Bull. Natl. Mus. Nat. Sci., Ser. D, 44, pp. 9–19, December 21, 2018

Regional Variations in Craniofacial Morphology in the Edo Period
Kazuhiro Sakaue
Department of Anthropology, National Museum of Nature and Science
4–1–1 Amakubo, Tsukuba-city, Ibaraki Prefecture 300–0005, Japan
E-mail: k-sakaue@kahaku.go.jp

Abstract Previous studies have found that the craniofacial morphology of people during the Edo
period was affected by oneʼs social class, and that secular changes in cranial morphology occurred
during the Edo period in the mandible. The purpose of this study was to investigate the regional
differences in craniofacial morphology between the Hayaoke and Kamekan groups who were buried within the city of Edo and the people who died in six other regions in the Edo period.
A total of 541 individuals were examined, including 63 males excavated from 20 sites in six
regions, 38 females from 17 sites in six regions. In addition, 66 individuals (44 males and 22
females) of the early Edo period and 54 individuals (30 males and 24 females) from the medieval
period were examined for comparison.
This study reveals that the secular changes in cranial morphology occurred between the medieval
period and the late Edo period because the medieval group had statistical differences in many variables, which indicated the breadth and ﬂatness of faces in the Hayaoke group. Although the craniofacial morphologies of the regional groups of the Edo period are basically similar to those of the
Hayaoke group, there are same tendencies in both sexes, as individuals of the Tohoku group tend
to be scattered near the medieval group and the Kyusyu and Kansai groups tend to be near the
Kamekan group. These results can be regarded as the relatively weak regional difference in craniofacial morphology that tends to exist among the people in the Edo period.

Introduction
In the previous studies, the author investigatedthe craniofacial morphology of human skeletal
remains of the Edo period and discovered thatwere generally two ﬁndings. (1) Craniofacial
morphology was affected by oneʼs social classamong the people in the Edo period because
there were statistical signiﬁcant differences inmany variables of both sexes between the skeletal remains buried in circular wooden cofﬁns
called as “Hayaoke” and those buried in ceramic
cofﬁns called as “Kamekan” during the middle tolate Edo period (Sakaue, 2012). (2) Secularchanges in cranial morphology occurred during
the Edo period because the human skeletal
remains of the early Edo period had relatively
larger skulls and somewhat stouter mandibles
than those of the middle-late Edo period male
townsmen (Sakaue, 2013).

In order to answer the question of why thesemorphological changes occurred, it will be helpful to know the regional variations in the Edo
period. Thus, the purpose of this study was toinvestigate the regional differences in craniofacial morphology between the people who diedwithin the city of Edo and the people who died inother region during the Edo period. For comparison, the human skeletal remains of the medieval
period and early Edo period (Sakaue 2013) werealso investigated.
Material and methods
The materials of this study are listed in Table 1(Figure 1). The criteria for selecting the samples
and sexual assessment were followed as Sakaue(2013). A total of 541 individuals were examined(Table 2), including 63 males excavated from 20
sites in six regions and 38 females from 17 sites

10

SakaueTable 1. Sites and sample sizes used in this study.

RegionSite

PrefectureStoredMale

FemaleHayaoke Kamekan Hayaoke Kamekan

Edo

Ikenohata shichikencho
Sugenji
Shyokenji
Hoxtushyoji I and II
Enouji
Houkouji II
Shyugyoji
Hosenji I
Ikenohata shichikencho minami
Jishouin
Kotobuki
Ryukouji
Total

Tokyo
Tokyo
Tokyo
Tokyo
Tokyo
Tokyo
Tokyo
Tokyo
Tokyo
Tokyo
Tokyo
Tokyo

NMNS
NMNS
NMNS
NMNS
NMNS
NMNS
NMNS
NMNS
NMNS
NMNS
NMNS
NMNS

KyushuTenpukuji
KyomachiHaradaInaridani
Total

Fukuoka
Fukuoka
Fukuoka
Fukuoka

KUM
KUM
KUM
KUM

14
1
3
3
21

5
0
4
2
11

Chugoku

Jougahaji
Shimizudainichido
MonzenOkayama
ShimaneTottori

Kurashiki Arcaheological Museum
the Yasugi city Broad education
the Torroti prefecture Center of Archaeological operations

3
2
5

3
0
1

10

4

Kyoto

Kyoto City Archaeological ResearchInstitute

4

3

Total
Kansai

Fushimijo ato
Total

61
28
15
6
4
1
0
0
16
0
16
0
147

9
20
4
6
0
0
1
1
7
2
6
2
58

37
9
12
2
1
1
0
0
8
0
3
0
73

9
16
10
4
2
0
0
0
5
2
4
4
46

4

3

Chubu

Nagoyashinai
Komoro-hurahara
Komoro-mikage
Komoro-tenjinmae
SiokawaSunahara
Total

Aichi
NaganoNaganoNaganoYamanashi
NaganoUMT
Privately owned (Teacher Tanaka)
Privately owned (Teacher Tanaka)
Privately owned (Teacher Tanaka)
STM
Nagano Prefectural Museum of History

3
2
0
2
3
0
10

1
1
1
0
4
2
9

Kanto

Totukatateyama
SawadaTotal

Saitama
Ibaraki

NMNS
NMNS

8
1
9

3
0
3

Tohoku

Iwaya
Nigarui
Shibanaidate
Takanosu-bosawa
Tamukai
Uwano
Hatanai
Hachinohe
Total

Aomori
Aomori
Akita
Akita
Aomori
Aomori
Aomori
Aomori

UMT
TUM
TUM
TUM
TUM
TUM
TUM
UMT

2
1
2
1
1
2
0
0
9

0
0
1
2
2
0
1
2
8

Early Edo Hatchobori-Sanchyome (1st)Hatchobori-Sanchyome (2nd)
Shitaya-Dohochyo
Hitotsubashi Senior High School
Total

Tokyo
Tokyo
Tokyo
Tokyo

NMNS
NMNS
NMNS
STM

2
15
1
26
44

2
9
4
7
22

Medieval

Kanagawa
Kanagawa
Fukuoka
Tokyo
Tokyo
Tokyo
Tokyo
Kanagawa
Tokyo

STM
STM
KUM
UMT
UMT
UMT
NMNS
UMT
NMNS

1
10
6
1
2
1
4
5
0
30

0
8
8
0
1
0
2
5
1
25

Haseyaji
Yuigahama
Yoshimohama
Yurakucho
Ootemachi
Kajibashi
Marunouchi
Zaimokuza
Kokutetu
Total

UMT: University Museum, University of Tokyo, NMNS: National Museum of Nature and Science, Tokyo, TUM:The Tohoku University
Museum, STM: St Marianna University, KUM: The Kyushu University Museum,Regional variation on skull in the Edo period

11

Figure 1. Male and female examples of each regional group.

in six regions. In addition, 66 individuals (44males and 22 females) of the early Edo period
and 54 (30 males and 24 females) of the medieval period were examined for comparison. The
deﬁnitions followed those of Martinʼs measurements (Baba, 1991). When both sides were available, the left side was basically measured. The
samples of the Kanto region in this study wereexcavated from the Kanto plain, except for those
excavated from the Tokyo metropolitan area. All
materials of each region, except for the city of
Edo and the Inaridani burial site of the Kyusyu

region, had no positive proof of social class. The
Inaridani burial site was thought to be for family
burials of the samurai class (Okazaki et al., 2004).
Statistical analyses were performed as follows:
1) The Shapiro-Wilk test was conducted for all
variables in each group in order to test for any
deviations from a normal distribution; 2) In order
to compare the relative signiﬁcant differences
between the Hayaoke group, which has the largest
sample size in this study, and the other regionalgroups, Dunnettʼs tests were conducted for variables of normal distributions, or Steelʼs tests were12

SakaueTable 2. Summary statistics of all measurements and Indexes in males
Hayaoke(N＝147)

Kamekan(N＝58)

Kyusyu(N＝21)

Chugoku(N＝10)

Kansai
(N＝4)

Chubu
(N＝9)

Kanto
(N＝10)

Tohoku(N＝9)

Early Edo
(N＝44)

Medieval(N＝30)

Mean S.D. Test Mean S.D. Test Mean S.D. Test Mean S.D. Test Mean S.D. Test Mean S.D. Test Mean S.D. Test Mean S.D. Test Mean S.D. Test Mean S.D.
1
8
17
9
10
5
11
12
40
14
7
16
23
24
26
27
28
25
29
30
31
43
43a
44
45
46
46b
48
48H
48d
49a
50
51
52
54
55
57
60
61
62
63
66
68
65
65(1)
67
69
69(1)
69(2)
69(3)
69b
70
71a
71(1)

Maximum length
181.4 6.5 ≫ 177.8 6.2
181.6 5.8
Maximum breadth
138.3 4.6 ≪ 141.0 5.0
138.2 5.3
Basion-Bregma height
136.1 4.7
138.1 5.6 ≪ 139.9 4.2
Least frontal breadth
93.4 4.3
94.2 4.9
93.0 4.7
Maximum frontal breadth
114.6 4.2 ≪ 116.9 5.5
114.3 4.7
Basion-Nasion length
101.7 4.5
100.0 4.1
101.8 3.3
Biauricular breadth
125.9 4.4
125.0 4.3
124.5 4.8
Biasterionic breadth
108.5 4.6
108.3 5.1
109.9 6.1
Basion-Prosthion length
99.2 5.0 ≫ 96.3 5.8
98.5 3.5
Minimum cranial breadth
68.6 3.5
69.5 4.1
67.1 2.8
Foramen magnum length
35.8 2.2
35.4 2.4
35.7 1.9
Foramen magnum breadth
29.5 1.9
29.8 2.2
29.7 1.5
Horizontal circumference
518.2 14.3
514.5 13.6
515.0 11.2
Transverse arc
312.5 9.4 ≪ 320.5 11.6
315.5 10.5
Frontal sagittal arc
126.1 5.7
126.4 5.9
127.8 7.9
Parietal sagittal arc
126.2 8.0
125.9 8.6
125.7 9.5
Occipital sagittal arc
118.0 8.3
118.0 5.3
122.6 11.9
Total sagittal arc
370.3 13.4
370.3 12.4
376.1 16.7
Frontal sagittal chord
110.7 4.4
110.5 4.7
113.0 5.4
Parietal sagittal chord
112.7 6.2
112.4 7.2
113.1 6.9
Occipital sagittal chord
98.3 5.3
99.5 3.9
101.5 6.5
Outer biorbital breadth
104.6 4.0
104.0 4.2
103.2 4.3
Bifrontal breadth97.3 3.9
96.9 4.0
96.2 3.5
Nasion subtence (calculated)14.1 2.4
14.4 3.0
14.7 2.6
Biorbital breadth
97.9 3.7
97.2 4.1
96.9 3.4
Bizygomatic breadth
135.0 4.5 ＞ 133.0 5.2 ＞ 133.3 4.0
Bimaxillary breadth (zm)
100.0 4.8 ＞ 97.6 4.9
98.8 4.7
Bimaxillary breadth (zm:a)100.2 4.8 ＞ 98.0 4.8 ＞ 97.9 5.0
Subspinale subtence (calculated) 22.6 3.3
23.8 3.0
24.2 3.5
Upper facial height72.2 4.2 ＜ 73.9 3.6
72.7 4.3
Upper facial height (Howells)
68.3 4.0 ＜ 70.2 3.3
69.1 4.4
Malar height24.3 2.5
23.8 2.5
24.4 1.9
Interorbital breadth
21.1 2.0
20.6 2.1
20.9 1.6
Anterior interorbital breadth
17.0 2.0
16.9 2.1
18.0 1.4
Orbital breadth43.3 1.9
43.3 1.9 ≫ 41.5 1.6
Orbital height34.2 1.9 ＜ 35.6 1.8
34.1 1.7
nasal breadth25.5 1.9 ≫ 24.5 1.7 ＞ 24.9 1.9
nasal height52.3 3.0 ＞ 53.7 2.6 ＞ 54.0 3.0
Least nasal breadth
7.2 1.6
7.0 2.0
6.4 1.5
Nasal subtense (calculated)
2.4 1.0
2.6 1.0
2.0 0.8
External palate length52.2 3.2 ＞ 50.6 3.6 ＞ 50.0 3.7
External palate breadth65.7 3.8
65.6 3.9
67.5 4.1
Internal palate length45.4 2.8
44.8 3.0
43.2 3.5
Internal palate breadth40.7 3.3
40.1 5.5
41.5 2.6
Bigonial breadth
100.8 6.0
98.7 5.8
101.6 5.2
Projective length of mandible
70.6 5.0
69.8 4.8
71.6 5.3
Bicondylar breadth
121.5 5.7
120.6 6.0
120.0 6.5
Bicoronoid breadth97.4 5.0
97.8 5.4
97.9 5.8
Bimental breadth
47.5 2.5
47.5 2.5
47.4 2.6
Height of mandibular symphysis 35.5 3.2
36.2 2.9
34.9 3.6
Mandibular body height
31.6 2.6
32.2 2.6
30.7 2.6
Mandibular body height at M2
26.8 2.5
26.6 2.7
26.0 2.4
Mandibular body breadth
13.3 1.3 ＞ 12.6 1.3
13.4 1.6
Mandibular body breadth at M2 17.1 1.6
16.6 1.4
17.7 1.3
Height of mandibular ramus
64.9 4.4
65.0 4.6
64.1 4.6
Minimum width of ramus
34.7 3.2 ≫ 32.7 2.7
33.5 3.3
Condylo-cornoid breadth36.3 3.3 ≫ 33.8 3.9
35.3 3.0
Mandibular condyle breadth (left) 20.8 1.9
20.6 2.0
20.1 2.2

8/1
Cranial index
17/1
Index
17/8
Index
9/10
Index
9/8
Index
8/12
Index
40/5
Index
16/7
Index
27/26
Index
28/26
Index
29/26
Index
30/27
Index
31/28
Index
(1＋8＋17)/3 Modulus
Frontal index of ﬂatness
Zygomatic index of ﬂatness
Simotic index of ﬂatness
43/8
Index
46/45
Index
48/45
Index
48/46
Index
9/45
Index
45/8
Index
50/44
Index
52/51
Index
54/55
Index
61/60
Index
63/62
Index
68/65
Index
69(3)/69(1) Index
69b/69(2)
Index
71/70
Index
72
Total proﬁle angle
74
Alveolar proﬁle angle
75
Proﬁle angle of nasal bone
79
Mandibular angle

182.9 6.0
135.8 5.8
139.8 7.4
94.5 3.6
115.6 3.6
102.4 4.7
124.8 3.2
110.1 4.2
101.0 3.7
66.8 4.0
35.4 1.4
30.1 2.6
514.4 13.2
311.3 10.1
126.9 6.6
130.9 7.9
117.0 5.5
374.9 14.4
112.4 5.7
117.1 5.7
100.9 6.4
104.0 4.1
99.1 5.3
14.3 3.1
94.0 4.0
132.2 4.1
98.8 5.1
98.6 4.7
23.8 3.2
71.4 3.5
68.6 3.4
24.5 2.4
22.0 3.5
18.2 2.4
41.6 1.5
34.4 2.3
25.7 1.8
52.1 2.5
7.3 2.0
2.1 0.9
51.6 1.5
64.2 4.3
43.6 3.0
41.2 3.4
100.3 4.1
68.3 8.1
123.2 6.7
98.5 4.0
47.6 1.9
36.0 4.3
32.7 4.1
25.8 3.3
14.1 1.7
18.0 2.0
64.2 4.8
32.8 3.1
35.1 2.9
20.4 2.4

76.3 3.5 ≪ 79.4 3.8
76.2 3.9
74.3 4.0
75.1 3.2 ≪ 77.7 3.2 ＜ 77.1 2.8
76.4 3.0
98.5 4.3
98.0 4.3
101.3 3.9 ＜ 103.1 7.3
81.5 3.3 ＞ 80.6 3.2
81.3 3.1
81.8 2.4
67.6 3.4
66.8 3.4
67.3 3.1
69.7 3.1
127.6 5.5 ＜ 130.4 6.0
126.2 8.5
123.5 6.8
97.6 4.3
96.3 4.8
96.8 3.2
98.8 4.0
82.7 5.6
84.3 6.3
83.3 6.1
85.0 6.4
100.2 6.6
99.8 8.6
98.6 8.2
103.4 8.2
93.8 7.3
93.5 6.4
96.2 10.1
92.3 4.6
87.8 1.8
87.4 1.9
88.5 1.7
88.6 1.9
89.3 1.8
89.4 2.6
90.0 2.1
89.6 2.5
83.4 2.8
84.4 2.4
83.1 4.1 ＜ 86.2 3.5
151.9 3.6
152.3 4.0
153.2 3.5
152.8 4.4
14.5 2.3
14.8 3.2
15.3 2.4
14.5 1.5
22.6 3.4 ≪ 24.3 3.0 ＜ 24.8 3.7
24.2 3.6
33.5 11.8
37.4 12.8
31.3 11.5
29.8 12.9
75.7 3.5 ≫ 73.8 3.2
74.7 3.2
76.7 4.7
74.1 3.0
73.4 3.0
74.1 2.5
74.8 3.1
53.5 3.0 ≪ 55.6 2.8
54.5 2.8
54.1 3.7
72.2 4.0 ≪ 75.8 4.2
73.6 3.9
72.5 6.1
69.2 3.2 ＜ 70.8 3.2
69.8 3.6
71.5 2.6
97.7 3.8 ≫ 94.3 3.6
96.6 3.5
97.4 3.5
17.3 1.9
17.3 1.8
18.6 1.2 ≫ 20.3 7.2
79.1 4.4 ≪ 82.2 4.4 ＜ 82.4 4.0
82.6 5.5
49.0 4.2 ≫ 45.7 3.1 ＞ 46.2 3.1
49.4 4.1
126.2 8.3
130.2 10.7 ≪ 135.5 8.9
124.7 11.1
89.9 8.4
89.7 12.8 ＜ 96.5 7.8
94.9 9.8
58.2 4.4
58.0 4.8
60.4 9.6
55.6 7.7
42.3 5.3 ≫ 39.2 4.4
43.9 5.9
43.8 8.6
64.3 6.6
63.1 7.6
68.4 5.2
70.6 9.9
53.6 5.3 ≫ 50.6 4.9
52.4 5.1
51.2 5.1
83.3 3.1
84.3 3.6
82.3 3.0
81.8 4.4
64.7 6.4 ＜ 67.1 6.7 ≪ 73.0 6.8 ≪ 71.5 8.3
63.3 6.2
61.9 5.7
62.0 4.4 ＞ 57.6 6.5
124.5 6.7 ＜ 126.6 6.7
124.5 6.5
127.2 5.6

184.4 7.8
174.2 5.5
183.9 5.7
182.5 8.2
181.8 6.7
183.3 6.4
140.7 8.2
138.6 3.9
140.7 5.3
142.2 4.6
138.3 5.1
138.1 4.0
141.2 4.0
131.9 5.1
140.3 4.0
132.3 7.2
137.1 4.9
138.1 5.7
95.3 3.2
89.8 3.0
95.3 4.1
94.7 5.3
93.4 4.7
93.3 4.1
115.6 5.6
112.8 5.6
118.2 5.7 ＜ 119.2 7.1
115.4 3.9
114.9 4.1
104.5 4.1 ＞ 96.0 4.6
102.4 2.9
101.6 5.8
101.9 3.5
103.2 5.0
129.4 3.2
122.4 5.3
127.4 5.0
126.9 3.2
125.3 4.4
126.9 4.4
108.6 5.5
105.2 5.0
111.0 6.8
112.5 4.5
108.9 3.9110.0 5.3
98.9 8.2
93.7 6.2
97.2 6.1
101.7 7.1
98.7 4.6
101.3 4.6
69.8 2.9
64.7 3.6
69.3 4.9
68.6 3.6
67.9 3.0
67.5 3.4
36.7 3.3
33.6 2.5
35.5 2.4
35.4 1.2
35.6 2.1
35.6 2.1
30.5 0.6
28.7 2.2
29.4 2.1
30.6 1.8
29.2 1.6
29.2 1.8
515.9 17.6
501.6 13.5
523.1 15.9
525.8 18.0
516.5 16.6
517.2 18.1
320.5 8.7
306.2 9.5
317.8 7.2
309.8 16.9
313.1 9.5
309.6 9.1
126.0 3.9
120.9 8.0
126.8 3.0
123.6 8.1
127.5 5.6
125.0 6.5
126.9 7.8
122.3 1.1
126.9 7.6
126.9 7.7
126.2 6.9
129.6 6.0
123.9 6.6
112.3 6.1
122.8 9.3
114.6 6.3
116.6 6.1
117.9 7.3
376.8 13.0
355.4 8.8
376.4 9.8
365.2 18.3
370.3 12.2
372.4 12.9
112.8 3.3
107.5 4.3
112.0 2.7
109.0 6.1
111.7 4.3
111.3 4.8
114.7 5.5
110.1 5.1
114.6 5.8
114.8 6.4
113.2 5.5
115.9 4.0
104.0 5.0
96.0 4.2 ≪ 103.5 5.9
95.6 5.6
98.3 4.2
98.7 4.0
107.6 3.3
103.2 1.7
106.8 3.9
104.3 5.0
104.6 3.6
105.1 4.1
100.8 4.8
94.9 1.7
98.8 4.7
97.3 4.5
97.5 3.8
97.3 3.8
16.1 1.4
12.4 0.9
14.3 2.0
13.9 3.6
14.5 2.1
14.7 2.3
101.8 5.4
96.8 1.4
99.9 4.4
98.8 4.6
98.5 3.7
98.8 3.9
137.6 3.4
131.7 3.8
136.1 4.1
136.0 3.2
134.8 4.3 ＜ 136.8 4.9
102.0 5.6
98.1 2.8
99.4 5.3
100.3 3.5
99.8 5.2 ＜ 102.9 5.2
101.6 7.5
97.0 2.4
99.9 3.5
98.9 4.6
100.3 5.4 ＜ 102.9 5.2
25.9 2.2
21.2 2.2
22.2 3.2
21.0 3.2
22.3 2.9
22.7 3.6
74.9 4.6
68.8 6.1
73.4 5.1
70.9 4.2
71.9 3.870.0 3.8
71.7 4.0
65.8 5.4
69.5 5.2
67.1 4.0
68.1 3.5
66.6 3.8
24.4 2.0
21.8 1.4
25.1 2.0
23.9 2.2
23.7 2.4
24.1 2.1
21.4 1.4
21.7 2.5
22.0 3.0
23.2 4.2
21.2 1.8 ≪ 22.7 2.3
18.2 1.7
18.3 1.8
17.9 2.3
19.0 2.6
16.9 2.1 ≪ 18.5 2.3
44.9 2.6 ＞ 40.7 0.9
43.3 2.2 ＞ 41.3 2.2
43.0 1.9
42.4 2.1
36.4 2.8
32.7 1.8
35.0 2.1
33.2 2.3
33.9 1.9
33.8 1.5
25.5 1.1
25.7 2.0
26.3 1.8
25.0 2.0
24.9 1.6
26.0 1.8
55.9 2.5
51.4 2.9
52.8 3.1
50.5 3.5
51.9 2.8
51.9 2.8
6.2 1.2
7.4 1.9
7.6 2.2
7.5 1.4
7.1 1.9 ＜8.3 2.1
2.3 1.3
2.2 1.2
2.2 0.8 ＞
1.4 0.8
2.2 0.9
2.5 1.0
51.9 5.4 ＞ 47.9 3.6
50.5 2.5
52.3 4.0
51.6 3.7
52.6 3.0
65.9 8.7
63.6 2.5
66.6 4.5
64.3 3.9
64.9 3.8
66.1 3.1
44.5 4.8
40.1 3.4
43.3 3.3
45.6 3.7
44.6 2.7
45.1 3.1
40.5 5.5
40.5 1.8
40.2 4.1
41.2 0.7
40.7 2.7
42.4 2.5
99.5 3.8
99.5 6.0
100.4 6.8
101.9 6.1
102.6 5.8 ＜ 104.7 4.8
74.6 10.8
65.6 2.770.0 3.6
66.8 5.9
72.1 4.9
72.9 3.8
124.9 2.4
117.4 4.0
124.0 6.1
120.2 6.0
120.7 5.5 ＜ 123.7 5.4
98.2 1.9
94.5 3.7
100.0 7.1
100.1 8.7
97.3 5.5 ＜ 100.8 4.7
49.2 3.2
46.3 3.6
47.6 2.7
48.2 3.6
47.7 3.0
48.0 3.0
36.7 2.7 ＞ 31.3 4.4
36.8 3.1
33.1 4.2
35.0 3.6
34.0 2.8
33.0 2.4
28.9 2.9
33.5 4.0
30.3 3.8
31.4 2.3
30.5 2.5
27.3 2.0
23.5 3.1
28.4 3.2
27.3 3.3
27.0 2.0
27.1 2.3
13.3 0.5
12.6 0.9
13.1 1.2
14.5 1.9
13.8 1.5 ≪ 14.3 1.3
18.3 1.7
16.6 1.3
17.2 1.5
18.9 2.0 ＜ 18.0 1.5
18.4 1.6
70.8 3.4
63.2 4.4
67.3 6.3
63.6 4.9
63.6 4.9
64.2 4.0
35.5 1.9
33.1 3.9
34.6 1.8
34.8 4.3
34.7 2.9 ＜ 36.2 2.6
37.0 3.9
35.8 2.5
36.0 2.6
35.3 3.3
35.5 3.9
34.7 3.1
20.9 2.8
19.2 2.1
20.9 1.5
19.5 1.9
20.2 1.8
20.8 1.7
76.4 5.1
76.6 1.1
100.6 6.1
82.5 1.3
67.8 2.7
129.6 3.6
94.6 5.4
83.7 7.0
100.8 8.0
98.3 4.7
89.5 1.5
90.5 2.0
84.0 1.7
155.5 5.1
16.0 1.2
25.5 2.4
36.1 19.3
76.7 4.8
74.1 2.5
54.4 3.1
73.5 3.6
69.3 2.6
98.1 7.0
17.9 1.4
81.0 5.0
45.5 1.5
126.5 3.9
91.7 15.2
59.8 9.1
40.5 1.4
66.8 1.8
50.2 1.2
85.1 3.9
79.5 9.5
63.3 10.2
117.9 2.7

79.6 3.1
76.6 3.8
78.0 3.4
76.2 3.9
75.4 2.7
75.8 4.2
76.4 3.8
72.5 3.4
75.5 3.4
75.4 3.8
95.2 3.2
99.9 4.6 ≫ 93.0 4.7
99.2 4.4
100.1 5.4
79.6 3.0
80.7 3.4
79.6 4.7
81.0 4.3
81.2 3.3
64.8 2.5
67.8 3.3
66.5 2.4
67.6 4.3
67.6 3.3
132.0 7.6
127.1 7.8
126.6 4.5
127.2 5.6
125.7 5.9
97.6 6.1
94.9 5.2
100.1 2.8
96.9 3.6
98.2 3.9
85.7 7.9
83.1 5.1
86.4 4.7
82.2 5.9
82.1 5.1
101.4 6.1
100.2 7.0
102.9 5.6
99.1 5.8
103.9 7.0
93.3 9.6
96.9 7.8
92.9 6.1
91.6 5.5
94.4 5.5
89.0 2.4
88.3 1.6
88.2 2.2
87.6 1.5 ≪ 89.1 1.7
90.1 3.7
90.4 2.4
90.4 0.6
89.7 1.7
89.5 1.9
85.6 3.8
84.5 3.5
83.4 2.7
84.4 2.1
83.9 3.0
148.2 3.1
154.9 2.5
152.3 5.4
152.4 3.7
153.2 3.6
13.1 1.0
14.4 1.7
14.2 3.3
14.8 2.1
15.1 2.4
21.9 2.2
22.2 3.0
21.3 3.5
22.3 3.0
22.3 3.4
28.5 17.0
30.1 10.1
18.7 11.6
31.6 12.8
30.7 11.6
74.5 2.9
76.0 3.6
73.3 2.7
75.7 3.8
76.2 3.3
74.5 1.4
73.1 3.6
73.8 2.2
74.1 2.9
74.5 3.3
52.3 5.6
53.9 2.8
52.1 3.6
53.4 2.8 ≫ 51.2 3.4
70.2 6.4
74.1 6.2
70.7 3.6
72.1 4.1 ≫ 68.8 4.0
68.1 1.7
70.1 3.4
69.6 3.1
69.4 3.5
68.2 2.8
95.1 3.2
96.8 3.9
95.6 2.3
97.5 3.9
99.1 4.1
18.9 1.7
17.8 1.9
19.2 2.1
17.2 1.9 ＜ 18.8 2.1
80.5 4.2
80.9 3.4
80.7 7.0
79.0 5.4
80.0 4.6
50.1 5.8
49.9 3.5
49.6 4.5
48.1 3.7
50.2 4.2
133.4 10.0
131.9 9.4
123.2 7.0
126.4 11.1
125.9 6.7
101.3 7.0
92.9 7.1
91.0 7.1
91.6 8.4
94.3 7.4
55.9 2.9
56.6 4.4
60.3 15.5
59.8 4.6
59.0 4.6
43.6 3.4
39.4 4.4
48.3 8.5 ＜ 44.1 5.9 ≪ 47.1 5.7
71.3 9.3
61.0 6.5
69.9 10.0 ＜ 67.0 6.4
68.3 8.3
52.4 6.2
51.8 5.1
54.8 7.3 ＜ 54.9 6.1
56.6 5.0
82.6 3.7
84.2 3.5
81.9 2.9
83.6 3.2
81.7 3.7
67.9 6.6 ＜ 69.8 5.7
64.3 7.0
66.4 5.1
65.4 6.5
61.7 7.0
64.5 5.9
68.4 8.7
64.8 5.7
64.8 7.6
126.8 3.5
122.6 5.6
122.1 9.2
124.0 6.2 ≫ 119.5 3.9“＜” and “≪” mean the results of the Dunnettʼs test or the Steelʼs test for multiple comparison between “Hayaoke” group and each groups.
“＜” means P＜0.05 and “≪” means P＜0.01 respectively.

Regional variation on skull in the Edo period

13

Table 3. Summary statistics of all measurements and Indexes in males
Hayaoke(N＝73)

Kamekan(N＝46)

Kyusyu(N＝11)

Chugoku(N＝4)

Kansai
(N＝3)

Chubu
(N＝9)

Kanto
(N＝3)

Tohoku(N＝8)

Early Edo
(N＝22)

Medieval(N＝25)

Mean S.D. Test Mean S.D. Test Mean S.D. Test Mean S.D. Test Mean S.D. Test Mean S.D. Test Mean S.D. Test Mean S.D. Test Mean S.D. Test Mean S.D.
1
8
17
9
10
5
11
12
40
14
7
16
23
24
26
27
28
25
29
30
31
43
43a
44
45
46
46b
48
48H
48d
49a
50
51
52
54
55
57
60
61
62
63
66
68
65
65(1)
67
69
69(1)
69(2)
69(3)
69b
70
71a
71(1)
8/1
17/1
17/8
9/10
9/8
8/12
40/5
16/7
27/26
28/26
29/26
30/27
31/28
(1＋817)/3

Maximum length
171.9 6.5
169.0 5.4
172.0 6.7
179.5 3.5
176.3 8.4
171.7 11.3
Maximum breadth
133.5 5.5 ＜ 135.0 4.8
132.8 4.5
136.5 4.1
133.2 3.6
138.0 5.0
Basion-Bregma height130.7 3.9
132.1 4.0
132.3 2.5
133.8 4.0
134.8 3.9
128.4 6.5
Least frontal breadth89.3 4.7
89.5 3.2
90.8 3.0
91.5 1.3 ＜ 96.4 4.0
90.5 4.6
Maximum frontal breadth
109.4 4.7
109.9 3.8
110.5 4.1
113.0 5.7
115.1 1.9
112.4 6.2
Basion-Nasion length
94.8 3.7
95.0 3.5
95.3 3.7 ＜ 100.3 3.8
99.3 2.3
92.6 5.3
Biauricular breadth
119.4 4.5
118.7 4.7
116.4 3.0
122.5 3.4
119.0 0.5
121.7 6.3
Biasterionic breadth
104.4 4.0
103.9 3.9
104.3 4.0
107.6 1.6
108.3 4.0
108.0 6.1
Basion-Prosthion length
94.2 5.5 ＞ 92.7 3.8
95.0 5.3
97.6 2.5
95.7 4.6
89.7 7.0
Minimum cranial breadth64.1 3.4 ＜ 65.1 3.6
64.4 3.5
65.0 4.6
64.9 4.0
62.1 3.0
Foramen magnum length33.9 2.0
33.8 2.1
33.6 1.7
32.6 1.0
33.6 1.2
32.3 1.9
Foramen magnum breadth
28.4 1.7
28.2 1.9
29.0 1.6
28.3 1.5
28.5 1.4
27.3 1.7
Horizontal circumference
493.9 12.8
490.6 11.8
481.7 31.6
506.6 7.8
499.2 15.5
496.9 27.0
Transverse arc
302.4 11.2
304.6 9.8
304.6 7.1
309.3 11.0
308.0 6.6
299.7 15.1
Frontal sagittal arc
121.4 5.9
120.1 5.6
122.9 6.2
124.3 6.0
124.3 1.2
120.6 9.0
Parietal sagittal arc
120.8 7.0
119.9 10.8
122.3 9.1
124.3 5.5
126.8 6.0
117.5 5.2
Occipital sagittal arc
114.9 8.2
113.5 6.6
112.5 7.7
122.8 5.7
109.5 3.0
114.4 8.1
Total sagittal arc
357.1 12.5
353.5 12.7
357.7 15.5
371.3 10.1
360.7 5.3
352.5 18.3
Frontal sagittal chord
106.3 4.2
105.8 4.2
107.8 4.2
108.0 6.5
108.2 1.6
106.4 9.1
Parietal sagittal chord
108.7 5.6
106.6 6.8
110.0 7.3
111.7 4.5
113.8 5.2
107.1 4.1
Occipital sagittal chord
96.9 5.5
97.4 4.2
96.4 4.2
103.0 2.8
95.0 3.7
99.0 9.2
Outer biorbital breadth
99.3 3.6
98.6 3.0
98.5 2.7
101.4 2.5
103.7 4.3
99.2 3.9
Bifrontal breadth
92.4 3.5
91.9 2.8
92.0 4.1
94.1 2.7
94.8 4.2
95.3 8.5
Nasion subtence (calculated)
12.5 2.3
13.2 2.7
13.4 1.4
11.3 2.1
16.1 3.3
12.3 1.4
Biorbital breadth
93.6 3.5
92.7 3.1
93.2 3.7
97.0 1.7
96.8 4.4
95.7 3.7
Bizygomatic breadth
125.0 3.8 ＞ 123.8 4.5
123.1 3.8
130.1 8.2
126.7 1.3
124.3 7.5
Bimaxillary breadth (zm)93.2 3.7 ＞ 92.2 4.7 ＞ 92.2 3.8
96.9 4.5
95.1 4.2
93.4 5.5
Bimaxillary breadth (zm:a)94.1 4.1 ≫ 92.7 4.8 ≫ 92.3 4.4
96.7 4.4
93.7 1.7
92.7 5.9
Subspinale subtence (calculated) 20.6 2.9 ＜ 22.0 2.3
22.3 2.6
18.4 2.6
22.4 1.9
20.3 1.5
Upper facial height67.0 4.1 ＜ 68.6 3.3
68.2 1.7
65.2 3.2
65.0 3.2
70.5 4.4
Upper facial height (Howells)
63.8 4.3 ＜ 65.1 3.6
64.6 2.6
62.6 3.4
61.9 1.8
67.4 4.5
Malar height22.0 2.0
22.0 1.9
21.8 1.7
23.2 2.4
19.7 2.1
20.1 2.1
Interorbital breadth
20.3 2.2
19.7 2.1
20.3 2.3
22.8 1.1
21.7 3.1
22.8 4.2
Anterior interorbital breadth
16.4 1.9
16.3 1.7
17.1 1.7 ＜ 19.1 1.1
17.3 1.2
18.3 3.3
Orbital breadth
40.9 1.9
41.1 1.4
39.6 2.1
40.9 0.6
41.8 2.2
39.7 2.3
Orbital height33.3 1.8 ≪ 34.6 1.7 ≪ 33.9 1.7
32.6 0.7
34.1 1.6
33.5 2.0
nasal breadth
24.4 1.6
24.5 1.9
23.7 1.6
25.9 1.3
24.9 0.8
24.7 1.7
nasal height48.7 2.6
49.4 2.5
49.1 1.4
47.4 3.7
48.3 1.4
49.5 2.4
Least nasal breadth
6.9 1.9
7.7 1.6
7.3 1.0
7.4 1.4
6.2 2.0
7.3 1.6
Nasal subtense (calculated)
1.7 1.0 ≪2.3 0.9 ≪2.0 1.0
1.4 0.9
2.1 1.0
1.5 0.4
External palate length50.4 3.6 ＞ 48.8 2.3
49.2 2.8
48.2 4.8
48.9 4.7
47.4 2.7
External palate breadth61.3 3.6
61.5 3.5
62.4 3.8
62.3 6.2
60.9 0.5
61.9 2.9
Internal palate length44.2 2.7
43.4 2.1
41.7 4.5
43.5 2.3
41.6 3.8 ＞ 40.8 2.5
Internal palate breadth
37.9 2.7
38.7 3.0
38.1 3.0
38.8 3.5
38.0 2.7
37.6 1.3
Bigonial breadth
93.5 5.5 ＞ 91.1 4.5
93.6 3.5
96.8 3.3
92.4 3.5
95.2 6.9
Projective length of mandible
66.2 4.4
65.7 4.1
66.7 3.6
64.6 2.9
69.1 7.6
64.9 6.7
Bicondylar breadth
113.7 5.3
110.9 5.8
114.8 6.9
117.7 7.8
117.2 2.3
117.9 9.6
Bicoronoid breadth90.3 4.4
90.6 4.9
91.7 4.2
94.4 4.2
96.6 3.7
92.9 7.3
Bimental breadth
45.6 2.3
45.3 1.9
45.9 2.2
45.2 3.0
44.0 2.5
45.6 4.7
Height of mandibular symphysis 31.8 3.2
32.2 2.8
33.6 2.1
32.1 3.0
30.8 2.1
31.3 4.3
Mandibular body height28.8 2.4
29.0 2.1
29.6 2.6
30.9 2.0
29.1 1.0
29.7 3.0
Mandibular body height at M2
24.8 2.1
24.3 2.0
24.4 2.4
27.4 1.8
23.8 1.6
25.4 3.8
Mandibular body breadth
12.6 1.1
12.2 1.2
12.8 1.2
14.3 0.3
11.2 0.3
12.6 1.7
Mandibular body breadth at M2
16.9 1.4
16.3 1.5 ＞ 17.0 1.4
17.6 0.4
15.6 1.6
17.3 1.4
Height of mandibular ramus
57.6 3.8
57.8 3.9
58.3 5.1
59.6 2.6
57.0 5.3
57.9 2.7
Minimum width of ramus
33.1 2.8 ≫ 31.2 2.3 ＞ 31.5 2.6
33.1 0.8
31.6 1.5
30.3 4.1
Condylo-cornoid breadth34.3 3.0 ＞ 32.7 3.1 ＞ 32.6 3.3
35.5 4.1
34.5 2.6
32.8 3.3
Mandibular condyle breadth (left) 18.5 1.8
18.0 1.5
19.3 2.0
17.5 1.2
18.7 0.7
19.0 3.6

Cranial index
Index
Index
Index
Index
Index
Index
Index
Index
Index
Index
Index
Index
Modulus
Frontal index of ﬂatness
Zygomatic index of ﬂatness
Simotic index of ﬂatness
43/8
Index
46/45
Index
48/45
Index
48/46
Index
9/45
Index
45/8
Index
50/44
Index
52/51
Index
54/55
Index
61/60
Index
63/62
Index
68/65
Index
69(3)/69(1) Index
69b/69(2) Index
71/70
Index
72
Total proﬁle angle
74
Alveolar proﬁle angle
75
Proﬁle angle of nasal bone
79
Mandibular angle

77.8 4.7 ＜ 80.0 3.6
77.3 4.0
76.0 2.3
76.1 3.1 ≪ 78.2 2.7
77.0 2.4
74.5 2.7
98.1 4.5
97.9 3.8
99.7 3.6
98.1 3.1
81.6 3.5
81.4 2.7 ＞ 82.3 2.4
81.1 3.8
67.0 3.7
66.3 2.9
68.5 3.6
67.1 2.0
128.0 6.4
130.0 5.2
127.4 5.7
126.8 4.4
99.4 4.5
97.6 3.2
99.7 3.9
97.3 3.5
83.9 4.8
83.5 5.2
86.5 6.2
86.8 3.3
99.6 6.9
99.9 9.1
99.7 7.4
100.1 4.0
94.8 7.8
94.8 8.4
91.7 7.1
99.1 8.4
87.6 1.8
88.2 1.7
87.8 1.8
86.9 2.8
90.0 1.7
89.2 3.9
90.0 1.5
89.9 0.9
84.4 2.5 ＜ 85.8 1.9
85.8 2.5
83.9 2.2
145.4 3.4
145.4 3.4
145.7 3.3
149.9 2.8
13.5 2.3
14.4 2.9
14.6 1.3
12.1 2.5
21.9 2.8 ≪ 23.8 2.5
24.2 3.0
19.0 2.3
24.6 12.7 ≪ 29.2 11.0 ≪ 27.5 14.0
20.3 15.1
74.5 3.5 ＞ 73.1 3.0 ＞ 74.2 3.7
74.4 2.9
74.6 2.5
74.5 3.1
75.0 3.4
74.6 2.5
53.6 3.0 ≪ 55.4 2.8 ＜ 55.5 1.2
50.2 1.8
71.9 4.6 ＜ 74.5 5.0 ≪ 74.1 3.1
67.4 3.5
71.4 2.9
72.3 3.0
73.9 3.0
70.6 4.2
93.8 3.5 ＞ 91.7 3.5 ≫ 92.7 3.4
95.2 3.2
17.5 1.7
17.6 1.8
18.4 1.9
19.8 1.3
81.6 4.6
84.1 4.6 ≪ 85.6 3.8
79.6 2.6
50.3 3.7
49.6 4.2
48.2 2.6
54.9 3.8
121.9 8.7
126.3 8.9
127.2 7.9130.3 7.8
86.0 6.9
89.3 7.3
91.8 8.0 ＜ 98.4 7.8
58.3 4.7
59.3 4.1
58.2 3.5
55.1 4.4
44.1 4.2
42.4 4.5
43.7 5.1
46.2 2.8
68.5 6.9
67.5 8.9
70.1 8.2
64.3 4.4
57.6 5.9 ≫ 54.2 4.9
54.1 3.1
55.5 2.4
81.2 3.4
82.6 2.6
80.1 2.8
83.3 3.3
62.9 6.3
64.1 5.5
64.9 7.5
71.2 11.0
64.9 5.0
64.5 5.0
65.6 4.7
68.4 4.9
126.6 7.2
129.4 7.0
127.3 5.2
123.5 4.4

75.7 4.8
81.5
76.6 5.3
75.7
101.3 0.8
93.0
83.8 4.9
81.0
72.4 4.8
65.3
123.1 4.7
128.6
96.4 6.0
96.9
84.9 4.7
87.7
102.0 4.0
99.1
88.1 3.2
96.3
87.0 0.9
88.0
89.8 0.2
91.1
86.7 1.5
85.1
148.1 2.4
144.1
16.9 2.8
13.8
23.9 1.8
22.5
33.5 10.3
23.8
78.0 5.3
72.5
75.0 2.7
74.7
51.3 2.2
57.1
68.4 4.1
76.4
76.0 2.5
73.0
95.2 3.2
89.5
17.9 1.0
18.5
81.8 5.8
84.8
51.6 0.2
50.6
124.6 5.9
131.4
91.9 10.9
92.8
58.9 5.3
55.6
38.3 2.4
43.1
65.3 2.6
68.1
55.8 5.0 ＞ 52.3
85.5 5.5
83.4
68.2 7.3 ≪ 72.9
70.6 3.6
65.1
123.2 5.9
130.1

3.8
3.4
3.3
2.3
3.1
6.2
5.0
4.7
6.4
7.4
3.2
1.8
4.3
5.5
1.2
3.0
5.6
3.0
3.1
2.7
4.3
3.1
3.8
2.7
6.0
5.1
6.3
6.0
3.3
1.9
3.1
4.9
2.4
8.4
4.7
5.8

“＜” and “≪” mean the results of the Dunnettʼs test or the Steelʼs test for multiple comparison between “Hayaoke” group and each groups.
“＜” means P＜0.05 and “≪” means P＜0.01 respectively.

172.6 7.3
176.0 3.9
136.4 4.8
137.1 4.4
130.5 2.4
129.0 4.6
90.3 6.4
91.0 5.5
110.3 4.7
111.9 5.1
94.8 4.7
96.4 1.8
121.0 5.5
121.4 4.4
107.7 4.0
105.6 3.5
90.6 7.4
97.8 3.6
63.5 2.7
65.1 3.0
32.6 2.8
34.6 1.2
28.5 2.0
28.6 1.4
497.9 21.9
503.2 10.7
302.4 4.9
298.9 9.7
121.0 6.0
118.6 4.0
120.6 5.4
116.8 4.9
113.6 8.1
115.1 4.0
355.3 15.4
350.4 9.2
106.9 4.6
105.9 2.9
108.5 4.5
106.4 3.9
97.1 2.1
95.5 4.4
99.5 5.4
102.0 3.8
93.1 5.7
95.6 3.8
14.2 2.2
13.5 2.7
95.6 5.2
95.6 3.6
125.4 6.8
127.5 5.4
92.7 5.3
95.1 3.3
92.0 5.2
95.4 2.9
21.1 3.4
20.9 2.8
64.2 3.5
68.2 3.4
61.3 3.8
64.5 3.1
20.5 3.2
22.9 1.9
20.6 2.3
21.3 2.2
16.4 1.5
17.0 2.6
41.0 2.6
41.2 1.6
34.4 2.0
34.1 2.5
24.2 1.7
23.9 1.6
47.9 2.6
48.5 3.4
8.2 2.7
6.7 1.9
2.2 0.8
1.6 1.1
47.2 2.7
50.7 3.7
56.1 7.6
61.5 3.2
39.4 2.9
44.2 3.3
37.6 2.4
39.8 2.7
93.4 7.1
94.8 6.4
65.5 7.9
67.9 2.5
112.4 9.0
117.5 7.1
91.5 6.8
90.7 5.7
44.8 2.7
45.5 2.3
30.0 4.9
31.8 0.9
28.4 3.4
29.5 1.9
23.4 3.3
25.9 3.0
12.8 1.6 ≪ 14.2 1.2
16.9 1.6 ＜ 18.6 1.3
58.4 3.4 ＜ 61.9 5.7
30.7 3.3
34.6 1.6
32.7 2.9
36.4 2.4
17.7 2.8
20.3 1.3

174.5 4.7
175.7 8.2
135.0 5.8
133.8 3.8
129.5 4.3
131.9 5.2
90.5 3.8
91.5 3.7＜ 111.8 4.7
110.6 4.1
95.3 3.0 ≪ 98.4 4.8
120.2 4.7
120.7 4.6
＜ 106.7 4.0 ＜ 107.2 4.4
93.8 4.2 ＜ 97.6 5.8
65.0 2.5
64.2 3.4
33.7 1.9
34.1 2.5
28.5 2.0
28.5 1.8
502.7 12.8
495.8 23.6
301.8 10.7
301.0 8.6
121.6 5.0
120.8 5.7
120.6 8.6
123.8 8.1
116.4 8.5
115.2 10.1
358.6 12.3
359.8 15.8
106.6 3.4
106.7 4.8
109.9 6.0
110.9 6.5
97.5 5.3
97.8 5.7
100.5 3.0 ＜ 101.5 4.1
93.4 2.8
93.6 3.8
12.7 1.4
12.5 2.4＜ 95.3 3.1
96.0 3.8
126.6 4.2 ≪ 129.2 4.4
94.7 4.1 ≪ 97.4 4.0
95.2 4.7 ≪ 97.7 4.2
19.5 2.8
20.0 3.6
66.4 4.1
65.8 3.7
62.9 3.9
62.4 3.4
22.1 1.9
22.7 2.5
20.8 1.7 ≪ 22.0 2.2
16.8 1.7 ≪ 18.1 2.0
41.1 1.8
41.0 2.0
33.1 1.9
33.0 2.1
24.2 1.3
24.4 1.2
47.5 2.9
48.4 3.2
7.6 1.6 ≪8.4 1.8
1.7 0.9
1.7 0.8
49.0 2.5
50.1 2.9
61.5 3.8
61.1 3.6
42.4 2.5
42.8 3.1
39.4 3.0 ＜ 39.8 2.7
95.2 5.4
96.6 4.4
67.0 3.5
68.9 4.4
116.1 5.1
117.0 10.0
≪ 94.4 4.1 ≪ 94.6 6.3
46.5 2.7 ≪ 48.9 2.4
30.5 3.4
30.9 3.5
28.9 2.8
28.9 2.6
25.1 2.3
25.8 2.4
13.3 1.4
13.3 1.3
17.1 1.1
17.6 1.5
57.9 3.4
59.9 3.9
33.2 2.2 ＜ 35.0 1.9＞ 32.8 2.4
34.9 2.8
18.5 1.8
19.4 2.3

79.1
75.7
95.8
81.9
66.2
126.7
95.6
87.6
99.8
94.0
88.4
89.9
85.8
146.5
15.3
23.0
27.4
72.9
73.9
51.2
69.3
72.0
91.9
17.1
84.1
50.4
118.7
95.9
58.5
45.7
72.7
52.6
84.8
64.5
68.9
129.6

77.4 3.4
76.5
74.3 2.9
75.3
96.1 4.3
98.5
81.0 2.9
82.8
67.1 2.7
68.3
126.6 6.0
125.2
98.4 3.8
99.1
84.6 5.3
84.0
99.3 8.2
102.7
95.9 7.4
95.5
87.7 1.5
88.3
91.4 4.9
89.7
83.8 2.2
85.2
146.3 3.5
147.2
13.6 1.4
13.3
20.5 3.0
20.4
23.0 11.4
20.1
74.5 2.8
75.8
74.8 3.2
75.3
52.5 3.6 ≫ 50.9
70.3 5.9 ≫ 67.7
71.5 2.7
70.8
93.9 4.1 ＜ 96.6
17.6 1.7 ＜ 18.8
80.6 4.6
80.5
51.1 2.9
50.7
125.8 10.4
122.4
≪ 93.3 9.3 ≪ 93.8
57.8 3.5
58.1
46.5 5.4
46.2
68.7 7.8
68.3
57.4 4.6
58.6＜ 82.9 2.8
81.4
63.9 4.7
64.1≪ 68.4 4.9
66.0＞ 123.7 4.9 ≫ 119.9

3.2
3.3
4.4
4.1
4.0
3.1
6.3
6.3
4.9
5.8
1.4
1.2
5.0
3.6
2.4
4.5
7.4
1.8
2.8
1.5
1.2
4.0
3.0
1.2
4.8
1.9
9.5
8.3
7.9
7.0
9.1
5.1
3.5
7.4
6.6
5.4

78.0 2.8
73.3 2.7
94.1 1.6
81.4 3.3
66.4 3.2
129.8 2.6
101.5 3.6
82.7 4.6
98.5 4.5
97.1 4.8
89.3 2.0
91.2 1.5
83.0 2.4
147.4 3.5
14.1 2.8
21.9 3.0
22.8 11.5
74.4 2.4
74.7 2.4
53.6 2.9
71.8 4.1
71.5 4.6
93.0 3.9
17.8 2.2
82.9 6.5
49.6 4.1
122.0 10.5
90.6 8.6
57.9 4.1
48.0 3.1
72.3 7.0
56.3 5.6
80.6 3.4
64.4 8.4
68.5 7.2
126.6 6.1

＞

4.4
2.6
4.1
3.2
3.2
6.0
3.8
5.3
7.6
8.4
1.8
2.0
3.4
4.5
2.5
3.4
6.3
3.3
2.9
3.2
4.3
2.9
3.4
1.9
6.3
3.2
7.6
8.2
4.6
5.5
7.0
4.8
3.1
5.8
6.1
6.1

14

Sakauecarried out for variables of doubtful normal distributions as a multiple comparison procedure(Nagata and Yoshida, 1997); 3)Forty-seven variables that had been chosen in the previous study(Sakaue, 2012) were also used for multivariate
analysis in this study. Principal component analysis was performed to elucidate group differencesin cranial variations in all samples of the Edo andmedieval periods; 4) the plot of factor scores weremade in order to elucidate group differences in the
cranial variation of all samples.
All statistical analyses were carried out with
SYSTAT 13 and Excel 2010.
Results
Table 2 and 3 show the descriptive statistics of
cranial variables and the results of statistical tests.
Even if the sample size of the Hayaoke group andthe Kamekan group increased in this study, thesame tendencies of group differences can be recognized as more brachycephalic cranium, lessheight in face and orbit, more stout in mandible,
and smaller indexes of facial ﬂatness in the Hayaoke group than in the Kamekan group in both
sexes as shown in Sakaue (2012). All regionalgroups except for the Kyusyu group show somesigniﬁcant differences (0-5 variables in males and1-4 variables in females) with the Hayaoke group,
while the Kyusyu group has even more differences (14 variables in both sexes) and more
resemblance to the Kamekan group. The craniofacial morphology of the medieval period has morevariables showing signiﬁcant differences (15 inmale and 20 in female) with the Hayaoke groupthan with all regional groups. In particular, thevariables indicating breadth of face and mandible
were signiﬁcantly higher than those of the Hayaoke group in both sexes.
Table 4 shows the results of the principal component analysis of males. The ﬁrst principal component can be interpreted as indicating total skull
size because of relatively high loading values foralmost all measurements. The second principal
component, accounting for 7.6% of the total variance, can be interpreted as positive loading values

in the calvarial breadth and negative high values inthe sagittal diameters of the facial structure. The
third principal component, accounting for 6.8% of
the total variance, is interpreted as indicating thatthe three subtenses of facial ﬂatness correlate withthe height of the orbit, the nose, and the mandibularsymphysis. Table 5 shows the results of the principal component analysis of females. The ﬁrst principal component may be also interpreted as indicating the total size of skulls. For the second principal
component, accounting for 8.5% of the total variance, the sagittal size of the calvaria and facial
structure negatively correlate with the variables of
the calvarial breadth and the height of facial components. The third principal component, accounting
for 7.0% of the total variance, is interpreted as indicating that skull height negatively correlates withfacial breadth. These results are almost the same as
those presented in Sakaue (2012).
The scatter plots of the second and third principal component scores of the Hayaoke group, theKamekan group, the higher class group (“Daimyo”
in male, and “Ooku” in female. see the details in
Sakaueʼs 2012 study), the early Edo group(Sakaue, 2013), and the medieval group are presented in Figure 1 for males and in Figure 2 forfemales. The ellipses in these plots represent the68.27% conﬁdence interval for each group. A
dashed thick line indicates the standard deviationsof the factor scores of the medieval group, and adashed thin line does those of the early Edo group,a thick line does those of the Hayaoke group, athin line dose the Kamekan group, and a dashedthin line dose of the higher class. In these plots,
the transitional cline of the medieval group, theHayaoke group, the Kamekan group, and thehigher class group is evident in both sexes.
The scatter plot of the factor scores of regionalgroups for males is presented in Figure 4 withthe same ellipses as above. Almost all individualsof the regional groups are within the distribution
ellipse of the Hayaoke group. One of the Chugoku group, three of the Chubu, and four of
Tohoku are distributed outside Hayaokeʼs ellipse
and near the distribution of the medieval group.
Six of the Kyusyu group, three of the Chugoku,

Regional variation on skull in the Edo period

15

Table 4. Result of princiapal component analysis with all male samples.
1
8
17
9
10
5
11
12
40
14
7
16
23
24
29
30
31
43
44
45
46
48
48d
49a
50
51
52
54
55
57
60
61
66
68
65
65(1)
67
69
69(1)
69(3)
70
71a
71(1)

1

2

3

4

5

6

Maximum length
Maximum breadth
Basion-Bregma height
Least frontal breadth
Maximum frontal breadth
Basion-Nasion length
Biauricular breadth
Biasterionic breadth
Basion-Prosthion length
Minimum cranial breadth
Foramen magnum length
Foramen magnum breadth
Horizontal circumference
Transverse arc
Frontal sagittal chord
Parietal sagittal chord
Occipital sagittal chord
Outer biorbital breadth
Nasion subtence (calculated)
Biorbital breadth
Bizygomatic breadth
Bimaxillary breadth (zm)Subspinale subtence (calculated)
Upper facial height
Malar height
Interorbital breadth
Anterior interorbital breadth
Orbital breadth
Orbital heightnasal breadth
nasal height
Least nasal breadth
Nasal subtense (calculated)
External palate length
External palate breadth
Bigonial breadth
Projective length of mandible
Bicondylar breadth
Bicoronoid breadth
Bimental breadth
Height of mandibular symphysis
Mandibular body height
Mandibular body breadth
Height of mandibular ramus
Minimum width of ramus
Condylo-cornoid breadth
Mandibular condyle breadth

0.674
0.344
0.550
0.582
0.418
0.573
0.596
0.454
0.514
0.461
0.280
0.164
0.735
0.482
0.488
0.398
0.417
0.774
0.140
0.654
0.751
0.705
0.085
0.475
0.513
0.500
0.472
0.518
0.266
0.495
0.430
0.232
0.063
0.451
0.585
0.438
0.473
0.487
0.547
0.528
0.373
0.443
0.344
0.394
0.465
0.307
0.470

−0.161
0.572−0.0150.415
0.617−0.3280.260
0.039−0.594
0.433
0.109
0.189
0.153
0.450
0.018
0.005
0.021
0.153
0.002
0.107
0.093
−0.163−0.0280.047−0.221
0.076
0.068
0.191
0.383
−0.093
0.083
0.080
0.014
−0.516−0.046−0.062−0.402−0.0260.291−0.142−0.109−0.122−0.433−0.125−0.571−0.451−0.2040.176
0.111−0.2970.135
0.153−0.083
0.194
0.076
0.022
−0.1380.026−0.021
0.189−0.150−0.1040.093−0.1070.147−0.309
0.096
0.239
0.138
−0.487−0.669−0.1790.289
0.291−0.243−0.4510.274−0.5390.196−0.362−0.136−0.246
0.187−0.097
0.061
0.175
0.021
−0.545−0.5080.319−0.214
0.212
0.082
0.014

0.313
0.204
0.331
0.090
0.148
0.009
−0.1880.230
0.091−0.363−0.141−0.155
0.307
0.471
0.426
0.350
0.371
−0.1610.224−0.324−0.364−0.2690.004−0.075
0.010
0.140
0.107
−0.302−0.070−0.132−0.156
0.093
0.043
0.094
−0.118−0.171
0.037−0.255−0.229
0.056
0.101
0.069
0.137
−0.181−0.037−0.155−0.126

0.154
0.162
0.223
−0.212
0.047
0.077
0.143
0.165
0.007
−0.047
0.300
0.357
0.197
0.157
0.193
0.128
0.077
−0.153−0.429−0.021
0.054−0.043−0.235−0.150−0.123−0.459−0.4780.098
0.129−0.079−0.121−0.624−0.449−0.059−0.021
0.131
0.022
0.083
−0.0940.002−0.165−0.116
0.017
0.029
0.089
0.225
0.068

−0.3430.400
0.133−0.227−0.017−0.0450.407
0.189−0.085−0.033−0.364−0.215−0.1730.198
0.069−0.3950.063−0.248−0.083−0.262
0.191
0.109
0.016
−0.0700.179−0.171−0.166−0.244−0.098
0.005
0.023
0.135
0.205
−0.075
0.142
0.220
0.173
0.173
0.099
0.236
−0.073−0.0500.172−0.0640.123−0.1990.139

Eigenvalues
Percent of explained (%)

11.02
23.4

3.58
7.6

3.20
6.8

2.16
4.6

2.07
4.4

1.70
3.6

A bold number means its loading score is greater than 0.3

two of the Kansai, and one of the Kanto are distributed outside Hayaokeʼs ellipse and near the
distribution of the Kamekan group. Although
there are no clear differences between theregional group distributions of these factor

scores, it can be said that craniofacial morphologies of the skulls excavated from the Tohoku andChubu regions tend to resemble those of themedieval group, and that individuals of the
Kyusyu and Kansai region tend to resemble the16

SakaueTable 5. Result of princiapal component analysis with all female samples.

1
8
17
9
10
5
11
12
40
14
7
16
23
24
29
30
31
43
44
45
46
48
48d
49a
50
51
52
54
55
57
60
61
66
68
65
65(1)
67
69
69(1)
69(3)
70
71a
71(1)

1

2

3

4

5

6

Maximum length
Maximum breadth
Basion-Bregma height
Least frontal breadth
Maximum frontal breadth
Basion-Nasion length
Biauricular breadth
Biasterionic breadth
Basion-Prosthion length
Minimum cranial breadth
Foramen magnum length
Foramen magnum breadth
Horizontal circumference
Transverse arc
Frontal sagittal chord
Parietal sagittal chord
Occipital sagittal chord
Outer biorbital breadth
Nasion subtence (calculated)
Biorbital breadth
Bizygomatic breadth
Bimaxillary breadth (zm)Subspinale subtence (calculated)
Upper facial height
Malar height
Interorbital breadth
Anterior interorbital breadth
Orbital breadth
Orbital heightnasal breadth
nasal height
Least nasal breadth
Nasal subtense (calculated)
External palate length
External palate breadth
Bigonial breadth
Projective length of mandible
Bicondylar breadth
Bicoronoid breadth
Bimental breadth
Height of mandibular symphysis
Mandibular body height
Mandibular body breadth
Height of mandibular ramus
Minimum width of ramus
Condylo-cornoid breadth
Mandibular condyle breadth

0.702
0.370
0.473
0.670
0.520
0.692
0.645
0.556
0.554
0.513
0.179
0.216
0.693
0.406
0.460
0.449
0.300
0.797
0.315
0.778
0.780
0.659
0.024
0.398
0.157
0.532
0.512
0.524
0.026
0.426
0.337
0.384
0.060
0.420
0.443
0.343
0.476
0.552
0.625
0.272
0.292
0.492
0.421
0.384
0.451
0.408
0.426

0.334
−0.612−0.232−0.189−0.4840.217−0.2060.021
0.447−0.379
0.164
0.158
0.025
−0.554−0.1620.192−0.045−0.007−0.217
0.050
0.063
0.298
−0.250−0.540−0.0790.261
0.162−0.096−0.545−0.022−0.529−0.202−0.3700.190−0.125
0.071
0.358
0.080
−0.1480.096−0.323−0.202
0.238
0.131
0.592
0.506
0.207

0.172
−0.2240.449−0.146−0.1720.280−0.377−0.1520.466−0.151−0.176−0.236−0.040
0.164
0.324
0.161
0.171
−0.2980.234−0.282−0.396−0.148
0.518
0.331
0.164
−0.150−0.094−0.181−0.083−0.1720.162−0.102
0.115
0.501
0.260
−0.3170.164−0.331−0.281
0.148
0.543
0.363
0.238
0.172
0.154
0.137
−0.111−0.187−0.396−0.2530.174−0.2010.183−0.222−0.2390.157−0.043−0.203−0.038−0.274−0.444−0.347−0.174−0.204
0.233
0.429
0.266
−0.066
0.243
0.345
0.145
0.242
0.286
0.330
0.185
0.263
0.317
0.271
0.477
0.245
0.022
0.104
0.007
0.047
−0.272−0.0320.123−0.115−0.238−0.1690.036−0.180−0.115−0.028−0.083−0.194−0.017−0.222−0.2590.096
0.112−0.044
0.070
0.212
0.448
0.495
−0.149−0.216−0.033−0.197−0.095−0.056−0.027−0.027
0.112
0.030
0.043
0.267
−0.041−0.429−0.4340.269
0.361−0.0250.249−0.171
0.155
0.124
0.077
0.057
0.189
0.281
−0.075−0.2420.065
0.038−0.221
0.043
0.089
0.256
0.240

0.244
−0.066
0.168
0.252
0.159
0.247
−0.1850.180
0.098−0.119
0.147
0.084
0.181
0.135
0.086
0.170
0.218
0.116
0.266
0.105
−0.172−0.227−0.083−0.223−0.326−0.101−0.092
0.214
0.206
0.039
−0.087
0.160
0.288
0.008
−0.344−0.3580.054−0.101−0.269−0.284−0.302−0.270−0.154−0.221−0.0570.177−0.172

Eigenvalues
Percent of explained (%)

11.10
23.6

4.00
8.5

3.27
7.0

2.58
5.5

1.97
4.2

1.77
3.8

A bold number means its loading score is greater than 0.3

Kamekan group. In Figure 5, the scatter plot for
females is presented. As seen with males, almost
all individuals of regional groups are within the
distribution ellipse of the Hayaoke group. One of
the Kyusyu group, two of the Chugoku, one of

the Chubu, and two of the Tohoku are distributed
outside Hayaokeʼs ellipse and near the ellipse of
the medieval group. Although no individual of
the regional groups of females are within the
Kamekan group alone, three of the Kyusyu, two

Regional variation on skull in the Edo period

17

Figure 2. Plot of the second and third principal component scores of males.
The ellipses represent the 68.27% conﬁdence interval for the medieval group (dashed thick line), the Early Edogroup (dashed thin line), the Hayaoke group (thick line), the Kamekan group (thin line), and the Daimyo group(dashed thin line). The measurements of the Daimyo group were taken using elaborative casts (Sakaue, 2012).

Figure 3. Plot of the second and third principal component scores of females.
The ellipses represent the 68.27% conﬁdence interval for the medieval group (dashed thick line), the Early
Edo group (dashed thin line), the Hayaoke group (thick line), the Kamekan group (thin line), and Ooku group(dashed thin line). The measurements of the Ooku group were taken using elaborative casts (Sakaue, 2012).

of the Kansai, and two of the Chubu are within
the ellipses of the Hayaoke and Kamekan groups.
This means that there are no clear regional
decline in female but craniofacial morphologiesof the skulls excavated from the Tohoku region
tend to resemble the medieval group, and thoseof the Kyusyu and Kansai region resemble theKamekan group.

18

SakaueFigure 4. Plot of the second and third principal component scores of males in each regional group.
The ellipses represent the 68.27% conﬁdence interval as seen in Figure 2.

Figure 5. Plot of the second and third principal component scores of females in each regional group.
The ellipses represent the 68.27% conﬁdence interval as seen in Figure 3.

Discussion
This study reveals that the medieval group had
statistical differences in many variables whichindicated the breadth and ﬂatness of faces in the

Hayaoke group, and that many factor scores were
distributed outside the Hayaoke group and theearly Edo group. It can be said, therefore, thatsecular changes in cranial morphology occurredfrom the medieval period to the late Edo period.

Regional variation on skull in the Edo period

It is also demonstrated that the craniofacial
morphologies of the regional groups of the Edo
period are essentially similar to those of the Hayaoke group. It is plausible that the people of theregional areas ﬂowed into urban areas such as thecity of Edo during the Edo period (Hayami, 2001).
But there are same tendencies in both sexes, as
individuals of the Tohoku group tend to be scattered near the medieval group, and the Kyusyu
and Kansai groups tend to be near the Kamekangroup. These results can be regarded as the relatively weak regional differences in craniofacial
morphology that tend to exist in the Edo period.
As seen in Sakaue (2012), the Kamekan burial
style was utilized almost entirely by the lowermiddle class samurai, and the craniofacial morphology of the Kamekan group can be regarded
as the features of the samurai class living in thecity of Edo. It would be interesting to see
whether these features of the samurai can be seenin the samurai class living in other regional areas
as well. In this study, three out of six males whoare plotted outside the ellipse of the Hayaoke
group were excavated from the Inaridani burialsite where the samurai of the vassals of theTakeda clan were buried in their family cemetery. It could be said that the features of the samurai were not restricted to the samurai within thecity of Edo but were shared with the samurai
class in the regional areas as well.
Unfortunately, the sample sizes of regional
area are restricted because the preservation ofskulls in each regional area tends to be poor. In
the future, further studies and researches areneeded to clarify the regional and social classdifferences between regional areas, after withnew excavations of Edo burial sites in regional
areas, more samples, and a new method for
determining social class.
Acknowledgement
I wish to thank Professor Dr. K. Hirata and Dr.
T. Nagaoka (St. Marianna University School of
Medicine), Dr. K. Funahashi and Dr. S. Yonemoto(the Kyusyu Unibersity Museum), Proffesor G.

19

Suwa (the University Museum, the University ofTokyo), Mr. K. Tanaka (Ueda Someyaoka HighSchool), Mr. A. Fukumoto (Kurashiki Archaeological Museum), Mr. K. Fujiwara (The Kurashiki
City Center of Archaeological Operations), Mr. A.
Minakuchi (Yasugi city Broad Education), Mr. M.
Iwagaki (Torroti Prefecture Center of Archaeological Operations), Mr. M. yamamoto (Kyoto City
Archaeological Museum), and Mr. M. Ryuko(Kyoto City Archaeological Research Institute),
Mr. K. Machida (Nagano Prefectural Museum ofHistory) for kindly allowing me to study thehuman skeletal remains. I wish to express my sincere gratitude to Dr. Y. Mizoguchi (National
Museum of Nature and Science) for his many
helpful suggestions in this study. My sincere
thanks are due to Ms. M. Kajigayama and Ms. A.
Nakatuka (National Museum of Nature and Science) for their valuable advice.
This research is supported by JSPS KAKENHI
Grand Number 15K07242.
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