Translation
Media Gratifications andSuccessful Aging Among the “Young Old”*
Keywords:
uses and gratifications, media, retired, successful aging, morale

Atsushi KOTERA, Toyo Eiwa University

Abstract
Research literature about media use in aging has argued that the motivations to fulfill the needto connect with others or societies facilitate the elderly’s use of media and has suggested thatmedia contribute to their fulfilling life or successful aging. From the uses and gratifications
perspective, this study examines how the elderly’s use of media relate to their successful aging.
The results of a convenience sample survey in the Tokyo area (n=1644) indicated that mostmedia gratifications may not contribute to successful aging among the Japanese “young old” (58～70 years). Scores from the Morale Scale are negatively correlated with media gratifications,especially consummatory gratification in television viewing. This suggests that the previous view
about the role of television in aging is invalid and may be too optimistic.
In addition, the contribution of media gratifications to scores on the Morale showed little
difference between retired and non-retired. This result raises questions about prevailing notions
that the retired elderly lose motivation in their life and media complement their commitment tosociety and their social activities.
Although previous research has tended to accept the activity theory which supposes that
communication would be maintained at an active level throughout the aging process, this study
does not support this hypothesis.

* This essay is a translation of an article from Socio-Informatics 7(3) (2019)28

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. 12 No. 1 Sep. 2019ascertain the motivations for the elderly’s use of

1. Introduction

media as well as to clarify the meaning and value
With the aging of the population well underway,of media for the elderly.

much effort has been devoted to utilizing new

Investigative research has shown that thetechnology, either to improve health/welfare

elderly’s media use is not driven by entertainment-

services or to open up senior markets. These

related motivations but by information-related

proactive approaches to technology in an aging

motivations (Bower, 1973; Davis, 1971; Steiner,society may mitigate concerns about the socially

1963; Wenner, 1976). Some scholars have statedvulnerable, contribute to their safety, and promotethat this tendency is due to the function of

their adoption of a healthy and active life.

television in linking people to society andHowever, these initiatives often ignore theproviding them with a sense of societal belonging

perceptions of end-users and do not consider(Davis et al., 1976; Harwood, 2018; Hilt &whether media contribute to the elderly’s

Lipschultz, 2005; Katori, 2000; Schramm,1969).

happiness or “successful aging.”

Others have mentioned that the elderly possess a

Is it obvious that media contribute to successfulstrong motivation to view television because they

aging? As the paradigm of a media-driven aging

desire to remain socially active and learn aboutsociety is touted by the non-elderly, the popularthemselves and social matters (Ostman & Jeffers,

perception of media may not necessarily match1983). The motivation to stay connected withthe elderly’s actual views. If media use does notothers and with society also seems to drive theircontribute to their successful aging, there may be

use of other forms of media, such as the telephonea need to question anew the paradigm of media in(O’Keefe & Sulanowski, 1995) or the Internet

the information society.

(Dixson, 1997; Kong & Lee, 2017; Quinn, 2013).

Based on these concerns, this study examines

These studies share the view that the elderly

whether the elderly’s use of media contributes toare “active consumers” (Young, 1979), andtheir successful aging. In particular, by applying

ascribe a positive meaning to their media use.

the uses and gratifications approach, thisThat is to say, media use enables social

research investigates which types of media

participation in no small measure and fosters a

produce what types of gratification and how these

happy and purposeful life.

relate to the elderly’s positive attitudes about

As for successful aging, there is an ongoing

their later years.

debate based on the two opposing theories of1

disengagement and activity in the field of

2. 
Media

Gratificationsand“Successful

gerontology. The former argues that as one ages,

Aging”

social disengagement affects individual happiness(Cumming & Henry, 1961), and the latter argues

2.1 Media Use and “Successful Aging”

that remaining active in one’s later life leads to

Several studies of media use among the elderly

higher levels of happiness (Lemon et al., 1972).

have been conducted, with a particular focus on

However, there is no research that directly

television use. From the uses and gratifications

tackles the relationship between media use andperspective, there have been many attempts tosuccessful aging. Using a panel survey, Graney
29

Media Gratifications and Successful Aging Among the “Young Old”

andGraneyevidence

accomplishing activity substitution” (Powell &suggesting that, with age, media use increases as

Williamson,1985) or that an “older person will

physical activity decreases; they also noted that

tend to substitute mass media communication for

the elderly continue to interact with society ininterpersonal communication” (Bliese, 1982).

“somewhat different ways than in their younger

People use media to satiate their desires whenyears.” Other findings also posit that the elderly’s

they cannot be as socially active as they once

media

were.

use

(1974)

cannotdiscovered

KOTERAbe

explained

throughdisengagement theory and that positive attitudes

If this is true, retirement (leaving work) could

toward media are positively correlated withhave a significant impact on media use as it is a

successful aging (Davis et al., 1976; Nussbaum etpivotal event in later life social activities.

al., 2000; Schramm, 1969).

Comstock et al. (1978) concluded that television

These, however, are just only analogicalviewing increased with age because media “serve

hypotheses extrapolated from the amount or

as a source of information and stimulation in

frequency of media consumption among theregard to the outside world that was once

aged, not from empirical research about theprovided by interpersonal ties.” Kubey (1980)

impact of media use on successful aging. It isalso posited that “television is sought to supply aundeniable

need for serious local information which, prior to

that

they

are

just

optimistic

interpretations of media use.

retirement, was found to some extent at work.” If

Do media promote active and happy lives? The

these substitution functions of media existed,

aim of this study is to directly reveal the kind of

media use should affect retirees far more thanrelationship that media gratification has with

non-retirees and should contribute more to

successful aging. In other words, it will verify

successful aging among retirees than non-whether media gratifications possess a positive

retirees. In other words, retiree happiness isrelationship with successful aging (Hypothesis

positively affected more by media use than non-1).

retiree happiness (Hypothesis 2).

2.2 Retirement and Substitutional Function of

3. Methods

Media
According to the uses and gratifications theory,

This study used a social survey to investigate

media functions as an alternative for social

the above issue. The survey was conducted by

activities and interpersonal relationships. In

sending out a questionnaire to 2,600 residents

other words, media is a means to achieve human

aged 58 to 69 years living in the Tokyo

goals and acts as a substitute when those goals

Metropolitan Region (Tokyo Metropolis, Saitama

cannot be achieved directly (Katz et al., 1974).

Prefecture, Chiba Prefecture, and Kanagawa

There is some mentions of media offering

Prefecture).2The

functional alternatives in light of the elderly’s

questionnaire

focusedon

media

diminishing capacities for daily activity. Scholars

gratifications and successful aging and featured

contend that “mass media provide to older

questions on the participant’s gender, age,persons

current employment status, and employmentasocially

acceptable

means

of
30

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. 12 No. 1 Sep. 2019status ten years prior (to which participants could

measured. An economic approach, for example,

answer “full-time,” “part-time,” or “unemployed,”measures elements that are thought to contributewhich includes housewife duties).

to

3.1 Media Gratifications

media(newspapers,

aspolitical

infrastructure,publicservices,andclimate,livingregion’s or a nation’s happiness (Frey & Stutzer,

asked about twelve purposes of media use for ten
of

such

environment. These are used to quantify a

For media gratifications, participants wereforms

happiness,andAs successful aging, which indicates a desirable

magazines, television, radio, VCR and DVD,later life, is also difficult to define and evaluate,

landline telephones, mobile phones, PCs, friends,

approaches to ascertain subjective well-being

and music). Respondents used a four-point scale

independent of social attributes or living situation

to signify the applicability of the purposes to their

have being adopted in the fields of psychology

lives (1=not applicable, 2=somewhat applicable,

and sociology. To investigate the factors that

3=applicable,

influence

4=verybooks

2002; Graham, 2011).

applicable).

As

this

successful

aging

empirically,aquestionnaire did not ask about the frequency ofmultitude of operational concepts, such as lifeuse for these forms of media, they were instructedsatisfaction or self-esteem, have been applied in

to select “not applicable” if they did not consume

these fields. In Japan, a unique overarchinga specific form of media.

concept referred to as ikigai, or reason for being,

For the gratification items, a meta-analysis of

has been discussed in the context of successful

preceding research, including Lometti et al.

aging. While the refinement of this concept has(1977), Elliott and Quattelebaum (1979), Kippax

been attempted for empirical studies, consensus

and Murray (1980), Rubin (1983), and Perse andon the concept has not been achieved (Hasegawa

Coutright (1993), was conducted to create a

et al., 2001; Shibasaki & Aoki, 2011).

series of items with high versatility. These items

The present study used the Revised PGC

were as follows: (a) to obtain information on daily

Morale Scale (Lawton, 1975; translated into

life, (b) to know what goes on in the world, (c) toJapanese by Koyano, 1981) as a measure oflearn how to do things, (d) to develop ideas, (e)successful aging, because it is a standardized

to learn what other people think, (f) to releaseself-reporting scale that has been widely used.

tension, (g) to kill time, (h) to get away from daily

Morale originally referred to unit cohesion in the

problems, (i) to be entertained, (j) to share

military or satisfaction within a workplace setting.

experiences with others, (k) to feel less lonely,

Kutner et al. (1956) introduced this concept inand (l) to get energy.

the field of gerontology, and many studies havebuilt on this concept.

3.2 Successful Aging

The Lawton’s Revised Scale is made up of 17

What is happiness and what makes someone

questions that include statements such as

happy? The answers could differ depending on“sometimes I feel lonely,” “aging has been betterthe field in which the term is used. Discourse on

than I thought,” “I am satisfied with my life,” andthe definition of “happiness” is often substituted“I am just as happy as when I was young.” Onewith an operational definition of how happiness ispoint is assigned for positively answering each31Media Gratifications and Successful Aging Among the “Young Old”

question. The higher the number of points, the

KOTERAhigh.

higher the morale (the maximum number ofNext, exploratory factor analysis was conducted

points that can be gained is 17).

to condense the gratification items. From theWhile the author is aware that the Morale

results of the maximum likelihood factor analysis

Scale is divided into three factors (agitation,with promax rotation, a factor score for each of

attitude toward one’s own aging, and lonely

the ten forms of media was calculated. The ten

dissatisfaction), a detailed analysis of each

forms of media showed a similar bifactor

individual factor will not be conducted in thisstructure. The following high-load factors werearticle. Instead, only the sums of this scale will belabeled as instrumental gratifications: (a) toused to investigate overall positive attitudes

obtain information on daily life, (b) to know what

toward aging in relation to media use.

goes on in the world, (c) to learn how to do things,(d) to develop ideas, (e) to learn what other

4. Results

people think, and (j) to share experiences withothers. The following high-load factors were

The questionnaires were sent out on November

labeled as consummatory gratifications (f) to10, 2017, and those that were sent back byrelease tension, (g) to kill time, (h) to get away

November 30 were treated as valid responses.

from daily problems, (i) to be entertained, (k) to

The number of collected questionnaires was

feel less lonely, and (l) to get energy.

1,644, a collection rate of 63.2%. Although there

Previous research showed that televisionwere 87 respondents who were 70 years old atviewing can be classified as instrumental use

the time of the survey, they have been included in(goal-directed use of media content to gratify

the data.

informational needs) and ritualized use (habitual

The mean age of the sample was 64.6 years.

use of media to gratify diversionary needs)

There were 750 male (45.6%) and 894 (54.4%)(Rubin,1984), or content gratification and process

female participants. Their occupational statuses

gratification (Cutler & Danowski, 1980). This

were as follows: 515 (31.3%) were employed full-investigation has shown that similar classifications

time, 443 (26.9%) were employed part-time, 682

are useful across media types.

(41.5%) were unemployed, and 4 did not respond

The mean value for the Morale Scale was 11.7

(0.2%).
The

points (standard deviation: 3.78). An extremely
overallgratification

scoresofTV,

weak but significantly positive correlation was

newspapers, books and magazines, and friends

observed with age (r=.087, p<.01). Although(interpersonal communication) are higher thanmuch research has shown that age is not a direct

other media (Table 1). The higher scores forfactor in the reduction of morale, the fact that it

mobile phones compared to landline telephones

shows a positive correlation possibly calls formay indicate some changes in media environment

more investigation from other perspectives. A

among the elderly. Information-related gratifications

significant difference was not confirmed between

from newspapers are evaluated highly as a whole.

morale and gender or employment status.

Friends for entertainment (M=3.04) and music
for releasing tension (M=3.03) are also notedly
32

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. 12 No. 1 Sep. 2019

[Table 1] Descriptive statistics of gratifications

television, with a comparatively high coefficient

4.1 Media Gratifications and Morale

compared to other forms of media.

While controlling for the effects of age, gender,and employment status, the results showed no

While the possibility that media use has ansignificant positive correlations in terms of theeffect on morale cannot be denied, evidence here

relationship between media gratifications andsuggests that those with high morale perceive

morale (Table 2). In particular, a weak yet

media as less useful than those with low morale.

significantly negative correlation was seen for

It is possible that people with high morale feel

consummatory gratification among many forms

that other activities are more useful than media

of media, such as newspapers (r=–.071, p<.01),

use. In either event, Hypothesis 1 that “media

books and magazines (r=–.067, p<.05), radio

gratifications possess a positive relationship with

(r=–.062, p<.05), and mobile phones (r=–.059,

successful aging” was not only unsupported, but

p<.05). A negative correlation was observed fora reverse trend was observed.

instrumental gratification (r=–.058, p<.05) andTo reveal the strength of media gratifications

consummatory gratification (r=–.181, p<.001) ofon morale, a multiple regression analysis
33

Media Gratifications and Successful Aging Among the “Young Old”

[Table 2]  Partial correlation between morale

KOTERA[Table 3] Variables that affect morale (n=1333)

and media gratifications (n=1644)

gratifications upon morale is limited; however,there is no doubt that there is a negative relation
between consummatory use of television andmorale.

4.2 Retirement and Media Gratifications
A comparative analysis was conducted toascertain the extent to which media gratifications
affect retirees and non-retirees, respectively.
The sample was divided into six groups basedon current occupational status and occupational
status 10 years prior. Those who were both(stepwise) was conducted with morale as thecurrently employed full-time and were employeddependent variable, and age, gender (dummy

full-time 10 years prior were labeled “actively

variable: male=1, female=0), presence/absence

employed (full-time)” (30.4%). Those who wereof employment (dummy variable: employed=1,

employed part-time during both periods were

unemployed=0), as well as media gratifications aslabeled “actively employed (part-time)” (13.0%).

the independent variables (Table 3).

Those who were currently part-time but were

The result showed that explanatory power was

employed full-time 10 years prior were labeled

low overall (R =.06, p<.001). While gender,“actively employed (full-time to part-time)”

presence/absence of employment, and many

(12.2%). Those who were not currently working

gratification items were excluded as explanatory

but were employed full-time 10 years prior werevariables,

2

the

that

age,

labeled “retired (from full-time)” (14.4%). Those

books

and

who were not currently working but weremagazines, and consummatory gratification of

employed part-time 10 years prior were labeled

PCs exerted positive influences, whereas the“retired (from part-time)” (16.5%). Those who

consummatory gratification of television andwere not employed at any of these points in

instrumental

time

instrumental

results

indicated

gratification

gratification

of

of

PCs

exerted(including

housewives)

werelabeled“unemployed” (16.5%). Other response patterns

negative influences. The influence of media
34

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. 12 No. 1 Sep. 2019

hypothesis. However, salient differences were not(3.0%) were excluded from the analysis.

observed between the retired and non-retired

As mentioned previously, the uses andgroups (Table 4).

gratification theory states that people canmaintain social connections in spite of reduced

There were some observed characteristics forsocial activity with the help of media. Thus, in thethe six groups. Many gratification items were

context of this study, retirement may greatly

excluded as explanatory variables, but theaffect attitudes toward media as it is thought toconsummatory gratification of music remained

be a life event where social activity is greatly

as a positive influencer of morale in the actively

reduced. Media gratifications can be expected to

employed (full-time) group (β=2.471, p<.05).

affect the morale of retirees more than non-In the retired (from full-time) group, theretirees (actively employed or unemployed

instrumental gratification of books and magazines

respondents).

was observed to be a positive influencer of morale

A multiple regression analysis (stepwise) was(β=.197, p<.01), as with the consummatory

conducted by group, with morale as the dependent

gratification of radio among the retired (fromvariable and age, gender (dummy variable:

part-time) group (β=.269, p<.01). While one

male=1, female=0), and media gratifications as

could argue that the instrumental use of books

the independent variables to verify the aboveand magazines acts as a substitute for social[Table 4] Variables that affect morale (by employment pattern)

35

Media Gratifications and Successful Aging Among the “Young Old”

KOTERA

activity, it must be said that media, as a whole,

was a factor that exhibited a negative correlation

does not contribute to morale as a substitute forwith morale in almost all analyses. Previous

social activity considering the exclusion of manystudies have showed that television use among

other gratifications.

the elderly is high compared with other age

Furthermore, the consummatory gratificationgroups, but this may not necessarily indicate thatof television was negatively associated with

it is a positive behavior. The rationale formorale regardless of employment or retirement

consummatory gratification is killing time,

status. This signifies that people with high morale

escaping daily problems, and feeling less lonely.

also lacked motivation to use television forPeople with low morale show a strong tendency

consummatory purpose, as has been observed in

toward consummatory gratifications, which may

previous analyses.

signify that television viewing is an introverted

It seems valid to conclude that Hypothesis 2,

behavior for them. If this is the cause of highwhich states that “retiree happiness is positively

television viewership among the elderly, it could

affected more by media use than non-retiree

be said that television does not facilitate social

happiness,” was not supported. However, it must

participation, but rather supports their social

be pointed out that the total explanatory power

disengagement.

was weak, and morale mostly could not be

The analysis showed no evidence that media

explained solely by age/gender or media

provide a substitute for declining daily activity

gratifications. Media use did not have a large

among the elderly. The result that instrumental

effect on successful aging. The role of media was

gratification of PCs negatively influenced morale

limited, and it may be inappropriate to over-indicates that this activity does not promoteemphasize its role (at least in this research).

social participation. Information gathering via
the Internet might have become more of a passive

5. Discussion

behavior than it had been in the past.
While the uses and gratifications studies

Although no clear conclusion regarding thetheorize the functional alterative of media, somefactors of successful aging has been reached instudies refute this assumption. For example,

the field of gerontology, the positive correlation

Hays et al. (1998) revealed that religious

between morale and age has confirmed that age

media is not a substitute for reductions in

is not necessarily an explanatory variable, as

church participation owing to worsening healthshown in this investigation. At least, it appears

conditions. Even Graney (1975), a proponent ofthat participants in this study do not perceive

media as a substitute for social activities,

aging negatively.

considered media as being unable to totally

The results of this investigation did not support

compensate for losses and suggested there

the hypothesis that media use contributes towould be a long-term drop in social relations. He

successful aging. The results showed that theultimately supported both activity theory andinfluence of media gratification was weak, and it

disengagement

often has a negative relationship with morale. In

reported that substitutes do not always increase

particular, consummatory gratification of television

life satisfaction. If the present study was able to36

theory.

Bliese(1982)

also

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. 12 No. 1 Sep. 2019

make any contributions to the above discussion,

possessed relative generality, they were notit would be that it did not find any evidence toselected by random sampling.2 The analysis

support activity theory (at least in the context ofmight underestimate the effect of residence area

Japan).

because this survey was conducted in the Tokyo

Meanwhile, there are some forms of media

Metropolitan Region. Furthermore, the elderlythat have a positive impact on morale. In thiswho participated in this type of survey may leadsense, this study also does not support

relatively

disengagement

instrumental

disproportionally high morale. This could explain

gratification of books and magazines as well as

the positive correlation between morale and age.

the consummatory gratification of radio and PCs

This study utilized morale as a measure ofare factors that positively influenced morale.

successful aging, but the very concept ofThese media share features that they need to be

successful aging needs to be examined further.

used actively and can be used at one’s own pace

This study has refrained from discussing what iseven with the reduction in cognitive abilities

successful aging and whether the Morale Scale isaccompanied by aging. The elderly use media in

an appropriate measure of successful aging.

different ways as compared to the youth and may

While it is used in many investigations, there are

be gratified differently than people of other ages.

some critiques of this scale and its validity must

theory.

Thefulfilled

lives

and

may

have

As is clear from the weak explanatory power ofbe further verified. The possibility that utilizing

several factors throughout the entire analysis, it

another scale would demonstrate adverse resultsmust be recognized that successful aging among

cannot be denied. In addition, as previously

the elderly cannot be explained solely by media

noted, only the sums of the Morale Scale weregratification and our limited demographic factors.

used in the analysis, though this scale is separated

Some studies have found that income, academic

into three factors (Lawton, 1972, 1975). Subsequent

background, family structure, and past media

analysis would be needed to explain which aspect ofexperience affect media use (Burnett, 1991;

morale relates to media gratifications.
This

Doolittle, 1979; Morrison, 1979; Robinson at al.,research

applied

the

uses

and

2004; Rubin & Rubin, 1982; Schramm, 1969).

gratifications approach, which does not employ

The elderly are more complex than other aged

a relatively objective index, such as amount orgroups owing to their health and living conditions

frequency of use; instead, it utilizes media(Robinson et al., 2004). Thus, the many complex

gratifications (attitudes toward media), which

factors that were not covered in the present

has been criticized as highly subjective. The

investigation are thought to be at play in thevalidity of this type of research must be criticallyrelationship between media gratifications andreviewed. However, it is worth noting that thismorale. These research findings that media has a

research showed that the amount or frequency

negative correlation with morale may beof media use does not indicate a positive

explained

commitment to media.

by

other

strongvariablesthat

The finding that the link between media

determine both of these factors.

gratifications and morale among the elderly is

The limitations of this study need to begenerallymentioned. The first is that while the participants
37

negativeraisesquestionsaboutMedia Gratifications and Successful Aging Among the “Young Old”

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