Journal of Socio-Informatics
Vol.7, No.1 Nov. 2014
[Refereed Original Papers］
Validity of TV, Video, Video Game Viewing/Usage Diary: Comparison
with the Data Measured by a Viewing State Measurement Device

Rei KUDO,
Shinichi HORIKAWA,
Akira SAKAMOTOHow Japanese Newspapers Contribute to Community Engagement

Kunihiko NAKANO,
Jingyuan YU,
Rie SAKAKIBARA,
Toshiyuki KITAHARA,
Masaru ARIGA,
Kaori HAYASHI,
Hideyuki TANAKA
Designing Digital Storytelling Workshops for Vulnerable People:
A Collaborative Story-weaving Model from the “Pre-story Space”

Akiko OGAWA,
Yuko TSUCHIYA[Refereed Research Note］
A Study of Change of the Body View in Cyberculture

Naomi NEMURAThe Society of Socio-Informatics

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Vol.7, No.1 Nov. 2014
◆CONTENTS◆[Refereed Original Papers］
Validity of TV, Video, Video Game Viewing/Usage Diary: Comparison with the Data
Measured by a Viewing State Measurement Device

Rei KUDO, 
Shinichi HORIKAWA,…  １

Akira SAKAMOTOHow Japanese Newspapers Contribute to Community Engagement

Kunihiko NAKANO,
Jingyuan YU,
Rie SAKAKIBARA,
Toshiyuki KITAHARA,
Masaru ARIGA,
Kaori HAYASHI,…  13

Hideyuki TANAKA
Designing Digital Storytelling Workshops for Vulnerable People:
A Collaborative Story-weaving Model from the “Pre-story Space”

Akiko OGAWA,
Yuko TSUCHIYA…  25[Refereed Research Note］
A Study of Change of the Body View in Cyberculture

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Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. 7, No. 1 Nov. 2014

Validity of TV, Video, Video Game Viewing/Usage Diary:Comparison with the Data Measured by a Viewing State
Measurement Device
Keywords:
Media use measurement, Viewing diary, Validity, TV, Video, Videogame

Rei KUDO, Value Management Institute, Inc.
Shinichi HORIKAWA, NHK Broadcasting Culture Research Institute
Akira SAKAMOTO, Ochanomizu University

Abstract
The aim of this study was to examine the validity of data entered in participating subjects’ TV,
video, and video game viewing/usage diaries.
The participating subjects were eight families with third and fourth graders in the Tokyo
Metropolitan Area. The amount of TV viewing (total and by TV channel), viewing of videorecorded TV programs, and playing of video games by third and fourth grade children wererecorded in the viewing/usage diary and at the same time measured by a viewing statemeasurement device. The correlation coefficient between the data obtained from the diary andthat from the measurement device was equal to or higher than the coefficient obtained in apreceding study, confirming the validity of the data entered in the viewing/usage diary.

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To this end, a self-reporting questionnaire or a

1. Introduction

viewing diary has been often used as a method
In our modern information society, visual

for measuring the amount of media use. In a

media such as televisions, videos, DVDs, Blu-ray

viewing diary, the subject records the type ofdiscs, and video games are part of our daily lives.

media used, the names of viewed programs, andAlong with the increase of the role of visual media

the start and end times of media use. Therefore,in our daily living, there has been increaseda viewing diary has an advantage over a self-social and academic interest in such topics as thereportingphysiological and psychological effects of suchquestionnaire simply asks the participants how

media on its users and the relationship between

much time they spend using a certain type ofuser personality traits as motivational factors formedia or watching a certain type of content per

media use and the amount of media use. Due today, a viewing diary allows more detailed andthis interest, there have been many psychologicalaccurate measurements of the duration ofor sociological studies examining the amount ofviewing and the type of content viewed duringvisual media use by type or content as an

the study period. Moreover, the viewing diary

independentaalso has the advantage of the ability to measuredependent (objective) variable (e.g., Dill, 2012;

the use of multiple types of media simultaneously

Bryant & Oliver, 2008). In particular, a large(such as watching television while playing

number of studies have been conducted tohandheld games like Nintendo DS). If theexamine the relationships between children’s

participants are young children, their parents

visual media use and their physiological andusually record the diary for them. When thispsychological development, because children are

occurs, however, the accuracy of measured andbelieved to be more easily influenced by thoserecorded amounts of media use may be

media (Singer & Singer, 2012).

compromised.

(explanatory)

variableorquestionnaire

in

that,

while

a

Scientific research showing the relationshipAnderson et al. (1985) examined the accuracy

between media use and various psychologicalof TV viewing diaries for 5-year-old children

factors,andwritten by their parents. They studied thepersonality traits, has been a topic of great social

includingbehavioral

trendscorrelation between TV viewing time recorded ininterest. Therefore, if visual media exposure is tothe viewing diary in increments of 15 minutes

be used as an independent or a dependent

and TV viewing time calculated based on a video

variable, the actual amount of media use by study

recorded in a room where a participating childparticipants must be measured as accurately as

watched TV. The obtained correlation was. 84.

possible.

Anderson et al. (1985) used a video-recorded

The method, which most accurately measures

TV room as an objective index in the study. Note,the amount of the participants’ visual media use,

however, there is always some risk of unsuccessful

requires a device that automatically records therecording due to device failures or inappropriate

amount of time they spend in watching or

operation. Also, because of the diversity of visual

listening to media. However, it is generally

media used by children, it is necessary todifficult to applying this method to a large scale.

examine the validity of a viewing diary not only
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for the amount of TV viewing but also for thefrom among the families satisfying theseamount of DVD- or HDD-recorded TV programs,

conditions in order to eliminate bias due to theand the amount of video games played. In thismother’s work. These eight families were asked

study, therefore, the amount of media use wasto record their viewing habits via a machine andrecorded in a TV, video, and video game viewing/

maintain a diary of their visual media viewing/

usage diary, and at the same time measured by ausage. The mother of each participating family

device originally designed to obtain viewing rates

recorded in the diary her child’s amount of visualfor television stations. This device, connected to a

media use.

standard TV, is capable of recording the amount

2.2 Study periodof regular, BS, and CS TV programs viewed, theamount of DVD- and HDD-recorded TV programs

The study was conducted in two parts. The

viewed, and the amount of video games played.

first study was conducted from January 20 to 22,

Then the validity of data recorded in the viewing/

2012, and the second study was conducted fromusage diary was examined by calculating the

February 10 to 12, 2012. The study period was set

correlation between the data entered in the diaryfrom Friday to Sunday because lifestyle patterns

and the data obtained by the viewing state

differ by the day of the week. Moreover, themeasurement device.

study period was three days because this was the
maximum length of time the viewing state

2. Methodmeasuring device could record.
Each study was conducted with four families.

2.1 Participants

The participants of the first study were a female

This study was conducted in association withthird grader, a male third grader, a female fourthVideo Research Ltd., a company that measuresgrader, and a male fourth grader. The participants

TV program viewing rates by collecting data fromof the second study were a male third grader, aviewing state measurement devices installed inmale fourth grader, and two female fourth

the residences of participating families.

graders.

The process of selecting the participating
families began with a preliminary investigation of

2.3 Measurement of the amount of media use

TV viewing, conducted online, among families

The viewing/usage diary(1) Mothers of theworking with Video Research Ltd. Based on theparticipating children recorded in a viewing/

results of this preliminary investigation, families

usage diary the time their children started andwith third and fourth graders in primary school

ended watching TV, video-recorded TV programs

were selected. These families lived in Tokyo(VHS tapes, DVDs, or HDDs (including Blu-ray

Metropolitan Area and did not have any family

discs)) or playing video games. The amount ofmembers employed in mass communications orvisual media use was recorded in units of 15

research companies. Eight families were selected

minutes. When a participating child watched a(1) The viewing/usage diaries used in this research were used in the NHK research project, “Better Broadcasting
for Children.” Originally, they were used to record media use for a one-week period.

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TV program, his/her mother recorded therecorded content was used to identify the channel

channel by selecting from NHK General TV

and the name of each program viewed, if the(NHK-G), NHK Educational TV (NHK-E),

participating child was identified as the viewer.

Nippon Television Network (NTV), TV Asahi,Then, the amount of time spent watching

Tokyo Broadcasting System Television (TBS),according to the viewing state measurement

TV Tokyo, Fuji Television Network (Fuji TV), or

device was translated into a value for each

Other. The mother recorded the channel number,

15-minute time frame. Finally, the number ofchannel name, program name, and/or game title;

times and the duration of the use of visual media

if “Other” was selected; a TV program recorded

were analyzed in the same manner as the data

in VHS, DVD, or HDD (including Blu-ray disc)obtained from the viewing/usage diary.

format was watched; or a video game was played.

2.4 Procedure

Figure 1 shows the sample of the viewing/usage

A researcher from Video Research Ltd. visited

diary used in this study.
The format used is similar to that of Anderson

each participating family before the study,

et al. (1985); this format lists the units of time

installed a viewing state measurement device andrecorded next to the TV channel number and thea hard disc recorder, and showed the family how

program name. However, Anderson et al. (1985)

to use them. At the same time, the researcher

did not record the amount of media use othergave each family a viewing/usage diary andthan TV.

showed how to enter information in the diary.

Then, the type of media used, how many times

The explanatory note includes the following: if

each channel was watched (every time a channel

the names of the programs, the titles of thewas watched within a 15-minute time frame, itgames or the time intervals of the media use

was counted as one time point), and how many

were unclear for the mothers, the participating

minutes each channel was viewed were measured

children need to confirm them; it is necessary tofrom 6 am to midnight (12 am) during the threerecord of all the types of media being used in

day study period, were recorded. Obtained datacases where multiple types of media were used

was used in analysis. For example, Figure 1

simultaneously; if there were any questions onshows that NTV programs were watched at two

the manner of recording, a researcher wastime points for 30 minutes in total.

consulted with; and other such similar things.
A viewing

The notion of recording media use in 15-min timestate measurement device and a hard discintervals was explained using the following

recorder were connected to the TV that was mostconcrete example. “If your child was in contact

often used in the residence of each participatingwith media 6:35 AM onward, please draw afamily. The device was capable of identifying thevertical line starting from 6:30 AM.” Additionally,

viewer when the TV was turned on and controlled

the researcher asked each family to fill in theby its remote control. Identification of the viewer

diary only if participating children watching TV

was then collected as data via the Internet. After

connected to the viewing state measurement

the viewer was identified, the hard disc recorderdevice. Each family was told that the objective ofstarted to record what was shown on TV. The

the study was to examine how TV was used.

Viewing state measurement device

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Figure 1 The sample of the TV, video, video game viewing/usage diary

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After the study was complete, the researcher

video games. For all participating children, avisited each participating family to remove thelonger duration of media use was recorded in theviewing state measurement device and hard discviewing/usage diary than by the viewing state

recorder. At the same time, the researcher

measurement device (Table 2). The smallest

collected the diary after confirming it contained

difference was 24 minutes, and the largest

no missing information or mistakes. In thosedifference was 245 minutes. Mean of thecases where the times when media use began ordifference was 146.88 minutes (SD = 69.92) for

finished were unclear, the researcher checked

total duralion of media use, 30.75 minutes (SD =with the family and made necessary revisions.

117.71) for TV viewing.

3. Results

3.3 
Correlations between the viewing/usage
diary

3.1 Frequency of media use according to the

data

and

the

viewingstatemeasurement device data for the amountviewing/usage diary and the viewing stateof media use

measurement device

For each 15-minute time frame, the correlation

Table 1 shows how many times eachbetween the data recorded in the viewing/usage

participating child used media during the study

diary and the measurement by the viewing state

period. The difference between the diary datameasurement device was examined for theand device measurement data was then obtained

amount of media use. The correlation coefficientfor the total number of times of media use, whichon each channel and media type was calculated

included viewing of TV programs regardless ofusing 1728 data items (8 samples × 3 days × 72

the channel, viewing of video-recorded TV

time points).

programs, and playing of video games. For half oftheparticipantstheviewing/usage

Table 3 shows the result of Pearson’s product-

diary

moment correlation analysis. The correlations

recorded a higher frequency of media use, whileobtained for the amount of TV viewing by channel

the viewing state measurement device recorded

were significant, ranging from .49 to .82. Thea higher frequency of media use for the other halfcorrelation for the total amount of TV viewingof the participants (Table 1).

was .79, also significant. The correlation was .73
for viewing video-recorded TV programs and .59

3.2 Total duration of media use according tofor playing video games. There was also a positivethe viewing/usage diary and the viewing

and significant correlation of .75 for the total

state measurement device

amount of TV viewing, viewing of video-recorded

Table 2 shows how long each participating

TV programs, and playing of video games

child used the media during the study period.

combined.

The difference between the diary data and device

Finally, the correlations between the datameasurement data was then obtained for the total

entered in the diary and measurement data

duration of media use, which included viewing ofobtained by the device were obtained for the total

TV programs regardless of the channel, viewing

amount of use of each type of visual media toof video-recorded TV programs, and playing ofcompare with Anderson et al (1985) (Table 4).
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Frequency of media use by each participating child (measured in time points)

1) “Diary” means the measured amount of visual media use recorded in the TV, video, video game viewing/usage diary, and “device” means theamount of visual media use measured by the viewing state measurement device. “Difference” is the value obtained by subtracting the amount ofvisual media use measured by the viewing state measurement device from the amount of visual media use recorded in the diary.
2) “All channels” means the total number of times that NHK-G, NHK-E, NTV, TV Asahi, TBS, TV Tokyo, Fuji TV, or Other channel was watched.
3) “ Total time points” is obtained by adding “All channels,” the number of times video-recorded TV programs were watched, and the number of times
video games were played.

Table 1

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1) ”Diary” means the measured amount of visual media use recorded in the TV, video, video game viewing/usage diary, and “device” means theamount of visual media use measured by the viewing state measurement device. “Difference” is the value obtained by subtracting the amount ofvisual media use measured by the viewing state measurement device from the amount of visual media use recorded in the diary.
2) “ All channels” means the total minutes spent on NHK-G, NHK-E, NTV, TV Asahi, TBS, TV Tokyo, Fuji TV, or Other channel was watched.
3) “ Total” is obtained by adding “All channels,” the minutes spent on video-recorded TV programs were watched, and on video games were played.

Table 2 Total duration of media use by each participating child (measured in minutes)
Validity of TV, Video, Video Game Viewing/Usage Diary: Comparison with the Data Measured by a Viewing State Measurement Device

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Table 3 Correlations between the data recorded in the TV, video, video game viewing/usage
diary and the measurement by the viewing state measurement device (for each
15-minute time frame)1) ”All channels” means the total number of times that NHK-G, NHK-E, NTV, TV Asahi, TBS, TV Tokyo, Fuji
TV, or Other channel was watched.
2) ”Total” is obtained by adding “All channels,” the number of times video-recorded TV programs werewatched, and the number of times video games were played. All coefficients are significant (p < .01).

Table 4 Correlations between the data recorded in the TV, video, video game viewing/usage
diary and the measurement by the viewing state measurement device (for total amountof each type of media use)1) “All channels” means the total minutes spent on NHK-G, NHK-E, NTV, TV Asahi, TBS, TV Tokyo, Fuji TV,
or Other channel was watched.
2) “ Total” is obtained by adding “All channels,” the minutes spent on video-recorded TV programs werewatched, and on video games were played. ＊p < .05, ＊＊p < .01, ＊＊＊p < .001.

The obtained correlations were positive andtime, that this system is supposed to have thesignificant, being equal to or higher than .80 for

reliability to some extent. However, the accuracy

all TV channels, video-recorded TV programs,of this system was not examined in this study.

and video games, except for the amount of TBS

Therefore, it is necessary to consider the

programs watched. The correlation was .92 for

influence of the viewer identification error on thethe overall TV viewing and .99 for the total

results of this study.

amount of TV viewing, video-recorded TV

The frequency of media use was recorded asprograms, and video games combined.

higher in the viewing/usage diary for someparticipants while it was measured as higher by
the viewing state measurement device for other

4. Discussion

participants. Meanwhile, the amount of media
At the beginning, note that the measuring

use was always recorded as higher in thedevice’s identification accuracy of the viewer. In

viewing/usage diary. This means that thethis study, the viewer was identified by pushingmothers of the participating children recorded in

the button of the device’s remote control. This

the diary a larger amount of media use thanidentification system has been used to measure

actually occurred. One of the possible reasons is

the individual TV viewing rate for such a long

that, while the viewing/usage diary was entered
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Validity of TV, Video, Video Game Viewing/Usage Diary: Comparison with the Data Measured by a Viewing State Measurement Devicefor each 15-minute time frame, the viewing state

KUDO et al

participants.

measurement device recorded the amount ofFor data on the participants’ video gamemedia use every minute. Even if a participatingplaying, it was noticed that the diaries contained

child used the media for only a part of themore data than the devices had recorded. This

15-minute time frame, the amount of media use

was supposed to have occurred not only because

would be recorded as “15 minutes” in the diary.

of the units recorded in the diaries that wereThis would likely to result in recording of a larger

mentioned above but also because of theamount of media use than actually occurred. The

limitations of the measuring device. The

result of this study indicated that the total amountmeasuring device could only measure theof TV viewing was recorded as longer in thevideogame device it was associated with, whereas

viewing/usage

the diaries could measure handheld game playing

diary

by

approximately

10

minutes per day on average. This must be kept intime.

mind when analyzing the amount of media use

There is a growing trend of recording TV

recorded in the viewing/usage diary. Shortening

programs on an HDD and watching them at a

the time interval to 10 min would improve themore convenient time instead of watching TV

precision of measurements in the viewing/usage

programs in real time (Hirata & Shigyo, 2013),

diary.

and young children are starting to adopt the

The correlations between the data entered insame trends (Anraku, 2013). Also, as in the casethe viewing/usage diary and the data recordedof TV programs, there has been a strong interestby the viewing state measurement device werein the effect of videogame play on children’s.79 for the frequency of overall media use and .92

development, and many studies have been

for the total amount of media use. The correlation

conducted on this subject as well (Anderson, Dill

for the total amount of media use was equal to or& Gentile, 2012). In the future, the social andhigher than the correlation obtained by Anderson

academic interests to empirically examine theet al. (1985). Therefore, the accuracy of theeffects of standard TV-based visual media,

viewing/usage diary was confirmed to be equalincluding TV programs, VHS-, DVD, or HDD-

to or higher than the accuracy found by Anderson

recorded TV programs, and video games, on

et al. (1985). For the amount of viewing of video-

children’s development will continue to grow.

recorded TV programs and the amount of video

The findings of this study propose an effective

game play, there was a positive correlation of .80

methodology for measuring the amount of media

or higher between the data entered in theuse and therefore have an important significance.

viewing/usage diary and the data obtained by theviewing state measurement device. Again, theReferences

validity of the viewing/usage diary was confirmed

Anderson, C. A., Gentile, D. A., & Dill, K. E. (2012):

with a certain degree of confidence. However,“Prosocial, Antisocial, and Other Effects ofnote that compared with Anderson’s research,

Recreational Video Games”, In D. G. Singer, & J.

there is a higher possibility that the calculation of

L. Singer (Eds), Handbook of Children and thethe correlation coefficient in this research wasMedia, 2nd Edition, (pp. 249-272). Thousand

influenced by extreme dates because of fewer

Oaks, CA: Sage.

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Anderson, D. R., Field, D. E., Collins, P. A., Lorch, E.

‘Kasutamaizu shicho’ to ‘Tsunagari shicho’:P., & Nathan, J. G. (1985): “Estimates of young‘Terebi 60-nen Chosa’ kara (1) (Prevailingchildren’s time with television: A methodological‘Customized Viewing’ and ‘Connected Viewing’ :comparison of parent reports with time-lapse

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TV Broadcasting)”, The NHK Monthly Report on

Vol.56, 1345-1357.

Broadcast Research, Vol.745, 18-45.

Anraku, Y. (2013): “Yoji no terebi shicho to rokuga

Singer, D. G., & Singer, J. L. (Eds.) (2012): “Handbook

bangumi/DVD no riyo jyokyo: 2013-nen 6-gatsu

of children and the media (2nd ed.)”. Thousand‘Yoji Shichoritsu Chosa’ kara (How Young

Oaks, CA: Sage.

Children Are Watching TV and DVDs : From the

Acknowledgements

June 2013 Rating Survey on Young Children’s TV
Viewing)”,

The

NHK

Monthly

ReportThis study was part of the NHK research project,on“Better Broadcasting for Children.” We would like to

Broadcast Research, Vol.749, 44-57.
Bryant, J., & Oliver, M. B. (Eds.) (2008): “Media

take this opportunity to express our gratitude toeffects: Advances in theory and research (3rdVideo Research Ltd. for their full cooperation withed.)”. New York, NY: Routledge.

data collection.

Dill, K. E. (Ed.) (2012): “The Oxford Handbook ofThis paper is a modified and translated version of aMedia Psychology”. New York, NY: Oxford

part of the Ph.D. thesis of the first author

University Press.

(Ochanomizu University).

Hirata,A.,&

Shigyo,A.

(2013):“Hirogaru

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How Japanese Newspapers Contribute to Community
Engagement
Keywords:
Community Engagement, Media Use, Newspapers,

Kunihiko NAKANO, The University of Tokyo
Jingyuan YU, The University of Tokyo
Rie SAKAKIBARA, Dentsu Inc.
Toshiyuki KITAHARA, Dentsu Inc.
Masaru ARIGA, Dentsu Inc.
Kaori HAYASHI, The University of Tokyo
Hideyuki TANAKA, The University of Tokyo

Abstract
This work aims to investigate how Japanese newspapers contribute to community engagement.
Ninety percent of households in Japan subscribe to newspapers. Moreover half of Newspaper
circulation is concentrated on major newspapers whose head-quarters are located in a few major cities
such as Tokyo and Osaka. Nation-wide news and topics are the main content of these major papers.
This style is similar to Japanese TV programs. As prior studies have shown, not nation-wide mass
media but localized media such as community radio, contributes to community engagement as apart of production of social capital. This study quantitatively investigates the impact of newspapers
by comparing them with other media such as TV, radio, magazines, PCs and mobile phones.
The result of the regression shows that the impact of newspapers is different from that of TV.
The former is positively correlated to community engagement; on the other hand, the latter isnegatively correlated. Although a large part of Japanese newspapers traditionally focus on national
news, the result suggests that they also support everyday life activities in local communities.
Furthermore, new digital media affects community engagement negatively. The length of PC andmobile phone use negatively correlates to community engagement. The authors discuss factorsthat could cause these different effects of the above media on community engagement.

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NAKANO et al

we could say that newspapers in Japan are strongly

1. Introduction1

related to everyday life and the local community. In
This work aims to investigate how Japanese

this paper, the authors aim to examine the effects ofnewspapers contribute to community engagement.

newspaper on community engagement.

Moreover half of their circulation is concentrated

Table 1

on major newspapers whose headquarters are

World’s 100 Largest Newspapers

located in a few major cities such as Tokyo andOsaka.
Japanese newspapers are characterized by alarge circulation and delivering system. As
Hatanaka and Hayashi (2012) pointed out, 21
Japanese newspapers are ranked within the top
100 world-wide (Table. 1), and all of these arenational papers. According to WAN『World
Press Trends (2009)』, the Japanese newspaper
total circulation is the ranked third place next to
China

and

India,

which

have

enormous

populations. Furthermore, even the circulation of
one Japanese newspaper company is large. The
rate of the home delivery system is also notable.
About 95％ of households use the home delivery
system in Japan (Table. 2), contributing to theirenormous circulation.

Source: “World Press Trends (2005)”, World
Association of Newspapers.

Additionally, Japanese newspapers have a highlevel of support regarding in local information.
The Japan Newspaper Publishers & Editors

Table 2

Association (2011) did a survey for newspapers,
2

The transition of home delivery ratein Japantv, radio, magazine, and Internet. As a result of
this research, newspapers get the highest
support in the field of ‘everyday topics’ and‘coherence for local community’ among the fivemedia. In addition to this, articles on local
information are ranked fifth place within 20 kinds ofarticles that readers usually read. From this survey,
1	This research is based on a presentation of “e-tech & e-case 2013”. This research paper was written by the firstauthor. The author would like to express his gratitude toTanaka, who gave advice on analyzing this data.
2	This research provide us many aspects of newspaper and its readers, such as time of reading, popular genresof articles, where and how people read newspaper, subscription time for newspaper etc.

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had a positive effect on social capital indicators.
For example, Norris (1996) investigated theimpact of the media on civic engagement andpolitical participation. The result showed thatnewspaper readership is significantly associatedwith six out of eight activities. Furthermore,
Shah (1998) argues that the use of TV is notnecessarily negative with regards to mutual trust

Source: “The transition of home delivery rate inJapan,” The Japan Newspaper Publishers &Editors Association.

and social capital; it depends on the type of
television content. The relationship between TV
and social capital seems to be dynamic and highly

2. Related literature

contextual. Shah (2009) review the researches on
the relationships between civic participation andThis section reviews previous studies related

media use from the five points of view. Especially,

to our field of study.3 Furthermore, the authors

in the part of “usage patterns, attending to

explain limitations of those studies and propose

disaggregated media effects on civic life”,

research questions of this paper.

newspaper reading has a positive effect onpolitical or community participation (McLeod et

2.1 Related literatureal., 1999; Sotirovic & McLeod, 2001). On the

There are many studies on media use andother hand, television watching is not thesocial capital, and most of the studies in this field

monolithic danger, but it is more conditional.

response to Putnam’s “Bowling Alone” thesis

These arguments have been extended to the(Shah et al., 2009, p.207). Putnam (1995, 2000)

Internet, and studies on use of the Internet haveargued that society’s social capital and the level

been conducted in comparison with the use of TV

of face-to-face association had declined because

and newspapers. Kraut et al (1998), argued thatpeople tend to spend more time watching

the Internet use had a negative effect on social

television in private. His study found thatinvolvement and psychological well-being. In awatching television is negatively related to social

later follow-up investigation, a similar result wascapital, whereas the same correlation withnot observed. This result also found that people

newspaper reading was found to be positive.

with a diplomatic character tend to participate

However, Putnam’s study had been criticized

more in their communities. On the other hand,by many researchers who pointed out Putnam

introverted people tend to avoid community

selected TV use time as a variable. However, they

participation (Kraut et al, 2002). Shah et al. (2001)

showed that not only the media use time, but also

showed that use of the Internet for information

the contents of TV progrms is important. Theseexchange further influences trust in people andresults clarified that TV viewing of hard contents

civic participation than do uses of traditional print

3	We assume that social capital is a necessary condition for involvement in community engagement, so wemainly review prior studies on social capital.

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How Japanese Newspapers Contribute to Community Engagement

and broadcast news media. The viewing time of

NAKANO et alcontribute to community engagement.

television was negatively correlated with civic

2.2 Research Questions

engagement and contentment with life, whereas
only in case of hard news on TV, they wereThis study aims to investigate the relation

positively correlated. Conversely, both thebetween newspaper reading and community

reading time of newspaper and hard news reading

engagement. There are numerous studies with

were positively correlated with civic engagement.

regard to social capital. Although prior studies

The usage of the Internet for information

regarding social capital or civic engagement haveexchange was a key contributor in accounting forargued the effect of media use, they haveindividual’s social capital in civic engagement.

investigated each media effect separately or at

Hampton (2003) demonstrates that ICT facilitates

most four media format: TV, newspaper, PC andcommunity participation and collective action bymobile. In our research, we used six media,

creating large, dense networks of relatively weakfocusing on use time. For example, radio is one

social ties and through the use of ICT as anvariable that is not frequently treated in theorganizational tool. Tsuji (2006) assessed theprecedent studies. Funatsu (2006) wrote that

relation between three social capital indicators

community media, such as CATV and community

and media use, Internet use did not have an effectFM radio, plays an important role for citizen toon these indicators. However, newspaper reading

participate in their community [18]. Therefore,

was positively correlated, while TV viewing had aconsidering the role of media in fostering thisweak correlation with these indicators. Thesekind of community participation, the authors

researches

onlineintend to investigate newspapers’ effect oncommunity has a positive effect on participation

community engagement in relation time use ofin the local community (Kobayashi, et al., 2006;

six specific media: TV, newspaper, radio,

Kobayashi, et al., 2007; Shimura and Ikeda, 2009).

magazine, PC and mobile.

showed

that

the

local

Regarding on the effect of mobile phone andSNS is being conducted as well. Miyata andHence, we investigate the following research

Kobayashi (2008) showed that PC email may

question:increase the size of personal social networks,

RQ : When compared with other media, how is thewhereas mobile phone email is useful in

influence of the newspaper different?

maintaining existing strong ties that provide
social support. Some of the researchers focus on

3. The Data

social media (Steinfield et al., 2008; Valenzuela et

3.1 Dataal., 2009), investigating the relationship between

Data for this study came from the 2011 J-READ

the intensity of SNS use and social capital.
Recently, many researchers focus on the usage of(Japan Readers and Areal Data), directed by

ICT for social participation. Are newspapers

Video Research Ltd. This study is based on aeffective for social capital or community engagement

random sample survey (RDD method) of 28,859

in this circumstances? To investigate this, therespondents in all over Japan.4 Depending on theauthors surveys how Japanese newspapers

population scale of each metropolis and districts,
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six types of sample size was set. Potential

a local event or festival.” “33. I would rather

respondents were chosen among 15-69 years.

participate in a neighborhood association or

Self-administered questionnaire were sent tochildren’s group meeting.” “34. The area living in

respondents by post, and sent back by post. Datais easy to live.” “35. Local information is more

October andimportant than national information.” “36. I havecollection occurred between 16th

22th October 2011.

an attachment to my living place.” “160. I am
interested in the environmental problem of the

3.2 Variables

town where oneself lives in.” “169. I am interested

Criterion variablesinCommunity engagement. As explained in 3.1, we

maintenance.”utilize J-READ data in our analysis. So, the authors

8-item additive index consisting of dichotomous

choose the items from the set of question about(yes/no). These eight items were summed into

the genre of “politics”, “region”, and “environmentone

and social activity”. The items were chosen based

N=27052 ) (Table 3).

disasterscale

prevention
5

and

area

security

Community engagement is a(KR‒20=0.68,

M=4.66,SD=2.08,on the following criteria: “the information on
local events or news,” “communication with

Controlling variables

neighborhood” and “participation intention of

Demographic variables. We use demographic

local events.”

variables as controlling variables. They were asCommunity engagement was measured byfollows: sex (Male=50.1％, Female=49.9％), age

eight items: “7. I am interested in local politics orgroup, years of residence (M=6.18, SD=1.66,

administration.” “32. I would rather participate in

N=28579), educational background (M=2.74,

Table 3Fundamental statistics eight items of community engagement

4	RDD method is limited in that household residents who do not have a land line phone connection cannot bereached.
5	We choose the items from “Q-37(J-READ)” which are related to community engagement. The number of item is theconsecutive numbers of “Q-37”.

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How Japanese Newspapers Contribute to Community Engagement

NAKANO et al

SD=0.92, N=25537), full time employed (41.1％),

The model assesses affects of newspaper

household income (M=6.36, SD=3.07, N=27108),

reading on community engagement by controllinghouse ownership (82.1％), children (underfor demographic data such as gender, age, years

elementary school) (27.1％), and householdof residence, educational background, fulltime

member (M=3.52, SD=1.49, N=28281).

employed, households, house owing, household,and children(under elementary school).
In this study, our sample size was exceptionallyMedia use
Media use variables. In this survey, we use thelarge (N = 20709), so we need to discuss the result

length of media usage time as dependent variable.

based on not only its “statistical significance,” butMedia use was assessed using a measure, which

also its “effect size”. Cohen (1988), in dealing withrequired respondents to indicate how many hours

a large data set, established the criteria of “f2 effectthey spent using six different media. Respondents

size.” To measure the size of effect: small = 0.02,

were asked, “How long do you spend on each of

medium = 0.15, and large = 0.35. Our studies effectfollowing on a day?” The categories majored weresize is 0.12. This number is similar in value toNewspaper/Television/Radio/Magazine/Internet

Cohen’s medium effect size (0.15).

(PC)/Internet (mobile). Possible answered were:

J-READ asked respondents about their media(0) don’t use; (1) 5 minutes; (2) 15 minutes; (3)use time during both weekdays and weekends. In

25 minutes; (4) 35 minutes; (5) 45 minutes; (6) 55

this study, we decided to focus on media use timeminutes; (7) 75 minutes; (8) 105 minutes; (9) 150

during weekdays, since Tsuji (2006) showed thatminutes; (10) 210 minutes; (11) 270 minutes; (12)there was no significant difference between

300 minutes.

weekday media use and weekend media use. To

6verify this, we performed a multiple regression

4. Analysis

analysis using Saturday and Sunday media use
data.

4.1 The Model
4.2 Analysis

In order to examine the relationship ofnewspaper reading and community engagement,

Table 4 shows the result of the regression

we performed a multiple regression analysis as

analysis. Firstly, the characteristics of people

follows7:

who participating in community engagement was
as follows. The most effective variables was

Y = α + β1age + β2 gender + β3education + β4living“children”. Having children has a significant

together + β5Children + β6house owing + β7Grandchildpositive effect on community engagement, while+ β8 Household + β9 living + β10 Mediause (Newspaper )“fulltime employed” has a significant negative+ β11 Mediause(TV ) + β12 (Radio) + β13 (Magazine ) +effect.

β14 (PC ) + β15 (Mobile) + ε

Secondly, our study found the following effectsof media use on community engagement. To

6	e-mail use is removed from Internet use (PC and mobile phone).
7	When we performed a multiple regression analysis, we standardized a criterion variable and media use variables.

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Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. 7, No. 1 Nov. 2014

Table 4

Regression analysis predicting the community engagement

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How Japanese Newspapers Contribute to Community Engagement

NAKANO et alcompare the effect of newspapers with the effectsecond, is related to media use. In the following,of other media, we used the other media use

we discuss the details about each one.

variables, such as TV, radio, magazine, PC and

5.1 Demographic Variables

mobile phone. After controlling for demographic
variables and five other media measures, theRegarding demographic variables, there are

effect of newspapers was positively correlated tothree main findings: one strong negative effect,

community engagement. The effect of newspapers

broad positive effects, and an age effect.

reading time is the most strongly effective on

Importantly, in our analysis, only one negative

community engagement among the six media use

effect factor appeared: the “working style”

variables. In addition to newspapers, radio andvariable had a significantly negative effect.

magazines are positively correlated to community

People who work long hours are unable toengagement. On the other hand, TV and PC

become engaged in their respective communities

usage are negatively correlated to community

due to their long time constraints.
The second finding is the positive effect factor,

engagement.

which was very wide. In our analysis, all the

5. Discussion

variables except “fulltime employed” and “sex”
had a significantly positive effect. Among these

The purpose of our study is to explore howvariables, the one with the strongest effect was

Japanese newspapers contribute to community“having children”. That is, people who haveengagement. Our analysis shows that thechildren are more likely to become engaged instandardized coefficient of reading newspapers

their respective communities than those who doon community engagement shows the highest

not have children. In addition to this variable,

value among the other five media’s coefficients.

“years of residence,” “household members”,

Although a large part of Japanese newspapers“house ownership” had a significant strong effecttraditionally focus on national news, the results

as well. These results are consistent with priorsuggest that they also support everyday life

studies on social capital.

activities in local communities.

Finally, the age variable showed a significant

The effect of newspapers and TV on social

effect. In our analysis, we established threecapital has been examined previously, but in thisdummy categories: 15-29 age group, 30-49 age

research, we focus on community engagement.

group, and 50-69 age group. When we performed

Comparedthea multiple regression analysis, we set the 30-49

characteristics of this study can point to newage group as the base category. As a result, thedirections, since it used a large number of media

30-49 age group was shown to be more likely touse variables. The number of variables in priorbecome engaged in their communities than thestudies is at most four, whereas our study

15-29 age group. However, when compared withincorporates a more comprehensive number ofthe 50-69 age group, the 30-49 age group is lessuse time variables for a wider range of media.

likely to become engaged in their community.

with

these

prior

studies,

Our findings can be summarized in two main

The effect of aging on community engagement

points: first, is related to demographic factors;

was confirmed in this result.
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Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. 7, No. 1 Nov. 2014

include many activities, which may or may not

5.2 Media Use Variables

connect people.

Regarding media use variables, newspapers,
radio and magazine are positively correlated to

6. Conclusion

community engagement, whereas TV and PC are
negatively correlated to community engagement.

The goal of this article was to investigate how

The two main findings of our analysis are asnewspapers

follows.

contributetocommunity

The first finding concerns the relationshipengagement in Japan. Our results demonstrate abetween newspaper reading and community

connection between newspaper reading andengagement. Reading newspapers has thecommunity engagement. Although most of allstrongest effect on community engagement after

Japanese newspapers’ topics focus on nation-

having controlled for the five other media

wide news, the time of reading newspaper isinfluences, which is noteworthy. This result is

positively correlated with local community

consistent with prior studies. Korenaga (2010)Engagement.

8

examined this using four media use variables (TV,Our study has an important limitation, which isnewspapers, PC and mobile phone), which showed

media use variables. Our research measures only

very interesting results. Using “centeredness

overall media use time. This problem has been

private life” variable as an independent variable, he

identified in prior research. However J-READ’sshowed that the more people read newspapers or

sample size and technique are solid, so in a

use the Internet with PC, the more people are notchanging media use environment, these results

private life centered. This result suggests thatare still important to consider. Prior studies

reading newspapers widens their interest in

demonstrated

others, similar to our results. However, ourprogramming has a positive relation with social

independent variable is community engagement.

capital indicators (Norris, 1996; Tsuji, 2006). For

The second notable result is the effect of new

future study, we should compare the results

media (PC): our analysis showed is the more

between the effect of “media use time” and “thepeople use this media, the less they are engaged

every contents of media use.”

that

the

contentsofTV

in their communities. Regarding this result, it isimportant to bear in mind that we used total use

Acknowledgements

time here. In fact, our results contrast with priorThis research is supported by the Grants-in-Aid forstudies. Previous studies focus on e-mail (PC andScientific Research(KAKENHI B), Grant Number

mobile) which confirmed that sending PC and

24330147.

mobile e-mail has a positive effect on community
participation and social capital indicators (Miyata

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・ Funatsu, M. (2006). The present state and problems

depends on the selection of the variable that wein community media. Journal of the University of theused. Importantly, PC and mobile phone use canAir, 24, 25-33.

8	We can not prove that this is a casual relationship where newspaper reading causes Community Engagement.

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How Japanese Newspapers Contribute to Community Engagement
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AND CIVIC PARTICIPATION On Understanding

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Bryant, J., & Oliver, M. B. (Eds.), Media effects:

Mukopadhyay, T., & Scherlis, W. (1998). Internet

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・ Shimura, M., & Ikeda, K. (2009). The causal effectinvolvement and psychological well-being? American
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・ The Japan Newspaper Publishers & Editors(5) 50～59; (6) 60～69.

Association, “The transition of home delivery ratein Japan”, accessed Dec 1st, 2012, http://www.

Gender: “Male = 1” or “Female = 0”

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Educational・ Tsuji, D.(2006). Social Capital & Information

background:“Whichis

youreducational background ?”Behavior(in Japanese). In Hashimoto, Y(Eds.).

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college or technical college or special [vocational]

・ Valenzuela, S., Park, N., & Kee, K. F. (2009). Is

school; (4) university or postgraduate college

there social capital in a social network site?:
Facebook use and college students’ life satisfaction,

Household income : “ Which of following categories

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・ World Association of Newspapers.(2005).” World

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Press Trends (2005)”, accessed Dec 19, 2012,

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million yen ～5 million yen; (6) 5 million yen

world-press-trends-2005-edition.

～6million yen; (7) 6 million yen～7 million yen; (8) 7
million yen～8 million yen; (9) 8 million yen～9

APPENDIX

million yen; (10) 9 million yen～10 million yen; (11)Appendix A: Question Wording

10 million yen～12 million yen; (12) 12 million
yen～15 million yen; (13) more than 15 million yen

Community engagement“7. I am interested in local politics or administration.”

Years of residence : (1) less than 1year; (2)1～3“32. I would rather participate in a local event or

years; (3) 3～5 years; (4) 5～10 years; (5) 10～20

festival.”

years; (6) 20～30 years; (7) 30～40 years; (8) more

“33. I would rather participate in a neighborhood

than 40

association or children’s group meeting.”“34. My area is easy to live.”

Number of people in household : How many people“35. Local information is more important thanare there living together including yourself ?

national information.”(1) 1; (2) 2; (3) 3; (4) 4; (5) 5; (6) 6; (7) 7; (8) more

“36. I have an attachment to myneighborhood.”than 8 people.

“160. I am interested in the environmental problem of

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How Japanese Newspapers Contribute to Community Engagement
House ownership: 0 (Rent house) or 1(owned by

NAKANO et alfollowing on week days , Saturday and Sunday?9
Newspaper/ Television10/Radio/Magazine/Internet

respondent).

(PC)/Internet (mobile): (0) don’t use; (1) less than 10
Fulltime employeed: 0 (part-time job and self-

minutes; (2) 10 minutes to 20 minutes; (3) 20 minutes

employed people) or 1 (fulltime regular employee

to 30 minutes; (4) 30 minutes to 40 minutes; (5) 40

and fulltime temporary employee)

minutes to 50 minutes; (6) 50 minutes to 1 hour; (7)1-1.5 hours; (8) 1.5-2 hours; (9) 2-3 hours; (10) 3-4
hours; (11) 4-5 hours; (12) more than 5 hours

Media use variables
Media use: How long do you spend on each of the

9

In this study, we used the median of each category.

10	When we compared J-READ’s average TV use time with other investigations, so we changed TV’s (12) morethan 5 hours into 687 to get closer to “NHK (Nihon Housou Kyoukai) National Time Use Survey 2010”.

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Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. 7, No. 1 Nov. 2014

Designing Digital Storytelling Workshops for Vulnerable
People:A Collaborative Story-weaving Model from the “Pre-story
Space”
Keywords:
Digital Storytelling, participatory media, story-weaving model, dialog, photo-taking

Akiko OGAWA, Nagoya University
Yuko TSUCHIYA, Hiroshima University of Economics

Abstract
Digital Storytelling (DST) is a grassroots movement and a workshop-based practice throughwhich people are taught to use digital media to create short video stories, usually about their own
lives. Although DST practices are spreading throughout the world, it seems that little attention
has been given to the story-generating process. In running several workshops, we presumed that
it was difficult for many people to express their experiences and thoughts in a clear, coherent way,
and it is important to rethink how they generate their stories. In this paper, we propose a digitalstorytelling workshop model for vulnerable people that entails establishing key concepts of “thecollaborative story generation” from “pre-story space.”1
First, we examined two game-like workshop methods. One of them was a DST program “Media
Conte,” in which participants and facilitators co-created the stories primarily through dialogs andcard games. The other was “Photo Karuta,” in which participants were required to take photos
and interview others to find new perspectives through fieldworks. Both workshops shared theconcept of focusing on pre-story space to generate stories. These workshops were developed andmodified through numerous attempts, which were conducted by the methodology of “critical
media practice.”2
At the end of this paper, we depict how the collaborative story-weaving model is developed fromthe pre-story space and discuss the advantages for vulnerable people using these storytelling
methods.

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Designing Digital Storytelling Workshops for Vulnerable People: A Collaborative Story-weaving Model from the “Pre-story Space” OGAWA et al

logically express themselves. In our society,1. Background and objectives

since passionate groups promoted these media,

1-1. Why should we focus on pre-story Space?

they

unintentionally

tend

to

excludethe

Typically, a Digital Story is a two-to-three

engagement of the everyday people. That is,minute video clip that combines photo images

participatory media still has not become awith a storyteller’s voiceover. It is produced

familiar presence for vulnerable people.4 In thisthrough intensive workshops during which eachcontext, the examples of global DST practices,

participant speaks freely to constructively address

which are aimed toward laypeople’s expression,

the stories told by each other participant (“story

are shown to benefit participatory media

circles”). Stories told in this format focus onpractices throughout Japan as well.

everyday life, such as memories of school days,

Certainly, DST is a unique form of media,

personal experiences, and family histories. These

allowing laypeople to simply and richly express

videos can be likened to sonnets or haiku for thetheir thoughts and everyday lives. However, we

digital age (Hartley & McWilliam, 2009). This

have a question about their premise thatprocess was inspired by the performances of“everyone has a story to tell,” which is often

artist D. Atchley, and the California-based Centerassumed in basic Californian practices. We

for DST has continued his activities, implementing

attempted a couple of trial workshops based on

his practices worldwide. Many individuals andthe DST approach, and it proved difficult togroups conduct the workshops over a wide range

develop meaningful stories. In our experimentalof locations and in various fields of interest, suchworkshops,

as education, empowerment, and public history

unable to voice what they desired to say in3(Lambert, 2013; Tsuchiya, 2013).

vulnerable

participants

seemedindividual situations and were not conscious or

While participatory media or public accessself-aware of the own stories. In the Western

television have attracted increased attention

model, it seems that little attention has beenacross Japan, most citizen media practices havegiven to the story-generating process. Bybeen developed for “healthy” citizens, who are

conducting several workshops with vulnerable

viewed as having clear opinions and the ability togroups, Ogawa & Ito’s previous paper pointed

1	This is a study to explore people’s media creativity by designing and examining experimental workshops, which
are based on an approach of the Critical Media Practice proposed by Mizukoshi (Mizukoshi, 2011).
2	In Critical Media Practice, we will design a system or program to facilitate citizen media expression and planand hold a workshop to implement the system. We will then analyze and evaluate the results of the workshop,
based on which we will develop an improved workshop plan. By repeating this cycle, we will incrementally
improve the performance of workshop program (Mizukoshi, 2012).
3	Of particular note is the Capture Wales project in the UK. The project attracted attention as a high-profile
example of this type of activity in which the BBC, which operates under the banner of objective reporting,transferred editorial authority to general audiences (Meadows and Kidd, 2009). Lambert, the founder of theCenter of DST in California, notes that over 15,000 people were trained in the art of DST (Lambert, 2013).
4	In this paper, we define “vulnerable people” as the voiceless in society such as marginalized people and laypeople
who are inexperienced in expressing themselves in public.

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out the importance of focusing on the “pre-story

By comparing these two workshops andspace.” The term refers to a space in which only

clarifying their common and contrasting points,

small fragments of ideas, experiences, or untold

we attempt to extract a model that could facilitate

complaints, or laughter, —“story seeds”—arevulnerable people to generate stories, andjumbled together prior to verbalization (Ogawa &examine a new digital storytelling perspective. In

Ito, 2010). It is important to rethink how they

addition, we want to emphasize that our goal isgenerate their stories and to start practices fromnot to analyze and verify experimentally andthe pre-story space.

demonstratively subjects such as the reactions toor changes in the participants or the works they

1-2. Objectives of this paper

have created in workshops. Rather, the goal of

In this paper, by developing the concept shown

this paper is to devise a storytelling program forin previous paper about pre-story space andeducational and societal practice to present new

examining and comparing our two workshop

possibilities for digital storytelling.

methods and results, we propose a new model of5

2. In the case of Media Conte

story generation for vulnerable people.
First, we re-examined our workshop programs
to determine how we intended to generate

2-1. General information about Media Conte

stories. The first workshop method (MediaAs an attempt to seek out a DST model that

Conte) included finding story seeds inside of aadhered to Japanese society, we have continuously

supposed storyteller and combining the picked

improved our two-to-three day workshop program,seeds to rearrange them into a storyline. The

named “Media Conte,” since 2008.6 With our

examined second workshop (Photo Karuta)

project, more than 10 workshops have been

included seeking story seeds in the outside

conducted

world. It set up fieldworks during which

nationalities, senior citizens, disabled people, andstorytellers visited unfamiliar locations equipped

students in Fukushima; over 100 Digital Stories

with cameras. While photographing the location

have been created thus far. Setting aside theand witnessing others, the storytellers picked up

Western assumption that “everyone has a story

story seeds. Those seeds were selected and used

to tell”, we designed workshop programs thatto create a set of game cards, called “Photo

would enable laypeople to generate stories that

Karuta,” which displayed local features that werefocusedin line with participant’s established theme.

dissatisfactions. This program intends to develop

on

among

their

teenagers

everydaywithforeignthoughts

and5	Media Conte workshops are mainly conducted by A. Ogawa, M. Ito, and S. Mizojiri, who collaborate withmembers: K. Sakata, S. Mizukoshi, A. Kikuchi, and Y. Tsuchiya. Photo Karuta was designed and conducted by Y.
Tsuchiya.
6	We have been conducting workshop, since 2008, with teenage children of foreign workers of Japanese descent,senior citizens, women, disabled persons, and university students in Iwaki, Fukushima (Higashi Nippon
International University). For more details, see http://mediaconte.net/. Most of the stories are available on
the “Theater” page. Some have English scripts.

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the marginalized participants’ Digital Stories,

perspectives similar to the theories and practices

which empowers the creation of self-narrativeof narrative approach7.

through dialogue and story generation.

2-2-1. T he “combining-photos-into-stories”

During these workshops, we focused on the

game8role of facilitators to reveal the participants’ story
seeds. Then we established a service-learning

The “combining-photos-into-stories” game iscourse at the Community Collaboration Center ofan icebreaking, story-focused workshop. With

Aichi Shukutoku University, and the students

this game-like program, each participant chosemajoring in media studies were expected to act as

one photo from a diverse collection of photos

facilitators and listen to the participants’ unvoiced

relating to a single subject, such as a frog, or aexperiences and thoughts to help generate theirpiece of cake. The participant attached the photostories and produce videos.

to a base card and then partnered with anotherparticipant to create a story linking their two

2-2. Basic workshop method

motifs; this was performed within a time limit.

During our workshop, we aimed to make story-

Simply attempting to link the two photos as-is would

generating possible using dialogues and game-not have yielded successful results; however, by

like programs instead of writing scripts. We

recording the symbols and connotations thatdesigned the workshop by keeping in mind thesprang to mind while viewing the photos andstory-making theory proposed by Ohtsuka (2003).

writing these on sticky notes, which were then

He proposed one antithesis of a storytelling theory

attached to the photos, participants were able tofromindividuals’

identify and visualize the structural elements ofconfessions, which coincides with the Western or

potential stories. Another intention of thistheperspective

of

the

modern story theory. What has been cited here
as the means of producing stories within nonWestern or postmodern story-making theory is
not the novel or film, but card games. With a card
game,

deconstructing

experiences

andimpressions, and linking and combining theminto stories are made easier. Moreover, they are
directly experienced as physical actions. While
the participants and facilitator students engaged
in the dialogic card game, they would identify thehidden voice fragments and withdraw their story

Photo 1

“ Combining-photos-into-stories”

seeds. In addition, this deconstruction andgame. Start from a frog and end

construction method of storytelling employedwith a piece of cake.

7	In narrative theories, story is often defined as “describing the plot of two or more events”. It means stories are
generated by linking pieces of information.For more details, see Yamada (2000).
8	Workshop methods and tools are available at the website: http://mediaconte.net/workshop

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program was to show the participants thatof stories were presented, all participants andstorytelling practice was a freewheeling activity infacilitators exchanged feedback−questions, –which, unlike their schoolwork, there were no rightcomments–and advice− about what kinds ofor wrong answers.

photo images would be effective to use in thestories.

2-2-2. Interview time
2-2-4. Storyboard productions and editing

Starting with this program, each participant
would move forward to generate his or her own

This process began by printing the photos andstory. First, five small cards were prepared. A

attaching them to the picture-script cards, which

single theme, such as “annoyances,” ”my mostincluded rough scenarios consisting of shortmemorable event,” or “my treasure” was written

sentences. Each picture scene required one oron each of them. These questions were intended

two sentences. Since it was much easier andto guide participants in voicing their experiencesmore impressive, participants were encouraged

and thoughts. A facilitator placed one of theseto speak in monologues using a colloquial style,cards in the middle of a sheet of paper and asked

conversational tone. Finally, they combined thequestions related to the subjects on the card. The

photos and voiceovers using Windows Movie

participant’s experiences and thoughts, which

Maker or iPad application software.

were voiced in response to the questions, were

2-2-5. Preview and media coverage

written on sticky notes and attached around thecard; these served as motifs that could potentiallyCompleted Digital Stories were screened at

generate a story. If the subject on the card did not

the conclusion of the workshop. The participant-seem to activate discussions, then the processfacilitator pairs introduced their works prior to

was attempted again with a different card. Finally,

the screening. In order to share these stories

if an interesting topic arose, the card in the centerwith the local community members, most of thewas replaced with a note recording the main

works were later broadcasted on local cable

topic or episode; this note was coupled with the

television.

sticky notes gathered from keywords during the

2-3. Workshop results

question time and was used to assemble a story.

Although we had to partially rethink and2-2-3. Storytelling by five picture cards

reform the program, it proved functional during

From the collected notes with key concepts

each session. Every participant was successful inwritten on them, participants and facilitatorsdeveloping a story.

created the outline of a story by selecting notes

First, in each session, most of the story seeds

and attaching them to five picture cards. On eachwere found in seemingly unimportant chats withcard, a square for attaching sticky notes andfacilitators about every day matters. The

some dots for main ideas were printed.

facilitators accomplished this through continual,Participants and facilitators put their notes withdiligent questioning, listening, and nodding, andkeywords on sheets of paper, and they wrote

by mobilizing the frameworks of their own

down keywords for each scene. After the outlines

interpretations. These interactive, game-like
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Designing Digital Storytelling Workshops for Vulnerable People: A Collaborative Story-weaving Model from the “Pre-story Space” OGAWA et alsessions evoked participants’ motivation to self-

dialogic “story-weaving” method proves to be very

disclose.

effective in empowering participants.

For

example,intheyoungest

participant’s case,9 a female student facilitator used

These new stories also help participants makea question card with the theme “Annoyances,” andsense of their lives. The participants pondered

she encouraged a boy’s complaints about chores

about their pasts and rethought their futuresand his brother by asking numerous questions,through the story-weaving process. In the case ofproviding various options of how to combine

young participants who created future self-

identified story seeds, taking photos, andstories, it seemed some of the dream stories

combining these elements that reflected theiractually came true.

own past experiences. Achieved here were

Finally, as a side effect, the collaborative story-

stories created together, with the teenagers andweaving workshop provides both participants

facilitators serving as catalysts for each other. In

and facilitators with a strong sense of empathy

contrast, unlike the workshop with facilitators,

toward their workshop partners. In order to help

the stories, which are generated without

generate the participants’ stories, facilitators

facilitators’ help, tended to be elusive. Also, in thewere required to understand each participant’scase where we skipped the “combining-photos-

unique situation. As stated earlier, the facilitators

into-stories” game, it took longer for participants

were required to listen to the participants’to understand how to generate meaningful stories

voiceless thoughts, imagine the situation their(Ogawa et al.2010). This proves the effectivenesspartners were in, and try to interpret theirof our card-game- like and conversational story-

narratives using their own past experiences; thisgenerating method (Ogawa & Ito, 2010; Ogawa etcalled for them to demobilize their own frameworks

al., 2010; Ogawa et al., 2012; Mizojiri et al., 2012).

and perspectives to understand others with different

Second, our collaborative model encouraged

backgrounds. Printed photos were also effective inparticipants to “re-present” their new story of self

encouraging empathy toward others and to(Ogawa & Ito, 2010). “Self” came to be theorizedinterpret the background situation of eachas “a perpetually rewritten story (Bruner, 1991)”

participant. Through story-weaving processes,

in cultural psychology, and the self-narrative isfacilitators

recognized as essential when a person constructs

partners desired to say by reflecting on their own

and reconstructs one’s identity. However, as

experiences and feelings. Many student facilitators

narrative theories stipulate, people do not find it

mentioned their newfound interest in news

easy to write or rewrite their self-narrative without

regarding the vulnerable groups with which they

someone’s conversational help. In our workshops,

became involved.

frequently

interpreted

what

the

many stories concerning the self were generated
through the facilitator’s questioning, and selecting

2-4. Problems

and connecting story seeds. Since our identities

Althoughtheprograms

wereprimarily

and those we attribute to others are relational andfunctional, the collaborative story-weaving model

constructed in conversation (Gergen, 2009), thepresented two problems. First, we absolutely

9	Their stories are available at the website: http://mediaconte.net/theatre/?cat=8.

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needed the facilitators to maintain positive

haiku, and were interpreted as a group of short

attitudes toward their participating partners.

and fragmentary digital stories. We referred toWithout positive attitudes, interview sessions didthem as “story sprouts” in the pre-story space.

not prove to be effective, and the story seeds

Karuta is traditionally a popular Japanese card

were not properly gathered. In addition, thegame with roots dating back to a shell-matchingprocess worked best when the facilitator’sgame played among aristocrats of the Heianbackground differed from that of the participant’s.

period (794-1185).10 Today, Karuta uses two types

The differences seemed to raise more questionsof paper cards: which are pairs of picture cards,

despite the fact that they had difficulties inor “e-fuda,” and written cards, or “yomi-fuda.” A

understanding their backgrounds.

yomi-fuda is written in a short poem of 17

Second, since participants sometimes relied

syllables arranged in a 5-7-5 pattern, similar to a

too heavily on the facilitators’ help, which washaiku.11 A karuta set often consists of 46 pairs ofespecially the case with the more vulnerable

cards, the same number of letters in the Japaneseparticipants, the facilitators tended to holdalphabet, called “hiragana.” During the game,stronger initiatives when generating stories. This

while a facilitator reads aloud the written yomi-

was inevitable to some extent, but the facilitator

fuda one by one, players attempt to snatch theshould always avoid too much interference.

e-fuda associated with it from among all the othercards before the other players can. The player

3. In the case of Photo Karuta

who gains the highest number of e-fuda isdeclared the winner. A karuta set has a single

3-1. General information on Photo Karuta
Photo Karuta combines photo-taking researchwith the making of a Japanese traditional card
game, called “karuta.” Even though it is not
identical to DST, developed by the Center of DST
in California and others, the Photo Karuta
workshop guides participants in exploring a prestory space and gathering story seeds. With thisworkshop, participants took photos and wrote
short poems similar to haiku that related to each

Photo 2

photo. These pair cards included the photo andPhoto Karuta

10	The Japan Kyoto Karuta NPO introduces history and basic description of karuta. See http://www14.plala.
or.jp/hpmsmiki/englishpage.html.
11	Haiku is a form of traditional short poetry with 17 syllables in Japan. As a conservative rule, it requires a season
word “kigo” and focuses on natural subject matter. “Senryu” is also a form of poetry written with the same
number of syllables without a kigo, and deals with humor and human nature. Now, however, senryu featuresappear in haiku, and the differences are sometimes blurred. In the Photo Karuta workshop, it did not matter if
the strict rule was followed, so the students wrote the haiku in freer way.

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theme, such as proverbs, dialects, historicalfigures, local specialties, and so etc. Therefore,
karuta is often played among children as an
educational exercise to grasp fundamental
knowledge home and in schools. Kids enjoy
using the game to learn. Additionally, because of
its popularity, karuta is often designed to promotelocal culture. One of the well-known examples is“Jomo karuta,” which was made to introduce

Figure 1

Design of Photo Karuta workshop

historical characters, famous locations, andproducts of Gunma, one of the prefectures inmakes a karuta set consisting of 46 pairs of cards.

Japan. Citizens participate in large competitions

The groups are required to establish one uniqueeach year.

theme for their karuta based on the attractions
that they find from the field.

3-2. Basic workshop method
Duringthe

Photo

Figure 1 displays the full design of the Photoworkshop,

Karuta workshop as a pre-story space. To findparticipants tried to make the karuta themselves

story seeds, participants visited a location andto introduce their local places. They took photos

photographed

for the picture cards and wrote haiku on theexperiencing nature and the local atmosphere.

written cards. In the process of making the karuta

The also heard explanations given by a local

sets,

individual

volunteer guide, and held conversations withperspectives to discover charming points of these

locals. After that, participants attempted tolocations. Because this activity resulted in 46

generate story sprouts by creating Photo Karuta

pairs of photo-haiku cards, it had the potential toaccording to their set theme. This process

produce 46 story sprouts.

included: choosing 46 photos for the picture

participants

used

Karutatheir

eye-catching

scenes,while

Since 2008, Photo Karuta has been used in thecards and printing them, considering haiku forcourse “Watashitachi no Hiroshima-Photo Karuta

the written cards by finding adequate words todukuri (Rediscovering Our Hiroshima-A Photomatch the photos, comparing their works with

Karuta Production),” which is an active learninggroup members to modify them, and studying

programs at Hiroshima University of Economics.

local matters. Through these activities, they

The course aims to enhance planning abilities

found and expressed various attractions relating

and other social skills, such as cooperation andto the location.

presentation. For six years, we have made karuta
cards for local towns and islands in Hiroshima

3-3. Workshop results

prefecture: Hiroshima-shi, Okunojima, Miyajima,

3-3-1. Story sprouts generated in the workshop

Osakikamijima, Onomichi-shi, Sandankyo Valley,

Story sprouts, that is, pairs of karuta cards

and Osakikamijima. Every year, there are about

generated by participants, were multi-faceted and

20 to 30 attendees, divided into four or five groups

richly expressive. They were divided into fourcomprised of three or four members. Each groupcategories: description, knowledge, thoughts,
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Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. 7, No. 1 Nov. 2014

and imagination.

photos were not directly related to the haiku’s

The first category, description, described andmessages. For example, seeing a photo of a

explained scenes and people that students tookscenic waterfall, a student wrote the haiku: I feel

notice of while working at the location. For

ridiculous myself, why I was worrying, until

example, one photo card captured an image of

midnight yesterday. The writer did not the mention

autumn maple leaves turning fiery red. On thewaterfall at all, but, instead, wrote what came topaired haiku card, the student wrote a realistic

her mind as she witnessed the natural creature.

and rhythmical poem: Very red, autumn leaves,

Taking photos of the waterfall reminded her ofvery red (This text is translated to English by

everyday annoyances and awakened her to its

Tsuchiya. The same applies to the following

minuteness.

haiku). Another example of a card included the3-3-2. 
Narratives composed from 46 story

words: On the canvas, a gentleman draws, also

sprouts

autumn leaves. This haiku described a photo ofDuring the workshop, as mentioned earlier,colored leaves at a valley and an elderly man who

each group was required to set up one theme forsat riverside to paint those leaves.
The second category of karuta card provided

their karuta, which specified an attractive featureknowledge relating to the area, includingthat the group discovered while visiting theinformation and history that the student learned

location. In a completed karuta set, the theme

while working at the location. It was based on thewas elaborately depicted by 46 story sprouts withparticipant’s thoughts and interests during

various expressions of individual members. This

activities. As an example, the following haiku

proposed theme acted as a unique local narrative

introduced the biological reason why the

relating to their original view, which waswaterfall appeared red, taught by the local guide.

collectively and collaboratively weaved.
In the case of the karuta created from theSuch a mysterious, red color of waterfall, the reason

Sandakyo-valley in 2012, five groups of students

is bacteria.
The third category included the thoughts andspecified their themes: 1) the healing effect ofemotions that came to mind when the students

the visit, 2) a romantic location for dating, 3) rich

took the photos, listened to others, and exploredhistory built by people’s endeavors, 4) a charming

the nature. These were not merely explanations

combination of many natural aspects, such as theof what they saw and heard, but were expression

sounds of a river, fresh air, scenic valleys, andof their thought processes. On a photo card

autumn leaves, and 5) an enjoyable place for

depicting a flower and autumn leaves in a valley,

children. During the workshop, varied narratives

students wrote the haiku: It is the lovely, thewere raised, composed of diverse images andforgettable flower, blossoms quietly.

words proposed by each group.

The forth karuta category included theimagination and inspiration that the participants

3-3-3. Effectiveness of the workshop design

drew when they were inspired by the photoWith the design of this Photo Karuta workshop,

cards. It allowed for a freer mind than category

we focused not only on dialogues but also on

three, and the objects and scenes shown on theexperiencestogather

story

seeds.

The

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Designing Digital Storytelling Workshops for Vulnerable People: A Collaborative Story-weaving Model from the “Pre-story Space” OGAWA et al

photographing activity allowed participants to

4. The story-generating model from pre-story

easily discover their interests and individual

space

points of view. Moreover, the photos wereeffective when the participants were asked to

By reflecting and examining both activities ofreflect upon and evoke their associated ideas.

Media Conte and Photo Karuta workshops in

Additionally, visiting the location for the fieldwork

accordance with the concept of the pre-story

caused the participants to feel the experience

space, we elaborated a model to generate stories

through their bodies; that is, they not only werefor vulnerable people. The extracted model isable to see the field, but they were also able toshown in Figure 2. Both workshops, basically

hear, smell, touch and taste the experience.

followed three steps when weaving these stories:

Those experiences facilitated participants to1) pick up story seeds, 2) select and classify themore sensitively perceive and to create haikus,

story seeds, and 3) transform the seeds of stories

story seeds, and sprouts as categorized in 3-3-1.

into coherent stories.

Surely, it is relatively easier to develop story

In the case of Media Conte, participants picked

sprouts - pair cards of the photos and the haiku -up story seeds from their memories and internalthan rationalized stories. For vulnerable people,

voices through a workshop exercise called

the ease of story sprouts acted as effective“interview time.” Through conversation withstarting points to raise their voices freely.

facilitators, they were inspired by the use of

Moreover, a form of karuta does not have a linear

question cards. In the next activity, “storytellingstoryline, but can generate unique narratives as awith five picture cards,” story seeds werewhole based on the 46 story sprouts. It may aid inselected, classified, and arranged in a timeline,

the discovery of local features and attractions in aand edited into a story. In the Photo Karuta

wider perspective. In addition, the story-making

workshop, story seeds were picked up from fieldprocess was more interactive and community

experience.

based, allowing the participants to help eachmemories participants gained on location played

other.

a role in gathering story seeds. To make karuta

Thephotos,knowledge,

andThe form of karuta could be interpreted as“cool media” that Marshall McLuhan named
media which demand audience participation(McLuhan, 1994=1964). A haiku is a very shortpoem and requires readers to use their
imagination to make sense of the words. Karuta,
which is an aggregation of such haikus andimages, is considered to be cool media as well.
The form asks players to read between the cards,
and to interpret and appreciate local attractions
while enjoying the game.

Figure 2

The model of story generation
from pre-story space

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Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. 7, No. 1 Nov. 2014cards and story sprouts, they selected andstories were not complete “stories” in terms ofclassified those seeds. Though the process ofthe causal nexus that is usually required forreflecting on their experiences and creating

coherent stories. However, the audiences were

photo-haiku pairs cards, they established a theme

required to read “between the lines” and useof locality. At last, a collective narrative wastheir experiences or imaginations to appreciate

weaved from a completed karuta card set.

the laypeople’s Digital Stories (Media Conte) or

These two workshops resulted in different

the developed Photo Karuta. In the case of Media

story forms; one was a short video story, and theConte, through a collaborative story-weaving

other was a matching card game. However, there isprocess, student facilitators were frequently

commonality in the basic process of deconstruction

required to “read” participant’s utterances, photos,

and construction, as well as story weaving fromand narratives using their knowledge andstory elements based on collaborative works

experiences. Through these reflective processes,

among participants and others. In both workshops,

a facilitator and a participant co-created theeach story element, namely seed, is visualized byparticipant’s self-narrative, which proved to beusing sticky notes, cards and photos. Therefore,

important to one’s identity, and it helped them tothoughts and images in a storyteller’s mind

gain empathy. On the other hand, making andbecome visible, which allows facilitators andplaying with a set of Karuta might inspire people

other participants to share ideas and advise about

to see a story world in their mind.

making a story and how to edit and show it. Thisvisualization

of

story

seeds

enables

In addition, the process of collaborative story

thegeneration and appreciation of sprouted poem-

collaboration among participants in all steps. It

like stories may invite audience members nothelps storytelling for vulnerable people.

only to engage in the interpretation of the stories,
but also to generate further stories in their own
minds.

5. Towards further research
As is propounded in Western practices, does

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Hartley, J. & McWilliam, K. (Eds.). (2009). Story

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Syuppan, Tokyo.

Mitsumenaosu Storytelling zissen –Media Conte

Tsuchiya, Y. (2013). Digital Storytelling no Glocal

Iwaki zissen houkoku, Aichi Shukutoku Daigaku

Tenkai: Tenkanteki Kyosoteki ni Hirogaru Shimin

Active Learning, Vol.3. 33-51.

Media Jissen. HUE Journal of Humanities, Social

Mizukoshi, S. (2011). 21seiki Mediaron. Hosodaigaku​

and Natural Sciences, Vol. 35(4), 191-199.

kyoikushinkokai, Tokyo.

Yamada, Y. (2000). Jinsei wo Monogataru Kotono

Mizukoshi, S. (2012). Final Report of Mizukoshi group

Imi. The Annual Report of Educational Psychology

in “media exprimo” English part.

in Japan, Vol. 39, 146-61.

Ogawa, A., Ito, M., & Inaba, R. (2009). Taminzoku
tabunka kyouseinotameno Storytelling Zissen –Acknowledgement

Community Service Learning III Zissen houkoku.

This work was supported by JSPS KAKENHI Grant

Aichi Shukutoku Daigaku Community Collaboration,

Number 24616020 and the Japan Science andVol. 2, 13-30.

Technology Agency’s (JST) Core Research for

Ogawa, A. & Ito, M. (2010). Monogatariwo Tumugidasu

Evolutional Science and Technology (CREST) project

Digital Storytellig Zissen: Media Conte Workshop“Weaving a Platform for People’s Everyday Expressions

no Kokoromi. Shakai Zyouhougaku Kenkyuu, Vol.

via Information Design Approach”(representative:

14-2, 115-128.

Takeshi Sunaga).

Ogawa, A., Abe, J., Ito,M., & Mizojiri, S. (2010). Kioku

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Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. 7, No. 1 Nov. 2014

A Study of Change of the Body View in Cyberculture
Keywords:
early cyberculture, contemporary cyberculture, view of the body, Deleuze’s perspective

Naomi NEMURA, Nihon UNIVERSITY

Abstract
According to the French philosopher Gilles Deleuze, “art” actualizes the “virtual (possible)”which is latent once the world is organized by a fixed method and that “philosophy” conceptualizes
the “virtual (possible).” In other words, art and philosophy are regarded as suitable for grasping
new experiences that are different from the ones under the existing socially constructed order.
From this perspective, first of all, this paper shows that although early cyberculture describes
a utopia of the near future where escape from the body is realized by technologies (as seen in
William Gibson’s Neuromancer), expressions of new experiences of bodies in our everyday life
have become an important part of cyberculture nowadays. Contemporary cyberculture like somekinds of gameplay or cyborg performances contains the actualization of new experiences ofbodies in our society with the spread of the electronic environment.
Secondly, this paper examines new experiences of bodies in our society after the spread ofelectronic technologies based on some game studies and art commentaries. Recently, some gamestudies and art commentaries have analyzed new experiences of bodies in contemporary
cyberculture. According to those studies and commentaries, new experiences of bodies are not
only mental and emotional but also physical as well. Selves that appear in the electronic media are
not based on the release from the biological body but the reconstruction of the biological body.
The new experiences are crucial in making a re-examination of the framework of the biologicalbody and opening up infinite possibilities for interpretation of bodies. Those possibilities invite
rethinking and reconstructing the existing order related to the biological body.

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NEMURA

into visionary technology, fringe science, avant-

1. Introduction

garde art, and pop culture (Dery, 1992). These
According to the French philosopher Gilles

four areas are in the realm of subculture.

Deleuze (Deleuze and Guattari, 1994), “art”

Therefore, it seems that early cyberculture

actualizes the “virtual (possible)” which is latentdeveloped outside of the mainstream culture. On

once the world is organized by a fixed method

the other hand, Nayar states that “cyberculture

and that “philosophy” conceptualizes the “virtualis the electronic environment where various(possible).” In other words, art and philosophy aretechnologies and media forms converge andregarded as suitable for grasping new experiences

cross over: video games, the internet and email,that are different from the ones under the existing

personal homepages, online chats, personalorder; the socially constructed relations orcommunications technologies (PCTs, such as

structures which include various exclusions or

the cell phone), mobile entertainment andrepressions.

information technologies, bioinformatics, andAt least a part of cyberculture can be consideredbiomedical technologies” (Nayar, 2010: 1). Nayar

as art from the viewpoint of Deleuze since it

defines cyberculture as the mainstream in ouractualizes new experiences of bodies in oursociety. Currently, cyberculture constitutes asociety with the spread of electronic technologies.

major part of our everyday life. This section divides

First of all, this paper explores which kind ofcyberculture into two periods (early cyberculture

cyberculture actualizes such new experiences ofand contemporary cyberculture) to explore thebodies by studying its early expressions such as

development of the body view.

William Gibson’s novels and its contemporary

2-1. William Gibson: The Desire for a Near-

expressions like some kinds of gameplay or

Future Worldcyborg performances.
Secondly, this paper illustrates a new trend of

Dery focuses his attention on the cyberpunk

the body view in cyberculture by analyzing new

movement, especially Neuromancer, a novel

experiences of bodies in our society. This paper

written by William Gibson in 1984 (Dery, 1992).

also suggests what such trend of the body view

The novel describes a near-future world in which

would bring to us.

information technologies and biotechnologies
have become highly developed. This world

2. 
Early Cyberculture and Contemporary

includes cyberspace as its core image.

Cyberculture

The term ‘cyberspace’ was coined by Gibson tocharacterize “disembodied space”(Brians, 2011:

It is difficult to define the range of cyberculture121) that provided “bodiless exultation” (Gibson,

because it is ambiguous and complex. However,

1984: 6). This characterization had a decisive

we can assume that a change has occurred in

influence on the image of cyberspace, especiallycyberculture after the late 1990s. We can see

before the widespread use of computers and thesuch change in the arguments of Mark Dery andinternet. In Gibson’s Neuromancer, the protagonist,

Pramod Nayar.

Henry Dorsett Case had been a hottest computer

Dery divides the main domain of cyberculture“cowboy” who had invested in cyberspace’s
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“disembodied consciousness” and the sharpest

Don Ihde refers to such thought of early

data-thief in the Matrix (Gibson, 1984: 5).

cyberculture as a “technofantasy” (Ihde, 2002).

However, he stole data from his employers. As a

The fantasy is characterized by “the desire topunishment for the theft, Case lost the capability

escape the body” and “the belief that cyberof a “cowboy.” For Case, it was “FALL” (Gibson,

technologies (however these are conceived) will

1984: 6) because it prevented him from accessing

make this escape” possible (Brians, 2011: 122).

the “bodiless exultation” of cyberspace. For thisThis idea of transcendence of the body and its

console “cowboy,” his body was “meat” and Casematerial limits is frequently found in the image of

became a prisoner of “his own flesh” (Gibson,

cyberspace of early cyberculture.

1984: 6). In cyberspace of Gibson’s Neuromancer,

Ingrid Richardson and Carly Harper call suchintelligence is separated from the body, and thetranscendent thinking a “fleshless ontology ofimmaterial intelligence can manipulate data.

cyberspace” (Richardson and Harper, 2001:
online). According to Richardson and Harper,

2-2. The Desire to Escape the Body: Early

Gibson’s cyberspace is a “representation of theThoughts of Cyberspacepossibilities of disembodiment facilitated by

In Gibson’s Neuromancer, cyberspace of avirtual systems” (Richardson and Harper, 2001:

near-future world is realized by utilizing a special

online). “Within this hierarchical framework theelectrode to connect a computer with a brain. The

body exists as a lower-order mechanism,” and it

novel can be interpreted as an attempt to describe

is distinguished from the “ontologically superior

a wishful near-future in which technologies realize

and potentially autonomous mind” (Richardson

the desire for escaping from the body. However,and Harper, 2001: online). “ The teleology ofthis attempt is not the actualization of different

cyberspace” is exactly the “final non-necessity ofunderstanding of the body from the one underthe body,” or “achieving a mode of existence thatthe existing order. In other words, it is not art

can do without the body” (Richardson andas defined by Deleuze. The reason is that we

Harper, 2001: online). In other words, they point

can see the body-mind dualism, or the conceptout the underlying implication that the corporealof ultimate transcendence of the body inform is unnecessary.

Gibson’s

cyberspace,

which

is

tracedWhether it is called a “technofantasy” or

to “Christianity, Platonic Idealism, or the mechanic“fleshless ontology,” the imagery of cyberspace

Cartesian universe” (Brians, 2011: 123). In earlyin early cyberculture is founded on the belief thatcyberculture, the vision of cyberspace is deeply

technologies can enable transcendence of therooted in Western thought.

body. However, such dualistic thinking which is

Gibson recognizes such body-mind dualism indeep-rooted in Western thought is far from thehis works. According to him, the dualism isactualization of new experiences which are

influenced by the British writer, D. H. Lawrence

covered by the existing order.

(Tatsumi, 1997). Lawrence states that the mind-

When the Japanese translation of the novel

body split in Western thought has created“Idol” by Gibson was published in 1996, Hiroki

countless problems in Western culture (Tatsumi,

Azuma argued that there was a certain “oldness”

1997).

in the future images and the view of information
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A Study of Change of the Body View in Cyberculture

NEMURAtechnology of Gibson’s works (Azuma, 2000). We

the media environment is created by bringing

can suppose that such “oldness” was not only

human’s body consciousness and the electronic

due to the fact that Gibson’s concept of a near-

media together” (Daijirin, Daisanhan, 2006). The

future information society had already become ause of this word has become widespread inpart of our everyday life because of theJapanese society and it is an example of how

widespread use of computers and the internet,

computer technology has become a part of ourbut also due to the fact that Gibson’s imaginative

everyday life. Such definition and explanation of

power was based on the dualistic thought which

the word correspond to the situation in which

had permeated the tradition of Western culture

computer networks have entered into our real

deeply. In othe words, we can assume thatlife.

because the imagery of a near-future information

With the spread of the electronic environmentsociety became a part of our everyday life andin our society, contemporary cyberculture

gave no great excitement, some of the readers incontains the attempts to express new experiences

the late 1990’s like Azuma found the mind-bodyof bodies. For example, according to an interview

dualism of Western cultural tradition, and felt thewith Sterc by Joanna Zylinska and Gary Hall, his“oldness” in the Gibson’s works.

cyborg performances reveal that the body “hasnow been invaded by technology” and it is “what2-3. Contemporary Cyberculture

we’ve always been and what we have alreadyGibson’s works are still popular and influential

become” (Zylinska, 2002: 115). Based on thisfor contemporary cyberculture. It cannot becomment, we can conclude that cyberculture has

validly concluded that we can no longer see thedeveloped to show how we grasp bodies throughdesire for escaping from the body or the praise ofliving in a society with electronic technologies.

the escape from the body in cyberculture.

The studies of such cyberculture are referred

However, the argument of Azuma suggests thatto as new media studies, which are distinguished

we can also find a new trend in cyberculture after

from the earlier version of media studies thatthe late 1990’s.

analyzes culture with other types of media priordefinesto creations of our electronic society. In such new

cyberculture as “the electronic environment

As

we

have

discussed,

Nayar

media studies, we understand our relation to thewhere various technologies and media forms

media with terms such as “interactive users,”

converge and cross over” and cites video games,“experience,”

the internet and email, personal homepages, online“ubiquitous media” (Dovey and Kennedy, 2006:

chats, personal communications technologies

1-21).

“immersion,”“simulation,”or(PCTs, such as the cell phone), mobile

2-4. Preceding Cyberculture Studies

entertainment and information technologies,
bioinformatics, and biomedical technologies as

Previous cyberculture studies in the 1980s andexamples. According to “Daijirin,” a Japanesethe early 1990s, for example works of David Tomas

dictionary, “cyberspace” is described as “virtualor Dery, analyze early cyberculture focusing on

space which comes into existence in electronic

the desire for “disembodied consciousness” inmedia such as computer networks. In particular,

cyberspace (Tomas, 1989; Dery 1992). However,40

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cyberculture studies after the late 1990s analyze

agent

a new trend in cyberculture drawing attention tobearing the agent’s seal, and the agency the texts

new experiences of bodies. For example, John

implied could be enforced through human

Dovey and Helen Kennedy examine bodydelegates” (Stone, 1995: 96). However, in the time

experiences of game players (Dovey andof electronic speech, that is, when the telephone

Kennedy, 2006). Some art commentaries explore

appeared, proximity started to be “maintained

understandings of body experiences in digital

through technology,” and the agency became

performances (Zylinska, 2002).

“invisible” (Stone, 1995: 96). When users of themaintained

proximity

throughtexts

It is important to consider such new trend in

telephone took for granted that they talked with

contemporary cyberculture because it actualizes

others on telephone, they had the sense of

new experiences of bodies in our society with theassurance in the presence of “a specific bounded

spread of electronic technologies. Our next step

unitary agency” (Stone, 1995: 97) based on a voice,is to conceptualize the experiences of bodies

and the meaning of proximity has gradually been

based on new insights of cyberculture studies.

reconstituted.

3. The New Trend of Cyberculture

discusses that it is “a political, epistemological,

Regarding the “specific unitary agency,” Stoneand biological unit that is not only measurable
Cyberculture has a new trend in expressing

and quantifiable but also understood in an

body experiences after the late 1990s and new

essential way as being in place” (Stone, 1995: 90).

media studies have developed in correspondence

In addition, she states that an “individual societal

with the trend of cyberculture. This section

actor becomes fixed in respect to geographicalexplores how new media studies describe newcoordinates that determine physical locus” (Stone,

body experiences to conceptualize the experiences.

1995: 90). The geographically fixed body has beenprivileged as a place of political certification or a

3-1. Allucquère Rosanne Stone’s Argument

political action because the individual societal actor

In her book, Allucquère Rosanne Stoneis connected to the agency, that is, the self which isanalyzes the integration and dissociation of selvessocially constituted as a “politically authorized”

and bodies in cyberspace, and treats the history of

persona in the sense of Stone (Stone, 1995: 96).

communication technologies from the viewpoint ofFurthermore, according to Stone, whereas“the tensions between selves and bodies and theproximity of the agency was achieved throughplay of their interactions, separations, and fusions”

appearing of the justified body by technologies at(Stone, 1995: 88).

the time of an electronic speech on a voice, electronic

In the historical analysis, Stone argues about

technologies

based

on

iconicrepresentations

the integration and dissociation of selves andappeared and the agency became to be on the “iconic

bodies from the viewpoint of technologies

representation of a voice” (Stone, 1995: 97). Stone“mediating between bodies and selves that may

discusses this reconfiguration of the meaning ofor may not be within physical proximity; i.e.,

proximity of the agency as follows: “ This processinterfaces” (Stone, 1995: 89). Stone asserts thatof changing the relationship between agency andbefore electronic communication emerged, “anthe authorizing body into a discursive one41

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A Study of Change of the Body View in Cyberculture

NEMURAeventually produced the subjectivity that could

constellation of activities much like reading,fairly unproblematically inhabit the virtual spaces

but an active and interactive reading, aof the nets” (Stone, 1995: 97).

participatory social practice in which theStone states further that if “we consider theactions of the reader have consequences inphysical map of the body and our experience of

the world of the dream or of the book. The

inhabiting it as socially mediated, then it shouldolder metaphor of reading undergoes a

not be difficult to imagine the next step in atransformation in a textual space that isprogression toward the social—that is, to imagine

consensual, interactive, and haptic, and thatthe location of the self that inhabits the body as

is constituted through inscription practices—

also socially mediated” (Stone, 1995: 92). This

the production of microprocessor code. The

means that we can think of the self “in terms ofboundaries between the social and theposition within a social field or of capacity to“natural” and between biology and technology

experience, but of the physical location of thetake on the generous permeability that

subject, independent of the body within whichcharacterizes communal space in the mosttheories of the body are accustomed to ground it”

recent virtual systems.

(Stone, 1995: 92). In other words, we come to(Stone, 1995: 121)

think of subject construction within “a system ofIn the aforementioned paragraph, Stone

symbolic exchange, that is, information technology”

suggests that selves in cyberspace, that are given(Stone, 1995: 92).

body

representatives,

have

consensual,interactive, and haptic experiences. These

3-2. Bodies of Selves in Cyberspaceexperiences are the ones in which the boundaries

As mentioned above, according to Stone, by

between the social and the “natural” as well as

focusing on the “tensions between selves andthe biological and the technological permeate.

bodies and the play of their interactions,That is, Stone does not conceive selves inseparations, and fusions,” we can understand thecyberspace to be free from physical bodies. On

self that moves by a different order of vectors in athe other hand, she believes that selves in

network of information exchange, or the self thatcyberspace are based not on the biologicalmoves in a space in which the privileged body isbodies, but on the reconstructed bodies by

excluded.

interacting with technologies.

Apparently, in Stone’s interpretation, selves in

However, according to Stone, “much of thecyberspace do not have physical bodies. However,work of cyberspace researchers, reinforced andStone describes a virtual community as follows:

perhaps created by the soaring imaginary ofWilliam Gibson’s novels, assumes that the human

The participants learn to delegate theirbody is ‘meat’—obsolete, as soon as consciousness

agencies to body representatives that exist

itself can be uploaded into the network” (Stone,

in

with

1991: 452). Certainly Tomas states in his paper

representatives of other individuals. They

imaginal

spacescontiguously

on cyberpunk that “ ‘jacking in’ to cyberspace” isbecome accustomed to what might be called

the “instantaneous rite of passage that separates

lucid dreaming in an awake state— to a

body

from

consciousness,”

and

that

the

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“disembodied human consciousness is then ablethat experiences of gameplay are not disembodied

to simultaneously traverse the vast cyberpsychic

but physical. Such experiences, which arespaces of this global information matrix” (Tomas,

understood to be immersive, differ from those

1989: 137). Furthermore, Donna Haraway, in herthat Gibson portrays in Neuromancer. Recently,

dialogue with Takayuki Tatsumi, argues that ingame studies have shown that the virtual world

the circulation of Gibson’s works, we can see theof cyberspace cannot be characterized by the“praise of the escape from limits and abstractionbody-mind dualism.

without the concrete” (Tatsumi, 2001: 255). At

3-4. Attempts of Art

least we can observe that a kind of cyberpunk

According to Ella Brians, the importantpraises cyberspace as a world of consciousness

pressurethat has seceded from the body.

forreconstructing

the

image

of

What kind of body experience do selves incyberspace came from the world of art (Brians,

cyberspace have? Is it seceded from the physical2011: 125-126). For example, Monica Fleischmann,body, or is it based on the reconstructed body?

an artist and theorist engaged in phenomenologicalAs mentioned earlier, Stone considers that selvesstudies, discusses how the body interacts within cyberspace are not seceded from physicaltechnologies or environments and uses digitalbodies and many researchers agree with her ideainterfaces as a “playful interaction of bodies, art(Haraway, 1991; Friedman, 1999; Ryan, 2001;

and technology” in “opposition to the theory of

Dovey and Kennedy, 2006).

the disappearing body” (UNESCO Digital Art
Portal, 2013: online). Furthermore, the concept

3-3. Experiences of Game Playersof “mixed-reality” is applied instead of virtual

Recently, Dovey and Kennedy have analyzed

reality to understand the relation to cyberexperiences of game players, using Haraway’s

technologies more properly (UNESCO Digital

image of the “cyborg” (Dovey and Kennedy,

Art Portal, 2013: online). According to Brians, this2006). According to their analysis, experiences ofconcept of “mixed-reality” expresses that “material

gameplay are not only mental and emotional but

bodies, their virtual representations, the humanalso physical. Their analysis, similar to the one byimagination, and computer hardware and software

Stone, argues that selves that appear in the

all interact to produce a reality that has bothelectronic media are not released from physical‘material’ and ‘virtual’ elements” (Brians, 2011:

bodies, but are still based on the reconstructed125).

body by interacting with technologies.

Sterc,

who

performs

usingelectronic

In addition, they state that the phenomenological

technologies and comments on his performances

method helps us understand that “we arein various ways, is known for his thesis “theembodied subjects whilst engaged in our

obsolete body” (Zylinska, 2002). Although it isexperiences of ‘virtual reality’” and that “we areoften

also re-embodied and gain a sense of presence

disembodied consciousness, he criticizes suchand agency in these virtual spaces through the

an interpretation. According to Sterc, the body isinterface and the avatar” (Dovey and Kennedy,“obsolete in form and function. But we cannot

2006: 106). Their analysis of gameplay suggests

operate disembodied. We cannot discard thebelieved

that

this

thesispresents

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A Study of Change of the Body View in Cyberculture

NEMURAbody” (Zylinska, 2002: 121). He also states, “ This

gameplay includes a certain “freedom of movement,”

body is not in a kind of Cartesian theatre of ‘I’ as

that is, “a sense of agency and mastery not

opposed to ‘my physical body’ ” (Zylinska, 2002:

necessarily available in their everyday lives”

121), and that the question concerning the thesis(Dovey and Kennedy, 2006: 117) quoting Taylor’s

is “not so much whether we discard bodies but

study on the women players. Here, it is clearlyrather how to rethink the design of the body”

demonstrated that the pluralization of the self

(Zylinska, 2002: 122). The performances of Sterc

through cyberspace can be an importantsuggest that we begin to reconstruct the bodyopportunity for rethinking and reconstructing

view in our society based on the electronic

the existing order. The self in cyberspace can beenvironment. Thus, the body of his performances

free from the restrictions imposed by being

actualizes the “virtual (possible)” which isconnected to the biological body in real life. Suchcovered by the existing order (Deleuze anda self permeates into real life and makes re-Guattari, 1994).

examination and reconfiguration of the existingorder possible.

4. Social Reconstruction of the Framework of

The argument of Ernesto Laclau and Chantal

the Body

Mouffe explains this possibility. According to
Laclau and Mouffe, the category of “subject”

As stated earlier, the analysis of game players

means “ ‘subject positions’ within a discursive

by Dovey and Kennedy reveals new bodystructure” (Laclau and Mouffe, 2001: 115). The

experiences in our electronic environment.

“various positions cannot be totally fixed in a

Dovey and Kennedy argue that “these ‘otherclosed system of differences” (Laclau and Mouffe,cyborgian selves’ that we perform in our play have

2001: 115). “The non-fixation or openness of theansystem of discursive differences is what makes

importantpersonal,socialandculturalsignificance” (Dovey and Kennedy, 2006: 116).

possible

They state that the “performed selves madeinterpenetration”(Laclau and Mouffe, 2001: 117).

possible by the cybernetic process of gameplay

Thus, “the presence of the Other prevents me fromthese

effectsofanalogyandoffer us the opportunity to explore alternative

being total myself” and “it is because a peasantsubjectivities and to engage in different kinds ofcannot be a peasant that an antagonism exists

affective experience, where embodiment andwith the landowner expelling him from his land”

possibilities are defined by different rules to(Laclau and Mouffe, 2001: 125). In our context,

those imposed in real lives” (Dovey and Kennedy,

we cannot be totally a woman. In this case, it is2006: 117). According to them, in “multiplayer

the presence of a man that prevents one fromrole playing we can imagine a world without ourbeing totally a woman and it allows her to rethink

existing

and reconstruct the existing gender order.

racialhierarchies

andexperience

inclusion and affiliation on the basis of technicity

The

selves

that

have

a

possibilityofalone—unsullied by ethnic, gender or classreconsidering and remaking the existing order ofprejudices, or disabilities” (Dovey and Kennedy,

real life are exactly the cyborgian selves whose

2006: 117).

bodies are reconstructed by permeating their

Furthermore, they mention that the access toboundaries with machines and therefore are not
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based on the biological understanding. This newpaper has argued that such new experiences

body experience creates the possibility of re-

make the re-examination of the framework of theexamining the framework of the biological bodybiological body possible as well as the restrictions

as well as the restrictions imposed by theimposed on the biological body. In other words,

framework.

such experiences provide infinite possibilities for

To put it another way, those selves ininterpreting bodies. Those possibilities forcyberspace have experiences in which theinterpretation of bodies open the doors forbiological body can no longer represent truth, or

rethinking and reconstructing the existing orderreality. Such experiences lead us to therelated to the biological body.

recognition that not only the concept of the self

In this paper, we have considered cyberculturethat is based on the biological body, but also thefrom the viewpoint of Deleuze regarding art andframework of the biological body is merely “onlyphilosophy. Hereafter, I wish to focus on art that

one form of our knowledge” (Scott, 1999: 10)

reveals experiences of bodies which are covered

through our interaction. Those experiences bringby the existing order, and additionally to attempt

us the recognition that the framework of theto conceptualize the experiences by philosophy.

biological body itself is only socially constructed.

Moreover, I would like to correlate such

Furthermore, because such recognition opens

philosophical analysis with actor-network theory

up infinite possibilities for interpreting bodies, itthat evolved from the works of Michel Callon andurges us to rethink and reconstruct the existing

Bruno Latour (Kawamura 2008).

order related to the biological body.
As stated in the introduction, this paper is

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Editor’s Notes
We are very pleased to announce the publication of Volume 7 of the Journal of Socio-Informatics. Thisis the first electronic edition of an academic journal from SSI, Japan. Our goal is to ensure open access tothe journal through the Internet.
As a result of the peer review process, at a rate of 57.1%, four of seven submitted prepublication papers
have been accepted.
The development of Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) has dramatically created
new hypermedia environments throughout our life space, which may lead to a change in our contact
behavior as well as in the roles of various media. While having different subjects and approaches for theirrespective studies, the papers accepted in the current volume investigate a variety of issues associatedwith the surrounding old and new media environments in our lives. Through further experimental andtheoretical studies, we will continue to determine the causes of social problems resulting from thediffusion of ICTs, and to ascertain both the social and economic impacts of ICTs through the contributionof articles that we publish.
Finally, the CFP of next volume of JSI is available on http://www.ssi.or.jp/eng/.
Cordial greetings,

The Editors

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Editorial Board of the Journal of Socio-Informatics
Editor in Chief
Yoshiaki HASHIMOTO, The University of Tokyo
Editor in Subchief
Kaoru ENDO, Gakushuin University
Yorio KITAMURA, Niigata University
Seiichiro SAKURAI, Meiji Gakuin University

Editorial Board Members
Hisaki GOTO, Nihonbashi Gakkan University
Reiko GOTOH, Ibaraki University
Akira HATTORI, Kanagawa Institute of Technology
Hirofumi IMADA, Hiroshima Bunka Gakuen University
Kenichi ITO, Gunma University
Atsushi IWAI, Gunma University
Takahiro KAWAMATA, The University of Nagasaki
Sangmi KIM, Nagoya University
Satoshi KITAMURA, Tokyo Keizai University
Naokoto KOGO, Osaka University
Ron KORENAGA, Rikkyo University
Toshio KUROSU, Kokushikan University
Keita MATSUSHITA, Jissen Women’s University
Tetsuo NODA, Shimane University
Atsuhiko OHKUNI, Sapporo Gakuin University
Morihiro OGASAHARA, Kansai University
Isamu OKADA, Soka University
Yasunori OKADA, Shizuoka University
Naoya SEKIYA, the University of Tokyo
Hideyuki TANAKA, the University of Tokyo
Kayoko YAMAMOTO, The University of Electro-Communications
Hiroshi YOSHIDA, Shizuoka University
Jun YOSHIDA, Kyoto University

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol.7, No.1
Nov., 2014
Published
The Society of Socio-Informatics (SSI)
MITAKA Bijinesupaku SOHO A-301 1-12-17 Kamirenjaku,
Mitaka Tokyo,
181-0012 Japan
Tel. & Fax. 0422-54-4633
Print/Binding
Shobi Printing Co., Ltd.

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