planning
Mangrove forest type
Planed data ofManagement styles
characteristics
and landuse
Areas Hectare* State forestry station and
51,492TOTAL OF MANGROVE AREAS Whole province‑ Rich foust‑ Natural forest
local community Joint
4,195‑ Poor forest must be caredmanagement
35,907to Rich level* Main power as house holds‑ Reforestation‑ Nan ‑ made forest
11,373Main objectives of functional ‑ Nature reserve* State Forestry stations and
3,850‑ Protectionrole forests on planning
local communities, households
12,747‑ Production on Models* Interminisfries .
34,895‑ Indicated planning for produc‑ * Mangrove outside Aquaculture‑ House holds
27,044‑ Aquacultural farms
tion areas* Mangrove inside Aquacultural
24,448areas‑ Private farms
N o n e f o r e s t ‑ l a n d s i n * Reforeslation
61,899‑ House holds* Settlement and resettlement
1995 and towards 2005 on
13,783‑ State enterprises
planning* Agro‑Forestry and Aquaculture
2,177‑ Local planning department* Restore
38,684‑ Local communes
7,236

4.Conclusion
・ Continued programme of enhancing capacity management for state institutions and local communities on mangrove forest system.To
be pushing up strong by the awareness of mangrove environmental functions and ecological benefits for all different social levels
who involve the coastal areas, and human activities in there for live hood.
・ Expansion of land allocation for mangrove - reforestation and Forest farms development.

163

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

・ Reforestation continuing.Reserved areas Agro-Forestry and Aquaculture on model styles
・ Long-term planning for sustainable development in coastal zones and focused estuaries.
・ Local community joint management with interministries and cross - sectors collaboration in coastal areas as on- Protection of ecosystems- Biodiversity conservation- Natural resources and lancluse reasonable utilization- Stable keeping balance between Economy and Ecology- Save stability of natural habitat and optimum biosphere for human life.
・ International cooperation and Intergovernment control the coastal zone and marine resources management, study and education forsustainable development of coastal and marine region.

164

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

COASTAL MANAGEMENT SYSTEM AND ECOLOGICALPRESERVATION IN JAPAN
EBARA, Akinori
Kobe- Gakuin University, Faculty of Law
Kobe City, Hyogo Prefecture 651-2180 JAPANE- mail：ebara@law.kobegakuin.ac. jp
◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

Introduction
In 1999, the Diet passed the Coast act Amendment, and in February 2000, National Land Agency made "the Guideline for the Integrated
Coastal Management Plan" which covers all coastal area in Japan. They reveal new coastal management system in Japan. I would like tointroduce the coastal management system, especially legal system in Japan. And I will present new ideas of legal system. I will point out
three major points. The first is historical and fundamental issues, the second is the Acts and legal doctrines before 1999 and the third is
new system.
The first point is historical and fundamental issues, e.g. who is an owner of coastal lands, who has responsibility of maintain coastal
lands, how the agency maintain coastal lands?
The second is the Acts and legal doctrines before 1999 and environmental problems in coastal area. We did not have integrated
coastal management act, but have four management laws, the Coast act, the Harbor Act, the Fishery Port Act and the River Act, thoughthese four acts apply the limited coastal area. There is extensive coastal area where four acts did not apply. We think that Ministry ofConstruction or Governor of Prefectures maintain that area for the public use on the basis of "Kobutsu-ho" doctrine.
We have many environmental Laws. This time I introduce our experience of the Law Concerning Special Measures For Conservationof the Environment of the Seto Inland Sea of 1978.
The third is new coastal management system. The Coast act Amendment adopts "public coast" system. So all coastal area is regulated
and maintained by four acts. National Land Agency makes "the Guideline for the Integrated Coastal Management Plan" which covers allcoastal area in Japan. So integrated coastal management conferences will be established in order to make integrated coastal management
plans in a few years.
In my conclusion, I will point out some merits and demerits of Japanese experiences and propose some ideas to new coastalmanagement system.

1.Some Problems in Coastal Area
Japan is an island country located in East Asia in the northwest Pacific Ocean. Japan’s size is about 380,000 square kilometers. Japanis made up of many islands, including 4 large islands： Hokkaido, Honshu, Shikoku, and Kyushu. The country has diverse naturalenvironments due to the variety of climates found there. Four fifths of the land area is mountainous, with mountain ranges running fromthe north to the south. There are also a few spacious plains. On the whole, Japan’s rivers are short and rapidly flowing streams. Therefore
the nation is often troubled with water shortage in spite of an abundance of precipitation, and with flood. Many peninsulas and capescomplicate the coastlines and form diverse scenery.
There are many problem of coastal management in Japan. The first is protection of coastal area from disaster. Much of coastal area
has been eroded by wave and wind. We have much strong wave from typhoon and rainstorm in winter. And the construction of dams inmany rivers makes lack of sand supply, coastal erosion happens many areas. The Coast Act provides the Coastal Protection Zone where
Minister of Construction made and maintained breakwater. And we have also flooded near the mouth of rivers. So coastal area near themouth of rivers are often designated to the Coastal Protection Zone. About half of Coastal line is designated for the Coastal Protection
Zone. See Table 1.
We had been made windbreak forests. Japanese traditional coastal seine "Hakusha-Seisho"(white sand and green pine at the beach)
was often a seine of windbreak forest at the beach.
The second is environmental problems. Water pollution and destroy of wetland and happened many coastal areas. Especially we havespecial acts for water pollution； the Water Pollution Control Act, the Law concerning Special Measures for Conservation of theEnvironment of the Seto Inland Sea and the Lake Environment Conservation Act.
The third is the reclamation. In 100 years we had many big development projects and destroyed much coastal wetland area.
Especially after 1960s, many big industrial development projects have been operated at coastal area.

2.Coastal Management System before 1999
Before speaking about the new Coastal Management System in Japan,
I would like speak about Japanese legal system. First, who is an ownerof coastal lands? Second is Japanese traditional legal system.

2.1 Who is an owner of coastal land?
In Japanese legal system, mean high tide line (high tide line on Vernal
Equinox Day and Autumnal Equinox Day) divide "the land" and "the sea".
Private ownership does not settle in the sea. The land from the mean hightide line to the mean low tide line(dry sand area) is generally owned bynational government. Of course, upland area owned by private person
generally. See Figure 1.
2.2 Coastal Management by special acts
Generally speaking, our coastal legal system is simple, but not integrated.
Coastal area regulated by special acts, the Coast act, the River Act, the194

Figure 1 Coastal Area

Land and Sea

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

Harbor Act and the Fishery Port Act. But there is wide no regulated area. See table 1.
Table 1 Coastal Line in JapanC o a s t a l P r o t e c ti o n
Z o n e L i n e （ i n cl u d eOther Lines
u n d e sig n at e d L in e ） （Natural Coast Line）（Km）（Km ）Coast act
5,874（37.1%）
10,458（9,012）
Harbor Act & Coast
5,272（33.3%）
2,955（1,635）
act‑Land I m prove m ent
1,830（11.5%）
Act & Coast act
Fishery Port Act
3,442（21.7%）
2,955（1,635）‑
Harbor Act & Coast
4,460（28.2%）
act
237（ 1.5%）
Land I m prove m ent
Act & Coast act
Acts

Ministry of Construction
Ministry of A griculture ,Forestry and Fisheries
Agricultural Structure
Improvement Bureau
Fishery Agency
Ministry of Transportation
Co ‑jurisdiction of Ministryof Construction and Agricultural
Str u cture I m pr o v e m e nt
Bureauotherstotal‑（0.0%）
15,843（100.0%）
45.8%

1,369（ ‑）19,164（12,306）
55.4%（35.5%）

Total（Km）
16,273（47.0%）
8,091（23.4%）
1,796（5.2%）
6,295（18.2%）
8,661（25.0%）228（ 0.6%）

1,369（4.0%）
34,662（100.0%）（Japan River Association, RIVER HANDBOOK 1998,246‑247（Japan River Association, 1998）

The "kobutsu" doctrine
The "Kobutsu" means the properties, institutions and facilities for public use, and constructs and maintains by Pubic Authorities. For
examples, "kobutsu" includes road, urban park, public hall that are man-made and river, national park, coastal area that are natural goods.
Generally speaking, Government or public authorities control Kobutsu on the basis of the regulatory acts (e.g. the Road Act, theRiver Act), and also government or public authorities control unregulated Kobutsu on the basis of "Kobutsu" doctrine. Government andother public authorities maintain the "Kobutsu" for public use, and Government and other public authorities have a liability for proper
maintenance. Although people are able to use the "Kobutsu" freely, people do not have the right to use. People don’t have a standing tosue the decision of maintain by Government or public authorities. Government and public authorities have wide discretion to keep
"Kobutsu."

The Coast act (before 1999)
The purpose of the Coast act is the protection of coastal Area from disaster. The Act applies all coastal area, but only regulates the
Coastal Protection Zone. Director of coastal area is the Minister of Construction, or Governor of Prefecture.

The River Act (before 1997)
The purposes of the River Act are flood control and irrigation. Many rivers in Japan have fast flowing stream. So riverside field,
especially the mouth of river area, is often flooded. Director of River area is the Minister of Construction, or Governor of Prefecture.

The Harbor Act (before 2000) and the Fishery Port Act
The purposes of the Harbor Act are ① making the Plan of Harbor System and Construction and maintenance of Harbors, and ②
establishment and maintenance of Steamship Routes. Director of the Harbor is the Port Authority or Local Government.
The purposes of the Fishery Port Act are the making the Plan of Fishery Port System and Construction and maintenance of Fishery
Ports. Director of the Fishery Port Act is Local Government.

3.Environmental Problems and Law
3.1 Environmental Laws
There are many environmental laws in Japan. Japan’s environmental administration had been based on two laws：the Basic Pollution
Prevention Law enacted in 1967 and the Law for the Preservation of the Natural Environment enacted in 1972. Up until 1993, theadministration has played a fixed role in preventing pollution and preserving the natural environment. Nevertheless, the framework of theselaws, which concentrated on restrictions, was no longer adequate to deal with the increasing scope of the domains that require environmental
measures and, in particular, to devise appropriate measures to deal with atmospheric pollution from nitrous oxides in major cities, pollutionof the water in enclosed coastal seas, etc. caused by household sewage, and global environmental problems such as the ever-increasing
quantities of wastes, global warming and the destruction of the ozone layer. What was needed was a reconsideration of our socioeconomic
system and the type of action that should be taken, through measures involving all entities -- the national government, local public organizations and private companies, as well as autonomous efforts on the part of private citizens -- and the use of a variety of techniques in an
appropriate manner.
The Basic Environmental Law of 1993 is designed to provide the major foundation for developing a comprehensive new set ofenvironmental countermeasures more suited to the age of global environmental concerns. The Basic Environmental Law first establishes
three basic principles for environmental preservation：enjoyment and inheritance of the bounties of the environment, creation of a society
capable of sustainable use that reduces the burden on the environment, and making active efforts to preserve the global environment throughinternational cooperation. It also identifies the duties of the national government, local public organizations, companies and citizens as
regards environmental preservation. Secondly, with regard to environmental preservation policy, the law identifies guidelines for theestablishment and implementation of measures and specifies that a Basic Environmental Plan should be prepared and brought before thegeneral public as the major policy framework. It also specifies such basic measures as environmental standards and pollution control plans

195

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem；consideration for the environment in national and other measures；evaluations Figure 2of environmental impact；disposition of restrictions to eliminate obstacles toenvironmental preservation and economic assistance or subsidies for the eliminationof obstacles to environmental preservation；the construction of facilities relating
to environmental preservation and the promotion of similar projects；encouraging
the use of products, etc. that help ease the burden on the environment；promotionof environmental education and autonomous activities on the part of the generalpublic；support for science and technology；and international cooperation, subsidies
and financial measures with respect to global environmental preservation efforts
and the like. Thirdly, the law prescribes the establishment of Environmental
Councils within the Environment Agency and at the prefectural level.
Major Environmental Laws relating coastal area are follows：the Basic
Environmental Law of 1993, the Water Pollution Control Act of 1978, the Law
Concerning Special Measures For Conservation of the Environment of the Seto
Inland Sea of 1978, the Environmental Impact Assessment Law of 1997, the Table 2
Natural Park Act of 1957, the Law for the Preservation of the Natural Environment of 1972, the Law Concerning Special Measures for the Preservation of Lake
Water Quality of 1984, the Law Relating to the Prevention of Marine Pollutionof 1970.
In recent years not only have COD or BOD not been improving rapidly,
particularly in narrow bays, inland seas, lakes serving as reservoirs, and rivers inurban areas, but also chemical pollution problems have worsened. Therefore, the
Law Concerning Special Measures for Conservation of Lake Water Quality wasestablished in 1984 and a revision of the Water Pollution Control Law was passed
in 1989 to prevent underground water pollution by toxic substanced. As for thesea area, the Environment Agency has developed EQS and uniform effluent
standards for nitrogen and phosphorus to prevent eutrophication of coastal seas.
In addition, in 1996, the Water Pollution Control Law was amended, with incorporating purification of polluted groundwater, and in 1997, EQS for groundwater were
established. See table 2 & figure 2

3.2 The Law Concerning Special Measures For Conservation of
the Environment of the Seto Inland Sea(hereinafter "Seto I. S. L.")We have some experience of coastal zone regulation by the Law Concerning
Special Measures For Conservation of the Environment of the Seto Inland Sea Table 3 Reclamation in Seto Inland Sea(hereinafter "Seto I. S. L."). The Seto I. S. L. is a special act for Seto Inland
Sea Area and a kind of special the Water Pollution Control Act. Seto I. S. L.
takes five major methods for ensure the purposes of the act. The first is making
Plan for Conservation of Environment of Seto Inland Sea (National Basic Plan
(1981, Amendment 1994, and now under making New Amendment) and each
Prefectural Plan). The second is the adoption of permission system for Installationof specified Facilities. The third is the ensuring Reduction of Total Amount of
Pollution. The forth is the making Guideline for Reduction of Specified Substances. The fifth is the countermeasures for Natural Seashore Conservation. The
prefectures concerned designate the area as Natural Seashore Conservation Areaby ordinance. 91 areas are designated at the end of December in 1997. The sixth
is Special Consideration to Reclamation. In considering the license for reclamation
taken in the Seto Inland Sea, the governor of the prefecture concerned shouldtake into account the peculiarities of the Seto Inland Sea. The basic policy for Figure 3 History of the Reclamation in Osaka Bay
reclamation proposed by the Seto Inland Sea Conservation Council in May 1974,
should be applied. Reclamation of the Seto Inland Sea should be strictly controlled,
and if it is authorized for an unavoidable reason it should be conducted in accordance with three region policies.
I would like to check the efficiency of the Seto I.S.L., because National
Basic plan and each Prefectural plan make a kind of comprehensive environmental
coastal zone regulation plan (not integrated zone management plan). I would liketo focus to reclamation problem, because reclamation in Seto Inland Sea was a
symbol of urbanization, industrialization and water pollution in Seto Inland Sea
Area. After enactment of the Seto I.S.L., though the basic policy for reclamation
strictly control of reclamation, number of reclamation permission was decreasing,but total reclamation area was increasing. See table 3 & figure 3.

4.New Coastal Management System --- New legal
System in Japan
Recently, the Diet enacted the River Act Amendment of 1997, the Coast
act Amendment of 1999 and the Harbor Act Amendment of 2000 and will enact the Fishery Port Act Amendment next year. In February
2000, the National Land Agency made "the Guideline for the Integrated Coastal Management Plan" which covers all coastal area in Japan.
Japanese Coastal System has been changed by these Amendments and the Guideline.

196International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

4.1 The Coast Act Amendment of 1999 and other Acts
The Coast Act Amendment of 1999 put the conservation of coast environment newly in addition to a conventional purpose. Being
putting the conservation of river environment to a conventional purpose even the River Act Amendment of 1997 this modification is thesame content in this sense. And also this Amendment introduced the public coastal zone system in addition to the coastal protection zone.
The Coast Act applies all coastal area. The public coastal area has been managed for environmental conservation and public use, althoughmanagement was hardly done conventionally.
Diet also amended the Harbor Act for environmental conservation and will amend the Fishery Port Act for environmental conservation.
4.2 The Guidelines for Integrated Coastal Zone Management Plans
The National Land Agency makes "the Guideline for the Integrated Coastal Management Plan" in March 2000. The guideline is theguidance of case that local government (Prefecture or City) sets the integrated coastal zone management plan, there is a big meaning inthat introduced the new concept called the coastal zone management plan.

(1)Necessity for and basic concepts on Integrated Coastal Zone Management
Coastal areas are in sensitive natural balance, where land, water and air interface while varied coastal land and water uses often
compete and conflict：such as industries, traffics, amenity, cultural activities and other uses for human needs. With a recent rise in the
public awareness of the importance of the global environment, it has become one of the today’s critical issues to preserve or enhance thefunction of natural reproduction cycles and the diversity of nature in coastal areas. Not only from the perspective of the development ofsafe, variously functioned coastal areas, but also from the viewpoint of restoration and creation of esthetic, sound coastal environments,
Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) has become vital in order to solve, balance conflicting demands from various concerned
agencies, groups and individuals.
Also there are some needs for adoption of integrated coastal zone management. The first is needs for "integrated" system. As I
mentioned, we had special acts for management specific area and wide no regulated area, but didn’t have integrated system. But the law
reform from the viewpoint of environmental conservation is demanding the coastal management system of integration.

(2)Basic concepts on ICZM
Basic concepts on ICZM are the following：Create or restore aesthetic, safe, sound coastal areas for this and succeeding generations.
Balance competing demands of environments, safety, and various land and water uses in coastal areas. Foster partnerships among various
concerned local governments, agencies, groups and individuals.

(3)ICZM plans
An Identification of the boundaries of the coastal zone
The boundaries of the coastal zone subject to an ICZM plan will be identified to treat an entire encompassed area as a natural system
unit, strongly influenced by each other in light of geographical shapes, water and soil movements. The zone encompasses a certain partof coastal areas, extending in two directions, [A] a coastline direction and [B] an inland/seaward direction. Local authorities will makeclear these two directions boundaries：a coastline direction boundary is expected to be based on the 48 portions of the whole country
coastline which the guidelines show；an inland/seaward direction boundary extends in accordance with the characteristics of local areasand planning elements.

Viewpoints for planninga.Participation and cooperation
To encourage participation and cooperation of various concerned groups such as the national government, local administrations, private
sectors, Non-Profit Organization (NPO), fishermen, local communities.
b.Wide overview
To provide wide overviewed implementation, giving full consideration to the whole of bays, inland seas and river.
c.Long-term viewTo provide long-term viewed implementation, setting a future vision of coastal areas under an analysis of natural cycles.
d.Continuing implementation
To provide a continuing implementation based on the results of continuous monitor and analysis of the execution of an ICZM plans.

(4)Building ICZM plans
Findings as to study of the coastal area
Defining problems of coastal areas by making a detailed study of the features of coastal areas, including the characteristics of thenature, disasters, social, economic interests, culture and history in coastal areas.
Planning elements
An ICZM plan is expected to include the following elements：
a.The boundaries of a coastal zone (to be indicated clearly on map)b.Period of reauthorization of the plan (approximately every 10 years)c.Basic policy (basic policies for projects and activities in the coastal zone in light of the future visions)d.Definitions of issues and basic directions of comprehensive management programs for solving, managing the issues.
e.Organizations for the implementation of an ICZM plan and measures to evaluate the execution of the ongoing plan(5)Organizations for the decision-making and implementation of ICZM plans
Integrated Coastal Zone Management Commission
Integrated Coastal Zone Management Commission shall be created, consisting of representatives of each of the prefecture governments

197

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystemand cities in the coastal zone as its main members and representatives of each of concerned groups or individuals, such as the national
government, agencies, NPO, the residents, the enterprises and any other groups in the coastal zone. The Commission is responsible forbuilding or developing an ICZM plan, reviewing the execution of the ongoing plan and providing the information of the plan to the public.
Even the case the national government or agency are not included as a member of the Commission, it may be appointed with an approvalof the Commission, especially when a coastal zone extends two or more than two prefectures‘ jurisdictions or when the Commission
requests the participation of the national government or agencies (including branch offices).

Certification organization
The governors, mayors and administrators of the members of the Commission may certify the ICZM plan, addressing a full support
for the implementation of the plan when the plan is considered to be relevant and appropriate.
Organization relating Integrated Coastal Zone Management Commission
Integrated Coastal Zone Management Commission may, if necessary, appoint the following organizations to assist and advise theCommission in carrying out its decision-making and other functions on the plan.
a.Coastal Zone Committee
To encourage the participation and coordination of various concerned groups and individuals in various areas.
b. Technical committee
To provide technical, special evaluations and inspections on planning goals or execution of ongoing plans.
c. Administrative Coordination Committee
To encourage the coordination and cooperation with local, prefecture, national agencies.

(6)Things to consider
Character of ICZM plans
Although ICZM plans don’t have legal enforcement policy, they are expected to be master plans based on consensus of various
concerned groups and individuals, making the policies of plans more effective and enforceable.
Coordination with related plans and policies.
ICZM plans are encouraged to be consistent with various related plans, policies and other projects in coastal zones by the national
government and local authorities.
Features of coastal zones especially expected to be planned
The features of coastal zones urgently expected to be planned are the followings：
a.Having bays where diverse land and water uses are or are likely to compete and conflictb.Having superior landscapes or historical, cultural resources.
c.aving a scheduled project supposed to make considerable impacts on local economy or natural environment.
Enhancement of the public awareness and dissemination of the information.
Prefecture, local governments are encouraged to enhance the public awareness of the basic idea and the need of ICZM, and todisseminate information about the contents of ICZM plans to the public.

(7)Next Steps
The National Land Agency is scheduled to enhance understanding of ICZM and the guidelines of ICZM, and to assist local authorities
to develop a model of ICZM plans by modeling coastal zones where coordination and corporation among multi-prefecture governments areneeded, such as bays.

5.Conclusions---Some problems to build New System
5.1 Coastal Zone Management System
I speak about Japanese Coastal Zone Management System. We will have the Integrated Coastal Management System in a few years
as I introduced. But I think we have five problems to build the Integrated Coastal Management System. First is coastal zone and zoning.
We know the urban zoning system and already use the system over 30 years. And we have limited experiences coastal area managementin Seto Inland Sea Area. But the Seto I.S.L. has good effects to decease number of reclamation permission, but not good for recovering
natural environment. And some big projects, for example, Kansai Airport Project, The Hon-shi Bridge Project that make three big bridges
between Honshu and Sikoku Island, had been carried out and there are many new projects which are under planning. Second is effect of
coastal plan. New Coastal Zone Management plan has not legal effect, because the Plan has no statutory basis as same as other administrativeplans. Third is to ensure public participation and/or partnership. We have much the experience to make the law that has public participation prescription. However, it is not always succeeding in the effective enforcement. Forth is to make "integrated" plan. We have many
administrative plans, but it is difficult for us to make "integrated" plan. And if we make integrated plans, it is not always succeeding in
the effective enforcement. Fifth is check system for Integrated plans. People who use coastal area for swimming, sailing and fishing don’t
have standing to sue reclamation permission. Governor or agencies have wide discretion to manage coastal area on the basis of "Kobutsu"
doctrine. The resident lawsuit that the resident in local body can make to sue is almost the sole lawsuit means.
5.2 Reform of Administrative System
After restructuring of government departments and agencies, new system will begin on 1 Jan., 2001. And the Local Government Act
Amendment and other relative acts had effect on 1, April 2000. These reform are the biggest change after World War Ⅱ and it is difficult
for us to understand the effectiveness of the Reform now. It is important for us that the directors of Coastal area (except Fishery Portarea) are Minister of Land and Transportation in national level. Formerly, the Minister of Construction, the Minister of Transportation and
Minister of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries has authority and also there are wide non-regulated areas, the integrated management ismore expected.
Now new system is beginning. It is difficult for me to assess the system now.

198

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

PROBLEMS AND PROSPECTS OF SEAGRASS CONSERVATION
AND MANAGEMENT IN HONG KONG AND CHINA
Terence Ching-wai FONG
Environmental Resources Management, Hong Kong, China
E- Mail：tfong@ermhk.com
◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

There are eighteen, eight and four species of seagrass have been recorded in Mainland China, Taiwan and Hong Kong respectively. All
Hong Kong seagrasses (Japanese eelgrass Zostera japonica, Spoon grass Halophila ovata and Halophila beccarii and Widgeon grass Ruppia
maritima) share the characteristic of co-occurring with mangroves in the low to mid- intertidal region of sand and mud flat areas. Rapid
coastal development, in recent years, has caused a decline in seagrass populations in China. The lower level of concern awarded to seagrass ismainly due to lack of knowledge of the plants themselves. The confused nomenclature and similar Chinese pronunciation, combined withinadequate knowledge, leads readily to the confusion of seagrass and algae in China. Seagrasses have been little studied in China and theecology of Chinese species is poorly known, the limited studies upon seagrasses are only concerned with their classification and distribution.
The lack of biological and ecological information on the seagrasses increases the difficulty of their conservation and management.

Seagrass, Mangrove and Coral Reef
Seagrass beds are one of the most important coastal habitats in the world, though they attract less concern than many others. Theirsignificance is comparable to such well-known important coastal habitats as mangroves and coral reefs. However, unlike mangroves andcoral reefs, which are restricted to tropical or occasionally sub-tropical areas, seagrasses are widely distributed in both the tropical andtemperate zones. Mangrove and coral reef are rarely, if ever, found in close proximity because of their divergent physio-chemical
requirements, but seagrasses freely intermingle with both communities. Seagrasses also often form extensive meadows that bridge thedistances between coral reefs and mangroves.

Seagrass - Neglected Resource in China
The lower level of concern awarded to seagrass is mainly due to lack of knowledge of the plants themselves. People constantly
confuse seagrass, seaweed and algae. "Seaweed" and "algae" originally had the same meaning, and even now are only slightly distinguished.
Both are completely different from seagrass, however. ’Alga’ is the Latin name for seaweed, defined as the group of primitive photosynthetic
plants without true leaves, stems and roots. Seaweed is defined as marine macro-algae (i.e. large algae that grow in the sea). Seaweed isoften used in the medicinal and food industries, and seaweeds such as Porphyra, Laminaria, Eucheuma and Sargassum species are used
as a source of food. Seaweed is composed of a recognizable blade, stem-like stipe and root-like simple rhizoids or more complex holdfasts.
Seagrasses, however, are flowering plants specializing in soft-bottomed nearshore marine environments. They are believed to have evolved
from land plants that adapted to life in the marine environment. Seagrasses possess erect leaves and shoots and creeping stems or rhizomes,
while the more primitive algae do not. The flowering structure of seagrass varies in different species. The entire reproductive cycle ofseagrasses, including flowering, pollination and development of fruits and seeds, takes place underwater. Seagrass dispersal occurs by twomeans, vegetative and reproductive. Vegetative propagation only allows plants to colonize adjacent unvegetated areas, while seed reproduction allows seagrass to disperse farther.
The Chinese pronunciation of the words for seagrass (Cantonese "hoi cho", Mandarin "hai cao") and algae/ seaweed (Mandarin "haizao", Cantonese "hoi zho") are very similar, adding further to the confusion. In Chinese taxonomic classification, most seagrass species,
particularly the family Potamogetonaceae which includes the genus Ruppia, Zostera and Phyllospadix, use the word "zao"/"zho" (algae)
rather than "cao"/"cho" in their Chinese species name (Table 1). This nomenclature, combined with inadequate knowledge, leads readily tothe confusion of seagrass and algae and hence under-estimate the fragility and value of seagrasses. As a result, Chinese people always
misunderstand the seagrass bed is a kind of wasteland without any conservation necessity.

Value of Seagrasses
Seagrass meadows occur in most shallow,
sheltered, soft-bottomed marine coastlines
and estuaries of the world . Globally ,approximately 70 species are recognized.
The small number of species does not,however, reflect either the abundance or the
economic and ecological importance of thegroup.
The high primary production rate of seagrasses
has been well documented and acknowledged
as the basis for their importance to thecoastal zone (McRoy & McMillan 1977；
Zieman & Wetzel 1980；Hillman et al. 1989).
Considerable amounts of seagrass primary
production have been shown to be exported(Bach et al. 1986) and to either washedashore on distant coasts or deposited on the
deep sea floor (Wolff 1976；1980). Seagrasses
have been identified as an important resourcefor higher trophic levels many kilometresaway from the site of production, and where

Table 1 Seagrass species in China
Seagrass species in China
ZOSTERA MARINAZZOSTERA CAESPITOSA
Zostera caulescens
Zostera asiatica
Zostera japonica（1）（2）
PHYLLOSPADIX JAPONICA
Phyllospadix iwatensis
POSIDONIA AUSTRALISHalodule uninervis （2）Halodule pinifolia（2）Syringodium isoetifolium
Cymodocea rotundata
Enhalus acoroides
Thalassia hemperichii（2）Halophila ovalis（2）Halophila minor (H. ovata) （1）（2）
Halophila beccarii （1）（2）
Ruppia maritima（1）（2）Nomenclature used "zao"/"zho"（algae）

Note：(1) The species has also been recorded in Hong Kong
(2) The species has also been recorded in Taiwan

250

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystemthey appear to have made major contributions to other ecosystems (Thresher et al. 1992). Live seagrass is apparently a minor source offood to its communities. Some sea-urchins, crustaceans and fishes may eat seagrasses, but they also need other sources of nutrition (Klumpp
et al. 1989). Seagrasses form a major component of the diet of dugongs and green turtles (Lanyon et al. 1989).
The spatial complexity of the seagrass canopy plays a potentially important role in structuring the associated faunal community (Orthet al. 1984；Stoner & Lewis 1985；Lee et al. in press). Spatial complexity in the form of dense seagrass canopy provides a large
number of microhabitats and, thus, increased protection from predators. A dense canopy can, therefore, support a high abundance andbiomass of epifauna (Fong 1998；Lee, in press). Hydrodynamic features such as water current reduction and shear stress at the canopy
are correlated positively with seagrass abundance (Gambi et al. 1990). Seagrass can modify water flow and reduce currents and waves toresult in the increased trapping of organic detritus. The standing crop of detritus was significantly higher in the seagrass bed than in theadjacent unvegetated area and was directly proportional to plant biomass (Fong 1998).
The increased amounts of accumulated detritus enhance the overall faunal abundance. The major food resources utilized by consumers
in a Hong Kong seagrass bed are detritus and algae but not the living plant. No local organisms have been observed to feed on living
plants directly. Organisms utilize the seagrass organic matter only after decay. Detritus is usually the major food web base in seagrass
habitats (Zimmerman et al. 1979；Stoner et al. 1995). Detritivores and deposit-feeders dominate the trophic categories of the associatedfaunal components of the local seagrass beds, both in terms of abundance and species numbers. This indicates that the detrital pathway is
an important means by which energy and matter is transferred to higher trophic levels in local seagrass beds. The origin of the energy
source is, however, mainly allochthonous. Detritus derived from seagrass and algae, mainly supplied in winter (Fong 1998), comprised
only a small portion of the total accumulated detrital biomass. Detritus from these two sources is, however, of high quality and hence
probably more digestible. Local seagrass beds, therefore, not only provide a primary source of detritus, but also act as a trap retaining
external organic matter for the resident consumers.
Seagrasses provide shelter and feeding grounds for a diverse assemblage of organisms. As seagrasses provide shelter and food during
the early life history stages of animals when individuals are susceptible to predation, they are also important nursery areas, especially forfish (Pollard 1984). Seagrasses are, therefore, important habitats for fisheries (Bell & Pollard 1989). Seagrass beds generally support morefish than bare substrata (Heck et al. 1989). Significantly greater abundance of fishes were also collected from artificial seagrass beds thanfrom bare sand (Bell et al. 1987). Seagrass faunal communities also usually contain penaeid prawns (Heck et al. 1989；Coles et al. 1993).
Juvenile horseshoe crabs, Tachypleus tridentatus and Carcinoscorpius rotundicauda, are commonly found and feeding inside Halophila
beccarii bed in Deep Bay and Zostera japonica/Halophila ovata beds at Tung Chung. Seagrass beds are an important spawning andnursery ground of horseshoe crabs (Chiu and Morton 1999).

Current Situation and Problems of Seagrass Conservation
The status of HK seagrasses
There are eighteen, eight and four species of seagrass have been recorded in Mainland China, Taiwan and Hong Kong respectively(Sun 1992；Fong, 1998；Lam, 2000). Three of these (Japanese eelgrass Zostera japonica, Spoon grass Halophila minor or H.ovata andHalophila beccarii) and one monocotyledonous angiosperm (Widgeon grass Ruppia maritima) are found in Hong Kong. It is known thatthese, including the four Hong Kong species, have fairly wide geographic ranges along the Chinese coast (Huang et al. 1994). All Hong
Kong seagrasses share the characteristic of co-occurring with mangroves in the low to mid- intertidal region of sand and mud flat areas.
Halophila beccarii, the Spoon grass, has an oval shaped leaves without cross vein. It is widely distributed in the South China Sea
and the Bay of Bengal (Den Hartog 1970；Phillips & Men˜ ez 1988). In Hong Kong, the plant was first recorded from Tsim Bei Tsui as
dense mats amongst pioneer mangroves (Hodgkiss and Morton 1978a). The recent distribution of H.beccarii suggests that the plant is extending its range on the intertidal mud flat along the southern fringe of Deep Bay, from Sha Kiu Tsuen to Ha Pak Nai (Fong 1998). The
largest bed of H.beccarii, also the largest seagrass bed in Hong Kong, was recorded at Ha Pak Nai and occupies a total area of ~ 4
hectares. Besides Deep Bay, H.beccarii can also be found in Tai Ho in Lantau and occasionally in Starling Inlet, especially Luk Keng.
The other Spoon Grass Halophila minor has similar morphology as Halophila beccarii, the obvious difference is the leaves of Halophila
minor showing cross vein. This species has a wide distribution. The centre of its geographical range is the South China Sea and the seasof the Sunda shelf, near Indonesia (Den Hartog 1970). Its northernmost occurrence is in Hong Kong. It used to be widely distributed on
the sheltered flats at Tai Tam, Three Fathoms Cove and Hoi Sing Wan in Tolo Harbour and in Deep Bay (Morton & Morton 1983). H.
minor is now recorded from three locations in Hong Kong, namely, San Tau in Lautau, Sheung Sze Wan in Sai Kung and Lai Chi Wo
in Crooked Harbour (Fong, 1998).
The genus Halophila, particularly the species Halophila minor, is short-lived pioneer annual plant that can colonize some areas in ashort time and disappear quickly under unfavourable condition, i.e., typhoon or strong water current. The population of the intertidal H.
minor at San Tau, Sheung Sze Wan and Lai Chi Wo has been found to extend in large areas, however, disappeared completely in a very
short period of time. The cycle repeats again in every year.
Unlike the genus Halophila, Zostera japonica is perennial in Hong Kong. Zostera japonica, the Eelgrass, has elongated leaves andoccurs from Sakhalin and Kamchatka (north of Japan) to Vietnam in East Asia, and along the Pacific coasts of North America (Den Hartog
1970；Phillips & Men˜ ez 1988). Z.japonica was first reported as Z.nana Roth. from Lai Chi Wo, Hong Kong, by Hodgkiss and Morton(1978b). Z.nana Roth. is a junior synonym of Z.japonica (Phillips & Menez 1988) and the identity of the local Z.japonica was confirmed
by Lee (1997). Zostera japonica has been recorded from five locations in Hong Kong, namely, Sheung Sze Wan in Sai Kung, San Tau
in Lantau Island, Lai Chi Wo, So Lo Pun and Pak Kok Wan in Crooked Harbour and Sam A Chung in Double Haven, north-east New
Territories, Hong Kong (Fong 1998). The first record as well as the largest Zostera bed was from Lai Chi Wo, part of the Yan Chau
Tong Marine Park established at 1996. The populations of Z.japonica at So Lo Pun, Pak Kok Wan and Sam A Chung are small and areprobably pioneer populations. Z.japonica at So Lo Pun, Pak Kok Wan and Sam A Chung may have originated from the population at
Lai Chi Wo in view of the proximity of the three locations. The small population of Z. japonica at Sheung Sze Wan may also be originatedfrom the population at Lai Chi Wo even they are quite far away.
Ruppia maritima, the Widgeon grass, is not a true ’seagrass’, but it is a grass with high salinity tolerance. It was once recorded from
Shek O Lagoon and has been recently reported from shallow brackish water ’gei wai’ (shrimp ponds) at the Mai Po Marshes Nature
Reserve (Dunn & Tutcher 1912；Melville & Chan 1992). R.maritima usually grows in gei wai channels at between 0.6 to 1.2m depth.
Widgeon grass is an extremely important food source for waterfowl in North America. Their leaves are expanded at the base and arise
alternately from the sheath and taper to long pointed tips.
Natural Stresses of Seagrasses：A Case Study in Hong Kong
Both abiotic and biotic factors appear to locally influence the growth of seagrasses although temperature seems to be the major abiotic
factor influencing their life cycle (Fong, 1998). A combination of high air temperature with low spring tides occurring in the summer mid

251

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystemafternoon, results in strong desiccation and heat stresses which can greatly impact the intertidal seagrasses. The typhoon in summer,
however, impose a minor effect on the seagrasses. Growth was retarded during this time and resulted in nearly zero seagrass, particularly
Japanese eelgrass Zostera japonica, bed area expansion. In winter, a return of a more favourable temperature regime (<20℃) promotes thegrowth of Japanese eelgrass, resulting in significant increases in percentage cover and bed area.
Flowering and seed germination of local seagrasses are also influenced by temperature. In Hong Kong, the temperate species Japaneseeelgrass Zostera japonica starts to flower in March when temperature begins to rise from low winter values (Fong, 1998). Their flowering
period extends for nearly five months, with a peak in May, and finish before August, a time that is associated with peak heat and desiccation stresses in summer. The tropical species Spoon grasses, however, prefer to flower during hot summer. Seeds of local seagrasses were
found in the sediment throughout the year but mostly in late spring and summer (May to September), following the flowering peak.
Macro-algal blooms are common during the winter in Hong Kong and it may influence the growth and survival of Zostera japonica(Fong 1998；1999；Fong et al., 2000). The macroalgae and epiphytic algae may reduce light availability for photosynthesis and limit therate of gaseous exchange by Z.japonica. Such algal growth may result in large reductions in seagrass biomass and production throughsuffocation. Heavy epiphytic growth can increase the chance of sloughing weakened leaves through wave surge, as strong wave action iscommon during winter. This threat can, however, be relieved by the presence of Clithon spp., the major grazer of local Z.japonica beds.
The suppression of epiphyte biomass by a grazing epifauna is an important factor in the maintenance of growth and productivity by
seagrasses. Macro-algal blooms, therefore, caused limited impacts on the performance of Z.japonica. The mature algae disappear during
summer, as they cannot withstand such high temperatures. Only microalgae and the spores of macroalgae are still found on the leaves ofZ.japonica during summer, and these have little impact during this period.

Anthropogenic impacts of seagrasses
Rapid coastal development, in recent years, has caused a decline in seagrass populations in China including Hong Kong. Shatin, Tai
Po and Plover Cove in Hong Kong had large areas of mangroves and are believed to have had large seagrass beds in the past. Following
reclamation for new town development and reservoir construction, all these coastal shores including those possible mangroves and seagrasses
were destroyed. In addition, many small bays were damned to form fishponds for aquaculture and which may also have limited theabundance and distribution of seagrasses. The largest Japanese eelgrass Zostera japonica bed in Hong Kong (Lai Chi Wo) is located besidesuch a fishpond. Halophila minor was previously recorded in many location of Hong Kong, including Deep Bay, Tai Tam and Starfish
Bay, but is now gone. The damage due to development can also be expected along the coastline of China.
Few studies of and publications on seagrasses have been made in China, most being concerned with their classification and distribution
in early eighties (Yang & Wu 1981；Yang 1982；Yang & Li 1983). The degree of damage of seagrasses in Hong Kong, as well as in
China, can not be estimated due to the lack of baseline information. There are, however, some evidences showing that seagrasses in China
are under stress and threatened：
CASE 1：DEVELOPMENT OF CHEK LAP KOK INTERNATIONAL AIRPORT IN HONG KONG
The development of the Hong Kong Chek Lap Kok new international airport has threatened the survival of seagrasses. Reclamationand construction works there increased the sediment loading of the seawater and hence threatened the populations of Zostera japonica andHalophila minor at San Tau, Lantau, Hong Kong (Lee 1994；1997). Z.japonica and H.minor, fortunately, are still surviving at this site,
but most plants died during the peak period of reclamation. The population of Z.japonica recovered gradually after the completion of the
Chek Lap Kok international airport (Fong 1999). According to June 1999 survey, however, the native Z. japonica at San Tau is nearly
total disappeared, only several small colonies with total area less than 0.04 m２ left. Only one of the five transplanted patches of Z.japonica(from Lai Chi Wo) remains and enlarged from 0.06 m２ to 15 m２. Under the highly turbid water, the health of the perennial plant Z.
japonica was very weak and it may use up the food reserve to support their life. Once the construction completed the water quality getting better, Z.japonica can undergo photosynthesis and recover after certain period of time. Heavy algal blooms occurred every year since
the completion of airport, however, further hazard the weakened Z.japonica. Heavy epiphytic growth seriously affects the above-groundcomponent of Z.japonica by increase the chance of sloughing weakened leaves through wave surge (Fong 1998). Apart from removing theupper portion of the plant, the shading effect of algal blooms causing Z.japonica further depleted the food reserve and eventually died.
The good health of transplanted patches has more reserve so that some of them can survive and expand. As Halophila minor is an annual
and opportunistic plant, it recolonized San Tau and extended to Tung Chung Bay after a short period of time. Unlike Zostera japonica,
H. minor can survive under low light intensity and usually found in lower intertidal zone. San Tau and Tung Chung are suitable habitats
of H.minor, as the anthropogenic stresses reduced, many patches ranged from 3 m to 10 m diameter were found along the coasts. Further
development and reclamation in Tung Chung would impose further hazards on the seagrasses. Most of the coastlines in Tung Chung Bay
will be reclaimed to form homogenous concrete wall and no more suitable habitats can be provided for seagrasses. In addition, the increasing human population at Tung Chung New Town, close to San Tau, may further threaten the seagrass populations through sewage discharges
and increased disturbance. The elevated nutrient loading of seawater resulting from increasing housing development is a common cause of
seagrass decline (Short et al. 1996). Algal blooms should occur continuously that may cause Z.japonica further decline in San Tau.
Further development and reclamation may also change the hydrology of Tung Chung Bay with a result of coastal erosion. The increased
erosion will wash out the sediments and change the substratum of seagrass bed. Therefore seagrasses will no longer survive in San Tau
even the area was designated as SSSI.
CASE 2：BRIDGE JOINING SHEKOU, SHENZHEN TO SHEUNG PAK NAI, HONG KONG
In order to improve vehicular transportation, the Governments of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region and the People’s
Republic of China will build a bridge joining Shekou to Sheung Pak Nai and the cross-link is expected to be completed by 2005 at theearliest. The construction of the bridge, like the development of the new airport, may seriously jeopardize the survival of seagrass, Halophila
beccarii, which inhabits the southern coastline of Deep Bay. Deep Bay is already heavily polluted and conditions may worsen as the
populations of the northwest New Territories of Hong Kong and the Shenzhen Special Economic Zone increase further. Reclamation anddredging will form a major component of the bridge construction programme and intertidal mud/sand flats may also be destroyed by theconstruction of the associated transportation network. Such development work in conjunction with pollution will probably severely impact
the survival of H.beccarii. The H.beccarii beds in Deep Bay are well known nursery ground of horseshoe crab. Some sand patches andfreshwater streams along the shoreline of Deep Bay are the breeding and spawning sites of horseshoe crab Carcinoscorpius rotundicauda
and Tachypleus tridentatus (Chiu & Morton 1999). Such bridge construction seems cannot be omitted due to the economical needs andthe involvement of mainland government. Even the turbidity of seawater in Deep Bay are naturally high, H.beccarii still cannot immune
from the additional sedimentation effect. To minimize the influences on seagrass beds, the sedimentation caused by the associated constructions should be controlled. The construction of the transportation network should also build inland, not close to the shore. And the most252

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

important is to preserve and protect coastal shores, otherwise all the habitats suitable for seagrass and horseshoe crab will be destroyed.

CASE 3：CONSTRUCTION OF ARTIFICIAL CORAL POOL AT SANYA, HAINAN, CHINA
The tourist industry in Hainan is growing quickly which in turn deteriorating the coastal habitats particularly coral reef and seagrassbed. Since coral reef is important scenery to attract tourists, some resorts considered constructing artificial coral pool in their adjacentnatural beaches. The largest patch of seagrass in Dadonghai Bay, Sanya were destroyed to construct the artificial coral pool.
CASE 4：SEAWEED AQUACULTURE IN HAINAN, CHINA
The culture of seaweed Eucheuma serra is very common in Hainan, China. The seaweed culture rafts are usually set up in coastal
soft bottom shore where seagrass inhabited. The seaweed culture practice not only disturb the seagrass habitats, the fast growing seaweedalso compete nutrients with seagrass in turn retarding their growth. The large numbers of seaweed culture in Hainan, therefore, restrict the
distribution and abundance of seagrasses.

Conclusion
If the seagrass bed being destroyed, it may not be recovered after a long time. The fast economic growth of coastal cities in China
is unavoidably deteriorating and destroying the seagrass habitat. Chinese people are still not aware the importance of seagrass conservation.
Action should be taken now to conserve seagrasses in China lest they become extirpated when people aware their vulnerability. The mostpressing requirement for the seagrass conservation is to preserve the existing beds. Education is the most challenging and urgent element
to make the conservation and preservation of the threatened seagrass habitat success. The lack of seagrass baseline information including
their extent and condition, however, increase the difficulties of seagrass conservation and education. Seagrass mapping involving remotesensing and particular researches, such as the relationships of seagrass and fisheries and their vulnerability in China, are necessary to
conduct immediately so as to reflect the current situation and the urgency of seagrass conservation in China. Seagrass monitoring program,conservation and management plan is therefore necessary to develop protecting their long -term survival in the foreseeable rapid
development of all local inshore environments. A preliminary monitoring and conservation plan under the urban Hong Kong condition(Fong, 1999) can act as a reference for all coastal areas of China.

References
Bach, S.D., Thayer, G.W. and LaCroix, M.W. 1986. Export of detritus from eelgrass (Zostera marine) beds near Beaufort, North Carolina,
U. S. A. Marine Ecology Progress Series 28：265-78.
Bell, J.D., Westoby, M. and Steffe, A.S. 1987. Fish larvae settling in seagrass：do they discriminate between beds of different leaf
density? Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 111：133-44.
Bell, J.D. and Pollard, D.A. 1989. Ecology of fish assemblages and fisheries associated with seagrasses. In Biology of Seagrasses：aTreatise on the Biology of Seagrasses with Special Reference to the Australian Region (ed. A.W.D. Larkum, A.J. McComb and
S.A. Shepherd), 565-609. The Netherlands：Elsevier.
Chiu, H.M.C. and Morton, B. 1999. Final Report. The biology, distribution and status, of Horseshoe crabs, Tachypleus and Carcinoscorpius(Arthropoda：Chelicerata), in Hong Kong：recommendations for conservation and management. A Final Report to China Light& Power Co. Ltd. The Swire Institute of Marine Science, The University of Hong Kong. Pp.i-ix +121.
Coles, R.G., Lee Long, W.J., Watson, R.A. and Derbyshire, K.J. 1993. Distribution of seagrasses, and their fish and penaeid prawn
communities, in Cairns Harbour, a tropical estuary, Northern Queensland, Australia. Australian Journal of Marine and Freshwater
Research 44：193-210.
Den Hartog, C. 1970. Sea-grasses of the World. Amsterdam：North-Holland Publishing Company.
Dunn, S.T. and Tutcher, W.J. 1912. Flora of Kwangtung and Hong Kong (China). Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew Bulletin of Miscellaneous
Information, Additional Series X. pp. 370.
Fong, C.W. 1998. Some aspects of ecology of seagrass Zostera japonica in Hong Kong. M. Phil. Thesis, The University of Hong Kong,
Hong Kong.
Fong T.C.W. 1999. The Conservation and Management of Hong Kong Seagrasses. Asian Marine Biology, 16：109-121.
Fong, T.C.W., Lee, S.Y. and Wu, R.S.S. 1998. Seasonal cycle of growth and reproduction in the seagrass Zostera japonica in Hong Kong.
In Proceedings of the Third International Conference on the Marine Biology of the South China Sea, Hong Kong, 1996. (ed. B.
Morton), 247-60. Hong Kong：Hong Kong University Press.
Fong T.C.W., Lee S.Y. and Wu R.S.S. 2000. The effects of epiphytic algae and their grazers on the intertidal seagrass Zostera japonica.
Aquatic Botany 67：251-561.
Gambi, M.C., Nowell, A.R.M. and Jumars, P.A. 1990. Flume observations on flow dynamics in Zostera marina (eelgrass) beds. Marine
Ecology Progress Series 61：159-69.
Heck, K.L.Jr., Able, K.W., Fahay, M.P. and Roman, C.T. 1989. Fishes and decapod crustaceans of Cape Cod eelgrass meadows：Species
composition, seasonal abundance patterns and comparison with unvegetated substrates. Estuaries 12：59-65.
Hillman, K, Walker, D.I., Larkum, A.W.D. and McComb, A.J. 1989. Productivity and nutrient limitation. In Biology of Seagrasses：aTreatise on the Biology of Seagrasses with Special Reference to the Australian Region (ed. A.W.D. Larkum, A.J. McComb and
S.A. Shepherd), 635-85. The Netherlands：Elsevier.
Hodgkiss, I.J. and Morton, B. 1978a. Halophila beccarii Ascherson (Hydrocharitaceae) - a new record for Hong Kong, with notes onother Halophila species. Memoirs of the Hong Kong Natural History Society 13：28-32.
Hodgkiss, I.J. and Morton, B. 1978b. Zostera nana Roth. (Potamogetonaceae) - a new record for Hong Kong. Memoirs of the Hong Kong
Natural History Society 13：23-7.
Huang, Z.G. 1994. Marine Species and their Distribution in China’s Seas. Beijing：China Ocean Press.
Klumpp, D.W., Howard, R.K. and Pollard, D.A. 1989. Trophodynamics and nutritional ecology of seagrass communities. In Biology of
Seagrasses：a Treatise on the Biology of Seagrasses with Special Reference to the Australian Region (ed. A.W.D. Larkum, A.J.
McComb and S.A. Shepherd), 394-457. The Netherlands：Elsevier.
Lam C.K. 2000. Water Plants of Taiwan, Vol. 1：Natural Observation Gallery. Field Photograph Press (in Chinese).
Lanyon, J.M., Limpus, C.J. and Marsh, H. 1989. Dugongs and turtles：Grazers in the seagrass system. In Biology of Seagrasses：a Treatiseon the Biology of Seagrasses with Special Reference to the Australian Region (ed. A.W.D. Larkum, A.J. McComb and S.A.
Shepherd), 610-34. The Netherlands：Elsevier.

253

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

Lee, S.Y. 1997. Annual cycle of biomass of a threatened population of the intertidal seagrass Zostera japonica in Hong Kong. Marine
Biology 129：183-93.
Lee S.Y., Fong T.C.W. and Wu R.S.S. in press. The effects of seagrass (Zostera japonica) canopy structure on associated fauna：a study
using artificial seagrass units and sampling of natural beds. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology.
McRoy, C.P. and McMillan, C. 1977. Production ecology and physiology of seagrasses. In Seagrass Ecosystems：a Scientific Perspective(ed. C.P. McRoy and C. Helfferich), 53-87. New York：Marcel Dekker.
Melville, D.S. and Chan, S.S.Y. 1992. The discovery of Ruppia maritima L. (Ruppiaceae) at Mai Po, Hong Kong. Memoirs of the Hong
Kong Natural History Society 19：123-5.
Morton, B. and Morton, J. 1983. The Seashore Ecology of Hong Kong. Hong Kong：Hong Kong University Press.
Orth, R.J., Heck, K.L.Jr. and Van Montfrans, J. 1984. Faunal communities in seagrass beds：a review of the influence of plant structure
and prey characteristics on predator-prey relationships. Estuaries 7：339-50.
Phillips, R.C. and Meñez, E.G. 1988. Seagrasses. Washington：Smithsonian Institute.
Pollard, D.A. 1984. A review of ecological studies on seagrass fish communities, with particular reference to recent studies in Australia.
Aquatic Botany 18：3-42.
Stoner, A.W. and Lewis, F.G. 1985. The influence of quantitative and qualitative aspects of habitat complexity in tropical sea-grass meadows.
Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 94：19-40.
Stoner, A.W., Ray, M. and Waite, J.M. 1995. Effects of a large herbivorous gastropod on macrofauna communities in tropical seagrassmeadows. Marine Ecology Progress Series 121：125-37.
Sun, X.Z. 1992. Flora - Reipublicae Popularis Sinicae, Tomus 8, Angiospermae Monocotyledoneae. Beijing：Science Press (In Chinese).
Thresher, R.E., Nichols, P.D., Gunn, J.S., Bruce, B.D. and Furlani, D.M. 1992. Seagrass detritus as the basis of a coastal planktonic foodchain. Limnology and Oceanography 37：1754-8.
Wolff, T. 1976. Utilization of seagrass in the deep sea. Aquatic Botany 2：161-74.
Wolff, T. 1980. Animals associated with seagrass in the deep sea. In Handbook of Seagrass Biology：An Ecosystem Perspective (ed. R.C.
Phillips and C.P. McRoy), 199-244. New York：Garland STPM Press.
Yang, Z.D. 1982. The ecological studies on sea-grass of China. Marine Science 2：34-7 (In Chinese).
Yang, Z.D. and Li, S.X. 1983. The use of numerical cladistics in the classification scheme of seagrasses. Journal of Shandong College of
Oceanology 13：78-87 (In Chinese).
Yang, Z.D. and Wu, B.L. 1981. A preliminary study on the distribution, productivity, structure and function of sea-grass beds in China.
Acta Ecological Sinica 1：84-89 (In Chinese).
Zieman, J.C. and Wetzel, R.G. 1980. Productivity in seagrasses：methods and rates. In Handbook of Seagrass Biology：An Ecosystem
Perspective (ed. R.C. Phillips and C.P. McRoy), 87-116. New York：Garland STPM Press.
Zimmerman, R., Gibson, R. and Harrington, J. 1979. Herbivory and detritivory among gammaridean amphipods from a Florida seagrass
community. Marine Biology 54：41-7.

254

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

IS THE DEGRADATION OF RESOURCES IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA
REVERSIBLE?：APPROACHES TO SUSTAINABLE MANAGEMENT
E. D. GOMEZThe Marine Science Institute, University of the Philippines
Diliman, Quezon City, Philippines
E- mail：edgomez@upmsi.ph
◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

Abstract
The South China Sea, one of the largest marginal seas of the world, is surrounded by countries with the highest population growthin their coastal zones, including the Philippines to the east, China to the north, and Vietnam to the west. All these countries havesubstantial fishing fleets that exploit this semi-enclosed sea. For the Philippines, more than one-fourth of its commercial production comesfrom its western seas and this fishing pressure is expected to continue. For China, the rapidly growing coastal population on its southeastern
sector is becoming more and more dependent on fisheries production, as evidenced by illegal fishers invading the marine reserves of Hong
Kong and the decision of Hainan province to continually increase its fishing efforts. Due to the distance of the small island groups andshoals in the middle of the South China Sea from the mainland of the bordering states, and because of the disputes about the territorialboundaries particularly around the Spratlys and the Paracels, management authorities and law enforcers have been unable or unwilling toproperly regulate the fishing efforts in much of the region. As a consequence, excessive, illegal, and destructive fishing are often the norm
rather than the exception. In the light of such unsustainable extractive activities, coastal ecosystems are continually being degraded andthe resources being depleted. The status of the present territorial disputes bodes ill for the marine living resources and the ecosystems on
which they depend. Hence, sustainable management measures are urgently needed. Most nations can take immediate steps to manage
their mainland coasts as this can be done without disputes breaking out. More seriously, the contesting nations must plan together the
management of the fishery resources in the middle of the South China Sea, particularly those around the reefs, shoals and islands somedistance from the Asian continent.

INTRODUCTION
A paper on the large marginal sea that is variously referred to as the South China Sea, the East Sea, or the western Philippine seas,
depending on one’s perspective, has to start somewhere. I choose to start about 35 million years ago (Ma) in the Early Oligocene when
the Philippine island of Mindoro, now located southwest of the main island of Luzon, was located approximately where Pratas Island istoday, in an extensive body of water that was just the western tropical Pacific, referred to by geologists as the Proto-South China Sea.
Luzon itself was then about where the bird’s beak of New Guinea is today, and there was no significant land mass to define a marginal
sea. The semi-enclosed basin that is the focus of this conference did not exist then, so we can conclude that there were no problems,
environmental, social, or political. A cynic would say, well, that is because man had not yet arrived at the scene.
One might say that the origin of our interests started to come about 5 million years later, when a rift on the sea floor opened up,
pushing Mindoro, the Calamianes island group, and Palawan to the south. This rift was the opening of what is now the South China
Sea. Not to belabor the geological history, I wish to briefly mention that about the same period, Luzon began its northward migration,
followed at some distance by the chain of eastern Philippine islands that eventually caught up about 10 Ma, although the present juxtaposition of the Philippine archipelago and Borneo to define the eastern boundaries of the South China Sea did not take place until the endof the Miocene, 5 Ma (Hall 1996).
My concern as a marine biologist here is not about geological resources which are at the bottom of the present day political issues,
but about the biological resources, more specifically the marine living resources of the South China Sea. In spite of the interest in thefisheries of the basin, our knowledge of the environment and resources therein is limited. Marine scientific research in the area is slowly,
slowly advancing and is the topic of another paper (Gomez, in press).

MARINE LIVING RESOURCES AND FISHING PRACTICES
Characteristics of the fisheries
Marine production in the South China Seas (SCS) contributes 12% to total marine global production (Table 1). Culture fisheries, on
the other hand constituted more than half (54%) of worldwide culture production in 1995. While capture fisheries amount to almost 7 Mt
/yr which is 8.2% of the 1995 world (Talaue-McManus 2000).
The potential for increased production from the capture fisheries in the South China Seas may be estimated by looking at the basin
level instead of territorial boundaries. In a work by Pauly and Christensen (1993), habitat and bathymetric subdivisions of the South China
Sea were used to appraise its capture fisheries potential (Table 2). It showed that of all the subdivisions, coral reefs (10 - 50m) are
fully exploited and the Vietnam/Chinese and Bornean shelves have a possibility to increase production but these may have been realized
by now. Untapped areas are the deep shelf (50-200m) and the open ocean (200-4000m) which have an additional 841,000 t/yr potential,
if its large pelagics and cephalopods are exploited (Pauly and Christensen 1993). Expansions into these areas are constrained by economics
and the current state of technology.
Focusing on small pelagic fisheries, these straddling stocks shared among the states in the SCS were studied over a period of 15
years (1978 - 1993) by Yanagawa (1997). After 1987, most of the small pelagic fisheries reached full levels of exploitation. The rapid
increase from 1976 to 1983 which was accompanied by a shift on major species, appears to indicate a huge fishing selection pressure(Yanagawa 1997 in Talaue-McManus 2000). The larger pelagic fisheries are also of concern in spite of the highly migratory nature of
their catch, such as tuna and sharks.
When combined, the tuna catch of Taiwan, Indonesia, the Philippines, and Thailand comprise 23% of the global landed catch over a
period of 6 years (1988 - 1993). Three of these countries (Thailand, Philippines and Indonesia) make up 72% of world tuna export market
during 1990 - 1993 (Talaue-McManus 2000). A stabilized catch of ~ 725,200t in the South China Sea may indicate a state of full
exploitation (Peckham 1995 in Talaue-McManus 2000). Exports in the region account for 91 - 96% of total production. On the other
hand, Japan, Western Europe, and the US used 83 - 90% of their tuna production for domestic consumption. This shows that the SCS

219

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

is a net exporter to these countries, even as fish becomes a scarce commodity. Another pelagic fishery of concern is that of sharks andshark products. Sharks migrate throughout the SCS. They are taken as by-catch as well. The demand for shark products is high andgrowing in Southeast Asia as these products are used for exotic food, medicinal and ornamental purposes.
Worldwide, total global production of fish reached a record level of 109.6 M tons in 1994. Most of the 7% increase from theprevious year was due to an increase in marine capture fisheries (FAO 1997a). In 1995, although there was still an increase in total
world production, there was a decline in harvest from marine capture fisheries, which was offset by the increase in aquaculture (Table 3/
Figure 1). In 1994, eleven of the 20 countries which produced over 1.1 Mt per year were Asian. These Asian countries are also themain contributors in the global capture and marine aquaculture fishery. Total production from marine waters appears to have stabilized ataround 80 Mt. Asia has also continued to have the highest rates of increase in marine production over the last two decades (Figure 2)
while the other continents’ contributions have remained static (De Silva 1996).
The Central West Pacific, which include the South China Sea, are areas rich in demersal resources, including penaeid shrimps andsmall pelagic resources (FAO 1997b). Fisheries in the region are strongly influenced by global market trends as fishery developments are
geared towards the export market. The higher prices fetched by these fishery products fuel the expansion of their export. Domestic
markets are also growing rapidly in response to rising populations. Taken together, these factors increase the fishing pressure in the region.
As a result, more and more people are coming to rely on the same number of resources (Gomez 1998).
It is estimated that by 2010, fish supplies will need to increase by 6 Mt to merely maintain current per caput consumption levels.
However, marine fisheries are fully exploited and offer few other opportunities for regional countries to increase domestic protein supplies.
Most pelagic fish, crustaceans and demersal species in the coastal fishing grounds of the Gulf of Thailand, Tonkin Bay, and other partsof the SCS are fully exploited or already depleted. And moderately exploited anchovies, smaller tuna and cephalopods are unlikely tomeet the future demand in marine fish production (FAO 1997a).

Philippine fisheriesWith fish and fish products second only to rice as the dominant food group consumed in the Filipino diet, local populations areheavily dependent on fish as its main source of protein (White and Cruz-Trinidad 1998). Economically, fisheries contribute 3.8% to total
gross domestic product (GDP), the industry employs some 990,000 persons, and fishery exports are valued at roughly US$550M (BFAR
1997). All things considered, it is understandable that fishing pressure in the entire archipelago remains high. And as the western seas
provide more than 25% of the commercial fisheries production for the Philippines, this particular region within the South China Sea plays
a significant role in the sustenance of the fishery industry as a whole. Estimates of the Kalayaan reefs indicate that they may potentiallyprovide income in the range of US$ 86-165M annually, with pristine reef fisheries showing a high potential production yields of 78-105
t/sq.km/yr (Alino et al. 1998). This further underlines the importance of this region.
Trends in the general fishery industry of the country show that production is on the increase, mainly due to an increase in aquaculturethat has almost doubled in the last 10 years. Both municipal and commercial fisheries have, on the other hand, gone down in production
over the same period (Figure 3). Catch per unit effort has also seen a decline (Figure 4) perhaps indicative of the overfished state of
the resource (White and Cruz-Trinidad 1998).
Hong Kong and Hainan Province
The local fishing fleet of Hong Kong amounts to some 4460 vessels, a third of which are trawlers, long-liners and gill-netters thatengage in distant water fishing. It is this offshore fishing fleet that is most affected by the Chinese government’s summer ban on fishingin the SCS as well as a year round ban on trawling in its territorial waters down to a depth of 40m (Morton 2000). This raises potential
problems for the smaller trawling component of the Hong Kong fleet as their larger counterparts may come to compete with them for thefish inshore. And as Hong Kong waters are already acknowledged to be over fished, this ban also appears to raise more concerns about
increasing fishing instead of remedying it. Half of the fishing fleet is made up of P4 sampans, which were originally developed for use
in mariculture. Nowadays, these boats work the coastline of Hong Kong, fishing out anything that is of value, and at times doing sowith destructive methods such as dynamiting or poisoning (Morton 2000).
Of the administrative regions of China, Hainan has the greatest responsibility for the South China Sea, resulting mainly from the definition of its boundaries when it was upgraded from an administrative region of Guandong into a separate province. A full treatment of itsrole in the SCS development is hampered by a lack of access to English references. The maritime nature of the province is brought tothe fore when the examination of the incidents between the Philippines and China hark back to the fact that virtually all the fishing vessels
apprehended by Philippine authorities hail from Hainan. The fishing efforts of the province continue to increase in an effort to boost its
local economic development.
Destructive fishing
The fishing pressure being exerted on the South China Sea is, by itself, intense enough to have a negative effect on quantitative
condition of the living resources. Add to that the destructive nature of some of the fishing practices, and the picture is even more grimfor the future of the resources. The use of dynamite or other explosives as well as the application of poisons to capture both ornamental
and edible species (Gomez 1998) are just two examples of the destructive fishing being practiced.
Another destructive technique is called "muro-ami." The destruction it causes is mainly due to the rock-weighted scare line used todrive the fish into the net. Concern has been raised as to the damage this practice does to the coral community. An alternative to thisis the "Pa-aling" method. The rock-weighted scare line of muro-ami is replaced with a series of plastic hoses carrying compressed air fromthe fishing vessel, which forms a wall of bubbles used to drive the fish into the set-net. An assessment of this gear shows a highly
efficient fish catching ability that inflicts minimal damage to the coral community. However, this high efficiency in catch ability necessitates
regulation, if overfishing is to be avoided (Miclat et al. 1991).
Endangered species
More and more species of marine organisms today are being threatened principally from overexploitation and habitat degradation.
Since a full treatment of this topic would unduly extend this presentation, I will only deal with marine turtles as an example. Virtually
all species of these reptiles are threatened or endangered worldwide and all the species that occur in the South China Sea are. It is also
generally known that many fishermen from the surrounding states catch sea turtles, whether for personal consumption or for commerce.
In the past decade when Philippine authorities apprehended Chinese fishing vessels illegally operating in western Philippine waters,
invariably these carried turtle carapace and live sea turtles (Gomez 1996). The fishery for turtles that are known to breed on the isletsof the Spratlys has been known for some time (Cheng 1996). The net effect of this unregulated, illegal harvesting of these threatened
species is a continuing decline in the populations. In eastern Malaysia where data are available for protected rookeries, the decline in the220International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

nesting of several species over the period of a decade (1984-1993) became evident as early as 1990 (Ibrahim 1994 in Talaue-McManus
2000). At the end of the period of monitoring data, the number of nesting turtles declined from the average to a low number for threeof four species as follows：hawksbill 41 to 38, olive Ridley 269 to 98, and leatherback 374 to only 63. Only the green turtle was able
to maintain significant numbers of nesting individuals during that same period.

MANAGEMENT STATUS
Bilateral considerations
The situations involving the Philippines and China in fisheries disputes are those more familiar to me, although there have beenoccasional incidents between Philippine and Malaysian fishers and authorities. The establishment of the joint cross-border Marine Turtle
Sanctuary between the Philippines and Malaysia is a sign of willingness to cooperate between these two members of ASEAN, regardlessof differences in position about various other issues.
Whether it is a question of the stereotype of a "big guy versus a small neighbor" or one of a misperception of the need to regain"lost" hegemony, the initial attempts for China and the Philippines to address management issues in the western Philippine seas have notmade much progress. The past decade witnessed a number of incidents, before and after the infamous Mischief Reef occupation by China
in 1995, involving the apprehension of illegal fishers by Philippine authorities. Setting aside political or territorial arguments, virtually all
apprehended fishing vessels have yielded either illegal fishing apparatus such as dynamite and cyanide or illegally collected endangered
species, as mentioned above.
One or two bilateral meetings among government officials have been held to address fisheries management issues in the South China
Sea. The fisheries authorities last met in the Philippines last year, but there was an impasse resulting from China’s proposing joint
exploratory fishing in an area that covered not only the Spratlys but also Palawan island! This was perceived as unacceptable by Philippine
authorities as it was also unconstitutional.
The late 1990’s saw a proclamation or two by the Chinese government to close fishing in the South China Sea for two months inthe summer, presumably to give the fish stocks a bit of reprieve or time to recover. While many fishers heeded these management
measures, a fair number ignored them. It was during the 1999 "closed season" that a covey of fishing vessels was chased by Philippine
authorities for illegal activities near the Scarborough Shoals, resulting in the capsizing of at least one of them. Needless to say, thisresulted in a protest by Beijing which drew a comment by a Philippine legislator to the effect that even by Chinese government laws, they
were fishing illegally and should not have been fishing where they were discovered. When far from apparent surveillance, fishers everywhereare wont to ignore even the laws of their home country.
The recent negotiations for the endorsement of the GEF proposal for the South China Sea Biodiversity stalled for a long time due toobjections by China about the inclusion of fishery resource studies in the Spratlys and other central regions. Rational management must
be based on sound knowledge. Without the latter, we can only have "political" management which will not ensure the sustainability ofresources.
Territorial disputes
The territorial issues of the South China Sea region are interesting and even exciting, but too complex to be treated at length in thispaper. Many sources exist for those interested to read up on them, including a broad range of papers presented last June in Oslo during
the conference on "Human and Regional Security around the South China Sea." While no formal proceedings will be published for the
conference, many of the papers are now in press in various journals. For those interested in these, the conference organizer, Prof. Stein
Tonnesson of the University of Oslo should be contacted. Speaking of which, he has recently published a paper entitled "China and theSouth China Sea：A Peace Proposal" which offers a European’s perspective on the issues (Tonnesson 2000).
The point I wish to raise here is that the territorial disputes in the Paracels and Spratlys, among others, are making management ofmarine living resources difficult to addresss in a rational fashion. Virtually all the littoral states with the probable exception of China areready and willing to address the issues, as manifested in the initiative brokered by Indonesia and referred to as the informal workshop
series "Managing Potential Conflicts in the South China Sea" (see Stormont 1994 for an early description).
In the meantime, ASEAN has proposed a Code of Conduct for the South China Sea claimant states to defuse the tensions arising fromthe political disputes. If this is adopted, there may be a chance to give not only the political animals but also the marine living resourcesof the South China Sea some respite through negotiated, fair, and sustainable management measures.

MANAGEMENT NEEDS
CoastalIndividual countries surrounding the SCS should be conscious of the need to better manage their coastal zones. While some began
this process even before the Earth Summit in 1992, the recognition for the need for integrated coastal management is enshrined in
Chapter 17 of Agenda 21. A review of the practices in the region, however, would indicate a wide variation of effort, even withincountries. It may take another few decades before the entire coastline of the SCS will have been subjected to ICM or similar sustainable
management, or is this just a pipe dream?
Whether ICM or any of its variants is adopted or not, there are two management tools worth mentioning that should be considered
for the enhancement of the coastal environment and which can contribute to the sustainability of marine living resources. The first ofthese is the proper installation of artificial reefs or the broader effort of restoration techniques, including coral transplantation and reintroductions of species. I am careful to state that the installation of artificial reefs should be "proper" because the whole concept of their use
has occasioned some controversies. This is not the place to discuss these, but suffice it to say that there can be a proper method thatwill have a net positive effect on the coastal communities. The question of transplantation and reintroduction also elicits debates. At the
9th International Coral Reef Symposium held in Bali in October 2000, there were a significant number of papers presented to indicate thatsome progress is being made in this direction, at least as far as coral reefs are concerned. Needless to say, economics will be an
important factor which may translate to some countries or municipalities being able to take some significant actions while others will not.
The second intervention is the establishment of marine protected areas (MPA’s), which may be marine reserves, marine parks, sanctuaries,
replenishment areas, or the like. It is now recognized that it is very difficult to adequately patrol wide expanses of coastline and prevent
desperate fishers and collectors from taking illegal catch. Without abandoning the practice of monitoring, surveillance, and control, many
countries now find it useful to set aside marine areas for stricter protection. The areas so delineated are generally non-fishing and noncollecting zones where fish, invertebrates and seaweeds will have a respite from human exploitation and serve as sources of propagules torepopulate open areas. Details on location and size of such MPA’s need to be determined very precisely for maximum benefit. Again,

221

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

this is an area of rapid advance in marine conservation that SCS littorals need to take on board.

Offshore
MPA’s for the islets, shoals, and reefs of the SCS have been proposed (McManus 1994 and Gomez 1994). While this proposal seems
rational to many people, political considerations have, to date, shot it down. As an example, the proposal from a Philippine NGO at theSecond World Conservation Congress held in Amman, Jordan on 4-11 October 2000 for the establishment of a Spratly Islands Sanctuary
met with opposition from the Chinese delegation, apparently from purely political considerations.
Much as management measures are needed in the central region of the SCS, the challenges are enormous, as we shall see in thefollowing section.
Regional fisheries cooperation
The number of reported fisheries incidents or conflicts between countries in the South China Sea may be diminishing of late. If thisis an indication of a reduction in illegal and destructive fishing activities, this is a good sign. However, incidents of repeated violationsof the Cape d’Aguilar Marine Reserve in Hong Kong by mainland Chinese fishermen (Morton 2000) are an indication of the incalcitrance
and desperation of hungry fishers. In the same editorial, Prof. Morton recognizes "the need to develop a South China Sea-wide policy onsustainable fisheries development." Sadly, in the next paragraph he goes on to state "that no international agreement on fishing could
ever be implemented, even if formulated. The South China Sea is a resource firecracker just waiting to be ignited and this will, surely,
happen unless something is done about resolving how its resources are to be managed."
Paralleling this concern is the need to manage the growing live trade in wild groupers and wrasses. Bentley (1999) summarizes thesituation in Southeast Asia and flags the need to develop sustainable management systems in view of the gradual overexploitation of stocks.
The article states that "As the waters around Hong Kong and China became depleted of wild stocks, fishing vessels targeted the coral
reefs of the Philippines, Malaysia and Indonesia." It is also recognized that the with the growing affluence of consumers in China andsome countries around the South China Sea, the demand for live reef fish continues to grow and presents a real concern, as I had flagged
in 1998 with respect to exotic marine products in a short article entitled "Fragile coasts."
Marine scientific research
In a paper that I read in a conference on the South China Sea in Oslo last June and which is now in press, I outlined the role ofmarine scientific research in the region. To pick out the salient point for this conference, if the management of living resources is to
move positively, there must be solid data on which it will be anchored. This can be achieved in part by the individual efforts of thelittoral states, but there will be a need to integrate the information. Too, some attributes of the marine ecosystems of the SCS can only
be adequately appreciated by joint studies, such as those that can be undertaken on oceanographic expeditions involving two or morecountries, if only to guarantee the safe passage of the research vessels through disputed waters. Are all parties willing to consider this?
Certainly the members of ASEAN have been willing for a long time.
Improved statistics
Besides the new data that could be gathered through scientific research, there is also a need to improve the gathering of fisheries
statistics for the region. As an example, Lau and Parry Jones (1999) recommend the fine tuning of Hong Kong’s fisheries monitoring tosegregate the live fish statistics from the rest of the marine fish imports. This is for the sake of providing feedback to the supplying
countries that "should establish quotas to ensure the long-term sustainability of their fisheries." In addition to the existing FAO and otherstatistics gathering systems, there may be a need for special agreements for providing more precise information about particularly threatened
species such as marine turtles.

CONCLUSIONS
Given the above, am I optimistic or pessimistic in reply to my own question in the title? In the short term I will be pessimistic,
but in the long term I would like to be a bit optimistic. I say, "a bit" because delayed, positive management action may be too late forsome resources. If a species becomes extinct in the short term, there is no way to bring it back into existence. For living resources thatare severely depleted, the recovery process may be possible but slow, even with positive human action, such as restoration and transplantation. My own work to restore giant clam populations in the Philippines has taken more than a decade, but we are now restocking many
reefs, including some in the South China Sea.

REFERENCES
Alino, P.M., Nanola C.L., Ochavillo, D.G., and Ranola, M.C. (1998). The fisheries potential of the Kalayaan island group, South China
Sea. Pp. 219 - 226 In Proc 3rd Int Conf Mar Biol of South China Sea.
Bentley, Nokome (1999). Fishing for solutions：Can the live trade in wild groupers and wrasses from Southeast Asia be managed? SPC
Live Reef Fish Information Bull. No.6：25-27
Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources (BFAR). (1997). 1997 Philippine Fisheries Profile. Department of Agriculture - BFAR, Manila,
Philippines. 51 p.
Cheng I-Jiunn (1996). Sea turtles at Taipin Tao, South China Sea. Marine Turtle Newsletter No.75：6-8
De Silva, S. S. (1996). A review of major trends in Asian fisheries. Pp. 85 - 104. In De Silva S.S. (ed.) Perspectives in Asian fisheries- a volume to commemorate the 10th anniversary of Asian Fisheries Society. Asian Fisheries Society, Makati City, Philippines.
497 p.
FAO. (1997a). The state of the world fisheries and aquaculture 1996. FAO, Rome. 125 p.
_____(1997b). Review of the state of world fishery resources：marine fisheries. FAO Fisheries Circular No. 920. FAO, Rome. 173 p.
Gomez, Edgardo D. (in press). Marine scientific research in the South China Sea and environmental security. Ocean Dev. and Int. Law(in press)_______________ (1998). Fragile coasts. Our Planet. 9(5)：18-19_______________ (1996). Sea turtles in the cross-fire. Marine Turtle Newsletter No. 72：19-20_______________ (1994). The South China Sea：Conservation area or war zone? Mar. Pollut. Bull. 28(3)：132
Hall, Robert (1996). Reconstructing Cenozoic SE Asia. Pp. 153-184 In Hall, R. & Blundell, D. (eds.) Tectonic Evolution of Southeast
Asia, Geological Soc. Spl. Publ. No. 106

222

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

Lau, P. and Parry Jones, R. (1999) The Hong Kong trade in live reef fish for food. SPC Live Reef Fish Information Bull. No.6：2730.
McManus, John W. (1994) The Spratly Islands：a marine park? Ambio 23(3)：181-186
Morton, Brian (2000). Fishing in the South China Sea. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 40(4)：287-288
Miclat, R.I., Alino, P.M., Aragones, N., Nanola, C. and Aguilar E. (1991). Pa-aling：An alternative to Muro-ami? Philipp. J. Fish. 22：3948
Pauly, D. and Christensen, V. (1993). Stratified models of large marine ecosystems：a general approach and application to the South China
Sea. Pp. 148 - 174. In Sherman, K., Alexander, L.M. & Gold, B.D. (eds.) Large marine ecosystems：stress, mitigation andsustainability. AAAS Press, Washington, D.C. 376 p.
Stormont, William G. (1994). Managing potential conflicts in the South China Sea. Mar. Policy 18(4)：353-356
Talaue-McManus, L. (2000). Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis for the South China Sea. EAS/RCU Technical Report Series No. 14.
UNEP, Bangkok, Thailand
Tonnesson, Stein (2000). China and the South China Sea：A Peace Proposal. Security Dialogue 31(3)：307-326
White, Alan T. and Cruz-Trinidad A. (1998). The values of Philippine coastal resources：why protection and management are critical.
Coastal Resource Management Project, Cebu City, Philippines. 96 p.

Acknowledgements
The author is grateful to the UNEP/RCU in Bangkok and to the International EMECS Center for their sponsorship of his participationin the International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystems, 12-13 December 2000, Bangkok, Thailand.
He is also appreciative of the assistance of Ms. Lara de la Cruz in the gathering of some of the materials for the manuscript and theirformatting. This is contribution No. 000 of the Marine Science Institute of the University of the Philippines.

223

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

STRATEGY ON PROTECTION AND MANAGEMENT
OF COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS IN CHINA
Liangmin HUANG, Xiaoping HUANG, Dongjiao CHEN and Yehui TAN
South China Sea Institute of Oceanology
The Chinese Academy of Sciences
Guangzhou, China 510301
E- mail：hlm@scsio.ac.cn
◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

Abstract
This paper describes the variety of marine biotic resources in China, deals mostly with some problems relating to protection andmanagement of coastal marine ecosystems. Authors presented the background relating to international coastal marine ecosystem researching,and situation on marine biodiversity and bioresources utilization, as well as environmental status in coastal region. The efforts of theChinese Government in conservation of the coastal bioresources are reviewed. Protection regulations and management steps of coastal
ecosystems in China are described.
Key words：Coastal ecosystems, protection, management, China
The seas and oceans are the treasure house of living resources that are the important sources of protein for human beings. It is known
that there are more than 200 thousand species of organisms in the world oceans, of which, about 19 thousand species are fishes and about
20 thousand crustaceans. Many marine organisms are of value for the development and utilization and provide human beings with rich foodand resources for many other purposes such as extraction of medicines. The marine living resources contribute annually 22 percent ofanimal protein for the world. Coastal communities in the world rely on marine living resources for protein and cash income. The world
ocean fishery were caught lands annually about 80-90 million tons of fishes and shellfishes, of which 95 per cent comes from the water
under national jurisdiction, namely the 200 nautical miles exclusive economic zone and the waters over the continental shelf (SOA, China
Ocean Agenda 21, 1996, China Ocean Press, Beijing). Human activities including fishery production are carried out mostly in the coastal
waters. It is estimated that 25% of biological productivity and 90% of activities for fishes and other bioresources in the world are exploitedin the coastal waters. Marine ecological damages due to overfishing and environmental pollution have resulted in decreasing biodiversity,
declining commercial fishery resources and lower capacity for sustainable social and economic development. Population boom, resource
depletion and environmental pollution have been exercising, more and more impacts on the seas and oceans, especially in the coastal
waters.
Aquatic resources are generally under a state of crisis in the world as estimated by FAO since (Elliott, 1993). More than 45% offisheries resources in the world seas and oceans are being overfished or at a stage of recovery from overfishing. Furthermore, harmful
algal bloom events have increased in the past decades, bringing significant impacts not only on the ecosystems but also human health.
This implies the development of new strategies to adapt production and consumption patterns to ensuring harmonization with theenvironment and to develop ecosystem-based management approaches are important, "Agenda 21" developed in the World Summit in 1992
calls on the coastal states to develop integrated coastal zone management. In the past decades, the scientific community in the world has
made positive response to these challenges. Observations of coastal ecosystems and study of marine bioresources have become hotspots
worldwide. Many international programs and projects including OSLR, LME, GLOBEC, LOICZ, JGOFS have been launched to address
coastal ecosystems and bioresources.
Since the 1970’s, the COMAR has promoted the research and the administration on coral reef, mangrove, coastal lagoon, estuary,
seagrass bed and beach, especially the researches in the coastal shallow waters all over the world (Elliott, 1993). The project aims at making rational use of coastal resource and improving coastal management. Through the COMAR, the UNESCO and other international agencies
have founded some regional inter-regional and international cooperation networks on coastal research (Elliott, 1993). In Asia scientists fromtwenty countries cooperated in the study and management of mangroves and set up the "International society for mangrove ecosystem"(Huang, 1998). In the Antilles area, ten island countries have developed a united program of coastal management, especially of coastal
erosion with the technical support by Puerto Rico University. In South America, Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Peru and Uruguay an integrated
management project developed the researches of the coastal ecosystem in the Temperate Zone (Elliott, 1993).
As a large developing coastal country, it is necessary to take the exploitation and protection of oceans as a longterm strategic task.
In 1996, the Chinese government developed its sustainable ocean development strategy in China’s Ocean Agenda 21(SOA, 1996). The
contents include sustainable development the ocean and coastal areas, sustainable development of islands, conservation and sustainable utilization of marine living resources, integrated management of coastal areas and national jurisdictional waters, marine environmental protection
and others.

1.Marine biodiversity and bioresources utilization
It is estimated that the number of species of life on the earth varies from five million to thirty million. Of these, 1.4 million species
have been recorded up to present (Shen et al, 1990). About 200 thousand species are founded in the oceans, less than that on land. It is
well known that diversity at higher taxonomic levels (Phyla and Classes) is much greater in the sea than on land or in freshwater：34
Phyla and 73 classes in the marine environment compared with 15 Phyla and 33 classes on land (Briggs, 1994). In addition, many biologicaltaxa are only found in marine ecosystems. Changes of marine biodiversity vary are obviously with regions, showing two geographicalfeatures and distribution steps：(1) Except Asteroidea (starfish) and Macrocystis, many marine organisms groups such as seagrass, coral,shellfish, shrimp, crab and fish, have counterparts on land. The species diversity in tropical zone is much higher than that in colder zones.
For example, species in South China Sea is much richer than that in East China Sea, Yellow Sea and Bohai Sea. (2) In the tropical zone,
species diversity of many organisms in the India-West Pacific Ocean, especially in the waters among the Philippines, Indonesia and east
Australia (including the southern waters of South China Sea), may be with the highest value (Elliott, 1993).
By following the "The Convention of Biological Diversity" which was developed in the UNCED in 1992. China developed in 1994
by cooperation with UNDP "The Action Plan for Protecting Biodiversity in China" in more than two years of development (CWGE, 1994).
A series of conservation objectives, measurements and action plans have been developed in this plan, which has become a soft law inChina for taking actions to conserve biological diversity on land and in the sea. A committee of biodiversity conservation in China came231

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

into exists in 1994. Forty-eight Conservation waters of marine species are designed and with the total area of 3,260,000 ha. One of themhas been designated a member of the International Biosphere Protective Web under the Human and Biosphere Program of UNESCO. Of
these, 15 Conservation Regions are protected at national level with the area of 3,100,000 (Chen, 1998). In the other hand, ’Fishery Law’and "The laws for aquatic Resources Propagation" have been decreed by the Chinese Government, by which sanctuary zones and closed
season, as well regulations controlling fishing gear were formulated for relevant waters and fishing grounds. For example, the inlet of Daya
Bay prohibited for shrimp fishing, and closed seasons from March to September are enforced to promote shrimp propagation. Anotherexample is the establishment of a closed season for the fish, Pseusiaena polyactis, from June to September in the Yellow Sea from March
to May in the South China Sea.
In the area of international cooperation, China has signed agreements with Japan and Australia for the protection of migrating birds
and their habitats. In 9 bird banding stations along the Chinese coast 62,775 birds of 186 species have been banded and more than 400
birds, with longest flying distance of nearly 10 thousand km, have been recovered. Recently, UNDP, WB and NOAA have help China
formulate such plans as "Plan for Biodiversity Protection in China" and "Action Plan for Protection of Large Marine Ecosystems in the
Yellow Sea".
China is a big coastal nation located along the west Pacific Ocean, with 12 provinces and cities along the coast. There are Bohai
Sea, Yellow Sea, East China Sea and South China Sea. Marine ecosystems in China are diverse and rich in living resources. However,there still exists a contradiction between population and resources, environment and development. China has taken many measures, withresults, for the conservation of marine living resources. Covering warm temperature, subtropical and tropical zones, China’s seas cross 38
divisions of latitude. Three million km３ of sea area, including a broad continental shelf and complex currents, such as the Kuroshi andthe currents along the coast, are under the administration of China. China has 18,000km of coastline with more than 1,500 rivers such as
the Changjiang and the Pearl River. Comprehensive biotopes and ecosystems support habitable conditions for species diversity (Huang, 1993).
In China, 820 thousand km２ fishing ground have be exploited. The area of shallow waters and intertidal zone is about 13 million-hectare(ha). According to science level at present, the waters of 2.6 million ha are used for mariculture, of them 938 thousand ha have be
exploited (Huang, 2000). Coastal and shallow sea resources in some coastal provinces and cities in China are given in Table 1. China’s
seas also have some typical regional species as well as a great number of temperate and warm water species. The number of species
increases from the north to the south. The South China Sea is the biggest sea in China, and with the richest biological species. For
instance, of more than 2,500 fishes so far identified, there are only 300 species in the Yellow Sea, 1,000 in the East China Sea, but morethan 1,500 in the South China Sea (Huang, 1994a). It is also one of important large marine ecosystems in the world. More than 20
thousand species are recorded in China Seas. Of them, 13.86 thousand species are founded in the South China Sea (Table 2) (Huang, 1994),
some belonging to special groups. It was estimated that about 4.9 million tons of fish production could be landed from the South China
Sea. The total capture production in three provinces along South China is more than 3 million tons at present (Table 3), and the mariculture
production up to 2 million tons (Table 4), accounting for 30% of the total fishery production in China (Table 5). The coast of China isTable 1 Coastal and shallow sea resources of the provinces and cities along the China coast
Province
Length of mainland line （km） Area of shallow sea（km２）
Liaoning
1,971.5
7,723.6
Hebei
421.0
2,610.0
Tianjin
153.0
1,593.3
Shandong
3,122.0
8,219.4
Jiangshu
953.0
10,121.6
Shanghai
172.0
5,453.5
Zhejiang
1,840.0
7,598.3
Fujian3,051.0
3,970.0
Guangdong
3,368.1
10,586.2
Guangxi
1,083.0
2,596.6
Hainan1,617.8
2,177.5
Table 2 The number of marine organisms recorded from South China Sea
KingdonPhylumSpecies
KindomMoneraBacteria
46 Animalia
Actinobacteria
17
Cyanobacteria
106
Chloroxybacteria
1
Protista
Bacillariophyta
1,290
Chrysophyta
14
Xanthophyta
2
Pyrrophyta
185
Ciliophora
94
Sarcomastigophora
2,067
Fungi
Fungi
109
Plantae
Algae
Rhodophyta
271
Phaeophyta
84
Chlorophyta
142
Tracheo‑
Pteridophyta
11
phyta
Gymnospermae
2Angiospermae
314
Total
3,860

232

Area of tidal zone （km２）
1,974.2
1,167.9370.3
3,223.6
5,090.4
904.2
2,444.0
2,069.0
2,041.9
1,005.3
488.5

Phyla
Porifera＊＊
Coelenterata＊＊
Ctenophora＊
Platyhelminthes
Nemertea＊＊
Nematoda
Annelida
Sipuncula＊
Mollusca
Arthropoda
Bryozoa＊＊
Entoprocta＊＊
Chaetognatha＊
Echinodermata＊
Urochordata
Chordata
OthersSpecies
71
679
6
247
33
9
584
33
2,002
2,380
348
7
30
380
110
2,171
13

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

Table 3 Changes of total capture fishery production in Guangdong, Guangxi and Hainan provinces in China
Unit：ten thousand tons
Year
Capture fishery production
Year
Capture fishery production
1989
147.241994
260.091990
161.47
1995
237.741991
178.801996
318.24
1992
206.79
Table 4 Mariculture area and production in Guangdong, Guangxi and Hainan
Production （ton）
Year lGuangdong
Guangxi
HainanGuangdong
1989
121,487
2,081
3,628
89,471
1990
137,919
3,348
4,204
92,351
1991
159,207
11,9195,199
92,7501992
175,664
23,725
7,371
93,2901994
242,224
75,364
16,474
105,710
1995
357,950
147,514
14,773
116,150
1996
1,345,590
531,331
22,050138,523
Table 5 Comparison of marine capture and culture production in China
Year
Capture production
Culture production
1990
551
162
1992
691
242
1993
767
309
1994
896
346
1995
1,027
412
1998
1,497
860
2000＊
860
650

Area （ha）
Guangxi
5,173
5,433
8,690
14,56029,90041,00048,436

Hainan
3,706
3,713
3,790
3,990
5,790
6,930
7,594

Total
713
933
1,076
1,242
1,439
2,357
1,510

Unit：ten thousand tons. ＊The data in 2000 is estimated.

also a way-station for more than 200 species of migrants (Huang, 1994a), The living resources of China are an important component ofmarine source of food, industry and medicine.
The major problems in the marine fishery activities include the artificial alteration of resource structure of offshore commercial fishes
due to overfishing and the decrease of fishery commercial value, this is the most significant cause of the decline in marine living resources.
For example, the fishes Pseudosiaena crocea, P. Polyactis, Trichurus huamela and the squid Speiella maindroni were for a long time
important catches for the Chinese fishing industry. Because of overfishing, such resources have declined since 1970’s. The valuable P.
crocea is no longer a fishery (Chu et al, 1997). In recent years, more than 7,000,000 ha of beaches and mudflats in China have been
enclosed for land or cultivation. In contrast to the existing 20,000 ha of mangroves, it is estimated that more than 50,000 ha were growing in the 1950’s. For coral reefs 80% have been destroyed along the 400km coastline of Hainan Island (Huang, 1993). The deteriorationof water quality due to pollution and offshore movement of larval and spawning grounds and the alteration of population structure in some
important mariculture areas and coastal and estuarine spawning grounds. The serious damages to typical marine ecosystems due to construction for marine and coastal engineering such as land reclamation and urbanization and the reduction of biodiversity have caused effects at
different degrees on human health. The problems existing in marine living resources and marine ecosystems have affected the sustainableocean development. The Chinese government has attached great attention to the conservation of marine biological resources. Series ofmeasures such as pollution discharge control and closed fishing seasons and areas were adopted to enhance the protection andmanagement of the coastal ecological environment and bio-resources.
In order to prevent the degradation of marine ecosystems and to maintain the sustainable utilization of the resources, it is imperative
to reinforce the protection of the biological species and ecological environments. To establish marine protected areas and conservation zoneof certain scale and quantity for the formation of regional and international networks of marine protected areas in a planned way and toprotect marine biodiversity by taking proper measures；to improve and perfect various effective technical measures of development andutilization for the rational utilization of commercial fishes；to improve the legal systems for the conservation of marine living resources
and for the reinforcement of the management in biological resource development and utilization；to reinforce the regional and international
cooperation for the maintenance of the marine ecosystems in a favorable state so as to form the international cooperation mechanisms forthe conservation, research and management of the marine ecosystems.

2.Environment status in coastal sea
The monitored results showed that the change of inorganic nitrogen level was obvious in various sea areas (Qi et al., 2000). The
highest values occurred in the East China Sea, with average of 1000 μg・L‑1, followed by the South China Sea, with an average of 300
μg・L‑1. The lowest appeared in the Bohai Sea and Yellow Sea, with an average level of 200 μg・L‑1 Compared the nutrient level insome representative estuaries and bays, the highest values occurred in Changjiang estuary and Hangzhou Bay. The values in Laizhou Bay
and the coastal waters along western Guangdong Province were lower (below 200 μg・L‑1). The highest level of inorganic phosphorus
occurred in Bohai Sea, the higher was in East China Sea, and the lowest in South China Sea. The results indicated that phosphate value
in Hangzhou Bay was much higher than in other bays and estuaries. The lowest was in Daya Bay and Xiamen Bay (below 10 μg・L‑1).
Which showed that the water quality conditions in South China Sea (including Daya Bay) is better than others.
Based on data monitored at past 10 years, nutrient quality indexes were calculated with the eutrophication equation (Qi et al., 2000).
The results indicated that the nutrient quality indexes (NQI) and phosphate quality indexes (PQI) for some areas along China seas in 90’s

233International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

Table 6 Nutrient quality index （NQI） of most areas along the China seas in 90's
CoastalLiaodong
Jiao‑zhou Chang‑jian Hang‑zhou area along
Year
Bohai
Bay
Bay
Bay
EstuaryBay
Guangdongprovince
1990
2.25
2.49
3.82
1.82
2.89
1991
2.63
2.33
2.54
4.50
6.11
0.73
1992
2.87
2.84
3.73
4.72
1993
2.38
2.96
3.59
5.21
1994
2.58
1.71
3.08
3.88
5.07
2.43
1995
2.81
1.71
3.51
4.15
5.37
2.23
1996
2.77
2.86
2.00
5.35
5.37
1997
2.83
4.40
3.15
5.41
5.54
1.88
1998
2.81
3.12
3.13
4.53
5.13
1.83
Mean
2.71
2.66
3.00
4.11
5.05
1.82
Table 7 Phosphate quality index （PQI）in most areas along the China seas in 90's
CoastalLiao‑dong
JiaozhouChangjian Hang zhou area along
Year
Bohai
Bay
Bay
Bay
EstuaryBay
Guangdongprovince
1990
0.52
0.40
3.78
1.19
3.15
1991
0.98
1.03
2.00
1.80
5.48
1992
2.00
1.70
1.40
1.93
1993
1.10
1.70
1.40
2.48
1994
1.40
.75
1.52
1.50
2.74
0.74
1995
1.07
0.66
2.08
1.77
2.67
0.50
1996
1.00
0.89
0.84
1.55
2.60
0.34
1997
2.29
4.18
1.86
2.04
2.81
0.57
1998
1.80
0.93
1.33
2.60
3.33
0.53
Mean
1.35
1.26
1.87
1.69
3.02
0.54

Pearl
River
Estuary
3.72
7.35
3.17
3.65
3.96
3.82
3.09
3.87
4.51
4.13

Pearl
River
Estuary
1.32
1.40
1.05
1.20
1.27
1.84
0.69
1.39
1.60
1.31

Beibu Bay

Coastalsea along
ainan
Island
1.66
2.68

2.09
1.42
1.30

1.69
1.39

1.49
1.58

1.65
1.81

Beibu Bay

Coastalsea along
HainanIsland
0.65
1.10

0.50
0.32
0.24

0.78
0.37

0.40
0.37

0.53
0.69

were different form one to anther (Table 6-7). Nutrient index in Hangzhou Bay, Changjiang estuary and Zhuanjiang (Pearl River) estuary
were higher than in other sea regions, and up to eutrophication level. Meanwhile, there is a trend of annual increase. Much attention shouldbe paid to environmental problems.
More and more attention has been paid to the ecosystems and biological resources in the estuaries in the world (Konx, 1986；Chu,
1995；Zhang, 1997, 1998). Phytoplankton, especially the red tide species and its bloom has become an important part of research in theestuarine ecosystem and biological resources. The Pearl River is one of the three big rivers of China, its dilution flow quantity throughestuary into South China Sea reaches about 3×10９ m３ (Han et al.1991；Huang et al., 1997). There are metropolitans such as Hong
Kong, Macao, Shenzhen and Zhuhai locating along both sides of Pearl River estuary, Guangzhou and other cities to its north. Rapid
economic growth and multiple human activities tend to increase pressure on the environment in the Pearl River estuary. In the past 20
years, environmental conditions, ecosystems and biological resources of the Pearl River estuary were broadly investigated for exploitationand protection. Many research results showed that the chlorophyll-a values varying with season and area, having a negative correlation
with phosphorus. Besides, biodiversity and production in the estuary decreased with environmental changes from human impacts (Chan etal. 1987, Huang et al. 1995, 1997, Wang 1989). The variation of successions of population structure in different seasons were obvious
because of changes of fresh-water quantity inflow that affects dilution, temperature, salinity and nutrient in the estuarine region. But thedominant population of phytoplankton in the same season was a little different to its annual variation (such as summer). In the Changjiang
estuary where species composition of phytoplankton belonging to estuarine ecological types (Gu et al. 1995), low salinity species fromcoastal waters become the main part of communities. Phytoplankton biomass in the rainy seasons was far higher than that in the dry
seasons. They considered that seasonal and yearly changes of the Changjiang’s dilution were more important factors in determining changesof phytoplankton abundance. Similar features of phytoplankton composition, dominant species and change trend were found in the Pearl
River estuary. Phytoplankton were mainly dominated by Skeletonema costatum and Nitzschia pungens in both estuarine zones in summer.
Though the composition of dominant phytoplankton species in the Pearl River estuary varied with different years, the red tide organism
Skeletonema costatum was always dominant and with the highest abundance, and became more and more the most dominant species(Table 8). This trend means that there are higher risks of red tide events and calls for higher attention. According to records, red tides
occurred 20 times in the 1970’s, but 300 times in the 1990’s. It is obvious that various reasons can induce a red tide event, but more
and more red tide events nowadays has revealed its close relationship to human activities such as irrational aquaculture development andhigher pollution input. Red tides problem in the coastal waters in China has received wide concern and a large numbers of researches havebeen carried out. Why the red tide events due to Skeletonema costatum have outbursted more and more frequently? What factors stimulate
a red tidal bloom? What are the relationships to other biological species? These questions need to be answered through researches as soon
as possible.
Main zooplankton dominant species of Pearl River estuary in summer were Acartia spinicauda, Paracalanus crassirostris, Oithona rigida
and Paracucalus aculeatus. The results indicated that zooplankton abundance was correlated with phytoplankton. The variation trend of
zooplankton gut pigment contents was coincided with chlorophyll a level in the water column (Tan et al., 2000). It provide insight on
problems such as the red tide mechanism.
Of the phytoplankton samples collected in the cruise of summer 1999, 41 species of red tide organisms were found. Based on datareported, there were 472 times of red tide recorded in Hong Kong waters from 1975-1996, of these 38 times were brought about bySkeletonema costatum. The species usually dominated in the waters according to the previous survey, with maximum reaching 6.5×10５234

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

Table 8 Annual variations in phytoplankton composition and abundance in the Pearl River estuary in summer
Year
Total species
Main dominant species
Average amount （cells（L‑1）
Chaetoceros pseudocurvuisetus
1981
132
2.1×10４
Chaet. lorenzianus
Chaet. affinis
Skeletonema costatum
Chaetoceros affinis
1987
1.6×10５
Skeletonema costatum
Nitzschia pungens
1996
116
1.1×10５
Nitzschia delicatissima
Skeletonema costatum
Chaet. Pseudocurvuisetus
1999
130
6.3×10５
Skeletonema costatum
Nitzschia pungens
Nitz. delicatissima
Asterionella japonica

cells/L and accounting for 97.6% of the total amount, especially in Victoria Harbor of Hong Kong during summer 1996 (Huang, 1997).
The results investigated in the cruise indicated that dominant species was Skeletonema costatum, with an average of 2.8×10５ cells/L andaccounting for 45.0% of the total amount. It is a euryhaline and eurythermal species, and can quickly grow under eutrophic conditions.
Most of other dominant species were also red tidal organisms. This is an environmental problem that should receive attention for the protection of the Pearl River estuary and Hong Kong waters.

3. Species conservation and monitoring network
Sanctuary zones and closed seasons as well regulations controlling fishing gear were formulated for relevant waters and fishing ground.
Since 1979, 24 sites for artificial fish reefs have been identified in the coastal waters of China and 28,000 reefs and 99,137 m３ rocks
have been laid out. The construction of fish reefs has attached fishes and improved the ecological environment. More than 20 species ofmarine organisms are designated to be protected species such as Cypraea(Cypraea) tigris, Cassis cornuta, Tridacna (Dinodacna) cookiana,
Pin. maxima, Haliotis gigantea discus, Panulirus spp., Tachypleus tridentatus, Thelenota ananas, Macrura reevesii, Pagrosomus major,
Epinephelus subsp., Chelomia mydas, Phoca canina, Chinese Polphin, Coilia ectenes, Bahaba flavolabiata and Chlamys farreri. From the
beginning of 70’s, much attention has been paid to marine environmental monitoring in China to develop monitoring system of water, airand biological communities. About 20 annals of environmental quality about Chinese coastal waters and 40 annals of sea regions were
published by the government and relevant agencies during recent 30 years. More than 60 marine environment and marine pollution monitoring stations have been set up(Huang,1993；Xu, 1989). Such as Jiaozhou Bay Station, Daya Bay Station and Sanya Station established forthe ecological observation by the Chinese Academy Sciences, in addition to many hydrological observation stations established by State
Oceanic Administration. The network of monitoring stations has provided powerful service to strengthen marine environmental development,
management and protection. Besides, about 20 natural protection zones have been established by the Chinese government, mainly in the
representative coral reef waters and mangrove swamps (Table 9).
Table 9 A part of natural conservation regions in South China Sea
Name of protect region
Locate position
Area（km２）
870
Neilingding Island ‑ Futian
Shenzhun, Guangdong
800
Gangkou Huidong turtle
Huidong, Guangdong
4,000
Shankou mangrove ecology
Hepu, Guangxi
Sanya and Wanning, Hainan
6,000
Sanya coral reef
7,000
Dazhou Island marine ecology Wanning, Hainan
2,500
Dongzaigang
Qiongshan, Hainan
8,000
Weizhou Island coral reef and Beihai, Guangx
coastal landscape
10,000
Dongsha Islands coral reef
Dongsha Islands
ecosystem

Main protect target
Mangrove, Rhesus monkey, bird
Turtle and their space of reproduction
Mangrove ecosystem
Coral reef ecosystem
Esculent swift and island ecosystem
Mangrove and their habitat
Coral reef ecosystem and varied marinebioresources
Coral reef ecosystem

4.Coral reef ecosystem
It is well known that the ecosystems of coral reef and mangrove are of high productivity and high biodiversity (Zou et al., 1996；
Huang, 1998), and of high value in housing commercial species and sightseeing. These ecosystems are of significant importance foraquaculture and biodiversity conservation as breeding place for various organisms. It is worldwide phenomena that coral reef bleached bygreenhouse effect recently. More and more damages from human activities on coral reef have been recorded. The coral reef and mangrove
ecosystem had played important roles in local fishery and economic development. Decay of the coral reef was found by human activities
and overuse e.g. the area of coral reef around Hainan, Xisha and Nansha islands, the area of mangrove in South China coast were reduced
and ecosystems suffered from destroy. Consequentially, a tendency of coastal environment degenerating, marine resources declining took
place, and coastline erosion accelerates.
Coral reef is an important ecosystem among the global marine ecosystems (Clive, 2000). Productive capacity in the coral reef area ismuch higher than the open sea. In the reef area, with a great number of reef-building organisms (corals, crustacean, mollusk, echinoderm,fishes, algae, etc.), coral reefs contribute to maintaining higher level of biodiversity. Corel reef is listed as a higher priority ecosystem forprotection in 1980 in the World Conservation Strategy. At present, the "Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network" is playing an active role
in reef monitoring and protection all over the world. In China, the central government has considered the coral reef research as a priority
in the "9th Five Year Science and Technology Plan" and "China ’s Ocean Agenda 21"(Munoz-Chagin, 1997；Tracy, 1997). Coral reef in
China is mostly distributed in the South China Sea. It is located at the northernmost part of the Indo-Pacific reef area and represents animportant part of this area. In 1990, the central government of China approved the setting up of Sanya National Coral Reef Reserve；thereef resources and marine biodiversity in the Reserve have been protected successfully since then. The revised version of the "Marine

235

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

Environment Protection Law" stresses on the conservation of coral reefs. At the provincial level, Hainan’s authorities approved the "Regulations Concerning the Conservation of Coral Reefs in Hainan" in 1998(Yu et al, 1996). The laws and regulations have laid down a strong
base for reef protection in the area. Nowadays, great attention is paid and great need is felt for building up an integrated marine environmental
information system, to enhance efficiently in the coastal conservation and management, and in assessing, exchanging and disseminating
actual information on the coral reef environment in Southern China.
Much efforts of management have been exercised by the Chinese government to protect the coastal ecosystems. First, laws and regulations have been promulgated to keep coral reefs and mangroves from being destroyed by enhancing public awareness on the importanceof these typical ecosystems to sustainable development；secondly, more financial resources are used for scientific research on coral reefs
and mangroves. In the mean time, much attention has been paid to biodiversity research and marine resource information collection. It isa long-term scientific research to restore the coral reefs and mangrove ecosystems. A lot of experiments have been done for different
objectives such as for fisheries, power station pollution, in case of coastline erosion, over development, sightseeing construction and evenon thorny starfish that feeds on corals.

4.Estuarine ecosystem
There are three big rivers in China, including Yellow River, Changjiang and Zhijiang (Pearl River). The Pearl River estuary is typicallarge subtropical estuary in China；it is reported that significant changes with the characteristic listed as follows have taken place on theenvironment, ecology and community composition. (1) Due to 8 branches influx to the Pearl River Estuary and its natural topography, theestuary can be divided into several kinds of ecosystems such as river mouth, island and islets, mangrove and intertidal, frontal ecosystems.
The biodiversity in these ecosystems have a common tendency of decline. (2) The changed environment and overfishing caused by natural
impacts and anthropologic activities have over-taken or reduced the fish production, particularly the catch rate of the commercial species
in the Wanshan fishing ground, the largest fishing ground in the estuary. The fishes landed tend to be younger and smaller than the past.
Most of the fishes landed are of shorter food chain species. The species-richness of Penaeus orientalis has diminished. The quantity ofsome commercial species of fish larva decreased. (3) Affected by the organic matter deposed in the sediment and influx of sea water, theseasonal low DO zone were determined in some parts of the estuary, especially in the bottom along the two side of the estuary. (4) The
habitat of Chinese White Dolphin moved from South China coastal waters to only the waters around in the Nei Lingding in the Pearl
River Estuary and with the tendency of number decline. The Chinese Dolphin is listed as the highest priority on the list of mammals
under state protection (Huang and Liu, 2000). Several cooperative researches on Chinese White Dolphin between Guangdong Ocean andFishery Department and Hong Kong had been carried out. The region from the west of Lantau Islands to Nei Lingding has designated t
as a conservation area for protecting Chinese White Dolphin. (5) With increasing population boom and industry development, the deposalof municipal sewage, industrial effluents and agricultural runoff has increased. Eutrophication caused by nitrogen and phosphorus loadingin the Pearl River estuary, and the re-suspension of trace metals from the sediments have induced frequent algal blooms and red tide
events in South China coastal waters, with occasional massive fish kills due to severe dissolved oxygen (DO) depletion or toxic red tides(Hodgkiss, 1995；Qi et al., 2000；Yin et al., 1999). For example, the red tide event occurred through March to April in 1998 extended
from the coastal waters from the east of Pearl River Estuary-Hong Kong water area, Dapeng Bay, Guishan Islands to Yangjiang. The
economic losses amounted to hundreds of million of RMB (Guangzhou Daily, 1998). Research on the environment and organism resourcesin the Pearl River Estuary has a significant importance either for the objectives of geology, estuarine type or economy. We should put
much emphasis on the ecosystem and marine resources researches in the Pearl River Estuary to maintain its biodiversity and thesustainable utilization of resources.
5.Protection regulations and management measures
In order to protect and manage coastal ecosystems in an effective way, a series of marine environmental protection policies or laws
and regulations have been established based on "Environment Protection Law of China", "Fishery Law of China", "Wildlifes Protection
Law of China", "Aquatic Product Breed Protection Statute", "The laws for aquatic Resources Propagation" and "Fishery Water Quality
Standard". The regulations related to oceans are listed mostly as follows：a. "National Marine Environmental Protection Law of P. R. China", Revised in Dec.1999
b. "Regulations Concerning the Management of Marine Standardization", Jan. 1997
c. "Regulations Concerning the Management of Marine Natural Protection Zone", May 1995
d. "Provisional Regulations Concerning the Management of Sea Area Use ", May 1993
e. "Regulations Concerning the Dumping of Waste at Sea of P. R. China", Sept.1990
f. "Regulations Concerning Environmental Protection in Offshore Oil Exploration and Exploitation of P. R. China". Sept.1990
Relevant water quality and discharge standards have also been established. Monitoring protocols, standard methods, intercalibration
samples, quality control and quality assurance systems and EIA system for marine environment and ecology have been established andperfected, which has reached international level. Monitoring instruments have been improved. Human resources for high quality monitoring
have been developed. All these assure environmental monitoring quality.
The measures to protect coastal ecosystems are as following：(1) A series environment protection laws and regulations and rules have been established and put into effect. Development ofmanagement system and human resources. Central government and local governments coordinate in the management system.
Enhancement of public awareness for environment protection and ecological conservation.
(2) Increasing national financial input to marine science and technology researches, and promoting the development of marine sciences
and technology. Improving monitoring technique of marine environment and ecology. Developing auto-monitoring technique of
coastal environment and ecology, ocean buoy technique, under water detecting technique, aviation and remote sensing technique.
To realize 3-dimensional monitoring system of marine environment and ecology.
(3) Scientific planning, and development of marine functional zonation scheme. The study of environmental capacity in different regions,and the control of total pollutants discharge and load. Control and manage the discharge of land-based pollutants according tomarine environmental capacity.
(4) Rectifying monitoring scheme more reasonably by giving more attention to f monitoring residual toxins in marine organisms andgeology monitoring, and attach importance to the research of new organic pollutants in medium.
(5) Modernizing marine environment monitor, information transportation and management system. Establishing and perfecting the threesystems such as information transformation, environmental quality information management and marine pollution source as soon
as possible.
(6) In the view of the international character of marine environment, expanding international cooperation and communion actively.

236

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

Reference
Briggs, 1994, Species diversity：land and sea compared.Sstematic Biology 43(1)：130-135
Chinese Working Group of Edition, Action Plan for Biodiversity Protection in China, China Environment Science Press, 1994.
Chen Qingchao,1998. Some suggestion on the study of marine biodiversity in China. World Sci-Tech research and develepment, 20(4)：9091.(In Chinese)
Chu K. H., Chen Qingchao, Huang Liangmin et al., Panaeoid shrimp fisheries resources in the Zhujiang Estuary, Acta Oceanologia Sinica,
1997, 16(1)：127-131.
Chu K. H., Q. C. Chen, Huang Liangmin and C. K. Wong, Morphometric analysis of commercially important penaeid shrimps from the
Zhujiang estuary China, Fisheries Research, 1995, 23：83-93.
Clive Wilkinson. Status of Coral Reefs of the World：2000, Australian Institute of Marine Science, 2000.
Elliott A. Norse, Global Marine Biological Diversity-A Strategy for Building Conservation into Decision Making, Island Press, 1993.
Gu Xingen, Yuan Qi and Yang Jiaowen et al., An ecological study on phytoplankotn in frontal region of Changjiang estuarine area, Journalof Fishery Sciences of China, 1995, 2(1)： 1-15.
Hodgkiss I.J., Eutrophication and phytoplankton dynamics in Tolo Harbour and the southern waters of Hong kong：a comparison, In：
Environmental Research in Pearl River and Coastal Areas, Edits by Wong C.K. et al., 1995, 70-76.
Huang Liangmin, Chen Qingchao, Wong Chong Kim and Zhu Ka Hou, Distribution of chlorophyll-a and its relations to environmental
factors in the Zhujiang Estuary, Collected Oceanic Works, 1997,20：39-46.
Huang Liangmin et al., Basic organism composition and environment status of the Zhujiang (Pearl River) estuary and adjacent waters,
Marine Environmental Science, 1997, 16(3)：1-7.
Huang Liangmin, Conceiving of marine bioresources research and exploitation on Guangdong, China, Proceeding of International Seminaron the Strategies of Integrated Marine Resources Development in the South China Sea, 2000.
Huang Liangmin, Weijun Jian, Yongshui Lin, Peiyuan Qian, Kedong Yin and Madeline Wu, Studies on Plankton Ecology of Pearl River
Estuary：Phytoplankton Diversity and Distribution in Summer, Continental Shelf Research. 2000, (submitted)
Huang Liangmin, Wen Weiyin, Yuan Hongyong, SSDS-EIA Report, 1997.
Huang Yushan, Study on Guangdong Mangrove, Guangdong Science and Technology Press, 1998.
Huang Zongguo and Liu Wenhua, Chinese White Dolphin and Other Cetaceans, Xiamen Univ. Press, 2000.
Huang Zongguo, Tang Senming and Pan Haihong, natural marine biotic resource in China, Proceeginds of the 2nd international conference
on the marine biology of South China Sea, Guangzhou, China, April3-7,1993. 30-32.
Huang Zongguo, Marine Species and Their Distribution in China’s Seas, Beijing：China Ocean Press, 1994.1-920.
Knox, G. A., Estuarine Ecosystems, CRC Press, 1986.
Munoz-Chagin, R. F., Coral transplantation program in the Paraiso coral reef, Cozumel Island, Mexico, Proc. 8th Int. Coral Reef Symposium,
1997, 2：2075-2078.
Qi Yuzao, Qian Honglin and Xie Jian, Marine environmental situation and red tide problems along the coasts of China, Proceeding ofInternational Seminar on the Strategies of Integrated Marine Resources Development in the South China Sea, 2000.
Qi, Y.Z., Zhang, J.P., Wu, K.D. Li, J.R. and Qian, H.L. (1989) Red tides in coastal China-with a special case study in South China Sea,
Jinan University Press (Red Tides Research. Vol.10) (in Chinese)
Shen Guoying and Shi Bingzhang, Marine Ecology, Xiamen Univ. Press, 1990.
SOA, China’s Ocean Agenda 21, China Ocean Press, 1996
Tan Yehui, L.M. Huang and Chen Q.C. et al., Population dynamics and grazing of zooplankton in the Pearl River Estuary during
summer of 1999, Continental Shelf Research, 2000, (submitted)
Tracy Clark, Tissue regeneration rate of coral transplants in a wave exposed environment, Cape D’ Agullar, Hong Kong, Proc. 8th Int.
Coral Reef Symposium, 1997, 2：2069-2074.
Wong C.K. et al., Environmental Research in Pearl River and Coastal Areas, Guangdong Higher Education Press, 1995.
Xu Gongzao, Environment and Resources in Daya Bay, Anhui Science and Technology Press, 1989.Yin, K., P.J. Harrison, J. Chen, W.
Huang, P.Y. Qian, Red tides during spring in Hong Kong：is El Nino responsible? Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 1999.187：289-294.
Yu Dengpan and Zou Renlin, Study on coral species diversity of building reef in Luhuitou coast, Hainan, Acta Ecologica Sinica, 1996,
16(5)：469-475.
Zhang Jing, Land-Sea Interaction in Chinese Coastal Zones, China Ocean Press, 1998.
Zhang Jing, Study on Biogeochemistry for Main Estuary of China, China Ocean Press, 1997.
Zou Renlin, Marine Bioresources sustainable utilization in Daya Bay, Chinese Ocean Press, 1996.
Zou Renlin, Coral reef situation and conservation strategy of China, Proceedings on First Symposium of Biodiversity Conservation andSustainable Utilization of China, China Science and Technology Press, 1996.

237

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

THE JAKARTA MANDATE OF THE CONVENTION ON BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY
AND ITS IMPLEMENTATION FOR THE EAST ASIAN SEAS REGIONxlii
INA BINARI PRANOTOxliii
ZAINAL ARIFINxliv
◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

Abstract
The Jakarta Mandate on Marine and Coastal Biological Diversity is a global consensus on the importance of marine and coastal
biological diversity and is a part of the Ministerial Declaration on the implementation of the Convention on Biological Diversity, as adopted
by the Conference of the Parties (COP) at its second meeting held in Jakarta in November 1995. The programme of the Jakarta Mandate
covering the five themes namely Integrated Marine and Coastal Area Management (IMCAM), Marine and Coastal Living Resources (MCLR),
Marine and Coastal Protected Areas (MCPA), Mariculture, and Alien Species, are developed to assist in mitigating the problem faced bymarine and coastal ecosystem. The paper outlines the importance of marine and coastal biological diversity and status of the marine andcoastal resources in the region. The programme of work for the Jakarta Mandate as adopted during the fourth meeting of COP as well as
the recent programme adopted at COP 5 will be elaborated.

I.INTRODUCTION
The conservation and sustainable use of marine and coastal biological diversity (biodiversity) are among today’s most importantenvironmental issues, including in the East Asian regions. However, conservation-related research on the sea is still lacking compared tosimilar research on terrestrial ecosystems. For example, papers published in Conservation Biology Journal was only 5% focused on marine
ecosystems and species, compared with 9 % freshwater and 67% terrestrial in their subject matter (Murphy and Duffus, 1996). Thisnegligence to marine and coastal biological diversity is unfortunate situation considering the seas’s richness, their importance to humankind,and the immediate threats to them.
The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD or Convention) is a legally binding instrument committing governments to protecting
the earth’s biological resources.It was opened for signature in June 1992, at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro.As of early December
2000, 178 States and one regional economic integration organization have ratified the Convention.
The Convention defines biological diversity as "the variability among living organisms from all sources including, inter alia terrestrial,
marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part; this includes diversity within species, between
species and of ecosystems."
The three objectives of the CBD are (a) the conservation of biological diversity, (b) the sustainable use of its components and (c)the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of the utilization of genetic resources.
The CBD is unique in the sense that it is the only multilateral, legally binding instrument that covers the entire world’s ecosystems,
thereby taking a comprehensive rather than a sectoral approach. The Convention describes an ecosystem as "the dynamic complex of plant,
animal and micro-organism communities and their non-living environment interacting as a functional unit."
This document was prepared with the objective to provide information on the Conservation and Sustainable use of Marine and Coastal
Biological Diversity under the Convention as well as its implementation under the Jakarta Mandate programme of work. Section II will
describe the importance of marine and coastal biodiversity. Section III covers the threats to the marine and coastal biodiversity.Cooperation
with other organization and future work are summarized in Section IV.

II.IMPORTANCE OF MARINE AND COASTAL BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY
arine and coastal ecosystems that contain high biological diversity hold significant physical, economical, social and cultural values,
not only for the local communities, which is using the resources but also for humankind as a whole. Marine and coastal biodiversity canbe important because it supplies us with food (fishing, hunting), direct enjoyment (scenic values, whale watching), or ecosystem services(recycling of nutrients), (Ehrlich and Ehrlich, 1992). Marine and coastal biodiversity may be broadly divided into direct economic andindirect economic values.
The East Asia Seas that stretch between Asia and Australia, and between the Pacific and the Indian ocean covers 8.94 million km2
or about 2.5 percent of the world’s ocean surface (Soegiarto, 1985). Coral reefs, seagrass beds and mangroves of these regions are themost diverse and productive ecosystem in the world. Mangrove resource consists of 20 - 25 species of shrubs and tress, and has a total
area of 2 million or 12% of the world total of mangrove forest (Talaue-McManus, 2000). The products direct economic use of mangroves
include the mud itself used as fertilizer in Goa (India), potash manufactured in Nbotany Bay (Australia), pulp for paper, matches andcharcoal.
Marine plant and animal resources have direct economic values as a source of food, livestock feeds, medicine, building materials andother natural and industrial products. For example, fishes and shellfishes provide source of protein. Products made from various parts ofsharks and sea horses are popular as ingredients in Asian medicines. Similarly, seaweeds are used in the health food industry.
Coastal resources can also have a direct value without being harvested and consumed. They provide services as recreation areas, education sites and tourist attractions. With annual growth rate of 5.5 percent, tourism is one of the world fastest growing economic sectors
and plays a vital role in the economy of many islands and coastal regions (van de Heijden and van Zwol, 2000).
Moreover, coastal ecosystems provide indirect economic values. Ecosystems, i.e., mangrove forests, coral reefs and seagrass beds,
provide services as spawning, nursing and feeding area for vertebrate and invertebrate organisms, and at the final process will provide
source of income for coastal communities. These ecosystems and their organisms also play a significant role in stabilizing the biosphereand regulating the climate. For example, mangrove forest provides protection against erosion, cyclones, and produces particulate and dissolved
organic matter that contributes to fisheries in the coastal waters. Marine algae and phytoplankton remove a great part of the primary
greenhouse gases (CO2) from the atmosphere, and produce 30-50 percent of the global oxygen supply.
Similarly, seagrass beds that cover large areas of coastal waters perform a wide spectrum of biological and physical functions in themarine environment. They stabilize the substrate, produce sediments, serve as habitats, nurseries, and as a primary food source for fishand many invertebrates. The beds also provide shelter and area of refuge for various species of fishes and endangered species such as,
xlii

Presented in the International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem, 12-13 December 2000, Bangkok, Thailand
Policy Analyst, Office of Deputy for Environmental Management, State Ministry for Environment, Indonesia.
August 1996 - July 2000 was
Environmental Affairs Officer at the Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity, Montreal
xliv Researcher, Research and Development Center for Oceanology - LIPI - Indonesia
xliii

168

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

Dugong and turtles.
Above all, marine and coastal biological diversity may prove to have future direct values through technological advancements in foodproduction, medical research and other industrial development. Genes present in the wild stocks of fish, shrimp, and seaweed species thatare used at present in mariculture, will play important role in breeding programme aims at improvement in growth, reproduction, disease
resistance, and other characteristics. In addition, marine and coastal biological diversity and the ecosystems they compose, hold culturaland aesthetic values for humankind.

III.THREATS TO MARINE AND COASTAL BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY
The earth’s biological resources are vital to humanity’s economic and social development. As a result, there is growing recognition
that biological diversity is a global asset of tremendous value to present and future generations.At the same time, approximately 66
percent of the human population, or close to four billion, now live within 80 kilometers of the coast, with figure expected to increase to
75 percent by 2020.This dense coastal population exerts in increasing pressures on marine and coastal biodiversity.
There are at least five major threats to marine and coastal biodiversity, i.e., overexploitation, pollution, habitat destruction, alien species
and global climate change. In most East Asian countries (China, South Korea, Thailand, Viet Nam, Cambodia, Philippines, Malaysia andIndonesia), overexploitation of resources is the general rule and is largely because of population pressure and the low-income status of thecoastal communities.
Coastal development and conversion of mangrove ecosystems to brackish water ponds (tambaks) are being undertaken at an extremely
rapid pace. For example, at present ’tambaks’ cover almost all the northern coast of Java and along the west coast of South-Celebes. The
rate of degradation is rapid. Estimated rate of loss of mangrove forest in each country of bordering the East Asia seas ranges from around0.5 - 3.5% of the total area per annum.
Similarly, high diversity of seagrass whereabouts 20 out of 50 species of seagrass in the world is found in the East Asia Seas (Fortes,
1995). Seagrass beds provide a valuable nursery for commercially crustaceans and fishes. However, recent studies by ASEAN-Australia
Living Aquatic Project suggest that up to 50 % of seagrass beds are damaged by destructive fishing practices, land-based pollution andsedimentation (Table 1).
Table 1 Number of Seagrass species, number of associated fish species with seagrass beds and cause of degradation ofseagrass beds in some East Asian countries
Country
Cambodia
China
Indonesia
Malaysia

Species
641210Associated fish species
‑
8
165
15

Philippines
Singapore
Thailand

16
11
10

172
‑
67

Viet Nam

14‑

Immediate causes of degradation
Fishing, transportation and navigation
Land reclamation
Sedimentation, industrial wastes
C o astal recla m atio n , oil s pills , la n d ‑ b as e dpollution
Industrial development, ports and recreation
Land reclamation, dredging and shipping
Waste disposal from domestic use, aquaculture,
land reclamation and development
Fertilizer production , animal feed production ,land reclamation for agriculture and aquaculture.

Source：Chia and Kirkman （2000）, Talaue‑McManus （2000）

Coral reefs are also among the richest in species diversity and productive fishery areas. In Southeast Asia contains 30% of the world’s
coral reef (Gray, 1997). For example, Indonesia reefs contain approximately 450 species of coral reefs. Unfortunately up to 60 % of thereefs reported have been loss due to the increased of sedimentation, overexploitation by dynamite and chemical fishing as well as landbased pollution.The result of the ASEAN-Australia Living Coastal Resources Project 1984-1994 reported that about 35 % of coral reefs
are listed in the poor category with live coral cover less than 25%, only 27 % considered as good with coral cover above 50% (Table
2).
Table 2 Status of Coral Reef Ecosystem in Southeast Asia. Condition values refer to percentage of transects （at depth of 3m and 10 m）with coral cover of poor < 25%, fair 25 ‑ < 50 %, good 50 ‑ < 75% and excellent > 75%.
Number of
Excellent
Good
Fair
Poor
Countrytransect （n）%%%%
Indonesia
Malaysia
Philippines
Singapore
Thailand

190
324a）
193
238
142
178

2.6
6.5
11.4
1.3
2.8
16.9

24.2
22.5
52.8
7.5
9.2
42.1

31.6
28.4
27.5
49.2
20.4
34.8

41.6
42.6
8.3
42.0
67.6
6.2

Source ：Chou （1998）, a）Nontji （2000）

Toxic materials entering marine environment are either naturally occurring substances in elevated concentrations or synthetic compounds
from industrial processes. Marine and coastal resources in contaminated ecosystems generally have reduced species diversity, as moresensitive species diet out and pollution-tolerant species proliferate. The effects of toxic pollution on marine biodiversity is very clear that
exposure to pollutant can cause immune system impairment, reduce reproductive success and developmental aberrations.
Alien species, also known biological invasions, biological pollution or exotic are organisms that have been transported by humanactivity, intentionally or accidentally, into regions where they have not historically occurred (Norse, 1993). Alien species are a great threat

169

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

to the integrity of natural communities of plants and animals and to the preservation of endangered species (Carlton and Geller, 1993).The
magnitudes that are caused by marine biological invasion may lead to profound ecological changes in the ocean.
Studies on alien species were mostly done in North America (Table 3) and there is lack of research on invasion species in developing countries.xlv. There is sensible evidence in support of the hypothesis that shipping serves as a vector for the introduction of foreignorganisms from continent to continent.
Table 3 Invasions probably mediated by ballast water
Higher taxon
Species
Native Distribution
Introduced toFirst recognized
Dinoflagellata
Japan
Australia
Alexanderium catenella
1986
Cnidaria
Scyphozoa
Indo‑Pacific
California
Phyllorhiza punctata
1981
Annelida
Oligochaeta
China
California
Teneridrilus mastix
1984
Crustacea
Mysidacea
Japan
Australia
Neomysis japonica
1977
Copepoda
Asia
Columbia River
1990
Pseudodiaptomus inopinus
Japan
California
1986
P.marinus
China
California
1987
P.forbesi
CarideaIndonesia
Irak, Kuwait
Exopalemon styliferus
1983
Mollusca
Bivalvia
Asia
California
Potamocorbula amurensis
1986
Asia
California
Theora fragilis
1982
Eurosia
Great Lakes
Dreissena polymorpha
1987
Java
Ambon
Perna viridisa）
1995
Indo‑west Pacific
Nigeria, Cameroon
PiscesButis coilomatodon
1983
Philippines
Hawai
Mugiligobius sp.
1987
Phillipines
Hawai
Parablennius thysanius
1971
Source：Carlton and Geller（1993）, a） green mussel may be introduced during mariculture program or transported by ballast water.

Global climatic change is not only a terrestrial issue, but it also concerns for sustainability of marine biological diversity. Humanactivities including the burning of fossil fuels, destruction of forests and the release of CFCs cause to increase in average temperature of
1 to 3 ℃ during the next century (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change). Because many tropical marine species live at temperature
close to their upper lethal limits, an increase of a few degrees could kill them entirely. For example, the phenomenon of coral ’bleaching’is one possible impact of rising seawater temperature. Marine biologists began observing widespread bleaching of reef corals across thetropical Pacific Ocean in the early 1980s.
Bleaching has also been linked to stress from high visible light and UV levels, low salinity, parasitic infection and pollution; coral
appear more vulnerable to these as temperature stress increases (Norse, 1993). Global warming will probably reduce the capacity of reefs
to act as breakwaters and provide sand and rock as building materials. Furthermore, fish and shellfish populations will probably be lessabundance as there will be reduced structural complexity to shelter juveniles and small species.

IV.THE JAKARTA MANDATE ON MARINE AND COASTAL BIODIVERSITY AND ITS IMPLEMENTATION
In view of common concern regarding marine and coastal biodiversity, and recognizing the significant differences between marine andterrestrial biodiversity, at the second meeting of the Conference of the Parties, COP (November 1995, Jakarta, Indonesia), the Parties to
the CBD agreed on a programme of action for implementing the Convention with respect to marine and coastal biodiversity The programmedemonstrates that the CBD is an important tool for promoting the conservation and sustainable use of marine and coastal ecosystems andtheir natural resources.
This programme is referred to in the Ministerial Statement, adopted at the same meeting, as "the Jakarta Mandate on Marine andCoastal Biodiversity".The Ministerial Statement reaffirms that there is a critical need for the COP to address the conservation andsustainable use of marine and coastal biological diversity, and urges Parties to initiate immediate action to implement the decisions adopted
on this issue.Furthermore, the Ministerial Statement welcomes the commitment of the Government of Indonesia to play a major role infacilitating the implementation at the global and regional level.
The Jakarta Mandate has five thematic issues i.e.integrated marine and coastal area management, marine and coastal living resources,
marine and coastal protected areas, mariculture, and alien species. In fact, these thematic issues are not a new one, but the adoption by
the Parties of the Jakarta Mandate provides the opportunity for the Convention to play a coordinating role in facilitating and promoting
the conservation and sustainable use of marine and coastal biological diversity.
In carrying its programme of work, the Convention should support and guide national, regional and global activities, drawing not only
upon its roster of experts, but also upon the wide range of existing activities worldwide, and by initiating new efforts and by actively
engaging the support of all relevant institutions in the implementation of the Jakarta Mandate.
Decision II/10 of the COP invites international and regional bodies responsible for legal instruments, agreements and programmes
which address activities relevant to conservation and sustainable use of marine and coastal biodiversity with a view to improving existingmeasures and developing new actions in light of the recommendation adopted by COP.Those institutions were invited to cooperate in theplanning and implementing of the programmes affecting marine and coastal biodiversity.
The multi-year programme of work for the Jakarta Mandate on marine and coastal biological diversity was adopted by the Parties to
the Convention at the fourth meeting of the Conference of Parties (Bratislava, May 1998), which is contained in the annex to decision IV/5 of the meeting (see www.biodiv.org/jm.html).
The aims of the programme of work is to assist the implementation of the Jakarta Mandate on marine and coastal biological diversity
at the national, regional and global levels.It identifies key operational objectives and priority activities within the five key programme
elements.In addition, the programme of work also provides a general element to encompass the coordination role of the Secretariat, thecollaborative linkages required, and the effective use of experts, in particular in relation to promote and strengthen taxonomy expertise.
xlv

It looks as if all alien species comes from developing countries to industrialized countries. Thus, research on the opposite travelling ships will
help to understand how severely the introduction species from countries to countries or from continent to continent170

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

The programme elements and their operational objectives are summarized as follows：
1.Implementation of integrated Marine and Coastal Area Management (IMCAM)
1.1 To review the existing instruments relevant to IMCAM and their implication for the implementation of the Convention;
1.2 To promote the development and implementation of IMCAM at the local, national and regional level;
1.3 To develop guidelines for ecosystem evaluation and assessment, paying attention to the need to identify and select indicators.
2.Marine and coastal living resources (MCLR)
2.1 To promote ecosystem approaches to sustainable use of marine and coastal living resources;
2.2 To make available to the Parties information on marine and coastal genetic resources, including bioprospecting.
3.Marine and coastal protected areas (MCPA)
3.1 To facilitate research and monitoring activities related to the values and the effects of marine and coastal protected areas or similar
restricted management areas on sustainable use of marine and coastal living resources;
3.2 To develop criteria for establishment of, and for management aspect of, marine and coastal protected areas.
4.Mariculture
To assess the consequences of mariculture for marine and coastal biological diversity and promote technique that minimizes adverse
impact.
5.Alien species and genotypes
5.1 To achieve better understanding of the causes of the introduction of alien species and genotypes and the impact of such introductions
on biological diversity;
5.2 To identify gaps in existing or proposed legal instruments, guidelines and procedures to counteract the introduction of and adverse
effect exerted by alien species and genotypes; and to collect information on national and international actions to address these problems
5.3 To establish and incident list on introductions of alien species and genotypes through the national reporting process or any otherappropriate means.
Six basic principles identified in decision IV/5 for the implementation of the Jakarta Mandate programme of work.These basic principles
are ecosystem approach; precautionary approach; importance of science; roster of experts; involvement of local and indigenous
communities; and three level of implementation (national, regional and global).
Decision IV/5 also provides guidance regarding tools for implementation of the work programme.The tools were identified by COP toassist the Secretariat, partner organizations, Parties and other Government during execution of the activities. The tools includes inter alia(a) Roster of experts on marine and coastal biological diversity; (b) Database of initiatives on programme elements, with special emphasis
on integrated marine and coastal area management; (c) Memoranda of cooperation; (d) Ad hoc Technical Expert Groups; and (e) The
Jakarta Mandate website; and (f) Clearing house mechanism.
The fifth meeting of the Conference of the Parties (Nairobi, May 2000) reviewed the progress of implementation of the programmeof work. In addition to complete the programme of work as adopted through decision IV/5, COP at the same meeting (COP V) adopted
decision V/3 which provides additional guidance in the implementation of the Jakarta Mandate programme of work.
In decision V/3, paragraph 3, the COP decided on the integration of coral reefs issues into the programme element of the Jakarta
Mandate, noting that it would have a minimum three-year time schedule (paragraph 1). A proposal for how coral reefs may be integrated
into the programme element is being prepared and will be presented in the sixth meeting of Subsidiary Body on Scientific Technical andTechnological Advice, (SBSTTA) in March 2001 in Montreal, taking into consideration the input from a liaison group meeting on coral
reef held in October 2000 in Bali.
Under programme element IMCAM, COP 6 adopted further work on development guidelines for coastal areas, taking into accountecosystem approach.The work on ecosystem evaluation and assessment, inter alia through guidelines on evaluation and indicators, willcontinue.
With regard to marine and coastal living resources, information on approaches to management of marine and coastal living resourcesin relation to those used by local and indigenous communities will be gathered and scientific, technical and technological matters related
to issue of marine and coastal genetic resources to be analyzed by SBSTTA.

IV.COOPERATION WITH OTHER ORGANISATIONS AND FUTURE WORKThe function of the Secretariat of Convention on Biological Diversity is to promote the implementation of specific activities of the
programme of work, and in the same time perform an overall coordination role of their implementation by Parties and relevant bodies.
Activities associated with the programme of work should be cost-effective and efficient. Duplication of efforts should be avoided, andharmonization of respective programmes of work will be pursued through strong coordination between the Convention and other relevantbodies, with a particular view to the list of partner organizations mentioned in decision II/10, paragraph 13, and the Convention on Wetlands.
Furthermore, particular in relation to coral reefs work, organization listed in decision V/3, paragraph 4, will be invited to collaborate with
the Secretariat of CBD in the implementation the Jakarta Mandate programme.
The COP through decision V/3 requested the Executive Secretary of the Secretariat of the CBD to coordinate with the secretariats ofregional seas conventions and action plans with a view to exploring the possibility of further collaboration, including the development ofjoint work programmes, in the implementation of the Jakarta Mandate on Marine and Coastal Biological Diversity, paying particular attention to the identification of priorities for action at the regional level, the development of joint implementation strategies and identificationof joint activities and the use of regional networks, and to report to the COP at its sixth meeting on collaboration with the regional seas
conventions and action plans.
The Secretariat of CBD has established cooperation with relevant bodies, UN and non-UN organizations in the implementing the
Jakarta Mandate on marine and coastal biological diversity. Memorandum of Cooperation has been established with East Pacific Permanent
Secretariat (EPPS), Barcelona Convention Secretariat as well as other non UN organizations such as Ramsar Convention Secretariat andInternational Ocean Institute (IOI).The progress of implementation of the Jakarta Mandate Programme of Work (as of June 2000) throughpartnership with other organizations and bodies is described in Annex 2 of present document.
In carrying its programme of work, the Convention supports and guides national, regional and global activities, drawing not only upon
its roster of experts, but also upon the wide range of existing activities worldwide, and by initiating new efforts and by actively engaging
the support of all relevant institutions in the implementation of the Jakarta Mandate.

171

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

The success of the programme will depend on the participation and contribution from the Parties, countries, international and regionalorganisations, and non-governmental organisations as well as relevant stakeholders.
To this end, the Secretariat of the East Asian Regional Seas Action Plan (UNEP EAS/RCU) may wish to consider establishing apartnership with the Secretariat of the Convention in view of implementation of the Jakarta Mandate programme of Work on the basis ofdecisions IV/5 and V/3 as well as relevant provisions of the Convention.

REFERENCES
Carlton, J.T.and Geller, J.B.1993. Ecological Roulette：The Global transport on Nonindigenous Marine Organisms. Science
261：78 - 82.
Chia, L.S.and Kirkman, H.2000. Overview of Land-based Source and Activities Affecting the Marine Environment in the East Asia Seas.
UNEP/GPA Coordination Office & EAS/RCU. Regional Seas Report and Studies Series.74 pp.
Chou, L.M. 1998. Status of the Southeast Asian Coral Reef. in Status of Coral Reef of the World 1998 (ed.C.Wilkinson). AIMS, Western
Australia.p：79 - 87.
Ehrlich, P.R.and Ehrlich, A.H. 1992. The value of Biodiversity. Ambio 21：219-226.
Fortes, M.D. 1995. Seagrasses of East Asia：Environment and Management Perspectives. RCU/EAS Technical Reports
Series Bo.6.UNEP, 79 pp.
Fortes, M.D. 1988.Mangrove and Seagrass Beds of East Asia：Habitat under stress. Ambio 17：207-213.
Gray, J.S. 1997. Marine biodiversity：patterns, threats and conservation need.Biodiversity and Conservation 6：153-175.
Murphy, D.D.and Duffus, D.A. 1996. Conservation biology and marine biodiversity. Conservation Biology 10：311-312.
Nontji, A.2000. Coral reefs of Indonesia：Past, Present and Future in Proceeding Workshop on Science, Technology and Management ofCoral Reef in Indonesia, LIPI-COREMAP.p：17 -29.
Norse, E.A. 1993. Global Marine biological diversity：A strategy for building conservation into decision making. Island Press, Washington,
D.C. 383.
Soegiarto, A.1985. Oceanographic Assessment of the East Asia Seas.In UNEP：Environment and Resources in the Pacific. UNEP Regional
Seas Reports and Studies No.69. UNEP, p.173-184.
Talaue-McManus, L. 2000. Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis for the South China Sea. EAS/RCU Technical Report Series No.14. UNEP,
Bangkok, Thailand.106 pp.
United Nations Environment Programme.1995.Global Biodiversity Assessment：Summary for Policy Makers.
Van de Heijden, P.and C.van Zwol. 2000.Marine Biodiversity.Policy and Best Practice Document 5.Ministry of Foreign Affairs, The
Netherlands.

ANNEX 1
Decision V/3.Progress Report on the Implementation of the Programme of Work on Marine and Coastal
Biological Diversity (implementation of decision IV/5)
The Conference of the Parties,
Recalling the need to implement the programme of work on marine and coastal biological diversity in a holistic manner, taking into
account river basin issues, the effects of land-based activities (including pollution) and tourism plans,
Noting the relevance for the future implementation of the programme of work of the joint work plan 2000-2001 of the Convention on
Biological Diversity and Ramsar Convention on Wetlands,
Stressing the importance of regional approaches to the implementation of the programme of work and therefore of cooperation with regional
bodies,1.Takes note of the tools that have been used for the implementation of the programme of work on the conservation and sustainable useof marine and coastal biological diversity, as set out in the note by the Executive Secretary on the subject prepared for the fifth meetingof the Subsidiary Body on Scientific, Technical and Technological Advice (UNEP/CBD/SBSTTA/5/7, annex I), requests the Executive
Secretary to report to future meetings of the Subsidiary Body on Scientific, Technical and Technological Advice on the application ofthese tools, encourages the Secretariat and the Subsidiary Body to complete, as soon as possible, the implementation of decision IV/5 on
the programme of work on marine and coastal biodiversity as adopted by the Conference of Parties at its fourth meeting, and notes thatthe work element on coral reefs was enabled at the fifth meeting of the Conference of the Parties, and will have a minimum three year
time schedule;

I.CORAL REEFS
2.Endorses the results of the Expert Consultation on Coral Bleaching, held in Manila from 11 to 13 October 1999, as contained in theannex to the present decision;
3.Decides to integrate coral reefs into programme element 2 (Marine and coastal living resources) of the programme of work;
4.Requests the Executive Secretary to integrate fully the issue of coral bleaching in the programme of work on the conservation andsustainable use of marine and coastal biological diversity and to develop and implement a specific work plan on coral bleaching, taking
into account the recommendations set out in the annex to the present decision, as appropriate, and in cooperation with the United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change, and invites Parties, other Governments and relevant bodies to contribute to its implementation.
In conducting his work on coral bleaching, the Executive Secretary will also liaise with, inter alia, the Convention on Wetlands, the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (including the World Heritage Convention), the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, regional fisheries organizations, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and the Global International Waters Assessment and will formally liaise with the
Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network and the International Coral Reef Initiative;
5.Notes that there is significant evidence that climate change is a primary cause of the recent and severe extensive coral bleaching, andthat this evidence is sufficient to warrant remedial measures being taken in line with the precautionary approach, transmits that view to
the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and urges the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change totake all possible actions to reduce the effect of climate change on water temperatures and to address the socio-economic impacts on the
countries and communities most affected by coral bleaching;
6.Urges Parties, other Governments and relevant bodies to implement response measures to the phenomenon of coral bleaching by：172

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem(a)Identifying and instituting additional and alternative measures for securing the livelihoods of people who directly depend on coral reef
services;(b)Encouraging and supporting multidisciplinary approaches to action relating to coral-reef management, research and monitoring, including
the use of early-warning systems for coral bleaching, and collaborating with the International Coral Reef Initiative and the Global Coral
Reef Monitoring Network;(c)Building stakeholder partnerships, community participation programmes and public education campaigns and information products that
address the causes and consequences of coral bleaching;(d)Using appropriate policy frameworks to implement integrated marine and coastal area management plans and programmes that
supplement marine and coastal protected areas and the multiple conservation measures outlined in the Renewed Call to Action of theInternational Coral Reef Initiative;(e)Supporting capacity-building measures, including training of and career opportunities for marine taxonomists, ecologists and members ofother relevant disciplines, particularly at the national level;(f)Implementing and coordinating targeted research programmes, including predictive modelling, in the context, as appropriate, of the ongoing activities referred to in paragraph 4 of the present decision;
7.Invites Parties, other Governments and relevant bodies to submit case-studies on the coral-bleaching phenomenon to the Executive
Secretary, for dissemination through the clearing-house mechanism;
8.Agrees that physical degradation and destruction of coral reefs also pose a significant threat to the biological diversity of coral-reef
ecosystems, and therefore decides to expand its request to the Subsidiary Body on Scientific, Technical and Technological Advice, as
contained in section II, paragraph 1, of decision IV/5, so as to include the effects of such factors;

II.INTEGRATED MARINE AND COASTAL AREA MANAGEMENT
9.Endorses further work on developing guidelines for coastal areas, taking into account decision V/6, on the ecosystem approach;
10.Encourages the Subsidiary Body on Scientific, Technical and Technological Advice, with the assistance of the Executive Secretary, tocontinue work on ecosystem evaluation and assessment, inter alia, through guidelines on evaluation and indicators;

III.MARINE AND COASTAL LIVING RESOURCES
11.Requests the Executive Secretary to gather information on approaches to management of marine and coastal living resources in relation
to those used by local and indigenous communities and to make the information available through the clearing-house mechanism;
12.Takes note of the work of the Executive Secretary on marine and coastal genetic resources, including bioprospecting, and requests theSubsidiary Body on Scientific, Technical and Technological Advice to analyse, and provide advice on scientific, technical and technologicalmatters related to the issue of marine and coastal genetic resources;
13.Suggests that the Subsidiary Body on Scientific, Technical and Technological Advice consider the following issues and prioritize themas appropriate：the use of unsustainable fishing practices, including the effects on marine and coastal biological diversity of the discard of
by-catch; the lack of use of marine and coastal protected areas in the context of management of marine and coastal living resources; andthe economic value of marine and coastal resources, including sea grasses, mangroves and other coastal ecosystems; as well as capacitybuilding for undertaking stock assessments and for economic evaluations;IV.ALIEN SPECIES AND GENOTYPES
14.Requests the Executive Secretary to make use of existing information, expertise and best practices on alien species in the marine
environment in the implementation of the work programme on alien species under decision IV/1 C;
V.GENERAL
15.Approves the terms of reference and the duration of work specified for the ad hoc technical expert groups on marine and coastal
protected areas and mariculture, as contained in annex II to recommendation V/14 of the Subsidiary Body on Scientific, Technical andTechnological Advice, with the addition of "Identification of best practices" for mariculture;
16.Requests the Executive Secretary to make further use of the roster of experts for peer-review and preparation of background documents;
VI.COOPERATION
17.Invites the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization to continue its strong involvement in the implementation of
the programme of work, and requests the Executive Secretary to further strengthen cooperation with other global organizations;
18.Requests the Executive Secretary to coordinate with the secretariats of regional seas conventions and action plans with a view to exploring the possibility of further collaboration, including the development of joint work programmes, in the implementation of the Jakarta
Mandate on Marine and Coastal Biological Diversity, paying particular attention to the identification of priorities for action at the regional
level, the development of joint implementation strategies and identification of joint activities and the use of regional networks, and to reportto the Conference of the Parties at its sixth meeting on collaboration with the regional seas conventions and action plans.

Annex (to decision V/3)
PRIORITY AREAS FOR ACTION ON CORAL BLEACHING
A.Information-gathering
Issue：Our ability to adequately project, and thus mitigate, the impacts of global warming on coral-reef ecosystems and the humancommunities which depend upon coral-reef services is limited by the paucity of information on：(a)The taxonomic, genetic, physiological, spatial, and temporal factors governing the response of corals, zooxanthellae, the coral-zooxanthellae
system, and other coral-reef-associated species to increases in sea-surface temperature;(b)The role of coral reefs as critical habitat for marine species and natural resources for human communities;(c)The current status of coral-reef health and threats to coral reefs; and(d)The potential capacity of recovery 1/ of corals and resilience of the ecosystem after mass mortality.
Response：(a)Implement and coordinate targeted research programmes, including predictive modelling, that investigate：(1)the tolerance limits and173

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

adaptation capacity of coral-reef species to acute and chronic increases in sea-surface temperature;(2)the relationship among large-scalecoral-bleaching events, global warming, and the more localized threats that already place reefs at risk; and(3)the frequency and extent
of coral-bleaching and mortality events, as well as their impacts on ecological, social and economic systems;(b)Implement and coordinate baseline assessments, long-term monitoring, and rapid response teams to measure the biological and meteorologicalvariables relevant to coral bleaching, mortality and recovery, as well as the socio-economic parameters associated with coral-reef services.
To this end, support and expand the Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network and regional networks, and data-repository and dissemination
systems including Reef Base - the Global Coral Reef Database.Also, the current combined Sida-SAREC and World Bank programme oncoral-reef degradation in the Indian Ocean, as a response to the 1998 coral-bleaching event, could be used as an example;(c)Develop a rapid response capability to document coral bleaching and mortality in developing countries and remote areas.This would
involve the establishment of training programmes, survey protocols, availability of expert advice, and the establishment of a contingency
fund or rapid release of special project funding;(d)Encourage and support countries in the development and dissemination of status-of-the-reefs reports and case studies on the occurrence
and impacts of coral bleaching.
Issue：The remoteness of many coral reefs and the paucity of funding and personnel to support on-site assessments of coral reefs requirethat remote-sensing technologies are developed and applied in the evaluation of coral-bleaching events.
Response：Extend the use of early-warning systems for coral bleaching by：(a)Enhancing current NOAA AVHRR Hot Spot mapping by increasing resolution in targeted areas and carry out ground-truth validation
exercises;(b)Encouraging space agencies and private entities to maintain deployment of relevant sensors and to initiate design and deployment ofspecialized technology for shallow-oceans monitoring;(c)Making the products of remote sensing readily accessible to coral reef scientists and managers worldwide with a view to those scientists
and managers that are based in developing countries.

B.Capacity-building
Issue：There is a substantial lack of trained personnel to investigate the causes and consequences of coral bleaching events.
Response：Support the training of and career opportunities for marine taxonomists, ecologists, and members of other relevant disciplines,
particularly at the national and regional level.
Issue：Coral bleaching is a complex phenomenon.Understanding the causes and consequences of coral bleaching events requires theknowledge, skills, and technologies of a wide variety of disciplines.Any action aimed at addressing the issue should bear in mind theecosystem approach, incorporating both the ecological and societal aspects of the problem.
Response：Encourage and support multidisciplinary approaches to coral-reef research, monitoring, socio-economics and management.
Issue：Public awareness and education are required to build support for effective research, monitoring, and management programmes, aswell as policy measures.
Response：Build stakeholder partnerships, community participation programmes, and public education campaigns and information productsthat address the causes and consequences of coral bleaching.
C.Policy development/implementation
Issue：Nearly 60 per cent of the world’s coral reefs are threatened by localized, human activities that have the potential to exacerbate theimpacts of coral-bleaching events.Evaluations of the 1998 coral-bleaching events suggest that marine protected areas alone may not provide
adequate protection for at least some corals and other reef-associated species as sea-surface temperatures rise.
Response：Use existing policy frameworks to implement the multiple conservation measures outlined in the Renewed Call to Action of
the International Coral Reef Initiative, and develop and implement comprehensive local-to-national-scale integrated marine and coastal area
management plans that supplement marine protected areas.
Issue：Most coral reefs are located in developing countries, and the majority of the people living near coral reefs are often extremely poor.
Thus, even minor declines in the productivity of coral-reef ecosystems as a result of coral bleaching events could have dramatic socioeconomic consequences for local people who depend on coral-reef services.
Response：Identify and institute additional and alternative measures for securing the livelihoods of people who directly depend on coralreef services.
Issue：Coral bleaching is relevant not only to the Convention on Biological Diversity but also the United Nations Framework Convention
on Climate Change and the Convention on Wetlands.The ultimate objective of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change is to reduce emissions in a manner that "allows ecosystems to adapt naturally to climate change".The United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change calls upon Parties to take action in relation to funding, insurance, and technology transfer to address theadverse effects of climate change.The Convention on Wetlands provides guidance on the conservation and wise use of wetlands, including
coral reefs.
Response：Initiate efforts to develop joint actions among the Convention on Biological Diversity, the United Nations Framework Convention
on Climate Change, and the Convention on Wetlands to：(a)Develop approaches for assessing the vulnerability of coral-reef species to global warming;(b)Build capacity for predicting and monitoring the impacts of coral bleaching;(c)Identify approaches for developing response measures to coral bleaching;(d)Provide guidance to financial institutions, including the Global Environment Facility, to support such activities.
Issue：Coral bleaching has the potential to impact local fisheries, as well as certain high-value commercial pelagic fisheries and coastal
ecosystems.
Response：Encourage the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations and regional fisheries organizations to develop andimplement measures to assess and mitigate the impacts of sea-surface temperature rise on fisheries.
Issue：Coral-bleaching events are a warning of even more severe impacts to marine systems.If anomalous sea-water temperatures continue
to rise, become more frequent, or are prolonged, the physiological thresholds of other organisms will be surpassed.Not only will local
fisheries be impacted, but certain high-value commercial pelagic fisheries and coastal ecosystems will be affected as well.
Response：Emphasize that coral bleaching can be monitored as an early warning of the impacts of global warming on marine ecosystems
and that the collapse of coral-reef ecosystems could impact ecological processes of the larger marine system of which coral reefs are apart.
Issue：The observations of the 1998 coral-bleaching events suggest that coral-reef conservation can no longer be achieved without consideration of the global climate system and that it requires efforts to mitigate accelerated global climate change.

174

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

Response：Emphasize the interdependencies and uncertainties in the relationships among marine, terrestrial, and climatic systems.

D.Financing
Issue：Because the issue of climate change is global and long-term in scale, Governments around the world need to work together tomake funds available to implement initiatives to address the causes and consequences of coral bleaching.
Response：Mobilize international programmes and mechanisms for financial and technical development assistance, such as the World Bank,
the United Nations Development Programme, regional development banks, as well as national and private sources to support implementationof these priority actions.
1 / Recovery is the return of a coral colony to a state of health, including a symbiotic relationship with zooxanthellae, after the healthand/or symbiotic relationship has been disrupted by a stress or perturbation.Recovery may involve a change in the genetic composition of
species of the zooxanthellae.Resilience is the return of a coral-reef ecosystem to a state in which living, reef-building corals play a
prominent functional role, after this role has been disrupted by a stress or perturbation.A shift toward high dominance by frondose algae
accompanied by a reduction in the functional role of coral would indicate a situation of low resilience.

175International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

Annex 2
Indicative List of Partner Conventions, Organizations and Bodies in the Areas of Marine and Coastal and Ou
tcome of Cooperation with the CBD Secretariat (SCBD) xlvi/
NAME OF CONVENTION, ORGANIZATION OR BODY

RESULTS EMERGING OR EXPECTED FROM COOPERATION

Secretariat of the Permanent Commission for the South‑East Pacific ・（CPPS）（providing the secretariat of the Convention for the Protec‑
tion of the Marine Environment and the Coastal Zone of the South ・East Pacific ‑ the Lima Convention ‑ and the Regional Coordinating
Unit of the Plan of Action for the South‑East Pacific）.
・・・
Regional Coordinating Unit to the Caribbean Environment Programme ・（CAR/RCU）（providing the secretariat of the Convention on theProtection and Development of the Marine Environment of theWider Caribbean Region ‑ the Cartagena Convention ‑ and its
Protocol on Specially Protected Areas and Wildlife）
Regional Coordinating Unit for Mediterranean Action Plan （provid‑ ・ing the secretariat of the Convention for the Protection of the
Marine Environment and the Coastal Regions of the Mediterranean‑ the Barcelona Convention） and Regional Activity Centre forSpecially Protected Areas
Secretariat of the Regional Organization for the Protection of the ・Marine Environment （ROPME）（providing the Secretariat of the
Kuwait Convention） and Secretariat of the Red Sea and Gulf ofAden Environment Programme（PERSGA）（providing the Secretariatof the Jeddah Convention）
Helsinki Commission （HELCOM）（secretariat of the Convention on ・
the Protection of the Marine Environment of the Baltic Sea）

Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of theNorth‑East Atlantic （OSPAR Convention）
Secretariat of Convention on Wetlands （Ramsar）
United Nations Educational, Cultural and Scientific Organization（UNESCO） and its Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission（IOC）, Man and Biosphere Programme （MAB） and the World
Heritage Centre （WHC）

United Nations Environment Programme （UNEP）

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations （FAO）

United Nations Division of Ocean Affairs and the Law of the Sea（UNDOALOS）
International Maritime Organization （IMO）
International Ocean Institute （IOI）

Global International Water Assessment （GIWA）
International Center for Living Aquatic Resources Management（ICLARM）
International Coral Reef Initiative （ICRI）

The World Conservation Union（IUCN）

Regular exchange of views and information and mutual participa‑tion of the representatives in respective relevant meetings.
Provision of technical assistance and working documents by
SCBD.
CPPS ‑ CBD Meeting of Experts to Analyze the Ecological
Impacts of Alien Species （Vina de Mar, September 1998）. The
report was submitted to SBSTTA 4 as information document
UNEP/CBD/SBSTTA/4/INF/5.
Workshop on the Effect of Mariculture to Adjacent Marine andCoastal Environment in the South ‑East Pacific （Puerto Mont,
October 1999）.
Third Meeting of Ad Hoc Technical Expert Group on Marine
Protected Areas in the South ‑ East Pacific （Punta Arenas ,December 1999）.
Contribution of CAR / RCU to SCBD on relevant issues e . g .
provision of Regional Guidelines for Integrated Planning andManagement of Coastal and Marine Areas in the Wider Caribbean
Region and of Common Guidelines and Criteria for Protected
Areas in the Wider Caribbean Region, as well as database ofwider Caribbean Marine Protected Area （CAMPAM Database）
Inclusion of CBD provisions relating to marine and coastal
biological diversity in the activities for the implementation of
the Protocol
T e c h nic al a s sist a n c e to R O P M E a n d P E R S G A in t h edevelopment of protocols concerning biological diversity andestablishment of protected areas in the PERSGA and ROPMERegions

Adoption of proposal for identified co ‑ operative linkages inmarine and coastal biodiversity between CBD and this conven‑tion.
・ Regular exchange of views , information and materials andconsiderations of CBD provision by the HELCOM.
・ Exchange of information and consideration of CBD provisions
by the OSPAR Commission
・ Support of the Ramsar Secretariat to the CBD Expert Consulta‑
tion on Coral Bleaching.
・ Joint work plan 1998‑1999 and 2000‑2001
・ Exchange of information and material, particularly on integrated
marine and coastal area management and marine and coastal
protected areas
・ Support to the Global Taxonomy Initiative through the UNESCO‑IOC Register of Marine Organisms
・ Identification of appropriate education and public awarenessactivities in the context of the CBD‑UNESCO Global Initiativeon Public Education and Awareness・ Harmonization of programmes and activities of SCBD and thesecretariats of the UNEP Regional Conventions and Action Plans
・ Provision of technical assistance to the clearing ‑ house of the
Glo b al Pla n of A ctio n for th e P rotectio n of th e M arin e
Environment from Land‑Based Activities
・ Exchange of information with regard to marine and coastal
living resources, including genetic resources
・ Provision of assistance by FAO in conducting a study on theeffects of stock enhancement on marine and coastal biologicaldiversity （with ICLARM）
Joint study of the relationship between CBD and the United Nations
Convention on the Law of the Sea with regard to the conservationand sustainable use of genetic resources on the deep seabed
Exchange of information , particularly in the area of marine andcoastal alien species and genotypes and specially sensitive areas
・ Exchange of relevant information and material
・ SCBD contribution to the IOI summer training courses fordeveloping country young professionals （yearly）
・ Cooperation in the IOI‑Jamaica Leadership Seminar （Ocho Rios,
August 1999） on resources other than metallic in the "Area"
・ IOI contribution to the Expert Consultation on Coral Bleaching
Elaboration of a m ethodology protocol for the assess m ent oftransboundary water bodies, including their biological diversity
・ ICLARM hosted the Expert Consultation on Coral Bleaching・ Exchange of information and material
・ Cooperation in promoting the conservation of coral reefs andits related ecosystems.
・ SCBD is member of Coordinating and Planning Committee of
ICRI.
・ ICRI support in the organization of the Expert Consultation on
Coral Bleaching （October 1999）.
・ ICRI CPC resolution on coral bleaching and climate change to
CBD （October 1999） was distributed in SBSTTA V as part of
document UNEP/CBD/SBSTTA/V/INF/5.
・ Support in the organization of the Expert Consultation on Coral
Bleaching・ Cooperation in relation to the identification and selection of
criteria for MCPA establishment and management

xlvi The following organizations have also expressed their interest to cooperate with the CBD Secretariat in the area of marine and coastal biologicaldiversity: the C o m m on w ealth Secretariat , the International C ou ncil for the E x ploration of the Sea (IC E S) , T he W orld B ank , theCommission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR), the Arctic Council and its Working Group on Conservation of
Arctic Fauna and Flora (CAFF), the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) Secretariat, and the Caribbean Community Secretariat CARICOM. Modalities for cooperation with these institutions are presently under consideration.

176

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

PEAM KRASAOP WILDLIFE SANCTUARY：
INSIGHTS INTO LIFE IN THE MANGROVES
Kim NONG
Ministry of Environment, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
E- mail：PMMR@bigpond.com.kh
◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

Koh Kong is one of four coastal provinces in Cambodia, and has the countries
biggest area of mangrove forest. Mangrove forests are fertile, diverse saltwater ecosystems
found in the coastal zone, and ensure inhabitants with food and shelter. These productive
natural environments provide breeding habitat for a variety of birds, reptiles, mammals
and insects. Similarly, mangroves also provide habitat to a variety of fish species,
crustaceans and shellfish. New plant tissue is constantly being broken down within these
forests, thereby contributing to the life support system for vast numbers of animal consumers including humans. Human dwellers further find a primary source of income, fuel,medicine and other basic necessity for their livelihood within mangrove forests.
Within Koh Kong province, Peam Krasaop Wildlife Sanctuary (PKWS), one of
Cambodia’s Protected Areas, boasts a unique mangrove ecosystem consisting of 23,750
hectares and spans over parts of three districts, and has around 10 000 people living
within its borders. This area is influenced by inter-tidal levels and water from highlandareas. Indeed, the estuarine areas are the intersection between freshwater and saltwater,
especially during the rainy season. Within the same area, Koh Kapik and associatedislands have been nominated as a Wetland of International Importance under the Ramsar
Convention.
PKWS provides favorable conditions for fishery and other resources. Many people
have resided on and done various occupations for their livelihoods and are dependent
upon the natural resources in this area. PKWS and Koh Kapik Ramsar Site in Koh
Kong have some of the best remaining examples of mangrove forests in the Gulf ofThailand, as many other areas have been cleared for intensive shrimp aquaculture, largescale charcoal production, and other purposes.
Although the coastline, particularly Koh Kong Province, is relatively unpopulated there has been a rapid increase in migration into
the province, especially, in PKWS due to improved security and short-term economic opportunities. Population pressures and marketing
opportunities place greater pressure on the mangroves and aquatic resources within and surrounding PKWS.

PMMR
In 1998 the Participatory Management of Mangrove Resources (PMMR) began working with local communities to better understandlivelihood and management issues in PKWS. The team, funded by Canada’s International Development Research Centre (IDRC), is composedof government staff, at the national and provincial levels, from various technical departments. The lead institution is the Ministry of Environment (MoE); the provincial team is interdisciplinary. PMMR team members come from the Department of Environment, the Department of
Fisheries, the Department of Rural Development and the Department of Women’s Affairs. This project supports a strategy of communitybased coastal resource management (CBCRM) and the focal point of PMMR’s work in PKWS is five coastal villages.
The PMMR project has worked hard to establish good relationships and co-operation with all governmental levels：the PMMR teamfacilitates between the national level government and local people. The importance of this type of co-operation cannot be undervalued, andin Cambodia is imperative if government policies and laws are to be implemented in a successful manner. In the capacity building ofprovincial and local authorities, the PMMR team has held many training courses and sent provincial and local leaders to participate intraining courses on mangrove forest management in Thailand and local villagers on study tours to other areas in Cambodia working on
community-based resource management. Research includes a focus on understanding resource use patterns, marketing influences, livelihood
issues, management issues and the socio-economic realities that community members face. This micro-level work provides useful insightsthat can be applied to other villages within PKWS and in Koh Kong province.

LIFE IN PKWS
After Cambodia’s liberation from the Khmer Rouge (KR) in 1979, Cambodians were able, again, to live individually as family units,
to own private property and, importantly, to establish businesses to earn their livelihoodxxviii. Koh Kong was quite unpopulated, and national
government policy encouraged people to live in Koh Kong. There has been a net influx of people since 1979; in fact, it is estimated thatthe average annual growth rate in Koh Kong is 16 %. Unfortunately, over time the increase in population has put pressure on mangrove
resources.
During the late 1980’s and into the 1990s, Koh Kong town and province have developed rapidly, partially in response to market
pressures from Thailand and to in-migration. Many residents in the mangrove forests of PKWS are economic migrants and internallydisplaced persons from inland areas of the country, and are therefore without traditional ties to the landscape or experience in its
management. This movement of peoples in response to the post-conflict dimension of Cambodian reality is an essential element in theanalysis and promotion of social and political stability in the country.
In PKWS, there have been significant changes in resource abundance over time. Most villagers, even those that have lived in the area
for only a few years, are able to discuss the changes in resources and suggest possible reasons.
"Prior we could catch more fish at the night time with small fishing gear：the mangrove forest was not destroyed, low population,
fishing used traditional method and all activities in this area were strong controlled by government and government has providing
program to local people every months for mangrove protection and mangrove replanting (1960s). At the present (1990s), fish
production has dramatically declined due to the use of modern equipment, influx migration, illegal fishing, mangrove destruction
xxviii The end of the catastrophic KR regime resulted in many internally displaced Khmer. At this point, villages had been destroyed and KR guerilla
activities continued in parts of Cambodia；therefore, some people could not return to their villages and instead sought to make their livelihood elsewhere.

149

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystemand poor management.Fishers ensure that they also concern about the decline of fish production because there are now no proper management and responsibility over natural resources (Koh Sralao group meeting, March 1999)."
Where villagers are not always able to make a link is between the cutting of mangrove trees for charcoal and the decline in fisheries
resources (some do and some do not)xxix.
Villagers remain highly dependent upon their environment：aquatic resources are used for subsistence and income generating purposes,
mangroves provide breeding grounds and protection for aquatic resources, other wildlife and a source of fuel wood. People are poor resources are declining, houses leak during the rainy season, there is not an adequate water supply in most villages, there are few schools
and those that are open only offer grades one and two, and there are few clinics in any of the villages. Life in PKWS is dynamic：
weather, foreign markets, illness and availability of resources all have an influence on village life.

LIVELIHOOD ACTIVITIESxxx
FISHING ACTIVITIESFishing methods and seasons have changed over time. Traditionally, gear was not overly efficient, thus helping to ensure that resourceswere not over-exploited. Prior to the KR, there were specific seasons for fishing, and laws ensuring that people did not fish during spawning were enforced. The PKWS area was firmly managed by Department of Forestry, Fisheries and Hunting officials who worked with Village Chiefs to disseminate and enforce laws with local fishers and farmers. At that time, mangroves species were quite abundant and there
was little destructive action or clearance of mangrove forest for shrimp farming.
As the population has increased, so too has the number of fishers in the PKWS area. Especially since 1990 when the Thai market
has opened up and more efficient fishing gear was introduced (often illegal i.e.cyanide fishing or illegal trawling), villagers have noticed
a gradual decline in resources. Most people in PKWS no longer fish merely for subsistence purposes, and while some people continue tocrab trap, other fishing gear is also used. Fishers now use nylon nets; trawlers use polysynthetic nets. Push netting and trawling in shallow
waters is illegal, as is dynamite and cyanide fishing; however, illegal fishing is quite popular.
General, the following small-scale types of fishing gear are found in PKWS：
・ CRAB TRAP：Used to catch mangrove mud crabs and swimming crabs. Fishers use a rowboat with fixed oars or long tern boats
with a 5 Hp engine. Families may have anything between 50 to more than 100 traps, with one or two members crab trapping;・ CRAB NET：Used to catch swimming crab. People use a long stern boat with a 5 Hp engine. Two people operate the crab traps.
Each family has between 1-3 Units of net (1Unit = 10 Hands, 1 Hand = 25 m);
・ FISH NET：People use different sizes of fish nets to catch fish in sites near the coastline and in the sea. People use a long sternboat with engines of different horsepower.
There are two types of fish processing, described as follows：・ Small-scale or subsistence processing：dried salt fish, salt fish, fish sauce, mollusk fermentation etc;
・ Large-scale or market processing：shelling of crab for pure meat, small shrimp fermentation, jellyfish processing, fish freezing etc.
These products are exported to Thailand and sold to local markets.
The following species are the most frequently caught by fishers：mangrove mud crab, swimming crab, shrimp, prawn, grouper, green
mullet, red snapper, and sea-bass because such species can be sold in high price. Other species are also sold in low price to the market.
Life as a fisher is difficult, both in terms of labor and the amount of effort it takes per catch. Resources are affected by population
increases, mangrove cutting, the use of modern fishing gear and illegal fishing activities within PKWS. Some people can easily survive
from fishing resources, especially if they have access to large boats or illegal gear; however, many fishers do not have enough money tosupport their livelihood, subsequently becoming in-debt to the middle-person.
Fishers sell their fish production to a local middle-person, not directly to the market since transportation is expensive and time-consuming and the small-scale fisher often does not have enough product to sell themselves directly to the market. Fishers who borrow moneyor need support from the middle-person, in return, have to sell their product back.Other fishers, who do not owe money to the middleperson, can sell their product to any middle-person or, if they have a large boat, to the market directly.
CHARCOAL PRODUCTION
Families have always undertaken charcoal production in PKWS. Prior to the KR, a few families produced enough charcoal used as
cooking fuel for entire villages. There were ten areas that were used selectively for charcoal productionxxxi.
Charcoal production increased dramatically in the 1990’s：the potential for easy profit through the Thai market lured many Khmer’s
into this area. Too much pressure was placed upon the mangroves, and some of the best mangrove stands were decimated. Even thoughcharcoal production is illegal, it has been really difficult, until recently, for the Department of Environment to curb such activities. The
government started to destroy charcoal kilns. As more kilns were destroyed, some former charcoal producers became middlemen while poor
people fled deeper into the mangroves to avoid detection. Because of a lack of budget for monitoring and enforcement, the government
had difficulty in stopping these illegal activities. However, the Department has been trying consistently to stop charcoal production for the
past few years and, with the help of the 1999 ban on illegal logging activities, charcoal production has dramatically decreased.
Those that now make charcoal are poor：the profit that they get from their jobs is not enough for living. Few middle-persons arewilling to support charcoal production (many middle-persons are now involved in fisheries activities). Far fewer people are coming into
PKWS to make charcoal, and those that do find it difficult to live. The days of large charcoal kilns and profits are gone; indeed, life
has become extremely difficult and risky for charcoal producers.
Year
1997
1998
1999
2000

kg in
Price per kg in Thai Baht Price $per
US2.15 Baht$ 0.05
2.4 Baht$ 0.052.55 Baht$ 0.06
4.16 Baht$ 0.1
Source：PMMR team observations

THE AVERAGE MARKET PRICE FOR CHARCOAL
As less charcoal is produced in PKWS, the profit for charcoal production has increased. While charcoal production activities do continue,
it is seen as too risky for most people to be involved in unless absolutely desperate. Charcoal production is no longer seen as axxix

For further information on changes in resources usage over time, see Appendix A.
For further information on livelihood options / activities found in PKWS, see 2000. Mangrove Meanderings：learning about life in PKWS. PMMR IDRC Technical Report. Phnom Penh.
xxxi For more information about charcoal production, see PMMR’s case study Smashed Livelihoods；life as a charcoal producer in PKWS.
xxx

150

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystemprofitable business in spite of the lure from the Thai market. From the middle of 2000 mangrove charcoal was no longer sold to Thailand; small-scale production was sold locally. It is illegal for people to use mangrove wood to make charcoal; instead, people now use uplandwood to make charcoal. How this is effecting upland species requires further investigation.

FARMINGIn PKWS area, there is not enough farmland for local people, except in Toul Korki commune.Farmers are found in Toul Korki
commune.In this commune, this land area is more than enough for agriculture or upland farming. Rice production in this commune isproduced for local consumption. Villagers make their money from upland farming, small-scale fishing activities, animal husbandry andother livelihood enhancement opportunities.
AQUACULTURE
To date, aquaculture in PKWS has included extensive, semi-intensive and intensive shrimp pond culture, crab farms, green mussel
culture and limited fish cage culture.
Perhaps shrimp culture began in a limited manner in the early 1980’s. By the early 1990’s, investors from Thailand became interested
in the Cambodian market. Apparently, Thai investors had World Bank money and needed to spend it so they picked the Cambodian market,
even though experts warned of potential problems. The soils are too peaty and no matter how much lime one adds to compensate, the pH
remains too acidic. By 1997, there were 23 shrimp farms that covered over 800 ha. However, since early 1998 most of the shrimp farms
have stopped operations.

GREEN MUSSEL CULTURE
Green mussel culture began near Koh Kang village, PKWS in 1994. Initially, green mussels were cultured as feed for the shrimp
farms (between 1994 - 1997). However, when shrimp farms collapsed in 1998 people were forced to find alternative markets for theirproduct. The market price in Thailand was high, and people began exporting green mussels and in 1999 the number of people growing
green mussels increased.

FISH CULTURE
Grouper and snapper culture were tried, unsuccessfully, with one villager near Koh Sralao. Grouper culture began in January 1999,
and was followed by snapper culture in February 1999. Although the project was begun enthusiastically, the villager, eventually, lost interest.
Grouper culture and snapper culture were not successful because：
1.SITING - the cages were placed too close to the house, for security reasons, with low tides of less than 1 m;
2.UPLAND RUNOFF - in the upland areas, one of the yellow creepers are processed into a powder that is then exported to Vietnam
to be used in some medicine. When processing this plant, sulfuric acid and cloridic acid are used;
3.CYANIDE FISHING - these wastes are harmful to the fish; the grouper did not appear healthy;
4.MARKET CONSTRAINTS - the Thai market was unstable i.e.buying and selling price the same; therefore, no profit;
5.COSTS - it is difficult to find trash fish for feed. Snapper especially like to eat a lot;
6.FRESHWATER - since one can only raise saltwater fish for a six month period until the rains begin, this is not a suitable time period
to raise fish for the market.

OTHER LIVELIHOOD ACTIVITIES
Besides the jobs are mentioned above, villagers of PKWS are engaged in a series of subsistence and market activities including：wine making, water selling, goods selling, boat taxi, hunting, fix machine and hiring labor.

Issues in PKWS
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE
Because so many people are newcomers, local environmental knowledge is difficult to access and, therefore, to pass on. Many
people in the villages have had little access to formal education and many are illiterate. The Chief of Koh Sralao suggested that 66% of the villagers either had minimal education or were illiterate and perhaps 34 % held a medium education level (grade 2, 3 or
4). Unfortunately, people did not have access to education during the Lon Nol (1970 - 1975) and Khmer Rouge (1975 - 1979) period.
For children coming into PKWS, unless young, there is no chance to go to school.
SECURITY
Security in Koh Kong has improved recently. Before, there were many places that the team could not visit and it was necessary
to inform the proper authorities of field visits. This all took time to organize. Now the team can travel throughout PKWS to visit
various sites and villages without any problems. Villagers can now travel freely between Koh Kong town and their villages.
In Cambodia, the military navy is very influential along the coastline. For example, in Koh Kong they control all islands in the sea,
including Koh Kong Island, and the open sea. Therefore, the Department of Fisheries, who are legally in charge of off shore fisheries,
cannot control the number of boats and equipment used in the open sea. The Navy reaps a benefit from fishery resources whilesmall-scale fishers find their yields declining. Before some police in the PKWS area were supporting small-scale illegal activities i.e.
charcoal production and logging. This is changing：some police are working with Provincial Department of Environment Checkpoint
staff to protect resources in PKWS.
Recently, a new governor was appointed to Koh Kong who is quite supportive of the work of the PMMR team and is interested inresource protection and conservation of PKWS.
MANAGEMENT CONSTRAINTS
The protection and conservation of natural resources in PKWS falls under the jurisdiction of the MoE, specifically the
Department of Natural Conservation and Protection. There is a need for close cooperation between Ministries at the national level,
especially between MoE and the Ministry of Agriculture (MoA). Techniques and experiences need to be shared more often. For
example, until 1993 the MoA was responsible for the Wildlife Sanctuary (MoE was only created in 1993 and Cambodia’s twenty-threeprotected areas fall under state property of the MoExxxii). Although the provincial level created a committee to prevent and mitigate
xxxii

Cambodia’s constitution was passed by the National Assembly on the 22nd of September, 1993. Article 59 of the Constitution states that:
The state shall protect the environment and balance of abundant natural resources and establish a precise plan of management of land, water, air,wind, geology, ecological system, mines, energy, petrol and gas, rocks and sand, gems, forests and forestrial products, wildlife, fish and aquatic
resources.
This article established the framework for environmental protection in Cambodia.

151International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystemanarchical activities on mangrove resources, it is still difficult to implement resource protection measures for the following reasons：・ Lack of human resources among public servants and local people, especially those who will perform the tasks of protection andconservation of the natural resources;
・ Lack of appropriate employment and creativity used in finding new occupations that will not destroy the environment;
・ Lack of means i.e.equipment, funding and materials to control fishery abuses, mangrove deforestation and hunting;・ Lack of cooperation to avoid duplication of work between responsible authorities; for instance, armed forces could control illegal
fishery and forest activities for the relevant authority;
・ Lack of participation in resource management initiatives by local people;
・ No official committee or mechanisms that enables people to formally participate in community based management initiatives (PMMR
is working on this); and・ Poverty.
It is difficult to manage resources in PKWS because technical officials do not have any real power to manage the resources. That is,
the police and navy military are involved in resource extraction activities, and are more powerful than technical officials from theenvironment department. It is difficult for departments to manage or enforce resource protection given limited budgets and funding.
Poverty limits both village-level and technical department officials options. Although national level policy exists both in the realm ofcommunity development and environmental protection such policy, drafted in Phnom Penh, is unrealistic in isolated places such as PKWS.
There needs to be closer collaboration between Department of Environment staff and Department of Fisheries staff in Koh Kong toencourage that appropriate policy be both developed and enforced regarding aquatic resources. In fact, the Department of Environment
could learn a lot from the Fisheries department. Illegal fishing activities are barely controlled in PKWS - hence, extensive grenade andother forms of illegal fishing exist. Most importantly, more local people need to be involved in resource management and protection.

LEGISLATION
Many new laws and sub-decrees are pending that will affect Protected Areas management. These include the following：Land Law(just finished translation in Rome); Fisheries Law (draft, provisions for community co-management); Forest Law (draft - community
management and transparent concession allocation); Sub-decree on Systematic First Registration (outlines a process for land title which the
MoE would have to also follow should it decide to implement land title (since PA’s are state land, land title might not be legal); Subdecree on Establishment on Community Forestry (sitting with the Council of Ministers, contains provisions for community forestry in PA’s); Sub-decree on PA Management (just submitted to the Council of Ministers)xxxiii.
The Law on Environmental Protection and Natural Resource Management came into effect in 1996. This law establishes the basis forenvironmental legislation in Cambodia, and there are a number of important purposes to this law including：・ To protect and promote environmental quality and public health through prevention, reduction, and control of pollution;
・ To encourage public participation in environmental protection and natural resource management; and,・ To ensure the sustainable conservation, development, management and use of resources.
Although many laws are in draft form or under review, there is enough of a legal base to support resource management initiatives
and, more specifically, community based management initiatives.

Participatory Coastal Resource Management in PKWS
During the time of PMMR project implementation (1998 to 2000), through extensive facilitation and training opportunities, both local
people and authority figures became interested in participatory management and protection of coastal resources.Government authorities now
believe that collaboration among stakeholders is very important in environmental protection and conservation, and it can better solve existing problems. Moreover, there is an economic incentive for villagers to be involved in CBCRM initiatives - government does not havethe money to protect resources without local involvement.
Participatory coastal resource management is beginning in PKWS：villagers and provincial officers are working together to find solutions to pressing management issues. Most villagers are expressing a greater interest in learning about resource protection and conservationand in exploring the idea of co-management. Government authorities are recognizing the importance of local resource management initiatives,and are lending support to the PMMR team and to local initiatives. Considering that the team began its work in Koh Kong when resource
extraction activities by most government officials were rife, this is no small feat.
A process of ’community organizing’ is now being undertaken in each of the villages. Villagers are drafting their own resource
management plans, according to how they would like to manage resources in the areas surrounding the village. Once a series of village
level plans have been drafted, PMMR will facilitate a process between technical institutions and villagers to begin finding solutions. Since
PMMR is a research project, it is hoped that these experiences will lend themselves to informing community fisheries and other policy
initiatives.
Facilitation between different players or stakeholders has been integral to the work of PMMR. It takes time to build relationships andan understanding of resource conservation issues. There are no easy solutions to be presented; however, when players begin to listen toeach other and to understand local realities, possible solutions can be worked towards. Importantly, since this project has been largely
driven by the PMMR team, a PR process that works in Cambodia has emerged. Ultimately, the research, planning and analytical skills
can be applied by each PMMR team member in whatever job they do in the future. The PMMR team must continue facilitating a processthat works towards village ownership of resources. Then, the real resource protection work can begin!

152

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

APPENDIX A：CHANGES IN NATURAL RESOURCES USAGE IN PKWS
Time Period1970 to 1975○○○

Activities or Occurrence
Low population, subsistence fishing （traditional gear used）；
Market for production in Singapore （boat came to buy fish）；
Families worked fishing boats together；abundant supply of fish；
Better 'management' by the Department of Fishing, Forestry and Hunting （DFFH）；villag‑
ers took part in mangrove replanting；
DFFH controlled charcoal production （limited to specific sites）；
Similar to 1953 ‑ 1970 time frame；
Government management systems began to break down with the war；
Some people fled the area because of fear and the disruption caused by the war；

1975 to 1979○

No people live in PKWS （ only Pol Pot 's Navy ）；○○○Abundant supply of fish （could easily catch 100 kg / family / night）； number of fishers
increased；
Mangrove wood burned for charcoal；in the late 1980's there was a significant increase incharcoal production；
The area was controlled by the Department of Agriculture；
Provincial authority controlled the number of in‑migrants into the area；

○
○
○
○
○
○

Fish catch began to decline as population increased；
Mangrove destruction activities increased；
Shrimp farming began；
Fishing gear became more efficient （and illegal as with trawling or dynamite fishing）
Poor management due to political crisis；net in‑flux of people；
Opening up of export markets i.e. Thailand；

○
○
○
○
○
○

Illegal fishing gear used；family catch / night / family is 12 kg；
Nearly 800 ha of the mangrove forest cleared for shrimp farms；
Large market for charcoal exports；
Large net in‑migration, little 'management' in the area；
Declared a wildlife sanctuary in 1993, MoE took charge；
Strong military, police and navy activities in the area；un‑controllable illegal activities caus‑
ing serious mangrove degradation；○

Shrimp farms proved unsuccessful （diseased each other out because of poor siting） so lessand less land was cleared for shrimp ponds；
Continuing decline in resources i.e. fish and mangrove
Fewer people have access to fishing modern fishing gear i.e . trawlers , some resort tocyanide fishing, crab trapping or green mussel culture；
Charcoal exportation activities continue, perhaps somewhat reduced at times；
Given tighter control of the area, some migrants returned to their birth provinces；
1998 elections proved to be a resource extraction bonanza, since then activities are far more
controlled.

1953 to 1970

○
○
○
○
○

1979 to 1989

1990 to 1993

1994 to 1997○○○
1997 to 1999
○
○
○

153

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

SEAMCAT：A METADA CATALOGUE TO ASSIST THE CONSERVATION
AND MANAGEMENT OF EAST ASIAN MARINE COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS DATA
Judith KIRKMAN
Southeast Asia START Regional Centre
Environmental Research Institute
Chulalongkorn University
Bangkok 10330, Thailand
E- mail：jkirkman@loxinfo.co.th
◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

Abstract
South East Asia START Regional Centre (SEA START RC) is an NGO located at Chulalongkorn University in Bangkok. It is partof a global network to help provide the framework to make scientific assessments to support policy development. Its focus is to provide
synthesis and modelling of global change data, and act as a centre for global change policy development, and information.
As part of its information role, it has created a web-accessible metadata catalogue. Metadata, the description and location of data, is anextremely important tool in the management of ecosystems especially marine coastal system data.
Over time much data have been collected in the Southeast Asian region, the location and often the quality of most of the data is unknown.
There is a major investment in data collection and this investment must be managed.
SEAMCAT is addressing this need. It is a project sponsored by GEF, UNDP and UNEP and is based on the NASA Global Change
Metadata Directory in DIF format. It is part of a process in which people need to participate, to share their metadata. It is a venue whereparticipants can advertise the existence of their data, gain recognition for their organisation’s scientific expertise and, at an international
level, support internal agreements and conventions.
Metadata is about past and present data for the future.

INTRODUCTION
The Southeast Asian region comprises some of the most rapidly developing countries in the world today. Entire societies are beingtransformed putting pressures on the environment. These pressures have to be quantified and understood in the short and long term.
The scientific community in each of the countries in the region has set for itself an agenda of strengthening the infrastructure required tosupport research on global environmental change at local and international levels.
The Southeast Asia START Regional Centre (SEA START RC) was created in 1996 by the SEA Regional Committee for START (SARCS)
and is located at the Environmental Research Institute, Chulalongkorn University, in Bangkok Thailand, facilitated by the National ResearchCouncil of Thailand (NRCT).
The SEA START RC is part of a global network of multidisciplinary regional centres that mobilise scientific resources and help provide
the framework to make scientific assessments to support policy development. The other members of the START network are in South Asia,
Temperate East Asia, Pan-Africa, Mediterranean, and Oceania.
Its role in the region is to act as an information centre which provides facilities to store and manage the data of regional and globalchanges, provide data access, exchange and updates to the region and to link with other regional centres. It is also a regional co-ordinating centre for the SARCS Secretariat and research activities of the International Geosphere Biosphere Program. Synthesis and modelling ofdata on Greenhouse Gas (GHG) flux, Land Use Cover Change (LUCC) are among its products as is validation and calibration of climate
models and application of GHG -induced climatic change models. Further, it is a centre for policy development to establish
linkages with relevant government ministries in the region, to provide estimations and predictions and recommend policies on land use andother activities that relate to GHG and responses based on GHG induced climatic change models.
As part of its role as an information centre, SEA START RC has set-up a metadata catalogue to assist global change scientists working within Southeast Asia to identify and locate the data sets they require

WHAT ARE METADA
Consider the purchase of a packet of biscuits from the supermarket. When you see the packet, you know that there are biscuits inside
the box. But, often you want or need to know more about the biscuits. You want to know about the quality or maybe the history of thepacket or what the biscuits are made from. This information is usually listed on the box giving information about when they were made,who made them, where were they made, who imported them, how heavy is the packet, how many biscuits are inside, when should theybe used by and what is the composition of each biscuit. A map has a legend, containing a description of location, the scale and when it
was made. These are both examples of metadata. They are descriptions that will help you decide whether the item is what you want or
not. Global change metadata describes where global change data are, their quality and when and by whom they were collected. It is not
the data itself or summary data.
Metadata are "Descriptive information that characterizes a set of quantitative and/or qualitative measurements and distinguishes that set form
other similar measurement sets". (Lola Olsen, Global Change Master Directory, http：//gcmd.gsfc.nasa.gov/about_us/mission.html)

WHAT ARE DATA
The type of data SEA START RC has been locating includes raw quantitative and qualitative data sets, remotely sensed data, aerial
photographs, maps, original documents and video. The list is not definitive and can include other data on a case by case basis. We are
currently not considering data to consist of tables from reports, journals or proceedings. Often the data from these sources are summary
data and contain no information as to their quality. In proceedings and reports the source of the data may be acknowledged but is often
not the primary data source and the resolution of the initial data has been lost during successive summaries.

255

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

WHY ARE DATA IMPORTANT
In Southeast Asia, socio-economical and environmental changes are occurring at a very rapid pace. These changes create national andinternational impacts. Data are resources that enable scientists and policy makers to make decisions on how to manage changes. Change
is traced by comparing historical with current data. Often historical data are not catalogued and sometimes almost forgotten. Historical data
sets cannot be duplicated and are unique assets. Data when collected is about time and place and no data set can be collected again.
Data collection is usually the most expensive part of any research program. This means that organisations with data have a major
investment in a unique resource. Unfortunately, in many organisations this is not recognised and data collected for one project may
never be reused. In today’s economic climate, the funding available for further data collection is getting scarcer. This is especially true
with developing countries within South East Asia. There are many aid organisations and non-government organisations which have funded
once-up data collection programs and more often than not the data is never reused or given to the host country for custodianship.
Metadata collection is about the management of data. It is an integral part of the management process, a process that is lacking in manyorganisations. Often data sets are located on different computers, on different floors and different departments. Even within one organisation,
researchers will not know what data the other departments hold. There is sometimes a person who will know where data are located andinformation about the collection method and quality but when that person retires, changes job or the contract is finished the information
about the data sets disappears.
In the region, there are many networks of scientists, usually each following their specific discipline. They meet at conferences, seminars
and workshops and may have some familiarity with what data their colleges may have. There is an increasing trend towards
multidisciplinary research especially in the area of global change. To locate data outside of ones discipline is difficult and time consuming.
A substantial metadata base will solve this problem.
The quality of some data held in the region is also unknown. To improve the quality of data, metadata must be recorded. This will allow
the users of data to determine which data sets are of sufficient quality for the purpose of use.
Regional metadata catalogues also allow countries to find data in neighbouring counties to determine the extent or future existence oftransboundary impacts.

WHAT IS SEAMCATThe aim of SEAMCAT is to create a catalogue of metadata of data on global change that is free and can be accessed easily overthe Internet. Developed from NASA’s Global Change Master Directory (GCMD) format, it will provide descriptions of data collected andstored in the Southeast Asian region.
GCMD created the original Data Interchange Format (DIF) that is compatible with the U.S. federally mandated Federal Geographic Data
Committee’s (FGDC) Content Standard on Digital Geospatial Metadata.
DIF is a de-facto standard used to create directory entries that describe a group of data. A DIF consists of a collection of fields, which
detail specific information about the data. At least four fields are required in the DIF, while the other fields expand upon and clarify the
information. Some of the fields are text fields, others require the use of valid or pre-defined values.
The DIF allows data users to understand the contents of a data set. The DIF contains those fields that are necessary for users to decide
whether a particular data set would be useful for their needs.
The Southeast Asia START Regional Centre created "skinny DIF", called SEA START DIF, which consists of four required DIF fields.
After a filing process, "skinny DIFs" are put into a directory to alert users of the existence of a particular data set, and may be modified
at a later time to provide additional information. The SEA START DIF can be accessible at http：//dif.start.or.th/dif/

BENEFITS AT AN ORGANISATINAL LEVEL
A data inventory will allow better data management practices so that the extent of data holdings are known.
Reducing duplication of data collection can save money. The data you require may have been collected by another department within yourorganisation or by another organisation. This other organisation may have an on-going data collection program in which you may be able
to participate. Savings can be spent on data interpretation and synthesis rather than data collection.
A data set is expensive to collect and may be useful to others. Data can be given away, money recouped on a cost recovery basis or
sold for profit. In any case, if people know of the existence of data, this knowledge may lead to external funding or technical assistancefor data interpretation. In the case of a planned project, co-operative partners may be found.
A metadata catalogue not only advertises the existence of data but also signals an organisation’s ability and expertise in data collection
and analysis.

BENEFITS AT A NATIONAL LEVEL・ Organisations will have access to multidisciplinary data allowing a broader perspective for decision making.
・ Savings can be made through collaborating on data collection rather than collecting similar data sets.
・ Time can be saved in searching for national and international global change data.

BENEFITS AT AN INTERNATIONAL LEVEL・ Access to the location of global change data from neighbouring countries.
・ International recognition of your participation in a project enabling a greater understanding and management of global change impacts.
・ Support for international agreements and conventions will.

SEAMCAT IS INTERESTED IN METADATA FROM：
Agriculture
Agriculture and food security
Atmosphere
Attitudes,preferences,behavior
Biosphere
Boundaries

256

International Symposium on Protection and Management of Coastal Marine Ecosystem

Cryosphere
Disasters
Economic activity
EnergyEnvironmental chemistry
Environmental information
Environmental law
Environmental management
Environmental monitoring
Environmental protection
Freshwater
Human and environmental health
Human dimensions
Human health
Human settlements
HydrosphereIndustry
Industry and energy
Land and freshwater resources
Land surface
Lithosphere
Marine environments
OceansPaleoclimate
Policy and institutions
Pollution
Population dynamics
Radiance or imagery
Solar physics
Solid earth
Subject disciplines
Terrestrial ecosystems
Transportation
Urban Habitat

CONCLUSION
In the region, there are many issues relating to global change data. Access to data is at times denied for various reasons. This is theprerogative of the data owner, but over time attitudes change, governments change and the data withheld today may be accessible atsometime in the future. If there is not a concerted effort to locate and describe the data today an important asset will be lost. The
quality of data is sometimes in question, this can also be addressed by correct data management techniques. There must be a raising ofawareness at all levels that data collected yesterday and today for whatever purpose can and will be used to make decisions in the future.

257