ISSN1882-9171

Journal of Socio-Informatics
Vol.4, No.1

Sep. 2011

Symposium: What can we learn from the Tohoku Earthquake?:
Disaster and Socio-Informatics
Mamoru ITO and Takeshi HIROMATSU[Invited Paper]
Information and International Exchange in Meiji-Period Nagasaki
Brian BURKE-GAFFNEY[Refereed Papers]
The Effects of Internet Use on Internet Dependency, Psychological Health, andInterpersonal Relationships
Ayuchi KUMAZAKI(Yamaoka), Yumi MATSUO, Akira SAKAMOTO,
Kumiko AKIYAMA, Nireka ADACHI, Mayumi NAITO, Ide KURIE,
Katsura SAKAMOTO, Mieko TAKAHIRA, and Nobuyoshi YONEZAWA
Comparison of Mobile TV Acceptance in Indonesia with Japan
Andri QIANTORI, Agung Budi SUTIONO,
Hirohiko SUWA, and Toshizumi OHTA
[Refereed Research Notes]
Being Quiet in Internet Cafes: Private Booths and the Isolation of Net Cafe
NanminTomohisa HIRATA
Web-GIS based Outdoor Education Program as Environmental Education for
Elementary Schools
Noriyoshi HOSOYA and Kayoko YAMAMOTO
Study of the Music Business Model Based on Comparison of Country Having
Low Piracy Rate and Country Having High Rate
Yasutaka UEDA

The Japan Association for Social Informatics (JASI)The Japan Society for Socio-Information Studies (JSIS)Journal of Socio-Informatics
Vol.4, No.1

Sep. 2011◆CONTENTS◆
Symposium: What can we learn from the Tohoku Earthquake? :Disaster and Socio-Informatics

Mamoru ITO and Takeshi HIROMATSU… 3[Invited Paper]
Information and International Exchange in Meiji-Period Nagasaki

Brian BURKE-GAFFNEY… 5[Refereed Papers]
The Effects of Internet Use on Internet Dependency, Psychological Health, andInterpersonal Relationships

Ayuchi Kumazaki(Yamaoka), Yumi Matsuo, Akira Sakamoto,
Kumiko Akiyama, Nireka Adachi, Mayumi Naito, Ide Kurie,
Katsura Sakamoto, Mieko Takahira, and Nobuyoshi Yonezawa… 17
Comparison of Mobile TV Acceptance in Indonesia with Japan

Andri QIANTORI, Agung Budi SUTIONO,
Hirohiko SUWA, and Toshizumi OHTA… 29[Refereed Research Notes]
Being Quiet in Internet Cafes: Private Booths and the Isolation of Net Cafe Nanmin

Tomohisa HIRATA… 41
Web-GIS based Outdoor Education Program as Environmental Education for Elementary Schools
Noriyoshi HOSOYA and Kayoko YAMAMOTO… 49
Study of the Music Business Model Based on Comparison of Country Having Low
Piracy Rate and Country Having High Rate

Yasutaka Ueda… 63

3

Invited Paper

Information and International Exchange in Meiji-Period
NagasakiBrian BURKE-GAFFNEY, Nagasaki Institute of Applied Science

1. Introduction
During Japan’s more than two-century long
period of national isolation (1641-1859), theJapanese people lived in a state of peace and selfsufficiency under the benevolent dictatorship of
the Tokugawa Shogun and his train of feudal lords.
World news trickled into the country via the Dutch
and Chinese in Nagasaki, but the insularity of thecountry was such that the Industrial Revolution,

Fig. 1 Nagasaki Harbor in the Edo Period. The

the Napoleonic Wars and other global events were

fan-shaped artificial island of Dejima,

as consequential to most of the nation assite of a Dutch factory (trading post) for

temperature shifts on Jupiter. As a result of its

more than two centuries, was like anmonopoly on international exchange, Nagasaki
servedasJapan’sforemost

receptacle

antenna reaching out for information

forfrom abroad. (Nagasaki Museum of

information from overseas and developed a unique

History and Culture)eclectic culture evident in architecture, language,food, and local customs.

judicious approach of submitting the request

In July 1853, Commodore Matthew Perrythrough the open port of Nagasaki.

Both theanchored a squadron of American warships inAmericans and Russians eventually succeeded inTokyo Bay and presented an ultimatum to thewinning agreements from the Shogunate, setting

stunned Tokugawa Shogunate, demanding theprecedents that were followed by Britain, France

opening of Japan to trade and diplomatic relations

and the Netherlands.

with the United States.

The following month,

In 1858, the Tokugawa Shogunate signed full-Russian Admiral Evfimii Putiatin sailed into

fledged commercial treaties with the United States,

Nagasaki Harbor to accomplish the same mission,

Russia, Britain, France and the Netherlands andcompeting directly with Perry but taking the more

opened – effective July 1, 1859 – the three ports of5

Information and International Exchange in Meiji-Period Nagasaki

Nagasaki, Yokohama and Hakodate.

BURKE-GAFFNEY

Nagasaki

old Chinese Quarter. A Japanese-Chinese interface

was the most important of the three because 1) it

since the late seventeenth century, this little

had been Japan’s only open window during theenclave turned into a kind of makeshift international

period of national isolation and had both anbazaar after the opening of the port, with European

infrastructure geared to foreign trade and aadventurers, Chinese residents, and the young

population accustomed to rubbing shoulders withrepresentatives

foreigners, and 2) it was close to Shanghai, thesouthwestern Japan establishing the first tentative

point of departure for most of the ships making

commercial links.

ofvariousfeudalclansofthe first voyages to Japan. The foreign settlements

The foreign consuls in Nagasaki issued an orderof Yokohama and Kobe, adjacent as they were tofor all foreign residents still lingering in thethe metropolises of Tokyo and Osaka, would later

Japanese town to move into the confines of the

far surpass Nagasaki as foreign enclaves and hubs

foreign settlement by April 15, 1861. This wasof international trade, but Nagasaki continued todelayed a few weeks when Japanese authorities

enjoy the benefits of being the closest Japanese

asked renters to wait until all the spring crops had

port to China and a receptacle for the information,

been harvested by local farmers, but, by the time

technology and merchandise of a new era.

wisteria blossoms dressed the skirts of hills, themultinational

2. The Printed Word

communityofNagasakiwas

ensconced both physically and legally in its new
settlement.

Although officially opened in July 1859, theOne of the young Britons setting up shop in the

Nagasaki Foreign Settlement was little more thanNagasaki Foreign Settlement in 1861 was Albert

an idea until the Tokugawa Shogunate fulfilled its

W. Hansard, the publisher of Japan’s first modern

treaty obligations by reclaiming flat land fromnewspaper. A grandson of the noted parliamentary

Nagasaki Harbor, building embankment walls

printer Luke Hansard, he had undergone training

along the waterfront, and reinforcing the hillside

as a printer’s apprentice in his native London andlots where foreign residents planned to build

then traveled to New Zealand where he worked athouses. The interval between the official opening

various posts such as secretary to the Aucklandof Nagasaki as a treaty port and the completion ofClub and the New Zealand Insurance Co.

the foreign settlement groundwork witnessed a

arrived in Nagasaki with his own printing press

brief but hectic meeting of cultures reminiscent ofand published the first issue of The NagasakiHe

the days in the sixteenth century when Portuguese

Shipping List and Advertiser on June 22, 1861. In

traders mingled with Japanese merchants anda letter to Rutherford Alcock dated May 29, 1861,

Chinese, Korean and Spanish buccaneers on the

British Consul George Morrison relayed Hansard’s

back streets of Nagasaki. The foreigners landing

request for the appointment of the newspaper as

here were in effect free to take up lodgings

an official organ of the British government andwherever they could rent a house or room. The

added his personal recommendation to that end.1

neighborhood of choice was Hirobaba, two blocks

The request was accepted, and the first issue ofof wooden houses facing each other across thethe four-page newspaper carried the following

stone-paved path leading up to the entrance to themessage at the top of its front page: “OFFICIAL
6

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. 4 No. 1 Sep. 2011

NOTIFICATION.—It is hereby notified that fromadvertisements he printed on the front page wereand after this date, and until further orders, thetaken out by businesses in Shanghai, evidence of‘Nagasaki Shipping List and Advertiser,’ is to be

the umbilical cord connecting Nagasaki with theconsidered the Official Organ of all Notifications

British community in Shanghai. In October, heproceeding from Her Britannic Majesty’s Legation,

decided to move his equipment to Yokohama,Consulate General, and Consulates in Japan.” This

where he continued publication of the newspaper

shows that Nagasaki was not only the cradle ofunder the name The Japan Herald. He remained

foreign-language newspapers in Japan but also thein Yokohama until 1865, when deteriorating health“capital” of international relations during the early

forced him to return to England. The founding

months after the opening of the ports.

father of newspaper publishing in Japan died in
London the following year, still only forty-fiveHansard provided the foreign community withyears old.

local news, consular messages, advertisements for
products and services, and, most importantly,

Nagasaki was also the site of Japan’s first

information on the comings and goings of ships

modern printing press, established here by Motoki

carrying precious merchandise and mail.

He

Shozo (1824-1892) – the “Gutenberg of Japan.”reported the installation of lamps on the Ourawaterfront and the recruitment of European

The Motoki family of Nagasaki had served since- , interpreters in
the Edo Period as oranda tsuji

constables to form the first foreign settlement

relations between the Japanese in Nagasaki andpolice force, published the minutes of the firstthe Dutch merchants arriving at the Dutch Factory

meetings of the Municipal Council, market reports,(trading post) on Dejima. Motoki Shozo studied

and news pieces from Britain, and voiced his

the Dutch language from childhood and showed aopinion on a variety of subjects ranging from thekeen interest in Western science and technology.

question of Chinese residents in the foreign

In the pre-Meiji period he headed the establishment

settlement to the latest complaints about theof a printing press in the Nagasaki Magistrate’s

intractability of Japanese officials. Half of the

Office and, as director of the Nagasaki Iron
Foundry (established with Dutch assistance in1857), he built Japan’s first iron bridge over
Nakashima River. In 1869, Motoki consulted with
William Gamble, a missionary and printing expert
at the American Presbyterian Mission Press inShanghai who had succeeded in manufacturing
Chinese lead type on an industrial scale. Motoki
mastered Gamble’s method and established the
Shinmachi Printing Press in Nagasaki the following
year,

beginningarevolution

inJapanese

Fig. 2 Published from June to October 1861,- (Ming Dynasty type),typography. His minchotai

The Nagasaki Shipping List and Advertiser
was Japan’s first modern newspaper.
(Nagasaki Museum of History and Culture)

named after Gamble’s Song/Meihua type, remains
to this day as Japan’s most popular typeface.2 The
pioneer printer later established printing presses
7Information and International Exchange in Meiji-Period Nagasaki

BURKE-GAFFNEY

in Osaka, Tokyo and Yokohama, and his Yokohama

neighbourhood commanding a panoramic view

Shimbun (later renamed Yokohama Mainichiover Nagasaki Harbour. Combining Japanese,

Shimbun) is remembered today as Japan’s first

British and hybrid colonial architectural styles, thedaily newspaper.

house was like a new-generation castle symbolizing

3

the new era of commercial and diplomatic

3. Thomas B. Glover: Bridge Across Cultures

exchangeembarking.

upon

which

Japan

was

bravely

4

Thomas Blake Glover (1838-1911) arrived in

From his earliest days in Japan, Thomas Glover

Nagasaki in September 1859 to work as a clerk in

cut an unusual figure among his British and

the Jardine, Matheson & Co. branch office in thisAmerican colleagues by his eagerness to cross the

port.

of

cultural-linguistic border and to engage in direct

Fraserburgh, Scotland quickly emerged as a leader

encounters with Japanese people. As a result hein the foreign community and a conduit fordeveloped such ability in the Japanese language

interaction

The

twenty-one

withyear-old

Japanese

nativeandand knowledge of Japanese culture and customs

representatives of feudal clans. He declared his

merchantsthat he turned into a kind of freelance diplomat. In

independence as a “general commission agent” in

1863, less that four years after his arrival in Japan,

May 1861 and, in February the following year,

British Consul George Morrison reported to his

joined with British colleague Francis Groom insuperiors in Edo that, “Mr Glover is fluent in the

launching a new business enterprise called “Glover& Co.” He also enlisted Japanese carpenters tobuild a unique colonial-style bungalow at No. 3
Minamiyamate,thehillside

residential

Fig.3 The Nagasaki Foreign Settlement ca 1867.
The fusion of Japanese and Europeanarchitectural styles is evident in the buildings.
The house built by Thomas B. Glover at No.3
Fig.4 Thomas B. Glover (1838-1911) (Nagasaki

Minamiyamate is visible beside the pine tree

University Library)in the upper left corner. (Glover Garden)
8

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. 4 No. 1 Sep. 2011

Japanese language and is on terms of intimacy anddepartments over to former employees and saving

friendship with many Japanese of rank, amongst

his own energy for the promotion of modern

whom he is much esteemed.”industries

5incollaboration

withJapanese

In addition to trade negotiations, discussions incolleagues. His subsequent achievements earned

the office of Glover & Co. included whispered

him a place of honor in the annals of Japan’srequests from young Japanese samurai for theindustrialization and modernization. These include

Scotsman’s assistance in traveling abroad. Glover

the construction of Japan’s first modern colliery

responded with his full cooperation, providing

and ship-repair dock, the introduction of equipment

transportation and making other arrangements

for the first mint, and the installment of lighthouses.

forsmuggleHowever, his hope to rescue his company fromthemselves out of Japan and to study in England.

bankruptcy using the revenue from these

One of the recipients of these favours was a young

undertakings was not to be fulfilled: Glover & Co.

samurai of the Choshu Clan named Ito Hirobumi,

declared bankruptcy in the summer of 1870 and

who would later serve as the prime minister of

the Scotsman began the long process of sorting

Japan for four terms.

out the convoluted mass of assets and liabilities.

forward-thinking

samuraitoWhile promoting the import and export trade,

He remained in Nagasaki until 1876 and watched

Glover & Co. acted as local agent for Lloyds

over the transfer of the Takashima Colliery to theRegister of Shipping, five international insurance

Mitsubishi Co. After that he accepted a position ascompanies as well as the influential Hongkong anda Mitsubishi consultant and split his time between

Shanghai Banking Corporation. In 1868, however,

Nagasaki and Tokyo. He also played a leading role

the feudal system functioning in Japan since thein the establishment of the Japan Brewery

early seventeenth century suddenly collapsed.

Company, predecessor of Kirin Beer Company. In

This upheaval came at a time when Nagasaki’s

1908, the Japanese government awarded him thestatus as this country’s main entranceway and hub

prestigious Second Class Order of the Rising Sunof international activity was waning. Many of thein recognition of his contributions to this country.

foreigners who had invested initially in Nagasaki

He died in Tokyo in 1911, a legend in his time, andhad already come to the conclusion that Yokohama

was buried at Sakamoto International Cemetery inheld greater potential because of its proximity toNagasaki.

the centre of Japanese power, because it was more

4. Telegraphy and Telephones

convenient for ships making the voyage to Japan
from the west coast of North America, and because
it enjoyed the added advantage of direct access toNagasaki’s proximity to China and Russia madethe silk-producing districts of northeastern Japan.

it an important link, not only in foreign trade, but

The opening of Hyogo (Kobe) and Osaka as treaty

also in the field of telecommunications. In 1868,

ports in 1868 only added to the run on Nagasaki’s

the Russian government invited tenders for abusiness fortunes.

contract to lay cables connecting Russia withIn late 1868 Thomas Glover dissolved the

China, Japan and Hong Kong. The Great Northern

partnership of Glover & Co. and revamped the

Telegraph Company of Denmark won the contract

companyand set up a subsidiary firm, the Great Northernbusiness,turningthevarious9

Information and International Exchange in Meiji-Period Nagasaki

BURKE-GAFFNEY

China and Japan Extension Company, to carry out
the work.

The Meiji Government guaranteedaccess to Nagasaki and allowed the company tomanage the cables between Japan and thecontinent, its lack of financial leverage, politicalsavvy and technological capability in the earlyyears of the Meiji Period leaving it little choice but
to follow the imperatives spelled out by foreigninterests.
The Great Northern China and Japan Extension
Company laid cables from Vladivostok to Nagasaki,
Shanghai and Hong Kong, a distance of 2,300
nautical miles, and established a station in the
Belle Vue Hotel at No.11 Minamiyamate in the
Nagasaki Foreign Settlement. One of the first
Western-style hotels in Japan, the Belle Vue Hotel
was an imposing two-story structure designed in abracket shape around an inner courtyard andstanding at the tree-clad foot of the Minamiyamate
hillside, near the customs jetty where foreign
visitors came ashore.

Japan’s first overseas

telegraph service began on August 12, 1871 with a

Fig.5 The article in the August 12, 1871 issue of

notice In The Nagasaki Express telling readers

The Nagasaki Express announcing thethat the company was “prepared to forward

opening of Japan’s first telegraph station.

telegrams from the station at this port to all parts(Nagasaki Museum of History and Culture)of the world in telegraphic communication.”6
In 1874, the Great Northern Telegraph Company

Telephone Company, Norwegian merchant H.M.

established its Nagasaki headquarters in a new

Fleischer installed an experimental line between

Western-style building at No. 2 Umegasaki andhis office in Oura and the premises of the Great

became one of the pillars of the Nagasaki Foreign

Northern Telegraph Company in Umegasaki. The

Settlement, while at the same time clutching theacting Danish consul in Nagasaki, Fleischer was

aortic artery of international telecommunications

serving as local agent for a number of overseas

in Japan.

shipping lines and business enterprises, including

Nagasaki was also the site of a telephone

the

Bell

Telephone

Company.

The

first

experiment that was probably the first of its kinddemonstration was conducted on May 9, 1878,

in this country. In May 1878, only two years after

when two groups of foreign residents assembled

Alexander

at the two ends of the line and gasped in

GrahamBell’sepoch-making

conversation with his assistant Mr. Watson andastonishment

less than a year since the formation of the Bellcommunication. The editor of the English-language
10

at

the

marveloftelephone

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. 4 No. 1 Sep. 2011

newspaper The Rising Sun and Nagasaki Express
attended the demonstration and reported theevent in the newspaper. He was disappointed thatthe voices over the line were often feeble or totally
inaudible, and he ended his article on a realistic
note: “As far as we can judge, the invention, though
doubtless of paramount importance, is yet in its
infancy and requires considerable development
before [it] can come into universal use as theenforced silence, which is now necessary to hear
what is spoken, cannot help mitigating against its
employment in factories etc., where constant noiseis going on.”7
Despite initial glitches, the telephone was soon
demonstrating its importance worldwide as acommunication tool.

The first permanentconnection in Nagasaki was installed within the
precincts of the Mitsubishi Nagasaki Shipyard in
October 1885, a line of about 1.2 km in length andprobably the first industrial application of theFig. 6 Frederick Ringer (1838-1907) (Glover

technology in Japan.8 This was followed by lines

Garden)connecting the Nagasaki Prefecture Office with
the Umegasaki Police Station and Megami

Ringer provided a list showing the intended site of

Quarantine Office in April and May 1886,

the six poles and two brackets needed to complete

respectively.

the line, “none of which in any way impede public

9

In September 1886, British merchant Frederickthoroughfares or roads.”11 Funded entirely at the

Ringer asked J.J. Enslie, the British consul in

expense of Holme, Ringer & Co. and completed in

Nagasaki, to submit a request to the Nagasaki

May 1887, this early connection was probably theprefecture government for permission to install afirst privately installed telephone line in Japan.

private telephone line between the office of his

In October 1888, Holme, Ringer & Co. moved

firm, Holme, Ringer & Co., at No. 12 Oura and theinto the two-story Western-style building at No.7

Mitsubishi Coal Office, located on the waterfront a

Oura, next door to the British Consulate. Frederick

Ringer had

Ringer’s request for permission to move thearrived in Nagasaki in 1865 to work for Thomas

telephone line from the old office at No. 12 Oura to

Glover and later took over for the latter as thethe new company premises should have been aleader of international business in this port. Before

mere formality, but it ran into a wall of bureaucratic

granting permission, the prefecture government

reticence, apparently because officialdom was

asked for detailed information on the route of the

beginning to regard the telephone as a potential

line and location of poles, in response to which

tool of subversion. Much to Ringer’s puzzlement,

few hundred meters to the south.

10

11

Information and International Exchange in Meiji-Period Nagasaki

BURKE-GAFFNEY

5. Golden Age of International Exchange
Nagasaki lost ground to Yokohama and Kobe incommercial and political importance but was
catapulted into a new period of prosperity by
Japan’s victory in the Sino-Japanese War (1854-5)
and acquirement of Taiwan, by the extension ofEuro-American colonial tentacles to various partsof East Asia, by the use of the port as an anchorage

Fig. 7 The Holme, Ringer & Co. office at No.7

for the Russian East Asian fleet, by the Spanish-

Oura (right). The former Nagasaki British

American War in the Philippines, and by aConsulate (center) remains today as acommensurate and dramatic increase in thenationally designated Important Cultural

number of naval and commercial ships visiting thisAsset. (Author’s collection)

port. The increase in harbor traffic translated intoa boost of activity for the little port at the western

the Nagasaki authorities put their response to his

extremity of Japan.

request on hold, claiming that they had to wait for

thousand people might disembark from ships andapproval from the central government.

On any one day, several

Ringerpour out into the city. Sailors disappeared into thelodged a complaint with the British consul, pointing

bars and bowling allies in the back quarters of theout that, “The line was constructed at our cost…

foreign settlement or stole themselves into theand as we expressly stipulated that we would

brothels in Maruyama, Izumo and Inasa. Others

surrender the privilege directly if the government

streamed out of the settlement into the labyrinth

desired to establish a line of their own, the presentof narrow streets in the Japanese town, eddying indelay on the part of the local officials seems to us

the studio of pioneer photographer Ueno Hikoma

to be a little unreasonable.” After an exchange ofand reaching out in adventurous trickles to Suwa

appeals and fuzzy replies, Governor Kusaka Yoshio

Shinto Shrine, the Buddhist temples in Teramachi

finally informed the British consul that permission

and the still pristine countryside in Urakami andhad been granted to install the line between the

Tomachi. In the shops in the Japanese town, where

Holme, Ringer & Co. office and the Mitsubishi

signs in English and Russian trumpeted a hearty

Again, it was the relationship ofwelcome, visitors could choose from an array ofinternational cooperation in Nagasaki that won thefine arts and crafts like tortoiseshell ware,day. Japan’s first public telephone exchange was

Nagasaki embroidery, cloisonné, Arita porcelain,launched the following year between Tokyo andRussian-made silver spoons, ukiyoe prints andYokohama, but Nagasaki, the cradle of thelacquerware.

technology in this country, would have to wait untilsouvenir photograph albums and picture postcards

1899 to join the national network of telephone

sold so quickly that the shop owners could barely

communication.

keep their showcases decorated, and rickshaw

12

Coal Office.

13

Silk

kimono,pearl

necklaces,

drivers became so proficient at English and Frenchthat they were able to serve as guides for tourists.
12

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. 4 No. 1 Sep. 2011

The transportation and information boom at thepolitical and cultural as well as linguistic barriers.

turn of the century also resulted in the publication

One of the most significant examples ofof an unprecedented number of foreign-language

international exchange at the turn of the century

newspapers. After the demise of The Nagasaki

was the “Nagasaki International Club” established

Shipping List and Advertiser in 1861, a string ofin 1899, only days after the revision of Japan’s

newspapers provided information to the foreign

treaties with the Western powers and the abolition

community of Nagasaki.

These included Theof the foreign settlements as legal entities.

Nagasaki Times (1868), The Nagasaki Shipping

Japanese and foreign residents of Nagasaki

List (1869-1870), The Nagasaki Express (1870-

gathered to create a British-style men’s club “to1874), The Rising Sun and Nagasaki Express

promote a more genial and easy intercourse(1874-1897), The Cosmopolitan Press (1878), The

between Japanese and those of other nations” now

Kiusiu Times (1878), and The Nagasaki Shippingthat the barriers of the foreign settlement had

List (1895-1897). The editor of the The Rising Sun

been removed. The first gathering held on Augustand Nagasaki Express was Arthur Norman, a1, 1899 was attended by 125 Japanese businessmen,

longtime British resident who used his columns topoliticians and physicians, as well as five Chinese

comment on controversial issues and often to

and twenty Euro-American residents. The chief

criticizetomover behind the project was Kuraba Tomisaburo

foreigners. In the end, Norman was literally driven(1870-1945), the son of Thomas Glover and ainsane by the tribulations of newspaper publication

Japanese woman named Kaga Maki who, like hisat the edge of the world. In June 1897, the British

father before him, was working at the vanguard of

consul declared him incapable of handling his own

business and international exchange in Nagasaki.

affairs and put his property up for sale by public

In 1903, Frederick Ringer provided the lot at No. 7

auction the same month. The auction advertisement

Dejima for the construction of a new club building.

posted in Norman’s own newspaper was entitledPart of the former Dejima Dutch Factory, this had“Estate of A. Norman, Esq., a lunatic.”

been absorbed into the Nagasaki Foreign

government

decisionsrelated

14

In the wake of the demise of Norman’s

Settlement in 1866 and later acquired by Holmenewspaper, Frederick Ringer purchased both The

Ringer & Co. Dejima was certainly an appropriate

Rising Sun and Nagasaki Express and The

location for the club, having served as Japan’s only

Nagasaki Shipping List and amalgamated them toopen window to the Western world and the only

form a daily called The Nagasaki Press. Like its

meeting place for Japanese and Europeans forpredecessors, the newspaper provided local news,

more than two centuries. The two-story Western-

advertisements, editorials, and information onstyle building, which still stands today, featured ashipping and hotel guests, but it also benefitedbilliard lounge, bar, dining room, and reading andfrom modern wire services that kept the foreignsmoking rooms furnished with fine European

community better up to date on world news thantables and chairs. At social events members wereever before. In addition, the newspaper engaged

expected to dress appropriately: either black tie

in remarkably frank editorial debates with Japanesenewspapers of the city such as Chinzei Nippo- andand tails or Japanese haori and hakama.

Nagasaki

was held on the evening of November 10, 1903.

Nichinichi

Shimbun,

The first monthly dinner at the new club building

surmounting
13

Information and International Exchange in Meiji-Period Nagasaki

The author of an article in The Nagasaki Press

BURKE-GAFFNEY

from a continuance of these dinners.”15

described the proceedings as follows:
Nagasaki’s cosmopolitan atmosphere and liberal
There were present no less than seventy-six

attitudes attracted a wave of Russian emigrants

members, and the evening passed off as gaily

after the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-5, including

and happily as could be desired. Mayor

revolutionaries and refugees from the Vladivostok

Yokoyama – who is also Chairman of the Club –mutiny who chose this port, not as a tourist or

was in the chair and it would be difficult to findbusiness destination, but as a base to distributea more genial director of the evening. On his

populist propaganda and to stir up anti-tsarist

right was Governor Arakawa, and on his left Mr.

feelings among their compatriots. In April 1906,

C.B. Harris, U.S. Consul, while the remaining

the Russians gathered donations from sympathizers

seventy-three included representative men of all

and launched a newspaper called Volya to broadcast

races and callings. There was no stiffness, ortheir political messages.

undueJapan’s first Russian-meallanguage newspaper, this was printed without

progressed smoothly throughout. Applausehindrance by a Japanese printing company in thesignalled the uprising of the Chairman, who in arear quarter of the former Nagasaki Foreign

brief speech outlined the scheme of these

Settlement.16 The experiment proved short: Volyamonthly dinners, and the conviction of theceased publication in March 1907 and most of thepromoters that they would contribute towards

members of the “Nagasaki commune” returned tothose objects for which the Club was founded.

Russia. Still, however forgotten in both Russia andHe was followed by Mr. C.B. Harris, whoJapan, the little Russian newspaper they publishedannounced – to the general amusement – thatin Nagasaki in 1906 contributed – like thehe had been called on to interpret the Chairman’s

pioneering revolutionary organization Nardovaya

speech. He passed from this to the more serious

Volya (“Will of the People”) from which it drew its

formality,

and

an

excellent

aspect of the moment, and enlarged on thebenefits which, he felt certain, would accrue

Fig. 9 The Russian populist newspaper VolyaFig. 8 The members of the Nagasaki International

was published in Nagasaki for a shortClub ca 1907. (Nagasaki Museum of

period from April 1906. (Tokyo University

History and Culture)

Library)
14

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. 4 No. 1 Sep. 2011name – to the Bolshevik Revolution that turned

denotes the use of computers and other devices to

Russia upside-down a decade later.

hasten and globalize communication. But, as thehistory of Nagasaki clearly shows, the rush to

6. Conclusion

computerize should not obscure the truth thatgenuine human understanding and cooperation

In 1917, at the height of World War I, Holme,
Ringer & Co. decided to close The Nagasaki Press,

can only be achieved by direct human contact anddialogue. The following senryu- poem expresses

but a group of Japanese businessmen stepped in,the point: konpyu-ta, teiden sureba, tada no hakohoping to keep it in print as one of the last(computer: in a blackout it’s just a box).

indications of Nagasaki’s status as an international

NOTES

port. By the summer of 1928, however, the red ink
was too deep and the readership too shallow to

1

allow further hesitation. The final issue on July 31

George Morrison to Rutherford Alcock, May 29,
1861 (FO 262/29, National Archives of the UK,

proclaimed the end of English-language journalism

Kew).

in Nagasaki with the terse comment: “We beg to2 Christopher A. Reed, Gutenberg in Shanghai:announce to our subscribers and advertisers, as

Chinese Print Capitalism, 1876-1937 (University ofwell as to the general public, that on and after 1

Hawaii Press, 2004), pp. 49-53.

August 1928, the publication of the ‘Nagasaki

3

Nagasaki Bunkensha Co. (ed.), Nagasaki jiten:

Press’ will be suspended until further notice.”rekishihen (Nagasaki Dictionary: Volume on

Nagasaki’s role in international trade declined in

History) (Nagasaki, 1982), p. 216.

the ensuing years and was all but abolished by the

4

Brian

Burke-Gaffney,

Nagasaki: The British

atomic bombing, but many of the newspapers

Experience 1854-1945 (Folkestone: Global Oriental,

published here in the late 19th and early 20th2009), pp. 18-56.

centuries are preserved today in libraries both at

5 “Statement of Mr. Glover, July 12, 1863” (FOhome and abroad and provide a wealth of

262/60/144).

information on the business, culture and daily

6 The Nagasaki Express, August 12, 1871.

events of the port in its heyday.

7

Nagasaki’s unique eclectic culture and history

1878.

of international exchange are attributable to two
main factors.

The Rising Sun and Nagasaki Express, May 15,8

One is the city’s geographical

Mitsubishi Shashi Kankokai(ed.) Mitsubishi

shashi (Mitsubishi Company Records) (Tokyo:

proximity to China and Russia, a feature that madeTokyo University Press, 1981), Vol.12, p.376-8.

it a primary port-of-call in times of both peace and9

Murakami Masayuki, Nagasaki no denshin denwa

war. The other, which stems from the first, is theshi (History of the Telegraph and Telephone infact that the city served as an interface for direct

Nagasaki) (private publication: 1973), pp. 191-2.

communication, cooperation, and often romance

10 Holme, Ringer & Co. to J.J. Enslie, September 20,

between people of differing cultures, from its

1886 (FO 796/101).

inception as a Portuguese enclave in 1570 until the11calamity of the atomic bombing in 1945.

Holme, Ringer & Co. to J.J. Enslie, January 28,
1887 (FO 796/101). The locations were as follows:

The term “information age” in vogue today

one pole in the Holme, Ringer & Co. office15

Information and International Exchange in Meiji-Period Nagasaki
compound (No. 12 Oura), one bracket on the wall13

of Anderson’s Saloon (No.42 Sagarimatsu), one

Kusaka Yoshio to J.J. Quin, May 20, 1889 (FO262/623).

pole at the Belle Vue Hotel (No. 11 Minamiyamate),

14 Arthur Norman was given into the care of an

one bracket on the wall of the Bowling Club (No.

insane asylum in Hong Kong and died there in

10A Minamiyamate), one pole at J.C. Smith’s

November 1897.

house (No. 9 Minamiyamate), one pole outside

15 The Nagasaki Press, November 12, 1903.

the Russian Consulate (No. 5 Minamiyamate),

16

Wada Haruki, Nikorai rasseru (Nicholai Russel)- (Tokyo: Chuokoronsha,1973), Vol. 2, p 110.

one pole on the hillside opposite the coal office,12

BURKE-GAFFNEY

and one pole in the Mitsubishi Coal Office

Copies of Volya are preserved today at thecompound.

Historiographical Institute, Tokyo University,

Holme, Ringer & Co. to J.J. Quin, May 3, 1889 (FOMeiji Newspaper Collection, Tokyo, Japan.

262/623).

16

Refereed Paper

The Effects of Internet Use on Internet Dependency,
Psychological Health, and Interpersonal Relationships
Keywords:
Internet use, panel study, Internet dependency, psychological health, interpersonal relationships

Ayuchi KUMAZAKI(YAMAOKA)1, Yumi MATSUO1,
Akira SAKAMOTO1, Kumiko AKIYAMA1, Nireka ADACHI2,
Mayumi NAITO3, Ide KURIE1, Katsura SAKAMOTO4,
Mieko TAKAHIRA5, and Nobuyoshi YONEZAWA6
1

Ochanomizu Graduate School of Humanities and Sciences,
Taisyo University Department of Human Science,

2

Takasaki City University of Economics, 4Tsuda College,

3

Chubu University, 6Kogakuin University

5

Abstract
This study investigated the effects of the use of various Internet applications on Internet
dependency, psychological health (loneliness, depression, and life satisfaction), and interpersonal
relationships (online friends, offline friends, and social supports). A two-wave panel study between
1999 and 2000, targeting 314 students of engineering university (278 men, 36 women), showedthat Internet use for all applications increased Internet dependency. In addition, a number ofresults showed that Internet dependency increased use, indicating that a bidirectional effectexisted between Internet use and Internet dependency, and that they intensified each other. In
relation to the effects of psychological health and interpersonal relationships, some results
showed that Internet use increased the number of online friends, but the impact was limited toother variables for psychological health and interpersonal relationships.

17

The Effects of Internet Use on Internet Dependency, Psychological Health, and Interpersonal Relationships

1. Introduction

KUMAZAKI et aldependency or can be affected.
In this paper, we will report the results ofIn recent years, the effects of Internet use on

investigating this causal relationship using a two-

psychological and behavioral aspects of humanwave panel study of university students(2).

beings have drawn significant attention. One of

University students were important participants

the issues discussed with the effects of the Internet

because it seemed that they could becomeis the Internet dependency problem .

dependent on Internet use due to their flexibility(1)Young (1998) pointed out that some online usersof time. This panel study was conducted between

became dependent on the Internet in the same

1999 and 2000, but to our knowledge, to date, few

way as others with drugs, alcohol, and gambling.

(if any) reports have investigated the causal

They could no longer control the use by themselves

relationship of Internet use and Internet addiction

and thus resulted in lower academic andby a panel study.

occupational performances or created conflicts in

In addition, this panel study also examined

their marriages, which in some cases led to a

causal relationships among psychological health,divorce.

interpersonal relationships, Internet dependency,

In past research, emphasis has been placed on

and Internet use. The psychological healththe relationship between Internet dependency andvariables included loneliness, depression, and life

the amount of Internet use. For instance, Youngsatisfaction, while the interpersonal relationship(1998) indicated that Internet-dependent users

variables included number of online friends, offline

who had full time jobs spent more than 8 hours per

friends, and social supports(3).

week on the Internet. Yang & Tunga (2007)

Starting with the “Internet paradox” (Kraut,claimed that Internet-dependent users went online

Patterson, Lundmark, Kiesler, & Mukopadhyay,

twice as long as non-dependent ones. Furthermore,1998), the impacts of Internet use on psychologicalonline activities and applications are said to behealth and interpersonal relationships have been

essential for Internet addiction. Young (1998)

often investigated and diverse results have been

noted that use of communication applications,obtained in the past.
For example, different results were obtained forsuch as Internet chats and role-playing games,
dependency,

loneliness. Some studies reported that Internet

whereas Chou, Chou, and Tyan (1999) reported

use increased loneliness (Kraut et al., 1998; Ando,that the use of forums was crucial in Asia.

Takahira, & Sakamoto, 2005), some said it had nowereassociatedwithInternet

Although these studies revealed a correlation

impact (Kraut, Kiesler, Boneva, Cummings,

between Internet use and Internet dependency,

Helgeson, & Crawford, 2002), while other studies

they did not clarify the causal relationship: (a)stated the opposite, saying that Internet use in fact

does using the Internet for a long time make thedecreased loneliness (McKenna & Bargh, 1998;

user lose their self control and lead to Internet

Shaw & Gant, 2002; Ando, Takahira, & Sakamoto,dependency? or (b) does Internet dependence2004). In addition, one study showed that creating

cause the Internet to be used even longer? In

a website reduced loneliness (Takahira, Ando, &addition, there are limited findings about what

Sakamoto, 2004). With regard to depression, someparticular Internet applications affect Internet

studies argued that Internet use increased18

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. 4 No. 1 Sep. 2011

depression (Kraut et al., 1998), while other stated(3) The effect of Internet use and its relationshipthat it had no impact (Kraut et al, 2002), and stillwithother concluded that it decreased depression

depression,(Shaw & Gant, 2002). Furthermore, some specificinterpersonal relationships (number of online

communication applications, including email andfriends, number of offline friends, and social

chats, increased depression (Bessière, Kiesler,

supports).

Kraut, & Boneva, 2008; Takahira, Ando, Sakamoto

psychological
and

life

health(loneliness,satisfaction)and(4) For what kind of applications is the effect of2004). Although the positive effects of the Internet

point (3) significant.

were often found in the results for life satisfaction,

2. Methods

number of online friends, and social supports,
results for number of offline friends were lowest

2.1 Participants(Ando, Sakamoto, Suzuki, Kobayashi, Kashibushi,

A two-wave panel study was carried out over two& Kimura, 2004; Ando et al., 2005; Parks & Roberts,

academic terms, and students of an engineering

1998; Shaw & Gant, 2002).
As seen above, research findings about theuniversity in the Tokyo area were targeted. The

effects of Internet use on psychological health andparticipants were students in one particularinterpersonal relationships are not simple, andcourse, and with the instructor’s assistance, athus further study is required (Takahira, 2009).

survey was conducted at two time points. Table 1

The results of our study will contribute towards

shows the gender and school year of thethe accumulation of findings on this issue.

participants in two time points in the first andsecond terms each. Data in the first and the second

For Internet use, two types of studies wereterms are analyzed together.

conducted: one only focused on the total Internet
use hours and the other focused on the amount of

The total number of participants who responded

time spent on each Internet application (Takahira,for time points in the two terms was 314 (278 men,2009). As described above, understanding how the

36 women)(5). By school year, there were 28 first-

results vary among different applications is crucial.

year students, 171 second-year students, 99 third-

Therefore, we also measured the amount of timeyear students, 13 fourth-year students, and 3

spent on each Internet application, and examined

students who were more senior than fi fth-year

its effects on the relationships among Internet

students. The average age of the overall participants

dependency,

was 19.9 at the first time point (T1) and 20.1 at thepsychologicalhealth,andinterpersonal relationships.

Table 1 Participants’ gender and school year
1.1 Research Questions
The following four research questions were
investigated in our study(4):(1) The effect of Internet use and its relationshipwith Internet dependency.
(2) For what kind of applications is the effect ofpoint (1) significant.
19

The Effects of Internet Use on Internet Dependency, Psychological Health, and Interpersonal Relationships

second time point (T2).

KUMAZAKI et aldays at a time,” “Neither my work output nor mypersonal relationships suffered as a result of

2.2 Survey period

spending too much time on the Internet” (reverse

The panel study at two time points was conducteditem), “There are no particular sites on the Internet

over two academic terms. In the first term, T1 wasthat I cannot stay off” (reverse item), “I have

September 1999 and T2 was December 1999. In

unsuccessfully tried to curtail my use of thethe second term, T1 was April-May 2000, and T2

Internet even for a day,” “My satisfaction and

was July 2000.

pleasure will not be lost without the Internet.”
Each item was answered as “yes” or “no,” and a

2.3 Questionnaires

total score was calculated by counting each “yes”

2.3.1 Internet use

as 1 point. When calculating Cronbach’s coefficient

Based on a study by Sakamoto et al. (1999), we

alpha, both T1 and T2 data were given coefficientsasked the participant to answer the daily averageof .68.

use time for the following 6 applications: e-mail,2.3.3 Psychological healthcreating websites, browsing websites, chats,

We employed a 20-item questionnaire from abulletin board systems (BBS), and online games.

revised version of the UCLA Loneliness Scale

The average use time was obtained in following(Buss, 1991) for loneliness. The items include “Iranges: 0-30 min, 30 min to 1 hour, 1-2 hours, 2-3

feel that there is no one I can turn to” and “I feel

hours, 3-4 hours, and more than 4 hours. The

left out,” and each item was responded to on aanswers for these ranges were given the score of 1

four-point scale ranging from “never” to “always.”through 6, respectively. The weekly average use

Eight out of the 20 items were reverse items andtime was obtained in following categories: not at

the total score was computed after these 8 reverse

all, 1 day, 2 days, 3 days, 4 days, 5 days, 6 days, anditems were processed (T1: α=.88; T2: α=.84). For

every day. The answers for these categories weredepression, the Self-rating Depression Scale (SDS;

given the score of 1 through 8, respectively. Thus,

Fukuda & Kobayashi, 1973) was employed. This

the data of non-Internet users are analyzed withscale also had 20 items, including “I feel low andthose of Internet users.

depressed” and “I feel tired for no reason.” Each

2.3.2 Internet dependency

item was responded to on a four-point scale ranging

In the present study, per the Internet addiction

from “almost never” to “almost always.” Seven out

survey checklist provided by “The Health Resourceof the 20 items were reverse items and the total

Network” (1996), we employed eight items andscore was computed after these 7 items weretranslated them based on Kawaura’s (1997)

processed (T1: α=.63; T2: α=.62). For life

study . The eight items are as follows: “I spend

satisfaction, we used 12 items from the Positive

more time than I think I should surfing the

Evaluation Scale for Life (Sumino, 1995) andInternet,” “I feel I have a problem limiting the timeothers. Each item, such as “My life is wonderful”

I spend on the Internet,” “None of my friends orand “I am thankful for being born,” was responded

family members complained about the time I

to on a seven-point scale ranging from “absolutely

spend at my computer” (reverse item), “I find it

not true” to “absolutely true.” Two out of the 12

hard to stay away from the Internet for several

items were reverse items and the total score was

(6)

20

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. 4 No. 1 Sep. 2011

computed after these 2 items were processed (T1:

and T2 for both the first and the second terms. We

α=.89; T2: α=.88).

asked the subjects’ faculties to conduct the survey

2.3.4 Interpersonal relationships

immediately after the classes were dismissed.

The participants were asked to answer the

3. Results

number of friends whom they contacted every day
both online and offline. Offline friends mean
friends in real life. The participants selected one

The average and standard deviation of Internet

from the following six categories: none, 1-5 friends,

use in T1 and T2 are presented in Table 2. The

6-10 friends, 11-15 friends, 16-20 friends, and 21

daily Internet use was over 30 min for browsing

friends or more. This became the index for thewebsites, while others were less frequent thannumber of both online friends and offline friends.

that. The weekly Internet use was also around 2 or

We also asked respondents to answer the number

3 days for e-mail and browsing websites, whileof friends who they contacted 2-3 times a week, 2-3

others were less frequent. The total score of eachtimes a month, 2-3 times every 3 months, and 2-3

application use per day was marked as the score

times a year, respectively. The same six categories

for daily overall Internet use, and the total score ofmentioned above were used for the participants toeach application use per week was considered as

answer.

the score for weekly overall Internet use.
Table 3 presents the average value and standard

For social supports, we translated and used the20-item Interpersonal Support Evaluation List

deviation(ISEL),

dependency,

preparedbyCohen,

Mermelstein,

of

the

followingloneliness,

items:
life

Internetsatisfaction,

Kamarck, and Hoberma (1985). Out of 20 items, 7

depression, number of online friends who they

were reverse items. The respondents were asked

contact everyday (hereafter, referred to as

whether they have access to a support system, toTable 2 Internet use (SD ) (N = 314)

which they provided answers such as “I havesomeone to talk to when I feel alone,” “When I
have registered mail to be sent out the same day, I
have someone who can go to the post office if I
cannot go myself.” The respondents were asked toanswer “yes” or “no,” and after processing thereverse items, we calculated the total score bycounting each “yes” as 1 point (T1: α=.75; T2:
α=.78).

Table 3 Psychological variables (SD ) (N = 314)

2.3 Demographic variables
We requested the school year, gender, and ageof the participants.

2.4 Procedure
The same questionnaires were distributed in T1
21

The Effects of Internet Use on Internet Dependency, Psychological Health, and Interpersonal Relationships

KUMAZAKI et al“number of online friends”), number of offline

results provided answers to four researchfriends who they contact everyday (hereafter,questions.

referred to as “number of offline friends”), andIn contrast, the standardized coefficient of pathsocial supports.

from psychological variables to Internet uses is

The causal relationships between Internet use

shown in Table 5. Whether or not this coefficientand psychological variables (Internet dependency,

is significant will indicate whether psychologicalpsychologicalvariables could affect Internet uses.

health,andinterpersonal

relationships) were examined by employing theAccording to Table 4, in the Internet dependency

cross-lagged effects model (Figure 1), which iscategory, the only marginally significant item wasbased on structural equation modeling(7). For

the amount of time spent on online games for a

Internet use variables, the use hours per application

week. All other Internet applications uses

were inputted, and for psychological variables,significantly increased Internet dependency, andInternet dependency, loneliness, life satisfaction,

furthermore, some results in Table 5 show that

depression, number of online friends, number ofInternet dependency promoted Internet use. The

offline friends, and social supports were inputtedresults indicate that a bidirectional relationshipseparately.

existsIn order to analyze with the cross-lagged effects

betweenInternetuse

andInternet

dependency.

model, it is favored to have variable stability in the

Meanwhile, concerning psychological healthperiod. The value of autocorrelation (r) in the firstand interpersonal relationships, the effect of online

and second time points was .39–.76 for eachgame use on the number of online friends was

Internet use variable. The value was .60 for Internet

significant, for both daily and weekly use hours, as

dependency, .76 for isolation, .65 for depression,

shown in Table 4. In addition, for other.70 for life satisfaction, .51 for the number of online

psychological variables, there are some significant

friends, .47 for the number of offline friends, andresults which indicate the negative effects of the.79 for social supports. All values were significant

Internet. However, as the number of such results

at the 1% level and thus unlikely to have a stability

is low, it seems difficult to say we detected the

problem.

effects of Internet use when considering the

The results of the standardized coefficient ofoverall picture.

path from Internet use to psychological variables

Table 5 shows the influence of psychologicalare presented in Table 4. If this coefficient isvariables on Internet use. Some results indicatedsignificant, the impacts of Internet use onthat number of online friends encouraged Internet

psychological variables will be suggested. Theseuse, whereas number of offline friends restricted
Internet use. Specifically, a significant restricting
effect was found in website browsing in both daily
and weekly use hours.

Figure 1 Cross-lagged effects model
22

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. 4 No. 1 Sep. 2011

Table 4 Standardized coefficient of path from Internet use to psychological variables

Table 5 Standardized coefficient of path from psychological variables to Internet use

4. Discussion

Use for most Internet applications had asignificant effect in promoting Internet dependency.

Using a two-wave panel study, this research

The results suggested that the long use of theinvestigated the effect of use by different Internet

Internet would not only restrict users fromapplications on Internet dependency, psychologicalparticipating in other activities but also often cause

health, and interpersonal relationships.

dependency, wherein they could no longer have
23

The Effects of Internet Use on Internet Dependency, Psychological Health, and Interpersonal Relationships

self-control over their use of the Internet(8).

findings need to be accumulated, and the present

Furthermore, the effect of Internet dependency

findings contribute to part of this effort.

on Internet use was frequently significant,indicating

thatInternet

use

and

KUMAZAKI et al

Although there was no clear effect on

Internet

psychologicalhealthandinterpersonal

dependency could increase each other in a

relationships, we obtained two solid results. The

synergistic way. In other words, the results

first result showed that the use of online games

suggested a process that once they use the Internet

increased number of online friends. This was true

for many hours, Internet dependency can befor both number of hours per day and number ofincurred, leading to generating the further use of

day per week. For online games, users with

the Internet. In the results of this research, thecommon game interests do not just encounter

relationships between such Internet use andeach other but also often perform certain tasks

Internet dependency did not seem markedly

together for a common goal. This may be playing achanged by differences in the applications. Chourole in increasing friendliness and a sense of

et al. (1999), in fact, discussed a development ofsolidarity among users, which may contribute toInternet dependency based on the play theory ofbuilding friendships (Sherif, Harvey, White, Hood,mass communication, which was proposed by& Sherif, 1961).

Stephenson (1988). Chou et al. (1999) argued that

The second result showed that while number ofInternet use produces pleasure in communicating

online friends enhanced Internet use, number ofwith others, which leads to the longer use of theoffline friends regulated the same. The results

Internet. However, the results in our researchwere particularly remarkable for number of offline

showed that Internet dependency could not only

friends, that is, the number of offline friendsbecommunication-oriented

seemed to suppress website browsing. If users

applications but also affected by other applications

influencedbyhave more offline friends, they would become(e.g., browsing websites). This suggests that othermore active outside the computer, so it isfactors than pleasure from communication with

understandable that Internet use would be reduced

others would also mediate the developmentby number of offline friends. In addition, since

process of Internet dependency and the process ofcommunication applications such as e-mails andmutual influence which exists between Internet

chats can be used among offline friends, theuse and Internet dependency.

reduction could not become great. However,

The relationship between Internet use andwebsite browsing is not usually used for such a

psychological health as well as interpersonal

purpose, therefore, it is believed to be particularly

relationships were limited. Internet use had areduced.

small effect in increasing the number of online

The present study indicated that once people

friends, and this is congruent with the results fromuse the Internet for a long time, it would further

previous studies (Ando et al., 2004; Parks &bring on longer hours of Internet use throughRoberts, 1998), but there was no clear effect forInternet dependency. This result can send out aother variables. As previously noted, findings in

warning against excessive Internet use. The

this issue are mixed and it seems the chaos cannot

present study also obtained results concerning the

be solved easily. Considerable further research

relationships between internet usage, psychological24

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. 4 No. 1 Sep. 2011

health, and interpersonal relationships.

the universality of the results of the present study,

However, the results of the present study haveespecially with coping with the aforementioned

three limitations. First, the participants in thisproblems such as the restriction of sampled

study were limited to students at an engineering

participants,

university, although university students weredifferences in hardware and applications between

important participants as mentioned earlier.

periods. We believe that the present study enriches

Secondly, this study did not investigate places inthe significance of the findings from such studies.

theambiguityofplaces,andwhich the participants used the Internet, andtherefore could not reveal differences in the effects

Notes

of internet use between such places as their home,(1) In addition to “Internet dependency,” other similarschools and offices. Thirdly, the present study wasterms used to refer this issue include “Internet

conducted from 1999 to 2000, more than 10 years

addiction”

ago. Internet service provided by cellular phones“Addiction,” originally refers to the undesirable

was initiated in February 1999, and packetchanges owing to ingestion of something regardlesstransmission fees were higher than current rates,of the likes and dislikes of the subject, whereas

and thus internet usage through cellular phone“dependency” refers to the socially maladaptive

was not prevalent. Therefore, it is believed that theeffects of the behavior of a subject with regards toparticipants mainly used personal computers. In

his or her own free will (Murakami, 2009). The

recent years, although internet usage throughusage of the term “Internet dependency” in thispersonal computers is widespread, internet usage

paper is substantiated by this view.

and“internet

pathologicaluse.”through cellular phones has increased(9). In(2) A panel study is a study in which the same group ofaddition, there are now applications which arequestions is asked twice or more to the same

much more popular than they used to such as

subjects after a certain interval. Performing theonline games, video sites, weblogs, social

survey twice makes it possible to investigate the

networking sites.

causal relationship of the influence exerted by

Although the results of the present study are

independent variables in the first wave on

limited by these factors, the results suggest that at

dependent variables in the second wave.

least at that time and for students at the engineering
university,abidirectional

influence(3) In this study, “social support” refers to the support

existedone may obtain from others. A large amount of thisbetween internet usage and Internet dependency.

supportAlthough 10 years have passed, no paper has

indicatesthat

individual

has

rich

relationships with others.

investigated and reported the influence of internet(4) As previously described, different studies haveusage and Internet dependency on each other byobtained different results regarding the effects ofusing an empirical method capable of identifying ainternet usage. Because it is difficult to derive any

causal relationship. This paper provides evidence

particular hypothesis from these results, we havethat was previously lacking for the problematicestablished research questions.

nature of excessive internet usage, and we believe(5) Because

theanalysistargeted

experimental

that this is its most significant contribution. In any

subjects who gave answers for both time points,

case, in the future it will be important to re-examine

the numbers differ from those in Table 1.

25

The Effects of Internet Use on Internet Dependency, Psychological Health, and Interpersonal Relationships

KUMAZAKI et al(6) The name of the scale included the term “Internet

A Panel Study of Male Students in a Vocational

addiction,” but the content of the scale addressed

College of Information Technology. The JapaneseInternet dependency. This original Japanese scale

Journal of Personality, 13, 21-33.
Ando, R., Takahira, M., & Sakamoto, A. (2004). The

is available in Kawaura (1997).
(7) For examining whether gender and age measured

Effects of Internet Use on Junior High Schoolin T1 could affect Internet use and psychologicalStudents’ Loneliness and Social Support (1):variables (Internet dependency, psychologicalPositive Effects of Internet Use by Application,

health, and interpersonal relationships) measured

Proceedings for the 17 th Annual Meeting ofin T2, we conducted analysis based on the model

Japanese Association of Health Psychology, Bunka

where the gender and age in T1 were added to the

Women’s University, 162-163.

model described in Figure 1. As the result, it wasAndo, R., Takahira, M., & Sakamoto, A. (2005). Effects

indicated that the gender and age in T1 would notof Internet Use on Junior High School Students’affect Internet use and psychological variables in

Loneliness and Social Support. The Japanese

Journal of Personality, 14, 69-79.

T2, and therefore we reported the results ofBessière, K., Kiesler, S., Kraut, R., & Boneva, B. S.

analysis based on the model of Figure 1 in this(2008). Effects of Internet Use and Social Resources

paper.

on(8) It is said that if the time between surveys in a panel

Changesin

Depression,

Information,

Communication, and Society, 11, 47–70.

study is significantly short, Internet usage andInternet dependency is unlikely to influence eachBuss, A. H., (Author), Ohbuchi, K. (Translator) (1991).

other, which this study was concerned with, andSocial Behavior and Personality, 2nd edition,

any such influence would be difficult to detect.

Kitaohji-shobo, Kyoto.
Chou, C., Chou, J., & Tyan, N. N. (1999). An Exploratory

However, we believe that in this study the various
cross-lagged effects were significant, and therefore

Study

of

Internet

Addiction,

Usage

and

this problem was not serious.

Communication Pleasure: The Taiwan’s Case,

Journal of Educational Telecommunications, 5,(9) The number of internet users at the time of the

47–64.

study differed from the present situation. There
were not as many Internet users at that time. And

Chou, C., Condron, L., & Belland, J. C. (2005). A

the rate of broad band use was only 6.8%, andReview of the Research on Internet Addiction,

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Refereed Paper

Comparison of Mobile TV Acceptance in Indonesia withJapan
Keywords:
Mobile TV service, Behavioural intention to use, Technology Acceptance Model, Japan, Indonesia

Andri QIANTORI, University of Electro-Communications, PT Telekomunikasi Indonesia
Agung Budi SUTIONO, University of Electro-Communications
Hirohiko SUWA, University of Electro-Communications
Toshizumi OHTA, University of Electro-Communications

Abstract
A comparative study of mobile TV service in two different countries, Indonesia and Japan, wasconducted to determine the user important factors to accept the mobile TV service. The inﬂuencesof consumer normative pressure, price level, perceived usefulness, enjoyment, availability, andquality on using mobile TV services between Indonesian and consumers were examined to
explain the differences and similarities in consumer mobile TV service adoption behaviour in thisstudy. Structural equation modelling was employed as the main method of analysis in this study.
A multi-group analysis of invariance was performed on the two sample groups. The results showthat effect of attitude toward mobile TV and perceived availability was found to be signiﬁcantdifference between Indonesian and Japanese mobile TV consumer.

29Comparison of Mobile TV Acceptance in Indonesia with Japan

1. Introduction

QIANTORI et almobile TV service in Indonesia are very low
compared to Japan. Hence, understanding the

Mobile service providers in Indonesia aredifferent acceptance patterns between Indonesianseeking new revenue streams to compensate foranddeclining voice service incomes caused bycomprehension of the important factors that affectincreased competition. The providers started

the low adoption rate of mobile TV in Indonesia.

offering innovative services, not only attempting

Therefore, an examination of the factors causing

to persuade dissatisﬁed competitor customers but

differences in the use of mobile TV services acrossalso to acquire as many new potential customers

countries is needed to develop appropriate strategy

as possible.

for mobile TV service in Indonesia.

Japanese

consumers

would

aid

our

Compared to other innovative mobile services,

This study hypothesized that the different

mobile TV service has the most potential tomobile TV adoption behaviours between countries

increase providers’ income; in fact, in many

could be explained by the actual effects of mobile

advanced countries, including South Korea, Japan,

TV service and social characteristics on people’s

the United Kingdom, and Italy, this service isattitudes. In a characteristic of country environment

popular and has become a new revenue stream forcontext, individuals can be viewed as actualizing

mobile service providers. Nevertheless, since its

their environment characteristics, which depend

introduction into the Indonesian market in 2006,

on personal attitude, service attribute and social

the revenue of this service in Indonesia is very

norm.

small compared to the cost of the investment inIn this regard, this study performed consumer

upgrading the network capability. Understanding

perceived

the determinants of consumers’ behaviour will

perceived availability, and perceived quality on

help in evaluating the low adoption rate of thisattitude toward and price level, and normative

service in Indonesia.

pressure as antecedent variables affecting mobile

usefulness,

perceived

enjoyment,

Mobile multimedia service in Japan is a leader

TV service adoption behaviour for Indonesian andin innovation, and the growth of this service inJapanese consumers. Thus, the purpose of theJapan is astonishing compared to other advanced

study is to examine differences of each antecedent’s

countries. According to data from the Japaneffects on consumers’ behavioural intentions toElectronics and Information Technology Industries

use mobile TV service between Indonesian and

Association, there were only a small number ofJapanese consumers.

mobile TV enabled phones in March 2006, but in

2. Conceptual framework and research model

December 2007, that number reached 22.3 million
or 45% of all mobile phone in Japan. (JEITA, 2007)
Meanwhile, less than 0.5% consumer 3G service

Understanding the determinants for adopting

reported using mobile TV application regularly.

and using various types of information technologies(TELKOM, 2009) This shows that even though

has been an issue for research since 1970

mobile phone penetration rates between Indonesia(Compeau & Higgins, 1995) and the basis for mostand Japan are almost the same (approximately 80%of these studies can be found within the theory ofand 93%, respectively), the adoption and use ofreasoned action (TRA) (Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975),
30

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. 4 No. 1 Sep. 2011

and the theory of planned behaviour (TPB) (Ajzen,

subscribers seek unofﬁcial channels by which to1991), and the technology acceptance modelobtain more information concerning products or(TAM) proposed by Davis (1989). Although some

services.

TAM studies focusing on motives for using mobile

agreement

services have been suggested (Hung, Ku, &willingness to adopt mobile TV service. Therefore,

Chang, 2002; Lai, 2002; Nysveen, Pedersen, &we hypothesize:The

uncertainty

would

also

in

serviceaffectlevel

subscribers’

Thorbjørnsen, 2005; Pin & Lin, 2005; Wu & Wang,

H1. The effect of attitude on behaviour intention2005), the factors inﬂuencing the intention to use ato use mobile TV will differ between Indonesian

mobile TV service are not fully explained by either

and Japanese consumers.

the basic TAM or the above extended models.

In this study, perceived usefulness is deﬁned as

The technology acceptance model (Davis, 1989)
hypothesizes

thatbehaviouralintention

the degree to which a person believes that a mobileis

TV would enhance his or her performance when

determined by salient beliefs about the perceived

utilized advantageously. Since mobile TV not only

usefulness and perceived ease of use, either

provides entertainment content but also useful

directly or via mediator attitudes. Meanwhile, arecorded or live programs that a consumer mightlater study from the motivational model adopts

possibly use to improve their performance.

two key constructs: extrinsic and intrinsic

Mobile TV service in Indonesia is limited inmotivation, where perceived usefulness is anvaluable and informative contents. A few number

example of extrinsic motivation and perceivedof broadcaster join this service in Indonesia,

enjoyment is an example of intrinsic motivation.

meanwhile purchasing content from international(Davis, Bagozzi, & Warshaw, 1992) In that study,

broadcaster require a lot investment cost. It isperceived enjoyment was signiﬁcantly related todifference with mobile TV service in Japan, whereperceived ease of use. Therefore, in the present

number of useful content is many. Therefore, we

study the perceived ease of use has been

hypothesize:

substituted by perceived enjoyment, for the reason

H2. The effect of perceived usefulness onthat like standard mobile phone service operation,

attitude toward mobile TV will differ between

the mobile TV is relatively simple to use and as aIndonesian and Japanese consumers.

hedonic system, the mobile TV can be better

Perceived enjoyment is deﬁned as an activity

associated to enjoyment rather than ease of use.

related to an enjoyable purpose, quite apart from

The attitude towards behaviour may be deﬁned

consequences related to the user’s performance.

as an individual’s positive or negative feelings(Davis, Bagozzi, & Warshaw, 1992) The mobile TV

about performing the target behaviour. (Fishbein

service can be seen as a hedonic system as it offers& Ajzen, 1975) On the basis of many researchentertainment content so customers look to theﬁndings (Cheong & Park, 2005; Kuo & Yen, 2009;

hedonic mobile TV to satisfy their entertainment

Nysveen, Pedersen, & Thorbjørnsen, 2005; Shin,intentions. Watching television must provide2007), we anticipated that the general causalities

consumer with enjoyment, as part of their basic

found would also apply to the mobile TV context.

nature. Similarly a TAM for this system must

In general, customer service of companies inincorporate enjoyment, including interest, pleasure

Indonesia is poorer than in Japan, so their potential

and fun, as inﬂuences on attitude.
31

Comparison of Mobile TV Acceptance in Indonesia with JapanQIANTORI et al

Related to condition of previous hypothesis

The price level is deﬁned by a consumer’s belief

rational, compared to mobile TV service in Japan,that using mobile TV will cost money. Somemobile TV service in Indonesia is limited inscholars have considered behavioural intention ofentertaining contents. Efforts to enrich mobile TV

customers is thus inﬂuenced by their valuation ofcontent had been conducted, however, operator

the service, which is related to the price level. (Wuhave no justiﬁcation to invest in contents as long

& Wang, 2005)

as the market in Indonesia cannot be predicted.

Because the purchasing power of Indonesian

Therefore, we hypothesize:

consumers is different from that of Japanese

H3. The effect of perceived enjoyment on

consumers, we hypothesize:

attitude toward mobile TV will differ between

H5. The effect of price level on behaviour

Indonesian and Japanese consumers.

intention to use mobile TV will differ between
Indonesian and Japanese consumers.

2.1 Normative pressure and price level
The

present

study

introduces

2.2 Perceived

normative

availability

andperceived

qualitypressure, deﬁned as a person’s perception thatmost of the people who are important to her/him

Perceived availability is deﬁned as a consumer’s

think she/he should or should not perform thebelief that the system is able to provide relevant

behaviour in question. (Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975)

service anytime and anywhere ones require. The

Consumers may believe that family, friends, andmobility feature in mobile TV is possibly the main

peer groups favour certain behaviours, and theirreason for adopting this service, but an unavailable

beliefs inﬂuence their behavioural intentions.

service in a required area because of a network(Pavlou & Chai, 2002)

problem, for example, which can be replaced

People use mobile TV service in a public social

effortlessly using traditional television service,context in which they observe their social circle’s

becomes a most negative experience in theactivities and in which they must adapt to its

customer’s mind.

interaction. Positive social response over thisThe mobile TV service covers almost all ofservice will affect the intention to use a mobile

Japan, support indoor and outdoor access, and itTV.

possible be used in high speed vehicle, it likely

In Indonesia, mobile TV service can be usedmakes Japanese consumer feel freely to accessonly by consumers in big cities where individualism

anytime anywhere. Meanwhile, in Indonesia,

more dominant than social pressure. Meanwhilemobile TV service is not always an option because

in Japan, this service can be easily founded in

it is accessible only in big cities. Therefore, wemany place and used also by older community that

hypothesize:
H6. The effect of perceived availability on

keep tradition in social life and maintain group-

attitude toward mobile TV will differ between

oriented culture.

Indonesian and Japanese consumers.

Therefore, we hypothesize:
H4. The effect of normative pressure on

Perceived quality is deﬁned as a consumer’s

behaviour intention to use mobile TV will differ

belief that the system can provide a satisfactory

between Indonesian and Japanese consumers.

presentation and reliable service. There may be
32

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. 4 No. 1 Sep. 2011

differences in the authority and ﬂexibility between

The second part asked demographic questions

watching the television content from a public

about the respondents. Prior to completing the

television service and using their own mobile

questionnaire, all participants were briefed on thephone. Offering a more personal service in apurpose of this study and their rights not topersonal device is powerful in persuading

participate in the study during or after the study.

customers, but lack of quality of content and

All respondents were required to have a mobile

service due to an unreliable system is disturbing

phone and to have tried mobile TV service. On

and affects customer satisfaction.

average, each participant took not more than 20

Japanese consumer feel quality of mobile TV

minutes to complete the questionnaire.

service higher since this service provides high

3.2 Measures

access speed and frames per second. Meanwhile
broken link is common connection problem of thisTo examine the hypothesized paths in theservice in Indonesia. Therefore, we hypothesize:

research model, existing measurement scales with

H7. The effect of perceived quality on attitude

good internal consistencies were adapted fromtoward mobile TV will differ between Indonesianprevious study. Three items measuring behaviour

and Japanese consumers.

intention to user mobile TV service were adaptedfrom (Taylor & Todd, 1995). Two items measuring

3. Data and methodology

attitude toward mobile TV service were adaptedfrom (Taylor & Todd, 1995). Four items measuring

3.1 Participants

normative pressure were adapted from (Moore &These hypotheses were empirically tested using

Benbasat, 1991). Three items measuring perceived

random sampling data collected from weeklong

usefulness were adapted from (Davis, 1989). Twosurveys in Indonesia and Japan during March anditems measuring perceived enjoyment were

September of 2010, respectively. The participants

adapted from (Davis, Bagozzi, & Warshaw, 1992).

for this study comprised 344 (198 females and 146

Three items measuring perceived availability weremales) and 400 (200 females and 200 males)

adapted from (Shin, 2007). Three items measuring

respondents in Indonesia and Japan respectively.

perceived quality were adapted from (Shin, 2007).

The largest group of respondents was between the

A total of eight constructs were measured using 22

ages of 18 and 30 for Indonesian respondent (meanmultiple items using a 5-point scale from 1:

20.33 years old) and between 20 and 59 for“strongly disagree” to 5: “strongly agree”.

Japanese respondent (mean 39.87 years old). A

3.3 Structural equation modelling analysis fordifferent mean age in each group of respondents iscross-national comparisonquite natural because the actual median age in

To test our hypotheses and estimate theIndonesia and Japan is 27.9 and 44.6 years old,

proposed model we performed structural equation

respectively. (CIA, 2007)
We used a questionnaire to test our theoreticalmodelling (SEM). To obtain a reliable and valid

model. The questionnaire included two parts. The

measure of constructs before attempting to draw

ﬁrst part asked our respondents questions

relationships among constructs, there are two

measuring the constructs in the research model.

stages that should be conducted. (Hulland, 1996)
33

Comparison of Mobile TV Acceptance in Indonesia with JapanQIANTORI et al

The ﬁrst stage is a measurement model thatﬁxed or free parameters across groups remains

assesses reliability and validity of the scales usedconsistent with the baseline model speciﬁcation.

to measure each latent construct. The second

4. Results

stage includes a structural model that tests thelatent constructs and estimates multiple dependent

4.1 Baseline models

relationships between the constructs of interest.

Baseline models have to be tested for the single-(Kale, Singh, & Perlmutter, 2000)
This research addresses not only simultaneousmodel goodness of ﬁt, for the multi-group goodness

estimations of latent constructs by taking theof ﬁt, and for invariance. The structure of themeasurement error into consideration; it also

baseline model is given in Figure 1. We estimatedincludes a comparison of different groups withthe models using the maximum likelihood

respect to the national culture. One of the mostestimation procedure of AMOS 18.0.0.

important and yet only partially answered issues

To examine the goodness-of-ﬁt of model, wein cross-cultural research is establishing constructconsider to criteria the normalized chi-squarecomparability in different samples. (Robert,

value

Probst, Martocchio, Drasgow, & Lawler, 2000)

comparative ﬁt index (CFI) value (Byrne, 2001),

Herein,and root mean square error of approximationthemeasurement

of

the

different(Kale,

Singh,&

Perlmutter,2000),(RMSEA) value (Brown, 1993) for indicate a good

constructs has to be statistically invariant.
In all research that focuses on multi-groupmodel ﬁt. Examination of goodness-of-ﬁt ofcomparisons, the instrument of measurement hasbaseline model of both Indonesian group andto work in the same way. (Byrne, 2004) This

Japanese group show that proposed model inassumption is important for implications and canFigure 1 is acceptable.

be tested statistically. Before testing for invarianceThus, local goodness of ﬁt adequacy of theof the measurement model, it is customary tomodel has to be considered by looking at individual

consider a baseline model that is estimated for

item reliabilities, the convergent validity of theeach group separately. The baseline model

measures linked with individual constructs,

represents a model that best ﬁts the data, according

discriminant validity and adequate discriminant

to parsimony and substantial meaningfulness. As

validity. Individual item reliability can be assessed

the analysis of baseline models involves no

ad-hoc by examining the standardized loadings ofconstraints between groups, the data can be
estimated separately for each group. In contrast,
when testing for invariance across groups, equality
constraints are imposed on particular parameters,
and therefore the data for all groups must be
estimated simultaneously in order to achieve
efﬁcient results. (Bentler & Chou, 1987) Fixedparameters are constrained equal across groups.
Instead, free parameters can take dissimilar values

Figure 1.Research model.

across groups. Nevertheless, the pattern of the34

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. 4 No. 1 Sep. 2011

the measures with their respective construct. In

construct differ from measures of other constructs

general, items with loadings of less than 0.4 (ain the same model. To assess discriminant validity,

threshold commonly used for factor analysis

Fornell and Larcker suggest the use of the average

results) should be dropped. (Hulland, 1996) The

variance shared between a construct and its

signiﬁcance of the factor loadings provides support

measures. This measure should be greater thanfor the convergent validity of the respective scales.

the variance shared between the construct and(Anderson & Gerbing, 1988) The loadings and theother constructs in the model. That is the caseassociated signiﬁcance are shown in Table 1.

when the average variance extracted (AVE) is

To measure convergent validity, (Nunnally &greater than 0.5. (Fornell & Larcker, 1981)

Bernstein, 1994) suggest 0.7 as a benchmark for

In sum, both 22 item baseline models have very

Cronbach’s alpha. For composite reliabilities,

good ﬁt according to the measures discussed

values greater than about 0.6 are desirable.

before. Measuring models are usually group-(Bagozzi & Yi, 1988) Discriminant validity

speciﬁc and therefore the baseline models are

represents the extent to which measures of a given

equal across groups. (Byrne, 2004)

Table 1.

35

Comparison of Mobile TV Acceptance in Indonesia with JapanQIANTORI et al

the models. If there the model is signiﬁcantly

4.2 Multi-Group Invarianceworse than the unconstrained model, then we have

The ﬁrst step in testing for invariance of theto deal with some non invariance. Consequently,

groups we assess the validity of the structure of

we have to explore if there is complete non

the model across Indonesian and Japanese groups.

invariance or if there are only some unequal

Here, the validity of the structure is tested

parameters. In our study, we ﬁnd that the fully

simultaneously across the Indonesian and Japaneseconstrained model (χ²=1836.906, df=379, CFI=0.890,

groups where all parameters are estimated for all

RMSEA=0.072) is signiﬁcantly worse than thegroups at the same time. In this simultaneous

unconstrained model.

model all parameters have no equality constraints.

The results for each invariance test can be

With respect to chi-square statistics and their

explained by the change in the chi-square value

degrees of freedom that are summarized, the(Δχ²), however, since chi-square sensitivity tooverall chi-square value obtained is to be tested forsample size (Cheung & Rensvold, 2002)suggested

each group. This multi-group model reﬂects the ﬁtthat the change in CFI (ΔCFI) higher than 0.010

of the data when no cross-group constrains are

was indicative of a signiﬁcant drop in ﬁt. So we

imposed.

have to proceed with testing for invariance of

The unconstrained model (χ²=1538.546, df=340,

speciﬁc parameters.

CFI=0.910, RMSEA=0.069) provides the baseline

After the complete procedure of testing andvalue against which the following test for invarianceremoving each factor and each item related to thehas to be compared. Value of CFI and RMSEA

factor we ﬁnally reached a best ﬁt multi-groupindicates that the hypothesized model of thismodel with some parameters ﬁxed and some freely

model still represents a good ﬁt across the two

estimatedcultures.

RMSEA=0.071). In this model we strive to ﬁx as

The next step is to compare for the equality of(χ²=1685.041,

df=353,

CFI=0.900,

many parameters as possible but still achieving

the set of parameters of the measurement model.

multi-group invariance.

In different groups it is most likely that a fully

4.3 Path coefficients

constrained model is non invariant across groups.
In AMOS 18.0.0, which we were using, different

Table 2 summarizes measure according to theparameters could be deﬁned and measured bysigniﬁcance of the paths for and across theﬁxed and free.

countries. The ﬁrst column gives information

The chi-square difference tests and overall

about the speciﬁc paths being measured. The lastmodel ﬁt indices were used to evaluate overall

two columns give information about the differences

measurement(Myers,of the paths coefﬁcients across the two countries.

Calantone, Page, & Taylor, 2000) in this study.

In general, levels of p≤0.05 indicate a signiﬁcantSince the chi-square difference test only suggests

difference of the path across the countries.

structure

consistency

that the ﬁt of the nested models is beyond what

5. Discussion

would be expected by chance, other model ﬁt
indices (e.g. CFI, and RMSEA) need to be

Table 2 shows the effect attitude toward on

examined to check the extent of differences among
36

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. 4 No. 1 Sep. 2011

Table 2

behaviour intention for Japanese is difference withquality of mobile TV service have identical effects

Indonesian sample and the path value of Japaneseon attitudes towards using mobile TV service.

is higher than Indonesian sample. The table shows

This study predicted that the effect of normativethat Japanese consumers are more conﬁdent about

pressure would generate different consequences

adopting mobile TV service than Indonesianof

consumers. Educating consumer concerning

Indonesian and Japanese consumers. Interestingly,

mobile TV service will be effective approach to

the effect of normative pressure on attitude wasincrease consumer acceptance in Indonesia.

negative for Japanese consumer and positive for

consumers’

adoptionbehaviour

betweenComparing the effect of perceived availability

Indonesian consumer. One explanation of thison attitudes in the two countries, the results show

result is that Indonesian respondents are younger,that the perceived availability in Indonesia had no

more involved in social activities and more

effects on behaviour, which is different than theenthusiastic about building relationships. It is

Japanese results. One suggestion base on thequite different with Japanese respondent which

result may be that the availability (e.g. coverage ofmore mature and independent.

service and user expected content) aspects ofThis study shows that the cultural differences

mobile TV services in Indonesia must be concerned

between Indonesian and Japanese consumers canby operator.

have different effects on attitudes towards mobile

The results of the study of consumer perceptions

TV service. The cultural differences, which include

on attitudes towards mobile TV service indicate

normativethat the effects of perceived usefulness andexchange and social interaction among Indonesian

perceived enjoyment on attitudes towards mobile

consumers affect attitudes towards mobile TV.

TV service are not different between the two

Therefore, the differences in mobile TV service

countries. Also, effects perceived quality on

adoption behaviour between Indonesian andattitude toward is not different between Indonesian

Japanese consumers can be explained not only by

and Japanese consumer. These results show that,characteristics of mobile TV infrastructure but

for consumers in both countries, perceived

also by cultural inﬂuences on the use of mobile TV

usefulness, perceived enjoyment and perceived

services.
37pressure,

show

that

information

Comparison of Mobile TV Acceptance in Indonesia with JapanQIANTORI et alof mobile TV service in Indonesia did not take into
account the overall shortcomings in resources andnetworks. Normative pressure was a positive effecton Indonesian but negative effect on Japanese
consumers’ intention to use mobile TV services inthis study. Mobile TV operators in Indonesia havean opportunity to increase subscribers by initiating
massive community channels and thus increasing

Figure 3.Path coefficients for Japanesesocialization via mobile TV service.

consumer.
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40

Refereed Research Note

Being Quiet in Internet Cafes: Private Booths and theIsolation of Net Cafe Nanmin
Keywords:
Internet Cafe, Net Cafe Nanmin (Refugee), Public and Private Spheres, Social Isolation, Comparative
Media Research

Tomohisa HIRATA, Graduate School of Letters,
Kyoto University

Abstract
In Japan, Internet cafes, which are generally called “net cafes”, have been linked to various
kinds of social problems since around 2004. The quintessential example is the phrase “net cafe
nanmin” (Internet cafe refugees). This phrase was first used by a TV programme at the beginningof 2007 to describe homeless people who have no choice but to live in or frequently stay overnightat net cafes because of their unstable working conditions and low income. Their terrible situation
caused a stir in Japan and the phrase became widely known among Japanese people. Surveys on
net cafe nanmin have clarified that the crucial problem is their isolation. They have no one to ask
for help because of their isolation, so they try to improve their life all alone, although they seemto need help from someone.
The purpose of this research paper is to answer the question, “Why are net cafe nanmin
isolated?” from the viewpoint of socio-informatics. To accomplish this purpose, this article will
discuss related issues through a focus on net cafes which are equipped with private booths.
Private booths are significant because we can assume that they would physically and actually
prevent customers from communicating with each other. This enables us to approach the answer
to the question above from a broader perspective
In the following sections, first the author will confirm the facts above more precisely (Section
1) and introduce net cafes and net cafe nanmin (Section 2). Then, some of the problems which
derive from private booths will be confirmed and the background to their being introduced to net
cafes will be clarified by referring to a book and newspaper articles (Section 3). Next, to understandthe specificity of the net cafe in Japan, net cafe use in Japan will be compared with the Internet
cafe usage of migrants in Hong Kong and Singapore (Section 4). Finally, the author will answer
the original question as the conclusion of this paper (Section 5).

41

Being Quiet in Internet Cafes

HIRATA

1. Introduction

Their isolation also becomes a barrier torealizing more social inclusion, because net cafe

In Japan, Internet cafes, generally called net

nanmin tend to see their terrible situation as theircafes , have been linked to various kinds of social

own fault, as the result of alienation from company,

problems since around 2004. The quintessential

family, public welfare and education (Mizushima,

example is the phrase net cafe nanmin (net cafe

2007: 74-6). They try to improve their life all alone

refugee(s)). This phrase was first used by a TV

although they seem to need help from someone.

(1)

program at the beginning of 2007 to designate a

But why are net cafe nanmin isolated? And whytype of homeless people who have no choice but to

don’t they try to help each other? The purpose oflive in or frequently stay overnight at net cafes

this research paper is to answer these questions

because of their unstable working conditions andand I(2) think we must consider them from thelow income.

viewpoint of socio-informatics because if we try toanswer these questions, we also have to ask what

Some scholars, correspondents and NGO groupmembers interested in the problem of poverty inkind of space the net cafe is for Japanese including

contemporary Japan have tried to understand andnet cafe nanmin.

describe it from the perspective of social exclusion

In this paper, I’ll discuss these questions andand inclusion. In this context, the very strong term

related matters through focusing on the private

nanmin (refugee(s)) was selected as it indicates

booths which segment most of the floor area of net

people suffering from extreme social exclusion incafes into approximately 1.5 m2 personal cubicles

Japan.

with 1.5 meter-high walls with doors, eachequipped with a personal computer, TV andThis phrase caused a stir in Japan and became

reclining chair or flat mattress.

widely known among Japanese people. In fact, notonly did the Ministry of Health, Labour, andThe primary reason for focusing on private

Welfare (MHLW) research the reality of net cafe

booths is that we can assume that personal booths

nanmin (MHLW, 2007) but also the phrase net

would physically and actually prevent customers,

cafe nanmin was nominated for Japan’s Keyword

including net cafe nanmin, from communicatingof the Year contest in 2007 and placed in the top

with each other. However there are two further

10.

reasons as follows.

Surveys on net cafe nanmin have clarified thatFirstly, there were no private booths in early net

the crucial problem is their isolation. Hiroaki

cafes, but once they were introduced into some

Mizushima, the creator of the phrase net cafe

net cafes around 1998, they become widely

nanmin, says in his report that the reason why heaccepted by others. At present, it’s hard to imagine

used the term nanmin to describe people sufferinga net cafe without them. It seems that private

from extreme social exclusion is that their isolation

booths both elicit people’s hidden desire forreminded him of that of real refugees in the world

solitude and realise it by offering personal space(Mizushima, 2007: 4-5). The MHLW also reportedwith the Internet.

that the percentage of net cafe nanmin who had no

Secondly, it’s very rare for there to be private

one to talk to about their problems was 42.2% inbooths in Internet cafes in the rest of the world. In

Tokyo (MHLW, 2007: 41).

my field survey in East and Southeast Asian42

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. 4 No. 1 Sep. 2011

countries, I found private booths with doors only

computer areas in net cafes. In my estimation, thein a few Internet cafes in Korea whose style wasaverage ratio of the private booth area would be

introduced from Japan.

more than 70% of the total area. It’s clear that the

Therefore, by focusing on private booths andpeople who are envisaged as the main customers

the difference between Japan and the otherof the net cafe are the users of booths, from thecountries, we can come closer to not only resolving

amount of advertising for private booths and thethe question of net cafe nanmin’s isolation but also

wide variety of booths described on net cafe

clarifying some of the aspects of Internet use in

websites.

Japan.

According to the MHLW report, 7.8% ofcustomers who have ever stayed all night at net

2. A Brief Remark on Net Cafes and Net Cafe

cafes are homeless people. Homeless people who

Nanminstay overnight at net cafes more than 3 times per
week - the definition of net cafe nanmin in a broad

Generally speaking, almost all net cafes have asense(4) - can be estimated at approximately 5,400

lot of private booths and little space is used forin number.

open-plan computer workstations. Net cafes are

More than 90% of net cafe nanmin are male.

basically open 24 hours a day, every day of theMore than 50% of net cafe nanmin are in unstable

year, and fees for a private booth usually cost fromworking conditions and most of them are

200 to 500 JPY (2.46 to 6.15 USD(3)) per hour.

temporary dispatch workers at various kinds ofAccording to my survey, the cheapest discountworkplaces. The percentage of net cafe nanmin

package costs 1,000 JPY per 10 hours.

who have finished professional schools, junior or
technical college, or university is less than 10% in

Not only mineral water, coffee, tea and soft

Tokyo (MHLW, 2007).

drinks, but also amenity goods like shavers,
individually-wrapped towelettes, toothbrushes andAccommodation other than net cafes which is

toothpaste, are provided for free. Every net cafe

commonly used by net cafe nanmin in Tokyo is as

has public flush lavatories. Some of them havefollows (in descending order from first to fi fth,

shower rooms which customers can use at no or awith multiple answers allowed except when “onlyminimal charge.

using

net

cafes

and

manga

cafes

for

Not a few net cafes also have a lot of comics,

accommodation”): the streets, including parks,

magazines and newspapers freely available toriverbanks, roadsides and public facilities such as

read. On the other hand, a lot of manga cafes offer

railway stations etc. (29.5%); fast food restaurants

Internet access, so the two are more or less(23.7%); saunas (23.2%); capsule hotels (16.1%);

interchangeable in contemporary Japan. For thistheir friends’ houses (7.6%) (MHLW, 2007: 22).

reason, we can treat the combined number of net

This indicates that net cafe nanmin havecafes and manga cafes which is provided by the

incompatible criteria for selection of their

MHLW report as that of net cafes for our purposes.

accommodation: price and relaxing in solitude,

This figure was 3,246 in 2007 (MHLW, 2007: 1).

and we can guess their choices are some variations

It’s difficult to know precisely the proportion ofof compromise between these criteria(5). In thisprivate booths with computers and open-plansense, we may be able to regard private booths in
43Being Quiet in Internet Cafes

HIRATA

net cafes as the ideal accommodation for these

they don’t have a fixed address to get ID.

people which fulfils both criteria to a large

People who don’t have fixed addresses aredegree.

placed at a severe disadvantage in Japan. Because

It’s also possible that there are a number ofhomeless

people

who

use

net

cafes

they have little chance of gaining regularfor

employment and they’re forced to work in low-accommodation occasionally. For example, Makoto

paid, part-time jobs they can’t save enough money

Yuasa argues that the estimated total number offor the deposit needed to rent a room, or to pay fornet cafe nanmin should be higher because thehealth insurance. Net cafe nanmin are a typical

MHLW survey only counts the number ofexample of these people (Mizushima, 2007; Iwata,customers who have no home and stay at a net2007).

cafe more than 3 times per week as net cafe

Additionally, net cafes have fulfilled the role ofnanmin, so homeless people who have no choice

shelters for runaways, including young people,

but stay overnight at a net cafe less than 2 times

who have suffered from or witnessed domestic

per week are eliminated from the total (Yuasa,

violence. Recently, some of these young people,

2007).

mainly girls, have been seeking for someone to

However, we can describe the terrible situation

provide a room, board, and money for free to themwhich confronts net cafe nanmin by referring tothrough Internet bulletin boards (Kuroba, 2010).

other data from the same report. For instance, theThey are called “kamimachi shozyo” meaning

average income of net cafe nanmin in Tokyo is“girls waiting for a saviour”(6). One of the purposes

107,000 JPY per month (MHLW, 2007: 37). It canof the ordinance is preventing such young people

be seen that they’d have difficulty even to afford tofrom becoming victims or perpetrators of crime.

live in private booths in net cafes.

From these facts, it’s clear that what’s at a stake
here is a problem of social security. More precisely,

3. The Origin of Private Booths and Theirit’s a problem of the compromise between having

Problems

a free private sphere and having a secure private
sphere, either of which would be directly placed in

Even the limited solution of living in private

the public sphere in this case. This problem in thebooths in net cafes isn’t secure. The Metropolitan

actual public sphere is similar to that in the Internet

Police Department (MPD) has enacted an

space as a virtual public sphere, so it’s possible toordinance regulating the operation of Internet

discuss their commonalities and differences.

terminals which obliges customers using private

However, for the purposes of this paper, let usbooths with Internet access to show ID from Julyprovisionally consider a solution for it as follows:

2010. In this ordinance, a private booth is definedfor net cafes to increase the number of open-plan

as “a space which one can’t easily look inside”

computer workstations. If security is at stake,(MPD, 2010) and “a space in which users could

reducing or removing private booths can becommit various kinds of crimes” (MPD, 2010).

considered the best solution.

Since the media broadcasted news of thisThe reason why I dare to propose such an

ordinance, some people have argued that it makes

extreme solution is to remind us of the opposite

it more difficult for net cafe nanmin to live because

opinion: the need to protect the right to a free44

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. 4 No. 1 Sep. 2011private sphere, demonstrated by the fact that mostarticle that what his shop offers is personal space

Japanese prefer to use private booths, so net cafe

to use media such as manga, video games, and theowners have to keep a high ratio of personal booths

Internet(8).
Another article reported that customers whoto open-plan computer workstations to maintain

can’t access personal space at their home or office

their earnings.
This is certainly true to some degree. According

buy time in a private booth. After introducing theto a newspaper article, a net cafe owner intended

various media and wide variety of relaxation tools

to introduce an ID card system into his/her net

which are offered in net cafes, this article concludescafe(s) in line with the new ordinance, but finallywith the words “you are free to choose anything,decided to close up the shop(s) after calculating

and no one cares” and a comment from a customerthat it would cost about 10,000,000 JPY to introduce

about private booths: “what an excellent place tothis system . This article doesn’t clarify the total

have in the middle of a city!”(9).

(7)

number of his/her shops, so we can’t see the costAccording to these commentators, from theof implementing an ID system per shop. However,very beginning private booths in net cafes were

we can see that the owner wanted to keep private

introduced and used as a personal space wherebooths in his/her shop(s) so as not to reduce

anyone can do what he or she wants without

income.

worrying about others’ observing eyes.

However the actual situation seems to be more

However, a private booth doesn’t stand alone

complex. Some of my informants who are users of

but with other booths, so it’s not surprising thatnet cafes said net cafes are scary places because

customers of net cafes unconsciously accept athey never are able to know what the otherhidden norm that, “you can do anything you wantcustomers will do. At the same time, they

except disturb others”. If this norm is shared by all

presumably still like personal booths because theycustomers of net cafes including net cafe nanmin,offer a personal space to freely take a rest andthey’d hardly be able to do anything because theyrelax. It can be said that, taking their financial

can’t tell what behaviour may disturb others.

situation into account, the very people who most

In fact it can be observed that the air of net cafes

need to have both freely available and secure

is filled with near-total silence. According to my

private booths are net cafe nanmin in the first

informants, one of the most problematic behaviours

place.

in net cafes is to make noise. We guess that thePeople in Japan apparently have two different

reason why they think so is that noise is one of the

feelings, relaxation and anxiety, towards personalfew behaviours which can disturb others in abooths in net cafes, which seem to be contradictory.

private booth where people are prevented from

But why is this the case? I will try to answer thisseeing each other.

question by referring to a book and newspaper

4. Singing Songs and Searching for Jobs inarticles from around 2000.

Internet Cafes

Senichi Tanaka, one of the first net cafe owners
who introduced private booths, describes his job
as “to lease comfortable spaces for customers”

To understand the particularity of the situation(Tanaka, 2003). Another owner said in a newspaper

above, let us now consider Internet cafes in Hong45

Being Quiet in Internet Cafes

HIRATA

Kong and Singapore since they have a lot in

expired in 6 months came to Singapore to work on

common with Japanese net cafes except for private

a salary of 600 SGD at a restaurant, but the salarybooths. For example, they opened within alreadywhich was actually paid by his employer was only

highly-developed Internet environments in Asia

300 SGD.

(10)

and offer use of the Internet and personal

Of course there are some differences between

computers at very low prices(11). Therefore their

these migrants and net cafe nanmin. For instance,main customers are relatively poor people such as

migrants may be provided with accommodation by

migrants

their employer. Especially domestic helpers at

fromIndia,

Indonesia,

and

the

Philippines.

least are provided with food, health insurance, andThese migrants have a lot in common with net

a private room or space in their employer’s house.

cafe nanmin. They’re usually workers on less thanSo, although the average income of these migrants

two-year contracts and must return to their home

may seem low by comparison to that of net cafecountry when their contract expires.

nanmin, it is not necessarily reasonable to state
which group is poorer.

However this doesn’t mean that they have theirown home to which they can easily go back,

However, this doesn’t mean that the provided

because they have to earn money to feed theiraccommodation is necessarily comfortable. It may

family and to bring up their children. So, most of

be a large room where a lot of migrants live

them are living continuously in a foreign country,

together, while for domestic helpers the private

or among my informants, some have moved fromroom or space is within their workplace. The

one foreign country to another to find jobs.

Singapore government advices employers that

Their financial situation is as bad as that of net“where possible, your FDW (Foreign Domestic

cafe nanmin. The migrants have to pay a lot ofWorker) should be given a separate room of hermoney initially to their agent for intermediaryown. In the event that is not possible, you should

charges to work in Hong Kong or Singapore.

ensure that sufficient space for sleep is provided”

According to my informants, this is equivalent to 7

(Singapore Ministry of Manpower, 2010).

months of their income.

For these migrants, Internet cafes in Hong Kong

In Hong Kong, the minimum wage for domestic

are one space for relaxation, although they havehelpers is fixed at 3,580 HKD (433 USD) per monthno private booths. They enjoy using Facebook,(Hong Kong Labour Department, 2008). The

Yahoo Messenger, and Skype to communicate

average wage of the six of my informants whowith their family members, lovers, and friends left

work as domestic helpers is approximately 3,600

in their home countries at open-plan computer

HKD per month.

workstations.

On the other hand, in Singapore, domestic

On Sundays and holidays, these Internet cafes

helpers are not covered by the Employment Act

become noisy, but apparently no one cares. Even a(Singapore Ministry of Manpower, 2010), so theirmigrant woman teaching her child to sing “Wewages depend on their contract with theirwish you a Merry Christmas and a Happy New

employer. According to my informants, theirYear” and to play it on the recorder via Skype in an

average wage is 400 SGD (310 USD) per month.

Internet cafe, is quite a normal scene. A Filipina

An Indian male informant with a working visa that

migrant told me “I don’t like people who speak46

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. 4 No. 1 Sep. 2011

loudly, but I also speak loudly. That is true for bothshown, the more Internet cafes are made privateof us.”

by using booths, the more their customers worry

In Singapore, there are two types of Internet

about whether their behaviour disturbs othercafe. One is the same as the type in Hong Kong,

people or not. As a result, the Internet cafes getwhich can be seen, for example, at Lucky Plaza, aquieter and quieter.

big shopping mall for migrants from the Philippines.

So we can conclude that one reason why net

These Internet cafes have no private booths andcafe nanmin are isolated and do not mutually help

their main customers come in order to communicate

each other is that they value their own personalwith their loved ones via personal computers or

sphere and so respect that of others. In thistalk to each other.

situation, it’s reasonable to imagine that to ask

The other type of Internet cafes are mainly insomeone for help could become one of the mostLittle India. They have simple booths which

problematic behaviours. But as a result of thissegment most of the floor-space into approximately

privacy, net cafe users also fear others as unknown

1 m personal spaces with 1.8 meter-high walls but

quantities because they don’t know who they are

no doors, equipped with a chair each. Customers

or what they’re doing.

2

enjoy nearly-private space similar to private booths

Acknowledgements

in net cafes. In fact, they use these Internet cafes
for relaxation not only by communicating withThis paper was supported by a Grant-in-Aid fortheir family and friends, but also gaming, gambling

Research Activity Start-up, Japan Society for theand watching movies or videos.

Promotion of Science (21830052)

According to an owner of an Internet cafe, these
simple booths are for migrant workers who are

Notes

extending their working visas or seeking and(1) Unless otherwise stated, the term net cafe is used

applying for new jobs. Internet cafes in Little India

to mean Internet cafe in Japan in this paper.

are places where customers deal with a lot of(2) First-person singular pronoun is used to mean the

personal information.

author of this paper in this paper.

This is reflected in an advertisement for “100%(3) All exchange rates in this paper are as of 7, Nov.,

privacy” in front of the entrance of some of them.

2010.

An informant who is from Sri Lanka said that he(4) This definition includes permanent employees,

thinks one of the good points of Internet cafes isfreelance professionals, temporary workers, andanyone can go in and use the Internet, but two of

unemployed people whether seeking work or not

the most important things in them are to be quiet

among net cafe nanmin. On the other hand, aand to protect privacy.

narrower definition of net cafe nanmin only
includes temporary workers. This paper uses net

5. Conclusion

cafe nanmin in the former sense because, as we’llsee, people who have no address easily fall into

From the discussion above, net cafes can be

unstable working conditions.

viewed as the most private space among different(5) Here I couldn’t go into detail, but it’s clear that thetypes of Internet cafe. However, as has been

first two choices prioritise cost over relaxing in

47

Being Quiet in Internet Cafes

HIRATAsolitude. The fees of saunas and capsule hotels are

Employment Ordinance. http://www.labour.gov.

relatively higher than that of net cafes. However

hk/eng/public/wcp/FDHLeaflet_Eng.pdf

each of them has its advantages. In this context, it’s

(Accessed November 7, 2010)
International

noteworthy that net cafe nanmin hardly everTelecommunication

Union,(2010):

selected karaoke rooms which provide private

Measuring the Information Society 2010. Geneva:

rooms at low cost similar to net cafes for theirPlace des Nations.
Iwata, M., (2007): Gendai no Hinkon: Working Poor,

accommodation (3.1%). This percentage is lessthan that of people only using net cafes and manga

Homeless,cafes for accommodation (4.0%) (MHLW, 2007: 22).

Shinsho. (In Japanese)

Seikatsu

Hogo,Tokyo:

Chikuma

Kuroba, Y., (2010): Kamimachi Shozyo, Tokyo:

This may be because it’s difficult to shut out the

Futabasha. (in Japanese)

noise and although some karaoke rooms serve softdrinks free of charge, they must be ordered.

Metropolitan Police Department (MPD), (2010):(6) My thanks to Professor Kentaro Azuma (Associate

Zyorei no Gaiyo. http://www.keishicho.metro.

Professor, Nagoya University), who informed me

tokyo.jp/seian/in_cafe/image/in_cafe_gaiyo.pdf

about “Kamimachi Shozyo.”(in Japanese, Accessed November 7, 2010)
Ministry of Health, Labour, and Welfare (MHLW),(7) Nikkan Sports, 31, Mar., 2010.

(2007): Zyukyo Soshitsu Fuantei Shurosha nado no(8) Asahi Shinbun (Fukushima), 18, Nov., 1999.

Zittai ni kansuru Chosa Hokokusho, http://www.

(9) Yomiuri Shinbun (An evening paper in the Westernmhlw.go.jp/houdou/2007/08/dl/h0828-1n.pdf (inpart of Japan), 22, Dec., 2000.

Japanese, Accessed November 7, 2010)(10) For example, the proportion of households with aMizushima, H., (2007): Netto Cafe Nanmin to Hinkon

computer and the Internet in Hong Kong is 74.6%
and 70.9% respectively in 2008, and that in

Nippon, Tokyo: Nippon Terebi Hosomo. (inSingapore is 80% and 76% respectively for the same

Japanese)year. These figures are the third and fourth highest

Singapore Ministry of Manpower, (2010): Work Permit

in Asia, after Korea (80.9%, 94.3%) and Japan (85.9%,(Foreign Domestic Worker): Before you apply.

79.8%),

world

http://www.mom.gov.sg/foreign-manpower/(International Telecommunication Union, 2010:

passes-visas/work-permit-fdw/before-you-apply/

103-4).

Pages/default.aspx (Accessed November 7, 2010)

andrelatively

high

in

the

(11) The fees in Hong Kong are from 10 to 15 HKD

Tanaka, S., (2003): Amyuzumento Kakumei, Intanetto/(1.21 to 1.81 USD) per hour, and in Singapore, theManga Kissa wo Hatsumeishita no ha Watashi
Desu, Tokyo: Seiunsha. (in Japanese)price ranges from 0.6 to 3 SGD (0.47 to 2.33 USD)

Yuasa, M., (2007): “‘Netto Cafe Nanmin’ Chosa, Sono

per hour.

Igi to Genkai”, Chinkin to Shakaihosho 1453: 42-4.

References(in Japanese)

Hong Kong Labour Department, (2008): Foreign

Domestic Helpers’ Rights and Protection under the48

Refereed Research Note

Web-GIS based Outdoor Education Program as
Environmental Education for Elementary Schools
Keywords:
Outdoor Education, Web-Based GIS (Geographic Information Systems), Environmental Education,
School Education, Elementary School

Noriyoshi HOSOYA, Hachioji City Nakayama Junior High School
Kayoko YAMAMOTO, University of Electro-Communications

Abstract
This study aims to propose and implement a Web-GIS (Geographic Information Systems) based
outdoor education program as environmental education for elementary schools which is thenevaluated by users. The conclusion of this study can be summarized in the following threepoints.
(1) An eight-step outdoor education program based on Web-GIS was proposed as a “second
school” for elementary schools and was then implemented before being evaluated by users(teachers, instructors, students and their parents).
(2) The program generally received a good evaluation. However, many students and theirparents gave extremely negative evaluations for degree of discovery and degree of interest
respectively in the questionnaire conducted after the “second school”. Teachers’ evaluations
showed an intention to continue to operate the program in a positive manner and to pinpoint
the issues concerning the use of Web-GIS as teaching materials.
(3) Based on the results of evaluation by users, two issues to improve the outdoor education
program were determined. One concerns the Web-GIS based outdoor education program
and the other is related to the use of Web-GIS.

49

Web-GIS based Outdoor Education Program as Environmental Education for Elementary Schools

HOSOYA et alimportance of encouraging outdoor activities for

1. Introduction

children, aims to propose and implement a WebGIS

Urbanization in recent years has reduced

based

outdooreducation

programasopportunities and places for children to haveenvironmental education for elementary schools,

contact with nature while playing in everyday life.

which is then evaluated by users (teachers,

The Environmental Education Promotion Law

instructors, students and their parents). By using(2004) was enacted to promote outdoor education

the unique Web-GIS functions, since teachers

as environmental education. This law proposes the

input information about outdoor activities into

enhancement of outdoor education to promote

digital maps and add pictures, comments andenvironmental education for a sustainable society

detailed information on them, they can clearly

and to raise peoples’ consciousness aboutshow students the object of study visually just byenvironmental conservation. Furthermore, theclicking on the screen. Therefore, it is possible to

School Education Law, as revised in 2007, includes

effectively focus students’ interest on the object of“encouraging outdoor activities”. Thus, the threestudy and enhance their understanding better thanministries of Education, Culture, Sports, Science

with any other teaching materials in paper format.

and

and

Additionally, students can refer to and search

Fisheries, and Internal Affairs and Communications

information about outdoor activities with thestarted the “Project for Interaction in Farming andteachers’ guidance.

Technology,

Agriculture,

Forestry

Fishing Villages” (2008)(1) in which elementary

Studies on the actual use of GIS or Web-GIS inand junior high school students stay for one week

school environmental education are divided intoor more in farming or fishing villages for outdoor

the following two groups. Itoh et al. (1998), Ludwig

activities. Therefore, it can be said that outdoor

et al. (2000), Itoh et al. (2004), Murayama (2004),

education is extremely important as school-based

Bendnarz (2004) and Demirci et al. (2009) concern

environmental education for children.

the usage of GIS and Web-GIS as educational tools

On the other hand, since GIS (Geographic

to support environmental education, and Yan et al.

Information Systems) have various functions for(2001) , Kerski (2001), Miura et al. (2003), Kubota

databaseanalysis,

et al. (2005), Bodzin et al. (2006) and Yuda et al.

information provision and sharing and decision(2008) relate to environmental education classes

making support, they have often been used inusing GIS and Web-GIS.

creation,

information

Amongschool education in a versatile manner in recent

thesestudies,

Murayama(2004)

years. Web-GIS are defined as information systems

demonstrates the effectiveness of GIS as exercise/to manage, process and visualize the data whichtask-learning aid tools in school education as well

gives geographical location information on digitalas having high expectations for Web-GIS, inmaps using the Internet. It is possible for anyone

particular, to be used in whole-class teaching thatto use Web-GIS anywhere, anytime by accessing

is available online without having to install any

the Internet without installing any application

application software. Miura et al. (2003) shows thesoftware on their PC.

importance of meeting needs in an education fieldbackgroundby conducting a class using Web-GIS at an

mentioned above, this study, focusing on theelementary school. Additionally, although GIS for

Consequently,

based

on

the

50

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. 4 No. 1 Sep. 2011

Education has not yet been fully developed inprogram in school education, Musashino-shi,

Japan, Itoh et al. (1998) pointed out that GIS had

Tokyo has made various efforts to establish long-

been used in school environmental education

term outdoor activities since 1989. In 1996,

since the 1990s in the U.S. However, these previous

Musashino-shi made the decision to implement

studies only introduce examples of the usage ofoutdoor activities for seven nights or more for fi fth

GIS and Web-GIS as educational tools andgraders and four nights or more for first-year

environmental education classes using GIS andjunior high school students. In 2003, a two-nightWeb-GIS. They do not propose or implement a“pre-second school” began for fourth graders asseries of outdoor education programs for school

an introductory program for the second school. In

environmental education based on GIS or Web-Musashino-shi, 12 elementary and six junior highGIS.

schools currently conduct the program every year.

Taking into consideration the above-mentioned

This program is designated as a pilot study for theimportance of outdoor activities as school“Project for Interaction in Farming and Fishingenvironmental education for children and theVillages” mentioned in Chapter 1.

potential use of GIS and Web-GIS in school

The examples taken by this study are the second

environmental education presented by previous

schools at Honjuku Elementary School which

studies in related areas, this study proposes ankindly cooperated with this study. The elementary

outdoor education program for the purpose ofschool provides seven-night outdoor activities

improved outdoor activities in elementary school

called second school for fi fth graders (45 students

education chiefly using Web-GIS which offers anin the 2009 academic year) and two-night activities

excellent tool for information provision andcalled pre-second school for fourth graders (48sharing. Using Web-GIS in the outdoor education

students in the 2009 academic year) as preparation

program, teachers can enhance educational effects

for the second school. Since 2003, the second andon students because the students are able topre-second schools have taken place mainly invisually refer to diverse information about the

Iiyama-shi, Nagano in October and Muikamachi-

outdoor activities on digital maps in order toshi, Niigata in June respectively. Table 1 shows theunderstand the object of study. Additionally,

outdoor activities during the second and pre-teachers preserve a record of the second and pre-second schools.

second schools on digital maps so that they canMusashino-shi recruits university and graduate

reflect their teaching methods and effectively

students aspiring to be teachers to work as

make plans for future activities. Moreover, theinstructors for the second and pre-second schools

proposed outdoor education program is actuallyof elementary and junior high schools because theimplemented in elementary school education.

number of teachers at these schools is not high

These two points show the originality and utility ofenough to be able to provide the necessary

this study compared to previous studies.

manpower. The authors have participated as
instructors for the second and pre-second schools

2. Outline of examples

at Honjuku Elementary School since the 2008
academic year. (See Chapter 3 for details.)

Identifying outdoor activities as an important

In order to achieve smooth operation and51

Web-GIS based Outdoor Education Program as Environmental Education for Elementary Schools

HOSOYA et al

3. Web-GIS based outdoor education program

Table 1 Outdoor activities during the secondand pre-second schools

As shown in Table 2, this study proposes,
implements and evaluates the eight steps of the
Web-GIS based outdoor education program. Its
aims are as follows: (1) to enhance the educational
effects on students, by arousing their interest innature, promoting their understanding about theobject of outdoor activities and supporting theirchoices of actions especially during hiking inmountainous areas. (2) to promote parents’enhanced educational effects, Honjuku Elementary

understanding of the second school, by visually

School takes a number of measures before andreferring, in particular, to the information about

after the second and pre-second schools thatthe outdoor activities on digital maps, and (3) toinclude:ensure students’ safety during outdoor activities.

1. Teachers: Teachers in charge inspect in advanceIn the program, using the unique functions of Web-the places where the second and pre-second

GIS

schools will be held and meet with local staff

information provision and sharing, it is possible tothere to make arrangements as preparation forrealize such aims. Moreover, the program isclasses before and after the second and pre-applicablesecond schools and outdoor activities.

elementary school education.

2. Instructors: Before the second and pre-second

especially

in

for

similardatabase

outdoorcreation,

activities

and

as

Each step is explained in detail below.

schools, a training session is given to instructors

Step 1. Survey of second and pre-second schools:

to ensure safety during the schools.

The authors participated and accompanied the

3. Students: Students carry out specific study

second and pre-second schools for fourth andbefore and after the second and pre-second

fi fth graders respectively in order to understandschools mainly during integrated learningand grasp their contents and subsequently

periods.

acquired knowledge about events held by the

4. Parents: As the second and pre-second schools

elementary school before and after the second

involve overnight stays, a briefing session isand pre-second schools in the 2008 academic

given to the students’ parents beforehand by theyear.

teacher in charge concerning the purpose andStep 2. Proposal of the program: A briefing on thedetails of the second and pre-second schools to

purpose of this study and on the Web-GIS based

give them an understanding of the activities.

outdoor education program was given to the

Additionally, after the second and pre-second

principal of the elementary school who permitted

schools, an open class is conducted to provide

the acceptance of the program. Then, a concrete

an opportunity for students to talk about theirform of the program was considered and theexperiences during the schools in front of theirresultant proposal was presented to the principal

parents.

and teachers in charge of the schools.
52

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. 4 No. 1 Sep. 2011

Table 2 Eight step process of Web-GIS based

parents before and after pre-second schools, as

outdoor education program

mentioned in Chapter 2.

(academic year 2008-2009)

Step 6. Self-evaluation/Re-composition: The program
was re-composed based on teachers’ reactions
and results of self-evaluation of the preliminary
operation.
Step 7. Operation: The program was fully operated
for the second school including the period
before and after it for fi fth graders in the 2009
academic year. The same measures including
the use of Web-GIS that were taken during the
pre-second school in Step 5 were applied before
and after the second school.
Step 8. Evaluation: Face-to-face interviews andquestionnaires were conducted on teachers,
instructors, students and parents in order toevaluate the program.
In this study, an operational test was conductedduring the pre-second school in Step 5 in order toimprove the Web-GIS based outdoor education

Step 3. Adjustment of elements: Specific elements

program before the second school in Step 7. Afterof the Web-GIS based outdoor education

the preliminary operation in Step 5, the teachers

program were considered after understanding

gave the authors some specific comments tolearning objectives concerning the second andimprove the Web-GIS. Therefore, in Step 6, thepre-second schools and after the intentions ofauthors added information that was more closely

the teachers were taken into consideration.

related to outdoor activities, and devised the usage

Step 4. Specific composition of the program: Withof the Web-GIS for the explanation to students andthe supposition that Web-GIS would be used as

their parents for the operation in Step 7.

teaching and briefing materials, the specific

4. Use of Web-GIS for the outdoor education

elements of the Web-GIS based outdoor

programeducation program were determined before
preparation for operation.

4.1 Usage of Web-GIS

Step 5. Preliminary operation: An operational test
was conducted for the pre-second school

The usage of Web-GIS mainly includes theincluding the period before and after pre-second

specific composition of the Web-GIS based outdoor

schools for fourth graders in the 2009 academic

education program in Step 4 and preliminary

year. Web-GIS are used as teaching and briefing

operation and operation of the program in Steps 5materials in specific study for students and theand 7 respectively. This was carried out inbriefing session and open class for students’accordance with the process in Table 2. The
53

Web-GIS based Outdoor Education Program as Environmental Education for Elementary Schools

HOSOYA et alfunctions of the Web-GIS for database creation,

following procedure in Step 4 chiefly using the twoand information provision and sharing were used.

kinds of applications software.

The “Denshi Kokudo” Web System(2)

was used

1. An inspection of specific places where the(3)

as Web-GIS application software and Kashmir 3D

outdoor activities would be implemented was

as GIS application software in the Web-GIS based

conducted to collect geographical location

outdoor education program. Additionally, since

information on locations and routes throughthe “Denshi Kokudo” version digital map from the

GPS and to carry out face-to-face interviews andGeographical Survey Institute shows more detailed

research in the field.

geographical characteristics than any other digital

2. Using Kashmir 3D, the information related tomaps such as Google maps especially inthe outdoor activities was placed on the “Denshi

mountainous areas where outdoor activities are

Kokudo” version digital map to be processed as

carried out at second and pre-second schools, it isa Kashmir 3D version digital map in GPX format.

used as a basic map in this study. Kashmir 3D is

It was converted into XML format to be used inused to process and overlay the geographicalthe “Denshi Kokudo” Web System.

location information related to the outdoor

3. The Kashmir 3D version digital map in GPX

activities obtained in Steps 1 and 4 on a “Denshi

format was clipped for editing in order to insert

Kokudo” version digital map.

photos and comments. Additionally, it wasconverted into HTML format that allows

4.2 Web-GIS as teaching and briefing materials

reference to supplementary data and was posted(1) Specific composition of the programusing Pukiwiki(4) on the website run by theBased on the experiences of participating in theauthors(5).

second and pre-second schools as instructors in(2) Preliminary operation and operation

the 2008 academic year in Step 1, the authors

In Steps 5 and 7, the Web-GIS were used as

identified “conducting a class related to student

teaching and briefing materials as illustrated inexperiences during the second school both before

Figures 1, 2, 3 and 4 respectively for the three

and after it”, “operation of outdoor activities

main objectives. Figure 1 shows a route for outdoor

considering risk management for teachers andactivities in Iiyama-shi, Nagano which is made by

instructors during the second school” and “briefing

Kashmir 3D. The authors placed the geographicalsession and open class about the second school for

location information that was obtained especially

students’ parents before and after it” as the main

by GPS on Kashmir 3D version digital maps andobjectives for the use of Web-GIS. In Step 3, based

used it as the basic map to make “Denshi Kokudo”

on the survey in Step 1, the authors consideredversion detailed digital maps and Kashmir 3D

when and how to use the Web-GIS as teaching andversion detailed digital maps. Figure 2 shows all

briefing materials and what kinds of informationroutes including the same route as shown inshould be included on the digital maps, consulting

Figure 1 which is prepared with the “Denshi

with the teachers about learning objectives.

Kokudo” Web System. It enables students andTakingtheabove-mentioned

thingsintoparents to search the locations and routes forconsideration, therefore, teaching and briefing

outdoor activities during the second school.

materials were composed according to the

Figure 3 describes the authors’ website entry of54

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. 4 No. 1 Sep. 2011

③上越市水族館③地引網（藤崎海岸）⑥なべくら高原⑦きのこ収穫

④ハイキング③漁港見学①信濃平宿泊地②稲刈り①泉台小学校⑤飯山ウォーク

Figure 1 Kashmir 3D version digital map

Figure 4 Outdoor activities map on authors’
websitea hiking route map which was inserted withgeographical location information and information

Figure 2 Map using the “Denshi Kokudo” Webabout dangers obtained in Steps 1 and 4. It enables

Systemteachers

andinstructors

toconsiderriskmanagement during the second school. Figure 4
also shows the authors’ website entry of an outdoor
activities map which was inserted with photos andゴール

comments related to the outdoor activities. It

コース状況
出発−分岐②
平坦、無信号の交差点

enables students and parents to understand theがあり、車に注意
分岐②−分岐④

status of outdoor activities at a glance and it was

急な登り、

景色③

注意①は落石の危険有
左側歩行禁止printed to distribute as a briefing material at the

分岐④
注意②は、土砂崩れあとあり．速やかに景色②

open class after the second school.

通ること．右側歩行
昼

注意③

禁止
昼は、パラグライダー場

Before the second and pre-second schools,

広場の先崖注意

昼−ゴール

referring to the digital maps as illustrated in

ほぼ平坦

Figures 1, 2 and 3, teachers explained the outdoor
activities including risk management and notices

注意②
分岐③
景色①

to students and their parents to enhance their

分岐②

分岐④

分岐①

understanding. Since the details of the outdoor

注意①

activities were shown visually on the digital maps,

スタート

the students and their parents could understandFigure 3 Hiking route map for risk management

the locations and contents. Additionally, using theon authors’ website
55

Web-GIS based Outdoor Education Program as Environmental Education for Elementary Schools

HOSOYA et al

Table 3 Overview of evaluation

Web-GIS, they could search the locations androutes for outdoor activities with the authors’
guidance.
After the second and pre-second schools,
showing the digital maps inserted with pictures,comments and detailed information as illustrated
in Figure 4, teachers explained the outdoor
activities to students and their parents. This madestudents recollect their experiences and theirparents understand the details of the second andpre-second schools.

5. Evaluation of the outdoor education program
5.1 Outline of evaluation
The Web-GIS based outdoor education programthat was proposed and implemented was evaluatedby its users (teachers, instructors, students andtheir parents) in Step 8 shown in Table 2. At theevaluation, mainly the usage of Web-GIS in the

Table 4 Outline of face-to-face interviews andoutdoor education program was evaluated. The

questionnaires (September-November,overview of the evaluation is shown in Table 3 and2009)

its sub-items will be shown in 5.2. The authors
intended that teachers should evaluate in terms ofoperation of the program and presence of
educational effects and that instructors should
evaluate in terms of operation of the program.
Additionally, students should evaluate in terms ofpresence of learning effects and their parents
should evaluate in terms of understanding of thesecond school.
Moreover, as shown in Table 4, face-to-faceInternet to make themselves aware of GIS andinterviews and questionnaires were conducted for

Web-GIS and Table 5 shows the results. Fromthe evaluation of the outdoor education program

Table 5, it can be seen that although instructors

in this study. The questionnaire for students andand parents use the internet frequently, most of

their parents was conducted both before and after

them were not used to using map retrieval pages,

the second school.

GIS or Web-GIS. Moreover, about 27% of students

Before the second school, the authors asked the

had used the Internet and half of them had used

instructors, students and parents to use themap retrieval pages.
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Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. 4 No. 1 Sep. 2011

5.2 Evaluation

to move from a classroom to a computer room.

(1) Evaluation by teachers

Excessively long time to prepare teaching

Results of the face-to-face interviews of the threematerials is not suitable for use at an elementaryteachers for evaluation in terms of operation of theschool.

program, intention to continue to use in a positive

In terms of presence of educational effects,

manner and advantages and disadvantages whenadequate coordination with the elementary school

using the Web-GIS based outdoor education

allowed additional educational effects to be

program presented by the respondents are:provided to students compared to those provided

1. Advantages: As many of the teachers had noby a regular class. It was useful for students toknowledge of GIS and Web-GIS, this opportunity

obtain information on places where outdoor

offered them an incentive to learn. However, aactivities were going to be carried out to raise theirmore simplified package would be preferable

abilities in spatial recognition and to organize

without the need to learn about Web-GIS fromknowledge and experiences acquired throughscratch. A manual for the use of Web-GIS would

preparation for outdoor activities and through the

be useful, and an assistant who specializes in theactivities themselves.

use of Web-GIS would be necessary. Moreover,(2) Evaluation by instructors

the teachers suggested that the program could

Table 6 shows the results of the questionnaire in

be applied in social studies, life environmental

terms of operation of the program by instructors.

studies,

Positive evaluation constitutes the majority for

scienceandintegrated

learning

periods.

four of the sub-items: level of difficulty, degree of

2. Disadvantages: Use of a computer requires the

expectation, possibility of continuation and level of

reduction of time to install for a classroom andunderstanding. One instructor who does not use
the Internet at all, however, evaluated negatively

Table 5 Use of Internet, GIS and Web-GIS byfor all five sub-items.

instructors, students and parents(3) Evaluation by students

before second school

Table 7 gives results of the questionnaire interms of presence of learning effects by thestudents before and after the second schools.
a) Evaluation before the second school
In the class before the second school, referring

Table 6 Results of questionnaire in terms ofoperation by the six instructors

57

Web-GIS based Outdoor Education Program as Environmental Education for Elementary Schools

HOSOYA et al

Table 7 Results of questionnaire for students before and after second school

to the digital maps as illustrated in Figures 1, 2 andevaluation might be mainly due to their inability to

3 along with pictures of the second school held thefind things that interest them at the second school

previous year, teachers explained the outdoor

and that they would like to continue studying

activities to students. Positive evaluation accounts

further after it has ended.

for approximately 80% of the total for all six sub-(4) Evaluation by parents

items indicating that students generally give good

Table 8 gives results of the questionnaire inmarks.

terms of understanding by the students’ parentsb) Evaluation after the second school

before and after the second school.

In the class after the second school, showing thea) Evaluation before the second school

digital maps as illustrated in Figure 4, teachers

The results show that more than half of parents

explained the outdoor activities to students.

rather frequently use the Internet while only about

Positive evaluation makes up more than 65% of the

21% are aware of GIS / Web-GIS. In the same way

total for the five sub-items with the exception ofas in the class given to students before the second

degree of discovery which had a predominantschool, a presentation using Web-GIS was provided

negative evaluation of about 79%. Additionally, theduring the briefing session for parents. Positive

percentage of negative evaluation for the two sub-evaluation occupies more than 80% of the total for

items of degree of interest and possibility of

all four sub-items of level of understanding about

continuation is remarkably high compared to thethe places for activities, level of understanding

questionnaire conducted before the second school.

about the activities, degree of interest and

The reaction of the students during the class given

possibility of continuation indicating that theafter the second school implies that the negative

parents generally give good marks.
58

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. 4 No. 1 Sep. 2011

Table 8 Results of questionnaire for students’ parents before and after second schoolb) Evaluation after the second school(1) Web-GIS based outdoor education program

In the same way as in the class given to studentsa) Operators

after the second school, a presentation using Web-In the outdoor education program, Web-GIS

GIS was provided during the open class. Whilewas mainly used for “conducting a class related

positive evaluation by the parents constitutes more

to student experiences during the second school

than 80% of the total for level of understanding

both before and after it”, “operation of outdoor

about the activities and outcomes as well as for

activities considering risk management forpossibility of continuation, positive and negative

teachers and instructors during the second

evaluations are almost equal in proportion to theschool” and “briefing session and open classdegree of interest. The percentage of positive

about the second school for students’ parents

evaluation for the degree of interest is remarkably

before and after it”. At these times, it is necessary

low compared to the questionnaire conductedto have an operator who can manage Web-GIS tobefore the second school. This is presumably

conduct

because the parents became less interested andHowever, the teachers at the school in this study

found no need to view Web-GIS after the end of the

had no knowledge of GIS and Web-GIS and thissecond school.

situation is expected to be fairly similar at othertheoutdooreducation

program.

schools. Therefore, there is the issue of the

6. Issues and improvements to the outdoor

distribution of teachers and assistants who can

education program

operate Web-GIS.
b) Composition of outdoor education program

6.1 Identification of Issues

Because the outdoor education program was

At first, based on the results of evaluation bycomposed taking the intentions of teachers into

users (teachers, instructors, students and parents)

account so that Web-GIS is effectively used as ain terms of teachers’ operation in particular, theteaching

issues to be improved in the Web-GIS based

evaluated our contribution to school education.

outdoor education program that was proposed and

The reason for this is that the authors suitably

implemented in this study are stated as follows.

incorporated
59

andbriefing

teachers’material,teachers

requirementsasWeb-GIS based Outdoor Education Program as Environmental Education for Elementary Schools

HOSOYA et alcomposers and operators of the Web-GIS based

the use of Web-GIS were suggested. In order tooutdoor education program, and this therefore

realize the following suggestions, it is not possible

leads to good evaluations from users, especiallyto implement the Web-GIS based outdoor educationteachers. Due to this fact, it is necessary toprogram as proposed in this study only atcompose the outdoor education program with aelementary schools. For example, cooperation

comprehensive grasp of the current situation in

between elementary schools and universities isschool education in advance.

proposed as in the case of this study.

(2) Use of Web-GIS(1) Web-GIS based outdoor education programa) Web-GIS as teaching materials

In order to operate the Web-GIS based outdoor

During the implementation of the Web-GIS

education program, it is first necessary to distributebased outdoor education program, the authors

teachers

were asked for a more simplified package andinformation tools such as Web-GIS at schools andmanual for how to use Web-GIS. As mentioned

to increase teachers’ opportunities to learn how toin Chapter 1, GIS for Education has not yet been

use Web-GIS. Additionally, the outdoor education

fully developed in Japan. Due to problems

program should be composed taking the intentions

related to this kind of application software asof teachers and the current situation in school

well as technical difficulties and limited working

education into account.

hours, it is difficult for teachers to learn how to(2) Use of Web-GIS

andassistants

who

can

manageuse these kinds of information tools effectively

It is necessary to teach appropriate applications

as teaching materials. Consequently, it is ansoftware and provide manuals for the operation ofissue that very little appropriate application

the Web-GIS based outdoor education program tosoftware exists and that there are few manuals

teachers who are interested so that they canfor the use of Web-GIS.

implement it by themselves. Furthermore, it isb) Continuous use of Web-GIS

also necessary to create opportunities to use Web-

After the second school, the percentage of

GIS in social studies, life environmental studies,

negative evaluation for the three sub-items such

science and integrated learning periods as well as

as degrees of discovery and interest, andin outdoor education. For example, it is necessary

possibility of continuation was higher than thatthat Web-GIS should be also customized to be

of before the second school. Since the reason isused for various activities outside of school inthat students lost the motivation to learn further

other subjects and excursions in rural andafter the second school, this leads to the issue

mountainous areas as this leads to the continuousthat they might miss opportunities to use Web-use of Web-GIS after the second and pre-second

GIS.

schools. This will also contribute to enhancing the
educational effects of the Web-GIS on students in

6.2 Suggestions for improvements

outdoor education.

Referring to the analysis of results of face-to-face

7. Conclusions

interviews and questionnaires, the following
improvements for the two issues concerning theThis study aims to propose and implement a

Web-GIS based outdoor education program and60

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. 4 No. 1 Sep. 2011

Web-GIS based outdoor education program as

Acknowledgements

environmental education for elementary schools,

We would like to thank the teachers and the students

which is evaluated by users. The conclusion of thisand their parents at Honjuku Elementary School instudy can be summarized in the following threeMusashino-shi, Tokyo, as well as instructors for the

points.

second school, for their active cooperation with this(1) An eight-step outdoor education program

study from the preparation stages to completion.

based on Web-GIS was proposed for a “second
school” at elementary schools that was thenNotes

implemented before being evaluated by users(1) Project for Interaction in Farming and Fishing(teachers, instructors, students and theirVillages, http://www.maff.go.jp/j/nousin/kouryu/

parents).

kodomo/index.html. Assessed May 15, 2008

(2) The program generally received a good(2) “Denshi Kokudo”, a concept proposed by theevaluation. However, many students and their

Geographical Survey Institute, Ministry of Land,

parents evaluated extremely negatively for

Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism in 1999.

degree of discovery and for degree of interest

Refer to Cyber Japan Portal.

respectively in the questionnaire that was(3) Kashmir 3D is an application software for GIS that

conducted after the second school. Teachers’

provides functions including analyzing views ofevaluations showed the intention to continue

mountains, creating 3D computer graphics ofto operate the program in a positive mannerlandscapes, real-time flight simulation, analyzing

and pinpointed issues about preparations for

GPS data and creating hyper maps.

using Web-GIS as teaching materials at(4) Pukiwiki, one of the so-called WikiEngines, is aelementary schools.

content management system (CMS).

(3) Based on the results of evaluation by users,(5) The authors established “the Web-GIS based

two issues to improve the outdoor education

Outdoor Education Program” website using the

program“Denshi Kokudo” Web System. It can be found at:

proposed

in

this

study

were

determined. One concerns the Web-GIS based

http:// www.ohta.is.uec.ac.jp/yamamoto/gis

outdoor education program and the other isabout the use of Web-GIS. For the former, theReferences

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No. 2, pp. 341-353. (in Japanese)62

Refereed Research Note

Study of the Music Business Model Based on
Comparison of Country Having Low Piracy Rate andCountry Having High Rate
Keywords:
illegal copy, piracy rate, opposite approach, user benefit, social benefit

Yasutaka UEDA, Edogawa University

Abstract
With the recent advances made in digital technology and escalating levels of competition in thefield of music, there is a growing debate over how recording artists, music production firms, CD
stores, rental shops, music distributors and consumers should go about protecting or expanding
their rights. This paper provides a discussion of this subject based on the benefits for society as
a whole on the premise that music requires an increase in benefits for all of society.

63

Study of the Music Business Model Based on Comparison of Country Having Low Piracy Rate and Country Having High Rate

UEDA

generate income, and although we perceive such

Introduction

countries to be backward nations, we have
Accompanying the conversion of information

developed a hypothesis by which these countries

and recordings to digital media, although methods

actually indicate an advanced music model for thefor purchasing music continue to expand fromdigital age. Field surveys were conducted on six

CDs to cellular telephones and the Internet (on-occasions in New Zealand, which has a low piracy

line music distribution), the value of analog

rate, and in Vietnam and China, which have highcontents (such as live concert performances andpiracy rates, after which this hypothesis wasmerchandise sales) is increasing. For example, inverified by discussing a music business model for2008 Madonna terminated her contract with thethe digital age based on the data obtained fromrecord giant, Warner Music, and instead concluded

those surveys.

an agreement with an event production company

Literature Review

known as Live Nationⅰ. Many of her major
recordings were released free of charge over theInternet as a means of attracting fans to her

Although Gayer and Shy (2006) treated creatorsconcerts. As a result, Madonna’s income in 2008

in the manner of lyricists and composers andmoved to the top of list among music artists at 240

distributors in the manner of record companies

million dollars due to the sales of tickets forand publishing companies as a single body in aconcerts held in Europe and throughout the U.S.

previous theoretical model, it was decided tostarting in the summer of that year . This indicatesconsidered these two entities separately. Theya shift in the emphasis of music activities from CD

indicated that since creators are able to obtainsales to live performances and sales of T-shirts

benefits from not only CD sales, but also live

and other merchandise. In the U.S., Apple Records,

concerts, it is not always wise to strictly apply

which is considered to be one of the successful

copyright laws to this group. This was a model

members of the music industry, is currently

showing that the strict application of copyright

operating in the red with respect to on-line musiclaws goes against the interests of creators anddistribution, and depends on sales of its iPod music

distributors. In addition, a paper by Papies andplayer for its source of income. In the past, Japan’s

Clement (2008) is an example of that describing

music business viewed live performances as a

the relationship between music distribution andmeans for advertising CDs, and although it was

the production of live concerts and so forth. These

considered okay for live performances to record a

authors indicate that since users who attend live

deficit, the current way of thinking may actually beconcerts and users of distributed music are divided

the exact opposite. This model that adopts theinto two segments based on their previous behavior

opposite view of generating a profit with analog

patterns and affinity for technology, the results ofcontents (such as live concerts and merchandise)their analyses are that there is no competitiveby using digital contents (such as CDs and on-line

relationship between the live concert business andmusic distribution) as publicity means has alreadythe music distribution business. The paper bybecome established in countries having high

Asai (2009) is an example of music researchpiracy rates where CD sales cannot be expected to

conducted in Japan. This paper consists of anⅱ

64Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. 4 No. 1 Sep. 2011

empirical analysis of the relationship between the

Accompanying technical innovations, it hasconcert production business and the package

become possible to provide a diverse range of newmarket. The publication by Vogel (2004), whichaccess means and services, the proliferation of cell

deals with the entire spectrum of contents

phones and broadband services in particular has

including music contents, describes a businessprogressed

model of the music industry comprising a structure

distribution of abridged ring tones and unabridged

based on how the music industry should bering tones for cell phones and their distribution

efficiently distributed between “creators”, such as

over the Internet are growing.

considerably,

andpopularity

ofcomposers, lyricists, music publication companies

This music distribution is characterized by aand performers, and “users”, and states that otherdramatic increase in the amount of available data

countries are following the model employed in the

resulting from rapid technological advances in the

U.S. Although Vogel (2004) claims that the U.S. isfield of telecommunications and a growing

an advanced model for the world, this paper

selection of songs without having to consider

proposes and attempts to verify the hypothesis

usage time or the distance to a CD store.

that the model employed in countries like Vietnam

On the other hand, the size of music-related

and China is conversely advanced from themarkets such as CD stores, rental shops andviewpoint that it is more suited to the current era

Karaoke parlors is decreasing.
Along with this, there has been increase in theof advanced digital technology.
Although not necessarily academic publications,

number of CD stores and rental shops that are

there are many surveys concerning music models.

going out of business, and the number of CD

It is the intention of this paper to compare andstores is decreasing.
In this manner, CD shop management is facing

examine the models of several countries whilea critical situation, there is a strong need toreferring to these surveys.

strength business efficiency under conditions ofConceptual Frameworknegative growth, and stores with limited space aredisplaying and selling popular songs and songs byThree viewpoints are necessary for music to be

popular artists because of their high profit margin,enjoyed by not only a portion of affluent society,while it is becoming increasingly difficult to handle

but also by persons of low income:products having a low profit margin even through(1) characteristic of music being essential as

they may be of high quality.
At actual stores having limited display space,entertainment service (essentiality);(2) characteristic of music being able to be enjoyedthere is the potential for offering an innovativeat a price that is affordable to everyone

product lineup with the aim of increasing sales(affordability); and,despite lower profits through competition.

(3) characteristic of music being able to be enjoyed

In addition to restrictions on usage time due toregardless of regional differences (availability).

limited inventories, dissatisfaction with having to

In the music field, it has become important totravel to stores is promoting the use of musicreexamine the business model due to changes in

distribution services, and the situation exists inthe situation in recent years.

which information available on the Internet is65

Study of the Music Business Model Based on Comparison of Country Having Low Piracy Rate and Country Having High Rate

UEDA

accelerating dissatisfaction with stores, while

important is whether or not greater benefits areadded value information such as reviews as well as

realized for society as a whole.

essential information such as listening to demos is

The securing of high-quality music contents

leading to the use of music stores.

cannot be realized with only some famous artists

Although the market for music distribution

or affluent users alone, but rather is ultimately

services is expanding in this manner, the existence

maintained by young persons having a broadof illegal sites that publicly release music files

range of tastes but insufficient funds to purchasewithout the permission of the rights holder

CDs or at the burden of amateur artists desiring tothrough a network is becoming increasingly

become professionals, and the realization of a highconspicuous. Although users downloading illegal

level of social benefit can be said to be an essentialmusic files can be perceived to represent latentcondition of growth of the music industry.

room for expansion of the fee-based music

According to the findings of previous studies,

distribution market, awareness that network

studies from this perspective are not considered tocontents distributed over the Internet are free of

have been adequately and explicitly conducted,

charge appears to be firmly in place particularly

and it is therefore important to discuss this fromamong young people.

the viewpoint of society in general.

The live event market is continuing to growIn order to measure the effects on social

steadily, and the music DVD market is also growing

benefits, a typical social benefit function isin conjunction with this market. In addition, live

composed of the benefits of creators and users

broadcaststhat compose the music industry.

using

USTREAM

have

becomeconspicuous by providing live contents shared(1)

through video images of live performances thatwere previously only able to be enjoyed by persons
who were able to purchase tickets.

direct use of services. There is use value for users

The proliferation of personal computers andthemselves (direct use value).

software has made it easier for individuals to edit
music

data,

packaged

products

User Value

Users incur benefits by themselves making

As indicated in Vogel (2004), expansion of

exclusively

benefits for teenagers and young adults is

produced inexpensively by independents are being

particularly important.

released, and it has become possible for persons(2)

around the world to release original music by

Creator Benefits

using such services as Facebook, You-Tube andIn the case creators provide services, they incur

USTREAM. As a result, the boundary between

benefits in terms of obtaining compensation for

professionals and amateurs in the music market

those services.

has become increasingly obscure.

In the case of amateurs, this also includes theAmidst this period of structural change, although

value of obtaining satisfaction from users enjoying

each member of the music industry is examining

the benefits of those services.

ways to construct an effective business model in

Although a comparison of these values isorder to secure an established position in theconsidered to vary depending on the individual

industry, in academic terms, what is more

and society, the result of presuming the existence66

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. 4 No. 1 Sep. 2011of these values and totaling all such values can be

conducted interviews with persons related to theconsidered to represent the benefits obtained frommusic industry in addition to surveying local CD

music for society as a whole.

stores, live performances and concerts in New

In this paper, a comparison is made between two

Zealand (September 12-19, 2010), Vietnam (Marchcases. The first case is that of the U.S. and Europe

5-14, 2010), Shanghai, China (February 7-10, 2010)

where, as a result of benefits for creators having

and Taiwan (August 3-7, 2009).

been maximized by suppressing losses attributable

Music Situation in Vietnam

to illegal copying and pirated versions byimplementing strict copyright laws, the musicindustry is targeted at the affluent middle classes.

On the CD market in Vietnam, consumers canIn this paper, the cases of New Zealand and Japan

select either pirated versions or authorized

are discussed as the countries having the lowest

versions. Since there are hardly any controls on

prevalence of pirated versions (refer to Table 1 forpirated CDs, the number of stores selling pirated

the reasons for having selected these countries for

CDs is overwhelmingly large, with the number

analysis).

and sizes of major pirated CD stores being more
prominent

In Japan, prices for music CDs are higher than

than

even

government-operated

those in the U.S. and Europe, music CDs are solid

authorized CD stores. In Ho Chi Minh City, whichat the same price as a general rule based on thewas one of the cities surveyed, two authorized CD“resale price maintenance system”, and pricestores were also handling pirated versions of allcompetition does not function. On the other hand,CDs sold. This situation in Vietnam in which boththe second case focuses on the countries of China

authorized versions and pirated versions of CDs

and Vietnam (refer to Table 1 for the reasons forare present in the same store is clearly evident inhaving selected these countries for analysis).

the fact that major pirated CD stores also sell

Although these two countries have a highauthorized versions of those CDs. In Vietnam

prevalence of pirated versions, the purpose of CD

where copyrights have very little meaning, asales is to provide exposure for artists and songs,

pirated CD is perceived as being of low quality

which in turn leads to increases in sales fromrather than being illegalⅲ. Pirated CDs may haveconcerts and live performances.

poor quality packaging and have problems with

Fig. 1 indicates “user value” in New Zealand andsound quality due to inadequate audio reproduction

Vietnam, while Fig. 2 indicates “creator value” intechniques. On the other hand, although authorized

New Zealand and Vietnam.

CDs do not have such problems, they are priced at

The total of the two values indicated in Fig. 1

32,000 Vietnam dong (US$ 2.13)ⅳ, making themand Fig. 2 can be considered to represent thejust under three times more expensive than pirated

benefits obtained from music for society as a

versions. Young people in Vietnam frequently

whole, and this is shown in Fig. 3.

purchase authorized versions of CDs of theirfavorite artists or when giving as a gift toFurthermore, since the U.S. market covers anfriendsⅴ.

excessively broad range for the target of thissurvey, it will be considered for analysis in a future
study. During the field surveys, the author
67

Study of the Music Business Model Based on Comparison of Country Having Low Piracy Rate and Country Having High Rate

UEDA

Table 1 Survey of Diffusion Rates of Pirated Software

Figure 1 User Benefits in New Zealand and Vietnam
from stage performances. There are many singers

Music Situation in China

who perceive pirated versions of CDs made from
authorized versions as means of generating

In looking at the situation in China, even thoughpublicity for their stage performances. Since China

many CDs are pirated versions, singers are able todoes not have a system for singers to protect theirmaintain their livelihood by obtaining revenues

copyrights, young singers produce CDs even68

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. 4 No. 1 Sep. 2011

Figure 2 Copyright Holder Benefits in New Zealand and Vietnam

Figure 3 Overall Social Benefits in New Zealand and Vietnam69

Study of the Music Business Model Based on Comparison of Country Having Low Piracy Rate and Country Having High Ratethough they know they are unable to coverDifferences

production costs since pirated versions will soon

Vietnam:between

New

UEDA

Zealandandappear on the market. For these singers, pirated
CDs are recognized to be necessary since pirated

In the case of New Zealand, although on-line

CDs generated as a derivative of CD production

music distribution sites allow users to listen tofunction as means of publicity for letting people

songs for several tens of seconds, it is not possible

know of their existence even though they are

to listen to an entire song. A fee must be paid in

unable to generate revenue from them. The major

order to listen to the entire song. This system issource of revenue of Chinese singers is stage

similar to that employed by Apple’s iTunes in theperformances,

those

U.S. Copyrights are firmly established in New

performances is dependent upon their popularity.

Zealand, and because of this, artists can expect to

In China where protection of copyrights isgenerate sales from CD software. However, in theessentially ineffective, publicity effects of piratedcase of artists in New Zealand, if sales are attempted

CDs exist even though revenue cannot be expected

to be increased, efforts are made to expand CD

to be generated from authorized versions of thosesales on overseas markets due to the small size ofCDs.

the domestic market. An example of this is theandcompensation

fordesirefor

HayleyWestenratoestablish

Table 2 Differences between High-Quality (High-Priced) Merchandise and Low-Quality (LowPriced) Merchandise

Table 3 Losses Attributable to Proliferation of Pirating and Piracy Diffusion Rates inVietnam70

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. 4 No. 1 Sep. 2011

performance bases in the U.K. and Japan.

disadvantageous.

On the other hand, in Vietnam where copyrights

As can be seen from Table 1,since pirated versions constitute more than 90% of

have yet to be adequately established as in New

music

Zealand, no matter how popular a song is and noare unable to generate revenue through the sales

matter how many CDs are sold, artists are not ableof CDs, and therefore record and produce singles

to get by on royalties from those songs, forcing

for radio broadcasting instead of albums targetedeven major artists to generate revenue byat users.

performing on stage. Since there is very little

and China where pirated versions and illegal

awareness of copyrights among the Vietnamese, it

copies have permeated deeply into the social life,

is possible to listen to entire CD albums by on-line

the piracy diffusion rate is 90% or higher, thus

streaming. Since Vietnam is a socialist country,

meaning that 90% or more of listeners are excluded

although it is strict with respect to monitoring andthe instant music is taxed. In Vietnam and China,

protecting its own copyrights, it is quite lax whenmusic is considered to be a luxury item for theit comes to infringement on overseas contents. In

middle class, or in other words, is not somethingothercopyrighted

that can be paid for easily. Artists become trusted

merchandise should not even exist in the country,

as a music brand widely popular among the general

at least on the surface, protection of such

public by using free media and enabling their work

merchandise also ought not to exist. However,to be listened to by anyone. Consequently, thereeven though it is said that overseas copyrighted

are many artists who perceive pirated versions ofmerchandise does not exist in the country, at least

music CDs in a positive mannerⅵ. Artists are awareon the surface, in actuality such merchandise isthatsold without reserve at government-operated

publicity effects that contribute to revenues fromdepartment stores, thus resulting in the existence

live performances even if they are unable toof rampant pirated versions on the market, as wellacquire copyright royalties. If CDs were sold at

as the existence of a gap between what is expressed

regular prices, many fans would be unable toto the outside and true intentions.

purchase them, thereby preventing artists fromwords,

sinceoverseas

consumption in Vietnam and China, artists

In the cases of countries like Vietnam

inexpensive

piratedversions

generate

obtaining a response or accolades from fans.

Although we tend to think that advanced nations

Artists acquire revenues by appearing in media

are more advanced, Vietnam is anadvanced nation in terms of having constructed

and commercials due to the popularity generated

a business model that generates earnings fromby pirated versions and illegal copiesⅶ. They arelive performances instead of packaged software.

also able to acquire earnings from live events and

The reason for the circulation of pirated versions

concert tours. In addition, even if a live event is notamong consumers is that, from the viewpoint ofattended by a large number of people, thosethe user, contents can be acquired free of charge if

persons that actually attended write that they

someone would allow them to make copies. On theattended the live event or went to a concert andother hand, from the viewpoint of artists, if users

enjoyed it on their own blogs, thereby generating

who ought to inherently purchase contents areinterest among readers of those blogs that makes

able to obtain copies free of charge, this represents

them want to attend the next live event.

adecreaseinearnings

andis

In this manner, from the viewpoint of total

therefore
71Study of the Music Business Model Based on Comparison of Country Having Low Piracy Rate and Country Having High Rate

UEDA

earnings obtained by artists in this manner, theneighboring rights to songs have become

perspective that illegal copying does not necessarily

increasingly sensitive to illegal music distribution,

have only negative aspects may appear unexpectedin consideration of the rapid growth of onlinefrom persons such as ourselves residing inmusic distribution over the Internet, there is also aadvanced countries where there is strict protection

growing opinion that it may be of more benefit toof copyrights. In advanced countries, the supply of

not become overly excessive with claims ofcontents

copyright infringement ⅷ.

decreases

unlesscopyrights

areprotected, and under extreme circumstances, aMusic Situation in Japan

market may not be established. However, undercircumstances in which copyright protection isvirtually nonexistent as in Vietnam and China,

Traditionally, the Japanese music industry has

users are able to listen to music inexpensively

positioned live performances as a form of publicity

thanks to pirated CDs. Conversely, although

for increasing sales of CDs, and has tended tosingers who have a hit song are able to generate

ignore the profitability of such live performances.

huge copyright royalties from earnings fromAt present, however, when it has become easy tolegitimate versions of CDs under conditions incopy digital contents, it has become necessary towhich copyrights are strictly protected, users haveadopt the opposite approach of generating earnings

fewer opportunities for coming in contact withfrom live performances and using the providing ofmusic than when pirated CDs are available. There

CD and other digital contents as publicity for live

are also views that favorably evaluate pirated CDs

performances. In actuality, although sales of CD

since they fulfill the function of generating publicity

and other packaged media continue to struggle,

in terms of increasing the number of music fans.

the number of persons attending live performancesThus, the proliferation of pirated versions isand concerts is demonstrating solid growth. As

expected to increase the scope of users while also

the CD market gradually shrinks as a result of

demonstrating publicity effects that lead tobeing pushed out by online music distribution, thepurchases of legitimate CDs.

live concert market has grown steadily to about

The rampant proliferation of pirated software

150 billion yen. In addition, live concert attendance

and illegal copying has brought about an ironic

figures have continued to increase steadily,outcome with respect to Japanese contents. In

currently standing at about 24 million after having

other words, these actions have fulfilled asurpassed the 23 million mark in 2003ⅸ. The major

considerable role in enabling music, animation,

factor behind this is established popularity ofcomics and other forms of Japanese culture known

summer festivals and the growing number of live

as “JPOP” culture to propagate and permeate

performance venues. The contribution made byvarious regions throughout Asia, including Beijing,outdoor music festivals has been particularly

Shanghai, Taipei, Seoul and Bangkok. In response

significant after having become firmly establishedto this result, although suppliers such as lyricists

as Japanese summer events during the past 10

and composers, singers, performers, record

years. Ever since the start of the Fuji Rock Festival

companies, music producers and other members

in 1997, roughly 50 music festivals are currentlyof the production side having copyrights andheld in the summer aloneⅹ. Summer music
72

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. 4 No. 1 Sep. 2011

festivals have gained the support of music fansprograms on television, but always watch thesince they provide an opportunity to see a wide

special Year End programming ⅻ.

range of musicians all at once. In addition, due toConclusion and further development

the strong event-like features of these outdoor
festivals, they are also attended by persons otherthan core music fans. Moreover, there are also a

Although we tend to think of advanced nations

growing number of music fans who decide toas being advanced, in terms of constructing aattend solo performances by artists they became

business model in which revenues are generated

interested in while attending a summer festival.

through live performances instead of packaged

Particularly famous artists tend to increase thesoftware, countries like Vietnam and China arenumber of live performances at large-scale venues

advanced.

and also tend to raise ticket prices. Thus, there is

China will also occur in other advanced countries

an increase in efforts to break away from thethroughout the world. In other words, a model

overemphasis on CD sales and place greater

will become established in which earnings areemphasis on revenues of live performances,

generated in a different manner than in the past bymerchandise sales and other music contents.

providing music free of charge and using it as a

What is happening in Vietnam andmarketing tool for artists.

One area of the Japanese music industry where
the model of using digital contents as publicity for

The business model described in this paper also

analog contents has already been established ishas an effect on business models in such fields as

the popular music genre of Enka. In this model,

animation, movies and video games. In each ofsince expectations cannot be placed on CD sales,

these fields, the works produced are thought toEnka performers use appearances on television

converge into one of three types consisting ofand radio (and particularly on special Year’s End

major productions, productions targeted at coreand New Year’s programming that has extremelyfans and original productions in pursuit of artistryhigh ratings) as means for generating publicity,and novelty. In looking at the example of animation,and generate earnings by traveling to regional

the first type consisting of major productions

night clubs or civic centers where they participate

refers to major productions released at movie

in numerous live shows.

In addition to Enka

theaters throughout the country, examples of

performers, special Year’s End and New Year’s

which include Studio Ghibli, Pokemon, Conan andprogramming also provides the perfect opportunity

One Piece.

to become known for artists who usually have little

The second type consisting of productions

exposure and are not seen regularly by ordinary

targeted at core fans refers to television programs

viewersⅺ. There are cases in which sales increase

only broadcast during late night hours or movies

suddenly in the new year as a result of having

released at only selected movie theaters. These

appeared on a special music program aired on

include productions such as Evangelion and Keion.

New Year’s Eve. Thus, an artist is able to develop

In terms of this paper, this is equivalent to thea new fan base by appealing to viewers, whomodel used in New Zealand. Although productions

ordinarily have little opportunity for coming inare produced while minimizing costs, sincecontact with music and usually do not watch music

production costs cannot be recovered from73

Study of the Music Business Model Based on Comparison of Country Having Low Piracy Rate and Country Having High Rate

television broadcast right revenues and box officeUEDA

in the U.S and Japan.

revenues alone, this model attempts to recover

Acknowledgements

costs through revenue generated from the sales of
figurines and character goods. This model also

The author wishes to thank three anonymous

generates revenue through side businesses suchreferees for the useful comments.

as figurines and character goods by acquiring
popularity through generating exposure by
distributing productions over the Internet free ofⅰcharge targeted at core fans present at about 5% in

Nikkei (newspaper) (abbr. of Nippon Keizai)(2009.3.11), p.6

advanced countries throughout the world. Thisⅱ

corresponds to the business model employed in

Nikkei (newspaper) (abbr. of Nippon Keizai)(2009.3.11), p.6

Vietnam and China as discussed in this paper.

ⅲ

Domon, K., Nakamura, K., (2006), “An Economic

This model takes advantage of the nature of core

Analysis of Unauthorized Copying and File-fans of continuing to remain fans for a long time

Sharing in Developing Countries: A Vietnam Case

once they have become interested.

Study by the Transaction Cost Approach”, Infocom

The third type consists of original stories andResearch Inc., “InfoCom Review Vol. 38”, pp. 120-

productions that are produced from the ground up

129

based on an original story, and are produced inⅳ

Sueveyed by Ueda in Vietnam (March 5-14, 2010)

pursuit of artistry and novelty. Examples of theseⅴ

Domon, K., Nakamura, K., (2006), “An Economic

productions include those by director Mamoru

Analysis of Unauthorized Copying and File-

Hosoda and “Ghost in the Shell”.

Sharing in Developing Countries: A Vietnam Case

Finally, some important issues regarding thispaper are discussed.

Study by the Transaction Cost Approach”, Infocom

In this research, models

Research Inc., “InfoCom Review Vol. 38”, pp. 120-

were simplified as shown in Fig 1, Fig. 2 and Fig. 3

129

based on an analysis framework of comparing andⅵ

estimating characteristic models of each country.

BlackBurn, David [2004]” On-line Piracy andRecorded Music sales, “Job Market Paper.

In this research, the targets of analysis consistedⅶ

Chris Anderson [2009] “Free,” NHK, p. 265

only of those large cities visited by the author, andⅷ

Shintaku, J., Yanagikawa, N. (2008), “Economics

therefore results in the problem of whether or notof Free Copies”, Nikkei Inc., p. 25

an interpretation of those findings can be expandedⅸ

Nikkei Entertainment (2009.3) p. 91

to include the entire music market of that country.

ⅹ

Nikkei Entertainment (2008.11) p. 102

Consequently, the results of this research shouldⅺ

Nikkei Entertainment (2009.12) p. 89

be interpreted with the proper care in regard toⅻ

Shintaku, J., Yanagikawa, N. (2008), “Economics

this point. In order to conduct a more preciseof Free Copies”, Nikkei Inc., p. 204

analysis, it is hoped that an empirical analysis will
be conducted based on quantitative data relating

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Editor’s Notes
The Great East Japan Earthquake is the most powerful earthquake and tsunami in Japan. Responding
to the Great East Japan Earthquake, the emergent symposium, whose outline was published on the firstpage of this volume, was held on the Annual Joint Conference of JSIS and JASI 2011 and the contents ofthe symposium will be introduced later.
Journal of Socio-Informatics, which is called JSI short for, is the only academic journal in the field ofSocio-Informatics in Japan. We the researchers and the students, Japanese or not, who study SocioInformatics can enjoy establishing new theories and sharing the results of Socio-Informatics studies inthis journal. This volume contains one invited paper based on the special lecture on the Annual Joint
conference of JASI and JSIS 2010, two original refereed papers and three refereed research notes.
A submission to JSI is open to any researcher and student who studies Socio-Informatics.
(Editor in Sub-chief: Seiichiro SAKURAI)

Editorial Board of the Journal of Socio-Informatics
Editor in Chief
Kaoru ENDO, Gakushuin University
Editor in Subchief
Seiichiro SAKURAI, Meiji Gakuin University
Yasunori OKADA, Shizuoka University

Editorial Board Members
Keiichi ABE, Aichi Institute of Technology
Akiyuki ANDO, Tokyo Keizai University
Hisaki GOTO, Nihonbashi Gakkan University
Yoshiaki HASHIMOTO, The University of Tokyo
Takeshi HIROMATSU, Institute of Information Security
Hirofumi IMADA, Hiroshima Bunka Gakuen University
Sangmi KIM, Nagoya University
Tadamasa KIMURA, The University of Tokyo
Hiroyuki KUROKUZU, Kansai University
Toshio KUROSU, Kokushikan University
Hiromu MAENO, Otsuma Women’s University
Tatsuro NIIKAWA, Doshisha University
Toshizumi OHTA, University of Electro-Communications
Akio SUMITANI, Otsuma Women’s University
Hideyuki TANAKA, The University of Tokyo
Takao TERANO, Tokyo Institute of Technology
Jun YOSHIDA, Kyoto University

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol.4, No.1
Sep. 30, 2011
Published
The Japan Association for Social Informatics (JASI)
Mitaka business park SOHO plaza A-301, 1-12-17 Kamirenjaku
Mitaka Tokyo, 181-0013 JapanThe Japan Society for Socio-Information Studies (JSIS)
Hiroshima Bunka Gakuen University, Faculty of Social
Information Science, Imada Laboratory
1-1-1 Gohara Manabinooka, Kure, Hiroshima, 737-0182
Tel. +81-823-70-3300 & Fax. +81-823-70-3311
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