Journal of Socio-Informatics
Vol.14, No.1

Sep. 2021[Refereed Original Paper］
The Effects of Generalized Trust and Group Identification on Social
Support Networks and Feelings of Stress in Japan: Comparing Face-toface and Instant Messaging

Shaoyu YE
Fragmentation and Dynamics of Echo Chambers of Turkish Political
Youth Groups on Twitter

Seval Yurtcicek OZAYDIN, Ryosuke NISHIDA[Translation］
Examining the interactions on SNS that result in meetups among highschool adolescents

Shin NAKAMINE, Shinnosuke TANAKA,
Namiko KAMIJOThe Society of Socio-Informatics

Journal of Socio-Informatics
Vol.14, No.1

Sep. 2021◆CONTENTS◆[Refereed Original Paper］
The Effects of Generalized Trust and Group Identification on Social Support
Networks and Feelings of Stress in Japan: Comparing Face-to-face and InstantMessaging

Shaoyu YE…   1

Fragmentation and Dynamics of Echo Chambers of Turkish Political YouthGroups on Twitter

Seval Yurtcicek OZAYDIN, Ryosuke NISHIDA …   17[Translation］
Examining the interactions on SNS that result in meetups among high school
adolescents

Shin NAKAMINE, Shinnosuke TANAKA,
Namiko KAMIJO

…   33Refereed Original Paper
The Effects of Generalized Trust and Group Identification
on Social Support Networks and Feelings of Stress inJapan: Comparing Face-to-face and Instant Messaging1)
Keywords:
Generalized trust, Group identification, Social support networks, Feelings of stress, Instant messaging

Shaoyu YE, University of Tsukuba

Abstract
This study focused on international students (ISs) studying in Japan and investigated (a) the
effects of their generalized trust and group identification on their social support networks (SSNs)
with Japanese people, same-language speakers, and other-language speakers; (b) their SSNs
formed through face-to-face (FTF) communication and instant messaging (IM) usage; and (c)whether these relationships differed between Chinese ISs and other ISs, as over 60% of ISs in
Japan are Chinese, who more easily form in-groups than other ISs. A self-report questionnaire
survey was conducted in 2018, and the following results were observed based on 209 valid
responses. (a) ISs with higher levels of generalized trust felt less stress, while ISs with higher
levels of group identification felt more stress. (b) ISs with higher levels of generalized trust wereable to receive more social support from Japanese people and other-language speakers, but only
social support from Japanese people helped decrease their feelings of stress in Japan. (c) ISs withhigher levels of group identification tended to form larger SSNs with same-language speakers andreceived more social support from them, which in turn, led them to feel more stress. (d) The
above results were found both in SSNs formed via FTF communication and through IM usage. (e)For non-Chinese ISs, their group identification did not lead them to receive more social support
from the same-language speakers. The results suggest that it is necessary to distinguish theeffects of generalized trust toward out-group members between Japanese people and otherlanguage speakers when examining ISs’ intercultural adaptation.

Received: 2 February 2021; Accepted: 9 June 2021

1

The Effects of Generalized Trust and Group Identification on Social Support Networks and Feelings of Stress in Japan: Comparing Face-to-face and Instant MessagingYE

therefore

1. Introduction

considered“in-group”

members.

Conversely, they may have a lower level ofTrust is fundamental to social life. Trust is

generalized trust toward others, especially local

described as people’s belief in the good intentions

residents (hosts), who are considered “out-of others— that is, the intentions of others not togroup” members owing to cultural differences,do harm, to respect people’s rights, and to carrylanguage boundaries, and so on. Based on thisout1998).

distinction, Ye (2018) found that ISs with higher

According to Yamagishi (1998) and Yamagishi

levels of generalized trust were able to receive

and Yamagishi (1994), there are two types ofmore social support from Japanese people, whichtrust: generalized trust and particularistic trust.

led them to experience a greater sense ofGeneralized trust is a general belief in humanacceptance in Japan. No similar effects could be

benevolence, suggesting that trustworthiness is

detected for those who received more social

an aspect of human nature and that most people

support from those with the same mothercan be trusted, with some exceptions. By

language (“same-language speakers” below).

contrast, particularistic trust or assurance arises

However, the effects of other- language speakers

from secure relationships with particular others.

were not studied.

theirobligations(Yamagishi,

Prior research has pointed out that these two

Another important factor that influences

types of trust may play different roles in thepeople’s tolerance level is group identification.

formation and maintenance of social networks.

According to the social identity theory, theSince generalized trust encourages people togroups to which people belong are an important

approach others to form social relationships,

source of pride and self-esteem (Tajfel & Turner,

people with a higher level of generalized trust are1986). Groups give people a sense of social

more likely to cooperate with strangers compared

identity— a sense of belonging to the social world

to those with a lower level (Yamagishi, 1986). On(Tajfel & Turner, 1986; Shuter, 2012). To improve

the other hand, particularistic trust—assurance

their self-image, people enhance the status of themarked by emotional connectedness—may help

group to which they belong. Therefore, people

people maintain narrow social relationships.

divide the world into an in-group (us) and an out-

Once relationships are formed, people maygroup (them). Based on these groupings, it isrequire a sense of emotional connection withreasonable to believe that ISs with higher levels

those others to maintain secure and committedof group identification may tend to communicatesocial relationships. Therefore, people may notwith a greater number of same-language

feel encouraged to seek out new social

speakers,

opportunities by finding and forming new social

opportunities to communicate with Japaneserelationships. This would be more obvious whenpeople and other- language speakers. However,people encounter out-group members.

because there are also other-language speakers

which

would

decrease

theirInternational students (ISs) who study in Japan

from other countries, it is necessary to clarify

may feel strong assurance toward other ISs,

these roles as they may be categorized as “in-especially those from the same country, as theygroup” members when the definition is “non-share more similarities than differences and areJapanese speakers” but “out-group” members
2Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. 14 No. 1 Sep. 2021

when the definition is based on the “same motherIn fact, Kim (2003) conducted a survey in 2002

language” and “same cultural background.”and found that ISs used cell phones to make voice

Therefore, this study also compared the effects

calls to same-language speakers only rather thanof generalized trust toward Japanese people andsending text messages to Japanese people.

other language speakers.

Therefore, she suggested that ISs’ use of cellPrevious studies (e.g., Tanaka, 2000) havephone voice calls may inhibit their communicationsuggested that increased communication with

with Japanese people and thus hinder theirhosts would be an effective way for ISs to better

understanding

adapt to Japanese society. Forming stable andacquisition of the Japanese language, and so on.

fruitful relationships with Japanese people is

Additionally, Ye and Murota (2014) conducted alikely to lead to an enhanced ability to cope withsurvey in early June 2011 and found a significant

stress and improve adaptation. Such beneficial

relationship between ISs’ communication media

relationships are known as “social support

usage and adaptation situations. Their results

networks” (SSNs), a general psychological term

indicated that cell phone usage (especially text

referring to personal relationships expected tomessages) had a particularly positive effect onprovide both tangible and intangible support andISs’ satisfaction improvement, with this positive

promote intercultural adaptation. Therefore, thiseffect exceeding that of computer usage.

study proposed the following hypotheses:

However, whether the communication partnersofJapanese

culture,their

H1: ISs with higher levels of generalized trust

were Japanese or same-language speakers was

will be able to form larger SSNs with Japanese

not clarified. Furthermore, Ye (2017) indicatedpeople and other-language speakers and receivethat while face-to-face (FTF) communication

more social support from them. However, only

could help decrease ISs’ levels of maladaptationsocial support from Japanese people will help

in Japan, communication through voice calls, IM,them decrease their feelings of stress.

or email had no such effect, as these SSNs

H2:

ISs

with

higherlevelsofgroupincluded a greater number of same-language

identification will form larger SSNs with same-

speakers than Japanese speakers and other-language speakers and receive more social

languagesupport from them, which will, in turn, increase

proposed the following hypothesis:

speakers.

Therefore,

this

study

H3: H1 and H2 will be more obvious when ISs

their feelings of stress in Japan.
Furthermore, compared to two decades ago,

communicate through IM than via FTF.

the spread of mobile devices and social media

Regarding ISs’ social support received frommeans that ISs use various kinds of media,

others, Jou (1993) found that this support could be

especially instant messaging (IM) (e.g., WeChat,

categorized into four areas (research/study, humanLINE), to communicate with same-language

relationships, emotional, and environmental-

speakers, as IM allows ISs to use their mothercultural) and four types (tangible, mental,

language, rather than Japanese or English. This

directive, and informational). Following on thishad led to a decreasing motivation and necessity

finding, Ye (2018) indicated that, among the fourfor ISs to form “strong ties” with Japanese local

areas and four types, ISs received most social

people.

support in the human relationship, emotional,
3

The Effects of Generalized Trust and Group Identification on Social Support Networks and Feelings of Stress in Japan: Comparing Face-to-face and Instant MessagingYE

and environmental/cultural areas and of thehave a strong group identification toward SLSs

mental and informational types from same-and rely on them to receive more social support,

language speakers. They received most social

but such support may not help them fully

support in the research/study and environmental/

understand the Japanese culture and improve

cultural areas and of the material, directive andtheir communication skills with Japanese people.

mental types from Japanese people. On this basis,

Therefore, they may feel more stressed. This

this study investigated the effects of social

would be more obvious among Chinese ISs, as

support from Japanese people, same-language

they easily form relationships with other Chinese

speakers, and other-language speakers.

ISs. On the other hand, ISs with a longer length

Additionally, in Japan, over 90% of ISs are fromof stay in Japan and/or longer length of learning

Asia, and over 60% are Chinese ISs (JASSO,

of the Japanese language and higher level of the2020), who find it comparatively easy to form in-Japanese/English language proficiency may

groups with other Chinese ISs. This is in contrast

have a higher level of generalized trust and beto others who may find it difficult to form in-able to communicate with more Japanese people

groups with same-language speakers and might

to receive more social support. This will help

rely on Japanese people and other- language

them understand the Japanese culture, etc., andspeakers. Therefore, this study also examineddecrease their level of stress. Moreover, this will

the following hypothesis:

be more obvious among non-Chinese ISs,

H4: The previous three hypotheses will beespecially those who do not easily form in-groups.

obvious for those ISs, such as Chinese ISs, who

2. Research Methodfind it easy to form in-groups, while they will bedifferent for those ISs who do not find it easy to

To examine the issues raised above, a self-

form in-groups.
Based on these findings and discussions, thereport survey (pencil-and-paper version and web

present study investigated the model shown inversion) was conducted from June to July 2018.2)

Figure 1 and compared the differences andWe prepared the survey in Japanese, English,

similarities between Chinese ISs and other ISs

Chinese (Simple and Traditional), and Korean

and their SSNs formed via IM and FTF. In Figure

and allowed the ISs to freely select the version

1, “Demographics” refers to age, length of stay inthey wished to answer. The English version was

Japan, length of learning of the Japanesetranslated by the author and received English-

language,

languagenative speakers’ proofing; the Chinese andproficiency, and experience of doing a part-time

Korean versions were translated by nativejob. The “SSNs with JSs/SLSs” includes ISs

speakers of Chinese and Korean, whose Japanese

numberJapaneseofandEnglishcommunication

partners,

language proficiency was close to that of Japanesefrequency,

level

of

native speakers. All versions were confirmed bysatisfaction with their relationships. For example,

back translation. The participants were ISs

ISs with a shorter length of stay in Japan and/or

enrolled at several general national universities

shorter length of learning of the Japanesein the Kanto Region of Japan. They received

language and limited Japanese language may

instructions (in either oral or written form)

communication

and4

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. 14 No. 1 Sep. 2021

Figure 1. The model analyzed in this study
before answering concerning the storage of their

TOEFL-iBT, TOEIC, and self- evaluation ofdata, free and informed consent, freedom to

Englishcooperate and withdraw without penalty in thelistening, speaking, and writing as compared tocase of not agreeing to cooperate, privacy andan adult native English speaker, reported as aprotection of personal information, and so on. A

percentage), 4) living situation, experience with/total of 213 ISs submitted their responses. Four

frequency of doing part-time jobs, and so on (seeincomplete responses were eliminated, and theTable 1 for details).

language

proficiency

inreading,remaining 209 responses were analyzed. When

Additionally, 13 items were chosen fromcompared with the sample size in Ye (2017) andYamagishi and Yamagishi (1994) to measure theYe (2018) of 99 and 206, respectively, the sample

participants’ level of generalized trust. A further

size in this study was considered to be sufficient.

12 items were chosen from Karasawa (1991) to

The questionnaire survey included three parts:

measure group identification. In this study, inPart A, Part B, and Part C. The content in each

addition to other scales, the respondents werepart was as follows:

asked to use a five-point scale (“5. Strongly
agree”; “3. Neither”; “1. Strongly disagree”) toPart A gathered personal information, whichrate each of the items.

included demographic data (e.g., gender, age,nationality, and academic standing), total length

Part B measured the ISs’ use of media,

of stay in Japan, Japanese language learning

including regular smartphones, computers, daily

history, level of Japanese language ability (scoretime spent accessing the Internet via theseand level from the Japanese Language Proficiency

devices (“8. Over 6 hours”; “1. Don’t use”), 5) and

Test (JLPT), and self-evaluation of Japanesethe most frequently used social media. This part

language proficiency in reading, listening,of

speaking, and writing as compared to an adultparticipants’nativeacommunications. Following Tanaka’s (2000)

percentage), English language ability (score on

definition, “SSNs” were defined as “important

Japanesespeaker,reported

as

3)

5

the

study

gathered

SSNs

information

through

FTF

about

and

IM

The Effects of Generalized Trust and Group Identification on Social Support Networks and Feelings of Stress in Japan: Comparing Face-to-face and Instant MessagingYE

relationships in their daily lives,” and the ISs weredifferences among these variables.7) The results

asked to list UP TO 10 people they had met inindicated no significant differences among these

person or sent instant messages to over thevariables except for the length of learning of theprevious

Japanese language (t(192.8)=11.43, p<.05, malethreemonthsforimportantconversations. For each SSN, the ISs were asked

vs. female: 34.76 vs. 46.18).

to provide their contact person’s gender, age,

As Table 1 shows, more than 40% had received

nationality, relationship, frequency of contact

scholarships, over half of which were from(from “5. Almost every day” to “1. Seldom meet”),

MEXT, but only one third had a daily part-timeand place of residence (Japan; Home country;

job, which meant that 2/3 did not have many

Other

their

opportunities to communicate with Japanesesatisfaction with that person (“5. Very satisfied”;

people off the campus. Furthermore, over half of“3. No preference either way”; “1. Not satisfied atthem used computers to access the Internet forall”). Additionally, the ISs were asked whether

over four hours, which was longer thanthe person(s) listed in the SSNs via IM was/weresmartphone use.

country/region)

and

to

rate

also listed in those via FTF, and so on (Table 2).
Part C addressed the ISs’ feelings of stress

3.2 Configurations of SSNs and social support

using 11 items (“5. Very much” to “1. Not at all”)

Prior to examining the relationship shown inchosen from Tanaka (2000). The 14 items for

Figure 1, this study investigated the configurationsocial support were chosen from Okunishi andof each SSN. As indicated in Table 2, which

Tanaka (2008), and the respondents were asked

shows the average number of people interacting

whether they received social support from each

via IM and FTF and their relationships, theof three specific groups: Japanese people, same-largest number was in the category of SLSs via

language

IM usage, followed by SLSs via FTF, and Japanese

speakers,

andother-language

speakerss (Table 3).

people via FTF. The results show that over half of6)

the communication partners met in person werealso contacted by IM. And these had no

3. Results

relationship with gender.

3.1 Descriptive results

Table 3 shows the social support that ISs

Table 1 reports the details of the respondents

received from Japanese people, same-language

included in the study: 94.3% of the analyzed ISs

speakers, and other-language speakers. The

were regular course students. The top fiveresults show that ISs received the most social

nationalities were Chinese (including ISs fromsupport from same-language speakers in the

Hong Kong), South Korean, Indonesian, Thai,

human relationship and emotional areas and theandsimilarmaterial and informational types. They received

distribution to national survey results (JASSO,

the most social support from Japanese people in2020). Over one third of the ISs had passed thethe research/study area and type of mental, area

JLPT Level 1, and over 80% had taken at least oneof environment/culture and types of directiveof the English tests. This study conducted a t-test

and informational. This study further considered(independent example) to examine gender

whether such support might vary based on

Vietnamese,

which

shows

a

6

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. 14 No. 1 Sep. 2021

Table 1. Analyzed ISs’ information
Gender ratio

Males: 46.9%

Females: 52.6%

Age (in years)

24.5 years (SD: 4.4)
Undergraduate: 39.2%

Academic standing
Nationalities (Top 5)
History of stay in Japan

Other: 0.5%

Master’s: 34.0%

Doctoral: 21.1%

Research/Special research students: 4.8%

Others: 1.0%

Chinese: 49.4%

Korean: 7.7%

Indonesian: 7.2%

Thai: 4.3%

Vietnamese: 3.3%

31.1 months (SD: 21.4)

History of learning Japanese

41.1 months (SD: 38.9)

2)(JLPT-N1/L1 holders: 34.9%)

English language abilities

TOEIC: 37.8%

TOEFL: 29.2%

IELTS: 17.2%

Other: 1.9%

University dormitory: 24.9%

Dormitory for ISs only: 12.4%

Living place

Private rental housing: 60.3%

Rental/house share for foreigners: 1.0%

Other: 1.4%
Alone: 52.5%

Living with someone

With other ISs: 32.3%

With Japanese students: 2.0%
Yes: 44.5% (MEXT: 60.3%

ScholarshipWith family/relatives: 9.1%

Other: 4.0%
Private: 21.6%

Other: 18.1%)

No: 55.5%

Daily part-time job
Internet time (Computers)
Internet time (iPhone/Android)Internet time (iPad etc.)

Yes: 33.0%

No: 67.0%

Don’t use: 1.0%

-1h: 7.2%

1-2h: 12.0%

2-3h:14.8%

3-4h: 12.4%

4-5h: 14.4%

5-6h: 10.0%

Over 6h: 28.2%

Don’t use: 0.0%

-1h: 3.8%

1-2h: 17.2%

2-3h: 18.2%

3-4h: 22.5%

4-5h: 13.4%

5-6h: 5.7%

Over 6h: 19.1%

Don’t use: 63.6%-1h: 15.8%

1-2h: 10.0%

2-3h: 3.3%

3-4h: 2.9%

4-5h: 1.4%

5-6h: 0.5%

Over 6h: 2.4%

Table 2: ISs’ SSNs formed through IM and FTF
Total (same gender vs. cross-gender)

Japanese

SLSs

OLSs

6.11 (3.73 vs. 2.47)

1.12

4.16

.84

Contact frequency

3.89

10.53

2.86

Satisfaction with partners

4.91

18.87

3.45

1.35

2.03

.77

Contact frequency

4.93

6.89

2.85

Satisfaction with partners

5.80

8.81

3.28

Same person between IM & FTF

.60

1.38

.40

IM
Number of contacts

FTF
Number of contacts

4.15 (2.51 vs. 1.63)

7

The Effects of Generalized Trust and Group Identification on Social Support Networks and Feelings of Stress in Japan: Comparing Face-to-face and Instant MessagingYE

Table 3: ISs’ social support received from others
Received social support

Nationality
JSs

SLSs

OLSs

90.4%

73.7%

51.7%

2. Corrected my mistakes in Japanese when writing or speaking

75.1%

56.0%

38.8%

3. Explained Japanese culture and customs to me

38.8%

68.4%

46.9%

4. Became interested in my country’s culture and customs and tried to

82.8%

59.8%

65.1%

5. Helped me finish my homework and pass examinations

45.0%

47.8%

39.2%

6. Helped me conduct my research

58.4%

44.5%

38.8%

1. Explained the Japanese to me when I did not understand it, even after
reading or listening to it

understand them

7. Could be consulted when I experienced personal problems

47.4%

84.2%

45.9%

8. Encouraged me when I did not do well

57.4%

83.3%

54.5%

9. Invited me for dinner at home or had dinner on/off-campus

67.9%

86.6%

58.9%

10. Went out for leisure and to have fun together

58.9%

85.6%

60.3%

11. Gave me necessary/useful items

60.8%

83.3%

56.0%

12. Lent me money when I needed it

26.8%

63.2%

27.8%

13. Provided useful information for my life in the local area

81.3%

81.3%

57.4%

14. Told me how to conduct necessary procedures and provided

72.2%

74.2%

50.7%

information about important notices at the university

Table 4: ISs’ feelings of stress in Japan
Items

Mean

1. Understanding the real meaning of vague and unclear Japanese expressions

3.12

2. Completing necessary daily life tasks, for example, throwing away garbage, preparing meals, or

2.49

washing
3. Maintaining good relationships with Japanese people with whom I am in contact in my daily life

2.84

4. Knowing that once I leave my room, I enter a Japanese language world

2.17

5. Being in a situation in which Japanese people are laughing cheerfully, but I do not find it funny

2.74

6. Experiencing difficulty obtaining necessary daily living information

2.59

7. Wanting to study the Japanese language but not having an opportunity to practice it

2.60

8. Experiencing difficulty having intimate relationships with Japanese students

3.17

9. Getting special treatment because I am a foreigner

2.56

10. Feeling anxious about being in an emergency situation such as having a serious illness, being

2.89

injured, and so on
11. Being ignored when asking a Japanese person something or trying to join their conversations

8

2.44

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. 14 No. 1 Sep. 2021

gender, and the results indicated that females

support from same-language people, which, inreceived more social support from same-turn, increased feelings of stress when including

language speakers than males (t(185.24)= 1.403,

both Chinese ISs and non-Chinese ISs. (c)p<.01, males vs. females: 9.22 vs. 10.63).

Generalized trust had no effect on SSNs withJapanese people or other-language speakers,

3.3 Internal reliability for each scale

while group identification had a positive effect onThis study confirmed each scale’s internal

SSNs with same-language speakers.

reliability by calculating its Cronbach’s a : .86 forMeanwhile, the results indicated that (a)generalized trust, .88 for group identification andgeneralized trust had a positive effect on.81 for feelings of stress. These scales all showedreceiving more social support from Japanesevery high internal reliability. Therefore, thispeople and other-language speakers, but only

study used the total scores for each scale in thesocial support from Japanese people helped

following analysis. This study also conducted an

decrease feelings of stress. (b) In the case of IM

independent t-test to confirm whether there wereusage, there were slightly significant effects ofany differences due to gender. The results

demographic factors on SSNs with Japaneseindicated no differences among these scales.

people, but no similar effects could be found interms of FTF; moreover, demographic factors

3.4 
The relationships between generalized

had significant effects on SSNs with other-trust /group identification, SSNs, social

language speakers among non-Chinese ISs when

support, and feelings of stresscommunicating via IM. (c) Group identification

This study conducted SEM analysis to test theshowed a positive direct effect on social support

relationships as Figure 1 shows, comparing IMfrom same-language speakers when including

and FTF (Figures 2–5). Additionally, this study

both Chinese ISs and non-Chinese ISs, but noconducted multi-group SEM to detect whether

similar effects could be found among non-the relationships would differ between Chinese

Chinese ISs.

ISs and non-Chinese ISs. As a result, the goodnessof fit of the model for Chinese ISs was not high

4. Discussion

enough to adopt; therefore, only the relationships
for non-Chinese ISs comparing FTF and IM

The present study investigated the effects of

between Japanese people and same-language

ISs’ generalized trust and group identification on

speakers could be detected (Figure 6). All thetheir social networks with Japanese people, same-indexes, parameter estimates, and goodness of fit

language speakers, and other-language speakers

are shown in Figures 2–6.

formedthroughcommunication.

The following commonalities could be found:

IM

usage

Additionally,

and

FTF

this

study

(a) Generalized trust had a direct effect on

examined whether these relationships would

decreasing feelings of stress, while groupdiffer between Chinese ISs and non-Chinese ISs,

identification had a direct effect on increasing

as the former more easily form in-groups withfeelings of stress. (b) Group identification had aother Chinese ISs.
The results indicated that, when including

direct positive effect on receiving more social
9The Effects of Generalized Trust and Group Identification on Social Support Networks and Feelings of Stress in Japan: Comparing Face-to-face and Instant MessagingYE

Figure 2. Results for IM usage (Entire: Japanese vs. Same-language speakers)

Figure 3. Results for IM usage (Entire: Other-language speakers vs. Same-language speakers)
both Chinese ISs and non-Chinese ISs, those

only social support from Japanese people helpedwith higher levels of generalized trust were able

decrease their feelings of stress (H1). One of theto receive more social support from Japanesemain reasons for this might be the type of social

people and other-language speakers. However,support received. As Table 3 shows, ISs received
10

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. 14 No. 1 Sep. 2021

Figure 4. Results for FTF communication (Japanese vs. Same-language speakers)

Figure 5. Results for FTF communication (Other-language speakers vs. Same-language speakers)
most social support from Japanese people in the

support from other-language speakers overall

area of environmental-cultural and the type ofcompared

informational, etc., which helped them adapt

Japanese people. These results indicate thebetter. By contrast, ISs received the least social

necessity of distinguishing ISs’ generalized trust
11

tosame-language

speakers

andThe Effects of Generalized Trust and Group Identification on Social Support Networks and Feelings of Stress in Japan: Comparing Face-to-face and Instant MessagingYE

Figure 6. Results for FTF communication (Non-Chinese: Japanese vs. Same-language speakers)
Table 5. The average number of ISs’ SSNs in different period
Different
studies

FTF: Total
JSs

SLs

Contact persons via IM

IM: Total
OLSs

JSs

SLs

OLSs

in Japan / Home country / Other

7.76
Tanaka (2000)

4.14

Ye (2017) *This study

1.35

2.56

1.06

8.66 & 8.90

7.74 & 7.99

T1: 4.46

3.28

3.77 & 3.78

5.09 & 5.20

T2: 5.43

2.56

4.15

6.11
3.26

2.29

2.03

.77

1.12

4.16

.84

.41

* Note: Ye (2017) conducted a panel survey that measured the ISs’ SSNs in July 2014 and December 2014.
toward Japanese people from other-language

speakers, no effects could be found on theirspeakers, as they were all treated as “out-group”

forming SSNs with them. One of the main

members traditionally.

reasons might be the small size of their SSNs.

It was also expected that ISs with higher levels

Table 2 indicates that the average number ofof generalized trust would be able to form larger

same-language speakers was four times that of

SSNs with Japanese people and other- language

Japanese people and other-language speakers inspeakers and receive more social support from

SSNs formed via IM. Even for SSNs formed via

them. Although ISs with higher levels of

FTF communication, the average number ofgeneralized trust did receive more social support

same-language speakers was larger than that offromJapanese people and more than twice that ofJapanese

peopleandother-language
12

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. 14 No. 1 Sep. 2021

other-language speakers. In fact, the number ofChinese ISs to form in- groups with their same-

ISs’ SSNs (both FTF and IM) was smaller

language speakers and receive social support

compared to previous studies (Table 5). In

from them. These results suggest that group

particular, the percentage of same-language

identification has different effects on receiving

speakers in both FTF and IM was higher

social support from same-language speakers

compared to previous studies, which was higher

between Chinese ISs and non-Chinese ISs.

in IM (68.1%) than FTF (48.9%). In addition, theOne reason that no model with high goodness

ratio of contact person in home countries wasof fit can be found for Chinses ISs would be thehigher than in Ye’ study (2017). This wasdifficulty in defining “same-language speakers.”

consistent with the possibility that IM usage

According to previous studies, “same nationality”

promote ISs’ selective interpersonal relationships,

means “same-language speakers.” Based on this,as they can type messages and talk in their

this study included ISs from Hong Kong as

mother language by using IM in this “mobile X

Chinese ISs, who may have different perceptionssocial” period that Ye (2017) described. In thiscompared to those from mainland China. Thissense, H1 was partly supported and H3 wassuggests that it is necessary to divide them up

almost supported.

more concretely.

Additionally, ISs with higher levels of group

5. Implications and future work

identification formed larger SSNs with samelanguage speakers and received more social

5.1 Implications

support from them, which increased theirThefeelings of stress in Japan (H2). As Table 3 shows,results

indicatedthatraising

ISs’

ISs received the most social support from same-generalized trust of Japanese people would be

language speakers in the areas of human

helpful for receiving more social support from

relationships (e.g., personal problem solving)

Japanese people, which could help decrease theirand emotional, and the type of tangible (e.g.,

feelings of stress in Japan. For ISs with a higher

money lending), yet these support did not help

level of group identification, receiving morethem fully understand the Japanese culture orsocial support from same-language speakers

learn the Japanese language. Therefore, as they

does not help decrease their feelings of stress inremained unable to understand the JapaneseJapan. As ISs prefer to use IM to communicate

communication style and behaviors, their stressmore with same-language speakers than with

did not decrease.

Japanese people, it is necessary to aware that

Furthermore, when dividing the ISs intosuch usage could inhibit their communication

Chinese and non-Chinese, the results showedwith Japanese people from the perspective ofthat the group identification for non-Chinese ISs

better understanding of the Japanese culture andhad no direct effect on the social support received

learning of the Japanese language.

from same-language speakers through FTF

5.2 Future workcommunication (H4). As previously mentioned,

To date, the definition of “same-language

over 60% of the ISs in Japan were Chinese,

speakers” has been based on “nationality,” whichmeaning there were fewer opportunities for non-does not necessarily apply to some ISs. For
13

The Effects of Generalized Trust and Group Identification on Social Support Networks and Feelings of Stress in Japan: Comparing Face-to-face and Instant MessagingYE

example, some non-Chinese ISs used the Chinese

calculated as L2 score/400 x .08 or N2 score/ 180

version to answer the survey, although English is

x .08. (L2/N2’s level is approximately 80% of L1/

one of their official languages. Based on existing

N1’s.); (c) For ISs who did not take the JLPT, it wastheory, this study categorized them as “non-calculatedas:(self-evaluation

percentageofChinese ISs.” However, it is possible that these“listening” + “speaking” + “reading” + “writing”)/400.

ISs might have different perceptions and consider4) As TOEFL and TOEIC have different standards,

Chinese ISs as “same-language speakers.” It is

English ability was calculated as follows: (a) For anecessary to reconsider the definition of it in the

TOEIC score over 950, TOEIC score/10 + 8; for a

future.

TOEIC score of 901–950, TOEIC score/10+4; for a

It is necessary to note the generality of the

TOEIC score of 851–900, TOEIC score/10 + 3, andfindings in this study, as over 95% of the analyzed

so on; (b) For those who did not take any test,

targets were regular course students in generalproficiency was calculated as (self-evaluation

national universities in the Kanto Region. The

percentage of listening + speaking + reading +present study did not provide any findings for ISs
enrolled

inprivateuniversities,

writing)/400.

vocational5) Following Ye et al. (2017), the frequency of Internet

schools, or junior colleges. Furthermore, thisuse was converted as monthly; namely, “6” wasstudy did not investigate how ISs’ motivation

counted as “30,” “5” was counted as “25,” “1” wasrelates to their adaptation, as previous studies

counted as “0.”indicated that different factors influence ISs’6) This study calculated the score of each item foracademic and social/cultural adaptation. In thesocial support as “1” when it was chosen and “0”future, it would be necessary to examine how ISs’

when it was not chosen and added up.

motivation relates to the two kinds of adaptation
andtoconsiderinteractionswith7) Since “gender” is a nominal scale, this study codedthemale as “0,” female as “1” and other as “2” whensociolinguistic environment.

conducting analysis.

Notes

Acknowledgement

1) Parts of the results have been reported in the 13th

This study was supported by JSPS KAKENHI

Biennial Conference of the Asian Association of

Grant Number 17K17620. The author would like toSocial Psychology (AASP) (2019) and SIETAR

thank all the students who helped answer thisJapan 34h Annual Conference (2019).

questionnaire survey.

2) The survey was conducted with the approval of the
Research Ethics Review Board at Faculty ofReferences

Library, Information and Media Science, University

Japan Student Services Organization (JASSO) (2020)
Result of an annual survey of internationalof Tsukuba.
3) Japanese Language Proficiency was calculated as

students in Japan 2019. https://studyingjapan.

follows: (a) For ISs who had passed JLPT-L1/N1, it

go.jp/en/_mt/2020/08/date2019z_e/pdf

was calculated as L1 score/400 or N1 score/180.

(Retrieved on Nov. 7, 2020)(The total score of L1 is 400 while N1 is 180.); (b)Jou, Y.H. (1993) An attempt to construct a social

For ISs who had passed JLPT-L2/N2, it was

support scale for Chinese students in Japan.

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Japanese Journal of Social Psychology, 8(3), pp.235-

system as a public good, Journal of Personality and245. (in Japanese)

Social Psychology, 5(1), pp.110-116.

Karasawa, M. (1991). Toward an assessment of social

Yamagishi, T. & Yamagishi, M. (1994) Trust andidentity: The structure of group identification andcommitment in the United states and Japan.

its effects on in-group evaluations, British Journal

Motivation and Emotion, 18(2), 129-166.

of Social Psychology, 30, pp.293-307.

Yamagishi, T. (1998) Shinrai no kouzou; kokoro to

Kim, S. (2003) The relationship between social

syakai no shinka gemu (The Structure of Trust:

network and cellular-phone use for international

The Evolutionary Games of Mind and Society).

students in Japan. The Bulletin of the Institute ofTokyo: Tokyo University Press. (in Japanese)

Socio- Information and Communication Studies,

Ye, S.Y. & Murota, M. (2014) Influence of international

the University of Tokyo (65), pp. 363-394. (instudents’ communication media usage on their

Japanese)

adaptation situation to daily lives in Japan:

Okunishi, Y. & Tanaka, T. (2008) Cultural support by

Focusing on cell phone and computer usage,

Japanese host students: In search of the supportive

Socio- Informatics, 3(1), pp.1-15. (in Japanese)roles for international students’ cross-cultural

Ye, S.Y. (2017) The relationship between international

adaptation, Multicultural Relations, 5(0), pp. 1-16.

students’ social skills, social support networks and(in Japanese)

adaptation in Japan, International Journal of

Shuter, R. (2012) When Indian women text message:

Culture and History, 3(2), pp.147-156.

Culture, identity, and emerging interpersonal

Ye, S.Y., Toshimori, A. & Horita, T. (2017) Causal

norms of new media, College of Communication

relationships between media/social media use

Faculty Research and Publications, pp. 209-221

and Internet literacy among college students:

Tajefl, H. & Turner, J.C. (1986) The social identity

Addressing the effects of social skills and gendertheory of intergroup behavior, in Psychology ofdifferences, Educational Technology Research,

Intergroup Relations, Worchel. S & Austin, W.G.

40(1), pp.61-70.

Eds. Chicago: Nelson-Hall, pp.7-24.

Ye, S.Y. (2018) Trust, social support and adaptation:

Tanaka, T. (2000) Social networks and social skills of

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Yamagishi, T. (1986) The provision of a sanctioning

15

Refereed Original Paper
Fragmentation and Dynamics of Echo Chambers of
Turkish Political Youth Groups on Twitter
Keywords:
fragmentation, echo chamber, polarization, youth participation in politics, social media

Seval Yurtcicek OZAYDIN, Tokyo Institute of Technology
Ryosuke NISHIDA, Tokyo Institute of Technology

Abstract
Aiming to contribute to the debate whether the Internet and in particular social networks areleading to echo chambers of fragmented groups or to public sphere, this article investigates the
dynamics of echo chambers of followers of Turkish political youth groups on Twitter. It focuseson two classes: Official youth organizations of ruling party and main opposition party, and one
independent group. Retrieving over 40 million tweets of 30 thousand followers of these groups,
5.5 million interactions between 2016 and 2018 were analyzed. Strong echo chambers are found,and no weakening observed with a small-scale exception through cross-ideology exposure byindividuals following two groups. The results are discussed along with the political lines and the
independence level of the groups.

Received: 26 April 2021; Accepted: 23 August 2021

17

Fragmentation and Dynamics of Echo Chambers of Turkish Political Youth Groups on Twitter

OZAYDIN et al

1.1 Literature Review

1. Introduction

Early studies of online communication favored
The emergence of the Internet and in particular

the first side of this debate. For example,

social media has unprecedentedly enabled the

Gentzkow and Shapiro (2010) found that the levelinteractions of individuals among the world. Itof online fragmentation is much lower than thegave rise to a fundamental debate whether it isfragmentation

leading to favoring the democracy by ensuring

interactions, and also claimed that they found no

individuals easy access and even exposure toevidence for the increase of fragmentation on thewidespread

viewpoints,orhinderingintheface-to-face

human

the

Internet. Lee et al. (2014) found that online

improvement of democracy. In the former case,political discussions can moderate the politicalthe communication media have a potential topolarization. In a more recent work, Boxell et al.

evolve to a public sphere through exposure to(2017) found that the political polarization is on

different or even opposite ideologies with athe rise in the US mostly among individuals who

significant and effective volume of interactions.

less likely use the Internet and social networking

However in the latter case, the interactions

sites.

between different minded groups are limited andHowever, some of the recent literature favors

significantly less effective than the interactions

the other side of the debate. That is, thiswithin each group, forming and reinforcing the

emergence also expedites people to gather

so-called “echo chambers”, potentially leading toaround the same ideological lines on online

group polarization (see Sunstein (2001); Sunstein

platforms and interact mostly to those having(2002)). Studying online political conversations

similar or even same perspectives towards groupon a single- or multi-country basis, an intensepolarization (see Sunstein (2002)), raising aeffort has been devoted to contributing to thisthreatdebate.

fragmentation, echo chambers and polarizationtodemocracy.

StudiesononlineOnline political discussions in Turkey are held

cover a wide range. Analyzing 30 thousand tweets

mostly on Twitter. Along this line, focusing on

on abortion (after the shooting of an abortion

the dynamics of the interactions between the

doctor on May 31, 2009), Yardi and Boyd (2010)

followers of Twitter accounts of three largest

studied the dynamics of group polarization overpolitical youth groups of Turkey in a period oftime. They found that although similar minded

three years, this study analyses whether the echopeople strengthen group polarization, interactions

chambers of these fragmented groups are

between different minded people lead to weaken

reinforced or weakened over time on Twitter. It

the polarization over time via exposure to broader

also analyses the role of deliberative cross-perspectives. Focusing on two distinct types ofideological exposure in the weakening of theFacebook groups, i.e. one on conspiracy theories

echo chambers. In order to establish a concreteandbasis for this study, the relevant previous works

Quattrociocchi et al. (2016) found quantitative

are introduced below.

evidence of echo chambers on social media.
On

the

the

other

on

other

scientific

hand,information,

onlinepolitical

fragmentation and its consequences have become18

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. 14 No. 1 Sep. 2021

core issues in the field (see Papacharissi (2002);

they are rarely exposed to cross-ideologicalDahlberg (2007)). In order to provide a large-

content. Analyzing Twitter data during 2011

scale multi-country analysis on extremism due tonational elections, Aragon et al. (2013) foundonline political fragmentation, Bright (2018)evidence of balkanization of the Spanish online

studied the discussion activities of 115 politicalpolitical conversation. As Switzerland is a uniquegroups among 26 countries and found that thecountry with a fragmented party system andmore people get ideologically extreme, the lessstrong federalism, Rauchfleisch and Metagthey tend to interact with the other extremes in(2015) studied the political communication ofdifferent ideologies. Very recently, analyzing the

Swiss politicians on Twitter. Analyzing the online

political commenting of around 700 thousand

interactions towards 2011 federal elections,people, Bond and Sweitzer (2018) found that the

Garcia et al. (2015) found a strong polarization inincrease in the engagement in politics lead to an

the online political network. Analyzing around six

increased communication between ideologicallythousand tweets during 2011 federal elections indissimilar people and decreased homophily.

Canada, Grudz and Roy (2014) found evidences

Barberaonlinefor both political polarization, and potential forfragmentation is in accordance with the offline

cross-ideological interactions. Supporting themeasures. Analyzing Facebook interactions ofanalysis of around 700 thousand South Korean

liberal(2014)

andshowedconservative

that

the

news

Twitter users’ activities with survey data, Hahn etorganization pages, echo chambers are observed,

partisanal. (2015) showed how news following on Twitterand political orientation segregates partisan

is sharply polarized due to selective exposure. On

political discussions on social media (Jacobson etthe other hand, studying Facebook data of theal (2015)).

UK and Italy regarding the consumption ofBecause online political fragmentation cannot

political information, Casteltrione (2014) argued

be independent from the unique cultural aspects,

how social networking could reduce politicalit was also investigated on the basis of countries.

fragmentation and polarization via reducing theAnalyzing the interactions of 10.1 million US

level of selective exposure.

Facebook users with news shared on social

According to Dahlberg (2007), both sides of

media, Bakshy et al. (2015) found ideologicalthis debate -whether the Internet is leading tohomophily in friend networks, and in their work,echo chambers of fragmented groups or to an

Colleoni et al. (2014) also measured homophily in

expanded public sphere- make their observations

Twitter. Conover et al. (2011) focused on theon very ‘small pool’ of data and also the data arepolitical alignment of Twitter users, and Colleoni

usually used selectively. Research based on

et al. (2014) focused on the structural differences

surveys or content analyses usually concentrateof homophily of Democrats and Republicans inon a small set of ‘significant issues’. What is more,

the US. Performing content analysis on thealthough more research is needed, the underlying

network of selected political topics regarding

assumptions should not contain flaws, which2010 midterm elections, Himelboim et al. (2013)

usually arise from to Habermasian theory.

found that because the clusters of Twitter users
in the US are usually politically homogeneous,
19

Fragmentation and Dynamics of Echo Chambers of Turkish Political Youth Groups on Twitter

1.2 Research Gap and Research QuestionsOZAYDIN et al

RQ1: Are there strong echo chambers between

In this subsection, we describe the researchfragmented groups, namely the followers of the

gap we address and the research questions wepolitical youth organizations?

rise in this work. As stated above, political

RQ2: If there are, do these echo chambers

fragmentation, echo chambers and polarization

reinforce or weaken over time?

in a country are inseparable from the unique

RQ3: Do the strength of echo chambers depend

socio-cultural aspects from it. Furthermore,on the type of the youth group, i.e. whether it is acountries with a dense political agenda provide apolitical party’s official organization, or an

fruitful environment for research.

independent political organization?

Focusing on Turkey, which has been facing

On the other hand, despite the efforts to detectharsh political experiences and the polarization‘who tweets’ using Twitter data (see Sloan et al.

of the society is argued to increase sharply during(2015)), it is generally not known directly who is

the last decade, this article aims to contribute toyoung, making it difficult to study youth

the debate in the light of the arguments ofparticipation in politics on social media. Hence,

Dahlberg (2007) within a dynamical perspective

this study chooses a different direction. Rather

covering a three-years period. To name just a few,

than attempting to detect young people on

the rise of political Islam through AKP (JusticeTwitter, the study focuses on the political youthand Development Party) and Gulen movement

groups. Instead of ‘young people’ directly, thisduring the last decades, Syrian war andarticle claims to study on the followers of theimmigration issues, Gezi Park Protests in 2013,

Twitter accounts of political youth groups. This

the conflict appeared between AKP and Gulenway, the first step in the fragmentation research

movement which resulted in a failed coup attemptwhich is generally to detect the individuals

informing fragmented groups is already achieved

2016,

and

the

regimechangefromparliamentary to a so-called ‘Turkish-stylein the present work.

presidential’ in 2018 make this country an

In order to contribute to the efforts on youth

interesting cradle for research in this field. Gezi

participation in politics as well from a structural

Park Protests has been the first big case inviewpoint, this article studies the youth groups inTurkey that social media played a key role,

two classes. First one is the official youth

leading up to studies such as Haciyakupoglu andorganizations of political parties. In this class, theWeiyu (2015), Ogan and Varol (2017), Varol et al.

youth organizations of the two biggest political(2014), and Budak and Duncan (2015).

parties of Turkey, i.e. ruling party and the main

However, to the best of our knowledge, acomprehensive

study

on

onlineopposition party are studied. The second class ispolitical

the independent political youth group, and thefragmentation and echo chambers in Turkey islargest group in this class is studied. Hence,

missing. As the youth is in the center of most of

spanning a 3-year period, the dynamics of echothese political experiences such as Gezi Park

chambers of the followers of fragmented politicalProtests, such a study focusing on Turkish youth

youth groups is analyzed. The method of thisbecomes even more prominent. Hence, we ask

study follows the critics of Dahlberg (2007). That

our main research questions (RQs) as follows.

is, in order to avoid from being selective and from20

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. 14 No. 1 Sep. 2021

sticking to a small set of ‘significant issues’,

Locating in the central right, the supporters ofrather than a topic or hashtag basis or a content

AKP do not follow strict ideological line, but

analysis, the whole space of interactions onrather span a wide spectrum. The main issues

Twitter between the groups are studied. To makecreating fragmentation among Turkish people

observations on a ‘big pool’, over 40 million

are secularism, headscarf rights, Kemalism,

tweets of around carefully selected 30 thousand

human rights, youth politics and economy. AKP

individuals were analyzed.

has been in the center of these issues, usuallyThis article is organized as follows. In the next

receiving serious criticism for polarizing thesection, political youth groups in Turkey underpeople ideologically.

consideration and their ideological lines are

2.2 CHP

introduced. Next, the method for retrieving andanalyzing the data are presented. The results are

Established in 1923 and though experienced

discussed in a theoretical perspective, which isseveral transformations during the last century,

followed by the conclusion.

CHP is the founder party of the modern Turkish
Republic, claiming to follow the six basic

2. Political Youth Groups in Turkey

principles of Kemal Ataturk: Republicanism,
Populism, Secularism, Reformism, Nationalism

In order to provide a through insight to thisand Statism. However, in the last decade, CHP isstudy, a brief introduction to the political groups

criticized to be moving away from thesein consideration is given in this section. The

principles, in particular for the candidates andofficial youth organizations of political parties inpolitical alliances during the elections. Being a

Turkey consist of the official members of thecentral left party, CHP covers a very wide range

parties below a certain age. Rather than focusingof ideologies, mainly social democrats and also

on youth issues, these youth organizations

including a spectrum from radical leftists todirectly follow the general politics of the party.

people who define themselves as not even leftists

On the other hand, following their ideologicalbut only republicans.

lines, independent political youth groups create

2.3 TGB

their own policies. This study focuses on theofficial youth organization of the ruling party,

Established in 2006 through the union of 65

AKP (Justice and Development Party) and main

student clubs (most of them being Ataturk’s

opposition party, CHP (Republican People’s

Thought Clubs) at 40 universities, TGB (Youth

Party), and the largest independent political

Union of Turkey) is the largest independent

youth group TGB (Youth Union of Turkey).

political youth organization, currently organizedin 65 universities and hundreds of high schools in

2.1 AKP

70 cities. Claiming to be Kemalist, patriotic,

The party AKP was founded in 2001 and has

secular and anti-imperialist, TGB follows a strict

been the ruling party since 2002 elections. AKP

ideological line.

claims to be a ‘conservative democratic party’,At the first glance, the ideological line of TGB

and Islam has been the core value of the party.

may look similar and even overlapping to the21Fragmentation and Dynamics of Echo Chambers of Turkish Political Youth Groups on Twitter

OZAYDIN et al(claimed) line of CHP up to some point, and

I. The followers of the official Twitter accounts ofstrictly against to the line of AKP. However, in thethe three groups in concern were detected,

daily politics, some serious conflicts emerge

namelybetween TGB and CHP, and reconciliations take(i)	@AKGenclikGM:

place between TGB and AKP. Due to such

Official

youth

organization of AKP,

conflicts and reconciliations over time, a variable(ii)	
@chpgenclikgm: Official youth organization

volume of face-to-face and online interactions canof CHP,

be expected between these fragmented groups.

(iii) @
 genclikbirligi: TGB, the independent
political youth organization.

3. Methodology

II. In order to eliminate the accounts whichcannot be considered as reflecting the nature of

An unbiased analysis spanning a long period

the political youth groups, filters were applied tofor detecting the strength and the dynamics ofeach set of followers according to the criteria

echo chambers among fragmented groups

below:

require to make no assumptions based on the(i)	Verified accounts (with blue tick). These

daily political issues. Hence, analyzing the pureaccounts usually belong to politicians,

volume of interactions within the groups andjournalists, celebrities etc.

between the groups over time can also shed light(ii)	Accounts with screen names consisting of

onto question whether temporal conflicts andeight consecutive digits. These accounts

reconciliations have a significant effect on theare usually maintained automatically.

dynamics of echo chambers.

(iii) Accounts with screen names including the

In order to analyze the dynamics of theabbreviations AKP, CHP, TGB, etc. These

interactions between the carefully selectedaccounts usually belong to party or groupsubsets of the followers of the Twitter accounts ofprofessionals, not natural followers.

the political youth groups in concern, the data ofIII. The common followers of the groups were

this study covering the range from January 1,

detected and labeled as listed in Table 1.

2016 to December 31, 2018 were retrieved fromIV. Due to the rate limits of Twitter, because it

Twitter during January 2019, using Tweepy

would be infeasible to retrieve all the tweets of all

library for Python programming language

the users in sets A, C and T (making more thanhalf million), commensurate subsets As, Cs and(Tweepy, 2010). Finding the volume of intra- andinter-group interactions, the obtained numbers

Ts were picked as follows. There are users withreveal the strength of echo chambers of eachtoo many or too few tweets that potentiallypolitical youth organization for each year.

unbiased the results. Hence, rather than aObservation in the 3-years period shows whether

random sampling, we sorted the users in eachthe echo chamber of each group is weakened orset, i.e. A, C and T by their total number of tweets.

reinforced with respect to time, indicating the

We compared these sorted sets with respect todisposition to group polarization (Sunsteintotal number of tweets of the users. We found that

(2002)). In details, the basic steps of the method

taking 5% of each set with an upper bound of
30.000 tweets leads to subsets As, Cs and Ts withare as follows:
22

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. 14 No. 1 Sep. 2021

comparable numbers of tweets, excluding theTable 1. The sets of considered Twitter users

users with too many and too few tweets.

Number of
Followers

V. The tweets of the users in the subsets As, Cs
and Ts were retrieved. Note that, the tweets of

Set

Explanation

the users following more than one group (such as

A

Following only AKP(@AKGenclikGM)

335.345

C

Following only CHP(@chpgenclikgm)

50.766T

Following only TGB(@genclikbirligi)

191.750

VI. Each retrieved tweet was checked if it is aAC

Following AKP and CHP

1.432

Comment, or Reply,

AT

Following AKP and TGB

2.227

CT

Following CHP and TGB

4.017

ACT Following AKP, CHP and TGB

148

the sets AC or AT) were not retrieved because it
is not possible to determine exactly which user
actually belongs to one group, and also following
the other group. The intersecting sets and thesubsets are illustrated in Figure 1.
Retweet, Retweet

withconstituting an interaction with a target user
(whose tweet was retweeted or received a reply).
If so, the target user was searched among theseven sets listed in Table 1. If found, the relevant

4. Results

counter was incremented.
Please note that the sets of the follower
accounts are fixed (according to Steps I-IV), andThe goal of this study is to analyze the strength

then their tweets are retrieved at once for theand the dynamics of echo chambers of fragmented

three-years period (according to Step V). Hence,

Turkish political youth groups to reveal thethe results are not affected from the change ofinclination to group polarization and extremism.

the followers during that three-years period.

The groups are studied in two classes: Official
youth organizations of (ruling and opposition)
parties, and an independent group.
At the time of the study, AKP (@AKGenclikGM)
had 391.662, CHP (@chpgenclikgm) had 60.505
and TGB (@genclikbirligi) had 205.552 followers.
After the filtering, these numbers reduced to339.155, 56.366 and 198.145, respectively, and theresult of the classification of distinct and common
followers of accounts are given in Table 1. Subsets
As (of size 16767), Cs (of size 2538) and Ts (ofsize 9587) were obtained. Up to last 3.200 tweets(between January 1, 2016 and December 31,2018) of each user in subsets As , Cs and Ts were

Figure 1. Sets of the followers of

retrieved, -as this is the maximum allowed

Twitter accounts of considered

number by Twitter. The numbers of tweets
retrieved are 24.361.415 for As, 3.812.329 for Cs,

official youth organizations.
23

Fragmentation and Dynamics of Echo Chambers of Turkish Political Youth Groups on Twitterand 12.193.410 for Ts, exceeding 40 million

OZAYDIN et al

Table 2. The number of interactions from As

tweets in total. Next, for each subset, the tweetsAs

were analyzed according to item VI of the Method
section, and among them, the numbers of2016

detected interactions (Retweet, Retweet with

RetweetComments or Reply) are found to be 3.756.220
for As, 383.025 for Cs and 1.353.917 for Ts during

2017

2018

611846 869731 1643179

RT wComment

7512

12929

26539

Reply

59919

89043

141418Retweet

8628

8798

23577

RT wComment

397

596

1612

Reply

4259

5526

11053

Retweet

8652

11090

27279

RT wComment

400

697

1625

Reply

6166

9030

14112

Retweet

12826

16929

22141

479

471

957

Reply

1922

3391

5353

Retweet

4392

8376

11827

RT wComment

197

2298

4042

(following A) have the highest percentage. On

Reply

2661

3169

5521

the other hand, no significant change is observed

Retweet

1325

3144

9934

RT wComment

168

370

910

Reply

1548

4779

7089

Retweet

2980

2134

5885

49

102

291

988

732

1227

A

the 3-years period.
Now, let us analyze the results for each group,
starting with AKP.
C

4.1 AKP

The obvious result for As (the sample subset ofthe official youth organization of the ruling party,
AKP) as shown in Figure 2 (and the dataTpresented in Table 2) is that almost all of theinteractions are made within the fragmented
group, clearly indicating an echo chamber.
Retweets with Comment and Replies can be against

AC RT wCommentor for the original tweet while a Retweet usually
supports the original tweet and also contributes
to its spreading. Hence, this result is the mostobvious for Retweets, in the sense that theATinteractions with the like-minded individuals

over years 2016, 2017 and 2018 (depicted withCT

red, green and blue in the figure, respectively, in

ACT RT wComment
Reply

the figures). The only noticeable changesuggesting a weakening of the echo chamberover time is in the Retweets with Comment to theusers following both AKP and TGB (AT).

Figure 2. Percentage of interactions from As
24

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. 14 No. 1 Sep. 2021

Table 3. The number of interactions from Cs

4.2 CHP
Looking at the numbers of the interactions
only, the weakest echo chamber is found for Cs

Cs(the sample subset of the official youth
organization of the main opposition party, CHP)
in all types of interactions (see Figure 3, and theAdata is presented in Table 3). Although the

2016

2017

Retweet3583

6327 16933

RT wComment

127

294

917

Reply

830

1461

4711

Retweet10322 19210 50957

highest percentage of interactions is done with C,
there is a significant amount of interactions withthe other two groups, T being the maximum; andespecially with the intersections, CT being theC

RT wComment

maximum. What is more, from 2016 to 2018, theinteractions to T and especially to CT exhibit anincrease, as interactions to C tend to decrease.
T

861

2804

2018

5422

Reply

12037 17851 36530

Retweet8201 14812 45807

RT wComment

311

672

2047

In the case of Ts (the sample subset of the

Reply

1852

2459

9962

independent political youth group TGB), again

Retweet

1409

2073

2394

RT w Comment

313

108

230

Reply

459

1153

1547

Retweet

142

312

884

RT wComment

8

13

79

suggesting a weakening of the echo chamber.

Reply

73

136

414

Although the like-mindedness in TGB is

Retweet6283 12510 43980

4.3 TGB

looking at the numbers of the interactions onlyAC(see Figure 4 and the data is presented in Table4), though not as high as AKP, the echo chamber
is found to be stronger than CHP. Similar to thecase of CHP, the interactions with the CT

AT

intersection exhibit an increase over time, again

considered to be the highest, TGB forms a muchCT

weaker echo chamber than AKP.

ACT

RT wComment

420

965

Reply

1173

4644 12589

Retweet

1044

962

2381

RT wComment

10

42

127

Reply

708

444

607

5089

4.4 
Analyzing the Results of Three Groups
Together
Because one can retrieve only around the last
3200 tweets of a user, the more a user tweets

Figure 3. Percentage of interactions from Cs(more than around 1.000 times a year), the more
25

Fragmentation and Dynamics of Echo Chambers of Turkish Political Youth Groups on Twitter

OZAYDIN et al

Table 4. The number of interactions from Ts
Ts
2016

2017

2018

Retweet

8707

10526

33363

RT wComment

302

584

1725

Reply

3514

5966

13265

Retweet

24420

37137

85903

RT wComment

1271

1760

4911

retrieved tweets will belong to the most recent

Reply

4149

5968

20987

years. Therefore, in order to reveal the dynamics

Retweet76122 124093 317200

A

Figure 4. Percentage of interactions from TsCover the years, instead of the exact numbers, theTpercentages of the interactions are analyzed andpresented in Table 5. Take As in 2016, forexample, i.e. analyzing the interactions from theusers in subset As to all the users in each distinct

ACset, the following results are found:
Retweets: 94.04% to A; 1.33% to C; 1.33% to T...
RT wComment: 81.63% to A; 4.31% to C; 4.35% toAT

T..
Reply: 77.35% to A; 5.50% to C; 7.96% to T..
Echo chambers at various levels were observedCTfor each fragmented group. The strongest echochamber is found in the youth organization of
AKP, where the like-minded individuals in thisACTgroup reinforce the group positions and tend to
be in more insulated ‘deliberative enclaves’ (seeRT wComment

4119

8063

24704

Reply

42945

60817

123914Retweet

1345

1293

2322

RT wComment

41

102

195

Reply

398

719

1404

Retweet

1478

2986

10291

RT wComment

112

322

3865

Reply

2142

2451

5879

Retweet

20507

43750

130233

RT wComment

1271

2478

9465

Reply

4135

10657

31477

Retweet

2492

2788

7231

RT wComment

45

95

365

Reply

897

782

1469

Sunstein (2001); Dahlberg (2007)). In the case of
CHP, though being very limited, the weakeningof the echo chamber is achieved mostly throughresults of TGB suggests that being an independent

the individuals on the boundaries, contributing topolitical group, TGB tends to a more rational

the expansion of public sphere towards a stronger

deliberation between ‘unlike-minded’ groups.

democracy (see Habermas (1989)). This result

Sunstein (2001) discussed that such a rationalsuggests an accordance with the policy of CHP indeliberation paves the way for avoiding groupthe last decades to cover diverse ideologies. The

polarization and extremism which lead to social
26

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. 14 No. 1 Sep. 2021

Table 5. The percentage of interactions from As, Cs and Ts
As

A

C

T

AC

AT

CT

ACT

Cs

Ts

2016

2017

2018

2016

2017

2018

2016

2017

2018

Retweet

94.04

94.52

94.23

11.56

11.26

10.37

6.45

4.73

5.69

RT with Comment

81.63

74.04

73.77

6.2

6.0

6.59

4.22

4.36

3.81

Reply

77.35

76.98

76.12

4.84

5.19

7.1

6.04

6.83

6.69

Retweet

1.33

0.96

1.35

33.31

34.18

31.2

18.08

16.69

14.65

RT with Comment

4.31

3.41

4.48

42.0

57.25

38.98

17.75

13.13

10.86

Reply

5.5

4.78

5.95

70.26

63.42

55.05

7.13

6.83

10.58

Retweet

1.33

1.21

1.56

26.47

26.35

28.04

56.36

55.75

54.08

RT with Comment

4.35

3.99

4.52

15.17

13.72

14.71

57.52

60.15

54.62

Reply

7.96

7.81

7.6

10.81

8.74

15.01

73.81

69.62

62.46

Retweet

1.97

1.84

1.27

4.55

3.69

1.47

1.0

0.58

0.4

RT with Comment

5.21

2.7

2.66

15.27

2.2

1.65

0.57

0.76

0.43

Reply

2.48

2.93

2.88

2.68

4.1

2.33

0.68

0.82

0.71

Retweet

0.68

0.91

0.68

0.46

0.56

0.54

1.09

1.34

1.75

RT with Comment

2.14

13.16

11.24

0.39

0.27

0.57

1.56

2.4

8.55

Reply

3.44

2.74

2.97

0.43

0.48

0.62

3.68

2.81

2.96

Retweet

0.2

0.34

0.57

20.28

22.26

26.93

15.18

19.66

22.2

RT with Comment

1.83

2.12

2.53

20.49

19.7

36.58

17.75

18.49

20.93

Reply

2.0

4.13

3.82

6.85

16.5

18.97

7.11

12.2

15.87

Retweet

0.46

0.23

0.34

3.37

1.71

1.46

1.84

1.25

1.23

RT with Comment

0.53

0.58

0.81

0.49

0.86

0.91

0.63

0.71

0.81

Reply

1.28

0.63

0.66

4.13

1.58

0.91

1.54

0.9

0.74

destabilization and supports social cohesion.

small exception through the individuals following

Despite the dense political agenda andtwo groups.

arguably increasing social polarization of the

A more detailed analysis could take into

country, no significant change in the strength ofaccount the number of followers of each group.

echo chamber of each group is observed in a

Let us take C, T and CT for example with the

3-year interval between 2016 and 2018, with thenumber of followers approximately 51 thousand,27

Fragmentation and Dynamics of Echo Chambers of Turkish Political Youth Groups on Twitter

192 thousand and 4 thousand, respectively. At thefirst glance, the number of interactions from Ts

OZAYDIN et al(from January 1, 2016 to December 31, 2018).
However, the more a follower tweets, the more

to C and from Ts to CT (in Figure 4) looks

retrieved tweets will belong to most recent years,

comparable. However, taking into account thepotentially biasing the results. In order tonumber of individuals in each set, it is revealed

overcome this potential bias, rather than the raw

that these comparable number of interactions arenumbers, the percentages of the interactions for

actually made to groups of ≈ 51 thousand and ≈ 4each year were analyzed.

thousandpeople,respectively.

Therefore,

The findings support the previous researchnormalizing the number of interactions to eachthat suggests strong echo chambers in thegroup with respect to the size of the target groupfragmented political groups, such as the very

provides a clear evidence that the interactions

recent one demonstrating the inevitability of

towards expanding the public sphere are made toecho chambers (Sasahara (2019)).

the individuals who are following two groups, -in

One of the shortcomings of retrieving existingother words, the individuals who constitute adata from Twitter is that due to official requests

bridge between ideological fragmented groups

by governments, Twitter may be deleting somethrough selective exposure. From the same pointof the tweets or suspending accounts, leading toof view, as the size of TGB is almost four times ofimperfections in the analyses or even biasing the

CHP, Figures 3 and 4 can be re-interpreted:
Regarding the interactions from the subset Cs toresults. As a matter of fact, Turkish Government

T in Figure 3, the size of the target group T is four

Twitter the most. However, one can expect thattimes of the size of C. However, regarding theinteractions from the subset Ts to C in Figure 4,

the deleted tweets are actually the sharpest

the size of the target group C is one fourth of theforming and reinforcing echo chambers but also

size of T.

to polarization and extremism. This could bias

is one of the countries requesting removals frompolitical ones, contributing not only to the

In summary, taking into account the size of thethe results in the favor of weakening the echotarget group in each interaction, these resultschambers. Therefore, our interpretation is thatsuggest that although TGB has a narrower

having access to the deleted tweets could lead toideological line than CHP, the echo chamber ofmore accurate results showing even stronger

TGB may be considered as comparable to that ofecho chambers. On the other hand, rather than

CHP, emphasizing a rational deliberative. This

the existing ones, retrieving tweets via live

can be linked to the independent nature of TGB,

streaming could catch the tweets before they are

rather than being the official extension of adeleted. This method has the drawback ofpolitical party.

technical and practical difficulties in the process,especially for the studies spanning several years.

5. Discussions

A basic issue in analyzing data retrieved fromsocial network sites such as Twitter especially inIn this study, the interactions of the targeted

political conversations is the existence offollowers were analyzed by retrieving up to last

automated accounts, due to their impact in

3200 tweets of each follower in a 3-years periodmanipulating the conversations (see Ferrara et28

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. 14 No. 1 Sep. 2021

al. (2016); Shao et al. (2018); Vosoughi, Roy andsense that the followers of AKP are more

Aral (2018)). In order to eliminate the impact ofconservative than the followers of CHP or TGB,

automated accounts, twe applied a filtering as

and more conservative individuals tend to form

explained in the Method section.

stronger political echo chambers in the US case

The motivation behind the study on echo(see Boutyline and Willer (2016)). What is more,chambers is that more than reinforcing thefollowers of AKP are usually less educated (seeideologies, political discussions among like-Uncu

minded individuals drive the fragmented groups

influenced easier than others by politicalto extreme ideologies (Sunstein (2001)). In order

discussions, which potentially increases the levelto grasp the strength of echo chambers not onlyof homophily, forms and reinforces echo

at an arbitrary time, but actually the evolution ofchambers leading to group polarization (seeit in the long term, our method is to focus on a

Sasaki (2016)).

(2018)).

Less

educatedpeoplearespecific 3-year period in which Turkey had

TGB is found to have a slightly stronger echo

intense political experiences and it is widelychamber than CHP. However, taking into accountbelieved that the political polarization among

the size of the target set of interactions in a more

people has increased sharply.

detailed analysis, the strength of the echochambers of TGB and CHP becomes comparable.

6. Conclusions

On the contrary to the followers of AKP and CHP
who have a wide spectrum of ideologies, theThe purpose of this article is to contribute tofollowers of TGB has a strictly narrow and well

the debate on online political fragmentation anddefined ideology. Therefore, despite its narrower

echo chambers, by investigating the dynamics ofpolitical line, having a much weaker echo

echo chambers among the followers of threechamber than AKP and only a slightly stronger

largest political youth groups of Turkey between

one than CHP can be interpreted as a consequence

2016 and 2018. In particular, these groups areof being not an official party organization but an

studied in two classes. The first class consists of

independent organization. This result emphasizes

the official youth organizations of ruling party

the role of independent political organizations

AKP (Justice and Development Party) and main

towards a stronger democracy.

opposition party CHP (Republican People’s

When it comes to the dynamics of echo

Party). The second class consists of the largest

chambers, in the period that Turkey had harsh

independent political group TGB (Youth Union ofpolitical experiences including a failed coup

Turkey). Retrieving over 40 million tweets of a

attempt, and political polarization among thecarefully selected 30 thousand followers of thesepeople is believed to become sharper, nogroups, 5.5 million interactions (Retweets,

significant change of echo chambers is found.

Retweets with Comment, Replies) were analyzed.

The only small-scale exception is through theAmong these fragmented groups, strong echo

individuals following not one but two groups,

chambers were found, by far the strongest in theexperiencing a deliberative cross-ideologicalruling party AKP. This finding supports the

exposure.

previous research focusing in the US case in theThis work focused on the fragmentation and29

Fragmentation and Dynamics of Echo Chambers of Turkish Political Youth Groups on Twitter

OZAYDIN et al

the dynamics of echo chambers of political youth

political echo chambers: Variation in ideologicalgroups in Turkey. To the best of our knowledge,

homophily

this is the first work in the field to focus on

Psychology, 38(3), 551-569

inonlinenetworks.

Political

political youth groups. Our results favor the side

Boxell L, Gentzkow M, Shapiro, JM (2017) Greaterof the debate that online political discussions leadInternet use is not associated with faster growth into strong echo chambers and polarization. In

political polarization among US demographic

addition, previous research is supported thatgroups. Proceedings of the National Academy ofcross-ideological exposure lead to weakening

Sciences, 114(40): 10612-10617

echo chambers, contributing to the favoring of

Bright J (2018) Explaining the Emergence of Politicaldemocracy. Because each country has specific

Fragmentation on Social Media: The Role ofcultural and political aspects, we believe that

Ideology and Extremism. Journal of Computer-future works on other countries could contributeMediated Communication 23: 17-33

to provide a more insightful perspective for the

Budak C, Duncan JW (2015) Dissecting the spirit ofdebate whether the Internet is leading to echo

Gezi: Influence vs. selection in the Occupy Gezi

chambers of fragmented groups or to an

movement. Sociological Science 2: 370-397

expanded public sphere.

Casteltrione

I(2014)

Facebook

and

Political

Information in Italy and the UK: An Antidote

Acknowledgements

against Political Fragmentation and Polarisation?

SYO thanks to Fatih Ozaydin for fruitful technical

Online Journal of Communication and Media

discussions.

SYO

acknowledges

Tokyo

Tech

Technologies 4(1): 27-49

Tsubame Scholarship.

Colleoni E, Rozza A, Arvidsson A (2014) Echo
Chamber or Public Sphere? Predicting Political

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32

Translation
Examining the interactions on SNS that result in meetups amonghigh school adolescents

1, 2

Keywords:
Social networking service, High school adolescents, Similarity, Communication, Interaction process

Shin NAKAMINE3, Graduate School of Comprehensive Human Sciences, University of Tsukuba/
JSPS Research Fellow

Shinnosuke TANAKA3, Graduate School of Comprehensive Human Sciences, University ofTsukubaNamiko KAMIJO3, Graduate School of Comprehensive Human Sciences, University of Tsukuba/
JSPS Research Fellow

Abstract
The purpose of this study was to examine how high school adolescents interact with a personof the opposite sex acquainted through SNS and what kind of the interactions result in meeting
him or her in real life. A total of 207 high school adolescents who had experienced meeting insomeone of the opposite sex acquainted through SNS reported their SNS interactions before themeetup. Results showed that the successive interaction about a common subject such as local
being the same and hobbies led to meeting the person in real life. In addition, results showed thathigh school adolescents met in person not when he or she wanted to see them but when they want
to see him or her. Based on these results, future contents of crime prevention education are
discussed.

33

Examining the interactions on SNS that result in meetups among high school adolescents

NAKAMINE et al

As previously described, several studies have

1. Introduction

investigated the relation between individual traits
The number of social networking service

andmeetupswith

opposite-sex

Internet(SNS) users has increased every year, reachingacquaintances. To obtain further information, it

72.16 million (72.1% penetration rate) by the end

is useful to focus on SNS interactions becauseof 2017 (ICT Research Institute, 2018). Since it istheir content is believed to determine thean online service that helps maintain interpersonaloccurrence of a face-to-face meeting. For

relationships, build new ones, and develop

example,interests (Kawaura, Sakata, & Matsuda, 2005), it

Horikawa (2015) found that the most common

can be beneficial if used effectively.

reason high school girls stop interacting with

Hashimoto,Chiba,

Amano,

andHowever, recent years have seen a social

male acquaintances on SNSs is that “the topic

problem involving minors getting into trouble

was boring” (42.5%), followed by “many sexual

because of face-to-face interactions with members

and dirty topics” (38.0%). On the other hand,of the opposite sex whom they have met via

their top reason for interacting with people theySNSs. The National Police Agency (2018)

meet on SNSs, including those of the same sex,

reported an overall increase in the number of

was that they have “common interests andchildren who have been victimized by crimes

preferences” (75.7%). Kato (2013) also analyzed

facilitated by SNS, which necessitates certain

high school girls’ experiences of meeting othersmeasures (Koide, 2008; Ogata, 2014). To

via the Internet, focusing on their states of mind.

conceptualize these measures, one needs to

The results showed that despite having negative

clarify the reasons minors engage in face-to-facefeelings about being acquainted with a partnerinteractions with members of the opposite sex

via the Internet, they found a “positive reason”

whom they meet on SNSs.

(e.g., interaction about a common interest)

Many studies have focused on individual traits

through their interactions with the individual,

regarding these reasons. For example, Hanai andleading to face-to-face meetings.

Oguchi (2005) examined the relation between

Several other studies have been conducted onloneliness among dating site users and theirinteractions leading up to face-to-face meetingsparticipation in dating sites and found that those(Baker, 2000; Walther, 1996), and more researchwith higher levels of loneliness used dating sites

is being done regarding the relation between thefor relationship-building. Caplan (2003) andcontent of SNS interactions and face-to-face

McKenna, Green, and Gleason (2002) also foundmeetings. However, such an interaction processthat individuals who are more lonely preferred tohas not been sufficiently explained; it remains

communicate with their Internet acquaintances,

unclear what kinds of interactions with opposite-

including those of the same sex, and were more

sex strangers begin on SNSs and how theselikely to meet them face-to-face. Takahira (2009)

interactions lead to face-to-face meetings (or not).

also suggested that individuals who have poorly

Since SNS interactions are assumed to continue

adapted to social life and lacked social resources

before a face-to-face meeting with an opposite-sex

are more willing to form new interpersonalacquaintance, it is necessary to examine not only

relationships online.

the substance of these interactions but also how
34Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. 14 No. 1 Sep. 2021

they lead to face-to-face meetings. This study

describe the first time they contacted or wereextends our knowledge on the reasons why

contacted by these individuals.4

minors meet face-to-face with opposite-sex SNS

2.2.2 Content of messages on first contact

acquaintances and may also serve as a resourcefordevising

appropriate

crime

In

preventionanopen-ended

questionnaire,themeasures. Therefore, this study explores theparticipants then indicated the kind of messages

process of SNS interactions (i.e., how these

they received or sent at the time of their firstinteractions lead to face-to-face meetings withcontact.

opposite-sex acquaintances) among high school

2.2.3 Invitations from interactions

students, because 95% of them own and use

Assmartphones (Cabinet Office, 2019).

forinvitations

resulting

from

their

interactions, the respondents were asked to

2. Methods

provide multiple responses to the following
categories: “being asked for contact information

2.1. Participants and proceduresThe

survey,

which

was

outsourced(e-mail address or phone number),” “asking fortocontact information,” “being asked to meet in real

Macromill Inc., was conducted from December

life,” “asking to meet in real life,” “telling his or

22 to 27, 2014. A preliminary survey was sent toher contact information,” “being told interaction

46,300 registered participants who reported thatpartner’s contact information,” or “none of thethey were high school or college students. Of theabove occurred.”

5,000 who responded, 4,103 (1,242 males and2,861 females; Mage = 16.9, SDage = 0.92) stated

2.2.4 Details of interactions prior to invitations

that they were currently in high school or college.

Those who responded with “none of the above

The survey was then distributed to 325 highoccurred” were asked to freely describe the kindschool and college students who have met face-of

to-face with members of the opposite sex withinvitations were made.

interactionthatoccurred

beforesuchwhom they were acquainted through SNSs, and2.2.5 Face-to-face experiences

223 sent back their responses. A total of 207 highschool and college students (112 females and 95

They were then asked if they actually met withmales; Mage = 17.1, SDage = 0.85) participated in

the opposite-sex individual they had been in

the survey. This study obtained approval fromcontact with.

the research ethics committee of the institution

3. Results

to which the authors belonged.

2.2. Measures

A total of 194 individuals were analyzed, 13 of

2.2.1 SNS used on first contact

which were excluded as their answers were

The respondents were asked to recall theirincomplete.

most memorable experiences meeting a strangerof the opposite sex through SNSs and to freely
35

Examining the interactions on SNS that result in meetups among high school adolescents

3.1 Type of SNS used on first contact

Table 1. Content of SNS interactions with the

There were 14 different types of SNSs throughopposite sex

which the respondents had initial contact with
theiracquaintances.

The

most

NAKAMINE et al

Categories

frequently

ExamplesRates

First contact（n = 194）

mentioned SNS was Twitter (n = 100, 51.5%).

Greetings

SNSs that were mentioned by more than one

Common topics

person included LINE (n = 23, 11.9%), chat sites

Nice to meet you.
We are from thesame hometown.
Would you like to

40.2%

(78)

28.9%

(56)

8.8%

(17)

(n = 10, 5.2%), BBSs (Bulletin Board Systems)

Invitations

such as LINE BBS (n = 10, 5.2%), Facebook (n =Self-introductions

I am XX.

6.7%

(13)

8, 4.1%), Skype (n = 7, 3.6%), Ameba (n = 7, 3.6%),

Chatting

We had a chat.

6.2%

(12)

You are so pretty.

5.7%

(11)

5.7%

(11)

5.2%

(10)

2.1%

(4)

19.6%

(38)

Common hobbies.

50.0%

(84)

Age.

40.5%

(68)

22.0%

(37)

10.7%

(18)

7.7%

(13)

7.1%

(12)

3.0%

(5)

16.7%

(28)

Expression of

and GREE (n = 6, 3.1%) and mixi (n = 6, 3.1%).

5

favor

3.2 Classification of contact content, rate of

Use of BBS

acceptance of invitations during theApproachingcontact, and rate of actual meetings

meet me?

I saw your postingon BBS.
Let’s talk.
We’ll exchangeFree descriptions were classified according toContact exchange

contact
information.

the contents of the first contact and interactions

Other/none/don’t remember

until the invitation. The first author and a

Interactions prior to the invitation（n = 168）

graduate student, who did not know the purpose

Common interestsof the study, performed the kind of KJ method to

Personal

classify the responses based on the similarity of

information

the descriptions (Kawakita, 1986). This generated

Gossip12 categories for the first-contact content and 10

Interpersonal

categories for the content of interactions prior to

relationships

the invitation (Table 1). For the former, the mostcommon category was “Greetings (nice to meetyou, etc.)” while for the latter, the top category

everyday events.
Conversation about
friends.

Personal topics

Consultation.

Hope forWould you like tofriendshipwas “Common interests (common hobbies,

Conversation about

go to a concert?
Where would youetc.).” Many responses were categorized under

Imagination

go if you did meetme?

“other/ none/don’t remember” because most of

Other/none/don’t remember

them fell under “none/don’t remember”; anNote. The figures in parentheses correspond to
the number of people described in the category.

example of a response under “other” was “yes.”
The rate of those who reported invitations that
occurred during interaction is shown in Table 2.

3.3 The interaction process leading up to the

The most commonly reported experience wasface-to-face meeting“being asked to meet in real life.” About 10% of
the respondents reported receiving no invitations

Hayashi’s quantification Method III (Method

while 122 (62.9%) reported actually meeting their

III) was used to examine the kinds of interactions

contacts.

that resulted in face-to-face meetings with36

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. 14 No. 1 Sep. 2021

performed using the calculated category scores

Table 2. Rate of invitations that occurred during

up to three axes, and four clusters were extracted6

the contact
Options(Figure 1).

Rates

The first cluster consisted of “Greetings,”

Being asked for contact information

44.3%

(86)

Asking for contact information

20.1%

(39)

“Self-introductions,”

Being asked to meet in real life

53.6%

(104)

Asking to meet in real life

26.8%

(52)

“Gossip,” “Personal topics,” “Being asked for

Telling contact information

33.5%

(65)

30.9%

(60)

12.4%

(24)

Being

told

interaction

partner’s

contact information
None of the above occurred“Personal

contact information,” and “Being asked to meetin real life.” The second cluster had “Common(a)H op e f or friend shipNote. The figures in parentheses correspond to
the number of people described in the category.

Chatting
Com m o n top ics
Invitation

opposite-sex SNS acquaintances.

First axis

When each category of the content of the first

Co m m on interests

Asking to m eet in real life

M eetup

Being to ld interaction p artner’s
contact inf orm ation

Self-introd uctions
GossipGreeting s
Personal inform ation

when not selected, it was 1. In this case, “Contact

Personal to p ics

exchange” and “Imagination” were excluded

real lif e

was selected, the date was quantified as 2, andBeing asked to m eet incontact and the interaction until the invitation

Exp ression of

from the analysis, as well as “Other,” “Don’t

Telling co ntact info rm atio n
Asking for contact

Being asked f or contact
inform atio nInterp ersonal relationship s

Second axis(b)provide data on a category for either the content

Chatting

U se o f BBSof their first contact or the interaction until the

Exp ressio n of favor

invitation were excluded from the analysis as

Invitation

Ap p roachingwell.

GossipInterp erso nal relationship s

Next, the invitation choices that arose from the

Personal inform ation

quantified as 2 if each category was selected andGreeting s

1 if it was not. In that case, “None of the above
occurred” was excluded from the analysis.
Finally, whether or not the two parties actually: First contact: Interactions prior to the invitations
 : Invitations that occurred during the contact: Meetup

met was quantified using a score of 2 if they did

M eetup
Hop e for friend ship
Asking to m eet in real life

Being asked for contact inform ation

Being told interactio n p artner's

categories,

Being asked to m eet in real life

Personal top ics
Telling contact inform ation

as

Second axis

contact inform atio n
Asking for contact inform atio nregarded: First contact: Interactions prior to the invitations
 : Invitations that occurred during the contact: Meetup

Ap p roachingnumber of descriptions. Participants who did not

were

inform ation

Use o f BBS

favor

remember,” and “None” because of the smallinteractions

information,”

Com m on interests

Com m on to p ics

Self -introd uctions
Third axis

and 1 if they did not. For the 21 categories

Figure 1. Plot of the category score of the

included in the analysis through the above

content of the interaction by Hayashi’s

procedure, the 1, 2, and 3 axes of category scoresquantification methods III—(a) plots of

were

The

the first–second axes and (b) the

eigenvalues were 0.12, 0.10, and 0.09, in that

second–third axes. Enclosures (or noorder. Cluster analysis (Ward’s method) was also

enclosures) indicate the same cluster.

calculatedusing

MethodIII.

37

Examining the interactions on SNS that result in meetups among high school adolescents

topics,”“Commoninterests,”“Hope

NAKAMINE et alforconversations such as “Greetings” or “Common

friendship,” “Asking for contact information,”

topics” and then gradually proceed to deeper“Asking to meet in real life,” “Telling contact

contents such as “Interpersonal relationships” orinformation,” “Being told contact information,”“Personal topics.” This is similar to how offlineand “Meetup.” The third cluster containedromantic“Invitation (first contact)” and “Chatting.” Thefriendly conversations that progressively become

fourth cluster consisted of “Expression of favor,”

more in-depth (Matsui, 2006).

behaviorsdevelop,

starting

with“Use of BBS,” “Approaching,” and “Interpersonal

4.3 
Process of SNS interactions leading torelationships.”

face-to-face meetings
4. Discussion

In our study of interactions that result in faceto-face meetings, we generated four clusters. The

This study examined high school students’interactions

with

their

opposite-sex

results suggest the following typical interaction

SNS

process on SNSs.7
The first cluster consisted of the first-contact

acquaintances and how they ended up meeting

content, the interaction content prior to thethese individuals in real life.

invitation, and the invitation that occurred during

4.1 
Rate of high school students who met
face-to-facewith

opposite-sex

contact. This means the typical process begins

SNSwith a greeting (e.g., Nice to meet you.) and aacquaintances

self-introduction (e.g., I am XX.), and then the

The pilot survey showed that 7.9% of highinvitation to meet is received through personalschool and college students met face-to-face withinformation (e.g., age), gossip (e.g., daily life

their opposite-sex SNS acquaintances. Hashimoto

stories), and personal topics (e.g., consultation),

et al. (2015) reported that about 20% of highin which the person is asked to provide theirschool girls (n = 554) engaged in such face-to-

contact

face meetings, a difference of more than 10%

interaction partner. The second cluster had thefrom the present study. However, the results forfirst-contact content, the contact content up to thethe interaction contents were similar to those ofinvitation, and the invitation between contacts

previous studies (Hashimoto et al., 2015; Kato,and also included the “Meetup” category. In

2013), suggesting that the following discussion

other words, the typical process starts with aabout interaction contents and processes arecommon topic (e.g., We’re from the same

valid for this study.

hometown.) followed by a discussion of common

information

and

meet

with

their

interests (e.g., common hobbies) and hope for

4.2 Contents of SNS interactions

friendship (e.g., Would you like to go to a

The classifications of the interaction contents

concert?), which then leads to an invitation such

indicated that actions on SNSs evolved in theas requests for contact information, being given

same way as those in offline heterosexual

contact

relationships. In other words, the results showed

information, and asking to meet physically.

that SNS interactions begin with friendship

Finally, real-life meetups occur. The third cluster
38

information,

providingcontact

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. 14 No. 1 Sep. 2021

contained only the first-contact content; that is,cluster analysis has certain limitations regarding

the typical process begins with an invitation (e.g.,

reproducibility.

Would you like to meet?) and a chat (e.g., We had

generalizability of this study’s results, futurea chat.) but did not proceed with the subsequent

research may examine whether an individual’sinteractions. The fourth cluster consisted of theawareness of “similarity” is linked to face-to-face

first-contact content and the interaction content

meetings and other factors.

Therefore,

to

test

the

prior to the invitation. The typical process begins

In the second process, the participants wantedwith an expression of favor or compliment (e.g.,

to meet their interaction partners (i.e., they asked

You are so pretty.), use of BBS (e.g., I saw yourfor the person’s contact information or asked toposting on BBS.), and an approach (e.g., Let’smeet them). It was suggested that they weretalk.), followed by efforts toward interpersonal

meeting not because they were invited but rather

relationships (e.g., conversation about friends).

because they wanted to do so.

Among these typical processes, the second one
resulted in physical meetups, indicating that face-

4.4 A reflection on crime prevention education

to-face meetings were induced by the parties’

Crime prevention education is one of theconsistent interaction on a common subject, suchmeasures to prevent problems caused by physicalas being from the same hometown and having

meetups with heterosexual SNS acquaintances

the same hobbies.

(Koide, 2008; Ogata, 2014). So far, conducting

Some studies (Hashimoto et al., 2015; Kato,

crime prevention education has been focused on2013) have also suggested that common interests

prohibition in which minors are informed of theand preferences are important reasons forrisks of face-to-face meetings with opposite-sex

meeting physically. The present study obtained

SNS acquaintances and encouraged to avoid

similar results, suggesting that it is especiallydoing so (Koide, 2008; Nishimura, Murakami,

important to continue conversations about

and Fuji, 2014; Sugano, 2011). However, based oncommon interests and preferences.

this study’s results, physical meetups wereThis may be because the topics they have inpromoted by consistent interactions aboutcommon with one another lead to interactions incommon topics, and the participants met with thewhich they discover similarities, which havepartners they wanted to meet, which suggest thatbeen shown to influence interpersonal attraction

minors engage in physical interactions with their(Rubin, 1973). Research has examined the impact

partners as a result of their own choices and thatof similarity on the formation of friendships andthey may not think it is dangerous (or they areromantic relationships in existing social networks

hedging their risk). According to Reyna andsuch as schools (Nakamine, 2015; Rubin, 1973).

Farley (2006), minors (teens) do not perceive

Given the differences between SNSs and such

such risk, but in fact engage in risky behaviors

existing social networks, the results showed that

because while they view these behaviors as risky,

similarity affects not only friendships andthey also judge them as more beneficial. This

romantic relationships formed at school andstudy’s results are consistent with those of Reyna

other places but also face-to-face meetups withand Farley (2006). In light of these findings,

opposite-sex

crime prevention education will need to take aSNSacquaintances.

However,39

Examining the interactions on SNS that result in meetups among high school adolescents

new form and let go of its prohibitive nature.

NAKAMINE et al

to cause trouble. This may be done by examining
the kind of interactions that have occurred and

4.5 Limitations and future studies

how long they have been interacting on SNSs

This study has three limitations. First, thewhen they decided to meet physically. In addition,

participants were registered panelists of a survey

interviews may be conducted to clarify whatcompany. It has been pointed out that thekinds of trouble they encountered during these

respondents of a web-based survey that uses a

face-to-face meetings, what they thought about

survey company’s registered panelists may be awhen they decided to meet physically (e.g., thelimited group, as they prefer simple interpersonalrisk of engaging in such meetups), and what they

relationships, have a high affinity for the Internet,

should have focused on during the meeting (e.g.,

and so on (Yoshimura, 2001). Therefore, it isbringing along a third attendant). This would

necessary to be cautious about whether thishelp reduce unpleasant incidents caused by face-study’s findings can be applied to high school andto-face meetings between minors and theircollege students who are not registered monitors.

opposite-sex SNS acquaintances, enabling themSecond, the coverage, duration, and frequency of

to enjoy the benefits of heterosexual relationships

interactions were not sufficient. For example,

that originate from SNS interactions. Future

although Hashimoto et al. (2015) showed that

research on these issues will be important forwhile interactions involved sexual and “dirty”

Japan, where SNSs will become increasingly

content, with the participants being asked topopular.

send pictures, such content was not found in thepresent study. It is not possible to examine how

Notes

long and how many times they interacted with

1.	This study was conducted with a 2013 grant fromtheir partners. By covering the content of thethe Japan Internet Safety Promotion Association.

interactions to some extent and examining their

2.	We would like to thank Prof. Yutaka Matsui of theprocesses in detail, including duration andUniversity of Tsukuba for his guidance on thisfrequency, it would be possible to completely

paper. We would also like to express our gratitudeunderstand the reasons for face-to-face meetings.

to Prof. Kei Fuji and Prof. Shintaro Yukawa, also

Third, the survey included only high school andfrom the University of Tsukuba, for their valuable

college students who have met their opposite-sex

comments on this paper. And, we would like to

SNS acquaintances; hence, the content of their

thank Enago (www.enago.jp) for the English

interactions may be different from those of highlanguage review.

school students and college students who have

3.	Affiliation at the time of research.

never met their respective partners.

4.	All survey participants engaged in face-to-faceFinally, it would be beneficial to conduct ameetings

with

their

opposite-sex

SNSsurvey of cases in which face-to-face meetings

acquaintances. However, the most memorablewith opposite-sex SNS acquaintances haveexperiences of being acquainted with the opposite

actually caused trouble. Focusing on high schoolsex on SNS (outside face-to-face meetings) werestudents who have had such experiences may

requested at the time the questionnaire washelp clarify the interaction process that is likely

answered; therefore, some participants stated that40

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. 14 No. 1 Sep. 2021
they did not meet their opposite-sex acquaintanceswithface-to-face. The reason for this inquiry was to

University), 772, pp.1-10. (In Japanese)clarify the interaction processes that led to thesomeone.

GAKUEN(Showa

Women’s

Hashimoto, Y., Chiba, N., Amano, M., & Horikawa, Y.

actual meeting and the nonmeeting.

(2015) Why and how do young women meet men

5.	
Because this study did not aim to examine

through the Internet? Research survey reports indifferences in interactions by type of SNS, andinformation studies (Interfaculty initiative inbecause only a few respondents mentioned SNSs

information studies, the University of Tokyo), 31,

other than Twitter, we did not include the type of

pp.115-195. (In Japanese)

SNS in our analysis.

ICT Research & Consulting (2018) Survey of 2018 SNS

6.	When we checked whether coherence in Method

usage trends. < https://ictr.co.jp/report/20181218.

III and cluster analysis differed between men andhtml > Accessed 2019, May 19. (In Japanese)

women, we found almost the same coherence, so

Kato, C. (2013) Processes about online-dating

we conducted a combined analysis for both sexes.

of adolescent girls: Based on semi-structured

7.	
In a study on street interactions between men

interviews of fifteen girls’ junior and senior highand women (Nakamine, 2015), male–female

school students. Socio-Informatics, 2, pp.45-57. (Ininteractions were typified by Method III, and theJapanese)

process was inferred from that type of interaction.

Kawakita, J. (1986) KJ methods. Chuokoron-Sha. (InThis study used this to interpret the clusters

Japanese)

accordingly. Based on the point that Method III

Kawaura, Y., Sakata, M., & Matsuda, M. (2005)

does not necessarily require the interpretation ofSurvey research on uses of internet social network

axes (Matsui & Takamoto, 2018), we interpreted

services. Journal of Communication Studies, 23,

the domain rather than the axes in this study.

pp.91-110. (In Japanese)
Koide, S. (2008) Cybercrime status and countermeasures.

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Editor’s Notes
We are very pleased to announce the publication of Volume 14 of JSI (Journal of Socio-Informatics).
In this volume, two peer-refereed original papers and one translated paper already published in a
Japanese journal are included.
Since SSI is organized to promote and dispatch the studies of Socio-Informatics, JSI is open to any
researchers and students who are interested in Socio-Informatics. New submissions for the next volume
in 2022 are being invited. Please check the call for papers of JSI on http://www.ssi.or.jp/eng/index03.
html.
The Editor in Chief: Tomoko Kanayama

Editorial Board of The Society of Socio-Informatics
Editor in Chief
Tomoko KANAYAMA, Institute of Advanced Media Arts and Sciences
Editor in Subchief
Soichiro TAKAGI, The University of Tokyo

Editorial board members
Kunikazu AMAGASA, Showa Women’s University
Kaoru ENDO, Gakushuin University
Hiroyuki FUJISHIRO, Hosei University
Mamiko HAYASHIDA, Fukuoka Jo Gakuin University
Masami HONDA, Kanto Gakuin University
Kenji IIJIMA, Prefectural University of Kumamoto
Shogo KATO, Tokyo Woman’s Christian University
Yuuki KATO, Sagami Women’s University
Daisuke KAWAI, The University of Tokyo
Takahiro KAWAMATA, The University of Nagasaki, Siebold
Shigeo KAWASHIMA, Aoyama Gakuin Women’s Junior College
Tadamasa KIMURA, Rikkyo University
Yoshinori KISHIKAWA, National Institute of Technology, Ube College
Yorio KITAMURA, Ritsumeikan University
Satoshi KITAMURA, Tokyo Keizai University
Yuko KITORA, Doshisha Women’s College of Liberal Arts
Keio KOMABASHI, Tokyo Keizai University
Ron KORENAGA, Rikkyo University
Atsushi KOTERA, Toyo Eiwa University
Keita MATSUSHITA, Jissen Women’s University
Kunihiko NAKANO, Shimane University
Naomi NEMURA, Nippon University
Shiro OHNO, Surugadai University
Akiko OGAWA, Nagoya University
Kaori OKAMOTO, Tokyo University of Social Welfare
Seiichiro SAKURAI, Meiji Gakuin University
Isao SAKUMA, Bunkyo University
Yuichi SASAKI, Tokyo Keizai University
Masahito SHIMAZAKI, Akita Prefectural University
Akashi SUGIYAMA, Kyushu University
Tomoko TAKEMURA, Ritsumeikan University
Akio TAHATA, Kobe University
Yuko TSUCHIYA, St. Andrew’s University
Nobumoto UEHARA, Tokyo International University
Mayu URATA, Nagoya University
Shinichi YAMAGUCHI, International University of Japan

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol.14, No.1
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