ECONOMIC RESEARCH CENTERDISCUSSION PAPER

No.186

HISTORICAL BENEFIT AND CONTEMPORARYAPPROACHES TO SUSTAINABLE (LOW CARBON)URBAN TRANSPORT IN JAPANbyAnnika STYCZYNSKI*

Revised version as of September 2012

ECONOMIC RESEARCH CENTERGRADUATE SCHOOL OF ECONOMICSNAGOYA UNIVERSITY* Visiting Fellow, Economic Research Center, Graduate School of Economics,
Nagoya University, from October 17, 2011 to January 13, 2012.

2

H ISTORICAL BENEFIT AND CONTEMPORARY APPROACHES TOS USTAINABLE (L OW C ARBON ) U RBAN T RANSPORT IN J APAN
Annika STYCZYNSKI

Abstract
The Millennium Cities Database for Sustainable Transport ranks Tokyo as top
performer in comparison to 84 cities in providing one of the comparatively mostsustainable transport systems worldwide. This finding is examined on the basis ofland-use and transport energy consumption in order to unlock the underlying
success factors. As a result, three main reasons could be identified: (1) a strong
regulatory and institutional framework, (2) integrated spatial planning strategies, and(3) investment decisions in an appropriate socio-economic environment.
In the second part of the paper, more contemporary approaches tosustainable urban transport and road transport related initiatives in particular are
examined. For this purpose the “No Diesel-Vehicle Campaign” and the “TopRunner Regulation” are analyzed. In addition, a first glance is thrown at thepromotion of electric and plug-in-hybrid vehicles. In conclusion, the Top Runner
Regulation could be more congruent with its initial goal, if stepwise weightcategorized fuel consumption standards would be replaced by a linear standard as
applied in the European Union. How significant the loopholes created by theJapanese weight-categorized standards are in comparison to the EU regulation
remains unclear. The European standard, however, is obviously more stringent. The“No Diesel-Vehicle Campaign”, by contrast, has created positive results over the
first two years of monitoring.
The third part discusses quality of life objections and argues that different
from U.S. cases livability constrains in Tokyo are rather attributable to populousness
than to urban transport infrastructure.

Keywords: land-use and transport energy, fuel consumption and vehicle
emissions standards, EVs/PHVs, quality of life, Tokyo, Japan3

1.

Introduction: the problem in brief

Although metropolitan areas cover an almost negligible part of the earth's surface(2%), they consume between two thirds and three quarters of world energy
demand and account for the bulk (more than 70%) of global greenhouse gas
emissions (GHG). [BMBF 2010] Given the scale of city energy use andcorresponding CO2 emissions, world demographic change towards 9 billion people,
and accelerating urbanization with more than half of the world’s population dwellingurban areas, increasing attention is called from researchers, policy makers, local
authorities, and practitioners.
A substantial and growing share of energy usage and related pollutants isgenerated within the transport sector. Petroleum being its major fuel, the transport
sector's GHG emissions have increased at a faster rate than any other energy end
use sector over the last decades. [EIA 2009 and 2010] Transport accounted forroughly one quarter of worldwide CO2 production in 2003. Within the OECD, thisshare was as high as 29%. By contrast, transport sector emissions in Japanaccount for only 20%, which are almost entirely (90%) generated by automobiles. It
follows that road transport is the major emission source and thus the major climate
challenge within the transport sector.
Urban transport is a highly complex field of research that can be studied from avariety of perspectives. It covers not only energy use and the environment, but landuse, technology, finance, health, safety, and the governance thereof, to mention
only a few. To capture its complexity, the Toronto based Centre for Sustainable
Transportation [2005] developed the most comprehensive and most widely useddefinition, according to which a sustainable transport system:-

Allows the basic access and development needs of individuals,
companies, and societies to be met safely and in a manner consistent4with human and ecosystem health, and promotes equity within andbetween successive generations;-

Is affordable, operates fairly and efficiently, offers choice of transportmode, and supports a competitive economy, as well as balanced
regional development;-

Limits emissions and waste within the planet’s ability to absorb them,uses renewable resources at or below their rates of generation, anduses non-renewable resources at or below the rates of developmentof renewable substitutes while minimizing the impact on the use ofland and the generation of noise.

While the center’s definition describes a wide range of features and functions, it isstill too complex to serve the purpose of this paper. Thus, I will focus my researchon four recurrently arising and interlocking aspects in urban transport: energy, landuse, pollutants, and related health concerns.
Against this backdrop, the paper follows a threefold structure. In the first part, twoobjectives are pursued: first, to describe Tokyo’s success in the Millennium Cities
Database (MCD) according to which the mega city provides one of thecomparatively most sustainable transport systems worldwide. (ch. 2.1) Second, toexplain and contextualize Tokyo’s MCD ranking in governance perspective. (ch. 2.2)
In the second part, primarily the 2008 Tokyo Metropolitan Environmental Master
Plan has been consulted to describe the status quo of urban mobility and to enlist
measures to be taken for sustainable (low carbon) transport and mobility in Tokyo(ch. 3.1). As road transport is the major emission source, the second part focuseson two road transport related policy initiatives, the No Diesel-Vehicle Campaign (ch.
3.2) and the Top-Runner Regulation (ch. 3.3). Subsequent to that a first initiative inthe promotion of electric and plug-in-hybrid vehicles is presented (ch. 3.4). The lastpart will discuss the polarity of Tokyo style mobility patterns vis-à-vis quality of life
indicators and in particular objections against high-density living (ch. 4.1) and sums
up what can be learned from Tokyo’s transport system in the face of peak oil,climate change, and rapid urbanization in emerging economies (ch. 4.2).

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2.1

The Millennium Cities Database for Sustainable Transport

Whether an urban transport system is truly sustainable requires a variety of hard
data. The 1995 Millennium Cities Database for Sustainable Transport has collected
such hard data through 26 variables by which to assess and compare the level ofsustainability of urban transport systems. The data ranges from travel time bydifferent modes, levels of energy use and emissions, the costs of transport, safetyissues, comfort factors etc.1. As a result of the 1995 study, Tokyo and Osaka, Berlinand Munich are ranked within the “comparatively most sustainable transport”
cluster, while Tokyo takes a top position second after Hong Kong.2 Although Jeff
Kenworthy and Felix Laube reveal variables according to which they have1

Kenworthy [2008](1) Urban density (persons/ha)(2) Proportion of jobs in CBD (%)(3) Metropolitan gross domestic product per capita (USD)(4) Average user cost of a car trip (% per capita GDP/trip)(5) Average user cost of a public transport trip (% per capita GDP/trip)(6) Length of freeway per person (m/person)(7) Parking space per 1000 CBD jobs
(8) Total length of reserved public transport routes per 1000 persons (metros)(9) Total length of reserved public transport routes per urban hectare (metros)(10) Total private passenger vehicles per 1000 persons (cars-motorcycles)(11) Total public transport seat kilometers of service per capita (seat km)(12) Proportion of trips by non-motorized mode (%)(13) Proportion of trips by motorized public modes (%)(14) Total car+motorcycle+taxi passenger kilometers per person(15) Total public transport boardings per capita(16) Total passenger transport cost as percentage of metropolitan GDP (%)(17) Total private+public passenger transport energy/person (MJ)
(18) Total CO2 emissions per person from passenger transport (kg)(19) Total emissions of CO2, HC, NOX and SO2 per capita (kg)(20) Total emissions of CO2, HC, NOX and SO2 per urban hectare (kg)(21) Total transport deaths per 100.00o people(22) Total transport deaths per billion passenger kilometers on public transport (%)(23) Proportion of total motorized passenger kilometers on public transport (%)(24) Ratio of public versus private transport speeds(25) Ratio of annual investment in public transport vs. private transport infrastructure(26) Ratio of segregated public transport infrastructure versus freeways
2

In the more current ˝Mobility in Cities Database˝ (MCD) from 2001 the number of cities under
examination has decreased from 84 to 52 and shifted markedly towards European based
metropolises. All Japanese examples and almost all U.S. American examples (except for Chicago)were left aside. The number of variables, by contrast, has increased from 26 to 120 indicators andthe analysis of successful mobility policies has been added.

6

compared the cities, details for each city remain unpublished. To ensure
nonetheless that the underlying characteristics of Tokyo’s success can be unlocked
and to keep this research in manageable limits, I will focus on land-use andtransport related energy use for the first part of this paper.
There are traditionally three main factors that affect energy consumption in citytransport. These factors are:(1) Spatial pattern(2) Income level(3) The composition of the vehicle fleet
Kenworthy’s pioneering research has shed light on the causal relationship between
these three main factors and energy consumption within cities. Although his
insights present common knowledge within the epistemic community today, I
present them as a first empirical building block in guidance to my own research.

2.2

Transport system development in the Tokyo Metropolitan Region

To begin with, the literature on urban transport suggests that two main factors
impede urban transport from performing sustainable. 3 Those are a fragmented
institutional set up and a typically weak coordination mechanism among them. In afragmented institutional setting different agencies are responsible for land use andtransport planning. Whether they are situated at different levels of government orwithin one large government organization, the coordination of issues crucial tosustainable performance used to be missing. The hypothesis derived from this3

Cluster 1/Module 4: Integration of Land Use and Transport Planning; presentation prepared for thecapacity building program Building Leaders in Urban Transport Planning (LUTP), Singapore 2012,
p. 15.

7

observation is, that the Tokyo transport authority and land-use related institutions
are better integrated and coordinated.4

2.2.1 Spatial pattern
The results of the MCD for Sustainable Transport show clearly that higher
population density accounts for a more sustainable transport system, i.e.
comparatively lower energy consumption and emissions. The literature on land-use
and transport also suggests that compact versus sprawling urban areas, and mixed
land-use versus segregated land-use patterns create favorable impact on energy
consumption in cities.
There are three different definitions existing to the area of “Tokyo”. The first is
defined by the 23 wards, which constitute Tokyo city (622km2). The second
definition describes the administrative region of Tokyo (approximately 13 million
people on a territory of 2.187km2) which is governed by the Tokyo Metropolitan
Government (TMG). The Greater Tokyo Area or Tokyo Metropolitan Region (Shutoken) is defined as the area located 50-70 km from Tokyo station, comprising an
area of approximately 13.500km2 by stretching far into the prefectures of Saitama,
Chiba, Kanagawa, and Ibaraki. According to UN data [2009] greater Tokyo
comprises 36.7 million people in 2010, roughly one third of the entire Japanese
population, and is thus, by far, the largest metropolitan area worldwide. The density
varies largely from 2,403 people/km2 in the greater Tokyo area to 14,389
people/km2 within Tokyo City (23 wards) [TMG 2011]. Therewith, Tokyo ranks
among

the

densestagglomerations

worldwide.

Transport

infrastructuredevelopment and land-use are highly correlated when looking at urban density. A
4

To test the hypothesis two salient aspects require in-depth research: first, the number of
institutions/stakeholders involved in the decision making process; and second, how criticalstakeholder issues such as the acquisition of land and related ownership rights within that process
are solved. To answer those questions, however, a second research stay in Tokyo in January 2013is planned.

8World Bank Study on Urban Transport Development [2000] will shed more light on
this aspect and contributes to elaborate on the institutional conditions under which
land-use and public transport system5 development in Tokyo have evolved.

2.2.2 Income level
The income level, as captured by the Metropolitan gross domestic product percapita, confirms the counter trend. Although all 5 clusters6 of the MCD have a percapita GDP between $20.000 - 26.000, higher income tends to result in lesssustainable transport. In the fiscal year 2008 the Tokyo Metropolitan GDP per
capita was at $24.400 [TMG FY2008]. This, however, generates barely immediate
explanatory value for why this would promote less energy intense transport. Rather,it can be argued that initial capital costs and circumstances that have led toinvestments into such a mass transport system, as well as a subsidy scheme
involved, deserve more attention. I am thus inclined to question the relevance of thevariable “income level” in relation to energy consumption in city transport.
Before looking into the “composition of the vehicle fleet”, I suggest to consider theoverall modal split as this may reveal unexpected insight into the overarchingresearch question. Only in a second step the composition of the vehicle fleet will be
examined.

2.2.3 Modal split
A statement on the causal relationship between modal split and the nature of thevehicle fleet in relation to transport energy can be approached by three of
Kenworthy’s factors: first, the total private passenger vehicles per 1000 persons
5

How about the road system?
After the 84 cities were ranked on the various factors and a composite score for each city wascreated based on the twenty-six variables, the cities were subdivided into five groups/clusters, from“comparatively least sustainable” to “comparatively most sustainable transport”.

6

9(cars + motorcycles); second, the total car + motorcycle + taxi passenger
kilometers traveled per person (PKT); and third, the total of public transportboardings per capita. In the first two cases, cities within the comparatively mostsustainable transport cluster show lowest values. In other words, urban transportsystems with low rates of individual motorization are more sustainable than thosewith higher levels thereof. Data provided by the World Bank [2008] indicate a nation
wide trend toward low levels of individual motorization. Within the 34 OECDmember countries car ownership averaged at 429 passenger cars7 (per 1,000
people) in 2008. Japan lies clearly below that figure with 319 vehicles countrywide
and 238 passenger vehicles in the jurisdictional entity of Tokyo, which comprises 13
million inhabitants [MLIT 2010].8 Complementary, high levels of public transportboarding satisfy the travel demand in a sustainable transport system. It follows thatthe modal split should be dominated by non-motorized and public transport inorder to be low carbon.
Figure 1

Shares of Movement by Transportation Mode in Tokyo
Although no data on daily public transportboardings is available, the graph provided
by the Tokyo Bureau of City Planning showsthat transport in the Metropolitan Area isoverwhelmingly dominated by rail-basedmodes.

Source: TMG 2010

7

Passenger cars refer to road motor vehicles, other than two-wheelers, intended for the carriage ofpassengers and designed to seat no more than nine people (including the driver).
8
Only Hong Kong and Singapore have lower levels of passenger vehicles (below 100) due to strict
vehicle restriction measures and road pricing.

10

2.2.3.1

The role of rail-based public transportation

Similar to Seoul and Shanghai, Tokyo disposes of a subway line of up to 350km,
but in addition to the subway, the Tokyo Metropolitan Region has other railway
systems connecting central Tokyo to suburban cities with total length of more than
2,000km. This is can be considered unique. With a total of 2,143 km in route
length, the network is by far the world’s largest. Moreover, Tokyo’s approach inutilizing railways (including intercity and suburban rail lines and tramways in central
Tokyo) to guide urban development has been consistently applied since the late
1920s. In the postwar period, the 1957 Government decision to construct five lines
with a total route length of 108.6 km marks the continuation of an emphasis on railbased public transportation. Under the Metropolitan Region Development Law of1956 the Government of Japan embarked upon comprehensive development
planning for Greater Tokyo. Long-term land-use policies were designed to control
for the concentration of population, which was rapidly increasing in central Tokyoon the one hand, and to promote housing and employment further outside of thecity, on the other. The employment concentration in central Tokyo, however,continued rapidly up until the mid-1960s, which led to a continued increase incommuter traffic from the different suburban centers to the central business district.
Capacity expansion programs needed to be planned and implemented for
suburban and intercity rail lines.
Figure 2

Evolution of Tokyo’s railway oriented structure

Source: TMG 1994

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2.2.3.2

Land-use planning

A remarkable aspect of land-use planning was initiated by rail-oriented new town
development, which private railway companies were substantially involved in. They
have adopted a historically decisive role in particularly building and operating
suburban lines, but also in attracting more users. Through the purchase of greatamounts of land along the planned railroad lines private railway companies havestarted to enter the real estate and distribution business, which in part laid thefoundation for compact city planning to be realized. All this has been conducive tothe creation of Tokyo’s rail-oriented urban transport system as it is in use up until
today. In turn, it explains for Tokyo’s saturation and degree of maturity ascompared to railway networks in other cities worldwide.

2.2.3.3

Demand and supply side rationales

On the demand side of the equation, the popularity of public transport has been
spurred by a number of facts. As Paul Chorus has carved out quite neatly in his
dissertation9 railway operators are endowed with exclusive lifetime concessions,which constrain fierce competition. At the same time, strict fare regulations curb
their commercial leeway. Since fares can be raised only when private railway
operators prove to operate at a loss, business activities besides meretransportation have attracted much of the companies’ interest.
Possibly not unique, but particularly noticeable, Japanese railway companies’ corebusiness strategies include many side-businesses such as retail and real estate, therunning of hotels, golf courses and amusement parks. Because rail operators areinterested in generating stable and increasing ridership the objective to meet and9Paul Chorus’ dissertation on “Station area development in Tokyo and what Randstad can learn
from it” is about to be published soon and detailed reference will be given subsequently.

12

accommodate customer preferences is obvious. Thus, while rail operators areclearly driven by profit maximization, the customer can benefit in multiple ways.
In addition, the popularity of public transport usage has been greatly enhanced bycommuting allowances. As most Japanese companies bear the full commuting
costs of their employees, those do not have to worry about commuting expenses(except travel time) in deciding on the location of their residences. Employers in turncan fully deduct costs of commuting allowances (as high as 100,000 yen per monthin the year 2000) from their corporate income taxes. Moreover, because of apayment system in place that allows for seamless transfer among the cooperatively
operated railway system, passengers show no reluctance to use different lines.
Last but not least, safety, punctuality, and time efficient transport promote theregular usage of public transportation.

2.2.3.4

The automobile – a true competitor?

A critical juncture occurred when between 1971 and 1980 the number of
automobiles in Japan has doubled (to 37.33 million). Rail-based transportation,
however, could assert its primacy. The literature gives two main reasons for why
and how public transportation in Tokyo could prevail over the automobile: on the
one hand, several factors constrain car ownership in the Tokyo Metropolitan
Region. Those are strict parking space and related car ownership requirements.
People, who intend to register a car must present evidence verifying the availabilityof an off-street parking space, which can be as expensive as approximately¥50.000 or €500 a month. Moreover, the general narrowness of roads in Tokyo
provides little space for on-street parking while random off-street parking in central
Tokyo is disproportionately cost intense. All of these factors, in conjunction withhigh-quality rail services, and the strict control of illegal parking, have been
conducive in discouraging the use of the automobile.

13

Figure 3

Population growth and motorizationin million

Population Increasein the Tokyo Metropolitan Region 1950-2025
and Motorization levels 1950-2010
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
1
2
1950 55

3
60

4
65

5
70

6
75

7
8
80 85

9
90

10 11 1295 2000 05

13
10

14
15

15 16
20 25

Source: http://www.keishicho.metro.tokyo.jp/toukei/bunsyo/toukei22/pdf/kt22b001.pdf(accessed Jan. 6, 2012) and UN [2009]

On the other hand, conditions created by private railway companies as outlined
earlier, contribute significantly to the success of public transportation. [Suzuki
2011:90; World Bank 2000]

2.2.3.5

The success factors of urban rail and land development

A World Bank Study on Urban Transport Development [2000:41f.] has compiled
and systematized a number of factors adding to Tokyo-style urban rail
development. In summary, there are three categories of success factors conduciveto Tokyo’s integrated urban rail and land development: (1) a strong regulatory andinstitutional framework, (2) integrated spatial planning strategies, and (3) investment
decisions in an appropriate socio-economic environment. Each is fanned out
below:

14(1) The strong regulatory and institutional framework comprises:-

A comprehensive legal framework supporting integrated development.

-

A licensing scheme to protect rail operators from excessive competition andto provide opportunities to feed the rail services through affiliate bus
enterprises.

-

A variety of financing options such as interest subsidies, soft loans, fiscal
investment loans, and commercial loans.

-

Tax-free commuting allowances encouraging the use of public transport.

-

High level of coordination among individuals and institutions involved inrailway development.

-

Efficient administrative infrastructure to support the transfer of benefits.

-

The availability of highly competent technical and financial teams.

(2) In the field of spatial planning strategies the Japanese approach encompasses:-

Integrated land use and transport planning process at the national and local
level; well respected government policies on land use and transport
development, which provide incentives to attract investment along thecorridor.

-A land readjustment technique available to assist in efficient acquisition of railrights-of-way.

-

A strategic location of urban arterials to provide the space to construct anunderground rail system.

-

Railway construction to promote under-developed areas near the city center.

-

A strategy to develop residential areas as well as other purpose areas(mixed-use) along rail corridors, so that high-density development creates
passenger demand.

-A strategy to develop rail stations as inter-modal transport terminals andactivity centers.

15(3) The section on investment decisions in an appropriate socio-economic
environment constitutes the following aspects:-

The railway network has been well developed before motor vehicles became
widespread.

-

Railways are providing a high level of service, which underlines the generalconsensus that railways are an essential mode of transport in an urban area.

-

Private railway development profitable through land development along thecorridor.

-

Increased property values caused by rail construction enable value capture
to finance part of the investments.

-

Increased attractiveness of residential and commercial development along
the railway corridor, which in turn, contributes to an increase in railway
users.10

Although one important factor, the composition of the vehicle fleet, is still missing to
the discussion, all the above mentioned explains for Tokyo being a top performer interms of urban sustainable transport. It confirms the hypothesis that Tokyo’stransport and land-use related institutions are and have been better integrated andcoordinated. The continuation of rail-oriented development in the post-war period
through private rail operators, flanked by governmental policies, and well received
by customers speak a clear language. It suggests that high-density living was
intended, mass oriented solutions required and the system gradually designed insuch a way to accommodate 36 million people.11 From a peak oil and climatechange perspective, this obviously pays-off in many more regards than initiallyanticipated.

10

To learn more about the how and why government and private rail companies interacted in acoordinated way towards compact city planning is the objective of further in depth research.
11
Although Germany and Japan (+5,8%) have similar amounts of land at their disposal,
approximately 56% more people inhabit the Japanese archipelago.

16

2.2.4 The composition of the vehicle fleet
The city vehicle fleet consists of a range of different vehicles such as passenger
cars, rented cars, taxis, buses and trucks.12 The actual composition both in termsof the number of vehicles and commensurate fuel efficiency standards is not
sufficiently ascertainable.13 Road transport, however, remains the major climate
challenge within this particular sector. Hence, a contemporary approach to roadtransport related policy initiatives – the “Top-Runner Regulation” and the “No
Diesel-Vehicle Campaign” – are analyzed with regard to their contribution tosustainable (low carbon) mobility.

3.

Mediate and Immediate Contemporary Approaches to Sustainable
Urban Transport in Japan

According to Sugiyama and Takeuchi [2008] the formulation of local climate change
policies in Japan has started in the mid-1990s after the first Action Plan to Arrest
Global Warming has been formulated by the Government of Japan in October
1990, and the Environment Agency (since 2001 the Ministry of the Environment)
has published a Guideline with Measures to Prevent Global Warming (National
Guideline 93) in 1993. In 1998, after the adoption of the Kyoto Protocol, several
amendments to the Energy Conservation Law and the Global Warming Law wereapproved. One such amendment to the Energy Conservation Law was the TopRunner Regulation, which is considered the most effective measure in Japan’snational climate change policy [Sugiyama et. al. 2008:426]. I will come to discuss its
effectiveness regarding sustainable transport in a later paragraph.

12

Motorcycles are not documented.
The Automobile Inspection & Registration Information Association documents the number ofvehicle ownership but diverges in its approach from the Tokyo Metropolitan Automobile Pollution
Control Division (http://www.airia.or.jp/number/index.html)

13

17

The 1998 Global Warming Law is criticized for its lack of delegation. It neither
authorizes the prefectural or local level to reduce its CO2 emissions in relevant fieldsof action (e.g. energy policy, transport or housing) nor does it provide the financial
means to do so. In response to a missing legal directive that would coordinate
emissions reduction targets at the national level and actions to be taken, the Tokyo
Metropolitan Government (TMG) has issued local ordinances, which claim
competences over energy, traffic, and other GHG-related policy areas. [Sugiyama
et al. 2008: 424, 434]. As the political and economic center of the nation that
attracts particular international attention, Tokyo demands to evolve into an“environmentally-advanced” city – even a role model to the world – that offers
appeal and vitality to its citizens and visitors. [cf. “The 10-year Plan”]

3.1

Current Trends in Sustainable Urban Road Transport in Tokyo

Both, the 2006 ”Tokyo's Big Change. The 10-year Plan”14 and the 2008 Tokyo
Metropolitan Environmental Master Plan15 have articulated measures for thepromotion of sustainable urban transport. Under the 10-year Plan, which, among
other things, envisions the city’s CO2 emissions to be reduced by 25% on the levelsof 2000 by 2020, two projects – the ”10-Year Project for Green Tokyo” and the“10-Year Project for a Carbon-Minus Tokyo” – are relevant to sustainabletransportation. In a more full-fledged way, however, the Tokyo Metropolitan
Environmental Master Plan addresses the realization of environmentally sustainabletransportation.16 Particularly fuel consumption regulations play a significant role intackling CO2 emissions today. They constitute, however, only one approach inretrofitting urban transport towards a low-carbon future. Besides the ‘improve’
14

In December 2006, the Tokyo Metropolitan Government formulated "Tokyo's Big Change: The 10Year Plan", which presents Tokyo's vision of the city in the Olympic year of 2016, and the directionof Tokyo's policies that will be taken to achieve these goals.
http://www.metro.tokyo.jp/ENGLISH/PLAN/index.htm
15
http://www.kankyo.metro.tokyo.jp/kouhou/english/master-plan/
16

Measures with an asterisk (*) occur in all three documents.

18

strategy (promoting of the use of low-emission, fuel-efficient vehicles), also ‘avoid’(reducing unnecessary travel demand) and ‘shift’ (shifting travel to lower-carbon
modes) practices have been developed. All the below measures brought forward
can be subsumed under one such category. All improve strategy measures will bemarked by the large letter “I”, all avoid strategy measures by the letter “A”, and all
shift strategy measures by the letter “S”.
The Environmental Master Plan covers:
1. Change of travel behavior (shift from overdependence on vehicles)-

Promotion of public transportation usage-

Introduction of new public transportation system-

Promotion of bicycle usage-

Securing safe and comfortable mobile environment

2. Controlling traffic volume and other issues*

(S+A)

(A)

-

Control of running volume of commercial vehicles-

Control of vehicle traffic volume by economic instruments and regulatory
instruments-

Utilization of parking space

3. Shift and lead to environmental friendly vehicle usage

(S+I)

-

Promotion of low emission and fuel efficient vehicle usage*-

Green procurement in vehicle usage-

Strengthening vehicle emission reduction program and other approaches-

Promotion of eco-driving*

4. Enhancement of environmental performance of vehicle (development anddiffusion of fuel-efficient vehicle)*
(I)

19

5. Measures for fuels*(I)-

Promotion of biomass fuel usage-

Development and diffusion of next-generation vehicle fuels

In conclusion, measures to promote the usage of low-emission, fuel-efficient
vehicles seem to prevail the catalog of measures as the ”10-Year Project for Green
Tokyo” and the ”10 Year Project for a Carbon Minus Tokyo” as well as theEnvironmental Master Plan quantitatively emphasize improve strategy measures. A
simple explanation for this may lie in the Japanese automotive industry, whichconstitutesasignificant

producerandemployerbothdomesticallyandinternationally.17
Nakamura et al. [2011] have classified different typical measures being takenworldwide under the ‘improve’, ‘shift’, and ‘avoid’ categories to capture trends andeffects. Traffic flow and traffic volume measures largely correspond with the shiftcategory and entail a striking problem both in terms of driving convenience andpollutants released when driving speed at peak hours falls below 20km/h andincreases emissions at the spot. Measures against congestion such as better bus
services (Bus Rapid Transit) are thus advisable, also and in particular for Tokyo city.
In the year 2000 recorded fuel emissions in the transportation sector amounted to
18 million tons/year. Within the 20 years time span until 2020 the Transportation
Department aspires a 40% reduction of greenhouse gas emissions within the
sector, which equals a target of 10.8 million tons/year, including 8.8 million
tons/year from automobiles. Nevertheless, according to the Tokyo Metropolitan
Automobile Pollution Control Division it is technically and socio-economically17Japanese auto manufacturers are Toyota, Nissan, Mitsubishi, Mitsubishi Fuso, Mazda, Isuzu,
Honda, Hino, Suzuki, Daihatsu, Subaru, and UD Trucks.

20

impossible to reduce fuel consumption of automobiles alone or traffic volume alone
to reach the 40% target.
The Tokyo Metropolitan Automobile Pollution Control Division thus pursues a dual
approach by integrating fuel consumption and traffic volume measures applied tothe entire on road vehicle portfolio except for motorized two-wheelers. Theirmeasures and guidelines for emissions reduction encompass the following six
points18:
1. Measures to reduce traffic volume of passenger cars
To reduce 9% of passenger car traffic volume, about 300.000 passengers mustuse alternative means of transportation instead of their own cars. In order to reduce
fuel consumption by 500.000 tons, measures need to be implemented to spreadhybrid and electric vehicles at a pace of 50.000 cars per year. The spread of new(fuel efficient) cars is limited however as the increase of newly registered cars in theTokyo Metropolitan area is 5% or below. Moreover, one quarter of passenger car
traffic volume comes from vehicles registered outside of Tokyo. Thus, obviously theabove-mentioned 300.000 passengers could easily be found among the owners ofvehicles registered outside of Tokyo. If it is feasible to shift their travel behavior, a
big step forward would be taken.
2. Improvement of passenger car fuel efficiency
To improve passenger car fuel efficiency the Automobile Pollution Control Division
talks about accelerating the implementation of the 2020 fuel consumption
standard19 in order to be able to sell fuel-efficient vehicles sooner than initiallyanticipated. To make this happen three decisive actions need to be taken: (1)corresponding proposals need to be made to the Japanese government, (2) public
18

Notably, car-sharing initiatives are not included.
As of August 2011 Japan's national standard will likely be increased to a fleet average of 20.3
kilometers per liter of fuel by 2020. Hybrids like Toyota's Prius would be covered by the guideline,
while electric cars and plug-in hybrids would be excluded from the requirements.

19

21

opinion needs to be spurred on, and (3) an attractive automobile market needs tobe created.
3. Improvement of taxi fuel efficiency
Taxis can substitute private cars. It is thus crucial to improve fuel efficiency ofcommercially used cars, which in turn can serve as showcase of new propulsion
systems in a non-binding way. Well aware of the deteriorating effects of increasing
loading rates onto fuel efficiency, the Automobile Pollution Control Division calls forhigh fuel efficiency vehicles that can offset the load detriment. The more so as taxis
drive nine times more distance than private cars.
4. Purchase of next-generation buses
It requires political commitment to manufacture next-generation buses to transport
the above-mentioned 300.000 passengers. To replace all commercial large-sizebuses by hybrid buses and to further reduce CO2 emissions through bio fuel usage
is regarded as solution to the challenge of congestion.
5. Use commercial vehicles in place of freight trucks
Freight transport is a particularly sensitive domain for the vitality of an economy.
Thus, whereas reduction in traffic volume can be achieved only to a limited extent
the improvement of fuel efficiency seems to be more promising.
6. Improvement of fuel efficiency of freight vehicles
Similar to taxis, freight vehicles are subject to the deteriorating effects on fuelefficiency, which requires the promotion of highly fuel-efficient propulsion systems.
Next to passenger transport, urban freight adopts an increasingly important role.
The home shopping market, for example, has rapidly grown worldwide since222003.20 Japanese takkyubins (Yamato and Sagawa as the two leaders) are parcel
transport companies specializing in home deliveries; these represent an original
service and a specific feature of Japanese urban logistics. Urban freight representsroughly 10-15% of vehicle kilometers on city streets, which contributes significantly
to road congestion. Freight needs dedicated urban spaces, such as loading andunloading areas, which add up to space limitations in Tokyo. Moreover,environmental concerns have led some cities into actually developing logistic
facilities. Twenty-two freight facilities in Tokyo, and fourteen in other Japanesecities, have been implemented with the help of the national state in order to solve
urban difficulties for truck companies. In terms of pollution control, the “No-DieselVehicles Campaign” tackles particularly truck engine exhaust fumes in Japan.

3.2

The “No Diesel Vehicle Campaign”

As mentioned earlier, transport accounts for nearly 25% of global energy related
CO2 emissions. Additionally, transportation sources emit several other compounds
that are believed to have an indirect effect on climate change, but are notconsidered greenhouse gases, except for ozone (O3). These substances include
nitrogen dioxide (NOX), sulfates, carbon monoxide (CO) and aerosols (black carbon
and soot).
The health risks involved in transportation both to the ecosystem and directly onto
human beings are not negligible. According to the World Health Organization [2011]urban air pollution is estimated to cause around 1.3 million deaths worldwide every
year. Corollary, the lower the levels of air pollution in a city, the lower the risk todevelop respiratory and cardiovascular diseases. Since the exposure to air

20

Cluster 5/Module 4: Urban Freight Package; presentation prepared for the capacity building
program Building Leaders in Urban Transport Planning (LUTP), Singapore 2012, p. 8.

23pollutants is largely beyond the control of individuals, actions taken by publicauthorities at the national, regional and even international level are required.
Still in the 1960s, air pollution in Japan was basically attributed to industrial
processes. Only in 1973, five years after the Air Pollution Control Act, theAutomobile Exhaust Gas Regulation was enacted. Another five years later in 1978,
an environmental control standard for nitrogen oxides has been introduced – theJapanese version of the Muskie Act. Honda had developed a vehicle that compliedwith the original act, proposed by U.S. Senator Edmund Muskie, which forced
reduction of CO, HC, and NOX emissions by 90% for vehicles produced in 1975
and 1976 as compared to those produced in 1970/71. As U.S. car manufacturers
have bailed out, the way was cleared for Japanese manufacturers to successfully
enter the global market for automobiles.21 [Suzuki 2011:80]
However, environmental quality standards with regard to nitrogen dioxide andsuspended particulate matter (SPM) were not sufficiently met, which happened
mainly because of steadily increasing automobile traffic and the fumes emitted bydiesel-powered vehicles. In August 1999 the Tokyo Metropolitan Government
started to discuss the “No Diesel Vehicle Campaign”. Four years later, in October
2003, ahead of the Japanese Government, TMG started to restrict diesel-powered
vehicles in collaboration with the eight local governments in Kanto region. Since
then, concentrations of suspended particulate matter have been significantly
reduced and almost all related environmental quality standards could be met.
According to the results of air-quality measurements in FY2006, environmental
quality standards were met at all roadside air pollution monitoring stations for two
years in a row beginning in fiscal year 2005.

21

Asia’s first passenger car production started in 1959 in Toyota’s Motomachi plant in Koromo,
today Toyota city (40km south east of Nagoya in Aichi prefecture).

24

3.3

The Top-Runner Regulation

The Japanese Top-Runner Regulation (TRR) is a “regulatory scheme designed tostimulate the continuous improvement of the use-phase energy efficiency of
products within selected segments of markets for household and office appliances,vehicles, etc.” (Nordquist 2006: 5) It is designed to stimulate exclusively supply-side
activities of product markets. To date eighteen product categories have beenbrought into the Top Runner scheme and an additional three – heavy vehicles
among them – are currently considered for inclusion. Among these eight productcategories, two concern vehicles.
Table 1

Vehicle related product categories in the Top Runner scheme
Product category1.

2.

Target year

Expected energy savings

Gasoline passenger vehicles

2010~23 % (cf. 1995)

Diesel passenger vehicles

2005~15 % (cf. 1995)

LPG passenger vehicles22

2010~11.4 % (cf. 2001)

Diesel freight vehicles

2005~7 % (cf. 1995)

Gasoline freight vehicles

2010~13 % (cf. 1995)

Source: Nordquist 2006: 7.

Nordquist points out that the Japanese Top Runner program does not address
actual energy use as such, because it is oriented towards actors on the supply
side, and that the overall energy-savings effect of the program is thus noassessment criteria. Concurrently, however, the supply of energy efficient products
is one side of the coin to realize energy savings. The expected energy savings
mentioned in the table partly correspond with a fuel consumption standard forpassenger vehicles and small freight vehicles aiming at 15.1km/l gasoline by
FY2010. Already in FY2005 Japanese manufacturers could announce to have
22

Liquefied petroleum gas

25

achieved the target. The market penetration of such vehicles, however, can hardly
be estimated.
In the light of road traffic being the major source of CO2 emissions in transport,
unanimous agreement prevails that the improvement of fuel consumption is ofutmost importance to the reduction of CO2 emissions from passenger and freightvehicles. As a major automobile manufacturer and exporter, TRR safeguards
Japanese automobile competitiveness within the market toward more fuel-efficient
vehicles. The Toyota Prius is one such case in point. The Prius first went on sale inJapan in 1997, making it the first mass-produced hybrid vehicle. It was
subsequently introduced worldwide in 2001 with its largest markets in Japan andthe United States. As of February 2012 a total of 2.5 million Prius have been soldworldwide.23 The latest generation, the 2012 Prius Plug-in Hybrid (ZVW35), forexample, has a 2.5 L/100 km (95 mpg-e) city and 4.7 L/100 km (50 mpg-US)
highway driving performance. In comparison to the Prius 1st gen (NHW11), which
was produced between 2001 and 2003, city and highway mileages amounted to
5.6 L/100 km (42 mpg-US) – almost twice as much than a decade later – and 5.7
L/100 km (41 mpg-US) respectively. Also tailpipe emissions could be reduced bymore than one third from 135 g/km (217 g/mi) to 82 g/km (133 g/mi).24
Nevertheless, the 2010 Environmental White Paper issued by the Tokyo
Metropolitan Government points to the shortcomings of the regulation as theycome to bear domestically. As the FY2015 fuel consumption standard distinguishes
16 vehicle weight categories the crux of the matter lies in applying the weight
criteria instead of absolute fuel consumption for the definition of eco cars. In suchway, the weight thresholds allow manufacturers to legally stretch the actual
standard – a regulatory phenomenon dubbed “Ohikkoshi”.

23

http://www.timesunion.com/news/article/Prius-Expands-the-Brand-2012-Toyota-Prius-c3386045.php (accessed May 21, 2012)24
http://www.fueleconomy.gov/feg/PowerSearch.do?action=HySbs (accessed May 21, 2012)

26

Figure 4

Transitions of vehicle weights and fuel consumption standard values

Source:Environment White Paper 2010, p. 10.

Similarly distorting, cars with inferior absolute fuel consumption are receiving
preferential tax treatment, since the tax charge increases with growing vehicle
weight. In other words, the same tax reduction proportion applies: the heavier a car
becomes, the larger its reduction in tax charge becomes. Thus, throughinconsistent regulation and taxation, the Top-Runner Program has failed to becomea determined instrument toward low-carbon mobility. In such way, it rather follows
the U.S. American model, which prioritizes free consumer choice.
One major difference (see the graph below) between the European and Japanese
regulation is that the EU’s fuel consumption limit shows a line set by a linear
function of vehicle weights. This prevents loopholes for manufacturers to occur. In
addition, the linear standard set by the European regulation is markedly more rigid
than the Japanese counterpart. Furthermore, whereas in Japan fuel consumption
regulations target at energy consumption rates per 1 liter of fuel, the European
Union regulates CO2 emissions per fuel consumption. In that sense, the EU moreclearly targets emissions than fuel consumption. [cf. Environment White Paper
2010:8ff.]

27

Figure 5Comparison of the EU’s CO2 emissions limit value curve andJapanese fuel consumption standard values by vehicle weight category

Source:Environment White Paper 2010, p. 12.

The European Union has submitted far-reaching proposals to significantly reduce
passenger vehicle CO2 emission levels by 2020. Fuel consumption and CO2
emission levels of all European-manufactured passenger vehicles are to be reduced
to 130g/km of CO2 through drive train-related measures. An additional reduction of
10g/km of CO2 has to be achieved through biofuels and “complementarymeasures” (including gear change timing gauges, efficient air conditioning systems,
and tire inflation control systems) so that a set target of 120g/km of CO2 is realized
in 2012. By 2020, vehicles must comply with a value of 95g/km of CO2. According
to the German Association of the Automotive Industry (VDA), more than 260
passenger car models produced in Germany already meet or are below the130g/km of CO2 target.
3.4

Electric and Plug-In Hybrid Vehicles

Beyond the Top Runner Regulation regime electric vehicles (EVs) or plug-in hybrid
vehicles (PHVs) achieve much better fuel efficiency than any conventional car.
Concurrently, however, a purchase subsidy similarly encourages automakers to28

produce EVs/PHVs. In order to create initial demand 18 towns25 have been
selected as test sites. With a number 15.000 test vehicles, Tokyo is by far thelargest pilot site. According to the Ministry of Economics, Technology and Industry(2011) the projections and targets for the diffusion of EVs/PHVs are as follows:
Table 2

Diffusion projections & targets for EVs/PHVs
Projections(private-sector efforts)

Government targets

2020

2020

/

2030

/

2030

Conventional vehicles

80% > / 60-70%

50-80% / 30-50%

Next-generation vehicles:< 20% / 30-40%

20-50% / 50-70%

HEV26

10-15% / 20-30%

20-30% / 30-40%

EV/PHEV

5-10% / 10-20%

15-20% / 20-30%

FCV27

Miniscule / 1%

0-1% / 0-3%

CDV28

Miniscule / 1%

0-5% / 5-10%

More in depth information on opportunities, barriers, and requirements for the
uptake of electric vehicles as part of sustainable urban mobility plans in Tokyo,
Berlin, and San Francisco can be found in my dissertation.

4.

Quality of Life and urban mobility

Robert Cevero (2011) acknowledges that in the face of “knowledge- and servicebased industries driving economic growth in many sectors of the modern economy,
25

Nigata, Gifu, Fukui, Kyoto, Tottori, Okayama, Saga, Nagasaki, Kumamoto, Osaka, Okinawa,
Aichi, Shizuoka, Kanagawa, Tokyo, Saitama, Tochigi, and Aomori.
26
Hybrid electric vehicle
27
Fuel cell vehicle
28
Clean diesel vehicle

29

creating functional yet livable cities is essential to global competitiveness.” Thelivability of cities can be assessed by indicators for quality of life which usually
include (1) wealth, (2) employment, (3) the built environment, (4) physical and mental
health, (5) education, (6) recreation, (7) leisure time, and (8) social belonging.
(Sinha/Labi 2007) Whereas science painstakingly distinguishes all those aspects,
they are actually quite obviously interrelated to a greater or lesser extent.

4.1

The polarity of quality of life and populousness

When it comes to Tokyo city two critical aspects are salient: first, congestion on
Tokyo’s streets and crowding in public transport29 during peak hours plus daily
commuting distances of up to 4 hours in total, which severely restrict recreationand leisure time and on top of that hamper community-building objectives. Thus,
rather than the transport system, the amount of people that need to beaccommodated within and around the economic, political, and cultural center ofJapan cause discomfort. The second point concerns the predominance of concrete
over open green spaces in large parts of the city. All this may lie within acceptable
limits for Japanese citizens, but creates daunting effects for outsiders.
Moreover, rather than burdened with large-scale infrastructure such as limitedaccess elevated inner city freeways, already the first private rail company president– Ichizo Kobayashi – president of Hankyo railways (Osaka – Kobe – Kyoto) andowner of Takarazuka opera in Takarazuka city knew how to strike a balance
between transport infrastructure as an economic conduit and cultural/recreational
objectives. Similarly, the Odakyu line between Tokyo and Hakone, attracts those
who want to get away from all the city’s turbulences.

29

To give you an example, the congestion ratio compares the number of passengers to train
capacity. A capacity of 100% means that 3 persons stand in 1m2 of floor space (Ieda, 1995). The
congestion ratio of 172%, for example, concerns a section of the Toyuko line (i.e.Yutenji-Naka
Meguro), which connects Yokohama and central Tokyo.

30

4.2

What can be learned from the Tokyo style transport system?

The Tokyo Metropolitan Area in terms of the demographics is by far the largest
agglomeration worldwide. In the face of rapid urbanization, especially in the mostpopulous countries Tokyo can be one example to learn from. Its transportation
system is comparably clean, as it is extensively rail-based and runs on electricity,which will be increasingly generated by renewable energies. It is reliable, affordable,
and accommodates many million people every day in a safe way.
Beyond those thoughts, an assessment of the applicability of the Tokyo model tocities in developing countries requires close examination of existing conditions ineach city at stake. However, a general observation of cities in developing countries
from within the World Bank (2000) reveals the following points:-

Institutions for urban transport policy making and administration are relatively
weak in developing countries. There is a lack of sufficient staff with technicaland financial competency in both the public and private sectors.

-

There is a chronic shortage of financial resources to support capital intense
urban rail investments.

-

Policies are often not well coordinated; bus services may compete withrailways (e.g., as in Bangkok)-

The urban rail system is either nonexistent or underdeveloped, and therefore
there is no consensus that urban rail is an essential part of urban transport.
Existing railways have been developed to serve long-distance traffic, andservice levels within urban areas are not sufficient for rail to function as partof urban transport system. Since railways are not elevated there are at-grade(level) crossings within urban areas, and trains have to slow down before
passing through the crossings. Sometimes, illegal settlements are found in
and around rail corridors, making modernization of the system difficult.

-

In some countries, motorization progressed rapidly before urban rail wasdeveloped (particularly in Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia, and the Philippines);
however, in other countries (e.g., China, Vietnam, Cambodia, Myanmar),motorization rates are still relatively low.

-

Public railway management is not very efficient, and in most cases, even
operating costs are not recovered.

31

Thus, although there are many lessons to be learned from the success of theTokyo-style urban rail development along the lines of (1) a strong regulatory andinstitutional framework, (2) appropriate spatial planning strategies, and (3)investment decisions in an appropriate socio-economic environment, the portabilityof the model faces many counterfactual conditions such as the weakness ofinstitutions for urban transport policy making and administration, the lack ofsufficient staff with technical and financial competency in both the public andprivate sectors, and the chronic shortage of financial resources to support capitalintensive urban rail investments. Since capital costs for urban rail systems arecomparatively high they are either nonexistent or underdeveloped in an emerging
urban environment. Consequentially, the debate over urban rail as an essential partof an urban transport system oftentimes leads to an alternative analysis in which
Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) gains higher acceptance. However, some of the causes forTokyo’s success could be emulated in favor of mass public transport other thanrail-based modes. Those causes are an integrated and coordinated institutional set
up with market protective elements for the specific mode of transport. How
important behavioral aspects are to the frequently consumed rail services, forexample, would be revealed, if the commuter allowance and corporate tax
deductibility would be redirected and exclusively applied to bus transit.

5.

Conclusion

After ten weeks of intensive research in the field, a big step has been made in
explaining Tokyo’s success in the Millennium Cities Database study through landuse and energy related performance indicators.
A second goal has been to examine ways in which implications of climate change
are addressed in current transport related policies. Fuel efficiency standards (theJapanese “Top-Runner Regulation”) are one such approach, as lower levels of fuel32

consumption also mean lower levels of emissions. The “No Diesel Vehicle
Campaign” is not perceived as directly relating to climate change. The regulation of
SPM and NOx emissions has rather health concern related origin. It could,
however, under such prerequisites also sell in the international automobile market.

33

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