Journal of Socio-Informatics
Vol.1, No.1 Mar. 2008
◆CONTENTS◆

On the Occasion of Publication of the Journal of Socio-Informatics

Kaoru ENDO, Keiichi ABE… 3
An Infosocionomist's View

Shumpei KUMON… 5
Plural Treatments of a Definition of Information

Hajime TANAKA… 21
Supertemporal and Temporal-constrained Characters of Socioinformatics

Tamito YOSHIDA… 37
The Net Media and the Public Sphere

Kaoru ENDO… 47
Cyberspace as Socio-psychological Space:
Cross-Cultural Comparison among the Japanese, Koreans and Finns

Tadamasa KIMURA… 57
FtF and Mobile email Personal Networks and Loneliness:
Focusing on the Interaction Effects of Sociability and Personal Networks

Satoshi KITAMURA… 71
A Quantitative Analysis on the Impact of The Usage of Information Equipment in Nonproduction Division

Takeshi HIROMATSU, Gohsei OHIRA, Minoru KOBAYASHI, Naoki TSUBONE, Manabu KURITA… 87
A particular relationship between the icon on the desktop and the programming language

Ｍasanori MIZUNO…105
The Dynamism of The Alt.elite and The Organizational Change:
The use of information technology in an antiquarian booksellers association

Kaoru MOMOZUKA…123
Socio-Cultural Differences in the Use of Personal Web Homepage and Electronic Communities
among Japanese, Finnish, and Korean YouthYoshitaka SAITO, Tadamasa KIMURA…137
Administrative Evolution and Open Innovation

Osamu SUDOH…147
A Path Analysis Model for Development of Environmental Education Program to Promote
Environmentally Responsible Behavior

Hirohiko SUWA, Hitoshi YAMAMOTO, Isamu OKADA, Toshizumi OHTA…161
Beyond the KISS Principle for Agent-Based Social Simulation

Takao TERANO…175

On the Occasion of Publication of
the Journal of Socio-Informatics
Kaoru Endo, President of The Japan Association for Social Informatics (JASI)
Keiichi Abe, President of The Japan Society for Socio-Information Studies (JSIS)
It has been quite a while since the words

to the world at large, and is just published in"information society" appeared in our worldorder to carry out investigation of the manyand the Internet permeated all the corners ofproblems of

our everyday life.

"information" causes between people in the

The "information" not only improves social

light and shadow

whichworld.

efficiency and convenience, but also affects
social basic structure and is transfiguring the

The candidates for research of Socio-

action of the world and its people greatly.

Informatics are very broad-ranging; for

While various possibilities and expectations

example, the following themes are contained.

lurk there, problems which should be solved* Basic theory of Socio-Informatics

and countless barriers which must be* Information, economy, and city

overcome are also produced. And the* Law and security of information society

evolution of "information" engenders a new* Media and culture

learning domain not only transcending time

* Communication and social relations

and space, but becoming world-wide.

* Information and communication technolo-

Therefore we demand a new study, SocioInformatics

which

treatsgy and regional vitalization* Social applications of information systems

informationinterdisciplinarily and synthetically. That

* Methodology of Socio-Informatics: social

discipline has been studied for ten years or

research method, game theory, simu-

more by two societies called JASI (Japanlation, network analysis, etc.
* Information education seen from viewpoint

Association for Social Informatics) and JSISof Socio-Informatics(Japan Society for Socio-Information Studies).
There, progress is being made on resolving

Of course, in addition, various target areas

questions like "What is information?", "Whatcan be considered.

kind of change is information technology
The objectives of Socio-Informatics are:causing to human relations or social
1.

structure?" and "What is the design for a

To solve various aspects of production,

desirable society which is taken andcirculation, accumulation, and use or

constructed to elucidate a concrete everyday

consumption of information in society.
2.

social phenomenon or a social problem?"

To reconstruct a theoretical framework
about a social system from the viewpoint of

Our journal sends the results of such issues
3

"Information."Who plays the main role in Socio-

3. To search for a relationship between the

Informatics? Of course, "the researcher of

new information/communication network

Socio-Informatics" does. However, the termand social system.

"researcher" does not only apply to people

This is a new area of study.

who belong to a university or a research
institution. All those who just regard "Socio-

Thus, Socio-Informatics is a dynamic

Informatics" as "a problem which is here now",

movement which creates new intelligence.

and try to tackle problem-solving with a

There are three engines (shown in Figure 1)

research mentality are "researchers." Socio-in this movement. They embody these three

Informatics is open to companies, self-

approaches: basic theory that positions thegoverning bodies, and anyone who finds

target problem systematically; the actual proof

problems in daily life (Figure 2).

and analysis that objectively describes thetarget phenomenon and practice; andpractical problem solving for the resolution.
And they are driving the whole system wecall Socio-Informatics, interdependently, thesethree approaches serving as mutual engines.

Figure. 2 Bearers of social information study
Taking advantage of this open nature, it isalso the task of social information study toreorganize

thecollectionofvarious"intelligence" in society and design a richFigure. 1 Three engines of Socio-Informatics

future. We would like to ask you for yourpositive participation and support to ourjournal as an information hub open to theworld.

4

An Infosocionomist's View
Shumpei KUMON, Tama University
Good Morning. The resume you have has

Society-ology," and I realized that the

been revised a bit but it's almost the same, so

following issues still remain.

please take a look at it.

Many 20th century economists besides

I know this academy is called the

Murakami identified modern society with

Socioinformatics Forum, but I have foundedindustrial society, while political scientists

Infosocionomics Society. I feel sorry for the

regard the rise of nation states or sovereign

confusing name.

states as the beginning of modernization.

It is difficult to directly reply to questions
regarding"Inquiring

now

the

From economists' point of view, however, theSocio-

full-scale foundation of the nation state wasinformatics," so today I'd like to talk about

achieved only after industrialization.

what problem consciousness Infosocionomics

they emphasize that it was industrialization

has and I'd be happy if you make it athat provided the foundation for the modern,reference or get some stimulation from it.

full-fledged nation state. However, if you areThus

As you can see on the slide, I worked forfree from the notion that "Industrial Society =many years at the Faculty of Arts of Tokyo

Modern Society," you may be able to have a

University with Yasusuke Murakami anddifferent view.

Seizaburo Sato, and the lifework for Murakami

By the way, one well-known idea about thewas, so to speak, "Industrial Society-ology",social revolution that includes modernization

which

as a part of it is Alvin Toffler's "Third Wave"

I

think

was

the

generalandinterdisciplinary study of Industrial Society.

theory that adopted a trichotomy of human

From this viewpoint he published works suchhistory into the pre-modern, modern and post

as "Pathology of The Industrial Society," "Themodern eras. Toffler asserts that since theEra of the New Middle Mass" or "Anti-classical

1980s the "3rd wave society" emerged,

Political Economy," but after Murakami's

following the agricultural and industrial

death I wondered in many ways what I shouldsocieties. However, terms such as "information

do to succeed his lifework of "Industrial

revolution" or "information society" were not

This Paper is the keynote lecture of the joint conference of the JSIS and JASI in Seputember 2006.

5

used in his book. In the 1970s Daniel Bell wasaround the computer industry is nothing but aamong the first to develop the "Post-industrial

new "industrial revolution" that follows thesociety" theory asking what kind of society willsecond industrial revolution in the 20thcome after industrial society. But it was muchcentury. At the same time, however,later that he started to use a positive term

Murakami admitted the possibility of anothersuch as "knowledge society" or "informationinterpretation - that is, to view informatizationsociety."

as "trans-industrialization." If one adopts thisIn Japan, the term "Information Society"interpretation, Murakami thought thatwas created very early. The pioneer was

informatization could be the process of "post-

Tadao Umesao, who published an article onindustrialization" that surpasses industrializa-"Information Industry" (1963). Then, in thetion itself. If the latter interpretation is morelate 1960s, more new terms such as

valid, and if one identifies industrialization"informationsociety( johoshakai ),"with modernization, then "informatization""information revolution ( joho kakumei )" orshould mean the transition to post-modernity.

"informatization (johoka)" were created one

But could we really assert that? Murakami

after another by Yujiro Hayashi (Economic

passed away before he settled this question.

Planning Agency), Reikichi Shirane (then atNTT),

Ken'ichiKoyamaSo I thought I should establish my own(Gakushuin

viewpoint and decided to adopt a view that

University), and Yoneji Masuda (former

information society is society in the "lastresearcher at Manchuria Railway and themodern" phase of modernization. That is toauthor of an English book, The Information

say, modernization will continue beyond theSociety as Post-Industrial Society). By the way,phase of industrialization. But then, it can be

I happened to learn recently that in the 1st

thought that, modernization had also begun

Comprehensive National Development Plan

before industrialization. In other words, there(1969), it was already pointed out clearly that

was another phase of modernization"From now on, it is the era of informatization.

preceding industrialization. It was in this first

We have to be ready to respond to thephase, the phase that might be named

information society." This means that nascent"militarization" or "statization," namely the

discussions on informatization in those days

emerging phase of modernity that the modern

were promptly understood and reflected in asovereign states were given rise to. In thisformal development plan of the government.

sense we may say that, agreeing with the

But Murakami still had some doubts, evenpolitical scientists, modernization emerged inin his late years, about the assessment of

the 16th or the 17th century.

"informatization." He argued that at least two

From this point of view, when we consider

different interpretations can be given to thisthe "three waves" of modernization itself, we

phenomenon. One is to identify informatiza-

can argue that the modern society firsttion with "super-industrialization" so that it"emerged" in the form of the militaristicmeans the "third industrial revolution." In

society in the 16th century, then made theother words, this new "revolution" centering"breakthrough" as the industrial society in the6

Shumpei KUMON―An Infosocionomist's View

second half of the 18th century and is finallysense that they are phases in an overall

entering its "maturation" phase since themodernization process and, at the same time,

second half of the 20th century as a transition

each should have its own uniqueness in theto the information society takes place. I would

sense that they represent a different phase.

also like to point out that each phase doesn't

Now, if I focus on the similarities I can saynecessarily begin after the end of thethat modernization as a whole represents a

preceding one, but they overlap to a certain

continuing process of increasing power ofdegree. Moreover, we can further distinguishindividuals and organizations. Thus in thethree minor phases in each major phase of

militarization phase, regional organizations

modernization. For example, the phase ofare gradually centralized to form a modern

militarization, which is the "emergence" phasesovereign state, and further, once the processof the modern society, can be divided into 3

of sovereign-state formation is completed

minor phases:"emergence of emergence",these states launch global expansion"breakthrough of emergence" and "maturation(promotion and exhibition of their nationalof emergence." We can then postulate that theprestige) by means of war and colonization.

"maturation" phase of the militaristic society

Similarly, in the industrialization phase,itself, which corresponds to the "maturation of

economic power is first concentrated inemergence" phase of the modern society,industrial enterprises. Then these enterprises

actually overlaps with the "emergence" phaseseek global development in the worldof the industrial society, which in turnmarketplace by means of accumulation andcorrespondsofdemonstration of their wealth. Finally, in the

to

the

"emergence

breakthrough" phase of the modern society.

informatization phase, intellectual power will

According to such a view, we can argue thatbe accumulated in newly rising organizations

the

its

that may be called "information intelprises.""maturation" phase since the second half ofThen they will be engaged in what may be

the 20th century. In other words, thecalled the "wisdom game" in the global

industrializationhas

enteredindustrial society has entered the era of the"intelplace" by means of acquisition andthird industrial revolution since the second

execution of wisdom. If war was the basic

half of the 20th century, but at the same time,

form of interaction between sovereign states

this era overlaps with the "emergence" phaseand competition was the basic form ofof the information society, which corresponds

interaction between industrial enterprises,

to the "emergence of maturation" phase ofthen collaboration will be the basic form ofmodernization. In my view this emergenceinteraction between information intelprises inphase of informatization is nothing but the era

the informatization phase of modernization. I

of the first "information revolution" that is

am tempted to posit that one importantsimultaneously taking place with the "third

outcome of the wisdom game is self-industrial revolution."

accumulation or self-organization of what

So if I distinguish three phases ofmight be called "intellectual capital" or "intal,"modernization, each should be similar in thejust as "capital accumulation" was the main7

outcome of the capitalistic "wealth game."

propagating to almost everywhere, beginning

Recently the book The World is Flat bywith four little "dragons" in East Asia, followed

Thomas Friedman seems to be widely read.

by the BRICS and the "Next Eleven" as

In this book the author distinguishes three

Goldman Sachs pointed out. Clyde Prestowitz,

forms of globalization:

Globalization "1.0",

who once became famous as the author of the"2.0" and "3.0." In my conceptual framework

bestseller Trading Places, has just published a

his globalization 1.0 corresponds to "interna-

new book called Three Billion New Capitalists:tionalization" during the statization phase of

The Great Shift of Wealth and Power to themodernization because the process of modern

East. In these newly developing areas, whatsovereign-state formation led to the birth ofChalmers Johnson and Yasusuke Murakami

international society. Globalization 2.0

called "developmentalism" has been thecorresponds to the process of world-

guiding principle, particularly among themarketplace formation during the industrial-

BRICS countries. At the same time, however,ization phase of modernization. Globalization

there seem to be many other areas that cannot

3.0 of today, which is actually globalization

successfully adopt developmentalism by

per se, will then be interpreted as the process

themselves. We will probably have to workof global-intelplace formation, in contrast toout a new principle that might be called "co-the process of world-marketplace formation. It

developmentalism" to help or collaborate withis through globalization 3.0 in this sense, inthem in order to promote modernization ofwhich most knowledge will be freely sharable

those areas. I would like to talk more about

and what I call "intal" will be self-accumulated

this later.

all over the world with the Internet as theHaving those new issues in mind, I am

fundamental infrastructure for such a process,tempted to argue that if modernization shouldthat propagation of modern civilization will

really propagate globally, it might befinally be truly global and modernization itself

worthwhile to review again the process ofwill reach its maturation (and probably last)modernization as well as modernization

phase.

theories in the past.
For example, how about extending the

When it comes to modernization, until quite

time-horizon of Umesao's "Ecological View ofrecently it has been taken as granted that

History"? In his original view Umesaosocial change such as modernization can takepostulated that the modernization process

place only in Europe, with Japan as the only

began sometime in the 16th century in both

exceptional non-European case. That is to say,

Europe and Japan in parallel. But can wethe rest of the world was believed to be

not assume that "modernization in a broader

unable to modernize. For this reason thesense" started about 500 years earlier, forcentral theme of "modernization theory" wasinstance around the 10th century, not only into explain why modernization outside Europe

Europe and Japan alone but also in manywas possible only in Japan. But today no one

other parts of this planet? This may suggest

can deny the fact that modernization isthat "modernization in a broader sense" first8

Shumpei KUMON―An Infosocionomist's View

emerged as "feudalization" that laid theparallel fashion. During the following several

foundation for rise of regionally autonomous

centuries, these two modern civilizations in

powers. The maturity of this "emergence"

Japan and Europe twice experienced main

phase itself (namely, the maturation of

encounters. The first encounter took place inemergence) may have been the "statization,"

the mid-16th century. On that occasion, Japanor the formation of regional "sovereign

accepted two important civilizational

states." But then we can also find that, since

components from Europe: The "2 Gs" of God

about 500 years ago, the "breakthrough"and Gun. Then in a mere several decades thatphase of modernization in a broader sense

followed, both faith in Christianity andhad already started with the formation of the

production and use of guns prevailed among"world capitalism system" in Wallerstein's

the Japanese people with enormous speed.

sense. And finally, since the second half ofHowever, after about 100 years both of themthe 20th century as modernization in awere virtually abandoned or forbidden andnarrower sense―that is, modernization leadJapan and Europe pursued separate paths. In

by European states since the mid 16 th

terms of economic development, Europe

century entered its maturation phase in theachieved the "industrial revolution" whileform of "informatization"―modernization inJapana broader sense also entered its maturation

revolution."

succeededinthe"industrious

phase simultaneously. This is my overall

In the mid-19th century a second encounter

vision of "modernization in a broader sense."

between Japan and Europe took place. On

Modernization in this broader sense started,that occasion Japan again accepted two new

most probably, independently in both Japan

civilizational components: the "2 Is" ofand Europe, and then evolved in parallel at

Imperialism and Industrialism. Japan thenboth ends of the Eurasian Continent. But thislaunched building and expansion of ais not the whole story. According to Heita

sovereign state after a European model.

Kawakatsu, an economic historian, we canJapan also made endeavors to graft European-find that a similar process of social change

style industrialization onto its industrious

had also started in the Song period of China,

economy by ways of mechanization andespecially in the Southern Song period. He

commodification of the production process.

further suggests that the activities of Mongols

This time again, within less than 100 years,

stimulated both Japan and Europe toJapan made great successes in accepting those

accelerate the modernization process that had

new civilizational components, though at thisbegun autonomously. That is a verytime it hasn't yet reached the point whereinteresting idea. Having those developments

Japan can abandon them. Of course, we may

in mind, we can even more convincingly

claim that Japan has in fact abandoned at

assert that, since about the 10th century, bothleast the first "I" (Imperialism) after having lost

Japan and Europe simultaneously started thethe war in the past, but there still remains

process of modernization in a broader sense―

some doubt about that. On the other hand,that is, the process of "feudalization"―in awith respect to the second "I" (Industrialism),9we have recently been observing a rise of

succeedingly emerge following similar sigmoidstrong criticism or reflection of industrialism

paths. If there occur some overlaps between

not only in Japan but also globally, so chances

the preceding sigmoid and the succeeding one

are that by the mid-21 century, Japan or forso that the former's maturation phasestthat matter the rest of the industrialized world

coincides with the latter's emergence phase,

also may be seriously considering the

we may regard such an overlapping phase as

possibility of abandoning or at least self-a downward-sloping phase of a "cycle,"

restraining further industrialization. At thisparticularly a "long cycle" that some socialjuncture, I may also take into consideration

scientists claim to have discovered in thesome implications of maturation of modernity

process of social evolution. During this phasein a broader sense. During this cominga "progressive" way of thinking―trying tomaturation phase I expect that there will takescome to grips with the emerging new phase―plac reevaluations of value systems, namely

and the "conservative" way of thinking―"culture," that lie behind the modern

clinging to the matured phase―tend to standcivilization so that it can take some alternativein conflict with each other, which may lead tocourse of development after it enters thesocial turmoil and in some cases politicalmaturation phase.

conflicts such as a war or a revolution. In

To consider those issues more fully, I would

contrast, when there is no overlapping andlike to introduce you to two fundamental

just one sigmoid is in its "break-through"hypotheses of infosocionomics. The first one isphase, there is little conflict in understanding

a diachronic hypothesis that the birth andthe character of the era, or the "Zeitgeist," andextinction of social things follow an S-shaped

the social cycle is in its upward-sloping phase.

curve or a sigmoid. That is, if we measure

But in the next phase of ascending (that issize, or the growth rate, or some otherthe breakthrough phase of the next ogive),

relevant index of a social thing in question on

those confrontations are basically resolved

the vertical axis and time on the horizontal

and the growth advances in a manner of "Goaxis, we can visualize that it first "emerges"

for it!" In that sense, the diachronic process ofand grows very slowly but then makes athe social change may be explained in the"breakthrough" so that its growth accelerates

form of the repeating long wave. We may also

and finally it "matures," in many cases afterconceive of a situation where one large

some bubble-like overshooting. In this process

sigmoid representing a social thing at large

the bubble blows up and its size is readjusted

can be divided into an overlapping andso that it gains a certain well-establishedoverlaying chain of smaller sigmoids, eachposition among other existing social things.

corresponding to "emergence," "break-After maturation it may keep on surviving forthrough," and "maturation" of the larger social

a long time or may eventually decline andthing but itself representing a smaller social

pass away.

thing. We can then imagine a "fractal-like"

Moreover, we can imagine that a series ofsimilarsocialthingsrepeatedly

structure of sigmoids of various orders.

andThe second fundamental hypothesis is a10

Shumpei KUMON―An Infosocionomist's View

synchronic one. It assumes that many classes

stock. In other words, some of the long-tailof social things follow, in terms of their size

part that had been cut off can now be realized

distribution, the "power-law" or "Zipf"

making the power-law shape of distribution

distribution.

more conspicuous. Of course, I am ready to

Recently the term "long tale" became quite

admit there still remains a lot of room for

popular, so I think many of you have heard

further discussion and elaboration concerning

about it. In fact the white paper on

this hypothesis. But, as a kind of first-order

Information and Communications for thisapproximation I think now we may safely

fiscal year took a special look at that andexpect that quite a few social things follow the

dedicated a whole column to explain thispower-law or Zipf distribution.

phenomenon. Chris Anderson, who firstTo recapitulate my talk so far, I would likecoined this term, initially argued that the longto posit that many social things follow thesetale phenomenon denied the "Pareto Law" or

two empirical "laws." Thus, diachronically,the "Law of 80:20" in business. This Law

they emerge, grow, and perish following S-

asserts, for instance, that the top 20% of

shaped paths and, synchronically, they are

employees earn 80% of the total profit of the

distributed according to the power-law or Zipf

firm they work for, or that the top 20% of

distribution. I am also tempted to anticipate

best-selling books occupy 80% of the totalthat there is some correlation between theearnings of booksellers. However, in his newvalue of exponents and the phase of S-shapebook published this July, he discarded his

curves. At any rate, I believe that forformer claim and instead points out that the

Infosocionomics to move ahead further

long-tail phenomenon is just anotherresearch concerning these "laws" are strongly

expression of the "Law of 80 to 20" or thecalled for.

power-law distribution. This means thatpower-law or Zipf distribution is a universal

Let me now add a few more words about

law that applies to the business world. Thus,

the S-shaped curve. As I have said, a social

when we correlate the level of revenue andthing can be decomposed into its components,

the rank of firms according to their revenues,

each of which follows its own S-shaped paththe shape of the distribution looks like aduring its life. Probably we can repeat such a

hyperbolic curve type. Or it is drawn as adecomposition many times, thus obtaining adownward-sloping straight line on a double

fractal-like structure of overlapping andlogarithmic plane. With this result in mind

succeeding S-shaped curves.

Anderson notices that the development ofFor example, if we visualize the whole

information technology is freeing people fromprocess of modernization with a big S-shaped

the physical and institutional constraints ofcurve (as is shown in the resume by a thick

the past, so that, for example, they can now

red line), it can be decomposed into at least

publish or sell books online that sell only inthreesmall numbers and were regarded ascorresponding

unsuitable for publication or to be kept inmilitarization, namely, "emergence" of11smaller

S-shaped

curves,each

tophases

of

the

1)

modernization as sovereign-state formation, 2)

during which the building process of sovereignindustrialization, namely, "break-through" ofstates took place in Western Europe and, inmodernization as development of modern

Japan, formation of a centrally united politicalindustrial enterprises, and 3) "informatization,"

power that eventually produced "Edonamely, "maturation" of modernization as

civilization" or "Tokugawa society," could be

emergence and spread of what I would like tointerpreted as the "breakthrough" phase of thecall "information intelprises" and the "wisdom

modernization in this broader sense.

game" they play. Please notice that I have

It was in eastern Japan that a unique group

drawn a decomposed picture so that theof warriors emerged and developed between

maturation phase of the preceding small S-

the 10th and the 15th century., They wereshaped curve overlaps with the emergencedeveloper landlords who had mastered the art

phase of the following small S-shaped curve.

of arrow-shooting while riding on a horse.

At the same time, we can imagine a possibility

They managed to build their own state, thethat the "maturation" phase of the overall

Kamakura state. And since the 16th century

modernization itself may be overlapping withthe center of new developments shifted tothe "emergence" phase of a new, post-modern

central Japan, where local farmers turned into

civilization. If so, then we can also argue thatwarriors and built their own regional states"informatization" represents overlapping of(Kokka), beating down the existing warrior

maturation of modern civilization andpowers. The Tokugawa state can be seen as a

emergence of post-modern civilization. Even

global unification (Tenka) of those regional

though I have no objection to such anstates. In other words, if I follow Kyoji

interpretation, I still would like to emphasize

Watanabe's fascinating interpretation of

the viewpoint to regard "informatization"

Japan's history (The Origin of Early Modern

above all as the last, maturation phase ofJapan), the Tokugawa state was a state built

modern civilization.

basically on the parvenue farmer-warriors'
power rather than traditional warriors.

Let me now return to the topic ofmodernization in a broader sense. If we place

Then since the second half of the 20th

the historical process of modernization in a

century, this modernization in a broader sense

longer time-horizon, we may postulate thatentered into the phase of maturation almost at

modernization started in Japan and Europe inthe same time both in Japan and Europe.

about the 10th or 11th century. It was aroundToday, we are becoming aware of similarities

that time that the "feudal society" emerged inrather than differences between the maturing

Europe and the "ie society" was born in Japan.

Europe and Japan in lifestyles, new values,

Both of them saw a rise of local, territorial

and attitudes toward informatization of

powers that had formidable military powersociety. These two regions may be nearing

and were highly independent. If we recognize

each other even in terms of "culture" so thatthese phenomena as the "emergence" ofthey value collaboration and sustainment

modern civilization in a broader sense, thenmore highly than competition and growth.

the period after the 16 or the 17 centuryth

If we review again the process of socialth12Shumpei KUMON―An Infosocionomist's View

changes in Europe since the mid-16th century,

globally. This is, in my view, a new ideal thatin terms of modernization in a narrowershould be widely shared in this century. I

sense, militarization or statization thatwould like to call it "co-developmentalism"

emerged as the rise of "absolute monarchy"and sincerely hope that it will replace theshifted into the "break-through" phase in thephilosophy of "international development aid"

form of "constitutional monarchy" about ain the 20th century, which seems to have been

hundred years later, finally maturing as

more one-sided and selfish.

"republican democracy",still another hundred

At the same time, however, I am afraid I

years later. Since then "republican democracy"cannot deny the possibility that some of theremains as the global standard for the modern

biggerpolity. This maturation of statization

traditional "developmentalistic" strategies tooverlapped

promote modernization by themselves, leadingwithemergenceoflatecomers

phase of modernization in a narrower sense.

environmental

Following this overall trend of modernizationinternational conflicts. In other words, thein Europe, since the mid-19th century all of

21st century may witness repeat performances

Germany, the US and Japan, who were theof the 20th century like the developmentalism"latecomers" of modernization in a narrower

principle in the sense that new latecomers first

sense,

themake their best efforts to develop nuclear"developmentalistic" policy with the help ofweapons and only after they have succeeded

which they successfully promoted boththey launch promotion of industrialization in

militarization

earnest.

andindustrialization

naturaladopt

toadoptedoftoindustrialization, namely, the break-throughintentionallydepletion

continue

destruction,

resources,
and/or

By the way, the 20th century could be seen

simultaneously.
But since the mid-20th century, the number

as the century of developmentalism. The first-of nations or regions admitted to begeneration latecomers such as Germany andindependent increased very rapidly. Most ofJapan who had successfully built modern

them ambitiously attempted to employ

sovereign states also rose as formidable"socialism"ofindustrial and trade powers. They then madedevelopmentalistic modernization, alas,a case against the monopoly of colonies andwithout much success either in state-building

world markets by early-comers and even

as

the

latestversionor in industrialization. No matter how

challenged them militarily. That challengemiserable the performances these newly

finally turned into a war among the

emerged states made in their attempts tolatecomers themselves (namely, US-SU-China

modernize, as long as the international society

versus Japan-Germany-Italy), with theregard it as their sacred right for them tooutcome

that

wars

of

invasionandmodernize, harbingers of modernization mustcolonization (or what I call the Prestige Game

accept it as their international obligation toamong sovereign states), that had been

help or collaborate with those latecomers so

admitted internationally as execution ofthat propagation of modernization takes placesovereign rights of the modern states were13

deprived of their legitimacy. Since then mostwhile the overwhelming majority of small ones

states, particularly those first-generationis placed on the right forming a "long tail" solatecomers who lost wars decided tothat the whole curve looks like a hyperbolic

concentrate on industrialization and to makecurve. If the graph is drawn on the double

their states economic powers.

logarithmic plane, it becomes a downward-

Contrary to that, in the 21st century or

sloping straight line. That means eachsince the mid-20th century, some of theindividual that belongs to this distribution

second-generation states seem to have learnt

class is homogeneous with one another in thethe lessons of economic developmentalism

sense that there is no demarcation pointwith which Japan or Germany made a great

separating the "head" from the "tail" on thissuccess again. China and India, which havestraight line. So dividing this straight line

been showing remarkable economic successsomewhere and calling one the "head," thethese years can be taken as typical examples.

other the "tail" is just an arbitrary distinction.

However, doesn't this imply another

If the so-called "long tail" concept is based onnightmare some decades from now? That is tosuch an arbitrary distinction it should besay,viewed with some suspicion.

after

the

success

of

this

new

developmentalism, wouldn't it be possible that

But I think such a distribution has a uniquesome of the second-generation latecomers

use in social science. That is, it can provide

might want to challenge another time thean overall view of distributions of wealth,advanced states in some form or other,income, and so on in a society. For example,

including something like a cyberwar? This isin a pre-modern "class" society, if enough data

certainly undesirable. I don't want the world

is available so that one can draw its graphto repeat the tragedies of the previous

placing its members according to the size andcentury. There is some hope, though. That is

rank of wealth or income on a double

the rise of a new wave of what I called "co-logarithmic plane, most probably it will not be

developmentalism." I believe that we will havea straight line but a kinked line corresponding

to make our best efforts to propagate thisto the "class division" of such a society.

philosophy so that we can control the older

Namely, people were divided into a small

developmentalism, thus avoiding the clash

number of aristocrats, a middle number ofbetween the early-comers and latecomers ofcitizens and an extremely large number ofmodern civilization either in the form of all-farmers, even though the farmer class isout war or international terrorism.

represented as only a "short tail" on a double

So far I have been talking about mylogarithmic plane. In contrast, the central

diachronic hypotheses. Now I would like tofeaturemove to the synchronic ones. A graph of the(industrialization) was, at least "theoretically,"of

capitalistic

modernization

Zipf distribution, which is the distribution of

in removing the traditional class distinction

correlation between the sizes and ranks ofand provided an equal chance to participate,social things, shows a small number of huge

if you like, in capitalistic competition on athings on the left ("big head" or "short head"),level-playing field for all the members of14

Shumpei KUMON―An Infosocionomist's View

society. However, needless to say, such aof income while reducing its maximum level.

homogenization never meant an "equal"

As a result, I presume that the shape of the

distribution of wealth or income. Wealth andZipf distribution curve of income in today's

income in the modern society are distributed"welfare society" came to have two kinks.

following the "power-law" or Zipf distribution.

Namely, instead of being just one straight line,

In this sense, in today's society where there is

it probably is comprised by three straightassumed to exist no institutional classlines. This means that a kind of qualitative

distinction, a big inequality of wealth/income(class) differentiation was reintroduced among

distribution still remains and even seems to be

the members of modern society, even thoughexpanding as informatization proceeds.

the distribution of wealth and income wereNevertheless we should note that, in a

relatively equalized. This has certainly been

capitalistic society, people can move up or

the development in modern society quite

down along one downward-sloping straightdifferent from Marx's anticipation.

line. The fundamental feature of such asociety is that a social environment for "free"

In infosocionomics, the most prevalent typecompetition is formed in which people can goofupward to rise or down to ruin. But Karl Marx,organizations performs in each of the threesocialinteraction

individuals

orI think, thought that in this capitalistic society

main phases of modernization is regarded as athere is not only a class distinction between

kind of social game. For example, in thebourgeoisie and proletariat but also there

militarized society, sovereign states have been

eventually develops a further bipolarization as

playing what might be called the "prestige

the result of completion, producing just a few

game," the study of which has beenmonopolistic capitalists on the one hand and,established as the discipline of politicalon the other hand, a large number of "lumpen

science. Then in the industrial society, it wasproletariat" who has nothing to lose but an

the "wealth game" that came to be widely

iron chain. That was why he believed that aplayed leading to the birth of a new discipline

political revolution by the proletariat wasof social science called "economics." Together

inevitable.

with Adam Smith's Wealth of Nations I believe

What actually happened in the real

Karl Marx's Das Kapital was a monumental

industrialized society, however, was not awriting that deeply analyzed the wealth game.

revolution but a transition to the welfare

Similarly, in the information society fromsociety. That is, the government introduced an

now on, we will observe the development andanti-monopoly policy together with aspread of a new social game that I would likeredistribution policy of income and wealth into propose to call the "wisdom game," ofthe form of progressive income andwhich the main purpose is, in my term, totoacquire and use the power of persuasion,compensate incomes of poor people. This

though I also notice that the term "reputation

policy was effective both in deterring

game" has already been used widely. Just as

monopolies and in raising the minimum level

the prestige game acted as a stimulus to theinheritance

taxes

that

were

used

15

birth of politics and the wealth game to thebeing a single sharable. Our investigation

birth of economics, the wealth game will also

must therefore begin with the analysis of a

act as a stimulus to the birth of still anothersharable." What I have called "sharables" heresocial science discipline. I am tempted to callare nothing but individual elements of theit "sociology." But the term sociology has long

wisdom of the information society, which are

been used to indicate the rest of social study

created not for the purpose of selling it but

fields that have not been covered either bysharing it. In other words, sharables in thepolitics or economics. In my humble opinion,

information society are not commodities that

however, it is precisely with the rise of a new

are produced to be sold in the marketplace.

social game that a new discipline of social

They are freely shared in what might be called

science obtains its inherent object of study.

the "intelplace," the concrete form of which

So, if I am to avoid the use of an existing

may be guessed from today's Internet.

term, I would like to suggest "socionomics" as

And each sharable has its unique "URL"

the name of this new discipline. Actually, thattaking the form of a "permalink" that can beis why we adopted "Infosocionomics" as the

directly reachable. It is also linked to andname of a new academic society to study thefrom many other sharables in various ways.

information society where we believe a new

There are both "outgoing links" to reach othersocial game, the wisdom game, will spread.

sharable and "incoming links" to come in from

Recently, Yochai Benkler published The

other sharables.

Wealth of Networks, which is no doubt a very

Most probably typing in URLs directly toimportant and timely study of the information

reach other sharables can be compared tosociety. But if I could I would rather write The

bartering of commodities in the industrial

Wisdom of Networks. Or I hope I could besociety. Needless to say it is as inconvenient

ambitious enough to write something like The

and cumbersome as bartering of commodities.

Wisdom-Capital or perhaps The Intel

But once the search engine is invented andmimicking Marx rather than Smith.

improved so that one can easily find andMarx began Das Kapital with the phrase

reach almost any sharable simply by typing"The wealth of those societies in which therelevant keyword(s) into it, we can compare

capitalist mode of production prevails,

this way of sharing of sharables to exchangepresents itself as 'immense accumulation ofof commodities mediated by money. Namely,commodities,' its unit being a single

in sharable-sharing it will be keywords/searchcommodity. Our investigation must therefore

engines that play the role of money inbegin with the analysis of a commodity"

commodity exchange. Thus I presume that the(quoted from the English edition). So, on myfundamental part of "infosocionomics" orpart I am dreaming to begin my would-be

simply "socionomics" would be comprised bybook The Intel with a phrase such as "Theanalyses of sharable-sharing both in its direct

wisdom of those societies in which the intelist

form (URL typing) and in its mediated form

mode of creation prevails, presents itself as(keyword searching).

'immense accumulation of sharables,' its unit

In any case, I think one characteristic of the16

Shumpei KUMON―An Infosocionomist's View

social order in modern society is that a macro-

the power and wisdom of society keeps onlevel order spontaneously emerges out ofgrowing.

micro-level social game interactions. If I

Of course, no social order is perfect. For

borrow the words of Wataru Yasutomi andthat matter the modern social order of balance

Kunihiko Kaneko, "a certain dynamic

and growth that spontaneously emerges as aequilibrium state is achieved where there isresult of a social game is no exception. It is

stagnation of order and then it leads to growthinevitably accompanied by such negativeof the whole."

traits as an unacceptable degree of inequality

Thus during the initial "emergence" phasein the (power-law) distribution of socialof modernization, that is, militarization, a

powers and cyclical disturbances (such as war

general recognition was formed. It was theand depression) in growth of social powers.

recognition that if the "prestige game" isThus it is highly likely that the future social

widely played following a certain set of rules,

order of conviviality will also have to be

there will eventually emerge a relatively

accompanied by some kind of inequality (suchpeaceful situation where something like aas "digital divide") and cyclical disturbances"balance of power" between warring states is(such as rages and doldrums of fashion).

achieved, while the power and prestige ofWhen these negative traits are recognized,

each state keeps on growing. Similarly, during

intentional efforts to alleviate them will be

the

of

made in the form of governmental policies,

modernization, that is, industrialization, it wassuch as the "balance of power policy" or "anti-

widely recognized that if the "wealth game" iscyclical economic policy." We may call suchsecond"breakthrough"phasewidely played following a certain set of rules,

policies attempts to "create" desirable social

a wonderful order is created during the game,orders.

and there will eventually emerge a relatively

In fact, in modern society until now, aprosperous situation thanks to the functioning

number of such policies as well as strategiesof "God's invisible hand," where somethingforlike a "market equilibrium" between supply

implemented for the purpose of intentionallyand demand of commodities is achieved while

and artificially creating better social orders

the power and wealth of society keeps on

rather than just wait-and-seeing if thegrowing. For this reason I anticipate thatspontaneous forces work. Adoption of

them

have

been

designedandduring the third "maturation" phase of"developmentalistic strategy," implementation

modernization, that is, informatization, if theof "structural reforms policy," and collusion for"wisdom game" comes to be widely playeda political "revolution" are typical examples.

following a certain set of rules, there will

The very important point to be noticed,

eventually emerge a relatively pleasant

however, is that those intentional endeavors

situation (or what Ivan Illich called

do not work out fully, or they are destined to"conviviality") where something like anhave some limits. After all, we human beings"intellectual equilibrium" between supply andare not omnipotent. I would rather like todemand of sharables will be achieved, while

point out here that, as a rule, new social
17

orders that alleviate the defects of old orders

himself abstained as a social scientist andspontaneously "emerge" as a result ofyielded it to "revolutionaries." I think this istransition into a new phase in the evolutionary

very interesting and suggestive.

process of modernization. That is, it was

If we are to learn again from Karl Marx, theeconomic growth and industrialization thatmost important point in Das Kapital is thebasically solved problems related to humanrecognition that the social order of market

rights. Similarly, I think chances are thatexchange and capital accumulation isintellectual growth informatization will besomething that inevitably "emerges" beyond

more effective than today's socio-economic

intentions and desires of individual capitalists

policies in solving or alleviating people'sor politicians, governed only by the law of

dissatisfaction due to unequal distribution of"natural-historical" development of humanincome and wealth.

society. After extensive observations andIn this sense, first, there's some limit in our

analyses of this "emergence" process, he notendeavor to intentionally "create" a better

only wondered about and praised its

social order. When it comes to solution or

exquisiteness and efficiency, but also pointed

alleviation of existing social problems, moreout that it is also accompanied by somepromising is "emergence" of a new order. But

serious defects, particularly too large

second, human beings nevertheless will neverinequality in the distribution of wealth and too

give up intentional efforts to "create" a better

violent disturbances of the order thatorder. Actually, from a higher point of view,

cyclically take place as economic crises. Thenthe intentional efforts for creation themselves

Kozo Uno, his disciple, went one step further"emerge" both spontaneously and necessarily.

and pointed out that the efforts to cope withThis reminds me of Kozo Uno's three levels

these defects themselves "emerge" followingof economic theory: "principle," "stage theory,"
and"present

state

analysis."Innatural-historical laws.

myThen what can we say about a "revolution"?

interpretation, his "principle" means an

Does it also "emerge" necessarily following

analysis of the "emergence" of capitalistic

some natural-historical law such as the

economic order that looks to reproduce itself"correspondence between forces of production

eternally. Such an order transcends theand relations of production," or is it a productdimension of time. In contrast, his "stageof human revolutionaries' intentional choice?

theory" is an attempt to demonstrate that in

Uno obviously took the latter view. But I am

each phase of industrialization different types

not so sure about Marx's position on this issue,of economic policy, or intentional efforts tothough we might say that his "materialistic"create" a certain economic order, are almostinterpretation of history" predicts from, so toinevitably made as if they are governed by aspeak, the highest viewpoint, the historicalnatural "law." And it is only in the last level ofnecessity of "emergence" of revolutions. It is

his system of economic theory that Uno

well known that Stalin took a gray, sophistic

provides a room for human free will or choice.

position concerning this issue by saying that

This incidentally is the level from which Uno

revolutionaries perform a revolution by18

Shumpei KUMON―An Infosocionomist's View

"subjectively" applying the "objective" law of

newly emerging social group who embodies

necessary "correspondence between forces ofthe power of informatization, namely, those

production and relations of production." But

who are called "netizens." It was because Marx

distinction

between"emergence"

andexpected the coming of a next "revolution" too"creation" can only be made depending on

hastily before the new phase of modernization

which viewpoint we take to analyze humanarrives that he could only place his hope on

behavior.

theBe that as it may, the final point I would

then-existing

repressed

mass

of

"proletariat."

like to make today is that the decisive error

Having said that I am also ready to admit

Marx made was that he expected that athat the suppressed mass may sometimes

revolution would be lead by the suppressed

cause a revolution depending on the social

masses. That is, he believed that it is thesituation of the day, but they could never be"proletariat"

the promoter of a revolution that cuts out a

class

who

occupiesanoverwhelming majority in the capitalist society

new phase of social evolution. In that sensethat creates the next communist stage of social

they would be more reactionaries thandevelopment. This could be the limitation ofrevolutionaries. That is their historicalthe times for Marx who was living in the 19th

limitation and, at the same time, the limitation

century when industrialization was only in itsof the researchers who placed hope on them.

emerging phase. Nevertheless I don't

Since Marx didn't know informatization or theunderstand why Marx overlooked the simple

rise of the netizens class, his theory offact that people who lead the "bourgeois

socialist revolution had to be limited in many

revolution" in the industrial society belonged

ways. Considering that, we may come to moreto the citizen class who exclusively embodied

interesting interpretations different fromthe newly rising strong economic power but

Marx's original views on the directions andwho represented only a small minority.

traits of social changes that are going on

Similarly, if a political "revolution" is to taketoday. That is what we, infosocionomists, areplace in today's nascent information society,pondering a these days.

most probably it would be lead not by theThis concludes my lecture. Thank you so"proletariat" of the industrial society but by themuch for kindly listening.

19Plural Treatments of a Definition of Information
Keywords:

Information Process, Plural Definition, Transformation-ware, Informational Change of Transformation-ware

Hajime TANAKA, Hokkaido University

Abstract
The title of the paper is [Plural Treatments of a Definition of Information].
A concept is defined usually on such a proposition that does not include this concept.
In this connection, the plural treatment of a definition of a concept is proposed with its
application to a way in which information is defined.
Every piece of information is expressed as many kinds of states of a medium in an
information process consisting of the system of output, memory, transfer andtransformation. The varied systems have a common character, that is, transformation of a
specific piece of information. The author calls each system in an information process"transformation-ware", connecting the short word "ware" to "transformation". He considers
that information phenomena are extended to a new region, that is, the bio and socialworld. As a result, transformation-ware is not always difficult to grasp as the case of an
instrument in communication.
The following two points are shown as the new results. Firstly there exists generally an
information phenomenon in which transformation-ware is changed by the information in
the medium. The phenomena are called a "conditional change in transformation-ware" inthis paper. Secondly, only the plural treatment of a specific piece of information succeeds
in treating a conditional change in transformation-ware.

21

1. Plural definition

Hilbert used these two prepositions as anaxiom and constructed his" Foundation of

1.1 What is plural definition?

Geometry" leaving both point and straight line

Plural definition is a new way of defining

undefined, but the author insists the above

the concept the author of this paper recently

stated axiom has the following meanings. Thatput forward. As a general consideration onis, the axiom defines a point using straightdefinition, there is one by Aristotle (719-740

lines and defines a straight line using points.

and 750-759, Noburou Katou, 1971) followed

Two concepts, a point and a straight line, areby another by Frege (Tatuo Fujimura), who isdefineda pioneer in symbolic logic. However, neither

concepts.

through the relation of the twoof them include consideration of the plural

These two definition statements aredefinition. Nevertheless, we can find somedefinitely not tautology. In fact, they couple

examples suitable for the plural definition, if

with each other to compose the basis for the

we review the result of the research inlogical development of geometry as learning.

individual scientific fields.

A viewpoint of this kind means to take theFor example, Hilbert composed a logicalstandpoint that both point and straight line

deductive system originating from a number ofare simultaneously defined through the two

axioms in his book "Foundation of Geometry".

correlations between the two objects: point

He stated at the beginning of his book theand straight line.

following propositions as an axiom. (12-13,

The concept that constitutes the starting

Koushiro Nakamura, 1943).

point of a logical deductive system like(1)

I1 For two points of A and B, there always

geometry must not contain any ambiguity.

exists at least one straight line that connects

Considering this point, it is quite interestingwith each of these points.

that the concepts of straight line and point

I2 For two points of A and B, no more thanthat constitute the starting point Hilbert was

one straight line exists that connects with eachgiven, or had to be given, were in pluralof these points.

definition.

Followingthepresentation

of

this

There is a problem that all students at the

proposition, Hilbert picked up various otherdepartment of physics have to think about

expressions. One of them is "Straight lines awhen they learn dynamics, and meditate on.

and b cross at point A". In order to make thisThat problem is the definitions of mass andproposition and axiom I1 the starting point forforce in Newton dynamics. They think overconsideration, this proposition and axiom I1

what are specified and how they are specified

arewhen they learn that strength of force is given

described

asthefollowingforconvenience's sake.

by the multiplication of a mass andacceleration of a material particle indicated by

A straight line is fixed by two points.

the effect of force, and mass is given by the

A point is the crossing of two straight lines.

acceleration of a material particle when it
receives the effect of force. If plural definition22

Hajime TANAKA―Plural Treatments of a Definition of Information

2. Characteristics of plural definition

becomes widely accepted, this problem issolved. I think plural definition is often

2.1 Simple definition and plural definition

required for defining the basic concepts ofindividual science.

In the definition of "point" stated in Section

Thus, when n pieces of concepts are

1.1, "straight line" is used, while "straight line"

simultaneously defined via n correlations, thisis defined using "points", so if we replace

type of definition is called "plural definition".

"straight line" in the definition of "point" withthese straight line definition sentences;

1.2 Purpose of this paper

Point = A crossing of two (or the one fixed

Not a few of concepts in practical use areby two points).

plural definition as a result. The purpose ofOr, if we put this sentence a bit more in order,

this paper is to make the concept-definition

Point = When there are two (things fixed bymethod of plural definition widely accepted,

two points), it is a crossing of theseas well as review the author's definition of

two.

information from the viewpoint of plural

If we rephrase the sentence this way, thisdefinition, and consider how comprehensive

definition is defining point by point, which

plural definition is compared to simple

makes it a self-referential definition.

definition.

Conversely, if we replace self-referential

The author defined the concept ofcharacteristics with a relationship to some

generation in a paper co-authored with Yutaka

other thing, here it is replaced by the

Tanaka, which is titled "Generation Character

relationship to straight lines, so we now canof Nature" (Yutaka Tanaka, et al., 2006).

acquire the definition in Section 1.1.

Generation character is what is often called

The author defined generation in a self-"hierarchy character", which has often

referential way in the co-authored paper

appeared in the author's papers about"Generation Character of Nature". (By Yutaka

information, but has no direct relationship

Tanaka, et al., 2006.) Here generations are thewith plural definition of information.

ones often called strata. Also in this case, we

In those papers, generations areself-

can rewrite the definition into a pluralreferentially defined. That is, it is defined thatdefinition style that does not include a self-"Generationreferential part by introducing an appropriate

isgenerated

from

other

generation, as well as generating otherconcept.

generation" as an important part of concept
definition.

Thisdefinition

Thus, when the definition sentence includes

indicates

a self-referential part, this self-reference cangenerations are actually self-referential

be made into plural and deleted by re-defining

concepts. In the next chapter, it is pointed out

this self-referential part as another concept. As

that the definition sentence of a self-referential

a result of the above procedure, the self-concept can be expressed as a pluralreferential definition sentence becomes adefinition that does not include the self-

plural definition, although the number ofreferential part.

plural definition sentences must be increased

(2)

23

by repeating the above procedure a number ofbeing "field for information process" totimes when the self-reference is complicated.

"transformation-ware".

Also, based on this, it should not be a
3.2 Plural treatments of a definition of the

problem if we assume the plural definition
sentence does not contain a self-referential

information and external proposition

concept. Recently, the author presented theThree definition sentences 1 The author

definition of information in plural style. In

presented three propositions separately that

Chapter 3, the author will review whether thisdefinedefinition has the content appropriate forInformation". (Hajime Tanaka, pp.10-11,

plural style, and in Chapter 4, he will show

2004). They are put in order and shownconcretely that a plural style definition makes

below. In a paper in 2004, the author used

it possible to define information that has athis term of plural definition in one placebroader informational phenomenon compared(Hajime Tanaka, pp.2, 2004), but called it

to a corresponding simple definition style.

mutual limitation or plurality. In this chapter,

informationin"Definitionofthe author explains the reason why the term
3. Plural Treatments of a Definition of Information I

plural definition was set aside, as well as
considering plurality in more detail. Here,

3.1 Terminology

plurality means characteristics of pluralFirst, I would like to mention terminology.

definition. Now in the following, the definition

In this paper, the term "transformation-of information that was presented in the paperware" is used instead of the term "field forabove is put in order and listed.

information process", which was previously

A Information is a distinction with a dual

used. Reasons are stated below.

expression in the information process.

Input-output system, transmission system,

Btransformation system and storage system are

Information process is composed of
information and transformation-ware.

all systems that transform information.

C

Transformation-ware is a definite andAccordingly, the author has called all of thesestable system composed of singular orthe "transformation system" and has further

plural number of transformation systems.

named them "field for information process"Terms in definition sentence A

when a single system or a number of systems

The

unusual phrase "a distinction with a dual

satisfy both conditions of definition andexpression" is used in definition sentence A

stability.(3) Although this term of "field forabove. Although the author has explained thisinformation process" gives the impression thatphrase many times in his paper (Hajime

it is an attachment of information process,Tanaka, pp.4-5, 2003), he dares to repeat thethere are more points that need attention.

explanation here.

As many people point out, the range ofSince it is thought that the last part of thisinformation is quite wide, including fromphrase "dual" is rather difficult to understandbiological to social information. Consideringand had no direct relationship with thethese reasons, the author has changed thedescription of this paper, I will skip this part24

Hajime TANAKA―Plural Treatments of a Definition of Informationand explain the rest of the phrase "a

B The information process is composed of

distinction with a expression".

information and external proposition B.

Information is always expressed in the

C Transformation-ware is external proposi-

media and each piece of information istion C.

different in actual expression. For example,

As you can see immediately if you take a

the three colours, red, green and amberlook at those three definitions, the relationshipexpress three pieces of information: stop, go

between information and information process

and wait. None of these three colours has tois plural, and transformation-ware is specified

be red, green or amber a priori. Since red

simply by external proposition in a simple

attracts more attention, it was thought mostsentence style. Next, let me consider theappropriate for keeping safety and would haverealitybeen made to correspond to "stop".

propositions A and B according to the content

It could be any colour from the viewpointofmutuallimitation

betweenof the definition sentences.

of informatics. It was fine as long as the

In definition C, transformation-ware iscolours used for the signal were distinguishedspecified as an external proposition. As afrom each other. Therefore, we can say the

result, transformation-ware is specified firmly

relationship between the content and colour

irrelevant to the plurality between definitionsof the signal intended to be transmitted is

A and B. Therefore, transformation-warenothing more nor less than the distinction ofremains as specified by the external

content being expressed as the distinction of

proposition in the information process definedcolour. This can be generally said with regard

by definition B.

to information in the information process. A

As a result, the condition given in definition

straightforward expression of this kind of

A is expected to guarantee the pluralrecognition is the proposition that information

definition that information is in theis a distinction expressed in the information

information process, though that condition

process.

becomesadummystatement.

Since

Three definition sentences 2 "A distinction

transformation-ware is given as an externalwith a dual expression" in proposition A,

definition C, transformation-ware does not"transformation-ware" in proposition B andchange even in the information process and it"definite and stable system composed ofis transformation-ware itself as specified bysingular or plural number of transformation

external

system" in proposition C are not decided byinformation

plural definition as above; in contrast, theytransformation-ware. Having considered theare external propositions that give content toabove, definition A can be replaced withplural definitions. If we call them external

definition A' as stated below.

propositions A, B and C, the above stateddefinitionisC.

expressed

Furthermore,
solelywith

A' Information is an external proposition A

plural definitions become as follows;on transformation-ware.

A Information is external proposition A in

Definition group A', B and C with definition

the information process.

A replaced with definition A' is no longer a25

plural definition. Therefore, neither do

adjustment. It is known that one of thedefinitions A, B and C possess the substance

representing functions is that a product ofof plural sentence, which is plurality.

metabolism

controls

enzymeactivity

As clearly shown in the explanation above,

responsible for the first step of the samein definition A, B and C plurality ismetabolism. This should be one of theemasculated, because of a strong regulation

examples of how transformation-ware,

given by external proposition.

comprising information process, is changed by
the information output from the said process.

So, can there be any instances where pluraldefinition deserves its name as being plural?

4.2 Conditioned reflex

The next Chapter 4 answers this question.
Here, I would like to point out that firm

As well known, conditioned reflex is aregulation of external proposition disappears

biological reaction first discovered by Pavlov

by heightening plurality of definition.

and is the most basic and typical type ofTogether with that, unless it is shown thatlearning (Nobuaki Tsukahara, 1998), which is

types of plural definition grasp information

controlled at the level of the neurological cell

phenomena in more detail, plural definition

as found in the study by Taketoshi Ono, etc.,

ends up being just a dummy statement

for instance (Taketoshi Ono, etc., 2003). Here,

without significant meaning for informatics. As

in order to review the famous first experimentdescribed below, there exist widely amongst

by Pavlov, let us take a look at the

information phenomena those that can only

explanation by Nakahara on the experimentbe specified by plural definition. That means

by Pavlov.

there exist phenomena that transformation-

Pavlov performed an operation on a dog toware, commonly believed not to change in themake it possible to measure the amount of

information process, are varied by information

saliva secreted (saliva fistulae), and gave theand that kind of information phenomenon isfollowing stimulus making saliva secretion asquite common, and in this paper, thisreflex. First, the dog was given a stimulus thatphenomenon is called "an informational

had no relation to saliva secretion (forchange of transformation-ware". The above is

example, the sound of a bell). No saliva

shown in each chapter after Chapter 3.

secretion was caused by this. Next, it wasgiven food after repeatedly ringing the bell.

4. Plural Treatments of a Definition of Information II

This is called "unconditioned stimulus",
because food always causes saliva secretion.

4.1 Metabolic control

Shortly, saliva secretion is caused by theHere, we will take a look at the metabolism

sound of the bell only, because the sound ofof creatures as an informational change ofthe bell and food are linked. This salivatransformation-ware.

secretion is called "conditioned reflex" and theThere exist in a cell many metabolic routes

sound of a bell is called "conditioned stimulus"

carrying composition and resolution. Those(CS

metabolisms

combination of bell sound and food in thisarereceivinganartful26

forshort).

Andtherepetitious

Hajime TANAKA―Plural Treatments of a Definition of Information

4.3 Making a proposition into plural defini-experiment is called "intensification".

tion completely

The phenomenon of conditioned reflex is
not only seen in dogs. It is also conditioned

In definitions A, B and C, transformation-reflex when carps gather to the clapping ofware appears as an external proposition.

hands resulting from giving food simultane-

Under definitions like these, transformation-ously while clapping hands, and it is a basis

ware remains specified as external proposi-

for general actions of learning, including thosetion, and if transformation-ware changesof human beings. What we need to be careful

during the progress of the information

about is new neurological system as theprocess, it expands beyond the original

following is always formed at the time thesedefinition. It is impossible to foresee thisconditioned reflexes are generated. That is,expansion and include it in the definition,

there, nerve fibres that transmit necessary

because we cannot assume information to benerve pulses to the part of the brain related to

input to the information process. Actually,

biological reaction of unconditioned reflex andunless we make this assumption, we cannot

any given conditioned stimulus are connected

say definitions are sufficient, but in order to

via unconditioned stimulus. Here we can finddo so, the assumptions need to be madea new combination of nerve cell groups. This

stipulatory along undiscovered information

formation is a generation of the nerve systemprocessthat was brought by the information(4) based

phenomenon on the living body to that on ouron external conditioned stimulus, which cansociety. It would be rather childish to argue

be said to be the informational change ofthe possibility of that assumption.

transformation-ware.

rangingfrominformation

So I would now like to revise definition C as

One of the characteristics of humana plural sentence and place it along withconditioned reflex is that language becomes adefinitions A and B. And external definition A,

conditioned stimulus. So we can say formation

etc. are stipulated and shown here.

of conditioned reflex in the case of human

A Information is a distinction with a dual

beings is a conspicuously varied informational

expression in the information process.

change of transformation-ware.

B The information process is composed ofConditioned reflex is widely seen in theinformation and transformation-ware.

animal kingdom, and informational change ofC Transformation-ware is a clear and sta-transformation-ware is also a phenomenon

ble system composed of singular or plur-widely seen and which is continuously

al number of transformation systems inprogressing.

the information process..

As evaluated in Chapter 5, it is thought the

If definition C is altered as above, theweight of the phenomenon of informationaltransformation-ware is not fixed but becomeschange of transformation-ware increases morevariable, correlating with the information

in a social information phenomenon.

process. I am saying again that this situation iswithin the range that definition C specifies. If I
rewrite all of these definitions, using external
27

propositions A, B and C, they should be:

Emperor till near the end of the Pacific War.

A Information is external proposition A in

For the author himself, it seemed like a true

the information process.

belief for many people.

B The information process is composed ofNeedless to say, it is not true at present.

information and transformation-ware.

After the end of the Pacific War, the values of

C Transformation-ware is external proposi-

Japanese changed drastically in a couple oftion C in the information process.

months.

These definition formulae are really

Thus,

there

existsasocialphenomenon that value standards affecting

beautiful and clear. Mutual limitations

strongly each individual's daily lives canbetween information, information process andchange uniformly within quite a short period.

transformation-ware are simply expressed in

The basis for each individual's value

this style. I would like to explain thatjudgement is the value standard. It is an

definitions as above include change ofimportant base composed of transformation-transformation-ware in the following.

ware of each individual's value information

The second Japanese paper is being

process. A social phenomenon as above isprinted, where the author, K. Nakatogawa andexceptional, but values for individual and

H. Nagata treats the plural definition with theorganization are always changing and various

symbolical logic (Hajime Tanaka, et. al., pp.5-

scales12, 2007).

transformation-ware are in progress behind

There have been many definitions ofof

informationalchangeofthem.

information since the 1950s, but all of them

About transformation-ware

It is totally

might have made definition A' as theimpossible

definition of information, adding some

informational change of transformation-wareinventions to external proposition A.

in the social information process. Needless totoclarifythedetailsofsay, we may possibly get a certain conclusion
5. Transformation-ware in a social informa-on consideration based on discovery acquiredtion phenomenon

from more advanced brain science. However,
not a few factual recognitions, that look

5.1 Value standard
Change of values

certain even at present, exist in our hands,
In order to consider

and there are some model considerations that

informational change of transformation-ware

explain well our daily experiences. Inferredin a social information phenomenon, theresults acquired from the content of theseauthor is stating one of the social phenomena

factual recognitions and model considerations

experienced by himself. The author has one

are the first steps for scientific recognition,clear experience even now after 60 years have

and we may be criticized for taking a non-passed.

scientific attitude if we abandon these. As one

It was a belief for most Japanese and theof the examples of model considerations, westandard of each individual's value judgement

may be able to raise the research processthat everything should be subject to thetheory stated in the next section (Hajime
28

Hajime TANAKA―Plural Treatments of a Definition of Information

Tanaka, 1988) or the like.

sake of following discussion.

Most human and organizational intelligent

If the content of the value standard for

activities are supported by factual recognitiontransformation-wareand value judgement. A framework of factual

functioning once, can we call this situation

changes

onlybyrecognition and value standards for value"value judgement by changed value standard"?

judgement are an important part of the

It is rather doubtful. This case may need to be

individual's and organization's transformation-

recognized as the information phenomenon ofware, and both of these may keep changing in

multiple pieces of information, which are ableaccordance with external information,

to influence the value standards and thesometimes rapidly and sometimes slowly.

information to be evaluated, rather than as the

In this paper, I would like to continue

information process of value judgement byconsidering paying attention to a value

value standard.

standard that is thought to be one of the

Even in this case, we can comfortably

important components of transformation-ware.

recognize the phenomenon stated above as a

Below is one of the reasons.

value standard of information-ware, when the

Value judgement in conversation andscientific researchchanged value standard exists longer than a

Although I pointed out

couple of milliseconds, which is the time

the below in the paper on tripartite talknecessary for brain cell reaction, and always(Hajime Tanaka, pp.47, 2006), utterance

stays in the condition of stand-by, in order tobased on value judgement has a high weightmake value judgement.

in our conversation. This is not peculiar only

In the following section, I would like toto people's daily conversation. As discussed inconsider a part of the research process. This

the above, value judgement has quite a highphenomenon is a small-scale information

weight in scientific research, that is, at theprocess but because of this, we can make

opposite end. First of all, hypothesis

more concrete considerations.

verification, which is a conventional method
5.2 Evaluation in research results

for scientific research, is not a theoretical

Research processprocess, but a value judgement process as we

The author has

published research processes often (Hajime

considered (Hajime Tanaka, pp.28-30, 2002)
A standard

Tanaka, 1988), (Hajime Tanaka, 1997),

of value judgement or, more broadly, standard(Hajime Tanaka, 2002). In the second paperof judgement becomes a self-referring

listed, research process theory, designed to be

definition in information we output. Therefore,

based on research in the field of natural

we may be able to think that value judgement

science, was recomposed to make itis the base for information process inside ourapplicable to research in the field of social

brain and is an important component ofscience and cultural science.

Condition of value judgementtransformation-ware. Here I would like to

Although every researcher has experienced

confirm what the change of transformation-

research process, in the following, the authorware is, although it seems quite clear, for thewould like to show that one of the important29

processes cannot make any progress until it

Effort for development will bring a situation

informationalofwhere a result is attained. It seems thattransformation-ware. In order to do so, theresearch has settled for the time being withstages that have direct relationship with

this, but the opposite is true. We should rather

informational change of transformation-ware

say true research starts from this point. There

are shown in Figure 1 and consideration

comes a turn for informational change ofshould be based on this figure.

transformation-ware, which is the subject ofexperienceschangethis chapter
Evaluation and conclusion

The purposeof research is generally declared by anindividual subject. The individual subject has
an awareness of the underlying issue, andwhen a clue for how to proceed with research
is found, development of the research starts.
In research process theory, awareness of issue
is called "awareness of subject" instead, andawareness of subject turns out to be theindividual subject when it gets an opportunity
for development. I would like to note again,
Figure 1 Research process, conclusion fromthe purpose of this research is to satisfy theindividual subject

requirement of awareness of subject andindividual subject.

The individual subject in Figure 1 is usually

Therefore, what we need to do next is tocalled "research subject". In research processevaluate how closely the result attained

theory, a specified research subject issatisfies what awareness of subject andestablished as the starting point of theindividual subject require. In other words, we

research process, and it is called "individual

need to evaluate the result from thesubject" when it is distinguished by a certain

development, using awareness of subject andnumber of conditions. It should not cause any

individual subject as value standards. This isproblems if the individual subject is renamed

to evaluate the result by a value standard"research subject" here.

composed of awareness of subject andAll procedures made in search of solving

individual subject. This value standard is an

the individual subject specified, such asimportant component of transformation-wareinvestigation, observation, experiment,in the research process.

calculation and logical consideration, are

There should be just a few cases(6) whengenerally called "development". It is because

evaluation based on value standard of

every one of them is a consideration,

research process is not necessary, except the

behaviour or action seeking a result fromresearch result of a copper-steel typeresolving an individual subject.

research(5).
30Hajime TANAKA―Plural Treatments of a Definition of Information

There are often cases when the result
attained is known to answer what awarenessof subject and individual subject require only
under certain conditions. Specifying thoseconditions is also an important task in
concluding the research process. A process
where these tasks are performed is the
Evaluation in Figure1.
When result is evaluated, it is called aconclusion. When the conclusion is reached,this research process also terminates.
Value standard

A value standard in the
Figure 2 Value standard in research process

research process often appears. It first works
as selection standard for a number of methods

5.3 Informational change of transformation-effective for development. And when a result

ware in society

is attained, it functions as a value standard for

One question

the value judgement of this result. If the

In this section, the author

attained result conditionally satisfies the value

will describe how the basis for a social

standard of the research process, it works as ainformation phenomenon is informational

standard to judge the appropriateness of thosechange of transformation-ware of that society,conditions. Finally, the value standard for thebased on his argument in the previous

research process compares and evaluates thechapter.

result attained and itself; sometimes it insists

Here, one question might occur. Even ifthat even the individual subject or awarenessthere happens to be an informational changeof subject should be changed. The valueof transformation-ware in the researchstandard for a research process makes a self-

process, the ratio the research process

denial of its being a value standard depending

occupies in the information process of theon the content of the result. These procedures

whole society is low, so that if any conclusion

are shown in Figure 2.

is reached from the research process as an
object, its weight in the social information

In summary of the above, the value
standard for a research process is formed atprocess should also be low, which leaves us a

the birth of the individual subject and it often

question whether, in the end, informational

functions toward input information of thechange of transformation-ware might just be

result. If we note these, this formation of value

an irregular phenomenon.
Recognition process in daily life andstandard and its diversified function might bean extremely fine example of transformation-

research

ware's informational change.

author replied in advance to the question

At the end of Section 4.2, theabove haughtily "It seems the weight of thephenomenon which is an informational
31

change of transformation-ware increases more

hypothetical verification is to introduce ain the social information phenomenon",certain deduced result from hypothesis inthough, where is the basis for this kind of boldorder to get some knowledge from theopinion?

research object. The hypothesis set up is

In order to answer this, let us pay attention

regarded as correct when this deduced result

to the scientific recognition process whichis recognized as correct in some way, that is,gives us the impression that it is far apart fromwhen the deduced result is verified.

our daily recognition process, in order to

Let us review some of our behaviour in ourcompare this scientific recognition process

daily lives. When we purchase certain daily

with the recognition process in our daily lives.

utensils, we try them in order to know if they

To complete this totally, the author would

work properly. If I describe these series ofneed an enormous number of pages. Here,behaviour logically; i) Presuming the utensil

attention is given to two basic situations.

works normally. ii) If this hypothesis is

When we encountercorrect, our purpose is achieved by operating

an unknown object we have never seen

Change of viewpoint

the utensil according to the procedures in the

before, we take it in our hand, rotate it andattached manual. iii) The purpose is achievedstare at it by tilting it, if the object is small. If

by operating it according to the procedures in

the object is too big to pick up, for example,

the manual. iv) Therefore, the utensil

when we first encounter certain buildings,

purchased works normally.

since we cannot move the building, we bend

How much difference exists between

our own bodies and eventually makehypothetical verification on scientificobservation with our heads keeping as low asrecognition and this series of behaviour? The

the ground between our legs. We certainly

basic structure of the recognition process is

combine the results from transferring one

completely the same for both.

frame of reference and another, trying to

In scientific research, method and range

grasp the whole picture.

used for verification are far from daily ones.

In research on elementary particles,

Sometimes the range of research is wide andapproach is made to recognize the researchlarge- scale, or quite often the equipment

object by comparing coordinates of the samenecessary for verification is extremely large-

object viewing it from different frames ofscale and precise, which costs enormously forreference.

their production and installation. These

The method of recognition in our daily lives

methods for investigation and observationis common to the modern recognition method

definitely are exceptional actions or behaviourin the theory of elementary particles that isin our daily lives. However, the basic

regarded as highly advanced, which is quite

structures of the recognition processinteresting.

correspond with each other and we may be

Next, I would like to consider hypotheticalable to find apparent correspondence between

verification, which is a representative method

the recognition process in our daily lives andfor scientific recognition. As stated before,

in non-daily activities such as scientific32Hajime TANAKA―Plural Treatments of a Definition of Information

research.

Thus, after recognizing the direct object has

If we are allowed to think of it that way, ansettled down for a while, especially from theapparent fact found in the research process,second half of the 20th century to the 21stthat is informational change of transformation-

century, a new situation has rapidly

ware, is a continuously repeated phenomenon

developed. There appear many fields thaton the basis of the recognition process in our

make an "object based on viewpoint", that is adaily behaviour and actions, as well as the

viewpoint object, instead of direct object, as

non-daily ones.

their research object; for example, cultural

As for the organizations composing society,anthropology in the humanities field or

there are various levels of them starting frommathematical science such as fractal sciencekinds of associations to organizationsin the natural science field.

supporting education and industry, andAs a result, it has become possible to grasp

further to a variety of national organizations

different objects in a cross-sectoral manner,connected with political administration andwhich has made the content of recognition on

judicature. All of them recognize various facts

objects much richer but has caused a new

and decide on certain behaviour and action or

problem. It is the mutual overlapping of

the will for them, based on this information.

research areas for newly born individual

Each organization always has its own value

science. Possibility of this overlapping

standard. These value standards are also

sometimes

important components of that transformation-

development of each individual science.

causesconfusionintheware each organization has, and they change

However, the research situation, with

their value standard based on various

complication from appearance of new fields

information. As a result, an extremely

and these confusion, is not simply a confusion

dynamic situation of the social informationalbutphenomenon becomes apparent.

development of each science. These results ofanecessary

processduringthevarious individual sciences based on a variety
6. Consideration and conclusionof viewpoints may reach unified recognition
with a multi-dimensional structure at a certain

Consideration

Research objects andpoint. It is because there is only one realresearch method are usually picked out as theworld that is the object for recognition.

conditions that characterize each scientificWithout standing at the viewpoint above,

field. "Research object" for various sciences

there may be a possibility of wandering in theuntil the 19th century was the existence

wilderness of confusion if one searches forgrasped by the senses. I will call this "direct

what is the socioinformatics while dragging

object". What are caught by senses throughthe illusion from 19th century "science".

investigation and measurement, and their

From this kind of viewpoint, what should

components are included in direct object.

be done now for development and formation

Here, different individual sciences haveof the socioinformatics becomes apparent. It israrely shared their proper research object.

to configure a recognition system for social
33

informational phenomena based on a clear

existence of a relational method in that output

viewpoint and to make it as socioinformatics.

from one information process changes the

Needless to say, there should be multiple

information process of itself and others. Thissocioinformatics that have different viewpointis the third conclusion.

objects.

Now, as the evaluation at the beginning ofBased on the above, I would like to statethis Chapter implies, showing a viewpoint

my conclusion.
Conclusion

object concretely is the current task for
As indicated in the evaluationsocioinformatics. At the present stage, there

in Chapter 5, informational change ofshould be plural viewpoints of that kind. One

transformation-ware exists widely in the areaof them is as below.

from biological informational phenomenon to

The author has given consideration tosocial informational phenomenon and is an

information together with the information

important phenomenon that composes theprocess since long ago (Hajime Tanaka, 1997).

basis for each information process. This is the

Touru Takahashi also emphasizes that thefirst conclusion of this paper.

information process is basic when evaluating

The first conclusion that requires adefinitionof

informationsocial information process (Touru Takahashi,

includes2004). Natural extension of this viewpoint

informational change of transformation-ware.

based upon various considerations that haveAs the result of the first conclusion, definition

been developed in this paper is the author'sof information must follow the plural

viewpoint.

definition method and the concrete example

The social information process is ashown is the second conclusion.

phenomenon that is woven by various

Previously, two types as below have been

numerous information processes and theirrecognized concretely as the relationshipmutual relationships. This can be said to be

between information processes. The first one

socioinformatics' viewpoint of the social

is the only relationship in which output

informational phenomenon. Socioinformatics

information from the information process

isbecomes input information of other singular or

phenomenon based upon this kind ofplural information processes. And the second

viewpoint. This is the fourth conclusion of thisone is the nested structure of the information

paper.

ascienceofsocialinformational

process (Hajime Tanaka, pp.6, 2003). Nested
Acknowledgements

structure is to have a smaller scale
information process as a component of a

Hiroyasu Nagata gave me precious

larger information process (7). Since input

comments through our repeated discussion.

system, memory equipment and storage

Also . Kazutami Wake and Ayumu Tanaka

system are information processes themselves,

gave me valuable comments on metabolism,

the information process usually has a nested

Kouichi Okuya on ethics and further Kouji

structure.

Nakatogawa and Touru Takahashi onsocioinformatics. Toshimi Oue gave me

The first conclusion as above implies the34

Hajime TANAKA―Plural Treatments of a Definition of Informationencouragement for this work, and also helped

thoroughly.

me a lot with the English abstract. Youko(6) There is a case when the basic subject is

Kawai and Masanobu Wada deliberately

different, although awareness of subject andreviewed my manuscript and pointed out

individual subject are same. In reality, the basic

many errors in my wording for this paper, as

subject can also be added to the value standard.

well as giving me precious comments. I would

In this case, even though awareness of subject

like to express my gratitude by stating themand individual subject are the same, the value

here.

standard is different. Refer to the paper by
Hajime Tanaka (1988) for clearness and basic

Notesubject.

(1) In 2000, the old version of the translation by(7) When output from a certain information process

Koushirou Nakamura was published by Chikuma

becomes the input to other information

Shobou with a commentary by Chikara Sasaki.

processes, each information process is nested in(2) Self-reference sentence sometimes includes para-

larger scale in-formation process which is thedox of Crete. However, if proposition P does nottotal of each informa-tion process. Therefore it

contain the kind of paradox in self-referring

seems that a nested struc-ture is suitable enoughproposi-tion of "Information is proposition P", thisfor relation with the informa-tion process.

proposi-tion does not include this kind of

However, since it seems that relation of theparadox either.

information process, based on information output(3) Here, "clear" means input/output point for infor-

and input relationship, becomes the basis formation process is clear, and "stable" indicates

network structure, this relation is recognized asthat if the information input is the same,

being inde-pendent.

information output is also the same (Hajime

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36Supertemporal and Temporal-constrained
Characters of Socioinformatics
Tamito YOSHIDA, A member of the Japan Academy
Location of the problem

recognition and designing of a study of
information and sign phenomenon that has
material = energy phenomenon (hereinafter

Almost at the same time as the foundation
Socioinformatics

called only "material"), which was established

Associations in 1996, I suggested an

by material science (physics and chemistry)understanding of Socioinformatics that was

since the 17th century, as an indispensabledifferent from the mainstream one. The latter

supporting condition and an unavoidable

understood Socioinformatics to be a new

constrained

academic area that started from journalism,

breakthrough in science history which I wasand then developed into a study of mass-

named "informatics' theoretical evolution ofcommunication including radio and TV

modern science", "second scientific revolution

broadcastings, and is newly a series of studies

in capital letters", or, simply put, "newin, so called media communication theory

scientific theory". The vitalism, which waswhich analyzes various packaged media,

recognized as completely lost against physics'

portable information devices such as mobile

reductionism,

phones etc., broadcasting and communication

informatics as bioscience in a modified form. I

satellites and the internet.

tried to introduce and establish the framework

of

the

two

Japan

condition.

has

It

was

revivedabig

symbolic

On the other hand, my Socioinformatics

of informatics and semasiological theory,

focuses on the biological revolution thatsimilar to the one in bioscience or biologicalstarted as an elucidation of DNA information

science.

by Watson-Crick, spreading to all areas of life

However, in order to do so, I must prepare

science and bioscience, and which began toby giving careful consideration to several

develop in biotechnology or bioengineeringfactors, in which the whole of nature,

based upon this spread. This biologicalconsisting of three layers; material, living

revolution in the middle of the 20th century iscreatures and human beings, is recognized asa huge crustal movement in science that

the Universe of Discourse. In so far as

follows the physical evolution in 17th century

recognizing the whole nature as the Universe

and it is the academic form that aims at theof Discourse is concerned, they can be termed37philosophical consideration . I give 6 mainand signal character", and both are different

examples as below. The first one is thein terms of style of existence from "generation

framework of " pan-evolutionary history

existence" which depends on the principle

theory" which includes all of cosmic evolution

rather than on the program, like the cosmic,

where no sign exists, or the evolution ofgalactic or solar systems. The accepted theory

human beings to which symbolic signs areofrelated. The second one is the revolution of"mechanical" should have been said wrong.

semiology, which is called " sign evolution

Only "structural existence" that carry throughdefining

themodernscienceastheory" that started from neurological signs

from cell to biologic bodies and to the socialand reached linguistic signs using RNA andstructure includes command, recognition and

DNA as prototypes. The third one is the "newevaluation. The sign information function

existence theory" that started from thedoesn't exist inside or outside of "formation"generation and existence of the material layer

existence" or material layer. Genome sciencethat is generated following material scientific

has made it clear that the cell is the basis oftheory" and reached "human formulation andthe sign information (DNA and RNA) inclusive

existence that is formulated by humansystem in evolutionary history. Now the

programs (symbolic or signal programs)

system is divided into three types, which are

the

via

biological formulation and existence"sign information non-inclusive type", "signformulated by the biological program (signal

information inclusive type" and "signprogram). In other words, it is the evolution

information externality type". The fourth is thein existing type from materialistic

difference in methods of explanation between

existence"tobiological

generationhumanmaterial science and the bioscience and"formulation existence". In other words again,

andhuman science. On the other hand, there are

it is the comparison in evolutional history

1) clarifications in the biological and humane

between (principle) "generation philosophy" inprogram and initial conditions (context

the material layer and (programmatic)

functions), 2) the resolution of "adoptive"formation philosophy" in the biological andselection by certain selection standards andhuman layer. The traditional dichotomy of

the border and initiative condition", which is"machine theory vs. organic form theory"

the explanation and prediction with the dualmeans the organic forms can't be built without

steps, original to the biological and humanthe inherent signal program (design drawing

layer . The fifth point is that the so-calledinside the system), but the machines cannot

theological laws (hereinafter stated only as

be built without the external symboliclaws) separated from empirical laws which areprogram (the design drawing outside of thethe eutaxy principles that apply only to thesystem), except the automatically controlledmaterial layer in nature. The eutaxy principle

machines. That is to say both the machines

for the biological layer is the program of signal

and organics are a formation existence withcharacter, and the one for the human layer isthe difference in design drawings being thatthe program of symbolic nature. The program"external and symbolic character" vs. "inherent

is not a law but the eutaxy principle is38

Tamito YOSHIDA―Supertemporal and Temporal-constrained Characters of Socioinformatics

different from law. Referring to the differencewith the new concept of eutaxy principle

between the characteristics of the three eutaxy

revolution that isprinciples, they are, respectively that the laws

programin the material layer are "unable to change

which we discuss and understand thethe laws → the symbol. The Universe of Discourse withand disobey", the signal (signal nature)

behavior style is separated from the humanprograms of the biological layer also are "ablelayer and is disengaged, expanded andto change and unable to disobey", and thegeneralized. It is not an exaggeration to say it

symbolic (representative) programs of the

as a big inversion for the unification ofhuman layer are "able to change and disobey".

material science, bioscience and humanOn the other hand, the eutaxy generalization

science. Until the emergence of the expanded

proposition (hereinafter stated as the eutaxyinterpretation of information and signprinciple) is found in all academic ground,

categories, both the autistic constriction of theand in principle, is given as the composition

visual field of the humanities and theeffects of principle and/or signal program

reductionism of science have combined toand/oreach

make it unavoidable that the humanities andborder/initial condition (context functions). It

science are dissociated and separated. The 6thmust be said that it is the fundamental

at the last is that information is divided into

symbolic

programandcollapse of the monism of "eutaxy principle =two groups; "non-sign information" and "signlaw" since classical mechanics. I positioned

information", and the former is the "general

this as a "revolution of eutaxy principle". All(temporal/spatial and qualitative/quantitative)thedifference/pattern of the materialistic

statements

made

by

the

mass-

communication media insisting that they'rephenomenon" that penetrates the material"laws" of human phenomenon, are "programs"

layer/biological layer/human layer in nature.

or empirical law. The eutaxy principles that

The latter is defined as "differences/patterns

modern economics calls economical laws

being signalized that are specific to theshould be recognized as economically rational

biological layer and the human layer .

programs or the mathematical formulation of

Succeeding Aristotle, non-signal information istheir synthetic/multiplied effects on thethe "general eidos" and signal information ispretext of homo economics. Since both thethe "signal eidos". Plato's idea is example oflaws and programs can seek mathematicalsignal information. But in my actual

formulation, their being formulated doesn't

experience as vice chairman at the Sciencemean they are laws. The eutaxy principle

Council of Japan for the 18th period, thoseencompassing such things as behavior styles,

argument points in the above are allorders or rules original to the human layer,

unacceptable ideas in the common subjective

were unable to be positioned using a more

world of the present academic field. I can only

fundamental framework under the monism ofput my hope on the researchers of the next

laws of the old scientific theory. But theygeneration.

attained their proper space in the scientificThus it can be said that those three, theimage of the world for the first time in history,"material", the "material transformation" and39the "nomological formation" are basic

sign information transformation and programs,

categories of material science. But thegiven time constraints and the scope of thisfundamental categories of biological sciencepaper. Considerations are given on three

and the humanities-social-science are thosesubjects; the types of linguistic programs, theirthree; "signal information", "transformation ofoperations, and their differences andsignal information" and "programming

selections. First, there are enormous varieties

information", and by handling two steps of theof linguistic programs, different from the DNA

signal morphologic revolution (separated fromprogram (hereinafter the program is stated as

the signal media revolution as stated in thep): 1) the individual and concrete p; p of here

following), biological science that handles

and now, and the general and abstract p;formation by signal information, such as

ethics and laws. For example, from the ad hoc

genetic

sensory/kinetic

and ad lib programs to institutional programs

information, and human science that handles

such as cabinet orders, ministerial orders andthe formation by symbolic information, suchordinances, 2) the p that responds with three

as symbols and languages, are differentiated.

modes of sign information functions which is

Furthermore, the program is an example/one

instructional p; to the self and others, thepart of sign information, and the program

cognitive p and the evaluative p, that is

information,

operation is also one example/part of sign

method and steps of instruction, cognition andinformation transformation, but they areevaluation, 3) The indigenous p and planned

specialized and extracted concept formationsp, 4) The standardized and non-standardized

from the viewpoint of the order formation.

p, 5) The p easy to be verbalized and difficult
to be, 6) p that introduces the motive or

The supertemporal informatics

behavior before/during itself and after, and 7)
as the examples of important p difficult to

By the way, same as with biologicalnotice but detected by ethnomethodology, pscience, that has genomics and the protein-that refers to the program on its own behavior

science as its core, and includes a

before, during and after the mutual behavior

supertemporal one that has all of life's history

scene; etc.

for nearly 40 billion years within range andSecondly, while the operation of p, that is

the specifically temporal one that connects

of DNA and, sensory/mobility, is based on

itself with the various biotechnologies

material science laws, and generally is

inseparably based on the former one, socio-

unambiguous and unable to disobey, (noteinformatics should also include and integratethat though there are sometimes malfunctions,the supertemporal one and the temporally

the operation of linguistic p itself is mediatedconstrainedby symbols, though it is necessary andone.

First,

in

terms

of

supertemporal socio-informatics, I'd like tounavoidable for the assistance and limitation

limit myself to the simple consideration of theof the biological programs of material sciencelinguistic program in particular, among thelaws and of DNA etc.) it should be said rather

three big categories of sign information, andthat the "ambiguity of interpretation" and the40Tamito YOSHIDA―Supertemporal and Temporal-constrained Characters of Socioinformatics"possibility of deviation" are normal . The

tive/entrusting using the program. The self-

operation of linguistic p is just theorganization by the program, which should be"construction" of the various systems on thedecisively separated from the one by theso-calledprinciples, has the dual problems of: 1) self-

constructionism of the humanities-socioorganization of the system by the program

science, which is limited to the cognitive(primary self-organizational character), and 2)

construction and to which evaluating

the self-organization of the program itself

construction is sometimes added, is expanded(secondary self-organizational character). As

including instructive construction or rather

stated in the complex adaptive system by thehaving it as the core. I called this an

Santa Fe Research Institute, The adoption of

expansion of "ontological constructionism"

the program is none other than thethat encompasses from "epistemologicaldescription of secondary self-organizational

constructionism", which is limited to a single

character.

humanlevel,

andthe

However,theconceptofmode of cognition and is established theory,

primary/secondary self-organization has

to "ontological constructionism", that includes

absolutely no relationship with the principle

all the three modes: instruction, cognition andnon-semiology self-organization theory. In

evaluation. The so-called antinomy between

fact, the self-organization character of

essentialism and constructionism in thebioscience includes both the principle self-

humanities-socio science turns to theorganization and the programmatic one. The

ontological differentiation of generation-ism

self-organization theory supported in theand constructionism, and, more in details, itsocial science still hasn't resolved the twoturns out to be the trichotomy of the

problems of: 1) the lack of a framework for

nomological generation of material layer, thethe self-organization by the program rather

signal programmatic generation of thethan by the principle, and because of this,biological layer, and the signal programmatic

failure of the distinction between primary andgeneration of the human layer. Thissecondary self-organization, and 2) the

ontological constructionism is just a self-

recognition that only the autonomous

organization, from a different point of view,

distributed decentralized-self-organization isby the system and with the system's

the self-organization. I'm adding this to avoid

environment. However, here again the

misunderstanding, that in the chaos ofdogmatic self-organizational character ofcomputer simulation, chaos equations aresocio-science is just a ready-made concept of

input as the computer program, but those

the nomological non-signal informatics' self-

equations may not always be the program inorganizational character original to material

the sense of programming self-organization.

science, and is nomological. Furthermore, it is

The chaos equations can either be the chaos

completely

signalprinciple or the chaos program. It's because

informatics' self-organizational character,the computer program processes the two big

original

eutaxy principles in the modern science oftodifferent

fromsocio-science,

the

and

is

decentralized/centralized and participa-

"laws
41

and

program"as"computerscience that claims symbolic and ontologicalprogramming" equally. It is similar to the factthat both the laws and programs are available

constructionism" or the "socio-science that has

for mathematization. The point is whether orthe self-organizational character of the

not it is the eutaxy principle that is composed

symbolic program" and can be said to be theof the symbol string that is inherent in thesocio-science version of the supertemporal

research subject itself.

biological informatics . As a result, various

Thus the core of the second subject is thesocio-sciences, such as the study of law,

"explanation of social eutaxy by the program"sociology, economics, political science,and the focus of the third subject that follows

pedagogy, business administration, social

is the "explanation of the program itself". As

psychology, etc., can have the possibility offor the question on the existence of thesynthesis upon the common and general"principle" that explains "program" itself, thefoundation of supertemporal socioinformatics.

conclusion is negative. The explanation of theOnce Marxism was said to provide thegenetic program is, reflects the majority viewcommon foundation for socio-science, but

point, that of the so-called framework oftoday this common foundation should be"variation and selection" by Darwin. This

found in supertemporal socioinformatics in the"variation and selection" is also used in theexact same way as biological informatics is

explanation of the symbolic program as the

now regarded as the common foundation offramework of Pan Darwinism. But for thatthe various biological sciences.

purpose, the variation is not limited to random

Furthermore, I'll refer to one point in bothvariation, but includes borrowing, imitation,

sign information and sign information

emergence and planned creation, and thetransformation. On the one hand, theselection comes to include advance exogenous

understanding of sign information tends to be

selection (advance suppression by power,

limited to cognitive ones, but on the otheretc.), and advance/post subjective selection

hand, evaluation information, especially(endogenous selection) . Originally, theinstruction information and sign information

concept of so called "natural selection" wastransformation tends to be limited to spatio-

conceived from "artificial selection"; included

transformation; that is, communication. But

in the subjective selection, according to thethefirst chapter of "Origin of Species", so in thisinformation/evaluating

sense, it is the so called atavismus. And the

instructive information, that is decision

selection standard is not limited to themaking, has a decisive meaning as the sign

exogenous, maximization of comprehensive

information phenomenon for both ontologicaltransformation

fromcognitive

information

tofitness by W. D. Hamilton, and is expanded toconstructionism and programming self-

the various endogenous criterion of value;organizational character. The understanding

purpose rationality, value rationality, emotionof information in the common sense biased tofitness, etc. by M. Weber, for example.

the two aspects of "recognition andtransmittance" distorts the academic sign

After all the above, "supertemporal

informationsocioinformatics" is another name for "socio42

understanding

without

Tamito YOSHIDA―Supertemporal and Temporal-constrained Characters of Socioinformatics

consciousness. Sign information as academic

characters of modern society from thejargon includes other than "recognition

framework of socioinformatics. The first one isinformation" (news and knowledge, etc.),

the viewpoint of sign evolution theory. The

evaluation information (opinion and concept

sign evolution theory has the two aspects ofof values, etc.), and "instruction information""evolution of the sign configuration" and the(intention, order, ethics and law, etc.). Sign

"evolution of the sign material (sign media)",

information transformation as academic

signjargon includes all of the following. They aretransformation/program specific to theinformation/sign

information

other than the communication as "spatio-

modern society is extremely rational/effective

transformation"

information"binary electronic information space" that has

transformation, memory and storage as "time"binary form" and "electronic media" as thetransformation", duplication and copying as

two big characters. The mutual transformation"media transformation", the transformation

between the various linguistic information

of

sign

from the audio language to the written

space and the binary electronic information

language and the reverse as "sign formation",space in the existent human layer based ontranslation,the "music/literature" form and "audio/written

associationas"meaning

language"transformation", calculation and deduction,

form is the revolution of

information emergence, decision making andinformation space original only to modern"signalizing

thesociety. It would have another turning pointtransformation from non-signal information =by the practical application of quantum

non-signal difference/pattern, such as thecomputing.

transformation";function of the acceptor and the sensor, to

The second is the technical possibility ofsignal information = signal difference/pattern,

this binary electronic information space andand the "objectivization transformation"; thehere I'd like to point out four points: 1) thetransformation from signal information =real time character, 2) virtual character, 3)

signal difference/pattern, such as the function

robotic (automatic machine) character, 4)of the effecter and the actuator, to the non-global character. The robotic character is thesignalnon-signal

attributes of human beings from the viewpoint

difference/pattern. All the process/dynamicof human mechanistic theory and when the

aspects in the personal/social, psychological,

global character is interpreted as thesemantic and mental world are recognized as

macrocosmic character (in the global humansignalsystem and the cranial nerve system, in thisinformation/symbolic=

sign

informationcase), those four characters are alreadytransformation.
Socioinformatics that should be temporally constrained

realized in cranial nerve information space.

By the way, as with all the

But they are constructed outside of thesocio-sciences, socioinformatics that should

individual human. Information technology,bind them must respond to the requirementsthat includes the computer, internet andof the society and era. To that purpose, firstly,

broadcasting/communication satellites,

I would like to describe the three basic

instrumentalizes and institutionalizes the43

above said technical possibility of the binary

the individual human being" the real timeelectronic information space based on thecharacter, virtual character, robotic character,various social/individual demands and humanglobal character, etc., is the biggest target thatvalue standards: safety/ease, freedom, humanis the time-constrained socio-informatics. The

rights, reliability, justice, privacy, democratic

binary digitization of sign information spacecharacter, equality, service character,covers all aspects, such as the economy,

effectiveness, service character, etc. The final

politics, education and life. The DNA program

destination should be termed the binary

as the eutaxy principle is the original in theelectronic information layer as the new global

history of program evolution, but the binary

historic landmark following the material/

electronic program is the latest programming

biological/human layer, rather than thepattern since the beginning of life in thehuman history landmark, in the same way ashistory of the Earth and its wide and deep

the highly-sophisticated information society is

influence is beyond prophecy.

in contrast to the industrial society. It is such

In the third place, traditional science, oran innovative sign informatics' evolution. Here"cognition science", has the rule of theagain, I can point out the significance of the"science for science's" sake as its basis, but theconsideration which expands the universe of

movement of the gravity center fromdiscourse to the whole of nature. Just as theautonomous and empirical technology tohuman layer is a part of the biology layer in aplanned scientific technology that arose in thestrict sense, the binary electronic information

20th century increased the value of "sciencelayer is a part of the human layer, and eachfor society" by the end of the century, and has

has an isolated difference from the latterdemanded a new scientific mode of "designrespectively. Also technological innovation inscience" that includes both engineering inmodernasscience and normal science in philosophies.

nanotechnologies and drug discoveries,

The binary electronic information layer is now

doesn't exist if there isn't the emergence ofin the midst of the device's/system'smaterial

space,

such

sign information space that precedes it, butconstruction, so the temporal-constrained

the binary electronic character for signsocio-informatics must strengthen its character

information space has a decisive significance.

of "design science". It means that socio-

The computer simulation would be it's one of

informatics is expected to step into practicalthe examples easier to understand. If there

designing, surpassing the existing and simple

would be a periodization following the history

cognition or the criticism of the status quo.

of human beings in the history of the Earth, it

For the cognition/evaluation construction bymust be sought in sign information space andthenot in material space. Either the landmark is(instruction/cognition/evaluation) constructionin the history of human beings or the Earth,in the field must be learnt.

researchers,

theontologicalthere's no doubt that the binary electronic

space information = binary electronic

Relevant Literature

information layer, that "construct outside of

Edited by Tomio Kinoshita and Tamito Yoshida, The

44

Tamito YOSHIDA―Supertemporal and Temporal-constrained Characters of Socioinformatics

Concept

andthe

Background

of

the

Tamito Yoshida, The Realignment of the 21stSocioinformatics: for the Birth of the New

Century Science and the Sociology. Japan

Discipline. Behavior Science of the Sign andScientific Monthly, Volume 51, Issue 1, Japan

Information. The Applied Psychology Course,

Society for the Promotion of Science (2001)

Volume 4. Fukumura Publishing (1993)

Tamito Yoshida, The New Science Theory and theTamito Yoshida, The post Chemical Biology: from

Ontological Constructionism: 'The Evolution of

the Nomothetic Science to the Program

Eutaxy Principle' and 'The Internal Model of theClarification Science. The Sociology Critique,

Biological and Human Existence'. The Sociology

Volume 46, Issue 3. The Japan Sociology Society

Critique, Volume 55, Issue 3. The Japan(1995)

Sociology Society (2004)

TamitoYoshida,The

ConceptoftheIn addition, regarding my "New Scientific Theory"

Socioinformatics or Socio-informatics, as one of

which

has

a

close

relationshipwiththe new Disciplines. The Socioinformatics

Socioinformatics, refer to the 30 references of my

Symposium, Searching for its Interdisciplinary

writings in the list at the end of "The Paradigm

Character and the Demonstration. Socioinformat-

Shift

ics Division, Gunma University (1995)

Assumption". The Trend of Science, Volume 8,

Tamito Yoshida, The Paradigm Shift of Science in
the

21st

Century,TheofModernScience:A

Tentative

Issue 10, The Science Council of Japan (2005)

Socio-Science,

And additional writings of mine are "The Second

Programming Science and the Socioinformatics.

Scientific Revolution in Capital Letters:

The Social and Economic System. Issue 15, The

Informatic Turn". Keynote Report for the First

Social and Economic Systems Studies, Issue 15,

International Congress of IFSR (International

The Japan Association for Social and Economic

Federation for Systems Research) (2005)

Systems Studies (1997)

45

The Net Media and the Public Sphere
Kaoru Endo, Gakushuin University
0.Preface

network. McLuhan called the desire for the
media the "theory of the expansion of human

Now "publicness" is questioned again.

beings".

It isn't extraneous to the development of the

Expanded individual <bodies> interact

new media technology. As the "public"(communicate) with other expanded <bodies>

communication arena, the concept ofas well, and as a total of these, our <society>"publicness", which used to be regarded as

is realized. In this sense, media is anself-explanatory, is shifting.

expansion of the bodies, and at the same time,

But "media" is a fairly multisense word. It

it is the <environment> in which thatcan be used to refer to the system of the

expansion is <realized>. And we can say our

symbol such as letters, iconography and<society> is the realization of the total of thoseaudio, and is also used to indicate the carrier

mutual influences at any given time.

of symbol, such as stones, paper and radio

In this paper, from those points of view,

waves. And, also it is common to categorize

consideration is given to the fundamental

the <media> by the range of access, such as

issues that should be resolved, in order tothe personal media, local media or the massconsider the problems of communication

media. In short, "media" is a general name forspace, that uses today's media as its

the various tools that actually configure ourintermediary, and the publicness.

communication.
The most primitive media are our bodies

1.The acceptance of the mediated publicthemselves. And all through our long history,

sphere and the media intermediation

humanbeingshave

engagedinthe
1.1The media and the public spheredevelopment of new artificial media, from thetime of oral culture to the manuscript

The most well-known argument on the

document and then to the development ofrelationship between the media and the public

printing technology to the electric media, andsphere is by Habermas. Habermas defines thefurther to the electronic communication

public sphere as "the social area where the47citizens as the political actors make theirassumptions, that the mass media based onstatements, discuss and form the public

the print media should give the maximum

opinion via the communication method suchinfluence to our organization of the <public

as the mass media, based on the fundamental

sphere>, was recognized as self-explanatory inprinciple of democracy, to give influence tohis eyes in 1960 1).

the policy decision and its process of
implementation". <Note: Translation and may

1.2 The media space is not a solitary islanddiffer from the original> (Habermas, 1962,

The viewpoint of media intermediation

1990) And he argues that after this type of

The communication or the information

public sphere became the foundation for the

distribution in reality doesn't conclude as theformation of civil society at the beginning of

connection between the certain points. It

the modern period, it gradually lost its role.

always develops, by relating and interacting

The argument by Habermas has had a bigwith the surrounding information or the

influence, but it also has points to becommunication, and interacts. Information is

criticized. One of them is that Harbermas

this kind of infinite form and easily crosses

made a description that directly connects

every border like the ameba, spreads andprinted mass media with the civil publicness.

gathers together on every media. In that

The printed mass media surely provided thesense, we cannot give consideration to one

base information for the conversation

certain media space definitely separating it(discussion) by the people at cafes or bars infrom the other. Whether intended or not,the beginning of the modern period, but the

every media space makes multiple media

concrete conversations were made as face-to-environment, with other linked media spaces,

face communication by the people present.

unable to be separated.

And a lot of the time, probably numerously

And questioning how the correlation

made, the face-to-face communications, could

amongst different media each other ishave been reflected in the discussion of theaccomplished and how it is changes under the

printed mass media.

multiple media environment is the "media

If that's correct, shouldn't consideration onintermediation". (2001, Endo)the <public sphere>, that is related to the

For example, looking at the process byformation of the civil society in the beginningwhich the internet pervaded, first the massof modern eperiod, be found in the dynamism

media and the Net media were regarded toof correlation between the different media

have belonged to different spheres. The massspace of printed media and face-to-facemedia observed the Net media as anothercommunication? It is difficult to discuss it

field, externalizing it for good or ill. But as thewithout considering this kind of dynamism in

Net media has become generalized, the mass

the multi media environment like today. We

media has started to see the Net media as acan say this problem in the argument bycompetition. And more recently, it seems theHabermas of course reflects the time he wasmass media is trying to introduce theliving in. We might be able to think his

information distributed via the Net media.
48

Kaoru Endo―The Net Media and the Public SphereAs a result, we see more and more often

the beginning of the modern period shows thethat public opinion or fashion starts in the net<total> picture, or in other words, how many

media and when it has expanded to a certain

people of the <total> were joined to this kinddegree, the mass media picks it up. And as theof discussion? Wasn't the discussion limited tosynergetic effect of these, it appears as a

one class of people who has influence? Here,phenomenon that is recognized as sociallythe naivety of the argument, that the <public

apparent. If we remove this character fromsphere> is a one body to cover the wholeoursociety, is exposed.

consideration,

it's

impossibletounderstand the <public sphere> of the modern

Of course, Habermas suggests various kinds

media.

of <communication sphere> and states they
are interpenetrating and doesn't recognize the

1.3 <Public sphere> is not a single dimensional

whole world as one <communication sphere>.

space but Multilayered public sphericules

But the problem is that his realistic analysis of

Similarly, the "public sphere" Habermas

the "interpenetrating character" is notassumes is unitary in the whole society. But innecessarily enough. Here's the reason why it isreality, various "spheres", that have their own

necessary to discuss the so-called "viewpoint

theory and dynamics, exist in one society. T.

of media intermediation".

Gitlin insists that the concept of the "public
1.4 Communicative action as the sequence of

sphere" should be formulated again as theloose connection of segmentalized "public

the dis-communication

sphericules".

Another problem is Habermas' concept ofActually, we cannot say all people are living

the "communicative action". He formulates

in the same <public> space. Furthermore, weagain the framework of the criticizing theory

express our opinion but also select the <place>("Communication is distorted by the system")of our discussion by assuming the <public>

which is a departure from the "pure com-space, according to no individual standpoint

muncation model" under the "idealistic speechor value judgment. In addition, we (especiallycondition". The communicative action thatin the modern period) belong to ourHabermas discusses is mutual action trying tomultilayered social sub-system. As a result,

have influence (the speech agency behavior)

whether we recognize it or not and whether

over others without mentioning commonly

it's anonymous or not, we belong to small

held assumptions among the parties,

multilayered <public> spaces in multiple.

acceptance orienting interaction excluding

The small multilayered <public> space is

speech agency behavior, and there four

also related to the media where it's opened.

adequacies are demanded of all theHence, the connection of the small public

participants in the conversation; they arespheres is almost equal to the media"Understanding possibility demand" (Theintermediation.

speech is meaningful syntactically andTo what extent does the argument

semantically, so the participants in theHabermas researches on the printed media atconversation can understand it.), "Veridicality49demand" (The proposition content of themedia" according to the terminology ofspeech is true), "Vindication demand" (The

Luhman.

speech is made under acceptable conditions

Ultimately, the opposition between

and by acceptable people.) and "Sincerity

Habermas and Luhman is the difference in the

demand" (The speaker believes in the speechassumption of the logic and neither of them

content sincerely).

can solely explain the reality. Furthermore,Butlooking

back

at

our

actualeven if we combine these we still cannot finish

conversations, do they displaying as suchthe jigsaw puzzle.

ideal communication behavior? Even if the

In the argument by Habermas, the futurecommunication behavior is distorted by thevision is assumed to aim at the common ideal

system, basically there's no expectation thatindependently composed in the intersubjective

theexchanged

way from the discussion among the subjective

corresponds to the model of such pureindividuals, the question made now is whether

communication behavior. (Thompson, 1995)

the "common ideal" like that ever exists. On

actualconversation

the one hand the argument by Luhman
1.5 Connecting stability and transformation

assumes the coming condition of the social

Contrary to Habermas, a social scientist in

system is decided independently by thethe same period, Lubman, discusses theprocess of the communication, but it states

problem of the double contingency ofnothing about whether it leads to the desirable

communication. The double contingency

future. Consequently, both of them cannot

suggests that "although the communication

present an appropriate argument on theprocess connects the partners, both of the

future. In order to find the pieces lacking, wepartners make their selection independently.

need to observe the actual progress of the

Further, each get to know it from the otherrealty.

party with each exchange. That is, it refers to
2. The network <public sphere> and the"the condition that has dual contingency offormation of public opinion

the selection" by the parties themselves." (pp.
11) This kind of recognition framework by

2.1 The present condition of the network

Luhman is in direct contradiction with the<public sphere>

Habermas' philosophy, that is, the purecommunication behavior progresses to

At the present time, there is no doubt thatsomewhat, so to say, the different (agreement)

the media making the most notable progress ispoint. But the double contingency increases

the computer network, which is represented

the uncertainty, so with only alone societyby the internet (hereinafter called the Net).

(communication) can't be formed, and theFrom its creation, there has been theconversation only drifts away. To tether thisexpectation that this new media will represent

drift is the institution, the system and thethe "new community" or the "new publicsocial concept that both parties had before,

sphere". The "virtual community theory" by H.

which are the "generalized communication

Reingold expresses this kind of expectations
50

Kaoru Endo―The Net Media and the Public Spherevery well. Actually among the administrators

there, assemble and breakup and are always

or the participants of the early stage grass-root

fluctuating. But it doesn't mean the place

BBS, USENET or WELL, this kind of

doesn't have a sense of publicness, like theconsciousness was clearly seen. Also in Japan,

cafes and bars in the past like Habermas

Notably during the opportunity of the Greatargued, so it can be recognized as a <small>

Hanshin Earthquake, the expectation rose thatpublic sphere. This kind of small public

the network could be the place for new form

sphere is also connected with others and openof civil activities that wasn't often found in theto others because of its liquidity and thepast Japan. (Refer to Endo, 1996, 2000) The

multiple belonging of the each individualargument by Hoshikawa and others represents

today.

such a position. But even if the network can
2.2When the internet resonates with thebe the place for the civil activities, the civil<public opinion>

activities cannot be concluded in the network.
And further, not only do the civil activities

There are certainly many examples of theexist on the Network but there are big

internet acting as the engine to form publicdifferences amongst the civil activities. That

opinion, leaving behind the quite fundamental

is, the <sphere> that the "civil activity" refers

question of what is the public opinion.

to doesn't cover the whole society and theyIn the USA, the condemnation by thosecan only be the open public sphericules.

internet users influenced the decision making

There is an argument that makes theby the big companies or the nation in thecommunication on the Network rather <anti>

problems of the Lotus Marketplace2) or the

public existence. It is the accusation that the

Clipper chip3). Also in Asia, the internet isfrequent occurrence of inflammatory or

recognized to have played a big role in theaggressive statements makes places theexpulsion movement of the President Estrada

network in opposition to the "ideal speechof the Philippines, the unseating campaign

condition". Ikeda (1997) indicates, based on

and the Presidential Election in 2002 in Korea.

research results of the BBS and the electronic

In Japan, the Toshiba incident createdconference room, that members there do notsensation. Resulting in a rare case of thealways feel a "sense of fellowship" to othercompany making an apology implicating amembers, suggesting they are not places thatspecific employee.
This has become apparent trend in all areas

can be called "community", but are just foras the internet penetrates more deeply.

"chat and leave".

The

Contrary to that, Endou (2000) argued thatutilization

of

the

internetinthe <place> for communication opened up by

Presidential elections in the States has taken

the Network is not the one to remind us of thehold since the 2000 and 2004 elections instrong connection as a "community" based on

which all kind of information was transmitted

the viewpoint stated earlier, but is rather foron the basis of the internet.
And

the purpose of gathering, as Goffman says,

in

the

massiveanti-Japanese

movement in China and Korea, the Net served

and like the public square; people who gather
51

as a vehicle for agitation and rumor, as well as

But with the careful observation of thea means of organizing demonstration

cases above, we cannot say they were formed

activities.

only by the "internet".
For example, the cases in the Philippines

2.3 Is the communication via the Net the soil

and Korea above have the rise of thefor the aggregation phenomenon?

democratization movement covering the

The calls for warning about this kind ofwhole society in the background and it wasinternet movement is also high, criticizing thethought the campaign linked with the mass

movement as an hysteric aggregation

media (especially the newspapers) among thephenomenon.

movement on the Net made a big difference.

Also in the Toshiba incident, criticizing the

Also in the Toshiba incident, there

whistle-blower as the "claimer" and claiming

originally were numerous sites on the Net

that this kind of situation "endangers theaccusing the position of the companies andorder" also gained support.

the site in question was one of them. The site

Another case is the incident in which thewas closely looked at as a big social problem

Minister of Foreign Affairs Machiko Tanaka,

because the newspapers, TVs and thewas ousted in January 2002, engenderingmagazines picked up issues that had appeared

criticism against the Koizumi administrationon the Net first.

(in the following development, the tone

That is, we should understand that thechanged, though). But the mass media didn't

mutual reference, in the way such problems

pick up this development at all and an article

got widely known by the media picking up thein the Yomiuri Shimbun dated 10th February

movement on the Net and giving feedback tomade the case that "the interactivity and thethe Net and the word of mouth communi-

speed of e politics is one of the major

cation and, further to, the mass media, in the

breakthroughs of technical innovation, but

complexed media environment, makes thethere's always the possibility that the chain of

public opinion5).
Especially in the anti-Japanese movement

short term reactions makes us lose the healthy
directionality of democracy"4).

in the spring of 2005, the mass media, theThis kind of claim was made against theinternet

media

and

the

face-to-faceanti-Japanese movement in 2005 for sure.

communication inside China, interacted

One of the Chinese students whom the author

synergistically or destructively, carrying

interviewed expressed the feeling that "themessages from the various subjects aimed at

Anti-Japanese movement is just a kind of

the different intentional or non-intentional"festival" for the students who are becoming

assembly action. In addition, it didn't stay inanomie. And the Net has become the perfect

China but constituted one part of the global

media to stage that kind of "festival'".

movement via the global communication
media.

2.4The complexed media environment and

It is necessary that precise analysis be<public opinion> formation

made regarding this kind of confusing and52

Kaoru Endo―The Net Media and the Public Spherecomplicated dynamic state.

white band11).
We can say the site of We're Not Afraid12) is

2.5 The new form of assembly action thata typical one that shows nature of today's

has the Net as its media<public opinion>, which was launched in a

On the other hand, recent collective action

several hours, at the time of London

in the <real world> is increasing. Examples

simultaneous explosion incident whichare "Muneo house"6) in 2002, "matrix off"7) inoccurred on 7th July, 2005. This site appealed

8)

2003 and the "origami bird movement" .

to the people who sympathize with the quite

These which take place in the real world using

simple message of "We do not lose our reason

the "seeds (neta)" created on the Net as theby the fear of terror" and asked to send the

medium are also called "neta off" . The big

images expressing this message. The numberfeature of "neta off" is that it shows strongof such images sent from all over the world,

avoidance of a "political nature" trying to

responding to this message, reached over 10

present itself as "nonsense performance".

thousand per month13).

9)

Also abroad, nonsense assembly perfor-

One thing common to these examples ismance using the net as media becamethat they are movements based on the appeal

appealing since the end of 1990s. They areof a quite simplified message = individual

called e-mail mob, flash mob and so on, andbehavior, appearing to sub-cultural sensibility.

are recognized as art rather than expressions

We can say it is not "discussion" in theof the political will of individuals aiming at

Habermas sense, nor the simple "festival" of

assembly action. But we cannot say they'remass action following the crowd, but a form ofdefinitely separated from politics.

"discussion" of some kind.

Rheingold indicates in "Smart Mobs"10) that
3. In conclusion, some views for the future

the mobile network, which is more common
than mobile phones, would make it possible
for people to align more freely and organicallyIn this paper, we reviewed some of thethan before and open up the possibility of amovements regarding the internet's power in

new form of civil movement and politicalthe formation of public opinion. But in orderactions. Nevertheless, it hasn't necessary

to discuss these issues systematically, there

become the <public opinion> that drove thestill remain some important problems thatworld in the 1960s, although there surely were

haven't yet been discussed enough. This paper

notable movements on the Net at the time ofpoints out some of the issues briefly.

the Iraq war in 2003.

First of all, as stated above, the activity ofRather, in the worldwide poverty fighting

the modern social statement is formed in the

campaign that started in 2005, Bono, from themultiple media environment. So there is the

popular band of U2, took a leading part asnecessity to recognize the community on theliaison for the many NGOs and made ainternet actively and to integrate the Net more

success in the fund-raising in the quite

dynamically as the dynamics into the multiple

understandable form that is the sales of themedia environment. And the second point is53the problem of reviewing the conditionalnet, meet in reality).

concept of "public opinion", "public sphere"10) Rheingold, H., Smart Mobs : The Next Socialand "publicness". These concepts are

Revolution, 2002

connected with the "modern period as the11) The U.S. site; http://www.one.org/

obviosity" excessively, so we need to consider

French site; http://www.2005pludexcuse.org/

again what reality or actuality they have. We

Japanese site; http://hottokenai.jp/

need to rebuild the new model on the12) http://www.werenotafraid.com/

dynamism of the social system.

13) Because the server capacity is not sufficient,
the transmissions often are regulated. Therefore,

Notes

it was estimated that more than two times the1) Habermas actually mentioned by himself thisnumber of images didn't arrive even though it was
intended they be sent.

limitation in the revision of 1990 version
Structural Transformation of the Public Spheres.
2) In 1990, Lotus Company announced that it was

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security measure. The net users opposed saying it

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Endo, Kaoru, [March 2004] "Crowd in the Network :movie "Matrix" recreate one of the scenes fromHow the Reality of the Promenader is Connected,

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University, Vol. 39, No. 2.

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University Press.

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Public Sphere : For the Configuration of the Pubic

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Sha, Kyoto.

Kyoto: Minelve Books.

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Mechanismus der Reduktion sozialer Komplexitat,

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55

Cyberspace as Socio-psychological Space:
Cross-Cultural Comparison among the Japanese,
Koreans and Finns (1)Keywords:

Plurality of information societies, cross-cultural research, cyberspace as socio-psychological space,
information society studies, comparison among Japan, Korea and Finland

Tadamasa KIMURA, The University of Tokyo
Abstract
Even though IT is the same as technology, substantial socio-cultural differences exist in
the way IT is interwoven into socio-cultural practices and socio-psychologicalconfiguration. This article has two objectives. For one thing, I would like to make acritical scrutiny of the way information society is conceptualized and argued. Four
problems associated with the conceptualization of information society are articulated anddiscussed. That is (1) its historical contextualization, (2) its "disruptiveness", (3) its
uniformity hypothesis, and (4) its discursive structure of rosy expectations and gloomy
apprehensions. I contend that these problems stem from the lack of in depth empiricalstudies among information society studies which pay sufficient attention to social andcultural diversity and people's practice. Therefore, I would like to do a comparative studyof internet use in Japan, Finland and Korea, based on the so-called JFK survey study, sothat I can decipher substantial differences across different societies in terms of the kind of
IT equipment and service that is diffused, how it is used, socio-psychological attitudes
toward cyberspace and so on, which is the other objective of this article. Putting them
together, I propose that "information society" be taken not in its singular form, but in its
plural form, "information societies" and that we advance cross-cultural research ininformation society studies and develop a conceptual framework to analyze and describe
comparative differences of different information societies.

57

1. Growing interest in "IT" and "information"information society" and "the network society"society"

not only in engineering and business field but
also in various branches of social sciences.

I would like to use the term "IT" todesignate the conversion of digital, networking

2 Problems with the concept "Informationand mobile technologies in the 1990s andSociety" and significance of cross-cultural

2000s

researchandextensive

andsuccessive

technological innovations and synergistic
effects associated with such a conversion.

Having got interested in such a vast arraySpecifically, it refers to technologicalof social changes, I have been working on theinnovations with internet and mobile

theoretical and empirical study of social

technologies as their nucleus.

diffusion of IT and its relationship with society

It is widely recognized that "IT" and its

and culture since mid-1990s. During thissocial diffusion has been changing the way

involvement, I have come up with several

people, things, capital and information

problematics

connect with each other (e.g., Urry 2000,

conceptualization of "information society"2003; Castells 2000, 2003). Especially, the"network society" and their development ofdigital network space, cyberspace that IT

discussion. I would like to point out thecreates has those characteristics which arefollowing four problems here.

associated

with

the

inherently different from those of the world of
2.1 Historical context of "information society"space and time in which conventional socio-

First of all, I would like to raise the issue of

cultural, industrial-economic and political-

how we could put "information society" inadministrative practices are conducted.
For instance, in Japanese society, thehistorical context. As terms like "IT revolution"

expansion of " Den-en " (social tie formed

and "the information revolution" suggest,

through electronic communications such as

much of the discourse of information society

online communities and mobile communica-

puts emphasis on "innovation" and "disruption"

tions) reduces the cost of the formation ofof IT and information society, especially in theinterpersonal relations drastically anddiscourse

develops so-called "Smart Mobs" (Rheingold

economics and social systems engineering.

2002), "Beru-tomo" or "Meru-tomo" (friends

Such discourse suggests, either explicitly or

who do not know each other well but make

implicitly, the fundamental differences

frequent communications through beeper or

between information society and modern or

SMS) and even the collective suicide of thoseindustrialized society, strongly associated with

who get to know each other through thethe concept of "post-industrial society." Forinternet.

ofbusiness

administration,

example, an Internet year is often compared

Therefore, with the diffusion of the internet

to a dog year (one seventh of a human year).

and mobile communications, growing

Some discussion in economics have talked

attention is being paid to the concept of

about the emergence of "the New Economy,"
58

Tadamasa KIMURA―Cyberspace as Socio-psychological Space: Cross-Cultural Comparison among the Japanese, Koreans and Finns

which was said to be different from older

social system in itself. As Frank Webster

economic systems in that it would realize aasserted in his influential work, "Theories ofcontinuous productivity growth owing to

the Information Society," (Webster 2002), it isincessant technological innovations.

necessary to pay much attention to the

However, as "IT revolution" progresses, thecontinuity of various elements such as

historical recognition of information society as

capitalism, nation states and transnational

the social system which breaks away from

corporations, which modern industrial society

older systems is getting doubtful. For instance,

is composed of when we investigate theeven though the U.S. economy enjoyednature of IT and its social implications. We"digital economy," the IT bubble burst in April,must develop a conceptual framework to

2000. Arguments for the new economy were

explore the relationship between IT anddiminishing.

society without resorting to the discourse of

Besides, when it comes to the speed of"discontinuity" or "disruption."technological innovations, the pace of IT
2.2 Discontinuity from existing social space

innovations is not so distinctively fastcompared to that of the innovations in

The first problem with the notion oftechnologies such as automobiles, electricity

information society is concerned with theand railways, which are major driving forces

focus on "discontinuity" or "disruptive

to develop industrial society. Actually, the fastinnovations" in terms of diachrony orpace of technological innovations is thehistorical development. Then, the second

essential characteristic of industrial society.

problemiscausedby

distinguishingOnce social demands turn out to be evident"cyberspace" as "discontinuous space" fromfor a certain technological breakthrough,existing social space in terms of synchrony.

innovations are accelerated and a wide range

For example, John Perry Barlow, a founder ofof applications are pursued. For instance, theEFF, Electronic Frontier Foundation, and an

Wright brothers succeeded in becoming theinfluential figure in the internet community,

first to fly in December, 1903. It took no more

put up "A Declaration of the Independence ofthan ten years until the airplane flew around

Cyberspace" in February, 1996. He asserts:

as a military weapon in World War I. The"Governments of the Industrial World, … , I

penetration rate of black and white television

come from Cyberspace, the new home ofsets in Japan was only 10% in 1958; it

Mind. On behalf of the future, I ask you of theexceeded 80% just four years later, in 1962

past to leave us alone. … You have no(See also the discussion of GPT, generalsovereignty where we gather.

purpose technologies, e.g., David 1990,…

Helpman ed. 1998, Gordon 1999, Bresnahan

Cyberspace does not lie within yourborders. Do not think that you can build it, as

and Trajtenberg 1995).
Therefore, it would be too easy athough it were a public construction project.

technology determinism to assert that

You cannot. It is an act of nature and it grows"information society" would be a different

itself through our collective actions.
59

… We are forming our own Social Contractof the original sample; the result is that

. This governance will arise according to thenegative effects dissipated over the total

conditions of our world, not yours. Our world

period (Krauts et. al. 2002). Moreover, theiris different."

new experiment suggests overall positiveeffects

We see "cyber libertarianism" as a genuine

of

using

the

Internetoncommunication, social involvement, and well-form in this declaration, which shows
enthusiasm for the Internet and cyberspace inbeing. That is to say that a "rich get richer"the year 1996.

model seems appropriate. Those who are

As I pointed out earlier, cyberspace has

highly sociable and have existing social

some characteristics that are different fromsupport will get more social benefit from using

our conventional physical time and space.

the Internet.

However, it does not mean that cyberspace isAt the early stage of the internet anddiscontinuous from existing social activity

mobile diffusion, their difference with older

space. Obviously, cyberspace cannot appear

media looked striking and remarkable.

from nothing nor can it be an autonomous

However, as a technology diffuses, society

entity only with electronic signals over thetames it and adaptation both on the part ofphysical structure composed of optical fibers,society and technology takes place. Thus, justservers and computers.

as Resnick and Margolis (Resnick 1997,

The dynamics of cyberspace exists only

Margolis and Resnick 2000) point to thethrough a myriad of activities of people with"normalization of cyberspace," cyberspace has

different intentions inhabiting existing social

fused with conventional daily social activity

space. In this sense, cyberspace cannot be

space. Those differences which we saw as

discontinuous from conventional socio-

striking at the beginning are getting familiar.

historical activity space both in terms ofIn this respect also, we must constantly

diachrony and synchrony.

develop a conceptual framework to investigate

For example, in the field of social

the way our life-world is reorganized while thepsychology, Kraut et al. (1998) suggested

adaptation process both on the part of society"Internet Paradox" and raised controversies.

and technology is under way, without

They argued that even though the internet use

resorting to the discourse of "discontinuity" orfor communications would be expected to"disruption."

have positive effects, their survey sample
2.3 Uniformity hypothesis of "information

showed reliable negative effects of using theinternet on measures of social involvement

society"and psychological well-being. Their report

I would like to call the third problem "thedraw much attention; however, it turned out

Uniformity hypothesis" of "informationthat such a phenomenon appeared only at thesociety."

early stage of the internet diffusion.

society" "IT revolution" and "network society,"

When we talk about "information

The paper is based on research conducted

we unconsciously assume that the same kindin 1995 and 1996. They did a 3-year follow-up

of information society develops as far as major
60

Tadamasa KIMURA―Cyberspace as Socio-psychological Space: Cross-Cultural Comparison among the Japanese, Koreans and Finns

industrialize countries are concerned, due tovery term and concept of information society

the universal and global nature of ICT. We

was coined in Japan (Ito 1980, 1990, Morris-

usually take little consideration of qualitative

Suzuki 1988:3, Tabata 2004, Castell 2000). Of

differences among industrialized societies incourse, in 1962, Machlup published The

terms of the development of information

Production and Distribution of Knowledge insociety. However, we have found terms

the United States, which Cawkell argues

substantial differences across different

should be credited as the origin of the concept

societies of the kind of IT equipment andof information society. Duff (2000) discusses

service that is diffused, how it is used, socio-

thoroughly the case for American provenancepsychological attitudes toward cyberspace andand that for Japanese. It is of little use here toso on. That is, "information society" should bereach any decisive conclusion of which is first.

taken not in its singular form, but in its plural

I would like to make it clear that we have aform, "information societies."

ratherIn fact, Castells and Himanen claim thatlong

historyof

discussionofinformation society in Japanese society.

"the information society can exist, and indeed

Japanese scholars, Tadao Umezao, andoes exist, in a plurality of social and cultural

anthopologist (1963), Yujiro Hayashi, a social

models" (Castells and Himanen 2004:2; see

engineer and futurologist (1969), Yoneji

also Castells ed. 2005). Then, we need a

Masuda, a futurologist (1968), Kenichi

conceptual framework to analyze and describe

Kouyama, a sociologist (1968) and others set

comparative

forth such terms as Jo-ho Sangyo, informationdifferencesofdifferent

industry, Jo-ho-ka , informatization, Jo-ho

information societies.

Shakai , information society, and Jo-ho-ka
2.4 Isomorphism of technology determinism

Shakai, informatized society and developed

and critical arguments

these concepts. They raised such concepts

The last problem I would like to point out

while they tried hard to grasp and formulate

here is a certain characteristic of the discourse
concerning"information"knowledge society."
regardingandSince then, "the advent of (advanced)

Many arguments

information society" has been declared"informationsociety"

the nature of the change of modern society.

society"andrepeatedly in Japan with the wave of"knowledge society" point to the realization of

innovative technologies in ICT, such as

many values with the advent of information

videotext,

society. Curiously enough, the values

multimedia personal computer, high definition

mentioned have been constant, even though

TV, PC communication, the internet, i-mode

those ICTs which make the values realized are(mobile internet), ubiquitous network, RFID,

changing from one to another.

and so on. We can easily remember catchy

fifth-generation

computer,

Such concepts as "information society" andwords like "new-media society", "multimedia"informatization of society" are far from being

society", "network society", "mobile society",

recent ones. They have been discussed since"ubiquitous society" in Japan.

the late 1960s. It has been claimed that theWhat is interesting here is that even though61the advanced technology changes from one

contemporary world; then, based on such atime to another, the concept and the values

characteristic,"the advent of (advanced) information society"development of such a technology leads toclaims is almost constant at any time.

and/or reinforces dark and uncertain future of

On the one hand, there have been a range

they

argue

that

the

society.

of rosy expectations like "fulfillment of theSuch an argument structure above has

desire for self-realization," "citizen-centeredmuch to do with the "duality" inherent in ICT.

participatory or deliberate democracy,"

The duality is that while ICT is considered to"diversity of value," "flexible customization forbe the cause, or driving force, behind social

individual needs," "exhibition of creativity" andchange and problems, at the same time, ICT isso forth, with the advent of information

thought to be the cure or answer to thesociety. They are rather of naive technology

changes and problems (which ICT itself isdeterminism.

alleged to cause). Owing to this rather peculiar

On the other hand, we have seen many

duality, ICT draws much attention and allures

arguments that put emphasis on the dark side

us into the argument structure of naiveof information society. Some warn of thetechnology determinism or critical argument.

advent of a surveillance society following
2.5 Necessity of cross-cultural research

George Orwell's work "1984" (1949). Others
point out the violation of privacy, abuse of

I believe that the four problems discussed

personal information, "disintermediation" dueso far stem from the lack of empirical studies

to direct transactions between business andin the research of information society which

consumer, elevation of power of multination

pay sufficient or profound enough attention tocorporationssocial and cultural diversity and people's

controlling

the

flow

of

practice.

information, increase of unemployment due tothe advancement of automation, and the like.

Interest in the concept of information

Curiously enough again, both rosy picturessociety lies in our recognition or premonitionand dark-side pictures share the sameof the diversified and extensive changes ofargument structure. Technology determinism

society. However, each discipline tends topicks up a certain characteristic of leading-focus on very narrow and specialized topics;

edge technology at the time which hason the other hand, discourse to try to grasp

something to do with any of the rosy pictures

such aggregative social change is inclined toof the future; then, based on such afall into the argument structure of naive

characteristic,

technology determinism or critical argument.

they

argue

that

the

development of such a technology leads to a

Therefore, what we need now is a compre-

rosy future of society. On the other hand,

hensive and aggregative analysis of highcritical arguments take up a characteristic of

granularity based on diversified empiricalleading-edge technology at the time which hasstudies. In this respect, we could expect

something to do with any of the dark-sidecross-cultural research to make substantial

pictures that suggests structural problems ofcontribution to the study of information
62

Tadamasa KIMURA―Cyberspace as Socio-psychological Space: Cross-Cultural Comparison among the Japanese, Koreans and Finns

society.

speed LAN connection. They are by far ahead

Of course, it is easy to say so; it is veryof Europe and the United States. Bothhard to do so, in actual fact. I cannot claim

societies are also leading in the spread of 3G

that I have a well-formulated methodology

mobile services. According to ENTER, aand theoretical framework to conduct such an

Spanish research agency, and IDATE, an

endeavor of cross-cultural research on

European consulting firm, as of June 2006,

cyberspace. In the next section, I would like tothe number of 3G customers is estimated to bepresent my own struggle and challenge in thejust over 100 million. The Asia-Pacific region

comparative study of Japan, Korea andaccounts for 50%, or 54 million, of which 29

Finland in the use of IT.

million are in Japan and 11 million in Korea.
Therefore, it is of great significance to

3 Cyberspace as socio-psychological spacecompare these three societies from a cross-and its socio-cultural differences

cultural point of view when informationsociety studies are undertaken.

Needless to say, Korea, Finland and JapanI have been involved in research on social

all are the societies which could be called

diffusion of IT and the relationship between IT

pioneering and advanced information societies

and society and culture since 1994. During thealong with the United States. Before the maincourse of research, I have had a chance todiscussion, let me take a brief look at the

conduct research activities not only in Japandiffusion of advanced information andbut also in Korea and Finland, deploying

communications technologies in each society.

various methodologies, such as questionnaire

Finland is one of the Northern European

surveys, focus group interviewing, household

countries and holds the world is largest

hearing, diary survey, and so on. For example,

cellular phone company, NOKIA. Northernin Japan, I have been engaged in national

Europe is a leading area of IT development

questionnaires with the sample size of 2000 toand achieves the highest ratio of diffusion of3000 almost every year since 1997.

the Internet and cellular phones in the world,

In the course of these various researchwhich is almost the same in actual volume asactivities, I have been struck with the socio-

the U.S. (Castells and Himanen 2004, Kimura

cultural differences among three countries.

2004).

What has struck me most, and worried me

As for Japan and Korea, the commercializa-

most, about the way IT is used in Japan is thetion and social diffusion of FTTx (Fiber to thestrong socio-psychological attitude ofhome, curb, building etc.) and advanced

avoidance or even denial toward cyberspace

mobile technologies. As of September 2006,(see Kimura 2004).

the number of FTTH subcribers in Japan was

In Japan, the internet and cyberspace is

7.15 million, and in Korea almost 3 million

dominated by, and conceived as, "anonymity";

people living in high-rise apartmentssocio-psychologicalsubscribed to FTTB, fiber to the building, orcyberspace among the Japanese are very

FTTC, fiber to the curb, coupled with high-negative (Figure 1). People tend to avoid being
63

attitudes

towardinvolved in social communication over the

cyberspace networks. In cyberspace, theyinternet, which leads to little network activity.

tend to keep social relationships among

So, the social network in the real world andstrangers (we can call it "anonymous tie"), andthat in the cyberspace are separated.

they seldom assume they will meet face-to-

Our study shows a particular characteristic

face, which is obvious in comparison withof Japanese young people's usage of

Korean youth (Saito & Kimura 2005). This

Figure 1 Negative attitudes toward cyberspace among Japanese university students (Selfadministered questionnaire, distributed and collected in class, Waseda University,
on June 2006; the sample is 223).

Figure 2 efficacy or purpose of BBS use (national questionnaire survey in December, 2003,
the sample is 1878 persons from 12 to 69 years old living in Japan)
64

Tadamasa KIMURA―Cyberspace as Socio-psychological Space: Cross-Cultural Comparison among the Japanese, Koreans and Finns

tendency is regarded negatively by otherthe Internet in Japan.

generations (especially the middle-aged or

Take a look at Figure 2 and Figure3. Basedolder) considered to be a new and strange

on the questionnaire, five factors have been

aspect of young people's attitudes toward thedistinguished as to the efficacy or purpose ofsociety and social relationships. It is thisthe internet use. That is, 1) to collecttendency, which is often considered to be

information, to gather data, 2) to hear of

relevant to the development and diffusion ofgossip, 3) to release stress, 4) to make oneself

Figure 3 efficacy or purpose of internet use (Japan-Finland-Korea, comparative college student
questionnaire survey. JFK survey study: in Tokyo in December 2002, the sample is 487
students at Waseda University; in Helsinki in October 2003, 315 students at Helsinki
University; in Seoul in December 2002, 490 students at Korea University)65known to others, to express oneself, 5) tocyberspace use their real names. Social

widen one's social network. The first factor,

network in the real world and that incollecting information, is by far the highest in

cyberspace overlap and reinforce one another.

every society.

Cyberspace functions as a means ofHowever, compared with other societies,

communications and social activity. As is

the Japanese refer to the fourth and the fifth

widely known, the killer application of Koreaninternet use is "community sites." Community

factors the least frequently. Cyberspace as ansites such as "daum" (www.daum.net) andanonymous space functions as a place to takea peek at and to shout abuse to release stress;"cyworld" (www.cyworld.com) have more thanit does not function as a place to make and

10 million registered users and millions of

expand social networks and to get to know

communities. People are expected to discloseeach other, in a word, it does not function as

themselves and use their real names (see alsoa means of communications.

Kim 2004).

By contrast, Korean people involved in

The socio-psychological differences in

Figure 4 self-disclosure on the homepage (JFK survey)
66

Tadamasa KIMURA―Cyberspace as Socio-psychological Space: Cross-Cultural Comparison among the Japanese, Koreans and Finns

attitude toward cyberspace mentioned above

Moreover, Japanese youth appear to bealso clearly appear in the data of self-

motivated to possess their homepages for very

disclosure on the homepage. Figure 4 shows aprivate reasons. Those having homepages

part of the results of JFK survey study. We

tend to be more interested in healing

asked those students who had their own

themselves on the Internet than others. This

homepage what kind of information they had

may reflect the Japanese youth's tendency ofon their homepage. First of all, the percentage

emphasize private purposes (web diariesof those students is 25.3% in Korea, 10.1% inindicated below) rather than academic orJapan and 13.3% in Finland. Certainly, Korea

business purposes.

is outstanding in this respect.

One of the striking characteristics about

When we turn to the extent of self-

Japanese students is that the number of those

disclosure, that of Japanese students is

who write their diary on the web exceeds half

strikingly low. They do not put their realof all homepage holders. This rather peculiar

name, e-mail address, facial portrait,

phenomenon has something to do with thetelephone number or their family. More thansocio-psychologicalhalf of Korean students who have a homepage

interpersonal relations through out the various

have some links to homepages of their friends

media among the Japanese. Japanese underconfigurationofor acquaintances, which seems to suggest

40 years old use the text messages of mobile

Korean use their the internet as a means ofphones as a default means to make inter-

expanding and reinforcing social network. On

personal communication with their friends.

the other hand, Finnish students have the

They avoid voice communications. Voicefewest links to homepages of their friends orcommunications are for lovers or partners;

acquaintances. Taking other data intoeven with close friends the psychologicalconsideration, to Finnish students, cyberspace

distance made by voice communications feels

functions mostly as a means of making oneself

too close to keep. So, many young Japanese

known to others.

send a text message to ask friends whether

In addition, concerning factors possibly

they could make a voice phone call before

determining whether people possess personal

they actually do so.

homepages or not, we can point to a similar

If we suppose text messages of mobile

phenomenon. According to our survey results

phones become a default means to engage inof Japan, Finland and Korea, we found socio-

inter-personal communication with theircultural differences among the societies (Saito

friends, even with close friends, how can they

& Kimura 2005). Japanese young people seem

carry out interpersonal communication withto need exclusively private space at home, torather distant friends or acquaintances? Web

possess and manage their homepages,

diary seems to function as a means of such aalthough Finnish and Korean young people dodistant communication. That is, people record

not necessarily care about the places and they

daily happenings and everyday affairs on theirseem to create and manage in public places

web diary. Their friends and acquain-tancessuch as libraries and universities.

sometimes get access to them. Then, when67

they meet each other, they have something

may have much to do with characteristics inshared to talk about. The Japanese as aour real world. Take a look at Figure 5. We

getting

can find a significant difference in interper-"encapsulated" equipped with digital media.

sonal trust among the three societies.

The Web diary is the means to maintainJapanese college students are the least

interpersonal

positive toward

communication

subjectarerelationships

withpropositions like " Most

psychologically more distant friends andpeople trust one another" and "Most people

acquaintances rather than mobile text

are basically good-natured and kind." I am

messages.

growing afraid that lack of interpersonal trust

I am afraid that such a strong socio-in the real world could prompt thepsychological attitude of avoidance or evendevelopment of cyberspace as socio-

denial toward cyberspace among the Japanese

psychological anonymous space.

Figure 5 interpersonal trust (JFK survey)
68

Tadamasa KIMURA―Cyberspace as Socio-psychological Space: Cross-Cultural Comparison among the Japanese, Koreans and Finns

This socio-psychological characteristic of

nykykulttuuriin." (Children of Affluence.

Japanese society, may give us something

Approaches

about the elementary stage of JapaneseContemporary Culture) in November 2006. This

society experience in facing the development

article is another revised version of theand diffusion of cyberspace about a decade orconference paper.

toJapaneseandFinnishso ago (Saito & Kimura 2004). People mightthen recognize the negative aspects ofReferencecyberspace, since many crimes and suicides

Barlow, J. P., (1996) 'A Declaration of thethat could be considered to come fromIndependence of Cyberspace.' Retrieved

somewhat abnormal ties on cyberspace. Then,

September 15, 2007, from http://homes.eff.org/

people found that cyberspace had a dangerous

˜barlow/Declaration-Final.html

potential as well as positive function more

Bresnahan, T., and M. Trajtenberg (1995) 'Generalstrongly than Finnish and Korean people, who

Purpose Technologies: Engines of Growth.'seem to be more aware of strengths and"Journal of Econometrics." 65, 83-108.

benefits of cyberspace.

Castells, Manuel (2000) "The Information Age:As I discuss in this section, even though IT

Economy, Society and Culture." Updated edition,is the same as technology, we find substantial

Oxford: Blackwell, 3 volumes.

socio-cultural differences in the way IT is

Castells, M. (2003) "The Internet Galaxy: Reflections

interwoven into socio-cultural praxis andon the Internet, Business, and Society." Oxford

socio-psychological configuration. I hope

Univ Press.

researchers of different societies exchange

Castells, M. and Pekka Himanen (2004) "Theideas much more intensely and more effort toInformation Society and the Welfare State: The

investigating and describing the plurality ofFinnish Model" Oxford University Press.

Castells, M. ed. (2005) "The Network Society: A

information societies in fruitful detail.

Cross-Cultural Perspective. Edward Elgar Pub.

Notes

David, Paul A., (1990) 'The Dynamo and the(1) This article is based on the paper Kimura wrote

Computer: An Historical Perspective on theand presented in English at International

Productivity Paradox.' "American Economic

conference on "The Use of Information

Review" 80, (2), 355-61.
Duff, Alistair S. (2000) Information Society Studies.

Technology in the Research and Education in

London: Routledge.

Social Sciences" held at the Institute for CrossCultural Studies, Seoul National University on

Gordon, Robert J. (1999) 'US Economic Growth

November 21st, 2005. The conference paper was

Since 1870: One Big Wave?' "American Economic

revised with Yoshitaka Saito and translated into

Review." 89, 123-128.
Hayashi,Finnish by Teppo Turkki, Director of Institute for

Yujiro(1969)" Johoka

Shakai(Informatization Society)." Tokyo: Kodansha.

Art, Development and Education Art Universities
of Finland and published as an article in the

Helpman, E., editor. (1998) "General Purpose

book, Katja Valaskivi ed. "Vaurauden Lapset:

Technologies and Economic Growth." Cambridge,

Näkökulmia japanilaiseen ja suomalaiseen

MA: The MIT Press.

69

Ito, Youichi (1980). The ‘Johoka Shakai' approach

Orwell, George (1949) "1984." Retrieved September

to the study of communication in Japan. Keio

15, 2007, from http://www.online-literature.com/

Communication Review 1:13-39.

orwell/1984/

Ito, Youichi (1991) Birth of joho shakai and johoka

Resnick, David (1997) 'Politics on the Internet: Theconcepts in Japan and their diffusion outside

Normalization of Cyberspace.' New Political

Japan. Keio Communication Review 13:3-12.

Science 41, 47-67.
Saito, Y., and T. Kimura (2004) 'Johoka Shakai ni

Kim, S. (2004) 'Online communications use andsocial skills.' "Shakai Joho Gaku Kenkyu." 8, (2),okeru Gouri-teki Muchi: Degitaru Debaido Ishiki

13-26?

no Shudan-sa wa Sonzai suru-ka (Rational

Kimura, Tadamasa (2004) " Netto-waaku Riaritii:

Ignorance in Information Society: Is there any

Posuto Koudo Shohi Shakai wo Yomi-toku

between-group difference in Digital Divide(Network Reality: Exploration of Post Advanced

consousness).' Journal of the Japan Associationfor Social Informatics 16 (2): 45-58.

Consumer Society)." Iwanami Shoten.

Saito, Y., and T. Kimura (2005) 'Intaanetto Shiyou-

Koyama, Kenichi (1967) " Miraigaku Nyumon

sha ni okeru Houmu Peiji Shoyu no Kitei Yoh-in(Introduction of Futurology)." Ushioshuppan.
Kraut, R. E., et.al. (1998) 'Internet paradox: A social(Socio-Cultural Differences in the Use of Personaltechnology that reduces social involvement and

Web Homepage & Electronic Communities).'

psychological well-being?' American Psychologist,

Journal of the Japan Society of Information &53, (9), 1017-1032.

Communication Research 23 (1): 45-52

Kraut, Robert, et.al. (2002) 'Internet Paradox

Tabata, Akeo (2004) Joho Shakai-ron no Tenkai.

Revisited.' Journal of Social Issues, 58 (1), 49-74.

(Development of Information Society Studies.)
Tokyo: Hokuju Shuppan.

Machlup, Fritz (1962). The Production andUmezao, Tadao (1968) " Joho no Bunmeigaku

Distribution of Knowledge in the United States.

(Civilization Theory of Information)." Tokyo:

Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

Chuokoronsha.

Margolis, Michael and David Resnick. (2000)

Urry, J. (2003) "Global complexity." Cambridge:"Politics as Usual: The Cyberspace 'Revolution.'"Polity.

Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.

Urry, J. (2000) "Sociology beyond societies."

Morris-Suzuki, Tessa (1988) Beyond Computopia:

London: Routledge

Information, Automation and Democracy in

Webster, F. (2002) "Theories of the information

Japan. London: Kegan Paul International.

society." 2nd ed. London: Routledge.

Rheingold, Howard (2002) "Smart Mobs: The Next
Social Revolution." Perseus Books Group70

FtF and Mobile email Personal Networks and Loneliness:
Focusing on the Interaction Effects of Sociability and Personal Networks

Keywords:

Loneliness， Personal Network， Sociability，Mobile email，Face-to-Face (FtF) Communication

Satoshi KITAMURA, The University of Tokyo
Abstract
This research has two purposes. The first purpose is to investigate the relationships
between loneliness and the sizes of the personal networks in face-to-face (FtF)
communication and in communication via mobile email (including email and shortmessage services). The second purpose is to examine interaction effects on loneliness thatexist between sociability and the size of FtF and mobile email personal networks. This
paper discusses these points, based on the Japanese social survey by Hashimoto and his
co-researchers in 2003. As seen in the results of regression analysis, the relationshipbetween the size of mobile email personal networks and loneliness was weaker thanbetween the size of FtF personal networks and loneliness. However, for the higher
sociability group, there was a significant relationship between the size of FtF personal
networks and loneliness, but not for the lower sociability group. On the other hand, forthe lower sociability group, the size of mobile email personal networks showed asignificant relationship to loneliness, but not for the higher sociability group. Thesefindings indicate the interaction effects of sociability and personal networks on loneliness.

This paper is the English translation of the original Japanese paper which is published in Journal of SocioInformation Studies, Vol.10, No.1 and awarded for the Best Paper of the Year 2005 for Young Researchers.

71

1. Introductionof mobile email."
We can say that a mobile phone, with its

1.1. Mobile email and Lonelinessphone and email functions, is an important

The number of mobile phone contracts

medium in personal relationships in Japanesereached 81,520,000 at the end of March, 2004

modern society.

(FY2004 WHITE PAPER Information andIn the studies on interpersonal communica-

Communications in Japan). If one contract pertion, many researchers have been interested

person is supposed, more than 60% of

in Computer-Mediated Communication (CMC)

Japanese owned a mobile phone. According

since the 1980s (e.g. Kiesler et al., 1984;

to the survey for personal use rate of mobile

Garramone et al., 1986). According to Miyata

phones (including car telephones and PHS),(1993), in CMC, the absence of face-to-face

84.4% of 15-59 year-old Japanese use acommunication, individuality, non-verbal

mobile phone (NRI, 2003).

clues, and the liberation of distal and time

Current mobile telephones are treated aslimitation are notable characteristics.

"personal digital assistant" with various

Mobile email communication is an example

functions even though we call them "mobileof CMC and perhaps the CMC most widely

phones". In interpersonal communication, thepracticed in Japan. In mobile email communi-

text-message

function

cation, synchronousness is considerably more

becomes as important a function of the mobile

communication

guaranteed compared with email communica-

phone as the call function. According to ation on the PC (Hashimoto, 2001).

survey by Video Research Ltd. (2002), 75.2%

A problem related to the use of CMC that isof mobile phone users use mobile email. Moreoften cited, is the problem of mental well-than 90% of mobile phone users of 12-29

being.

years old use mobile email (Video Research

Kraut et al. (1998) researched the influence

Ltd., 2002).

of Internet use on loneliness and depression.

Miyake (2001) found that a characteristic

They gave computers with an Internet

amongst university students is that mobile

connection

email is used for communication not only with

Pennsylvania and tracked their Internet use

friends they meet often but also with friends

and mental well-being over a period of twothey rarely meet. She states that mobile email

years. The results showed that greater use ofis the interpersonal communication media

the Internet was associated with statisticallywhich is used very willingly for communica-

significant declines in social involvement, andtion. According to a survey on university

increases in loneliness and depression. Theirstudents by Tanaka (2001), 76.5% ofresults drew a large amount of scrutiny andrespondents chose from specific options thatcriticism (Joinson, 2003).

topeopleinPittsburgh,"The spread of mobile email has madeAlso on the subject of mental well-being,

communication more convenient" and 60.7%

the use of mobile email is often discussed withof them chose the option of "Personalreference to the problem of loneliness. For

relationships have changed due to the spreadexample, Fujitake et al. (2001) suggested if
72

Satoshi KITAMURA―FtF and Mobile email Personal Networks and Loneliness: Focusing on the Interaction Effects of Sociability and Personal Networks

even one email does not reach its destination,

Nishikawa (1983) used the fact that the people

the result can be uneasiness at not connecting

who had higher scores on the scale had fewerwith other people. Kawaura (2002) stated thatfriends than people with lower scores. Jones

the use of mobile email could expose theet al. (1985) and Levin & Stokes (1986)

reality of personal relationships and possibly

showed a significant negative correlation

increase loneliness.

between the size of one's personal network

Loneliness is an important concept in theand loneliness.

consideration of well-being. Loneliness is

Research, however, has also been done on

often discussed, not only with regards to

the relationship between the size of FtF

modern society in general, but also in

personal networks and loneliness.

connection with the development of(2002) examined the relationship between theinformation and communication technologies

size of personal networks via CMC and(ICTs). This present study will deal with theloneliness. From the results of two surveys;

Igarashirelationship between mobile email use andone university students and one on theloneliness, focusing mainly on a discussion ofInternet, he showed that when friends talkthe relation between the size of mobile email

about important things via CMC, the actual

personal networks and loneliness.

number of friends has no significant effect onloneliness, just as it doesn't in FtF

1.2. Loneliness and Personal Network

conversation, conversation via telephone, or

According to Peplau & Perlman (1979),

letters. In the survey on the users of Massively

loneliness is defined as the undesirable andMultiplayer Online Role Playing Gamesubjective experience occurring from the"Lineage", Shimura & Ikeda (2004) showeddiscrepancy between achieved and desiredthat there was a weak relationship between

levels of social contact. There has been a lot

the size of Lineage personal network andof research on the relationship between

loneliness.

loneliness and personal networks. Many

These findings indicate that the size of one's

studies researching this relationship examine

FtF personal network can have a relationshipquantitative features of personal networks

with loneliness, but the size of one's CMC(e.g., the number of friends, the number of

personal network does not. Or if it does, it isintimate friends).

weak.

To examine the validity of the revised

Although loneliness is an undesirable and

UCLA loneliness scale, Russel et al. (1980)

subjective experience occurring from theresearched the relation between social

discrepancy between achieved and desired

behaviors and the scores on the scale. Whatlevels of social contact, the size of personal

they considered to be grounds for validity was

networks is a feature of the achieved level ofsignificant negative correlation between thesocial contact, and is not a feature of thescores in the scale and the number of intimate

desired level. Additionally, there can be afriends. To examine the validity of the revised

difference between the desired level of FtF

UCLA loneliness scale in Japanese, Kudo andand one's CMC personal network.
73When we consider the relationship between

analysis showed that each model showed

the size of personal networks and loneliness,partial validity.

we must consider the cognitive factors which

According to the cognitive bias model,

produce the discrepancy between thepeople who have higher sociability will haveachieved and desired levels. When we want tolower levels of loneliness. Sociability tends tocompare FtF and mobile email personal

go hand-in-hand with high levels of social skill

networks, this perspective can be effective.

and generalized trust. Social skill involves theverbal and non-verbal ability to build good

1.3. The Desired level of Personal Network

human relationships. Some researchers show

and Sociability

that social skill has a significant relationshipI consider sociability as a factor in thewith loneliness (e.g., Jones, 1982; Vaux, 1988;

recognition of the discrepancy. Sociability is

Igarashi, 2002), as does trust Moroi (1985).

defined as a tendency to affiliate with others

But, when we control the relationshipand to prefer being with others to remaining

between loneliness and personal traits, we canalone (Cheek & Buss，1981；Buss，1986).

form the following hypothesis: that people

People who have higher sociability mightwith higher sociability, but a small FtF

regard FtF communication as important. This

personal network, may experience greater

then will affect the desired level of social

loneliness because of the greater discrepancy

contact in one s FtF personal network.

between their desired level of FtF personal

It is true that sociability affects not only

network and their real network. The converse

personal networks but also loneliness itself.

therefore is that there would be less loneliness

Stokes(1985)，and Levin & Stokes(1986)

with a lesser discrepancy. If, on the otherexamined two theoretical models on thehand, they have lower sociability, theirrelationship between loneliness and personaldesired level of FtF personal network may betraits: themodellower. So, there is less or no discrepancy

and the cognitive bias model. The social

between their real and ideal situation. In othersocial network mediation

network mediation model is a model thatwords, for people with lower sociability, there

supposes that loneliness can be affected by

may be a weak relationship between the size

personal traits mediating one's personalof their FtF personal network and loneliness.

network, and predicts, for example, that

What relationship does sociability have withpeople with nervous temperament will havemobile email communication?

difficulty making social contacts, so theirFirst, Kasagi & Daibo (2003) pointed out

personal networks will be poor and they willthat people are less likely to recognize

feel loneliness. On the other hand, theinterpersonal pressure in CMC. This is true incognitive bias model predicts that people who

communication via mobile emails, which use

have a negative understanding and poor

mainly text messages. Tsuzuki & Kimura

opinion of other people will underestimate(2000)

their personal relationships, and therefore

communication media by university students,

experience greatest loneliness. The results ofand found that there may be lower interper74

analyzedtheevaluationofSatoshi KITAMURA―FtF and Mobile email Personal Networks and Loneliness: Focusing on the Interaction Effects of Sociability and Personal Networks

sonal pressure in mobile email communication

This study examines findings of earlier

than in other mediated communications.

studies. The hypothesis is as follows: The size

From these findings, even people who haveof mobile email personal networks has alower sociability can maintain their personal

weaker relationship with loneliness than the

network

easilyusing

mobileemail

size of FtF mobile networks.

communication. Human beings are social

To examine the interaction effects between

animals and need social relationships (Buss，

sociability and the size of personal networks

1986). Although the desired level of FtF

on loneliness.

personal network amongst people with lower

On the relationship between loneliness andsociability might be lower, the desired level

personal networks, the recognition of theand expectation of mobile email personal

discrepancy between the achieved and desired

network would be relatively higher, because

levels of personal networks is crucial. Thisof the general desire for social relationships.

study examines the interaction effects of

It would follow them that if these peoplesociability and the size of FtF and mobile

with lower sociability had a small mobile

email personal networks on loneliness.

email personal network, the discrepancy
2. Databetween their real and ideal situation would
be bigger, and their loneliness greater. On the

2.1. Survey

other hand, people with higher sociability,

In this study, I performed a second analysis

and a greater desire for FtF communication,mightof the data collected by a Japanese national

complement their FtF communication but thesurvey conducted by Prof. Hashimoto and his

size of their mobile email personal network

co-researchers in 2003 (1).

media-assisted

communication

would have a weaker relationship withThis poll was a panel survey following aloneliness than the size of FtF personal

survey conducted on Japanese males andnetwork.

females who were 12-69 years in November toWhen we consider the effects of the size ofDecember, 2001. One in 2001 was based on a

FtF and mobile email personal networks on

two-stage stratified random sampling of 3000

loneliness, we have to focus on sociability. It

people in Japan.

may be especially useful to examine thehand-delivered to respondents, and alsointeraction effects of the size of FtF andcollected by hand. Of the selected individuals,

mobile email personal networks, and62.6% completed the survey, providing a totalsociability, on loneliness.

sample size of 1878 respondents. The data

Hard-copy versions wereused in this present study was collected in
1.4. The purposes of this study

November to December of 2003. This survey

The purposes of this study are as follows.

was conducted on the respondents who

To examine the relationships between the size

completed the one in 2001. Of the selectedof FtF and Mobile email personal networks

individuals, 66.3% completed this survey,

and loneliness.

providing a total sample size of 1246
75

standardized and summed up the two items

respondents.

and used the score as the score for sociability
2.2. Scales construction(r = .34, p <.001).

(1)Size of FtF personal network(5)Personal traits: Social Skill，Generalized
Trust

The size of FtF personal networks wasmeasured by asking respondents to imagine a

I used social skill and generalized trust as

maximum of ten people (network others) othercontrolling variables, because they were thethan cohabiters, whom the respondents

personal traits expected to correlate highly

considered intimate. The number of networkwith loneliness and sociability.

others whom the respondents met once orSocial skill was measured by revising 8

more a month (0 to 10) was used as the size of

items from KiSS-18 (Kikuchi, 1988): "I cantheir FtF personal network.

continue a conversation with a stranger," "I(2)Size of mobile email personal network

can express my emotions frankly", etc. Most of

The size of mobile email network was

the items were those items which Kim (2004)

measured by asking respondents the number

defined as basic to communication skill (2).

of people with whom they communicated by

Each item was measured on a four-point scale:mobile emails.

1 = agree; 2 = somewhat agree; 3 = somewhat(3)Lonelinessdisagree; 4 = disagree. I conducted a principle

Loneliness was measured by revising threecomponent analysis on the eight items anditems from the revised UCLA loneliness scale

used the first principle component score asin Japanese (Kudo & Nishikawa, 1983): "I

the score for social skill (Eigenvalue: 4.07;

have no friend whom I can trust", "My

Proportion: 0.51).

interests and opinions are different from those

Generalized trust was measured by threeof other people in my environment," and "I get

items from Yamagishi's generalized trust scalealong well with people in my environment(Yamagishi, 1998): "Most people are basically(Reversing item)." Each item was measured ongood and kind," "I can trust other people,"a four-point scale: 1 = agree; 2 = somewhat"Most people trust other people". Each item

agree; 3 = somewhat disagree; 4 = disagree. I

was measured on a four-point scale: 1 =conducted a principle component analysis andagree; 2 = somewhat agree; 3 = somewhat

used the first principle component score as

disagree; 4 = disagree. I conducted a principle

the score of loneliness (Eigenvalue: 1.35;

component analysis on the three items andProportion: 0.45)．

used the first principle component score as(4)Sociability

the score for generalized trust (Eigenvalue:

Sociability was measured by two items:

I1.82; Proportion: 0.61).
(6)Demographic Variables

do not feel uncomfortable when talking with astranger,

I often go out to social

Demographic variables were gendergatherings. Each item was measured on a(dummy variable), age, marital status (dummy

four-point scale: 1 = agree; 2 = somewhat

variable), and number of cohabiters.

agree; 3 = somewhat disagree; 4 = disagree. I
76

Satoshi KITAMURA―FtF and Mobile email Personal Networks and Loneliness: Focusing on the Interaction Effects of Sociability and Personal Networks

3. Results

network was 4.44 (S.D. 3.06). The mean of thesize of mobile email network was 5.12 (S.D.

3.1. Features of the Respondents

4.46). The mean of the number of people withwhom respondents communicated by mobile

After dropping the respondents withemail was 2.45 (S.D. 2.62).

missing data in the main variables, there were
586 remaining for the analysis in this study.

3.3. Correlations between Variables

There were 245 males (41.8%) and 341

To confirm correlations between variables,

females (58.2%). The deviation toward females
was because there were more females thanI conducted correlation analysis. The results

males amongst the mobile mail users (51.0%

are shown in Table 1. All figures in table 1 areof the males and 56.4% of the females used

Pearson's correlation coefficients.
The correlation analysis showed that social

mobile email).

skill, generalized trust, sociability, and size of

The Respondents' ages were as follows. 1419 years old: 75 people (12.8%); 20-29 years

FtF and mobile email personal networks had aold: 130 people (22.2%); 30-39 years old: 152

significant negative relationship withpeople (25.9%); 40-49 years old: 118 people

loneliness (p < .01). Social skill had the biggest(20.1%); 50-59 years old: 84 people (14.3%);

correlation coefficient with loneliness (r =-.30,

60-69 years old: 22 people (3.8%); and 70-71

p < .01), and amongst the variables with ayears old: 5 people (0.9%)

significant relationship with loneliness, thesize of mobile email personal network had the

As for marital status, married respondents
numbered337(57.5%),

andsmallest correlation coefficient with lonelinesssingle(r = -.12, p < .01).

respondents numbered 249 (42.5%).

The relationship between the size of

The mean of the number of cohabiters was

personal networks and personal traits (social

3.97 (S.D. 1.50).

skill, generalized trust, and sociability) were as
3.2. The size of Personal Networks

follows. Social skill and sociability had a

The mean of the size of FtF personal

significant positive correlation with the size ofTable 1: Correlations between variables

77

FtF personal networks ( p < .01). At 10%

trends in Japan (Hashimoto and Mikami et al.,significant level, generalized trust had

2002; 2004), about 60% of the respondents

significant correlation coefficient with the size

chose the option,of FtF personal networks. With the size of

frequently" as the person with whom they

Friends whom you see

mobile email personal network, social skill

communicated by mobile emails, and about

and sociability had a gnificant positive

40% said "Friends whom you do not see

relationship (p < .01). But generalized trust

frequently" (Figure 2).

had no significant relationship with the size ofmobile email personal network ( r = -.004,

n.s.).
The correlation analysis showed a positive
relationship between the size of FtF andmobile email personal networks. (r = .20, p <.01).
These results support the opinion thatpeople communicate with close others called"strong ties", by mobile email (Hashimoto
Figure 2: People with whom you communicate by

2001; Kobayashi and Ikeda 2004).
To be exact, according to Hashimoto et al.

mobile emails (Multi answers)(2002), "when respondents were asked with(Based on Hashimoto and Mikami et al., 2002; 2004)

whom they communicated most frequently bymobile email in private, most chose the option

These findings indicate that, people'others whom you see frequently'". However,frequently communicate with "strong ties" bywhen asked with whom they communicatedmobile emails, but, more than a few people

the second most frequently by mobile email in

communicate by mobile emails with others

private, they chose the option "others whom

whom they do not see frequently.

you do not see frequently". (Figure 1)．
3.4. Examination of the Interaction Effects
I conducted regression analysis on all the
respondents to examine the effect of the sizeof personal networks on loneliness (Table 2)．
The dependent variable was the score ofloneliness.
In model 1, the independent variables were
Figure 1: people with whom you

demographic variables and personal traits

communicate by mobile email(social skill, generalized trust, and sociability).

(Based on Hashimoto et al., 2004)

The result showed that age, marital status,
social skill, and generalized trust hadsignificant coefficient. These effects of theAccording to the surveys on Internet usage
78

Satoshi KITAMURA―FtF and Mobile email Personal Networks and Loneliness: Focusing on the Interaction Effects of Sociability and Personal Networks

demographic variables and the personal traits

the demographic variables and personal traits

were consistent in all models.

are controlled.

In model 2, I added the size of the FtF

In model 4, I added the size of the FtF andpersonal network as an independent variablemobileto model 1. The result showed that the size of

independent variables to model 1. The result

the FtF personal network had a significant

showed that the size of the FtF personal

negative coefficient on loneliness (b = -.04, β

network had a significant negative coefficient= -.11, t (577) = 2.85, p < .01). This result

on loneliness (b = -.04, β = -.10, t (576) =indicates that the size of the FtF personal

2.52, p < .05), the effect of the size of the

network has a significant relationship withmobile email network on loneliness was aloneliness, even if the demographic variables

significant tendency (b = -.02, β = -.07, t

and personal traits are controlled.

(576) = 1.94, p < .10). These results show

In model 3, I added the size of the mobile

email

personal

consistency with Igarashi

networks

ass findings (2002),

email personal network as an independentin which the CMC personal networks havevariable to model 1. The result showed thatlittle effect on loneliness, compared with thethe size of the mobile email personal network

FtF personal network. A significant effect of

had a significant negative coefficient on

the mobile email personal network shown inloneliness (b = -.02, β = -.09, t (577) = 2.35,

model 4 might include the effect of the FtF

p < .05). This result indicates that the size of

personal

the mobile email personal network has acommunication.

significant relationship with loneliness, even if

networkwithmobileemail

In model 5, I examined the interaction

Table 2: Regression analysis on all the respondents

79effects of sociability and the size of personalsociability group included 345 people.

networks on loneliness.

To examine the effects of the sizes of FtF

Conforming to the Cronbach method

and mobile email personal networks on(Cronbach, 1987), I added the products ofloneliness, I conducted regression analysis,

sociability grand centered and the size grandwith loneliness as the dependent variable forcentered of FtF and mobile email personaleach group. These results are in Table 3.

networks as independent variables to model 4.

In model 1, the independent variables are

The result showed that the interaction effectdemographic variables and personal traitsof sociability and the size of the mobile email(social skill, generalized trust, and sociability).

personal network on loneliness was a

The result in the lower sociability group

significant tendency (p < .10). The R-squared

showed that social skill and generalized trustof model 5 was significantly higher than that

had significant coefficients on loneliness. Andof model 4 (F (2, 574) = 3.50, p < .05). Thesethe result in the higher sociability groupresults indicate that there may be interaction

showed that besides social skill andeffects of sociability and the size of personal

generalized trust, also age and marital status

networks, especially of mobile email networks,

had significant coefficients on loneliness. In all

on loneliness.

models, these results were consistent.

3.5. Differences by Sociabilityof FtF personal networks on loneliness, I

In model 2, to examine the effect of the size
To examine and analyze differences

added the size of FtF personal networks as an

between respondents with higher sociability

independent variable to model 1. The results

and those with lower sociability, I separated

showed that, in the lower sociability group,

them into two groups based on the mean of

the size of FtF personal networks had nothe score of sociability. The lower sociability

significant coefficient on loneliness (b = -.02,

group included 241 people, and the higher

β = -.06, t (233) = .95, n.s. ), but, in the

Table 3: Regression analysis on the lower and higher sociability groups

80Satoshi KITAMURA―FtF and Mobile email Personal Networks and Loneliness: Focusing on the Interaction Effects of Sociability and Personal Networks

higher sociability group, it had a significant

tendency when the size of FtF personal

negative coefficient on loneliness (b = -.06, β

networks was controlled. This result is= -.18, t (337) = 3.49, p <.01).

consistent with Igarashi's (2002) findings.

In model 3, to examine the effect of theModel 5, including the interaction effects,

sizes of mobile email personal networks on

however, had significantly higher R-squared

loneliness, I added the size of mobile email

than model 4. This result indicates that it

personal networks as an independent variable

might be important to consider sociability as

to model 1. The results showed that, in thethe personal trait responsible for the

lower sociability group, the size of mobile

discrepancy between the size of personal

email personal networks had a significant

networks and the desired level of social

negative coefficient on loneliness (b = -.06, β

contact when we analyze the relationship= -.16, t (233) = 2.57, p < .05), but, in the

between the size of personal networks andhigher sociability group, the effect was

loneliness.

significant tendency (b = -.02, β = -.08, t

The separable analysis on the lower and(337) = 1.68, p <.10).

higher sociability groups produced clear

Finally, in model 4, I added the size of FtF

results.

and mobile email personal networks as

In the lower sociability group, the size of

independent variables to model 1 to examine

FtF personal networks had no significant

the effects of these on loneliness. The results

coefficient on loneliness. People who haveshowed that, in the lower sociability group,

lower sociability may have a lower desired

the size of FtF personal networks had nolevel and expectation of FtF personal network,

significant effect on loneliness (b = -.01, β = -so there is no discrepancy between the.02, t (232) = .23, n.s.), but the size of mobile

desired and achieved levels. On the otheremail personal networks had a significant

hand, in the lower sociability group, the size

effect on loneliness (b = -.05, β = -.16, t (232)of mobile email personal network had a= 2.39, p < .05). On the other hand, thesignificant negative coefficient on loneliness.

results showed that, in the higher sociability

These results may be interpreted asgroup, the size of FtF personal networks had aindicating that the lower sociability group's

significant negative effect on loneliness (b = -cognition of the discrepancy between the.06, β = -.17, t (336) = 3.34, p < .01), but theachieved and desired levels of social contacts

size of mobile email personal network had no

was influenced by the size of mobile email

significant effect on loneliness (b = -.02, β = -personal networks because they have a.07, t (336) = 1.36, n.s.).

relatively higher desired level and expectationof mobile email personal network than of FtF

4. Discussion and Future Researchpersonal network. Even if people have lower
sociability, they avoid social isolation, because

The analysis of all the respondents showedhumans are social animals.

that the main effect on the size of mobile

On the other hand, in the higher sociability

email personal networks was a significant

group, the size of FtF personal networks
81consistently had a significant negative

In this study, the focus was on thecoefficient on loneliness, but the size ofquantitative features of personal networks.

mobile email personal networks had no

However, Cutrona (1982) and others showedsignificant coefficient on loneliness when thethat qualitative features of personal networks

size of FtF personal networks was controlled.

(satisfaction, intimacy, etc.) showed stronger

People who have higher sociability would

correlation

withloneliness

than

the

have the need to affiliate with others, so theirquantitative features. While the study bydesired level of social contacts would be

Cutrona (1982) was on the relationshiphigher. If they have a lower achieved level ofbetween FtF personal networks and loneliness,social contacts, there would be a discrepancy

Shimura & Ikeda (2004) studied the

between the desired and achieved levels. The

relationship between the qualitative features

achieved level of mobile email personalof CMC personal networks and loneliness.

networks of people with higher sociability

They showed that the size of CMC personalcannot reduce their cognition of the

networks had no significant effect on

discrepancy.

loneliness although the degree of satisfaction

There were differences between the lowerof CMC personal networks had a significant

and higher sociability groups in theeffect. These indicate that we have to examine

coefficients on loneliness based on thethe interactive effects of the qualitative

respondents

features of personal networks and sociability

ages and marital status. These

results could be interpreted as indicating thaton loneliness.

older people with higher sociability could notThis study has a problem in terms of causal

engage as actively as young people inrelationships. In this study, I conducted a one

interpersonal behavior, but that they had atime data analysis. This study examined only

higher desired level of social contacts. Also

the correlations, not the causal association.

people who have higher sociability would

However, Igarashi & Yoshida (2003) andconsider it important to have the stability of

Shimura & Ikeda (2004) have examined thehaving others around them. So, in the higher

causal relationships between loneliness andsociability group, the respondents' marital

personal networks by panel surveys. Althoughstatus had a significant relationship withthis study does not examine the causal

loneliness.

relationships, based on the earlier studies, it is

These points indicate the effectiveness of

possible to reason that the personal network

using sociability to explain the desired level

can affect loneliness. Because the earlier

and expectation of personal networks, and ofstudies, however, had not examined theconsidering the interaction effect of theinteraction effects, to examine the causal

achieved level of personal networks andassociation should be a future issue forsociability on loneliness.

exploration.

The next thing to consider is problems

Although

this

study

examinedtheconnected with this study, and future issues tointeraction effects of sociability and personal

be explored.

networks, there are some personal traits
82

Satoshi KITAMURA―FtF and Mobile email Personal Networks and Loneliness: Focusing on the Interaction Effects of Sociability and Personal Networks

which affect interpersonal behavior. Future

manipulated by the available variables. This

research on loneliness must examine thesewas a constraint that caused some problems inpersonal traits closely.

this experimental study.

Also the results in this study showed that

Although there is a lot to be done in future

the higher the level of sociability of people,

research, the findings in this study hopefully

the larger their size of personal network. As

could contribute to the theoretical exploration

for the size of mobile email personalof this important social issue.

networks, the relationship was the same.
Sakamoto et al. (2000) indicate by their

Acknowledgements

experiment the possibility of CMC as a tool for(1) The data used in this study is by the survey

social training. They showed that shy people

supported by grants from the Japan Society for

could increase their sociability in the real

the Promotion of Science, KAKENHI13410046.

world by training in the Multi-User Dungeon.

The survey was conducted by Professor Yoshiaki

Mouri et al. (2001) pointed out, however, thatHashimoto, Associate professor Ken-ichi Ishii,the effect of such training on the shy people

Associate professor Tadamasa Kimura, Associate

could not be sustained. Although there is mailprofessor Daisuke Tsuji, and Assistant professor

counseling, which is counseling using CMC

Sangmi Kim. The author would like to express his(e.g. Takaishi et al., 2002), it is also important

greatest thanks to them for their permission toto improve sociality in FtF communication.

use of data.

And there is the problem with loneliness(2) In this study, social skill was measured by thetolerance which was pointed out by Nakamura

following eight items: "I can continue a(2003) and Hashimoto et al. (2004). The

conversation with a stranger," "I can express myproblem is that people who use mobile email

emotions frankly," "I can initiate conversation

more frequently have, not only lower level ofwith a stranger quickly," "I can express myloneliness, but also lower loneliness tolerance.

emotions and feelings frankly," "I can introduce

This can be related to the point by Kawaura

myself to a person I meet for the first time," "I can(2002) that the use of interpersonalreadily enter in a conversation others arecommunication media might expose thehaving," "I can help others well," "I can instructreality of personal relationships.

others clearly regarding what I would like them

The development of ICTs has made various

to do," "I can be reconciled with people I havecommunication modes possible. This causes
variousproblems

withargued with."

interpersonalcommunication. We must continue to accumu-

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Shibundo, 5-36 (in Japanese)
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URL:http://www.videor.co.jp/data/member/markemail communication. Japanese Linguistics ,eting/phone2002/index.htm
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86

A Quantitative Analysis on the Impact of The Usage ofInformation Equipment in the Non-production Division(1)Keywords:

Information Equipment Ration, labor productivity, Growth accounting, DEA

Takeshi HIROMATSU, The University of Tokyo
Gohsei OHIRA, Tokyo International University
Minoru KOBAYASHI, Wako University
Naoki TSUBONE, Daiwa Institute of Research Ltd.
Manabu KURITA, Daiwa Institute of Research Ltd.
Abstract
The aims of introducing information system into business are divided largely into the two.
One is to reduce unwanted cost by improving efficiency, and the other is to create new valueadded. The former is the supreme proposition the business community has been always
working on, and IT has greatly contributed for that purpose. However, even if unwanted costshould be reduced to zero, the business could not survive if the products or services they offer
are not sold. Therefore, it is the creation of new values that is required of the business now.
And its success hugely depends on how effectively the non-production division of the businesscan make use of information equipment.
The purpose of this paper is to carry out a quantitative analysis of the impact of IT
investment at the level of industry-sector. The Information Equipment Ratio is defined as anindex to show the Information and Communication-related Capital-labor ratio, and its impact
on the amount of value-added per person (labor productivity) is analyzed and examined foreach industry-sector by making use of methods of Growth Accounting and DEA (Data
Envelopment Analysis).
The results show that the contribution of information equipment in 1990-2002 declined
compared to that of the second half of 1980, and that, in 1990-2002, a significant slack is seenin the Information Equipment Ratio and in the workers with an educational level higher thancollege. These fact findings strongly suggest that the non-production division of the Japanesebusiness did not make an effective use of information equipment in this period.
87

1.Introduction

analyzing the cause of corporate growth or
decline quantitatively is quite meaningful.

Information systems are indispensable tools

In this paper, the production division / thein business today, and the information

non-production division of the enterprise areprocessed through such systems is frequently

analyzed through financial indicators andcounted as one of the four managerial

Growth Accounting. Then, the hypothesis isresources along with human resources,

derived and verified by using DEA.

materials, and money. Though it is not at all

In Section 2, financial indicators ofeasy to identify the cause of the difference

enterprises are analyzed, and the decrease inbetween thriving business entities and those inefficiency of the non-production division isslack, it is quite clear that the cause lies in one

showed.

or more of those four resources. Above all, theIn Section 3, we analyze the relation

importance of information and information

between the capital related to IT investment

systems as its tools have been long touted.

and the labor productivity by making use of

Needless to say, the mere increase in IT

Growth Accounting

model, and show thatinvestment cannot improve business, and its

the contribution of IT investment to the laboreffective use is required by the firms in orderproductivity has decreased. And, we derive

for them to contribute to the business results.

the hypothesis that the cause is in the way by

However, very little research exists which

which the information equipment is used inshowsinvestment

the non-production division. In addition,

quantitatively and systematically. This not

Section 4 verifies this hypothesis by using

only hinders decision making on investment

DEA.

the

effectofITon the part of the management, but also

In this paper, the "production division" isfurthers ambiguity concerning ways of IT

defined as the division in which the labor costinvestment.

is included in the sales-cost, and the "non-Meanwhile, the purpose of information

production division" is defined as the divisionsystems use is quite different between thein which the labor cost is included in the

production division and the non-production

sales-administration-cost.

division, depending on the kind of business. In

productivity is defined as the amount of thegeneral, the non-production division of avalue-added per employee, is defined as agiven business gives priority to the earnings

sum of the cash flow (sum of labor cost,

contribution by marketing, the decision ofoperating profit, and depreciations). A

promotion strategy and executions, and/or

concrete method of calculation is described inefficiency improvement of clerical work, while

Section 2 and Section 3.2.2.

Then,

labor

the production division pursues efficient
2. Analysis of Labor Productivity by Financial Indicators

improvement of factory activities. It is
indispensable that both use the information
systems according to each one's purpose soStages of the use of IT in business can bethat the enterprise may grow steadily. And,summarized as follows; 1st stage: as a tool for88A Quantitative Analysis on the Impact of The Usage of Information Equipment in Non-production Division

Figure 1. Change of Labor Productivity in Each Sector
raising efficiency by replacing manual labor,

productivity through the relevant data is

stage: as a tool for providing usefulinvestigated, before discussing the impact ofmanagerial information, 3rd stage: as a tool for

IT investment on improvement of labor

realizing business strategies; and 4 stage: as a

productivity. Figure 1 shows the change intool for innovating business process (i.e. thelabor productivity between 1985 and 2003 forway the business should be) in accordance

the manufacturing industries related towith its environment. The difficulty of its

consumption, materials, and machinery, andmeasurement, as well as the difference of their

non-manufacturing (2) calculated from the data

effects between the successful and theinunsuccessful businesses, grows in the above

Corporations by Industry (FSSCI). It showsorder. The purposes of IT investment varychanges in labor productivity of each industry-greatly, from automation and labor-reduction

sector. Then financial indicators are used toto the support of managerial strategies. Even

investigate the causes of such changes in labor

though its purposes vary and its impacts

productivity. Labor productivity is defined as

cannot be determined definitely, the majority

follows:

2

nd

th

Financial

Statements

Statistics

ofagrees on its contribution to the improvementof labor productivity, through the discussions
on the productivity paradox. However, it canbe pointed out that for IT to contribute tolabor productivity, its mere increase is notenough, and the construction of systems for its
effectiveuse

through

whereorganizational

Value-added = Operating Profit + Labor

innovation, and education and training are

Cost + Welfare Cost + Depreciations.

required.

This shows thatIn this Section, the actual situation of labor

improvement of laborproductivity requires higher Value-added
89

Ratio, increase in Turnover of Tangible Fixedindicates that the main factor to improve labor

Assets and/or improvement of Labor

productivity is the improvement of the Labor

Equipment Ratio .

Equipment Ratio. Then, on which part has thisFigure 2 shows the results of breaking down

increase of Labor Equipment Ratio had theLabor Productivity into the changes in Capital

most positive impact to bring about growth inInvestment Efficiency and in Labor Equipment

labor productivity? Figure 3 shows ratios ofRatio, where

the sales-cost and sales-administration-cost tothe (total) sales during 1985 to 2003. In all
sectors, the ratio of sales-cost is declining, but

It shows that the Labor Equipment Ratio isthat of sales-administration-cost is constantly

constantly increasing in all sectors. This

increasing. Assuming that the change in the(Unit: yen/yen for Capital Investment Efficiency (Left Scale),in 10 million yen/person for Labor Equipment Ratio (Right Scale))

Figure 2. Change of Capital Investment Efficiency and Labor Equipment Ratio

Figure 3. Change of the Ratio of Sales Cost and Administration Cost to the Sales Amount90

A Quantitative Analysis on the Impact of The Usage of Information Equipment in Non-production Division

ratio of sales-cost indicates an improvement of

3. Analysis of Economic Impacts of Information

efficiency in the production division and that

Equipment by Growth Accounting Modelthe change in the ratio of sales-administrationcost indicates improvement in the non-In the previous Section, the trend of various

production division, this result shows that thefinancial indicators after the second half ofimprovement of Labor Equipment Ratio has

1980s and its implication were shown. It is

contributed

efficiency

highly possible that the stock accumulated as

improvement of the production division. It

the result of IT investment have had anmainlytothealso means that it has not contributed to

impact on these indicators. Consequently, in

efficiency improvement of the non-production

this Section, the influence of IT investment on

division, and that it merely contributed to its

the cash-flow which takes place as a result of

expansion .

corporate business activities is analyzed. The(3)

From the beginning of 1990s, a large

analysis-period is from the fiscal year 1985 toamount of personal computers and other IT

2002, and the sectors analyzed are thedevices began to be deployed, and their

manufacturing sectors related to consumption,

networks started spreading in offices.

materials and Machinery, and the non-

However, there has been no proof of labor

manufacturing. In the following Sections we

productivity improvement in the non-use FSSCI data for cash-flow.

production division can be seen from the data.
3.1 Model

Certainly, the assessment based upon theabove financial indicators alone is not totally

Formula (3.1) shows Growth Accounting

acceptable, because of the complicatedModel employed herein. In this model, theinfluence of the relative relationship between

growth rate of the amount of Value-added per

wage and prices involved in determining the

Employee q (hereafter referred to as Laborlevel of labor productivity. Although it is true

Productivity) is divided into its determinantthat the non-production division has expandedfactors, which are the Annual Working Hourconsiderably, as suggested by the large-scale

per Employee h, the amount of Information

introduction of IT equipment in offices (ITand Communication-related Capital Stock perinvestment in the non-production division), its

Employeeeffect on improvement of labor productivity inInformation Equipment Ratio), the Capitalthe non-production division is rather doubtful,Stockconsidering

Communication-related Capital Stock per

theincreaseinsales-k i (hereafter referred to as

other

than

Information

andEmployee ko (hereafter referred to as Capitaladministration cost.

Equipment Ratio), and External Factors A

In the following Sections, attempts are made(technological progress and so on).

to give rational explanations to this factreferring to use of information equipment andG(q) = A+αG(h)+βG(ko)+γG(ki) (3.1)

labor quality classified by educational level

where

estimated for this purpose.

G(X): Annual Growth Rate of X
α = (∂q/∂h) / (q/h)
91

(3.2)

β = (∂q/∂ko) / (q/ko)
γ = (∂q/∂ki) / (q/ki)(3.3)

Information and Communication-related(3.4)

Capital Stock (hereafter referred to as

q: Labor Productivity

Information Equipment) per Employee. In thish: Annual Working Hours per Employee

paper, we calculated ki from data in Research

ko: Capital Equipment Ratio

on Survey on Information Processing Activities

ki: Information Equipment Ratio

by Industry. The way of calculation is based

A: Constant indicating the impact ofon the "Research Report on Comprehensive

External Factors.

Indicators of Informatization" by Japan
Information

Assuming the homogeneity of degree 1, thefollowing equations hold:

α+β+γ= 1(3.5)

α = wh / q = Share of Labor(3.6)

is shown in Figure 4. First, for each sector, theamount of Hardware Depreciations andSoftware Investment is aggregated.

β=roko / q = Share of Capital Stock other

The amount of Hardware Capital Stock inthan Information and Communication-

the year t K ih(t) is calculated by dividing(3.7)

Depreciations (real value at 1995-price) by

ro: Profit Rate of Capital Stock other than

Depreciation Rate δ 1 (5) . Hardware Capital

Information and Communication-

Stock per Employee in the year t k ih(t) isrelated Capital Stockcalculated by dividing Hardware Capital Stockγ= riki / q = Share of Information andby the number of Employees Ln1(t).

Communication-related Capital Stock

The amount of Software Investment per(3.8)

Employee in the year t i s(t) is defined asr i : Profit Rate of Information and

Software Purchase Cost per Employee (realCommunication-related Capital Stock.

value at 1995-price). Then, Software Capital

However, since the calculation of ro and ri isvery difficult, we calculateα by

Development

The flow of calculation for ki in the year t ki(t)w: Wage Rate

related Capital Stock

Processing

Corporation (JIPDEC).

Stock per Employee in the year t kis(t) of eachusing thesector is calculated by multiplying by , andequation (3.6). And assuming A is a constant,then totaling them for the past 5 years

γis calculated by following formula from theincluding the year t (x = 0 to 4), because thedata(4).

legal durable years of software is 5 years (5) .
Lastly, the Information Equipment Ratio of(3.9)

the year t ki(t), is defined as the mean value ofthe sum of this kih and kis in the year t and the

Finally, using these results and (3.5), β isyear (t-1), because the number of employees

calculated.

in the year t is the average of the number of
employees at the end of the year t and the

3.2 Data

year (t-1) in FSSCI. Therefore, the same

3.2.1 Information Equipment Ratio

technique is employed in calculating not only

Information Equipment Ratio ki is defined aski(t) but also ko(t) (Capital Equipment Ratio).
92

A Quantitative Analysis on the Impact of The Usage of Information Equipment in Non-production Division

Note: This method is used to prepare the data for each sector.

Figure 4. Calculation of The Information Equipment Ratio93

ki(t) but also ko(t) (Capital Equipment Ratio).

ko(t): Capital Equipment Ratio

K(t): Sum of other Tangible Fixed Assets

However, it should be noted that the results ofand Construction in Process Account,calculation is not considered as two-year

in real term deflated by Net Fixedmoving averages, but they are so-to-speak

Asset Deflator (corporations other"interim averages", which indicate the averages

than financial firms, 1995-price) of
SNA (System of National Accounts)of variables in the middle of the year.

ki (t): Amount of Hardware Equipment perh

3.2.2 Labor Productivity

Employee(8) (Depreciations data is that

In order to calculate Labor Productivity q,

of Survey on Information Processing

we have to define Value-added. Value-added

Activities by Industry, real values inin this paper is the sum of Labor Cost,

1995-price)

Operational Profit, and Depreciations. We use
3.2.4 Labor Input

data of FSSCI.

Labor Input is the Aggregate Working Hours

The equation (3.10) shows how to calculate

per Employee in the year t h(t) for eachLabor Productivity for each sector.

q(t)=Q(t)/Ln(t)(3.10)

sector. Firstly, the Annual Aggregate Working

where

Hours in the year t for each industry isq(t): Labor Productivity

calculated.

Q(t): Actual amount of Value-added

(6)

(Sum

H(t)=C(t)×lm×12×ln(t)of wage, executive compensation,(3.12)

where

welfare cost, operating profit, andH(t): Annual Aggregate Working Hours fordepreciations)each industry

Ln(t): Sum of executives and employees on

C(t): Index of Monthly Aggregate Working

regular basis

Hours for each industry in the Monthly
Labor Survey

3.2.3 Capital Equipment Ratio

lm: Monthly Aggregate Working Hours per

Capital Equipment Ratio in the year t ko(t) is

Employee for each industry in 2000

the amount of Capital Stock other thanln(t): Number of Employees on regular basis

Information Equipment per Employee for eachfor each industry in FSSCI.

sector, calculated first by subtracting theThen, by summing up H(t) for each industry

amount of Hardware Equipment from theand dividing them by Ln(t), we have h(t) for

amount of Capital Stock K(t) for each sector,

each sector.

and then by dividing it by the number of
employees of the sector. Its calculation isΣ H(t) / Ln(t)h(t)=Σ

shown in (3.11) below .

industry(7)ko(t)={K(t)- kih(t)Ln(t)} / Ln(t)(3.11)(3.13)

3.3 Results

where

Table 1 shows the results of the analysis.
94

A Quantitative Analysis on the Impact of The Usage of Information Equipment in Non-production DivisionFirst, lets notice the contribution ofamounts of IT investment. Therefore, theInformation Equipment Ratio γG(ki).

declining contribution of Information
Equipment in the first half of 1990s can be

The observation of γG(k i) in time seriesconsidered as the result of IT investmentshows the following inequality holds for theduring and after the Bubble Economy, when

sectors except for Manufacturing Related to

IT investment was regarded as a sacred

Consumption:

precinct and it was carried out without
sufficient consideration for its effect. Thus, theexistence of the Productivity Paradox in Japan(Values of 1985-90) > (Values of 1990-95).

is inferred from this result.
On the other hand, the values ofThis means that Information Equipment

γG(ki) in

contributed to the improvement of Labor

1990-95 and 1995-02 do not show any

Productivity less in the first half of 1990 thansignificant improvement.

in the second half of 1980. Information

Information Equipment has not improved

Equipment in 1990-95 was the result of thegreatly in 1990s, though its effect is somewhat

investment around the Bubble Economy, andmixed depending on the type of sector and theeven in 1991-92, when the collapse of thescale of corporation. This becomes clear with

Bubble became evident to all people, firms

the following inequality of γG(ki) in 1985-90

still pursued the active IT investment (9) .

The contribution ofand 1995-02, which holds for all sectors:

However, from the macro-economic(Values of 1985-90) > (Values of 1995-02).

viewpoint, their business performance
declined after that, in spite of such huge

Table 1. Contribution of Each Input Factor to Value-added Productivity

95

The decline in γ contributes greatly in thisTo verify this hypothesis, it is necessary toγ,

employ analysis-models by which thetrend. The following inequality holds for
except for Manufacturing Related to

production division and non-production

Machinery:division are separated. One example of suchmodels is as follows:(Values of 1985-90) > (Values of 1995-02).

G(q) = A + αp G(hp) + βp G(kop) + γp G(kip)+ αnp G(hnp) + βnp G(konp) + γnp G(kinp)

What this inequality means in terms of(3.14)

where

Growth Accounting Model expressed by (3.1)

G(X): Annual Growth Rate of X

is as follows:

αp = (∂q /∂hp) / (q / hp)
αnp = (∂q /∂hnp) / (q / hnp)
βp = (∂q /∂kop) / (q / kop)so ∂ ki and ∂ q have a great impact on γ.

βnp = (∂q /∂konp) / (q / konp)

The decline of γis caused by the fact that, in

γp = (∂q /∂kip) / (q / kip)spite of the large value for ∂ ki, ∂ q did not

γnp = (∂q /∂kinp) / (q / kinp)

increase.

q: Labor Productivity

hp: Annual Working Hours per Employee in

3.4 Hypothesis

the Production Division

The fact-findings can be summarized as

h : Annual Working Hours per Employee innp

follows.

the Non-Production Division

1) The rise in the Labor Equipment Ratio

k o p : Capital Equipment Ratio in the

resulted in Labor Productivity.

Production Division

2) Labor Equipment Ratio has chiefly

ko : Capital Equipment Ratio in the Nonnp

contributed to efficiency improvement in

Production Division

the production division.

k i : Information Equipment Ratio in thep3) On the other hand, the contribution of

Production Division

Labor Equipment Ratio in the non-k i : Information Equipment Ratio in the
npproduction division is very small. Even

Non-Production Division

the possibility of introducing inefficiency

A: Constant indicating the impact of

cannot be denied.

External Factor

4) In many sectors, as for 1995-02, despite
the increase in Information Equipment

However, the verification of such a model is

Ratio, a tendency toward lower Labor

extremely difficult because there are following

Productivity can be seen, comparing

restrictions in gathering data.
1) It is impossible to obtain the value of thewith 1985-90.
From these fact-findings, we can derive theinformation equipment of each division.

hypothesis that the reason for fact-finding 4) is

2) It is impossible to obtain annual working

because the Information Equipment was nothours per person of each division.

used efficiently in the non-production division.

Therefore, to verify the hypothesis, we adopt
96

A Quantitative Analysis on the Impact of The Usage of Information Equipment in Non-production Division

the value of Slack calculated by using DEA inof P'B. This reduced amount P'B is called

Section 4.

slack. Slack is not the kind of factor that canbe reduced in the same ratio as other factors,

4. EFFICIENCY ANALYSIS BY DEA

and therefore, it can be considered to have astronger implication as surplus comparing

4.1 D-efficiency and Slackwith the amount of reduction indicated by Defficiency θ.

In the analysis by DEA, the efficiency ismeasured as the output amount against the
input amount. The measured value (Defficiency) θ is0≦θ≦1.
And it is judged to be most efficient when its
value is 1. For instance, Figure 5 shows theamount of inputs (Input 1 and Input 2) against
1 unit of output in a particular sector in theyears A, B, and C. In this Figure, θ is equal to

Figure 5. Image of D-efficiency and Slack

1 in the years B and C, and on all the points
on the line segment BC,

θ is equal to 1.

4.2 Data

Meanwhile, θ in the year A is obtained as

4.2.1 Output Factor

θ = OP / OA (<1).

Q(t): Already calculated by (3.10)

In other words, the efficiency in the year A

4.2.2 Input Factors

is considered to be lower than in the years B(1) Labor Input

and C, because of the larger input to obtain

It is difficult to obtain data of input factors

the same output. In order for the year A to bein the production division and the non-efficient (that is, θ= 1), it is necessary to

production division directly as described in

multiply Input 1 and Input 2 by θ, and use

Section 3.4. Therefore, it is appropriate tothem as the inputs at the point P.

make some assumptions and to use the proxy

Similarly, if the input required for 1 unit ofvariable.

output is as described as the year A ,θ = OP/ OA

Here, the following assumption is made:(<1)

The workers who have college and university

holds. If Input 1 and Input 2 are multiplied bybackground belong to the non-production

θ , it moves to Pθdivision. Other workers belong to the

becomes 1. But, as seen in Figure 5, Input 2 isproduction division. And the following proxy

and the value ofsmaller in the year B than in P

. Therefore,variables are used.

in order to be really efficient in the year A', itL np(t) : Employees in the non-production

is necessary to reduce Input 2 by the amountdivision = Number of graduates of colleges

97and universities, both in the new and old

Plaza Accord in 1985. However, during thesystems, in Ln(t) (see (3.10)).

Bubble period of 1988-91, they increased inp

L (t): Employees in the production division =all sectors, and became 1 in 1991, showing

the Number of those who finished primarythat all input factors were made effectively

and middle school in the new systems,

use, and lead to the creation of Value-added.

high school in the old and new systems,

Then, due to the impact of the collapse of thevocational high school, and junior college,

Bubble, the number of industries consideredin Ln(t) (see (3.10)).

to be efficient rapidly decreased. After 1992, a

For each industry, ratios of the number ofdeflation and downturn of new investment

employees who have the above academic

were reported. The corporate performancebackgrounds in each fiscal year, is calculated

continues to be sluggish, as does the value ofby the data of the Basic Survey of Wage

θ. However, θ began to the rise again after

Structure report. And multiplying these ratios

the fiscal year 1998. Especially, the rise inby Ln(t), we obtain L (t) and L (t).

in manufacturing sector is remarkable.

As a result, when there is slack in the labor

Though values of θ vary depending on the

input with college/university graduates, it can

sectors, its trend is considered to have agreed

be said that the possibility of Slack of laborwith the actual feeling about macro-economy

input in the non-manufacturing division isduring the analysis-period.

npp

Table 3 shows the change in Slacks ofhigh.
(2) Capital Input

θ

K i,

L , and L . At a glance, it is clear that, innpp

K o : Capital Stock Amount other thanmany sectors, Slacks can be seen in Lnp, which

K i : Amount of Information Equipment

This means that there are many sectors with

Information Equipment (see (3.11))

are employees with college/university degrees.

(Calculated by ki(t)Ln(t))

Slack in Labor Input in the non-production
division, since the number of such employees

4.3 Resultsin the production division is very small.

We will pay attention to Slacks of the laborIn the latter half of 1990s, the increase in

input in the production division and the non-Labor Input of Lnp and the reduction of Lp are

production division and that of Information

a common trend in all sectors. Moreover,Equipment, to verify the hypothesis in the

Slacks in K i exist in all sectors in 1995-02

except for Manufacturing Related to

Section 3.4.
Ahead of that, to verify the validity of theMachinery. Especially in Non-Manufacturing

analysis by DEA, it is necessary to confirm

and Industries Covered, Slacks in L np andwhether the change of D-efficiency value

increased greatly during the period. The

reflects the situation of macro-economy.

existence of Slacks and relative increase in

The results of analysis of D-efficiency isLabor Input of L np mean that Information

shown in Table 2. In all sectors, θ started toEquipment was used in the non-production

decline in 1986 when the depression caused

division, which did not contribute toby the strong yen began in response to the

production and to creation Value-added.
98

A Quantitative Analysis on the Impact of The Usage of Information Equipment in Non-production Division

Table 2. D-efficiency Values θ of Each Sector

From these fact-findings, we can say thatIn Manufacturing Related to Consumption,

there is surplus of labor input in the non-no Slack is seen throughout 1990-02 in Lp, butmanufacturing division that cannot makeit does exist in Lnp. Slacks are also seen in

efficient use of the Information Equipment,

after 1995. Slacks in both factors, seen after

and this resulted in failure of creation of new

1990, are a sign that Information Equipment isValue-added. In other words, we can verify

not utilized effectively in the non-productionthat the hypothesis of Section 3.4 is correct.

division.

Ki

Similar trends can be seen in Manufacturing

In the followings, we will make a brief

Related to Materials. In Manufacturing Relatedcomment on each sector.

to Materials, Slack in Information Equipment
Table 3. Sector-Average of Slack Values

first appeared in 1995-02. The increasing
trend of Slacks in Lnp and the zero Slack in Lp
after 1990 are interpreted as indication ofhigh possibility that the non-production
division, to which most of Lnp belongs, did not
success to make effective use of Information
Equipment.
In Manufacturing Related to Machinery,
Slack in Information Equipment cannot beseen throughout the period, unlike othersectors. And, some slacks are seen in

Lnp and

L p, which seems to require more detailed
analysis.
99

hypothesis has been verified by DEA.

Meanwhile, Slacks in the NonManufacturing sector are distinctive. Slack in

In summary, although the cause of theKi appeared greatly in 1990-95, proving theimprovement of labor productivity was mainly

excessive investment during the Bubble

due to the rise of Labor Equipment Ratio seen

period. The Slack increased further in 1995-

in Section 2, the contribution of the Labor

02. On the other hand, in spite of the zero

Equipment Ratio in the non-production

Slack in L throughout the period, Slacks aredivision was smaller than that in theseen in L

production division.

pnp

throughout the period. Moreover,though they diminished in 1990-95, they

In Section 3, we showed that, even though theincreased greatly again in 1995-02. The Non-

Information Equipment Ratio increased in the

Manufacturing sector, where the production oflatter half of 1990's comparing with the latter

goods is minimal, has a relatively small

half of 1980's, its increase was not necessarily

portion of jobs that can be replaced or

linked with improvement of labor

substituted by computers, compared with the

productivity. These results mean that the non-

Manufacturing sectors. In other words, it isproduction division did not succeed to makethis sector where the creation of Value-added

effective use of Information Equipment, whichby the effective use of computers is strongly

we verified by making use of DEA in Section

required. However, as Table 3 shows, the4.

possibility is very small that this purpose has

In general, the process whereby enterprises

been accomplished, and this sector has muchcreate the value-added is critical: the non-room for improvement in this sense.

production division creates ideas of new

These results suggest strongly that

commodities, and the production division

Information Equipment is not utilized

produces them, then the non-production

effectively in the non-production division indivision does promote sales, and further

Japan, which confirms the results of Growth

manages activities of the enterprises as a

Accounting analysis.

whole. In almost all processes, the information

Therefore, one of the crucial factors of theequipment is closely related to these activities.

decline of Labor Productivity in Japan is the

However, in view of the analysis result, theinability on the part of white-color employees

information equipment contributes to theto create Value-added by making effective use

production division more than to the non-of Information Equipment.

production division. That is, it can be said that
there is a bottleneck in the above process of

5. Conclusions

creation of the value-added, particularly in the
non-production division side, which did not

In this paper, the hypothesis about the use

succeed to achieve improvement of the laborof Information Equipment on the non-productivity by using information equipment.

production division was derived from the fact-

It is partly because the aims of introduction

findings of the analysis of financial indicatorsof information system into business process

and the Growth Accounting, and thehave shifted from the standardized business100

A Quantitative Analysis on the Impact of The Usage of Information Equipment in Non-production Division

operations to non-standardized ones. At early

However, it is not so easy to build suchstages, automation-system and robots weremodels and, moreover, the restriction of data

introduced to improve manufacturing

is a big hurdle. Particularly, it is not possible

efficiency in the production division and, into analyze the production and non-production

the non-production division, the introduction

divisions directly. It is a reason why anof the accounting information system andassumption was made about labor input, andothers were attempted to improve efficiency ofthe proxy variable had to be used in thisclerical work. However, after these stages, thepaper.

purpose of introducing the information system

Relevant model-buildings, data-gatheringhas been shifting toward a qualitativeand finding of suitable proxies are tasks for

improvement of non-standardized businessthe future.

operations, that is, to grasp customer needs
6. Appendix

and to speed up strategic decisions etc.
There has been a change from the stage
where mere improvement of effectiveness of

The process by which the equation (3.9) is

standardized operations connected directly

derived is as follows.

with the strengthening of competitiveness, toLet's think of the following Cobb-Douglas

the stage where the strengthening ofproduction function:competitiveness would be obtained by(6.1)

utilizing the advantages of information system

whereboth in the production and non-production

Q: Value-added

divisions. Unfortunately, we cannot help but

A : Constant indicating the impact of

say that the results of this paper show theExternal Factor

delay of the response of the non-production

L: Labor Input= Annual Working Hours per

division to adopt this change.

Employee x the number of Employees

These days, the organizational structure andKo: Capital Stock other than Ki

recruit and training of skilled employees

Ki: Information and Communication- related

become especially important because they

Capital Stockmake it possible to raise efficiency of non-

Assuming homogeneity of degree 1, thestandardized business operations in the non-following equations hold:production division and thus create newvalue-added for enterprises as a whole.

α+β+γ= 1

In order to assess the importance of theα: Share of Labor, i.e.

organizational structure and recruit andw: Wage Rate

training of skilled employees andβ: Share of Capital Stock other than Ki

quantitatively to analyze the effects ofγ : Share of Information and Communi-

information system on them, it is inevitable tocation- related Capital Stock.

build models which include organizational

After dividing both sides of (6.1) by theelements and skill of the employees.
101number of Employees, then differentiating, we(2) Industries included in each sector are as follows:

have

Manufacturing Related to Consumption
Food, beverages, tobacco, feed

(6.2)

Textile mill products
Apparel and other finished products madewherefrom fabrics and similar materials

q : The amount of Value-Added per

Manufacturing Related to Materials

Employee

Pulp, paper and paper products

h: Annual Working Hours per Employee

Chemical and allied products

ko: Capital Equipment Ratio

Ceramic, stone and clay products

ki: Information Equipment Ratio

Iron and steel.

Non-ferrous metal and products

Then

Fabricated metal products
Manufacturing Related to Machinery
General machinery
Electrical machinery, equipment andsupplies

This equation is solved for γ.

Transportation equipment
Precision instruments and Machinery
Manufacturing
All the above industries
Non-Manufacturing
Construction
Wholesale and retail trade, eating andAcknowledgement

drinking places

The authors would like to thank anonymous

Transport and communications

referees for many useful comments and also thankElectricity, gas, heat supply and water
All Industries

International Communications Foundation for

All the above industries

financial support for re-calculations of data.

(3) It is assumed that the rises in the Labor

Notes

Equipment Ratios are equal both in the
production division and the non-production(1) This paper is a revised version of the following

division.

paper: Hiromatsu, T., Ohira, G.., Kobayashi, M.,
Tsubone, N., Kurita, M., "A Quantitative Analysis(4) For more details, refer to 6.Appendix.

on the Impact of the Usage of Information(5) The legal durable years of the personal computer

Equipment in Non-productive Division", Journal

were changed from 6 to 4 years after the fiscalof Social Informatics Vol.16, No.1, pp. 43-58,

year 2001, and that of the computer other than2004. We made re-calculations by using updated

the personal computer were changed from 6 to 5

data and rewrote remarks and conclusions.

years, respectively. However, in this thesis, 6102

A Quantitative Analysis on the Impact of The Usage of Information Equipment in Non-production Division

years was used as the durable years because theEquipment in Non-productive Division", Journal

majority in the analysis period (1985-2002) ofof Social Informatics Vol.16, No.1, pp.43-58,

Sections 3 and 4 are before these revisions.

2004.

And the durable years of software was also[5] Hiromatsu, T., Ohira, G., Kobayashi, M.,revised from 5 to 4 years after the fiscal year

Tsubone, N., Kurita, M., "Information

2000. However, in this paper, 5 years is used forTechnology, Efficiency, and Productivity growth

the reasons similar to the computer.

in the Japanese Manufacturing and Non-

(6) We change nominal values into real values by

Manufacturing Sectors", Global Economy andmaking use of 1995 GDP-deflator.

Digital Society, ELSEVIER, pp. 89-114, 2004.

(7) In the majority of the analysis period (1985-[6] Hiromatsu, T., Kurita, M., Kobayashi, M., Ohira,2002), the depreciation of software is notG., Tsubone, N., "Information Technology andrecorded in Corporate Financial Reports.

Value-added Productivity", The Japan Society of

Therefore, the Capital Equipment Ratio wasInformation and Communication Society Annual

calculated by deducting only the Information

Report 1997, 1998, pp. 145-156.

Equipment calculated by the Depreciation of[7] Hiromatsu, T., Kobayashi, M., Tsubone, N.,

Hardware from K(t).

Kurita, M., Ohira, G., "An Empirical Analysis on(8) k (t) is an "interim average" or "mid-of-the-year

Economics Effects of Introduction of IT

average" calculated by the relevant end-of-the-(Information of Technology)", Journal of Social

year data.

Science, Vol.53, No.5, 2002, pp.119-146.

hi(9) In Japan, it was in 1993 when the sales of[8] Kobayashi, M., Hiromatsu, T., Tsubone, N.,

information service industry turned to decline for

Kurita, M., Ohira, G., "Economical Impacts of IT

the first time.

on Industries in Japan", Working Paper No. 213,
Center on Japanese Economy and Business,

References

Columbia Business School, 2003.

[1] Bresnahan, T. F., "Information Technology,[9] Shinozaki, A., "How Does Information

Workplace Organization and the Demand forTechnology Pay Off ? : Firm-level Evidence in

Skilled Labor: Firm-level Evidence", Quarterly

Organizational Structures and Human Resource

Journal of Economics, 2002, Vol. 117.

Management," ESRI Discussion Paper Series,[2] Brynjolfsson, E., et al., "Intangible Assets:

No.127, 2005.

Computers and Organizational Capital",[10] Xu, Y., Kuriyama, T., "A Firm-Level Study on

Brookings Papers on Economic Activity:

Productivity Impact of Information Technology:

Macroeconomics (1), 2002, pp.137-199.

Evidence from Questionnaire Data", Annual[3] Forsund, F.R., Lovell, C.A.K., Schmidt, P., "A

Report of the Economic Society, Tohoku

Survey of Frontier Production Functions and of

University, Vol.64, No.2, 2002, pp.25-42.

their Relationship to Efficiency Measurement",
Journal of Econometrics, Vol.13, 1980, pp.5-25.
[4] Hiromatsu, T., Ohira, G., Kobayashi, M.,
Tsubone, N., Kurita, M., "A Quantitative Analysis
on the Impact of The Usage of Information

103

104

A particular relationship between the icon on thedesktop and the programming language
Keywords:

Icon, Allegory, Interface, PYGMALION, Smalltalk

Ｍasanori MIZUNO, Nagoya University

Abstract
This paper examines a relationship between the icon on the desktop and theprogramming language, in order to examine the icon's significance in the Graphical User
Interface.
In order to explore this relationship, my paper regards the icon as a pictorial sign andthe programming language as a linguistic sign. I can then consider this relationship as a
special case of battle between the pictorial sign and the linguistic sign throughout cultural
history. I then focus on David. C. Smith's doctoral thesis PYGMALION, which introduced
the icon concept for the computer, and the programming language for PYGMALION,
Smalltalk, in order to investigate what the icon brings to the computer and why the icon
is even possible. Next, I analyze why the linguistic sign becomes the pictorial sign fromthe viewpoint of analogy and allegory. Finally, my paper shows what is concealed by thedesktop icon.
Through these analyses, we can say that the relationship between the icon and theprogramming language is one of allegory and complementariness. This means that theicon is a pictorial sign, restricted metaphorically by the linguistic sign, the computer
program.

This paper is the English translation of the original Japanese paper which is published in Journal of SocioInformation Studies, Vol.10, No.1 and awarded for the Best Paper of the Year 2005 for Young Researchers.

1051. Introduction

Moreover, we analyze why the linguistic sign
becomes the pictorial sign from viewpoint ofIn the information society, almost all of us

analogy and allegory. Finally, this paper shows

look at the computer display which shows thewhat is concealed by the icon on the desktop.

surface called the 'Desktop'. There are many
icons on the Desktop and we select and click

2. The icon as pictorial sign and the pro-them with the mouse everyday. However, wegramming language as linguistic sign

don't give consideration to what the icon is on
the computer display. Therefore, Barbara

M. J. T. Mitchell points out that "the history

Maria Stafford writes the following about theof culture is in part the story of a protracted

icon: "At the close of the twentieth century, it

struggle for dominance between pictorial andshould give us pause that we still lack alinguistic signs, each claiming for itself certain

flexible method for orchestrating the jumble ofproprietary rights on a "nature" to which only

discrete emissions and darting blips that swim

it has access (Mitchell, 1986：43)." Fromacross countless monitors. They remain a

Mitchell's view, we can think of the computerhermetic system of graphic symbols for which

as having both signs: the icon as the pictorial

we have lost the analogical key(Stafford,

sign and the programming language as the

1999：55). "It is time to find the analogicallinguistic sign. In the computer, thekey. To that end, this paper examines the

programming language generates the icon, but

icon's significance not from the viewpoint of

we can not actually look at the programming

Information science but from the relationshiplanguage, but only at the icon on the display

between pictorial and linguistic signs.

of Graphical User Interface (GUI). Which of

In order to explore this relationship, myboth these modes signs is dominant in thepaper regards the icon as the pictorial sign

computer? We consider that the computer

and the programming language as thedisplay with GUI is a contemporary struggle

linguistic sign. We can then consider thisfield for dominance between the pictorial andrelationship as a special case of battle

linguistic signs.

between the pictorial sign and the linguistic

In order to investigate this relationship, I

sign throughout cultural history. Next, I focus

focus on the word "nature" in Mitchell's text.

on David. C. Smith's doctoral thesis,

What kinds of "nature" do the icon and the

PYGMALION, which introduced the icon

programming language are approaching? The

concept for the computer. We look at theicon has brought the idea of "easy to use" into

programming language for PYGMALION,

the computer world. Consequently we can say

Smalltalk, in order to investigate what the iconthat the icon allows the computer user tobrings to the computer and why the icon isrecognize the situation of the computereven possible. I make reference to Leibniz"naturally". What about the programming

because Alan Key, the advocate of Smalltalk,language? The programming language is one

thinks that Smalltalk has much in commonof many artificial language which people havewith the monads of Leibniz (Kay, 1993 ：70).

made for recognizing and communicating106

Ｍasanori MIZUNO―A particular relationship between the icon on the desktop and the programming language

special information efficiently, like numericalarchitecture, "a structure of the main memory

formulae or a chemical formulae. Therefore,

ability is linear and processes a basic task

the programming language is also a tool tosequentially based on a program counter infacilitate our recognition. However, it has a

the CPU. Therefore, we have to make aunique characteristic which no other artificial

sequential process with data corresponding tolanguages have. According to Levine &the memory unit and task corresponding withReingold, the computer is the first machine

the processing unit if we want to write aable to follow linguistic instructions (Levine &problem as a computer program (Haruki,

Reingold, 1987: xvi). Therefore the

1995: 203). "From this computer principle, theprogramming language has to communicate

linguistic sign has absolute dominance over

not only to people but also to the computer.

the computer because the linear structure of

Haruki examines the programming language

language is suitable for controlling the CPU

from the viewpoint of communication ofsequentially.

human thought, and writes its characteristics

However, D. C. Smith tried to control theas follows:

CPU with icons in the computer display inorder for the pictorial sign to gain dominance

The programming language as an artificial

on the CPU. Smith's challenge introduced alanguage sends an instruction to the Central

metaphor which shows a link between the real

Processing Unit (CPU). If we view this action

world and the computer world. After that, thefrom a different angle, we can think of it as a

spread of GUI which controls the computer

conversation between the human and CPU.

with icons has created "a metaphor spaceWith other artificial languages it is supposed

mediated by information technology" (Ishida,that humans communicate with humans, but

2003: 332) onto the computer display. It

with programming language, it must be

represents a revolution from linear

presumed that the CPU is the other half of the

programming language to the icon as a non-communication partnership. Moreover, CPUlinear information display. Therefore, GUI has

can understand only

signaled the end of the absolute dominance ofvon Neumann logic andnever tries to learn other languages.

the linguistic sign and initiated the beginning

Therefore, the first purpose of theof the dominance of pictorial sign in the

programming language is to be able tocomputer. However, it is important tocommunicate between the CPU and humans

consider that the metaphorical space on the(Haruki, 1989: 30-31).

computer display is created from theprogramming language which has an unique

Von Neumann logic is the basic

property. This change shows that the pictorialarchitecture of the computer which has neversign and the linguistic sign continue fightingchanged since the beginning of the computer.

each other for proprietary rights on a "nature"

It is a design model that uses a processing unit

to which only each of them can access in theand a single separate memory to hold bothnew stage, the computer. For that reason, it isinstructions and data. In von Neumann

useful to consider the relationship between
107

the icon and the programming language fromand mechanical attributes. The system maps

the viewpoint of the pictorial sign and thethe visual characteristics of icons into

linguistic sign in order to make clear what thecorresponding machine semantics. Icons

icon is on the computer display. For that

subsume the notions of "variable", "reference",

purpose in the next section, I refer to D. C.

"data structure", "function" and "picture"

Smith's PYGMALION and consider what has（Smith, 1975 : iv）．

been the impact on the computer of theintroduction of the icon as pictorial sign.

From his definition, we can understand thatthe icon is not only the pictorial form of

3. Complementarity of the icon and theinformation but also the connection with theprogramming language

linear structure of data of the computer
memory. I will consider why Smith adopted
the pictorial sign as the information display
form for the computer. When he made acomplete volte-face from the linguistic sign tothe pictorial sign, his greatest purpose might
have been to introduce the non-linear
information display principle into thecomputer because he referred to thedifference between the word and the picture
again and again in PYGMALION as follows:In other words, the relationship between
pictorial elements has as much to do withspatially- derived meaning as with theelements themselves. But "linear"

Figure1. Pygmalion on Macintosh (Smith, 1993: 31)

programming languages have no spatial
structure at all. (By "linear" is meant a verbal

In 1975, D. C. Smith introduced the icon

language such as English, constituting of a

into the computer world with his doctoral

sequence of words.) One of the few

thesis "PYGMALION: A creative programming

characteristics of "linear" languages that evenenvironment" and now we take for granted

approach spatial organization is indentation:that there are icons on the computer display.
In his thesis, Smith defined the icon as

IF ....... THEN

follows:

WHILE ............ DO
BEGIN

Communication between user and.

computer is through a primitive visual entity

END

called an "icon". Icons possess several visual

ELSE
108

Ｍasanori MIZUNO―A particular relationship between the icon on the desktop and the programming language

At best this is only an indirect indicator ofComputer programming is simply themeaning. The vast potential ofnewest version of symbol manipulation thatmultidimensional communication is simply notmathematicians and logicians have practiced

realized in linear languages because they arefor centuries. Programming is embodied logic:

spatially unstructured（Smith, 1975: 12-13）.

the establishment of logical relationships
among symbols that are embodied in andIn short, Smith compared the linearity of

empowered by the memory chips andthe word with the spatiality of the picture andprocessors of the digital computer.

argued that the pictorial sign was much better

Mathematics has been a special kind offor information display than the linguistic sign.

writing at least since the evolution of modern

Further, he explained the relationshipnotation in the 17th century. The set of

between the linguistic sign and the pictorial

mathematical equations that defines a physicalsign using the words "Fregean" andtheory is a symbolic text of the highest order.

"Analigical". Smith quoted these two words

And science itself has been a formal language

from Aaron Sloman's thesis which subtitledsince the time of Descartes and Leibniz, or"the role of intuition and non-logical reasoning

indeed Galileo with his claim that the book of

in intelligence". Sloman wrote that analogicalnature was written in the language ofrepresentations such as maps or models weremathematics. In the 19th and 20th centuries,

much more useful for "intuition and non-the desire to make language formal andlogical reasoning" than the "Fregean" mode ofrigorous has led to modern symbolic logic, torepresentation, named after logician andsemiotics, to logical positivism, and ultimately

philosopher, Friedrich Ludwig Gottlob Frege,

to computer programming (Bolter, 1991: 9-that was utilitarian tool suited to our

10).

reasonable logic (Sloman, 1971). From
Sloman's idea, we can say that the alphabet isEven though the computer programming ismost Fregean mode of representation because

the latest version of logical operation that has

it is at a high level of abstraction of the object

made the linguistic sign more formal andbeing expressed.

rigorous, Smith dared to introduce into

As already noted, the computer is a logicalcomputer programming the pictorial sign

machine which has linguistic ability.

which is much more useful for "intuition and

Therefore the instructions to the computer

non-logical reasoning". He wanted to adopt a

must be logical. As a result, the computer

way of intuitive description for computer

program is composed of linguistic sign which

programming. The pictorial description allows

can think in abstractions and depict things

us more creative programming beyond logic

logically. J. D. Bolter insists that the computerso that what is written can be understood at

generates new space for the linguistic sign andfirst sight (Smith, 1975).

writes about the relationship between the logic

Although the dispute as to whether humanand the computer program as follows:

thinking is based on the word or the image is109still not settled, Smith considered that human

As for me, I cannot understand B without

thought was generated from the image

advance knowledge of A. Conversely, I need B

because he regarded Rudolf Arnheim's "visualand its continuation in order to understand A.

Thinking" （Arnheim，1969）as important.

However, we must make sure what the

Therefore, Smith concluded that the linguistic

irreversibility is here because thesign for the programming language was too

irreversibility does not belong to therigorous for the programmer. Also, there wasmathematical essence, strictly speaking. If

a gap between the user's visual thinking andanything, there are two mathematical orders.

the computer using the linguistic sign as

One is to find a solution, so it is irreversible.

information display. The gap had to be closed

As we know, people go from unknown toby the programmer or the computer. From the

known, from simple to complex and from easybirth of the computer, the programmer had toto difficult. Although this is the way toconvert his/her thought into formal anddiscovery, this is not the order of therigorous linear language in order to close themathematical world. It is the order of thegap. However, as the computer developed themathematician's practice. In fact, the order ofgap grew too big to fill. Smith's PYGMALION

mathematical world is limitless reversibility.

introduced into computer programming the

Even though we cannot say that everything is

pictorial sign a form analogous to humanirreversible, there are many ways to one

thinking, thus closing the gap and making theconcept or idea. Leibniz, a philosopher with

program more natural for the user.

multiple view points and an ambiguous

Using the pictorial sign as the icon,

system, knows this (Serres, 1968a = 141).

PYGMALION brought a visual map into thecomputer display to control the linear data

Serres divides the mathematics into two

processing of the computer. This map released

parts; one is the mathematical world which

the user from the rigorous linear language

has reversibility. It is based on Leibniz. The

which was difficult to understand at firstother is the mathematician's practice which isglance. Icons, however, are much easer for us

irreversible because it has to find a solution.

to understand because they give visual clues

In the computer with von Neumannof their own information. On the other hand,architecture, linear order is superimposed on

one can say the pictorial sign is forced on thethe order of the mathematician's practice.

computer in order to help the information

However, Ivan Sutherland who developed thedisplay coincide with the way of humanfirst computer graphic system: Sketchpad

thinking since the computer has its own very

points out that "The sequential approach todifferent principle of linear data processing.

mathematics is not required inside a

How could Smith do that? Michel Serres gives

computer, but the mathematical approach wea hint as to the answer. He says that there arenormally take to problems does not encourage

two orders in the mathematical language

us to think of approaches other thanwhich is the most formal and rigorous

sequential ones for the solution of problems.

artificial language:

Nearly all computers in operation today
110Ｍasanori MIZUNO―A particular relationship between the icon on the desktop and the programming language

perform individual steps on individual items of

however, as long as we recognize its

data one after another in time sequence

impossibility. The advantage of the(Sutherland & Mead, 1977: 210). " In short,mathematical model is that it suggests thealthough the mathematical approach and theinterpretive and representational

characteristic of the computer make thecomplementarity of word and image, the way

information processing in the computerin which the understanding of one seems

sequential, linear and the irreversible, it is notinevitable to appeal to the other (Mitchell,an essential property for the computer

1986：44-45).

because it is just "the order of themathematician's practice" as Serres said andIn this quotation, Mitchell shows that

"The sequential approach to mathematics isalgebra which is solved linearly is translated

not required inside a computer" as Sutherland

into geometry which is solved by arranging

said.

arbitrary figures in space and vice versa.

Well, mathematics as an artificial language

Although he remarks on the impossibility ofis linear and processes data step- by-step. Thisthe too perfect analogy, he concludes thatis especially true of algebra. However,algebra and geometry need each other inmathematics has another field, geometry,order to understand themselves. Therefore it

which deals with the pictorial sign. In

suggests to us "the interpretive andmathematics, geometry and algebra are one

representational complementarity of word andaspect of the struggle between the pictorial

image." From Mitchell's idea, we may consider

sign and the linguistic sign. Mitchell writes

that the icon gives us a way to escape fromabout the relationship between geometry andabstract and linear programming language

algebra as follows:

composed of strict logical statements because
Smith displays the icon in the computer

The other analogy which offers itself is thescreen in order to apply the complementarity

relationship between algebra and geometry,of the linguistic sign and the pictorial sign.

the one working by arbitrary phonetic signs

This idea of the complementarity of the icon

read progressively, the other displaying

and the programming language reminds us ofequally arbitrary figures in space. The

Serres' statement that "we must think things by

attraction of this analogy is that it looks rather

arranging them in an expressive space instead

like the relation of word and image in anof making a line （Serres, 1968b ：31）" inillustrated text, and the relation between theorder to understand the system of Leibniz.

two modes is a complex one of mutual

Furthermore, this makes it possible to thinktranslation, interpretation, illustration, andthat we can control the linear processing ofembellishment. The problem with the analogy

von Neumann logic not by the linear

is that it is too perfect: it seems to hold out an

language, but by a matrix composed of putting

impossible ideal of systematic, rulegoverned

the pictorial signs on the surface one after

translation between word and image.

another, in other words, "putting

Sometimes an impossible idea can be useful,arrangements of multiple lines alternately
111

(Serres, 1968b：31). "Therefore, Smith could

building block that hides its combination of

introduce the new concept for the computer

state and process inside itself and can be dealt

world, the icon, which connects with

with only through the exchange of messages.

functions of the computer in order to control

Philosophically, Smalltalk's objects have muchits linear information processing, not by thein common with the monads of Leibniz andlinguistic sign, but the pictorial sign.

the notions of 20th century physics andHowever, Haruki points out that "all things

biology（Kay, 1993：512-513）.

are described progressively in the world of the
von Neumann computer, so that non-Moreover, Levine and Rheingold wrote that

progressiveness is excluded(Haruki，1995：

Smalltalk did not improve old programming

222-223). "Moreover, Serres writes that "a line

languages, but rather introduced a new idea

is a set and a sequence law at the same time

into the computer programming;(Serres, 1968b: 32). "Serres's comment is
consistent with the von Neumann architecture

Smalltalk was one of the first and mostcomputer which processes data linearly. As

spectacular creations of the generation ofthese statements suggest, we have to consider

programmers who had grown up using

whether the complementarity of the linguistic

interactive programming, ever-fastersign and the pictorial sign comes into effect intransistorized components, and ever-growing

principle in the computer world. Then, whymemory capacities rather than the old batch-

did Smith introduce the icon into theprocessed, tube-based, limited-capacity

computer against the linearity of the computer

computers of the FORTRAN and COBOL era.

world? In order to make this question clear,

With Smalltalk came a new metaphor of

we need to examine Alan Key's Smalltalk, ancomputation as a system of software objects,

Object-oriented programming language,

all containing their own data and instructions

because it is what made PYGMALION

and carrying on computations by exchanging

possible.

messages rather than by performing
instructions. Smalltalk was more than another

4. "The order of co-existences" generated

computer language. It was a portal to wholefrom Information hiding

new way to think about what computation is
and what it can do (Levine & Rheingold,

Smalltalk, proposed by Alan Kay in Xerox

1987：216-217).

Palo Alto Research Center (PARC), is the firstobject-oriented programming language. Kay

Here, we want to consider why Smalltalk

described Smalltalk characteristics as follows:

could present such a new way for computer
programming? Haruki suggests a principle of

Smalltalk's design--and existence--is due toInformation hiding which means thatthe insight that everything we can describe

information inside an object is hidden fromcan be represented by the recursive

other objects, and objects cannot interfere

composition of a single kind of behavioral

with each other. This is an important idea for112

Ｍasanori MIZUNO―A particular relationship between the icon on the desktop and the programming language

Smalltalk:it clear, we refer to Leibniz's idea of spacebecause Kay believes that Smalltalk's objects

Although the object is just a structure

have much in common with the monads ofwhich hides its own inside information from

Leibniz:other objects on implementation, thismechanism of Information hiding has a

As for my own opinion, I have said more

special effect. We can say that almost all

than once that I hold space to be somethingadvantages of object-oriented are offered bymerely relative, as is time: that I hold it to be

Information hiding. Due to the hiding of inside

an order of co-existences as time is an orderinformation of implementation from the otherof successions. For space denotes, in terms ofobjects, we can deal with the object as "entity"

possibility, an order of things which exist at

and as implementation which has successive

the same time, considered as existing

memory space in memory units separately at

together, without inquiring into their

the same time (Haruki, 1986：60).

particular manner of existing. And when manythings are seen together, one perceives thatAs already stated, the von Neumannorder of things among themselves. (Leibniz,

computer can process units of information

1715 = 1969: 682)

only but simultaneously and it's memory is alinear structure. However, Smalltalk uses

Leibniz called space "an order of co-Information hiding in order to write aexistences." What does it mean? Yoneyama

computer program without awareness of theprovides a useful guide to this question when

linear information processing. In short,he points out that Leibniz called music

Smalltalk adopted negative action "hiding" in"Hidden arithmetic", the word "Hidden" beingorder to divide information processing into thethe most important for understanding thelinear one and the non-linear one. This

music:

distinction of the information processing
makes it possible to show non-linear element,

Leibniz grasped that music was"picture" as an interface layer to the user while

subordinated to arithmetic, and argued that aat the same time hiding linear elements,

the pleasure of music, or a complex"variables", "reference", "data structure",

representation such as enjoyment generated"function" as a CPU layer from the user.

from consonance and dissonance existed in

Therefore, Information hiding creates new"Hidden arithmetic." It is very interesting andspace in which many objects as information

attaching the word "Hidden" to arithmetic is

entity exist simultaneously without a linear

important. In order to understand its

hierarchy system and can send messages toimportance, let us put it aside for the present.

each other. However, we have to examine

In short, we say "the joy of the music is thewhat kind of order system this new space isarithmetic." Namely, we are aware of the

without the linear hierarchy, which isarithmetic. In fact, we cannot enjoy the music

generated from information. In order to make

immediately when we are aware of the113

arithmetic in the music, for example, bycomputer display.

counting or analyzing rhythm or chord
5. An allegorical relationship between the

structure. These are already other things fromicon and the computer program

what we feel in the rhythm or beauty ofchords. (Yoneyama, 1999: 198).

As in previous sections, we make clear that
Although many scholars like Leibniz and

the icon has a strong connection with the

Yoneyama consider that music andprogram which also has a connection withmathematics are similar, it is important that

CPU's linear information processing. In such a

the music hide its arithmetic process in orderconnection, Smalltalk actualizes non-linear

to give us pleasure. Yoneyama points this out

information processing by Information hidingfrom Leibniz's expression, "Hidden arithmetic."

and generates new space with "an order of co-

Now, we return from this view of music toexistences" in the computer world. As a result,

Leibniz's idea that the space is "an order of co-

the pictorial signer, icon, can be placed on theexistences". Music is not just built of musicalcomputer display. However, we don't know

notes. Music appears when it hides its own

yet why the linguistic sign --- the program inarithmetic process, adding musical notes, inthe layer of CPU--- becomes the pictorial signtime, and we enjoy the "order of things amongas the icon in the layer of interface. In orderthemselves." Therefore, we can say thatto explain it, we now investigate next the

Leibniz's " order of co-existences" is arelationship between the icon and therelationship of many things which are result

program from the viewpoint of analogy andfrom the moment the process of arithmetic isallegory.

hidden to us.

As already explained, the programming

From the above, we can conclude that thelanguage communicates not only with the user

non-linear information processing in the vonbut also the CPU. Because the programming

Neumann computer put into practice by Kay's

language had become an incomprehensible

Smalltalk, and it's own principle of

one for us, Smith tried to create a new

Information hiding are deeply very similar toenvironment for conversation between the

Leibniz's "order of co-existences" generated

computer and the human being in thefrom hiding its time. In conclusion, to hide thecomputer world by transforming thearithmetic process based on time generates

incomprehensible linguistic sign to the"an order of co-existences" as space frompictorial sign-the icon. And, based on the idea

absolute order, CPU's linear informationof "superimposing the world in the machineprocessing in the idea of object-oriented. And,

onto the world in the human being"an order of co-existences" gives the vonmetaphorically (Nishigaki, 1994:70)," the icon

Neumann computer an ideal space forbecame something which had to resemble

mapping with pictorial signs, namely, thesomething in the real world. After that, theicons. Therefore, we can say that this is what

computer display became "the desktop"

makes for Smith's icons, to control CPU on the

because the linear information processing in114

Ｍasanori MIZUNO―A particular relationship between the icon on the desktop and the programming language

the computer was made to connect with theconsider what the analogy is, because it

real world by the pictorial sign generated fromcreates the metaphorical relationship. Leibniz

the principle of analogy: the icon had towrote about when explaining the analogy inresemble something in the real world.

his "What is an idea?":

Based on the idea of synchronizing thecomputer with our style of thinking, Kay andAn analogy is said to express a thing in

Smith introduced the pictorial sign into thewhich there are relations [habitudines] which

computer by hiding the linear information

correspond to the relations of the thing

processing that is generated by the vonexpressed. But there are various kinds of

Neumann logic. However, we need toexpression. For example, the model of aremember that the indication of the pictorialmachine expresses the machine itself, thesign is just useful for us and is the extra work

projective delineation on a plane expresses afor the computer. Moreover, as Haruki wrote

solid, speech expresses thoughts and truths,"there is no conversions of the information

characters express numbers, and an algebraic

itself, even though some information is shown

equation expresses a circle or some otherto us visually (Haruki, 1989: 144)" in the

figure. What is common to all thesecomputer. After all, hiding the process ofexpressions is that we can pass from a

linear processing is also generated from linear

consideration of the relations in theprocessing with the linguistic sign. From theexpression to knowledge of the corresponding

viewpoint of information processing,properties of the thing expressed. Hence it isinformation depicted in pictorial signs is notclearly not necessary for that which expresses

different from the information depicted in

to be similar to the thing expressed, if only alinguistic signs. Nevertheless, the problem

certain analogy is maintained between thecontinues as to why the linguistic sign canrelations. (Leibniz, 1678 = 1969：208)．

become a pictorial sign in linear information
processing.

In Leibniz's idea for the analogy, we want

Now, we must put aside the viewpoint of

to focus on his point that "it is clearly not

information processing in order to make thenecessary for that which expresses to be

above question clear. Instead of that view, we

similar to the thing expressed." Because of amust try to adopt the new view that the icon

separation of the thing and the thing

has not only an analogical relationship withexpressed, Leibniz shows us that it possible to

the real world but also metaphoricalconsider that there is no resemblance what it

relationships with the programming language

represents in the analogical relationship. It isbecause metaphor is a process which connects

not important for the analogy to resemble

language with the picture. From this new view

what it represents in appearance but it mustof the relationship between the icon and themaintain some correspondence which shows

programming language, we can uniquely

they are the same thing. Likewise we can

explain how the program produces the icon in

suppose that there is an analogicalthe computer world. First of all, let us

relationship if the icon maintains a115

corresponding relationship with thesome possibility for directly-opposed ideas;

programming language. Moreover, thedefining a rigorous meaning of word andcomputer programming language can makemaking infinite links of analogy.

the corresponding analogy with its own logic.

From these two possibilities of theThis is a large difference from the language ofprogramming language, we want to say thathumans. In "A theory of computer semiotics,"

the linear program language pursues the strict

P. B. Andersen explains this as follows:meaning of a word and the object-oriented
program language is open to infinite links of

The model system is generated from theanalogy. The reason is that, although thesystem description. Since there may be systemformer is an analytical language system which

descriptions that are not read by any system

works by defining a word meaning rigorously

generator, system descriptions can occur

in order to describe the logic of CPU, thewithout model systems, whereas model

latter works by making links because thesystems must be described by a systemobjects in the object-oriented programming

description. Therefore, model systems

language hide their own definitions which

presuppose system descriptions. Thisdefine the object itself, show their functional

assumption motivates a negative answer toappearances, and generate analogical links

our thematic question, "are there soundbetween each other based on theiranalogies between computers and humans" forappearances. However, the CPU's powerful

the following reason: if program executions

von Neumann logic outside the language

correspond to language usage, there is ainterferes with the programming language

difference between the system and usage

system in the computer. In terms of this point,concepts of informatics and linguistics, since

the linear programming language and thein informatics, usage presupposes a systemobject-oriented language are the samedescription, whereas in the linguistic variant I

condition. Therefore, the computer programuse, usage is of course possible without system

must be written for processing exactly, based

descriptions: computers cannot do anything

on the von Neumann logic. Namely, thewithout descriptions, but people can.

computer programming language keep to（Andersen, 1990: 125）[Emphasis is in thedescribe its own relationship by itself, but it isoriginal]

not a free relationship because CPU compels
the programming language to make its own

In short, the relationship described by the

relationship which works on CPU.

computer programming language is an

Here, we consider that linguistic signs makeabsolute order for the logic world which thetheir own absolute relationship by themselves

human gives to the computer. It means thatin the computer world, and the object-

we can decide what a word in theoriented programming language generates the

programming language indicates at will andanalogical links. Therefore, the analogicalmust annul the arbitrariness of language. As alinks have their own absolute relationship in

result, the programming language is given

the computer. Next, we refer to the work of116

Ｍasanori MIZUNO―A particular relationship between the icon on the desktop and the programming language

Angus Fletcher in order to make clear whatconservationist function (Fletcher, 1968: 41).

the analogical relationship with the absolute
relationship means. He writes "Let us suppose

As Fletcher mentioned, the allegory

then that the proper analogue to allegory is

includes a symbolic surplus which isthe compulsive syndrome（Fletcher, 1964：

generated from connecting multiple meanings286）," he points out further that the linguistic

beyond the meaning of the literal level withsign tightly connects with the visual image inthe logic outside the words. Moreover, thethe allegory and that "Allegory perhaps has asymbolic surplus transforms itself into the'reality' of its own, but it is certainly not of thepictorial sign. The linear programming

sort that operates in our perceptions of thelanguage is designed for correspondence withphysical world. It has an idealizing

the outside logic, the CPU. Consequently, theconsistency of thematic content, because, in

language must be interpreted in its literalspite of the visual absurdity of muchmeaning in the computer. On the other hand,allegorical imagery, the relations between

Smalltalk's information processing with object

ideas are under strong logical control.

and message produces a different meanings（Fletcher, 1964: 105）" In his other book,system from the CPU due to the mechanism of

Fletcher examines the connection between the

Information hiding. This is writing various

linguistic sign and the pictorial sign as follows:

notes on the literal meaning indicated by thelinear information processing. Furthermore,

Essentially a means of structuring language

while the various meanings are tied up withso as to produce continuously linked series ofthe literal meaning, the linguistic sign forms

double or multiple meanings, this symbolican allegory which includes a symbolic surplus.

mode depends largely upon syncretic mixtures

In the computer world, this symbolic surplusof symbols from which it builds up "levels of

becomes the icon on the computer display.

meaning," sometimes as few as two, or as

However, the icon on the computer display

many as seven. Minimally it holds that no

is not released perfectly from the literal

single literal meaning can stand alone, butmeaning of the CPU. As already mentionedthat a valid utterance must possess aseveral times, it is just hidden by thetranscendent meaning as well, a symbolicmechanism of Information hiding in thesurplus beyond the literal level. Most

object-oriented programming language. As aallegories are images of cosmic order, andresult, the icon does not require the user totheir fixed, hierarchical, and timelessinterpret the literal meaning like the linear

character becomes problematic wheneverprogramming language but does require thatsuch cosmic orders are subjected to temporal

us read itself based on certain rules. As for the

analysis. The key to the permanence oflimitations of the allegory, Fletcher points out

allegory throughout history appears to be itsthat "since allegorical works present an

ornamental surface, which allies it withaesthetic surface, this implies an authoritative,changes in cosmology and decorum and gives

thematic, "correct" reading, which attempts toit an exploratory as well as a traditional andeliminate other possible readings. They117

deliberately restrict the freedom of the reader.

sign unfolds. However, this complementarity（ Fletcher, 1964: 305） " Therefore, theis hidden from the computer display by theoperations possible with the icon are very

icon itself which has an analogicalrestricted; "point out" or "move". This shows

relationship with the real world.

us that the pictorial sign, the icon, is not

Consequently, we begin to believe that it isessential for the information processing in theeasy to understand and control the computer

computer but just a part of surplus. Even

with the icon, and as we do not consider whatthough the icon is a restricted pictorial sign, it

the actually icon is. In this section, we want tohas, however, some symbolic meaning beyond

examine how and why the icon hides thethe literal meaning, and releases us fromcomplementarity relationship between thehaving to pursue the literal linear meaning for

linguistic sign and the pictorial sign from thethe CPU.

computer display.

6. The allegorical relationship between the
program and the icon, which the iconhides from the computer display
As mentioned in previous sections, the iconon the computer display and the programming
language behind it show us two things. First,
the object-oriented programming language
hides the process of the CPU's linear
information processing in order to give theuser other meanings beyond the literalinterpretation of the linguistic sign. As aresult, it allows that some possibility ofallegorical reading and summons the icon
which has symbolical meaning to appear in
the computer display against the strict logic ofCPU. Second, although it is a property of thepictorial sign to escape the limits of a linear
reading of words and to prompt a freeinterpretation, the icon is always limited in its
interpretation because it needs the allegorical
relationship with the linguistic sign in order tobe generated in the computer display. We canreinterpret the computer display as the place

Figure2. Dipintura, the original frontispiece forwhere the complementary relationshipVico's The New Science, 1744 (Fletcher, 1991: 148)

between the linguistic sign and the pictorial
118

Ｍasanori MIZUNO―A particular relationship between the icon on the desktop and the programming language

If Vico begins The New Science with an

point, as long as there are more than two

engraved frontispiece or "Table," Thepoints in the diagram (Fletcher, 1991: 173)?

Dipintura , he also at once provides an

Because there is a rather long explanation,

extended verbal "Explanation of the Picture

the indications of the pictorial sign are

Placed as Frontispiece to Serve as

arranged into a time line again and we canIntroduction of the Work" --- twenty-three

understand it. If there is no such explanation,

pages in the English text. The Explanation

the meaning of the pictorial sign drifts forever.

shows verbally that the Dipintura pictorially

The reason is that it is a property of the

reduces the twenty-three pages and by

pictorial sign to be interpreted freely.

extension the whole of The New Science to a

Therefore, we have to demand of the linguistic

single complex image. In so doing thesign a text in order to fix the meaning of the

Dipintura doubles a temporally extended

pictorial sign, although the verbal explanation

verbal construct, by synchronous emblematicforces us to interpret itself literally. Thismeans. Picture schematizes text, apparently

means that time hidden by the pictorial sign

without subversion

begins to move again with the linguistic sign

(Fletcher, 1991: 153).

which represents logic because "Time and the[Emphasis is in the original]

Logos are, no doubt, violently yoked together(Fletcher, 1991: 174)." As a result, we always

This text by Fletcher is highly suggestive for
us because he tells us that rather long verbal

end on a note of temporal description

explanation is reduced to an image while itwhenever we begin to analyze the order of co-

explains itself. It is a process by which theexistences of the pictorial sign spatially.

temporally extended verbal construct, which

Now, we consider the icon from the idea

is always built in a reading act, is compressed

above of Fletcher. As already mentioned, theinto a pictorial sign which has simultaneity. In

icon is the pictorial sign which the symbolic

this process, the meanings of the linguistic

surplus generated from the programming

sign are disposed in the order of co-existences

language change into. Therefore, the icon on

generated from the pictorial sign. Then, thethe computer display must be reduced to atemporal construction of the linguistic sign

linguistic sign which is tightly tied to the time.

hides itself from us and becomes a structure

However, Information hiding, the character offor a spatial construction in order to make andthe object-oriented language which is fitted forsupport a new pictorial sign. Therefore, evenmaking the icon, always hides its linguistic

though the Dipintura is useful in helping us

part. In other words, Information hiding

understand it more deeply, we should

always hides a part of the linear informationconsider that we have to both look at its

processing from us. Due to its structure of

picture and also read its long explanation inInformation structure, the icon is always

the linguistic sign. Fletcher also asks adisplayed as the object hiding its basic partquestion; "Can a poet imagine a sequence thatwhich is derived from the linguistic sign.

is devoid of the passing of time, when theConsequently, we can say that the icon on thepoem shifts from space to space, point tocomputer display is an unstable pictorial sign
119

because the meaning of it isn't fixed by theto examine the relationship between the user

temporally extended verbal construct. Thisand the icon from the allegorical viewpoint

unstableness opens the icon to freebecause there is a strong linguistic

interpretation, which emphasizes only the

relationship between the user and the icon

analogical relationship between the icon andand this relationship limits the possibility of

the real world. And more, we just see the icon

the computer interface.

as a pictorial sign that can be freely
Acknowledgmentinterpreted and think that we can easily andfreely control the computer with it. As a

We would like to offer our deepest thanks to theresult, we don't look at the icon as symbolic

Hori Information Science Promotion Foundation forsurplus of the linguistic sign. It means that thetheir support in conducting this research.

allegorical relationship between the icon andReferences

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icon's meaning, is made invisible.

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semiotics, Cambridge University Press,

7. Conclusion

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structure of Information structure, the iconYork

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Keigaku syuppan, Tokyo

the pictorial sign, and the programming

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121

The Dynamism of The Alt.elite and The Organizational Change:
The use of information technology in an antiquarian booksellers
association
Keywords:

alt.elite, identification, legitimatization, information technology, organizational change

Kaoru MOMOZUKA, Komazawa University

Abstract
In this paper, we discuss how self-reflective individuals change organizations by using
information technology in a conservative booksellers association. Individuals who are
information conscious try to change their environments with the transformation of selfidentities and the legitimation of selves. We use three key concepts within this study; (1)alt.elites who counter authority with new technologies or skills, (2) identification, which is
identity as a process, and (3) legitimatization, which is the dynamic mechanism
distinguishing the self from others and authorizing it.
Alt.elites in the association introduced information technology despite meeting withstiff resistance from other members. Through the process of the introduction, the alt.elites
have been changing the relationship between the self and others in the internal andexternal environment of the organization, leading to the legitimatizing the selves in thecultural, economical and management spheres. Finally the alt.elite changed theorganization.

This paper is awarded for the JASI Best Paper of the Year 2003 for Young Researchers.

1231 Introduction

alt.elites in the corporative association.
2 The framework

Today, individuals belong to manyorganizations simultaneously. Furthermore,

2.1 Individuals and Organizations in Modern

people who are information conscious try tochange their organizations with theSocieties

transformation of their self-identities and theIndividuals in modern societies arelegitimation of their selves. Nonetheless, only

liberated from "Gemeinschaft" (traditionallya few studies about information technology interritorial connections and blood ties).

organizations have argued this point.

Nowadays, individuals form, join and

We are concerned with the case ofwithdraw from groups of their own free will.

organization members changing the

An individual belongs to more than one

organization of an antiquarian booksellers

group. According to Simmel (1890= 1980:

association, introducing information systems

487), a man in modern society belongs to his

to the member's customer dealing aspect, withparents' family first, then takes a certain job,

three key concepts; (1) alt.elite (Endo, 1999),

and his job itself is built into his many(2) identification (Hall, 1996) and (3)interesting spheres. As a result, individuals

legitimatization (Momozuka, after-mentioned).

belong to a number of groups at the same

The organization we analyse, Tokyo-totime, which means people have a sense of

Kosyoseki Syougyou Kyoudou Kumiai (Tokyo

multiple belonging. Individuals, therefore, join

Antiquarian Booksellers Corporative), is aand withdraw from several organizations ofsecondhand booksellers' trade association

their own free will. In this paper, we use thecomposed mainly of old, establishedword "organization" as a group wherebooksellers in downtown areas which trade

individuals interact by their own wills.

expensive antiquarian books, and small

While belonging to organizations is based

bookstores which trade secondhand books inon will in modern societies, the "cost" of

local shopping streets. There has been a big

joining and withdrawing from organization isenvironmental change in their traditional

not necessarily been low. For example, peoplebusiness field, because new franchise

who work for a Japanese company which

secondhand bookstore chains have brokenchooses the lifetime employment system, or

into the market. In order to cope with changes

who volunteer in civic activism tend to devote

in the business environment, alt.elites whotheir whole lives to the organization, because

were information conscious and tried to

it is not very easy to withdraw from it.

change their environment, built an online

Nonetheless, Japanese companies have

shopping website and computerized many ofrecently promoted early-retirement and begun

the office tasks. The purpose of this paper is

to employ mid-career workers aggressively,

to explain such a stratum's attempts todue to the collapse of the lifetime employment

authorize them, distinguishing the self fromsystem. Furthermore, in voluntarily

others continually, by examining actions oforganizations which have developed recently,
124

Kaoru MOMOZUKA―The Dynamism of The Alt.elite and The Organizational Change: The use of information technology in an antiquarian booksellers association

like online organizations, such cost is lower
than that in the old associations.

(1)

Endo called them "alt.elites (alternative

As a result,elites)". (Endo, 1999: 31)

the more the cost has decreased, the more

The alt.elite is a diachronic concept;

organizations individuals have been able toindividuals of such alt.elites have counteredjoin simultaneously.

elites with various advanced technologies or

According to Weick (1979), organizations

broad knowledge how to cope quickly withare interpretation systems, In other words, an

the change of the times quickly. In this paper,organization makes sense by the reduction in

however, there is only the space to focus on

the ambiguity of members, and meaning themodern alt.elites who counter the hierarchy oforganization does not exist from the beginning

authority with new information skills. In thisbut is given retrospectively after actions. This

study, an individual's social position consists

brings us to the next point. The question isof two axes; (1) how much skill he has withhow we can understand the dynamism

information technology (information

between such individuals and organizations.

consciousness) and (2) how much she
counters the hierarchy of authority. In other

2.2 Alt.elitewords, we divide the society into threesegments; (1) the alt.elite strata are the ones
which counters the hierarchy of authority withnew information skills, (2) the elite strata are
the ones at a high level on the hierarchy
regardless of their information skills, and (3)the non-elite strata are the ones at a lowerthan-middle position on their social hierarchy,
without the information skills. (Figure 1)
The alt.elites have both horizontal andvertical relationships with others. The former
is the relationship with others based on so-

According to Endo (1999), it is young

called "networks"; without any consideration

researchers who have developed the internet;of hierarchy levels. According to "Thein other words, as groups, they are quasi-elites

National Survey of Social Stratification andwho have occupied an intermediary position

Social Mobility" in 1995, the alt.elites tended

between elites and non-elites. They hold theto attach a high value to "social activities" andpotential to move up to the level of elites, but"group activities"; on "the horizontal

they are at a lower-middle position on theirconnection to others". (Endo, 2000: 119, 123)

social hierarchy. Therefore they counter elites

The latter, on the other hand, is thementally (in fact, are syntonic to non-elites),

relationship with others based on

and find their identities in counter or

achievement; what he or she assigns highalternative cultures. As a result, they arevalue to and achieves in the society. Endosuspended in the social hierarchy temporarily.

(2000, 2002) claims the alt.elites do not attach
125high value to social status, the assets, career

self and others, but the relation is produced.

and educational qualifications which are(Hall, 1996; Sterne, 1999) As a result, thevalued in the society. As a result, this survey

differentiation is created by two mechanisms;

supports two characteristics in the alt.elite's

some parts of the self become those of theattitude to others.

others and some parts of the others become

Additionally, we must emphasize that thethose of the self, with the rules modified.

concept of alt.elite is not static but dynamic.

Therefore, the production of oppositions is

An individual who is in an alt.elite doesn't

due to the differentiation between the self andnecessarily remain in the stratum. Some willothers, and the dissolution of oppositions isjoin elites, some will remain in the alt.elite

due to the integration of the self and others.

position, and some will join non-elites.

In this paper, we call the former

Furthermore, some people shift to alt.elite"segmentation" and the latter "articulation".

strata from the elite or non-elite strata. In

For this reason, it is claimed that the self isother words, to be part of an alt.elite is not a

not static and the distinction between the self

static personal attribute, but one that changes

and the others changed constantly (the ruleswith time.

have been modified). The self repeats the(2)segmentation and articulation process, with
2.3 Identification of Alt.elites

the two alternating continually. That is

The dynamism of alt.elites as described

identification. (Figure 2) The self of alt.elite

above means individual identity changes

does not exist as a fixed entity but modifies

continually. According to Imada (1986), action

constantly through interaction with others. (3)means playing by the rules and accomplishing
one's aims and thinking about the significanceof the process. In this study, we call suchaction self-reflective. Furthermore, selfreflective action means differentiation fromestablished meaning, and assigning newmeaning by changing the rules. (Imada, 1986:
270- 275)
The self-reflective process is always inprogress. According to Hall (1996), thedifference between the self and others is not
2.4 Alt.elite and Legitimatization

static. Hall (1996: 2) claims identification is aconstruction or a process never completed; in

The alt.elites have a vertical relationshipother words, is always "in process". Thatwith others, which is the dynamism ofmeans the rule of distinction between the self

legitimating the sense of self to others

and others is always changing.

continually. According to Bourdieu (Bourdieu,

Furthermore, there is not necessarily an

1979 = 1984), people who belong to a class oranaphoric relation between the elements ofa group have specific ways of acting and126

Kaoru MOMOZUKA―The Dynamism of The Alt.elite and The Organizational Change: The use of information technology in an antiquarian booksellers association

perceiving (habitus). Although an individual's

this study counter the existing social

habitus is consistently distinct from that ofhierarchy, and try to change their society withother classes or groups, this distinction is not

information technology, building both

only the difference between the self and thehorizontal and vertical relationships withothers, but the difference is also an aspect

others. Additionally, such individuals havethat is valued. Bourdieu (1979= 1984) calls

identification through segmentation andsuch a difference distinction, and it is thought

articulation with others, thus legitimatingthat distinctive classes or groups havethemselves, and making themselves distinct

legitimacy in the society.

from others. In other words, alt.elites try to

We can apply Bourieu's habitus to alt.elites'

authorize themselves, building relationships

actions. First, there is a difference between

with others constantly.

alt.elites and elites, in that alt.elites exist at a

In this paper, using this framework, welower-than-middle position on their social

examine a case whereby alt.elites who were

hierarchy. Because elites are legitimate andinformation conscious and had both

distinct from alt.elites, alt.elites try to gain

horizontal and vertical relationships withlegitimacy with elites by action which isothers tried to legitimate themselves in an

countering the hierarchy of authority,

antiquarian booksellers association and finallycharacteristic of alt.elites. The elite strata, onchanged the organization by introducing

the other hand, need not legitimate

computer systems. We also examine thethemselves unless their legitimacy becomesdynamism alte.elites caused in the association.(6)weakened. (Ishii, 1993: 196)
3 The Case

Bourdieu argues that the legitimacy of
cultures in rather static class societies exists

3.1 The Antiquarian Books industry in Japan

with a few exceptions, and that it no longer
prevails with the upward mobility of people.

The antiquarian book industry in Japan is(4)

Bourdieu adds that legitimacy of culture tends

divided into two groups. One consists ofto continue after it is established, but that thetraditional and old-style secondhand

legitimacy the alt.elites gain does not always

booksellers which are affiliated with

continue, in other words, they do not

antiquarian booksellers in each prefecture,

legitimate though they try continually tothat are subordinate organizations, in a sense,

establish it. In this paper, we call the effort toof Zenkoku Kosyoseki-syou Kumiai Rengou-kai

gain legitimacy by alt.elites "legitimatization".

(Zen-Kosyo-Ren: The Antiquarian Booksellers

In other words, the vertical relationship

Corporative of Japan)). Many of thesealt.elites have with others is the dynamic

bookstores are small and long-standing but

mechanism of legitimatization to be distinct

show deteriorating sales (Tokyo-to Kosyoseki

themselves from others.

Syougyou Kyoudou Kumiai, 1996). The other(5)

consists of new franchise secondhand
2.5 The dynamism of alt.elites

bookstores, aggressively expanding business,
whose stores located mainly in suburban areas

As mentioned above, the alt.elite strata in127are large, and managed by manuals and POS(Tokyo-to Kosyoseki Syougyou Kyoudou

systems like fast-food franchises stores. (Oda,

Kumiai, 1996). In this report, they claimed

2000)

that one of the roles expected of TABC would

The antiquarian bookseller association is

be to introduce computers.

traditional storemembers belong to a

In 1996, many of TABC's members "had aooperative association (Jigyou Kyoudou-

vague sense of fear about computers, because

kumiai), which is "horizontal organization

they thought that computers would replaceconsisting of small business traders in thebooks" (8). The report said "the information age

same trade who communicate and collaborate

has already come to Japan. Although thewith each other by participating in many

antiquarian books industry has had from its

projects". For example, according to theorigins the aspect of being an information-

Tokyo Antiquarian Booksellers Corporative

distribution industry, we have not made an(TABC) clause, the object of the association iseffort to carry this idea forward. With the"based on the spirit of helping one another, by

coming of the multimedia era, we should beforming joint projects necessary for its

examining what we can do for the industry, if

members, to promote self-motivating business

antiquarian books as a media can survive in

activities of members, to improve members'

the future," (Tokyo-to Kosyoseki Syougyou

economic position, contribute to the

Kyoudou Kumiai, 1996: 6). The report said,

flourishing of domestic and international

moreover, that the Internet was useful in thecultures, and to intermediate the antiquarian

information age, and to make a portal site on

books markets successfully" (Articles of TABC,

the internet about antiquarian books edited bychapter 1). In other words, the role of

the association would result in improvement

antiquarian books associations is to fosterof convenience for its members andcommunication among the members in ordercustomers. In September 1996, based on theto trade antiquarian books on the members'

above claim, the association formed Internet

markets.

Un'ei Iinkai, a steering committee to(7)experiment on how the internet could be
3.2 The challenge of introducing computers byused. In September 1996, in addition, two

TABC

committee members who had advanced

Since the 1990s, due to slow sales, many ofcomputer skills led other TABC's members inthe secondhand booksellers that belong to the

opening the website "Nippon No Huruhon-ya

associations have been put in a difficult(Japanese secondhand booksellers)" where

position, and the franchise large stores, as

more than 50 voluntary members sold used

mentioned above, have invaded the market all

books.

over Japan. There were some people in TABC

All association members, however, did not

who had a sense of crisis about the situation.

support the committee, and committee

They researched their environment andmembers had a hard time getting otherprepared a report, "The Research Report tomembers to accept them, because many

find a vision of survival; present and future "TABC's members didn't know what kind of128

Kaoru MOMOZUKA―The Dynamism of The Alt.elite and The Organizational Change: The use of information technology in an antiquarian booksellers association

organization the committee was or where thebooksellers selling antiquarian books on thecommittee belonged. (Zenkosyoren News,

website raised rapidly from only a small

2000.7: 8) Some members criticized thenumber of people when it began in 1996 tocommittee for introducing the internet without

more than 450 all over Japan by April 2002.

permission of TABC, because only a small
4 Analysis of the casenumber of members joined the website.
Many objections against the operation

4.1 The position of alt.elite in TABC

policy of the committee were sent to TABC
one after another; against the policy of using

The organizational change in TABC was

the internet in TABC (in some cases because

carried out, counter to existing authority, by

the skills were lacking; in other cases, despite

the alt.elite strata with information skills. We

an understanding of the internet.) Someone

analyze, first, the position of alt.elites in

who was against the internet claimed that only

TABC.

30 % of the members could use the internet

When the association began to use theand the committee should have understoodinternet in 1996, it was divided into 4 strata

that. Someone claimed that it was an immoral

according to hierarchy and degree ofaffront to customers and self-defeating for

information consciousness in TABC.

antiquarian booksellers to use the internet
disclose knowledge that could be read by the(1) Information conscious establishments:

general public about antiquarian books

these strata are capable of introducing

accumulated by booksellers over a long period

information technologies independently.

of time. (Kosyo Geppou, 1997. 8)Thus they don't run into contradiction withAdditionally, someone criticized thethe conventional values of TABC, because

committee itself and wrote to say that thethey don't expect the association to

TABC must not have operated a private profit-

introduce an computerized information

making business that each member managed.

system.

Someone had opened a commercial website(2) Conventional establishments: thesefor himself because the association did not

strata are satisfied with current businesshave the technical skills sufficient to run suchwithout use of the internet, so they do nota website. (Kosyo Geppou, 1997. 8)contradict the conventional values ofIn spite of a number of such complaints

TABC.

against the internet, the amount of sales on(3) Conventional tiny stores: although

the website had been increased steadily. As

these strata feel dissatisfied with theirsales accelerated, objections against thesituation, they are negative about usingcommittee decreased, and the number ofcomputers, so do not contradict themembers using books on the website

conventional values of TABC.

increased. Some booksellers tried to increase(4) Information conscious reformers: these

online sales more aggressively than thestrata feel dissatisfied with their situation,committee intended. Finally, the number of

expect TABC to introduce technology, and129

so contradict the conventional values ofwould converge into one price, but alt.elite

TABC.

strata claimed that it was useful to compile a
database of knowledge about booksellers'Information conscious reformers are theantiquarian books. (Kosyo Geppou, 1998.8:

strata that changed conventional values in15) This means there is the production of

TABC with the introduction of the internet

opposition between two information

despite the anti-reformation feeling about theunconscious strata and alt.elite strata; theinternet that raised. In other words, they

former intended traditional business by thecountered existing authority by using

seat of their pants, and the latter intended to

information technology, thus displaying a key

verbalize tacit knowledge about antiquariancharacteristic of alt.elites and thereby became

books members had. (10)the alt.elites in TABC. (Figure 3).
4.2.2 An example of the segmentation within
the association (2)Secondly, alt.elites in TABC segmented
from information conscious establishments.
Each bookseller of this establishment
introduced information technology on theirown at that time and alt.elites didn't try to
make them join the website. However alt.elites
did encourage other members to join who did
not have sufficient information skills to use
computers and the internet by themselves.
(Kono, 1999) Alt.elites organized workshops to
4. 2 The segmentation and articulation of alt.elites

support these unskilled members, and used a

The alt.elites in TABC segmented andcustomized windows PC at the TABC office toarticulated, both in the overall organization

recommend to TABC members what kind of

and within member organizations.

computer they should buy to use the internet.
Members could buy the machine at the office4.2.1 An example of the segmentation within TABC (1)immediately. (Kosho Geppou, 1997. 12: 4)

First, alt.elites in TABC segmented from

This process demonstrated a conflict between

conventional establishments and tiny storesinformation conscious establishments who(two information unconscious strata). The

intended to computerize separately andstrata that weren't information conscious andalt.elite strata who intended to computerize

hoped to continue traditional business

together.

practices, were afraid that by selling books on
4.2.3 An example of the negotiations within

the website, and by publicizing tacitknowledge about the antiquarian books

the association

members had, the price of secondhand books

Thirdly, alt.elites in TABC negotiated with130

Kaoru MOMOZUKA―The Dynamism of The Alt.elite and The Organizational Change: The use of information technology in an antiquarian booksellers association

the information conscious establishments. As

TABC built the website, and claimed that it

described above, the committee first1 opened

was the leading information technology-

the website for beginner internet users andrelated company in the industry. This claim

supported them. In 1999, each user could

was possible because an encyclopedia ofregister book data in the database directly,

current events and words had listed thewith the website renewed by the organizationenterprise as the first in Japan to open an

and the user interface altered. After theantiquarian bookstore mall on the internet.

renewal, TABC appealed to the advanced

On the other hand, alt.elites in TABC, settinginternet users to join the site. (Kosho Geppou,

a goal to make the website most excellent in

1999. 8) This led to a resolution of the conflictthe industry of Japan, segmented with thebetween the informational conscious

internal and external organization.

establishments and alt.elites.

(12)

As a result, alt.elites in TABC developed aclear and dynamic identity, through4.2.4 An example of the negotiations outside

segmentation and articulation within thethe associationinternal and external organization.

Fourthly, alt.elites in TABC negotiated with
4.3 Legitimatization of the alt.elites in TABCan external organization. The committee
released members to open a shop on otherAs mentioned above, alt.elites have a

websites managed by private antiquarian bookvertical relationship with others. Such actions

companies; in particular the website, M Inc.,

are recognized in the alt.elites of TABC.

established in 1995, which targeted the same

They thought that even if antiquarianmarket as the association's site. There was abooksellers that belonged to the associations

strong probability, as some members feared,

had been "old-fashioned" and in a "minority",that both sites would compete with eachthey had been "the standard in the industry".

other. Nonetheless, alt.elites in the

In addition, they claimed that if they

organization allowed the users to open stores

solidarized each other, they would be able toon the M. Inc's site. (Zen Kosyoren News,"create the largest 'antiquarian book space' on

2000. 7: 9) This led to an end of conflictthe internet", because such booksellers were abetween the association and external"professional group" in which each booksellerorganizations.

specialized in a certain genre. (Kosyo Geppou,
1999. 4: 26). They projected to authorize their

4.2.5 An example of segmentation with an

website as distinct from others that dealt withexternal organization

secondhand books. (Momozuka, 2002) This

Finally, alt.elites in TABC segmented withmeans that the alt.elites in TABC engaged in aan external organization. They set the goal ofvertical relationship with others.

"making the website number-one in theantiquarian books industry"

It can be argued, therefore, that why. M. Inc,making the largest antiquarian books space

however, had already opened an antiquarianmeans legitimatization. Three different verticalbook shopping-mall on the internet before

relationships among alt.elites and others were

(11)

131

5 Conclusion and future researchobserved.
First, the alt.elites in TABC had a vertical
relationship with others from the cultural

These results lead to the conclusion that the

aspect. Some alt.elites, as described above,volunteer members in TABC changed existingclaimed to compile a knowledge databaseorder in the organization by introducing

about "the one thousand-year-history of

information technology and forming a website

antiquarian books" (Kosho Geppou, 1998. 8)

for customers dynamically. It is argued thatthat the booksellers had uniquely. This means

they were alt.elites who countered existingthat they tried to authorize themselves as

authority with information technology. First,

distinct from others by drawing attention to

The alt.elites in the association segmented andthe cultural aspect of antiquarian books.

articulated with internal and external

Secondly, they created a verticalorganizations at the same time. Secondly, they

relationship with others from the economic

tried to legitimate themselves by making

aspect. Some alt.eites were interested in thethemselves distinct from others in term ofquantity of books sold on the website after thecultural, economic and managerial aspects.

site had opened. This means distinguishing

Finally, the organization changed dynamicallythemselves from others by focusing on theon the whole through this transformation inmaterial aspect, and expanding the scale of

the relationship between the self and others as

operation to pursue greater profits. (13)a result the merging of such actions.

Finally, they engaged in a vertical

Our results have several implications, notrelationship with others from the managerial

only for antiquarian booksellers associations,point of view. Some of them inspired by thebut other cultural industries as well that deal

introduction of the internet in TABC tried towith cultural goods or services, especiallymodernize the TABC's management. They

organizations in "the reading space"thought that using information technology(Nagamine, 2001) where individuals

would lead to reviewing management methods

communicate with each other about books.

themselves. This means distinguishing

Because these organizations are facing similarthemselves from others through innovation ofproblems under similar circumstances tothe management style.

(14)

antiquarian booksellers associations. For

As a result, it is revealed that verticalinstance, in publishing companies, it is(15)

relationships between alt.elite in the

pointed out that stores selling newly-publishedorganization and others have multiple

books and corporative associations, which

dimensions. The alt.elites legitimatized

belong to traditional industries that deal withthemselves simultaneously in cultural,culture, are slow to computerize despite theeconomic and managerial aspects of the

difficult environment and depressed book

operation to counter existing authority withsales. It can be argued that alt.elites produced

information technology.

in such organizations could change theirsituation with information technology.

132

Kaoru MOMOZUKA―The Dynamism of The Alt.elite and The Organizational Change: The use of information technology in an antiquarian booksellers association

Future research should analyze thephysical involvement.

relationship between the organizations(2) Due to the alt.elite as a dynamic concept, there

alt.elites belong to and external organizations.

is not a static group of alt.elites. However, when

Alt.elites, however, are not affiliated with only

observers focus on an organization at a given

one organization, and we have not discussed

moment, alt.elites look like a cluster or a stratum.

the dynamism of alt.elites fully from the point

For this reason, we use the phrase the alt.eliteof view of the relationship between one

strata, to indicate of more than two alt.elites atsystem and another system. First, due to theone particular moment.

focus being mainly on the alt.elites in the(3) The segmentation and articulation ofinternal antiquarian booksellers' organization,

identification between the self and others are, insuch alt.elites have not been located in theother words, the condition of similarities andreading space. As we mentioned above,differences between the self and others. It is

secondhand bookstores and antiquarian

obvious that such a difference relates to joining

booksellers associations are in the readingor countering the social hierarchy, but in thisspace as publishing companies and stores

paper, we make the assumption that the

selling new books. Further research is needed

difference between the self and others ison the dynamism of such alt.elites in thearbitrary. It is not until the difference isreading space. Secondly, we have to discuss

positioned in the society, that it becomes an

the link among each of the three verticalissue of the distinction of either the self or

relationships and others. The legitimatization

others.

of alt.elites can be multilayered, and the(4) The sale of letters of the nobility in the English

managerial legitimacy can be the means toaristocracy provoked devaluation of these titles.

pursuing the end of other legitimacies. As a

As a result, the existing title holders introduced

whole, alt.elites may seek to legitimatize

differences such as manner to devalue thethemselves in a multilayered way. Such

newcomers in their society. ( Bourdieu, 1979 =possibilities must be explored in the future.

1984 : 161)(5) In this Study, after alt.elites complete

Acknowledgements

authorizing themselves and don't have themotivation for authorizing, they shift to elites.

We wish to express our gratitude to Kaoru(6) For further details of the case, see Hanaoka and

ENDO, professor of Gakusyuin University for

Momozuka (2000).

reading the manuscript and making a number of
helpful suggestions. Our thanks also are due to(7) See, in particular, Miyashita(1999: i).

antiquarian booksellers in the Tokyo Antiquarian(8) This is the view of Mr. Takayuki Kono the former

Books Cooperative who accepted our interviews.

manager of public relations, Tokyo Antiquarian
Booksellers Corporative. Mr. Kono and Mr.

Footnotes

Toshio Hanai, the manager of public relations at(1) For example, according to Endo (1999), internetthat time were interviewed about introducing

activism does not have characteristics such as

computer technology and the internet in TABC

tight organizing, total personal commitment andon December 27, 2001.

133

(9) They had the most advanced skills about

the development of printed media like newly-

computer technology skills amongst antiquarianbooks, antiquarian books and magazines, (2)booksellers. For example, they publishedvarious distribution channels to disseminate them

antiquarian books catalogs using computers andlike newly-book stores, antiquarian bookstores,

established a computer-based inventory control

and libraries, (3) the media receptive capability

and customer management systems. In addition,of various readers like white-collared workers

one of them wrote computer programs of theand blue-collared workers. The reading space is

antiquarian books management systems to sell toconstituted with a relationship among another booksellers, and one of them introduced aelements.

minicomputer and database system and built the
LAN in the company and connected the network

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135Socio-Cultural Differences in the Use of Personal
Web Homepage and Electronic Communities
among Japanese, Finnish, and Korean Youth
Keywords:

Having homepages, Cross-cultural comparison, Anonymous ties, Korea, Finland

Yoshitaka SAITO, Bunri University of Hospitality
Tadamasa KIMURA, The University of Tokyo
Abstract
Statistics about the young in Japan, Finland, and Korea show that only a small
percentage of people have a personal web homepage. What are the differences between
homepage holders and others? We attempt to answer this question by examining
empirical data and focusing on information-network environmental factors and individual
factors. Results show that in the three countries, people who have higher Internet skills
and motivation to communicate with others are more likely to have homepages.
However, in terms of Japan alone, statistics show that those who have a homepage tend
to use it at home and tend to use the Internet to reduce psychological stress (for"healing"). The Japanese characteristics may reflect the fact that those who have
homepages are often engaged in anonymous communication on websites (e.g., personal
diaries) alone at home, which is hardly observed in other societies.

1371. Introduction

distinguish various kinds of HP holders. We
also point out differences between Japan,

There are a variety of Internet functions

Finland and Korea through comparative

and applications, one of which is a web-analyses. By doing so, we can see thehomepage. Through a homepage (HP,characteristics of each society. Such ahereafter) one can send information to anyone

comparison will also show similarities amongin the world, and it differs from mass media

the societies, which are considered to be"media characteristics" of HPs.

since there is little legal certification or
regulation relevant with use of it, and it does

In this study we conduct quantitative

not require large-scale resources. Therefore, it

analyses by employing empirical data. Targets

may be possible for anyone in society to makeare undergraduate students in Japan, Finlanduse of HP to express themselves.

and Korea.

However, although the number of Internet

Before the main discussion, it is important

users and the amount of information carried

to make some brief statements about theon HPs are increasing, many people do not

Internet phenomena in each society. Japan,

actually have personal HPs. Table 1 shows the

Finland and Korea have been at the forefront

percentages of those who have HPs amongof technical development of the Internet andundergraduate students in Japan, Finland andmobile communication devices in the world

Korea. Although undergraduate students are("IT development in 90's" [Kimura, 2004]).

usually active in using new technologies, there

Finland is one of the Northern European

are only a limited number of people who havecountries and has the world largest cellular

their own HPs.

phone company, NOKIA. Northern Europe isa leading area of IT development and achieves

We question why everyone does not have a
HP, although it is assumed that everyone canthe highest ratio of diffusion of the Internet

utilize them. What distinguishes those whoand cellular phones in the world, which ishave HPs from others?

almost the same in actual figures as the U.S.
(Steinbock 2001, Kimura 2004, Yamada 2006)

Table.1 Percentages of Those Who Have

In Korea, diffusion of the Internet did not

HPs among Undergraduates

begin as early as in other leading countries,
but the Internet on broadband (BB, hereafter)such as ADSL has diffused rapidly. It was not
until the late 2000s when the government
started establishing active IT policies. In

Note: The data were collected in Japan and Korea

December 2002, the ratio of Internet users

in 2002 and in Finland in 2003 (details below).

was 59.4%, among whom DSL users were
83.9% and cable modem users was 12.8%.

The present study examines environmental

Then, Korea came to be known as thefactors (mainly information networks) and"broadband society" using the highest level ofindividual factors, some factors that may

this technology in the world (Korea Network
138

Socio-Cultural Differences in the Use of Personal Web Homepage and Electronic Communities among Japanese, Finnish, and Korean Youth

Information Center 2003). From 1998 to 2000,

communication styles that old media did not.

"PC Bans " (internet cafes providing a high-For instance, email, BBS and newsgroupspeed but inexpensive Internet service)

enable us to communicate with others without

spread, which was earlier than the diffusion of

having to concern ourselves with time and the

BB at home. The cafes became popularconvenience of the receiver. Previous studies

especially among young people (Iizuka 2000,

about such new communication styles include

Kure 2002).

Kim (2004), who examined communication

Japanese society leads in terms of theskills and BBS participation, and Ohata (2001),

Internet, camera mobile phones, and otherwho examined the relationship between BBS

digital devices (e.g., digital cameras). BB inparticipation and social network in the real

Japan is almost the cheapest in the world, andworld.

the ratio of BB users is the second highest in

Among the studies on HPs is Miyata (1998),

who shows that individuals ' motivation is one

the world, following Korea.
Therefore, it is valuable to compare theseof the factors distinguishing HP holders andthree societies from the viewpoint ofothers. Kawaura (1999) examines why

information-communication studies.

individuals write personal diaries on HPs, andprovides some reasons in these quotes: "I canmaintain it easily ", "I'd like to express myself "2 .Literature Review

and "People around me have it, too."

One of the important approaches in the

A similarity among these previous studies is"mass societythat no comparison between HP holders andtheory," which developed with the innovation

others is attempted. They tend to focus on HP

of mass media (Riesman 1953; Mills 1956).

holders, rather than looking at both groups.

According to this theory, individuals are

Therefore these studies hardly clarify theprevious studies is the use of

becoming alienated in society because "middle

differences between HP holders and others.

groups" (e.g., family, local community) are

While Okamoto (2001) and Yamamoto (2003)

collapsing these days, and individuals are only

do actually compare those two groups, they

passive receivers of information sent by mass

examine the offices of political candidates, tomedia (e.g., TV, newspaper).

learn why some have HPs while others do not.

However, nowadays, the means of sending

They cite the important role of candidates 'information are becoming more and moreeducational levels and so on. Also, they

accessible to individuals because of recent

examine the organizational or businessnew media, especially the Internet. Anyone

aspects of HPs, rather than individual aspects

can send information cheaply through theunlike our study.

Internet, and s/he does not need large-scaleThis present study attempts to compare HP

equipment (Tsuji 1997, Miyata 1998). Massholders with non-users in Japan, Finland andsociety theory is not necessarily applicable

Korea. We hope to draw attention as well toyet, because individuals are not so passive.

valuable findings about similarities and

The Internet now provides new

differences amongst the three societies in139

terms of their HP holders.

if they are very afraid that personal revelation
via HPs might involve in problems (c.f.,

3. Our Interests

Hashimoto 2003, Yamamoto 2000).
However, there are people who live in BB-

Table 1 shows that everyone does not haveequipped environments, have high technicalHPs, even though it is assumed that anyone

skill, are not afraid of possible problems, yet

can utilize HPs. So, what promotes or inhibits

do not have a HP. Therefore we need tothe use of HPs amongst individuals? Do

consider people 's purposes in using HPs, topeople have HPs if the appropriate physicalhelp distinguish HP holders from others.

environment is provided? Or, are individual

One of the purposes in the use of the

aspects more important? We consider theseInternet is communication with others, or toquestions by looking at environmental andexpress oneself. People consider the Internet a

individual factors.

useful media to send information and toBB equipment seems to play an important

express themselves. A study (Kawaura 1999)

role as an environmental factor. BB can carryargues that those who have HPs for thismuch more information at a time than narrow

reason tend to be active in communication.

bands (e.g., telephone lines). These days, weAnother purpose is to reduce psychologicaluse BB in many places such as the workplace,stress and the loneliness that people feel inschool, and home. It is easily speculated thatdaily life. A study (Kawaura 1999: 137) showsenvironments equipped with BB would bethat use of HPs to express oneself is positively

more appropriate for the use of HPs.

related to healing such feelings. Other

Another environmental factor is places

purposes include gaining easy access to useful

where people use the Internet. Although wenews, information, and entertainment, which

can now use the Internet at school andare also analyzed below.

internet cafes as well as at home (Mima 1999),
4. Data

people seem to feel more comfortable
managing HPs at home to.
In addition, there are various individualThis study employs the data of undergradu-

factors. The first one is technical skill in theate students on their use of and attitude

use of the Internet. Usage of the Internet

toward the Internet in Japan, Finland andrequires the skill to deal with a lot of

Korea. In December 2002, we conducted our

information and to utilize many computer

survey of students at private universities infunctions. In fact, a research study (Cho 2000)

Tokyo, Japan, and Seoul, Korea.

shows that one of the reasons why people do

Questionnaires were distributed and collected

not use the Internet is they do not know how

mostly in class. The numbers of respondents

to use it.

were 487 in Japan and 490 in Korea. The

The second individual factor is the level ofsurvey was managed by Yoshiaki Hashimoto

concern people have about security on theand his colleagues in the University of Tokyo

Internet. People may be reluctant to have HPs(see more details in Hashimoto et al., 2003).
140Socio-Cultural Differences in the Use of Personal Web Homepage and Electronic Communities among Japanese, Finnish, and Korean YouthAs for Finland the data were collected inInternet by dialup has not spread so much,

2003. The questionnaires were distributed

but the Internet by ADSL is defused widely.

amongst undergraduate students of University

Thus, it seems that BB at home is used byof Helsinki. The number of respondents wasdefault there.

315.
Table 2 Descriptive Statistics

We believe there are some strengths inusing such data. First, since all the
respondents were undergraduate students, we
could control for educational levels andoccupations, and ages within a minimum
range. Second, since undergraduate students
hardly use HPs for business, we could assume
their purposes in using HPs to be personal.
Third, percentages of those who used theTable 2 (continued)

Internet were very high in our data (95% inJapan, 99% in Finland, and 97% in Korea), so
we can assume that almost all the respondents
were the Internet users, and that our data
excluded the Internet nonusers. Thus, we
could almost examine more precisely what
distinguishes HP holders from others among
Internet users.
5. Variables

Note: We include only cases that answered all the
relevant questions. Values in ( ) refer to standard

Table 2 exhibits descriptive statistics ofdeviations.

variables used in the analyses below.

Another environmental factor is "where

Interpretation of the descriptive statistics is
not the main aim in this study, so in thisthey use the Internet ": at home (=1) or othersection we provide only brief explanations ofplaces such as university campus and internet

some variables relevant to the discussion thatcafé (=0). In our survey, we categorized four

follows.

places: home, school, internet caf é, andothers, and the respondents were asked what

A dependent variable in this study is"having a HP (=1)" or not (=0).

percentage of their time they spent in using

Explanatory variables including "BB at

the Internet at each place. Those whohome," which is measured by "yes" (=1) oranswered more than 50% at home are defined"no" (=0). Table 2 show that in Korea theas "1," others as "0." Table 2 shows that thepercentage of those who have HPs is relatively

percentages are relatively higher in Japan andhigh (standard deviation is low). In Korea, theKorea, compared with Finland.
141

Inoue's (2001) and Kure 's (2002) findings, that

In addition to environmental factors, there
are various individual factors. Among them ispeople in Japan and Korea use the Internet for"Internet skills," referring to technical skills toentertainment and for chances to meet people.

make use of the Internet, which we measure

Another factor distinguishing HP holders

by a sum of three items: "I can find necessary

from others is people 's purposes in using theinformation by using search engines, " "It is

Internet. They are measured by 19 items, eacheasy for me to download software fromof which is measured by a 4-point scale.

websites," and "People say I know a lot about

Factor analysis summarizes these items into 4computers." Each of these three has a four-

indices:"communication,""healing,""collecting information, " and "entertainment."

category scale, and higher scores mean higher
skills. Table 2 shows that the score in Japan is

The items of each index are described ina little lower than those of the other two

Table 3.

societies.

Another individual factor is "afraid of theTable 3 Indices of "Purpose to use theInternet"

Internet." This variable measures how
seriously people are afraid of the Internet, byusing a sum of five items:"I'm afraid thatsomebody can know which websites I lookedat and who I communicated with by email,"Personal information such as my name,"address and credit card number may bereleased," "Computer viruses may intrude into

The first index is "communication," refer-

my computer, " "Information on my computer

ring to the exchanging of information andmay be stolen, " and "Somebody may steal my

opinions, and the expressing of their personallogin password and use my computer without

thoughts and feelings on the Internet. Table 2

permission." Each of the items has a five-shows that it is relatively higher in Korea.

The second index "healing" refers to thecategory scale, and the higher their scores themore afraid people are. Table 2 shows that

releasing of psychological stress and escaping

from troubles, indicated as "loneliness" andpeople in Finland are relatively less afraid,"comfort" in questionnaires. This is also thepartially because they use the Internet much
more for business (Kimura 2004). Actually, ithighest in Korea.

is very common for Finnish people to give and

The third index is called"collecttake their email addresses through theinformation," referring to usage of the Internet

Internet even between people who have notfor the purpose of gaining necessary

met. Also it is not strange to inform somebody

information. There is not a large difference

else of their colleagues ', friends ', andamong the three societies, but it is a little

acquaintances' names. In contrast, thehigher in Korea.

Japanese are as afraid of the Internet as the

The fourth index is the usage for"entertainment," which is indicated as

Koreans at higher level. This is reflected in142Socio-Cultural Differences in the Use of Personal Web Homepage and Electronic Communities among Japanese, Finnish, and Korean Youth"stimulation" and "joy." This is almost at the

Korea in Table 4. However in Japan, theInternet tends to be used at home (P<.10).

same level in Japan and Korea, and a little

The next group of factors concerns withlower in Finland.

individual characteristics. The first one is"skills" in use of the Internet. In Table 4, this

6. Results

explanatory variable seems to play an
In this section, we will show similar andimportant role, meaning that those who havedifferent characteristics in the three countries.

higher skills are more likely to have HPs. ThisAn analytical method used in this study is a

is the case in all three countries.
Another individual factor is whether people

test of significant difference (t-test). Results areare "afraid" of the Internet. We do not see

shown in Table 4.

significant differences in Japan or Korea, but
Table 4 Having HPs and Explanatory Variables

there is a difference in Finland (P<.10),
meaning that those who are strongly afraid
tend not to have HPs.
Another individual factor concerns the
purposes in using the Internet, measured byfour indices. The first index is"communication." Table 4 shows that those
who like to communicate with others tend tohave HPs. They are considered to use theInternet for social purposes rather than

Table 4 (continued)

personal purposes. In this respect, we do notsee differences among the three societies.

About another factor, "healing," we findthat Internet users rather than others are more
likely to have HPs in Japan, but we do not see
this in Finland or Korea.

Another factor, "collect information", showsa significant difference only in Japan. Thismeans that those who use the Internet for theNotes: *P<.05, **P<.01, ***P<.001.

purpose of collecting information are more
likely to have HPs. This is not observed in

The first factor in the category of

information environment, "BB at home, "Finland or Korea.

The last factor "entertainment" exhibits

shows no significant difference in Korea, but asignificant difference in Japan and Finland,significant differences in Japan and Finland.

(P< .10).

In contrast, we do not see a similar tendency

The second factor, "where they use it "in Korea.

shows no significant difference in Finland and143

7. Discussion

It is interesting in Japan alone those who

use the Internet for "healing" are more likely

Summarizing the findings above, higher

to have HPs. This may reflect the fact thatskills in the use of the Internet, and the use of

there is a distinct Japanese use of HPs. A

the Internet to communicate with others, both

relevant result of supplemental analyses (notplay an important role. These findings areshown) is that the percentage of people

observed in all three societies, so these may

displaying their own diaries on HPs is higher

be distinct characteristics of a HP as ain Japan than in the other two countries

medium.

(62.8% in Japan, 5.4% in Finland and 32.8%
in Korea). It is considered that there is a

In other aspects we see some cultural andsocietal differences. First, concerning "BB at

similarity between showing diaries tohome," because almost all the households

anonymous readers and using the Internet for

already have BB in Korea, statistical

healing. This seems consistent with otherJapanese distinctions in terms of "BB at home"

differences may not appear. But in Japan and
Finland, BB at home seems related to having

and "where they use it. " From analyses of theHPs. However, we should consider that insame dataset as this study, Kimura (2004)

these two societies, there may be the otherconcludes that cyberspace in Japan isfactors (e.g., degree of use of the Internet)

understood as an anonymous place and that

relating both with BB at home and withJapanese people are reluctant to be deeply

having HPs. Furthermore, it is possible that if

involved. According to him, people in

BB spreads as widely in Japan and Finland as

cyberspace are not related to their real social

in Korea, BB at home may not explain why

networks. It is plausible that personal HPs in

people have HPs. In any case, the results

Japanese society function as a place forshow that BB at home may promote them tomonologue, a hypothesis that matches ourhave BB, but lack of it doesn 't seem tofinding that Japanese HP users enjoy thediscourage them.

Internet at home for healing.

significantly related to having HPs, whichstrengthen their real social networks or create

Another individual factor, "afraid," is not

However, people in Korea attempt tomeans that people 's concerns about computer

new networks through the Internet (Kimviruses and crimes do not matter. There is2004). Thus, Koreans think of communication

plenty of media discourse about Interneton the Internet as being connected with real

problems in Japan and Korea (Yamamotosocial networks. In Japan also, the analyses

2000, Hashimoto 2003), and so it is possible

show that this variable plays an importantthat many people afraid of such a negativerole, but in a different sense than in Korea.

side of the Internet, share their deep concern,

Japanese HP users communicate withwhich does not affect whether they have HPs

anonymous strangers with whom they would

or not. In Finland, since people are yet not sohardly like to have face-to-face conversation

afraid, it seems that their concerns can still(note 1).

discourage them from having HPs.

There has been a controversy as to whether
144

Socio-Cultural Differences in the Use of Personal Web Homepage and Electronic Communities among Japanese, Finnish, and Korean Youththe Internet promotes or hinders people 's

to be an important factor. Those who meetsocial networks (Kraut et al. 1998, Wellman &these criteria are more likely to have HPs than

Gulia 1999). The argument is that

others in the three societies, which implies

communication among immediate socialthat these are "media characteristics" of HPs.

remote social networks are strengthened

differences. For example, what seems unique(Kraut et al. 1998). In Japanese society, veryin the Japanese context is that social networks

weak ties (which we callin cyberspace are assumed to be anonymous.

networks is reduced, while "weak ties " inHowever, we also find some social-cultural"anonymous ties "),much weaker than those Kraut et al. (1998),

This may reflect the fact that Japanese young

appear to make a difference.

people use the Internet alone at home without
being aware of the real social world.

A negative side of this Japanesecharacteristic is that people 's abilities to getalong with others in real social relationships

Note:

may be lowered because they are too

1. We conducted supplemental analyses, with theresult that "afraid of the Internet " in Finland isaccustomed to weak social ties in cyberspace(Kimura & Saito 2006). This is especially true

not significantly related to "afraid of society inof some young people who stay at home

general" (.093, n.s.). In contrast, we see a

without going out for long (said to besignificant relationship between these two factors"housebound") a phenomenon sometimes

in Japan and Korea (Japan: .145, P<.01; Finland:

criticized as being a specifically Japanese.200, P<.01).

characteristic.
References:

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relationship. For instance, such weak ties may

kenkyu" Nagasaki Uesureyan tanki daigaku

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data ryushutsu to higai kakusan boushi seido no

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Korea.

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To summarize, a condition of having HPs ischousa" Tokyo daigaku shakai jouhou kenkyujo

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146

Administrative Evolution and Open Innovation [1]Keywords:

e-Government, CIO, SOA, Preventive Medicine, Innovation

Osamu SUDOH, The University of Tokyo
Abstract
Our future society cannot be clarified or characterized without considering various factors related to IT. IT
continues its fundamental development in the open innovation environment, where genius or outstanding talent does
not necessarily play a central role to drive transformation. Rather, individual consumers, suppliers, workers, or any
one who has the ability to engage in creative and collaborative activities brings transformation that leads toinnovation. The Architecture of Participation is very crucial. In other words, the dissemination of IT depends onsocial architecture, or the agent that activates open innovation. Social development, in turn, depends on how we canfacilitate social utilization of IT. Therefore, we must design a new social paradigm for active and open innovation.
This paper will discuss e-Government and Local e-government as a core infrastructure of innovation, upon which
regional digital revolution is achieved. Also, the importance of the administrative CIO's role and responsibilities is
explored in other part of this paper.
Currently, administrative CIOs are occupied with duties regarding IT security and system acquisitions. In period of
emerging IT-based organization, CIOs must engage in technological management of IT, and cannot handle strategic
knowledge management such as organizational reform. However, in order to fully utilize the potential capacity of IT
for organizational and social transformation, the roles and responsibilities of CIOs must be greatly refined.
e-Government can be the infrastructure that facilitates the co-creation of new information and knowledge and thesystemic chain reaction of innovation in partnership of industry, government, university, and the private sector. To
promote innovation, CIOs must play a critical role, and their roles and responsibilities must be refined.
It is necessary for us to envision a new paradigm for open innovation, which will be utilized to achieve sustainablesocial development. In the new paradigm, e-Government and Local e-government should be emphasized as a corefunction. The infrastructure must be developed into a platform so that it can be applied to the entire society.
For innovative capabilities to be strengthened, we are required to obtain a wide range of knowledge both in thehumanities and sciences. It is also necessary to find relationships among the knowledge, and create new knowledge
and capabilities. Such a relation-building effort must become the foundation of creativity. As social applications of
information technology and networks are increased and refined further, the CIO, as chief officer of an organization,needs to improve innovative capacity; in other words, to develop the ability to form relationships.

147

1. The e-Government Initiative in Japanconsidered as an integral part ofe-JapanStrategy as well as succeeding New IT Reform
Strategy. One of the priority policy programs

From the mid-1990s, IT (Information

is to deliver the ‘world's most convenient andTechnology) and the Internet have served as
fundamental infrastructure for a mega market

efficient electronic government ' when it

economy to emerge on a global scale. This isachieves its goal of 50% online processing of

called the ‘Digital Economy ', which has not

all applications and filings by 2010.
Past e-Government initiative areceased to grow ever since. In line with thisdocumented in the "e-Government Evaluation

trend, diversified relations of significant
complexity have been defined and formed inCommittee 2006 Report " (Chair: Osamu

society. Our future society cannot be clarified

Sudoh; report published in 2007). Thisor characterized without considering various

committee has been established within thefactors related to IT. IT continues to develop

Expert Committee on IT Strategy Evaluation.

in a fundamental way in an open innovation

In this section, the past e-Government

environment, where genius or outstanding

initiative will be reviewed according to thetalent does not necessarily play a central role

abovementioned report (ibid. pp.6-16).

to drive transformation. Rather, individualFirst of all, for the promotion of online

consumers, suppliers, workers, or anyone who

applications and filings, one-stop service is

has the ability to engage in creative andgoing to be constructed. This is an initiative

collaborative activities brings transformation

involving all ministries for procedures related

leading to innovation. This is the so-called

to various applications and filings. Anotherthe dissemination of IT depends on social

government support center ' to handle specificarchitecture, or the agent that activates open

inquiries from users. These plans are being

innovation. Social development, in turn,developed to meet service requirements fromdepends on how we can facilitate social

the user's point of view.

‘Architecture of Participation '. In other words,

measure is to establish an‘electronic

utilization of IT. Therefore, we must design a

Secondly, the optimization of operations

new social paradigm for active open

and systems are being conducted following

innovation.

the optimization plan as a government-wide

This paper is will discuss e-Government andinitiative for 85 target operations and systems

Local e-government as a core infrastructure of(23 common operations for all ministries; 62innovation, upon which regional

operations for individual ministries). For theseinformatizaion is achieved. Also, theareas, the effect of optimization and system

importance of the administrative CIO 's role

integration is considered to be significantly

and responsibilities is explored in another partlarge. Additionally, joint delivery of publicof this paper.

services and the simplification of various

The concepts of e-Government and Local e-administrative procedures are being promoted

government have gathered momentum

in the collaboration between central

throughout the world. In Japan, they areministries, central government and local
148

Osamu SUDOH―Administrative Evolution and Open Innovation

municipal bodies. Ministries and agencies are

reduction was achieved mainly by

currently developing optimization guidelines

streamlining procurement procedures andto perform through cost-benefit analysis, andcarefully examining specifications, unit cost,

are introducing monitoring systems toand man hours. The reduction of the invested

measure the progress of the implementation

amount was reflected in the budget planningand evaluation activities in accordance withand appropriate adjustments were made.

the optimization plan.

As for the organizational scheme of the e-

Government initiative, each ministry "shall be

In March 2006, a Chief Information Officer(CIO) conference was held to alignresponsible for overseeing measures related to

optimization programs being performed by

e-Government, such as the promotion ofeach ministry. In this conference,computerizing procedures related to‘Operation/System Optimization Guidelines 'interministry information system planning,were depicted, which formalized an

development, operation, evaluation …underorganization scheme as well as common

the authority of the chief information officer

methodologies and procedures to promote the(CIO) of each respective office and withsupport and advice from the deputy CIOs ",optimization programs. The guidelines
articulate that each ministry must review

and "to foster and secure human resources

operations and systems in conformance with

with the necessary knowledge and expertise,

the guidelines by focusing on areas where thefor the government to proceed witheffect of operational optimization and system

information security measures in a unified

integration will be significant. Actual measuresmanner…specific measures for the entire

include the utilization of common integrated

government will be promoted to strategicallysystems and multiagency outsourcing offoster personnel and strengthen rapid reaction

administrative processes. Operational

capacities of human resources"[2] (ibid. p.11).

processing time and cost must be qualitatively

In order to complete these specific tasks,

expressed as projected net reduction. The

the Program Management Offices (PMO) wereguidelines also state that each ministry must

created in FY2006 within each ministry underengage in activities according to

the authority of the CIO who will administer‘Operation/System Optimization Guidelines ',the entire functions assigned under the e-

proceed with system design, development andGovernment initiative. PMOs shall serve as

operation, perform evaluation on an annualinterministry coordination offices, and bebasis or when each phase of development is

responsible for the development of(ibid. pp.9-10)

the overall coordination of implementation

completed, and monitor every activity 's status.

‘Operation/System Optimization Guidelines ',In relation to the operation/systemand evaluation activities, the request/

optimization, total investment in FY2007 was

execution of e-Government related budget,

successfully lowered by approximately 30%

and the coordination of acquisition of

from the amount of appropriations (¥69.2 bil

information systems.

budgeted against ¥99.8 bil requested). This

Additionally, the Government Project149

Management Office (GPMO) was establishedwith citizens to promote citizen participation

within the IT Policy Office of the Cabinet

in the public sphere. These are examples ofSecretariat in April 2006 so that policy

structural reforms utilizing IT for local

measures for the optimization of operation/

government (ibid. p.12).

system common to all ministries would be

One of the goals and social effects of thefurther promoted, and the overall coordinating

Local e-government scheme is, first andfunctions between each ministry would beforemost, to generate effective demand in theenhanced. GPMO, therefore, will play a

IT sector. However, the essence of thiscentral role in making necessary adjustments

scheme goes beyond the creation of demand.

to the specifications related to operations andAs we see in e-Government initiatives, IT cansystems common to all ministries and forbe effectively utilized to eliminate

managing the development process with thebureaucratic barriers, develop efficient

support of system integration activities andadministrative organizations, and improve theconferences held by ministries in charge.

quality of public service. The Local e-

Based on government directions such as

government scheme is also effective for

Basic Policies for Economic and Fiscal

regional development when IT and networks

Management and Structural Reform 2006 ',are utilized so that a regional community is

GPMO shall enhance interministryable to offer safety and security for its citizens.

cooperation and coordination, and review the

To achieve this purpose, a high level of risk

accomplishment of the optimization plan andmanagement must be implemented, including

appropriations.

immediate response and rescue operations inAt the forefront of Local e-government

the occurrence of natural disasters such as an

initiatives, municipal governments are actively

earthquake.

cooperating with the Ministry of Internal

The concept of Local e-government starts

Affairs and Communication to implementfrom the introduction of an information

Enterprise Architecture (EA) for thesystem for the optimization of administrative

optimization of processes performed by Local

processes and the enhancement ofgovernmental bodies. Along with thesetransparency. In other words, this concept has

municipal EA projects, multiple Local e-

the implication of achieving overall

governments have jointly outsourced

optimization of process and information

operations and processes in line with thesystems. To achieve this goal, government-

establishment of a Local e-government. Thiswide initiative is necessary so that operation

joint outsourcing initiative is to operateand system is reformed. Therefore, it isinformation systems at lower costs and to offer

important to understand the process ofa high level of security. Administrative

administrative transformation and change

processes in local governments are being

management.

reviewed in a streamlining effort. Regional

To establish Local e-government, sufficientsocial networking service (SNS) has also been

financial and human resources must be

used to enhance interactive communication

provided. Financial accounting, tax, personnel
150

Osamu SUDOH―Administrative Evolution and Open Innovationand other core systems have already beensolutions for the promotion of e-Government

built and are currently in operation in most(ibid. pp.4-5).

local governments. All personnel are using

The first one of the three viewpoints is theterminals connected to intra-agency LAN, and‘visualization' of values from the user 'sgroupware, and personnel portal sites havestandpoint and the implementation of abeen made available in some municipal

performance-oriented system. According togovernments. Currently, it is more important

the report, it is necessary to visualize what the‘world's most convenient and efficientand necessary to construct external systems,
such as electronic application/filing andelectronic government ' is from user 's

acquisition, which will be coordinated withperspectives. Accountability must be enforced

core systems and utilized to increase

for final users e.g. citizens and corporations as

efficiency of administrative processes andwell as executive officers in charge of program

enhance service quality. Furthermore, it isexecution. Furthermore, a performance-basednecessary to build multi-payment systems for

system from the user 's perspective must be

tax return and authentication system. Without

thoroughly implemented whereby- e-a cross-agency information system, highly

Government initiative would be

efficient and transparent public administration

comprehensively assessed not based on

and services cannot be provided. If each local

current administrative procedures and process

government implements and operates thesebut from the viewpoint of final users e.g.

systems individually, it requires a huge

citizens and corporations. The report

investment cost and a large number ofemphasized that PDCA cycle must always be

personnel who are capable of handling highly

followed so that the result of evaluation

technical knowledge regarding the information(check) could be explicitly provided assystem. Therefore, it is necessary for local

feedback to new policies and programs

governments to work with IT venders to(action).

develop and operate the system, which results

The second viewpoint is‘enhanced

in shared cost and benefits. Given such

coordination of front office and back officecircumstances, the concept of jointreforms'. The report states that it is necessary

outsourcing incorporating data centers haveto ensure improved usability for online

been encouraged.

applications/filings and aligned optimization ofBoth the central government and local

operation/systems for front office and backgovernments have actively engaged in the e-

office, and accomplish detailed assessment toGovernment initiatives. Various issues that

determine if overall optimality of e-should be solved have been identified.

Government is being substantially achieved.
The third viewpoint is the achievement of

The e-Government Evaluation Committee
presented three viewpoints in e-Government

overall optimization through the

Evaluation Committee 2006 Reportas

implementation and utilization of common

previously mentioned. From these viewpoints,

online systems, coordination of intra- andthe committee discussed challenges andinter-ministries and agencies, cooperation of151

central and local government, and partnershipFederal Government was one model cases inof public and private sectors. The reportwhich IT governance enhancement programs

points out a potential for increase of burden

were implemented.

on citizens and users due to duplicate

In 1996, the Clinger-Cohen Act, known as

investment into information systems, which

the Information Technology Management

should have been developed in a joint effort,

Reform Act of 1996, was enacted during theand failure to achieve a real purpose as long

Clinton administration. With this act, a CIO

as different offices engage in different

was designated within each agency and EA

programs and projects and their activities are

was introduced to establish a high level of IT

unaligned. To avoid such a situation, it isgovernance.

A CIO 's thirteen roles and responsibilities

necessary not only to provide and promote on
authentication system, on integrated

for Federal Government agencies are asadministrative network (LGWAN) andfollows [3]:standardized and common systems, but also

・ IT capital planning and investment review

to standardize a data and code scheme for the・ enterprise architecture

systems, and evaluate implementation and・ information security

utilization processes with regard to・ strategic planning of technology andsmoothness and effectiveness.

information resources management

These requirements are a reflection of the・ human resource planning for information

importance of devising a performance

management

reference model strongly focusing on user

・ e-Government initiatives

satisfaction, developing an organizational

・ acquisitions, development and integration

optimization plan, constructing an informationof system applications and infrastructure

infrastructure and standardizing a data

・ data collection and paperwork reduction

scheme.

・ maintenance of a complete inventory of

As mentioned earlier, e-Government andinformation resources

Local e-government require comprehensive

・ public relations

activities from the three viewpoints. To

・ privacy

achieve this goal, the role of CIO becomes・ information disclosure

critical as chief supervisor of the entire e-

・ statistics

Government initiative. In the next section, theresponsibilities of CIO to take in

The GAO (Government Accountability

administrative organizations will be explained.

Office) performed a survey for CIOs at 27
leading federal agencies from November 2003

2. Administrative Organization and CIO

through May 2004. Out of the thirteen roles

To enhance IT governance in administra-

for CIOs, the most important responsibilities

tive organization, the government of Japan

are: IT capital planning and investment

established CIO in each ministry in 2002, andreview, enterprise architecture, information

deputy CIOs were placed in 2003. The U.S.

security, strategic planning of technology and152

Osamu SUDOH―Administrative Evolution and Open Innovation

information resources management, andcareer officials. The difference in terms ofhuman resource planning for information

appointment and election has greatly

management.

impacted the performance of CIOs. There are

More than half of all CIOs took on the

merits and demerits in both ways. Appointed

responsibility of for the execution of theofficials are senior Federal Government

following six roles: e-Government initiatives,

officials elected by the Executive Office of theacquisitions, development and integration of

President and relevant federal agencies,

system applications and infrastructure, data

presidentially appointed, and confirmed bycollection and paperwork reduction,

the Senate. On the other hand, career officials

maintenance of a complete inventory of

are all Federal Government officials except

information resources, public relations, andappointed officials.

privacy. Fewer than ten CIOs only wereAppointed officials have a closer

performing the roles for information disclosure

connection to executives in decision-making

and statistics.

organizations, and it is easier to take a top-

In total, 24 U.S. Federal Government

down leadership for large-scale organizational

agencies have a deputy CIO, who plays areform. However, some issues require a

critical role in executing multiple duties. The

commitment that is longer than the President's

Government of Japan appoints a chief cabinet

term of office, which is one of the demerits

secretary or deputy vice-minister as a deputy

pertaining to appointed officials. On the other

CIO, with whom deputy assistant secretaries

hand, while career officials have less exposure

chosen from experts in the private sector

to politics while they are better able toprovide support. The roles and responsibilities

respond to issues and challenges with aof deputy assistant secretaries for CIO,

consensus of bottom and middle personnel,

however, are not defined consistently

regardless of the President 's term of office.

throughout ministries in Japan, which isCurrently, appointed officials are greater insimilar to the case in U.S. Note: Nikkei

number. Depending on the type of issues theyComputer magazine conducted an interview ofhave, the appointment system of CIOs may

deputy assistant secretaries for CIO in

need to be flexible enough to undergo

Japanese ministries and government agencies

adjustment. (See GAO for p.51).

(Nikkei Computer, November 28, 2005). Seven

Again, the legal authorization of CIOs insecretaries out of 33 answered that the roles

U.S. Federal Government agencies wasand authority of deputy assistant secretaries toarticulated by the Clinger-Cohen Act (CCA) of

CIO were not clear. 20 out of 33 stated that

1996. "The director shall perform thecross-agency decision-making andresponsibilities set forth in the CCA bycoordination were a hard task. (See also GAO,

designating a CIO for the enhancement of

p.59)

organizational capabilities and resolution ofissues related to IT management. According to

There are two different types of
appointment for CIO positions in U.S. Federal

the CCA, the CIO shall lead activities for,

Government agencies: appointed officials andtracking and evaluating risks, investment
153

control for information systems, andsectors.

management and reform of all major capital

Currently, administrative CIOs are occupied

investment for information systems. The

with duties regarding IT security and system

Federal Government agencies have enhanced

acquisitions. In an emerging period of IT-

their organizational capabilities by placing

based organization, CIOs must engage in

CIOs and have successfully resolved various

technological management of IT, and cannot

IT management challenges (ibid. p.56).

handle strategic knowledge management such

However, the concept of administrative CIO

as organizational reform. However, in order tooriginates from private entities. As

fully utilize the potential capacity of IT for

administrative organizations rely more on IT,

organizational and social transformation, thethe designation of CIOs has become aroles and responsibilities of CIOs must benecessity.

greatly refined.

acquisition of information systems, IT capital

3. Potential capacity of IT to achieve

planning and investment control, informationtransformation and services science

The CIO 's roles in private corporations are

security, human resource planning, and eUntil 1998, there had been many doubts

Commerce. In general, CIOs in the private
sector do not undertake the duty ofwith regards to the benefit that IT and theinformation disclosure (ibid. p.57).

Internet would bring to society. In this sense,

As IT, network, and digital database

C. Freeman had an insightful view (Seebecome incorporated into the organizational

Freeman 1992). According to Freeman, one ofinfrastructure and the organization comes tothe common characteristics for major OECD

depend more on IT, CIOs will play a cross-countries was that the growth rate of labororganizational role both in private entities andproductivity was extremely high while capitaladministrative organizations. It is an issue of

productivity exhibited net growth in the

how to define decision-making authority. In

electronic industry such in the production ofparticular, administrative CIOs must meet thecomputer and electronic devices. However, inthree requirements previously explained:

many countries, the paradigm of energy-

result-based evaluation from the user 's

intensive or resource-intensive mass

viewpoint, enhanced coordination between

production was still dominant in a large part

front and back offices, and the implemen-of the entire economy. Corporate organiza-

tation and utilization of common infrastruc-tion, industry regulations, social institutions,ture related to online systems. To proceed

and investment in infrastructure werewith e-Government initiatives based on these

designed and developed in line with theperspectives, CIOs will have more importantparadigm. Therefore, a new paradigm based

roles to promote coordination among multiple

on IT was not introduced in the entire

organizations for IT governance ineconomy, and the externalities of IT were only

administrative agencies as well as theunevenly observed. Even if companies

partnership between public and private

invested in IT on an individual basis, the154

Osamu SUDOH―Administrative Evolution and Open Innovation

capacity with which IT had to achieve

technologies (although the measurementtransformation could not spread throughout

methodology of labor productivity had

the economy as long as corporate

imperfections). However, the growth inorganization, industry regulations, social

productivity varied greatly from company toinstitutions, and infrastructure were stillcompany, or country to country. This isconfined to the older paradigm of mass

because technological development was

production. The benefit that IT could realize

heavily dependent on organizational,

in the society was limited and only seen in

institutional, and structural changes. In otherspecific areas.

service sectors, the introduction ofFreeman once mentioned based on theinformation technology was not necessarily

research result of SPRU (Science Policysmooth. The growth rate of labor productivity

Research Unit) in terms of long-term trend ofremained either extremely low, or waslabor productivity and capital productivity

stagnant. They were lack of capabilities for thefrom 1948 through 1984 in England economy

design, utilization, and maintenance offor major industries (40 industries defined bysoftware system.

Cambridge growth model). Labor productivity

The implementation of information

was high in the electronic sector, in particular,

infrastructure, organizational reform bycomputer and electronic device industries. In

corporations and administrative agencies tothese industries, in-house technology wasbetter utilize IT, and reform of social

most extensively used in design,

institutions and industry legislation are,manufacturing, inventory management,

according to Freeman, the driving force formarketing, and management. They were thethe existing techno-economic paradigm toonly industries where net growth in capital

shift into a new techno-economic paradigm. In

productivity was observed. Moreover, labor

the end, higher labor productivity growth andproductivity showed substantial growth innet capital productivity growth observed in

sectors where microelectronics was heavily

the IT industry will spread to the entire

used in both product and processeconomy and bring qualitative benefit. In

technologies. In such sectors, capital

addition, the mutual effect of information andproductivity improved to some extent, forknowledge can accelerate comprehensive

example, in scientific devices, and electronic

growth of scientific technologies and linkage

communication, and watches. Theseof R&D activities. This will spark chain

industries can be regarded as part of thereactions of innovation, and bring substantial

electronic industry.

differences to the entire economic and social

On the other hand, in the service sector,

system.

major businesses such as banking, insurance

The ratio of the service sector to GDP inand distribution achieved a certain level ofthe market economy of advanced countries

growth by utilizing information technology.

has become substantially large and inLabor productivity in these industries clearly

developing countries, is also growing.

improved with the introduction of new

However, the productivity in the service
155

sector, including administrative services, isparadigm for open innovation which will be

hard to measure. Due to this, a system ofutilized to achieve sustainable social

measurement based on specific criteria fordevelopment. In the new paradigm, e-achieving management optimality is hard to

Government and Local e-government should

define. It is assumed that this issue has caused

be emphasized as a core function. The

the labor productivity in the service sector to

infrastructure must be developed into a

be not particularly high compared to that ofplatform so that it can be applied to the entire

manufacturing industries. Therefore, it issociety.

necessary to provide a system of measuring

Joint outsourcing helps multiple

service values and a plan to achieve

government agencies and local bodies utilize

management optimality for maximizing thecommon information systems. However, eachvalues so that IT should be utilized based on a

information system has a number of identicalrational assessment system to achieve

software modules. In the framework oftransformation.

common infrastructure for e-Government andBased on research results in services

Local e-government built based upon SOA

science [4], we must consider deeply the(Service Oriented Architecture), common

creation of an administrative service, forfunctions are built into modules so thatwhich measurement of service values isefficiency and transparency in administrative

critical.

systems can be developed. Hokkaido

Data pertaining to e-Government must be

government and municipalities serving local

gathered for analysis to rationally provide

services are already joining efforts. The

measurement criteria for assessing service

following section explains social

value associated with administrative services.

transformation via a wider-area collaboration

Also, the optimality model for administrativeof Local e-government.

bodies must be further adjusted. e-

SOA is a group of independent software

Government can be the infrastructure thatmodules, each of which is structured tofacilitates the co-creation of new information

support the requirements of a certain job

and knowledge and the systemic chain

process and/or common functionality acrossreaction of innovation in the partnership ofentire job functions. They are reusable andindustry, government, university, and the

distributed over the network. The

private sector. To promote innovation, CIOs

relationships against the modules are assigned

must play a critical role, and their roles andby controllers to suit overall system

responsibilities must be refined as previously

architecture. Duplicate investment can be

mentioned.

avoided with SOA, and a drastic decrease incost can be achieved.

4. Regional information platform and open

The concept of Local e-government can beinnovation

strategically developed for the regional growthof the society. SOA is used to modularize

It is necessary for us to envision a newsoftware applications which will have varied156

Osamu SUDOH―Administrative Evolution and Open Innovation

usage not only for administrative processes

before being sent over remote grids.

but also for administrations in public facilities,

Advanced data analysis is performed for a

hospitals, schools, and day care centers. The

large volume of collected data pertaining tooutsourcing of SOA-based systems with data

body movements, and is reported by thecenters will greatly contribute to thesystem to designated doctors. This is toperformance improvement of local SMEs.

support medical diagnosis and consultation by

The concept of e-Government initiatives, as

doctors for health management. (See Figure)previously mentioned, can be a driving force
for complete transformation of the regional
community. To achieve this goal, it isimportant for us to utilize not only
administrative information systems but also
medical, welfare, educational institutions andfacilities to actively utilize information
facilities and infrastructure. Even local private
corporations and households should
participate.
In many advanced countries, aging society

Figure: Health Care Monitoring System

has become a serious social issue. In thisusing Sensor Network

context, it is important to prevent the increaseof medical costs and to consider preventive

If the research produces certain outcomes,

health. Various research projects forit will be upgraded into a larger empiricalpreventive medicine utilizing IT are currently

initiative using the research infrastructure ofunderway in the world.

the sensor network and ASP, which is used toI have also taken part of the development

introduce preventive health services andof a health management test bed using sensor

security services.

networks, which is to serve as an empirical

As already mentioned, several leading

research platform [4]. The primary goal of themunicipalities are developing SOA-based

research is to organize a preventive healthinformation infrastructure in a joint effort. The

system to curb deterioration due to various

Japanese medical insurance system has been

adult diseases, such as high blood pressure,reformed recently to prevent the increase of

diabetes, kidney disease, and cardiac illness,

medical costs, through health prevention andto prevent complications, and to support

management efforts in local communities.

secondary prevention for the improvement of

Therefore, the management of medical andhealth condition. Wearable bio-sensors andhealth-related information at the community

earthed indoor sensors are in place to obtainlevel has become an important issue. In thispatient's ecological data. The data isregard, it is possible to take a strategictransmitted from Mote client to the dataapproach to the evolution of local

center via IP-VPN. Data is made anonymous

communities by incorporating the community
157

model based on the sensor network

so that it can better respond to the needs ininfrastructure into the entire Local e-

the digital economy.

government scheme.

The management of local communities

The SOA concept is being promoted byshould be handled by industry,these leading local governments, in whichadministration, local residents, research andsoftware is modularized and used for a variety

educational institutions in cooperation withof purposes. Software modules are not only forpeople from different backgrounds who cangovernment administration but also public

share opinions and ideas to develop andfacilities, hospitals, and daycare centers. If theutilize individual creativity for the creation of

aforementioned local health management

a new local community. Furthermore, in thearchitecture using sensor networks is linked tofuture, medical prevention and healththis joint SOA initiative, the local information

management and security services can be

infrastructure would increase optimal

provided based on the established IT

efficiency in management of medical andinfrastructure for local communities using

welfare facilities where new quality services

sensor networks, remote grid computing, andcould be created. Under such circumstances,advanced analysis of a large volume of data in

the role of CIOs is of critical importance. They

addition to the data centers and ASP. Then, it

are required not only to achieve governanceis possible to envision a future social

for information technology, management

architecture established upon the local

capacity, legal compliance and process

communities that achieve the coordination ofcapabilities, but also to provide highly

grid computing and sensor networks.

strategic management.

As explained in this paper, CIOs, deputy

Many SMEs have actively engaged in B2B

CIOs, and deputy assistant secretaries for(business-to-business e-commerce) while they

CIOs are extremely important so that the

respond as required, to the needs for B2Ctransformational capabilities of IT can be(business-to-consumer e-commerce). Security

utilized, to promote innovation. Their duties

issues with authentication and electronicmust be adjusted according to need. In thesignatures, high-level maintenance andfuture, one of the roles CIOs should perform is

operation of applications, storage instrategic organizational change management,compliance with J-SOX (trade record data),

and relationship management. For open

and other development and maintenanceinnovative capabilities to be strengthened, it isissues of information systems are critical fornecessary for us to obtain a wide range of

SMEs which have only limited financial andknowledge both in humanities and sciences. It

human resources. Therefore, for SMEs, whichis also vital to relate the knowledge, andis an integral part of the society, server

create a new knowledge and capabilities. Such

maintenance should be undertaken in joint

a relation-building effort must become theefforts utilizing data centers and ASP. Also,

foundation of creativity. As social applications

the concept of SOA should be developed andof information technology and network are

introduced into the information infrastructure

increased and refined further, CIOs, as chief158

Osamu SUDOH―Administrative Evolution and Open Innovation

officers of organizations, need to improve

infoplosion.nii.ac.jp/i-explosion/ctr.php/m/

innovative capacity, which is to develop theIndexEng/a/Index/

ability to form relationships.

Research Group B01 Theme: The co-creation andgovernance of economic and social schemes inNote

the knowledge-based society, Group chair:[1] The Japanese revised version of this English

Osamu Sudoh. See Sudoh (2007a, 2007b) for
details.

paper will be published as an article of aJapanese book. (Oct. 15 2007)th[2] IT Strategic Headquarters (2006), Priority Policy

Reference

Program, July 26, 2006, Government of Japan.

Abe, T. (2005), Services Science Toha Nani Ka , The

Economic Review of the Economic Research

p.60; 105

Center , The Fujitsu Research Institute (FRI),[3] NTT DATA AgileNet L.L.C and Digital

No.246, pp.2-30. (in Japanese)

Government Editorial Desk in NTT Data
Corporation (2007), GAO-Beikoku GAO Denshi

Bekkers, Victor and Homburg, Vincent eds. (2004)

Seihu Report , Nikkei BP Planning, Inc. See

The Information Ecology of E-Government,

pp.48-53. Referred to as ‘GAO' in this paper.

IOS

Press

[4] ‘Services science ' is an area for research and

Bhatnager, Subhash (2004) e-Government, SAGE
Publishers

analysis where experiences and technicalintuition have been traditionally valued. By

Brynjolfsson, E., B. Kahin (2002) Understanding theimplementing scientific approaches based on

Digital Economy , MIT Press, Cambridge,

hypothesis and models, the optimality of services

Massachusetts
Council on Competitiveness ed. (2005)

in various areas is clarified. The application of

Innovate

America, Council on Competitiveness US.

knowledge in mathematics, physics, engineering,

Freeman, C. (1992) The Economics of Hope, Pinterand social sciences are necessary. See Abe

Publishers, London(2005) and Council on Competitiveness ed.

Gotoh, R. & Sudoh, O. (2007), Bunkenka Jidai no(2005) for details.

Densi Jichitai to Koukyo Governance, Journal of[5] This paper incorporates insights and knowledge

from ‘services science ', a new interdisciplinary

IAC, Vol.1, International Academy of CIO (IAC),

science field. Japan 's e-government strategies

pp.25-33. (in Japanese)must be analyzed from political science

Gotoh, R. (2006), Densi Gyosei no Seisaku Hyouka:

perspectives for further development of research

Outcome Mokuhyo to sono Tassei Process ni

in this area. A part of our research outcome iskansuru ichikousatu, IPSJ SIG Technical Reports ,explained in Gotoh (2006), and Gotoh and Sudoh

Information Processing Society of Japan (IPSJ),(2007).

Vol. 2006, No.128, 2006-EIP-34, 107-114. (inJapanese)[6] MEXT Grant-in-aid for scientific research onpriority areas, 'Cyber Infrastructure for the

Gregory G. Curtin, Michael H. Sommer andInformation-explosion Era' (Project chair: Masaru

Veronika Vis-Sommer eds. (2003) The World of

Kitsuregawa), The Ministry of Education, Culture,

E-Government, The Haworth Press
NTT DATA AgileNet L.L.C and Digital Government

Sports, Science and Technology. http://www.

159Sudoh, O. (2007), Jyohou Bakuhatsu Jidai no Chisiki

Editorial Desk in NTT Data Corporation eds.
(2007), GAO-Beikoku GAO Denshi Seihu Report ,Syakai Keisei Governance, The JSAI Journal ,Nikkei BP Planning, Inc. (in Japanese)

Vol.22(2), The Japanese Society for Artificial

Sudoh, O. (2007) Community Governance andIntelligence, pp.235-240. (in Japanese)
Sudoh, O. ed. (2005) Digital Economy and Social

Sensor Network in The Era of Info-Explosion,
Tongji University ed.,Design, Springer-Verlag

Proceedings ofInternational Symposium on Urban Governance

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2007, pp.161-183

Expert Committee on IT Strategy Evaluation.

160

A Path Analysis Model for Development ofEnvironmental Education Program to Promote
Environmentally Responsible Behavior
Keywords:

Environmental education, Environmentally responsible behavior, Path model

Hirohiko SUWA, University of Electro-Communication
Hitoshi YAMAMOTO, Rissho University
Isamu OKADA, Soka University
Toshizumi OHTA, University of Electro-Communication
Abstract
People have been trying various methods for solving the environmental issues andpromoting a the sustainable society. Although the number of such people hashave
increased thanks to environmental education programs to protect the environment, it isinsufficient for developing an effective program that promotes environmentally
responsible behavior. Our final objective is to develop an effective education program tomake people environmentally responsible behavior. We refer to several existing
environmental education curricula and psychological processes and presentdesign aquestionnaire technique we designed to solve questions encouraging how people perceive
the environment and how their behaviors relate to their perceptions. We illustrateBasedon the research, we develop a path model we developed, based on research and taking
into account people's interests, motivations, and behaviors, for creatingdeveloping a
program to promote environmentally responsible behavior. By analyzing the model, we
arguedetermine that awareness of cost has the greatest effect on people's environmentally
responsible behavior.

This paper is awarded for the JASI Best Paper of the Year 2006 for Young Researchers.

161

1. Introduction

tion with regard to environmentally responsi-

If we are to create a sustainable society, we

ble behavior in the field of the social

would need to deal effectively with such

psychology. Hirose (1994) proposed a factor-

environmental problems as air and water

relational model of environmentally responsi-

pollution, the destruction of the ozone layer,

ble behavior and discussed four factors

the over-harvesting of renewable resources,

influencing that behavior. He also verified theand the exhaustion of nonrenewablevalidity of his model by using surveys. Some

resources. Some governmental solutions toexperimental studies based on Hirose 's model

these problems are to promote technical(Nonami et al. 1997, Sugiura et al. 1998,

developmentdevelopments that will result in

Nonami et al. 2002, Yorifuji & Hirose 2002)

the widespread use of hybrid cars and otherdemonstrated various factors influencing

energy-saving products (METI 2004), recycling

environmentally responsible behavior, andlaws (MOE 2004a), and the regulation of

Koike et al. (2003) and Misaka (2003) devel-

vehicle categories in specified areas (MOE

oped a specific model based on Hirose 's

2005). Here we would like to focus on

general model. However, these were notenvironmental education to promote

designed with environmental education inenvironmentally responsible behavior (Hirose

mind.
EnvironmentallyPeople's environmentally

1995, Sugiura 1998).

responsible behavior is important to solve theEnvironmental The environmental
education in Japan, which beganbegun as anenvironmental problem. HoweverBut we don 't

action program for the pollution issue of thehave the environmental education program

1970's, has prevailed in various fields such asthat promotes suchenvironmentally responsi-

school education, lifelong learning, andble behavior. To develop an the effective

corporate education. However, we knowhad

program, we have to grasp the mental process

known that while these education programsof learners, and influential factors.

cancould teach environmental the environ-Our purpose in this study is to clarify what

mentally knowledge and attitude but theykinds of factors promotefactor promotes

canit could not promote environmentallyenvironmentally responsible behavior. We

responsible behavior. A questionnaire survey

used a questionnaire to survey people 's

by the Ministry of the Environment, Japanenvironmental perceptions and environmen-(MOE 2004b) found that environmentally

tally responsible behavior and developed an

responsible behaviorbehaviors that isare notenvironmental behavior model.
Section 2 overviews the psychologicalrequired by law (such as trash separation) andthat do not affect the consumer 's budget

approach concerning of environmental

directly (such as saving electricity or water)

education and environmentally responsible

are practiced by less than 50% of the

behavior. In Section 3, we describe a radical

population. We don 't have the answer to thismodel for developing a path model, andproblem.

offergive an assumption based on the radical

There are many models of human percep-

model. Section 4 explains a method of162

A Path Analysis Model for Development of Environmental Education Program to Promote Environmentallyquestionnaire survey based on the assumption

activity, picker action and so on. Nakagawa etand Section 5 develops the path model. In

al. (2005) examined the effect of long-term

Section 6, we discuss the path model andcamping and short-term camping, and . As adraw outgive a conclusions in Section 7.

result of the examination, he insists that long-

Section 8 remarks on further works.

term camping significantly improve thejudgment of and the concern for of nature,

2. Relevant study

and short-term camping significantly improves
improve the social skills. Sato et al. (2005)

In this section, we overview some surveys

declared that the experience based on outdoor

in the area of psychology concerning of

educational programs improves acknowledg-

environmental education and environmentally

ment of nature and awareness of the need for

responsible behavior which relate to aenvironmental protection.

framework for our researchof the study.
2.1 Environmental education
Environmental education appears in
different forms. Abe (1992) divides it into
three categories as inlike figure 1: the first,
fast category is about education in theenvironment, the second one, about
education about the environment, and thefinal one, about education for the environ-Figure 1: Lifelong learning and environmental

ment. He presented the view that the purpose

education. (Abe 1992)

or content of education changes by age. In theage of childhood, education occursthey are

Education about the environment refers to

educated mainly in the environment.

environment as content of education. The

Education at schools about theThat of school-

purpose of this education is to deepen theage educated about environment and adultknowledge and understanding of it. The

education isadulthood for the welfare of theobjects of this educationthat are various issues

environment.

asides, such as, the global warming problem

Education in the environment refers to theand the waste problem in one 'sproblems inenvironment as the place or method ofyour region, and the methods of education are

education. In this education, the experience isalso varied, and include various like theimportant and the purpose of the education islecture, exploration, experiment, game and e-

covers a wide in scoperange of fields (ex.

learning (Sekiya 2002, Fukuda 2004).

sensitivity, ability to solve problems, engage in

Education for the environment refers to thehuman relationships, understand, internation-

environment as the purpose of education. In

al issues.) Concretely, it involves they arethis education, consideration of thecamping, hiking, factory tours, trash collection

environment is the object that we have to163make consideration, and the purpose of

specific model based on Hirose's general model.

education is to study attitudesthe attitude and

There are severalsome experimental studies

based on Hirose 's model. Nonami et al. (2002)

behavior towardfor that end. However, wehave knowhad known that while suchshowspresents that the personal behavior of theeducation cancould teach environmentalthe

subjects in their study was influenced byenvironmentally knowledge and attitude, but

attitudes toward the environment issue, while

it cancould not promote the environmentallygroup behavior was affected by attachment to

responsible behavior.

river. Sugiura et al. (1998) showshows that the

Imamura (2002) declares that the final

recycling action by a volunteer group in their

purpose of environmental education is to

study influenced feasibility evaluation forsolve environmental issues using various

recycling and social norm awareness, resulting

functions of education. Some of the aims are,inas a result, the rate of recycling behavior

to acquire sensitivity, foster the ability to solve

increaseingincreased. Yorifuji et al. (2002, 2003)

examine determinants of children 's waste-

problems, import knowledge andor attitude.
Existing environmental education is

reduction behavior, and showpresents that there

accomplishing these aims but is does not

is a difference in the factors that influence factor

achieving theaccomplish final purpose ofthat influences waste-reduction behavior

promoting behavior to solve environmental

inbetween children and in parents. Nonami etissues. Through. In what kind of process doesal. (1997) researched the effects of cognitive

an appropriate education change a person 's

variables on recycling behavior, such as the

behavior?

effects of various media influences influence on
the cognition and behavior.

2.2 The psychologicalPsychological approach to

There isare a lot of research that clarifies

environmentally responsible behavior

various factorsresearches that leadclarify various

Many models of human perception withfactors to provide for environmentally

regard to environmentally responsible behavior

responsible behavior. However, their models

don't indicateBut their model didn 't clarify thatare proposed in social psychology,; three of
which are Hirose's (1994) factor-relational model

what kinds of factor have the most does more

impact on people 's environmentally responsibleof environmentally responsible behavior, Koike
et al.'s (2003) structural model of the perception

behavior in people. We need to know moreof environ-mental issues, and Misaka 's (2003)

concrete factors to develop more effectivemodel of the perception and the behavior withenvironmental educational programs.

regard to environmentalof environmental issues
regarding those issues. Hirose (1994) proposed a

3. Framework for developing environmental education

factor-relational model of environmentallyprograms to promote environmentally responsible

responsible behavior and discussed four factors

behavior

influencing that behavior. He also verified thevalidity of his model by using surveys. Koike et

3.1 A radical model to develop a path modelal. (2003) and Misaka (2003) developed a

We referred to environmental education
164

A Path Analysis Model for Development of Environmental Education Program to Promote Environmentally

curricula and social psychology's several

environment corresponds to intention ofsocial psychology models in the process ohbehavior. Misaka (2003) explainedexpound

our reserch, and developed a framework tothat interest is the a step in which it isdevelop the path model. This framework is asinterested about objective is shown,shown in Figure 2.

motivation is the a step that involves a hasvague sense of purpose with some relations
for object want, and behavior is the a step
where intended action iswas actually carriedoutdone. He separates intention of behavior
and behavior itself. However, weconsiderdefine that intention of behavior

includes behavior, because based on Misaka 's
assumption, if the intention is expressed theact will be carried outMisaka assumes that it
was to be executed without fail in case of one
decided in the step of the intention of
behavior.
Based on this the framework, we developed
a develop a radical model taking into accountpeople's interests, motivations, and behaviors,
and to develop a path model. Behavior isbased onprovided for by interest andmotivation, and motivation is based
onprovided for by interest.
What kind of interest and motivation
doesdoes the person who behaves
forenvironment have have? We need to know
the answer to develop a program for
Figure 2: Framework for environmental

promoting environmentally responsible

education program development

behavior.
3.2 Factors of a radical model

Education for environment has aimed toteachlearn the attitude and behavior for

Based on a radical model, we will discuss

environment protection. Based on this aim,

about some factors that includeincluded

when environmental education curricula isinterest, motivation, and behavior. SeeAs amade to correspond to psychologicalresult, we develop figure 3 for details.in detailprocesses, and the attitude toward the forInterest

environment corresponds to interest and

The interest in to environmental issues,

motivation, the behavior toward the forwhich began, begun as concern about an165

interest for the pollution issue of the 1970's,

issue and the breadbasket issue. As for global-

expanded to has prevailed in various othernature issues, there is depletion of ozone layer

areas,fields such as the disruption of nature,and desertification.
Motivation

pesticide contamination, depletion of theozone layer, and global warming. There are

What kind of motivation promotes people 's

some classifications for some of thesevarious

environmentally responsible behavior in

problems. Umino (1993) classifies them into

people? We classify motivation into sevenfour categories:, industrial nuisance, livelihood

categories based on previous studies. In

nuisance, large-scale development issues, andexisting environmental education, itIt was

global environmental issues; that is, from the ,important to discover the causes and todepending on viewpoint of the socialchange people 's intention. Enomoto (1994)

mechanism of environmental destruction

insists that not only such educationtheirinvolved. Ueta (1991) classifies them into

methods but also practical knowledge isthree categories, environmental pollution,necessary. Sugiura et al. (1998) show that

destruction of amenities, and disruption of

movement that deal with problems, such as

nature, based on the depending on grouping

for problem, for example recycling action byof the main environmental problems of thevolunteers, improve behavior toward the forwhite paper on environment in Japan. Naito

environment. Based on nationwide survey of(1998) classifies themit into local issue andjunior high school student in the Netherlands,

global issues.

Kuhlemeier et al. (1999) declare thatawareness of cost is closely related tobehavior for environment based onnationwide survey of junior high school
student in the Netherlands. According toHirose's experiment, many participants of avirtual world game answer that social reformand system reform are more important than

Table 1: Classification of interest for envi-

compared with the question on the problem ofronmental issue

waste. Based on these previous studies, we
problem. We assume seven factors as motives

We classify interest in these areas into four

for involvement;, discovering causes,

categories depending on two axes;, nature-changing intention, gaining practicalsocial axis and Naito 's classification as shownknowledge, and becoming awareawareness ofin Table 1. As for local-social issues, there is

movements,, awareness of cost, awareness oftheare a pollution issue and a waste problem.

social reform, and awareness of system

As for local-nature issues, there isare areform., as motive based on these previous

pesticide contamination and the decrease ofstudies.

thedecreasing immediate natural environment.

Behavior

As for global-social issues, there is the energy

In the report of survey research of lifestyle166

A Path Analysis Model for Development of Environmental Education Program to Promote Environmentally

gentle tender to the environment, the ministry

unconcerned") to 4 ("highly interested").

of the environment classifies behavior for the

Motivation: Twenty seven questions about

environment into five categories. One of them,

their the motivation for environmentally

responsible behavior (e.g., "Do you think thatto decrease of negative environmental impactof daily life, corresponds to environmentally

you should do something to conserve theconservation of energy? " and "Do you want to

responsible behavior asthat we define. The

participate in a the movement? "). For 24 ofministrysuppose. Ministry of the environment
classifies it into four categories:, selection of

the questions, subjects evaluatedSubjects

product and service with littlefew

evaluate their motivation on a scale from 1("irrelevant") to 4 ( "extremely important "), forenvironmental negative impactloads, energy
conservation, domestic wastewater treatment,

except three questions, one question, is rated

cooperation in separation of trash.separated

on a scale of 1 to 5, and forother twocollection. We categorizeassume these fourquestions, are rated on a scale of 1 to 6.
Behavior: There were twelveTwelve

factors as behavior.

questions about environmentally responsible
behaviorbehaviors and how often the subject
behaves in an environmentally responsible
ways. These subjects evaluated their

behaviorbehaviors on a scale from 1 ( "never")to 5 ("always").
Subjects: The subjects were 123 university
students and 178 persons concerned with toenvironmental education (1). The valid response
Figure 3: Detailed model taking into account people'sis 268.

interest, motivations, motivations, and behaviors
5. Results
4. Method
Based on the research, we executed factor
We conducted a questionnaire technique toanalysis(2) and path analysis (3). As a result, wedevelop a path model.

developed a path model taking into account

Questionnaire item: Based on assumptions

people's interest, motivation, and behaviors,in assumption of Section 3.2, we formulated a

motivations, and behaviors for developing aquestionnaire as follows.

program to promote environmentally

Interest: There were tenTen questions

responsible behavior. We excluded someabout interest in environmental issues (e.g.,questions because many of the subjects did"Are you interested in global warming? " andnot answer(4).

"Are you interested in the issue of energy

sources being used up? "). Subjects evaluatedtheir interest on a scale from 1 (5.1 Variable extraction"completely

As a result of factor analysis, we extracted167

extract three variables of interest, seven

We hadhave assumed these issues four

variables of motivation, and two variables offactors in of behavior, buthowever, results of

behavior as follows.

factor analyses show that people

Interest: Factor analyses (principle'senvironmentally responsible behavior depends
on burden and degree of daily behavior.

component analysis using varimax rotation)
revealed that the ten questions about interest

5.2 Developing path model

factors measured three latent variables.

We executed path analysis to develop aContrary to our assumption, global
environmental issues didissue does not divide

path model taking into account people 's

into social and natural.nature. We labeledinterest, motivations, motivations, andvariable 1 (X 1) as life environment, variable 2

behaviorbehaviors for developing a program(X2) as global environment, variable 3 (Xnature environment.

) as

to promote environmentally responsible

3

behavior.

Motivation: Factor analyses (principle
component analysis using varimax rotation)
revealed that twenty- four questions about
motivation factors measured seven latentvariables. Contrary to our assumption,awareness of economy is revealed extracted
instead of discovering cause. We labeledvariable 1 (Y 4) as concrete environmental

consciousness, variable 2 (Y 5) as awareness of

Figure 4: Causal model of taking into account people's

movements, variable 3 (Y 6) as awareness ofsocial reform, variable 4 (Y 7) as awareness ofinterest, motivations, motivations, and behaviors

variable 6 (Y 9) as abstract environmental

Based on those variables, we developed

cost, variable 5 (Y 8) as awareness of system,

consciousness, variable 7 (Y 10) as awareness offigure 4 as a causal model that corrected the

Behavior: Factor analyses (principle

provided for by each variable of interest andcomponent analysis using varimax rotation)

motivation, and each variable of motivation isrevealed that eleven questions about behavior

provided for by each variable of interest. The

factors measured two latent variables.

regression equation of the causal is as follows.

economy.

detailed model. Each variable of behavior isContrary to our assumption, behavior divides( j =4,…,10）

into two variables. We labeled variable 1 (Y 11)

as deliberate environmentally responsible
behavior, variable 2 (Y12

( k =11,12）) as routine

environmentally responsible behavior.
Deliberate environmentally responsible

Based on the causal model and thisbehavior has a relatively low rate of practice.

regression equation, we developed a figure 5
168

A Path Analysis Model for Development of Environmental Education Program to Promote Environmentally

as a path model taking into account people's

p11,2=.160, (p<.01)) Awareness of social reform
and awareness of system are high like theinterest, motivations, motivations, andperson with high life environment.

behaviorbehaviors for developing a program
to promote environmentally responsible

Nature environment exerts a significant

behavior . Path drawn on this model isinfluence on awareness of cost, abstract

significant regression (p<.05).

environmental consciousness, awareness of(5)

economy, deliberate environmentally

Life environment exerts a significant

responsible behavior (p 7,3=.198, (p<.001);

influence on concrete environmental

p 9,3 =.145, (p<.05); p

consciousness, awareness of movements,

10,3=.126, (p<.05);

p11,3=.157, (p<.01)). Awareness of cost is highawareness of social reform, abstract

like the person with high nature environment.

environmental consciousness (p 4,1=.233 (6),Deliberate environmentally responsible(p<.001); p 5,1=.126, (p<.05); p 6,1=.260, (p<.001);

p8,1=.119, (p<.05)). Concrete environmental

behavior receives significant influenceinflu-

consciousness and awareness of social reform

ences from abstract environmental conscious-

are high like the person with high life

ness, awareness of movements, awareness ofenvironment.

social reform, awareness of cost, awareness of
economy (p 11,4 =.166, (p<.001); p 11,5 =.166,

Global environment exerts a significant(p<.001); p 11,6 =.122, (p<.05); p 11,7 =.345,

influence on concrete environmental(p<.001); p 11,10=.131, (p<.01))other than global

consciousness, awareness of movements,

environment and nature environment

awareness of social reform, awareness of cost,(p 11,2 =.160, (p<.01); p 11,3 =.157, (p<.01)).

awareness of system, deliberateenvironmentally responsible behavior

Deliberate environmentally responsible(p4,2=.123, (p<.05); p 5,2=.155, (p<.01); p 6,2=.222,

behavior is high like the person with highawareness of cost.

(p<.001); p 7,2=.181, (p<.01); p 8,2=.163, (p<.01);

Figure 5: Path model taking into account interest, motivation and behavior
169

Routine environmentally responsible

consciousness to promote environmentally

behavior receives significant influenceinflu-

responsible behavior. To raise concrete

ences from abstract environmental conscious-

environmental consciousness, current

ness and awareness of economy (peducation programs focus on methods or rules(p<.01); p

12,10

12,4

=.177,=.176, (p<.01)). Routineof environmental protection inas their content.

environmentally responsible behavior is highTo raise abstract environmental

like the person with high abstract

consciousness, ethics and morality are taught.

environmental consciousness and awareness

Such an education programs can teachof economy.

environmental attitudes but it cannot promote
environmentally responsible behavior.

However,Even though our model didn 't show

6. Discussion about path modelthat couldn 't determine that the concrete

The result of this study does not reflect

environmental consciousness and abstractsociety as a whole, because this survey

environmental consciousness have thecovered only two groups: that university

greatest effect on people 's environmentally

students, and persons concerned with toresponsible behavior.

environmental education. For example, there
7. Conclusion

is a possibility ofto become different results
according to result by level of living style andknowledge of environment. It is important to

We referred to several existing environmen-

compare the present results with a more

tal education curricula and psychologicalwidespread generalized survey to generalize.

processes and developed a develop aquestionnaire technique to understandsolve

From the factor analysis and the pathmodel, we understood that environmentallyquestions how people perceive theresponsible behavior was divided into twoenvironment and how their behaviors relate tobehaviors, and each behavior was affected bytheir perceptions. Based on the research, we

different factors. Deliberate environmentallydevelop a path model, taking into accountresponsible behavior isreceives most highly

people's interest, motivations, motivations,influenced byinfluences from awareness ofand behavior,s for developing a program tocost. Multiple correlation coefficient is

promote environmentally responsible

R =.416. As a result, we think that deliberate

behavior. By analyzing the model, we

environmentally responsible behavior is highdetermined that awareness of cost has the2like the person with high awareness of cost.

greatest effect on people 's environmentally

From here onwards, we believeinsist that our

responsible behavior. From this deduction, we

model can explain deliberate environmentallyinferred that the more aware of cost of people

responsible behavior though there is a limit ofare, the more likely they are to behave in

generalization.

ways that are environmentally responsible.

Existing environmental education tries to

We infer that it is necessary for education

raise concrete and abstract environmental

to raise the awareness of cost in order to170

A Path Analysis Model for Development of Environmental Education Program to Promote Environmentallypromote environmentally responsible
behavior. In the future, we want to propose a

new education program to promote people 'senvironmentally responsible behavior basedon this result, and verify the education effect.
8. Future works
Environmental educationeducations* p<.05 ** p<.01 *** p<.001

nowadays hashave the aim of deepening(6)

concrete or abstract environmental

Path coefficient wrote pji as pj,i.

consciousness to encouragederive

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Beyond the KISS Principle for Agent-Based Social
Simulation(1)Takao TERANO, Tokyo Institute of Technology

Abstract
The "Keep It Simple, Stupid" (KISS) principle stated by Robert Axelrod is a good
guideline to model agent-based social simulation. However, to cope with real
phenomena, we must go beyond the KISS principle. This paper re-examines the principle
and discusses the underlining requirements for agent-based modeling using our recently
developed agent-based models as examples.

175

KISS stands for "Keep It Simple, Stupid! " It

1 Introduction

is a maxim that means: the simpler, the better,and is similar in notion the Occam 's razor.

As Alan Kay stated, the best way to predict

the future is to invent it . When we use agent-Axelrod, who is known for the Iterated

based models for social systems, we always

Prisoner's Dilemma Game competition, argued

invent a new world, or a new bird-view-like

as follows in his book [Axelrod 1997a]:point of view, because we are able to design"The two-persons iterated Prisoner 's

the simulation world as we would like to.

Dilemma is the E. cole of the social

Therefore, when we use agent-based models,
we are predicting some future. After several

sciences, allowing a very large variety of

decades of Allan Kay 's statements, we have a

studies to be undertaken using a

new tool for predicting the future: Agent-common framework. It has even become

Based Modeling (ABM) is a new modelinga standard paradigm for studying issues

paradigm.

in fields as diverse as evolutionary
biology and networked computer

ABM shifts the focus from global

systems. Its very simplicity has allowed

phenomena to individuals in the model, andpolitical scientists, economists,

tries to observe how individuals, with theirsociologists, philosophers,

individual characteristics or "agents", will

mathematicians, computer scientists,behave as a group. The strength of ABM is

evolutionary biologists, and many others

that it stands between the case studies andto talk to each other. Indeed, analytic

mathematical models. It enables us to validate

and empirical findings about thesocial theories by executing programs, along

Prisoner's Dilemma from one field havewith description of the subject and strict

often led to insights in other fields."

theoretical development.
In the book, he also considers the "Iterated
In ABM, behaviors and statuses of

Prisoner's Dilemma Game" as a good model toindividual agents are coded into programs byrealize the KISS principle and states as

researchers. They also implement information

follows:

and analytical systems in the environment, so"Although agent-based modeling employs

the model itself may be very simple. Even
when the number or variety of agentssimulation, it does not aim to provide anincreases, the complexity of simulation

accurate representation of a particular

descriptions itself will not increase very much.

empirical application. Instead, the goal

Robert Axelrod [1997a] emphasizes that theof agent-based modeling is to enrich ourgoal of agent-based modeling is to enrich ourunderstanding of fundamental processes

understanding of fundamental processes thatthat may appear in a variety of

may appear in a variety of applications. Thisapplications. This requires adhering torequires adhering to the KISS principle,

the KISS principle, which stands for the176

Beyond the KISS Principle for Agent-Based Social Simulation

army slogan ‘keep it simple, stupid.' "On the other hand, study of agent
simulation, or more generally agent-based

This paper discusses the KISS principlemodeling, takes advantage of recent advances

assertion once again and presents a newin computer's processing power, and shifts thevision on agent-based modeling methodology

focus from global phenomena to individuals inregarding complex adaptive systems andthe model and tries to observes how

collective intelligence. This paper is structured

individuals with their individual

as follows: The second section examinescharacteristics, or "agents" will behave as aagent-based modeling and the KISS principle.

group [Deguchi 2000], [Carley 1999], [Carley

The third section identifies requirements for2000]. Study on simulation methods insimulation experiment to surpass the KISS

organizational systems has a long history. For

principle. The forth section states how theseexample, the book written by Cyert andrequirements are reflected in the model, based

March [Cyert 1963] is a start point ofon our study. The fifth section will giveorganizational simulation. Among them, theconcluding remarks.

garbage can model is well-known inorganizational decision-making behavior

2 Agent-Based Modeling and the KISS Principle[March 1972]. The strength of the agent
simulation approach is that it stands between

Traditionally, study of society, economics

the case studies and mathematical models. It

and systems has approached the theory

enables us to validate social theories bythrough cases, in which researchers examine

executing programs, along with description ofwell-structured documents with historical facts

the subject and strict theoretical development.

or approached mathematical and/or statisticalmodels with some numerical data. For

Axtell [Axtell 2000] suggested that agent

example, financial theorist and engineers

simulation in social science could extend

utilize concepts of probability and statistics.

various aspects, which have been neglected in

They often use tools from statistical physics

conventional theoretical studies.

for financial problems. In financial
engineering, accordingly, the market is"The simplest use is conceptually quite

assumed to satisfy certain given conditions

close to traditional simulation inlike physical laws in the natural world.

operations research. This use arises

However such assumptions usually do notwhen equations can be formulated that

hold. That is because the market is affected bycompletely describe a social process, anddecisions and actions of individuals whothese equations are explicitly soluble,

compose the market, and the trading rules oneither analytically or numerically. In thethe market, unlike natural phenomena, areformer case, the agent model is merely adesigned based on the decisions of thosetool for presenting results; while in thecontained in the market.

latter it is a novel kind of Monte Carloanalysis. A second, more commonplace177usage of computational agent models

communicated in a form comprehensible toarises when mathematical models can beother researchers, and when it involves

written down but not completely solved.

experiments, the results will be reproducible.

In this case the agent-based model canEmphasis on the KISS principle in agent

shed significant light on the solution

simulation is to truthfully respond to these two

structure, illustrate dynamical properties

requirements. Needless to say, agent

simulation is merely "understanding" andof the model, serve to test thedependence of results on parameters and"execution" of a certain aspect of aassumptions, and be a source if counter-phenomenon, but it has the potential toexamples. Finally, there are important

greatly advance the frontier of existing studies

classes of problems for which writing

when it is used as a supplement to the theory

down equations is not a useful activity.

or when theory is used as a supplement to it.

In such circumstances, resort to agentbased computational models may be theOn the other hand, the simpler the model,

only way available to explore suchthe more explanatory interpretation of theprocesses systematically, and constitutes

result is necessary, in order to avoid easy

explanation such as "We did it and we got it, "a third distinct usage of such models."as Izumi mentioned. Actually, several extreme
In agent simulation, behaviors and statuses

explanations were given to the models

of individual agents are coded into programs

discussed in Axelrod [Axelrod 1997a] andby researchers. They also implement

Epstein [Epstein 1996]. When the model isinformation and analytical systems in thesimple, the result seems to be obvious, andenvironment, so the model itself may be very

the harder we try to understand phenomena,

simple. Even when the number or variety ofthe more complex the model becomes, which

agents increases, the complexity of simulation

goes against the KISS principle.

descriptions itself will not increase very much.
3 Requirements for Agent-Based Simulation

Though they cannot cope with computational

Experimentscomplexity or combinatorial explosion in thesimulation, agent base models are very

It is necessary to depart from the KISS

effective to analyze complex social
phenomena with simple description. We

principle to better understand social

should switch our principles of conventional

phenomena. However, it does not mean that

artificial intelligence approach [Russel1995],

we shall implement unnecessarily complex

which tries to make agents smart, into ones tomodels to conform to the actual world. Belowravel "intelligence as a group " through agent-

I summarized the requirements for simulation

based modeling.

experiments, especially agent-based simulationof social phenomena.

Under such agent-based modelingprinciples, results of scientific study will be
178

Beyond the KISS Principle for Agent-Based Social Simulation(1) It should produce results, which correspondagents, accuracy of the program, strict

with real world phenomena

sensitivity analysis of the results, and so on.

Unlike natural phenomena, social phenom(5) It should approach the issues difficult to

ena are not reproducible. However, there areestablished theoretical systems to explain

explain by existing theories

phenomena, such as financial engineering andExisting theories are based on theeconomics. It is important that simulation

assumption that there is some sort ofprovide results that agree with these theories

rationality in the agent 's behavior or decision

and actual phenomena.

making. In actual phenomena, however, thisrationality assumption often does not hold.

(2) It shoud show phenomena difficult to

Simulation may provide a systematic

explain by existing theories

explanation for, and reveal hidden conditions

It is also important that phenomena that areof such issues.

difficult to explain by existing theories but
exist in reality will be reproduced in a limited

In the following chapter I will briefly

manner. For example, the fat tailpresent recent studies that shows how wephenomenon, which is observed in stock pricehave been working to fulfill these

distribution, is difficult to explain by existing

requirements. I will use [Takahashi 2002],

theories, but it can easily be reproduced in[Takahashi2003], and [Takahashi 2003] assimulation, and an explanation is provided byexamples for (1) and (2), [Kurahashi 1999],

economic physics.

[Terano 2000a], and [Kurahashi 2001] for (3)and (4), and [Sato 2000], [U-Mart 2003], and(3) It should generate satisfactory results[Terano 2003b] for (5).

Simulation study of social phenomena
4 What We Find from Agent-Based Simulation

requires numerous parameters. Therefore, we
can produce desired results by parametertuning. Results unsatisfactory to the

In the following sub-sections, I will describe

researchers of model builders areseveral interesting results, which take place inmeaningless. Researchers must at least be

social and economic systems, with focus onconvincing in the literature regarding

research results from ABM we havesimulation results.

conducted. The following examples are
obtained through systematic validations on(4) The results must be rigorously validated

simulation results. However, due to restriction

When a simulation experiment isof space, I do not detail simulation

performed, it produces results. However, it isprerequisites, model architecture, or

extremely difficult to demonstrate the validity

experiment methods. For details, please seeof the results. The results will lack persuasion

the references.

without a theory upon the simulation is based,a basis for the functions equipped to the1794.1. Agent Simulation of Behavioral Finance

Conditional Hetero-scedasticity) model andUnderstanding the mechanism of theprospect theory in social psychology, andfinancial market is important to analyze rapid

have examined the influence of the agent 's

development of e-commerce and therisk management methods on the financial

robustness of the economic system. So far,market [Takahashi 2002], [Takahashi2003],

however, such analyses have mostly used

[Takahashi 2003]. Here the GARCH model is amacroscopic mathematical models.

model to explain macro-level phenomena,

Conventional financial models are analyticalwhich presumes the volatility (priceand require ‘rationality' in the market anddispersion) in financial engineering. On theindividual behaviors. The assumptions ofother hand, the prospect theory is a micro-

rationality of conventional theories arelevel model, which explains the nature ofsummarized as follows: (i) that the market ishuman decision making in cognitiveeffective and the information will be known to

psychology, which explains that the loss isagents immediately and completely, (ii) that

estimated as larger than in actual fact. These

agents are capable of decision making thattheories are well-known in finance andmaximizes their utility functions, and (iii) thatcognitive psychology, respectively, and can be

there is no limitation in the agent 's financial

combined by the agent-based model to enable

resources, and transaction of any scale ismacro-level analysis based on micro-levelpossible. These assumptions are not met inbehavior.

reality, but they are inexplicitly assumed in

In our model we implemented a virtual

designing, for example, financial products.

market composed of four types of (rational
and irrational) investors, which is also

Based on the background, we haveequipped with two types of risk management

developed an agent-based simulation model tomethods, VaR (Value at Risk) and portfolio

evaluate financial market behavior (Fig. 1).

insurance. The market we have developed

We paid attention to the gap between theconsists of one thousand investors and allows

GARCH (Generalized Autoregressive

them to trade two types of assets: a stock and

Figure 1. Agent model for the financial market
180

Beyond the KISS Principle for Agent-Based Social Simulationa risk-free asset. In this market, multiple types

the literature are employed for the market.

of investors exist and conduct transactions

Therefore, the results were conforming tobased on the investment rules defined forexisting theories within the range of‘rationality'each type. The market operations contain theon the macro-level. For‘rationality'

following three steps: accrual of the corporate

requirement (2), relaxation of the

profit, formation of the investors' predictions,assumption regarding agents, widens the gap

and determination of the traded price. In the

between existing theories and at the same

following, we explain in detail, about thetime gave no results conforming to actual data

trading assets, decision rules of both activeon the macro-level.

and passive investors, and decision
4.2. Agent Simulation of Social Interaction

procedures of market prices.
Findings from the experiment results are

We have been working on an artificial

summarized in the following five points: (1)society simulator TRURL, which aims toEven when there are a certain number of

explore social interaction problems observed

rational decision making agents in the model,

in such real-world activities as e-mail-oriented

the effective market assumption does notorganizations and electronic commerce

hold; (2) Even when there are rational

markets. We used this simulator to (i) analyze

decision making agents, irrational decision

the emergence of leadership and conforming

making agents will survive; (3) Behavior of

behavior in the electronic community

agents with the mental model based on the[Kurahashi 1999], as well as (ii) analyze theprospect theory will determine volatility

stabilization and breakdown of distribution

prospect based on the GARCH model. (4) Risk

rules of information resources, which is the

management methods in financial engineeringfoundation to maintain the community

are useful for individual agents. (5) However,[Kurahashi 2001].

in some cases, e.g. when excessive risk
management is conducted or when there are

TRURL is an artificial society model

investors who care about others, risk

composed of agents with decision making

management may have a negative influencefunctions based on the multi-attribute attitude

on the market. These results suggest thatmodel. This society is characterized byirrational investors incessantly have an impact

physical distance between agents, confidence

on the price in the actual market as well, anddistance, and communication attitude, andfurther, indicate the effectiveness of applying

has a parameter space of the 13th power of 10

agent simulation to the field of finance.

to the 15th power of 10. The agent has eventaction rules [Russel 1996] and acts consuming

Our model is validated based on thethe parameter called"participation

following points: For requirement (1) a typicalmotivation" (equivalent to the amount ofmodel in financial engineering and cognitiveenergy or metabolism) during simulation.

science is employed for an agent 's micro-level

Furthermore, exchange of"knowledge"changes the agent 's decision making structure

decision making, and well-known results in
181and motivation value.

Genetic Algorithms. That is, many parametersin the artificial society are adjusted by theDecisions of the agents are made based on

evolutionary computation method. At thiseach agent 's knowledge, but independent oftime, we will use the above social indices tothis, there is a message exchange processevaluate the society as an objective function,

among agents. Each agent interacts with otherand the resultant convergent society isagents at discrete time steps according to theanalyzed from the characteristics of the agent

restrictions set for each simulation model. The

group that composes the society. In the actualinteraction is performed according tosocial system, these macro indices areknowledge attribute. When an agent receives

measurable, but the system 's individual agent

unknown knowledge, it will accept it as is.

characteristics cannot be obtained. On the

However, when known knowledge is received,

other hand, in the artificial society, it is

the nature of knowledge will change based on

possible to create a society with the above-

the following attunement behavior rules inmentioned nature through "evolutionary

accordance with its attribute.

computation" by using such macro-levelmeasures as objective functions. Furthermore,

With agent parameters set on the micro-

we can obtain different knowledge bylevel, the conditions of the society can be

conducting simulation in the created society,measured by macro-level information or social

and analyze the characteristics of the agentsindices such as the speed of change in generalthat compose the system based on parametersocial opinion, maldistribution of information

distribution information. The significance ofgoods measured by the Gini index, and thesimulation experiments of an artificial society

topological scale of the communication

lies in this point.

network.

We call this method "inverse simulation, "because it solves an inverse problem to

In TRURL, the social index is optimized by

Figure 2. Evolution of the artificial society through inverse simulation
182

Beyond the KISS Principle for Agent-Based Social Simulation

identify agent parameter, and also

"genetics-

including human group 's learning/emergencebased validation, " because it analyzes agent

and interaction regarding behavior of trading
stock and so on, as well as system design; (2)parameters created by genetic algorithms.

clarifying the relationship between speculative
trading behavior and market instability such

Agent simulation models using the artificial
society model TRURL are validated based on

as violent price fluctuations in the market, andthe following. For requirements mentioned indesigning a system that can prevent it; (3)(3) in the previous chapter, by systemicallyassuming an agent 's behavior from market

exploring a sufficiently large parameter space,conditions, such as testing of use of insider

it achieved the optimum value expressed byinformation; and (4) experimenting withthe objective function; in other words, it

coevolution aspects of trading strategy in theeliminates arbitrariness in parameter-tuning inmarket. All of these problems are difficult todesign and execution of simulation. To

discuss by conventional economic theories,

address requirement (4), we statisticallyand require the approach using agent

analyze a lot of individual information; that is,simulation with some degree of complexity.

many simulation results to systemically
perform sensitivity analysis of the simulation

To develop the test bed, we set the follow-

results.

ing three requirements:

4.3. Participatory Simulation by Mixing Human(1) ssociation with the real world:and Machine AgentsThe U-Mart targets the actual stock price

U-Mart is a test bed aimed at examining

index and virtually creates the market thatvarious problems rooted in the complexity ofdeals not in "spot" but in "futures," which

the economic trading market. Issues at handdoes not exist in reality.

include (1) clarifying decision making issues,

Figure 3. Configuration of the U-Mart system183

(2) An agent 's performance cannot be(2) Openness with wide participatory opportunity:
To enable interdisciplinary research among

determined by a limited number ofvarious fields, including economics,

experiments. Even agents designed tofinancial engineering, and computer

succeed in a transaction may greatly varyscience, the system will be designed as anin performance, depending on information

open system that allows participation of

given or whether they are acting invarious bodies. In the study of artificial

combination with other agents.

market, (limited) rationality and diversity of

Accordingly, a diversified aspect istrading strategy are important. In U-Mart,

important for agent evaluation.

we explore potentials of various strategies
through software agent contest and gaming(3) Even small changes in trading rules of thesimulation by human players, and study

market significantly affect agent

price formation based on these results.

performance. Accordingly, designing a'ssystem for a robust market is extremely(3) Provision of the experiment environment

difficult.

for system analysis and design:
Virtual experiment of the market under

Such knowledge could not be obtained

various trading strategies enables

without the simulation environment where

anatomical analysis of experiment results.

software and humans exist at the same time,

We also evaluate the influence of various

which corresponds to requirements (5) in thesystems of the market, such as pricing,

previous chapter.

settlement, and commission, and handle
5 Concluding Remarks

system design issues.
Fig. 3 shows the architecture of U-MartIn this paper, I have discussed the principle

system. As shown here, U-Mart is relativelyof agent-based modeling and the necessity tosimple as an experiment system. However, ourgo beyond the KISS principle, keeping in mind

various experiments over three years showed

application to social/economic system study.

the following interesting phenomena.
The agent simulation method is very(1) In the actual market, small fluctuations of

powerful as it can produce results without

trivial information often trigger violent

unnatural assumptions, unlike conventional

fluctuations. Similar erratic fluctuations also

approaches. For this reason, it is also

take place in the U-Mart. Some triggers aregradually attracting much attention in the field

incorrect data entry by humansof social science, which has little connection

participating in the U-Mart. Similar

with artificial intelligence study [Epstein

phenomena are also observed in the real

1996], [Deguchi 2000b], [Gilbert 1999].

world.

Furthermore, many simulation tool kits havebeen released in recent years (e.g. [Ascape184

Beyond the KISS Principle for Agent-Based Social Simulation

2001], [Swarm 2001], and [MAS 2003]). On

Cooperation. Basic Books (1984)

the other hand, there has been little[Axelrod 1997a] Axelrod, R.: The Complexity of

persuasive discussion in the traditional social

Cooperation: Agent-Based Models of Competition

science field, due to beliefs such as that it

and Collaboration. Princeton University Press

ignores conventional research hypotheses, or(1997)

that the basis of the model is too weak to[Axelrod 1997b] Axelrod, R.: Advancing the Art ofovercome the discussions in the literature.

Simulation in the Social Sciences. In R. Conte, etHowever, agent-based modeling is a veryal. eds.: Simulating Social Phenomena. pp. 21-

effective approach when considered as the

40, Springer Verlag, (1997)

third study method that interpolates the case

[Axelrod 1999] Axelrod, R., Cohen, M. D.:

study approach and mathematical approach.

Harnessing Complexity. The Free Press (1999)[Axtell 2000] Axtell, R.: Why Agents? On the

In recent years, many texts on agent-based

Varied Motivation for Agent-Computing in themodeling have been published in artificial

Social Sciences. Brookings Institution CSED

intelligence-related fields as well [Izumi 2003],

Technical Report No. 17, November, (2000)[Namatame 1998], [Nishida 2002], [Ouchi[Carley 1999] Carley, K. M., Gasser, L.:

2002], [Weiss 1999]. As I have mentioned in

Computational Organization Theory. in [Weiss

this paper, now is the time to call for a new1999], 299-330 (1999)

methodology that goes beyond the KISS[Carley 2000] Catherine M. Carley, (translated byprinciple. More recent results and discussions

Takao Terano): Computational Analysis of thethrough various lines of study are found in

Social Systems and Organizational Systems.

[Terano 2007a] and [Terano 2007b], in which

Organizational Science, Vol. 34, No. 2, pp. 4-10

I emphasize the methodology of ABM(2000)

validations and the needs for continuous[Cohen 1972] Cohen, M. D., March, J. G.: A

improvement on ABM research.

Garbage Can Model of Organizational Choice.
Administrative Science Quarterly, Vol. 17, pp. 1-

Notes

25 (1972).
[Cyert 1963] Cyert, R. M., March, J. G. 1963. A(1) Preliminary version of the paper was presented
at the 21 -Century COE Program Creation of

Behavioral Theory of the Firm. Prentice-Hall.

Agent-Based Social Systems Sciences, 2[Deguchi 2000a] Hiroshi Deguchi, Kiyoshi Izumi,stndSymposium on July 12, 13, 2005 at Tokyo

Yoshinori Shiozawa, Hideki Takayasu, Takao

Institute of Technology, pp. 69-78 (2005). The

Terano, Hiroshi Sato, Hajime Kita:

symposium is conjunct with AESCS 2005.

Conversazione: Social and Academic Meaning toStudy Artificial market. Journal of Japanese

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