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The Accessible City

Page 2 of 2

The Accessible City

The Accessible City
- First Edition –CIB PUBLICATION 398
ISBN 978-90-6363-087-4
CIB Working Commission W101
‘Spatial Planning & Infrastructure Development’
Editors: Tatsuo Akashi
Alex Kenya AbikoBob Giddings
Morten Gjerde
Pekka Lahti
Published by:
CIB – International Council for Research andInnovation in Building and Construction
secretariat@cibworld.nl
www.cibworld.nl
All rights reserved. No parts of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by anymeans, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise,
without the prior permission of the copyright owner
CIB assumes no liability regarding the use for any application of thematerial and information contained in this publication.

Copyright © 2014 CIB
Cover photo: Bob Giddings

The Accessible City

PREFACEThis booklet is an interim report on the international research activities of the CIB
Working Commission No.101 (W101) for Spatial Planning and Infrastructure
Development. ‘The Accessible City’ is one of the current work programs of W101,
which was decided at the commission meeting held on May 8, 2013 in Brisbane,
Australia as a part of the CIB World Building Congress 2013.
The basic concept of “The Accessible City” advocated by W101 is described in theoverview section of this booklet. As an expert group on spatial design, we areconvinced that this is a significant step for planning policy now and in the future inorder to make urban spaces and society more open and friendly to all the people living
in cities, as well as to restore the valuable places that tend to be lost due tomotorization, commercialization and even the advancement of information technology.
However, the specific aspects of urban issues differ from country to country, as
evidenced by the various chapter titles of this booklet. It is both inevitable andenjoyable for international discussions to accept and respect such diversity. By
recognizing diversity and considering its origins, we can understand each other betterand achieve fundamental commonalities.
This booklet, as the first edition, consists of seven articles from seven countries atpresent. In the future, W101 is going to call for more authors again, while promoting
the concept of ‘The Accessible City’ to the world.
April, 2014
Editorial Members of CIB W101

Page 1 of 2

Page 2 of 2

The Accessible City

Photo by Morten Gjerde

The Accessible City

Page 1 of 2

CONTENTS
Overview
Australia:

1David Ness

Connections and Synergies between Parts of Cities: Doing More with Less
Brazil: Alex Abiko, Mario Barreiros

Urban Sustainability and Neighborhood Impact Assessment in Brazil
Finland:

Pekka Lahti

Accessibility Paving the Way to Global CoolingJapan:

Tatsuo Akashi

Land Use Suitability Assessment for Making Cities More Accessible’
New Zealand:Morten Gjerde

Facing up to Nature: New Zealand Cities are Changing to Become More
ResilientSouth Africa:

Jeremy Gibberd

Neighborhood Facilities for Sustainability: Accessing Capability to Improve
Quality of Life and Reduce Environmental Impact
United Kingdom:

Bob Giddings

3
7
13
19
23

29

The Renaissance of Public Squares in North West Europe

33

Author’s Profile

39

1

The Accessible City

Page 1 of 2

OVERVIEWThe Accessible City should be a ”City for All” where people can easily and impartiallyreach the services they need in the city without hindrance. The Accessible City should
also have public places with a high-quality built environment that is open to everyone.
The popularization of modern technologies, such as motorization and internet
communication, surely increase flexibility and convenience for most people, but also
tends to separate people into individual and personal, creating invisible barriers topeople who do not use a personal car. It also tends to lead to desolation of public
places where people would otherwise naturally meet face to face Therefore, current
spatial planning should make a greater effort to create and preserve city spaces as truly‘Accessible for All’,

1. Main Concept
The main concept of ‘The Accessible City’ should be a “City for All” where people caneasily and impartially reach the services they need in the city without hindrance. The
Accessible City should also have public places with a high-quality built environmentthat is open to everyone. In contrast, the “Non Accessible City” has many places thatare closed, divided, disconnected and automobile dependent.
It is widely considered that popularization of modern technologies, such as
motorization and internet communication, surely increase flexibility and convenience
for most people, but also tends to separate people into individual and personal,
creating invisible barriers to people who do not use a personal car. It also tends tolead to desolation of public places where people whold otherwise naturally meet face
to face.
Therefore, current spatial planning should make a great effort to create and preservecity spaces as truly “Accessible for All”.

2. Key Factors of the Research on the Accessible CityLand Use Pattern & Transportation Network

Most residents need to be able to reach places that deliver daily necessities andfundamental services such as medical care and education in a short travel time, either
on foot or by frequent public transportation services. The Accessible City should bedesigned on the basis of universal design and social inclusion, which means notreliant on only automobiles.

2Page 2 of 2


The Accessible City

Making Places for People

The Accessible City should have places that are open to the public at key locations in
the city. The places also should be designed with high quality built environment. In
such places, people share the space with others face to face, regardless of age,gender, race, occupation, and rich or poor, thus facilitating connections among people
and preventing isolation of individual residents.



Diverse Places

There should be diverse places in the city, so that each person with different
preferences can find their own comfortable places to be other than their house, sothat people sharing the same interest have the chance to meet each other and get
together. The Accessible City provides places for all sorts of people somewhere in the
city.



City Government that Can See the Faces

In addition to smarter on-line application services and so forth, the city government
should be more accessible, more transparent, more interactive and more flexible, as
well as easier to visit, observe and engage with. The public buildings in the
Accessible City should be located in or close to the center and sub centers of the cityand should be designed so as to embrace people rather than exclude them.

Tools to Assess Accessibility

Appropriate indicators to the level of accessibility of a city are needed. But shown
above, the Accessible City has various aspects, including geographical features,
aesthetic design, public services and social situations. Therefore, research to findcommon indicators that properly reflect the level of accessibility of the cities will besignificant.

3Australia

David Ness

Connections and Synergies between Parts ofCities: Doing More with Less
Integrated planning, where the relationships and synergies between various services and between
facilities are explored, may not only foster increased human interaction, but also deliver services
and facilities in a more efficient, effective manner. Applying principles of system thinking and ‘ideas
networking’ enables synergies to be uncovered, enabling more outcomes to be delivered with lessinputs. This necessitates changes in mindsets so that departments and divisions may understandthe benefits of working together, coordinating services and sharing facilities, and empowering thepoor as equal or lead stakeholders.

1. Introduction

efficient use of resources (energy, water, land,

Creating opportunities for people to meet andmaterials), reduce cost, and reduce emissions andinteract begins with an integrated approach towaste.

planning, where various agencies work together for

Breaking down the barriers between ‘departments’,common ends, rather than in isolation. Unfortunately,

and between ‘divisions’ within departments, may

it is often the case that transport planners plan

lead to improved community outcomes than may betransport systems, housing agencies plan housing,achieved by more isolated, separate approaches.

health planners plan health services and facilities,

Cross-division and trans-disciplinary approaches to

education departments plan schools, recreation andplanning

sport departments plan parks and sporting facilities,

synergies and innovative solutions, especially whenand so forth. Such insular thinking and approaches

accompanied by social inclusion, where ‘win-winsoften leads to separation of services and facilities,

may result from cooperation among government,with little consideration of how services might

corporate and community stakeholders.

andprojectsmay

uncovercreativeinteract and facilities might be juxtaposed or shared.
Furthermore, planning of separate services and3. Theory

facilities may be an inefficient use of resources; itAlexander

may add un-necessary built footprint and lead todemonstrate that, in tackling complex problems

waste and excessive cost.

(including urban planning), it is possible to uncover(1964)

was

one

of

the

first

to

‘functioning linkages’ between ecological balance,

2. Proposition

population

Hence, the proposition put forward by this paper istransportation system, and water and energythat integrated planning may not only improve

resources, recognizing that “each of these issues

opportunities

andinteracts with several of the others” (p.3). He

accessibility of services, but also enable more

introduced the notion of ‘ideas networking’, whichforcommunity

interaction

growth,socialconditions,

the

4

later was more developed as ‘system thinking’‘multi-functionality’, using water to add urban vitality,(Checkland,

multiplerecreational opportunities and economic growth

perspectives to be taken of a particular problem,

potential, thereby improving the quality of life of‘zooming out’ for strategic planning and synthesis

residents. These principles can be extended toand ‘zooming in for in depth analysis. An urban

wider planning of services and facilities within a city,transport corridor can be viewed from a narrow

inclusive of the views of various stakeholders.

viewpoint, including the road or rail infrastructure,Inthe traffic and so forth. On the other hand, by taking(Checkland, 2001) enables stakeholders to express

a wider perspective we can examine its linkages totheir ‘world views’ of a desired future, which canland use planning, housing, biodiversity, and energy

then be networked to discern linkages and clusters.

and water systems. As shown in the diagram, water

Some may highlight the need for local jobs andfrom a road may be harvested by permeable

services, while others may envisage increased

pavements, bio-filtered and serve the natural

walking and cycling routes. Such ideas may beenvironment, green recreational space and adjacentlinkedhousing. Noise barriers may double as solar

availability of local jobs, public services andcollectors, which provide energy for electric rail

shopping facilities, with ease of access fromtransport, transit oriented development and housing.

housing, will not only reduce travel demand, reduce2001).

This

enablesthisregard,to‘soft

uncoversystems

synergies.

methodology’For

example,congestion and emissions, but also promote walking,healthier lifestyles and social interaction.

4. Integrated and symbiotic planning
The OECD (2007, p.15) noted that various
infrastructure systems such as transport, energy
and water show signs of increasing convergence:‘the various systems interact ever more closely with
one another and engender all kinds of synergies,
substitution effects and complementarities’. This
thinking is reflected by the UN (2011), which
promotes integration across sectors and between
Integrated infrastructure systems (Ness, 2008)

institutions, leading to improved eco-efficiency.
The Swedish ‘SymbioCity’ concept (2013) is also

To take an actual example, the active, beautiful andbased on symbiosis – ‘the integration between two

clean waters program in Singapore views water in aor more organisms in a mutually beneficial union’,

much

wider

(‘mono-use’).

sense

than

Rather,

just

water

supplyas is evident in natural ecosystems. To take aitdemonstrates

simple example, banyan trees and banyan wasps

5

benefit mutually from each other. Indeed, neither

was considering expanding their services and range

can survive if separated from each other. The treeof courses, as was an adjacent university. In

relies on wasps for pollination, while wasps rely

addition, the municipality was planning a newupon the tree as their habitat and foraging location

community library. Instigated by a governmentforinspired

infrastructure agency charged with coordinatedindustrial ecology, whereby various enterprises

planning across government, the various parties

have a mutually inter-dependent relationship, with

were encouraged to converse and consider thewaste from one becoming the raw materials forinter-relationship of their services and facilities. It

another, within a holistically planned eco-industrial

emerged that secondary students and staff could

precinct.

benefit by interaction with students/staff from theSymbioCity regards urban areas in a similar holistic

further education and university sectors, also themanner; it identifies the links between landscapewider community. The opportunity for a joint, sharedplanning,architecture,

campus and library then arose, with the educational

information and communications technology, urban

campus shared by the community, a concept thatfunctions, industry and buildings, energy, transport,

was greeted enthusiastically by the various parties.

water

the

This would also reduce building footprint, overall

synergies between such urban systems then leads

cost, and achieve greater utilization of the shared

to a wealth of environmental and economic gains,

space.

larvae.

Such

waste

supplyandunderstandinghas

management,

sanitation.

Unlockingincluding increased resource efficiency.

6. Equitable access and social inclusion
5. Case study: cooperative educational andAs the UN (2011) has emphasized, urban poor

community facilities planning

communities

The South Australian Strategic Infrastructure Plan

development of their settlements. It has applied an(2005) is underpinned by key principles, including

integrated, participatory and bottom-up approach toclose collaboration between government agencies

pro-poor settlement in Asia, such as the Miraculous

on the management, use and co-location of assets.

Hills Resettlement, Rodriguez, Philippines. The UN

Shared and multiple uses of assets throughEconomic and Social Commission for Asia Pacificco-location is strongly promoted, as is the design of(UNESCAP) worked with community organizations

adaptable and multi-purpose facilities - as illustrated

such as the Homeless People’s Federation ofby the following example.

Philippines, eliciting the needs of the marginalized

A regional town in South Australia was served by

via focus groups, visioning workshops and the like.

three secondary schools, which had experienced

Institutionalizing partnerships among local actors,

declining enrolments, and a new centralized school

including governments, urban poor communities,

was under consideration. At the same time, thethe private sector and development practitioners

regional technical and further education department

was an effective way to find ‘win-win’ solutions. The

can

and

want

to

managethe6

Aga Khan award winning Citra Niaga developmentin Samarinda, East Kalimantan, exemplifies such an

References

approach – with the underlying idea of ‘urban

Alexander, C. (1964), Notes on the synthesis ofdevelopment without eviction’. The mixed use

form, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA.

commercial development project was conceived

Aga Khan Development Network (1986), Citra

through collaborations with central and local
government,

theprivatesectorand,

Niaga Urban Development.

mostCheckland, P. (2001), Soft systems methodology, in

importantly, with the low income inhabitants andRosenhead, J. & Mingers, J. (eds), Rational

street hawkers, all who are represented on a board.

analysis for a problematic world revisited:

In addition to an open space for gatherings, a

problem structuring methods for complexity,

performance space and amenities, the project

uncertainty and conflict, Wiley and Sons Ltd.

consists of house-shops for high to middle income

Joham, C., Metcalfe, M., Sastrowardoyo, S. (2009),

earners, kiosks for low income level, and pavement

Projectstalls (kaki lima) for the lower income level. Profits

methods, Int. Jnl. Project Management, 27,

from the sale of house-shops subsidized the

pp.787-794.

conceptualization

using

pragmatic

development of the kaki lima. Although a certain

Ness, D. (2008), Sustainable infrastructure in China:

percentage of the development is occupied by thetowards a factor improvement in resource

low income vendors, providing security and profit for

productivity, Int. Jnl. Sust. Devel. and World

them and the local community, the developer also

Ecology, 15, No 4, pp.288-231.

managed to earn a considerably higher rate ofOECD (2007), Infrastructure to 2030: telecom, land

return. This shows how ‘win-win’ equitable solutionstransport, water and energy, OECD, Paris.

are possible through stakeholder partnerships andSouth Australian Government (2005), Strategic

synergies (Aga Khan Development Network, 1986).

Infrastructure Plan for South Australia.
SymbioCity

7. Conclusion
breaksSustainability

bySwedenwww.symbiocity.org

The paper has illustrated how integrated planning,which(2013),

down

betweenand liveable cities? Guidelines for developing

bureaucratic ‘divisions’ and forms partnerships

eco-efficient and socially inclusive infrastructure,

betweenUN, Bangkok, Thailand.

stakeholders,

the

can

barriers

United Nations (2011) Are we building competitive

resultinmorecommunity benefits with less resource use, lessXing K., Ness D., Lin F. (2013). A service innovation

pollution and waste, and less cost. Synergies canmodel for synergistic community transformation:

be uncovered between various services andintegrated application of systems theory andfacilities, increasing opportunities for community

product-service system, Journal of Cleaner

interaction and making the city more accessible to

Production 43, pp.93-102.

all, not least the urban poor and marginalized.

7

Brazil Alex Kenya Abiko and Mario Barreiros

Urban Sustainability and Neighborhood
Impact Assessment in Brazil
The Neighborhood Impact Assessment (NIA) is a tool that can assist both entrepreneurs and governmentsthat are concerned with reducing the negative and maximizing the positive aspects arising from new building
developments or related activities in urban areas.
Current Brazilian legislation is not however sufficiently comprehensive for this type of evaluation to befocused on environmental sustainability issues. In this brief paper we argue that environmental problems
such as over-exploitation of natural and urban resources (water, urban structures, etc), global warming (CO2and methane), threats to human health and comfort (emergence of urban heat islands) and groundwater
recharge could ideally be incorporated into relevant sustainability studies.
We conclude that the inclusion of sustainability requirements in NIA legislation could be an important tool formaking newly urbanized areas - settlements, horizontal condominiums and social housing developments more environmentally sustainable, as well as contributing to cities becoming more accessible

1. Urbanization Process and Sustainability

Post-2015 Development Agenda (UN Habitat, 2012),

Since the publication of the landmark book "The

rapid population growth has advanced hand in hand

Limits of Growth" by D.H. MEADOWS et al. (1972),with intensive urbanization at global level. In 2007,

weby

the UN calculated that for the first time in history

governments and the academic sector with the

50% of the world´s people lived in cities and towns,

question of the finiteness, and consequently thea percentage which has since continued tosustainability, of natural resources. The threat of theincrease.

depletion through excessive exploitation of the

The impacts of urbanization are closely related tonatural resources needed to sustain the activities of

the issue of sustainability, given that naturalmodern industrialized societies, and the receding

resources are obviously required for cities andlikelihood of such resources being renewed, has

towns to take root and be maintained over time.

become a major topic on the policy agendas of

These resources consist not only of building

many countries, the UN and other international

materials but also of the multifarious other inputs,organizations.

including water and energy, needed for urban-based

Linked to the problem of natural resources

activities.

exploitation, worldwide population growth (totalling 7

resources in turn generate waste in the form of solid

billion people in 2011 according to UN Habitat,matter, liquid effluents or gases. REES (2012)2012) is a further significant issue affecting theargues that cities are increasingly unsustainable,

sustainability equation. According to the reportand can in reality be likened to "Black Holes","Sustainable urbanization - Thematic Think Piece",

consuming what is produced by substantial parts ofproduced by the UN System Task Team on thethe ecosphere. Meanwhile, the ecological footprint

have

witnessed

growing

concern

These renewable or non-renewable

8

forges ahead due to population growth andis bound to have a greater or lesser impact onburgeoning consumption. Some countries have an

ambient temperatures, depending on the size andecological footprint 15 times larger than their entire

scale of the particular buildings envisaged, the typeterritories. This is the case, for example, of theof materials employed in their construction and their

Netherlands. Rees is adamant in his view thatreflectance ratio. The link between UHI and summer

calculating ecological footprints is important forstorms studied by BORNSTEIN & LIN (2000) alsoplanning sustainable urban development strategies.

needs to be be taken into consideration. .

Sustainability is not confined to what is actually

Drainage is another important issue to consider

consumedandvis-à-vis the environmental sustainability of cities.

environmental quality of urban areas are also

Altered rainfall patterns (heavier rainfall, etc) are forseriously affected by the byproducts of consumption

example(solidchange (ASHLEY et al., 2005).

bywaste,

contaminants,

cities. The

effluents,
etc).

While

sustainability

heat,

particulate

construction

current

featuresofclimateanddemolition waste is probably produced in greater

2. Urbanization and Neighborhood Impact inquantities than household waste (AGOPYAN, JOHN

Brazil2011), raw household sewage, industrial effluents

According to the Brazilian Institute of Geography

and other waste products entering water bodies are

and Statistics (IBGE) 2010 Census, 84.3% of

the major causes of the pollution of rivers andBrazil´s population now live in urban areas. Of thestreams running through urban areas.

country´s 190,732,694 people, over 160 million live

Even

more

disturbing,thereleaseinto

thein cities. In the graphic bellow its is shown that thisatmosphere of gases and particles from fuels

urbanization process had decreased in the last

burned in cities by transport, industry or in theyearselectrical energy generation process, is increasingly

issue.

but

it

is

still

an

importantresponsible for climate change (CARTER et al.,2007), and evidence exists that this kind of pollution
is

also

associated

with

lung

cancerandcardiovascular and other diseases (POPPE III,
ARDEN et al., 2002).
As for urban impacts, we also need to look at the

Urbanization process in Brazil
90.0
80.0
70.0
60.0
50.0
40.0
30.0

problem of Urban Heat Islands (UHI), which are a
product of the size and density of buildings located

20.0
10.0
‐

in urban areas. OKE (1967) shows that a direct

1940

1950

1960

1970

1980

1991

2000

2010

% urban population

relationship exists between the size of cities andheat islands, from which it can be deduced that

Source: Brazilian Institute of Geography anderecting a new building or the development of a site

Statistics (IBGE)9

The most logical approach by government and-society has therefore been to focus concern ontransport;

improving- ventilation and lighting;urbanlivingconditions.

Concretetraffic

generation

anddemandforpublicexpression of this concern was the approval in 2001-

of Law 10.257 which introduced the "City Statute"

heritage.

(CARVALHO; ROSSBACH, 2010).

The above are the minimum requirements called for

The City Statute sets down official norms and

by Federal Law. Local governments and councils

standards governing the use of urban property in theare expected to use these provisions as apublic interest, basically to enhance the safety andbenchmark for pursuing their specific town planningwelfareinterests, and in particular to ensure that spatialof

citizens,

as

well

as

to

ensureurban landscape and natural and culturalenvironmental balance.

planning, for example, conforms to the criteria laid

FERNANDES (2010) points to the fact that the City

down for authorizing building projects and other

Statute has been acclaimed internationally. Brazil

activities.

was, for example, inscribed in the UN Habitat "RollSince the 1980s, Brazilian society has been awareof Honour" in 2006, partly for having approved thisoflaw - which finally provided a legal framework for aenvironmental problems. Despite this perceived

series of wide-ranging reform proposals put forward

concern, the aforementioned City Statute fails to

by interested stakeholders and other sectors overmention (or contain a specific provision on)

many years against a background of social, politicalquestions related to neighborhood environmental

and legal dispute. All in all, the City Statutesustainability. Nor does it make any mention of theconstitutes a key instrument for working towards the

positive contribution that well-planned and executed"Accessible City" - a place where services arebuilding developments or other activities could makeavailable and within the reach of everyone.

toOne of the provisions of the City Statute is thedesirable list of topics that could have been be

Neighborhood Impact Assessment study aimed atincorporated in the Statute includes: greenhouse

analysing the positive and negative effects ofgas emissions (GHG), pollutants and particulates,

construction/development projects or activities onsolid waste, sewage, solar radiation absorption,

the quality of life of the population living in andinfrared waves, soil sealing and other related topics.

around urban areas.

SHARIFI

This NIA should include details of at least themethodologies

forfollowing:assessments:

LEED-ND- population density;

Communities-ECC-(US); BREEAM Communities- urban and community amenities;(UK);- land use and occupation;

Ecocity (EU) and SCR (Australia). These authors- real estate prices;

concluded that despite differences of approach dueneighborhood

mitigating

impacts

negativeassociatedenvironmental& MURAYAMA (2012)

CASBEE-UD

fallout. A

evaluatedneighborhood(US);(Japan);

with

Earth

7

impactCraft

HQ2-R(France);

10

to the different methods used and a degree ofland area of the development project or activity;

analytical subjectivity, the use of Neighborhood- Total impervious area (and percentage) vis-à-vis

Sustainability

total land area, and forecast volume of water in theAssessments

could

neverthelessprove to be useful for urban planning policy andrainy season;

decision-making. The authors make no secret of the- Contribution of the development or activity to thefact that the NSA are still undergoing trials andcreation of a 'Heat Island' in the neighborhood,

improvement, but they are convinced that the

takingassessments will make a positive contribution tocharacteristics (rate of absorption and reflectance).

account

of

construction

materials

developing awareness of sustainability in this

4. Conclusion

particular area.

As

we

can

see,

the

Neighborhood

Impact3. Suggestions of Technical Criteria for

Assessment (NIA) is a tool that can assist both

Assessing Sustainability with NIAs

entrepreneurs and governments that are concerned

The following suggestions are divided into two

with decreasing the negative and maximizing thesections:

impacts

positive aspects arising from the implementation of

associated with sustainability and (ii) the adoption ofa new building development or activity in urban

measures to mitigate the impacts that affect theareas.

(i)anassessment

of

the

sustainability of the particular development projector

activityandthesurroundingarea

However,current

Brazilianlegislation

is

not

(neighborhood).

sufficiently comprehensive for this type of evaluation

The basic items to be evaluated are:to be focused on environmental sustainability- A CO2 footprint of the new development, taking into

issues. We

account the number of residents and mean CO2

over-exploitation of natural and urban resources

production per person;-(water, urban structures, etc), global warming (CO2-Annual consumption of clean drinking water;and- Annual production of household sewage and its(emergence of urban heat islands) and groundwater

final disposal;

recharge could be incorporated into the assessment- Annual production of solid wastes and final

studies.

argue

methane),

that,

human

healthforandexample,comfortdisposal;- Production of methane gas based on solid waste

The inclusion of sustainability requirements in NIA

studies;legislation could be an important tool for making- Production of recyclable material and its disposal;

newly urbanized areas - settlements, horizontal- Annual estimated consumption of electricity;

condominiums and social housing developments -- Annual gas consumption;

more environmentally sustainable, as well as- Annual projected volume of stormwater on the total

contributing to cities becoming more accessible to11people as a whole.

Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.

Regardless of the existence of voluntary-type

2007.

environmental certification regulations at the local

CARVALHO, C.S.; ROSSBACH, A. (Org.). The City

government level, the provision of permits for new

Statute: A commentary. São Paulo : Cities

developments and activities should enable newly

Alliance and Ministry of Cities - Brazil, 2010.

urbanized

spacestobenefitfrommeasures

COHEN,

Barney.

Urbanizationindeveloping

designed to ensure more sustainable occupation.

countries: Current trends, future projections, andThis in itself would significantly improve overall

key challenges for sustainability. Technology inquality of life for people living in Brazilian moresociety, v. 28, n. 1, p. 63-80, 2006.
FERNANDES, Edésio. The City Statute and theaccessible cities.

legal-urban

order.

In:

CARVALHO,C.S.;

ROSSBACH, A. (Org.). The City Statute: A

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predicting climate change, risks and responses

forin urban areas. Water Science & Technology, v.

Predicament of Mankind, New American Library,52, n. 5, pp 265–273, 2005.

1972.

BORNSTEIN, Robert; LIN, Qinglu. Urban heatislands

andthunderstorms

summertime
inAtlanta:convective
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the

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ontheOKE, Tim R. City size and the urban heat island.
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1967..
POPE

III,

C.

Arden

cardiopulmonary

et

al.

Lung

mortality,andcancer,long-term

CARTER, Timothy R. et al. Assessment Methods

exposure to fine particulate air pollution. JAMA:

and the Characterisation of Future Conditions.

the journal of the American Medical Association,

Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation andv. 287, n. 9, p. 1132-1141, 2002.

Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to

REES, William; WACKERNAGEL, Mathis. Urban

the Fourth Assessment Report of the IPCC,

ecological footprints: why cities cannot beIntergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.

sustainable–and

why

they

are

a

key

to

12

sustainability.The Urban Sociology Reader, p.
157, 2012.
ROSENFELD, Arthur H. et al. Mitigation of urban
heatislands:

materials,

utilityprograms,

updates.Energy and buildings, v. 22, n. 3, p.
255-265, 1995.
SHARIFI, Ayyoob; MURAYAMA, Akito.
Reviewof

Seven

Selected

A Critical

Neighborhood

Sustainability Assessment Tools. Environmental
Impact Assessment Review, 38, pp.73-87, 2012
UN Habitat. Sustainable urbanization. UN System Task Team On The Post-2015 Developmen
t Agenda, 2012. (http://www.unhabitat.org/dow
nloads/docs/11857_1_594727.pdf )13

Pekka Lahti

FinlandAccessibility Paving the Way to Global Cooling
The cities are responsible not only for the majority of global greenhouse gases but also forinnovations needed to solve the problem of global warming. It is perhaps impossible to predictwhether there will be enough and soon enough novel technologies and eco-efficient innovations, buturban developers and designers have their specific task to promote urban eco-efficiency
independent of that. Urban density can be increased, walking, cycling and public transport
promoted. When accessibility is improved less infrastructure is needed and travel behavior willchange.

1. The causalities between climate change,
10

urban growth and urban accessibility

9

Urbanization is an expression of economic growth.

Urban
Rural

7

settlements.

are6commonly known as platforms for new innovations

5

and

4

locomotives

urban

of

agglomerations

national

economies.

Inpost-industrial society the main economic drivers
and accelerators are information technology andnew services networking together in complex and

Total

8

New innovations are emerging especially in urban
Big

World urban and rural population 1950‐2050 (UN 2011)

billion
(109)

Urban

Total

Rural

3

rural peak in
2020

2

Rural peak in 2020

1—

often unpredictable ways. The mixture flourishes
especially in creative urban environment.

The global population prospect until 2050 by UN(2011) shows that the big picture is urbanization

The current phase of urbanization is historicallyand after 2020 the global growth is totally urban.

exceptional. Soon we will enter the era of almost
complete urban dominance1.

This creates an interesting ecological dilemma,
which can be called the ecourban paradox. On theother hand the increased productivity allows

1

According to UN statistics (2011) the world

population has been mostly (over 50 %) urban since2008. Moreover, according to UN prospects (2011)
the rural population will peak rather soon (around2020) and after that the world population growth istotally based on urban growth.

increased consumption of materials and energy(often interpreted as growing living standard andwelfare)creating

environmental

problems

likepollution, global warming, loss of biodiversity etc.

14

technological, social and ecological innovations.

urban population 1950‐2050 (statistics and forecast by UN)
average change 1950‐2010 +2.6 %/a

7billion (109)3Some of them like solar power, bio fuels, fuel cells,2

Y=-3.7062x +22489x -5E+07x+3E+10

6low-carbon

urban population (billion)y = ‐3,7062x3 + 22489x2 ‐ 5E+07x + 3E+10
R² = 0,9997

5

buildings

andvehicles,distributed

2

R =0.9997

energy networks, carbon capturing, recycling of

4water and waste, hydroponic urban agriculture,3

telework

etc.

are

expected

to

solve

the

2

environmental problems.
1
0
1950

1960

1970

1980

1990

2000
year

2010

2020

2030

2040

2050

eco-efficient solutions replace the old ones rapidly

global consumption of fossil energy (coal, oil and natural gas)
1970‐2011 (BP statistics), average change +2.7 %/a18

enough to turn the curve of increasing atmosphericy = ‐0,0167x3 + 101,28x2 ‐ 204935x + 1E+08
R² = 0,9864

3

16

2

Y=-0.0167x +101.28x -204935x+1E+08

CO2e level to a decreasing track? If yes, then global

1 000 Mtoe/a14
2

warming will finally turn into global cooling.

R =0.9864

12

The crucial question is: can or will the new

10
8

TODAY

6
4

POSSIBLE ACTIONSBUSINESS AS USUAL

2
0
1970

1980

1990

2000

2010

2020

2030

2040

GLOBAL
WARMING

2050

year

RADICAL ACTIONSWITH STRONGEMISSION CUTS

atmospheric CO2 (ppm) at Mauna Loa (Hawaii) 1960‐2012(NOAA statistics), average change (+1.5 ppm/a) +0.4 %/a

500

BUSINESS AS USUALWITH SOMEEMMISSION CUTS

FUTUREGLOBAL
WARMINGGLOBAL
COOLINGppm

480

y = 4E‐15x2 + 1x + 1959
R² = 1

2

Y=4E-15x +1x+1959

Options to global warming or cooling

460
440

2

R =1

420
400
380

2. Billion dollar question

360
340

Sir Nicholas Stern (2006) showed that the global

320

warming can be stopped to the level 500–550 ppm

300
1960

1970

1980

1990

2000

2010

2020

2030

2040

2050

year

CO2e by 2050 using only one percent (-1…+3.5 %)2strongof the global GDP to investments in new technology

correlation between three global phenomena:and other innovations – “if we start to take strongurban population, consumption of fossil energy

action now”. The later we start the harder it gets.

Statisticaltrendsdescribing

thesources and atmospheric carbon dioxide (Lahti
2013 based on UN, BP and NOAA statistics)
2

On the other hand urbanism creates new arenas
andsocialnetworks

stimulating

scientific,

actually Stern himself later (2008) doubled his

estimate to two percent because of updated data on
carbon emissions (Jowit & Wintour 2008)

Global Emissions (GtCO2e)

1570

The global GDP 3 in 2013 was approximately 87

60billion international dollars and during 2015 it will50

reach 100 billion international dollars (IMF 2013).

40

One percent of this is one billion dollars. Can global
warming be stopped by one billion dollars and what30

is the specific role and share of urban planners and2015 High Peak - 1.0%/yr
2020 High Peak - 2.5%/yr
2030 High Peak - 4.0%/yr
2040 High Peak - 4.5%/yr (overshoot)2020 Low Peak - 1.5%/yr
2030 Low Peak - 2.5%/yr
2040 Low Peak - 3.0%/yr

20
10
0
2000

2020

2040

designers in that endeavor?

2060

2080

Different urban forms and development patterns

2100

Meinshausen´s (2006) six scenarios of possible

require different amounts of materials, energy andemission cuts (%/year) on how to achieve theproduce different amounts of emissions and otherrequired level of carbon emissions 500–550 ppm

impacts.

CO2e by the year 2050 (Stern Review 2006).

road area m2/floor area m2 in areas of different built densities (ea = floorarea/land area) in Finnish built up and town planned areas (in 250 m grid)10

y = 0,0662x‐0,923

m2/m2

R² = 0,9476

average value for all 250 m * 250 m grid squares inthe same density classaverage value ea = 0,105 (average density of all built up areas)
medium value ea = 0,173 (half of the built floor area has higher density)

1
average road density value = 0,51 (average road area per floor area)
medium road density value = 0,34 (half of the built floor area has more road area per floor area)

in high density urban areas there isnotable variation, i.e. the street
demand can be regulated
considerably by skillful urban design

0,1

0,01
0,00

0,50

1,00

1,50

2,00

2,50

3,00

3,50

ea

4,00

Higher building density (ea) requires less infrastructure (like roads and streets) per capita than lower
density. The correlation is very strong. Evidence from Finnish built up areas (total of 339 million sq.m
floor space and 3 223 sq.km land area) in 2013 is based on data from official sources (Building Registerand Digiroad) aggregated in 250 m * 250 m grid (Lahti & Rehunen 2013).
3

Gross domestic product based on purchasing-power-parity (PPP) valuation of country GDP

16

Generally, expanding urban agglomerations require
ever

more extensive

technical

infrastructures,transportation, energy and water systems. Larger
daily urban areas mean growing average distances
between homes, jobs and services. This creates
greater traffic volumes and larger space needs fortransportation and other technical infrastructure.
Increasing fuel consumption and emissions per
capita follow.

However, higher urban densities require less land
and infrastructure than lower densities, provide
higher accessibility, shorter distances and lower
energy consumption and emissions.

Higher densities, shorter distances and better
accessibility support also walking and cycling thus
decreasing the need for using cars and othermotorized vehicles increasing urban eco-efficiency,
resilience and global cooling. Travel behavior has its
health impacts as well. Recent study in the city ofOulu showed that the farther from the city centre
people live, the higher is their weight index4. The
impact starts from 5 km and is still effective in the
distance of 180 km. The closer to your job andservices you live, the more probably you will walk,cycle or use public transport. Urban planning anddesign matters.

In theory, urban growth can also take place without
increasing the urban land area, but then new

Pedestrian

construction must happen only within existing urban

European cities Amsterdam (Netherlands) andboundary. Building density can also grow when

Lucca (Italy) (photos: P. Lahti 2009 and 2011)4

The data is from the ongoing doctoral study of

Tiina Lankila in University of Oulu (Väyrynen 2013)

andcyclistfriendly

traditional

17

using infill options (utilizing inefficiently built or totally

welfare to the whole community. Urbanization

unbuilt areas, brownfields, waste land etc.) andseems to be one of the central targets on the way toconstructing vertically (on top of existing buildings or

better living conditions. The urban population isunderground).

growing even in the highly urbanized and oldindustrial countries in Europe and North America –Scientifically and especially for the motivation ofand according to UN prospects (2011) it will grow aturban developers, it is interesting to find out relevant

least until 2050. Due to growing living standard

and effective causalities between urban form and(floor space per capita) the urban built space iscarbon footprint. Urban growth as such is not a

expanding even faster.

resultofurban

planningbutsocio-economic

development. Instead, questions of land use andIn theory the carbon footprint of urban development

urban form, like overall building densities, street

is rather easy to determine by subtracting the

network pattern, sizes and shapes of building blocks

greenhousegases

releasedand buildings, transport systems, location, amountdevelopment

from

the

and type of parking facilities and urban green areas

embedded (captured) in the urban environment

etc. are natural elements of urban planning andincluding both carbon sinks in the built environment

design. Many of these have a close connection withand urban green and blue areas. In order to allow

accessibility.

comparisons between alternative plans or design

by

the

urban

greenhouse

gases

schemes the result can be divided by the number ofAccessibility,andconsequently

transportation

volumes, can be used as sub-indicators of urban

inhabitants or by the amount of built floor space(Lahti 2013).

eco-efficiency. Transportation is responsible forapproximately 14 per cent of global greenhouse

The practical problem is where to get valid data forgases while residential and office buildings (their

all relevant elements of the process in order toheating and electricity) are responsible for about 15

calculate the total and global net impact. The data is

per cent (see for instance Baumert et al. 2005).

needed for all types of urban built form and for allphases of the life-cycle of urban development

3. Tools to assess urban carbon footprint(including construction and operation of urban units

Urban growth creates new economic values andas well as transportation). The specific impacts

Formula for global cooling by urban development (Lahti 2013). If the nominator (and the whole result) of theequation is positive, then the development contributes to global cooling. The bigger is the result, the more
effective is the planned development option. The relative figure per capita enables comparison to analternative option or a neighbouring area.

18(embedded and released carbon per unit) are

References

needed also in different geographical and climatic

Baumert, K. A., T. Herzog & J. Pershing (2005).
Navigating the Numbers – Greenhouse Gas Data andInternational Climate Policy. World Resources Institute,
Washington D.C.
European Commission (2014), Press release 22.1.2014:
2030 climate and energy goals for a competitive,
secureandlow-carbonEUeconomy.
http://europa.eu/rapid/press-release_IP-14-54_en.htm
European Commission (2013) Green paper. A 2030
framework for climate and energy policies27.3.2013,
Brussels
16p.
http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:52013DC0169:EN:NOT
IMF (2013) World Economic outlook 2013 April;
http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2013/01/weod
ata/download.aspx
Jowit, Juliette and Patrick Wintour (2008), ”Cost of
tackling global climate change has doubled, warns
Stern. Author of landmark report says 2% of GDP isneeded”
The
Guardian
26
June
2008.
http://www.theguardian.com/environment/2008/jun/26/
climatechange.scienceofclimatechange
Lahti, Pekka (2013), Cooling the Planet by Urban
Restructuring. CIB 2013 World Congress, Brisbane
5–9.5.2013. session W108/W089. Proceedings, paper
no 434. 14 p.
Lahti, Pekka & Rehunen Antti (2013). Finnish road density
compared with building density in built up and town
planned areas (unpublished statistical data from
KEKO project), VTT and SYKE 2013.
Meinshausen, M. (2006), 'What does a 2°C target mean
for greenhouse gas concentrations? A brief analysis
based on multi-gas emission pathways and several
climate sensitivity uncertainty estimates', Avoiding
dangerous climate change, in H.J. Schellnhuber et al.
(eds.), Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp.
265–280.
Nicholas Stern (2006), Stern Review on the Economics of
Climate Change (2006). 579 p.
United Nations (2011), World Urbanization Prospects: The
2011Revision.
POP/DB/WUP/Rev.2011/1/F3.
http://esa.un.org/unup/CD-ROM/Urban-Rural-Populati
on.htm
Väyrynen, Heli (2013), Hoikat asuvat keskustassa, Kaleva
25.11.2013

conditions.

4. Towards carbon neutral world and cities
Since the Kyoto Protocol in 1997 more than 200
countries have set their goals to mitigate the climatechange. The latest EU framework on climate andenergy for 2030 was presented 22 January 2014 by
the European Commission. It sets the target to
reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 40 per cent in
2030 compared to the level of 1990. The previous
EU target (2007) was 20 per cent by the year 2020.
EU's goal of reducing greenhouse gas emissions by
2050 is 80–95% below 1990 levels (EC 2014).

Many cities have already set their target to be a
“carbon neutral city” in 2030 or 2050. To be able toassess and validate the actual development theyneed scientifically reliable tools and databases. A
variety of tools already exist and a lot more areunder construction (Lahti 2013).

If and when a reliable calculation result is available,
it can be compared with the global average or with
the neighbouring city or region. Those urban
development plans and projects that can show apositive

impact(decreasing

level

of

carbonemissions) to the net carbon balance can claim thatthey are contributing to the global climate changetargets. But only if the calculation includes allelements

in theurban development

covering all phases of their life-cycle.

process

19

Japan

Tatsuo Akashi

Land Use Suitability Assessment for
Making Cities More Accessible’
The accessibility of a city in the spatial context is affected mainly by land use and transportation,such as how compactly the urban areas are formed, how optimally the regional service facilities arelocated and how densely and frequently the public transportation services are operated. The levelof accessibility is estimated by such indices as the ratio of population who live in areas that areaccessible to a certain service within a certain travel time on foot or by public transportation,
without using a private motor vehicle, so as to measure the current state of a city, compare it withother cities and establish desirable targets for the city in the future.

1. Introduction

decreasing over the long term, it will inevitably

The concept of the Compact City has gained muchgenerate vacant houses here and there that cause

attention in recent urban policy aspect in Japan,

inefficiencies

together with “urban renaissance”.

maintenance costs will become a major burden in

The compact city has been advocated in view of

the near future, which we need to avoid.

ininfrastructureservicesandsustainability such as low energy consumption in
European and other developed countries, but in

2. Problems

Japan, the policy on the compact city is mainly

Scattered urban formation is assisted by private

driven by the perspective of the national population,cars, and as everyone knows, private car has been

which started to decrease since 2007, as well as

one of the leading industries of Japan. It is sure that

rapid aging.

private car expands mobility for large number of

Looking the typical form of urban area in Japanesepeople, but it’s not for everyone. We should pay

cities, especially suburban and local cities, havemore attention to the fact that there are people who

quite a few sprawled housing areas on the outskirts.

are not able to use their private car, and even

In addition, important service facilities that attract

though automobile users are the majority, they are

many citizens such as retail stores, hospitals,

never a small number. Therefore, housing areas

libraries, halls and even the city government

without frequent public transport services dividebuildings are hollowed out from the center toward

people depending on their mobility, and people who

the suburbs. This occurred during the era of urban

are not able to use their private car are excluded

population growth, but still continues even after

from many opportunities in their daily life, including

population growth has stopped. As a result, figure offor social interaction, due to the automobile

urban area became more or less spread anddependent urban structure.

scattered, and thus cities have become dependent

Seen from another angle, the market in a free

on automobiles. However, now that the population is

economy tends to ignore the needs of the minority,

20

such as people without a private car, which we could

studied intensively, but few are designed forcall it as a “market failure”. Thus, urban area

measuring the performance of a city in view ofgenerally has a tendency to be spreading andpublicscattering, become less accessible for people who

developed by Transport for London (TfL) is

do not use a car when it’s leaved, contrary to beseemingly the most well known indicator, but it only

more accessible for people who use car. Spreading

stands the supply side of public transportationand scattered tendency is seen in not only the

without where to go. In order to provide more

locations of residential developments but also

appropriate indicators to describe the level ofcommercial, medical, educational and other publicaccessibility of a city in view of people’s quality offacilities. That is why the intervention of special

life, the author and NILIM members have proposed

planning is required, according to the context of thethe following indices;

Accessible City.

(1) Accessibility Index Ttransportation.

For

example,PTALs

The first indicator, “Index T”, reflects the accessibility

3. Policy Directionlevel of each part of the city in order to identify areas

The policy direction of the compact city is describedwith good and poor accessibility (See figure 1). It is

as “Redesign Cities to be Livable on Foot”. Thismeasured by expected transit time by publicmeans that cities should be accessible by public

transportation including on foot, but not by privatetransportation, which is one of the basic aspects ofcar, from each place in the city to a specific facility

the Accessible City.

that provides a certain service to access. Technically,

According to this context, the term “compact city”

each location is denoted by a 100-m size mesh indoes not necessarily mean the physical form of anprinciple that covers the whole habitable area of theurban area such as small and densely consolidated,

city. Facilities to access are selected as basic

but it means performance based condition of urban

services in terms of quality of life. Expected transit

structure that residential sites and service facilities

time includes expected waiting time in order tothat necessary for everyday life should be locatedreflect

close together or should be connected closely bytransportation services.

frequent public transportation. In other words, it(2) Accessibility Index P

allows diverse of urban form, for example, densely

The second indicator, “Index P”, estimates themixed use, linear or finger shaped with publicaccessible performance of the whole city. It istransport axes, or multiple small urban areas

defined as the ratio of population living within ascattered but connected with each other by frequentcertain level of accessibility, for instance, within 30

public transportation.

minutes to the nearest medical service by walking

frequencyofoperationofpublicand public transportation. The objectives of Index P

4. Indicators

are to put a measurable goal to improve the quality

Indicators for measuring accessibility have beenof life of the citizens of the city, as well as to21compare performance among different cities as abenchmarking indicator.

5. Places to AccessQuality of life in a city mainly consists of several
different factors corresponding to services provided
by specific facilities located at specific sites in thecity. Accordingly, the performance of accessibility
should be measured as the time taken to access tosuch facilities. The following basic facilities are
selected.
(1) City Center

Figure 1, Accessibility Index T for Medical Services

The city center means the place that represents inthe city as a symbol where people have gathered

minutes from the central station could be used as anhistorically. The place usually located in theindicator of job accessibility as well as part of thedowntown district, but form of the place is various

labor environment of the city.

such as traditional plaza, square, park, high street or(3) Hospitals

even a symbolic intersection in the commercial

Access time to medical services is one of the most

district. Openness to the public at all times is a basic

basic indicators that represent the quality of life inrequirement. Such places can be accessed by all

fundamental means, especially for an aged society.

peoples, allow people to enter freely and to meet

Recently, hospitals located in the center in the innerface to face, and sometimes play a role as a place

area of the city are tending to move to the outside

for freedom of speech of citizens.

fringe due to the growing demand for larger floor(2) Central Station

space. However, we should not underestimate the

The central station generally serves as a gateway ofvarious effects of central or subcentral location of

the city. It is the nodal point that connects the city tosuch facilities including on daytime pedestrians that

other cities, so the time taken to get to the central

make streets alive, enable frequent visits by family

station from any part of the city by publicmembers that strengthen relationships and so forth.

transportation reflects the accessibility of the place(4) Elementary Schools

to other cities. Considering a factory or a businessA group of elementary school children walking in line

office in the city as a example, the time taken toto school is common sight in residential areas intravel by public transportation including waiting time

Japan. It reflects the good situation of the district

from factory or office to the central station indicatesphysically and socially symbolizing safety andits accessibility for visitors from other cities. The

security for children from both traffic and crime.

total number of employees within, for example, 30

Walking to school is good both the physical and22mentaldevelopmentofchildren.

Accordingly,

planning

methodology

calledLand

Suitability

residential districts for families should be designed

Assessment (LSA). LSA was originally developed bysufficiently compactly to enable chileren to walk to

KRIHS in Korea, and was mainly used to control

school on foot, which is a basic requirement for

urban expansion. However, a Japanese version ofaccessible housing areas.

LSA should be emphasize on appropriate guiding(5) Grocery Storesthe reform of existing urban areas including

Needless to say, foods and daily commodities areshrinking policy. Measuring and mapping theessential for living, but motorized society makes it

accessibility of every part of a city will be the key

harder for people without a private car to go out andcomponent of the LAS Japan.

buy goods, and can also cause solitutde and social
withdrawal

for

ghe

elderly.

Thus,physicalaccessibility to grocery stores can be used as an

References(1)

index for healthy everyday life. We should pay
attention to the fact that the location of grocery“LEIPZIG CHARTER on Sustainable European Cities”(2)

stores principally subject to the market reflectedconsumer’s total demand of the neighbors, but we(3)

Lehmann, S. (2010) “Green urbanism: Formulating a seriesof holistic principles”, S.A.P.I.EN.S: VOL.3(4)

the stores reflecting only demand of consumers whodrive a private vehicle and exclude the rest.

Jenks, M., Burton, E. and Williams, K. (1996) “The Compact
City: A Sustainable Urban Form?”, Spon Pressshould pay more attention to the fact thatmotorization often distort the choice of location ofEuropean ministers responsible for urban policy (2007)

Transport of London (2010) “Measuring Public Transport
Accessibility Levels PTALs”(5)

Steve Abley (2010) “Measuring Accessibility and Providing
Transport Choice”, Australian Institute of Traffic Planning

6. Land Suitability Assessment
As mentioned in the beginning, the population ofand Management (AITPM), National Conference(6)Chae, M. (2006) “Land Suitability Assessment System forJapan is starting to decrease, which means that the

Smart Urban Growth in Korea”, Korea Research Institute fortotal area required for houses will continue to

Human Settlement (KRIHS)

decrease by long time perspective, but without strict
regulations on land use control, sprawled urban
development in outskirts of urban areas, that causedby motorization, will continue, whereas there will be
increase of vacant houses at the same time It will be
required for spatial planning to specify which areas
should be maintained and which areas should be
de-urbanized as it’s called “shrinking policy”, but thedecision to “shrink” an area will be hard and painful.
In this context, the author has been developing a

23

New ZealandMorten Gjerde

Facing up to Nature: New Zealand cities arechanging to become more resilient
Devastation caused by the spate of earthquakes that struck the Canterbury region in 2010-2011 hascreated an opportunity to transform the city of Christchurch. Efforts to make the city more resilient
will also make Christchurch more livable. The paper discusses the background to key changes andtouches on how learnings from the quakes are affecting other cities as well.

1. Introduction

This is largely because engineering standards have

Beginning in late 2010 the people of New Zealandwere re-awakened to the precarious nature of their
existence on these small islands in the South Pacific
Ocean.

From September 2010 and through thewhole of 2011 a sequence of earthquakes andaftershocks continued to rattle the residents ofChristchurch, largest city in the South Island. Also
during the year a large earthquake and tsunami
ripped through Japan’s northern islands and several
large storms swept across countries around thePacific as well as other places.

With acuteawareness of the potential of natural disasters andmany witnessing first-hand the frailty of buildings intheir path, public attention has turned to how best toplan for future events such as these, because there

continued

toincrease

since

they

were

first

introduced following the Hawke’s Bay earthquake of
1931.
new

As higher standards are only applied tobuilding

proposalsorthose caught

byapplications for a change-of-use, the vast majority ofbuildings fell below contemporary engineeringsafety standards.

Another key factor contributing

to vulnerability of buildings was poor maintenance.
Field

investigations

following

the

two

most

devastating earthquakes highlighted the extent ofdeferred
contributed

maintenance,
significantly

concluding
totheloadbearing masonry wall systems.

that

this

failuresofLeaks inrainwater systems and the building fabric generally
had in many cases caused deterioration of ties andother forms of reinforcement in masonry walls.

can be no doubt they will strike again.

Reviewing all of the circumstances around building
A majority of Christchurch’s built heritage has been

failures, it would appear that the citizens ofdamaged beyond repair and over 1,000 buildings inChristchurch had been denied access to a safe built

the central area have been demolished.

environment for some time.

Naturecan at times brutal as it exposes the frailties of ourbuilt environment during a disaster.

Most of thebuildings in Christchurch that failed were well below
current

structural

engineering

requirements(Canterbury Earthquakes Royal Commission 2011).

Responses to the Canterbury earthquakes can betraced and discussed at two different levels. The
first is focussed on the acute situation around
Christchurch and its suburban areas. There is an24

applying

structural codes will enable new buildings to beexperiences gained during the past three years,

stronger so as to better withstand future shocks,

both positive and negative.

whether by extreme weather, earthquakes or otheropportunity

torebuild

the

city

by

There is clearly acollective intention to build back better (Easton

natural phenomena.

This engineering resilience2013). Following this, some of the responses atapproach seeks to resist disruptions to the stable

the national level are raised.

state. However, informed by emerging research in
the field of urban resilience, planning will also help

2. Access to a safer city

ensure Christchurch is better able to “roll with the

Redevelopment plans for central and suburban

punches” when disaster strikes.

Christchurch emphasise the importance of urban

resilience approach recognises the value of theform and the open space network. With a view tocity’s open space network and of the city’s

making the city more resilient, a natural tendency isdeveloping polycentric form, among a range of otherto focus on the buildings.

qualities (Allan and Bryant 2011). Public open

Certainly the new

An ecologicalFigure 1: Diagram of the redevelopment plan for Christchurch's central city area. Note thegreen 'frame' south and east of the CBD, which will compress the area and provide useful
open space.
Image source: Canterbury Earthquake Recovery Authority

25

spaces provided safe areas for people to assemble
inthe

immediateaftermath

and

then

accommodation for recovery to be managed from.
The city’s regular grid street system has a high levelofredundancy

built

into

it

and

so

could

accommodate disruptions and blockages duringrescue efforts and in the period of recovery since.
Over the past two or three decades, Christchurch’s
urban form had been transforming from a traditional,
hierarchical structure to a more polycentric form as
suburban centres had been allowed to grow. While
many lamented this transformation, the aftermath ofthe earthquakes has revealed its value in resilienceterms. With most of the CBD out of commission,businesses have been able to relocate into
surrounding centres with little disruption to theiractivities. The recovery plan recognises this, as the
new CBD will be much smaller than it once was.
As such it will not be much larger than several othercentres in the Christchurch regional area, although
its importance is recognised by the concentration of

3. Access to a more attractive city
As the city’s suburban centres have developed more
rapidly than the population and overall economy inrecent times, many of the more marginal streets andbuildings in the central area had suffered throughneglect.

It was widely recognised that the CBD

was too large and recovery planning provides theopportunity for this to be addressed. The new city
centre will be considerably smaller than previously,compressed into a 17-block area. This strategy isenabled by the introduction of a green “frame”,
which also substantially increases the area of open
space accessible to residents. The heights of newbuildings throughout the city’s central area will be
substantially lower than they were before theearthquakes. Lower heights will address concerns
identifiedbyresearch

throughpublicconsultation. It was found that the public are now
understandably fearful of entering tall buildings andthat they also disliked the streetscape effects
created by these structures, provided for in thecurrent city plan.

government and cultural activities it will host.

andBuildings in the reconstructedcity will be limited to between 4 and 7 storeys in
The events have also enabled better understandingheight. This should help distribute development toof the risks associated with building on and aroundensure a more consistently lively and attractive

areas of swamp and the brittle hills along thestreetscape. The central city will be more attractive

southern edge of the city.

Vast tracts of land haveto walk around and it is anticipated more people will

been declared unfit to be rebuilt upon, with central

also choose to live there or in the area immediately

government stepping in to acquire vulnerable landoutsidefrom owners.

Christchurch will retreat from theaccommodation in all central area buildings above

most risky land areas, not only reducing the city’s

ground level is now strongly encouraged in therisk profile but also returning these areas to a morerecovery plan.

naturalstate,

enhancingvisualamenity

recreation opportunities in the process.

theframe.

Provisionofresidential

and4. Access to the process
The plan for the recovery has been developed

26

through an inclusive process, where the views of thewith seismic activity.

public and many specialised communities have also

regulation to reflect the knowledge gained during

been canvassed. In a campaign known as Share an

the events.

Idea more than 100,000 suggestions were put

hotbed for innovation, as researchers, productforward by the public.

The process, led by the

suppliers and developers team to implement

Christchurch City Council and Gehl Architects,

projects based on new technologies. Attraction to

produced a Draft Central City Plan (Christchurch

new, resilient technologies is spreading around theCity Council 2011) that was based on five key

country as the property market is leading thestrategies

consensus.

demand for safer workplaces and dwellings.

Adopting this input the reconstituted Christchurch

Property owners are being pushed by regulators towill be greener, have a stronger built identity, be

improve the life safety of buildings and being drawn

more compact, have a mixed of uses and be moreby a more savvy market.

accessible.

that

articulated

publicClearly there must be

Christchurch has already become aRadical changes to the transportsystem were also proposed, including establishmentof the first branch of a regional light rail system. As
the plan went forward for government approval thiswas one aspect that was held back from what would
become the Christchurch Central Recovery Plan
(Canterbury

Earthquake

released in July 2012.

Recovery

Authority),

The final plan developed

detailed spatial planning of the city centre including
ideas for key infrastructure projects that it is hoped
will stimulate the largely private investment that willrebuild the city. The draft plan proposed an
integrated plan for the central city, which thegovernment led plan then went on to develop more
specific ideas for infrastructure projects within.
Although both plans were design-led, one of the

Figureauthors of the original plan laments that the final

Wellington,plan disregards the smaller scale projects that help

demolition by neglect by its owner.

2:

link the big moves (Brand and Nicholson 2013).

The

Harcourt

which

is

Building

threatened

in
with

Image source: www.stuff.co.nz

5. Rest of the countryAs
As noted, the Christchurch earthquakes haveawakened the whole country to risks associatedgovernment

regulators

setdeadlinesfor

improving building quality, there are tensions
developing

between

heritageadvocates

and

27

Few would argue against theare a smaller, more compact city centre andneed to make buildings safer in the aftermath ofsignificant areas of open space. The plans have

Christchurch but many of those structures requiring

been developed through extensive consultation withto be upgraded also have heritage value. Property

the community. As well as retreating from areas ofowners are caught in this tension and many will

known risk, the built environment will be constructedfavour complete redevelopment of sites containing

to the highest engineering standard. The citizens

heritage buildings on economic grounds. It will beof Christchurch will have access to a safer and moreinteresting to see how this plays out over the coming

attractive city in the years ahead.

building officials.

decade.

A high profile case has recently been

decided in the Environment Court, upholding theReferences

Wellington City Council’s decision to reject an

Allan, P. and M. Bryant (2011). "Resilience as aapplication for demolition of a central building. As

framework for urbanism and recovery." Journal

the owner claims poverty he has threatened to leaveof Landscape Architecture 2011(Fall): 35-45.

the building untenanted while he allows it to be
slowly demolished by neglect.

Brand, D. and H. Nicholson (2013). “Learning from
Lisbon: Contemporary Cities in the Aftermath of
Natural Disasters”. In Approaches to Disaster6. Conclusions

Management - Examining the Implications of
New Zealanders will have access to a progressively
safer

built

environment

asfallout

fromtheHazards,

Emergencies

andDisasters.

J.

Tiefenbacher, Intech: 157-182.

Christchurch earthquakes of 2010-11 influences
decisions

being

made

by

central

and

local

government as well as the market. This will see
many at risk buildings demolished including a
number that contribute to the country’s built heritage.

Canterbury Earthquake Recovery Authority (2012).
“Christchurch

CentralRecoveryPlan”.

Christchurch, Canterbury Earthquake Recovery
Authority.

The tensions between public safety and heritage are

Canterbury Earthquakes Royal Commission (2011).

yet to be resolved; indeed the battle lines are only

“Final report: Summary and recommendations

now being drawn up as the full extent of at-risk

Volumes 1-3”, New Zealand Government.

buildings

isbecoming

known.

Economic

circumstances are such that demolition is generally
favoured over strengthening of these buildings.
The circumstances in Christchurch are much moreacute, with the whole of the central city requiring to
be rebuilt. Recovery plans have been developed todeliver a more resilient city that will also be moresustainable as a result. Key features of the plans

Christchurch City Council (2011). “Draft central city
plan, volume 1”. Christchurch, Christchurch City
Council: 134.
Easton, L. (2013). "Chance to build back smarter."
Build 139(Dec2013-Jan2014): 60-61.

28

29

South Africa

Jeremy Gibberd

Neighborhood Facilities for Sustainability:
Accessing Capability to Improve Quality of Lifeand Reduce Environmental Impact
This paper explores the concept of Neighborhood Facilities for Sustainability (NFS) as a way of improving
local urban sustainability. It argues that local facilities that enable communities to access sustainable goods
and services are a highly effective, but undervalued, way of improving quality of life and reducing
environment impacts in urban areas.
The paper uses the Built Environment Sustainability Tool (BEST) to compare the sustainability performance of
conventional greening interventions such as solar water heaters with neighborhood facilities. The paper findsthat in some contexts access to neighborhood facilities may be a more effective way of supporting
sustainability and further research should be carried out.

1. Introduction

Sustainability Tool (BEST) can be used to support

Current conventional built environment strategies

local

and interventions are unlikely to meet the scale ofimproving sustainability.

community-based

initiatives

aimed

at

change required by climate change and social andeconomic infrastructure backlogs (Cole et al 2008).

2. The Built Environment Sustainability Tool
The Built Environment Sustainability Tool can be

Innovative approaches are therefore needed. Given

used to assess the sustainability capability (or thelimited timeframes and resources, strategies needcapacity of the built environment to support

to be highly effective and efficient. Some of the mostsustainability) of a neighborhood (Gibberd 2012).

effective programmes for addressing sustainability
at a local level have been community-based

It does this by measuring the extent to which theinitiatives (United Nations Human Settlements

built environment within a neighborhood contains

Programme 2011). If developed appropriately,

the required characteristics and configuration forthese:

sustainability. Sustainability in the tool is defined as
the achievement of at least 0.8 on the Human

Are responsive to the local situation

Development Index (HDI) and ecological footprint ofDraw on local resources and capacity

under 1.8gha (World Wildlife Fund (2006).



Develop local capacity and ownershipAddress local needs as well as climate

The tool is based on the premise that the process ofchangeundertaking local sustainability assessments anddevelopment and testing of interventions to improve

Given the advantages of this approach, how can it

this is an effective way of engaging communities inbe harnessed? A tool, called the Built Environment

developing local sustainable development plans

30(Ding 2005, United Nations Human Settlements
Programme 2011).

3. Case study
The application of the tool can be illustrated throughanexample.

Theneighborhood

selectedforassessment is an informal settlement on theoutskirts

ofPretoria

in

South

Africa.

Theneighborhood consists of informal houses loosely
arranged in a grid as indicated in figure 1 and 2.
Figure 2. Case study area

4. Sustainability Assessment
An assessment of the area using the BEST isindicated as the red line and as ‘Existing’ in figure
3. This shows that sustainability capability in allareas is poor, with performance in ‘Waste’ and‘Food’ being slightly better that other areas.
Figure 1. Case study site

There are no local education, health or recreation
facilities. Sewage, piped water and electricalconnections have not been established and water isbrought in with tankers.

There is no public transport and travel using private
providers is relatively expensive, resulting inincreased costs for local goods, such as food, thatare brought in. The area is characterized by highunemployment.
Figure 3. BEST report with ‘existing’ and‘proposed’

Given the assessment in figure 3, what are the mostappropriate

interventions

toimprove

human

31

development and ecological footprint capability in

upgrades. So what can be learnt from this exercise?

this area?

Are there implications for the type and nature ofinterventions that should be implemented at a local

5. Capability impact of sustainability

level to support sustainability?

interventions
Research using the tool indicates that conventional

6. Implications of the exercise‘greening’ interventions such as solar water heating

The first lesson is unexpected as it challenges

and building envelope upgrade programmes may be

conventionalless effective at improving local sustainability thansustainability and climate change which focus on

more integrated neighbourhood facility solutions‘clip-on’ technologies such as solar water heaters,such as schools with shared access to information

efficient fittings and intelligent controls. The exercise

and

and

questions this approach by showing that accessibleisneighborhood facilities may be more effective at

illustrated in the figure 4. This shows existingsupporting sustainability than conventional greening

capability performance of the area (Existing) before

interventions in particular contexts. The exercise

interventions A to D and the performance of the area

also demonstrates the multi-faceted value ofafter interventions (Proposed). It also shows theneighborhood facilities as a means for increasing

Ecological Footprint (EF) and Human Development

local sustainability capability.

communications

community

gardens

technology(Gibberd(ICT)2013).

This

approachestoaddressing

Index (HDI) capability improvement as a result of
the interventions (Difference).

In the case study area, the school with sharedaccess to ICT could be used to support the following
F
All
interventions

1.65
1.16
1.40

D
School withsharedaccess to
ICT
1.65
1.16
1.40

1.71
1.60
1.65

2.28
1.93
2.10

2.14
2.27
2.20

2.89
3.38
3.14

0.25

0.70

0.80

1.74

A
Solar water
heaterinstallation

B
Building
envelope
upgradeC
Communityfoodgardens

Existing capability
EF capability
HDI capability
Overall capability

1.65
1.16
1.40

1.65
1.16
1.40

Proposed capability
EF capability
HDI capability
Overall capability

1.71
1.38
1.54

Difference
Capability improvement

0.14

1.65
1.16
1.40

impacts:

Improved education through access toprimary,

secondaryschooleducation,

tertiary

education(throughdistance

learning) and support for adult and ongoinglearning

Figure 4 Capability improvements for differentsustainability interventions (A-F).

Improved employment through access to
information and administrative support forsmall businesses

The school with shared access to ICT andcommunity

gardens

creates

capability

Improved provision of local services throughimprovements of 0.70 and 0.80. This is three oraccess to information on health, education,

more times the levels of improvement achieved bylegal issues and business opportunities.

solar water heater installation and building envelope

32

Similarly the community garden facility could haveIt is recommended that further research on
Neighborhood Facilities for Sustainability

support multiple impacts including:(NFS) concept is carried out, as thisImproved low ecological footprint foodconcept may offer a valuable mechanism

through access to fresh local vegetables

for improving sustainability performance in aand fruit

responsive way with limited resources.

Improved

self-employment

opportunities

related to gardens and related services

References

Improved health through exercise

Cole, R. J., Robinson, J., Brown, Z., & O’shea, M.

Increased bio capacity(2008). “Re-contextualizing the notion of comfort.

Reduced waste through recycling of local

Building

organic matter for compost.

323–336.

Research&

Information,

36(4),

Ding, G. K. C. (2005). “Developing a multicriteria

7. Conclusions

approach for the measurement of sustainabl

Some broad conclusions and recommendations cane performance.” Building Research & Informat

be drawn from this exploratory exercise. These are:ion, 33(1), 3–16. doi:10.1080/09613210420003
22618



technology-based

Gibberd, J. (2012). “Built Environment Sustainabi

interventions such as solar water heaters

lity Tool”, available at www.builtenvironment s

may not be the most effective way ofustainabilitytool.com.

Conventional

supporting sustainability in some contexts.
environment

Environments”. African Journal of Science,characteristics and configuration is a usefulTechnology, Innovation and Development, 5(4),way

313–318.

An

analysis

of

of

the

built

determining

interventions
Gibberd, J. (2013). “Sustainable African Built

forappropriate

improving

local

United Nations Human Settlements Programme,

sustainability performance.

(2011). “Cities and climate change : global report

Accessible neighborhood multi-functionalon human settlements, 41-42.

facilities such as schools with shared

World Wildlife Fund, (2006). “The Living Planet

access to ICT and community gardens may

Report”. Available at: www.panda.org/news_fa

be an highly effective and efficient way of

cts/publications/living_planet_report/linving_plan

improving local sustainability. While these

et_report_timeline/index.cfm

types

of

facilities

appearparticularly

effective in poorly serviced urban areas
such as informal settlements, they may beeffective in a wide range of applications.

33

United Kingdom

Bob Giddings

The Renaissance of Public Squares in NorthWest Europe
During the latter part of the 20th century, the vast majority of city squares acquired unattractive
images as empty spaces or as traffic islands. Communities need public spaces as places for
assembly. They are the physical manifestation that each community is coherent and vibrant. The
renaissance of public squares is part of reversing the erosion of the public sector and the public
realm, and reclaiming the city for its people. The most recent advances are in the simulation of city
centre design. There is confidence to be gained from visualisation of how squares will look, feel andbe used; which can make a real contribution to the accessible city.
ummary Please insert executive summary here, Please insert executive summary here, Please insert

1. Introduction

community rather than the individual and therefore

The aim of this paper is to address three major

public rather than private in nature.

issues:activities that occurred in urban spaces have been

Why there has been a decline in public squares

representative of that settlement.



Why it is important to re-introduce public

places where the framework of society was

squaresformulated, and where economic activity thrived.

How to re-introduce public squares

Of all types of urban space, squares are the mostHistorically,

They wereA framework for geometric criteria from a previous

characteristic of the values of the societies thatstudy (Giddings, 1996) is tested with new data fromcreated them. However, Krier (1979) articulates afive exemplar squares in North Western European

general feeling that towards the end of the 20th

cities (Charlton, 2011).

However, much of theCentury, traditional functions had either become

research for this paper is in manipulating software

outdated or changed location and the public squarethat can simulate solar access and thermal comfort,

had become synonymous with an empty space.

wind flow, noise mapping and pedestrian movement

The loss of symbolism in particular, was greatlyas part of a holistic design (Charlton et al, 2008) ie,

lamented by Giedion (1962). The voids were often

what is the effect of changing the geometry offilled with vehicles and many squares presented ansquaresaunattractive image as traffic islands. The loss ofdemonstration of how new public squares can be

the squares as places for citizens, seemed todesigned by simulating all the various aspects.

hasten the commodifying of cities in which they

Finally a vision is presented of how public squares

were viewed merely as commercial and retailcould be designed in future – using virtual city

opportunities; and the downgrading of the publicmodels.

realm by privatization (Giddings et al, 2005). There

on

these

qualities?

This

is

also grew a perception, mainly emanating from the

2. The Decline of Public Squares

United States that public spaces were dangerous

Urban space has always been the place for theplaces. This enabled the private sector to operate

34

a form of social control through segregation; and theurban design in a democracy, is the creation of

attendant growth in private security enabled apublic spaces that encourage civic interaction andreduction in police costs. What was left of public

discourse.

space was often rented-out by local governments forsquares are part of mixed use areas that includecommercial purposes; and what has been termed

residences above ground floor level; so that 24 hourcafe-creep

occupation of buildings is maintained and natural(Kohn,

2004),

spreadcommercial

In many popular European cities,

surveillanceinterests even deeper into the public realm.

providesfor

defensible

space,

re-assuring those using city spaces at any time – in

3. The Importance of Public Squares

a similar way to Newman’s (1973) proposals. Public

There is a growing body of evidence that public

squares have important social and cultural roles,

space is able to deliver a range of benefits acrossproviding people with places to meet, rest or stop

economic, social and environmental spheres.

and talk.

A

These activities evidently take placehigh quality public environment can have awhere outdoor areas are of suitable quality. Theysignificant impact on the economic life of urban

also

centres. The presence of squares and other publicdemonstrate that visitors have reached the heart ofspaces become vital business and marketing tools:

the city. Significant buildings need a context, andCompanies are attracted by public places and thesesquares can be an expression of civic pride, historicin turn attract customers, employees and services.

power and importance (Chesterton, 1997). The

Public spaces are open to all, and as such represent

significance of a renaissance of buildings anda democratic forum for citizens and society. They

activities that define society cannot be over-stated;can bring communities together, provide meetingand the importance of bringing symbolic buildings

places and foster social ties of a kind that have beenback to prominent positions in city centres, anddisappearing in many urban areas. These spaces

locating them in proper settings is at its core. This

shape the cultural identity of an area, are part of its

leads to the concept of a square for every symbolic

unique character, and provide a sense of place forbuilding.

Increasingly it is being recognised that

local communities.

identity

andSquares, in particular, canprovideimportant

place

focal

have

points,enormous

which

roles

in

reintroduce the kind of civil society that has been

reinforcing society. City design requires networks

lost in too many cities (Woolley et al, 2004).

of properly conceived streets and squares –According to Mattson (1999) citizens have made it

introducing

clear that they need spaces where they can interact

culture, entertainment as well as commercial activity.

with fellow citizens.

Lack of public space is an

The re-introduction of public squares needs to beinsidious expression of a lack of democracy. In theviewed as part of reversing the erosion of the public

past, public squares were invested with symbolic

sector and the public realm, and reclaiming citypowerpubliccentres from private interests for the benefit ofA crucial role for architecture andcommunities. The central idea is that people needthat

engagement.

could

evoke

pride

and

pedestrians

tosymbolicbuildings,

35

spaces in which they can conceive of themselves as

The restriction until recently, has been that although

citizens

and

it was possible to analyse existing popular squares;

persuasion; and as neighbours with common

the notion that a square designed to those criteria

educational and cultural needs.

would be successful, had to be taken on trust.

committed

topolitical

debateWithout these

There was no guarantee that the microclimatic

spaces, citizenship wanes (Mattson, 1999).

conditions would be favourable, and that people

4. How to Re-introduce Public Squares

would be comfortable interacting with it. There is

Urban design is more than just providing any space

confidence to be gained from visualisation of how

between commercial and retail buildings. Spaces

squares will look, feel and be used; and this willneed to be comfortable places.

As Chesterton

make a real contribution to the longevity of(1997) points out, a space needs to offer shelter,sustainable urban design. In addition to geometry -particularly

relatively

measures of temperature, wind and noise are also

unattractive places have been successful where

taken; to assess them against the following

they offer sheltered open spaces in the city centre.

microclimatic criteria, and to validate the software

4.1 A Framework for the Design of Squares

modeling intended for incorporation in the design ofA study undertaken to establish a framework

future squares:

from

the

wind.

Even

(Giddings, 1996) included criteria for the three
dimensional geometry of squares. The study was

maximize number of days per year, when:based on academic literature from Sitte (1889) toTibbalds (1990), as well as investigating popular
North Western European cities.

A particularand Zupan, 1975)

influence was Lynch (1960) with his well-known
analysis of city centres through elements termed
paths, edges, districts, nodes and landmarks.

temperature 13-240C (Gehl, 2006; Pushkarev

wind speed 0-8mph, as temperature increases(Cooper Marcus and Francis, 1997)

noise 60dbA max – to avoid sleep disturbance(Sacre, 1993)

More recently, this kind of analytical approach has

Table 1 Microclimatic Criteria for Squares inbeenNorth West Europe

developed

intoamultiple

centrality

assessment by Porta, Crucitti and Latora (2008).
Theirassessment

examinestherelationshipIn this part of the world, it is not usual for the climate

between nodes and generates optimum locations

to produce temperatures of over 240C; whereas

within the spatial system.

uncomfortable wind speeds of over 8mph are

In the context of thispaper, nodes are city centre squares.

Anothercommonplace.

Thus the objective is to design

study (Charlton, 2011) selected five exemplar

squares that provide temperatures of more thansquares from different countries in North West

130C, on as many occasions as possible, while

Europe to further test the framework. The results

minimising the number of days that the wind

supported its validity.

exceeds 8mph. Wind speeds of less than 4mph

36

are generally the most comfortable, and ideallywould only increase to 8mph, as the temperatureapproaches the preferred maximum of 240C. The
other major part of the recent research is modelingpedestrian movement. In order to avoid claims thatsquares will remain empty spaces, simulated
pedestrian activity related to the dimensions of a
proposed square, the size, number and nature of
openings, its detailed design; and the uses of its
enclosing buildings are needed..
4.2 Software Modeling
A comparative

analysis

Figure 1 Proposed Central Library Squareofmicroclimaticandpedestrian movement software was undertaken

However, the computer power required to run the(Charlton et al, 2008) and the following weresoftware was so great that the original notion of it

selected as the most accurate and compatible forproviding a design tool for practice had to be

the analysis and holistic design of public squares.

abandoned. Nevertheless, the new generation of

There are a number of well-established simulation

virtual city models could have building information

software systems that can only operate in twomodeling technology added to them to provide thisdimensions. A fundamental criterion in this case,service. Therefore it is this concept that provides a

was for three dimensional simulation.

vision for the future, and the potential for an evenThus thefollowing software were selected:

solar access andmore accessible city.

TownScope

thermal comfort
wind analysis

Star – CCM+

noise mapping

Cadna Apedestrian movement

Legion Studio + 3D

Table 2 Microclimate, Pedestrian movement andselected software

The software was applied to designs for a newsquare for Newcastle upon Tyne, in the North Eastof England.

Figure 2 The Vision

37

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design in a violent city, Architectural Press,

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(2005). ‘Back to the City: a route for urban

Parks

and

PublicSpacesCreateEconomic, Social and environmental Value,
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Giedion, S. (1962). Space, Time, Architecture, 4thed., Harvard University Press, Cambridge, USA.
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Cambridge, USA.

http://www.holisticurbandesign.co.uk (2013)

38

39

The Accessible City

AUTHOR’S PROFILE

Page 1 of 2

TATSUO AKASHI
Coordinator of W101 (CIB Working Commission for Spatial Planning andInfrastructure Development), Ph.D., Professor of Urban Planning at the Tokyo City
University (TCU), Head of Urban Planning Research Division at National Institute forLand and Infrastructure Management (NILIM), Lecturer at the University of Tokyo.
Has been expertise in land use planning administration and urban regeneration.

ALEX KENYA ABIKO
Civil engineer. Professor of Urban and Housing Management at Escola Politécnica of
the University of São Paulo. Coordinator of the Research Group on "Urban Planningand Engineering" of the Construction Department. Has been developing researches,
consulting works and tutoring master´s and phd´s students in the following subjects:
urban sustainability, housing management and settlements upgrading. Has also
published books and articles in several academic journals. http://alexabiko.pcc.usp.br

MARIO BARREIROS
Architect. Planner and researcher with focus on urban and metropolitan development.
MSc and PhD student in Urban and Civil Engineering at Escola Politécnica of the
University of São Paulo. Has a long experience in metropolitan planning and has
been developing a methodology of measuring urban impacts

JEREMY GIBBERD
Coordinator of W116 (CIB Working Commission for Smart and Sustainable Built
Environments), Ph.D., Principal Researcher CSIR, Author of the Built Environment
Sustainable Tool (BEST), the Sustainable Building Assessment Tool (SBAT), theSustainable Building Material Index (SBMI) and Sustainable Facilities Management(SFM) tools. He has expertise in sustainability, the built environment and developing
countries.

BOB GIDDINGS
Personal Chair Professor in Architecture and Urban Design at Northumbria University,
Newcastle upon Tyne, UK. Joint Coordinator for W096 (CIB Working Commission forArchitectural Management). Has undertaken substantial research into post-city
structuring and the promotion of cities of character for people. Supervises andexamines PhD candidates; publishes journal papers, books and chapters; continues
to be on scientific committees for conferences, and presents at universities aroundthe world. University profile:
http://www.northumbria.ac.uk/researchandconsultancy/refprofiles/bobgiddings/

40Page 2 of 2

The Accessible City

MORTEN GJERDE
Architect and urban designer. Lecturing and researching in these areas at Victoria
University of Wellington. Areas of specific research interest include perceptions andevaluations of urban streetscapes, design and evaluation of medium density housing
and design control methods and processes. Supervises postgraduate students inthese areas as well. Currently developing tool for evaluating streetscapes in relation
to planning approval processes.

PEKKA LAHTI
Architect, urban planner and researcher focusing on theory, methods and tools forassessing eco-efficiency of urban development. Principal Research Scientist at VTT
Technical Research Centre of Finland and former teacher of urban planning andrban economics at Aalto University in Helsinki. National representative in European
OST Transport and Urban Development Domain Committee. Regular assessor ofEuropean Science Forum (ESF) research projects and national research programmesin Europe, Sweden and Finland. More then 300 publications.

DAVID NESS
Architect, planner and researcher, with focus on resource efficiency. Associate
Professor, Barbara Hardy Institute, University of South Australia. Adviser to UN
Habitat and UN Economic and Social Commission for Asia-Pacific on ‘Green Growth’and pro-poor, eco-efficient and inclusive infrastructure solutions. Exec-Chair of
Ecological Development Union International Inc.
http://people.unisa.edu.au/david.ness

CIB
CIBMission
Commissions

wefocus on:Members
can choose to participate in a selection of over 50 Commissions in the areas ofConstructionand Society
Building Techniques,
Design of Building and the Built Environment, and Building Process.

we support:internationalin researchand innovation
Examples of cooperation
recently established
Commissions
are:forbetterConstructionbuildings andina better
built environment
W107
Developing
Countries
weprovide:
W110
Informal Settlements and Affordable Housing
accessexpertsand
andSustainable
informationworldwide
W116to Smart
Built
Environments
W119 Customized Industrial Construction
CIB was established in 1953
with support of the Unitedand holds
a UNInternational collaborative projects result in the publication of: Nations
conference
proceedings,
SpecialConsultative
Statusstate of the art reports, best practice presentations, practitioners guidelines,

CIB Publications

pre-standardization documents, R&D Roadmaps etc.

CIB Members and Benefits

Members are individuals, companies, institutes, agencies and other types oforganizations
who want
exchange informationand collaborate in the area of research
Examples of recent
CIBto
Publicationsare:andinnovationforbuilding
andconstruction.
Theirprofessional- Contemporary Issues in Construction in Developing
Countriesfocus may be on
programmingor executing
research, ordissemination
and application of outcomes from
- New Perspectives
in Constructionin on
Developing
Countries
research.
This
includespeopleandorganisations
witharesearch,
university,- Proceedings of the World Sustainable Building Conference SB11
Helsinkiindustryor
government
background.
- Culture in International Construction
Members have immediate access to the world’s leading experts and expertise and are
facilitatedto present
Membership
Fees and validate their own knowledge and technology. They are alsoofferedfor thecollaboration
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projects. Inorthese,
leadingand
experts
Annualopportunities
Fees depend on
type of Membership(Full, Asssociate
Individual)on thebring
state-of-the-art
technologies
togetherinsupportofcontinuous
improvementsoftype and size of the organization.
building and construction systems, processes and technologies all over the world.
Fees in 2012:€ 12195 or € 8131 or € 2797
Full member
Associate member € 1405 or € 1371
Individual member € 279
CIB General Secretariat
Kruisplein 25-G

Discounts of 25% or 50%3014
are DB
offRotterdam
ered to Members in countries with a GNIpc of less then
The Netherlands
USA $7000 or $1000 respectively.
Phone: +31-10-4110240
E-mail: secretariat@cibworld.nl
www.cibworld.nl

www.cibworld.nl

CIB Commissions
Commissions
CIB

Members can choose to participate in a selection of over 50 Commissions in the areas of
Building Techniques, Design of Building and the Built Environment, and Building Process.
CIB Commissions
Examples of recently
establishedare:
Commissions are:
TG86
Building
Healthy
Cities
W107 Construction in Developing Countries
TG88 Smart
Cities
W110
Informal
Settlements and Affordable Housing
W101 Spatial
Planning
and Infrastructure
Development
W116
Smart and
Sustainable
Built Environments
W120
Disasters
and
the
Built
Environment
W119 Customized Industrial Construction

CIB Publications
Publications
CIB

International collaborative projects result in the publication of: conference proceedings,
state of the art reports, best practice presentations, practitioners guidelines,
pre-standardization
pre-standardizationdocuments,
documents,R&D
R&DRoadmaps
Roadmapsetc.
etc.

Examples of recent CIB Publications are:Research Roadmap:
Buildings- Contemporary
IssuesTallin Constructionin Developing Countries
The Implementationof Energy Efficient
BuildingsCountries
Policies: an International Comparison- New
Perspectives in Constructionin Developing- ProceedingsIntelligent andResponsive
Buildings:
Publication
onIntelligentof the World Sustainable Building Conference
SB11Buildings
Helsinki Introduction-An
Culturein International Construction

Membership Fees
Membership
Fees
Annual Fees depend on the type of Membership (Full, Asssociate or Individual) and on thetype and size of the organization.
Fees in 2012:2014:€ 8000€12195 or € 8131 or € 2797
Full member€ 22401405 or € 1371
Associate member €Individual member €
€ 200
279
Discounts of 25% or 50% are offered to Members in countries with a GNIpc of less thenDiscounts
or 50%
are offered to Members in countries with a GNIpc of less then
USA $7000ofor25%$1000
respectively.
USA $7000 or $1000 respectively.

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04/03/2014
CIB Comissions as those contribute to defined Priority Themes and have their focus in certain Areas

CIB Priority Themes

Areas of Scientific Interest
BT

GEN
CIB Task Groups and Working Commissions
TG59

People in Construction

TG72

Public Private Partnership

TG74

New Production and Business Models in Construction

TG78

Informality and Emergence in Construction

TG79

Building Regulations and Control in the Face of Climate Change

TG80

Legal and Regulatory Aspects of BIM

TG81

Global Construction Data

TG82

Marketing in Construction

TG83

e-Business in Construction

TG85

R&D Investment and Impact

TG86

Building Healthy Cities

TG87

Urban Resilience: Benchmarking and Metrics

TG88

Smart Cities

TG89

Construction Mediation PracticeW014

Fire Safety

W018

Timber Structures

W023

Wall Structures

W040

Heat and Moisture Transfer in Buildings

W055

Construction Industry Economics

W056

Sandwich Panels

W062

Water Supply and Drainage

W065

Organisation and Management of Construction

W069

Residential Studies

W070

Facilities Management and Maintenance

W078

Information Technology for Construction

W080

Prediction of Service Life of Building Materials and Components

W083

Roofing Materials and Systems

W084

Building Comfortable Environments for All

W086

Building Pathology

W089

Education in the Built Environment

W092

Procurement Systems

W096

Architectural Management

W098

Intelligent and Responsive Buildings

W099

Safety and Health in Construction

W101

Spatial Planning and Infrastructure Development

W102

Information and Knowledge Management in Building

W104

Open Building Implementation

W107

Construction in Developing Countries

W108

Climate Change and the Built Environment

W110

Informal Settlements and Affordable Housing

W111

Usability of Workplaces

W112

Culture in Construction

W113

Law and Dispute Resolution

W114

Earthquake Engineering and Buildings

W115

Construction Materials Stewardship

W116

Smart and Sustainable Built Environments

W117

Performance Measurement in Construction

W118

Clients and Users in Construction

W119

Customised Industrial Construction

W120

Disasters and the Built Environment

Extend of Involvement of Task Groups and Working Commissions

SC

IDDS

RU

BCT

BBE
BPh

DB

BP
BE

MOE

LPP

Abbreviations of defined Themes and Areas
Priority Themes

Areas of Scientific Interest

Same of the Activities and Outcome of this Task Group or Working Commission may be

SCSustainable Construction

GEN

GENERAL ISSUES: Innovation, Information, Educationof special importance to the respective Theme or Area

IDDS

Integrated Design and
Delivery Solutions

BT

BUILDING TECHNIQUE

BCT

Building and Construction Technologies

Resilient Urbanisation

BPh

Building Physics

BBE

BUILDINGS AND THE BUILT ENVIRONMENTDB

Design of BuildingsBE

Built EnvironmentBP

BUILDING PROCESSMOEManagement, Organisation and Economics

LPP

Legal and Procurement Practices

Activities and Outcome of this Task Group or Working Commission in principle always
are of special importance to the respective Theme or Area

RUCIB General Secretariat
Kruisplein 25G
3014 DB Rotterdam
The Netherlands
E-mail: secretariat@cibworld.nl
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CIB Publication 398 / ISBN 978-90-6363-087-4