Foreword
Enclosed and semi‑closed coastal seas, such as bays, inland seas and estuaries, havenumerous natural resources of importance to humans. They have proven to be ideal
places for human habitation, fisheries, industry, shipping and recreation. As a consequence,such seas richly support and foster a wide and varied cultural heritage.
The enclosed and semi‑closed coastal sea environments have been consistently degraded.
These environments are particularly vulnerable to water quality degradation, as limited
seawater exchange with open water leads to the build up of pollutants and wastes. Suchdegradation has had global‑scale impacts on enclosed and semi‑enclosed environments,
resulting in habitat deterioration, a decline in biological abundance and diversity and areduction in fisheries.
A fundamental step in communicating to future generations about the natural, healthy
and bountiful status of enclosed seas is to better understand them today and to relatethat understanding to the surrounding socio‑economic and socio‑cultural environment ofeach enclosed coastal sea. Recognizing this need, "ENVIRONMENTAL GUIDEBOOK ON
THE ENCLOSED COASTAL SEAS OF THE WORLD" was published in 2003, with theaim of promoting the environmental conservation of enclosed coastal seas by thesynergistic interaction of nature and humans. This version of the Guidebook contains
updated information on the enclosed and semi‑enclosed seas, since more than a decade
has passed since the first publication. Specifically, this Guidebook is a synthesis andanalysis of environment‑related information, to provide concerned citizens, NGOs, researchers,
governments and businesses with a common basis for harmonizing their efforts to achievesound health for enclosed sea environments.
We will continue to expand our activities of collecting, analyzing and disseminating
information, not only on the 21 seas covered here, but on the many other areas aroundour globe.
International EMECS CenterContents
Environmental Problems in the Enclosed Coastal Seas
Introduction …………………………………………………………………………………………

i

International Marine Environment Projects …………………………………………………

i

Location of the Enclosed Coastal Seas ………………………………………………………… iii
Enclosed Coastal Seas
１. Chesapeake Bay ……………………………………………………………………………… 1
２. San Francisco Bay …………………………………………………………………………… 7
３. Gulf of Mexico ……………………………………………………………………………… 13
４. Mediterranean Sea ………………………………………………………………………… 18
５. North Sea …………………………………………………………………………………… 23
６. Baltic Sea …………………………………………………………………………………… 29
７. Persian Gulf ………………………………………………………………………………… 36
８. Gulf of Thailand …………………………………………………………………………… 44
９. Bohai Sea ……………………………………………………………………………………

49

10. Seto Inland Sea ……………………………………………………………………………… 53
11. Black Sea ……………………………………………………………………………………

60

12. Puget Sound ………………………………………………………………………………… 64
13. Hudson Bay ………………………………………………………………………………… 69
14. Gulf of California …………………………………………………………………………… 74
15. Caribbean Sea ……………………………………………………………………………… 77
16. Red Sea ……………………………………………………………………………………… 82
17. Bay of Bengal ……………………………………………………………………………… 87
18. South China Sea …………………………………………………………………………… 90
19. Yellow Sea …………………………………………………………………………………… 94
20. East China Sea ……………………………………………………………………………… 99
21. Sea of Japan ………………………………………………………………………………… 102

Environmental Problems in the Enclosed Coastal Seas
Introduction
Enclosed seas are important areas for human beings, since they provide calm coastal areas that are suitable to develop cities,
industries, and recreational activities. Coastal plains accommodate urban areas and industrial and commercial development. In
addition, ports and harbors are often constructed, enhancing trade and promoting regional economic activity. Coastal waters
also become an important ground for fisheries and aquaculture.
However, human activity has adversely affected the environment of enclosed seas. Increased population and the accompany‑
ing economic growth caused more pollution to enter the sea, and consequently the water quality of enclosed seas has degraded.
Reclamation from the sea has often been carried out to meet the increasing economic activities, and has decreased the seaweed
beds, tidal flats, and natural beaches. Enclosed seas are vulnerably situated because of their features that are advantageousfor human activities.
The approach to the environmental management of the enclosed seas has shifted from an initial emphasis on pollution control
to a wider emphasis on environmental preservation that includes the conservation of biodiversity, restoring and ensuring ahealthy hydrological cycle, conserving a well‑balanced material cycle, and ensuring opportunities for contact with nature.
Significant changes have occurred in the environmental awareness of the public, while the advancement of environmental
technologies has progressed rapidly. It will become more effective to conserve the environment of the enclosed seas by taking
unified and comprehensive measures considering the geographical, natural and socio‑economic conditions in individual seas.

International Marine Environment Projects< Environmental conservation projects >Regional Seas Programme
The Regional Seas Programme（RSP）was initiated by UNEP（United Nations Environment Programme）as a global program
to protect the environment of highly enclosed international seas. It is implemented through the signing of an agreement by
countries surrounding the seas, promoting regional cooperation of these countries to control marine pollution. The first regional
program was adopted by the Mediterranean countries in 1975. Since then, 13 regional programs have been developed withmore than 143 coastal States and Territories participating, including the most recent North‑East Pacific Action Plan, which
was adopted in 2002.

Regional Seas covered in the Regional Seas Programme（Source: Based on map from Sekaichizu. http://www.sekaichizu.jp/atlas/worldatlas/p800̲worldatlas.html）

i

Environmental Problems in the Enclosed Coastal Seas
１．Mediterranean＊
２．Red Sea and Gulf of Aden＊
３．ROPME Sea Area＊
４．Wider Caribbean＊
５．East Asian Seas＊
６．South‑East Pacific
７．Western Africa
８．South Pacific

９．Eastern Africa
10．Black Sea＊
11．Northwest Pacific＊
12．South Asian Seas＊
13．North‑East Pacific＊＊RSPs that contain all or a partial area of enclosed seasin this Guidebook

Each regional program consists of a regional action plan, promoting regional cooperation in research, monitoring, pollution
control and coastal and marine resource development. Furthermore, for some regions, conventions and specific protocols are
established to provide a legal framework for cooperative regional and national actions.
The activities of the regional programs, such as marine pollution monitoring and joint research programs are sponsored byregional trust funds or from related international organizations. The data acquired from these programs are incorporated into
the database of Global Environment Monitoring System （GEMS）of UNEP.
Global Programme of Action for the Protection of the Marine Environment from Land‑Based Activities（GPA‑LBA）
GPA‑LBA was adopted in November 1995 at the Intergovernmental Conference in Washington D.C., with an overall aim
to protect the marine environment and ensure sustainable use of marine resources through the prevention of marine pollution
from land‑based activities. During the conference, the Washington Declaration was adopted to provide a legal framework forestablishing national action plans and to regulate the emission of 12 types of Persistent Organic Pollutants （POPs）. UNEP is
responsible for the implementation of GPA‑LBA. A GPA Coordination Office was established in Hague, and is currently
involved in organizing various regional workshops.
Regular process for global reporting and assessment of the state of the marine environment, including socio‑economic
aspects
The Regular process for global reporting and assessment of the state of the marine environment, including socio‑economic
aspects was endorsed in the Johannesburg Summit of 2002. It was coordinated as a mechanism to confirm that current andfuture marine issues at a global scale are being properly considered and dealt with within various decision making and regulato‑ry frameworks. It has also been organized to enhance scientific policy mechanisms at the state and regional levels, whileorganizing regular meetings and its website. In 2015, the "Summary of the first global integrated marine assessment" wassubmitted to the general assembly.

< Marine monitoring projects >Global Investigation of Pollution in the Marine Environment （GIPME）
The Global Investigation of Pollution in the Marine Environment （GIPME）was established in response to the recommenda‑
tions of the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment held in Stockholm in 1972 as an international cooperative
programme of scientific investigations on marine pollution. GIPME is co‑sponsored by the Intergovernmental Oceanographic
Commission（IOC）of UNESCO（United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization）, UNEP and the International
Maritime Organization （IMO）. The objectives of GIPME are: authoritative evaluations of the state of the marine environment
at both regional and global levels; identification of the requirements for measures to prevent or correct marine pollution; andto provide procedures for assessing and improving compliance and surveillance monitoring of conditions and effects in themarine environment.
Global Ocean Observing System （GOOS）
The Global Ocean Observing System （GOOS） is an international program with the primary goal of providing practicalbenefits to the society, through the sustained collection of ocean observations and the timely distribution of those data. GOOS
is implemented through the support of IOC, WMO （World Meteorological Organization）, UNEP and International Council of
Scientific Unions （ICSU）.
GOOS is broadly comprised from I‑GOOS （intergovernmental IOC‑WMO‑UNEP Committee）, J‑GOOS （The Joint Scientificand Technical Committee for GOOS） and GOOS Support Office. I‑GOOS is responsible in the co‑ordination, implementationand management aspect, and J‑GOOS is responsible for the scientific and technical aspect of GOOS. The activities of GOOS
are conducted through the utilization of existing marine observation systems.
Integrated Global Ocean Services System （IGOSS）
The Integrated Global Ocean Services System （IGOSS） collects and exchanges data on ocean temperature, salinity, sealevel, and currents, and produces ocean‑related products and services. IGOSS was established in 1967 by IOC of UNESCO,

ii

Environmental Problems in the Enclosed Coastal Seas
and WMO joined to assist its efforts a year later. It is coordinated jointly by the two organizations, and is carried out by
national facilities and services provided by 125 participating member countries who share data for mutual benefit. IGOSS func‑
tions as an observation module for the Global Ocean Observing System （GOOS）.
The IGOSS system consists of the following three components.
・IGOSS Observing System （IOS）
In IOS, naval ships, research vessels and merchant ships in the Ships of the Opportunity Programme （SOOP）, alongwith fixed and floating buoys, transmit oceanographic data such as subsurface temperature and salinity in near‑real time.
・IGOSS Data Processing and Services System （IDPSS）
IDPSS consists of several types of national, specialized and world data centres for processing and disseminating data anddata products.
・IGOSS Telecommunications Arrangements （ITA）
The backbone of ITA is the Global Telecommunication System （GTS） of the WMO. GTS enables free and open dataexchange for all member states . IGOSS consists of representatives from member states, the IGOSS Bureau, Joint
Committee Chairman and Vice Chairman, and an IGOSS Operations Coordinator who is located at the IOC Secretariat in
Paris, France.

Location of the Enclosed Coastal Seas ―１. Chesapeake Bay*（P1）２. San Francisco Bay*（P7）３. Gulf of Mexico（P13）
４. Mediterranean Sea（P18）
５. North Sea（P23）
６. Baltic Sea（P29）

７. Persian Gulf（P36）
８. Gulf of Thailand（P44）
９. Bohai Sea*（P49）
10. Seto Inland Sea*（P53）
11. Black Sea（P60）
12. Puget Sound（P64）

13. Hudson Bay*（P69）
14. Gulf of California*（P74）
15. Caribbean Sea（P77）
16. Red Sea（P82）
17. Bay of Bengal（P87）
18. South China Sea（P90）iii

19. Yellow Sea（P94）
20. East China Sea（P99）
21. Sea of Japan（P102）＊ Domestic seas

Enclosed Coastal Seas

１ Chesapeake Bay
Overview
The Chesapeake Bay has the largest water area of more than 100 estuaries1 in the United States and the third largest in
the world.2 It is located on the east coast of the U.S., stretching about 322 km from Havre de Grace, Maryland to Virginia
Beach, Virginia. The Bay's width varies between around 6.4 km, near Aberdeen in Maryland, to 48.3 km near Cape Charles,
Virginia.1 It holds more than 68.1 裝 of water, supports over 3,600 species of plant and animal life, and 17.8 million people
live, work, and play within the Chesapeake Bay Watershed.2

Location
Basic information1,12Surface area：11,603 裄
Volume：68.1 裝
Average depth：6.4 袤
Maximum depth：53 袤Nature<Background>
The Bay receives about half of its water volume from the Atlantic
Ocean. The rest drains into the Bay from a 166,000 裄 catchment
area, which includes parts of six states ‑ New York, Pennsylvania,
Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, West Virginia ‑ and all of the Districtof Columbia. Three rivers ‑ the Susquehanna, Potomac and Jamesrivers ‑ collectively provide more than 80% of the Bay's fresh water
source, the Susquehanna being the largest river accounting for nearly
50% of the total fresh water inflow.1
蘚 ClimateBecause of its mid‑latitude location, the Chesapeake Bay enjoys a rather moderate climate, with an average temperatureof around 13℃. The Chesapeake Bay also has a moderating effect on the area, keeping summer and winter temperatures fromreaching extremes. The average annual rainfall is 1,143 mm, which occurs mainly during the spring and late autumn.3
蘚 Topography
The Bay was created about 10,000 years ago due to melting glaciers that flooded the Susquehanna River Valley.4 Most of
the Bay is shallow, with more than 2,800 裄 having a depth less than 2 m. Its average depth, including all tidal tributaries,
is about 6.4 m but a few deep troughs reach 53 m deep.1,12 These are thought to be remnants of the ancient SusquehannaRiver.1
蘚 Hydrology
Fifty major tributaries pour freshwater into the Chesapeake Bay, providing about 193 million 裙 of water each day.1,2 Mostof this water comes from the northern and western tributaries such as the Susquehanna and Potomac rivers, and the remain‑
ing amount comes from the eastern shore. About half of the Bay's water volume is comprised of salt water from the Atlantic
Ocean.1
The Bay's salinity gradually increases from the north to south. Salinity ranges from freshwater （less than 0.5 ppt） at theBay's head, to water of nearly oceanic salinity （25‑30 ppt） at the Bay's mouth. Most of the water in the bay is brackish ‑a mixture of salt and fresh water ‑ with a salinity between 0.5 and 25 ppt. Salinity also fluctuates widely between seasons
and years, due to the changes in fresh water volume inflowing from its rivers.1
Circulation of the Bay's water is mostly driven by the movement of fresh water and salt water, and a zone of maximum
turbidity is created where the two types of water meet. This area contains and mixes important materials and nutrients formany organisms.1
The factors of salinity, temperature, and circulation in the Bay combine to create two layers with distinct characteristics:
a top layer with warmer, lighter fresh water that flows down toward the ocean, and the bottom layer with saltier denser
water flowing upwards. This phenomenon ‑ called stratification ‑ varies seasonally and on rainfall. Rapid vertical mixing of
the two layers usually occurs in the autumn, which helps to distribute nutrients and oxygen across the two layers.11

１ Chesapeake Bay<Surrounding environment>
The Chesapeake Bay provides food, water, cover, and nesting or nursery areas to a large number of migratory and resident
wildlife species. More than 3,600 species of plants, fish and animals, including 348 species of finfish, 173 species of shellfish
and over 2,700 plant species depend on the Bay.1,2 Habitat types include hardwood forests in the Appalachian mountains tosaltwater marshes.2
In addition, the Chesapeake Bay region is home to 29 species of waterfowl and is a major resting ground along the Atlantic
Migratory Bird Flyway. Every year, one million waterfowl winter in the Bay's basin.1
蘚 Habitats
Approximately 6,000 裄 of wetlands remain in the Bay's catchment, which is less than half of the wetlands that were present
during colonial times.5 Of the remaining wetlands, 14% are tidal and 86% are non tidal. Moreover, 68% of the wetlands in
the Bay watershed are forested.1 Between 2010 and 2013, about 24 裄 of wetlands were restored on agricultural land. The
new Chesapeake Watershed Agreement set a goal to restore 344 裄 wetlands between 2014 and 2025.6
More than sixteen species of Submerged Aquatic Vegetation （SAV） are commonly found in the shallow waters of the
Chesapeake Bay or in its streams, creeks and rivers. They serve an important role in the Bay's ecosystem, providing foodand habitat for wildlife species, producing oxygen for aquatic organisms, purifying the water by absorbing pollution, and slowing
erosion.1 More than 2,400 裄 of SAV may have existed in the Chesapeake Bay at its most pristine state. In 2013, 241.64 裄of SAV were mapped in the Bay and its tributaries. Between 2012 and 2013, SAV increased 24% from 195.0 裄 to 241.6 裄in total.7
蘚 BiotaIn the Bay the following species are the most monitored for their "ecological, historical, and/or commercial and recreational
importance" : blue crab, menhaden, oysters, striped bass（rockfish）, alosines（shad, herring, and alewife）, and invasive catfish（blue and flathead）. The distribution of blue crab （Callinectes sapidus） is different based on age, sex, and season. It is moreabundant in shallow‑water during warm temperatures, and in deeper areas during the winter. Currently, the Chesapeake
Bay blue crab stock is depleted, and overfishing is not occurring.5 Atlantic menhaden （Brevoortia tyrannus）are an important
prey for both fish and predatory birds such as osprey and eagles. Menhaden also act as filter feeders, consuming phytoplankton
and zooplankton. The native Eastern oyster （Crassostrea virginica） provides a habitat for plants and animals in addition to
ecosystem services such as water filtration and nitrogen removal. Striped bass （Morone saxatilis）, also referred to as rockfish,
are anadromous, and spend the majority of their adult life incoastal estuaries or the ocean. Their populations were heavily
overfished, but have returned to sustainable population levels
due to the fishing moratorium and science‑based management.5
Alosines include species such as the American shad （Alosasapidissima）, hickory shad（Alosa mediocris）, blueback herring（Alosa aestivalis）, and alewife（Alosa pseudoharengus）, are also
anadromous. American shad, hickory shad, and blueback
herring are experiencing coastwide reductions in populations
from historical levels.5 Blue and flathead catfish are invasive
species in the Chesapeake Bay, that were introduced as arecreational fishery in the 1970s and 1980s. They prefer fresh
water, but now inhabit every major tributary of the Bay.
They are opportunistic and generalist predators, that consume
at many levels of the food chain, and prey on crustaceans,
worms, and other fish （menhaden, shad, river herring, andblue crabs）.5
蘚 Protected Areas
Approximately 21 % of the land in the Chesapeake Bay
watershed ‑ 33,879 裄 ‑ is under protection （as of the endof 2013）. The right map shows the lands that are protected,
by different owner type . In 2009, the Chesapeake Bay
Executive Order set a goal to protect an additional 2 million
acres （about 8,100 裄） throughout the watershed by 2025,
including 695,000 acres（about 2,800 裄） of high value forest
land.1
Protected Lands in the Chesapeake Bay Watershed 20131

2

１ Chesapeake Bay

History and Culture
The Chesapeake Bay developed from natural occurrences during the last Ice Age. Around 10000 B.C., melting glaciers
filled in the Susquehanna valley, and about 2,000 years ago, the Bay assumed its current shape. All along, Native Americans
lived in the Bay region, beginning agricultural practices around 1000 B.C.1 In 1607, the first permanent New World settlement
was established in Virginia on the James River, and a member of the traveling group, Captain John Smith, began extensive
exploration of the Bay.1 War and disease caused the Native American population to dramatically decline to just 10% of thesize when the Europeans first arrived. Over the next 300 years of the Bay's time line, people built homes, farmed, started
businesses, and participated in a host of other activities that continue to affect the Bay today.1
It has been suggested that the name "Chesapeake" comes from a Native American word meaning "Great Shellfish Bay", todescribe the large volumes of crabs, oysters, and clams that inhabited the Bay.4

Social Environment<Population>
The population in the Bay catchment
area has doubled since the 1950s.1 An
estimated 17.8 million people lived in
the Bay watershed area in 2013, andabout 10 million people live along its
shores or close by . 1,2 About 150,000
new people move into the watershedeach year. It is estimated that the region's
population will reach 21.4 million people
by 2040 at this rate.1<Land Use>
Agricultural and developed land makeup 23% and 12% of the Chesapeake Bay,
respectively. Most of the remaining area
, is forested, and also includes（about 65%）
wetlands or other use. Between majorriver watersheds there is a wide variety

Population of the Chesapeake Bay Watershed1

in land use ratios, with some having almost half of the land used for agriculture, and another with almost one third developed.
Overall, the coverage of developed land such as road, driveways, and parking lots has increased by approximately 34% between
1990 and 2007, although the population increase was only 18%.2 Although forested land increased in Pennsylvania and Virginia
overall for each state in the last five years, there is a net loss of about 2,023 裄 over the last fifteen years in the three major
Bay states.6<Industry>蘚 Fisheries
An extensive finfish industry, primarily based on menhaden and striped bass, rounds out the Bay's commercial seafood
production. In 2013, the annual commercial landing of the Bay was 193,076 tons, with a value of 239 million US dollars.8
蘚 Recreation
The hospitable climate, lush vegetation and natural beauty of the Chesapeake Bay has made it an increasingly popular
recreational area. Boating, crabbing, swimming, hunting and camping are major attractions. Sport fishing is another major
recreational activity in the Chesapeake Bay.

Environmental Problems<Current status>
According to the "Chesapeake Bay Program 2013" report, the overall health and water quality of the Bay remains in poor
condition, although some areas in the headwater and watershed shows signs of recovery.9 Overall, the Bay's habitats and lower
food chain ‑ which includes the acreage of bay grasses and wetlands ‑ are much below the required amount for a healthy
ecosystem. Moreover, the Bay's fish and shellfish, have low populations from pollution, diseases, overharvesting and lack offood and habitat.1

3

１ Chesapeake Bay蘚 Water Quality
Water quality standards have been set for five different aquatic habitats（migratory fish and spawning nursery habitat, open‑
water fish and shellfish habitat, deep‑water seasonal fish and shellfish habitat, deep‑channel seasonal refuge habitat, andshallow‑water bay grasses habitat）in the bay. This single indicator consisting of dissolved oxygen, transparency, underwater
grasses and chlorophyll a is set for each habitat type, and must be met for a healthy Bay ecosystem. Results from 2011‑2013
assessments show that 29 % of the water quality standards were met.1

Water Quality Assessment of Chesapeake Bay （2011 to 2013）1
１. Dissolved Oxygen （DO）
Data from the summer months of 2011 to 2013 indicate that about one third of the total water volume （open water,
deep water, and deep channel habitats）of the Bay met DO standards.1
２. Chlorophyll a
Water quality standards for chlorophyll a were met in 0 of the 7 tidal water segments that were assessed during 2011
to 2013.1
３. Transparency, Underwater Bay Grasses
Transparency, underwater grasses water quality standard is measured in shallow‑water habitats of the Bay. Water
quality assessments are only available on a biennial basis, and the assessed segments rotate every three years. Whentransparency assessments are not available the acreage of underwater grass in the segment‑specific restoration acre
goals is used. In the 2011‑2013 assessment, only 5% of the 91 tidal segments met the standard.1
蘚 Sedimentation
Another critical problem in the Chesapeake Bay is sedimentation into the sea floor, which makes the water turbid anddifficult for aquatic organisms to inhabit. Sediment loads are an important indicator to track in order to understand water
quality conditions in the Bay. Amounts of sediment are also related to the river flow, as increased precipitation, and runoff
from winter and spring increases the runoff and therefore pollution into the Bay.

4

１ Chesapeake Bay
Sediment decreased at about 30% of the 31 monitoring sites that gathered data for 25 years, but increased at 30% of thesites, indicating degrading conditions.9
蘚 Pollution source
The Chesapeake Bay's worst problems are caused by the overabundance of nitrogen and phosphorus, which come from air,land and water.

Nitrogen and Phoshorus Loads to the Bay（1985 〜 2013）1
Within the Bay watershed, nitrogen and phosphorous concentrations decreased at about 70% of the 31 locations long‑termmonitoring stations. Nutrient loading of total phosphorus （TP） measured at nine rivers for 2013 totaled about 15.36 million
pounds,which waswas around 25% less than the long‑term average of 20.07 million pounds. Most of this reduction was due to the implementation
pound, whichof phosphate detergent bans that went into effect in the 1970s and 1980s, as well as wastewater treatment plant upgrades.9
Estimated total nitrogen （TN） inflow into the Chesapeake Bay totaled about 259.37 million pounds in 2013, 15% less thanthe long‑term average of 303.94 million pounds for 1990‑2013. Long‑term trends since 1985 show that TN concentrations are
improving at 5 of 9 sites which include the three largest tributaries, but degrading at 2 sites.10
Toxic chemicals ‑ such as pesticides, pharmaceuticals, and polychlorinated biphenyls （PCBs） ‑ were found to partially or
fully impair 74% of the 92 locations analyzed tidal segments of the Chesapeake Bay. Short‑term trends from 2006 data show
a steady increase in the number of impaired segments.1<Environmental Protection Measures>
Since May 2009, the Chesapeake Bay has been managed under the Executive Order（EO）13508 for Chesapeake Bay Protection
and Restoration. Now the U.S. Geological Survey（USGS）, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service（USFWS）, and the National Park
Service, which are all part of the U.S. Department of the Interior （DOI）, have increased their efforts and leadership for theBay's environmental protection.11 A Federal Leadership Committee （FLC） was established to ensure coordination between
these Federal bodies, and consult with States and stakeholders. In May 2010, the new Strategy for Chesapeake Bay Watershed
Restoration and Protection was released by the FLC.
An improvement in water quality and nutrient loads is in part due to the Chesapeake Bay Total Maximum Daily Load
（TMDL）, agreed collaboratively by the seven jurisdictions surrounding the Bay, and issued by the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency.9
The highest priority in environmental protection measures in the Chesapeake Bay has been the restoration of the Bay's living
resources ‑ its finfish, shellfish, SAV and other aquatic life. The improvements needed include better fisheries management,
habitat restoration, recovery of SAV, nutrient and toxin reductions and significant advances in estuarine science.
蘚 Monitoring program
The Chesapeake Bay Program and its partners have been collecting data throughout 31 locations of the non‑tidal portionsof the Bay watershed since 1985, regarding stream flow and water quality. Since 2004, the monitoring network was expanded,with the aim to assess changes in nutrient and sediment levels. Currently, monitoring is conducted at 123 sites throughout
the watershed, gathering indicators of streamflow, nitrogen, phosphorus, and suspended sediment concentrations.9 Other
indicators that were assessed in the larger Chesapeake Bay tidal monitoring network includes: benthic infaunal community
monitoring, shallow‑water monitoring at selected segments on a rotational basis, annual aerial and ground surveys of underwater
Bay grasses, decadal records of phytoplankton and zooplankton, and fisheries population monitoring programs and surveys.

5

１ Chesapeake Bay

Related organizations and NGOs
・The Chesapeake Program <http://www.chesapeakebay.net/>
・Chesapeake Bay Foundation <http://www.cbf.org/>・Maryland Department of Natural Resources. <http://www.dnr.maryland.gov/bay/>・Virginia Department of Environmental Quality <http://deq.state.va.us/Programs/Water/ChesapeakeBay.aspx>
・National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Chesapeake Bay Office. <http://chesapeakebay.noaa.gov/>
・United States Geological Survey, USGS Chesapeake Bay Features. <http://chesapeake.usgs.gov/>

References
１. Chesapeake Bay Program. http://www.chesapeakebay.net/ （accessed Dec 22, 2014）.
２. Chesapeake Bay Foundation. http://www.cbf.org/ （accessed Dec 22, 2014）
３. Office of the Delaware State Climatologist. Delaware Climate Information.
http://climate.udel.edu/delawares‑climate （accessed Dec 22, 2014）
４. Maryland State Archives. MARYLAND AT A GLANCE: Chesapeake Bay
http://msa.maryland.gov/msa/mdmanual/01glance/html/ches.html （accessed Dec 25, 2014）.
５. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Chesapeake Bay Office.
http://www.chesapeakebay.noaa.gov/ （accessed Jan 15, 2015）.
６. Chesapeake Bay Foundation. 2014 State of the Bay.
http://www.cbf.org/document.doc?id=2289 （accessed Jan 14, 2015）.
７. William & Mary Virginia Institute of Marine Science. SAV in Chesapeake Bay and Coastal Bays.
http://web.vims.edu/bio/sav/AboutSAV.html（accessed Jan 15, 2015）
８. NOAA National Marine Fisheries Service, Office of Science and Technology. Commercial Fisheries Statistics.
http://www.st.nmfs.noaa.gov/commercial‑fisheries/commercial‑landings/ （accessed Jan 27, 2015）.
９. Chesapeake Bay Program. The Chesapeake Bay Program 2013: In accordance with Clean Water Act 117.
http://www.chesapeakebay.net/documents/cbp̲rtc̲2013.pdf （accessed Jan 27, 2015）.
10. United States Geological Survey. Water Quality Loads and Trends at Nontidal Monitoring Stations in the Chesapeake
Bay Watershed.
http://cbrim.er.usgs.gov/index.html （accessed Jan 27, 2015）.
11. United States Geological Survey. USGS Science for the Chesapeake Bay Restoration, 2011.
http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2010/3081/pdf/fs2010‑3081̲02102011.pdf （accessed Jan 27, 2015）.
12. Hutchinson, S.; Hawkins, L.E., 2007. Oceans: A Visual Guide. Shinjusha Co., Ltd.: China, 2007. Japanese translation.

6

２ San Francisco Bay
Overview
San Francisco Bay is a large coastal embayment located on the Pacific Coast of the State of California. It consists of 5
major water bodies‑Suisun Bay, Carquinez Strait, San Pablo Bay, Central Bay, and South Bay‑and connects to the open sea
only through the 2〜3 km wide Golden Gate Strait. The Sacramento‑San Joaquin Delta lies in the east of Suisun Bay, where
two major inflowing rivers, the Sacramento and San Joaquin Rivers, meet. Freshwater from these rivers merges with theincoming ocean water from the Golden Gate Strait to form an estuary mainly at the northern area of the Bay.

Location
Basic information15
Surface area: 1,040 裄
Volume: 7 裝
Average depth: 6 m
Maximum depth: 110 m

Nature< Background >San Francisco Bay has a catchment area ofapproximately 156,000 裄, covering about 40% of
California State. The catchment area provides
drinking water to over 23 million Californians（approximately two‑thirds of the state's popula‑tion）and irrigation water to 18,000 裄 of farmland. 1
Before human‑induced modifications, extensive
wetlands surrounded the Bay, but now much of
the shoreline has been turned into residential, industrial, agricultural, and commercial areas. As a consequence of this, theBay is facing various environmental problems. However, the Bay still supports vast ranges of plant and animal species, andalso continues to play a vital role for the people of California.
ClimateThe Bay catchment area has a Mediterranean climate, characterized by cool, wet winters and warm, dry summers. In
the inland area, the average temperature is about 6 襄 in winter and 26 襄 in summer. Temperatures in the coastal area showless variation, with mean monthly temperatures ranging from 10 to 16 襄.2Precipitation varies greatly within the catchment area. In the wettest area, annual precipitation is around 1,500 mm.2
Topography
A relatively deep channel runs throughout the Bay, but the Bay is mostly shallow, with an average depth of only 6 m.
Most of the coastline has a shallow slope, except along Carquinez Strait and part of Central Bay where the coastline is steep.
At the Golden Gate, the entrance to the Bay, the water is at its maximum water depth of approximately 110 m.3,15
Hydrology
The Bay receives the majority of its freshwater from the Sacramento and San Joaquin Rivers. Freshwater from these tworivers influences the salinity and water circulation patterns of the Bay, especially in the northern region. Salinity in the northof the Bay varies considerably and increases along a gradient from the Sacramento‑San Joaquin Delta to Central Bay. The
mean annual salinity at the mouth of the Sacramento River is slightly less than 2 ppt; in Suisun Bay it is about 7 ppt; and inCentral Bay it increases to about 30 ppt. However, large inflows from the above rivers dramatically drop the average salinityof the Bay. For example, the average salinity of the Bay dropped from 26.1 ppt to 9.0 ppt during the 1997 floods, reducing
the salinity of the Bay from 79% seawater to only 27% seawater.2,4
The southern region receives only minor amounts of freshwater from the surrounding watershed. Thus circulation patterns
and salinity are regulated by a combination of oceanic and northern‑region waters that enter from Central Bay. Since there
is no significant freshwater input, the salinity levels are usually higher and more uniform in the southern region. However,as in the above example, salinity in the southern region can be altered by large floods in the northern region.2
The water temperature of the Bay varies geographically and seasonally, ranging from 10 to 20 ℃. During the summer,
water in the northern region is usually warmer than the ocean, due to atmospheric heating and river input, whereas in winter7

２ San Francisco Bay
the Bay is usually cooler than the ocean. The water temperature of the southern region is intermediate between the ocean
and river temperatures.2< Surrounding environment >Habitat
The majority of the water area of the Bay has a sandy mud bottom, but diverse habitats for life exist along the coastal
zone, such as sand beach, reef, seagrass bed, mudflats, and wetlands. However, the distribution area of these habitats has
significantly shrunk compared to before, due to development started in the 1800s. In particular, mudflats and wetlands wereartificially filled, diked, drained, and converted into agricultural, industrial, and urban lands, and they have decreased
prominently. For instance, approximately 800 裄 of wetlands existed before, but there is currently approximately 200 裄 ofwetlands, including those artificially made, which is approximately one fourth of the previous wetland area.5

Distribution change of mudflats and wetlands in San Francisco Bay（Comparison between 1800 and 2009）5
Currently, wetlands are distributed in parts of South Bay, San Pablo Bay, and Suisun Bay. Despite their significant decrease
and separation, they still support a wide range of animal life, including precious species, and provide valuable open spaceand recreational opportunities.
Biota
A wide variety of freshwater, brackish, marine and anadromous fish species
are found in the Bay, which is consistent with a brackish environment, total‑
ing more than 130 species. Freshwater species include Threadfin shad, bluegill
and carp. Brackish species include delta smelt, starry flounder and yellowfin
goby. Marine species include Pacific herring, English sole and white croaker.
Anadromous species include Chinook salmon, white sturgeon and striped bass.
Many of the fish species in the Bay are endemic.2
Marine mammals, such as the California sea lion and harbor seals, are also
found in the Bay. Harbor seals settle in the Bay and come ashore to restand give birth and are seen in Central Bay and the southern region of SouthBay. The population of harbor seals is estimated to be around 500.6
The wetlands surrounding the Bay support a vast range of bird species.
Over half of the birds that migrate along the Pacific Flyway are known tostop‑over to rest and feed.
Parent and child of harbor seals in San Francisco Bay68

２ San Francisco Bay
Protected Area
Various types of protected areas designated and managed by the nation and/or the state are dotted around the Bay andcontribute to conserving wildlife and their habitats. Major protected areas include the National Wildlife Refuge and the state‑
managed Ecological Reserve, Wildlife Area, and State Marine Parks which are intended to conserve mudflats, wetlands, andislands as important habitats for birds, fish, and mammals.7

Location map of State Marine Parks14

History and Culture< History >San Francisco Bay was land covered by glaciers until 20,000 years ago. It was formed at the end of the last ice age whenmelting continental ice sheets caused the sea level to rise, and the seawater penetrated the Coast Range through the Golden
Gate Strait and began to fill the Bay. Over the last 6,000 years, the sedimentation has formed mudflats and wetlands, creat‑
ing an amazing and intricate ecosystem. However, starting with the mid‑1800s Gold Rush, human use and development inand around the estuary has led to its degradation and the decline of many important native species.8

Social Environment< Population >The population of the San Francisco Bay area has increased rapidly, from about 3 million in 1950 to about 7 million at present.
The catchment area has approximately 10 million people, one‑third of California's population. The population density is highin the counties surrounding South Bay, such as San Francisco, San Mateo and Santa Clara.29２ San Francisco Bay< Land use >The 12 counties（Alameda, Contra Costa, Marin, Napa, Sacramento, San Francisco, San Joaquin, San Mateo, Santa Clara,
Solano, Sonoma and Yolo）in the Bay catchment area contain almost 3,600 裝 of urban land. Of this total, residential development
occupies almost 2,400 裄, commercial properties and light industry about 600 裄, and heavy industry over 640 裄. In addition,
the region encompasses over 7,200 裄 of intensive agricultural land and over 15,200 裄 of other agricultural and rural lands.
Until recently, almost all of the people, jobs and housing were located on the flatlands immediately surrounding San Francisco
and San Pablo Bays, and in a few major centers along the principal rivers in the Delta. However, during the last two decades,
population growth has begun to shift away from these urban centers, following the development of state and interstate highways
further inland. Urbanization of these once rural lands threatens the balance of the estuarine ecosystem by eliminating or
modifying sensitive wetlands, altering stream courses and watershed lands, and polluting the waters that flow into the estuary.6< Industry >Major industries related to the Bay area include shipping, tourism, commercial fishing, agriculture and manufacturing.
Many of these industries are heavily dependent on the Bay environment.2
Shipping
The Bay area is a major west coast shipping center, with millions of tons of cargo passing through the Golden Gate Strait
each year. There are 6 public ports in the Bay, and the annual tonnage handled at these ports has increased at a dramatic
rate over the past decades. In contrast, the number of ships arriving has decreased because of the trend towards large ships.
This, in turn, has increased the need for more frequent dredging.2
Fisheries
The Bay supports commercial bait shrimp, herring, and dungeness crab fisheries and is the only commercial fishery ofurban area in the nation. The herring fishery is, by far, the largest commercial fishery in the Bay and their high priced
eggs （herring roe）are exported to the Japanese market.2
Tourism
The Bay area is famous for its scenic beauty and attracts millions of tourists every year. The popular tourist attractions
are closely tied to the Bay's scenic values and productivity such as the Golden Gate Bridge and Fisherman's Wharf.2

Environmental Problems
The Bay has faced various environmental problems, such as disappearance of wetlands, water pollution, and decreasing
biological resources, with the mid‑1800s Gold Rush as a turning point. In order to address these environmental problems,
the US Environmental Protection Agency and the state government established the San Francisco Estuary Project （SFEP）in
1987, based on the Clean Water Act, and formulated the Comprehensive Conservation and Management Plan （CCMP）aimed
at the Bay, and delta environmental conservation and maintenance through the project. The CCMP was formulated throughdiscussion among relevant ministries and agencies, the private sector, and residents over 5 years, and it shows action plansfor 9 fields （aquatic resources, wildlife, wetland management, water use, pollution prevention and reduction, dredging andwaterway modification, land‑use management, community participation and education, research and monitoring）. This plan
was updated in 2007 according to a recent change in the situation.9 Major environmental problems the Bay is facing andefforts to deal with them are explained hereinafter.

< Water and Sediment Pollution >An environmental monitoring survey（Regional Monitoring Program: RMP）has been conducted on a regular basis for water
quality, bottom sediment, and organisms, mainly by the San Francisco Estuary Institute （SFEI） since 1993. Based on such
results, the water quality of the Bay has improved significantly in recent years because of the development and enhancementof regulations, and improved wastewater treatment technology. However, relatively high concentrations of pollutants such as
PCBs, methyl mercury, and dioxin are still detected in fish, and the state government advises people to lower their intake
of some fish. Furthermore, high concentrations of PCBs are particularly detected in surfperch （Embiotocidae）, perhaps dueto their habitat along the coastal area, where pollutants have accumulated to high concentrations, and it is recommended thatthe intake of surfperch be reduced. With respect to bottom sediment, according to toxicity testing using aquatic organisms,
the results showed approximately 70% of samples were toxic in the 2009 survey. This water pollution and sediment contamination
is known to be caused by the ongoing negative legacy of mining development and discharge of untreated wastewater, and it
is believed that it will take several decades for concentrations to fall to safe levels.510

２ San Francisco Bay

Type of fish whose intake is recommended to be reduced6< Other Environmental Problems >Decrease and Regeneration of Habitats
Habitats （wetlands, mudflats）for characteristic organisms in the Bay have significantly decreased due to development, butvarious attempts to preserve these habitats, including restoration projects, have been made. For example, more wetlands
were created or restored in Suisun Bay ,San Pablo Bay, South Bay, etc. by effective
use of dredged sand and introducing seawater
through the restoration project. Recently,
an old saltpan in South Bay was restored asover approximately 60 裄 of wetland （SouthBay Salt Pond Restoration Project）. In addition,
if filling wetland due to development cannot
be avoided , it is required to offset thedisappearance of wetland by creating thesame‑quality wetland. Other attempts include
preparation of wetland restoration guidelines（Baylands Ecosystem Habitat Goals Report）,
establishment of a protected area for research
purposes （San Francisco National Estuarine
Research Reserve）, development of an evaluation
method for habitats（California Rapid Assessment
Methodology）, and elimination of an introduced
plant species Spartina alterniflora.9

Wetland Restoration through South Bay Salt Pond Restoration Project（Left: before restoration, Right: after restoration）10

Decline of Biological Resources
Fishing resources on the whole are declining in the Bay. Specifically, thepopulation of migrating fish in the Bay has declined roughly in the 50‑90% range
compared to levels in the 1980s, except in Central Bay. Moreover, the existing
6 species of fish （such as winter‑run/spring‑run Chinook salmon, Delta smelt,
Green sturgeon） are designated as endangered species by the nation or theState. The primary factors that have driven these species towards extinction
are habitat loss through development, introduction of invasive species, riverwater diversions, agriculture activities and water pollution. For example, damconstruction has drastically reduced spawning populations of Chinook salmon by

11

Delta Smelt11

２ San Francisco Bay
blocking their upstream migration route. Its spawning population in the Bay's tributaries has declined by nearly 70%, comparedto levels in the early 1900s.2,5 The population of Delta smelt is estimated to have declined slightly by 2.4% in 2005, comparedto the level in 1993 when it was designated as an endangered species.11
On the other hand, large‑scale herring spawning was observed in the Bay in 2011, and the Harbor porpoise has returned
after just over six decades. Resource recovery signs have been seen to a certain extent.5,13
Introduced species
Many of the benthic species in the Bay are either accidentally or intentionally introduced. During the past 140 years, morethan 100 introduced species have become established. Most of the large invertebrates in the Bay's shallows are now dominatedby introduced species. Species of great concern are the green crab, Chinese mitten crab and Asian clam. Green crabs have
reduced the abundance of 20 invertebrate species, including native species. Chinese mitten crabs have clogged power‑plantcooling systems and are thought to weaken levees and banks through burrowing . The Asian clam is now the dominant
benthic organism in many parts of the Bay and is suspected of being the main cause for the reduction of zooplankton abundance.2,12

Related organizations and NGOs
・San Francisco Bay Conservation and Development Commission <http://www.bcdc.ca.gov/>
・San Francisco Estuary Partnership <http://www.sfestuary.org/>
・Friends of the San Francisco Estuary <http://friendsofsfestuary.weebly.com/>
・San Francisco Estuary Institute <http://www2.sfei.org/>
・Save the Bay <http://www.savesfbay.org/>

References
１. United States Environmental Protection Agency, 2007. National Estuary Program Coastal Condition Report.
http://water.epa.gov/type/oceb/nep/index.cfm#tabs‑4 （accessed March 31, 2015）.
２. San Francisco Estuary Project, 2011. The State of San Francisco Bay 2011.
http://sfep.sfei.org/wp‑content/uploads/2012/12/11SFEP̲STATEofSFBAY2011.pdf（.accessed March 31, 2015）.
３. Goals Project, 1999. Baylands Ecosystem Habitat Goals. A report of habitat recommendations prepared by the San
Francisco Bay Area Wetlands Ecosystem Goals Project. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, San Francisco, Calif.
/S.F. Bay Regional Water Quality Control Board, Oakland, Calif.
４. San Francisco Estuary Institute （SFEI）, 2013. The Pulse of the Bay: Contaminants of Emerging Concern.
http://www.sfei.org/sites/default/files/Pulse%202013%20CECs（1）.pdf （accessed March 31, 2015）.
５. San Francisco Estuary Partnership, 2011. The State of San Francisco Bay 2011.
６. San Francisco Estuary Institute （SFEI）. 2011. The Pulse of the Estuary: Pollutant Effects on Aquatic Life. www.sfei.
org/.../Pulse%202011%20Effects%20on%20Aquatic%20Life.pdf. （accessed March 31, 2015）
７. California Marine Life Protection Act Initiative, 2011. San Francisco Bay Options Report: Considering MPA Planning.
https://nrm.dfg.ca.gov/FileHandler.ashx?DocumentID=45845 （accessed March 31, 2015）.
８. Cohen, A. 2000. An Introduction to the San Francisco Estuary 3rd ed.
http://sfep.sfei.org/wp‑content/uploads/2012/12/Intro‑to‑SF‑Estuary‑PDF.pdf. （accessed March 31, 2015）.
９. San Francisco Estuary Project, 2007. Comprehensive Conservation and Management Plan.
http://sfep.sfei.org/wp‑content/uploads/2012/12/2007‑CCMP.pdf. （accessed March 31, 2015）.
10. South Bay Salt Pond Restoration Project, date unknown. The Island Ponds: Before and After
http://www.southbayrestoration.org/track‑our‑progress/island‑ponds‑before‑after.html. （accessed March 31, 2015）.
11. Center for Biological Diversity, date unknown. Natural History.
http://www.biologicaldiversity.org/species/fish/Delta̲smelt/natural̲history.html. （accessed March 31, 2015）.
12. San Francisco Estuary Project, 2000. State of the Estuary 2000.
13. Golden Gate Cetacean Research, 2014. Harbor Porpoise Project.
http://www.ggcetacean.org/harbor‑porpoise.html. （accessed March 31, 2015）.
14. California Department of Fish and Wildlife, date unknown. San Francisco Bay Marine Protected Areas.
http://www.dfg.ca.gov/marine/mpa/sanfranciscobay.asp. （accessed March 31, 2015）.
15. T. J. Conomos, 1977. Properties and Circulation of San Francisco Bay Waters
http://downloads.ice.ucdavis.edu/sfestuary/conomos̲1979/archive1019.PDF （accessed March 31, 2015）12

３ Gulf of Mexico
Overview ――――――――――――――――――――――The Gulf of Mexico is a Mediterranean‑type sea located at the southeastern corner of North America. The Gulf is borderedby the United States to the north（Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, Texas）, six Mexican states to the west（Quintana
Roo, Tamaulipas, Veracruz, Tabasco, Campeche, Yucatan）, and the island of Cuba to the southeast.
The Gulf measures approximately 1,600 ㎞ from east to west, 900 ㎞ from north to south, and has a surface area of 1,592,800
裄.1,21

Location
Basic information21
Surface area： 1,592,800 裄
Volume：2,366,901 裝
Average depth： 1,486 m
Maximum depth： 3,787 m

Nature< Background >Drainage into the Gulf of Mexico is extensive
and includes 20 major river systems （>150 riv‑ers）covering over 3,800,000 裝 of the continental
United States. Annual freshwater inflow to theGulf is approximately 1,060 裝 per year. Of thisinflow, 85% comes from the United States, with
64% originating from the Mis sissippi River alone. Additional freshwater inputs originate in Mexico, the Yucatan Peninsula,
and Cuba.1
ClimateVirtually every kind of weather condition has been known to occur in Texas State of the United States. January temperaturesin the Rio Grande Valley have been known to register about 32 襄, while blizzards have blocked highways in the Panhandle
section of the state during the same month. The Gulf Coast area around Houston has average annual temperatures around21 襄 and precipitation of some 1,100 袢, whereas the Panhandle averages about 16 襄 with less than 500 袢 of rain.2
Topography
The Gulf of Mexico basin resembles a large pit with a broad shallow rim. Approximately 38% of the Gulf is comprised byshallow and intertidal areas （<20 m deep）. The area of the continental shelf （<180 m） and continental slope （180 ‑ 3,000 m）
represent 22% and 20% respectively, and abyssal areas deeper than 3,000 m comprise the final 20%. The Sigsbee Deep,located in the southwestern quadrant, is the deepest region of the Gulf of Mexico. Its exact maximum depth is 3,787 m.
Mean （average） water depth of the Gulf is 1,486 m and the basin contains a volume of 2,366,901 裝 of water.1,21
Hydrology
Water enters the Gulf through the Yucatan Strait, circulates as the Loop Current, and exits through the Florida Strait
eventually forming the Gulf Stream. Portions of the Loop Current often break away forming eddies or 'gyres' which affectregional current patterns. Smaller wind driven and tidal currents are created in nearshore environments.1< Surrounding environment >The Gulf of Mexico estuaries provide critical habitats for a rich assemblage of fish, wildlife and plant species. Hundreds ofspecies of birds, recreational and commercial fish and shellfish species, native cypress and mangroves, and threatened andendangered species such as sea turtles, Gulf sturgeon, beach mice and manatees can be found in the Gulf estuary. Also,these estuaries support submerged aquatic vegetation communities that stabilize shorelines against erosion, reduce non‑point
source loadings, improve water clarity and provide habitat.3
Biota
Coral reefs are found in a discontinuous arc around the Gulf, with the greatest development along the Florida Keys andCuba.413

３ Gulf of Mexico
The Gulf of Mexico contains some of the mostspectacular wildlife in the world, including manatees,
bottlenose dolphins, migrating whooping cranes,
American crocodiles and alligators, roseate spoonbills,
sea turtles and whale sharks, to name a few.6

Distribution of deep corals in the Gulf of Mexico5
Protected Areas

Marine Protected Areas in the Gulf of Mexico7

・The Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary （United States）
The most extensive living coral reef in the United States is adjacent to the island chain of the Florida Keys. The Florida
Reef Tract which extends from Soldier Key, located in Biscayne Bay, to the Tortugas Banks possesses coral formations very
similar to those found in the Bahamas and Caribbean Sea. The Florida Reef Tract is nearly 240 ㎞ long and about 6 ㎞ wide
extending to the edge of the Florida Straits. It is the third largest barrier reef ecosystem in the world. All but the northern‑most extent of the reef tract lies within the boundaries of the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary. The 7,252 裄 Florida
Keys National Marine Sanctuary （FKNMS）, designated in 1992, surrounds the entire archipelago of the Florida Keys andincludes the productive waters of Florida Bay, the Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic Ocean. Discontinuous and less biologicallydiverse coral reef communities continue northward along western Florida shores to the Florida Middle Grounds, a series ofsubmerged pinnacles rising to within 18‑24 m of the surface, about 160 ㎞ northwest of St. Petersburg.8
・Flower Garden Banks National Marine Sanctuary （U.S.）
Flower Garden Banks National Marine Sanctuary is one of 14 federally designated underwater areas protected by NOAA's（National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration） Office of National Marine Sanctuaries.
Situated about 110 to 180 ㎞ off the coasts of Texas and Louisiana, the Flower Garden Banks sanctuary includes underwatercommunities that rise from the depths of the Gulf of Mexico atop underwater mountains called salt domes.914

３ Gulf of Mexico

History and Culture
It is thought that the Gulf of Mexico formed approximately 300 million years ago. Many theories exist as to the exact
mechanism of formation, but most scientists agree that the Gulf was formed as a result of seafloor subsidence.10
The Gulf's coastal areas were first settled by American Indian groups, including those representing various advanced culturesof Mexico. Since then, the Gulf region has settled by African slaves, and French and Spanish colonists. Caribs boated from
Havana to Tampa, Florida and Mexican mound‑builders are believed to have brought religion up the Mississippi. During theperiod of European exploration and colonization, the entire region became a theatre of contention between the Spanish, French
and English. The present‑day culture of the coastal region is primarily Spanish‑American（Mexico, Cuba）and Anglo‑American（U.S.）.11

Social Environment< Population >In the United States, the total population of the 5 states of the Gulf of Mexico is projected by the Census Bureau to increase
from a total of 44.2 million in 1995 to an estimated 61.4 million in 2025, nearly a 40% increase.11 Gulf Coast Region population
for the Gulf states in 2010 was 21 million, and accounted for about 37% of their total.12< Land use >About 58% of the Mississippi River basin is cropland. Other significant land uses（and their percentages）of the basin include
woodland （18%）, range and barren land （21%）, wetlands （2.4 %） and urban land （0.6%）.13 Water from these lands drain
into streams and reservoirs, flowing into the Mississippi River and eventually reaching the Gulf.
Range land is the predominant land use in the Rio Grande Basin constituting about 77% of the basin （about 81% on the USside and 71% on the Mexico side）.14< Industry >The Gulf of Mexico ecosystem provides a wide array of valuable resources to the nations on its shores. Collectively, theU.S. Gulf States' Gross Domestic Product （GDP）was 2.4 trillion dollars, accounting for 17% of the total national GDP of thecountry （2009）.12
Fisheries
Fisheries of the 5 Gulf states provides the U.S.
with abundant seafood, and its top commercial species
are menhaden, brown and white shrimp, blue crab,
and eastern oyster . Commercial fish and shellfish
harvest from the five states was estimated to beabout 635,000 tons , which represents about 16 %（average of 2007 to 2009）of the total domestic land‑
ings in the U nited States . In the sa m e year ,commercial catches in the Gulf were valued at over
660 million dollars. The Gulf also supports a productive
recreational fishery. U.S. Gulf states accounted forover 44 %2009.

of the U.S. recreational fish harvest in

12

Distribution of the commercial fishing landings in the Gulf of Mexicoby state （average annual percentage from 2007 to 2009）12
Note: LA= Louisiana, TX= Texas, FL= Florida, AL= Alabama,
MS= Mississippi
Petroleum Industry
The Gulf Region's crude oil and natural gas production accounts for about half of the U.S. total（based on an average from2008 to 2010）. There were 3,701 active oil and gas platforms in the Gulf in 2011. In addition, the offshore petroleum industry
employed over 120,676 U.S. workers in the Gulf in 2009.12 In Mexico, the Secretariat of Energy （SENER） estimated thatthe daily crude oil and natural gas production from Gulf of Mexico offshore operations in the years 2000 to 2005 ranged from
2.293 to 2.839 million barrels and 41.4 to 44.8 million 裙, respectively.15

15

３ Gulf of Mexico

Environmental Problems< Water and Sediment Quality >The primary problem in Gulf Coast estuaries is coastal wetland loss. Fish tissue contaminants, benthic condition, and sedimentquality were also of concern. Fish tissue contaminant concentrations exceeded risk‑based EPA Guidance levels in 14% of sites
in Gulf Coast estuaries sampled for fish. These sites were dominated by elevated tissue concentrations of total PCBs and
DDT, with some instances of dieldrin, mercury, cadmium, and toxaphene. Benthic index values that combine population anddiversity of benthic species, were lower than expected in 17% of Gulf Coast estuarine sediments. Elevated sediment contaminantconcentrations were found in 11% of estuarine sediments. About 2.5% of wetlands were lost per decade from 1780 to 1980,
and about 0.25% of wetlands were lost between 1990 and 2000.16
Oil Spills
There have also been widespread environmental effects from the Deepwater Horizon oil spill of April 20, 2010 that released
more than 757 million liters （780,000 裙） of oil into the surrounding ocean. According to the National Wildlife Federation（NWF）, they have found over 900 dead or stranded dolphins, and 500 stranded sea turtles in the oil spill affected area, notto mention the harmful effects on other marine organisms, fish, and birds that inhabit the Gulf. Scientists at NOAA are also
conducting research in the area but the information will not be made public until the civil trial is concluded.17< Other Environmental Problems >Given the dependence of living coastal and marine resources on coastal habitats, continued loss or degradation with nointervention to reverse the trend has resulted in declining fish populations which can result in food web disruptions that threaten
ecosystem diversity and stability. Stocks will likely no longer be sustainable, which in turn will adversely affect coastal
communities and the coastal economy.18< Environmental Protection Measures >Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission （FWC）commented on its environmental protection measures as below.
蘚 FWC should support actions at the federal fishery management councils to promptly end overfishing and rebuild depleted
fish populations to healthy levels as quickly as possible.
蘚 FWC needs to support strong measures at the federal fishery management councils to reduce bycatch of marine fish andother marine life in fishing operations;蘚 FWC should support measures at the federal fishery management councils to protect deep water corals, reefs of all kinds,
hard bottoms and other habitat areas of particular concern, and essential fish habitat from destructive fishing practices
as well as from other activities that impair these habitats.19
Monitoring program
Products and analysis focused on the monitoring of the ocean conditions in the Gulf of Mexico, in response to selected
extreme events are presented, such as:・Mississippi River water discharge during May, June and July of 2011
・Deepwater Horizon oil spill during the summer of 2010
As part of NOAA's mission to study the role of the ocean in climate and ecosystems, Atlantic Oceanographc & Meteorological
Laboratory （AOML）scientists have for many years devised methods and tools to allow for the real‑time monitoring of ocean
conditions. The website （http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/phod/dhos/index.php） is designed to provide some of these tools andproducts showing the condition of several parameters in the Gulf of Mexico, including information about ocean currents, sea
surface temperature, sea level, and ocean color. The products presented here have been obtained using both direct ocean
measurements and remote observations collected via satellite, as well as using outputs from numerical models. Also included
is a list of links to other web sites and resources dedicated to monitoring the Gulf of Mexico region.20

Related organizations and NGOs
・US EPA （U.S. Environmental Protection Agency）Gulf of Mexico Program <http://www.epa.gov/gmpo/>′
・Centro de Ecologia, Pesquerias y Oceanografia del Golfo de Mexico（EPOMEX）<http://epomex.uacam.mx/>
・Centro de Investigaciones Marinas （CIM）<http://www.cim.uh.cu/portada.php?lang=es>

16

３ Gulf of Mexico

References′′, and J.W. Tunnell, Jr., Editors, 2015. GulfBase: Resource Database for Gulf
１. F. Moretzsohn, J.A. Sanchez
Chavezof Mexico Research. General Facts about the Gulf of Mexico,
http://www.gulfbase.org/facts.php, （accessed March 31, 2015）
２. Encyclopedia Britanica, 2015.
http://global.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/589288/Texas/279593/Climate, （accessed March 31, 2015）
３. United States Environment Protection Agency, 2005. National Coastal Condition Report II.
http://water.epa.gov/type/oceb/upload/2005̲1̲12̲oceans̲nccr̲2005̲Chap5̲Gulf.pdf, （accessed March 31, 2015）
４. Earthdive, Caribbean ‑ Tropical.
http://www.earthdive.com/eco‑region/caribbean‑tropical/, （accessed March 31, 2015）
５. NOAA, 2010. Cold‑Water Coral Geographic Database Update for the Gulf of Mexico.
http://www.habitat.noaa.gov/protection/corals/deepseacorals/projects/FY10̲02.html. （accessed March 31, 2015）.
６. Gulf Area Sea Paddlers. Wildlife of Gulf of Mexico,
http://www.gasp‑ seakayak.net/wild.html, （accessed March 31, 2015）
７. NOAA MPA Center, 2011. Snapshot of Gulf of Mexico MPAs.
http://marineprotectedareas.noaa.gov/pdf/helpful‑resources/gom̲mpas̲snapshot.pdf. （accessed March 31, 2015）.
８. NOAA, 2015. Coral Reef Information System, Florida.
http://www.coris.noaa.gov/portals/florida.html, （accessed March 31, 2015）
９. NOAA, 2014. Flower Garden Banks, National Marine Sanctuary.
http://flowergarden.noaa.gov/about/about.html, （accessed March 31, 2015）
10. U. S. Environment Protection Agency, 2014. General Facts about the Gulf of Mexico.
http://www.epa.gov/gmpo/about/facts.html, （accessed March 31, 2015）11. Shepperd Software, 2005. Mexican oceanography ‑Level L.
http://www.sheppardsoftware.com/Mexico‑ocean.swf, （accessed March 31, 2015）
12. NOAA, 2011. The GULF OF MEXICO at a GLANCE: A Second Chance.
http://stateofthecoast.noaa.gov/features/gulf‑of‑mexico‑at‑a‑glance‑2.pdf（accessed March 31, 2015）13. Donald A. Goolsby and William A. Battaglin, 2000. Nitrogen in the Mississippi Basin‑Estimating Sources and Predict‑ing Flux to the Gulf of Mexico,
http://ks.water.usgs.gov/pubs/fact‑sheets/fs.135‑00.html, （accessed March 31, 2015）
14. Raghavan Srinivasan, R., Ramanarayanan, T., Wang, H., and Jayakrishnan, R, 1997. Final Report, Hydrologic
Modeling of the Rio Grande/Rio Bravo Basin.
http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.37.2215&rep=rep1&type=pdf, （accessed March 31, 2015）′′
15. F. Moretzsohn, J.A. Sanchez, and J.W. Tunnell, Jr., Editors, 2015. GulfBase: Resource Database for Gulf
Chavezof Mexico Research. http://www.gulfbase.org （accessed March 31, 2015）
16. U.S. Environment Protection Agency, 2005. National Coastal Condition Report II.
http://water.epa.gov/type/oceb/2005̲downloads.cfm, （accessed March 31, 2015）17. National Wildlife Federation, 2014. Four Years into the Gulf Oil Disaster: Still Waiting for Restoration.
http://www.nwf.org/˜ /media/PDFs/water/2014/NWF̲deepwater̲horizon̲report̲web̲FINAL.pdf（accessed March 31, 2015）
18. U.S. Environment Protection Agency, 2012. Gulf of Mexico Ecosystem Science Assessment and Needs,
http://www.epa.gov/gulfcoasttaskforce/pdfs/GCERTF‑Book‑Final‑042712.pdf, （accessed March 31, 2015）
19. Florida Coastal and Ocean Coalition, 2009. Florida Coastal and Ocean Policy Report Card.
https://www.nrdc.org/oceans/flreport08/files/flreport08.pdf, （accessed March 31, 2015）20. NOAA, 2011. Monitoring the Gulf of Mexico Conditions.
http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/phod/dhos/index.php （accessed March 31, 2015）21. Hutchinson, S.; Hawkins, L.E., 2007. Oceans: A Visual Guide. Shinjusha Co., Ltd.: China, 2007. Japanese translation.

17

４ Mediterranean Sea
Overview
The Mediterranean Sea is an intercontinental body of seawater enclosed between the 3 continents of Europe, Africa andAsia and bordered by 21 countries. It is one of the most popular tourist destinations in the world due to its beautiful landscape,mild climate and numerous beach resorts.

Location
Basic information1,7
Surface area：2,536,000 裄
Volume：3,750,000 裝
Maximum depth：5,150 袤

Nature< Background >The Mediterranean is approximately 3,800 km
wide from west to east and has a maximum northto south distance between France and Algeria of
900 ㎞. Its only connection to the open （Atlantic）
Ocean is through the narrow and relatively shallow
Strait of Gibraltar, located between Spain and Morocco, which imposes a severe limitation on water exchange. The Mediterranean
Sea is also connected to the Black Sea via the Dardanelles Strait and the Sea of Marmara, and since the late 19th century,
to the Red Sea by the Suez Canal.2
Mountain ranges（e.g. the Pyrenees, the Alps, the Dinaric Alps）are distributed along the northern side of the Mediterranean.
Since these mountains slope steeply into the sea, the drainage basin of the north side is relatively small. Furthermore, since
the southern side is mainly covered by desert and only a few large rivers （the Nile, Rhone, Po and Ebro） flow into theMediterranean, these combined factors tend to limit freshwater input.3
ClimateThe Mediterranean region forms a distinct climatic unit. The prevailing winds in this region are westerly, but during thewinter the sea itself causes the formation of bands of low barometric pressure, making the winters warm and humid. During
the summer, the region comes under the influence of the tropical high‑pressure belt and the weather is very stable being
hot and dry. The temperature in the Mediterranean region varies greatly, with annual means ranging from 14 襄 to 25 襄.
The Atlantic influence limits the average annual temperature to about 10 襄 to 12 襄 in the west, while it can reach 36 襄 to
40 襄 in the east.1
Topography
The western basin is separated from the eastern by a bank crossing the strait between Sicily and Cape Bon, where water
is no deeper than 366 m. Mean depth of the western basin is estimated to be 1,612 m, and the deepest sounding ever recorded
is 3,733 m. In the eastern Mediterranean the maximum depth is 5,150 m, off the southern coast of Greece. The steepest
slope observed is situated close to the island of Sapienza, near Navarino, where a depth of 4,978 m is reached only 10 miles
from land. The mean Sicilian‑Ionian sub‑basin depth is 1,620 m, while the Levant sub‑basin has a mean depth of 1,451 m.1
Area of Mediterranean Sea by depth zone1
Depth zone（袤）Area（裄）0‑200
200‑1,000

578,000

1,000‑2,000
2,000‑3,500
Over 3,500
Total

Basin volume and mean depth of sub‑basins in the Mediterranean1
Basin Volume（裝） Mean Depth（袤）Western Mediterranean
Sicilian‑Ionian basin

1,357,000

1,612

1,243,000

1,620

230,000

Levantine

1,117,000

1,451

951,000

Adriatic Sea

33,000243

57,000Total

720,000

2,536,000

18

3,750,000

４ Mediterranean Sea
Hydrology
The water deficit, caused by greater evaporation than precipitation and river run‑off, is mainly compensated for by the
inflow of Atlantic water through the Straits of Gibraltar and by the water contribution from the Black Sea through the Straitsof the Dardanelles. In winter, cold and dry air masses induce marked evaporation and direct cooling of incoming Atlantic
water in the surface layer, resulting in a dramatic increase in its density, which makes it sink.2< Surrounding environment >Habitat
The Mediterranean coastline is approximately 46,000 km long. 54% of the coastline is rocky and 46% is sandy coast that
includes important and fragile habitats and ecosystems such as beaches, dunes, reefs, lagoons, swamps, estuaries and deltas.
Low‑lying sedimentary coasts are more dynamic than rocky coasts. The balance between sea‑level rise, sediment supply andwave and coastal current regimes will determine whether the coastline advances, remains stable, or retreats.
CORINE （COoRdinate INformation on the Environment） coastal data showed that, by the last years of the 20th century,
1,500 km of the EU Mediterranean coast had been transformed to "artificial coast"（mostly concentrated in the Balearic Islands,
Gulf of Lion, Sardinia, and the Adriatic, Ionian, and Aegean seas）. European harbors accounted for 1,237 ㎞ of this total（EC 1998）.2
The Mediterranean coast has a variety of habitats such as seaweed floor, rock coast, estuaries, underwater canyons, deep‑sea coral communities and seamounts.
One of the most important and productive habitats in the Mediterranean is large‑scale seagrass meadows（Posidonia oceanica）
which occur in depths less than 40 m of the western and eastern basins. These meadows serve as spawning and nursing
grounds for many commercial species.2
Biota
Mediterranean coastal and marine biodiversity is high by all measures. The basin supports some of the richest fauna andflora in the world and the habitat‑level diversity is extraordinary . It is recognized as one the world's 25 top biodiversity
hotspots, defined as areas with rich biodiversity, a large number of endemic species ‑ species unique to the region ‑ andcritical levels of habitat loss. There are an estimated 10,000 to 12,000 marine species in the Mediterranean, comprising
approximately 8,500 species of macroscopic fauna, over 1,300 plant species, and 2,500 species from other taxonomic groups.2

History and Culture< History >Some of the most ancient civilizations flourished around the Mediterranean. It was opened as a highway for commerce bymerchants trading from Phoenicia （present‑day Lebanon）. Carthage, Greece, Sicily and Rome were rivals for dominance of
its shores and trade; under the Roman Empire it became virtually a Roman lake. After the Romans, the Byzantine Empire
and the Arabs dominated the Mediterranean. Between the 11th and 14th centuries, Italian city trading states, such as Genoa,
Venice, and Barcelona, dominated the region. They struggled with the Ottomans for naval supremacy, particularly in theeastern Mediterranean. Products from Asia passed to Europe over Mediterranean trade routes until the establishment of aroute around the Cape of Good Hope in the late 15th century.
With the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869, the Mediterranean resumed its importance as a link with the East. The
development of the northern regions of Africa and the oil fields in the Middle East has increased trade in the Mediterranean.
Its importance as a trade link and as a route for attacks on Europe resulted in European rivalry for control of its coasts andislands and led to campaigns in the region during both world wars. Since World War II the Mediterranean region has beenof strategic importance to the United States and, until its dissolution, the Soviet Union.4

Social Environment< Population >The total population of the Mediterranean countries grew from 276 million in 1970 to 412 million in 2000 （a 1.35% increase
per year） and to 466 million in 2010. The population is predicted to reach 529 million by 2025. Four countries account for
about 60% of the total population: Turkey （81 million）, Egypt （72 million）, France （62 million）, and Italy （60 million）.
Overall, more than half the population lives in countries on the southern shores of the Mediterranean, and this proportion is
expected to grow to three quarters by 2025.
The Mediterranean region's population is concentrated near the coasts. The population of the coastal regions was 143 million
in 2000, and it could reach 174 million by 2025. The concentration of population in coastal zones is heaviest in the western
Mediterranean, the western shore of the Adriatic Sea, the eastern shore of the Aegean‑ Levantine region, and the Nile Delta.2< Land use >Almost 90% of the urbanized lands in the Mediterranean are located along the coasts of Spain, France, Greece, Italy and19

４ Mediterranean Sea
the former states of Yugoslavia. Between large cities are tourist facilities, secondary residences for the citizens and recreation
facilities. Consequently, few undeveloped areas remain along the northern side of the Mediterranean. Agricultural land ismainly concentrated in the coastal plains or former wetlands.3,5< Industry >The major industries in the Mediterranean region are tourism, fisheries, agriculture, the oil industry and manufacturing.
Tourism
The Mediterranean basin, if considered as a single area, is by far the largest global tourism destination, attracting almosta third of the world's international tourists and generating more than a quarter of international tourism receipts. The bulk of
the tourists are of European origin （81.1% in 2010） followed by Middle East tourists （6.4%） and those coming from theAmericas （5.7%）. Domestic tourism is also significant in the region. Of a total of 450 million visitors each year, including
both domestic and international tourists, 100 million stay on the Mediterranean coast of their own host country. It is forecasted
that the Mediterranean region will reach 500 million international tourist arrivals by 2030.2
Industry
Industry is frequently located along the region's coasts in areas with high population density, sometimes within urban centers,
and often in close proximity to other economic activities like agriculture and tourism. However, the geographical distributionof industrial activities in the Mediterranean Basin is uneven, with most industry concentrated in the northwest, particularly
in Italy, France, and Spain.2

Environmental Problems< Water and sediment quality >The state of the Mediterranean's open water is generally good but the coastal areas are subject to various environmental
problems, including eutrophication and, heavy metals, organic and microbial pollution. Land‑based activities （urbanization,industry and agriculture）are considered to be the main sources of pollution.5
Eutrophication
Many Mediterranean nearshore areas are threatened by nutrient over enrichment due to coastal and watershed development.
Municipal sewage is the main cause, followed by fertilizer run‑off from agricultural areas, lawns and golf courses. The
problem is particularly acute in shallow sub‑basins with limited flushing, common features in parts of the Adriatic and along
the Mediterranean's southern shore.
Agriculture is the largest non‑point source of pollutants in the Mediterranean. Agriculture‑related nutrients enter the sea
through groundwater, lakes, wetlands, and rivers. Nitrogen consumption per surface unit of arable land is highest in countriesof the northern watershed, with the exception of Bosnia‑Herzegovina and Albania. In contrast, point‑source release is highest
on the eastern coast of the Adriatic. Other point sources of nitrogen are concentrated in the Ebro watershed, the eastern
coast of the Levantine Basin and the western coast of Tunisia.

Mean surface productivity and eutrophic and hypoxic hot spots in the Mediterranean220

４ Mediterranean Sea
The most eutrophic areas of the Mediterranean are linked to the mixing of nutrients from deeper waters through intense
mesoscale circulation, local tidal mixing, or the input and alongshore redistribution of nutrients from large rivers. In addition,high chlorophyll and productivity levels have been found near large urban areas.2

Heavy metals
In the Mediterranean countries, atmospheric emissions of metals are mostly related to the cement industry（mercury, copper）,
production of energy （arsenic, cadmium, nickel） and the metal industry （lead, zinc）. Water pollution appears to be mostly
related to the fertilizer industry （mercury, arsenic, lead）, metal industry （nickel, zinc） and wastewater treatment plants（cadmium, copper）, with important contributions also from the energy sector and the chemical industry.
Aside from direct discharges from urban and industrial sources, rivers and streams are the major contributors of metals ofanthropogenic and natural origin to coastal areas,2Persistent Organic Pollutants （POPs）
POPs include certain chlorinated pesticides and industrial chemicals such as polychlorinated biphenyls（PCBs）, most of whichhave already been prohibited in Mediterranean countries. However, POPs can also be unintentionally released, mainly as aresult of combustion processes or as by ‑products in some industrial processes . Some examples are dioxins and furans,
hexachlorobenzene （HCB）, PCBs, or polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons （PAHs）.2< Other Environmental Problems >Marine Litter
A large proportion of marine litter is plastics. More attention is now being given to the impact of microplastics from suchprimary sources as feedstock in the plastics industry and from the breakdown of larger plastic items.
Around the world, marine litter kills more than a million seabirds and 100,000 marine mammals and turtles every year.
The most significant effects come from entanglement in or ingestion of marine litter, especially plastics. Sea turtles in the
Mediterranean, already seriously endangered through habitat loss and by catch, are further threatened by plastic marine litter
which they mistake for their main prey, jellyfish, and swallow. The plastic can become lodged in the turtle's gastrointestinal
tracts, resulting in injury or death.2
Marine Noise
Underwater noise is a growing concern in the Mediterranean due to increasing maritime activity, particularly in the Western
Mediterranean. Underwater noise affects the communication and behavior of marine mammals and certain fishes. Noise fromhuman activities can drown out the sounds that the animals rely on for communication and orientation, sometimes with serious
effects, even death. There is growing evidence that fish may also be negatively affected by noise. Possible impacts include
impaired communication, stress, habitat abandonment, hearing loss, and damage to eggs.2< Environmental Protection Measures >Barcelona Convention
The main regulatory instrument aimed at the protection of the Mediterranean marine and coastal environment is the"Barcelona Convention" which entered into force in 2004 replacing the 1976 "Convention for the Protection of the Mediterranean
Sea Against Pollution".
The Barcelona Convention's main objectives are "to prevent, abate, combat and to the fullest extent possible eliminate pollu‑
tion of the Mediterranean Sea Area" and "to protect and enhance the marine environment in that Area so as to contributetowards its sustainable development." Under the Barcelona Convention, protection of the marine environment is pursued "asan integral part of the development process, meeting the needs of present and future generations in an equitable manner."
Today all 21 countries surrounding the Mediterranean Sea, as well as the European Union, are Contracting Parties to theBarcelona Convention.2
Mediterranean Strategy for Sustainable Development （MSSD）
The Contracting Parties to the Barcelona Convention also adopted in 2005 the Mediterranean Strategy for Sustainable
Development （MSSD）, which results from a consultation process that mobilized most Mediterranean stakeholders including
governments and civil society such as NGOs and key experts. The purposes of the Strategy are to: contribute to economic
development while building on Mediterranean assets; reduce social disparities and fulfill MDGs while strengthening diversity;
ensure sustainable management of natural resources and change consumption and production patterns; and improve governanceat local, national and regional levels.221

４ Mediterranean Sea

Related organizations and NGO
・MEDCOAST <http://www.medcoast.org.tr/>
・MEDASSET <http://www.euroturtle.org/medasset/>
・UNEP Mediterranean Action Plan <http://www.unepmap.org/index.php>

References
１. IUCN, 2010. Mediterranean Pelagic Habitat
http://www.rac‑spa.org/sites/default/files/doc̲fsd/med̲pelagic̲habitats.pdf （accessed March 31, 2015）
２. UNEP, 2012. State of the Mediterranean Marine and Coastal Environment
http://195.97.36.231/dbases/MAPpublications/SoE/SoMMCER̲ENG.pdf （accessed March 31, 2015）
３. UNEP, 1996. State of the Marine and Coastal Environment in the Mediterranean Region
http://195.97.36.231/acrobatfiles/MTSAcrobatfiles/mts100.pdf （accessed March 31, 2015）
４. encyclopedia.com. "Mediterranean Sea".
http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/Mediterranean̲Sea.aspx , （accessed 2015‑02‑23）
５. EEA, 1999. State and pressures of the Marine and coastal Mediterranean environment
http://195.97.36.231/dbases/MAPpublications/SoE/EEA̲EnvironmentalIssuesSeries05.pdf （accessed March 31, 2015）
６. IUCN （2012）. Mediterranean Submarine Canyons Ecology and Governancehttps://portals.iucn.org/library/efiles/documents/2012‑035.pdf （accessed March 31, 2015）
７. Hutchinson, S.; Hawkins, L.E., 2007. Oceans: A Visual Guide. Shinjusha Co., Ltd.: China, 2007. Japanese translation.

22

５ North Sea
Overview
The North Sea is a semi‑enclosed sea situated on the continental shelf of northwestern Europe. It opens into the Atlantic
Ocean in the northwest, the Norwegian Sea to the north, and the Baltic Sea to the east via the Skagerrak‑Kattegat. The
North Sea is heavily exploited economically by the surrounding ‑ from fisheries to maritime transport to communication toenergy and is one of the busiest seas in the world.1

Location
Basic information9
Surface area：575,200 裄
Volume：54,069 裝
Average depth：94 m
Maximum depth：660 m

Nature< Background >The North Sea has a catchment area of about
850,000 裄. The annual freshwater river input ison the order of 300 裝, with one‑third comingfrom the snow‑melt waters of Norway and Sweden
and the rest from major rivers such as the Elbe,
Weser, Rhine, Meuse, Scheldt, Seine, Thames and Humber. In addition, a vast amount of fresh water is supplied throughthe brackish waters of the adjacent Baltic Sea, which is the dominant fresh water source for the North Sea.2
Climate
The climate of the North Sea is strongly influenced by the inflow of Atlantic Ocean water and the large‑scale westerly air
circulation, which frequently contains low‑pressure systems. These air‑flow patterns produce large variations in wind direction
and speed, high levels of cloud cover and high precipitation.2
Annual rainfall across the North Sea varies between 340 and 500 袢, averaging 425 袢. April to June tend to be the driest
months, with October to January being wetter. Thunderstorms are infrequent, and snow showers vary markedly from as
few as 5‑7 days per year in the south, to 10‑12 days in the central North Sea, and 30‑40 days in the north.3
Topography
The continental shelf of northwestern Europe gradually slopes from the North Sea towards the Atlantic Ocean. A largepart of the North Sea's bottom topography was shaped during the glacial period, as evidenced by the presence of river‑valley
systems, and deep fjords.
Although the shallowest regions in the North Sea are generally found off the southern coast, very shallow areas, such as
Dogger Bank, are also found in the open waters of the North Sea. The depth at Dogger Bank can be less than 20 m, andthis shallow topography significantly influences the surrounding water circulation.
The deepest region in the North Sea is the Norwegian Trench , which runs along the coast of Norway. It reaches its
maximum depth of 660 m off the southern Norwegian coast in the Skagerakk.2,9Hydrology
The hydrology of the North Sea is influenced by inflowing Atlantic waters, strong tidal action, fresh water inputs andclimatic conditions.
The majority of the North Sea's oceanic （Atlantic）water enters through the northern North Sea and runs south along thewestern slope of the Norwegian Trench. Smaller amounts also enter east of the Shetland Islands and between Shetland andScotland. Less than 10% enters the North Sea through the English Channel. Most of these inflows, as well as waters fromthe Baltic Sea, flow back into the Atlantic Ocean via the Norwegian Trench, creating a general anti‑clockwise circulation in
the North Sea.
The volume of Atlantic water entering the North Sea shows large annual variation due to the fluctuation of the North
Atlantic Oscillation, which is a measure of the intensity and persistence of westerly winds over the North Atlantic. Thesefluctuations significantly influence the hydrology of the North Sea, as is obvious when observing the interannual variability ofthe surface salinity distribution in the North Sea.

23

５ North Sea
Despite annual fluctuations, salinity in the open waters isaround 35 ppt and in the coastal waters is between 32 ppt and34.5 ppt. However, near the entrance to the Baltic Sea（Kattegat
and Skagerrak） and in the Norwegian Trench, salinities aremuch lower （10 ppt‑34 ppt）, due to the brackish water flowing
from the Baltic Sea and adjacent rivers. Since these regions
have low surface salinities, they have stable density stratifica‑tion that persists throughout the year.
In summer solar heating causes thermal stratification overlarge areas of the North Sea , but the stratification quickly
disappears in winter through wind‑induced vertical mixing. No
stratification develops in the shallow parts of the southern North
Sea, owing to tidal amplitudes of up to 8 m.
The sea‑surface temperature in the northern North Sea isquite stable , with an annual mean of about 9.5 襄 . The
temperature is most stable in the northern entrance. However,seasonal fluctuations are large in the southern region, due toits shallow depth and extensive fresh water inputs.2

Schematic diagram of general circulation in the North Sea1

Surface salinity distribution for the winters of 1989 and 19931< Surrounding environment >Habitat
The coastlines of the North Sea display a large variety of landscapes that arise from differences in geology and verticaltectonic movements. The coastlines of Norway and northern Scotland are mountainous, with many rocky islands and deep
fjords. The fjords shelter most of the Norwegian mainland from the open ocean. Cliffs of varying sizes are found along thecoast of northern England and Scotland and are often intersected by river valleys. Further south, along the east coast of
England, are estuaries and expanses of sand and mud flats. In the southeast there are low cliffs and flooded‑river valleys.
From the Strait of Dover to the Danish west coast, sandy beaches and sand dunes prevail, interspersed with estuaries, tidal
flats, tidal inlets, islands and lagoons. The Wadden Sea contains the largest stretch of unbroken mudflat in the world.224

５ North Sea
Biota
Perennial fucoids algae, serrated wrack and kelps densely cover the littoral zones of the North Sea. Seagrasses were once
abundant along the coasts but now occur only in a few scattered areas.
Approximately 230 species of fish inhabit the North Sea, of which 13 are the main targets of major commercial fisheries.a
Fish species diversity is lowest in the shallow southern North Sea and the eastern English Channel.2
Marine mammals, such as harbor seals, grey seals, harbor porpoises, minke whales, white‑sided dolphins and killer whales
are found in the North Sea. Currently, the seal population is estimated to be around 36,000 and the population of harbor
porpoises, the most common cetacean in North Sea, is estimated to be around 300,000.2
Areas of gravel and coarse sand may be expected to host greater species richness than soft sediments, and beds of structuralorganisms such as sponges, anemones, soft corals and deep water corals are expected to contain more species still.4

History and Culture< History of fisheries in the North Sea >The North Sea environment today is very different from that of 200 years ago, before the advent of large‑scale industrial
fishing. The changes are due to the effects of fish removals by fishing （both capture and killing in situ）; the impacts of fish‑
ing gears on habitats, oil and gas exploitation; pollution; and, latterly changes in environmental conditions accompanying global
warming.
The onset of commercial sea fishing in the North Sea can be traced to within a few decades around AD 1050. At the time,
fishers used hook and line to catch cod and allied species, and nets to catch the abundant herring that seasonally entered
British coastal waters. Bottom trawling was invented in the 14th century and spread slowly. At the beginning of the 19th
century it was still largely confined to the English Channel and south‑east England, as well as several ports in continental
Europe.
By the middle of the 19th century the English fleet consisted of around 800 sail‑powered trawlers working mainly innearshore coastal areas, and trawling had spread further into the North Sea. But the great expansion of trawling came withthe adoption of steam power in the late 19th century. By 1890, virtually the whole of the North Sea was trawled, in many
places more than once a year.
Since then fishing techniques has further advanced, though it has led to the current overexploitation of many commercial
fish species.5

Social Environment< Population >Approximately 184 million people live within the North Sea catchment area.8 The population is expected to reach a maximumin 2025. The population density is highest along the southern coast, especially along the western and northern coasts of theNetherlands, and least dense along the eastern coast of the North Sea.2< Industry >The North Sea is surrounded by densely populated, highly industrialized countries that conduct a wide range of industrial
activities. Many of these industries have affected the North Sea environment, with fisheries, agriculture, coastal industries
and the oil and gas industry playing major roles.1
Fisheries
Fisheries have a range of direct and indirect effects on marine ecosystems. Fishing causes the death of many species includ‑ing those being targeted and a range of other species such as non‑targeted invertebrates and fish（including sharks and rays）,
seabirds, turtles and marine mammals （seals and small cetaceans）. Excessive fishing pressure on targeted species may leadto impaired reproductive capacity and a risk of stock collapse. Deep‑water species have been shown to be particularly sensitive
to fishing pressure. Some unwanted by‑catch is discarded at sea, and discard rates have been high in some fisheries. Discards
have been shown to affect the structure of biological communities.
In the North Sea, beam and otter trawl fishing effort decreased by 31% and 44% respectively between 1997 and 2004,
although Nephrops trawl effort grew by 65%. Beam trawling has been increasingly replaced by twin‑rigging and flyshooting,which require less fuel.

Demersal landings continued to increase until 2005, but have since declined such that in 2008 thecatch was lower than in 1998. Pelagic catch has decreased throughout the decade. Extensive discarding having been reported
in many roundfish, flatfish, and Nephrops fisheries in the North Sea. In 2008, the total landing of fish and shellfish in the
North Sea countries was about 1.8 million tons, which was a decrease of 1.7 million tons from 1995.6

aSand eels, Norway pout, sprat, herring, horse mackerel, types of cod fishes （cod, haddock, whiting）, saithe, plaice,sole, salmon, rainbow trout, blue mussels, oysters, and scallops

25

５ North Sea

Landings from the North Sea of demersal fish, pelagic fish, and shellfish over the period 1998‑20086
Agriculture
Over 40% of the total land area in Europe is used for agriculture, and highly productive agricultural systems operate
throughout the North Sea states. Intensive field‑crop farming operates in eastern England, northern Germany and most of
the Netherlands. Animal, fruit and vegetable farming are extensive in Denmark, the Netherlands, northern Belgium andnorthern Brittany.2
Because of the adverse impacts of pesticides on the environment, the various uses of the six OSPAR （The Convention for
the Protection of the Marine Environment of the North ‑East Atlantic） priority pesticides （dicofol, endosulfan, lindane ,methoxychlor, pentachlorophenol and trifluralin） have been phased out progressively since 1998 and have now ceased foralmost all substances.6
Coastal industries
Metal production, metal processing chemical industries, and shipbuilding industries are located along the coasts of the North
Sea. Many of these industries are situated in the innermost regions of fjords（Norway）, river banks （Germany）and estuaries（Netherlands, Belgium, France and U.K.）.2
Oil and gas industry
Since the late 1960s, the offshore oil and gas industry has been a major economic activity in the North Sea.2 The major
oil developments have been in the northern parts of the North Sea. In 2007, oil and gas production are 205.4 mtoe （million
tons of oil equivalent） and 172.8 mtoe respectively. Environmental pressures from offshore oil and gas operations are large
problem in the North Sea. However, oil and gas production has peaked in the North Sea and is now declining.6

Substances are released from a range of sources during routine offshore oil and gas production626

５ North Sea

Environmental Problems< Water and Sediment Quality >The water quality of the North Sea has improved since the implementations of the OSPAR Convention and various otherprograms. Inputs of heavy metals and oil from refineries and cuttings have significantly decreased. The dumping of sewage
sludge ceased in 1998 and chemicals used in aquaculture have also decreased. Despite these improvements, the North Sea isstill heavily affected by intense human activities. The two most important issues currently identified by the OSPAR Commis‑
sion are eutrophication and contamination by trace organic compounds.2
Eutrophication
Eutrophication caused by nutrient inputs is a problem along the east coast of the North Sea from Belgium to Norway, andin some small estuaries and bays of eastern England and north‑west France. Associated problems include fish dying in thefjords of Denmark and Sweden, and sugar kelp declining along parts of the Norwegian coast. Nitrogen inputs, largely fromagriculture, are the biggest cause of eutrophication and few countries approach OSPAR's 50% reduction target for nitrogen
inputs to problem areas. It can take decades before reduced nutrient inputs benefit the marine environment because nutrientscan be released from soil and sediments.6
Hazardous substances
Concentrations of metals （cadmium, mercury and lead） and persistent organic pollutants are above background in someoffshore waters of the North Sea, and unacceptable in some coastal areas. Lead levels, for example, were unacceptable at
40% of locations monitored, while PAHs and PCBs were at unacceptable levels at more than half of the monitoring sites.6<Other Environmental Problems >Marine litter
Over 90% of fulmars have microscopic plastic particles in their stomach and 45% to 60% have more than the Ecological
Quality Objective （EcoQO） set by OSPAR. Beach litter in the southern North Sea is at OSPAR‑wide average （around 700
items per 100 m of beach）, but levels are higher in the northern part of the North Sea.6
Impacts of climate change
The pace of warming of the sea is high, with an increase in sea surface temperature of 1 to 2襄 over the past 25 years.
Plankton and fish communities are already changing in response to warming. Fish like silvery John dory, sea bass and red
mullet are becoming more common further north, while North Sea cod stocks seem to be falling faster than would be expectedfrom the impact of fishing alone.6
Damage to seabed habitats6
Significant damage has occurred to shallow sediment habitats and reefs as a result of bottom fishing practices, especiallybeam trawling. Thick beds of red calcareous seaweed called maerl declined in extent and quickly, partly as a result of damage
resulting from its extraction for use as an agricultural soil conditioner.6< Environmental Protection Measures >The Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the North-East Atlantic (OSPAR Convention)
The OSPAR Convention, adopted in 1992, established the OSPAR Commission to implement the Convention. The purposeof the Convention was to merge and modernize the Oslo and Paris Conventions to include the 'precautionary principle', 'polluter
pays principle', Best Available Techniques （BAT）, and Best Environmental Practices （BEP）, including clean technology.
The 1992 Convention included a series of annexes to facilitate the prevention and elimination of pollution from land‑basedsources, by dumping or incineration, and from offshore sources, by the assessment of the quality of the marine environment.
In 1998, the first ministerial meeting of the OSPAR Commission adopted new strategies concerning the protection andconservation of the region's ecosystems and biological diversity. These strategies deal with radioactive and other hazardous
substances, eutrophication and the conservation of ecosystems and biological diversity. Also new rules governing the participa‑tion of non‑governmental organizations in the work of the Commission were adopted. Furthermore, in 1999 the Commission
adopted a strategy on environmental goals and management mechanisms for offshore oil and gas industry activities.7
Monitoring
In 1995, the OSPAR Commission adopted the Joint Assessment and Monitoring Programme. Under the coordination of theEnvironmental Assessment and Monitoring Committee, the contracting parties are required to regularly undertake and publish
joint assessments of the quality of the marine environment. Based on the findings of the above monitoring programs, a Quality
Status Report of the North Sea was published in 2000, which has provided the basis for the future work of the Commission.227

５ North Sea

Related organizations and NGOs
・The Bonn Agreement <http:// www.bonnagreement.org>
・Risk assessment for marine pollution in the Greater North Sea and its wider approaches<http://beaware.bonnagreement.org>
・The North Sea Commission <http://www.northsea.org/>
・European Environment Agency （EEA） <http://www.eea.europa.eu/>
・International Council for the Exploration of the Sea （ICES） <http://www.ices.dk/>

References
１. ESPON, 2013. ANNEX 7 to the Scientific Report: North Sea Regional Profile.
http://www.espon.eu/main/Menu̲Projects/Menu̲AppliedResearch/ESaTDOR.html （accessed March 31, 2015）
２. OSPAR Commission, 2000. Quality Status Report 2000, Region II Greater North Sea.
http://qsr2010.ospar.org/media/assessments/QSR̲2000̲Region̲II.pdf （accessed March 31, 2015）
３. GOV.UK, 2009. OESEA Environmental Report APPENDIX 3f ‑ CLIMATE AND METEOROLOGY.
https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment̲data/file/194346/OES̲A3f̲Climate̲Meteorology.
pdf （accessed March 31, 2015）
４. FSBI, 2004. Fisheries Society of The British ISLES Briefing Paper 3: Effects of Fishing On Biodiversity In The North
Sea.
http://www.fsbi.org.uk/assets/brief‑biodiversity‑north‑sea‑refs.pdf （accessed March 31, 2015）
５. WWF, 2008. Return to Abundance: A Case for Marine Reserves in the North Sea a report for WWF‑UK.
http://www.wwf.org.uk/filelibrary/pdf/marine̲reserves̲north̲sea.pdf （accessed March 31, 2015）
６. OSPAR Commission, 2010. Quality Status Report 2010.
http://qsr2010.ospar.org/en/media/chapter̲pdf/QSR̲complete̲EN.pdf （accessed March 31, 2015）
７. OSPAR Commission < http://www.ospar.org/ > （accessed March 31, 2015）
８. Vittorio Barale, 2008. Remote Sensing of the European Seas.
https://books.google.co.jp/books?id=9B3D5‑HBTzkC （accessed March 31, 2015）
９. Hutchinson, S.; Hawkins, L.E., 2007. Oceans: A Visual Guide. Shinjusha Co., Ltd.: China, 2007. Japanese translation.

28

６ Baltic Sea
Overview
The Baltic Sea is the largest brackish sea in the world. It is bordered by 9 countries ‑ Sweden and Finland on the north,
Russia, Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania on the east, Poland on the south, and Germany and Denmark on the west. Despite
its size, the only connection to the open ocean is through the narrow, shallow strait between Denmark and Sweden.
The Baltic Sea is divided into 5 main areas ‑ the Baltic Proper, the Gulf of Bothnia, the Gulf of Finland, the Gulf of Riga
and the Belt Sea‑Kattegat.

Location
Basic information19
Surface area： 422,200 裄
Volume：23,221 裝
Average depth：55 m
Maximum depth：421 m

Nature< Background >The Baltic Sea catchment area extends over an
area of 1,700,000 裄, which ranges over 14 countries,
including the 9 that border it.1
The Baltic Sea is surrounded by a diversity ofhabitats. The Finnish and Swedish coastline isextremely rocky, and tens of thousands of islands,
reefs and rocks are scattered along its coasts. In
contrast, the coast of the Kattegat and southern
Baltic Proper are mainly comprised of sandy beaches
and a sandy sea floor. The latter supports extensive
seagrass beds . In the southeastern region , soft
bays, sand dunes and coastal lagoons dominate
along the coast. In the northern region, along theBothnian Sea, large forests dominate the coastline.
ClimateThe Baltic Sea extends from a relatively mild
and humid climate zone in the south to the Arctic
region in the north. The average air temperature
between 1994 and 1998 for the whole Baltic Sea
was 4.6 襄. Obviously, Bothnian Bay, located in
the northern reach , had the lo west averagetemperature at 0.3 襄 and the Baltic proper had
the highest average temperature at 7.2 襄. There
has been an increase in temperatures in the region,
and according to the temperature anomalies from
1871 to 2011, the annual mean temperature trends
show an increase of 0.1 襄 per decade.3 The aver‑age annual precipitation between 1994 and 1998
was 631 mm, with higher precipitation recorded in
the summer than in the winter.2
Topography
The topography of the Baltic Sea is composedof several deep basins, with depths ranging between
250 and 421 m. However, shallow sills restrict water

Bathymetric Map of the Baltic Sea4

exchange between these basins.

29

６ Baltic Sea
Hydrology
In the Baltic Sea, water exchange with the open ocean occurs only through the narrow and shallow strait between Sweden
and Denmark. Consequently, it takes about 25 to 30 years to replace all of the Baltic Sea water. In contrast to the slow rateof seawater inflow, large amounts of fresh water are supplied to the Baltic Sea from over 200 rivers. These rivers make theBaltic Sea the largest brackish sea in the world. The annual freshwater input is around 480 裝. Half of the input is supplied
through seven rivers ‑ the Neva, Vistula, Nemunas, Daugava, Oder, Gota Alv and Kemijoki.2,5Due to the large fresh water input and limited tidal movement, the water column of the Baltic Sea has permanent density
stratification and the bottom waters are only mixed with the surface waters through wind‑driven vertical mixing. When mix‑
ing is limited and eutrophic conditions prevail, the deep basins become anoxic and produce hydrogen sulfide. Anoxic condi‑
tions are often found in the deep basins of the central Baltic. Occasionally, when strong westerly winds prevail, larger thannormal amounts of seawater are pumped into the Baltic Sea, which improves the water quality of the stagnant bottom waters.5
Salinity in the Baltic Sea is characterized by a strong south to north gradient. Near‑ocean salinity is found in the southern
region near the Kattegart（20 ppt）, and gradually decreases northward until freshwater is reached in Northern Bothnian Bay（1‑2 ppt）.1< Surrounding environment >Biota
Biodiversity is low in the Baltic Sea. This is because the sea is brackish, which is difficult for marine species to inhabit,
and because it is geologically young. Salinity is a main factor in determining the distribution of species. The highly saline
waters in the Baltic Proper and the Kattegat are dominated by marine fish, whereas brackish and freshwater fish are foundmostly in the north of the Gulf of Bothnia.6,7,8
The Baltic Sea also supports 4 species of marine mammals ‑ 3 seal species（ringed, gray and harbor seals）and the harbor
porpoise.2,7The distribution of species based on salinity８30

６ Baltic Sea
Protected

Area

As of 2013, the Helsinki Commission （HELCOM） has designated 163 areas in the Baltic Sea as protected marine areas,
which account for 11.7% of the surface area. In the protection area, construction works, dredging operations, aquaculture,and hunting are regulated in accordance with each management plan.9

Distribution and status of management plans for BSPAs （Baltic Sea Protected Areas）9

History and Culture< Brief history of the Vikings in the Baltic Sea >Although, the Vikings have a longstanding reputation as fierce raiders, trade and exploration were probably the mostimportant elements of Viking activity. Sweden, Norway and Denmark were the Viking nations and they were active throughout
Europe from about A.D. 780 to 1070. Norwegian and Dannish Vikings mostly ventured westward towards England, North
Atlantic Islands and Continental Europe, but Swedish Vikings mainly travelled eastward towards Baltija （the region contain‑
ing the present day Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania） and Russia via the Baltic Sea. Through the extensive river systems of
Baltija they even travelled further east and south towards Jerusalem, the Caspian Sea and Baghdad. During these excursion
in the Baltic Sea, the Vikings developed advanced navigation techniques, which were used until the 1700s.
Their activities in the Baltic region sparked the development of Baltic coastal cities and states, by initially building ports
and trading settlements. Also they developed trade routes inside the Baltic Sea, which laid the foundation for further economic
development of Scandinavia.

31

６ Baltic Sea

Social Environment< Population >Approximately 8.43 million people live in the Baltic
Sea catchment area.10 The population density in thesouthern coast area ‑Denmark, Germany, and Poland‑
is relatively high, reaching 100 inhabitants/裄.

< Land use >The catchment areas are composed of forest （47.9%）, arable land （20.2%）, non‑productive open land
（17.1%）, and pasture （6.0%）. The residential area
accounts for 0.8%.10< Industry >The major industries in the Baltic Sea region include
agriculture, fisheries, manufacturing, oil production,
shipping and tourism.2
Fisheries
The Baltic Sea has supported commercial fisheries
for many years. Trawl fishing was mainly introduced
to catch herring, sprat, and cod. The annual catch
hit a peak of 1.1 million tons in the late 1990s, but

The population density distribution（2010）10

it has been decreasing due to the fluctuation of theamount of resources, and 0.75 million tons of fish
was caught in 2006.11
Shipping

Despite the narrow channels and the complex geological formation of the Baltic Sea, seaborne transport of goods has beensignificantly contributing to the logistics of the coastal countries . In 2008, 0.45 million ships passed through the Baltic Sea,
which consisted of cargo carriers （46.3%）, tankers （13.7%）, and passenger ships （10.9%）. More than 800 million tons ofcargo are transported annually. The two major ports are Primorsk and Saint Petersburg in Russia, which lie deep inside theGulf of Finland. The major oil terminals are seen in the Gulf of Finland, the eastern coast of the Baltic Sea, and the Kattegat.12

Environmental Problems< Water quality >The enclosed nature of the Baltic Sea makes it sensitive to pollution. Currently, its water quality is under pressure fromvarious anthropogenic activities.
Eutrophication
Eutrophication, mainly caused by nutrients flowing into the water, is one of the major environmental problems through almost
all the watershed areas of the Baltic Sea. The excess nutrients transported into the water promote propagation of phytoplankton,
which causes a significant change in the ecological chain and the composition of species in the region. The organic mattersgenerated sink to the sea bottom and lead to anoxic or anaerobic conditions, which destroys benthic organisms.
Regarding the nutrients in the Baltic Sea, 25% of nitrogen and 5% of phosphorus are transported through the atmosphereand the rest are derived from the water flowing into the sea. Between 2001 and 2006, the annual atmospheric nitrogen shiftedby about 641,000 tons and phosphorus transported by about 30,200 tons on average . The majority of the nitrogen andphosphorus are derived from non‑point sources, such as farmlands.8
HELCOM has been taking measures to reduce the inflow load and, as a result, the amount of nitrogen load has decreased
by 16% and that of phosphorus by 18% between 1994 and 2010.13

32

６ Baltic Sea

The fluctuation of the amount of nitrogen load discharged into the Baltic Sea13
Pollution by hazardous substances
According to the result of evaluation for contamination implemented between 1999 and 2007 based on the amount of harmful
substances stored in species （bivalve, fish） in the Baltic Sea, it has turned out that almost all of the Baltic sea is polluted.
The main contaminants are PCBs, lead, cadmium, mercury, DDE/DDT, TBT, dioxin, octylphenol, HCH, and PAHs. The
amount of persistent organic pollutants （POPs）, such as dioxin, DDE/DDT, PCBs, and TBT, in the species has been reduc‑ing as the result of regulations launched recently, whereas the amount of HBCDD and PFOS in eggs of sea birds has been
increasing since 1960. Moreover, the concentration of heavy metals such as nickel, copper, arsenic, and chromium has been
increasing at the sea bottom. The annual total amount of heavy metals flowing into the Baltic Sea from the 20 rivers reached
210 tons in lead and 43 tons in cadmium between 2005 and 2007 on average.8
Oil Pollution
The 2003 accident involving the Chinese bulk, Fu Shan Hai, was a large‑scale oil‑spill event. Although 616 tons of fuel oil
were recovered, 318 tons were dissipated and lost. The risk of accidents has increased with the increase in ship traffic, andthere were 61 accidents in the period between 2000 and 2008, where oil spills of between 0.015 and 150 裙 were reported.
On the other hand, cases of illegal discharge of oil have decreased greatly from 763 cases in 1989 to 210 cases in 2008.8< Other Environmental Problems >Threats to biodiversity
Organisms living in the Baltic Sea are threatened by many factors, including eutrophication, pollution by toxic substances,and oil pollution, as well as overfishing, dredging, dumping, disturbance of habitat from construction works, and changes inwater temperature and pH as the result of climate change. Impacts on the ecosystem are cumulative and mutually reinforc‑
ing, but in coastal areas, physical disturbance of habitat, and in sea areas, the fishing industry, are particularly importantfactors. The composition of catch has changed; whereas in the past, this was mostly cod which is a predator and large fish
have now been replaced by sprat, which shows a change in the food chain.8
Currently 59 species in the Baltic Sea are feared to be either going extinct or decreasing in number. Sturgeon, which wasonce widely distributed, has not been seen since 1996. Furthermore, since the start of the 19th century, 120 foreign species
have been confirmed, with concerns about their impacts on the ecosystem.6,733

６ Baltic Sea

Changes in the amount of spawning fish （cod and sprat）8< Environmental Protection Measures >Convention on the Protection of the Marine Environment of the Baltic Sea Area （Helsinki Convention）
On March 24th , 1974, the Baltic Sea states signed the Convention on the Protection of the Marine Environment of theBaltic Sea Area, known as the 1974 Helsinki Convention. This was the first international agreement to cover all sources ofpollution, whether from land, sea or air. It also regulated cooperation to combat marine pollution by oil and other hazardous
substances. Considerable progress was achieved through this convention, including improvements in the sanitary conditionsof previously polluted water, significant reductions in discharges of organochlorine compounds from industry and of lead emis‑
sions from land‑transport, and the rehabilitation of some formerly, seriously‑endangered species.14
In light of political changes and developments in international environmental and maritime law, the 1974 Helsinki Convention
was replaced by the 1992 Helsinki Convention. Since then, work has been undertaken to limit the discharge of nutrients andhazardous substances from land‑based activities, prevent pollution by shipping, conserve natural habitats and biological diversity,and bring about the long‑term restoration of the ecological balance of the Baltic Sea.14
These works are implemented through HELCOM, the governing body of the Helsinki Convention.
Action Plan and Monitoring Program
HELCOM will effect a plan to achieve an ecosystem recovery in the Baltic Sea by 2021 through reductions in marine pollu‑
tion. An eutrophication prevention strategy, toxic substance measures, and preservation of biodiversity and environment, as
well as activities concerning shipping, are contained within the action plan, which requires engagement by nine treaty‑boundnations to achieve its objectives. The principle aim of the eutrophication prevention strategy is the reduction in nitrogen andphosphorous emissions in each marine region and for each nation.15
Environmental monitoring in the Baltic Sea is undertaken by HELCOM's Monitoring and Assessment Group （MONAS）.
Due to the need for a common, unified framework for environmental monitoring, HELCOM established COMBINE（Cooperative
Monitoring in the Baltic Marine Environment）, which created a technical manual continually updated until 2014.16 Additionally,
HELCOM first instigated a monitoring and evaluation strategy in 2005; however, it has subsequently lent assistance to eachnation/region's own monitoring program, as well as undertaking a revision in 2013 in order to introduce a new index‑based
monitoring and evaluation method.17 Following this revision, in 2014, a HELCOM monitoring manual consisting of the 11
monitoring programs was created. In the future, all HELCOM guidelines and manuals, including the COMBINE manual, will
be integrated with the HELCOM monitoring manual.18

Related organizations and NGO
・International Council for the Exploration of the Sea <http://www.ices.dk/>
・Coalition Clean Baltic （CCB）<http://www.ccb.se/ccb/indexccb.shtml>¨<http://www.io‑warnemuende.de/>・Baltic Sea Research Institute Warnemunde34

６ Baltic Sea

References
１. HELCOM, 2003. The Baltic Marine Environment 1999‑2002. Balt. Sea Environ. Proc. No.87.
http://www.helcom.fi/Lists/Publications/BSEP87.pdf （accessed Jan 30, 2015）.
２. HELCOM, 2002. Environment of the Baltic Sea area 1994‑1998. Balt. Sea Environ. Proc.No.82B.
http://helcom.fi/Lists/Publications/BSEP82b.pdf （accessed Jan 30, 2015）.
３. HELCOM, 2013. Climate change in the Baltic Sea Area: HELCOM thematic assessment in 2013. Balt. Sea Environ.
Proc. No.137. http://www.helcom.fi/Lists/Publications/BSEP137.pdf （accessed Jan 30, 2015）.
４. Baltic Net Institute. http://nest.su.se/baltic96/Depths.gif （accessed March 31, 2015）゜
５. Jansson, B‑O and C‑E Stalvant, 2001. Baltic Basin Case Study ‑ Towards a Sustainable Baltic Europe 1996‑1999.
Continental Shelf Research, Vol. 21, Issues 18‑19, December 2001: pp. 1999‑2019.
６. HELCOM, 2009. Biodiversity in the Baltic Sea ‑ An integrated thematic assessment on biodiversity and nature conserva‑
tion in the Baltic Sea: Executive Summary. Balt. Sea Environ. Proc. No.116A.
http://www.helcom.fi/Lists/Publications/BSEP116A.pdf （accessed Jan 30, 2015）.
７. HELCOM, 2009. Biodiversity in the Baltic Sea ‑ An integrated thematic assessment on biodiversity and nature conserva‑
tion in the Baltic Sea. Balt. Sea Environ. Proc.No.116B.
http://helcom.fi/Lists/Publications/BSEP116B.pdf （accessed Jan 30, 2015）.
８. HELCOM, 2010. Ecosystem Health of the Baltic Sea 2003‑2007: HELCOM Initial Holistic Assessment. Balt. Sea Environ.
Proc. No.122. http://www.helcom.fi/Lists/Publications/BSEP122.pdf （accessed Jan 30, 2015）.
９. HELCOM, 2013. HELCOM PROTECT ‑ Overview of the status of the network of Baltic Sea marine protected areas.
http://www.helcom.fi/Lists/Publications/Overview%20of%20the%20status%20of%20the%20network%20of%20Baltic%20Sea%
20marine%20protected%20areas.pdf （accessed Jan 30, 2015）.
10. HELCOM, 2011. The Fifth Baltic Sea Pollution Load Compilation （PLC‑5）. Balt. Sea Environ. Proc. No. 128 http://
www.helcom.fi/Lists/Publications/BSEP128.pdf （accessed Jan 30, 2015）.
11. HELCOM, 2015. Fisheries. http://helcom.fi/action‑areas/fisheries/ （accessed Jan 30, 2015）.
12. HELCOM, 2010. Maritime Activities in the Baltic Sea ‑ An integrated thematic assessment on maritime activities andresponse to pollution at sea in the Baltic Sea Region. Balt. Sea Environ. Proc. No. 123.
http://www.helcom.fi/Lists/Publications/BSEP123.pdf （accessed Jan 30, 2015）.
13. HELCOM, 2013. Review of the Fifth Baltic Sea Pollution Load Compilation for the 2013 HELCOM Ministerial Meeting.
Balt. Sea Environ. Proc. No. 141.
http://www.helcom.fi/Lists/Publications/BSEP141.pdf （accessed Jan 30, 2015）.
14. UNEP. Baltic Sea
http://www.unep.org/regionalseas/programmes/independent/baltic/default.asp （accessed Jan 30, 2015）.
15. HELCOM Ministerial Meeting, 2007. HELCOM Baltic Sea Action Plan.
http://www.helcom.fi/Documents/Baltic%20sea%20action%20plan/BSAP̲Final.pdf （accessed Jan 30, 2015）.
16. HELCOM. Update 2014. Manual for Marine Monitoring in the COMBINE Programme of HELCOM
http://helcom.fi/Documents/Action%20areas/ Monitoring%20and%20assessment/ Manuals%20and%20Guidelines/ Manual%
20for%20Marine%20Monitoring%20in%20the%20COMBINE%20Programme%20of%20HELCOM.pdf. （accessed Jan 30, 2015）.
17. HELCOM, 2013. HELCOM Monitoring and Assessment Strategy.
http://www.helcom.fi/Documents/Action%20areas/Monitoring%20and%20assessment/Monitoring%20and%20assessment%20
strategy/Monitoring%20and%20assessment%20strategy.pdf （accessed Jan 30, 2015）.
18. HELCOM. 2014. HELCOM Monitoring Manual.
http://www.helcom.fi/action‑areas/monitoring‑and‑assessment/monitoring‑manual （accessed Jan 30, 2015）.
19. Hutchinson, S.; Hawkins, L.E., 2007. Oceans: A Visual Guide. Shinjusha Co., Ltd.: China, 2007. Japanese translation35

７ Persian Gulf
Overview
The Persian Gulf is a shallow semi‑enclosed sea between the Arabian Peninsula and Iran. It is bordered by Oman and theUnited Arab Emirates on the south, Qatar, Bahrain and Saudi Arabia on the west, Kuwait and Iraq on the north and Iranalong the entire east coast.
The Gulf sits on top of the largest hydrocarbon （oil） reserve in the world, which makes this area extremely important foroil production and one of the most important strategic waterways in the world.

Location
Basic information11
Surface area：233,000 裄
Volume：8,155 裝
Average depth：35 m
Maximum depth：100 m

Nature< Background >The Persian Gulf is separated from the Gulfof Oman and the open ocean through the Straitof Hormuz, where the narrowest point is only
56 ㎞ wide . From the Strait of Hormuz , theGulf stretches northwest to Shatt Al Arab（large
river formed by the confluence of the Euphrates,
Tigris, and Karuan Rivers） of Iraq over a distance of approximately 1,000 ㎞, its width ranging between 200 and 300 ㎞.1
The western coast of the Gulf is bounded by vast desert plains, the northern coast by the river delta of Shatt al Araband the eastern coast by the extensive Zagros Mountains of Iran.
ClimateSince the Gulf region is surrounded by arid land masses, it has high seasonal and daily air temperature fluctuations. Air
temperature can drop to 0 襄 in winter and reach up to 50 襄 in summer. The average air temperature in January is around16 襄 and in July around 35 襄.1
Annual precipitation in the area averages 152 mm and is limited almost entirely to the winter months.1
Topography
The bottom topography of the Gulf is mostly flat and featureless, dominated by soft sediments. It is generally deeper inthe southeast, where depths of 100 m are found, and is deepest near the opening of the Strait of Hormuz. The western partof the Gulf is very shallow, with extensive intertidal areas that are less than 5 m deep and up to 5 ㎞ wide.1
Hydrology
The dominant water circulation pattern in the Gulf is counter‑clockwise and driven by density gradients. Water of normal
oceanic salinity enters the Gulf through the surface waters of the Strait of Hormuz, moves northwards along the Iranian coast,turns southward along the western coast and exits along the bottom of the Strait as dense hypersaline water. It is estimatedthat seawater exchange takes 2.1 years.1
The major freshwater inflow（1,456 裙/s）into the Gulf comes from the Shatt Al Arab. Despite its large inflow rate, salinity
is high in the Gulf due to low precipitation and high evaporation, and can reach more than 40 ppt in some regions withlimited water exchange.11
Water temperatures in the Gulf show high seasonal fluctuations. For example, the water temperature in the northwesternregion can reach up to 35 襄 in summer and drop to 15 襄 in winter. Also, a unique temperature environment exists in thesouthern region, where southwestern monsoon winds （June‑September） generate upwelling along the western coast. The
surface water temperature during this period can drop to between 16 and 19襄 .1

36

７ Persian Gulf

Sea Temperatures of the Persian Gulf a）Winter, b）Summer2< Surrounding environment >Habitat
Despite the extreme environmental
conditions, ecologically unique marine life,
such as coral reefs , mangroves , andseagrass beds, can be seen in the Gulf,
and they represent one of the mostdiverse habitats. Coral reefs are foundalong the coasts of Iran and Saudi Arabia.
Mangrove swamps are found for about
90 裄 along the coast of Bahrain , andfor 40 裄 along the coasts of the U.A.
E. and Saudi Arabia. Seagrass beds aremainly seen in the shallow water area（the water depth is less than 10 m）.2

Coral reef location in the Persian Gulf2

37

７ Persian Gulf
Biota
A wide variety of marine life is found in the Gulf, including sea turtles, marine birds, dugongs, whales, dolphins, andalso, over 500 fish species. Many of these animals are endemic and heavily
dependent on the Gulf environment.1
Some beaches are important sea ‑turtle nesting grounds, while the offshoreislands are breeding grounds for many seabirds, and the intertidal and shallow
subtidal zones are important feeding grounds for migrating birds. Also the Gulf
region is estimated to support over 7,000 dugongs, which makes the area second
only to Australia in global importance for this species.1
DugongProtected Area
As of 2012, 173 areas have been designated as Marine Protected Areas by each country in the Persian Gulf and the Gulfof Oman（including the coastal ocean of Oman）（designated: 64 areas, proposed: 109 areas）. Seven areas have been designatedas a registered wetland under the Ramsar Convention and two areas are registered as Biosphere Reserves by UNESCO.3

History and Culture< History >The Persian Gulf was an important transportation route in antiquity but declined in use with the fall of Mesopotamia. In
succeeding centuries, control of the region was contested by the Arabs, Persians, Turks and Western Europeans. In 1853,
Britain and the Arab sheikhdoms of the Persian Gulf signed the Perpetual Maritime Truce, formalizing the temporary trucesof 1820 and 1835. The sheikhs agreed to stop harassing British shipping in the Arabian Sea and to recognize Britain as thedominant power in the gulf. These sheikhdoms thus became known as the Trucial States. An international agreement among
the major powers in 1907 placed the gulf in the British sphere of influence.
Although oil was discovered in the Gulf in 1908, it was not until the 1930s , when major finds were made , that keeninternational interest in the region was revived. The Gulf oil fields, among the most productive in the world, have been
extensively developed since World War II, and modern port facilities have been constructed. In the late 1960s, following British
military withdrawal from the area, the United States and the USSR sought to fill the vacuum. In 1971, the first U.S. military
installation in the Gulf was established at Bahrain.
The long‑standing Arab‑Persian conflict in the Gulf, combined with the desire of neighboring states for control of large oil
reserves, escalated into international boundary disputes. Iraq and Iran argued over navigation rights on the Shatt al Arab,through which Iran's main ports and most productive oil fields are reached. In Iran, the sheikhdom of Shanaha and the sheikhdomof Ras al‑Khaima contested ownership of the oil‑rich islands of Abu Musa and Greater and Lesser Tunb at the entrance to
the Gulf. Iranian forces occupied these islands in December 1971, infuriating Iraq. The much‑contested rights over the Shattal Arab led Iran and Iraq into an 8‑year war in the 1980s. The security of the Persian Gulf countries was threatened throughout
this war.
When Iraq invaded Kuwait in August 1990, the Persian Gulf was once again a background for conflict. International coali‑tion ground forces were stationed in Saudi Arabia and neighboring Gulf countries during the invasion of Kuwait by Iraq.
Before Iraq was expelled from Kuwait in February 1991, Iraqi soldiers set fire to over 500 Kuwaiti oil wells and dumped
millions of barrels of oil into the Persian Gulf, causing an environmental crisis and threatening water desalination plants
throughout the area. The Persian Gulf's vast oil reserves make the area a continuing source of international tension.4

Social Environment< Population >As of 2010, 149 million people live in the Gulf countries and the number has increased 1.5 times compared to 1990. In
many of the Gulf countries, the coastline has been developing as a measure against the population growth and the developedarea accounts for more than 40% of the coastline. Many residential areas and development regions can be seen on the coastlinesof Bahrain, Kuwait, Qatar, and the U.A.E.2

38

７ Persian Gulf

Population density in the Persian Gulf region （2005）2< Industry >Since the 1930s, the Persian Gulf region has experienced the world's highest rates of economic growth, which is mainly
due to the discovery of crude oil and recent growth of the tourist industry and the. These days, fishery, shipbuilding, shipp‑ing, and tourism industries have been supporting the economy of the region, as well as the oil industry. In particular, fisheryresources （including aquaculture）are considered a significant natural resource, second to crude oil.2,5,6
Oil and gas industry
As of 2013, the amounts of oil reserves and natural gas reserves of the Gulf countries are estimated to be 501.1 billion 裙
and 79 trillion 裙 in total, which accounts for 48% and 41% of the global reserves.7
Saudi Arabia, the world's biggest oil producing country, yields 1.25 million 裙, which accounts for 16% of the daily net
production of the whole world. Approximately 700 to 800 oil drilling rigs （accounting for 11‑12% of the global number of oil
drilling rigs） are operating to produce oil in the Gulf and the amount of floating oil production around the region accounts
for 30% of global floating oil production.1,8Regarding natural gas production, some of the Gulf countries‑Iran, Qatar, and Saudi Arabia‑are in the world's top ten
natural gas producing countries.7 The region produces approximately 30% of the net natural gas production in the world8 and,in 2012, the gross production amount reached 64 billion 裙, which is equivalent to about 15% of the global annual production.7
Mega Projects
Significant development projects called"Mega Projects" have been developedin many of the Gulf countries in thepast decade. The Mega Projects thathave been implemented are public or
private（or combined）facility developmentwith overall cost more than 1 billion
US dollars, including development ofman‑made islands, waterfronts, ports,
marinas, and man‑made sea routes.2

The mega project in the U.A.E. （Palm Jumeirah, 2010）2

39

７ Persian Gulf
Fisheries
The fishing industry in the Persian Gulf has been important since ancient times, but the features of the fishing industry in
the region are different from others in a tropical universal marine environment due to the unique natural conditions. Although
the shoal is big, the diversity of fish species in the region is low‑500 kinds of fish species can be seen in the region, whereas
1,000 kinds are found outside the Gulf.1
Furthermore, the fish species in the region
are endangered due to overfishing, deteriora‑tion of the environment, and destruction of
habitats due to coastal development. Therefore,various fishing regulations have been set ineach country in the region.2
The total production of fish by aquaculture,
which launched in the 1970s, has been increas‑
ing in the Gulf. It is pointed out that thegrowth has adverse effects on the naturalenvironment and the native fish species in
the region.2
The gross catch of the Gulf countries
reached 0.776 million tons in 2012, withaquaculture accounting for 0.348 tons, which
is about 45% of the total catch.9

The annual fish catch in the Persian Gulf countries （FAO, 2015）9

Environmental Problems<Water and Sediment Quality>
The greatest threat to the marine environment of the Persian Gulf is oil pollution. Large numbers of offshore installations,tanker terminals, petrochemical plants and oil tankers operate in the Gulf. These operations spill vast amounts of oil andwaste into the Gulf waters, causing considerable damage to water quality, habitats （mangroves, coral reefs, beaches） andmarine resources.
Another major source of pollution comes from land‑based activities, as the Gulf region has experienced a rapid rise inindustrialization, population growth and urbanization. Major land‑based sources of pollution include industrial effluents, coastal
development （dredging and landfilling）, sewage discharge and the disposal of solid waste.1
Oil pollution
Oil spills from oil tankers and oil‑related industries have contributed extensively to the deterioration of the environment.
Approximately 25,000 oil tankers navigate in and out of the Strait of Hormuz every year, and with all this oil being pumped
and transported, the area's waters have become heavily contaminated with oil residues and tar balls. Roughly 2 million barrels（about 0.32 million 裙）of oil are spilled annually into the region from the routine discharge of dirty ballast waters and fromthe 700 or so offshore oil and gas platforms. Approximately 45,000 裙 of oil is spilled out annually due to oil leaks from seabedpipelines and oil wells.2
In addition to the routine discharges, an estimated 2 to 4 million barrels （0.32‑0.64 million 裙） of oil were spilled into theGulf during the Iran/Iraq war between 1980 and 1988 and a total of 6 to 8 million barrels（0.95‑1.27 million 裙）were intentionallyspilled into the Gulf and the Arabian Sea during the Gulf War of 1991. Because of this, over 700 ㎞ of coastline from southern
Kuwait to Abu Ali Island in northern Saudi Arabia were under the adverse influence, which brought serious damage to thesea species in the region.2
In recent years, illegal ballast water discharge has been decreasing due to the change in the construction of oil tankers
based on international regulations and the main contaminants derived from ships in the Gulf were replaced by discharge ofbilge water（the water standing in the ship's bottom, possibly containing oil）.1,2
On the other hand, until now, although the data is limited, some cases of hydrocarbon pollution have been found in theGulf, especially the coastal part of Iran.2
Land‑based pollution
Millions of tons of industrial effluents are dumped into the Gulf shallow waters every year, with little or no treatment. As
a result, high concentrations of heavy metals occur in some areas. For example, high levels of lead, cadmium and zinc were
found in oysters, and the sediment contained high levels of cadmium, nickel and chromium in some regions. Also, eutrophica‑tion is common in some industrialized areas, where dense mats of filamentous green algae are observed and indicate highnutrient levels.140

７ Persian Gulf
Since the 1950's, the Persian Gulf region has become more reliant on desalination plants for freshwater supply. However,thermal pollution, waste brine and pre ‑ and post ‑treatment chemicals pose a serious threat to the marine environment.
Despite these problems, reliance on desalination plants is predicted to increase.1
The shallow coastal areas of the Gulf are being used as repositories for industrial, commercial and residential solid waste,
including plastics, metal containers, wood, tyres, scrapped vehicles and oil sludge. Oil sludge represents 15% of the totalindustrial solid waste, and some of the sludge is inadequately disposed.1< Other Environmental Problems >Destruction of Habitats
To accommodate the expanding industries and increasing population, large areas of important and biologically‑productive
coastal habitats, such as intertidal flats, mangrove forests and shallow embayments have been altered or lost. By the early
1990's, some countries developed their coastline extensively, and significant proportions of the shoreline of Kuwait and Bahrain
are now artificial.1< Environmental Protection Measures >Kuwait Convention and Action Plan
In April 1978, the 8 governments of the Gulf region （Bahrain , Iraq , Islamic Republic of Iran, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar,
Saudi Arabia and United Arab Emirates） adopted the Kuwait Convention and Action Plan to counter activities relating to oil
pollution, industrial waste, sewage and marine resources. Also, 4 protocols were adopted to address marine emergencies,
hazardous wastes, land‑based activities and sea‑ based pollution. To implement the Kuwait Convention, its protocols and Action
Plan, the Regional Organization for the Protection of the Marine Environment （ROPME） was established in 1978. Also, theMarine Emergency Mutual Aid Centre （MEMAC）was established in 1982 to implement one of the protocols regarding marine
emergencies. Since the establishment of ROPME, various projects have been carried out with the cooperation of internationalorganizations such as UNEP and IUCN（International Union for Conservation of Nature）. ROPME also recognized the importanceof developing and organizing various training courses on oil sampling, data handling, marine monitoring and so on.1

Regional Organization for the Protection of the Marine Environment (ROPME)ROPME has developed the following strategies, aiming to preserve the marine environment.1
・Preparation for creating management plans for river areas
・Establishing facilities to accept and recycle oil waste
・Updating information on investigation for pollution sources, contamination levels, and contamination control
・Developing guidelines and standards
・Conducting pilot surveys on POPs
・Implementing researches on radioactive materials
・Formulating comprehensive plans for coastal environmental management
・Regulating fishery resource management
・Promoting environmental education

Related organizations, NGOs
In addition to ROPME and MEMAC, the related organizations listed below address environmental problems.10
International Organizations
蘚 United Nations （UN）
・UN Division for Ocean Affairs<http://www.un.org/depts/los/index.htm>
・Commission on Sustainable Development （CSD）<https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/csd.html>
・Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia （ESCWA）<http://www.escwa.un.org/>
蘚 United Nations Environment Programme （UNEP）
・Global Programme of Action （GPA）<http://www.gpa.unep.org/>
・Regional Office for West Asia （ROWA）<http://www.unep.org/rowa/#horizontalTab4>
蘚 United Nations Industrial Development Organization （UNIDO）<http://www.unido.org/>

41

７ Persian Gulf
蘚 United Nations Development Programme （UNDP）<http://www.unido.org/>蘚 International Maritime Organization （IMO）<http://www.imo.org/en/Pages/Default.aspx>
蘚 Joint Group of Experts on the Scientific Aspects of Marine Environmental Protection （GESAMP）<http://www.gesamp.org/>蘚 Global Environment Fund （GEF）<http://www.globalenvironmentfund.com/>蘚 World Bank （WB）
<http://www.worldbank.org/>蘚 International Oil Compensation Funds （IOPC）<http://www.iopcfunds.org/>
Local Organizations
蘚 Council of Arab Ministers Responsible for the Environment （CAMRE）<http://www.arein.org/en/council‑of‑arab‑ministers/>
蘚 Gulf Cooperation Council （GCC）<http://global.britannica.com/topic/Gulf‑Cooperation‑Council>
蘚 Organization of Islamic Conference （OIC）<http://www.oic‑oci.org/oicv2/page/?p̲id=52&p̲ref=26&lan=enNGOs蘚 International Association of Oil & Gas Producers （OGP）<http://www.iogp.org/#*>蘚 World Petroleum Council （WPC）<http://www.world‑petroleum.org/>蘚 Oil Companies International Marine Forum （OCIMF）<http://www.ocimf.org/>蘚 International Petroleum Industry Environmental Association （IPIECA）<http://www.ipieca.org/>蘚 International Tanker Owners Pollution Federation （ITOPF）<http://www.itopf.com/>蘚 International Association of Independent Tanker Owners （INTERTANKO）<https://www.intertanko.com/About‑Us/>
蘚 International Association of Classification Societies （IACS）<http://www.iacs.org.uk/>
蘚 Protection and Indemnity （P&I）Clubs<http://www.igpandi.org/>蘚 International Oil Spill Conference （IOSC）<http://www.iosc.org/>蘚 International Salvage Union （ISU）<http://www.marine‑salvage.com/>蘚 International Directory of Oil Spill Cleanup Contractors and Response Organization<http://www.rigzone.com/search/sites/International̲Directory̲of̲Oil̲Spill̲Contractors2711.asp>
蘚 Oil Spill Response Ltd （OSRL）<http://www.oilspillresponse.com/>蘚 International Association of Ports and Harbours （IAPH）<http://www.iaph2013.org/>蘚 Oilwatch<http://www.oilwatch.org/>
蘚 Greenpeace International<http://www.greenpeace.org/international/en/>蘚 Rainforest Action Network<http://www.ran.org/>蘚 Regional Clean Sea Organization （RESCO）<http://www.recso.org/>

42

７ Persian Gulf

References
１. UNEP, 1999. Overview on Land based Sources and Activities Affecting the Marine Environment in the ROPME Sea
Area. UNEP/GPA Coordination Office & ROPME. 127pp.
２. Van, Lavieren, H., Burt, J., Feary, D.A., Cavalcante, G., Marquis, E., Benedetti, L., Trick, C., Kjerfve, B.,
Sale, P. F., 2011. Managing the Growing Impacts of Development on Fragile Coastal and Marine Ecosystems: Lessons
from the Gulf. A Policy Report. UNU‑INWEH: Hamilton. Canada.
３. Van, Lavieren, H., Klaus, R., 2012. An effective regional Marine Protected Area network for the ROPME Sea Area
: Unrealistic vision or realistic possibility?. Mar. Pollut. Bull. （http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2012.09.004）
４.

Infoplease, 2012. Persian Gulf: History （http://www.infoplease.com/encyclopedia/world/persian‑gulf‑history.html）.
The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th ed. Columbia University Press.

５.

Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia （ESCWA）, 2014. Survey of economic and social developments in
the Arab Region 2013‑2014. New York: United Nations

６.

Poter, H., Jin, Di., 2006. Accounting for economic activities in large marine ecosystems and regional seas. UNEP
Regional Seas Reports and Studies No. 181.

７.

Independent Statistics and Analysis, 2013. International Energy Statistics （http://www.eia.gov/cfapps/ipdbproject/iedindex3.cfm）. U. S. Energy Information Administration. U.S. Department of Energy.
８. Global Marine Oil Pollution Information Gateway, 2005. Facts on marine oil pollution（http://oils.unep.org/facts/quantities.
htm）. UNEP Global Programme of Action for the Protection of the Marine Environment from Land‑based Activities.
UNEP.
９.

Online Statistics, 2015. Global Production Statistics （http :// www .fao. org/fishery/ topic/16140/ en）. Fisheries andAquaculture Department., Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.
10. Global Marine Oil Pollution Information Gateway, 2005. Kuwait Convention +ROPME + MEMAC（http://oils.gpa.unep.
org/framework/region‑13‑next.htm）. UNEP Global Programme of Action for the Protection of the Marine Environment
from Land‑based Activities. UNEP.
11. Hutchinson, S.; Hawkins, L.E., 2007. Oceans: A Visual Guide. Shinjusha Co., Ltd.: China, 2007. Japanese translation

43

８

Gulf of Thailand

Overview
The Gulf of Thailand is located in Southeast Asia immediately to the west of the South China Sea. It is surrounded by
Cambodia, Malaysia, Thailand and Vietnam. The living and non‑living resources of the gulf are great value to the people offour littoral countries. 1

Location
Basic information19
Surface area： 320,000 裄
Volume：14,400 裝
Average depth：45 m
Maximum depth：100 m

Nature< Background >The fresh water from four major rivers ‑ Mae
Klong, Thachin, Choapraya, and Bangpakong ‑all flow into the upper Gulf of Thailand while
the gulf is also supported by minor rivers fromthe east and west parts of Thailand and is thebasin of deposited sediments from those rivers. 2
ClimateThe majority of the Gulf coastline belonging to Thailand has a tropical climate dominated by the monsoons. The climate ischaracterized in general by four seasons: a dry season from January to February; a hot season from March to May; a wet
season from June to October; and a cool season from November to December. Approximately 90% of rainfall occurs during
the wet season. Annual precipitation varies from 1,000 袢 to 2,030 袢 depending on the region. In Bangkok, the averagetemperature ranges from 20 襄 in December to 35 襄 in April.3
Topography
A pan‑like shape seabed of the Gulf of Thailand with the deepest point of about 100 m has the main deep channel of over
50 m deep laying on the middle of the gulf. The upper Gulf of Thailand has an inverted U‑shape with the area of approximately
100x100 裄, the deepest point of the upper Gulf of Thailand is about 40 m on the east part while the west part is more shallower
about 15 m. The Gulf of Thailand is split from the South China Sea by two underwater ridges. The first ridge stretches
south‑eastward from Khota Bharu for 160 ㎞ with the average depth of 50 m. The second ridge stretches south‑westward from
Cape Camou for about 100 ㎞ with a sill depth of about 67 m. Moreover, there is an underwater sill that acts as a hydrauliccontroller of current flow in the lower Gulf of Thailand.2,19
Hydrology
The Gulf is a two layered, shallow‑water estuary. The upper layer has low salinity due to rain and freshwater runoff fromrivers. The deeper layer has high salinity due to cool water flowing into the Gulf from the South China Sea at the mouth.
Monsoons, tidal currents and precipitation drive the Gulf's circulation and influence its salinity and turbidity. Monsoons also
have a significant influence on the surface currents. During the southwest monsoon season, the surface current moves clock‑wise and during the northeast monsoon season it moves counterclockwise.2< Surrounding environment >Habitat
The Gulf of Thailand has extensive coral communities in three distinct areas: the inner part of the Gulf, the east coast,and the west coast. The most inner islands have the most diverse coral community, with 85 species of hermatypic coralfound. The inner coastal area also contains a series of intertidal mudflats. In addition, most of the coastal areas have mangrove
forests.3,644

８

Gulf of Thailand

History and Culture
Indian traders first visited the Gulf of Thailand around 600 BC and introduced Hinduism, which rapidly became the principal
faith in the area. By 230 BC, when Chinese traders showed up on southern shores, large parts of Thailand had been
incorporated into the kingdom of Funan, the first state in Southeast Asia. At its peak the state included large parts ofThailand, Laos, Cambodia and Vietnam and had active trade with agrarian communities along the Malay Peninsula, as far
south as modern‑day Pattani and Yala.
Following the decline of Funan, a series of city‑states developed in the upper southern gulf. Tambralinga was one of themost notable andit became part of the Srivijaya kingdom, a confederation of maritime states that ruled southern Thailand

and Malaysia from the 7th to 13th centuries. The Srivijaya became hugely wealthy from tolls extracted from traffic throughthe Strait of Melaka. Tambralinga and nearby states adopted Buddhism in the 13th century, while those further south fell
under the influence of Islam, creating a religious boundary that persists to this day in southern Thailand.4

Social Environment< Population >The Chao Phraya basin is the most important basin in Thailand. The basin covers 30% of Thailand's land area, is home tosome 40% of the country's population, employs 78% of its work force and generates 66% of its Gross Domestic Product（GDP）.
In 1996, the total population of the Chao Phraya basin was 23 million inhabitants.5 Total population of Thailand was greaterthan 65 million people in 2004, and coastal development is progressing rapidly accompanied by the industrialization and economic
development of the country.6< Land use >Land use problems in Thailand arise from competing, mutually exclusive uses for the same advantageously located piece ofland. Coastal land is a prime example of this category: it is in demand as a desirable place to live, as a recreation resource,
as a low‑cost site for electrical power plants and industry, as a site for agriculture cultivation and plantation, and as tin min‑ing and salt production area. Coastal land attracts commercial infrastructure as well as marine resources exploitation for
mangrove products, aquaculture, mariculture and artisanal fishing. The complex overlap of land uses indicates that an integrated
coastal zone management approach is necessary to resolve land use conflicts, and that it can aid in making resource allocation
decisions for competing uses.7< Industry >Thailand has historically utilized the Gulf of Thailand through fisheries, aquaculture , mineral resources （particularlyhydrocarbons）, shipping and tourism.
Fishery
The early trawl operators had extremely high rates of profit and were able to obtain relatively cheap loans for further
fisheries development, mainly from the Asian Development Bank. Such loans markedly reduced the cost of entry into the fishery.8
The consequent increase in trawl fisherman led to overfishing and caused market failures through price depression. The
consequence of this over‑consumption is the clear over‑fishing and exploitation of the varieties of fish that can be consumed.9
In 2007, the fisheries landing for the Gulf was about 902,000 tons, and was 2,200,000 tons for Thailand.10
Aquaculture
Thailand's coastal area has about 1 million hectares suitable for coastal aquaculture. Fisheries production in Thailand
demonstrated a remarkable growth over the last three decades. The total production exceeded 2 million tons for the first timein 1977, then a fall in production followed, but later production recovered to over 2 million tons and has been above thisvolume since 1982. In 2007, total production was about 3.9 million tons, of which 58.2% came from marine capture fisheries.11
Mineral Resources
Mining activities were performed in several basins i.e. coal of mainly lignite and sub‑bituminous ranks from Mae Moh,
Mae Than, Chiang Muan, Bo Luang, Li, Nong Ya Plong, and Krabi basins with prospective reserves in number of basinssuch as Wiang Haeng, Ngao , Wang Nua , Chae Khon , Mae Ramat, Mae Lamao , Khian Sa, Saba Yoi; petroleum fromPhitsanulok, Supan Buri, Fang, and basins in the Gulf of Thailand.11
Shipping
The use of the Gulf of Thailand as a shipping route is of immense value to the littoral states. For example, the shipping
volume was about 140 million tons of cargo and 2.4 million TEU （20‑foot equivalent units; 1 TEU is 6.1m x 2.4m x 2.6m）
of containers by over 5,000 vessels that called into Thai ports in 1997. These numbers are predicted to increase by about 12% annually.10

45

８

Gulf of Thailand

Tourism
The Thai tourism industry is currently facing a serious downturn due to a combination of unfavorable factors such as theworldwide economic recession, the H1N1 flu outbreak, political instability and, more recently, the crisis of legitimacy of theThai state. These factors are frequently found both inside and outside the country, and they are linked to each other.12

Environmental Problems
The Gulf of Thailand has been a major marine resource
for Thai people for a long time. However, recent industrializa‑tion and community development have exerted considerable
stress on the marine environments and provoked habitat
degradation. The following pollution problems in the Gulf havebeen recognized:
盧 Untreated municipal and industrial waste water;
盪 Eutrophication in the gulf of Thailand;蘯 Rapid decrease in mangrove forest , coral reefs , andfisheries resources.14< Water and Sediment Quality >14

Pollution due to oil spill in the Gulf of Thailand13

Water Quality

In Thailand, most of the natural waterways serve as sewerage for domestic and industrial waste water. A study in Bangkok
Metropolitan Area estimated that 60‑70% of domestic waste was discharged to the Chao Phraya River and eventually to theGulf of Thailand without prior treatment.
Four main rivers that flow into the inner Gulf of Thailand are the Chao Phraya, Thachin, Mae Klong and Bangpakong.
According to the national water quality assessment conducted by the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment in 2011,
the Mae Klong and Bangpakong rivers had a water quality level of fair, and Chao Phraya and Thachin rivers were evaluatedas deteriorated. Moreover, for coastal water quality the Chao Phraya River Mouth was assessed as highly deteriorated, while
the Inner Gulf areas of Mae Klong River Mouth, Bangpakong River Mouth and nearby areas were deteriorated.15
The table below shows the water quality of the main rivers that flow into the Gulf of Thailand.15
Average and Minimum‑maximum Values of Water Quality Parameters in Main Water Sources, 2011

River

BOD （mg/L）

Total coliform（MPN/100mL）

Fecal coliform（MPN/100mL）

NH3（mg/L）

Lower Chao Praya

2.1（0.8‑9.0）

24,000（1,300‑160,000）

7,900（450‑160,000）

0.47（0.13‑2.35）

Lower Tha Chin

3.2
（1.0‑6.8）

510（20‑2,400）

240（20‑2,100）

0.34（0.10‑1.34）

Mae Klong

1.5（0.8‑3.0）

8,650（490‑490,000）

1,300（110‑70,000）

0.07（0.01‑0.26）

Bangpakong

1.6（0.6‑3.9）

2,200（20‑35,000）

430（20‑17,000）

0.24（0.03‑0.59）

Another substance responsible for pollution in the Gulf is mercury （Hg）. However, monitoring results during 1993‑2008
found a gradual decrease of mercury concentration in fish near to the baseline level of 0.2 裹/g. The percentages of fish having
mercury concentration exceeded the safety limit of 0.5 裹/g were also decreasing.16
Sediment Quality
Since the east coast has been developing with a high expansion rate of industrialization and urbanization, heavy industry
activities will substantially increase the potential risk of heavy metal pollution along the coast which will subsequently degrade
natural resources and aquatic environments. Lately, this area has faced the problem of mercury discharged by industries
especially around Map Ta Phut Industrial Estate.17< Other Environmental Problems >Degradation and decline of habitats
Along with Thailand's population increase and economic development, much of the coastal habitat has been destroyed or46

８Gulf of Thailand

lost. Mangrove destruction is the most serious, and since the 1960s 50‑80% has been lost, mainly being converted to shrimp
farms. Coral reefs have also been reduced greatly, both by natural causes such as storms and monsoon waves and anthropogenic
causes such as increased turbidity and nutrient pollution.6< Environmental Protection Measures >Regional Monitoring
The project entitled "Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand" funded by
GEF is implemented by UNEP to stop the environmental degradation trend.18

Related Organizations and NGOs
・Partnership in Environmental management for the Seas of East Asia <http://www.pemsea.org/>
・CORE sea <http://coresea.com/>・Mangroves for the Future <https://www.mangrovesforthefuture.org/countries/members/thailand/>・Bird Conservation Society of Thailand （BCST）<http://www.birdlife.org/asia/partners/thailand‑bird‑conservation‑society‑thailand‑bcst>

References
１. Nitima Aschariyaphotha, Prungchan Wongwises, Somchai Wongwises and Usa Wannasingha Humphries, 2006. Phenomenain the Gulf of Thailand when Typhoon Linda 1997 Passed, The 2nd Joint International Conference on "Sustainable Energy
and Environment （SEE 2006）" D‑011 （O）21‑23 November 2006, Bangkok, Thailand,
http://www.jgsee.kmutt.ac.th/see1/cd/file/D‑011.pdf （accessed March 31, 2015）
２. Department of Marine and Coastal Resources, The Oceanography of Thailand.
http://marinegiscenter.dmcr.go.th/km/oceanography‑of‑the‑gulf‑of‑thailand/?lang=en#.VSIfeRSCiUk （accessed March
31, 2015）
３. United Nations Environment Programme, 2007. National Reports on Coral Reefs in the Coastal Waters of the South
China Sea. UNEP/GEF/SCS Technical Publication No. 11.
http://www.unepscs.org/components/com̲remository̲files/downloads/South‑China‑Sea‑National‑Reports‑Coral‑Reefs‑
South‑China‑Sea.pdf （accessed March 31, 2015）
４. Lonely Planet. Lower Southern Gulf ‑ History.
http://www.lonelyplanet.com/thailand/lower‑southern‑gulf/history （accessed March 31, 2015）
５. UN/WWAP （United Nations/World Water Assessment Programme）, 2003. 1st UN World Water Development Report:
Water for People, Water for Life.
http://webworld.unesco.org/water/wwap/case̲studies/chao̲phraya/chao̲phraya.pdf （accessed March 31, 2015）
６. Wattayakorn, G. Environmental Issues in the Gulf of Thailand. In The Environment in Asia Pacific Harbours; Wolanski,
E., Ed.; Springer: Netherlands, 2006; Chapter 16, pp 249‑259.
７. Plodrasop Suraswadi, Policy of the Department of Fisheries for community‑based coastal fisheries management,
ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/007/ad903e/ad903e01.pdf （accessed March 31, 2015）
８. Mannan, M. A. 1997. Foreword: Asian Development Bank. p. v. In: G. Silvestre and D. Pauly. （eds.）. Status andManagement of tropical coastal fisheries in Asia. ICLARM Conf. Proc. 53.
http://pubs.iclarm.net/libinfo/Pdf/Pub%20CP6%2053.pdf （accessed March 31, 2015）
９. Capital Economics for The 21st Century, 2012. Overfishing （Market Failure）
https://friedmanseconomy.wordpress.com/2012/12/03/over‑fishing‑market‑failure/ （accessed March 31, 2015）
10. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 2009. Fisheries and Aquaculture Country Profiles, The King‑dom of Thailand.
http://www.fao.org/fishery/facp/THA/en （accessed March 31, 2015）
11. Department of Mineral Resources, Geology of Thailand.
http://www.dmr.go.th/main.php?filename=GeoThai̲En （accessed March 31, 2015）
12. Thitthongkam, T. and Walsh, J., 2011. An Analysis of Factors Influencing the Competitiveness of the Thai Tourism
Industry. 2010 International Conference on Business and Economics Research, vol.1 （2011）,
http://www.ipedr.com/vol1/30‑B10007.pdf （accessed March 31, 2015）13. Popular Resistance, 2013. Pipeline Leaks Off Coast of Thailand, Blankets Beach in Crude Oil.
https://www.popularresistance.org/pipeline‑leaks‑off‑coast‑of‑thailand‑blankets‑beach‑in‑crude‑oil/ （accessed March 31,
2015）
14. Cheevaporn, V and Menasveta, P, 2003. Water pollution and habitat degradation in the Gulf of Thailand. Marine Pollu‑
tion Bulletin 47 （2003）.
15. Pollution Control Department, 2011. Thailand State of Pollution Report 2011. Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment.
http://infofile.pcd.go.th/mgt/Report̲Eng2554.pdf?CFID=2255817&CFTOKEN=75690054 （accessed March 31, 2015）47

８

Gulf of Thailand

16. Menasveta, P. and Piyatiratitivorakul, S., Monitoring of Mercury Concentration in Fish in the Vicinity of Natural Gas
Production Platform in the Gulf of Thailand Chulalongkorn University.
http://www.conference.ifas.ufl.edu/emecs9/Presentations/Tuesday/Salon%203‑4/am/Session%206/0835%20P%20Mebasveta.
pdf （accessed March 31, 2015）
17. Thongraar, W., Musika, C., Wongsudawan, W., and Munhapol, A., 2008. Heavy Metal Contamination in Sediments
along the Eastern Coast of the Gulf of Thailand. Environment Asia 1 （2008）37‑45.
18. International Waters Learning Exchange & Resource Network, 2015. Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in
the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand.
http://iwlearn.net/iw‑projects/885 （accessed March 31, 2015）19. Hutchinson, S.; Hawkins, L.E., 2007. Oceans: A Visual Guide. Shinjusha Co., Ltd.: China, 2007. Japanese translation48

９

Bohai Sea

Overview
The Bohai Sea is China's only semi‑enclosed inland sea. It is surrounded by Liaodong Peninsula, the North China Plainand Shandong Peninsula. It is located at 117°35′〜 121°10'E and 37°07〜41°N, （the area west of the line linking Laotieshan
in Liaodong Peninsula and Penglai, north of Shandong Peninsula）, and is adjacent to the Yellow Sea to the east.1

Location
Basic information10
Surface area：77,284 裄
Volume：2,009 裝
Average depth：26 m
Maximum depth：85 m

Nature< Background >The Bohai sea has a catchment area of
1,400,000 裄.2,3
It is the inner most gulf of the Yellow Sea innortheastern China bordering the Liaoning Peninsula to the east and the Shandong Peninsula to the south. The Bohai Sea
consists of three bays: Laizhou Bay to the south; Liaodong Bay to the north; and Bohai Bay to the west. Three large rivers,
the Yellow River, the Liao River and the Hai River drain into the Bohai Sea. The Bohai Sea is an ecologically important andstressed body of water. Its marine resources are important to China, Japan, and North and South Korea.4
ClimateIts location in the north temperature zone gives Bohai Sea an average annual temperature of around 8‑11 襄, with an averagewater temperature of around 1‑2 襄 in winter and 24‑26 襄 in summer. Annual precipitation is around 300‑400 mm.1
Topography
The Bohai Sea has an average water depth of 26 m, a maximum water depth of 85 m, and the majority of the sea area isshallow water with less than 20 m depth. Bohai Sea has an area of 77,284 裄, which includes Bohai, Laizhou and Liaodong
Bays.1
Hydrology
Water circulation in the Yellow sea is mainlycomprised of the Yellow Sea Warm Current and the
Yellow Sea Coastal Current. The Yellow Sea Warm
Current is a branch of the Tsushima Warm Current,
which comes from the East China Sea carrying relatively
high salinity （>33 ppt） and high‑temperature （>12襄） water flowing into the Bohai Sea in the winteras can be seen in the right figure.4< Surrounding environment >Habitat
The natural wetland ecologies of the three bays,
with their associated river systems and estuarinedeltas are important features of the Bohai Sea as they
provide other wild animals. The wetlands also purify
and reduce the pollution load, modulate the climate
and prevent floods, droughts and disasters. Over150 species of birds including 97 species of waterfowls
are observed in the natural wetland sanctuaries of
the Bohai Sea.1
Currents in the Yellow and Bohai Sea449

９Bohai Sea

History and Culture< History and Culture >Until the early 20th century, Bo Hai was often called the Gulf of Chihli.5
The Bohai Sea has always been North China's direct gateway for communicating with the world and the Bohai Straits,
located between the western cape of Laotieshan in Liaodong Peninsula and the north end of Penglai Island, is the strategic
passage through Bohai Sea and North China. This has made Bohai Sea and its coastal ports historical maritime defense areas.1

Social Environment< Population>
The total population of the Bohai Sea region in year 2000 （including the provinces of Liaoning, Hebei and Shandong andthe municipality of Tianjin）, reached 208 million, accounting for 15.81% of the national population.1< Land use >Directly used land area accounts for 51.8% of the Bohai Sea region. Of this figure, 36.6% is arable, 15.2% is for construc‑tion, and 40.7% is vegetation.1< Industry >Fisheries, ports, petroleum, tourism and sea salt production and manufacturing are the major industries of the Bohai Sea.4
Fisheries
Fisheries and marine aquaculture in the Bohai Sea not only provide a source of seafood, but also sustain the livelihood ofnumerous fishermen around the Sea. Furthermore, the Bohai Sea is an important spawning and nursery ground for migratory
species from the Yellow Sea and East China Sea. It is estimated that 40% of these species' fisheries resources exist in the
Bohai Sea, and it is the biggest mariculture base in China.4
Ports development and marine transport
The number of ports or harbors around the littoral area of the Bohai Sea ranks first in the country. In the littoral area of
the Bohai Sea, 66 harbors have been completed, including 48 fishing harbors.4
Oil exploitation
The Bohai Sea is rich in offshore oil and gas resources. The major oilfields are the Shengli, Dagang and Liaohe Oilfields.
The Bohai Sea area now has an annual output of 2.21 million tons of oil and 375 million 裙 of gas.4
Tourism
The coastal areas of the Bohai Sea boast many beautiful natural sports, favorable environmental condition, and a natural
marine landscape characterized by seawater, sand‑beaches and islands, which provide ideal resorts for tourism and leisuretravel.4
Salt production
The Bohai Sea provides an inexhaustible supply of table salt, thus making the salt industry an ancient and eternal marine
industry in the littoral Bohai Sea. In 2000, the littoral area of the Bohai Sea had a total of 16 salt‑fields with a total salt‑pan
area of 273,470 ha and a sea‑salt output of 664.76 million tons, making it the largest salt industrial production base in China.4

Environmental Problems< Water and sediment quality >Despite years of effort to protect and manage the environment and natural resources of the Bohai Sea region, deterioration
continues. Many irreversible ecosystem changes have taken place. Innovative management approaches and constant actions
must be taken to arrest the adverse trend, maintain the resource base and bring economic growth into the track of sustainable
development.6
The Bohai Sea nearshore areas are seriously polluted, indicating the severity of the region's environmental problem. The
major pollutants include organic matter, active phosphate, petroleum hydrocarbons, inorganic nitrogen and some heavy metals.
Pollution caused by inorganic nitrogen is the most serious.150

９Bohai Sea

Map of the distributions of the maximum levels of trace metals recorded in waters （a）,
sediments （b）and mollusks （c）in the Bohai Sea7

Water quality （Bohai Bay）
Recent investigations show that a large part of the coastal waters of Bohai Bay have been polluted with concentrations ofpollutants. The pollution has deteriorated the ecology and reduced biodiversity of the waters. From 1983 to 1993, the numb‑er of fish species decreased from 85 to 75 in the estuary.8< Other Environmental Problems >Red Tides
Red‑tide occurs frequently with serious economic losses. In the 1990s, 10 red‑tide events occurred annually. The durationof the events become longer and the areas covered became larger. In 1998, the most serious red‑tide events occurred in
Liaodong Bay, Bohai Bay and Laizhou Bay, causing half a billion Yuan of direct economic losses to the marine aquatic products.1
Oil Spills
Oil spill events in Bohai Sea have been frequent since the 1980s. In 1991, about 70 oil spill events caused by ship‑breaking,collision, and sinking, as well as oil well blowout, resulted in serious oil pollution at sea and related drainage basins.1
Coastal Erosion
Coastal erosion has become a major problem in the region, causing coastline retreat, subterranean seawater invasion, lowland
flooding and the salinization of paddy fields.1

51

９

Bohai Sea

< Environmental Protection Measures >Blue Sea Action Plan for the Bohai Sea
The action plan was ratified by the State Council in 1999, when the comprehensive treatment project of Bohai Sea was
kicked off. The project covers three provinces and one municipality surrounding Bohai Sea and participated by the provinces
and municipalities in the economic ANNEXES 91 zone surrounding Bohai Sea. The overall targets of the project are thenatural resource exploration of Bohai Sea, sustainable development of ecological environment and sustainable, healthy developmentof the social economy in the economic zone surrounding the Bohai Sea. The main focuses are pollution control, environmental
treatment, restoration of natural resource environment, ecological environmental remedy and disaster prevention and control.
The key actions are estuary wetland protection and ecological remedy, pollution prevention in the bay, healthy aquatic farm‑ing, habitat remedy in the tidal areas and warning and prevention of red tides, oil spillage and marine ice.9

References
1 . State Oceanic Administration. Bohai Sea Sustainable Development Strategy.
http://www.pemsea.org/sites/default/files/strategy‑bohai‑sea.pdf （accessed March 31st, 2015）
２. Talaue‑McManus, L. 2000. Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis for the South China Sea. EAS/RCU Technical Report
Series No. 14. UNEP, Bangkok, Thailand.
３. Yu, H., R. Juliano and S. Teng, 2001, Technical Report, Scaling and Scoping for Global International Waters assessm‑ent （GIWA）Subregions 34 （Yellow Sea）, 35 （Bohai Sea）and 36 （East China Sea）.
（See GIWA Scaling and Scoping Reports, draft versions in www.giwa.net.）
４. University of Kalmar. Global International Waters Assessment Yellow Sea, GIWA Regional Assessment 34.
http://www.unep.org/dewa/giwa/areas/reports/r34/regional̲definition34b̲giwa̲r34.pdf （accessed March 31st, 2015）
５. Wow. http://us.wow.com/wiki/Bohai̲Sea （accessed March 31st, 2015）
６. PEMSE.org. Bohai Sea.
http://www.pemsea.org/profile/pollution‑hotspots/bohai‑sea/threats‑and‑ challenges （accessed March 31st, 2015）
７. Gao, X., Zhou, F., Chen, C‑T. Pollution status of the Bohai Sea: An overview of the environmental quality assessm‑
ent related trace metals. Environment International 2014, 62: pp.12‑30.
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0160412013002134 （accessed March 31st, 2015）
８. Liu, C., Wang, Z‑Y., He, Y. Water pollution in the river mouths around Bohai Bay. International Journal of Sedim‑
ent Research, 2003, 18, No. 4: pp. 326‑332.
http://www.waser.cn/journal/full%20text/2003‑4/06.pdf （accessed March 31st, 2015）
９. UNEP, GIWA REGIONAL ASSESSMENT 34 ? YELLOW SEA.
http://www.unep.org/dewa/giwa/areas/reports/r34/annexes̲giwa̲r34.pdf
10. Yellow Sea Ecoregion Planning Programme, 2008. Biological Assessment Report of the Yellow Sea Ecoregion: Biological
Assessment of Ecologically Important Areas For Marine Mammals in the Yellow Sea Ecoregion, China Part.
https://www.wwf.or.jp/activities/g200/marine/203/lib/BA‑China‑mammal.pdf （accessed March 31st, 2015）

52

10

Seto Inland Sea

Overview
The Seto Inland Sea is the largest inland sea in Japan. Ten prefectures border it, and 3 additional inland prefectures areclose to it on the islands of Honshu, Shikoku, and Kyushu. The Sea stretches up to 450 ㎞ east to west, and 15 ㎞ to 55 ㎞
north to south. It is connected to the Pacific Ocean through the Kii Channel on the east and to the Sea of Japan throughBungo Channel and Kanmon Strait on the west.

Location
Basic information1,9
Surface area：23,203 裄
Volume：881.5 裝
Average depth：38 m
Maximum depth：465 m

Nature< Background >Seto Inland Sea is the largest inland sea ofJapan and is surrounded by Honshu , Shikoku
and Kyushu. Seto Inland Sea has approximately 700 islands and a long coastline of 7,230 ㎞. The Seto Inland Sea is approximate‑ly 450 袰 wide from west to east and has a maximum north to south distance of 15‑55 袰 and its surface area is 23,203 裄.
The average water depth is 38m and the volume is 881.5 裝. There are a lot of bays and reefs in Seto Inland Sea, and it
connects to Pacific Ocean by Kii Channel and Bungo Channel. Seto Inland Sea is also connect to the Sea of Japan by Kanmon
Strait.1,9
ClimateThe Seto Inland Sea region is relatively warm and low rainfall region whose average temperature is about 15 襄 and annual
rainfall is about 1,000‑1,600 袢. According to "Climate Change Monitoring Report 2009" of the Japan Meteorological Agency,
it said that increase of average temperature and that of tropical night is remarkable in the Seto Inland Sea area.
Topography
It is about 30 m water depth of most of the Seto Inland Sea. Water depth of the center of the Kii Channel, an east open‑
ing is 70 m and that of the Bungo Channel, a west opening is about 100 m.2

Topography of the Seto Inland Sea3
Hydrology
Features of the Seto Inland Sea is fast tide due to a big difference of high and low tide. There are high tides and two low
tide twice a day. Water level difference between high tide and low tide is called "tidal range" whichis 1‑3 m in the east

and is 3‑4 m in west. Due to tidal range, tide of several knots occurs , and it will be 5 knots （2.5 m / sec） in the narrowstrait, such as Naruto Strait and Hayami Strait.2

53

10

Seto Inland Sea< Surrounding environment >In the Seto Inland Sea, there are a variety of nature, such as so many rivers, reed bed, tideland, the straits whose tide
is fast, and calm water flow area called Nada. Emergence of about 3,400 animal species, 430 fish species and the emergenceof about 800 plant species has been reported.1
HabitatIn the Seto Inland Sea, there are a lot of seaweed such as eelgrass （6,381 ha）, sargassum （5,511 ha）and other algae （seatrumpet, sea lettuce, ecklonia cava. 14,532 ha）.5< Tourism >Seto Inland Sea, as the first national park in Japan, wasdesignated in 1934, and its area is about 67,000 ha（land only）.
Characteristics of the Seto Inland Sea National Park are multi‑
island, strait, observatory to look at the sea. The number ofvisitors of the Seto Inland Sea National Park in 2007 fiscal year
is 39.73 million people which occupies the 11.2% of the whole
National Park visitors. It is the second largest popular nationalpark behind the Fuji‑Hakone‑Izu National Park.1
Itsukushima Shrine（a World Heritage site in the Seto Inlandarea）
Itsukushima Shrine was built in the 12th century by Taira‑Archipelago6

no‑Kiyomori, one of the men in power during the Heian Period.
The shrine stands in the sea and is surrounded by steep lush
mountains in the background. It is highly appreciated for its
unique and beautiful Japanese ‑style architecture , and was
declared as a World Heritage site in December 1996.

Itsukushima shrine7

History・Culture
In the early modern period of the Seto Inland Sea, reclamation, cotton cultivation and salt production is carried out actively.
In the high economic growth period, after the World War Ⅱ, its industrial structure is changed from primary industry to
secondary industry and tertiary industry.
Seto Inland Sea has been important route of maritime goods transportation from long ago. Especially in the early modern
period, Seto Inland Sea was used as important route to transport the product, such as salt to Osaka area. In addition, Korean
envoys passed through the Seto Inland Sea in order to go to Edo.
In the Seto Inland Sea, a lot of traditional events are take place such as fire festival, bow praying, Kangen music festival,boat rowing and Setouchi International Art Festival.1

Social Environment< Population >The total area of the 13 prefectures surrounding the Seto Inland Sea is about 68,000 裄, accounting for 18% of the total landarea of Japan. In 2009, the Seto Inland Sea area has a total population of approximately 35 million, which is nearly 28% ofJapan's entire population. The population density of the region in 2009 is 518 people /裄 which is 1.5 times as many as thenational average. The number has increased 1.5 times since 1950 and is still increasing, although at a slower pace.1< Industry >The total production value of related 13 prefectures in 2007 fiscal year was 134 trillion and 894 billion yen which grew by
about 16 times since 1965. In addition, prefectures in the total production of the relationship 13 prefectures in 2007 fiscal year
account for about one quarter of gross domestic product. For industry composition ratio, primary industry and the secondary

54

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Seto Inland Sea

industry is on the decline. On the other hand, the composition ratio of tertiary industry is increasing. Industry production
value composition ratio of 2007 fiscal year of related 13 prefectures of the first industry is 0.7%, that of the secondary industry
is 25.2% and that of the tertiary industry is 74.0%.1
Fisheries
In 2007, Sea fishery production in the Seto Inland Sea is 190,000 tons which account for 4.4% of sea fishery production ofJapan, 4.4 million tons. Sea aquaculture production in the sea is 280,000 tons which account for 23% of Sea aquaculture
production of Japan, 1.24 million tons.
Characteristics of the fishery in the Seto Inland Sea is that the proportion of sea aquaculture production is large which is
1.5 times as many as the sea fishery production. Firearms farming accounts for 46% of sea aquaculture production, and lav‑
er aquaculture accounted for 43% of that. Sea farming Laver production of the Seto Inland Sea 122,000 tons and it accounts

Fishery Production

for 30.8% of the production of Japan.1

Changes in fishery production volume in Seto Inland Sea

Environmental Problems<Water and Sediment Quality>
The Sea is greatly influenced by incoming rivers due to its relatively shallow depth. Seasonal fluctuation in water temperatureand salinity, influenced by rainfall, makes the area susceptible to episodic events, such as red tides.
蘚 Water Quality
COD, nitrogen and phosphorus pollution from the land has been greatly reduced by efforts of sixth‑order term water quality
total reduction. In the Osaka Bay, COD, nitrogen, phosphorus concentration is improved, but they are high in the Seto Inland

COD Pollution Loads

Sea.4

Changes in COD pollution load generation in the Seto Inland Sea

55

Nitrogen Pollution Loads

Seto Inland Sea

Changes in Nitrogen pollution load generation in the Seto Inland Sea

Phosphorus Pollution Loads

10

Changes in Phosphorus pollution load generation in the Seto Inland Sea

Changes of COD in the Seto Inland Sea

56

10

Seto Inland Sea

Changes of total nitrogen in the Seto Inland Sea

Changes of total phosphorus in the Seto Inland Sea
Source: "broad comprehensive water quality survey" （Ministry of the Environment）
蘚 Red tides
Annual red tide occurrence of 1975 was about 200‑300, but in recent years, it was
reduced to about 100.

Fishery damage to aquaculture fish by red tide occurred 29

times in 1975, but now, 10 times in a year. Today, red tide of diatoms which causes
discoloration of Laver is reported in the Seto Inland Sea, and give a severe damage
to laver farming.4

The Red Tide

Number of incidents of red tide

57

10

Seto Inland Sea

Sea areas red tide has occurred （2013）

蘚 Sediment Quality
Compared to the survey results of 1991‑1995, the sediment quality of 2001‑ 2005 was improved. Dead water region suchas inner part of bay, water improvement is hampered due to long‑term and decomposition of organic matter and nutrients
which accumulated in the bottom mud.4< Other environmental problems >蘚 Reduction of neritic region
In the coastal areas, many seaweed beds and tidal flats have been lost due to the development of landfill associated withthe development of heavy and chemical industry. Eelgrass beds has decreased by about 70% in 1960‑1990. Tidal flat area
has decreased by 20% in 1949‑2006. However, it increased slightly in 1989‑2006.1< Environmental protection measures >Progress of a comprehensive water quality conservation
measures of the Seto Inland Sea

In the Seto Inland Sea , environmental destruction
got worse due to the concentration of heavy andchemical industries and population in high economic

October 1973

growth period. Under the national uniform specific laws
and regulations, it was difficult to stop the pollutionof the Seto Inland Sea, so Setouchi environmental protec‑

June 1979

tion Temporary Measures Law was enacted in 1972.
Only by the regulation of concentration standards, it

January 1987

was difficult to achieve the water quality environmental
standards in the closed water areas. There was a needto comprehensively reduce the pollution load to thewaters, including the inland prefectures. In 1978, theWater Pollution Control Law and the Seto Inland Sea
environmental protection Temporary Measures Law

January 1991
April 1996
December 2001

was amended and water quality total reduction system
was introduced. On the basis of this law, the first‑ord‑
er total reduction for COD has been carried out from

November 2006

1979, but the problem that occurs due to the eutrophica‑

Establishment of the Seto Inland Sea
environmental conservation Temporary
Measures Act
First‑order COD total reduction（Reference year 54, the target year 59）
Second COD total reduction（Reference year 59, the target year 64）
Third‑order COD total reduction（Reference year 1, the target year 6）
4th COD total reduction（Reference year 6, the target year 11）
5th COD, nitrogen, phosphorus total reduction（Reference year 11, the target year 16）
6th COD, nitrogen, phosphorus total
reduction（Reference year 16, the target year 21）

tion of occurrence , such as red tide still occurred .
COD : Chemical Oxygen Demand

Environmental standards of nitrogen and phosphorus

58

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Seto Inland Sea

are set in 1993, after that, they designated as the target in the total reduction. In 2006, 6th total reduction of basic policy
has been formulated in order to reduce the COD （Chemical Oxygen Demand）, nitrogen, phosphorus in Osaka bay, and not
to worsen the COD of the Seto Inland Sea, and to maintain the actual condition of nitrogen and phosphorus.1,8
In addition, sewage improvement has been continuing, penetration rate of sewage treatment reached 80% in 2012.

Changes in sewage treatment population and penetration rate of sewage treatment population

Related organizations and NGOs
・Seto Inland Sea environmental conservation governor, mayor meeting <http://gmc‑seto.jp/>
・Health organizations Federation <http://www.zeneiren.or.jp/>
・The Association for the Environmental Conservation of Seto Inland Sea<http://www.seto.or.jp/>

References
１. Ministry of the Environment, 2010. Current status, etc. of the Seto Inland Sea.
https://www.env.go.jp/water/heisa/seto̲comm/001/mat03.pdf （accessed March 31, 2015）
２. Marine Weather Association, 2013. Weather and Sea Conditions of Seto Inland Sea.
https://www.env.go.jp/water/heisa/seto̲comm/001/mat03.pdf （accessed March 31, 2015）
３. GSI website Geographical Survey Institute map （e‑Land, Web）http://maps.gsi.go.jp/ （accessed March 31, 2015）
４. Ministry of the Environment, 2012. Seto Inland Sea: Future Vision and Environmental Conservation/Restoration.
http://www.env.go.jp/press/files/jp/20952.pdf （accessed March 31, 2015）
５. Ministry of the Environment, 2009. Central Environment Council Water Environment Subcommittee: 2nd Total Reduction
Expert Committee Documents.
https://www.env.go.jp/council/09water/y0911‑02/mat07.pdf （accessed March 31, 2015）
６. Kumamoto Prefecture, 2009. Matsushima archipelago
http://www.pref.kumamoto.jp/kiji̲8334.html （accessed March 31, 2015）
７. Miyajima Itsukushima Shrine ‑Island where people and God live together‑
http://www.miyajima‑wch.jp/jp/itsukushima/02.html （accessed March 31, 2015）
８. Ministry of the Environment, 2011. Basic policy of total reduction relating to 7th total reduction, chemical oxygen
demand, nitrogen and phosphorus
https://www.env.go.jp/water/heisa/7kisei.html （accessed March 31, 2015）
９. Japan Coast Guard Marine Information Section. Depth of the Seto Inland Sea
http://www1.kaiho.mlit.go.jp/KAN6/5̲sodan/mame/topic39.htm （accessed March 31, 2015）59

11 Black Sea
Overview
The Black Sea covers an area of 508,000 裄, is 2,245 m deep and drains an area of 1,900,000 裄 （one‑third of continental
Europe）containing over 160 million inhabitants. The coastal zone contains a population of some 20 or 39 million people, depend‑ing on whether the Istanbul administrative unit is included in the total. This has a short Black Sea coastline. The Sea has
six coastal countries: Bulgaria, Georgia, Romania, the Russian Federation, Turkey and Ukraine.

Location
Basic information4,15
Surface area：508,000 裄
Volume：629,920 裝
Average depth：1,240 m
Maximum depth：2,245 m

Nature< Background >The Black Sea is one of the world's largest
inland seas. The catchment area of the BlackSea covers entirely or partially 23 countries; 6 countries are located in its coastal zone and 17 countries are closely linked withthe sea via the largest European rivers ‑ Danube, Dnipro, and Don Rivers‑ that flow into the sea.2
ClimateThe Black Sea is situated in the temperate zone. Its climate is subtropical, of the Mediterranean type （summer sea
temperatures exceed 25襄, in winter the open sea temperatures are 6‑8襄）. Only two areas, the south Crimea and Caucasiancoasts, belong to the subtropical zone. The Sea of Azov has a continental climate; in winter the sea is covered by ice for
two to three months.3
Topography
The maximum depth of the Black Sea obtained from various sources of echo‑sounding surveys is about 2,200 m. In thebottom topography of the Black Sea three basic forms are clearly distinguished: shelf, continental slope and abyssal plain.4
Hydrology
The intense fresh water supply by rivers reduces the basin salinity by comparison with what is typical for the Mediterranean
Sea. Therefore the pressure gradient induces a deep flow of the saline water along the bottom of the Bosphorus Strait. The
contrast between the fresh and salt‑water produces a buoyancy flux , which forms the density stratification of the basin.
Theoretical analysis, laboratory models and assimilation of the climatic hydrography show that the deep‑water upwelling at
the open sea should support the permanent pycnocline. The upwelling directly determines the age of the deep water andposition of the hydrogen sulphide surface in the basin. Compensating down welling induces the buoyancy‑driven cyclonic
circulation in the upper layer of the sea and modulates the mixing of saline water entering through the Bosphorus Strait with
ambient waters.5< Surrounding environment >Habitat
The coastal zone wetland ecosystems occupy large areas and act as a form of relaying mechanism, linking the huge catchment
area with the Black Sea itself. Wetlands are highly productive ecosystems whose formation, functioning and characteristics
are determined by the water regime. They support a unique diversity of flora and fauna that exist there because of theconstant inflow of water and alternating dry and wet periods.660

11 Black Sea

Distribution of Wetlands in the Black Sea7
Biota
The freshwater, flowing in from the northern rivers and out via the Bosporus, floats on top. This phenomenon represses
the natural convective heat exchange that causes water to circulate and reoxygenate in seas and lakes elsewhere in the world.
As a result, while the top 140 m layer of the Black Sea is constantly renewed and can support a vigorous indigenous marine
life, below this level the waters are anoxic, with a high concentration of hydrogen sulphide, and inimical to life.8

History and Culture< History >Once upon a time, the Black Sea was actually a large freshwater lake. Then came the end of the last ice age, under
rapid climactic warming, glaciers began to melt quickly. Subsequently, the world's oceans and seas started to rise. Around5600 BC, it is believed that the Mediterranean Sea broke through a land "dam" at present‑day Istanbul, creating the shortand narrow （about one‑mile wide） Bosporus Strait and allowing vast amounts of seawater to flow into the previously fresh
waters of the Black Sea. Carbon‑14 radio‑dating methods support this viewpoint.
In research undertaken recently by the National Geographic Society, coring samples from the bottom of the Black Sea
indicate that a white or light color typical of lake‑mud characterizes the deep sediments, while the upper black layers show
an iron‑sulfide‑containing mud found in marine environments. In addition, the mollusk shells trapped in those same layers
shift from freshwater types in the deep sediments to saltwater varieties in the more recently deposited top ones. These sediments
show a rapid transition from freshwater to marine, further supporting theories of a fast and violent change.9

Social Environmen< Population>
The Black Sea coastal zone is densely populated with approximately 160 million inhabitants and with 4 million tourists visit‑
ing the seacoast in summer seasons. For all Black Sea coastal zones except of Turkey, the demographic trends are negative.1,10< Land use and Industry >In the past 50 years, the Black Sea Region has seen many land‑use changes. These are continuing today. On land, thecoastal zone is being increasingly used for intensive agriculture, industry, power generation, mineral works, shipping, urban
development and, of course, tourism. As a consequence, significant parts of the coast have been built upon, and development
continues to threaten the nature of the Black Sea Region in both Bulgaria and Romania.11

Environmental Problems
Land reclamation
Black sea coasts are under continuous threat from land reclamation projects and infrastructure developments. In recent
years, wind farms have become a particular issue of concern. Famous cliffs like Kaliakra provide ideal locations for such farms
as they are almost always windy and already 250 windmills have been built here. North of the port of Constanta, plans wererecently announced for the development of the largest onshore wind park in the world, requiring an investment of 1.1 billion

61

11 Black Sea
Euros. If not properly planned and assessed, respecting the protection safeguards set out in the Habitats Directive（the founda‑tion for the EU's environmental conservation policies）, windfarms and other developments could pose a potentially serious
threat to species and habitats in and around Natura 2000 protected areas in view of the fact that the Black Sea Coast is
strategically located along the Via Pontica ‑ one of the most important migration routes in Europe for birds and bats.11
Agriculture
Further inland, agriculture takes over as the main land use, providing an important source of income for many rural popula‑tions. Much of it has remained relatively small scale until recently, but here, too things are changing rapidly. Wetlands,
important for birds and other species, are being degraded by pollutants or drained and diverted for agriculture. It is estimatedthat around 400 裄 of wetlands in the Danube Delta have been transformed into agricultural and forestry polders. Many of
its natural water channels have also been dredged and canalized to facilitate inland waterway transport. All these activities
not only affect wildlife but also reduce the delta's ability to retain water and clean itself of pollutants and excess nutrients.5
Invasive species
The American comb jelly, Mnemiopsis leidyi, was accidentally introduced into theBlack Sea through ship's ballast water in the early 1980s. With no natural enemies insight, its population soon exploded, consuming vast amounts of zooplankton, larvae andfish eggs. This eventually led to the collapse of pelagic fish populations and caused amajor shift in the marine ecosystem. The jellyfish had literally eaten its way throughthe food chain. By the mid‑1990s, it was estimated that the Black Sea contained overa billion tons of American jellyfish, which is more than the weight of the world's entire
annual commercial fish catch combined.
The mass occurrence of Mnemiopsis is now acknowledged to have contributed to the
sharp decrease in no less than 26 commercial Black Sea fish stocks, including anchovy
and chub mackerel. Local oyster fisheries, indigenous jellyfish and even endemic dolphins
also suffered. The impact was all the more devastating as the Black Sea was alreadyunder stress for heavy fishing and eutrophication. The economic cost attributed to thecollapse of fisheries and tourism industries around the Black Sea is estimated at 500
million dollars per year.11

Invasive species, American comb jelly（Mnemiopsis leidyi）:
a major problem for the Black Sea11< Environmental Protection Measures >The following measures could be considered at the level of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation （BSEC） institution andmember states:
蘚 To agree in principle and to start preparatory work for a new comprehensive intergovernmental agreement of the BSEC
member states, complementary to the 1992 Convention, covering all aspects of environmental policies in the region inaccordance with the principles of sustainable development: climate change mitigation; clean energy and industrial processes; air, water and soil quality; green urban and rural development; waste management; rational land use and sustainable farm‑ing practices; regulated use of chemicals; biodiversity, protected areas and wildlife conservation; development of eco‑tour‑
ism; integrated development of coastal areas; wetlands; fisheries; product and food safety, etc.;
蘚 To establish functional links with other regional environmental programmes, in particular those for the Mediterranean,
Caspian and the Danube, with a view to enhancing the scientific underpinnings and operational capabilities of the BSEC
performance;
蘚 To encourage the development of national parks and nature reserves, including agreed procedures for the joint administrationof such units that stretch across national boundaries, following the pattern and experience of the Natura 2000 programme;
蘚 To support the exchange of information and best practice among the Ministries and government agencies in the BSEC
member states that are responsible for the design and implementation of environment‑related policies, and to encourage
professional networking among the scientific research units and the non‑governmental organizations that are active in thissphere;蘚 To support integration and cohesion of actions towards 'greening' all sector policies, mainly transport, energy, infrastructure
and regional development policy;
蘚 To encourage multi‑lateral environmental agreements among Black Sea states for waste management, pollution, biodiversity
preservation, fisheries, integrated coastal zone management, better balance of fossil fuels and alternative energy resources;
蘚 To enhance "smart greening" of enterprises, public institutions, Universities and Municipalities by the implementation ofenvironmental management systems （e.g. EMAS12, ISO 14001）and environmentally friendly "clean" technologies;

62

11 Black Sea
蘚 To encourage trans‑national and cross‑border cooperation, concerning environmental data collection, cross‑country andcross‑regional comparability, assessment and evaluation （e.g. through the use of innovative tools, such as Geographical
Information Systems GIS）.12

Related organizations and NGO・Black Sea NGO Network < http://www.bssn.org/>
・ Agreement for the Conservation of Cetaceans of the Black Sea , Mediterranean Sea and Contiguous Atlantic Area
（ACCOBAMS）< http://www.accobams.org/>
・Mediterranean Coastal Foundation （MEDCOAST）< https://www.medcoast.net/>

References
１. Global Environment Facility and UNDP, 2008. Blacksea Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis.
http://www.blacksea‑commission.org/̲tda2008‑document1.asp, （accessed March 31, 2015）
２. Borysova,O., Kondakov, A., Paleari, S., Rautalahti‑Miettinen, E., Stolberg, F., and Daler, D., 2005. Eutrophica‑tion in the Black Sea region. http://www.unep.org/dewa/giwa/areas/reports/r22/giwa̲eutrophication̲in̲blacksea.pdf,（accessed March 31, 2015）
３. Zaitsev, Y., Alexandrov, B., and Zenetos, A., 2007. The Black Sea.
http://www.blacksea‑commission.org/̲tda2008‑document1.asp, （accessed March 31, 2015）
４. Ivanov V.A., Belokopytov VN., 2002. Oceanography of the Black Sea. National Academy of Science of Ukraine Marine
Hydrophysical Institute.
http://www.researchgate.net/profile/V̲Belokopytov/publication/236853664̲Ivanov̲V.A.̲Belokopytov̲V.N.̲Oceanography
̲of̲the̲Black̲Sea.̲National̲Academy̲of̲Sciences̲of̲Ukraine̲Marine̲Hydrophysical̲Institute̲Sevastopol̲210̲p/links/
00b4951974b53be6d9000000.pdf, （accessed March 31, 2015）
５. Korotaev, G. Black sea water circulation. Marine Hydrological Institute, Ukraine.
http://www.iasonnet.gr/abstracts/korotaev.html, （accessed March 31, 2015）
６. Zaitsev, Y., and Mamaev, V., 1997. Marine Biological Diversity in the Black Sea. UNDP.
http://ceemar.org/ceemar/bitstream/11099/403/1/Biological%20diversity%20in%20the%20Black%20Sea.pdf,（accessed March
31, 2015）
７. UNEP. Black Sea Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis.
http://www.grid.unep.ch/bsein/tda/files/2b2m.gif, （accessed March 31, 2015）
８. Georgia, Moldova, Russia and Ukraine, 2008. GUIDELINES for the ESTABLISHMENT of
MARINE PROTECTED AREAS in the BLACK SEA.
http://www.enpi‑info.eu/files/publications/Guidelines%20on%20Black%20Sea%20MPAs%20Mar09.pdf,（accessed March 31,
2015）
９. University of Delaware College of Earth, Ocean, and Environment, 2003. A Black Sea Journey.
https://www.ceoe.udel.edu/blacksea/history/noah.html, （accessed March 31, 2015）10. BSERP, 2006. POLITICAL, DEMOGRAPHIC AND ECONOMIC ISSUES.
http://www.elmed‑rostov.ru/Projects/BSERP%20Visitcard/Text/BlackSea/BSPoliticalIssues.htm,（accessed March 31, 2015）
11. European Communities, 2009. Natura 2000 in the Black Sea Region.
http://ec.europa.eu/environment/nature/info/pubs/docs/biogeos/Black%20Sea.pdf, （accessed March 31, 2015）
12. Celac, S., Japaridze, T., Kereselidze, D., Dimadama, Z., and Roubanis, I., 2012. Building a Sustainable Future for
the Black Sea area: New Perspectives & Challenges for B.S.E.C.,
http://icbss.org/media/609̲original.pdf, （accessed March 31, 2015）13. BSEA Network. http://www.bseanetwork.org/, （accessed March 31, 2015）
14. ACCOBAMS. http://www.accobams.org/, （accessed March 31, 2015）15. Hutchinson, S.; Hawkins, L.E., 2007. Oceans: A Visual Guide. Shinjusha Co., Ltd.: China, 2007. Japanese translation

63

12 Puget Sound
Overview
Puget Sound, located in northwest Washington State of the United States near the border of Canada and the United States,
is part of a single large ecosystem that includes the Strait of Juan de Fuca and the Strait of Georgia. For this Guidebook,
we have delineated the area of Puget Sound by the northern entrance of Admiralty Inlet.
This basin was carved during the Pleistocene Ice Age by at least one large and probably several small glaciers. The Sounditself is really an estuary where saltwater from the Pacific mixes with freshwater from a multitude of rivers.1

Location
Basic information2,13
Surface area：2,600 裄
Volume：169 裝
Maximum depth：300 m

Nature< Background >The glacial carving that shaped the deepchannels of Puget Sound also helped shape thesteep coastal bluffs, beaches, and relatively narrow,shallow marine terraces.2
The Puget Sound Basin covers about 44,000
裄, encompassing the Strait of Juan de Fuca,
the San Juan archipelago, and Hood Canal. 80% of the basin is composed of land and 20% ismade of water.2
ClimateMaritime air masses have a moderating effect in south Puget Sound year round, creating a modified Mediterranean climate.
During the fall and spring seasons, the climate is relatively mild. Winters are usually wet and mild. Summers are generally
cool and dry.3
The 2013 average temperature for the Puget Sound lowlands was 10.4襄 and total precipitation was 972 袢.4
Topography
The bottom topography of Puget Sound is characterized by a series of basins and sills, which were created by glacial action.
A shallow sill （65 m deep）at Admiralty Inlet separates the waters of the Strait of Juan de Fuca from Puget Sound proper.
Puget Sound proper is divided into 4 interconnected basins （Main Basin, Whidbey Basin, South Puget Sound, and Hood
Canal）, and most of them are separated from each other by shallow sills. The largest and deepest basin is Main Basin,
which is located south of Admiralty Inlet and extends southward for approximately 96 km. The maximum depth occurs northof Seattle at around 300 m.2
South of Main Basin lies South Puget Sound. They are separated by a shallow sill of approximately 45 m depth. This basin
is shallow and has numerous islands and inlets. North and east of Main Basin lies Whidbey Basin, but it is not separated bya sill. This basin is relatively deep, ranging between 100 and 200 m in depth.
The smallest of the four basins, in terms of area, is the Hood Canal, which branches from Main Basin, south of Admiralty
Inlet, by a 50 m deep sill. This basin is long and narrow, extending southward about 90 袰. Except for the central region
and entrance this basin is less than 40 m deep.1,4
Hydrology
South Puget Sound oceanographic circulation processes are typical of a fjordal estuary, with landward flow at depth andseaward flow at the surface.
The Nisqually and Deschutes Rivers deliver freshwater which usually flows seaward on the surface. The incoming waterfrom the Pacific Ocean is colder and more saline than the freshwater, causing it to be denser and flow landward along thebottom. Salt water in the Puget Sound enters from the Pacific Ocean through the Strait of Juan de Fuca then diverges south
into Puget Sound. Tides in the Puget Sound are semi‑diurnal, with two unequal high tides and two unequal low tides daily.
As the distance from the Pacific Ocean increases, mean tidal range in the Sound also increases.

64

12 Puget Sound
Tidal currents are muted within South Puget Sound, particularly within protected Henderson, Budd, and Eld Inlets. Theedge of the Nisqually estuary touching Puget Sound is the most exposed portion of the marine shoreline and tidal currents
here are typically stronger and directed to the northwest.5< Surrounding environment >HabitatPuget Sound has approximately 104 裄 of seagrass. A significant proportion of the seagrass is found on flat bottoms, suchas in large shallow bays and small pocket beaches. Close to one fifth of all the seagrass in Puget Sound grows in the PadillaBay. Seagrass beds are also found as narrow fringing beds along steep shorelines, and this type of seagrass bed is commonlyused as a migration corridor by salmon.6
Protected Areas
Over 100 marine protected areas （MPA）, designated by state and federal agencies, exist in Puget Sound for a variety ofgoals and objectives, with varying levels of restrictions. MPAs in Puget Sound are mainly categorized into 3 protection levels:
No Access, No Take, and Zone with No Take Areas.7

Marine protected areas that are managed by the Washington State Fish and Wildlife Service865

12 Puget Sound

History and Culture< History >The oldest sites of human habitation in the region date back to 10,000 to 12,000 years ago, not long after the last glacial
period. The earlier glacial people were gradually replaced by the Salish tribes （native americans）. The Salish tribes reliedheavily on native salmon for nutrition.
In 1792, Captain George Vancouver charted and explored the bays, harbors and islands of Puget Sound. Then, in the 1850s
white settlers moved into the region, attracted by the abundant resources. Logging and fishing became popular industries
until the 20th century.

< Culture >Salmon is a major icon of Puget Sound and has been central to the history and culture of the region. The native tribes
geared their food‑gathering cycle to the salmon runs and they traditionally celebrated the first salmon catch of the year with
the First Salmon Ceremony. Nowadays, several organizations and tribes work together in the fall to put on a Salmon Homecom‑ing festival on the Seattle waterfront. The festival celebrates the return of spawning salmon to the rivers and streams of
Puget Sound.

Social Environment< Population >The central Puget Sound region grew by 1.4% between 2013 and 2014 as the region added 54,550 new people and total
population reached 3,835,450. This marks the third consecutive year of increased annual growth.9< Land use >The catchment area of Puget Sound is comprised from mountains and coastal lowlands. Urban and agricultural lands coverabout 9% and 6% of the catchment area, respectively, and are concentrated in the lowlands. Most parts of the catchment
area are dominated by forestland concentrated in the foothills and mountains.10< Industry >Various industries are established in the Puget Sound region. Key industries in the region include aerospace（e.g. Boeing）,
advanced technology （e.g. Microsoft）, international trade, general manufacturing, shipping and tourism. These industries
are mainly concentrated in the urban areas. Major industries in the rural areas are fishing, oyster and salmon aquaculture,
agriculture, forestry and wood products manufacturing.11
Fisheries
The fishing and aquaculture industries are heavily dependent on the waters of Puget Sound. The aquaculture industries
mainly cultivate salmon, clams and oysters. Oysters are particularly important, and the area is one of two major cultivation
regions in the United States. Herring, cod, trout, perch, sole and flounder, as well as algae, sea urchin roe and sea cucumbers
are also harvested from the Sound.6 In 1998, the total revenue from commercial fish harvesting in Puget Sound was morethan 12 million US dollars, and the industry employed nearly 900 people. Also revenues from commercial shell fishing in thesame year hit the 40 million US dollars mark, and the industry employed approximately 1,800 people. Furthermore, many
tribes in the region rely on the harvest of fish and shellfish as an important part of their food supply and revenue.10

Environmental Problems< Water and sediment quality >Water quality
According to the state Department of Ecology monitoring program , water quality in Puget Sound is reasonably good.
However, several locations within Puget Sound have water quality problems associated with low dissolved oxygen and highfecal coliform bacteria contamination, and some areas are sensitive to eutrophication. These areas are generally located nearurban areas and large rivers, and are characterized by having high river runoff, low mixing and anthropogenic inputs ofnutrients and sewage. The areas of highest concern are in Southern Hood Canal, Budd Inlet, Penn Cove, Commencement
Bay, Elliott Bay, Possession Sound, Saratoga Passage, and Sinclair Inlet.6
Another water quality problem found in Puget Sound is chemical contamination. As an indicator of chemical contamination,
the toxic contamination levels inside mussels, harbor seals and English sole are monitored in Puget Sound. According to themussel monitoring, concentrations of the long‑banned pesticides, chlordane and DDT, and several metals such as lead andmercury, are declining.
Although the concentration of PCBs began declining after their ban in the 1970s, they showed a sudden rise in the mid‑
1990s at many monitoring stations. According to the NOAA's National Mussel Watch Program during 1997‑98, PCB concentra‑tion of up to 533 ng/g was detected at Four Mile Rock （North Elliot Bay） near Seattle, the major source of PCBs for the66

12 Puget Soundregion. Fortunately, the PCB concentration in Four
Mile Rock started to decline again between 1999 and2000.6
Within the same NOAA program, PAHs concentra‑tion in mussels were one of the highest in the UnitedStates.6
Monitoring of harbor seal blubber in 2002 showed
high concentrations of PCBs and was significantly high‑er （approximately 8 times） compared to Strait ofGeorgia harbor seals. These differences probably reflect
the high levels of industrial PCB usage in the Puget
Sound Basin before its ban in the 1970's.6
Sediment quality
According to a survey conducted between 1997 ‑1999 by the Washington State's Department of Ecology,
22 compounds or compound groups were measured in concentrations above sediment quality standards. These included six
pollutant metals （arsenic, copper, mercury, lead, silver and zinc）, PAHs, PCBs and other contaminants. Compared withpast surveys, concentrations of some contaminants, such as naphthalene and other small PAHs showed an increase while
concentrations of metals, such as copper and mercury, have decreased significantly.6,12
As expected, contamination was most serious in urban and industrial areas, with the central Puget Sound region being themost contaminated, followed by Whidbey Basin. The least contaminated area was in the Admiralty Inlet region.11< Other Environmental Problems >Shoreline modification
Puget Sound has experienced significant physicalchanges to its nearshore habitat through human developmentof port facilities, piers, bulkheads and other shoreline
armoring structures. Approximately one‑third of the
Puget Sound shoreline has been modified and an
estimated 70 % of tidally influenced wetlands have been
lost in the past century.6,7 The most modified areas
are in the large river deltas such as in Commencem‑
ent Bay, Puyallup River areas and Elliot Bay.6,11< Environmental Protection Measures >Puget Sound Water Quality Management Plan
The Puget Sound Water Quality Management Plan
is Washington State's strategy for protecting and enhanc‑
ing the water quality and biological resources of Puget
Sound, and also serves as a comprehensive conservationand management plan under the federal National Estuary
Program . The management plan is prepared andregularly amended by the Puget Sound Water Quality
Action Team and Puget Sound Council. Also, every
two years the Action Team develops the Puget Sound
Work Plan to identify actions needed to gain a cleaner
and healthier Sound, which are guided by the Management
Plan's long‑term goals and specific priorities.7
Human alteration of the coastline4

The management plan covers aspects such as aquatic

nuisance species, contaminated sediments and dredging, marine and freshwater habitat protection, municipal and industrial
discharge, non‑point source pollution, shellfish protection, spill prevention and response, storm water and combined sewer
overflows.7
Puget Sound Ambient Monitoring Program （PSAMP）
To protect the water quality of Puget Sound, various state, local and federal agencies are involved in a wide range ofmonitoring programs through the Puget Sound Ambient Monitoring Program （PSAMP）. The direction, scope and design of67

12 Puget Sound
PSAMP are determined by the Puget Sound Water Quality Action Team and Puget Sound Council, and the results of themonitoring program are communicated back to the Puget Sound Water Quality Management Plan.7
Monitoring includes fresh and marine water quality, sediment quality, fish and shellfish, nearshore habitat, marine birds,
marine mammals and so on.7
Puget Sound / Georgia Basin International Task Force
Since the health of Puget Sound is interconnected with the inland waters of British Columbia （Strait of Georgia） and toensure the protection, conservation and enhancement of these shared resources, a joint organization between Washington
State and British Columbia Province was established in 1993, appropriately named as the Puget Sound/Georgia Basin International
Task Force. The Task Force will research issues affecting the shared marine waters, adopt joint policies and implement
actions, provide cross‑border information exchange and organize workshops.7

Related organizations and NGO・Puget Sound Partnership <http://www.psp.wa.gov/>
・People for Puget Sound <http://pugetsound.org/>
・The Association of National Estuary Programs （ANEP）<http://nationalestuaries.org/>

References
１. Jan Goggans, 2004. Pacific Region, The Greenwood Encyclopedia of American Regional Cultures
https://books.google.co.jp/books?id=8‑6c1tgoSZkC, （accessed March 31, 2015）
２. The Trust for Public Land, 2013. Puget Sound Shoreline Strategy 2013
http://www.tpl.org/sites/default/files/Puget%20Sound%20Shoreline%20Strategy%20Update%202013.pdf, （accessed March
31, 2015）
３. US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2004. Nisqually NWR Final CCP/EIS Chapter3
http://www.fws.gov/pacific/planning/main/docs/WA/nisqually/Nisqually%20Final%20CCPEIS/chapter3.PDF, （accessed
March 31, 2015）
４. USGS, 2006. Coastal Habitats in Puget Sound
http://puget.usgs.gov/psnrp.pdf, （accessed March 31, 2015）
５. Thurston County Washington, 2013. Thurston County Shoreline Master Program Update
http://www.co.thurston.wa.us/planning/shoreline/documents/inventory/appendix‑f‑ecosystem‑processes‑characterization‑
methods.pdf, （accessed March 31, 2015）
６. Puget Sound Water Quality Action Team, 2002. Puget Sound's Health 2002.
http://blog.pugetsoundinstitute.org/wp‑content/uploads/2011/12/PugetSoundHealth2002.pdf, （accessed March 31, 2015）
７. Allison Osterberg, 2012. Developing a Network of Marine Protected Areas in Puget Sound
http://www.psp.wa.gov/downloads/MPA/MPANetwork̲FINAL̲0928%20copy.pdf, （accessed March 31, 2015）
８. Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife, 2015. Marine Protected Areas within Puget Sound.
http://wdfw.wa.gov/fishing/mpa/ （accessed March 31, 2015）
９. Puget Sound Regional Council, 2015. Puget Sound Trends.
http://www.psrc.org/assets/2782/trend‑d3.pdf, （accessed March 31, 2015）
10. U.S. Geological Survey, 2000. Water Quality in the Puget Sound Basin
http://pubs.usgs.gov/circ/circ1216/, （accessed March 31, 2015）11. Sommers, P. & Canzoneri, D., 1996. The Sound Economy: Puget Sound Region's Industries and their Relationship to
the Sound. People for Puget Sound. Puget Sound Water Quality Action Team. 2000. 2000 Puget Sound Update: Seventh
Report of the Puget Sound Ambient Monitoring Program.
http://wdfw.wa.gov/publications/01027/wdfw01027.pdf, （accessed March 31, 2015）12. Puget Sound Water Quality Action Team. 2000. 2000 Puget Sound Update: Seventh Report of the Puget Sound Ambi‑
ent Monitoring Program.
http://wdfw.wa.gov/publications/01027/wdfw01027.pdf, （accessed March 31, 2015）13. Department of Ecology State of Washington. 2009. Quality Assurance Project Plan.
https://fortress.wa.gov/ecy/publications/publications/0903121.pdf （accessed March 31, 2015）68

13 Hudson Bay
Overview
The Hudson and James bays stretch across the northern reaches of Manitoba, Ontario and Quebec. The bays are fed bywater from one third of all Canadian rivers, and form one of the world's largest seas. The catchment area covers 2,600,000
裄, from Labrador in the east to the Rockies in the west, and from the Arctic Circle in the north to almost the Great Lakes
in the south.
In this report, the Hudson Bay is defined to include James Bay unless the text indicates otherwise.

Location
Basic information11
Surface area：1,232,300 裄
Volume：157,734 裝
Average depth：128 m
Maximum depth：183 m

Nature< Background >The Hudson Bay is a vast , shallow , semi‑
enclosed area, bordered by the Canadian provincesof Quebec, Ontario, Manitoba and Nunavut. It
is connected to the Davis Strait, Labrador Sea
and Atlantic Ocean through the Hudson Strait,
and to the Arctic Ocean by the Foxe Basin and the Fury and Hecla Straits.1
The Hudson Bay has a mean depth of 128 m with a maximum depth of 183 m. The Hudson Bay Complex has, since thelast ice age, been undergoing isostatic rebound and, while the rate is declining, the region is still rebounding at approximately
1.2 m/century.2,11
ClimateMean annual temperatures range from ‑5 襄 to ‑2 襄, mean summer temperatures from 10.5°to 11.5 襄, and mean wintertemperatures from ‑19 襄 to ‑16 襄. Mean annual precipitation ranges from 400 袢 in the far north to 800 袢 in the far east.
Generally, the lowlands receive a mean precipitation of 500‑700 袢 annually. This ecoregion has a high subarctic ecoclimate in
the north, a low subarctic ecoclimate in the lowland, and a high boreal ecoclimate in the James Bay lowland, all characterizedby short, cool summers and cold winters.3
During the summer, when Hudson Bay is ice‑free, fog banks and low stratus are common over the cold water. Snowsqualls are common during the fall, often developing as cold arctic air（‑8 襄 or less）flows over the open and warmer watersof the Hudson Bay. During winter, large sections of Hudson Bay begin to freeze. Weather here can change rapidly. The
passage of frontal systems can bring on periods of snow, strong winds, and sometimes blizzards or whiteout conditions. With
the arrival of longer and warmer days of spring and summer, the last of the ice usually melts off of Hudson Bay by lateJune or early July.4
Hydrology
The water properties of these regions depend mainly on exchanges with Foxe Basin and Hudson Strait and the large freshwater
input from both runoff and melting sea ice in the spring and summer. The northern area, or Hudson Bay marine region, ischaracterized by the presence of Arctic marine water and biota, complete winter ice cover and summer clearing, moderate
semidiurnal tides of Atlantic origin, a strong summer pycnocline, greater mixing and productivity inshore than offshore, andlow biological productivity relative to other oceans at similar latitudes.
In spring and summer, the cold saline surface water that enters the region is diluted by meltwater and runoff from theland, warmed by the sun, and mixed by the wind as it circulates through Hudson Bay. This produces the strong verticalstratification of the water column that is characteristic of the ecosystem in summer, particularly offshore. In summer, surface
water circulates cyclonically（counterclockwise）around Hudson Bay, and the deep water moves in the same general direction.
Cold, saline Arctic water from Foxe Basin enters Hudson Bay in the northwest via Roes Welcome Sound. As it flows eastward
along the southern coast of Hudson Bay some of this water enters James Bay while the remainder is deflected northward toexit northeastward into Hudson Strait. In winter, lower runoff, ice cover, and surface cooling weaken the vertical stratificationand permit very slow vertical mixing.Temperature and salinity are relatively stable below a depth of 50 m, but small changes

69

13 Hudson Bay
related to the seasonal disappearance of thepycnocline have been observed to 100 m in
Hudson Bay.5< Surrounding environment >Biota
Ringed seals are found on all coasts of Hudson
Bay, with the total populations estimated at
516,000. The main concentration of walruses
are on the northeastern Coats Island andsoutheastern Southampton Island where they
are found during all seasons, with an estimatedsummer population of 2,000. Polar bears ,which depend on seals as their main food source,
are found on the coasts during the summer

Wildlife that live around Hudson Bay9and fall. Beluga whales are the main speciesof whale found in Hudson Bay. The most recent report estimates a population of 8,000 to 9,000 belugas that summer inwestern Hudson Bay, while a small population summers on the east coast of Hudson Bay. A population of possibly less than
100 bowhead whales inhabits northern Hudson Bay and Hudson Strait, most probably on a year‑round basis. The species isendangered and has been protected by international protocols. Approximately 60 species of fish are known to inhabit theestuarine communities of Hudson Bay.
The land around the coast of Hudson Bay is tundra, taiga and peatlands. The Hudson Bay coasts provide a major migra‑
tion pathway and a breeding ground for many species of geese and ducks. Approximately 2.5 million lesser snow geese and20,000 Canadian geese use staging areas on the coastal marshes of the Hudson Bay lowlands during spring and fall migration.
In an average year, 1.5 million lesser snow geese use the James Bay coastal areas. The high fertility and productivity of
the coastal zone supports a wide range of food types, which enable reproduction, growth of juveniles and fattening of all ages
prior to fall migration. A major breeding colony of lesser snow geese is located just west of Cape Henrietta Maria, withsmaller breeding areas located on Akimiski Island, near Churchill, and in the vicinity of Arviat. Approximately 75% of the
global population of Atlantic brant geese is concentrated on the eel grass beds of the Quebec coast and parts of the Ontario
coast of James Bay. Also, almost the entire North American population of up to 320,000 black scoters uses southern James
Bay as a staging area.6

History and Culture< History >Human activities have strong historical roots in the Hudson Bay. The ill‑fated expedition of Henry Hudson, who was set
adrift by his mutinous crew in 1611, left the legacy for most of the names on today's maps. Later, interest in fur drew other
English and French explorers to the area. In the late 1600s, the Hudson's Bay Company erected a series of forts along thebay at the Albany, Rupert, Moose and Hayes rivers and, later in the early 1700s, on the Churchill River. These posts werethe early gateways to the riches of central Ontario, Manitoba, Saskatchewan and the Northwest Territories.
The fur trade brought European and aboriginal cultures together and for years it was a prosperous venture. Unfortunately,
fierce competition for furs between the North West Company, from lower Canada, and the Hudson's Bay Company eventuallystrained the native economy, affecting subsistence and commercial activities.7< Culture >The Hudson Bay bioregion has been occupied by Cree and Inuit people for thousands of years. The Cree occupy the southernpart of the region in Manitoba, Ontario and northern Quebec, as far north as Whapmagoostui. Inuit communities are foundalong the eastern shores of Hudson Bay in Quebec , north from Kuujjuarapik to Ivujivik and Salluit. In the Northwest
Territories, Inuit communities extend from Arviat, on the western shore of Hudson Bay, to Coral Harbour on Southampton
Island. The Inuit community of Sanikiluaq is found on the Belcher Islands in southeastern Hudson Bay, about 100 袰 fromthe mouth of the Great Whale River.
Cree regard their part of the bioregion as a "garden" providing for all their needs. As part of their traditional subsistence
economy, the Cree hunt migratory birds, particularly in the spring, as well as terrestrial mammals, such as moose. The
Cree fish the rivers in the region and trap fur‑bearing mammals, such as muskrat and beaver. Traditionally, Inuit havefocused their harvesting efforts on fish and marine mammals, such as seals, walruses and whales. Some communities also
depend heavily on caribou. A collective body of knowledge on the dynamic ecosystem and the complex relationships thatgovern the behavior of animals, fish and birds in the Hudson Bay area has been gathered from observation and experiencethat has been passed down through the generations by song, story and dance.670

13 Hudson Bay

Social Environment< Population >Except for a few coastal villages, the area is almost unpopulated. Approximately 32,000 people, primarily native Cree andInuit, are widely dispersed around Hudson Bay. The percentage of the population that is aboriginal is relatively high in theseregions.8< Land use >Land uses include trapping, hunting, fishing, mineral exploration and hydroelectric development. Most of the human popula‑tion and land use is along the coast. As the period without sea ice increases, during the warmer months, there is more frequent
use of Hudson Bay for travel, distribution of goods and the harvesting of resources.

< Industry>
Tourism
While the Hudson Bay area is ecologically diverse, it is not well‑endowed with timber. Instead, tourism, fishing, hunting
and trapping provide the main economic base.7
Opportunity exists to maximize use of existing tourism infrastructure outside the six‑ to eight‑week polar bear season in
the fall by expanding the brand to increase marketing of whales and birds, and develop an "Arctic Safari" experience in
Hudson Bay in conjunction with tourism destinations in Nunavut, Ontario and possibly Quebec. This option may include cruise
ships or traditional land‑based tourism.9 The Polar Bear Provincial Park（see figure below）draws many tourists. The varied
wildlife, contrasting landscapes, ocean coasts and scenic rivers of the area have become popular attractions. As the period
without sea ice increases, during the warmer months, there is more frequent use of Hudson Bay for travel, distribution of
goods and the harvesting of resources.7

Polar Bear Provincial Park10
Fishery
Most fish harvested from James Bay and Hudson Bay are taken from estuarine or coastal waters during the open waterseason by Cree and Inuit food fisheries. Neither culture has a tradition of offshore marine fishing. Fish are harvested for the
food they provide, and as a traditional social and cultural activity. Anadromous Arctic charr are the fishes most sought after
for subsistence by Inuit in Nunavut and north of Kuujjuarapik in Nunavik.571

13 Hudson Bay
Shipping
Shipping is an important commercial activity in Hudson Bay, particularly near the coast of Manitoba at the Port of Churchill.
Shipping is one of the main commercial activities in or near the Port of Churchill, although the port itself is not as busy asother Canadian ports. The current shipping season runs from mid‑July to the beginning of November, making it difficult tocompete with shipping routes open for 10 months （i.e., St. Lawrence Seaway） or ports that are open year‑round, whencontinuity of the supply chain is an important business consideration.9
Mining
The Hudson Bay region is attracting hundreds millions dollars of investment for new mineral exploration. Nunavut has one
gold mine in commercial production; three projects （gold, uranium and iron ore） advancing towards production; and threeprojects likely to enter the regulatory process in the near term. Each mine and type of commodity will determine the extent
of the opportunity, but there is the potential for these mining companies to construct facilities in Churchill that would support
the mine during both its development and operational phases.9

Environmental Problems<Water and Sediment Quality>
The Hudson Bay is relatively pristine. The human activities that can affect the natural environment are resource exploration,
marine transportation, mining, hydrocarbons, sewage disposal and the diversion of freshwater for industrial and agricultural
purposes.
Ecosystem pollution
Synthetic organochlorines and radionuclides produced by nuclear fission are two groups of contaminants found in the Hudson
Bay marine ecosystem that result exclusively from human activities. High levels of both DDT （56 ng/g OC）and PCBs （920ng/g OC）have been reported from eastern Hudson Bay. Levels of PCBs in female ringed seals were quite similar across therange of Arctic locations sampled. The value for PCB in seals from western Hudson Bay of about 700 ng/g in 1998‑2000
may be compared with a value of 2,100 ng/g for female seals from the same area in 1989‑94. This implies a decrease in
PCB contamination over the interval.
The source of anthropogenic cesium‑137 in this area was atmospheric testing of nuclear bombs, most of which ended in
1963 by international agreement. Little information exists on radionuclides in the aquatic biota of Hudson Bay. Levels of cesium‑
137 in animals today will have fallen below the values recorded in the early 1980s because the half‑life of cesium‑137 is only
30 years and inputs of new Cs‑137 have fallen dramatically.5< Other Environmental Problems >Climate change
The extent of the ice cover in the Hudson Bay area has been decreasing in June and July and in November and December,indicating that the ice is melting earlier in the spring and forming later in the fall.
A three‑dimensional coupled ice‑ocean model suggests that a simple 2襄 increase in air temperature might reduce volumeof the sea ice produced in Hudson Bay by 20%, increase summer sea surface temperature by 4襄, and cause a two‑weekadvance of breakup and delay of freezup.
Migratory birds visiting the Hudson Bay marine ecosystem are heavily dependent on appropriate time and space linkages
for successful passage. Given the dependence of so many species on the timing of break‑up and freeze‑up, changes to either
could have extremely wide‑reaching effects.
Climate change may also be affecting the polar bears in western Hudson Bay. As the top carnivores at the southern limitsof their distribution, they are the "canaries in the coal mine" for regional climate change. Their dependence on ice covermakes them very vulnerable to changes in its quality, distribution, and duration. Recent declines in body condition, reproductive
rates and cub survival, and an increase in polar bear‑human interactions, suggest that these bears are under increasing
nutritional stress. These changes have been correlated with earlier breakup and later freeze‑up that have increased the ice‑
free period, reducing feeding opportunities and prolonging their fast.
Climate change will effect major changes in the life style, housing, travel, harvesting, and health of people who live along
the coasts of Hudson Bay and James Bay and use the resources of the marine ecosystem. It may fundamentally alter the
resource base of communities, such that traditional knowledge is no longer applicable.5< Environmental Protection Measures >The Hudson Bay areas are under Canadian federal jurisdiction. There is a federal responsibility to protect the integrity ofthe marine and fresh water ecosystems of the region. Under Canada's Oceans Act, the Department of Fisheries and Oceans（DFO）has a mandate to lead and facilitate the integrated management of all Canada's estuarine, coastal and marine environments.
DFO is taking an ecosystem‑based approach to integrated oceans management. In addition to the Oceans Act, several pieces72

13 Hudson Bayof relevant federal legislation that apply to Arctic marine waters contribute to the conservation and protection of the Hudson
Bay: the Fisheries act, Canada Water Act, Canada Shipping Act, Arctic Water Pollution Prevention Act （up to 60 °N）,
Species or Risk Act, Canadian environmental Assessment Act, Canadian Environmental Protection Act. Main federal responsi‑
ble authorities are Fisheries and Oceans Canada, Transport Canada, Environment Canada, Indian and Northern Affairs Canada.
The Nunavut Wildlife Management Board （NWMB）makes decisions relating to fish and wildlife in Nunavut. This includes
setting quotas, fishing and hunting seasons and regulating harvesting methods, and approving management plans and thedesignation of endangered species. The NWMB has instituted a flexible quota system for polar bear hunts by Kivalliq
communities and a community‑based management of the Repulse Bay narwhal hunt, to provide communities with more
responsibility in the management of their renewable resources. Wapusk National Park, Manitoba's Cape Churchill and Cape
Tatnam Wildlife Management Areas, and Ontario's Polar Bear Provincial Park provide protection for marine mammals, birds
and coastal wetland habitats along the south coast of the Hudson Bay.
The Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada （COSEWIC）provides assessment and makes recommenda‑
tions about the status of species. Actually, species at risk are designated as such under the Species at Risk Act which isunder the responsibility of Environment Canada （in general）and DFO （for marine species）. The Committee on the Status ofEndangered Wildlife in Canada has designated the bowhead whale as endangered in the Hudson Bay and the beluga whaleas threatened in the eastern part of the Hudson Bay. There is 'special concern' for the Lac des Loups Marins subspecies ofharbour seal and for the polar bear. The Ivvavik National Park and the Tuktut Nogait National Park include a marine component.
The Canadian Arctic resources Committee has proposed a Hudson Bay Programme, in an attempt to implement sustainable
development policies in the region.1
Monitoring programs
The environment of Hudson Bay is monitored by various programs, such as the Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Program（global）, Ecological Monitoring and Assessment Network （regional）, Char and Beluga Monitoring Program （local） andMackenzie Valley Cumulative Impact Monitoring Program （local）.

Related organizations and NGOs
・Canadian Arctic Resources Committee < http://www.carc.org/ >References
１. UNEP, 2009. Large Marine Ecosystem Report
http://lme.edc.uri.edu/index.php?option=com̲content&view=article&id=178 （accessed March 31, 2015）
２. IISD, 2013. The Hudson Bay Complex in Flux
http://www.hudsonbayconsortium.com/img/pdf/The%20Hudson%20Bay%20Complex%20in%20Flux.pdf（accessed March 31, 2015）
３. WWF. Southern Hudson Bay taiga https://www.worldwildlife.org/ecoregions/na0616. （accessed March 31, 2015）
４. NAV CANADA, 2002. The Weather of Ontario and Quebec.
http://www.navcanada.ca/EN/media/Publications/Local%20Area%20Weather%20Manuals/LAWM‑Ontario‑Quebec‑EN.pdf（accessed March 31, 2015）
５. D.B. Stewart and W.L. Lockhart, 2004. Summary of The Hudson Bay Marine Ecosystem Overview
http://www.dfo‑mpo.gc.ca/Library/280328.pdf （accessed March 31, 2015）
６. Robert A. Battram, 2010. Canada in Crisis （2）: An Agenda for Survival of the Nation
https://books.google.co.jp/books?id=pBc9349sw4QC （accessed March 31, 2015）
７. CCEA, 1996. A Perspective on Canada's Ecosystems
https://www.yumpu.com/en/document/fullscreen/10990520/ecozone‑canadian‑council‑on‑ecological‑areas（accessed March 31, 2015）
８. Joyce A. Quinn and Susan L. Woodward, 2015. Earth's Landscape.
https://books.google.co.jp/books?id=ErkxBgAAQBAJ（accessed March 31, 2015）
９. The Ecological Framework of Canada. Hudson Plains Ecozone. （accessed March 31, 2015）10. Biodiversity Ontario.
http://biodiversityontario.com/wp‑content/uploads/2012/10/Marine̲mammals.jpg （accessed March 31, 2015）11. Hutchinson, S.; Hawkins, L.E., 2007. Oceans: A Visual Guide. Shinjusha Co., Ltd.: China, 2007. Japanese translation73

14 Gulf of California
Overview
Located between the lower California Peninsula （Baja California） and the state of Sonora on the mainland of Mexico, theGulf of California is also known as the Sea of Cortes and the Vermilion Sea.
Sheltered by the long, narrow Baja peninsula and nourished by great masses of plankton, the Gulf of California is one of
the most productive and diverse marine nurseries on Earth.1

Location
Basic information7
Surface area：153,000 裄
Volume：183,600 裝
Average Depth：1,200 m
Maximum Depth：3,050 m

Nature< Background >The Gulf of California is narrow, marginal sea
with deep, cold waters that provide abundantnutrients transported towards the surface by
upwelling. Because the peninsula is formed byan almost uninterrupted chain of mountains, the climate of the gulf is more continental than oceanic. The gulf coastline isirregular and forms numerous small bays. The head of the gulf is dominated by the Colorado River delta, which extends
offshore for as much as 32 袰 with depths as shallow as 18 m.1
ClimateThe gulf region's climate is more continental due to the chain of high mountains along the Baja California peninsula.
Temperatures contain a wide range annually and diurnally, with desert‑like conditions （annual rainfall less than 100 袢） at
the northern part of the gulf and most of the peninsula. Summer brings monsoon rainfall patterns for almost the entire region（annual rainfall 1,000 袢 in the southeast）, and hurricanes affect the lower Gulf.2 Temperatures are 13‑21 襄 in the winter,and 28‑31 襄 in the summer, with the surface water average 30 襄 in summer and 16 襄 in winter.1 Generally, the region isa tropical/subtropical climate in the summer, and exhibits temperate characteristics during winter especially in the northern
portion.
Topography
The Gulf contains deep basins （greater than 3,000 m） at the entrance, steep slopes, a very wide continental shelf in thenorthern portion, medium width shelf with abundant coastal lagoons in the eastern section, and an island studded narrowshelf in the western Gulf. There is tectonic activity and hydrothermal vents in the Guaymas Basin.2
Hydrology
Input of freshwater and saltwater into the Gulf of California is relatively little, since most river water is being diverted forhuman use and the Gulf as an evaporative basin exchanges little water with the Pacific Ocean. Three mechanisms control
the movement of water in the Gulf: wind‑induced upwelling, tidal mixing, and thermohaline circulation. Upwelling generally
occurs off the eastern coast with northwesterly winds and off the Baja California coast with southeasterly winds. Tidal mix‑
ing occurs the most in the upper Gulf and around the Midriff Islands, and has the function of carrying colder and nutrient‑rich water to the surface. Due to the thermohaline balances, inflowing deep water from the Pacific has a higher inorganic
nutrient concentration than outflowing surface water, and generally heat and salt outflow from the Gulf into the open ocean.2< Surrounding environment >HabitatMany coastal wetland system function as "ecological oases" with high productivity contrasted to the surrounding desert
ecosystems. The Colorado River delta is historically the most important in the area.1

74

14 Gulf of California
Biota
The Gulf of California is often referred to as "the world's largest fish trap". Its fertile waters are home of over 800 speciesof fish and 2,000 species of invertebrates. The area has been influenced by culture and commerce for over four centuries.
The islands and waters of the gulf are a heaven to many species of plants and animals found nowhere else on Earth.

History and Culture< History >The gulf and its islands are a result of the crustal movement which began to detach the peninsula from the continent 1.7
to 2.5 billion years ago. As a sea it is only about 450 million years old.3
The Gulf of California is very young from the viewpoint of Geological age, and it was formed by separation by the tectonic
movements of North America and the Pacific Ocean plate.

<Culture>
The Baja California peninsula is important culturally and historically. Many archaeological remains have been found, suchas mural style cave paintings in the central part of the peninsula and remains of ancient hunter‑gatherer communities. A fusionof the cultures of the Jesuits and their missions with the natives is characteristic of this region, and can still be found in
local communities. Indigenous groups that inhabit the mainland side of the gulf include the Seri, Yaqui and Cucapa, whohave lifestyles closely linked to the marine and terrestrial resources.4

Social Environment<Population>
About 8.6 million people inhabit the region surrounding the Gulf of California, with the population expected to grow rapidly,
especially in the coastal municipalities. If the Colorado River Basin is included, the total population is about 62.8 million, withover two‑thirds inhabiting urban areas for both Mexico and the US.4,5<Landuse>
Development of land for industry and tourist facilities has led to the destruction and loss of habitat in the marine ecosystemof the gulf. Examples of areas affected by tourism development is Quintana Roo, Mazatlan, and Cabo San Lucas. Conversionof land in the Colorado River basin such as the disappearance of wetland vegetation has also led to decrease in freshwater flow
and habitat destruction for species. Mangrove forests are also decreasing, being cleared for shrimp farms or tourism construc‑tion.4< Industry >Fisheries
The main economic activity in the Gulf of California is fishing, both commercial and traditional, that takes place in coastal
areas, as well as in the deepest parts of the Gulf. This activity is of importance of both the national economy, as well as
for local people. Around 70 commercial species are exploited, mainly shrimp, gulf grouper, anchovies, sardines, dorado,
squid and different species of marlin.2
Tourism
Tourism is an important sector for the region's economy, with many attractive natural landscapes such as the Sea of Cortez.
It is estimated that 4.8 million tourists visit the area every year.4

Environmental Problems< Current status >Human activities are altering the Gulf's ecosystems. The decrease of Colorado River freshwater input has drastically changed
the ecological conditions of what used to be an estuarine system, important for fish reproduction. It is now an area of highsalinity.
Pollution problems are mostly concentrated in the mid to upper Gulf, with significant pesticide inputs from the agriculturalareas in the state of Sonora. However, the main issue affecting ecosystem health has been the increase in fishing vessels andthe improvement in fishing equipment, from small pangas, handlines and spearguns to more efficient gill nets, trawls andlonglines. Species in danger of economic extinction in the Gulf include the cabrilla, black and white seabass, Gulf grouper,yellowtail, dog snapper and sierra. Sea turtles, hammerhead sharks and giant manta rays are virtually gone.6< Environmental Protection Measures >Frustrated by decades of overfishing and mismanagement, Mexican people are making a stand for greater local control overthe Gulf's marine resources, and more law enforcement and integrity in the government. In 1998, Mexican President Ernesto75

14 Gulf of California
Zedillo asked the governors of the four states bordering the Gulf to prepare a plan for the regional, long‑term use of its
resources. The move indicated a shift from economic exploitation to environmental protection and a loosening of the federal
government's historic control over the region. Initiatives by local residents aim to safeguard the coast from poaching, promotemarine conservation and work for local control over fish and shellfish. Currently, there are 2 marine parks ‑ the Cabo Pulmo
National Marine Park and the Loreto National Marine Park.
The United States is providing financial assistance for the environmental protection of the Gulf. Mexican NGOs, such as
The Sea of Cortez International Preservation Foundation, seek to motivate change in policies for the purpose of preserving
the biodiversity and ecological balance of the Gulf. Effective management needs good data, and current information on catchand effort by area and gear type is very limited. A program for collecting and analyzing such data from both the recreationaland commercial sectors is required.
Furthermore, to sustain the health of the ecosystem, there is a need to develop public educational materials, an ecotourism‑based economy, to seek stronger legislation and regulations prohibiting the use of certain types of fishing equipment and toform policy and management strategies for utilizing the Gulf.3

References
１. The University of Texas at Dallas. "The Gulf of California".
http://www.utdallas.edu/˜ rnix/MAT‑SE̲Units/gulf̲cal.pdf, （accessed March 31st 2015）
２ . Commission for Environmental Cooperation , 2011. 18: Gulf of California. North American Marine Protected Areas
Network.
http://www2.cec.org/nampan/ecoregion/gulf‑california （accessed March 31st, 2015）
３. UNESCO. "Latin America/Caribbean Island & Protected Areas of The Gulf of California Mexico.
http://whc.unesco.org/archive/advisory̲body̲evaluation/1182ter.pdf, （accessed March 31st, 2015）
４. Oropeza, O‑A., and C. Lopez‑Sagastegui, 2006. A Marine Reserve Network for the Gulf of California: the next stepin conserving 'the world's aquarium'. Greenpeace Mexico.
http://www.greenpeace.org/usa/Global/usa/report/2007/7/a‑marine‑reserve‑network‑for‑t.pdf （accessed March 31st,2015）
˜
５. UNEP, 2004. Arias, E., Albar, M., Becerra, M., Boone, A., Chia, D., Gao, J., Munoz, C., Parra, I., Reza,
M., Sainz, J. and A. Vargas. Gulf of California/Colorado River Basin, GIWA Regional assessment 27. University of
Kalmar, Kalmar, Sweden.
http://www.unep.org/dewa/giwa/areas/reports/r27/giwa̲regional̲assessment̲27.pdf （accessed March 31st, 2015）
６. The Encyclopedia of Earth. "Gulf of California Large Marine Ecosystem".
http://www.eoearth.org/view/article/153191/, （accessed March 31st, 2015）
７. Hutchinson, S.; Hawkins, L.E., 2007. Oceans: A Visual Guide. Shinjusha Co., Ltd.: China, 2007. Japanese translation76

15 Caribbean Sea
Overview
The Caribbean Sea is a semi‑enclosed sea located in the Western Hemisphere between North and South America, andwhich is bounded by Central America to the west. It is noted for its many islands in the Eastern side, including Cuba, theLeeward and Windward Islands, Puerto Rico, Haiti, and the Commonwealth of Dominica. Many other islands such as Jamaicaand the Cayman Islands are also located within the gulf.1

Location
Basic information10
Surface area：2,718,200 裄
Volume：7,195,075 裝
Average depth：2,647 m
Maximum depth：7,686 m

Nature< Background >The Caribbean Sea is the second largest sea
in the world after the Mediterranean Sea, cover‑ing an area of 2,718,200 裄, and comprising someof the territorial waters and coastal areas of 35
bordering countries and territories.1,2,10 Some of these nations have large populations and industries, while others are sparsely
populated. At present, the responsibility for the region's marine resources is divided between these 35 nations.
There are numerous banks and breaking shoals in the Caribbean Sea . It is also comprised of four deep basins ‑ theVenezuelan Basin in the east, the Colombian Basin in the west, the Cayman Trough and the Yucatan Basin in the northwest.
ClimateGenerally the area has a wet tropical climate with wet and dry seasons and a hurricane season from June to November.
However, local climate depends on local variations in mountain altitude, water currents and trade winds. The Caribbean
˜
region is also influenced by the multi‑year cycle El Nino
/Southern Oscillation （ENSO）, that causes variations in surface

temperatures and salinity, due to the changes in rainfall patterns on the South American continent.1 Average temperature of
the waters in the region is 27 襄 with a variance less than 3 襄.2Topography
Overall, the Sea is largely enclosed by the landmasses of South and Central America and the Greater Antilles, with narrowpassages between the Lesser and Greater Antilles connected with the Atlantic Ocean. Two deep troughs ‑ the Cayman Troughand Puerto Rico Trench‑ exist. Coasts in areas adjacent to major stable plates are generally flat, while coasts next to mountain
ranges have a wider range of elevation between steep cliffs and deep bays.1
Volcanic activity and earthquakes are common in the Caribbean, as are destructive hurricanes that originate over the sea
or in the Atlantic.1
Hydrology
In the Caribbean Sea part of the South
Equatorial Current enters the Sea through theLesser Antilles, is warmed and flows toward˜
the east, exiting via the Yucatan
Channel into

the Gulf of Mexico.
Water quality and ecology of the Caribbean
Sea is greatly affected by the large volume of
fresh water and sediments that inflow fromthe Amazon , Orinco , and Magdalena river
basins. Fresh water from the Amazon andOrinoco create large plumes of buoyant fresh
The Caribbean current as represented by
the Mariano Global Surface Velocity Analysis1

water in the Eastern Caribbean, and from the1

Magdalena in the Western part of the sea.

77

15 Caribbean Sea< Surrounding environment >Habitat
The Caribbean coastal zone contains many productive and biologically complex ecosystems. Nearshore marine habitats include
coral reefs, seagrass beds, mangroves, coastal lagoons, and beaches.
Coral reefs are among the most important coastal resources in the Caribbean, and are also among the most productive.
7% of the world's coral reefs exist in this location, providing multiple ecosystem services such as food, shoreline protection,
recreational value, and medicinal products.1
The Caribbean Sea ecosystem is showing signs of stress, particularly in the shallow waters containing coral reef systems.
Much of the reef has already been greatly degraded, due to a combination of hurricane damage, disease, bleaching, pollution,
coastal development and agriculture, overfishing, etc.
Biota
The Caribbean region contains a rich variety of complex ecosystems witha great abundance of plant and animal species, some of them endemic to theregion. Half of the plant species are endemic to the area. As of 2008, 1,697
species fall under the threatened category in the region.3
The Caribbean region contains diverse and productive coastal and marine
habitats. The region represents the greatest concentration of biodiversity in
the Atlantic Ocean Basin. Because the nations in this region depend heavily
on the health and beauty of the natural world to generate income, the conserva‑
tion of the region's biodiversity is not only linked to social, cultural and politicalconditions, but also to the economic realities of the region. Coral reefs, seagrassbeds and mangroves are among the best known marine and coastal ecosystems
in the Caribbean region, and are large contributors to the biodiversity of the

Caribbean reef shark （endangered species）9

region. The Caribbean islands as a whole have been classified as a biodiversity
hot spot.1

History and Culture< History >The Caribbean Sea got its name from the original inhabitants of the Caribbean ‑ the Carib people. These indigenous Indians
inhabited the region at the time of arrival of the first Spanish explorers.
After the Caribbean was visited by Christopher Columbus in 1493, Spain claimed the area, and its ships searched for treasure.
With the Spanish discovery of the Pacific Ocean in 1513, the Caribbean became the main route of their expeditions and, later,of convoys. Pirates and warships of rival powers preyed on Spanish ships in the Caribbean. Although Spain controlled mostof the sea, Britain, France, the Netherlands and Denmark established colonies on the islands along the eastern fringe. The
1800s brought United States ships into the Caribbean, especially after 1848, when many gold‑seekers crossed the sea to reach
California via Panama.4
After unsuccessful French attempts in the late 1800s to build a canal across Panama, the U.S. assumed control of the
project in 1903. The 1914 opening of the Panama Canal paved the way for increased U.S. interest and involvement in thisstrategic sea, sometimes called the 'American Mediterranean'. Several Caribbean islands have U.S. military bases, many ofwhich were established during World War II as support bases to protect the Panama Canal. The naval base at Guantanamo
Bay, Cuba （est. 1899） is the oldest U.S. Caribbean base.4
U.S. policy since the Monroe Doctrine of 1823 has been to exclude foreign powers from the Caribbean. However, in 1959,
Cuba became the first country to come under strong Soviet influence. U.S. intervention in the affairs of Caribbean countries,
such as the Cuban missile crisis of 1962, the landing of U.S. marines at Santo Domingo in 1965 and at Grenada in 1983,
and the U.S. invasion of Panama in 1989, reflects the region's importance to the United States.4

Social Environment< Population >The total population of the Caribbean Region was approximately 43.1 million in 2015, an overall increase of about 4.7 million
since 2000. Annual population growth rate in the region was 0.88 during 2000‑2005, and decreased to 0.70 in the past five
years. Urban population also increased to make up 76% of the total population, with some nations such as Anguilla and Puerto
Rico having more than 90% inhabiting urban areas. Among the most populated Caribbean countries are Cuba, the Dominican
Republic and Haiti, whilst those with the smallest populations include Anguilla, Montserrat and the Caribbean Netherlands（the islands of Bonaire, Sint Eustatius, and Saba）.578

15 Caribbean Sea< Land use >In the Caribbean, land used for arable or permanent crops amounts
to about 7.1 million ha total. Forest cover has steadily increased fromabout 5.35 million ha in 1990 to 6.08 million ha in 2007. Most of theisland nations have preserved or restored their forests most likely
because of their economic value directly linked to ecotourism, as wellas the countries' low population pressures. Agricultural land is being
converted to urban areas, while marginal‑soil areas are being converted
to farming land to increase food supply sufficiency in some countries.5< Industry >According to the Caribbean Development Bank, the region's economy
continued its recovery in 2014, with 16 out of its 19 members experienc‑

The Caribbean Sea Large Marine Ecosystem.

ing growth, driven mainly by tourism and construction services. Muchof the increase in construction activity was due to the private sector, relating to tourism and other commercial development.6
Tourism is one of the principal industries in the wider Caribbean region. In 2013, an estimated 25.1 million tourists visited,which was only a slight increase from the 24.5 million in 2012. Visitors spent a total of about 28.1 billion US Dollars per year.
Cruise activity is also a large part of the tourism industry, and the Caribbean is the leading cruise destination globally,
accounting for 45.3% of global ship deployments.7
Trinidad and Tobago accounts for over 60% of the region's manufacturing industry. An increase in non‑petroleum products
occurred due to economic recovery in the region. Haiti and Guyana experienced growth in their manufacturing sectors due
to expansion in apparel exports and sugar production, respectively.6
For agriculture, Jamaica accounts for over a quarter, Haiti nearly a third, and Guyana over a tenth of the regional produc‑tion. Guyana's rice and sugarcane output increased, while Haiti's decreased moderately due to impacts from drought in 2014.6
Mining and quarrying output slowed down among the main producing countries such as petroleum extraction in Belize,
Suriname and Trinidad and Tobago. Lower commodity prices globally led to the decrease in bauxite production in Guyana
and Suriname and alumina in Jamaica.6

Environmental Problems< Current status >Water Quality
One of the greatest sources of pollution and coastal degradation in the Caribbean is from land‑based sources. Sewage is
one of the most significant pollutants affecting the coastal environments of the wider Caribbean region. Most Caribbean
territories lack proper treatment facilities, and discharge untreated sewage directly to the environment. This negatively affects
the marine ecosystems in the region, as well as creating a threat to human health. One of the possible effects is eutrophica‑tion, which leads to degradation of seagrass and coral reefs, and decreased fisheries production. Over 70% of the region's
reefs are affected by discharges of untreated sewage.8
Persistent Organic Pollutants （POPs） are produced from the agriculture, energy, and industrial sectors, as well as theincineration of waste. POPs from the application of large quantities of pesticides reach the coastal environment, and have beenfound in sediments in Jamaica, Cuba, and St. Lucia.8
Organic and nutrient pollution is possibly the most serious marine pollution problem in the Caribbean. The main nutrientsare nitrogen and phosphorus compounds, and they enter coastal waters from point and non‑point sources. Solid waste suchas disposal of non‑biodegradable man‑made materials is another concern. Some of the waste such as plastics can release toxic
chemicals and heavy metals.
Offshore oil and gas exploitation can be sources of pollution, either in the form of accidental oil spills or from the releaseof 'produced water' from the oil‑bearing strata during oil and gas production. The 'produced water' is discharged into themarine environment, together with waste drilling chemicals and mud. The 'produced water' may contain substances thatexert high oxygen demand, together with toxic poly‑aromatic hydrocarbons （PAHs）, benzene, ethylbenzene, xylene andheavy metals, such as lead, copper, nickel and mercury.8
Sediment Quality
Most land in the Caribbean region, especially on the small islands, is relatively near the ocean, making the coastal andmarine environments especially vulnerable to the sedimentation caused by human activities. In addition, the coastal areas areunder increasing development pressure, while the shortage of land on small islands forces development activities onto steeper,
erosion‑prone terrain.879

15 Caribbean Sea
Other Environmental Issues
Some of the main threats to biodiversity in the wider Caribbean region are: habitat destruction due to coastal development,
population growth, tourism, sedimentation and pollution; overexploitation of living resources, including fisheries; and predation
by introduced species. As a result, coral reefs, seagrasses and mangroves, among other coastal ecosystems, are under intensepressure, threatening the biodiversity in the region.
The Caribbean Sea ecosystem is showing signs of stress, particularly in the shallow waters of coral reef systems. In someareas, up to 80% of shallow‑water reefs have been destroyed. Since the 1970s, black ring disease and white band diseaseafflicted coral reefs, with other diseases being reported with increasing frequency. Moreover, elevated sea surface temperaturescause coral bleaching, and widespread damage.
Severe loss of mangroves has also occurred in many Caribbean nations, including loss in Cuba from agricultural expansion,
shrimp farms in the Dominican Republic, and removal for tourism development. This leads to an increase in sediment quantity,
which hinders coral growth.

< Environmental Protection Measures >The Cartagena Convention and its protocols constitute an important legal instrument for regional cooperation in the wider
Caribbean. The Cartagena Convention entered into force in 1986 for the purposes of the protection and management of themarine and coastal areas of the wider Caribbean region. Currently, 25 states are Contracting Parties, which means they havelegally committed to the convention's provisions. Under the Convention, three protocols exist which are as follows:・Protocol Concerning Cooperation in Combating Oil Spills in the Wider Caribbean Region （Oil Spills） provides for regional
cooperation when an oil spill threatens the coast of a participating state, and for the preparation and updating of contingency
plans.
・Protocol Concerning Specially Protected Areas and Wildlife in the Wider Caribbean Region（SPAW）provides for the protec‑
tion and management of marine areas and associated terrestrial areas, as well as wildlife. This protocol is supported bya special subprogram of the Caribbean Environment Programme called the SPAW Programme.
・Protocol Concerning Pollution from Land‑based Sources and Activities（LBS）, is an instrument for dealing with environmental
pollution that reaches the marine environment from land‑based sources.
The main regional framework is the Caribbean Action Plan and the Caribbean Environment Programme （CEP）, facilitatedby the UNEP Caribbean Regional Coordinating Unit （CAR/RCU）, which falls under the UNEP Regional Seas Programme. A
sub‑programme of the CEP called the Assessment and Management of Environment Pollution （AMEP） is responsible forregional coordination for implementation of the LBS and Oil Spills Protocols.8
Monitoring program
The Caribbean Coastal Marine Productivity（CARICOMP）Programme is a regional scientific effort to study land‑sea interac‑tion processes, to monitor for change and to provide appropriate scientific information for management. Data collected includes
percentage coral cover, sea urchin density, gorgonian density, seagrass （growth, biomass and leaf area）, mangrove forest
structure and productivity, sea water temperature, salinity and clarity as well as daily maximum and minimum air temperatureand rainfall.8

Related organizations and NGOs
・Caribbean Environment Programme （CEP）<http://www.cep.unep.org/>
・United Nations Environmental Programme, Global Programme of Action for the Protection of the marine Environment from
Land‑based Activities <http://unep.org/gpa/>
・Caribbean Regional Fund for Wastewater Management
・The Caribbean Natural Resource Institute （CANARI）<http://www.canari.org/>
・Caribbean Regional Fund for Wastewater Management <http://www.gefcrew.org/>

References
１. Agard, J.B.R.; Cropper, A. et al. Caribbean Sea Ecosystem Assessment （CARSEA）: A contribution to the Millennium
Ecosystem Assessment prepared by the Caribbean Sea Ecosystem Assessment Team, 2007. UNEP The Caribbean
Environment Programme Web site.
http://www.cep.unep.org/publications‑and‑resources/databases/document‑database/other/caribbean‑ sea‑assessment‑
report‑2007.pdf/view （accessed March 28, 2015）.
２. World Wide Fund for Nature. The Caribbean Sea. WWF Web site, date unknown.
http://wwf.panda.org/what̲we̲do/endangered̲species/marine̲turtles/lac̲marine̲turtle̲programme/projects/hawksbill̲
caribbean̲english/caribbean̲sea/ （accessed March 28, 2015）.
３. Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean （ECLAC）, ECLAC, Statistical Yearbook for Latin America
and the Caribbean, 2014. ECLAC Website.

80

15 Caribbean Sea
http://interwp.cepal.org/anuario̲estadistico/anuario̲2014/PDF/AnuarioEstadisticoALC‑2014.pdf（accessed March 29, 2015）.
４. Caribbean Sea. The Columbia Encyclopedia, 6th ed. 2014. Encyclopedia.com website.
http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1E1‑Caribbea.html （accessed March 29, 2015）.
５. United Nations Environment Programme（UNEP）. Latin America and the Caribbean: Environment Outlook, 2010. UNEP
Website.
http://www.unep.org/pdf/GEOLAC̲3̲ENGLISH.pdf （accessed March 29, 2015）.
６. Caribbean Development Bank. 2014 Caribbean Economic Review & Outlook for 2015.
http://www.caribank.org/uploads/2015/02/CDB‑2014‑Caribbean‑Economic‑Review‑and‑Outlook‑for‑2015.pdf （accessed
March 29, 2015）.
７. Caribbean Tourism Organization （CTO）. Caribbean Tourism Review 2014. CTO Website.
http://www.onecaribbean.org/statistics/annual‑reviews‑prospects/ （accessed March 29, 2015）.
８. Centre for Marine Sciences, The University of the West Indies. Research Activities, 2015.
http://www.mona.uwi.edu/cms/ccdc/projects.html （accessed March 29, 2015）.
９. NOAA, http://www8.nos.noaa.gov/onms/Park/images/Creature̲Images/1103.jpg（accessed March 29, 2015）
10. Hutchinson, S.; Hawkins, L.E., 2007. Oceans: A Visual Guide. Shinjusha Co., Ltd.: China, 2007.
Japanese translation81

16 Red Sea
Overview
The Red Sea is a semi‑enclosed tropical body of water located between the Mediterranean Sea and the Indian Ocean, andis bordered by Egypt, Sudan, Eritrea and Djibouti on the west, and Yemen and Saudi Arabia on the east. Although the
Red Sea is known for its natural beauty, with extensive coral reefs, it is also an important shipping route for the oil tankers
and other ships traveling through the Suez Canal.

Location
Basic information13
Surface area：438,000 裄
Volume：215,058 裝
Average depth：491 m
Maximum depth：3,040 m

Nature< Background >The Red Sea is an elongated and narrow‑shapedsea, which extends from north to south over a
distance of approximately 2,000 袰. The averagewidth is about 280 袰, with a maximum breadthof 306 袰 in the south. The width of the strait of Bal‑el‑Mandeb is about 26 袰 and separates the Red Sea from the outer
ocean via the Gulf of Aden. The northern tip of the Red Sea separates into two gulfs, the Gulf of Suez, which is connectedto the Suez Canal and the Gulf of Aqaba. The adjacent land area of the Red Sea is mostly arid, having desert or semi‑desert
regions with no major river inflow. Further inland, the desert regions are bordered by extensive mountain ranges.1,2,3
ClimateThe Red Sea is located in an arid region with extremely hot weather in the summer. The southern region is considered tobe among the hottest regions in the world. The air temperature in the northern region is slightly lower than the southern
region. For example, the air temperature at the Suez Canal ranges from 6〜39 襄, compared to 13 ‑ 42 襄 along the Jeddah
coast.1
Rainfall in the Red Sea region is extremely sparse and is usually localized in the form of short showers. The annual rainfall
is around 110 mm.1
Topography
Sandwiched between the narrow continental shelves runs a deep trench that stretches from north to south for almost theentire sea area. The deepest region lies between 14゜N and 28°N, with a maximum depth of 3,040 m. These deep areas arestill geologically active and have numerous volcanic vents, emitting hot, salty and metal‑rich sea water.1
The two gulfs in the northern region are similar in shape but their topography is quite distinct. The Gulf of Suez is shallow
and has a relatively flat bottom, with a depth ranging from 55‑73 m. On the other hand, the Gulf of Aqaba is comprised ofa deep basin and a narrow shelf. The basin is separated into two by a submarine sill, with both basins having a depth ofover 1,000 m.1
Hydrology
Surface water temperature in the Red Sea varies seasonally between about 22 and 32 襄. The surface temperature generally
declines towards the Bab‑al‑Mandeb, due to the influx of cool water from the Gulf of Aden, and also gradually decreases
towards the northern region. The deeper waters are stable throughout the region, and below 300 m the water temperature
is constantly between 21 and 22 襄.1Salinity in the Red Sea is generally high（36‑39 ppt）due to high evaporation, low precipitation and the lack of a major river
inflow. Salinity is usually lower in the southern region due to the inflowing waters from the Gulf of Aden.
Water renewal in the Red Sea is slow, and exchange with the ocean takes approximately 6 years for the 200 m above thethermocline and 200 years for the entire sea.4< Surrounding environment >The Red Sea is blessed with natural beauty and astounding biological diversity. Coral reefs, mangrove forests, seagrass82

16 Red Sea
beds, salt marshes and salt‑pans are distributed throughout the region. These unique habitats support a diverse range ofmarine life, including sea turtles, dugongs, dolphins, and many endemic fish species.2
Habitats
Coral reefs are mainly distributed along the northern and central coasts
and decrease in abundance towards the southern region as the water
becomes more turbid . In the central region , corals are mainly foundabout 3‑10 袰 offshore along a narrow bank, forming a large barrier reef
structure that runs parallel to the coastline. The most extensive areas ofcoral reefs are found along the Saudi coast, with over 190 recorded coral
species.4
While mangrove forests are scattered along much of the Red Sea coast,
the main concentration is in the southern region, due to the soft bottomed
substrate. Ten species of seagrass are widespread in the Red Sea, but
are most common in the lagoons and embayments of the southern region.4

Red Sea Coral Reef7

Protected Areas
The Red Sea has 12 marine protected areas, the most well‑known being the Ras Mohammed National Park at the southern
tip of Egypt's Sinai Peninsula, Hurghada and the adjacent islands in the Egyptian Red Sea coast, Sanganeb atoll in Sudan
and the Farasan Islands in Saudi Arabia.5,6

Marine Protected Areas in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden7

History and Culture< History >The Red Sea was formed about 25 million years ago when the African and Asian continental plates started to move apart.
It continues to widen at a rate of about 1‑2 cm per year.8
The Red Sea was an important trade route in antiquity. Its importance declined with the discovery of an all‑water routearound Africa in 1498. The opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 made the Red Sea one of the chief shipping routes connecting
Europe with East Asia. The closing of the canal after the 1967 Arab‑Israeli War, the building of pipelines to the MediterraneanSea, and the construction of supertankers too large for the canal diminished the sea's importance as a commercial artery,especially for petroleum. In 1975, however, the canal was reopened and enlarged, and traffic through the sea increased again.983

16 Red Sea

Social Environment< Population >The Red Sea region is sparsely populated, and not more than 5 million people are estimated to live along the coast. Jeddah,
in Saudi Arabia, supports the largest population with 3.4 million people.1,3,10< Industry >The major industries in the Red Sea region include oil exploration, oil production, oil processing, manufacturing industries（fertilizers, chemicals, cement）, tourism, fisheries and oil related maritime transport.
Oil Industry
Oil production and transportation play an important role in the Red Sea economy with over 100 million tons of oil transported
through the Red Sea annually. Between 20,000 and 35,000 tankers enter the Red Sea annually and proceed northward to
the Mediterranean Sea via the Suez Canal. Oil production is mainly concentrated in the Gulf of Suez but is rapidly expanding
and moving further into the Red Sea.11
Tourism
Attracted by the rich marine life and favorable climate, tourism has become important for many Red Sea countries, withover 1 million tourists per year expected in the future. Extensive areas of the coastline have been developed to accommodate
the increasing flux of tourists, especially in Aqaba, Jordan, the Jeddah coastline of Saudi Arabia and various areas along theEgyptian coastline.4
Fisheries
Fisheries in the Red Sea are of considerable socio‑economic importance to the Red Sea countries in terms of national foodsecurity and income generation for rural communities. Fishing is mainly conducted by artisanal subsistence fishermen, local
commercial fisheries and foreign industrial fisheries.
Fishery production has steadily increased in the Red Sea region with over 17,000 tons of invertebrate species and 190,000
tons of finfish produced in 1998, compared to around 7,900 tons and 136,000 tons respectively, in 1988. Over 74% of theannual landing is recorded in the southern region between Al Lith of Saudi Arabia and the Yemen border.1,2
Fish collecting for the aquarium trade is significant in Saudi Arabia and Yemen, with Saudi Arabia having at least sevenaquarium fish exporters in operation. Shrimp farming operates in Egypt and Saudi Arabia and pearl‑oyster farming occurs in
Sudan.2

Environmental Problems< Water quality >Although the Red Sea region has remained relatively free of pollution, the environment is currently under increasing threat
from a wide range of human activities. Also, in contrast to other regional seas around the world where most pollution comesfrom land‑based activities, marine‑based activities such as shipping and oil exploitation are becoming a significant source ofmarine pollution in the Red Sea.13
Land based pollution
Industrial effluents, in the form of thermal pollution from power and desalination plants, hypersaline brine water fromdesalination plants, particulate matter and mineral dust from fertilizer and cement factories, and chemicals and organic wastes
from food processing factories have contributed to the degradation of water quality in the Red Sea.13 Major areas of concern
are in the coastal industrial areas of the Gulf of Aqaba in Jordan, tourism areas on the Egyptian coast, industrial areas in
the Gulf of Suez and in the industrial areas of Yanbu and Jeddah in Saudi Arabia.13 Poorly treated or untreated sewage effluentsfrom treatment plants, cargo vessels, tour boats and ferries have damaged marine life in certain areas inside the Gulf of
Aqaba and the Egyptian Red Sea coasts. Solid wastes such as plastics and other refuse materials are also commonly found in
the beaches, reefs and seagrass areas of the Gulf of Aqaba.4
Oil pollution
Although no major oil spills have been recorded in the Red Sea, minor oil leaks from oil tankers are frequent. The risk ofan oil spill is high since an estimated 100 million tons of oil and oil products are transported annually through the region.
Furthermore, the risk of vessel collision is enhanced by insufficient navigational aid and unregulated maritime traffic.13< Other Environmental Problems >Destruction of habitat
Natural habitats, such as coral reefs, mangroves and seagrass beds, have been physically altered and destroyed through84

16 Red Sea
dredging and landfilling operations associated with urban expansion, industrial development and tourism, especially in Jordan,
Saudi Arabia, Egypt, Sudan and Yemen. Sediments produced from these development activities have spread down to otherregions and have affected distant natural habitats. Dredge and fill activities around Aqaba have altered coastline morphology
and created a plethora of erosion and sedimentation problems in the entire area.7,13
On a minor scale, uncontrolled tourist activities have inflicted damage on coral reefs through boat anchors and insensitive
divers.
Over exploitation of marine resources
Some living marine resources in the Red Sea are being over‑exploited. For example, the catch of lobsters and strombids
are rapidly declining and cuttlefish stocks in major fishing grounds have completely collapsed. Sharks are illegally exploitedfor the East Asian shark‑fin market, especially in Sudan, Djibouti and Yemen. Internationally endangered sea turtles arecaught for their meat, oil and shells, and their eggs are taken from their nesting sites, leading to a decline in their nesting
populations.2< Environmental Protection Measures >Jeddah Convention
In the 1970s, the Arab League Educational, Cultural and Scientific Organization （ALECSO）brought together the countries
bordering the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden to discuss shared marine environmental issues. The outcome of these meetings
culminated in the signing of an international agreement in 1982, the Jeddah Convention, and formally entitled the "Regional
Convention for the Conservation of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden Environment". This agreement focuses on the prevention,
reduction and fight against pollution, and is significant because it provides the first regional legal framework for cooperationin marine issues between the member countries. Subsequently, an official intergovernmental organization known as the "Regional
Organization for the Conservation of the Environment of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden （PERSGA）" was established in 1995
as an implementation body of the Jeddah Convention and is dedicated to the conservation of the coastal and marine environment.
Since then PERSGA has prepared a Strategic Action Plan（SAP） for the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, which was implemented
as a major new environmental initiative in 1998 through cooperation from the Global Environment Facility and other internationalorganizations.8
The SAP mainly focuses on the following key issues, and progress will be constantly evaluated and monitored.13
・Reduction of navigation risks and maritime pollution
・Sustainable management of living marine resources
・Conservation of habitats and biodiversity
・Establishment of a regional network of marine protected areas
・Support for integrated coastal zone management
・Enhancing public awareness and participation
Two additional protocols were adopted in 2005 concerning protection form land‑based activities and conservation of marine
biodiversity‑ establishment of a regional network of protected areas. More recently another protocol concerning facilitation of
movement of personnel and equipment during emergency was adopted in 2009.4
Operational Framework of Action for 2006‑ 2010
This framework is the follow‑up phase for the SAP. The priority of it is establishment of a sound foundation of structureand systems; to developing regional capacity building; to promoting national and local on‑the‑ground initiative and; and totransferring lessons learned across the Region. The framework includes partnership activities with donors and internationalorganizations.12
Monitoring program
PERSGA ‑ the international organization established for environmental protection of the Red Sea and Aden Sea ‑ has been
continuing efforts to enable the comparison of monitoring results across the border （from 1998 to 2005）.2 Also, as part of
the SAP, biological parameters have been monitored since 1998.

Related organizations and NGOs
・Regional Organization for the Conservation of the Environment of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden （PERSGA）‑<http://www.persga.org/>
・Friends of the Earth Middle East （FoEME）<http://www.foeme.org/www/?module=home>85

16 Red Sea

References
１. UNEP. Assessment of Land‑based Sources and Activities Affecting the Marine Environment in the Red Sea and Gulfof Aden. UNEP Regional Seas Reports and Studies No.166.1997.
http://www.oceandocs.org/bitstream/handle/1834/285/166‑eng.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y, （accessed March 31, 2015）
２. PERSGA. Status of the Living Marine Resources in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden Region and their Management. 2000.
http://www.persga.org/Documents/Vol3bStatusofLMRinRSGA.pdf, （accessed March 31, 2015）
３. Heileman, S., and Mistafa, N. III‑6 Red Sea: LME #33,
http://lme.edc.uri.edu/index.php?option=com̲content&view=article&id=79:lme33&catid=41:briefs&Itemid=72, （accessed
March 31, 2015）
４. Barale, V., 2007. Marine and Coastal Features of the Red Sea.
http://publications.jrc.ec.europa.eu/repository/bitstream/JRC41911/reqno̲jrc41911̲cdocuments%20and%20settingsbaralvimy%20documents1%5B1%5D%5B1%5D.activitiesp.red.seaeur̲23091̲en̲2007.pdf.pdf, （accessed March 31, 2015）
５. PERSGA. Marine Environmental Protection in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden ‑ a New Initiative （brochure）. 2001.
６. PERSGA. The Regional Organization for the Conservation of the Environment in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden.
http://www.persga.org/, （accessed March 31, 2015）
７. Gladstone, W., Krupp, F., and Younis, M., 2003. Development and management of a network of marine protectedareas in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden region. Ocean & Coastal Management, 46 （2003）: pp. 741‑761.
８. Go to Egypt http://goto‑egypt.com/egypt/red‑sea/?cat=25, （accessed March 31, 2015）
９. Infoplease. http://www.infoplease.com/encyclopedia/world/red‑sea.html, （accessed March 31, 2015）10. Jeddah Municipality, 2015. About Jeddah city.
https://www.jeddah.gov.sa/English/JeddahCity/About.php, （accessed March 31, 2015）
11. UNEP, 1998. Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, Strategic Action Programme.
http://www.unep.ch/regionalseas/main/persga/redsap.html, （accessed March 31, 2015）
12. Al‑Agwan, Z., 2009. PERSGA AND MAIN ACHIEVEMENTS SINCE 2005. Summary Voluntary Report.
https://www.cbd.int/marine/voluntary‑reports/vr‑mc‑persga‑en.pdf, （accessed March 31, 2015）13. Hutchinson, S.; Hawkins, L.E., 2007. Oceans: A Visual Guide. Shinjusha Co., Ltd.: China, 2007. Japanese translation86

17 Bay of Bengal
Overview
The Bay of Bengal is located on the northeastern part of the Indian Ocean. It comprises the marine waters surrounded by
Sri Lanka, the east coast of India, Bangladesh, the west coast of Peninsular Malaysia, the Andaman and Nicobar Islands,
and the northern end of the Island of Sumatra in Indonesia.1
The Bay receives inflows from many large rivers, often passing through large cities before discharging into the Bay. Also,these large rivers contain huge amounts of sediment, creating large fertile deltas, most notably along the Indian and Bangladesh
coastlines.2

Location
Basic information9
Surface area：2,173,000 裄
Volume：5,649,800 裝
Average depth：2,600 m
Maximum depth：4,694 m

Nature< Background >The Bay of Bengal is located in the tropicalmonsoon belt. Its environment is strongly affectedby monsoons , along with storm surges andcyclones. Major rivers（the Ganges, Brahmaputra,
Meghna, Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna and Salween）
introduce large quantities of freshwater and silt
into the Bay , especially during the monsoon
season, from July to September. This large volume
of inflowing water strongly influences the Bay'shydrological characteristics by producing a warm,
low‑salinity, nutrient and oxygen‑rich layer toa depth of 100 m that stretches over a distanceof 1,500 km from the northern shore.3 Silt fromthese rivers has created large sandbars near theriver mouths, which has turned the Bay into ashallow sea, especially off the coast of Bangladesh.
Approximately 2.5 billion tons of sediment are
discharged from the Ganges River annually.4 In
deeper waters, high‑salinity, low‑temperatureand low‑oxygen waters persist through the year.

< Surrounding environment >Habitat
The Bay of Bengal is surrounded by several
important biological habitats. One of these is the
Sundarbans, an extremely large estuarine deltaof the Ganges River that contains one of thelargest continuous mangrove stretches in theworld.
Biota
The area supports a wide diversity of wildlife,
including the endangered Royal Bengal Tiger.
An area of 1,330 裄 in the Sundarbans has been
declared as a national park and world heritage
site, and supports a tiger population of 106（2015

Satellite photo of Bangladesh, showing the convergence of the Ganges（left）and Meghna （right）rivers before emptying into the Bay of Bengal287

17 Bay of Bengal
census）. The population has decreased from the 440 tigers confirmed 10 years
ago.6

History and Culture< Ganges River >The Ganges River is most famous as a religious and spiritual center for thepeople of India. It is used as baptizing and memorial sanctuaries. Babies are
baptized in the river because people believe it cleanses the soul of the child.
For the same reason, the remaining ashes of a person following cremation
are released into the river.

Royal Bengal Tiger5

The Ganges River also plays an important role in the daily lives of many
Indian people. The River is one of the only sources of water for people who do not have access to running clean water, and
it is commonly used for washing clothes. It is also used as a mass‑bathing hole, with over 10 million daily bathers. However,since the River has poor hygienic conditions, partly due to the above activities, many people have been affected by water‑borne diseases.7

Social Environment< Population >A quarter of the world's population （approx. 1.8 billion people） resides in the countries bordering the Bay of Bengal.
Approximately 450 million people live in the coastal zone, with a large proportion living in the large coastal cities.1< Industry >The major industries that are directly dependent on the Bay of Bengal are tourism, coastal fisheries and coral and sandmining for use as construction material.
Fisheries
Fisheries are of major socioeconomic importance to all countries bordering the Bay, as the industry provides direct employment
to 2.2 million fishermen and 2.3 million people are employed in associated activities.1 The main commercial fish species are
shrimp, tuna, yellowfin, big eye and skipjack, with shrimp being the major export earner. Total fisheries production was
estimated at 6 million tons in 2009.1 However, there are signs that harvest levels may not be sustainable, especially withregard to tuna fishing. Aquaculture operates intensively along the coast, with over 200,000 fish farmers currently involved,
and the industry is expected to expand. In 2009, the estimated total marine and brackish water aquaculture production was
1.46 million tons valued at USD4.8 million.1
Most of the countries surrounding the Bay are weak in developing clear policies, appropriate strategies and the sustainable
management of fishery resources. The following are some of the problems facing the fishing industry in the Bay of Bengal:
・Increased competition and conflicts between artisanal and large‑scale fisherman
・An alarming increase in cyanide fishing in the coral reefs, caught for the lucrative live‑food fish markets in Hong Kongand Singapore
・Mangroves and estuaries, which are important fish spawning and nursery grounds, are threatened by pollution, sedimenta‑
tion, dam construction （in Bangladesh） and intensive coastal aquaculture

Environmental Problems< Current status >Compared to the other enclosed seas, pollution in the Bay of Bengal tends to be localized. This is due to circulation patterns
that link the Bay to the Indian Ocean. Even so, the large rivers discharge vast amounts of pollutants into the Bay, includ‑ing pesticides and industrial waste. Approximately 1,800 tons of pesticides enter the Bay of Bengal annually, with highconcentrations recorded along the coast, particularly near cities and ports.4
Sewage including nutrients, POPs, household chemicals, medical wastes, excreted pharmaceuticals and sediments was
identified as a major priority issue. Although the ecological effect of nutrient enrichment of the coastal environment of the
Bay of Bengal is poorly documented and understood, reported localized problems of eutrophication, hypoxia and algal blooms
are likely to be related.3
Oil pollution, offshore oil and gas exploration, and seabed mining are among the sea‑based sources of pollution. There isheavy oil‑tanker traffic between Japan and the Middle East, with the main shipping route passing through the lower part ofBengal Bay. For this reason, tanker accidents that could result in major oil spills are a constant concern.3
As a consequence of natural disasters such as tsunami and the destructive activities noted above, critical habitats including
mangrove forests, coral reefs, and seagrasses are classified as degraded.188

17 Bay of Bengal< Environmental Protection Measures >The countries of the Bay of Bengal need to address a range of trans‑boundary problems in the areas of fisheries, oil‑spillplanning, legal and institutional reviews and pollution‑control measures. They need to implement regional agreements andharmonize their legislation. However, the sheer number of government departments that would need to be consulted andinvolved makes this a complex endeavor. On the whole, the region lacks enforcement capabilities and sound resource management
practices, but areas of cooperation already exist that could be expanded to cover the whole Bay region . A multitude ofinternational, regional and sub‑regional institutions operate in the Bay of Bengal, many of which have similar mandates thatcurrently result in overlap and duplication.
An important proponent for change is the Bay of Bengal Program （BOBP）, a regional fisheries project executed by FAO（Food and Agriculture Organization of the UN）, which became operational in 1979. It promotes sound and systematic fisheries
management practices to all the fishermen （including artisanal fisherman）of all Bay of Bengal countries except Myanmar.8

Related organizations and NGOs
Major international organizations of the area are listed below.
・Bangladesh, India, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, Thailand Economic Cooperation （BIMST‑EC）<http://www.bimstec.org/>
・South Asian Association for Regional Co‑operation （SAARC）<http://www.saarc‑sec.org/>
・United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific （ESCAP）<http://www.unescap.org/>
・South Asian Co‑operative Environment Programme （SACEP）<http://www.sacep.org/>
・UNEP Regional Coordinating Unit for East Asian Seas
<http://www.unep.ch/regionalseas/regions/eas/eashome.htm>
・Indian Ocean Marine Affairs Co‑operation （IOMAC）<http://www.mea.gov.lk/index.php/en/home/iomac>
Fisheries organizations include the following.
・Indian Ocean Tuna Commission （IOTC）<http://www.iotc.org/>
・Indian Ocean Rim Association （IORA） <http://dfat.gov.au/international‑relations/regional‑architecture/indian‑ocean/iora/
Pages/indian‑ocean‑rim‑association‑iora.aspx>
・Asia‑Pacific Fishery Commission （APFIC）<http://www.apfic.org>
・Network of Aquaculture Centres in Asia‑Pacific （NACA）<http://www.enaca.org/>

References
１. Bay of Bengal Large Marine Ecosystem Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis.
http://iwlearn.net/iw‑projects/1252/reports/boblme‑tda‑volume‑1, （accessed March 31, 2015）
２. Bay of Bengal. http://omp.gso.uri.edu/ompweb/doee/science/descript/bengal1.htm, （accessed March 31, 2015）
３. Bay of Bengal: LME #34.
http://lme.edc.uri.edu/index.php?option=com̲content&view=article&id=80:lme34&catid=41:briefs&Itemid=72, （accessed
March 31, 2015）
４. United Nations Environment Programme（UNEP）. Global Environmental Outlook 3. Earthscan, London and New York,2002. http://www.unep.org/geo/geo3.asp, （accessed March 31, 2015）
５. World Wildlife Fund, 2015. Bengal Tiger.
https://www.worldwildlife.org/species/bengal‑tiger （accessed March 31, 2015）
６. BBC News, 2015. Bangladesh finds only 100 Bengal tigers in Sunderbans.
http://www.bbc.com/news/world‑asia‑33672602, （accessed March 31, 2015）
７. History of the Ganges. http://web.bryant.edu/˜ langlois/ecology/gangeshistory.htm, （accessed March 31, 2015）
８. FAO, 2008. Sustainable Management of the Bay of Bengal Large Marine Ecosystem （BOBLME）.
http://www.thegef.org/gef/sites/thegef.org/files/gef̲prj̲docs/GEFProjectDocuments/International%20Waters/Regional%
20‑%20Preparation%20of%20a%20TDA%20and%20Preliminary%20Framework%20SAP%20for%20the%20Bay%20of%20Bengal%20Large%20Marine%20Ecosystem/02‑14‑08%20ID1252%20BOBLME%20project%20document.doc, （accessed March 31,
2015）
９. Hutchinson, S.; Hawkins, L.E., 2007. Oceans: A Visual Guide. Shinjusha Co., Ltd.: China, 2007. Japanese translation89

18 South China Sea
Overview
The South China Sea is a critical world trade route and a potential source of hydrocarbons, particularly natural gas, withcompeting claims of ownership over the sea and its resources. Stretching from Singapore and the Strait of Malacca in thesouthwest to the Strait of Taiwan in the northeast, the South China Sea is one of the most important trade routes in theworld. The sea is rich in resources and holds significant strategic and political importance.1

Location
Basic information9
Surface area：2,319,000 裄
Volume：3,830,988 裝
Average depth：1,652 m
Maximum depth：5,016 m

Nature< Background >The area includes several hundred small islands,
rocks and reefs, with the majority located in the
Paracel and Spratly Island chains. Many of theseislands are partially submerged land masses unsuitablefor habitation and are little more than shipping
hazards. For example, the total land area of theSpratly Islands encompasses less than 7.8 裄.1
There are approximately 125 major rivers in the South China Sea region, draining 2.5 million 裝, and numerous smaller rivers
and streams flowing from the mountainous interior of parts of the region.2
ClimateMost of the region lies within the tropical and equatorial zones （from near the Equator to about 22°N）. In much of theregion there are two seasons, the dry season and the wet season, as the climate is governed by the regime of the northeastand southwest monsoons. The temperature usually ranges from 21 襄 to 33 襄, but at higher altitudes the climates is cooler.
The average temperature throughout the year in many areas is very stable （26 襄）.2
Topography
The bottom topography of the sea is characterized by two extended continental shelves on the northern and southern sides
and a deep basin, with a maximum depth of 5,016 m, situated in the central‑eastern region. The deep basin occupies 44%of the total area of the South China Sea.3,9Geologically, the Indian subcontinent collided with the Eurasian plate in the Late Eocene and led to the rifting of the Sunda
Shelf, including Borneo, the Malaysian Peninsula the and Palawan micro plate. The rift is hypothesized to be the origin of
the northwest sub‑basin of the South China Sea. North to south spreading occurred 27 to 16 million years ago, causing theformation of the eastern sub‑basin of this marginal sea. The southwest sub‑basin was formed 20 million years ago, and spread‑ing ceased around 15.5 million years ago.4
Hydrology
The hydrology of the region is dominated by the typical monsoon climate, which includes large inter‑seasonal variations ofriver flows. Major oceanographic currents include those generated by the seasonal monsoons: west flowing current aroundWest Kalimantan; North flowing current between West Kalimantan and the Malaysia Peninsula bifurcating into the Gulf ofThailand the South China Sea and flowing north to the east of Vietnam with a gyre developed to the east of central Vietnam,
and northeast from east of Hainan towards Taiwan; upwelling areas of northwestern Philippines and off Vietnam.2< Surrounding environment >Biota
The Indo‑West Pacific marine biogeographic province has long been recognized as the global center of marine tropicalbiodiversity. Forty‑five mangrove species out of a global total of 51; 50 of 70 coral genera; 20 of 50 seagrasses species; and7 of 9 giant clam species, are found in the nearshore areas of the South China Sea. Compared to the Atlantic, the tropical90

18 South China Sea
Indo‑West Pacific is highly diverse. Only 5 mangrove species and some 35 coral species are found in the Atlantic comparedwith 45 mangrove and over 450 coral species recorded from the Philippines.4

History and Culture< History >The South China Sea has been an important maritime region for trade and interaction among different peoples ever since,
while displaying a frequent shift of the leading maritime power to different peoples and to different ports or states in different
time period and also showing an increasing sphere of influence to a greater part of the world.5

Social Environment< Population >The region's human population is represented bya diverse mix of ethnic groups of nine nations,some forming ancestral tribal groups, others ofmore recent arrival. The total population of theregion is estimated at 350 million persons.2< Land Use >When mangrove forests are destroyed and replacedby alternative forms of land use, not only are thespecies of plants and animals lost but also many
ecosystem services provided by mangrove systems
are lost as well. This is well known in Viet Nam
where the function of coastal vegetation, particularly
mangroves is considered a vital service withmeasurable economic benefits as a protection against
hurricane damage and marine based flooding .
Mangrove degradation causes losses in direct andindirect economic values that support socio‑economic
development at both local and national scales.6< Industry >The surrounding seven countries are at various
stages of industrialization. Cambodia, with a national
GDP of 0.12 million USD earns 45% of this fromagriculture, and 20% from industry. In contrast,
Indonesia relies on the industry sector for 57% of
its GDP. In terms of increasing reliance on industry
for the generation of GDP, the countries may beranked in the following order: Indonesia , China,
Thailand, Philippines, Cambodia.4

Population density around the South China Sea2

Fisheries
Fisheries in the South China Sea are of great local, national and international importance, being a major contributor to bothfood and income. In total, the South China Sea produces around 5 million tons of catch each year, amounting to about 10%of the total global catch. Five of the littoral nations are among the top eight shrimp producers globally, mostly throughaquaculture with large‑scale consequences to habitats and water quality.2
Shipping
Shipping, navigation and transportation all depend on stable international relations, and states with a will and capacity torepress piracy. As the littoral states of the South China Sea are dependent on the sea to export and import goods, and forfishing, tourism, and other uses, there is a critical need for regional cooperation on these issues. Concerns in Malaysia,
Singapore and Indonesia for the environmental security in the highly congested Malacca Strait need to be addressed. As oneof the world's key thoroughfares for shipping, it is important for both the regional and outside powers to uphold peace, safety
and stability, so as not to disturb the economies dependent on the sea lanes passing through.2

91

18 South China Sea

Environmental Problems< Water and sediment quality >Water quality
About 6 million tons of BOD （Biochemical oxygen demand） are generated each year by the coastal population of the 7
countries of the South China Sea alone. Of these, only 11% is removed by sewage treatment in four countries. Assuming
the same population growth rates prevail up to 2005, the generated BOD will increase to 6.6 million tons. If the amountremoved by sewage treatment is not significantly increased from the insignificant level of 11%, the coastal waters of the
Sunda Shelf from the Indo‑China Peninsula to Malaysia and Indonesia, across to the western Philippine shelf, will become
eutrophic.4< Other Environmental Problems >Trans Boundary Issues associated with Regional Food Security
Currently, South China Sea countries are net exporters of seafood and will most likely remain so, assuming that there isno drastic reduction in fish production. Regionally, the coastal population alone will reach 540 million by 2035 using current
growth rates.2 To secure the minimum nutritional requirement, about 86% of current production must be allocated for domestic
consumption. This implies that the region can export 14% at most.
If export levels are to increase beyond 14%, either domestic consumption will fall below the minimum requirement, total fish
production will have to increase, or population growth rates will have to decline. The options may be difficult to optimize
toward one goal or the other, but a compromise towards long‑term benefits for society, the ecology, and the economy will
have to be formed soon.4
Threats to coral reefs
A working group which consists of 6 coastal countries of the South China Sea under a UNEP project identified the key
regional threats to coral reefs in the South China Sea during its sixth meeting from 22nd to 25th August 2005. These threats
include over‑fishing, destructive fishing, pollution（mainly eutrophication）, and sedimentation. Indirect causes of these threats
are high demand for food, coastal development, deforestation and unsustainable tourism. Coral bleaching is considered aserious natural threat to coral reefs in the region.7

Vulnerability of Coral Reefs in the South China Sea892

18 South China Sea

References
１. U.S. Energy Information Administration, 2013. South China Sea.
http://www.eia.gov/countries/analysisbriefs/South̲China̲Sea/south̲china̲sea.pdf, （accessed March 31, 2015）
２. UNEP, 2005. Wilkinson, C., DeVantier, L., Talaue‑McManus, L., Lawrence, D. and D. Souter. South China Sea,
GIWA Regional assessment 54. University of Kalmar, Kalmar, Sweden.
http://www.unep.org/dewa/giwa/areas/reports/r54/giwa̲regional̲assessment̲54.pdf （accessed March 31, 2015）
３ . Chun‑Yi, L., Chung‑Ru, H., Zhe‑ Wen, Z., and Nan‑Jung, K., 2008. Validation and Variation of Upper Layer
Thickness in South China Sea from Satellite Altimeter Data.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3924938/, （accessed March 31, 2015）
４. UNEP, 2000. Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis for the South China Sea,
http://iwlearn.net/iw‑projects/885/reports/southchinasea̲tda̲2000.pdf, （accessed March 31, 2015）
５. Lee, H. J., 2012. Maritime History : The South China Sea until the later 19th Century,
http://www.zum.de/whkmla/sp/1314/hyejin/lhj1.html#i, （accessed March 31, 2015）
６. UNEP, 2008. Strategic Action Programme for the South China Sea. UNEP/GEF/SCS Technical Publication No. 16.
http://iwlearn.net/iw‑projects/885/reports/southchinasea̲sap̲1999.pdf, （accessed March 31, 2015）
７. UNEP, 2007. National Reports on Coral Reefs in the Coastal Waters of the South China Sea. UNEP/GEF/SCS TechnicalPublication No. 11,
http://www.unepscs.org/components/com̲remository̲files/downloads/South‑China‑Sea‑National‑Reports‑Coral‑Reefs‑
South‑China‑Sea.pdf, （accessed March 31, 2015）
８. The New Zealand Digital Library Project.
http://www.nzdl.org/gsdl/collect/envl/archives/HASH0179.dir/p26.jpg, （accessed March 31, 2015）
９. Hutchinson, S.; Hawkins, L.E., 2007. Oceans: A Visual Guide. Shinjusha Co., Ltd.: China, 2007. Japanese translation

93

19 Yellow Sea
Overview
The Yellow Sea is a semi‑enclosed sea bounded by the Chinese mainland on the west, the Korean Peninsula on the east
and a line running from the north bank of the mouth of the Yangtze River to the south side of Cheju Island.
The name of the Yellow Sea comes from the color of its water. A large amount of yellow silt is carried into the Yellow
Sea by the Yellow River from the Loess Plateau, the Huai River and the Yangtze River. The Sea receives a large amountof silt and sand from these rivers, which accumulates as bottom sediments.

Location
Basic information8
Surface area：466,200 裄
Volume：18,648 裝
Average depth：40 m
Maximum depth：103 m

Nature< Background >The Yellow Sea used to be dry land but thelast glacial cycle brought dramatic environmental
changes to the area, such as the Holocene marinetransgression, which flooded the region and creat‑
ing the Yellow Sea. At present, the Yellow Sea
is a large inland sea with a total area of 466,200
N and 41°N, and surrounded by mainland China and裄. It is located between longitudes 117°E and 126°E, and latitudes 31°
the Korean peninsula. Reaching 103 m at its deepest point, the average depth of the Yellow Sea is 40 m.1,8This vast sea is mainly composed of water from the Yellow River, Yalu River and Yangtze River from China, and theKeum （Geum） River and Nakdong River form the Korea peninsula, as well as sand, mud and other types of sediment as aresult of water influx. The Yellow River in particular, which is the second longest river in China, has the largest amount of
sediment loading in the world and accounts for the majority of the sediment accumulation in the Sea. These sediments also
form a large number of intertidal flats on the Yellow Sea, covering an area of approximately 20,000 裄. In total, the annual
amount of influx from rivers is 1,500 billion 裙 of water with more than 460 billion 裙 of rainfall and 1.6 billion 裙 of sediment.1
ClimateThe Yellow Sea extends broadly from the China mainland to the Korean Peninsula, and is meteorologically located between
the subtropical Pacific Low and the Siberian High. Accordingly, while the mean temperature in July is 24 襄 in the northand 28 襄 in the south, the average temperatures in January are ‑8 襄 and ‑4 襄, respectively. The average sea surface
temperatures also drop in winter, falling between ‑2 襄 and 0 襄 in January and February. Because of this cooling, the surfacesof Liaodong Bay, Bohai Bay, northern Korea Bay and the areas around the Yalu River Estuary freeze for 2‑4 months every
year. As spring comes closer and the temperature rises, the ice breaks up and begins to drift.1
Hydrology
There are five major water masses in the Yellow Sea. The Yellow Sea Warm Current Water is warm and saline. It originatesfrom the boundary of strong fronts formed during winter in the region that is west‑northwest of Cheju Island. The Yellow
Sea Bottom Cold Water forms as a result of convection in winter, and appears in the bottom layer of the trough region insummer. The Korea Coastal Water is seawater that has been tidally mixed with run‑off and river discharge from the Korean
Peninsula. The China Coastal Water contains coastal water from the Bohai Sea and flows southward throughout the year.
The Yangtze River Diluted Water is the freshest water in the marginal seas of the Pacific Ocean.2
Based on temperature and salinity data, the circulation pattern of the Yellow Sea can be characterized into two seasonal
types. In winter, there exists the northward Yellow Sea Warm Current in the interior and two southward coastal flows along
the Chinese and Korean coasts. In summer, there is a southward coastal current and a northward Korean coastal flow, witha cyclonic flow system between the two. However, a lack of direct evidence on the current systems means that the descrip‑tion of the Yellow Sea Warm Current is inconclusive, especially regarding its origin in winter and its pattern in summer.2

94

19 Yellow Sea< Surrounding environment >HabitatThe Yellow Sea coastline, which extends along China, North Korea, and South Korea, is home to the world's second‑largest
area of tidal flats, of which some 2,500 裄 are part of Korea's west coast. The coastal wetlands along Korea's west coast play
an important role as a resting area for migratory birds traversing the East Asian‑Australasian Flyway, as well as a spawn‑
ing ground for various fish. These coastal wetlands are expected to increase their importance in the future with issues suchas tsunamis and sea level rise due to climate change. They also supply a wealth of fishery products, providing economic
profits and food to fishery communities.3
Biota
The Yellow Sea is particularly an important area of the East Asian‑Australasian Flyway （EAAF）, one of the nine major flyways on Earth.
Many migratory birds benefit from it. Nine species of sea birds and
173 species of water birds come to rest in Chinese territory and 162
species of water birds rest in Korea. In total, about two million migratory
birds, if not more, visit the ecoregion when going north and about one
million when going south. This fact clearly indicates that the region
A migratory bird in a wetland of the Yellow Sea1

plays an important role as a stooping point.1

History and Culture< The formation of the Pan Yellow Sea Region >The Pan Yellow Sea Region dates back to ancient times. Throughout its long history, the Pan Yellow Sea Region has been
an important location for the exchange of commodities, technology and people among the three countries of Japan, Korea,
and China. The heyday of coastal trading was the period between the seventh and tenth centuries when the countries were
under the rule of Tang in China（618‑907 AD）, Yamato‑Nara‑Heian in Japan（646‑856 AD）and Shilla in Korea（669‑935 AD）.
The maritime trading system during this period had catalyzed the regions and cities along the Yellow Sea to become densely
networked. The focal points of this coastal trading were the Liaoning and Shandong Provinces of China, and the west andsouth coastal regions of Korea and Kyushu in Japan.4< Chinese people and Yellow Sea >The Chinese people have known how to make use of the sea for thousands of years. Navigation （mainly for trade, travel
and transportation）, fishing and salt production have been the mainstay industries of the coastal people along the Yellow Sea
and other Chinese seas. Shandong, a province of China bounded the Yellow Sea, is one of the birthplaces of China's ancient
culture. The Chinese people had learned to fish at sea by boats with oars and had mastered basic navigation technology before
the Xia Dynasty （2183‑1752 BC）. At least 2,700 years ago, the navigators of China opened the maritime route from the
Shandong Peninsula to Japan, via Korea through the Yellow Sea, and started cultural and commercial exchanges with Korea
and Japan, via the Yellow Sea.
There are many fairy tales in China describing the beautiful places in 'the East Sea', the general term for the Yellow Sea
and the East China Sea. Tales such as 'Shan Hai Jing', 'The Eight Immortals', 'Journey to the West' and 'Jingwei Fills the
Sea' describe the life of the people relating to the Yellow Sea. In the old days in China, people would say to an old person
celebrating their birthday "I Wish you a long, long, happy life, as long as the long‑running water in the East Sea and a pinetree in the South Mountain", instead of "Happy birthday to you!", like people do nowadays. To see a mirage on the sea fromthe Penglai Pavilion, an ancient watch tower on the coast of Shandong Peninsula, has been what many people have yearned
for since the old days.

Social Environment< Population >The Pan Yellow Sea Region covers the coasts of northern China（Bohai Rim）, south‑western Japan （the Kyushu area）andwestern and southern Korea. It had a population of 256 million people in 2006. It is one of the fastest growing economic
zones in East Asia with a regional GDP of 1.5 trillion USD in 2006. Rapid economic integration began in the early 1990s when
the Chinese economy opened its markets to the world. Since then, the Pan Yellow Sea Region has made significant progressin economic exchange across its borders.4

95

19 Yellow Sea
Status of the Pan Yellow Sea Economic Zone, 2006
Population
GRDP（1,000 persons） （billion USD）

Country/region

Area（裄）Japan＊

39,671

13,569375

GRDP per capita
（USD）

Trade
（billion USD）

28,19088

China＊

500,460

214,269

590

3,236

254

Korea＊

52,21827,208516

21,767237

Total of592,349

256,046

1.5 trillion

17,731

609

Pan Yellow Sea Region

Notes 1）Japan＊：Fukuoka, Kumamoto, Nagasaki, Oita, Miyazaki, Saga, Kagoshima, Shimonoseki City
China＊：Tianjin City、Liaoning、Hebei、Shandong
Korea＊：Busan, Incheon, Ulsan, Gyeonggi, Chung‑nam, Jeon‑buk, Jeon‑nam, Gyeong‑nam
Notes 2）GRDP was normalized with the exchange rate for 2006 （USD 1＝CNY 7.97, USD 1＝JPY 119.00, USD 1＝KRW 929.6）< Land use >The pristine habitats and ecosystems in the Yellow Sea ecoregion have greatly deteriorated because of environmental destruc‑tion. Tidal flats in China have decreased by 37% in comparison to those of the 1950s. In Korea, 43% of coastal tidal flats
have been lost since 1917. The major reasons cited are reclamation due to human development in coastal areas and the expan‑
sion of the aquaculture industry. The original coastlines have been converted to farmlands, saltpans and farm operations forfish, shrimp and shellfish because of land reclamation by drainage. 630,000 裄 of the Yellow Sea ecoregion's coastal areas havebeen covered by farms and 30% percent of the area's tidal flats have been turned into saltpans. The degradation of thenatural environment caused by various developments is now a serious problem, not only for plants, shellfish, shrimp andinvertebrates, but also for their predators such as birds and mammals.1< Industry >In the modern age, regional integration in the Pan Yellow Sea Region has been principally driven by market forces. In
particular, multi‑national enterprises have played a key role in crafting an economically integrated region. They invest acrossborders, construct closely‑ knitted manufacturing networks, and sharply accelerate trade flow in the region, in order to makethe most of economic complementarities of the three countries in the Pan Yellow Sea Region. China's Bohai Rim area hasabundant labor, vast natural resources and huge markets, whilst the Japanese and Korean side of the Pan Yellow Sea Region
have ample capital and a range of advanced technologies with different degrees. This structure has been further exploited by
the industrial restructuring processes of Japanese and Korean firms. Since the 1980s, Japanese have relocated domestic produc‑tion sites overseas due to the sharp rises in land prices, wages and currency of Japan. This relocation process has been
replicated by Korean companies since the early 1990s. At the same time, in its search for technologies and capital to transform
its economy, the Chinese government provided a wide array of incentives to encourage Japanese and Korean firms to moveinto China, such as free industrial sites and long‑term tax incentives. These two different dimensions have coincided tostimulate rapid economic integration within the Pan Yellow Sea Region.4
Shipping
Geographical proximity has also deepened regional ties in the Pan Yellow Sea Region. Most cities in the region are closely
located to each other. For instance, Busan is only 200 km from Fukuoka City, while Fukuoka City and Japan's capital cityof Tokyo are about 5 times further , or 1000 km apart. In addition , most cities in the Pan Yellow Sea Region are wellconnected across borders via sea and air. The rapid development of the sea transporting system in the Pan Yellow Sea Regionis substantially lowering the cost of transporting goods by container ship compared to other parts of the world. According to
the OECD, the cost to send a container from other regions of the world to China, Japan and Korea in 2006 were only 1.2%, 0.8% and 0.5% of total import value respectively, whereas those to the US and Australia were 4.8% and 6.4% respectively.4

Environmental Problems< Water and sediment quality >Water quality
The quality of the coastal waters of the Yellow Sea according to the Ministry of Environmental Protection of China is
generally good, with 87% of the monitored area meeting Grade Ⅰ〜Ⅱa marine water quality standard, which was about 4%
less than in 2009. For the remaining monitoring points, 7.4% met Grade Ⅲ standard and 5.6% met or failed to meet GradeⅣ standard. The main pollutants were inorganic nitrogen and phosphate.5a

Ⅰ: water source; national nature protection zone Ⅱ: domestic drinking water source （ClassⅠ）; rare aquatic biology habitat;egg‑laying site for aquatic life forms; feeding and preying site for baby fishes Ⅲ:domestic drinking water source （ClassⅡ）;hibernation site, migration route and breeding site for aquatic life forms; swimming site Ⅳ: water use for industry;entertainment use where water does not touch the human body Ⅴ: agriculture use; scenic body of water96

19 Yellow Sea
Sediment quality
High organic nutrient concentrations are found in the surface sediments of the central area of the southern Yellow Sea.
Concentrations of trace elements, such as cadmium （Cd）, copper （Cu）and zinc （Zn）, are close to natural levels.6< Other Environmental Problems >Over exploitation of fishery resources
Overfishing has become a significant problem in recent years. The ecoregion is one of the richest seas with outstanding fisheryresources, however, the ocean is also one of the most overfished areas due to the development of the economy and fisherytechnologies. This has become a significant factor in the depletion of resources as well as environmental deterioration.
Small yellow croaker was one of the most abundant species in total fish catch in 1950's and 1960's in the Yellow Sea. In
South Korea, it accounted for about 1/3 of the total catch in 1960's. However, the catch of small yellow croaker dramaticallydeclined in following years because of overfishing. In China, small yellow croaker was the most dominant species in 1959 by
occupying 37% in the catch, but it declined to only 9% in 1981. In South Korea, catch of small yellow croaker was similarly
reduced by more than 80% between 1957 and 1983.7
Harmful Algal Blooms （HAB）
In the coastal areas of the Yellow Sea, the number of red tide events has been increasing since the mid‑1980s, and thescale has also expanded in recent years. Such huge outbreaks of phytoplankton are most likely caused by human activities in
the coastal areas and the corresponding decrease in tidal flats. For example, one of the causes is the discharge of domestic
and industrial wastewater into the ecosystem at high temperatures with high concentrations of nitrogen and phosphorus which
are both essential for plankton growth. Likewise, the decrease in manila clams resulting from the loss of many tidal flats is
also an important factor, because they feed on plankton. Some species of plankton causing red tide are known to containtoxins. As a result, there is a long‑term risk to the health of humans and shorebirds who consume toxic‑ plankton‑fed shellfish
and fish.1< Environmental Protection Measures >Control over fisheries
The Chinese government has imposed strict controls on fishing effort. The fishing license system controls not only the total
number of fishing boats, but also the total fishing effort. The government emphasized that during the 9th five‑year plan
（1996‑2000）, there would be zero‑increase of fishing effort in Chinese waters. Apart from the control on fishing effort, fish‑
ing is completely prohibited in the Bohai, Yellow, and East China Seas during the months of July and August. Since 1988,
there has been a total ban on trawl fishing in the Bohai Sea, with the aim of conserving the fish in the Yellow Sea. There
was a recovery of small yellow croaker fish in the region, but greater effort is required to conserve the fish in the Yellow
Sea.6
Transboundary cooperation
Due to the lack of a formal framework for achieving international cooperation in monitoring and research activities, China,
the Democratic People's Republic of Korea, and the Republic of Korea have been trying to establish regional initiatives. These
initiatives include a GEF （Global Environmental Fund）‑funded project, Northwest Pacific Action Plan （NOWPAP）, Tumen
River Area Development Programme （TRADP）, the Asia‑Pacific Economic Cooperation Forum （APEC）, Fisheries Marine
Resources Conservation Working Groups, and the GEF/UNDP/IMO（Global Environmental Fund/United Nations Development
Project/International Marine Organization）East Asia Seas project.

Related organizations and NGOs
・Northwest Pacific Action Plan （NOWPAP）<http://www.nowpap.org/>
・UNDP/GEF Yellow Sea LME Project <http://www.pemsea.org/organization/yslme>
・Korea Institute of Ocean Science & Technology （KIOST）<http://eng.kiost.ac/kordi̲eng/main/>・World Wildlife Fund （WWF） China <http://en.wwfchina.org/en/what̲we̲do/marine/yellow̲sea̲ecoregion/>97

19 Yellow Sea

References
１. WWF, 2014. The Comprehensive Report of The Yellow Sea Ecoregion Support Project 2007‑2014, 132 pp.
https://www.wwf.or.jp/activities/upfiles/WWF̲YSESP̲report2014.pdf （accessed March 31, 2015）.
２. Lee, J.H., An, B.W., Bang, I.K., Lie, H.J., and Tang, Y., 1999. Water and salt budgets for the Yellow Sea. In: C.H. Hong, J. Zhang, and C.S. Chung （Editors）, Biochemical process in the Bohai and Yellow Sea, The Dongjin
Publication Association, Seoul, pp. 221‑234.
３. Chul‑hwan, K., 2009. The Today and Tomorrow of Korea's Wetlands, Professor of Marine Biology, Department of
Oceanography, Seoul National University.
http://www.koreana.or.kr/months/news̲view.asp?b̲idx=227&lang=en&page̲type=list （accessed March 31, 2015）.
４. OECD Territorial Reviews: Trans‑border Urban Co‑operation in the Pan Yellow Sea Region, 2009, 217pp
https://geopousp.files. wordpress.com/2010/05/oecd‑trans‑border‑urban‑cooperation‑in‑the‑pan‑yellow‑sea‑region.pdf（accessed March 31, 2015）.
５. Ministry of Environmental Protection The People's Republic of China, 2010. 2010 Report on the State of the Environm‑ent of China: Marine Environment.
http://english.mep.gov.cn/standards̲reports/soe/soe2010/201307/t20130711̲255312.htm. （accessed March 31, 2015）.
６. Hong, G.H., Zhang, J., and Park, B.‑K., 1998. Health of the Yellow Sea. The Earth Love Publication Association,
Seoul, 342 pp.
７. WWF, Korea Ocean Research and Development Institute, Korea Environment Institute, 2006. Fish of the Yellow Sea
Ecoregion and their habitats.
http://www.wwf.or.jp/activities/lib/pdf/200710y‑seamap04e.pdf （accessed March 31, 2015）.
８. Hutchinson, S.; Hawkins, L.E., 2007. Oceans: A Visual Guide. Shinjusha Co., Ltd.: China, 2007. Japanese translation98

20 East China Sea
Overview
The East China Sea is one of the largest marginal seas in the world. Its surface area covers 735,800 裄. This region receives
a tremendous inflow of freshwater and terrestrial sediments, mainly from mainland China. In the eastern part of the sea,
the Kuroshio Current flows northward along the continental slope, effectively isolating the sea from the open Northwest Pacific
Ocean. This provides the approximate limits of the region at 24°‑30°N and 118°‑130°E. The East China Sea is connectedwith the South China Sea, the Yellow Sea, the Sea of Japan and the Pacific Ocean.2,8Location
Basic information8
Surface area：735,800 裄
Volume：128,765 裝
Average depth：175 m
Maximum depth：2,717 m

Nature< Background >The East China Sea has a catchment area of
about 1,900,000 裄. The East China Sea is importantfor its spawning and nursery grounds for many
pelagic fish.3 The length from the northeast to
southwest of the East China Sea is approximately
1,300 km. The width from the east to west isapproximately 740 裄.2
ClimateShanghai, the largest city facing the East China Sea, enjoys a pleasant northern, subtropical maritime monsoon climate
with four distinct seasons. Influenced by the hot air currents from the Pacific Ocean, the East Asia subtropical monsoon sub
region is warmer and humid in summer, but colder and drier in winter because of the influence of Mongolian high‑pressure
systems. The East China Sea area is also affected by typhoons and cyclones. The annual mean temperature is 16‑18 襄. The
maximum monthly temperature is in July with temperatures exceeding 28 襄, with the minimum monthly temperature of 4‑6
襄 in January. At the mouth of the river, the annual average rainfall is about 1,000 袢. On average, about 60‑80% of rainfall
occurs in the summer.2
Topography
The major part of the East China Sea sits on top of a shallow continental shelf. The shelf stretches out towards the Pacific
Ocean until it reaches a deep trough located inside of the Nansei Islands.
Hydrology
In the East China Sea, the northeast flow of the Kuroshio Current limits the transport of East China Sea shelf waters to
the Northwest Pacific Ocean. The Kuroshio enters the East China Sea from the northeast region of Taiwan and flows along
the Okinawa Trough; it then turns to the east and leaves the East China Sea, joining the North Pacific Ocean at about 30°N
through the Tokara Strait.
The Taiwan Warm Current is formed by water from the Taiwan Strait and the upwelling of the Kuroshio at the northeast
corner of Taiwan. The Taiwan Warm Current occupies the broad shelf of the East China Sea, and affects the region off the
Yangtze River estuary at water depths of 50 m, inducing local upwelling along the coast in the summer when the south
monsoon prevails.2< Surrounding environment >Biota
There are four types of fish which inhabit the East China Sea: tropical species （61% of all species）, warm water species（37% of the total）, cold‑temperate species （8 species）, and cold‑water species （only 1 species of Cololabis saira）. There arealso more than 10 species of anadromous fishes which inhabit coastal waters and swim to the estuaries or upper river areas
to spawn. Many fish species inhabit the Yangtze River system, which has 370 species.2

99

20 East China Sea

History and Culture
Shanghai, the largest city in the East China Sea, began more than 1,000 years ago as a fishing village. It was officiallydesignated as a market town in 1074 and a market city in 1159. The main activities at the time were fishing, farming, crafts,
commerce and shipping. Shanghai continued to grow during the Ming dynasty （1368‑1644）. Near the beginning of the 15th
century, when Shanghai had an estimated 64,000 households, a new channel was cut north to the Yangtze to permit better
drainage and to keep the outlet to the Yangtze and the East China Sea from filling with silt. This also provided a much
more reliable and shorter channel for river traffic to the Yangtze.
Shanghai grew rapidly during the Qing dynasty （1644‑1911）, when the development and use of cotton as a fabric material
became widespread. By the 18th century, the city was a prosperous center of cotton farming, and fabric and garment production.
The Opium War between Britain and China ended with the Treaty of Nanjing in 1842, and a supplementary agreement
was signed in 1843. As a result, China was forced to open Shanghai to British trade and residence. Other countries demanded
and received similar privileges. British, French and American citizens were awarded small territorial zones north of theoriginal‑walled Chinese city. While there was some development and expansion, the foreign community numbered only a few
hundred individuals until the late 19th century.4
Shanghai has achieved a rapid and sustained growth since the late 1970s when China began its economic reform. During
1978‑2000, the city's GDP achieved a 6.5 times increase and reached 48.75 billion U.S. dollars, with an annual growth rateof 9.5 %. 3 In 2014, Shanghai's GDP amounted to 380 billion U. S. dollars.7 The city has evolved from an industrial andcommercial city into a national economic center.3

Social Environment< Population >Compared to the overall population of China that was 1.35 billion in 2011, the East China Sea coastal region had about 300
million people, increasing 9.6% compared to 2000. The population of the Yangtze River basin makes up about 40% of thecountry's total. In addition, the population of the East China sea coastal region is characterized by a young age structure.
This trend is more significant in less developed provinces such as Jiangxi. But Shanghai has 8.28% of its population underage 15, which shows a trend toward a falling birthrate.2,7Table: Population structure in the East China Sea region.7
RegionAge 15‑64

Age 0‑14

Population

Age 65 and over（million）（million）（％）（million）（％）（million）（％）

Shanghai

20.06

1.66

8.28

16.82

83.85

1.58

7.88

Jiangsu

67.49

8.77

12.99

51.42

76.19

7.30

10.82

Zhejiang

46.67

5.89

12.62

36.79

78.81

4.00

8.57

Anhui

50.99

9.19

18.02

36.46

71.50

5.34

10.47

Fujian

31.78

5.01

15.76

24.34

76.56

2.44

7.68

Jiangxi

38.35

8.23

21.47

27.19

70.92

2.92

7.62

Taiwan

23.23

3.50

15.08

17.20

74.04

2.53

10.89

< Industry >Eastern China is experiencing rapid industrialization. Fishing activities have been conducted for a long period by China inthis area. Aquaculture is also a growing economic activity in the region.

Environmental Problems< Water and sediment quality >Water quality
Population growth, urbanization and industrialization have accelerated environmental pollution and water quality deterioration.
The rivers in Shanghai have been seriously polluted, with more than 92.2% of the river sections monitored containing waterthat was not acceptable for domestic use. Pollution of the Yangtze River drainage basin is an important problem too, especiallyin the delta area. In the area adjacent to the Yangtze River Estuary, hypoxia is a problem. The estuary receives flows fromvarious land‑based pollution sources, which may alter the ecosystem.2
Sediment quality
The sediment quality in the coastal area off Shanghai is not seriously polluted as a whole. In the coastal area of the Shanghai,
petroleum hydrocarbons （20.70 mg/kg‑wet） in Bullacta exarata exceeds grade Ⅰ1for biological standards, and copper （Cu）
（33.60 mg/kg‑wet） exceeds the grade Ⅱ standard. Heavy metals such as zinc （Zn）, Cu, and petroleum hydrocarbons, in
1

Grade Ⅰ is the water quality standard with the most strict standard levels

100

20 East China Sea
the oyster area near Yangtze River estuary all exceed the standards, with petroleum hydrocarbons and DDT exceeding
grade Ⅱ, and Cu and Zn exceeding grade Ⅲ.2
Eutrophication
Since the 1980s, the use of chemical fertilizer has greatly increased, while aquaculture is also expanding. The loss of nutrientsfrom these activities and the run‑off of organic substances, nitrogen and phosphorus have caused eutrophication to be ubiquitousin rivers, lakes and the coastal sea. The main source of nitrogen is run‑off from agriculture, while most phosphorus comesfrom domestic sewage and industrial wastewater discharges.1< Environmental Protection Measures >Environmental Protection Law of the People's Republic of China
In 2014, China has considered and passed the Environmental Protection Act amendment to stop and improve the deteriora‑tion of ecological environment due to rapid economic growth. The Environmental Protection Law of the People's Republic ofChina is a national law formulated for the purpose of protecting and improving environment, preventing and controlling pollu‑
tion and other public hazards, safeguarding public health, promoting ecological civilization improvement and facilitating sustainableeconomic and social development.
The amended Law, adopted at the 8th Meeting of the Standing Committee of the Twelfth National People's Congress of
the People's Republic of China on April 24, 2014, entered into force on January 1, 2015. A "strengthening of enforcement
authority by environmental protection administrative department" and "accountability to the administrative department that
does not respond appropriately to environmental pollution" was added to this revised law. This Law defines an ecologicalredline for strict protection on key ecological functional zones, and areas of sensitive and fragile ecological environment.
In accordance with this law, citizens, legal persons and other organizations have the right to obtain environmental informa‑tion, participate and supervise the activities of environment protection.5

References
１. The World Bank GEF Facility, 2005. East Asia Document Annexes （1）http://projects.inweh.unu.edu/inweh/display.php?ID=3468 （accessed March 31, 2015）
２. UNEP, 2005. GIWA Regional assessment 36 East China Sea
http://apps.unep.org/publications/pmtdocuments/GIWA̲regional̲assessment̲36̲East̲China̲sea.pd（accessed March 31, 2015）
３. Global Urban Development Washington, 2002. Shanghai's economic development
http://www.globalurban.org/GUD%20Shanghai%20MES%20Report.pdf （accessed March 31, 2015）
４. Gotheborg.com http://gotheborg.com/dest/destchin.shtml （accessed March 31, 2015）
５. EU, 2014. Environmental Protection Law of the People's Republic of China
https://www.chinadialogue.net/Environmental‑Protection‑Law‑2014‑eversion.pdf （accessed March 31, 2015）
６. The Nikkei, January 23, 2015.
http://www.nikkei.com/article/DGXLASGM23H5G̲T20C15A1FF1000/ （accessed March 31, 2015）
７. Science Portal China, 2012. China Statistical Yearbook 2012
http://www.spc.jst.go.jp/statistics/stats2012/ （accessed March 31, 2015）
８. Hutchinson, S.; Hawkins, L.E., 2007. Oceans: A Visual Guide. Shinjusha Co., Ltd.: China, 2007. Japanese translation101

21 Sea of Japan
Overview
The Sea of Japan is a marginal sea located along the edge of the Eurasian continent and partially separated from the open
ocean by the Japanese Archipelago and Korean Peninsula. It is connected to the open Pacific Ocean through 4 straits which
are the Tsushima, Tsugaru, Soya and Mamiya Straits.

Location
Basic information13
Surface area：978,000 裄
Volume：1,713,456 裝
Average depth：1,752 m
Maximum depth：3,742 m

Nature< Background >The Sea of Japan is bordered by the JapaneseArchipelago along the east and south, and theEurasian continent along the north and west. It
is an international sea with 4 bordering countries‑ Japan, Russia, North Korea and South Korea.
It is connected to the Pacific Ocean through4 straits, all of which are narrow and shallow. These straits enhance the closed nature of the water as well as limiting seawaterexchange compared to other marginal seas. The widely known name 'Sea of Japan' probably stems from the geographic featuresof the Japanese Archipelago that visually separate the water from the northern Pacific Ocean.
ClimateLocated along the eastern edge of the Eurasian continent in the mid‑latitude area, the Sea of Japan has a cool to warm
climate. There are, however, 2 distinct types of climates ‑ a cool and wet continental climate dominates the continental areafrom Khabarovsk in Russia, along the North Korean coastline to the Hokkaido area in northern Japan, and a warm monsoon
climate dominates over Japan （except Hokkaido）and South Korea. The former has a wide range of air temperatures and ischaracterized by having a short hot summer and a long cold winter. The latter has 4 distinctive seasons, with a hot humid
summer and a cool winter with little precipitation.
A mirage is a phenomenon where distant scenery becomes stretched or inverted
as an optical

illusion due to the refracted light caused by temperature

differences in the atmosphere . It is thought to be caused by the inflow of air
warmed on land during the day on top of the layer of low temperature air
above the sea. Mirages can be observed in Toyama Bay from the end of March
Mirage in Uozu City1

to the beginning of the June.1
Topography

Two large banks, the Yamato and Kita‑Yamato Banks forming the Yamato Ridge, are found in the central part of the Sea
of Japan. The Yamato Ridge is surrounded by deep basins ‑ the Japan Basin in the north （over 3,000 m deep）, the Yamato
Basin （2,500‑3,000 m deep） in the southeast, and the Tsushima Basin （1,500‑2,500 m deep） in the southwest. South of the
Yamato and Tsushima basins, along the Tsushima Strait, lies a shallow continental shelf approximately 120 m deep.
Hydrology
Two strong currents exist in the Sea of Japan ‑ the warm Tsushima Current that enters from Tsushima Strait and heads
northeast, and the cold Liman Current that runs along the Eurasian continent from north to south. The Tsushima Current
is the main current and is a branch of the larger Kuroshio Current.
The Tsushima Current splits into 3 smaller branches upon entering the Sea of Japan. Although all of the branches headtoward the north, the first branch goes along the coastline of the Japanese archipelago, the second along the Korean Peninsula,and the third cuts across the center of the Sea of Japan. Eventually, the majority of these currents flow into the Pacific
Ocean or the Sea of Okhotsk, through either the Tsugaru or Soya Straits.
According to past records, the whole process of water entering through the Tsushima Strait and exiting through the102

21 Sea of Japan
Tsugaru Strait into the Pacific Ocean is estimated to take approximately 2 months. Some of the remaining current continues
to travel northward. In the meantime, the water is slowly cooled and finally released into the open ocean through the Mamiya
Strait. Due to the shallowness of the strait, part of this current turns around at the mouth of the Strait and becomes the
Liman Current, which then heads south along the Eurasian continent.
The tidal range is small, with a maximum range of 20 to 30 袍. The tidal cycle is slightly irregular, and diurnal rather
than semi‑diurnal tides are occasionally observed.
In waters of approximately 300 m and deeper ,there is nearly homogeneous water of salinity about
34.1 ppt and of water temperature about 0‑1 襄 .
This is called "Japan Sea Proper Water （JSPW）".
The deepest part of the Sea of Japan has about
3,800 m water depth . On the other hand , water
depths of straits leading to the adjacent waters areshallow at about 50‑140 m.
The water body that is cooled by cold winterbreezes increases its water density and causes sink‑ing to the bottom of the sea. Since the water exchange
is limited in the surface layer, this denser water bodyremains at the bottom of the sea . The value of
dissolved oxygen content in the JSPW is obviously
high compared with the adjacent northern Pacific
Ocean seawater. This shows that the JSPW has been
formed by the sinking of oxygen ‑rich surface sea

Ocean Currents in the Sea of Japanwater to the deep layer.3< Surrounding environment >Biota
The region's different climates enable the establishment of a 'wildlife transition zone' that accommodates plants and animals
from both north and south. In addition, due to the simultaneous occurrence of the warm Tsushima and cold Liman currents,a polar front is formed where the currents mix, with the temperature difference providing an ideal environment for fisheries.

Amur Leopard（Panthera pardus orientails）4

Amur Tiger （Panthera tigris altaica）

A leopard subspecies found around the southernpart of the Russian coastal area. It is now under
the threat of extinction mainly due to decreasesof habitat forests.

Amur Tigers have been found in the habitats ofAmur Leopards, and there is concern for theircompetition.

History and Culture< Formation of Sea of Japan >The Sea of Japan is considered to have been formed sometime between 10 and 20 million years ago, following large scale
crustal movement.
Twenty‑five million years ago, a large lateral fault developed at the eastern edge of the Asian Continent, creating numerous
rift valleys and lakes. Between 14 and 19 million years ago, these rift valleys and lakes drifted farther from the Asian Continent,
and eventually created the deep Japan Basin. Large sea basins were also formed south of the Japan Basin, although they
are occasionally interrupted by some ridges and plateaus, such as the Yamato Ridge and Korean Plateau. Due to these tectonic
movements, the current form of the Sea of Japan is thought to be created around 14.5 million years ago.

103

21 Sea of Japan< Cultures surrounding the Sea of Japan >Being compact in size, the Sea of Japan boasts a long record of supporting cultural exchange between bordering countries,
such that the history of countries can not be told without addressing the significance of the Sea. In ancient times, the continent
introduced rice‑paddy agriculture, Buddhism and writing to Japan. Simultaneously, Japan tried to communicate and catch up
with international affairs, culture and academics by sending official diplomats to continental countries, such as during the Sui,
Tang and Bo Hai Dynasties in China, and the Silla Kingdom in Korea.

Restored envoy vessel 5
During the period between 630 and 838 AD, 16 envoy missions were sent
to China, composed of government officials, students, doctors and others,
usually totaling 100 to 250 people and in some cases including over 500 people.
These envoy missions helped Japan to learn about the advanced cultural andpolitical systems of the Tang Dynasty in China.

Social Environment< Population >Approximately 200 million people live on the Korean Peninsula and the Japanese Archipelago, in the southern area of the
Sea. In contrast, only 4 million people live in the northern area, in the 3 areas（coastal provinces, Khabarovsk Krai, Sakhalin
Oblast）along the coast of Russia.

< Land Use >Forest covers almost 70% of the total land area of the Russian and Japanese coastlines. These forests provide valuable nutri‑ents to the Sea but are threatened by factors such as development, clear cutting, accidental fire and damage caused by
insects.

< Industry >The main industries in far‑eastern Russia are iron working, food processing （mainly seafood）, electricity generation, oiland machinery production and metal mining. This industrial structure is highly dependent on the area's rich natural resources
and abundant energy sources . A serious problem in this area is that a large portion of land is covered by forests andpermafrost, making agricultural development challenging. In contrast, the service industry is expanding in Japan and South
Korea, further diversifying the industrial structure of their countries.
Fisheries
The Sea of Japan has maintained its rich biodiversity and high biological productivity. It has contributed to the developmentof fisheries in all bordering countries. However, due to recent economic growth and rapid urbanization, nutrient loads are
increasing and many shallow sea areas are being reclaimed, leading to the deterioration of many marine habitats. Consequently,
fish landings have decreased.
In recent years, increases in sea temperature has caused fish species that prefer low water temperature to no longer movesouth to the sea area around Japan, while fish species that prefer high water temperatures are expanding their habitats andmigratory ranges northward.6

Environmental Problems< Water and sediment quality >Concern over water quality in the Sea of Japan is increasing as economic and industrial development is taking place along
coastlines. In particular, Russia, North Korea, and South Korea have a serious problem with industrial effluent, agriculturalrunoff and untreated sewage entering inlets and rivers in inland areas or coastal zones that are connected to the Sea.
Highly contaminated marine life is found around Vladivostok, Russia, many of them exceeding acceptable levels for bothconsumption and industrial processes. Frequent red tides along the southern coasts of South Korea have also affected the fish‑
ing industry of this region greatly.

104

21 Sea of Japan
Number of red tides recorded along the South Korean coast and economic loss of fisheries7
Year

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

Number of
Red Tides

75

69

56

59

45

Economic Loss of Fisheries（Million US Dollars）

0.2

0.2

7

4

18.6

< Pollution source >Since the Sea of Japan is an international water body bordered by 4 countries, not just one country is accountable for its
water pollution. Concern about this situation in the bordering countries is growing as pollutant loads increase with populationand economic growth.
Old and inadequately equipped factories, and slow development of environmental infrastructure, including sewage treatment
plants, result in the release of industrial effluents into the environment without proper treatment. This continuously exposes
the Sea to water and sediment pollution. Other threats exist as well, such as runoff of sediments and byproducts from mining,
flowing into rivers and the ocean.
The major rivers that flow into the Sea from the Eurasian continent are the Tumen River running across the borders ofChina, Russia and North Korea, and the Rakuto Zen Tsu river in South Korea. The Ishikari, Shinano, and Agano rivers flow
into the Sea from the Japanese Archipelago.
Changes in gross domestic product in coastal countries around the Sea of Japan8
Unit: 1 billion US dollars
Year

Japan

China

South Korea

Russia

2000

4,730

1,192

533

259

2012

5,935

8,358

1,129

2,029

< Other Environmental Problems >Influence of global warming
Global warming causes adverse effects to the sea such as increases in sea water temperature and sea acidification. It isreported that the sea surface temperature rises faster in the Sea of Japan than in other sea areas, and this temperature rise
may change flows of sea water and distribution of marine organisms.8
Marine litter
A large amount of waste such as large plastic containers, medical wastes and specific fishing gears is cast ashore in the
coastal area of the Sea of Japan. Not only does the waste greatly worsen the visual aesthetic of the shore, but it is also
expected to negatively affect economic activities such as fishery and human health due to waste residues.9,10Radioactive pollution and oil spill
Disposal of radioactive waste, which dates back to the former USSR era, as well as oil spills from tanker accidents, arebecoming a big environmental threat in the Sea. This disposal is a long‑term issue, the impacts of which will be a concern
far into the future.

< Environmental Protection Measures >Ongoing environmental protection measures, in and around the Sea area, are as follows.
Northwest Pacific Action Plan （NOWPAP）
NOWPAP is one of the Regional Seas Programmes initiated by UNEP （United Nations Environment Programme）, and its
aim is to protect the environments of highly‑enclosed international waters. Adopted in 1994 by Japan, China, South Korea
and Russia, NOWPAP implements various projects targeted towards the Sea of Japan and Yellow Sea, in compliance with
the intergovernmental meetings that are held occasionally.
NOWPAP projects
NOWPAP/1: development of marine environment protection database and information management system for target ocean
regions
NOWPAP/2: Study into laws related to marine environment protection in related nations
NOWPAP/3: Production of environmental monitoring programs for target ocean regions
NOWPAP/4: Regional cooperation on ocean pollution （action in case of oil pollution incidents etc.）
NOWPAP/5: Designation of regional activity centers to become centers of activity in respective areas

105

21 Sea of JapanNOWPAP/6: Public awareness raising on the marine, coastal and associated freshwater environment
NOWPAP/7: Assessment and management of land‑based activities
Coastal marine litter survey
In 1996, the local government of Toyama prefecture in Japan and the Northwest Pacific Region Environmental Cooperation
Center started a "Survey on Buried and Washed up Marine Litter on the Coasts along the Sea of Japan and the Yellow Sea"in order to establish the partnership with local government along the coastline and to clarify the actual status of sea pollution
caused by the washed up driftage. Since 2010, the survey has been carried out as an international joint survey named "NEAR
Project Survey on Washed up Marine Litter on the Coasts along the Sea of Japan" that local governments, from Japan, China,
South Korea and Russia, has participated in.11 This activity initially began by cooperation with only 10 Japanese local governments
along the coastline. However, by 2013,18 local governments, from Japan （13）, South Korea （3） and Russia （2）, and a total
1,898 people participated in the project in 48 coasts through collaboration and cooperation with local governments and NGOs
/NPOs.12

Related organizations and NGOs
・Northwest Pacific Region Environmental Cooperation Center （NPEC）<http://www.npec.or.jp>
・The Economic Research Institute for Northeast Asia （ERINA）<http://www.erina.or.jp/>
・Japan Seaology Promotion Organization <http://www.nihonkaigaku.org/index.html>
・Ocean Energy of Japan Sea Governments <http://www.nihonkairengou.jp/>
・The Association of North East Asia Regional Governments （NEAR）<http://www.neargov.org/jp/>
・Association for Northeast Asia Regional Studies <http://anears.net/index.html>

References
１. Uozu Buried Forest Museum. "More about Mirage!". Uozu Buried Forest Museum.
http://www.city.uozu.toyama.jp/nekkolnd/mirageex/,（accessed March13, 2015）．
２. Ocean Policy Research Foundation, 2003. "Newsletter, No. 75: Hakodate International Fishery and Marine City Concept."
Published Sep 20, 2003.
https://www.sof.or.jp/jp/news/51‑100/75̲2.php （accessed March 13, 2015）
３. Japan Meteorological Agency. "What is Japan Sea Proper Water?". Japan Meteorological Agency.
http://www.data.jma.go.jp/kaiyou/db/mar̲env/knowledge/koyusui/koyusui.html,（accessed March 13, 2015）．
４. WWF．"Signs of Recovery in the Endangered Amur leopard"．WWF．
http://www.wwf.or.jp/activities/2013/04/1130719.html,（accessed March13, 2015）．
５."Sailing Ship in Japan"．SENAUN HOMEPAGE．
http://www.d9.dion.ne.jp/˜ senaun/pageBT14.html,（accessed March13, 2015）
６. Fisheries Agency．"FY2013 Trends in Fisheries"． Fisheries Agency
http://www.jfa.maff.go.jp/e/annual̲report/2013/index.html, （accessed March13, 2015）
７. NOWPAP CEARAC．"National Report on HABs in Korea"．NOWPAP CEARAC.
http://www.cearac‑project.org/cearac‑project/national‑report/habs/Korea.pdf,（accessed March13, 2015）
８. CEARAC, NPEC. "History of CEARAC". Northwest Pacific Region Environmental Cooperation Center．
http://www.npec.or.jp/1̲npec/contents/Ayumi̲Japanese.pdf,（accessed March31, 2015）
９. Ministry of the Environment．"A Large Amount of Drifting Ashore of Waste Plastic Tanks, Medical Wastes and SpecificFishing Gears, etc. in the Coastal Area of the Sea of Japan." Ministry of the Environment．
http://www.env.go.jp/water/marine̲litter/jpn̲sea.html,（accessed March13, 2015）
10. Ministry of Foreign Affairs．"Issue of Drifting Ashore of Waste Plastic Tanks from South Korea" Ministry of Foreign
Affairs．
http://www.mofa.go.jp/mofaj/area/korea/polytank.html,（accessed March13, 2015）
11. Northwest Pacific Region Environmental Cooperation Center．"NEAR Project Survey on Washed up Driftage on the
Coasts along the Sea of Japan, FY2011 Summary Report"．Northwest Pacific Region Environmental Cooperation Center．
http://www.npec.or.jp/3̲report/pdf/2011/Marine̲litter̲report̲J.pdf,（accessed March13, 2015）
12. Northwest Pacific Region Environmental Cooperation Center．"Northwest Pacific Region Environmental Cooperation Cent‑
er FY2014 Annual Report"．Northwest Pacific Region Environmental Cooperation Center
http://www.npec.or.jp/3̲report/hk‑menu2014.pdf/,（accessed March13, 2015）13. Hutchinson, S.; Hawkins, L.E., 2007. Oceans: A Visual Guide. Shinjusha Co., Ltd.: China, 2007. Japanese translation

106

Acronyms and Abbreviations
APEC

Asia‑Pacific Economic Cooperation Forum

AMEP

Marine Pollution and Integrated Environmental Management Subprogramme

BOBP

Bay of Bengal Program

BSEP

Black Sea Environmental Programme

CANARIThe Caribbean Natural Resource Institute

CARICOM

Caribbean Community

CCMP

Comprehensive Conservation and Management Plan

CEP

Caribbean Environment Programme

CIM

Centro de Investigaciones Marinas

COBINE

Cooperative Monitoring in the Baltic Marine Environment

COSEWIC

Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada

DFO

Department of Fishery and Oceans Canada

EPA

Environmental Protection Agency （US）

FKNMS

Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary

GEF

Global Environment Facility

HELCOM

Helsinki Commission

IMO

International Maritime Organization

IUCN

International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resource

MAP

Mediterranean Action Plan

MEDCOAST

Mediterranean Coastal Foundation

MEMAC

Marine Emergency Mutual Aid Centre

MSSD

Mediterranean Strategy for Sustainable Development

NOWPAP

Northwest Pacific Action Plan

NWMB

Nunavut Wildlife Management Board

OSPAR

Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the North‑East Atlantic

PEMSEA

Partnership in Environment Manegement for the Sea of East Asia

PERSGA

Regional Organization for the Conservation of the Environment of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

POPs

Persistent Organic Pollutants

ROPME

Regional Organization for the Protection of the Marine Environment

SAARC

South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation

SFEP

San Francisco Estuary Project

SPAW

Protocol Concerning Specially Protected Areas and Wildlife

TRADP

Tumen River Area Development Programme

UNDP

United Nations Development Programme

UNEP

United Nations Environment Programme

UNESCAP

United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and Pasific107Published and Distributed by：International EMECS Center
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