Misrepresenting the Ainu
─The Emergence of a False Myth and its Multiple Replications─
アイヌの誤った伝え方
─偽りの神話の出現とその多重複製─

Timothy M. Blankley
ティモシー・M・ブランクリー

To use Wallaceʼs words, it is impossible to avoid a suspicion that they are fully the equals of
their masters, when we see the refinement and beauty of their best representatives."(Poskett, 2019)

Over the course of history, the Ainu have been misrepresented by influential authors.

The

Ainu have several creation myths that have been documented by Batchelor (1901) andMunro (1996).

Another myth, a late 18th century(Murakami, 1799) published inpainting by Murakami Shimanojo() depicts a legendthat a child was born from the union of a princess and dog and this child became the ancestorof the Ainu. Batchelor (1901) who knew of this myth was to dismiss it and his reasons will be
expanded on below.

Unfortunately for the Ainu, much of the early European interest inthem relied on Japanese translators as informants andvisitors informed their opinions accordingly.

Duringthe historical period the Japanese typically saw the
Ainu as a dying race, treated them as such, andrepresented them in a poor light.
zenith in the Meiji period.

This reached its

Even the most recent

encyclopedic work published by the Smithsonian in(1999) cites the Murakami (1799) myth as do otherinfluential nineteenth century authors cited in thispaper.
AINO GIRL, URAP.

This paper will present multiple examples ofpublished works that in this authorʼs view completely― 17 ―

國學院大學北海道短期大学部紀要第41巻

misrepresent the Ainu. The creations myths understood by the Ainu themselves will bealso summarized for comparison. Finally, the paper will argue that the Ainu have sufferedunduly as a result of these misrepresentations.
Romyn Hitchcockʼs (1892)

Aino Girl, Urap" (above) is one of dozens of images thephotographer captured on the United States Eclipse Expedition to Japan (late 1880s). It
appears in the published work,(Hitchcock, 1892). Hitchcock shot photo-graphic plates of artifacts, trade goods, burial sites, portraits, hunting tools, clothing etc. aswell as collected what he could for the museum.

Though a distinguished curator, he echoed

the scientific view typical of the time: that the Ainu were living remnants of the stone age.
Hitchcock goes on to call the tattooing of women barbaric; not recognizing the symbolism andmeaning of the practice which was embedded in myth.

The ash used in making the tattoo

came from the goddess of the hearth, the principle Ainu deity,, and the tattooing was an

instruction from the goddess in the creation of the world, one of many Ainu myths recorded in
Bacthelor (1901). What Hitchcock (1892) also didnʼt understand was that tattooing for Ainu
women was a rites‑of‑passage.

As this myth in(Honda 2000) explains:

One day, a lightning deity and a wolf deity came to a nearby kotan to find a bride.

They

had nice figures and handsome faces; furthermore, they were of good families in the
kotan, and had been educated accordingly.
Sadly, they both failed on one point.

So the gods were quite satisfied.

And that was that they were(arms half‑done, lips half‑done); that is, the tattoos around their lips andon their arms were only half complete.

The lightning and wolf gods were quite

disappointed and went away, saying, ̀Thereʼs just no way theyʼd be fit as brides'.
This is not the only myth on tattooing but it suffices to show that the Ainu were completingan important cultural/religious ritual.
Traveler, artist and self‑proclaimed anthropologist, Savage Landor (1893) wrote thefollowing about the Ainu after his months‑long trek around the island.

Here are two brief

passages:
The Ainu are low in the scale of humanity.

They have always been low.

They havenot sunk for they have never risen. They have never done any harm in this world, andthey will never do any good. (p.291)
Batchelor (1901) will contradict this.
dangerous.

Prior to the Ainu enlightenment they were wild and

The Japanese often fought with them throughout Japan as the Ainu were as far― 18 ―

Misrepresenting the Ainu

south as Satsuma in Kyushu island.
them.

The Japanese fought many battles in order to subdue

The Ainu were strong and formidable.

The Ainu also reported how it was theycame to be enlightened.
The Ainu were formerly cannibals.

Not only did they eat the flesh of bears, deer, andother animals in its raw condition, but they used to kill and devour their own relations
also.

They even ate them without first cooking the flesh.

But when the divine

descended from heaven he taught the people to make fish‑spears, bows and arrows, pots,
pans and such like useful articles.

He also commanded them to cook every kind of fish

and all kinds of flesh before eating it. He furthermore warned them against the habit of
devouring one another.ʼ (Batchelor, 1901, p.2).
Savage Landor (1893) says elsewhere:
We must think of the Ainu more as animals than as human beings.

When we speak of adog, we do not ask whether it is a moral dog, but only if it is a good dog. It is the samewith the Ainu.

We cannot compare them to ourselves, nor judge them by our own stan-

dard of morality.

They are gentle, kind, brave, and above everything they are simple.

Their language, manners, customs, arts, habits, as we have seen, are the very simplest
and rudest possible.

The Ainu Past
Kazuyoshi Ohtsuka (1999) states that the perception of the Ainu as hunters and gatherers is
inaccurate and over looks a once more sophisticated trading culture for the past.

Indeed the(The Japanese clan who began to control trade during Edo after the battle ofSekigahara) relied on the Ainu‑China trade for high quality silks.

The Chinese run trading

posts in the Amur river basin provided opportunities for many of the indigenous Northern
Peoples to trade.

Murakami (1799) painted an ocean going ship called anwhich shows such an ocean going vessel.
Angelis and fellow Jesuit Diogo Carvalho visited Ezo in 1620 (Abe, 2005) and reported astrong Ainu who were at the time still at liberty to trade.

They mention large numbers of

Ainu seafaring boats as well as trade with other islands and the Japanese in furs, eagle
feathers (used in Japanese archery), silks, and lacquer‑ware, etc. (Kikuchi, 2012)
Harrison (1954) documents the extent of the sea‑trade while the Hakodate City Museum of
Northern Peoplesʼ collection of trade goods from the neighboring regions support this.

― 19 ―

國學院大學北海道短期大学部紀要第41巻

Evidently, when Savage Landor visited Hokkaido 30 years into Meiji rule, Ainu sea trade hadlong been extinguished by the strict policies that gave the Matsumae ruling class a completemonopoly over sea trade.

The Matsumae clan closed this trade down incrementally.

In theearly days they adopted a formalized trading system which recognized chiefdoms (alien at
first to the Ainu but established under Qing Chinese rules of trade).

Eventually with therise of Japanese merchants in Ezo: fisheries and mines emerged and the Ainu were recruited,
often enforced, to work for their masters.
Once denied the right to trade, the Ainu were forced to rely on a more subsistence mode ofexistence, hence the nineteenth century image of hunter‑gatherers. It is very doubtful
Savage Landor was aware of any of this prior trade. When reading Savage Landor, hemarvels at the skill of the Ainu fishing in the rivers̶and he himself is helped to safety after
breaking his leg, carried down a mountain and brought along the coast in an Ainu boat tosafety.
In conclusion the celebrated artistʼs biases are clearly shown in his writings.

While hispaintings offer a remarkable visual history, he was unable to see through the repressive
narrative that denigrated them.

Savage Landorʼs renown and extensive travels (Korea,

Tibet to mention two) would have meant he was widely read and thought of as an author of
credentials, famous to this day.
The Ainu at the time when Isabella Bird (1881) visited Hokkaido were in fact suffering under
the hands of the colonial rulers but apparently she failed to recognize this.

Economic stress,

loss of rights to hunt, forced into agriculture, loss of community (as men were forced into
commercial hunting and fishing), had taken its toll on the Ainu at large.

Notwithstanding,the Ainu fell victim to diseases that wreaked havoc on their communities.

Walker (1999)

estimates that there was a 40% drop in population between 1807 and 1854.

Ainu villages

were also reduced in size and number by smallpox.

In addition, many Ainu had contracted

syphilis, a disease which makes a person infertile.

In her famous work

(1880) Bird states as fact that the Ainu consider themselves descended from dogs.
The following extracts demonstrate Birdʼs attitude and those around her.
I asked Mr. Von S. to speak to Ito in Japanese about the importance of being kind andcourteous to the Ainos whose hospitality I shall receive; and Ito is very indignant at this.
Treat Ainos politely!" he says; theyʼre just dogs, not men;" and since he has regaled mewith all the scandal concerning them which he has been able to rake together in the― 20 ―

Misrepresenting the Ainu

village.
LETTER XXXV
Several patients," mostly children, were brought in during the afternoon.
much disgusted by my interest in these people, who, he repeated,

Ito wasare just dogs,"

referring to their legendary origin, of which they are not ashamed.
XXXVI
They have no history, their traditions are scarcely worthy the name, they claim descentfrom a dog, their houses and persons swarm with vermin, they are sunk in the grossest
ignorance, they have no letters or any numbers above a thousand, they are clothed in thebark of trees and the untanned skins of beasts, they worship the bear, the sun, moon, fire,
water, and I know not what, they are uncivilizable and altogether irreclaimable savages,
yet they are attractive, and in some ways fascinating, and I hope I shall never forget themusic of their low, sweet voices, the soft light of their mild, brown eyes, and thewonderful sweetness of their smile.
XXXVII
Their supposed ignorance Bird talks about is complete conjecture. It wasnʼt until
approximately a decade later that the very respectful John Batchelor started documenting
Ainu folklore and religion.

Batchelorʼs published work number many hundreds of pages.
(1901), is later supplemented by the very thorough work

carried out in the 1930s by Munro,(1996).

Munroʼs work showing acomplex social structure, culture, religious beliefs, folklore and mythology, clan affiliations,ethical norms, shamanism, an egalitarian view of their own people and a tradition of reciting
epic poetry.

The tradition of reciting epic poetry continues to this day (Imaishi & Kitahara).

The author of the well known historical work
elsewhere in his book(2001) writes
they believed that their people were bornfrom the union of a wolflike canine and a goddess." Walkerʼs (2001) claim is unreferenced.
Walker goes on to say the Ainu sacrificed wolves (
although consider); to the contrary killing wolves,(gods) were protected from hunting and in all of my research havenever come across an account other than bears and owls being ̀sent off'.
Batchelor says in the opening pages of(1901, p.6).

It has been remarked by some travelers that the Ainu consider themselves to have
had a dog as their ancestor.

But this is pure fiction, for I am well assured by the people― 21 ―

國學院大學北海道短期大学部紀要第41巻

themselves that they think nothing of the kind.

Nor do dogs in any way figure among

them as totem animals, as they certainly would do, did they consider themselves to be
their descendants.
A further point is that there is no elaboration of such a myth.
dogs would be celebrated accordingly in

If it were based in fact at all,, the Ainu epic poetry that elaborates myths ofgods; the bear, the orca, the owl, just to name a few.

How the Bear Clan Came About
In the 1930s Munro (1996, p.142) identified at least 8 clans related to animals.

This cameabout through the discovery of clan markers, or otherwise sacred girdles, worn only by
women. The girdles were associated with deities, which include bear deity, wolf deity andother animal deities.
Not all clans were of equal status. There is a myth of a young woman caught weaving agirdle (Munro, 1996 #2 p.143) resulting in her clan becoming lower in status to that of the, or the hare, as it was a taboo to expose the girdles for others to see.
the goddess

In another mythtaught the skill and directions on making the girdle.

Elsewhere,

Munro writes in a letter to Seligman the two girdles collected are labeled ̀attributed to'.

However as all women are associated toit remained unclear to

Seligman (1996) whether the girdle had duel or even multiple associations.

Apparently

though they did: they were clan markers and related by myth to the descent systems.
Seligman states (Munro 1996, p.144) the relationship here is as follows: Munro was told that
Kamui Fuchi instructed, who in turn taught the Ainu how to make".
A womanʼs girdle, being associated with her clan, determined who she could and couldnʼtmarry.

In confirming the right to marry, a girlʼs mother would investigate the clan of her

proposed husband. A woman could not marry a man whose mother was of the same clan.
This indicates matrilineally even though a married woman went to live with her husband.
Batchelor (1901) covers similar territory in the following account:
In very ancient times there lived two people who were husband and wife.

The

husband one day fell ill, and soon after died, leaving no children, so that the poor wife wasleft quite alone.

Now it happened to have been decreed that the woman was at somefuture time to bear a son.

When the people saw that the time for the child to be born

― 22 ―

Misrepresenting the Ainu

was nigh at hand, some said, Surely this woman has married again." Others said, Notso, but her deceased husband has risen from among the dead.ʼ" But the woman herself
said that it was all a miracle, and the following is an account of the matter:
One evening there was a sudden appearance in the hut in which I was sitting. He whocame to me had the external form of a man, and was dressed in black clothing.

Onturning in my direction he said O, woman, I have a word to say to you, so please pay
attention.

I am the god who possesses the mountains (i.e., a bear), and not a humanbeing at all, though I have now appeared to you in the bodily form of a man.
of my coming is this.
condition.

The reason

Your husband is dead, and you are left in a very lonesome

I have seen this, and am come to inform you that you will bear a child.

will be my gift to you.

He

When he is born you will no longer be lonely, and when he isgrown up he will be very great, rich, and eloquent." After saying this he left me.ʼ By andby this woman bore a son, who in time really became a mighty hunter as well as a great,rich, and eloquent man.

He also became the father of many children. Thus it happensthat many of the Ainu who dwell among the mountains are to this day said to bedescended from a bear.

̶i.e., ̀descendants of the bear.' Such people arevery proud, and say, ̀As for me, I am a child of the god of the mountains; I am descended
from the divine one who rules in the mountains.' These people are very proud indeed. (p.
10)
A distinction should be noted that when the bear appeared to the woman, he was in the formof a man.

The relationship with the bear is also more complex than the above folktale.

Kitagawa (1961) explains one of the important creation myths explaining howʼ (bear god of high status) became known to the Ainu.
Ainu learned theThis one focuses on how thebear ceremony.

In the beginning, the founder of the earth, Okikurumi, didnʼt recognize the bear god Kimun
Kamuiʼs great status as he was disguised.

As a teacher of the Ainu, Okikurumi had to go

through an ordeal with the bear in order to gain this sacred knowledge from the other god.
It is from this meeting, and through Okikurumi that the Ainu learned the way of."Members of the Ainu community would have grown up listening to the oral recitation of such
myths around the hearth in the form of, or rhythmic oral recitations; some epic inlength. Such knowledge has always been difficult for outsiders to ascertain as sacred
religious ceremonies were held indoors and in private.

― 23 ―

國學院大學北海道短期大学部紀要第41巻

In 1961, Kitagawa observed one of the last
Hokkaido.

His essay,

ceremonies to take place in Piratori,

Ainu Bear Festival, Iomante," also draws on previous research

particularly Hallowell (1928), Batchelor (1901), and Greey (1884).
The summary of the myth is as follows.

The great Kamui Okikurumi (the founder of thehuman race) held a feast for other gods and failed to invite the bear god Kimun Kamui.
bear god came anyway and waited outside the door where the feast was held.
departure, Okikurumi sensed the bear godʼs great spirit (the mountains.

The

After his) and went in search of him in

When they finally met, Kimun Kamui stabbed the great godʼs knee with areed and caused him great pain.

Then he instructed the god to teach the Ainu about thebearʼs god status and how to treat the bear ceremonially.

In return for this favor, Kimun

Kamui healed the great Okikurumiʼs injury.

Here we have the Kimun Kamui himself

teaching the Ainu how to carry out theceremony correctly.

One of the aspects of theand guest.

Kitagawa (1961) discusses it ̀,' to be a visitor

The bear cub that is raised by the Ainu and treated as a great god is in disguise, a

god in animal form, or theriomorphic.

Just as Okikurumi didnʼt recognize the bear god

initially and had to instruct the Ainu in this regard, the disguise has to be eventually removed.
Allin the Ainu pantheon are in disguise̶and a bear̶can only return to heaven whenits disguise is removed.

Thus emancipated, the god can return to heaven.

essentially removes the disguise.
It should be noted though that not all bears were consider to be gods in animal form. A bear,
most notably a human killer, was considered evil () and great effort was made to kill it

and bury it with its with its head severed (Batchelor, 1901: 478).

The head remains intact in.
In Ainu mythology and folklore we see a clear self‑awareness at a cultural level that involves
a complex set of beliefs and a historical development as reported above by Batchelor (p.2)
The Ainu recognize barbarism and had overcome it and acknowledged their enlightenment
through forming cultural beliefs based on didactic myths.
It is said that the island of Yezo was made by two deities, a male and a female, whowere the deputies of the Creator.

The female had the west coast allotted to her as her

portion of work, and to the male deity was assigned the south and eastern parts(Bachelor, 1901, p.38)
The creation itself was divided between the god and goddess.

― 24 ―

Elsewhere Batchelor (1901)

Misrepresenting the Ainu

says that the differences in East and West Hokkaido, mountainous verses flat, also reflect thisdifference.
The Ainu tell this folklore about enlightenment in the context of them becoming the Ainu
which Aioina taught them to be.

One such myth involves cannibalism.

material evidence to suggest this was the case.
a ̀worse fear scenario' to the Ainu.

There is no

The cannibalism for instance may have been

It may have been used in the folktale as a warning toothers that eating human flesh is a terrible thing to do.
KuboderaʼsHowever, this may not be the case.

, pp.527‑29 in Philippi (1979, p.209) has aciting cannibalism.
The yukar begins like this:A cannibal elder sister raised me, and we lived on.

When she went hunting in themountains, she would [come back] carrying on her back equal amounts of human flesh
and deer flesh.

She would cook the deer flesh for me, and she would cook the humanflesh for herself.

This was the way we lived on and on.

To this point it would seem that there would be no further need for discussion having clearly
established that the Ainu do indeed have overlapping myths explain their creation, theenlightenment, the birth of theceremony (bear sending).

However, the myth abouta princess and a dog bearing children persists in contemporary literature. Astonishingly,
the author ofrestates

the myth and its consequences.
Clearly a transformation myth, just one of several origin legends, this is the mostwell‑known among the Japanese.

Not understanding transformation mythology, andbelieving that the bestiality aspect was morally offensive, Japanese, especially children,
taunted Ainu children calling them hairy dogs. (Dubreuil, 2004)
It is unclear reading Dubreuil (2004) whether or not she accepts that the myth is of Ainu
origin or not, or if she repeats it to point out the negativity caused by its use.
remains that she omits the myths that

The fact

clearly of Ainu origin. She does understand thetransformational function: a bear god appears as a man and all deities: owl, orca, bears are
actually gods in disguise.

The fact is that in the Murakami myth, the dog is not in disguise.

In the article Mythology and Animal Tales" (Ogihara, 1999), Murakamiʼs painting of theprincess and dog is presented as ̀one of several Ainu origin myths'.

That said, Ogihara (p.

275) quotes another Japanese author, Sarashina (1971a) ̀the dog and the maiden produce― 25 ―

國學院大學北海道短期大学部紀要第41巻

two children.' In the caption it states, Although this tale is one of several Ainu origin
myths,"…, the others are not presented.
Dubreuil (1999) is one of two editors of this encyclopedic work published by the National
Museum of Natural History Smithsonian Institution giving it a rather weighty backing.

Inconclusion, here we have author repeating author without careful analysis.
It is highly doubtful that Murakami Shimanojo would have had sufficient language skills or themeans to study Ainu creation myths but rather would have relied on Ainu informants who
spoke Japanese during these audiences.

It would be no surprise that there were

misunderstandings; even lack of regard for the informant.

Conversely, perhaps an Ainu

informant saying what he believed the artist wanted to hear.

No conclusions can be drawn

about where Murakami got the idea.

After all, the word Ainu sounds close to the Japanese, meaning dog, and there is no way of knowing whether the myth was already incirculation and inspired the painting that way.
Ainu mythology is so complex that there is little doubt Murakami would not have been able tograsp it in the context he was working.

He was an artist and his method of communication

was visual art. Looking at otherpaintings we see not only schooled stylization anddisfigurement but also exaggeration in portrayals of the Ainu.

The title,

aims to entertain a Japanese audience and promote the artistʼs career.
should have been aware the importance of

Murakami, (often animals), in Ainu belief, so this nay

have been a contributing factor in the confusion.

Conclusions
For much of history the Ainu have not been able to control what was written about them andthey have been portrayed in disrespectful ways by famous authors historically andcontemporarily.

Munro and Batchelor, the two most distinguished researchers that havewritten book length works present very different evidence.

The problem with the myth

depicted by Murakami Shimanojo is that it cannot be substantiated elsewhere with reference
to any Ainu source.

Batchelor and Munro spent decades painstakingly collecting ethno-graphic data on the people they genuinely marveled at.

Bird, Hitchcock, Savage Landor,

presumably Murakami neither understood Ainu language and had only brief interactions
with the Ainu mediated by the Japanese point of view.
it is a shame that Dubreuilʼs

Walkerʼs comments are baffling andInstructional Materialsʼ for Canadian Undergrads" is― 26 ―

Misrepresenting the Ainu

misinformed.
Ainu religion, transmitted orally throughthrough.

, and myths, had didactic content through andAinu rituals brought their myths to life.

It is through rituals that the ideas

described in myths become realistic enough to convince people." (Yamada, p. 5).

Thegoddess was involved with every aspect of Ainu life. Kamui Fuchi punishes misconduct,
ritual or ethical." (Munro, 1996) The Ainu do not have temples or dedicated places ofworship (Kitahara & Imaishi) but each(house) serves as a place of prayer. The

goddess of the hearth is approached in prayer on every significant occasion. The deity of thefireplace ̀is believed to unify all deities that have descended from heaven to the human world(Kitahara & Imaishi).

The myths show a clear line of descent, an enlightenment, theemergence of the bear god and the nature of the bear god who serves the Ainu people.

Most,

if not all, ritual practices would have been hidden from early travelers and Japanese visitors.
It wasnʼt until researchers such as Batchelor and Munro appeared, learned the language,
established trust, and lived among the Ainu that accurate information could be collected.

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