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Fig. 13.— The demographics of exoplanets from direct imaging (dark blue), radial velocity (light blue), transit (orange), and microlensing(green) surveys. Planets detected with radial velocities are minimum masses. It remains unclear whether imaged planets and brown dwarfs
represent distinct populations or whether they form a continuous distribution down to the fragmentation limit. Directly imaged substellar
companions are compiled from the literature, while planets found with other methods are from exoplanets.eu as of April 2016.



ical color-spectral type relationship based on syntheticcolors of ultracool dwarfs from the SpeX Prism Library4
ets that were either discovered or successfully recoveredin these surveys: β Pic, with a planet at 9 AU, and

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References. (1) Gaia Collaboration (2016, 2018); (2) Pecaut & Mamajek(2016); (3) Henden et al. (2015); (4) Cutri et al. (2003).

8*0
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mag
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M
mag

Fig. B.1. IRDIS combined K1 K2 image of PDS 70 using classical ADI.
To increase the dynamic range of the faint disk structures, the companion’s full intensity range is not shown. The black lines indicate
the structures discussed in the above text. North is up, east is to theleft.



the central region. Whereas features 1 and 2 have already beententatively seen in previous observations (see Figs. 5 and 9 in
Keppler et al. 2018), our new and unprecedentedly deep data set
allows us to identify extended structures well within the gap (features 3–5). Future observations at high resolution, i.e., with interferometry, will be needed to prove the existence and to investigate the nature of these features, which, if real, would provide an
excellent laboratory for probing theoretical predictions of planetdisk interactions.

Direct Imaging

#!".

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ated and,[ ((., :: +GBI),),9/'(), ),,<IFC, %, ,
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1;-0L2, page 7 of 117

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 [close – : RV ←→ wide – : DI]→ [mass, luminosity, temperature…]

Fig. 1.— Substellar companions discovered via radial velocities (gray circles) and direct imaging (red circles) as of 1996, 2006, and 2016.
Over this twenty year period the number of directly imaged companions below 10 MJup has steadily increased from one (2M1207–3932 b in2004) to over a dozen. The surprising discovery of planetary companions at extremely wide separations of hundreds to thousands of AU has
expanded the architecture of planetary systems to over five orders of magnitude. Note that the radial velocity planets are minimum masses(msini) and the directly imaged companion masses are inferred from evolutionary models. RV-detected planets are from exoplanets.org(Wright et al. 2011; Han et al. 2014) and are supplemented with a compilation of RV-detected brown dwarfs from the literature. Imaged
companions are from Deacon et al. (2014) together with other discoveries from the literature.
9

“”!!

be addressed as a population and in a statistical man-Marois et al.

2010a;

Traub & Oppenheimer

2010;

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The Astrophysical Journal, 797:14 (22pp), 2014 December 10

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Figure 2. Histograms of the predicted planet detections with Gaia, for α > 2 σfov , as a function of (a) G magnitude; (b) distance d; and (c) planet mass Mp , where therising distribution up to the adopted occurrence threshold of 15MJ contrasts with the mass distribution for the simulated planets ((d), which is a 1 in 104 re-samplingof the simulated planet distribution, showing the MP−1.31 power-law behavior as the dashed line); (e) semi-major axis a; (f) eccentricity e.

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A. Müller et al.: Orbital and atmospheric characterization of the planet within the gap of the PDS 70 transition disk

endix A: Determination of host star properties

used a Markov chain Monte Carlo approach to find the posr distribution for the PDS 70 host star parameters, adopting
emcee code (Foreman-Mackey et al. 2013). The unknown
meters are the stellar mass, age, extinction, and parallax1 ,we assumed solar metallicity. The photometric measures used for the fit, and the independently determined e↵ectemperature T e↵ and radius are listed in Table A.1. We
orm a simultaneous fit of all these observables. The unceries are treated as Gaussians and we assume no covarianceeen them.
We used a Gaussian prior from Gaia for the distance andaussian prior with mean 0.01 mag and sigma 0.07 mag,cated at AV = 0 mag, for the extinction (Pecaut & Mamajek). Given AV , we computed the extinction in all the adopted
s by assuming a Cardelli et al. (1989) extinction law. We
a Chabrier (2003) initial mass function (IMF) prior on
mass and a uniform prior on the age. The stellar moddopted to compute the expected observables, given the fit
meters, are from the MIST project (Paxton et al. 2011, 2013,; Dotter 2016; Choi et al. 2016). These models were exteny tested against young cluster data, and against pre-mainence stars in multiple systems, with measured dynamimasses, and compared to other stellar evolutionary models
Choi et al. 2016 for details). The result of the fit conns the age of PDS 70 to 5.4 ± 1.0 Myr and its mass to± 0.02 M . The best-fit parameter values are given by thequantile (the median) and their uncertainties are based on
16% and 84% quantile of the marginalized posterior probty distribution. The stellar parameters are identical to thees used by Keppler et al. (2018). We note that the derived
ar age of PDS 70 is significantly younger than the median
derived for UCL with 16 ± 2 Myr and an age spread ofyr by Pecaut & Mamajek (2016). For the computation ofmedian age Pecaut & Mamajek (2016) excluded K- andpe stars for the reason of stellar activity which might bias
derived age. When the entire sample of stars is considerededian age of 9 ± 1 Myr is derived. The authors provide anof 8 Myr for PDS 70 based on evolutionary models. Furmore, the kinematic parallax for PDS 70 therein is larger by% compared to the new Gaia parallax. Thus, the luminosity
hich the age determination is based is underestimated and,equently, the age is overestimated.

Table A.1. Stellar parameters of PDS 70.

Parameter

Unit

Value

References

Distance
T e↵
Radius
B
V
g0
r0
i0
J
H
Ks
Age
Mass
AV

pc
K
R
mag
mag
mag
mag
mag
mag
mag
mag
Myr
M
mag

113.43 ± 0.52
3972 ± 36
1.26 ± 0.15
13.494 ± 0.146
12.233 ± 0.123
12.881 ± 0.136
11.696 ± 0.106
11.129 ± 0.079
9.553 ± 0.024
8.823 ± 0.040
8.542 ± 0.023
5.4 ± 1.0
0.76 ± 0.02
0.05+0.05
0.03

12Computed from 2
3
3
3
3
3
4
4
4
This work
This work
This work



(

)

30

n   %($( 20Figure 4.
Non-exhaustive family portrait of exoplanets and/or planetary mass companions discovered in DI including
References. (1) Gaia Collaboration (2016, 2018); (2) Pecaut & Mamajek(2016); (3) Henden et al. (2015); (4) Cutri et al. (2003).

the discoveries of (from right to left): DH Tau b, UScoCTIO 108 b, 51 Eri b, AB Pic b, Pic b, Fomalhaut b, 2M012210
2439 b, HR 8799 bcde, RXJ1609 b, HD 106906 b,  And b , HIP65426 b, CD-35 2722 b, GJ 504 b, HD 95086 b, GU Psc b,
HIP 77900 b, HR 6037 b, 2M1207 b and 2M0143AB b.

0

1995
In most current studies, the identification relies on two main pillars:Fig. B.1. IRDIS combined K1 K2 image of PDS 70 using classical ADI.
To increase the dynamic range of the faint disk structures, the companion’s full intensity range is not shown. The black lines indicate
the structures discussed in the above text. North is up, east is to the

2000

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24
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Table 1. List of first and second planet imagers on 10-m class telescopes. FQPM/8QPM: four-quadrant phase mask, 8octant phase mask. OVC: optical vortex corona- graph. PIAAC: phase induced amplitude apodization. APP: apodizing
phase plate.

Telescope

1st Light

AO/Instruments

Coronographs

Di↵. techniques

CLC/4QPM/OVC
CLC
CLC/OVC
CLC/FQPM/APP/OVC
CLC

ADI
ADI
ADI
SDI/PDI/ADI
ADI
IFS
SDI/ADI
SDI/PDI/ADI
IFS/ADIADI
ADI
IFS/ADI/PDI
IFS/ADI/PDI
IFS/ADI/PDI(µm)

1st Gen.

2nd Gen.

Palomar
SubaruKeck
VLT
Gemini-N
VLT
Gemini-S
SubaruPalomar
LBT
MagellanGemini-S
VLT
SubaruPALAO/PHARO
2000
CIAO
2000
NIRC2-OSIRIS-NIRSPEC
2001
NACO
2002
ALTAIR/NIRI
2003
MACAO/SINFONI
2004
NICI
2007
AO188/HiCIAO
2008
PALAO/PHARO-P1640
2009
FLAO/LMIRCAM
2012
MagAO/VisAO-CLIO
2012
GPI
2013
SPHERE
2014
A&A 617, L2 (2018)
SCExAO/HiCIAO-CHARIS
2016

1.1
0.9
0.9
1.0
1.1
1.0
1.1
1.1
1.1
1.0
0.6
1.1
0.5
0.5

2.5
5.0
5.0
5.0
2.5
2.5
5.0
2.5
1.7
5.0
5.0
2.3
2.3
2.2

CLC
CLC/PIAA/8QPM
APLC/OVC
CLC/OVC
CLC
CLC/ALC
CLC/ALC/4QPM
PIAA

N_ALC_YJH_S (185 mas in diameter) apodized-Lyot coronagraph (Martinez et al. 2009; Carbillet et al. 2011). We usedst must-havethe IRDIS (Dohlen
et al. 2008)fordual-band
imaging camera
any high-contrast
instruments to address that issue. I will detail below the techniques commonly(Vigan et al. 2010) usedwith inthetheK1field
K2 narrow-band
filter pairwithout considering Polarimetric Di↵erential Imaging (PDI) or a promisingof DI of exoplanets( K1 = 2.110 ± 0.102approachµm, K2 = 2.251± 0.109 µm).
A spectrum
like CoherentDi↵erential
imaging150.5(CDI) barely exploited for exoplanets for the moment.
covering the spectral range from Y to H band (0.96–1.64 µm,
A classical approachR = 30) was acquired simultaneouslywith the IFSwidely
integralused
field since the 90’s for disk science with HST is to register an additional single
spectrograph (Claudistar
et al.for2008).
Wesetthe
integrationtime(RDI). This technique has been successfully applied to the case of Pictoris
reference di↵erential imaging
for both detectors to system
96 s and andacquired
a
total
time
on
targetof the Pic b planet with NaCo at VLT.16 From the ground and with AOenabled the detection ofalmost 2.5 h. The total
fieldrotationis
95.7.
Duringthecourseinstruments, the reference must be well chosen
0.0to: i/ match magnitude and colors of the science star to preserveof observation the average coherence time was 7.7 ms and a
the
same
AO
settingandthesimilarNIR
flux,
and ii/ match the parallactic angle variation to keep a similar pupil
Strehl ratio of 73% was measured at 1.6 µm, providing excellent
PDS 70b→
configuration(forobservations
with
alt-aztelescopes).
With an increased stability of the telescope+instrument
observing conditions.

A&A proofs: manuscript no. main

∆Dec (arcsec)

1 Gen. AO system (2010)# actuator: 100
loop freq.: > 100 Hz

nd Gen. AO system (2010)2
the reference to significantly gain in contrast. This promising technique of star hopping still needs to be validated
2.2. Data reduction-0.5
in terms of performances with the second generationof planet imagers if (pointing, AO setting) overheads canactuator:
1000
The IRDIS data werereducedas described in Keppler
et al.
be#reduced.
↑Proxima c?
(2018). The basic reduction steps consisted of bad-pixel corAn
alternative
di↵erential
technique
makes
use
of
the
planetspectralproperties.
Giant
planetatmospheres
rection, flat fielding, loop
sky subtraction,
distortion>correction
freq.:
1000 Hzareframecomposedof chemical elements (water, methane, amonia, carbon monoxide and/or dioxide), not present(Maire et al. 2016), andregistration.
and a duty cycle of a few minutes, high degree of correlation may in addition persist between the science star andMüller +2018

Gratton +2020

The IFS data werewithatmospheres.
the SPHERE Data
Cenin reduced
the stellar
Signaturesof planetary accretionin emittinglines-0.5
like H↵ can also be used.17
0.5
0.0
ter pipeline (DelormeTheseet al. 2017),
which
uses
the
Data
Reduc∆RA(arcsec)di↵erential spectral signatures between the planet and thestar
can be optimally used to suppress parttion and Handling software(v0.15.0,
Pavloval. reveal2008) broad
and Fig.
of the stellar
light
andettomolecular
accretionlines
inclassicalthe planet
1. IRDIS absorptions
combined K K or
image
of PDS 70
using
ADI spectrum. The
1

2

Fig. 1. Median of the five epochs of Proxima acquired near quadrature in 2018 (MJD 58222, 58227, 58244, 58257, 58288), combined assuming an
inclination of i = 120 degree. Individual images were rotated to take into account orbital motion with respect to the reference epoch (MJD=58222)
North and East positions are then correct only for that epoch. The search area for c is the ring between the two green dashed circles, with inner
radius of 1080 mas and outer radius of 1200 mas. The yellow circles marks the best candidate at the epoch of observation (that is MJD=58222
2018-04-13) and at mid April 2020; this last is to provide the reader an idea about the speed and direction of the orbit. The cyan dashed line
represents the orbit of the candidate planet on the sky plane. Two faint background stars are still visible in this image. The colour bar is the median
S/N over the five epochs.

28

RI

24 August 2018

12:58

n 

, 

: Extreme AO (ExAO)
: ,!'-$&"

Primary WFS/C

Secondary WFS/C

Primary wavefront sensing(high speed, large numberof elements, usually visible light)
Closed-loop
control

Open-loop
control

Secondary wavefront
sensing(high accuracy,
usually near-IR light)

Guyon 2018

Science camera(s),!)*
perform:u Can• Imagingu • Spectroscopy• Polarimetryu 
Post-coronagraphic

Coronagraphic
LOWFS(coronagraphalignment)

Wavefront correction[Tip-tilt mirror + DM(s)]Figure 6 primary loop ≈ AO(!#+%*'WFS (usually focal
plane WFS)
WFS

Starlight suppression(coronagraph, nullinginterferometer)

+%*'

29strained to high–spatial frequencies, with little effect on contrast at small angular separation. In
the corresponding long-exposure image after ExAO correction, starlight within the ExAO control
domain is greatly reduced and dominated by the static diffraction pattern from the telescope pupil.
The extent and shape of the ExAO control domain are determined by the DM(s) geometry andnumber of actuators. In this example, DM actuators on a regular square grid yield a square ExAO

Annu. Rev. Astron. Astrophys. 2018.56:315-355. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org
Access provided by Kyoto University on 03/31/19. For personal use only.

Extreme Adaptive Optics
n performanceaaberrations that
directly contribute tolight in thehigh-contrast area

Guyon 2018b1186 nm RMS

141 nm RMS

1 ExAO control radius
2 Telescope spider diffraction
3 Diffraction rings
4 Ghost spider diffraction
5 “Butterfly” wind effect
6 Coronagraphic leak (low-order aberrations)
Monochromatic PSFs, 1.65 µm
No photon noise
10 m s–1 wind speed, single layer
4-ms wavefront control lagcd

No AO correction

Extreme-AO correctioneExtreme-AO + coronagraphControl radius= 0.83 arcsec

–4.7

–4.4

–4.1

–3.8

–3.5

–3.2

Contrast (10-base log)

–2.9

–2.6

–2.3

30

BT-SETTLEPDS 70 b
  
/



modelType I (BT-SETTLE)
Type II (variable)
Type III (P+CPD)
Type III (P)compare exoplanet’s
atmospheric model
Christians+2019

A circumplanetary disc around PDS 70 b?

5

M11

Figure 1. Combined spectrum of PDS 70 b compared to best-fit BT-SETTL models consisting of pure atmospheric emission
without (solid cyan line) or with variable extinction (shaded blue area). Shaded yellow area shows best-fit atmosphere+CPD
model. Circles with vertical error bars are IFS measurements, while squares with vertical and horizontal error bars are broadband measurements. Inset highlights new SINFONI spectrum (green points). The SINFONI spectrum shows a ⇠ 2 IR excess
at > 2.3µm compared to best-fit atmospheric models, best accounted for by the presence of a CPD. Top image shows imageof PDS 70 b with SINFONI (from C19).

shaded areas correspond to the minimum and maximum
extinction values (AV,1 and AV,2 , in Table 1) of our bestfit model, with AV,1 better accounting for the 2014/05
SINFONI, 2016/05 SPHERE and 2012/03 NICI data
points and AV,2 accounting for data points at all otherepochs. The di↵erence in extinction is AV & 3 mag forboth BT-SETTL and M11 models.
For both Type I and II models, the best-fit e↵ective
temperatures (1100–1500 K), surface gravity (log(g) ⇠3.0–4.0), planet radius (2.1–3.3RJ ) and hence mass (1.7–42.0 MJ ) are in approximate agreement with the previous estimates made in M18. Our mass estimates are
uncertain because of the large steps in log(g) (0.5 dex)
in our model grids, and hence do not rule out a browndwarf. Our best-fit M11 models correspond to the thickest cloud models (labelled A); extending to the top of
the atmosphere.

3.2. Combined atmospheric+CPD models
For our Type III models (combined atmosphere+CPD
emission), we considered the same two grids of atmospheric models as in Section 3.1, coupled with the
CPD models presented in Eisner (2015). The latter
add a single free parameter, the mass accretion rate,
which sets the brightness and shape of the CPD spectrum. We explored values of mass accretion rateslog(Ṁb Mb [MJ2 yr 1 ]) ranging from -7.0 to -6.0, in stepsof 0.1 dex. We did not consider accretion rates smaller
than 10 7 MJ2 yr 1 because the corresponding models do
not contribute significantly at NIR wavelengths. We assume a fixed inner truncation radius of 2RJ in our CPD
models, as in Eisner (2015). We thus truncated our gridof planetary radii to 2RJ for consistency. Other parameters were explored on the same grids as for Type I andII models.

31



:

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n 
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32

Note. — Confidence limits at which two pairs of planets’ (scaled) photometry differ- 2 for scaled photometry, Ndata -1 for non-scaled photometry – and the χ2 value. Fo
different rows indicate the nominal case, using photometry listed in Table 4, the Cu
The two entries (enclosed by parentheses) list the correlation from scaling the plane
spectra) (right entry). A value closer to one means that the photometry significantly d

SEICA (Second-generation Exoplanet Imager with Coronagraphic Adaptive Optics)

enclose the scaling factor applied to the second planet in each listed pair that minimi

u ,+:2!-)
TABLE 6
Atmospheric Models
1. 0’’.207>(2AU@10pc)I#!;@M!M$
FigurePanel
PlanetT (K) log(g)Cloud/TdfU]g\kYej
8
top-left
HR 8799 b
900
4.0
A
middle-left
”
850
4.0
AE
2. !53(for TMT)L<GR=4B*l:bottom-left
”
850
4.3
AE
top-right
HR 8799 d
1000
4.0
A
middle-right
”
975
4.0
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4
bottom-right
”
1000
4.0
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1’(60’’)
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u

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HR 8799 d
HR 8799 e

1000
1000
1000

4.0
4.0
4.0

0.7×A60
0.9×A60,
0.75×A60

Note. — References: 1) Burrows et al. (2006), 2) Currie et al. (2011a(2012), 5) this work.

HR8799 (Currie+2014)
c 10MJ
1’’.1

b 7MJ
1’’.7

+
%
10-5

e 9MJ
0’’.4

d 10MJ
0’’.7
Fig. 1.— Keck/NIRC2 L′ images of HR 8799 from 2012 data (left)
33
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35

SCExAO: Martinache+2014

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45