thejaltcalljournal
issn 1832-4215

Vol. 13, No.3 Pages 187–197©2017 jalt call sig

Study abroad programs provide an excellent

opportunity for students to accelerate theirPreparinglanguage learning and acquire cultural capital
Japanese students’ (Byram & Feng, 2006). Research into returnees from a variety of study abroad programs,
however, has revealed that this is not always
digital literacy
the case (e.g., Kinginger, 2011; Sato & Hodge,
for study abroad: 2015; Yoshimitsu, 2009). To promote a morepositive academic and culturally-inclusive
study abroad experience, one recommendation
Is more training
is for language teachers to focus on students’digital literacy (Kinginger, 2011). Given theneeded?

Travis J. Cote
Tamagawa University
travis@bus.tamagawa.ac.jp

Brett Milliner
Tamagawa University
milliner@lit.tamagawa.ac.jp

reported poor levels of digital literacy among
Japanese freshman students (see Lockley 2011;
Murray & Blyth, 2011), the researchers in thiscurrent study were attempting to determine
if this wider trend also applied to students attheir private university in Tokyo. The authors
surveyed first-year College of Tourism and
Hospitality (cth) students preparing for a
year-long study abroad program. This paper
will report on student responses to two sections of a computer literacy questionnaire created by Son, Robb and Charismadjiri (2011).
The first section considers students responses
to the digital self-assessment items, and in thesecond section, student results in a 10-item digital skills knowledge test will be reported on.
Keywords: Digital literacy, study abroad,
Japanese university, ict

1. Introduction

Regular Paper

This paper reports on the second phase of
the researchers’ investigation into how
they can prepare their Japanese students
in the College of Tourism and Hospitality(cth) for a one-year study abroad programin Australia. In the initial phase, returnees 187

The jalt call Journal 2017: Regular Papers
from the first student cohort of the study abroad program were surveyed. Key findings
from this investigation were that students appear to be very interested in improving theirdigital literacy; they recognize the necessity of digital literacy in higher educational settings and beyond; many believed that their digital skills were inferior to their non-Japaneseclassmates while studying in Australia; and, they reported using their computer more in
their Australian university classes than in Japanese university classrooms.
In this second phase of the study, 112 students from the 2016 freshman cohort weresurveyed on issues relating to ownership and accessibility of computers, ability to performtasks both on mobile devices and personal computers, and their personal and professionaluse of computers. In this paper, the authors report on student responses to two sectionsof the questionnaire: a) self-assessment of digital skills, and b) digital literacy quiz results.
Review 2015
returnees’
experience inAustralia

Make recommendations forusing ICT and giving ICT
training for CTH students

Survey to establish
2016 freshman’s
digital literacy

Survey & interview
2016 returnees’
from Australia

Figure 1. Summary of the ICT (information and communications technology)
skills review for CTH students.

2. Literature review
2.1 Digital literacy
Learning how to use digital technology has become a crucial step in developing literacy
in the twenty-first century (Goodwin-Jones, 2000). As well, teachers are being asked toconsider how they can effectively prepare students first to develop, and then exercise, theirdigital literacy because it can lead to better job prospects, increased interaction in society
and wider entertainment options (Corbel & Gruba, 2004). Corbel and Gruba argued thatstudents need computer skills as much as language skills to prosper in the today’s world.
The authors (p. 5) noted that students need computer skills to:Ȼ communicate effectively in societyȻ interact with family and friends
Ȼ function effectively in the workplaceȻ learn new ideas and for fun and pleasure
Literacy has traditionally been defined as the ability to read and write. Digital literacy

188 appears to be a much harder term to define as succinctly. The United States Department

Cote & Milliner: Preparing Japanese students’ digital literacy for study abroadof Education (1996) defined digital literacy as having computer skills and the ability touse computers and other technology to improve learning, productivity and performance.
Barrette (2000), along with Corbel & Gruba (2004), observe that digital literacy contains
two core components: a) the ability to control basic computer operations, and b) using
one’s understanding of computers for problem-solving and critical thinking. More recently,
Dudeney, Hockly and Pegrum (2014) identified digital literacy as being able to make useof technologies at one’s disposal and understanding the social practices that surround theuse of new media.

2.2 Japanese student literacy
Although Japan is recognized as a very digitally-connected country (Gobel & Kano, 2014)
and national mandates from the Japanese Ministry of Education, Sports, Science andTechnology (mext) declare that ict be included in high school curriculums (mext, 2011),
it is well documented that Japanese youths’ digital literacy is falling behind other developed (and developing) countries. In a report by mext in 2011, they recognised that ict
utilization in Japanese schools has not been advancing at a rate similar to other industrialized nations. More recently in 2015, the oecd released a critical report on the literacy ofJapanese, noting that 25% of Japanese youth (aged 16–29) lack basic computer skills. One
explanation for these shortcomings is that schools are not responding to the aforementioned mandates by mext to carry out ict training. Reviews of recent Japanese high-school
graduates revealed that many students had not used ict in high school (Gobel & Kano,
2014; Lockley, 2011; Lockley & Promnitz-Hayashi, 2012; Murray & Blyth, 2011).
There have been some reviews of Japanese university freshmen’s digital literacy in recent
years. In 2014, Gobel and Kano reported that despite having exposure to a greater rangeof ict in their lives, it did not seem to guarantee students’ skill and confidence using thistechnology. The authors found that computer use appears to be secondary to phone use.
Students are unable to manipulate data beyond the basic creation phase. The authors concluded that it would be a mistake for teachers and curriculum developers to embrace digitallearning or online learning, and they recommended that a blended approach to teaching
would better serve students. In light of their finding concerning students’ comfort using
mobile devices, Gobel and Kano recommended that teachers consider the use of mobile
devices more.
Focusing on university students’ computer skills, Murray and Blyth (2011) surveyed
103 freshmen university students from three Japanese universities. The authors reported
that students were not very proficient at using basic online services and managing online
accounts (e.g. Facebook, Google+ and Twitter) and they appeared to be somewhat behinddevelopments in Internet phenomena. Respondents displayed limited levels of proficiency
relating to efficiency using computers, and a fifth of respondents displayed limited knowledge of the Internet. The most alarming finding from this study was students’ lack ofexperience using productivity software. In fact, half of respondents reported having neverused word processing software, 85% never used spreadsheet software and 78% never usedpresentation software.
Lockley (2011) surveyed 105 freshmen students at a private Japanese University in Tokyo.
The study reported that despite students having access to digital devices at home and school,
and almost 90% of respondents receiving ict instruction at junior high and high school,
most had forgotten how to use it or lacked confidence using it by the time they started 189

The jalt call Journal 2017: Regular Papers
university. Although his study did not investigate why students lacked confidence or forgot

ict skills by the time they reached university, Lockley posited that outside of instruction
on how to use ict, students did not have an opportunity to put what they learned into

practice. For example, students may learn about PowerPoint and how to create slides, butthey never get the chance to make presentations using PowerPoint. With this point in mind,
Lockley urged teachers to embrace ict in the university classroom and that teachers designtasks that allow students to further develop competence and build confidence using theskills they already possess.

2.3 Digital literacy and study abroad
To adequately prepare cth students for study in Australia, poor digital literacy may belimiting students’ language learning opportunities (Murray & Blyth, 2011), their chances
to deeply engage with Australian culture (Kinginger, 2011), and their ability to function in
the foreign society (Brine, Kaneko, Heo, Vazhenin & Bateson, 2015). Recognizing that at
many points during the study abroad experience students have to work independently tosolve personal and academic-related problems, Jarman-Walsh (2015) argued for the development of ict skills which support independent learning. He also highlighted how using
multimedia and social networking programs, such as Facebook, are ways in which students can access resources and strengthen relationships within their new university community. Similar to Jarman-Walsh, Kinginger (2011) advocated using computer-mediatedcommunicative tools to practice informal communication with peers at institutions abroad.
Kinginger argued that they provide a protected context for communication, they offer an
opportunity for students to develop their foreign-language speaking identity, and during
this process students can explore the linguistic choices or communicative norms used by
local students. To prepare their Japanese students for studying abroad, Brine et al., (2015)
incorporated a video interview project into their preparatory program and these authors
argued that along with the development of language skills, the project develops technicaland digital collaborative skills. Although a large body of study abroad research centersaround the development of cultural awareness and language proficiency (e.g. English, 2012;
Sato & Hodge, 2015), the examples listed above illustrate the role ict training can play in
pre-embarkation programs.

3. Research methods
3.1 Research questions
To better prepare cth students for university study in Australia, poor digital literacy
may be limiting students’ language learning opportunities, their chances to engage with
Australian culture, and their ability to function in Australian society. With these issues inmind, this study set out to answer the following research questions:
1. What is freshman students’ level of digital literacy?
2. Where should additional ict training be focused?

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Cote & Milliner: Preparing Japanese students’ digital literacy for study abroad

3.2 Participants
115 students were accepted into the College of Tourism and Hospitality (cth) in the springsemester of 2016. cth students attend an English for Academic Purposes (EAP) class threedays per/week, an independent English study session one day per/week, and a fifth classwhich focuses primarily on preparation for the toeic test. As was mentioned in the introduction, the cth students have an opportunity to study abroad in Australia for one year,
and that has largely driven the unique design of this “intensive,” five-day English program.
All English teachers are instructed to focus on academic skills and toeic training, andalthough not strictly prescribed, teachers were encouraged to employ computers in theclassroom and provide opportunities for students to use computers for learning purposes.
Furthermore, and arguably central to this current study, all first-year students who join thecth are required by the College to purchase a personal computer. The tourism curriculum
necessitates that all students enroll in a semester-long statistics course and a large portionof their computer activities revolve around creating Excel spreadsheets and learning how
to apply functions to sets of data. In addition, the students use their PC in other classes to
conduct Internet searches on Japanese tourism-related companies and for writing various
expository and analytical essays.

3.3 The questionnaire
At the beginning of the academic year, the new 2016 freshmen cohort was asked to completea digital literacy questionnaire to appraise digital literacy levels. This survey instrument
was adapted from a seminal questionnaire created by Son, Robb and Charismiadji (2011) toevaluate Indonesian English teachers’ digital literacy. Although the original questionnaire
was designed specifically for English teachers, it has also been successfully adapted for students, such as the aforementioned Murray and Blyth (2011) article. Before administering thesurvey, permission from the copyright holder, J. B. Son, was granted for the questionnaire
to be used in this evaluation. Some items were modified to reflect the local learning context
of the students, such as providing examples of applications and programs that Japanese
students are more familiar with (e.g. the instant messaging app Line). Moreover, additional
items were added to the survey to reflect recent developments in computer technology, suchas cloud computing and file sharing services. The survey was translated into Japanese andconverted into an electronic format using SurveyMonkey. The entire survey contained 28
items in total. However, only two sections were focused on for this report. A total of 112
student responses (29 male & 83 female) were analysed for this study.

3.4 Results
3.4.1 Self-assessment of digital skills. When students were asked to self-assess their levelof digital skills, responses revealed very limited ability. Listed in order of most proficient
to least proficient, in Table 1 below, the only applications where students reported having
either intermediate or advanced skills included: social networking, smartphone or cell
phone mail, and the Internet. To the dismay of the researchers, many students reported
having no skills with numerous digital applications and program functions.

191

The jalt call Journal 2017: Regular Papers
Table 1. Student’s self-assessment of digital skills
Answer options

Nothing

Beginner

Intermediate

Advanced

Social networking
Smartphone/cellphone email
Internet
E-mailWikiMultimedia (audio & film)
Word processing
Spreadsheet
Graphic & photo editing
Presentation software
Computer games
Download & install programs
Text chatting
Security software
Video conferencing
Online discussions or forums
File sharing services
Database
Cloud computing
Blogging
Website design

9
8
5
24
28
40
21
27
52
38
50
55
66
58
67
70
72
74
78
78
86

6
11
9
42
37
34
65
62
32
56
40
33
28
41
30
25
27
31
25
26
23

43
54
75
40
36
23
26
21
18
18
19
21
15
12
10
11
12
7
9
5
2

54
39
22
6
10
15
0
0
9
0
2
2
3
0
3
1
0
0
0
2
0

Student responses to items asking about their ability to complete digital tasks suggest asomewhat different picture of their level of digital literacy. That is to say; some students
appear capable of utilizing basic digital skills to complete a variety of tasks (see Table 2
below). The questions in Table 2 (opposite, in italics) reflect those tasks where more than
50% of the respondents noted that they were unable to execute the function successfully.
Table 3 (opposite) illustrates that most students can complete a variety of Internetrelated tasks. This result represents an improvement upon those reported earlier by Murray
and Blyth (2011) who noted that freshman students were not very proficient using online
services. It appears that most respondents in this study can create user accounts, download
files, use Internet bookmarks and connect their device to the Internet. One item, ‘successfully conducting online video meetings’, was the only task which did not garner an affirmative self-assessment result in excess of 86%. In fact, only 18 students (16%) noted thatthey could manage this task.

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Cote & Milliner: Preparing Japanese students’ digital literacy for study abroad
Table 2. Students’ self-assessment of their ability to complete the following digital tasks
Answer options

Yes

No

Can you properly turn on and shut down a computer?
Can you create a basic Microsoft Word Document?
Can you minimise, maximise and move windows on the desktop?
Can you start and exit a computer program?
Can you print a document using a printer?
Can you copy, cut and paste inside a document?
Can you change the font style and size in a document?
Can you create a basic Excel spreadsheet?
Can you perform file management including deleting & renaming files, etc.?
Can you send and receive attachments through email messages?
Can you change monitor brightness and contrast?
Can you create a simple presentation using PowerPoint?
Can you resize a photograph?
Can you install a software program?
Can you move a file from a hard drive to a USB drive?
Can you write files onto a CD?
Can you install a printer?
Can you scan a disk or file for viruses?
Can you record and edit sounds?
Can you convert a Microsoft Word file to a PDF?
Can you create a simple web page?
Are you able to create a simple database (e.g. using Access)Are you able to use Input Method Editor (IME) effectively?

106
105
104
100
99
97
92
87
83
81
80
74
56
52
39
37
36
28
19
17
17
10
5

5
7
8
11
12
15
20
25
28
30
32
37
56
59
72
74
76
84
93
92
95
102
106

Table 3. Students’ self-assessment of their ability to fulfill the following Internet-relatedtasks
Answer options

Yes

No

Are you able to connect your computer to the Internet?
87
Are you able to correctly enter a URL in the address bar?
100
Are you able to download a file from the Internet and save it appropriately?
86(e.g. JPEG or PDF)
Are you able to conduct video meetings online?
18
Are you able to create an account on websites that require a username and 100
password? (e.g. Twitter, Gmail or Facebook)
Are you able to add a webpage to your list of bookmarks?
91

25
12
26
94
12
21

The second round of questioning (Table 4 below) concerning Internet-related tasks revealed
a much lower level of competency. While a majority of students reported that they could
use social networking applications and smartphones, in most cases students reported notknowing about the other applications listed. Of particular note to teachers is the lack ofknowledge about cloud computing, podcasting, and online composition software. This 193

The jalt call Journal 2017: Regular Papers
result also echoes the findings of Murray and Blyth (2011), who highlighted Japanese university students’ lack of skill using productivity applications.
Table 4. Students’ self-assessment of their ability to fulfill the following Internet-relatedtasks
Answer options
Social networks (e.g. Twitter, Mixi, or Facebook)
Cloud computing (e.g. Dropbox or Google Drive)
Social bookmarking
Podcasting
Online composition software (e.g. Open Office, Google
Documents and Microsoft office)Operating systems (e.g. Ubunto, Gentoo, BSD and Unix)
Smartphone

I know
about it

I don’tknow

I can
use itI cannotuse it

36
28
11
11
29

3
54
81
83
59

70
19
8
4
12

3
10
11
11
11

5
30

96
5

1
71

10
3

3.4.2 General computer knowledge. At the end of the questionnaire, students wereasked to answer ten multiple-choice questions focusing on general computer knowledge (see Table 5 below). In only four out of the ten questions, more than 50% of the
responses were correct. In six out of the ten items, “I don’t know” was selected by morethan 50% of the respondents.
Table 5. General computer knowledge results
Question

Correct
I don’t
response % know %What is a folder?
How many characters are allowed for a tweet?
What is a URL?
Which of the following is not a search engine?
What is the main brain of the computer?
What is the main function of a server in a networked environment?
What kind of program is used to edit a GIF file or a JPEG file?
How much information fits on a CD and a DVD?
Which of the following is considered poor email etiquette?
What are WAV and AIFF examples of?

77%
69%
63%
55%
32%
31%
28%
16%
6%
7%

13%
21%
12%
35%
52%
54%
56%
67%
39%
82%

4. Discussion
This investigation revealed that the subjects of this study lack a certain level of digital
literacy in a number of key areas. Similar to the findings of Murray and Blyth (2011),
respondents lack experience and skills for using productivity software. Very few students
are experienced with blogging, website design, online discussions, computer games, file
194 sharing, cloud software and presentation software. Moreover, as only 26 students (23%)

Cote & Milliner: Preparing Japanese students’ digital literacy for study abroad
noted they had beginner level skills for word processing (no student cited expert level), andas most cannot convert a Word document to a pdf, it appears that students are only able
to use these software tools in very basic capacities.
All participants in this study own a smartphone and notebook computer, and althoughsomewhat encouraging, it appears that students are vastly more confident using the former device. Similar to the recommendations by Gobel and Kano (2014), perhaps more steps
need to be taken to capitalize on students’ smartphone skills. In addition, steps could betaken to foster better collaboration between both the smartphone and notebook pc. For
example, students could be instructed on how to capitalize on cloud computing services(e.g., Evernote, Google Drive, Dropbox or iCloud) for integrating smartphone generated
content (e.g., photos, voice memo, video, notes) with students’ pcs. Echoing the advice of
Lockley and Promnitz-Hayashi (2012), the researchers also recognize that teachers cannot
expect students to quickly transfer their smartphone skills to pc operations, nor should
they expect these skills to augment students’ work in an academic setting.
One recommendation for teachers is to create opportunities for students to practice selfexpression using either a personal blog or website. Along with English language improvement, such activities can develop typing abilities, composition skills, and digital editing.
Blog tasks should ask students to call upon a range of competencies to create a blog post
(e.g., embedding student-made video and images, checking blog content in ms Word orother software for accuracy and managing an online discussion concerning one’s blog post).
The researchers of this current study are planning to investigate the next group of
returnee students about which digital skills were required of them in Australia because,
as other Japan-based studies and the initial stage of this research project suggest, students
need more training and opportunities using basic productivity software. This list of software should include: ms Word, PowerPoint, Excel and/or their Google equivalents. Training
in how to use cloud-computing can also create a bridge between the work students do on
their smartphone and notebook computers. Collaborative presentation tasks using Google
Slides or Apple’s iCloud could be a useful way to develop this skill.

4.1 Study Limitations
There are a number of areas that can be identified as limitations in this study. This questionnaire asked students to self-assess their digital skills. Given the reported tendency
for Japanese students to provide modest self-assessments of their digital skills (Lockley &Promnitz-Hayashi, 2012; Lockley, 2011), a practical test of digital tasks may have provided abetter assessment of students’ digital skills. For example, students could be asked to createa basic spreadsheet or presentation slides. However, one can argue that this sample’s poor
results in the second section analysed in this study, general computer knowledge questions(Table 5), validates respondents’ low self-assessment of digital skills.
A second concern is that the digital format for the questionnaire might have influenced
the results. A small group of students completed the survey on their smartphones, andgiven the length and complexity of the questionnaire, these students may have become
tired or irritated as they proceeded through the items, and therefore, the quality of their
responses may have been compromised. A more concerning factor, however, is that many
respondents were being asked to complete their first digital survey on a new computerthat they had been using for only a couple of weeks. And although the questionnaire was

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The jalt call Journal 2017: Regular Papers
translated into Japanese and rigorously tested with native Japanese speakers, the mode
adopted for survey instrumentation may have had an influence on the quality of the data.
One final concern is related to the student sample. As the gender ratio was heavily unbalanced (29 male and 83 female) and all participants were from the same academic field, theresults may not be representative of Japanese university freshmen and therefore, should
be interpreted with discretion.

5.0 Conclusion
To prepare students for their upcoming study-abroad program, this study set out to identify
freshman students’ level of digital literacy. Results in this study echo some of the findingsof other contemporary Japan-based studies, as almost all students in this sample displayed
very limited digital literacy. In particular, most participants cannot use productivity applications effectively, which prevents students from being able to complete Corbel and Gruba’s(2004) aforementioned second tenet of digital literacy: using computers for problem solving
and critical thinking. Although smartphone ownership and personal computer ownershipis at 100%, students do not appear to be using these devices outside of accessing social
networks, email, Internet surfing and watching videos.
This study has identified that Japanese university freshman need to develop digital skills
covering a broad range of areas. How students should be specifically and effectively trained
to develop these skills requires further investigation. Nevertheless, students need training
in using word processing, spreadsheet programs, cloud computing, blogging and online
discussion. In addition to basic training, teachers need to create opportunities for students
to use these new skills to complete a variety of learning tasks.
In the third stage of this research study, the researchers will interview the second groupof returnees immediately after they return from Australia in September 2016. The goal is
to develop a training program to more appropriately equip students with the digital skills
which can help them have a more positive study abroad experience.

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