Journal of Socio-Informatics
Vol.9, No.1 Sep. 2016

[Refereed Original Papers］
Emotional Activities in Computer-mediated Communication: Facial
Electromyography Response and Emoticon Use during Instant Messaging

Lei TANG[Translation］
An Analysis of the Campaign Context in the U.S.: How did Political Parties
Use Social Media in the 2014 Midterm Election Campaign?

Shoko KIYOHARA
A Proposal for Open Data of Sightseeing Event Information

Mayu URATA,
Kazuma OGISHIMA,
Mana FUKUYASU,
Mamoru ENDO,
Takami YASUDAThe Society of Socio-Informatics

CW6_A8350A01.indd

1

2016/09/29

10:39:31

Journal of Socio-Informatics
Vol.9, No.1 Sep. 2016
◆CONTENTS◆[Refereed Original Papers］
Emotional

ActivitiesinComputer-mediatedCommunication:

FacialElectromyography Response and Emoticon Use during Instant Messaging

Lei TANG…  １[Translation］
An Analysis of the Campaign Context in the U.S.: How did Political Parties
Use Social Media in the 2014 Midterm Election Campaign?

Shoko KIYOHARA…  16

A Proposal for Open Data of Sightseeing Event Information

Mayu URATA,
Kazuma OGISHIMA,
Mana FUKUYASU,
Mamoru ENDO,
Takami YASUDACW6_A8350_01_B01.indd

1

…  29

2016/09/29

10:38:50

E m o t i o n a l A c t i v i t i e s i n C o m p u t e r- m e d i a t e dCommunication: Facial Electromyography Response
and Emoticon Use during Instant Messaging
Keywords:
Emoticon, Computer-mediated Communication, Instant Messaging, Facial Electromyography, Facial
Muscle Activity

Lei TANG, Chiba University

Abstract
In this study, we use electromyography data of the orbicularis oculi and zygomaticus major as
indices of positive emotions to analyze facial muscle activities in computer-mediatedcommunication. We find a difference in frequency of facial muscle activities, influence fromstimuli, and other aspects under varied instructions on emoticon use. Results suggest thatrichness of nonverbal methods is a key factor that affects emotional activities in computermediated communication. Although we collected data from two counties, we could not find any
significant difference between them. Instead, we found that participants from the two countries
have some patterns of emoticon use in common. We believe that, in certain situations emoticon
use and facial activities in computer-mediated communication can show commonality between
countries on a certain level.

1

CW6_A8350_02_D03.indd

1

2016/09/29

13:25:52

Emotional Activities in Computer-mediated Communication: Facial Electromyography Response and Emoticon Use during Instant MessagingTANG

used as a tool for inferring affective states in

1. Introduction

media-related studies; it has proven to haveInterpersonal communication involves not only

advantages over other methods. For example,

information from words or messages but alsofEMG has been used in studies of emotionalfrom facial expressions and gestures. However,

responses to television commercials; results

whencomputer-mediatedindicate that it can be more accurate and sensitive

communication (CMC) by smart phone or PC,

weperform

than self-report measures (Hazlett & Hazlett,most of the time, these nonverbal behaviors

1999). A study of user experience with mobile

cannot be communicated (Perry, 2010). To dophones proved that subtle emotional changes

this, users employ some new and simple, but

could be detected by fEMG measurementseasy-to-use methods. Emoticons are one of these(Mahlke & Minge, 2006). Other researchmethods. They can be used in most computerindicatesand smart phone software. Although emoticons

unconscious stimuli can also be detected byhave been discussed from various perspectives infEMG measurements (Dimberg & Thunberg,

previous studies, we still do not know how they2000). These advantages can be very useful forcorrelate with our facial expressions. One of the

CMC study, because when performing CMC,

purposes of our study is to confirm whether thefacial activities are less obvious and more difficult

use of emoticon has influence on facial expression.

to recognize than in face-to-face situations. Under

Similar to the facial expressions that we might

the circumstances, self-report or visual methods

make during a phone call, our facial expressions

like Facial Action Coding System (FACS) might

still manifest even when we cannot see eachnot be as efficient as fEMG measurements.

thatfacialactivities

causedbyother in CMC. Nowadays, in the information

On the other hand, discriminating among

society, the innate methods like facial expression

different emotions is an important application ofand computer mediated methods like emoticon

fEMG measurements, too (van Boxtel, 2010).

will be both functional in many occasions in our

Explanations for these connections between

communications. We assumed the emoticon use

elementary emotions and specific facial muscle

might have influence on facial expressions in aactions can be found in a study based on FACS

direct or indirect way. The other purpose of our(Cohn

study is to confirm whether CMC users frommeasurements to record specific emotional

different countries have different way of using

responses is feasible (Larsen et al, 2003).

et

al,

2006).

Thus,

using

fEMG

nonverbal methods. As the result, correlation

Another reason for using fEMG in CMC study

between emoticon use and facial expressions isis about the emoticon use in instant messaging

confirmed. However, we found more similarity(IM) and e-mail. According to Xu et al. (2007),

than difference in emotional expression between

emoticons can help form an impression of thecountries in CMC.

sender’s personality and emotional state. This
opinion is supported by study of gender

2. Material and methods

differences in impressions about emoticon use(Constantin et al, 2002). Furthermore, otherFacial electromyography (fEMG) has beenstudies suggest that the use of emoticons is not
2

CW6_A8350_02_D03.indd

2

2016/09/29

13:25:52

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. 9 No. 1 Sep. 2016

only for enjoyment but can also provide users

China (16 females and 12 males). Experimentswith rich information (Huang et al, 2008;

were

Thompsen & Fougler, 1996). Therefore, forparticipants were all local residents; none had

people who are used to CMC, emoticons might

long-term overseas experience in the otherbe a reliable method for sending and reading

country. All the participants had had prioremotional cues. Possibly, the emotional activities

experience of CMC and emoticon use.

conducted

in

both

countries,

andappear in this process can be detected by fEMG

3.2. Stimuli and procedure

measurements.
Similar to facial expressions, emoticons can be

Participants were asked to perform thisclassified by the emotions they convey. However,experiment in pairs. Each member of a pair sat

emoticon has features fundamentally differ fromsimultaneously in different rooms, and eachfacial expression. According to recent studies,room was equipped with an Internet-accessible

emoticons with positive meanings like “happy,”

computer. Participants were asked to watch a“humorous,” or “enjoyable” are used more thanshort video (as stimuli for positive emotional

negative ones (Huffaker & Calvert, 2005; Derks

activities) with Japanese or Chinese subtitles andet al, 2008); even the expressions of teasing orthen have a chat about their experiences related

sarcasm carries positive meaning in most cases

to that video with the participant in the other(Wolf,

2000).

Therefore,

for

CMC

study,

room for 10 minutes. These videos were allon

positivecomedic from the situation comedy named

emotional activities seems necessary. In many

Friends described some simple stories which our

facial activity studies using fEMG, the orbicularis

participants might also have experienced in theiroculi and zygomaticus major were indices ofdaily life. From nine videos used in the pilot

positive emotions (Kimura et al, 2013; Lang et al,

study, we selected three because their fEMG data

1993; de Wied et al, 2006; de Wied et al, 2009).

was found to be relatively obvious and stable. The

The activities of the zygomaticus major are

video-chat procedure was repeated three times in

especially reported to be sensitive to positive

the experiment, and we changed the three videos’emotions (Witvliet & Vrana, 1995). We conducted

playback order each time to avoid bias caused bya small-scale experiment as a pilot study; collectedinterests or experiential differences.

conducting

research

focusedfEMG data during chats on IM and ensured

In the first video-chat procedure (Part 1), no

activities of the two muscles could be correctly

particular instruction about emoticon use wasrecorded.

given (the “no-instruction” condition), andparticipants could use emoticons as they wished.

3. Main study

For the second procedure (Part 2), participantsreceived instructions to use emoticons more than

3.1. Participants

three times (the “amplified-use instruction”

Our participants comprised 52 college students

condition); however, when or where to use them(age range of 21～25 with 0.693 as standard

was decided by the participants. In the third

deviation). 24 of them were from Japan (12procedure

females and 12 males), and 28 of them were from

instructions to inhibit emoticon use (the

(Part

3),

participantsreceived

3

CW6_A8350_02_D03.indd

3

2016/09/29

13:25:53

Emotional Activities in Computer-mediated Communication: Facial Electromyography Response and Emoticon Use during Instant MessagingTANG“inhibited-use instruction” condition). The fEMG

were with extremely complex meanings which

activities of these three parts were recorded bymight bring unpredictable influence to data

Mwatch type 101 (WADA Aircraft Technology)

analysis. Thus, we had to prevent the use of someand two pairs of Ag/AgCl surface electrodes (4methods and control the emoticons to ensure no

mm in diameter). Figure 1 showed an image of

strange or particularly complicated ones could be

the attached electrodes for each muscle. The

used.

electrodes were attached one pair each for

For the convenience of waveform observation

zygomaticus major (lower left in Figure 1) andand calculation, we transferred all fEMG data toorbicularis oculi (upper right in Figure 1). The

integrated EMG (iEMG) data (300 ms time

fEMG activity was amplified 8000 times andconstant). And to make our data comparable

filtered (50 Hz to 500 Hz). Data collection was

betweenconducted at a sampling rate of 1000 Hz. We alsotransferred into ％iEMG data, which wereused screen capture software to record all actions

proportional to an adequate baseline value

on computers to check every occurrence of(baseline ％iEMG value =100％). At some level,

emoticon use afterward.

thisindividuals,

standardization

all

also

iEMG

data

enabledwasdirectcomparison of the two muscles’ activities.
Because our experiment was basically conducted
on computers, there should have been lessdistribution and influence from low-frequency
artifacts. However, to ensure data’s comparability;
six samples showed unusually high values were
removed, leaving 22 from Japan (12 females and
10 males), and 24 from China (14 females and 10
males) as the total number of participants.

4. Data analysis and results

Figure 1. An Image of the Attached Surface
Electrodes for Each Muscle

4.1. Overview of fEMG data
We used LINE in Japan, and WECHAT in

All our participants used more than three times

China. We purposely used two different kinds ofin Part 2, and most of them used emoticons in

IM software because they were each widely used

Part 1. In general, more emoticons were used inin one country, but not in the other. We wanted toPart 2. Therefore, we believe that emoticon use

obtain data reflected situations close to CMC in

was well controlled. Beyond that, most emoticons

daily life. There were many kinds of emoticons(431 times in 485) had positive meanings such as

and other similar methods such as “Stamp” in“happy,” “exciting,” and “satisfaction,” etc. Other

LINE and “Biaoqing” in WECHAT. Theseemoticons used to show “sarcasm,” “confusion,”

methods were widely used by many people inand “apology” also showed some positive

both countries. However, not all of them could bemeanings.
No significant difference in ％iEMG data wasused from both countries, and some of them
4

CW6_A8350_02_D03.indd

4

2016/09/29

13:25:53

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. 9 No. 1 Sep. 2016

found among general (undifferentiated as to Part

times that emoticon use received higher values

1, 2, or 3) videos or chats by group comparison.

than mean ％iEMG values; however, 229 times it

And after observation of the fEMG curve, we

received lower values. Nearly half of emoticon

noticed that stronger fluctuations appeared while

use indicated lower values than mean ％iEMG

watching videos. Comparative results of meanvalues.

％iEMG values revealed a significant difference

We also analyzed data of receiving emoticon

between general chats and videos (t = −2.390, df =side. When emoticons were received with

550, p<. 05).

messages, participants could see messages andIn the main study we found no significant

emoticons simultaneously even without obvious

correlation between the number of emoticons

eye movements. Thus, it was difficult to selectused and ％iEMG data from the zygomaticus

the moment when only emoticons were watched.

major (r = -0.05, p>. 05) or the orbicularis oculi (rHowever, we noticed that sometimes emoticons= 0.03, p>. 05). Neither did we find significant

were sent without messages (46 times in total).

difference in ％iEMG values of chats among

Under the circumstance, the effect caused byinstructions. Thus, we assume that it is not a

watching

simple mechanism that more emoticon use cause

calculated the mean ％iEMG values in time, i.e.,stronger facial muscle activities.

from the moment emoticons were received to theemoticonscanbetestified.

We

start of typing messages for reply. Except for a

4.2. The influence from emoticon use to facial

few times (3 times in total) that two muscles

expressions

showed different results, same tendency was

4.2.1. 
The effect caused by emoticons asshowed by two muscles in most of time. Theredirect stimuli

were 19 times that higher values than mean％iEMG values appeared; however, 24 times it

First, we have to verify the possibility thatemoticons themselves could be direct stimuli.

received lower values.

Emoticons are graphical icons with emotional

Based on the data showed above, we cannot

information; thus, it is possible that emotional

claim that as direct stimuli, emoticons promote

activity may be caused by watching them.

emotional activities when participants wereWe calculated the mean ％iEMG values inwatching them. Additionally, as mentioned in 3.1,

time, i.e., from the participants’ opening of the

we could not find significant correlation between

emoticon list to their click on an emoticon andthe number of emoticons used and ％iEMG data.

compared these data with the mean ％iEMG

Thus, emoticon stimuli are at least not thevalues of the corresponding chats. When the list

greatest factors related to facial muscle activities.

was opened, it blocked participant’s view ofreading messages. The ％iEMG data showed

4.2.2. The effect caused by video stimuli

information more related to the effect caused by

In main study, significant responses by the two

watching emoticons but not messages. Under themuscles appeared when watching videos. Thus,

circumstance, the effect of emoticons as direct

we can consider the video stimuli were functional.

stimuli could be testified. The data from two

We believe they could have stronger influence on

muscles showed the same result. There were 256

facial activates than emoticons as stimuli.
5

CW6_A8350_02_D03.indd

5

2016/09/29

13:25:53

Emotional Activities in Computer-mediated Communication: Facial Electromyography Response and Emoticon Use during Instant MessagingTANG

However, it is necessary to confirm whether the

Table 1 r-Values of Mean %iEMG in Every Part

influence from video stimuli continued to befunctional in chat parts.
Because videos and chats were on different
timelines, we could not directly compare ％iEMG
value in each part of the experiment. We usedmean ％iEMG value instead and calculated thesimple linear correlation of the mean ％iEMG
value between videos and chats. Table 1 presents
the results.
Statistical significance of correlation between
video and chat parts was found in almost all cases(r = 0.36 ～ 0.72). It emerged from both muscles

differ much among instructions. Therefore, it isand both sets (Japan and China) of participants.

highly possible that the differences in r-valus

Thus, we can presume that positive emotional

relates to the difference of communication

activities caused by stimuli did not disappear

methods.

after watching videos. These emotions and the

4.2.3. 
Difference in facial muscle activities

subsequent facial activities also continued toamong instructions

emerge from chats. Beyond that, this correlation
was lower in Part 3 than in Parts 1 and 2 in bothIn our experiment, participants could not see

countries. Higher correlation revealed that, ineach other. They could not conduct self-

Chats 1 and 2, the emotional activities ourpresentation or impression management by facial

participants had were closer to the ones directly

expressions. Thus, we can assume that if facialcaused by video stimuli. Thus, we can consider aactivities occurred, especially the obvious ones,

possibility that the emotions directly or indirectly

most of them were caused by their emotionalcaused by video stimuli, could be expressed

activities at those moments. As mentioned above,

more easily when emoticons were allowed to be

the emotional activities in chats were affected byused.

video stimuli on a certain level, and no significant

However, this was not the only indication wedifference in ％iEMG data was found among theobtained. We also noticed that although in mostthree videos. Thus, if there were no othercases r-values were higher in Part 2 than in Part

important factors existed, the facial muscle

1; the difference between Parts 1 and 2, and Part

activities should not show significant difference

3 was far more significant. As mentioned in 4.2.1,

among instructions. However, differences were

the number of emoticons used is not the main

found in the frequency of facial muscle activities.

reason for facial activities. Perhaps this relates

When performing calculations, we wanted tomore to the richness of nonverbal methods.

selectBecause using emoticons was the only way ofelectromyography curve, and then calculate theirmakingournumber and the time gaps between them. Most

experiment, the richness of information would

relatively obvious peaks can be confirmed bynonverbal

communicationinrelatively

obvious

peaks

from

the

6

CW6_A8350_02_D03.indd

6

2016/09/29

13:25:53

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. 9 No. 1 Sep. 2016

observing the electromyography; however, toby definition. To avoid influence from rare cases,

select these peaks in a more explicit, objective,

we compared the result of processing with theand unified way, we did not use the observationelectromyography curve. Most selected peaks

way as a main method. Instead, we set a series ofwere obvious enough to be confirmed frommathematical definitions and programmed themobservation. At least, every obvious peak

to ensure the peaks that we wanted could be

confirmed from the electromyography curve wasautomatically selected. We assumed the ％iEMG

selected by this method. Therefore, we believe

value of n (ms) was a peak we wanted. We set thethat the peaks were well defined. Figure 2 is an

definition as follows:

example of ％iEMG curve in 5 s (％iEMG range(1) ％ iEMG (n) = max ％iEMG value in 1001 ms

of 100％～300％). We can confirm an obvious
peak at about 2.1 s from it.

from (n − 500) to (n + 500)(2) Max ％iEMG value appeared only once in

To analysis the frequency, we used the numberof peaks to calculate how many times peaks

1001 ms from (n − 500) to (n + 500)(3) ％ iEMG (n) > mean (％iEMG) value of theappeared in 1 minute (times/min value). As
Table 2 shows, the times/min values were higher

chat
(4) ％
 iEMG (n − 50) > ％iEMG (n − 100) >and closer to the values of video parts in Chats 1％iEMG (n − 150) > ％iEMG (n − 200) >…>and 2 than in Chat 3. To confirm influence from％iEMG (n − 400) > ％iEMG (n − 450) >instruction and country factors, we conducted％iEMG (n − 500)

analysis of variance (ANOVAs), finding the effect(5) ％iEMG (n + 50) >％iEMG (n + 100) >from instruction significant on the zygomaticus％iEMG (n + 150) > ％iEMG (n + 200) >…>major (F(2, 88) = 14.442, p<. 01) and the％iEMG (n + 400) > ％iEMG (n + 450) >orbicularis oculi (F(2, 88) = 6.768, p<. 01). No％iEMG (n + 500)

significant effect of country factor was found on

This definition does not seem strict enough;the zygomaticus major (F(1, 44) = 1.066, p>. 05)

however, it was sufficiently functional for ouror on the orbicularis oculi (F(1, 44) = 0.20, p>. 05).

purposes according to the results. Because weAfter multiple comparisons by Scheffe, significant

used ％iEMG data in this selection, most curves

differences between Chats 1 and 3 and between

were smooth, and only relatively dramatic muscle

Chats 2 and 3 were found in both muscles.

activities could cause obvious peaks. Thus, forHowever, no significant difference was found

any obvious peak to appear and disappear in as

between Chats 1 and 2.

short a time as under 1001 ms was nearly

As for time gaps in chats, these values were an

impossible. We also tested using longer oraverage of approximately 27 to 40 s. Significant

shorter time definitions, such as 501 ms and 2001

facial muscle activities appearing at this frequency

ms, but obtained no better results. Beyond that,are acceptable results. No extremely short time％iEMG data was accurate to six decimal places,

gap was found in each sample’s data. Thus, we

thus the appearance of a repeated value in a shortbelieve that data of the peaks selected from chatstime should be very rare. Although considered a

are reliable.

very rare case, if several peaks appear in 1001

The data above suggest that when emoticons

ms, part of the values we wanted can be excluded

could be used, the frequency of emotional
7

CW6_A8350_02_D03.indd

7

2016/09/29

13:25:53

Emotional Activities in Computer-mediated Communication: Facial Electromyography Response and Emoticon Use during Instant MessagingTANG

Figure 2. An Example of %iEMG Curve in 5 s
Table 2 Mean Value of Times/Min Value and Time Gaps

activities was higher and closer to the condition

by group comparison on zygomaticus major (t =of the videos. Thus, at least, it is highly possible

0.054, df = 44, p>. 05), nor on orbicularis oculi (t =that the instructions (whether emoticons could

0.115, df = 44, p>. 05). And none of the analyses

be used or not) have influence on emotional

we made in 4.2 showed any difference between

expressions, and the use of emoticons might be acountries. Therefore, it is highly possible thatkey factor caused these differences.

when strong emotional stimuli appear in CMC,
users’ facial activities show commonality on a

4.3. The commonality of emotional activities

certain level. Although there were differences in

between countries in CMC

timing and intensity of muscle activities among

4.3.1. Comparison of data from the two

individuals, none of them could show any patterncountries

varied between countries.

To confirm whether significant differences inSecondly, we compared data of emoticon use

emoticon use and facial activities exist between

between the two countries. Emoticon use is not athe two countries, we conducted calculation andphysiological method like facial expression.

comparison. However, we obtained no data

Thus,

showed such differences.

commonality in using them. However, we

thereshouldbenophysiologicalFirst, we analyzed data of facial activities fromobtained no data showed significant difference

both countries. We could not find significant

between the two countries. We confirmed 9 times

difference in ％iEMG data between two countriesof emoticon use on average from Japanese
8

CW6_A8350_02_D03.indd

8

2016/09/29

13:25:53

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. 9 No. 1 Sep. 2016

samples, and 11.96 times from Chinese samples.

emotional activities in CMC, We need to know

Chinese participants used more emoticons on

the context in which emoticons were used. We

average; however, the numbers were very close.

confirmed the messages used before and afterNo significant difference in the numbers ofeach emoticon use, tried to discover whether

emoticon used could be found by grouppatterns existed in these messages.

comparison between the two countries (t = 1.382,

We found three patterns appeared many times

df = 44, p>. 05). We also conducted analysis about

in both countries. And as mentioned in 4.2.1,

the meaning of emoticons used in chats. We

there were also emoticons used alone without

confirmed 8.5 times of positive meaning on

messages. We consider it as an independent

average from Japanese samples, and 10.2 times

pattern, too. There were 402 times of emoticonfrom Chinese samples. No significant difference

use related to them. One of the patterns appeared

could be found by group comparison (t = 1.382, df

mostly= 44, p>. 05). The emoticons showed otherexperiences. Especially when they had a chatmeaning like “sarcasm” and “confusion” wereabout their particular experiences other people

also found in both countries. Thus, we consider

might not know. There were 195 times ofthat the commonality may not only exist in facial

emoticon use related to this pattern. Under the

expressions, but also in emoticon use.

circumstance, most emoticons were used to show

whenparticipants

sharedtheirpositive emotions; however, some of them were

4.3.2. The context in which emoticons werewith meanings of “puzzled”, “shy”, “cautious”, etc.

used

The second pattern was confirmed on the occasion

If we want to confirm the commonality ofthat participants had same opinions with each

Table 3 Patterns of Emoticon Use

9

CW6_A8350_02_D03.indd

9

2016/09/29

13:25:54

Emotional Activities in Computer-mediated Communication: Facial Electromyography Response and Emoticon Use during Instant MessagingTANG

other. Especially when they chatted “me, too”,

obtained lower values. In only 16 times, higher

emoticons were used very often. There were 82

values emerged when emoticons were used alone

times of emoticon use related to this pattern. It

without messages. In only 14 times, we obtained

added emotional information into the chats, andhigher values in other usages of emoticons. Data

made the conversation more dramatic than justof the occasion when receiving emoticons

saying approval. The third pattern was confirmed

showed a similar result, in 231 times (126 times

when participant made a joke in a brief reply. Allin pattern 1, 46 times in pattern 2, and 59 times in

the replies confirmed were under 8 words after

pattern 3), higher values emerged when the firsttranslated into English. Emoticons with meanings

three patterns appeared. In 125 times, weof “exciting” and “sarcasm” were found manyobtained lower values. In only 19 times, higher

times in those replies. There were 79 times ofvalues emerged when emoticons were used

emoticon use related to this pattern. The

without messages. In only 9 times, we obtained

emoticons used alone without messages werehigher values in other usages of emoticons.

confirmed 46 times. We confirmed more

Because the result of comparison differed very

appearance of these four patterns in Chinese

little between two muscles, in order to give asamples. However, if we consider the number ofmore accessible image, data showed above was

Chinese participants was bigger than Japanese,

calculated as the average times of data from two

the appearances of these patterns in two countries

muscles. The result revealed that stronger facial

are possibly closer than data showed. Thus, we

activities emerged in first three patterns. It isbelieve participants from the two countries havetestified by group comparison of the ％iEMG

these patterns in common. There were also somevalues on zygomaticus major between the firstother usages of emoticons (83 times in total)

three patterns and last two ones when sending

could not be categorized or only appeared a few(Japan: t = 30.563, df = 173.618, p<. 05; China: t =times, like emoticons used in greetings. The

37.423, df = 245.727, p<. 05) and when receiving

overall result was showed in Table 3 (％iEMG

messages (Japan: t = 33.563, df = 129.875, p<. 05;

range of 111％～517％).

China: t = 31.696, df = 282.590, p<. 05). The

We calculated the mean ％iEMG values indifference is testified on orbicularis oculi, tooeach time of sending (time from the beginning of(when sending, Japan: t = 34.587, df = 165.073,

typing messages to the click on the sendingp<. 05; China: t = 28.207, df = 280.399, p<. 05;

button) and receiving emoticons (time from thewhen receiving, Japan: t = 11.385, df = 196, p<. 05;

moment when messages were received to the

China: t = 38.264, df = 227.721, p<. 05). We also

start of typing messages for reply) of thesecompared the time data of the first three patterns

patterns. These values were compared with mean

with the frequency data (time when peaks％iEMG values of the chats in which the patterns

appeared) mentioned in 4.2.3. We found at leastappeared. As the result of comparison in situation

one time of peak appearance in 117 times of theseof sending emoticons, in 255 times (157 times inpatterns. Thus, we believe relatively strong facial

pattern 1, 56 times in pattern 2 and 42 times in

activities did emerge in these patterns.

pattern 3), higher values emerged when the first

Because these patterns (especially the first

three patterns appeared. In 101 times, we

three patterns) were found in chats of both
10

CW6_A8350_02_D03.indd

10

2016/09/29

13:25:54

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. 9 No. 1 Sep. 2016

countries, to some extent, it explained why weoculi (t = 0.087, df = 22, p>. 05). Data above

could not obtain any data showing significant

indicated no evidence of influence from fatigue ordifference between countries. In the three

concentration. Neither could we find evidence

patterns, more obvious emotional activities wereshowing such possibilities by electromyography

found from data of both countries. Thus, thecurves observation or getting such report fromcontext in which emotional activities improved

our participants. Although other variables might

showed commonality at some level.

exist, our data still showed much evidence
supporting our hypothesis.

4.4. Result of the additional experiment
5. Discussion

To confirm possible influence from factors
varying with time axis change, like fatigue orconcentration, a small-scale experiment was

The analyses above lead us to a high probability

conducted as an adjunct. It was basically thethat richness of nonverbal methods is a factor

same as the main experiment; only the order ofgreatly influencing emotional activities. Although

no-instruction and inhibited-use instruction was

we found many differences among instructions,swapped. Correlation of ％iEMG data between

most were between Chat 3 and Chats 1 and 2.

video and chat showed lower values under

The difference we found between Chats 1 and 2

inhibited-use instruction on both muscles. To be

was very small. This result suggests that the

specific, on zygomaticus major, the r-values were

number of emoticons used were not strong

3.30 under inhibited-use instruction, 4.53 andenough to be an important factor in emotional

5.32 when emoticons were allowed to be used.

activities.

And on orbicularis oculi, they were 5.25 and 4.87

Underno-instructionandamplified-use

when emoticons were allowed to be used;

instruction, ％iEMG data showed a higher

significance of correlation could not be foundcorrelation of facial muscle activities between

under inhibited-use instruction (r = 3.58, p>. 05).

video and chat parts. We believe the emotional

Data of frequency showed lower values underactivities caused by video stimuli did not simply

inhibited-use

Significant

disappear in chat parts. And they could be

difference of times/min value was found by

expressed more easily when emoticons weregroup comparison between the inhibited-use

allowed to be used (4.2.2). This hypothesis isconstruction and no-instruction on zygomaticus

based on not only our results but also previous

major (t = 1.933, df = 22, p<. 05); and on orbicularis

studies. According to Walther et al. (2001), whenoculi (t = 2.126, df = 22, p<. 05). It was also foundemoticons and text were used together, positive

between the inhibited-use construction andemotion could be communicated more easily, andamplified-use instruction on zygomaticus major

CMC interpretation improved. Other research(t = 2.692, df = 22, p<. 05); and on orbicularis

provided detailed information for us. Affective

instruction,too.

oculi (t = 2.571, df = 22, p<. 05). No Significant

evaluation of emoticons seems to be an automaticdifference was found between no-instruction andprocess that has been analyzed by Event Related

amplified-use instruction, not on zygomaticus

Potentials measurements (Comesañaa et al,

major (t = 0.103, df = 22, p>. 05) nor on orbicularis2013). In contrast, lack of a nonverbal method
11

CW6_A8350_02_D03.indd

11

2016/09/29

13:25:54

Emotional Activities in Computer-mediated Communication: Facial Electromyography Response and Emoticon Use during Instant MessagingTANG

caused a more complicated situation whenemoticon is more efficient, and emotional signal

emoticon use was inhibited. Words and messages

recognition is eased. When emoticons could be

can also convey emotional information, however,used, participants’ emotions could be expressedin a verbal way. When participants could not use

easily, and then new emotions could appear one

emoticons in Chat 3, part of the emotional

after another. However, during the time when

expressions had to be verbally transferred. Words

these emotions did not appear or when they did

and messages include complicated information.

not appear obviously enough, the emotional

This complication will cause difficulty inactivities emerged might not be stronger than

discriminating emotional information from other

under inhibited-use instruction. We believe it istypes. As mentioned in previous studies, the lack

the reason why the ％iEMG value was not

on nonverbal cues makes the miscommunicationstronger in average than under inhibited-use

of emotion more likely (Perry, 2010; Byron,

instruction. It is not a simple mechanism that2008). Thus, compared with using verbal andmore emoticon use caused stronger facial

nonverbal methods together, this process ofactivities. We believe it is more related to thetransferring nonverbal signals into verbal ones

efficiency of affective delivery and the process of

could be less efficient. We believe when messages

transformation mentioned above. Of course, notcould be used with a nonverbal method

all emotional activities were transformed into(emoticons), a more direct, less processed way of

verbal or nonverbal information. This depends onemotional

the participants’ judgments. In our experiment,

expression

appearedinourexperiment.

because strong emotional stimuli (video stimuli)

During videos, our participants had no need toexisted, the subjective demand of emotional

exchange information with others; thus, there

expression should be enhanced. Thus, thewas a natural condition with no process ofchance of using emoticons became a moretransformation from emotions to words, messages,

valuable and effective way of delivering emotionalemoticons, or any other information. Under the

information. In contrast, under inhibited-use

circumstances, emotional expressions in facial

instruction, the inhibitory effects were also

activities were direct and efficient. We found thatenhanced and affected participants stronger thanwhen emoticons and messages could be usedin other situations. Under the circumstances, thetogether, the frequency of facial muscle activities

complementary effect of verbal and nonverbal

was higher and closer to the frequency of thosemethods disappeared; low efficiency of emotional

during videos (4.2.3). We also mentioned in 4.1

signal recognition could influence their judgments.

that no significant difference in ％iEMG data wasIf it was sensed by participants, part of thefound among the three instructions by group

emotional expressions might even be canceled.

comparison. Therefore, the differences caused

We believe this is also one of the reasons why

by emoticon use exist in frequency, but cannot be

difference

simply reflected by the comparison of mean

instructions.

infrequency

appearedamong％iEMG value in general. Compared with words

When our participants used emoticons inand messages, emoticons are closer to nonverbal

context with some patterns, stronger emotional

methods; thus, transformation from emotion toactivities appeared much more than under other
12

CW6_A8350_02_D03.indd

12

2016/09/29

13:25:54

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. 9 No. 1 Sep. 2016

circumstances (4.3.2). Because this tendency

methods could be used together, the richness of

was observed from both sending and receiving

information improved. We believe it brought

occasions, we believe the improvement ofefficiency and smoothness to affective delivery.

affective delivery was a mutual effect on both

Furthermore, we obtained no data indicatingsides. The ％iEMG values of emoticon use in thesignificant differences of facial activities or

three patterns were recalculated by using theemoticon use between countries. We even foundmethod introduced in 4.2.1 (mean ％iEMG

certain patterns of emoticon use from twovalues in time from the participants’ opening ofcountries in common. Although emoticon use is

the emoticon list to their click on an emoticon).

not an innate method of nonverbal communication,

In 191 times, emoticon use received higher

it has functional similarity to facial expressions

values than mean ％iEMG values; in 165 times it(Comesañaa et al, 2013). And some social factors—

received lower values. Based on this result, wee.g., education level—do not significantly influence

still cannot claim that as direct stimuli, emoticons

facial activities (Cacioppo et al, 1992). We believe

promote emotional activities when participantsthat under strong emotional stimuli, emoticon use

were watching them. However, when emoticons

can show features similar to facial activities.

and messages were used together in context

6. Conclusions

mentioned above, evident improvement ofemotional activities was confirmed. We selected
some chats (150 times) with messages ofAs the conclusion of this study, we consider it

experience sharing, agreement expressing andis highly possible that richness of nonverbal

jokes randomly from Chat 3. Then the mean

methods is a key factor affecting emotional％iEMG values during sending and receiving

activities in CMC. We also believe that in certain

messages were calculated with the methods

situations emoticon use and facial activities inmentioned in 4.3.2. We compared these values

CMC can show features in common between

with the ones of Chats 1 and 2 introduced in 4.3.2.

different countries on a certain level. However,Significant difference of ％iEMG values on

because this study is based on samples ofzygomaticus major was found in sending

Japanese and Chinese college students, results

occasions (t = 11.198, df = 498.346, p<. 05) andmight not generalize to users’ conditions in otherreceiving occasions (t = 13.232, df = 463.282,

counties. It is a limitation of this study. As

p<. 05). Significant difference were found on

mentioned above, some other nonverbal methods

orbicularis oculi in sending occasions (t = 9.859,

such as “Stamp” in LINE could not be included in

df = 482.693, p<. 05), but not in receiving occasions

this study. It is not because they are not important.

(t = 1.032, df = 504, p>. 05). However, the mean

Some of them are widely used and may have theirvalue of data in Chats 1 and 2 (2.78) was found

own features as nonverbal methods. We believe it

higher than in Chats 3 (2.56) when receiving.

is necessary to find a more appropriate way to doThus, possibly, the obvious improvement ofresearch on these methods in future. We also

affective delivery mentioned above could not berealized that not all people can be influenced bycaused by using emoticons or messages

emoticon use on the same level, some people

independently. When verbal and nonverbal

who are not used to CMC or using emoticons
13

CW6_A8350_02_D03.indd

13

2016/09/29

13:25:54

Emotional Activities in Computer-mediated Communication: Facial Electromyography Response and Emoticon Use during Instant MessagingTANG

may show different result. We believe theof masked affective priming with emoticons.

discussion of more detailed information likeComputers in Human Behavior, Vol. 29(3), 588-595.
・Constantin, C., Kalyanaraman, S., Stavrositu, C., &above is necessary in future study.
In our study, we used fEMG measurements toWagoner, N. (2002). Impression Formation 11threcord and analyze emotional activities emerged

Pacific-Asia Conference on Information Systems

in CMC. It made the use of two nonverbal

Effects in Moderated Chatrooms: An Experimental

methods intercomparable and with calculating

Study of Gender Differences. Paper presented at thepracticability.

88th annual meeting of the National Communication

Detailed

comparisons

wereconducted among different instructions, patterns

Association, New Orleans, LA.

and specific occasions. We believe this method

・Derks, D., Bos, A. E. R., & von Grumbkow, J. (2008).

can provide accuracy and logicality to CMC

Emoticons in computer-mediated communication:

study. As mentioned in the beginning, in theSocial motives and social context. CyberPsychology &information society, the innate methods andBehavior, Vol. 11(1), 99-101.

computer mediated ones will be both functional

・Derks, D., Fischer, A. H., & Bos, A. E. R. (2008). The

in many occasions. People are getting used torole of emotion in computer-mediated communication:fusing and combining these methods so that they

A review. Computers in Human Behavior, Vol. 24(3),can take full advantage of using them. We believe766-785.

our study provided a feasible method of analyzing・Dimberg, U., Thunberg, M. & Elmehed, K. (2000).

the interaction between these methods. And we

Unconscious Facial Reactions to Emotional Facial

wish our works can inspire more research in thisExpressions. Psychological Science, Vol. 11(1), 86-9.
・de Wied, M., Boxtel, A. V., Zaalberg, R., Goudena,

area.

P.P., & Matthys, W. (2006). Facial EMG responses

References

to dynamic emotional facial expressions in boys

・Byron, K. (2008). Carrying too heavy a load? The

with disruptive behavior disorders. Journal ofcommunication and miscommunication of emotion

Psychiatric Research, Vol. 40, 112-121.
・de Wied, M., Boxtel, A. V., Posthumus, J. .A.,by email. Academy of Management Review, Vol.
33(2), 309-327.

Goudena, P. P., Matthys, W. (2009) Facial EMG

・Cacioppo, J. T., Bush, L., Tassinary, L. G. (1992).

and heart rate responses to emotion-inducing film

Microexpressive Facial Actions as a Function ofclips in boys with disruptive behavior disorders.

Affective Stimuli: Replication and Extension,

Psychophysiology, Vol. 46(5), 996-1004.
・Hazlett, R. L. & Hazlett, S. Y. (1999). Emotional

Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, Vol.
18(5), 515-526.

response to television commercials: Facial EMG

・Cohn, J., Ambadar, Z. & Ekman, P. (2006). Observer-

vs. self-report. Journal of Advertising Research, Vol

based measurement of facial expression with the39(2), 7-23.
・Huang, A. H., Yen, D. C., & Zhang, X. (2008).

Facial Action Coding System. The handbook of
emotionelicitation

andassessment,

OxfordExploring the effects of emoticons. Information &University Press Series in Affective Science.

Management, 45(7), 466-473.

・Comesañaa, M., Soaresa, A. P., Pereab, M., Piñeirod,・Huffaker, D. A. & Calvert, S. L. (2005). Gender,

A. P., Fragac, I., Pinheiroe, A. (2013). ERP correlates

identity, and language use in teenage blogs. Journal

14

CW6_A8350_02_D03.indd

14

2016/09/29

13:25:54

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. 9 No. 1 Sep. 2016of Computer-Mediated Communication, Vol. 10(2).

pictographs and quoting on flaming in electronic・Kimura, K., Ehara, S., Katayama, J. (2013). The

mail. Computers in Human Behavior, Vol. 12, pp.

subjective experience of positive emotions and225-243.
・van Boxtel, A. (2010). Facial EMG as a tool for

facial muscle activity. Japanese ournal of Researchon Emotions, Vol. 20(3), 96-104.

inferring affective states. In Proceedings

・Lang, P. J., Greenwald, M. K., Bradley, M. M. &ofmeasuring behavior, 104-108. Wageningen: Noldus

Hamm, A. O. (1993). Looking at pictures:

Information Technology.
・Walther, J. B., & D’Addario, K. P. (2001). The

Affective, facial, visceral, and behavioral reactions.
Psychophysiology, Vol. 30, 261-273.

impacts of emoticons on message interpretation in・Larsen, J.T., Norris, C.J., Cacioppo, J.T. (2003).

computer-mediated communication. Social Science

Effects of positive and negative affect on

Computer Review, Vol. 19(3), 324-347.

electromyographic activity over zygomaticus major・W itvliet, C. V., & Vrana, S. R. (1995).

and corrugator supercilii. Psychophysiology, Vol.

Psychophysiological responses as indices of40(5): 776-85.

af fective dimensions. Psychophysiology, Vol.

・Mahlke, S. & Minge, M. (2006). Emotions and32, 436-443.

EMG measures of facial muscles in interactive・Wolf, A. (2000). Emotional expression online:

contexts. Cognition and Emotion, Vol. 6, 169-200.

Gender differences in emoticon use. CyberPsychology

・Perry, M. (2010). Face to face versus computer-& Behavior, Vol. 3(5), 827-33.
・Xu, L. L., Yi, C., & Xu, Y. J. (2007). Emotional

mediated communication: couples satisfaction andexperience

acrossconditions.

Universityofexpression online: The impact of task, relationship

Kentucky Master’s Theses. Paper 66.

and personality perception on emoticon usage in・Thompsen, P. A., & Fougler, D. A. (1996). Effects of

instant messenger. PACIS 2007 Proceedings. 79.

15

CW6_A8350_02_D03.indd

15

2016/09/29

13:25:54

An Analysis of the Campaign Context in the U.S.: How
did Political Parties Use Social Media in the 2014
Midterm Election Campaign?
Keywords:
Contextual Factors, Political Parties, Super PAC, Political Consultants, Social Media

Shoko KIYOHARA, Meiji University

Abstract
Contextual factors influence the ways in which social media are used in elections. By observing
the 2014 U.S. midterm election campaign, this paper will consider the impact of social media on
political parties, the new professionalization of campaigns, and campaign finance reform. It will
first address political parties’ use of social media in the election campaign. Second, it will discuss
which new trends in the professionalization of campaigns have been instigated by new media.
Third, it will examine the role of super PACs and 501 (c)(4) organizations in the current campaign
finance regulatory regime. These questions will be tackled in this paper based on interviews withthose who played a firsthand role in the campaigns, newspapers, professional journals, and official
documents, including political parties’ websites. In conclusion, it will reveal three significant
contextual factors to consider in the polarized social media environment of American election
campaigns. One is that political parties use social media to advertise their campaigns to voters,
while they still prefer to use e-mails as a fundraising source. Another is how the changing media
environments affect media consultants and other types of political consultants. The more digitaltechnology advances, the more the circumstance of political consultants changes. The otherfactor is that super PACs play an important role in providing plentiful campaign finance forcandidates, although there are regulations banning coordination with individual candidates’
campaigns under the current regulatory system. Thus, in the American election system andfundraising mechanism, will American political parties really have more presence in the election
campaigns by using digital media? To further research on this topic, this question needs to beconsidered in depth.

16

CW6_A8350_03_D01.indd

16

2016/09/29

13:27:06

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. 9 No. 1 Sep. 2016

Facebook than are typical Facebook users. Here,

1. Introduction“typical Facebook users” means, “Facebook
Contextual factors such as characteristics ofusers who see at least some posts about

the political party system, regulation of electoral

governments and politics on Facebook and pay atprocesses, political culture, and the roles of old

least some attention to them” (Pew Researchand new media in election campaigns influence

Center 2014b, 7).

the ways in which social media are used in

On the other hand, consistent liberals onelections. By observing the 2014 U.S. midterm

Facebook tend to block or unfriend someone onelection campaign, it will consider the impact ofsocial media if they disagree with something thatsocial media on political parties, campaign

person posted about politics (Pew Researchfinance reform, and the new professionalization

Center 2014b, 4-7). Thus, in the polarized socialof campaigns in the U.S. Consequently, it will

media sphere, the following question will besuggest further discussions on examining

addressed: how are political parties using social

American election campaigns using social media

media to foster their relationship with voters?

in comparison with other countries.

Next, the paper will give an overview of the new

It will first address political parties’ use ofregulatory environment around campaign finance.

social media in the election campaign. There is

In the U.S., public funding is only available fordeeper partisan antipathy and starker politicalpresidential elections. The regulation of campaign

polarization in the U.S. than at any point during

financing was established by the 1972 Federal

the last two decades (Pew Research Center

Election Campaign Act (FECA). The FECA has

2014a, 6). Moreover, ideological overlap between

imposed strict contribution limits and disclosure

the two parties has declined, and the rise of

requirements on candidates and national party

ideologicalhascommittees. These statutory provisions based onincreased negative views of the opposite party

consistency

withinparties

FECA and subsequent rules adopted under the(Pew Research Center 2014a, 6).

2002 Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act (BCRA)

Furthermore, political polarization prevails inwere not altered in advance of the 2012 election

the current American social media community. It(Corrado 2014, 47). The regulatory environment

has affected voters’ media habits, including theirarounduse of social media. Liberals and conservatives

changed as a result of the Supreme Court’s 2010

get political news from different news sources

decision in Citizens United v. Federal Election(Pew Research Center 2014b, 1). ConsistentCommission and subsequent legal and regulatory

conservatives prefer Fox News as their primarydecisions (Corrado 2014, 46−47). The newnews source, while consistent liberals preferregulatory environment around campaign finance

CNN and MSNBC. There is little overlap in thehas brought wealthy new political actors known asnews sources upon which each group relies.

“super PACs” into election campaigns. They are

Similarly, voters’ social media spheres are divided

considered to play an important role in campaign

between right and left. The report indicates that

financing.

campaign

financehasdramaticallyconsistent conservatives are more likely to see

There are also critical organizations defined asfavorable political opinions and views on“Section 501(c) organizations,” which are named
17

CW6_A8350_03_D01.indd

17

2016/09/29

13:27:06

An Analysis of the Campaign Context in the U.S.: How did Political Parties Use Social Media in the 2014 Midterm Election Campaign? KIYOHARA

after the applicable section of the Internal

will highlight the 2014 midterm election.

Revenue Code. The Center for Responsive

However, these questions will be addressed in

Politics claims that spending by social welfare

light of trends in the 2012, and 2016 presidential

groups known as “501(c)(4) organizations” forcampaigns as well.

the applicable provision of the tax code has

2. Context: Political Parties

dramatically increased in past election cycles(Center for Responsive Politics 2015a). Thus, the(1)Social Media as New Campaign Ads

following question will be examined: what are therole of super PACs and 501(c)(4) organizations inIn the U.S., every presidential election since

the current campaign finance regulatory regime?

2000 has showed us phases of campaign Internet

Third, the paper will discuss professionalizationuse. Barack Obama’s 2008 campaign became aand the rise of a new class of political

blueprint for American political parties on how tocommunication specialists in the social media

approach social media (Owen 2013, 238). Owenelection campaign. While political consultants(2013, 246-247) claims that political parties’

have long played important roles in American

approaches to social media have changed in the

campaigns,

ofpost-2008 election era and that the digital

broadband and mobile phones, a new class of

campaign played a more central role for the

specialists is required to manage campaign social

Democratic and Republican parties in the 2012

media, for example, by making campaign

election than before. In the background, more

advertising available on voters’ mobile devices

and more registered voters have followed political(Kiyohara 2013, 35−36).

parties on Facebook and Twitter (Pew Research

with

a

rapid

proliferation

Center 2014c, 3).

As the Federal Communications Commission’s(FCC) 16 report (2015, 4-5) on competition in the

The Democratic National Committee (DNC)

market for the delivery of video programing

and the Republican National Committee (RNC)

shows, the number of subscribers to cable TV has

attempt to appeal to voters to follow their

been declining. Patterns of consumer behavior

Facebook pages and Twitter accounts. As ofhave changed with the high penetration of digital

February 7, 2016, the DNC had 1,190,309 fans,video recorders (DVRs), mobile digital televisionand the RNC had 1,949,930 fans on Facebook. In(DTV), Video on Demand (VOD), and social

addition, the DNC had 463,050 followers, and the

media. This pattern of program consumption has

RNC had 563,995 followers on Twitter. Thechanged the political consultants’ world andnumbers show that both the RNC and the DNC

affected campaign ads. Thus, we ask: which newhave many fans and followers on Facebook andtrends in the professionalization of campaigns

Twitter. They both post content related to their

have been instigated by new media?

candidates and negative statements against theirthThese questions will be tackled in this paper

rivals, the electoral process, issues, and events,

based on interviews with those who played a

including ads. However, the reality is that few

firsthand role in the campaign, newspapers,

people pay attention to the political parties’

professional journals, and official documents,

engagements when posting and tweeting. The

including political parties’ websites. The paper

larger goals for the political parties in using social
18

CW6_A8350_03_D01.indd

18

2016/09/29

13:27:06

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. 9 No. 1 Sep. 2016

media are to gain attention through other media

service, you can create your own profile page likesources that would reach a much larger audience

Facebook, and, once you become “friends” with

(Owen 2013, 254−255).

someone, you will see what songs your “friend” isMoreover, social media is the tool that allows

hearing on Pandora. In a phone interview with thepolitical parties to deliver their messages toauthor, Sean Duggan, VP Advertising Sales,

voters without being filtered by traditional media

Pandora,(AP 2012). For example, a day before the GOP’s

information, including listeners’ zip codes, would

first TV debate of 2016 presidential candidates on

be very helpful to campaign micro-targeting. He

August 6, 2015—although a lot of traditional

identified over 560 campaigns that used Pandora

media such as CNN delivered information about

in 2014, while 180 campaigns did so in 2012. Basedthe event to voters—the DNC posted a three

on the large number of Pandora’s audience/minute, 27 second video called “Brush up on

listeners, more campaigns preferred to use it inbasic GOP terms before tomorrow’s debate” on2014 than previously (Duggan 2015).

also

mentionedthat

Pandora’s

its Facebook page. Similarly, social media enables

On the other hand, the Republican Party

political parties to deliver their messages to theirrecognizes that there remains a digital divide

voters directly. However, it is not always

between it and the Democratic Party. Since 2008,

interactive communication. In fact, for politicalthe Democrats are considered to have left theparties, social media plays a “broadcasting” role

Republicans far behind in social media use

in approaching voters. The national party

because the Obama campaign used it quite wellcommittees were said to have paid hundreds of

to win the presidential election. It is still uncertain

thousands of dollars for advertising on socialthat the Republicans have caught up with themedia (Willis 2014). Interestingly, it is not a tool

Democrats.

to communicate with voters interactively. Rather,For example, in an interview with the author,

like TV ads, it is to broadcast the political parties’

Democratic strategic consultant Andrew Feldman

messages to voters.

said, “I don’t think they are catching up because

In an interview with the author, Brandon English,
Digital

Director,

Democratic

database of voters for Democrats is better thanCongressional

Republicans (Feldman, 2015).” On the other hand,Campaign Committee (DCCC), also recognized thein a phone interview with the author, Republicanrole of social media in spreading information. For

pollster and political consultant Kristen Soltis

political parties, social media is a new political

Anderson said, “I don’t think there was a hugeadvertising channel. According to English, Internet

difference

radio and video ads are effective. English mentioned

Democrats as to the 2014 campaigns. Republicans

that TV ads had not been replaced by online ads,caught up with using data and social media

but digital media was very useful to combine users’significantly (Anderson, 2015).”

betweenthe

Republicans

anddemography and voters’ data profiles, which can

As for the 2012 presidential election, the RNC

allow the political party to do more micro-targeted

recognized there was a digital divide between the

campaign ads (English, 2015).

Republicans and Democrats. The RNC led thePandora is also an interesting new advertising

Growth and Opportunity Project under Chairman

channel. On Pandora, which is a music-streaming

Reince Priebus in December 2012. It announced
19

CW6_A8350_03_D01.indd

19

2016/09/29

13:27:06

An Analysis of the Campaign Context in the U.S.: How did Political Parties Use Social Media in the 2014 Midterm Election Campaign? KIYOHARA

how to grow the Republican Party and improve

political parties using for their online fundraising?

its campaigns, and highlighted the importance of

The short answer is that they prefer to use

using new media and more digital technology

e-mail rather than social media. To explain why, I

because it felt that the Republican Party wasshould mention that political parties play an

behind the Democrats (Barbour et al, 2014,

important role in redistributing campaign funds

24−25). Compared with the Democrats, the RNC

and redistribute the money from party leadersheld that building better data and analyzing theand safe incumbents to candidates who aredata were very important to improve its

running in close races. In addition, the DNC andcampaigns. It recommended that all media

RNC get more involved in congressional elections

incorporate social media and mobile phones into

(Herrnson et al, 2014, 149). Furthermore, thetheir media campaign plans because consumption

importanceof

programs by political parties’ efforts is reinforced

media

by

audience

wasincreasingly

fragmented (Barbour et al, 2014, 40). However, atofInternet-based

fundraising(Herrnson et al, 2014, 150).

this moment, it may be hard to tell whether or not

It is suggested that American political parties

Republicans will catch up with Democrats inare following the example of their European

digital strategy during the 2016 election cycle.

counterparts by transforming their presence incampaigns using digital media (Owen 2013, 247).

(2) E-mail Remained an Important FundraisingThat may be explained by the fact that politicalTool

parties play a more critical role in redistributing

Political parties see social media as a new

campaign fundraising.

advertising tool. Thus, another question should

I then would like to articulate why politicalbe considered here: how are they fundraising on

parties prefer e-mail as their fundraising tool. I

the Internet? American elections need massive

attended CampaignTech Conference East in

funds, and the amount of online donations has

Washington D.C. on April 21 and 22, 2015. One

been dramatically increasing.

panelist said that social media was similar toMany presidential candidates have started tobroadcasting, while e-mail was like one-on-one

use e-mails for their fundraising strategies sinceconversation. E-mail is considered to be a more

the early 2000s. Presidential candidates received

personal and effective social media tool in

online donations through their websites during

campaign fundraising.

the 2000 presidential election campaign (Bimber

The RNC also emphasizes that e-mail remains aand Davis 2003, 38−39).

very important source of fundraising and notes,

In addition, there was a new trend whereby“E-mail continues to generate significant revenues.

candidates asked for smaller, multiple donations

State parties and campaigns must invest in thevia social media, e-mail, telephone calls, and direct

data to continue to grow their working e-mail lists”

mail during the 2012 presidential election (Green(Barbour et al, 2014, 58). It recognizes a big

et al, 2014, 81). They indicate that not only Obama

growth in online fundraising as well, as the RNC

but also some Republican presidential candidates

added 1.2 million donor e-mails to their file and 2.2

such as Ron Paul had extensively used online

million additional e-mails (Barbour et al, 2014, 56).

fundraising (Green et al, 2014, 93). Thus, what are

The National Republican Senatorial Committee
20

CW6_A8350_03_D01.indd

20

2016/09/29

13:27:06

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. 9 No. 1 Sep. 2016

(NRSC) also acknowledges the importance of the

your (the candidate’s) e-mail list is” (Feldman

former presidential candidate’s e-mail list. Mat2015). It can be obviously said that e-mails remain

Lira, executive director of the NRSC, said thatfascinating tools for political parties’ fundraisinge-mail was the NRSC’s most successful digitalin the social media campaign era.

fundraising source (Miller, 2014). In 2012, theFurthermore, access to the voter database ofRomney campaign rented almost every GOP

the political party is crucial for presidential

e-mail list available to build its own list of contacts

candidates. In the 2016 presidential election

and donors. In 2014, the party used the Romney

campaign, access to political party’s voter

campaign’s list as the most important source list

databases is a big issue. The DNC shares a voter

for online donations. In October 2014, the NRSC

database with the presidential candidates who

emailed the list no fewer than 16 times in one

want to get its nomination. However, the DNC cut

week. E-mails were often addressed from

off the access by the campaign of Sen. Bernie

Romney,Republican

Sanders (I-Vt.) because the campaign breached

Congressional Committee (NRCC) also used it at

the firewall and accessed the voter data file of theleast once. However, not only the Republicans

Hillary Clinton campaign. The DNC charged that

but the DNC also used the e-mail list from themultiple staffers from the Sanders campaign

Obama campaign in 2012 (Miller, 2014).

downloaded the voter data of the Clinton

while

the

National

In 2012, thanks to the 2008 Obama campaign,

campaign (Brumfield, Merica, 2015). On thethe Democratic Party had the advantage of another hand, the Sanders campaign sued the DNC

e-mail list. Laura Olin, a Democratic strategist,in federal court and they said DNC tried toalso said, “E-mail is still going to be the mainundermine

driver. We had some success in 2012 with raising

Diamond, and Zeleny, 2015).

thecampaign(Treyz,Merica,money online with social, but compared to e-mailThus, it can be likely said that political parties

it was still a drop in the bucket. E-mail is still

have gained more presence in election campaigns,

going to be the most important fundraising tool

providing the good e-mail lists that candidates

in 2016” (Campaigns & Elections 2015, 28).

need.

In the interview with the author, Brandon

3. Context: Campaigning Money & Regulation

English also explained that e-mail played a moresignificant role in campaign fundraising and(1) Rise of Super PACs under the New

recruiting volunteers than social media because
social media could spread information but it wasRegulatory Regime

easier to move people to action over e-mailAs noted already, the basic federal regulationof campaign financing was enacted by the 1972

(English, 2015).
However, the important thing is whether or notFederal Election Campaign Act (FECA). The

parties and individual campaigns have a good

FECA has imposed strict contribution limits ande-mail list. In the interview with the author,

disclosure requirements on candidates andAndrew Feldman also said, “Online donation isnational party committees. In addition, thevery important. But social media fundraising

Federal Election Commission (FEC), which

doesn’t work well, and it will be up to how goodadministers and enforces the FECA, was21

CW6_A8350_03_D01.indd

21

2016/09/29

13:27:06

An Analysis of the Campaign Context in the U.S.: How did Political Parties Use Social Media in the 2014 Midterm Election Campaign? KIYOHARA

established by Congress in 1975. These statutory

unions, associations, and wealthy individuals,

provisions based on the FECA and subsequentand spend unlimited amounts to advocate for orrules adopted under the 2002 Bipartisan

against political candidates. However, the FEC

Campaign Reform Act (BCRA) did not change inprohibits them from directly donating to politicaladvance of the 2012 election (Corrado 2014, 47).

candidatesorcoordinatingwithpolitical

However, the Supreme Court’s 2010 decision

candidates on expenditures, such as campaign

in Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission

ads. In other words, super PACs should not be

and subsequent legal and regulatory decisions

coordinated with political candidates. Still, super

resulted in a new regulatory environment of

PACs

unrestrictedfinancialactivities

candidates, congressional leaders, and party

campaigns(Corrado

2014,

in

federal46−47).

The

movie

criticizing

have

close

connections

withleaders (Magleby and Goodliffe 2014, 216).

conservative group “Citizens United” produced adocumentaryoften

It is said that super PACs played an important

Democraticrole in financing TV ads during the 2012

presidential candidate Hillary Clinton and tried

presidential campaign (Kiyohara 2013, 31, 38).

to air it during the 2008 presidential campaign. In

For instance, “Restore Our Future,” which

opposition to their intentions, the FEC invokedsupported Romney, broadcast advertisements

the 2002 BCRA to stop “Citizens United” fromattacking Newt Gingrich because Gingrichairing the movie. “Citizens United” subsequently

jeopardized Romney’s lead in the polls before thefiled a lawsuit against the FEC that eventually

Iowa caucuses (Magleby and Goodliffe 2014,

made it to the Supreme Court, which found that228). Most super PACs spent a tremendous

the FEC had violated the First Amendment

amount of money on TV ads. Not only in(Kiyohara 2013, 30−31).

presidential elections, but also in congressional

The Supreme Court decision opened a newelections, super PACs played an important role inway for federal political committees called “superfinancing (Magleby and Goodliffe, 2014, 229).

PACs” to use unlimited contributions to expresslyWith regard to the 2014 senate election, superadvocate the election of candidates (Corrado

PACs comprised half of the top 10 Senate election

2014, 46). This phenomenon is based on the

spenders (Vandewalker, 2015a, p. 7).

Court’s majority ruling that the First Amendment

In the 2016 election cycle, super PACs havedoes not permit restrictions on speech based on

already helped presidential candidates. For

the identity of the speaker (Corrado 2014, 49). In

example, a super PAC backing Carly Fiorina, ashort, the Court’s decision permitted any

Republican presidential candidate, “is organizingorganization that is allowed to engage in politicalevents for the candidate in early nominating

activity to spend money independently in support

states, handling advance work and setting up

of candidates.

merchandise tables (Confessore, 2015).” Also,

The FEC thus implemented the decision inGold and Rucker (2015) reported that super2010 and approved super PACs as independent

PACs had played an extremely important role for

expenditures-only

fifteen Republican contenders that month.

committees

distinguishedfrom traditional PACs. Super PACs can raise

The intense race among many Republican

unlimited amounts of money from corporations,candidates causes candidates to run out of
22

CW6_A8350_03_D01.indd

22

2016/09/29

13:27:06

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. 9 No. 1 Sep. 2016

money.

The

formerTexasgovernoranddonors secret; on the other hand, standard

Republican candidate Rick Perry was short ofpolitical committees must disclose the donors

funding in early August 2015. His campaign wasunder the FEC guidelines (Schwartz, 2012).

no longer able to pay its staff. The Opportunity

They existed before the 2010 Supreme Court

and Freedom PAC, a super PAC supporting

decision. The IRS brought a regulation into effect

Perry, tried to backfill the campaign. Gold andin 1959, which meant that these groups were

Rucker (2015) quotes Austin Barbour, senior

allowed to participate in some political activities

adviser to the Opportunity and Freedom PAC:

as long as politics was not their main purpose“We knew we would have to do more than just(Center for Responsive Politics 2015b). However,paid media and there’s nothing in the playbook

in 2012, they were considered the most-interested

that says we can’t do that.” The pro-Perry effort

organizations since the number of such groups

was one of the most epochal examples of superincreased and since they rivaled super PACs in

PACs playing a very important role in the 2016

expenditures (Magleby and Goodliffe 2014,

presidential race (Gold and Rucker, 2015).

243−244).

Finally, Rick Perry withdrew from the presidential

The primary purpose of 501(c)(4) organizations’election campaign on September 11, 2015. It is

activities thus should not be political engagement,

too early to tell how long super PACs can prolong

while they can also receive unlimited donations

campaigns.

from corporations, individuals, or unions. These

As of September 2015, super PACs fund many

donations are not tax-deductible, in contrast to

candidates, and Republican super PACs, in

501(c)(3) organizations under the IRS code.

particular, have already raised or committed

Furthermore, there are some limitations on 501(c)hundreds of millions of dollars in the 2016(4) organizations getting involved in politicalelection. On the other hand, Democrats haveactivities. For example, they are not allowed totightergive money directly to candidates and endorse a

restrictions

on

super

PACs

than

Republicans, but super PACs will function toparticular

keep the race intense for a longer period

However, they can run ads mentioning issues(Confessore, 2015). Thanks to super PACs, cash-

such as regulations and taxes related to a

strapped campaigns will not need to withdraw

candidate, and lobby for particular causes. They

from the race immediately.

also do not have to disclose their donor lists to thecandidate(Johnson

2016,

231).

IRS except during audits (Johnson 2016, 231).

(2) 501(c) (4) Organizations and “Dark Money”

That is why these organizations’ donations are

Super PACs are not the only influential

often called “dark money” (Center for Responsive

organizations that should receive attention here.

Politics 2015a).

There are also some types of 501(c) groups

Many groups and political operatives thatcategorized by Internal Revenue Service (IRS)

formed super PACs also established affiliatedCode. Among them, nonprofit and social welfare

501(c)(4) organizations as they can provide

501(c)(4) organizations play an important role inchoice to donors who want to contribute a huge

campaign financing. Since their primary purposes

amount of money yet remain anonymous

are social welfare activities, they can keep their(Corrado 2014, 67). For example, the conservative
23

CW6_A8350_03_D01.indd

23

2016/09/29

13:27:06

An Analysis of the Campaign Context in the U.S.: How did Political Parties Use Social Media in the 2014 Midterm Election Campaign? KIYOHARA

501 (c)(4) organization, Crossroad GPS, and its

the number of subscribers to cable TV has beensister super PAC, American Crossroads spentdeclining. Broadcasters too are using various$48 million in the 2014 midterm election. Bothways to respond to consumers’ demands, whichorganizations have the same president, Stevenmeans that they are providing their programs not

Law. These two groups were the biggest outside

only on traditional TV but also on mobile DTV,

spenders in the midterms, excluding the parties

VOD, online video distribution, and social media

themselves (Vandewalker, 2015b). While(Federal Communications Commission 2015, 4).

Republican donors complained about both

The change of consumption patterns thus hasgroups for spending hundreds of millions ofaffected TV advertisements, and the revenue of

dollars in 2012, only to lose most of the races in

TV ads is decreasing (Lafayette, 2015).

which they campaigned (Goldmacher, 2014), theFor instance, in the interview with the author,

Center for Responsive Politics shows that their

Kristen Soltis Anderson answered, “I think very

success rate dramatically increased in the 2014

much so,” when I asked her, “Do you think

midterm election, as compared to the 2012change of media environment (consumption ofelection (Center for Responsive Politics, 2012,

TV programing from cable to online) affects2014).

political consultants’ jobs? (Anderson, 2015)” In
addition, in an interview with the author,

4. Context: Change of Professionalization

Democratic

political

media

and

creative

consultant Colin Rogero admitted that people’s
It is quite well known that political consultants

viewing habits had changed, although TV washave played a big role in U.S. election campaigns.

still the primary information source for them. He

The development of political consultants promoted

commented about campaign ads in the 2014

the development of election campaigns from party-

midterm election, “The old way doesn’t work wellcentered to candidate-centered (Herrnson 2013,

anymore.” He also suggested that 30 seconds for

136). Furthermore, campaigns are considered toTV ads was still standard because of costdepend heavily on various political consultants

effectiveness and repeat messages, but mostsuch as media teams, pollsters, and direct-mailInternet and mobile ads are 15 seconds long. He

specialists (Johnson 2016, 235).

emphasized that the percentage of media budgets

Since the 1990s, a transformation has occurred,

allocated for digital advertising for campaigns

which means professional political consultants

would continue to grow (Rogero, 2014).

have played a significant role in advising even

In an interview with the author, veteranthose who run for office below the statewide

Democraticlevel, and political consultants make key decisions

suggested that popular media consumption had

and strategy as well as develop campaignchangedcommunications for the clients (Johnson 2016,

concerned, he signified that people were15). However, Johnson (2016, 15) remarks thatwatching programming on Apple TV and Amazon

new digital technology such as mobile and thePrime rather than on network TV and cable TV.

Internet is leading to another conversion.

As for changing political consultants, since the

As indicated previously, according to the FCC,

media

rapidly.

consultant
Where

Peter

advertising

Fenn
was

way of media consumption was transformed,
24

CW6_A8350_03_D01.indd

24

2016/09/29

13:27:06

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. 9 No. 1 Sep. 2016

Fenn attached significance to reaching votersregulations banning coordination with individual

who depended on smartphones and skipped TV

candidates’

ads on their DVRs. He commented, “people areregulatory system. New outside groups, including

relying on social media, so that creativeness issuper PACs and 501(c)(4) organizations, aremore important to media consultants. (Fenn,considered to fund the candidates indirectly to2015)”.

fight intense races. The other factor is how the

campaigns

under

the

current

Furthermore, as campaign strategies arechanging media environments affect media

becoming more and more digitalized such as

consultants and other types of political consultants.

through use of social media and creation of

It is interesting that, in the interview with thesophisticated data to reach voters, American

author, Colin Rogero said, “The old way doesn’t

election campaigns need more and morework well anymore” (Rogero, 2014). The moreconsultants. In the interview with the author,

digital technology advances, the more theAndrew

data

circumstance of political consultants changes. It isconsultants came into election campaigns as new

rapidly changing; thus we need to observe

consultants. He told me that they played an

carefully how it is advancing.

Feldmanemphasizedthat

important role in creating models for how

As a closing statement, the paper covers

campaigns could reach voters online (Feldman,

contextual factors to provide further discussions2015).

on examining American election campaigns

Thus, changes in programming consumption

using social media in comparison with otherpatterns affect both TV advertising and the way

countries. For example, unlike in the U.S., themedia consultants work in election campaigns.

Japanese election system is more party-centered.

Not only that, but the more they are digitalized,

In Japan, there is a public subsidy system forthe more consultants are needed in campaigns. It

political parties, in line with the Political Party

is clear that more sophisticated digital technology

Subsidy Act passed in 1994. Because of thisis transforming the role of political consultants.

public subsidy system, candidates for public
offices in Japan do not need to put as much effort

5. Conclusion

into fundraising as politicians in the United States
do, although online contributions are graduallyThis paper reveals three significant contextual

increasing in Japan (Chen & Kiyohara, 2015).

factors to consider in the polarized social media

On the contrary, in the U.S., public funding isenvironment of American election campaigns.

available only for the presidential election.

One is that political parties use social media to

Furthermore,

advertise their campaigns to voters, while theyreceive the public funding, they have to agree tostill prefer to use e-mails as a fundraising source.

limit campaign spending to a specified amount.

Political parties also have the advantage of goodPresidential candidates feel the public funding

voters’ email lists to candidates for fundraising in

has few advantages (Kiyohara, 2011, pp. 10-12).

campaigns. Another is that super PACs play an

Outsider groups such as super PACs play animportant role in providing plentiful campaign

important role in financing the campaigns.

finance for candidates, although there areonce

presidential

candidatesThus, in the American election system and25

CW6_A8350_03_D01.indd

25

2016/09/29

13:27:06

An Analysis of the Campaign Context in the U.S.: How did Political Parties Use Social Media in the 2014 Midterm Election Campaign? KIYOHARA

fundraising mechanism, how will the relationshipbetweencandidates

andpolitical

University Press.

parties

Brumfield, B. & Merica, D. (2015) “Sanders, DNC

transform as the campaigns become morereach deal on voter file access after breach ofdigitalized? Will American political parties really

Clinton data.” CNN. December 19.

have more presence in the election campaigns by< http://www.cnn.com/2015/12/19/politics/

using digital media? To further research on thisbernie-sanders-dnc-data-deal-clinton/index.html>

topic, these questions need to be considered inAccessed on February 24, 2016.

depth.

Campaigns & Elections. (2015) “Movers & Shakers.”
March/April. Issue 330.

*This study was supported by JSPS KAKENHI

Center for Responsive Politics. (2015a) Political

Grant Number 26280124.

Nonpr ofits (Dark Money), < https://www.

*This paper was presented at the 2016 Annual

opensecrets.org/outsidespending/nonprof_

Meeting of the Southern Political Sciencesumm.php> Accessed on February 24, 2016.

Association. It is updated from the paper, “ソーシCenter for Responsive Politics. (2015b) “Outsideャルメディアの普及に伴うアメリカ選挙キャン

Spending: Frequently Asked Questions About 501

ペーンにおける変化―2014年中間選挙を事例(c)(4) Groups.” < http://www.opensecrets.org/に―” (Changes of American Election Campaigns

outsidespending/faq.php> Accessed on February

Using Social Media : the 2014 Midterm Election)

24, 2016.

for the SSI Journal, Vol.3 Number, pp. 31-46 inCenter for Responsive Politics. (2014) “American

Japanese.

Crossroads/Crossroads GPS, Outside Spending
Summary 2014,” <https://www.opensecrets.org/

6. Reference

outsidespending/detail.php?cycle=2014&cmte=AAnderson, K. S. (2015) Co-Founder & Partner,

Accessed on January 25, 2016.

merican+Crossroads%2FCrossroads+GPS > ,Echelon Insights. Phone Interview with theCenter for Responsive Politics. (2012) “American

author. October 15.

Crossroads/ Crossroads GPS, Outside Spending

Associated Press, (2012) “Political Parties Use Social

Summary 2012,” <https://www.opensecrets.org/

Media to Open Up Convention Process”, August 17,

outsidespending/detail.php?cycle=2012&cmte=A<http://www.foxnews.com/politics/2012/08/17/

merican+Crossroads%2FCrossroads+GPS > ,political-par ties-use-social-media-to-open-up-

Accessed on January 25, 2016.
Confessore, N. (2015) “Democrats, Seeking Legal

convention-process.html> Accessed on February 24,

Clarification, Plan an Increased Role for “Super

2016.
Barbour, H., Bradshaw, S., Fleischer, A., Fonalledas,

PACs” ” New York Times. September 15: A17.

Z., & McCall, G. (2014) Growth & Opportunity

Corrado, A. (2014) The Regulatory Environment of

Project, March 17. <http://goproject.gop.com/

the 2012 Election, In D.B. Magleby (ed.), In

RNC_Growth_Oppor tunity_Book_2013.pdf>

Financing the 2012 Election, Washington DC:

Accessed on February 24, 2016.

Brookings Institution Press.

Bimber, B. & Davis, R. (2003) Campaigning Online:

Democratic National Committee Facebook, <https://the Internet in U.S. Elections. New York: Oxford

www.facebook.com/democrats> Accessed 2016,

26

CW6_A8350_03_D01.indd

26

2016/09/29

13:27:06

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. 9 No. 1 Sep. 2016
February 7.

Johnson, W. D. (2016) Political Consultants and

Democratic National Committee Twitter, <https://American Elections, Hired to Fight, Hired to Win.
3rd edition. New York: Routledge.

twitter.com/thedemocrats> Accessed 2016,

Kiyohara, S. (2013) Shinkasuru net senkyosenryaku-

February 7.
Duggan, S. (2015) VP Advertising Sales, Pandora.

2012 nen amerika daitouryosenkyosen woyomitoku,

Phone Interview with the author. August 26.

進化するネット選挙戦略―2012年アメリカ大統

English, B. (2015) Digital Director, Democratic

領選挙戦を読み解く，In Kiyohara, S. & Maeshima,

Congressional Campaign Committee. Interview

K. (eds.), In Net Senkyo ga kaeru seijito shakai-with the author. June 5.

nichibeikan nimiru aratana “koukyoken” nosugata,thFederal Communications Commission, (2015) 16

ネット選挙が変える政治と社会日米韓に見る新Report, Annual Assessment of the Status of

たな「公共圏」の姿, Tokyo: Keio University Press.

Competition in the Market for the Delivery of

Kiyohara, S. (2011) Americano Internet senkyo

Video Programming, MB Docket No. 14-16,

campaign wo sasaeru bunmyaku youin no

Adopted March 31, 2015, Released April 2, 2015,

bunseki” アメリカのインターネット選挙キャン

pp.4-5, < https://apps.fcc.gov/edocs_public/

ペーンを支える文脈要因の分析, In Kiyohara, S.

attachmatch/FCC-15-41A1.pdf> Accessed 2016,& Maeshima, K.(eds.), In Internet ga kaeru senkyo

February 7.

beikan hikaku to nihon no tenbo, インターネットが変える選挙米韓比較と日本の展望, Tokyo: Keio

Feldman, A. (2015) Founder, Feldman Strategies
LLC. Interview with the author. April 15.

University Press.

Fenn, P. (2015) President, Fenn Communications

Lafayette, J. (2015) “Summing It Up: National TV Ad

Group. Interview with the author. April 13.

Revenues Down 2.7％,” Broadcasting and Cable,

Gold, M. & Rucker, P. (2015) “Super PACs help theAugust 7, <http://www.broadcastingcable.com/

cash-strapped.” Washington Post. August 12: A4.

blog/cur r ency/summing-it-national-tv-ad-

Green, J., Kohler, M. & Schwarber, I. (2014) Financing

revenues-down-27/143191> , Accessed on

the 2012 Presidential Nomination Campaigns, In

December 10, 2015.

D.B. Magleby (ed.), In Financing the 2012

Magleby, B. D., and Goodlife, J. (2014) Interest

Election,Washington DC: Brookings Institution

Groups, In D.B.Magleby (ed.), In Financing thePress.

2012

Herrnson, S. P. (2013) National Parties in the Twenty-

Election,

Washington

DC:

Brookings

Institution Press.

First Century, In M.D. Brewer & L.S. Maisel

Miller, J. Z. (2014) “GOP Wields Romney Fundraising(eds.,) In The Parties Respond: Changes in American

List in Senate Battle.” TIME. October 20. <http://

Parties and Campaigns Fifth Edition, Boulder, CO:time.com/3525244/2014-midterm-elections-senate-

Westview Press.

mitt-romney/http://time.com/3525244/2014midterm-elections-senate-mitt-romney/>, Accessed

Herrnson, S. P., Patterson, D. K., and Curtis, P. S.

on February 23, 2016.

(2014) Five Financing the 2012 Congressional
Elections, In D.B. Magleby (ed.), In Financing theOwen, D. (2013) Political Parties and the Media, The

2012 Election, Financing the 2012 Election,

Parties Respond to Technological Innovation, In

Washington D.C.: The Brookings Institution

The Parties Respond: Changes in American Parties

Press.

and Campaigns Fifth Edition, Boulder, CO:27

CW6_A8350_03_D01.indd

27

2016/09/29

13:27:06

An Analysis of the Campaign Context in the U.S.: How did Political Parties Use Social Media in the 2014 Midterm Election Campaign? KIYOHARA
govern-501c4s/>, Accessed on December 8, 2015.

Westview Press.
Pew Research Center, (2014a) Political Polarization

Treyz, C., Merica, D., Diamond, J., & Zeleny, J.

in the American Public, June 12. <http://www.

(2015) Sanders campaign sues DNC after

people-press.org/files/2014/06/6-12-2014-

database breach, CNN. December 18. <http://

Political-Polarization-Release.pdf>, Accessed onwww.cnn.com/2015/12/18/politics/ber nie-

December 10, 2015.

sanders-campaign-dnc-suspension/>, Accessedon December 19, 2015.

Pew Research Center. (2014b) Political Polarization andMedia Habits, October21. <http://www.journalism.

Vandewalker, I. (2015a). Election Spending 2014:org/files/2014/10/Political-Polarization-and-Media-

Outside Spending in Senate Races Since Citizens

Habits-FINAL-REPORT-7-27-15.pdf>, Accessed onUnited. Brennan Center for Justice Analysis.

December 10, 2015.

<https://www.brennancenter.org/sites/default/
files/analysis/Outside%20Spending%20Since%20

Pew Research Center. (2014c) Cell phones, Social
Media, and Campaign 2014, November 3. <http://

Citizens%20United.pdf>, Accessed on January 25,

w w w. p e w i n t e r n e t . o r g / f i l e s / 2 0 1 4 / 1 0 / P I _2016.

CellPhonesSocialMediaCampaign2014_110314.

Vandewalker, I. (2015b). Source of Dark Moneypdf>, Accessed on December 10, 2015.

Revealed to Be…Dark Money, Brennan Center for

Republican National Committee Facebook<https://

Justice, November 20, <http://www.brennancenter.

www.facebook.com/GOP > Accessed 2016,

org/blog/source-dark-money-revealed-be-dark-

February, 7.

money>, Accessed on January 25, 2016.

Republican National Committee Twitter, <https://

Willis, D. (2014) Election Spending Is Changing, as

twitter.com/gop> Accessed 2016, February 7.

Well as Expanding, New York Times. November 4.

Rogero, C. (2014) President, Revolution Political<http://www.nytimes.com/2014/11/05/upshot/Media. Interview with the author. November 10.

election-spending-is-changing-not-just-gettingbigger.html?_r=0&abt=0002&abg=1>,

Schwartz, E. (2012) The Rules that Govern 501(c)(4)s, FRONTLINE. October 30. <http://www.pbs.

Accessedon December 10, 2015.

org/wgbh/frontline/ar ticle/the-r ules-that-

28

CW6_A8350_03_D01.indd

28

2016/09/29

13:27:07

A Proposal for Open Data of Sightseeing Event Information
Keywords:
Open Data, Sightseeing Events, Data Management, Web Applications

Mayu URATA, Nagoya University
Kazuma OGISHIMA, Nagoya University
Mana FUKUYASU, Nagoya University
Mamoru ENDO, Nagoya University
Takami YASUDA, Nagoya University

Abstract
Development events and application contests are held in various locations as a way to promote
open data, and have demonstrated results to an extent. Promotions of open data by basic units ofgovernment require implementation of open data into daily municipal services upon considering
the acceptability of local governments, and not merely launching the above measures intensively
in the short term. Nevertheless, many local governments are promoting open data with limited
human resources and budget amid vast operations. Following such circumstances, the researchattempted to create open data and develop applications from sightseeing events hosted by local
governments with the objective to establish open data promotion in conventional municipal
operations. Using the sightseeing events hosted by local governments as case examples, theresearch attempted to create open data from organizing data from pamphlets distributed by local
governments. The data was leveraged to develop an application for mobile devices that guideusers through sightseeing events, and its demonstration experiment using this application was
conducted at the “Dai 15 kai Arukou! Bunka no Michi (15th Annual Let’s Walk the Cultural Path)”
event held in Higashi-ku, Nagoya. The demonstration experiment clarified the application’s
effectiveness, and succeeded in demonstrating that the tested open data of sightseeing event
information were useful. In addition, as a result of the research, the sightseeing event information
for the “Dai 16 kai Arukou! Bunka no Michi (16th Annual Let’s Walk the Cultural Path)” event is
now scheduled to be made public as Nagoya’s open data. Based on the above, the paper discusses
on the promotion of open data for conventional municipal operations while considering theacceptability of local governments.

29

CW6_A8350_04_D02.indd

29

2016/09/29

13:28:23

A Proposal for Open Data of Sightseeing Event Information

URATA et al

other open data promotion measures intensively

1. Introductionin the short term.
Japan’s promotion of open data is starting toFollowing such circumstances, the research

become active among basic units of government

aims to establish the promotion of open data in(“local governments”), and the number of cities

conventional municipal operations. Sightseeingthat are promoting data has reached to 164 as of

information in which local governments canOctober 2015(1). Local governments are promoting

easily convert to open data were used as caseopen data by converting information that theyexamples upon considering the acceptability ofpossess into open data with usage rules that

local governments. The research test-createdenable secondary usage and in machine-readable

open data from actual sightseeing information

formats. In promoting open data, many local

communicatedgovernments are disclosing statistics, disasterconducted

prevention

assightseeing applications that leveraged the data.

information that is readily available for disclosure

The results will also be taken into account in(MIC, 2014). The Japanese government has also

addition to acceptability to discuss promotion ofassisted in the promotion of open data for local

open data in conventional municipal operations.

andsightseeing

information

by

local

governments,

anddemonstration

experiments

withgovernments by opening a public cloud system

(2)

2. 
Considerations of Open Data and Theirwith sightseeing information as branches, andUtilization

further vitalization of promoting open data among
more local governments are anticipated. However,

2.1 Relevant Case Studies

promotions of open data for local governments
face the issue of having unclear specific advantages

Since the promotion of open data started in full

for local governments because there are only ascale in 2012, open data trials and creative

few public service case examples (LASDEC,

utilizations are being conducted in Japan to2014). Development events and application

promote open data among local governments

contests such as Ideathons and Hackerthons are(Fukuyasu, Ura et al., 2013) (Koike, Fukuyasu etheld and demonstrate results to an extent, but notal., 2015) (Sugimoto, Ikeda, 2015). In particular,

many of them directly led to promotion of open

creative service developments that leverage open

data for local government. Moreover, according todata were conducted through hosting events

Hayashida (2007), operation loads for local

such as Ideathons and Hackerthons, including

government employees, who are also the main

International Open Data Day. Players of various

players for the promotion of open data tostatus and background participated in thesedecentralize the government, are increasing andevents and materialize the creation of public

call for consideration. Promotion of open data byservices through collaboration between thebasic units of government require implementation

private and public sectors.

of open data into daily municipal services upon

2.1.1 Biwako Great Fireworks Festival

considering

theacceptability(3)ofgovernments,

and

not

launching

Shiga’s civic hack group, Code for Shiga/

development events, application contests andBiwako(4), started its open data promotion

merelylocal

30

CW6_A8350_04_D02.indd

30

2016/09/29

13:28:23

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. 9 No. 1 Sep. 2016

operations for the Biwako Great Fireworks

MIC and METI was held in the end of 2013. The

Festival in 2014. The group collected andcontest aimed to develop actual services basedorganized information on the fireworks festival

on ideas created at Ideathons. Out of theand sightseeing owned by the local government

numerous works submitted, “NGY Night Street

and relevant groups to convert into open data. As

Advisor: The Safe and Reliable Navigation Systema result, nine types of applications that used openfor Pedestrians that Guide through Brightdata were created to provide new services during

Routes” by the National Institute of Technology,

the fireworks festival. According to the group

Akashi College, won the Grand Prize. The(2014), although measures were implemented on

application prevents crime by displaying how

a concentrated and short-term basis throughbright street lights are on the map to avoid

aiming for the common factor, the fireworks

gropers and crimes. The data on street lights

festival, promoting measures with long-term

were acquired from Nagoya after students andperspectives is essential when considering theteachers requested cooperation (Arai, Itani et al.,future. In addition, as Shoji (2012) points out,2014).

development in events have issues in that they

The data on Nagoya’s street lights, however,are difficult to brush up as administrative

were provided for use only in the contest, and areservices. Furthermore, Hayada (2014) argues on

not yet disclosed as open data as of 2015. In an

the importance of promoting open data from ainterview conducted by us, Nagoya commented

circulating perspective, and mentions how openthat the data on street lights cannot be disclosed

data events are not being coordinated well withas open data due to security reasons. Like thislocal governments is one issue requiring acase, there are limits on converting some data tosolution. Event personnel need to have event

open data even when there are needs to do soachievements and developed contents linked tobecause local governments have information that

open data promotion measures conducted bycannot be disclosed for a variety of reasons. In

local governments, such as brushing them up as

addition, each set of information is possessed bypublic services, instead of positioning them as

departments in charge. Acquiring the information

temporary trends through working together withrequires understanding and cooperation of thelocal governments. The research will display

government agency, but there are still many local

utilization case examples through testing of open

governments that have yet to fully acquire

data conversion so that they will lead to promotion

understanding internally. Although it is importantof open data by local governments in the middle

to newly convert beneficial information possessed

to long-term perspectives. It will thus focus moreby local governments in order to accelerate theiron open data promotion for conventional

open data promotion, it is desirable to firstmunicipal operations through methods that will

promote open data based on information that are

not increase burden for local government

already disclosed. The research will consider

employees.

testing open data conversion of information
already disclosed by local governments so that

2.1.2 Open Data Use Case Contest
The Open Data Use Case Contest(5)

open data of information applicable for disclosure
hosted byby local governments can be utilized.
31

CW6_A8350_04_D02.indd

31

2016/09/29

13:28:23

A Proposal for Open Data of Sightseeing Event Information

URATA et al

2.2 Research Principles
Based on the issues revealed in precedingcases, the research aims to promote open datawith consideration towards acceptability of local
governments. Promotions of open data are
conducted through methods that differ by local
government, ranging from data collection,

Figure 1 Open Data Promotion in Conventionalorganization and disclosure. Aoki (2013) argues

Operations

that when local governments work on promoting
open data, it is more effective to start from theinformation

beenorganization” and “Information communication”

communicated already. In addition, Shimizu

that

has

through using sightseeing event information as(2013) states that development based on data

model cases, and discusses open data promotion

rather than needs will lead to higher degrees ofthat will be readily accepted in conventional

completion

municipal operations (Figure 1).

when

Hackerthons.

conventionallyutilizing

Working

open

from

data

in

conventional

3. Attempts to Convert to Open Data

information is thus effective when promoting
open data upon considering the acceptability of

3.1 Converting Sightseeing Event Information

local governments, and contents that can better

to Open Data

lead to public services can be anticipated for3.1.1 Subjects of Researchdevelopment as well. The research assumes that
local governments will convert information

The research will examine regional events incollected, organized and communicated as their

the “Cultural Path” area in Higashi-ku, Nagoya,

conventional operations to open data from the

Aichi(6) (“Higashi-ku”). The Cultural Path area is

acceptability standpoint. Following this, the flow

about 8km2 in area, stretching from central tofrom information collection to communication inwestern Higashi-ku, and is one of Nagoya’s

conventional municipal operations and the flow

prominent sightseeing areas in which precious

from information collection to disclosure in open

historical and cultural heritages from modern

data

that

times remain. The area is maintained and utilized

conventional municipal operations and open dataas an area with vivid modern culture of Nagoya as

promotion methods will correspond (Figure 1).

indicated in the “Historical Town Planning

The method described in “Let’s Start Open Data:

Strategy” developed by Nagoya (2011). The

The Handbook for Local Governmental Bodies”

Cultural Path Area conducts walking events as

by MIC (2014) was determined to be the method

well as historical and cultural events that utilize

appropriate. The handbook describes contents

its characteristics. One of such events is theon information organization in Step 3, andwalking event, “Arukou! Bunka no Michi (Let’s

information communication in Steps 4 and 5.

Walk the Cultural Path)” Events and stage events

Following this, the research distinguishes

that educate on the region’s history are held in

betweensightseeing spots (“spots”) scattered within the

promotion

the

were

two

compared

stagesofso“Information
32

CW6_A8350_04_D02.indd

32

2016/09/29

13:28:23

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. 9 No. 1 Sep. 2016

Cultural Path area in the event. The event also

to experiment on open data. First, the private-

possesses the following characteristics:

public cooperation structure is focused for
promotion of open data in (1), but according to(1) Continuous hosting through public-private

Nishida et al. (2013), but one of the reasons thatcollaboration

Sabae, Fukui is proactive in open data promotion

The “Arukou! Bunka no Michi” event is held on

is that the city already had private-public

November 3 (Culture Day) every year, and marks

cooperation rooted within them. Therefore, a

its 15th anniversary in 2014. Higashi-ku hosts thecooperating structure between the private andevent, and forms an executive committee withpublic sectors can anticipate vitalization of open

Nagoya, residents and citizen groups to conduct

data promotion. For (2), one of the advantages ofplanning and operation. The event is held throughpromoting open data for local governments iscooperation between public and private sectors,

resolution of regional issues (MIC, 2015).

and is one in which local residents also embrace.

Through utilizing open data, applications formobile devices can be developed. And considering(2) Approaches for younger generations

the penetration rate(7) of smartphones among“Arukou! Bunka no Michi” is an event that isyounger

generations,participation

of

the

popular among seniors due to geographicalgeneration in the event can be incited bycharacteristics, and faces the issue of not being

developing applications that leverage open data.

as recognized by younger generations. The event

For (3), many local governments have mainly

is considering various approaches for younger

information departments work on the promotion

generations

informationof open data, but information to be converted tothrough Facebook, for example, and anticipates

open data are possessed by various departments.

participation from the generation in addition to

When considering the medium to long-term

seniors for its executive committee.

effects of open data promotion, the department

bycommunicatingthat originally possesses the information should(3) Information communication from the local

work on the promotion rather than concentrating

governmentThe

executive

the operations to information departments. It isandthus important in terms of acceptability from

communicates information pertaining to the

local governments as well if the original

event.

conducts

department works to promote open data forcollection, organization and communication of

information collected, organized and communicatedevent information as part of its municipal

through conventional operations. Based on theoperations. Sightseeing events are generally held

above, the research will examine “Arukou! Bunka

responsible by divisions that promote sightseeing

no Michi” as its research subject.

Incommittee

particular,

manages

Higashi-ku

and town planning, but “Arukou! Bunka no Michi”

3.1.2 Flow of Sightseeing Event Information

has been run by accounting departments.

The flow of sightseeing event information in
Based on the following characteristics, theconventional municipal operations are represented

research will examine “Arukou! Bunka no Michi”

as below when converting the sightseeing event
33

CW6_A8350_04_D02.indd

33

2016/09/29

13:28:23

A Proposal for Open Data of Sightseeing Event Information

URATA et al

information of “Arukou! Bunka no Michi” into

operated by the citizen group “Higashi Net(9),” a

open data (Figure 2).

member of the executive committee. The
information included are similar to those on thepamphlet, but also play the role of communicating
pre-event information prior to the event date.

Figure 2 Flow of Event Information for Research
Subject
In order to collect event information, theexecutive committee first had local residents andcitizen groups that host events in each spot write

Figure 3 “Dai 15 Kai Arukou! Bunka no Michia proposal. Based on the information written in(15th Annual Let’s Walk the Cultural

the proposals, Higashi-ku employees organizedPath)” pamphlet

the information on Microsoft Excel (“Excel”).
Because data confirmation by employees need to
be streamlined and tasks were consigned to
private companies, the formatting needed to belegible to humans. The formatting thus required
shaping of data, such as combining cells andentering multiple contents within a cell, and isnotasmachine-readable.

Informationiscommunicated through pamphlets and theofficial website(8) based on the organized
information. Leaflets are printed doubled-sided
onto A2-size papers, distributed to participants on
the day of the event as information and support
event participation for tourists (Figure 3). The
area map and event information are printed on

Figure 4 “Dai 15 Kai Arukou! Bunka no Michi ”

the leaflet, and event information are listed bypamphlet (magnified view of dotted

spot to see at a glance (Figure 4). On the otherarea in Figure 3)

hand, the official website is managed and34

CW6_A8350_04_D02.indd34

2016/09/29

13:28:24

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. 9 No. 1 Sep. 2016

3.1.3 Procedures for Open Data Conversion
The research experiments on the conversion of
information in the pamphlet to open data. The
pamphlet information is entered in Excel anddigitalized. The Excel formatting is not excellently
machine-readable through cell combinations andmultiple contents included in single cells, butinvolves little work for local governments because it
is information that has already been communicatedby them and digitalized beforehand, and thus easy
to link to open data promotion from conventional
municipal operations.

Table 1 Examples of Open Data on Sightseeing

Following this, we organized information to

Event Information

convert to open data based on the information
printed on the pamphlet. The organized data wasfacilities and sightseeing facilities where events

test-converted to open data upon using an open

are held are disclosed in addition to information

data platform (Figure 5).

on event names, times and details. Toyohashi,
Aichi also discloses open data on sightseeing
events in CSV format(11). Similar to Fukui, the city
discloses names, phone numbers and locations ofpublic facilities and sightseeing facilities where
events are held in addition to information on
event names, times and details.
Based on these examples, the informationnecessary as sightseeing event information are

Figure 5those pertaining to event details and event

Flow of Open Data Conversion

locations. Many sightseeing events are held in
public3.2 O rganization of Sightseeing Event

facilities

andsightseeing

facilities.

Facilities can be used for purposes other thanInformationsightseeing events, and when considering the

3.2.1 Types of Information

versatility of information, the information on

Open data of sightseeing event information are

facilities and events should be separately

disclosed by some local governments other thancategorized when converting to open data. Boththe Biwako Great Fireworks Festival mentioned

Fukui and Toyohashi disclose open data onin the previous chapter. Key governments include

sightseeing facilities and public facilities as well,

Fukui and Toyohashi, Aichi (Table 1).

and can be concluded as information that has

Fukui discloses open data on sightseeing

value in usage for situations other than

(10)

.

sightseeing. In addition, sightseeing events are

Names, phone numbers and locations of public

sometimes held multiple times with the same

events held in the prefecture in CSV format

35

CW6_A8350_04_D02.indd

35

2016/09/29

13:28:24

A Proposal for Open Data of Sightseeing Event Information

URATA et al

title. Local governments can skip the task ofand numbers for the stamp rally to be held on therepeatedly entering information by making

event day. Together with organizing the data,

information on event times independent fromaddresses, latitudes, longitudes, transportation andevent details. The research considers theclosing days were acquired through the official

acceptability of local governments to distinguishwebsite and Google Maps based on the casebetweenevent

examples of Fukui and Toyohashi. Addresses andinformation, and have event details and event

facility

information

andother added information were thought to betimes separated within event information (Figure

additional burdens for the local government when

6).

considering acceptability for the local government,
but such information are basic information on thefacilities and are also made public on the official
website, and thus can be concluded as information
possessed by the local government. Location
information can also be continually used for theyears ahead after once acquired because they don’t

Figure 6 
Organization of Sightseeing Eventsignificantly change. The acquisition of such

Information

information thus can be concluded as not causing
considerable burden to the local government.

3.2.2 Organization of Information for Research
Subject
The leaflet information that is collected,
organized and communicated by the local
government was categorized into three: facility
information, event details information and event
time

information.

These

information

areconventionally organized through Excel that has
been used in event management by local
government employees. By considering open
data conversion and reviewing the Excel format
while also keeping legibility for humans, theresearch speculated that the data will lead to
open

data

promotion

thatdemonstrates

acceptability for the local government.

Table 2 List of Facility Information(1) Facility information(2) Event details information

Information on the spots that would be the event
venues were organized as facility information

For the event details information, sub-event(Table 2). The information printed on the pamphlet

information held in respective spots were eachwere facility names, phone numbers, opening hours

organized based on the information in the36

CW6_A8350_04_D02.indd36

2016/09/29

13:28:25

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. 9 No. 1 Sep. 2016

pamphlet (Table 3). Event names, venues within

information through using Ids assigned to events

spots, outlines, performers, costs, capacities andin the event details information.

conditions including reservation requirements

3.3 Conversion to Open Data

were included in the pamphlet, and wereorganized. Furthermore, genre information were

The organized data were test-converted toalso organized following that the pamphlet

open data. When converting the research usedcategorized event genre.

LinkData(12), an open data platform.

In addition, as part of event details information,

3.3.1 LinkData

spot IDs in which events are held were referred
to from the facility information and organized.

LinkData is an open data platform operated by

Assigning Ids based on the structure of the

LinkData. Once registered an account, various

relational database facilitates calling of data. This

private entitites together with local governments

enables

can disclose open data. More than 2,700 data has

association

with

other

data,

and

been registered as of July 31, 2015, of which

eliminates tasks to enter relevant information.

about 2,000 are widely disclosed as open data.
Advantages of using LinkData are that Excel
files can be easily converted to open data just by
uploading, data can be jointly edited by multiple
users and that data can be automaticallyconverted to RDF and various formats when
making them open data. Entities that do notpossess much information technology may thus
easily disclose open data to expand theircapabilities of utilizing their information.
The research uploaded the Excel data asorganized in the previous chapter according toTable 3 List of Event Details Information

the procedures directed by LinkData. The dataset(3) Event time information“Walking the Cultural Path 2014(13)” was also

Information on event dates, starting times andprepared, and data were uploaded within theending times were organized as information

dataset. As indicated in Table 5, files onpertaining to event times printed on the pamphlet

cooperating(Table 4). Event names are linked with time

information, in addition to sightseeing event

storesandtransportation

information, were registered onto the dataset anddisclosed as open data.
Parts of open data on bus information(14)provided by the Transportation Bureau City of
Nagoya are also disclosed within the dataset.
Because the open data provided by theTransportation Bureau City of Nagoya is not in a

Table 4 List of Event Time Information
37

CW6_A8350_04_D02.indd37

2016/09/29

13:28:25

A Proposal for Open Data of Sightseeing Event Information

URATA et alopen data on LinkData. The application targeted
external tourists visiting “Arukou! Bunka no
Michi”. The event had the issue of having “fewyounger generations participating in the event,”
and the executive committee hoped for contents
that will stimulate the generation’s participation.
Following such circumstances, the researchdeveloped an application for mobile devices as an
approach targeting the younger generation.

Table 5 List of Open Data Tested

The application development was conducted

format that excels in machine readability throughon “LinkData App(16),” the affiliated sister site ofcell combinations, we shaped the data requiring

LinkData. LinkData App uses open data on

revision before registering them to the dataset.

LinkData to enable online application developingon browsers, and various entities may develop

3.3.2 Rights Handling of Open Data

contents as long as they have and establishedIn addition, rights handling need to beinternetenvironment.

The

researchused

conducted to display “usage rules applicable for

LinkData App to develop the sightseeing event

secondary usage” when converting to open data.

guid application, “Arukou! (Let’s Walk) Guide

We referred to Creative Commons Japan

(15)

and

(Figure 7).”

notated licenses for respective data.
Many of the open data by local governments
possess “CC-BY” license, which only requires
display of credit for the original author, andpermits changes and usage for commercial
purposes. The license has the least amount oflimitations among Creative Commons Licenses,
and data licensed can be widely used. Nagoya,
Higashi-ku’s superior organization, also discloses
open data with “CC-BY” license. Following suchcircumstances, the test-converted open data
were disclosed as data with “CC-BY” license upon
obtaining approval from the executive committee.

Figure 7 “Arukou! Guide” Screen Display
Example4. 
Application Developments with Utilization
4.2 Application Featuresof Open Data

A guiding feature that urges tourists to

4.1 System Development

participate in sightseeing events was thought toAn event guide application for mobile devices

be an effective application feature. In order towas prototyped upon utilizing the test-converted

achieve this, information on the official website
38

CW6_A8350_04_D02.indd38

2016/09/29

13:28:25

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. 9 No. 1 Sep. 2016

were used for missing information together withthat link to spot detail pages on the official

test-converted open data (Figure 8).

website, display bus route information and link to
bus

route

schedules

disclosedbytheTransportation Bureau City of Nagoya by bus
service were also added. The route guideprovided by Google Maps was also linked todisplay routes leading to the destination toachieve an even smoother sightseeing guide. The
feature was added through using Google Maps
JavaScript API v3 made public by Google.

“Research venue” feature
The feature enables searching for spots within
the area from a list. Similar to the “Research

Figure 8 Coordination with the Official Website

surroundings” feature, the application added
In addition to event details held in spots,features that link to the spot details page of theinformation to access sightseeing spots in which

official website and guide through routes.

the events are held are also necessary to guide

Keyword searches for spot names and time were

through sightseeing events. Conventional printed

also enabled by adding a search window, andpamphlets only display access information

made selection of information possible for users.

through maps, and event information were only

“Research bus” featuregrouped by spot. On the other hand, application

Because “Arukou Bunka no Michi!” is held in

guides enable event searches by genre andthe Cultural Path area, aimlessly walking in thetimefor event details, and may be added bus

event would be quite exasperating even for

information and routes in addition to maps for

adults. Following such circumstances, a searchaccess information. In addition, information thatfunction for bus routes running within the area

was missing in the test-converted open data were

was added. Bus routes are listed to see spots

compensated by coordinating also with thealong the way at a glance. In addition, features

official website. Materializing these guidingthat links to the spot details page of the official

features enable tourists themselves to selectwebsite and guides through routes were also

information as desired and create an event guide

added, similar to the previous features.

customized to individual tourists compared to“Research events” feature
The feature enables searching by genre andconventional methods.

time for events held within the area, and lists

Features of the “Arukou! Guide” are as follows:“Research surroundings” feature

results. Detailed information for events listed canThis feature enables searching for spots andalso be viewed. In addition to information

bus stops within 500m-radius of the user’s current

included in the pamphlet, map information

location by using the GPS feature of mobile

around the venue through Google Maps, venue

devices. Spots and bus stops are listed in order of

pictures taken from the official website, andproximity to the user’s current location. Featurestransportation methods to event venues are
39

CW6_A8350_04_D02.indd

39

2016/09/29

13:28:26

A Proposal for Open Data of Sightseeing Event Information

URATA et al

displayed.

“Research nearby stations” features

4.3.2 Results

This feature enables researching of train

For the four features that used the test-

stations within the area together with surrounding

converted open data for the research, participants

areas. The feature considers needs when tourists

evaluated on a scale of 5 (5: Strongly agree, 4:head home after the event, and by adding route

Agree, 3: Neither, 2: Don’t agree as much, 1:

guide functions as similar to the previous

Disagree). For the event guiding method as well,features, the application can present smooth

the application and leaflet were compared on aroutes heading home to tourists.

scale of 5 (5: The app helped, 4: The app helpedslightly more, 3: Same, 2: The pamphlet helped

4.3 Demonstration Experimentslightly

4.3.1 Outline

Evaluations on features are indicated on the top

more,

1:

The

pamphlethelped).

A demonstration experiment was conducted topart of Figure 9, and the evaluations comparedverify the usefulness of the application thatwith the pamphlet are indicated on the bottom

utilized the test-converted open data. The

part of Figure 9.

usefulness of the event guiding feature wascompared with the pamphlet, the conventional
guiding method. The promotion of open data onsightseeing event information will be discussed
through the experiment results.
The experiment was conducted on the “Dai 15
kai Arukou! Bunka no Michi (15th Annual Let’s
Walk the Cultural Path).” There were a total of 22participants including students and general event
participants. Ages ranged from 20s to 50s, withparticipants in their 20s construing 80％ overall.
Participants gathered at the former residence of
Sasuke Toyoda in the center of the Cultural Path,and each toured around the area using thepamphlet and application for about six hours after
receiving explanation on how to use the

Figure 9 Experiment Results

application. With 27 spots scattered within the
The app generally received good evaluation forarea, the participants went around as they
wished. After certain time passed, all participants

allquestions.

Accordinggathered at the former residence of Sasuke

pertaining to “ease of understanding accessToyoda once again, and answered questions on

information”

the evaluation sheet.

application and pamphlet, the app was easier tocomparatively

to

the

question

evaluating

theunderstand than the pamphlet. In addition,comments such as “Content categorization was
40

CW6_A8350_04_D02.indd

40

2016/09/29

13:28:26

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. 9 No. 1 Sep. 2016

helpful in searching what I wanted,” “Details ofTransportation

events were easy to see” were written in the free-

employees.

answer question, indicating that the guiding

commented, “The event guiding features such as

application successfully assisted tourists toevent searches and route guide are excellent,”

participate in events. As for the types ofand “I have always wanted to guide like this but

information, the experiment revealed needs for

couldn’t. This system is just what we wanted.”

information on restaurants, public restrooms,

Transportation Bureau City of Nagoya employees

parking and resting areas.

also commented, “This is the first case example
in4.3.3 Discussion
Throughwhich

BureauExecutive

open

City

of

Nagoyacommittee

members

data

disclosedbytheTranspor tation Bureau City of Nagoya wasthedemonstration

experimentutilized,” and “Examples like this is very

results, it was verified that the application

meaningful for open data to cultivate.”features were useful to tourists following the

The application developed in this research washigh evaluation points for all features that usedvery well-received by both parties. As the first

open data. In addition, results from comparing

case for the Transportation Bureau City of

the application and pamphlet indicated that

Nagoya’s open data to be utilized, the application

converting

information

conventionally

that

have

been

also contributed to the promotion of open data forcommunicated

by

local

Nagoya.

governments to open data enables tourists to

As a result of such positive feedback, we haveselect information they want, and assist in having

received requests from the “Computerization

tourists efficiently participate in sightseeing

Promotion Department” of Nagoya that isevents. The testing of open data for conventional

responsible for promoting open data starting thisinformation using LinkData as conducted in thefiscal year to work with them in open data

research can be concluded as an useful method

promotion. In addition, the conversion to open

to

data

createnew

publicservices

for

local

demonstrated

in

the

researchwasgovernments. Open data promotions by local

interpreted as not increasing work for local

governments

governments,

try

to

disclose

information

and

the

sightseeing

event

responding to various needs amid vast operations

information for the “Dai 16 kai Arukou! Bunka

to create new public services. As indicated in thisno Michi” to be held this year has been decided toresearch, however, converting information thatbe officially disclosed as Nagoya’s open data. The

has been conventionally communicated can also

testing of open data and its utilization aslead to creation of useful public services if

demonstrating in the research can be concluded

converted to open data upon consideringas having led to actual promotion of open data formachine readability.

local governments.

4.4 Research Achievements

5. Discussion of the Research Overall

The application developed in this research was
well-received by the “Arukou Bunka no Michi!”executive

committee

membersThe

andresearch

conducted

testinganddemonstration of open data conversion to41

CW6_A8350_04_D02.indd

41

2016/09/29

13:28:26

A Proposal for Open Data of Sightseeing Event Information

URATA et alpromote open data for conventional municipal

to prepare for secondary use through machine

operations. The fact that the research results

processing. Formatting that is adequately legible

actually led to promotion of open data for local

for humans are thus desirable, and in turngovernments supports the interpretation that thechallenging to consider machine readability formethod used in the research is one way toconventional municipal operations. Therefore,

promote open data that possesses acceptability toopen data promotion through public-private

local governments. In order to connect thecooperation while also receiving cooperation

research results too future open data promotions,from experts including private businesses,

the promotion of open data upon considering

educational institutions and citizen groups. A

acceptability in the two stages of “informationcooperative attitude in working for open data

organization” and “information communication”

promotion is required such as having local

in conventional municipal operations will begovernments conduct open data promotion

discussed:

operations within an acceptable range so thatexperts will convert the information into

(1) Information organization
Local

governments

havemachine-readable format.
conventionallyIn addition, versatile information organization

organized information pertaining to operations

methods that are common with other regionsby using Excel. The information tend to notneed to be considered when actually organizing

consider machine readability, such as combining

information. For example, the field name forcells or having multiple information included inphone number information may differ by local

the same cell. On the other hand, the information

government, i.e. “Phone number,” “TEL” orcommunicated by local governments require“Number.” Standardizing such vocabulary willcomparatively little work for employees, including

enhance interoperability of contents utilizing

information gathering and organization, andopen data, and utilizations can be anticipated tomany can also be disclosed as open data as wellincrease. There are many regions already thatas possess value. Compiling the information into

have developed contents that utilized open dataa machine-readable format can thus anticipate

in advanced ways. Promoting open data while

effective utilization as open data. It is therefore

using such advanced cases as reference canimportant to conduct information organization

anticipate increased utilization and facilitate openwith an eye for open data conversion beforehanddata promotions with higher acceptability. The

when organizing collected information.

Japanese government is currently working on

On the other hand, there are limits for local

the Public Vocabulary Framework Project(17) as

governments to organize information withpart of its measures to assist vocabularymachine-readable formatting when considering

standardization.

acceptability for local governments. Information

establish and develop versatile formatting whilegathering in conventional operations involve

also effectively taking advantage of suchorganization and compiling of information formeasures.

Local

governments

shouldemployees to manage and view, or to consign
operations to private firms, instead of organizing
42

CW6_A8350_04_D02.indd42

2016/09/29

13:28:26

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. 9 No. 1 Sep. 2016

and a demonstration experiment using this(2) Information communication
Local governments are communicating theirapplication was conducted in the “Dai 15 kaiorganized information through various media.

Arukou! Bunka no Michi (15th Annual Let’s Walk

Information communication through websites

the Cultural Path)” held in Higashi-ku, Nagoya.

has become the norm after digitalization of

The demonstration experiment revealed theregions, and most of open data from local

application’s usefulness, and demonstrated thatgovernments are disclosed on their respective

the open data prototype on sightseeing event

websites. Publicity departments are generally

information was also useful. In addition, as an

responsibly for local government websites, butachievement of this research, the sightseeing

much of the information communicated belong

event information for the “Dai 16 kai Arukou!

to different departments. On the other hand,

Bunka no Michi (16th Annual Let’s Walk theinformation departments are responsible forCultural Path)” is scheduled to be disclosed as

open data promotion for most local governments.

Nagoya’s open data. Based on the above, theThe promotion of open data with consideration ofpromotion

acceptability for local governments thus requires

municipal operations with consideration forstrengthening of cooperation upon obtaining

acceptability of local governments was discussed.

publicity departments that manage the website

When considering the interoperability ofandrespective

departments

that

of

open

data

for

conventional

applications that will become public services,

possess

vocabulary

information to become open data.

standardization

needs

to

be

Website and open data linkage systems are

conducted for open data formatting disclosed bycurrently being developed by private enterprises,

local governments. Wide-area cooperation will

including CMS (Contents Management System)

also become necessary so that the formattingthat converts entered data on websites into

using standardized vocabulary can be used withappropriate formatting as open data . Usage ofversatility. For example, the Shinetsu region thatthese systems will anticipate further promotion ofincludes Nagano and Niigata is regularly holding

open data conversion for conventional information.

open data conferences with experts, and is(18)

receiving good reviews on its promotion of open

6. Conclusion

data. The true value of open data promotion shallbe revealed by expanding such measures to

The research aimed to establish open data
promotion

throughconventionalvarious regions and creating connections. It ismunicipal

important for the achievements acquired in thisoperations, and developed an application upon

research to not be a mere case example, andtesting open data conversion of a sightseeing

instead increase cases pertaining to open data

event hosted by a local government. Sightseeing

promotion. We plan to continue with our research

event information on the pamphlet distributed byso that it will contribute to vitalization of thethe local government was organized and test-

information society.

converted into open data. The data was thenleveraged to develop an application for mobile

Acknowledgements

devices that guide through sightseeing events,

We sincerely thank Mr. Fukumi KATO who made43

CW6_A8350_04_D02.indd

43

2016/09/29

13:28:26

A Proposal for Open Data of Sightseeing Event Information
great effort during the research, as well as everyone

URATA et al
digitalization of Higashi-ku. <http://higashinet.
net/nagoya/> Accessed 2015, October 18.

in “Higashi Net,” “Arukou! Bunka no Michi”
executive committee and the Transportation

List of Fukui prefecture’s open data <http://(10) 

Bureau City of Nagoya. This research was

w w w. p r e f . f u k u i . j p / d o c / t o u k e i - j o u h o u /supported under the Grants-in-Aid for Scientificopendata/category.html>

Accessed2015,

October 18.

Research (KAKENHI), No.25280131, 15K00448,(11) List of Toyohashi’s open data <http://www.city.

and 15K16097.

toyohashi.lg.jp/16399.htm>

Notes

Accessed2015,

October 18.

(1) List of Japan’s open data cities <http://fukuno.jig.

A website operated by LinkData. More than(12) 

jp/2013/opendatamap> Accessed 2015, October

2,500 datasets have been uploaded, of which a18.

little less than 2,000 are disclosed as open data.

<http://linkdata.org/> Accessed 2015, October(2) Public cloud system https://www.chiikinogennki.
soumu.go.jp/k-cloud-api/ > Accessed 2015,18.

October 18.

(13) Dataset “Arukou! Bunka no Michi 2014”<http://linkdata.org/work/rdf1s1870i>(3) Acceptability of local governments refer to new

Accessed 2015, October 18.

concepts and technology being accepted upon

The Transportation Bureau City of Nagoya’s(14) 

acquiring understanding and endorsement fromopen data <http://www.kotsu.city.nagoya.jp/

the local government and its employees.
(4) Code for Shiga/Biwako <http://opendata.shiga.

about/opendata/> Accessed 2015, October 18.

jp/> Accessed 2015, October 18.

Creative(15) 

CommonsJapan<http://creative

commons.jp/> Accessed 2015, October 18.

(5) Open Data Use Case Contest <http://openlabs.

(16) LinkData

go.jp/opendata_contest/usecase/products_
report.htm> Accessed 2015, October 18.

App<http://app.linkdata.org/>

Accessed 2015, October 18.

(6) Higashi-ku is located in the heart of Nagoya with(17) Public Vocabulary Framework Project <http://

an area of 77km and population of approximately

goikiban.ipa.go.jp/> Accessed 2015, October2

75,000 (as of March 2015).

18.

(7) According to results from “Survey on Usage Timeof

Information

Communication

Media

Examples include “4Uweb/CMS” by Hitachi(18) 
Government & Public Sector Systems, Ltd. andandInformation Activities” conducted by MIC in“i-City Portal” by Fujitsu Limited.

2014, smartphone ownership rates are 68.6％
among ages 10-19, and 94.1％ among ages 20-29.

References

Official website of Arukou! Bunka no Michi(8) Aoki, K. (2013). The problem of open data by Local<http://openlabs.go.jp/opendata_contest/

government (in Japanese), Proceedings of theusecase/products_report.htm> Accessed 2015,2013 Annual Meeting of the Society of Socio-

October 18.

Informatics, 2013, pp. 211-216.

(9) Higashi Net is a citizen group that operates mainly

Arai, I., Itani, T., IZUMI, M., Iwanami, K., Rakebayashi,

in Higashi-ku, Nagoya. It operates the community

R., Hirashima, Y., Matsuda, Y., & Nakata, K.

site “Higashi Net,” and is involved in the(2014). A Trial of Active Learning in Code for X

44

CW6_A8350_04_D02.indd

44

2016/09/29

13:28:26

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. 9 No. 1 Sep. 2016
and Open Data (in Japanese), Proceedings of the

Infosocionomics Society, Vol.8, No.1, pp. 51-62.

Multimedia, Distributed, Cooperative, and Mobile

Shimizu, T. (2013). Application Development with

Symposium (DICOMO2014), 2014, pp. 1532-1538.

Open

Code for Shiga/Biwako (2014). Tiiki syougyou

Data

in

Hackathon(inJapanese),

Transactions of the Academic Association for

sinkou wo neratta Biwako dai hanabi taikai no

Organizational Science, Vol.2, No.1, pp. 38-43.

Open Data to korekara (Open Data Utilization andShoji, M. (2012), Toward Utilization of Open Data in

the Future of the “Biwako Great Fireworks Festival”

Japan (in Japanese), IPSJ SIG Technical Report,

Targeting Regional Commerce Promotion) (inVol.2012-EIP-58, No.4, pp. 1-4.

< http://www.slideshare.net/

Hayada, Y. (2014). Junkan siten ni yoru Open Data

codeforshiga/ss-41610180> Accessed 2015, Octobersuisin heno teigen (Suggestions for Open Data

18.

Promotion from a “Circulating” Perspective) (inJapanese),

Fukuyasu, M., Ura, M., Yamada, M., Endo, M.,

Japanese), Chijou #119 Open Data Special Issue,

Miyazaki, S., & Yasuda, T. (2013). A Regional PR

Chapter 3, pp. 115-123.

Model by Providing Tourist Information as Open

Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications

API and Its problems (in Japanese), Proceedings(2014). Tihou koukyou dantai ni okeru Open Dataof the 2013 Annual Meeting of the Society of Socio-no

Informatics, 2013, pp. 199-202.

Governmental Bodies) (in Japanese), Tiiki ni

doukou

(Open

Data

Trendsin

Local

Hayashi, K. (2007). Jimu jigyou no kourituka ni

okeru ICT rikatuyou no genjou tou ni kansuru

mukete: Jichitai gyomu kaikaku no gutaiteki

cyousa kenkyuu (Research Investigation on

syuhou (Streamlining Office Operations: Specific

Current Conditions in ICT Usage and Utilization

Methods to Innovate Municipal Operations) (inin Region) (in Japanese), Chapter 6, pp. 41-48.

Japanese), NRI Public Management Review,

The Strategic Headquarters for the Promotion of an

Vol.49, pp.1-5 <https://www.nri.com/jp/opinion/

Advanced Information and Telecommunications

region/> Accessed 2015, October 18.

Network Society (IT Strategic Headquarters)

Koike, Y., Fukuyasu, M., Urata, M., Endo, M. Naka,(2015). Open Data wo hajimeyou: tiho koukyou

T., Miyazaki, S., Yasuda, T. (2014). Local

dantai no tameno saisyono tebikisyo (Let’s Start

Informatization Activities and Its Future Prospects

Open Data: The First Handbook for Local

forJapanese),

Governmental Bodies) (in Japanese), <https://

Proceedings of the 3th Meeting of Chubu Branch,www.kantei.go.jp/jp/singi/it2/densi/kettei/

the Society of Socio-Informatics, SSICJ2014-1, pp.

opendate_tebikisyo.pdf>, Accessed 2015, October

Open

Data

Promotion

(in

18.

33-36.

Sugimoto, K., & Ikeda, T. (2015). Geo-Visualization ofCity of Nagoya (2011). Rekishi matizukuri senryaku(inTourism Statistics Data on a Web-Based GIS (inJapanese), <http://www.city.nagoya.jp/kurashi/

Japanese), The International Journal of Tourism

categor y/11-2-12-1-0-0-0-0-0-0.html > Accessed

Science, Vol.8, pp. 163-168.

(Historical

Town

Planning

Strategies)

2015, October 18.

Local Authorities Systems Development Center

Nishida, R., & Onozuka R. (2013). Why Does Sabae(2014). Tihou koukyou dantai ni okeru Open

City Promote “Open Data”? : A study of “Data City

Government no suishin ni kansuru tyousa kenkyu

Sabae” (in Japanese), The Journal of the(Research Investigation on Promotion of Open45

CW6_A8350_04_D02.indd

45

2016/09/29

13:28:26

A Proposal for Open Data of Sightseeing Event Information

URATA et al

Government for Local Governmental Bodies) (inJapanese).

46

CW6_A8350_04_D02.indd

46

2016/09/29

13:28:26

Editor’s Notes
We are very pleased to announce the publication of Volume 9 of Journal of Socio-Informatics. Throughthe peer review process, one of the two submitted papers has been accepted as original paper. This issue
has also two translated papers from the Japanese version of Socio-Informatics (Shakai-Joho-Gaku).
We want to provide a kind of fruitful public space open to every researcher who has interest in socioinformatics from all over the world. We are inviting you, our readers, to submit papers on socioinformatics or other related fields. The Call For Papers of next volume of JSI is available on http://www.
ssi.or.jp/eng/.
Cordial greetings,

The Editor

CW6_A8350_05_E01.indd

1

2016/09/29

10:39:29

Editorial Board of The Society of Socio-Informatics
Editor in Chief
Yorio KITAMURA, Ritsumeikan University
Editor in Subchief
Kaoru ENDO, Gakushuin University
Seiichiro SAKURAI, Meiji Gakuin University
Takahiro KAWAMATA, The University of Nagasaki

Editorial Board Members
Hisaki GOTO, Kyushu Sangyo University
Reiko GOTOH, Ibaraki University
Akira HATTORI, Komazawa University
Hirofumi IMADA, Hiroshima Bunka Gakuen University
Kenichi ITO, Gunma University
Atsushi IWAI, Gunma University
Nobuaki KAWAI, Jissen Women’s University
Sangmi KIM, Nagoya University
Satoshi KITAMURA, Tokyo Keizai University
Keita MATSUSHITA, Jissen Women’s University
Sayaka MATSUMOTO, Otsuma Women’s University
Hitoshi MORITA, The University of Nagasaki
Hiromichi NAKAMORI, Nihon University
Tetsuo NODA, Shimane University
Atsuhiko OHKUNI, Sapporo Gakuin University
Morihiro OGASAHARA, Kansai University
Isamu OKADA, Soka University
Yasunori OKADA, Shizuoka University
Naoya SEKIYA, The University of Tokyo
Kuniomi SHIBATA, Tsuda College
Kayoko YAMAMOTO, The University of Electro-Communications
Hitoshi YAMAMOTO, Rissho University
Hiroshi YOSHIDA, Shizuoka University
Jun YOSHIDA, Kyoto University

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol.9, No.1
Sep., 2016
Published
The Society of Socio-Informatics (SSI)
MITAKA Business Park SOHO A-301 1-12-17 Kamirenjaku,
Mitaka Tokyo 181-0012 Japan
Tel. & Fax. 0422-54-4633
Print/Binding
Shobi Printing Co., Ltd.

CW6_A8350A02.indd

58

2016/09/29

10:39:33