Grant-in-Aid for Transformative Research Areas (A)“Deduction of Production Sites
through Analysis of Archaeological Remains”(Area No. 20H05817)

Yoshimi Kamiya

Contents
Preface3

Analysis of organic and inorganic materials

5

Starch granule�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 5
Lacquer���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 6
Vermilion������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 7
Pottery clay ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 8
Stone and jade artifacts������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 9

From Sampling to Interpretation

10

Starch granule��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������10
Lacquer�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������14
Vermilion���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������18
Pottery clay ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������22
Stone and jade artifacts��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������26

Analysis key points

30

Bibliography31Preface

Archeology is the study of human activities in the past. We can learn
about lifestyles and cultures of that time from unearthed materials
such as artifacts including earthenware, tools and ornaments, remainsof animals and plants, and others. Furthermore, scientific analysis isable to provide various information to consider human activities andthe environment in the past as well as the age determination. To obtainas much information as possible, or to preserve and restore culturalproperties for future generations, the unearthed materials must be
handled with the utmost care. And, it is important to understand proper
procedures while handling artifacts for analysis.
The development of equipment and analysis technology is always
progressing, and methods to interpret data are also reviewed eachtime. In the early time of scientific approach to the cultural properties,
a number of precious materials were damaged by destructive analysis.
However, advances in equipment and technology have made it possible
to analyze fewer samples. Currently, various methods of non-destructive
and non-invasive analyses have been established, and are being applied
to archaeology.
This booklet, entitled “Starting Guide Book for Scientific Analysis ofArcheological Artifacts: From Sampling to Interpretation”, provides anintroduction for scientific analysis to people involved in excavations,those engaged in preservation and restoration of cultural properties,
and students in archaeology. We provide an overview of the analysisof both organic “starch granules and lacquer”, and inorganic “redpigments, pottery clay, and, stone and jade artifacts” from among
the many artifacts that are analyzed scientifically. In the first half of
this volume, we note the purpose of analysis for each type of artifact.
And, in the second half, we describe how to handle and store samples
prior to analysis, how to actually process samples, the instruments and3equipment used in the analysis, and the type of information (data) that is
extracted. The analysis methods introduced here may have already been
updated when you become interested. Therefore, if you need to apply the
analysis for your study, we strongly recommend you to consult specialists
or experienced researchers.
This booklet is written as part of the research project “Deduction of
production sites through analysis of archaeological remains” in the partof Grant-in-Aid for Transformative Research Areas (A), entitled “A New
Archaeology Initiative to Elucidate the Formation Process of Chinese
Civilization”. Although this project launched in December 2020, it wasdifficult to travel to the relevant site because of the COVID-19 pandemic.
The analysis cannot be performed without the artifacts to be studied.
However, developing analytical methods in laboratory use and creating
databases are also important in research. Thus, we thought this period,
which difficult the necessary sampling, as an opportunity for reviewing
current analytical procedures and improving analytical methods. And,we wish to publish this booklet aiming to share basic knowledge about
scientific approaches with people in archaeology. Some technical terms
and analytical methods may not be familiar to the readers. We hope;
however, this booklet will assist in understanding the scientific analysis
of cultural properties.

A y a k o S h i b u t a n i （Starch granule）
Y o s h i m i K a m i y a （Lacquer）
T a k e s h i M i n a m i （Vermilion）
T o m o k o I s h i d a （Pottery clay）
Y o s h i y u k i I i z u k a （Stone and jade artifacts）（in order of appearance）

4

Analysis of organic and inorganic materials
Starch granule
Ayako Shibutani

Starch granule

Starch is a substance produced by plants from carbon dioxide and water in the airand solar energy, and it is stored in the seeds, fruits, stems (trunks), leaves, androots of higher plants, functioning as an energy source for these plants. As starch
has a stable chemical structure, it is resistant to acids and alkalis as long as it is not
exposed to heat, remaining in any environment for thousands of years, even if it isburied in the soil. Although there are differences in size and shape of starch granules,
shape of cross polarization (black cross), and position of the core (the place where
the polarizing cross intersects at the granule’s center) depending on the type of plant,
plants of the same species will exhibit the same morphology regardless of whichpart of the plant is studied. Archaeology uses this feature to study such granules as
microscopic evidence of changes in people’s food and environment in the past, withstarch granules being discovered at archaeological sites worldwide.

Images and schematic figures of starch
Formative core

Orthogonal Nicol
with polarized light*Microscope imaging techniqueStarch chemical formula

Starch molecular model(Reprinted from Sivak & Preiss 1998)5

Lacquer
Yoshimi Kamiya

Lacquerware refers to the diverse “materials and technologies” using lacquer. Factors
such as which lacquer tree sap was used and how many times the processed lacquer wasapplied are relevant to “lacquered” items. In addition, there are only three species oftrees whose sap can be used as lacquer, and by studying the major components, we candeduce the trade routes and place of production of the raw materials. As these three
species grow only in East Asia, lacquer culture is called “Asian culture”.
However, its components are not constant, as it is a natural product; and how much ofeach component is contained depends on the environment in which the tree grew, thetime of harvesting, the method of harvesting and storage, the method of processing it
There are two methods for turning liquid lacquer into film, one of which is thecommonly used method. It involves a curing reaction that slowly forms a film over halfa day in a high-humidity environment where laccase enzymes incorporate oxygen frommoisture in the air. The other method is used for coloring gold products, such as arms
and armor, and uses a curing reaction where heat is applied after painting to quickly
form a coating film.
Sap cannot be collected throughout the year. Therefore, time management is essential
to produce abundant lacquerware. Analyzing lacquerware provides us with sources to
explore the artifacts’ manufacturing techniques and the real social structure of thattime.
Three types raw lacquer sap
UrushiJapan wax tree

Black tree

Components of sap called ki-urushi
Oxidizes urushiol

Scientific

Emulsifier

name
Old

Water balls with enzymes
and polysaccharides

namePrimary
locationsJapan, China,
South Korea

Japan,
Vietnam,China,
TaiwanSouth Korea

Thailand, Myanmar
Nitrogenous substance:
functions as dispersantMaincomponents【Principal components】
Lipid
structure

Urushiol
Coating film forming elements【Water-in-oil droplets】
The photograph displays the observation of raw liquid lacquer
through a stereo microscope (transmitted light)

Urushiol
Water
Polysaccharide
Raw
lacquerfilm color

Nitrogenous substance[glycoprotein]Trace amounts of laccase enzyme

trace[Note] Sap collected from which bark fragments and dust have been removed is referred to as “raw lacquer”.

6

Lacquer

into paint, and so forth.

Vermilion
Takeshi Minami
The red pigment vermilion (mercuric sulfide) used to be sprinkled in tombs andapplied to earthenware and stone tools.
Cinnabar ore collected from cinnabar mines is crushed, after which red-coloredbits are collected and pulverized to produce what is known as vermilion, and there is
no chemical treatment during the refining process, it is believed it does not undergo
any isotope fractionation until use at the archaeological site. Moreover, the ultratrace sulfur isotope analysis system (described later) measures the sulfur isotope
ratio directly from the vermilion in the analysis sample, which means that no isotope
fractionation effect is caused during analysis.
By examining the sulfur isotope ratio of vermilion excavated from an archaeologicalsite and comparing it with the sulfur isotope ratio of cinnabar ores, it is possible todeduce the mine from which the vermilion was collected. However, there are morethan 100 cinnabar mines in Japan and China. As such, we considered the following
conditions when determining the mine from which a particular vermilion was likely
collected, in ancient times:

Vermilion

1. Ancient documents and the features of surrounding remains
2. Mines with an abundance of cinnabar ore near the outcrop

7

Entrance of Wanshan Mine in
Guizhou Province, China

Old mining remains near Qingtonggou
Mine in Shaanxi Province, China

Old mining site at Niu Mine in
Mie Prefecture, Japan

Cinnabar ore extracted from
Wanshan Mine

Cinnabar ore in mine pit of
Qingtonggou Mine

Cinnabar ore with realgar(tetra-arsenic tetra-sulfide) collectedfrom Niu Mine in Mie Prefecture

Pottery clay
Tomoko Ishida
Earthenware refers to containers made by baking clay in fire and were thefirst tools used by humans with an awareness of chemical changes. Earthenware
and other forms of pottery have remained tools intimately connected to daily
life from prehistoric times to the present day.
Earthenware are “additive tools” that retain the processes they undergo fromthe collection of raw materials to their manufacture, use, and disposal, until
they become excavated archaeological materials; and this accumulation ofprocesses leave traces in them. By studying various earthenware attributes
such as form, pattern, paints, and traces of production and use that can beobserved with the naked eye, we may discern the time period and location, setdetailed measures in time and space, and discuss past earthenware-related
human activities, group dynamics, relationships with the natural environment,
and social backgrounds.
Pottery clay analysis is a method of approaching the materials that constitutethe earthenware. Earthenware are composites made by adding and adjustingmineral admixtures and multiple clay types according to the state of the clay,
completed by firing. Having undergone firing, the material is called pottery clay.
All the raw materials that constitute the physical existence of the earthenware
are reduced to earth-derived materials. By applying analytical methods fromearth science to archaeological materials, we can clarify past human activities
that have left traces invisible to the naked eye.
Clay

Pottery clay

Pottery clay

Greenware clay

FiringEarthenware
Mineral mixture

8Stone and jade artifacts
Yoshiyuki Iizuka
Stones are a material that humankind has used since ancient times. It is resistant to weatheringand alteration, and does not corroded even if exposed to the elements or buried in the ground formany years. As such, it is believed that most excavated stone artifacts retain their appearancesand shapes from when they were made or used. Thus, investigating the usages and shapes of stone
tools allows us to identify clues to the lifestyles and cultures of the people at that time.
Stones were not only used as tools, but also as symbols of power, objects of worship, and tocreate pendants, bangles, earrings, and other accessories. Different types of stones have different
colors, hardness, and toughness (brittleness), hence, they are used for different purposes
according to their characteristics. Stone artifacts also differ depending on location and time period.
It is possible to identify origin of characteristic stone artifacts, in turn allowing stone tools made of
the identical stone may to reveal information about the culture, its geographical spread, and eventhe stone transportation routes. In particular, “jadeitite” and “nephrite” , both of which are socalled “jade” materials, and volcanic glass “obsidian” used to make stone blades, can be regarded
as representative examples of raw materials.
It is essential to correctly understand and describe (record) the stone material (rocks andminerals). However, it is difficult for even researchers specializing in geology to identify stone
artifacts that have been neatly shaped and surface polished when observing them by the naked
eye. Nevertheless, destructive analysis of stone artifacts that are cultural properties is not
appropriate from a conservation point of view. Therefore, it is not uncommon for “unknown” orincorrect rock names to be reported. While chemical analysis is a laboratory work in general,advances in analytical technology, have made it become possible to operate non-invasive chemical
analysis of stone tools by portable-XRF in the field. Although interpreting the data requires
knowledge of both geology and chemical analysis. Considering these circumstances, the next
chapter explains how to identify among stone materials, particularly those used for stone artifacts.

Stone and jadeRepresentative stone ornaments

9

Stone ornaments from the Jomon Period in Japan.
1: talc-rock, 2: nephrite, 3: jadeitite(collection of the Department of Archaeology,
Tohoku University, Japan)

Stone beads excavated from the La Corona site in the
Late Classic Period of Maya.
1-5: jadeitite, 6: quarts schist.
(collection in the Universidad del Valle de Guatemala)From Sampling to Interpretation
Starch granule“Starch residue analysis” reconstructs past vegetation and human use of plants. The

attached to the surface of shell and wooden tools, and calculus and plaque from humanand animal bones. Analyzing such substances reveals the type of climate and plantsthat existed at that time, and their relation to human beings. We are able to answer
questions such as: What plants were processed and how? What were they used for?
How were they eaten?

Food

Environment

Tools

Sampling from pottery
When dealing with pottery, samples of burns, spills, andother attachments to the inner and outer surfaces of pottery
are collected. Starch granules are easily deformed whensubjected to heat while retaining moisture, which may resultin observations of expanded particles and lack of polarizing
crosses, however, it is possible to confirm the presence orabsence of the starch granules.

Purified water, pipette tip, micropipette,
tube

10

Starch granule

analysis is used on soil from archaeological sites, stone tools, pottery, substances

Starch granule

Observing materials anddeciding where to sample from

Immersed in water and collectedby micropipette (liquid sample)
Collected as flakes (flake samples)

Water with attachments
into a tube (liquid sample)
Purified water added to theflakes (flake sample)

In general, pottery collected from residues during excavations are oftentimes
washed with tap water during photographic recording and organization, however,
it is extremely rare for starch granules contained in attachments to be lost due tothe cleaning. As pottery with verified attachments are often carefully preserved
immediately after excavation, it is not necessary for analysis, to collect residue
samples immediately after the excavation. However, we do not yet know the effects
of chemicals on the starch granules contained in the attachments. As such, it isnecessary to select pottery that has not been treated with chemicals when performing
the analysis.
11When analyzing starch residue, samples are collected both as water absorbed fromattachments infused with purified water and fine flakes of about 5 mg, specimens areprepared, and they are observed with an optical microscope equipped with a polarizing
device. If starch granules are identified, the plant species from which the starch
granules originate is investigated and identified through a comparison with reference

Starch granulespecimens prepared using living plants.

Making permanent slides

1 minute of 13000 rpm in centrifuge

Encapsulated with glycerol gelatin(refractive index 1.46-1.48)(Sample 8 μ l + encapsulant 8 μ l) x 2
Blank slides with no sample and only encapsulant prepared(check for contamination)No coloring with reagent (check for aging)Microscopic observation

Polarization andphase detection
equipment

Microscope: Olympus BX53-33Z(Olympus with polarization and phase detection device, 100-1000 times magnification)
Camera: WRAYCAM-NF500 (Wraymer)

12

Identifying the plant for the detected starch granules involves a comparison with thecharacteristics of the living-plant reference specimen, including granule shape, size,
polarizing cross shape, and core position. However, samples with expanded granules
or damaged outer edge caused by being heated or such that lack polarizing crosses

Starch granuleoften have not retained their original form, making it difficult to identify such starch
granules. That is, it is important not to draw any conclusions based on starch residue
analysis alone, but to investigate the plants used in combination with other scientificanalyses.

10 μm

10 μm

Starch granules found in carbides attached to the pottery

Modern walnut and starch granules（A y a k o S h i b u t a n i ）13Lacquer
Complex lacquer production techniques
In recent years, there has been an increase in the analyses of lacquer artifacts involving natural science
methods, thereby revealing a complex reality of lacquer painting that could not be known by external
observation alone. Lacquerware is not finished simply by applying liquid lacquer once on the object to becoated (the base). In general, there is a multi-layer structure where the base layer on the object to becoated is covered by a paint layer, upon which other decorative layers are further formed in some cases.
Consequently, lacquerware display a combination of various materials such as soil, pigments, and metals.
Simply observing the outer surface misses the various pieces of information hidden underneath.
Stone tool for
grinding?
Container forstorage?

Pigment after
adjustment
Pigment storage

Lacquer

Pigments in
t h e fi l m ?

Pigment
production

Pigment
sampling

Container forstorage?
Example: the case of
mercury vermilion

Where and whichl a c q u e r fi l m ? W h a t t y p e
o f fi l m ?

Sap processing(dust removal,
p u r i fi c a t i o n )Liquid lacquer
sampling

Sap storage
Container forstorage?

Strainingcloth?

Liquidlacquer

Liquid lacquer
storageColoredlacquerContainer forstorage?

Container for
mixing?

Strainingcloth?
Colored lacquer
storage

Lacquer woodwith scratches?

Container forstorage?

Lacquer wood
as a stake?

※ T h e fi g u r e o m i t s t h ebase process
Surfaceshaping(adjustment)

W o o d , p l a n t fi b e r s ,earthenware,stone tools,
leather, cloth,
metal, paper, etc.

Lacquer
application
Tools forpainting?

DryingPolished?

Lacquerpallets?

Lacquerware
completed

Coating
process?

What is thecoating?

Producingvarious bases

Lacquerware production involves a number of steps: (1) raw materials for pigments are procured for
production, (2) liquid lacquer is harvested from lacquer trees, (3) the coating is prepared and the surface
is adjusted, and (4) the harvested liquid lacquer is processed into paint and stored so as not to be incontact with the air. It is important to decide on the analytical method after considering the answers
needed, such as clarifying the existence, type and use of pigments, discussing the lacquer components,
or knowing the coating process.
Some artifacts have weak adhesion between the coating film and the base, and you may not notice
the fine lacquer film scattered in the soil at the excavation site. Although it means hard work, minuteflakes extracted from the soil around lacquerware can be used effectively in destructive analysis. In
addition, the lacquer film that has become frail and powdery owing to deterioration may be lost when theearthenware is cleaned.

14

When handling an article whose surface is apparently painted, the surface should be observed
carefully. Hand sebum easily enters degraded film, therefore, it is safer to wear gloves if thearticle is to be analyzed. However, if lacquerware is handled with bare hands, hands should be
wiped with alcohol beforehand.

LacquerPrior to accelerated
aging test

Hand sebum having seeped into thedeteriorated lacquer film remains as
fingerprints (easy to spot in theblack base part).
This is a case where it could not be
removed despite cleaning with a solvent.

After deterioration owing
to ultraviolet light

The surface of the coating film is observed with a scanning electron microscope (SEM).
When the lacquer film has deteriorated, dirt and hand sebum easily adhere,
becoming difficult to remove once they have seeped inside, therefore,
oil pyrolysis products may be detected by Py-GC/MS.
You maybe wondering if lacquer sap with added oil was applied orwhether it is from hand sebum long after.

Furthermore, if decorations have been added on top of the coating film layer, it is necessary toinvestigate the type of decoration technique, the materials used in combination (such as metal,
shell, pigment, ceramic pieces), and the designs expressed.
Not all questions can be answered in one round of analysis. Although, as a rule, non-destructive
surveys are required for cultural properties, non-destructive surveys alone are not sufficient
for analysis of lacquerware. Only by combining multiple analytical methods can information be
extracted. Moreover, to determine the details of the lacquer techniques, data for each layer isrequired, where approach to sampling and analysis plays an important role.

When decorated with
[Hiramaki-e: round-shaped powder]

Shell

Lacquer coating
film(black base)

Metal line

Magnified observationof the Makie decoration surface
with a microscope

The line expressed in metal [foil painting]Magnified observation of metal shapeswith a scanning electron microscope (SEM)

When the fine powder makes it difficult todiscern with the naked eye,
SEM can be used to clearly identify the metal shapes used.

First, whether the lacquerware has been preserved with chemicals should be checked byobserving the surface. If petroleum-derived preservative treatment materials have been mixed
in, it makes it difficult to examine the sample using pyrolysis–gas chromatography–massspectrometry [Py-GC/MS] as well as impossible to use radiocarbon dating [C14 age]. Even if thestorage status is checked carefully, there will be times when synthetic resins that ought not to
be used interfere with the data, preventing us from retrieving the lacquer peaks to be discussed.
Nonetheless, even if preservative treatment has been performed, the lacquering process canbe determined using cross-sectional observation.
Methods for analyzing lacquered artifacts is linked to the question, “What do you want to know
about the lacquerware and to what extent?” The amount of information that can be obtained
from lacquered artifacts that does not dissolve in solvents varies significantly, depending onwhether destructive analysis can be performed. Furthermore, the analytical accuracy varies

15

depending on the minimum required sample amount available for analysis. When performing
analysis of trace amounts, it is difficult to detect the information required, for example if
there are materials such as pigments mixed with the coating film or if the volume of lacquer
components in the sample is low owing to deterioration. It is safest to perform surface andcross-sectional observation first, acquiring the basic information of the lacquerware in question,and then consider the sampling method to be used. Simultaneously, it is necessary to consider
how much sampling is possible for each analysis.

Various analytical methods for lacquered artifacts
Surfaceobservation

X-ray CT(Portable) Measurement in an atmospheric environment. The measurement diametercannot be narrowed down much, therefore, be careful while interpreting.
(Large) Measurement in a vacuum. If non-destructive, it is limited to measurable
sample sizes.

Lacquer

Nondestructive
analysis

X-ray
fl u o r e s c e n c eanalysis

Wholly non-destructive. Using the naked eye, loupe, microscope,
desktop microscope, etc.

Various aspects can be understood from three-dimensional information such as internal structure,
cracks and insect bites in the wooden body, and traces of past repairs. While research for trees p e c i e s i d e n t i fi c a t i o n i s a d v a n c i n g , t h e r e r e m a i n s i g n i fi c a n t r e s t r i c t i o n s
on the equipment and sample sizes.
Observation using stereo microscope, polarizing microscope, or microscope. Dependingo n t h e t h i c k n e s s o f t h e fl a k e s , i t m a y b e p o s s i b l e t o c o n d u c t
r e fl e c t e d l i g h t a n d t r a n s m i t t e d l i g h t i n v e s t i g a t i o n s .
on the equipment and sample sizes.

Cross-sectional
Cross-section
observation

This is best suited identifying lacquer and can identify the lacquer tree species.
Moreover, it is possible to analyze additives such as mercury vermilion and oil,however, the detection sensitivity is affected by the amount of additives and lacquer
P
GyCr/oM
l ySs i s - d e t e r i o r a t i o n . U s i n g a d e r i v a t i z a t i o n r e a g e n t , e v e n 0 . 2 m g c a n b e d e t e c t e d w i t h h i g hsensitivity.

Pyrolysis-

Destructive
analysis

1 mmsquareSEM
observation

You can clearly differentiate between metal powder, keshifun powder, and foil,
observing how it was produced. If there is a contamination or a coating layer on theo u t e r m o s t s u r f a c e , i t m a y b e d i f fi c u l t t o o b s e r v e t h e s h a p e s .

1mmsquareor less

SEM-EDS

Types of pigments, metal powders, metal foils, etc. may be deduced from the elements
detected. Cross-sectional analysis enables to determine what elements are present ineach layer.

Tree species
i d e n t i fi c a t i o n

The most common method necessitates collection of sections of the object (woodenbody) from three different directions.

SR isotope
ratiosC14
datingP y r o l y s i s - G C / M S i d e n t i fi e s t h e p r i m a r y c o m p o n e n t s , a n d i f t h e y a r e t h e s a m el a c q u e r t r e e , i t i s p o s s i b l e t o d e t e r m i n e f r o m t h e c o a t i n g fi l m fi n d i n g s , w h e r e t h etrees grew (Japan or China, etc.).

Measurement is not possible after treatment with chemical agents. If the coated woodis included, the measurement results tend to indicate old age, therefore, if possible,s e p a r a t e t h e c o a t i n g fi l m a n d t h e b a s e b e f o r e m e a s u r e m e n t .

Note: The sample volumes for destructive analysis are only indicative as they vary dependingon the sample’ s condition and whether other materials have been mixed in.

Infrared spectroscopy has been used to analyze organic matter as well as lacquer film.
However, there are cases where infrared [IR] spectra is similar to asphalt, which may makethe results difficult to interpret depending on artifact deterioration or if there are othermaterials mixed in. As the information on chemical structure that can be obtained becomesrough, it is currently not recommended for lacquer identification. The analytical method mostused to determine the presence of lacquer in the last 30 years is pyrolysis analysis. Although
the number of reported cases is small, pyrolysis–gas chromatography–mass spectrometry forthermally-assisted hydrolysis and methylation [THM-PY-GC/MS] using derivatizing reagentsis an excellent method for trace analysis, and is increasingly being used in the field of culturalproperties.

16

Py-GC/MS is a powerful tool for lacquerware analysis. Despite that, the analytical data is
so complex that it is often difficult to interpret. This makes it important to build databases.
Although simultaneous analysis of additives is possible, the inclusion of various types of mixedmaterials in the analytical sample makes it difficult to determine the thermal decomposition
products of lacquer, whose data is required. After removing the dirt from the surface, the sample
is obtained in a manner that ensures that it contains much lacquer component. It is difficult toobtain the information required for lacquer identification
Acrylic resin-related pyrolysis products

by including the underlying layers or the base, while
artifacts that have been preserved using synthetic resin
are not suitable for analysis. Moreover, polyethylene (PE),polypropylene (PP), or polyvinyl chloride (PVC) coming in

Derived from mercury
vermilion (=pigment)

direct contact with the artifact may cause strong detectionof peaks derived from the phthalates in plasticizers. As

Lacquersuch, care must be taken when using plastic bags or
Elapsed time

plastic film to store artifacts.

D a t顔料と保存処置材料によりデータが阻害
a obstructed due pigments ands t o r a g（トータルイオンクロマトグラム，
e t r e a t m e n t m a t e r i a l sTIC）(total ion
chromatogram, TIC)

Surfaceobservation

Fragment
sampling: possible

After cutting,polish andshape thespecimenso that it isvertical

Cross-sectional
observation
Epoxy resin

Coating
process?

Example oftransmitted
light observation

Coating layer
Foil layer

Coating layer

Base layer

Keep polishing and makeBase layer

Place it in the

Keep polishing

fl a k e s . I f y o u m a k e t h e m

middle and embedthin enough to be barely

Observation with

it with epoxy resin

touchable by hand,r e fl e c t e d l i g h t

again

Wood layer

Types ofpigments?

Surfaceobservation
X - r a y fl u o r e s c e n c eanalysisOwing to the deterioration oft h e c o a t i n g fi l m , i n f o r m a t i o n

Cross-sectional
observation

SEM-EDS

You can see what pigment is in which layer

Elemental mapping of mercury

Elemental mapping of sulfur

Determination of HgS(mercury vermilion), withpossible pigment deduced fromthe various elementsfrom multiple layers appear
together, therefore, takecare when interpreting thedata.

＊ Put on gloves (powder free) and perform sampling. The measurement sample is to be stored in aluminum foil or medicine wrapper.

Sampling
tools

While magnifying
make small cuts

200μ m wideand sample layer bylayer, adjusting thisdepending on what
information you areseeking

D i s p oDsa
i sb
ploes asbcl ea lsp
ce
a llp e l17

50μ m widewith a microscope,

M i cMrioc rk
dhheel dl do nkinfief e((hhaannd))（Y o s h i m i K a m i y a ）Vermilion
Measurement samplingNon-destructive analysis may be required when measuring vermilion attached toearthenware or stone tools excavated from archaeological sites. Yet, isotope analysis
is a type of destructive analysis, which is why we have often been refused accessto materials. This is the reason why the sampling for the ultra-trace sulfur isotope
analysis system that we have developed enables measurements by simply pressinga sulfur-free adhesive tape against the sampling area, so that the material can beanalyzed with almost no damage.

Adhesive tapefor sampling

Samples are collected bypressing adhesive tape againstvermilion applied to the concave
part of the earthenware

Analysis is possible withas less as one grain ofvermilion collected withthe adhesive tape*One grain of vermilion is sosmall that it can barely berecognized as vermilion
with the naked eye*Past analytical methods
have required about
10 mg of vermilion

This system comprises an elemental analyzer, a trace gas trap device, and a mass
spectrometer for isotope analysis.
DewateringcolumnAutosampler
OxygenHelium
Separation column

Q u a r t z fi b e r
Aluminumoxide

Hexagonal
valve

Helium

Metallic
copperQuartzfi b e r

Tungsten
oxide

Vent

SulfurdioxideAshing c olumn

Reduction column

Valve
Gas
collection1

Gas
collection2

Trace gas recovery
deviceUltra-trace sulfur isotope analysis system（Takahashi et al., RCMS 2018,32:1991-1998.)

Isotope analysis
mass spectrometer18

Vermilion

An ultra-trace sulfur isotope analysis system

Cut out vermilion sample collectedalong with the adhesive tape and place
it in the aluminum boat

The elemental
analyzer generates
sulfur dioxide gas
from the vermilion and

Make it into a small lumpand insert it into theelemental analyzer's autosampler

separates it from othercomponents

Quickly introduce the sulfur

Vermilion

dioxide gas
with helium gas into the isotope
analysisliquidnitrogenmass spectrometers(1) The separated sulfur dioxide gas is led into the gas trap and solidified with liquid nitrogen(2) Repeat this twice to increase the concentration

How does investigating the sulfur isotope ratio of vermilion excavated at
an archaeological site make it possible to deduce the production site?
Sulfur has four stable isotopes ( 32S, 33S, 34S, and 36S) with different mass
numbers in nature, whose abundance ratios are 95.02%, 0.75%, 4.21%, and
0.02%, respectively. Sulfur isotope ratio analysis expresses the ratio of 34S to
32

S as a δ34S‰ value compared with the reference material that is the isotope

ratio of the Canyon Diablo meteorite.
For example, a negative

δ34S ‰ value

signifies a higher proportion of 32S thanin the reference material, while a positive
value indicates a higher 34S.
19

It is well-known that the ratios of sulfur isotopes in nature fluctuate owing toevaporation, diffusion, chemical reactions, and uptake in organisms. Further,
we know that the ratios do not differ from mineral to mineral, for example
with cinnabar (mercury sulfide) or iron sulfide, but depend on the geographic
location.
As such, when we investigated the sulfur isotope ratios of the mines fromwhich vermilion would have been mined in ancient Japan and China, we foundcompletely different values in Japan (Suii Mine in Tokushima Prefecture,
Yamato Mercury Mine in Nara Prefecture, and Niu Mine in Mie Prefecture) andChina (Wanshan Mine in Guizhou Province and Qingtonggou Mine in Shaanxi
Province) as presented in the following figure.

Vermilion

Su

ii

Ya

M

in

e

ma

to

M

in

M
e

Ni
er

cu

ry

u

Mi

ne

W
an
M sha
in
e n

Qi

ng

to
M ng
in
g
e ou

Principal cinnabar ore sulfur isotope ratios in Japan and China
Furthermore, when we measured the sulfur isotope ratios of vermilion
excavated from archaeological sites, we found vermilion with a positive δ34S‰
value in tombs from the late Yayoi period (presumably the tombs of influential
persons) from northern Kyushu and along the Sea of Japan coast. This suggeststhat vermilion may have been brought to Japan from China during this period.

20

Is it possible to deduce the production site of vermilion based on
sulfur isotope analysis?
Sulfur isotope analysis is an effective method for deducing where vermilion
was produced, however, different veins may exhibit different sulfur isotope
ratios even between neighboring mines. In extreme cases, a mine with negative

δ34S‰ values may be the neighbor of a mine with positive values.
We have to consider other cases are combinations of vermilion from different
production sites, used at the same archaeological site. In such cases, we
increase the number of samples to be measured, and if we detect similar values,
we may assume that vermilion from one production site was used.
In this manner, it is important to know the limits of production site deduction
by sulfur isotope analysis. We need to be flexible when deducing production siteby combining it with other methods such as lead isotope analysis and mercury
isotope analysis as well as by adding information on the archaeological site

Vermilion

itself, such as about grave goods.

（T a k e s h i M i n a m i ）21

Pottery clay
Pottery clay analytical methods
Pottery clay analysis is a method of analyzing the substances that create earthenware andcharacterize the source of material, manufacturing techniques, dating, paleoenvironmental
restoration, and resource utilization. Pottery clay analysis can be broadly divided into two types.
The first method focuses on mixtures and organizational structures contained in earthenware. A
closer inspection of earthenware reveal that they contain various minerals. Some minerals werein the clay from the beginning, while others were intentionally mixed in. They may also containorganic matter (e.g., plants) and microfossils (e.g., spicule and diatom fossils). Observation by
naked eye, loupe, or stereo microscope allows for qualitative grouping of pottery clay according toamount, type, and composition of mixtures. By creating a flake specimen, observing the minerals
contained with a polarizing microscope, and quantifying the contents, minerals can be accurately
identified from a petrological perspective. Attempts at identification are also being made by X-ray
diffraction (XRD) and analysis of mineral chemical composition by electron probe microanalyzer(EPMA).
The second method is elemental analysis, which measures the chemical composition of thesubstances that constitute the earthenware pottery clay. Toshikazu Mitsuji measured six elements(Rb, Sr, K, Ca, Na, Fe), analyzed data from all over Japan, and indicated that “there are regional
differences in the elemental composition of earthenware”. In recent years, there has been an
increase in multi-element measurement by neutron activation analysis (NAA) and laser ablationinductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS), with analytical methods using traceelements and rare earth elements being developed. Advances are also being made in isotope
analysis (Sr, Pb, Be).

Pottery clay

Amphibole
QuartzOrthopyroxene
Alkali feldspar

QuartzE x a m p l e o f fl a k eobservation

Example ofelemental analysis

22

When conducting elemental analysis, it is necessary to carefully handle elements sensitive to theenvironment they were buried in (elemental additions [Ca, P, Ba, etc.], elemental eluviation [Ca,K, Na, etc.]). Nonetheless, since it is difficult to quantify these effects, an effective approach is tofocus on elements that do not change so easily because of the environment they are buried in.
There are various approaches to pottery clay analysis, however, no method allows for highly
accurate analysis while being completely non-destructive. The required sample volume, analysis
cost, time and effort, and data obtained also differ depending on the analytical method. Note thecharacteristics of each analytical method and select which one to use according to the required
purpose and the research environment.

The material properties of earthenware
Before conducting any analysis, it is important to first understand the material properties ofearthenware.
Examining ethnic cases of earthenware production, the raw materials (clay, mixtures, pigments)of earthenware tend to have been collected from familiar places within about 2 km of the placeof residence. Raw clay displays the features of plasticity, viscosity, sintering, and fire resistance.
Mixtures or multiple clays may be prepared depending on the condition of the clay. This implies
that the raw material clay and the finished earthenware pottery clay are not homogeneous as
the material has been modified in the earthenware production process, that is, having changed
physically and chemically.
Moreover, as the material properties differ depending on the firing method, which pottery
clay analytical method is most suitable also differs. In particular, prehistoric pottery is porous,

Pottery clay

therefore, it is vital to focus on the effects of the environment in which it was buried.

Yayoi
earthenware

Sue pottery

Heterogeneity

Homogeneity

State

Porosity

Rigidity

FiringmethodOpen burning

Kiln

Firingtemperature

L o w - h e a t fi r i n g ( a b o u t 6 0 0 ～ 8 0 0 ℃ )H i g h - h e a t fi r i n g ( a b o u t 1 0 0 0 ～ 1 2 0 0 ℃ )Combustionstate

O x i d a t i o n fi r i n g

R e d u c i n g fl a m e fi r i n g

Pottery clay
analysis

E l e m e n t a l a n a l y s i s , fl a k eobservation

Elemental analysis

Homogeneity23Pottery clay analysis in practiceDuring the preliminary planning phase, the purpose of conducting the pottery clay analysis
should be specified. Select the method of pottery clay analysis according to that purpose andcollect the sample necessary for that method.
The stage of handling the earthenware is a suitable opportunity to comprehensively consider
the timing of the organizing work. Carefully observe the earthenware clay and hues to notethe overall variations, grouping what is available before selecting your samples. When doingso, select samples that can be investigated archaeologically rather than small fragments whosetype, site, time period, form, and excavation location are unclear. Analytical data of samples thatlack archaeological information cannot be used in research. Earthenware with adhesives andrepair agents are not suitable for analysis. Therefore, for analyzing pottery clay analysis fromthe beginning, it is advisable to detach the analysis sample before joining the pieces or restoring
the artifact. Precautions should be taken regarding contamination when sampling clay at an
excavation site, taking blocks whose cores are then used in the analysis.
Once the necessary archaeological information has been recorded, a piece of earthenware
should be severed to create the sample for the analysis. In elemental analysis, the sample iswashed, dried, crushed, and made into glass beads, which are then measured with an instrument.
When examining mixtures and organizational structure, flake specimens to be observed under amicroscope should be prepared.
Refer to the bedrock geology of the relevant location when interpreting the analytical data.
Using geological and geochemical maps, collect and analyze geological samples as necessary
to understand the bedrock geological data of finer spaces. Thus, human activities and social
backgrounds associated with the circulation of the earthenware can be examined, including
whether they were locally produced or transported in and narrowing down the area from which
they were transported.

it is important to disclose basic information (such as scale drawings, photographs, analytical data,measurement conditions) of the materials analyzed, encouraging verification and secondary useof the analytical data and interpretations. Therefore, it is necessary not to stop at one round ofanalysis but to develop a long-term systematic plan for analysis and a collaborative arrangement.
Keeping the discussion alive will lead to new developments.
The elemental composition of earthenware clay depends on
土器胎土の元素組成は，複合的な要因で成立
multiple factors

基盤地質由来
原材料の性質Properties ofbasal geological raw
materials
A r t i fi c i a ladjustments inearthenware production

土器製作
人為的調整

Firing

焼成諸条件
conditions
Effects of theenvironment in whichburied

埋没環境の影響

Comprehensive evaluation ofmultiple elements, identifying
groups with various conditions
in common

24

Pottery clay

In pottery clay analysis, it is important to comprehensively evaluate the analytical process aswell as integrate the analytical results and archaeological information with each other. Similarly,

Archaeologicaldocumentation(measurement
maps and photographs)《Sample preparation》
Cutting

Washing & drying

Coarse grinding《Elemental measurement》
Fine grinding

Glass beads

XRF of major andtrace elements

LA-ICP-MS of rareearth elements

Pottery clay

Extra
A difficult issue is encountered when conducting pottery clay analysis, “collecting part of theearthenware as a sample”. As archaeological materials are unique, the general approach is nondestructive analysis. However, as earthenware clay is heterogeneously composed and earthenware
surfaces are diverse (uneven, weathered, abraded), many aspects cannot be understood unlesssamples are collected and analyzed with precision.
Fragments stored in regional collection institutions can play a key role here. There exists a
significant number of materials that were unearthed during excavations but never included in any
excavation report and are kept in storage. Even fragmented materials have the potential to be an
important cultural resource that reveals local history through the introduction of new researchmethods and technologies. By using analyzable materials and conducting research to the extent
possible at the time, data is accumulated and analytical methods are improved, with these importantmaterials likely coming to be used more effectively in the future.

（Tomoko Ishida）
25

Stone and jade artifacts
Chemical analysis of stone artifacts
Rocks are categorized into igneous, metamorphic, sedimentary, and carbonate rocks, and they
are discriminated according to thier origin, and further classified according to the types of minerals
that compose them and how they are assembling. People have selected stones fit to purpose fromvarious rock types and used them for tools, accessories, and building materials. To study stone
artifacts, it is important to correctly understand stone materials (rock types) and their usages,
compare regions and eras, and then advance understanding of manufacturing techniques andsourcing areas of stones.
In geology, when identifying rocks and minerals, the specimen should be polished or to makea thin-section is prepared, after which the sample is observed using an optical microscope or ascanning electron microscope, chemical analysis is performed using X-ray fluorescence and othertechniques, and crystal analysis is conducted by X-ray diffraction and/or Raman spectroscopy. At
archaeological excavation sites where various unearthed materials are handled, there are limits tothe qualitative descriptions that can be made of stone materials based on empirical observation.
Thus, it is not uncommon for reports to contain petrologically erroneous descriptions.
As stone tools such as axes, blades, and arrowheads excavated in large quantities as well as stonematerials used as building materials tend to be made of rocks that are relatively easy to find, it may
compare local rock (natural) samples with representative stone artifacts by using the petrographic
analysis aforementioned. However, it is difficult to conduct destructive analysis on artifacts thatare rare from an archaeological or geological point of view and that have only been excavated insmall numbers. Thus, advances are being made in identification of rock species by using portable
X-ray fluorescence spectrometer (hereinafter, “p-XRF”) that can be used in the field and storages
without damaging the artifacts.

Non-invasive chemical analysis by a portable XRF
Compared to the scanning electron microscope (SEM), electron microprobe (EPMA), and X-ray
fluorescence spectrometer (XRF), available in laboratories, the p-XRF is “relatively” inexpensive
and are not difficult to operate. Moreover, there are no restrictions on the size of the object during
the analysis, and there is no need for sample preparation such as cutting, polishing, or chemical
processing. In a few minutes, values of chemical composition can be obtained “on site”. This isuseful in places where it is difficult to transport cultural properties, particularly during overseas
researches.
The p-XRF that we are currently operating can irradiate an object with X-rays at a diameter ofuranium excited from the surface. The measurement time is 60 seconds, and the analytical results
are expressed as oxide weight percentages (wt.%).
While it is easy to operate, it is not able to analyze elements lighter than sodium, which exhibits
considerable decay of X-ray energy in the atmosphere, as it must be operated while exposed tothe atmosphere. Moreover, if there are irregularities, soils, or impurities on the surface of theobject, this may lead the output data to contain such extra signals. Thus, select a surface that is asflat and clean as possible, measure each object at multiple locations, and verify any homogeneityor heterogeneity. In the case of monomineralic rocks, the elemental ratios or cation rations arerecalculated from the measured value to verify the accuracy of the analysis.

26

Stone and jadeless than 10mm, capable of measuring X-ray energy dispersive spectra (EDS) from magnesium toStone materials differ not only in physical properties such as color, density, Mohs hardness,and toughness (suppleness and brittleness) but also in their composition of the major elements
indicated in the chemical formula described bellow. In particular, it is possible to semiquantitatively identify stone materials based on the detection and ratios of the following six
elements, such as silicon (Si), aluminum (Al), magnesium (Mg), calcium (Ca), potassium (K),and iron (Fe). In the other case, malachite and turquoise are minerals that contain copper (Cu)and can be clearly distinguished from others if copper and phosphorus are detected. Similarly,
jadeitite, which contains sodium (Na) that cannot be detected by p-XRF analysis, can also be
distinguished from other minerals by the ratios of silicon and aluminum as well as the detectionof other elements.

Principal stone materials
Ornamental accessories and small ritual objects are often made of “monomineralic rock”,
which is rock composed of a single mineral, rather than of rock that is assemblage of several
minerals. The following table shows representative monomineralic rocks used for polishedstone axes and ornaments. For example, rocks composed of jadeite (mineral name) arecalled jadeitite (rock name), while rocks composed of serpentine (mineral name) are called
serpentinite.

List of minerals

Stone and jade*Silicate minerals（Anhydrous minerals）#「「Jadeitite」」 white to green
Na-pyroxene (solid solution): jadeite-omphacite: NaAlSi2O6 ～[Ca,Na][Mg,Fe,Al]Si2O6
White to green (Mohs hardness H: 6.5-7, Density D: 3.2-3.4),
quartz, chalcedony: SiO2, transparent, white to light green (H: 7, D: 2.8)
anorthite: CaAl2Si2O8, white to green (H: 6-6.5, D: 2.8)
orthoclase, amazonite: orthoclase: KAlSi3O8, white to blue-green (H: 6-6.5, D: 2.6)
clinopyroxene: Ca[Mg,Fe]Si2O6, green (H: 5.5-6.5, D: 3.2-3.6)
uvarovite: Ca3Cr2Si3O12, green (H: 6.5-7, D: 3.8)
（Hydrous minerals）#Nephrite white to green
Ca-amphibole (solid solution)：tremolite-actinolite: Ca2[Mg,Fe]5Si8O22[OH]2
White to green (H: 5.5-6, D: 3.0)
talc: [Mg,Fe]6[Si8O20][OH]4 white to green (H:1, D: 2.6-2.8)
serpentine: [Mg,Fe]3[Si2O5][OH]4 dark green to green (H: 3.5-4, D: 2.5-2.6)
chlorite: [Mg,Fe,Al]12[(Si,Al)8O20][OH]16 dark green to green (H: 2-2.5, D: 2.6-3.3)
muscovite: K2Al[Si6Al2O20][OH]4 white to green in rare cases (H: 2.5-3, D: 2.7-2.9)
pyrophyllite: Al2Si4O10[OH]2 white (H: 1-2, D:2.6-2.9)*Carbonate minerals

malachite：Cu2[OH]2CO3 green (H: 3.5-4, D: 3.6-4)*Phosphate minerals

turquoise：CuAl6[PO4]4[OH]8·4H2O blue to green (H: 5-6, D:2.6-2.9)(# indicates rock name while others are mineral names, densities are reference values)27

A portable-XRF (Oxford Instruments Co., UK: X-met
7500). During analysis, the target object is shielded bya protection cover for X-ray exposure.

Flowchart for mineral identification
Boldand thin-arrows indicate the existence
absence
太矢印と細矢印で存在元素の有無を示す。
あくまで Na andが分析できof
the element. Each ratio※単斜輝石を含むこともある。
indicates the cation ratio.
ないことに注意が必要である。
判別は*Al: やIt maysuggest clinopyroxene containing Al and ca.
Ca などの含有量で判断する。
Note: Sodium (Na) is not able to analyze under atmosphericenvironment.

Jade (jadeitite and nephrite)
Jade is a general word and is a stone materials that has been prized by people since ancient
times.
“Jadeitite” is a monomineralic rock composed of more than 90% jadeite, known as “jadeitejade” in general. Chemically pure jadeite is white in color, however, it becomes green with ahigher proportion of omphacite, which is a “solid solution”. What is commonly referred to as“jade” (hisui in Japanese) is composed of jadeite and omphacite. Since there are geologicalsources and workshop sites in the Itoigawa-Oumi area in western Niigata Prefecture, it has
been believed it used considerable “jadeitite” from this area.
Nephrite (rock name) is another monomineralic rock with a dense fibrous structure composedof more than 90% calcium amphibole. Calcium amphibole can be divided into tremolite andactinolite based on the cation ratios of magnesium (Mg) and iron (Fe). In mineralogy, tremolite
is defined as having the Mg/(Mg+Fe) ratio of 0.9 or more, while actinolite is defined as having
the ratio of less than 0.9 but 0.5 or more. Nephrite that primarily composed of tremolite is ametamorphic rock originating from carbonate rock less iron and has a white to transparent lightcomposed of actinolite is a metamorphic rock originating from serpentinite, with the Mg/(Mg+Fe) ratio in the range of 0.93-0.85 beyond the definitional boundaries of tremolite andactinolite. As nephrite is tougher than “jadeitite (jadeite jade)” and better suited for use instone axes and chisels, it has been used in eastern Eurasia since the Neolithic period.
Japanese green nephrite of serpentinite origin has been produced in Itoigawa in western
Niigata Prefecture, Hakuba Happo-One in northern Nagano Prefecture, and around Morioka
area in Iwate Prefecture. Its existence has been confirmed in Japan in recent years, however, it
was previously confused with serpentinite and described as such.

28

Stone and jadegray in color, with the Mg/(Mg+Fe) ratio at about 1-0.98. By contrast, nephrite that primarilyNon-invasive analysis in the laboratory
Some artifacts identified by p-XRF are subjected to surface observation and quantitative
chemical analysis using an energy-dispersive X-ray spectrometer (EDS) to verify on-site analysis
and make comparisons with natural rocks. Although this is limited to stone artifacts that havebeen borrowed with permission, we are conducting non-invasive analysis using SEM-EDS fromthe Institute of Earth Sciences, Academia Sinica in Taipei. Furthermore, we are conducting
quantitative analysis of natural rocks and minerals using EPMA to build a database for fieldsurveys. This type of analytical approach can occasionally suggests the geological origin of thestone materials.

Stone and jadeThe non-invasive chemical analysis on stone artifacts by SEM-EDS(a)field emission scanning electron microscope(JEOL FE-SEM
JSM-7100F,of Earth Sciences,（a）Low-vacuum
低真空フィールドエミッション走査型電子顕微鏡（日本電子 FE-SEM
JSM-7100F
台北 ・Institute中央研究院地球科学研究所）
Academia
Sinica in Taipei)(b) Nephrite artifacts (Nationalof the （c）
Philippines;
inserted into SEM in this（b） ネフライト製装身具（フィリピン国立博物館所蔵：このまま
SEMMuseum内に導入する）ネフライト遺物表面の反射電子像（典
state) (c) Backscattered electron micrograph of the surface of a nephrite artifact (characteristic fibrous texture can
型的な繊維状組織が観察できる） （d） p -XRF と他の装置による分析値比較。 カルシウム角閃石中のマグネシウムと鉄の比で
be observed) (d) Comparison of analytical values between p-XRF and other instruments. Comparison of magnesium
比較している（e） ネフライト遺物表面から測定されたエネルギー分散
X 線スペクトル(EDS)（EDS）と定量分析値（重量％と元素比）。
andiron in calcium
amphibole (e) Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy
andquantitative
analysis values(weight percentages and element ratios) measured from the surface of the nephrite artifact（Yoshiyuki Iizuka）
29

Analysis key points

Starch residue analysis is concerned with soil from archaeological remains,stone tools and earthenware, wooden tools, and calculus attached to theGhuman and animal bones and teeth. The analytical procedure and the
instruments and chemicals used differ depending on what is being analyzed.
Please refer to relevant books and papers for further information.

Lacquer can be applied to various objects, including wooden tools, plantfibers, earthenware, stone tools, cloth, skin, paper, metal, porcelain, andplastic. Moreover, it is prepared by combining various materials such aswood, plant fibers, soil, pigments, metals, and additives (oils, etc.). Owing

L

to its complex multi-layered structure, it is necessary to interpret the data
while constantly considering “what you are seeing in what layer”.

Vermilion is an inorganic mercury compound that does not easily dissolve inwater chemically, kidney damage if ingested. In addition, metallic mercuryV

produced by microorganisms in the soil causes brain damage. Thus, gloves
and face masks should be used on-site. In Japan, the vermilion withinarchaeological remains is a cultural property and not subject to mercury
waste regulations, however, if vermilion is stuck to gloves or brushes, or
artifacts or soil with vermilion attached to them, it should be the mercury
waste guidelines of the relevant prefecture or municipality.

There are many ways to extract information from earthenware. Pottery
clay analysis has undergone remarkable development in recent years,
however, integration of findings from archaeological research based onPbasic earthenware research is essential for producing useful analyticalresults. Always begin with meticulous observation of the earthenware.

“Jade” is a general term usually considered as a precious rock, whereas, inacademic terms, it refers to two different kinds of rocks: “jadeitite (Na-pyroxeneJrock)” and “nephrite (Ca-amphibole rock)” . Limited attention used to be paid tothe existence of “nephrite” in Japan, however, recent years have seen chemical
analysis revealing that many stone artifacts are made of “nephrite” in the jomon
Period, which are comparable to the prehistoric cultures of the eastern Eurasiancontinent.

30

Bibliography
Starch granule• Henry, A. G. (ed.): Handbook for the analysis of micro-particles in archaeological samples, 304p. Springer Nature Switzerland AG,
2020.
• Ayako Shibuya: Plant Usage at the Shimoyakabe Site in Tokyo in Light of Analysis of Plant Remains Attached to Jomon pottery
and Starch Residue on Stone Tools. Bulletin of the National Museum of Japanese History, 187, pp. 357-386, 2014. https://doi.
org/10.15024/00000296• Torrence, R. and Barton, H. (eds.): Ancient Starch Research, 256p. Left Coast Press, INC., 2006.
• Naoto Yamamoto, Ayako Shibuya, and Nobuhiko Kamijo: Plant Foods in the Jomon Period in Light of Starch Residue Analysis:
Examining Remains in Ishikawa Prefecture. The Journal of the School of Letters, Nagoya University (History), pp. 51-82, 2016.
https://doi.org/10.18999/jouflh.62.51

Lacquer• Yoshimi Kamiya and Tetsuo Miyakoshi: “Damashi” Coating Technology in the Edo Period. Coatings Technology, 45, pp. 374-381,
2010.
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org/10.18953/00008965• Kunio Yoshida, ed.: Archeometria: Archaeological Artifacts and Arts and Crafts through the Eyes of Science. The University
Museum, University of Tokyo, 2012.
• Tamburini, D. ： Analytical pyrolysis applied to the characterisation and identification of Asian lacquers in cultural heritage samples–A review. Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis,157, 105202, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaap.2021.105202

Vermilion• Minami, T., Imai, A., Bunno, M., Kawakami, K., Imazu, S. : Using sulfur isotopes to determine the sources of vermillion in ancientburial mounds in Japan. Geoarchaeology, 20, pp. 79-84, 2005.
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Archaeology and Natural Science, 58, pp. 25-29, 2009 (in Japanese).
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Pottery clay
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• Yoshihiro Shimizu: Studies in Ancient Ceramics Technology, 258 pages. Yanagihara Publishing, 2010.
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240 pages. Seibundo Shinkosha, 2021.
• Toshikazu Mitsuji: The New Archaeology of Pottery, 224 pages. Doseisha, 2013.
• Rice, P. M.: Pottery analysis: A sourcebook. Second Edition, 561p. The University of Chicago Press, 2015.

Stone and jade artifacts• The Association for the Geological Collaboration in Japan, ed.: New Edition of the Dictionary of Earth Sciences, 1840 pages.
Heibonsha, 1996.
• Turner, D. and Groat, L. A.: Geology and mineralogy of gemstones. Advanced Textbook 4, 228p. American Geophysical Union,
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Batanes, northern Philippines. Journal of Austronesian Studies, pp.80-105, 2005.

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Grant-in-Aid for Transformative Research Areas (A)“A New Archaeology Initiative to Elucidate theFormation Process of Chinese Civilization”(Area Representative: Shinichi Nakamura, Area No. 20A103)

Systematic Research Project A02“Deduction of Production Sites through Analysis of Archaeological Remains”

Authors
Ayako Shibutani ： Archaeological science, cultural property science（ The Historiographical Institute of the University of Tokyo ）Yoshimi Kamiya ： Lacquer crafts, cultural property science（ Meiji University ）Takeshi Minami: Analytical chemistry

Tomoko Ishida： Archaeology, cultural property science（Nara Medical University)（ Kagoshima University ）Yoshiyuki Iizuka ： Earth Sciences（ Institute of Earth Sciences, Academia Sinica / Kanazawa University ）Starting Guide Book for Scientific Analysis of Archeological Artifacts:From Sampling to Interpretation
Published on February 29, 2024
Editing by		

Ayako Shibutani, Ayumi Yokota

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