The Social Function of Interdependent Happinessin a Time of Pandemic(Economy and Society Study Group Commentary No. 8)

Hitokoto Hidefumi
Associate Professor, School of Humanities
Kwansei Gakuin University

Takahashi Yoshiaki
Professor, Department of Economics
Meikai University

1. Pandemic and Happiness
The impact of COVID-19 pandemic has extended to the social life of individuals and to the social
economy that underpins it. In particular, a number of socio-behavioral patterns such as social
distancing, the stay home lifestyle, and shortened business hours, widely practiced ascountermeasures against the pandemic, are widely accepted as coping behaviors that rely on people’sclose relationships. As of 2021, they have now become established behavior in people’s social lives.
In such a social situation, it is especially required for people to have good relationships withfamily members and to lower the risk of ill-health. Even before a pandemic, happiness, which is at
the core of well-being, has been pointed out to mean a psychological sense of quiescence and harmony
in social relationships across cultures (Delle Fave et al., 2016). Hence, the pandemic can be seen asa threat to well-being itself.
2. Measurement of Happiness and Culture
Psychology has emphasized a personal agency or self-actualization, such as ideal fulfillment,achievement, and a sense of control, in measuring happiness. However, these aspects are only one
way of pursuing happiness, and we cannot ignore the sense of quiescence and relational harmony asfactors that support the pursuit of happiness across various cultures. In fact, conventional happinessscales that include the former as personal happiness items show higher scores in more individualisticcultures, such as those in the Western world (Myers and Diener, 1995). Alternatively, research using
the “interdependent happiness” scale, a standardized psychometric measure that includes the latter—sense of quiescence and interpersonal harmony, shows scores are higher in collectivist cultures suchas South America and East Asia (Hitokoto and Takahashi, 2021). This suggests that there is cultural
diversity in the connotations of happiness, and, at the same time, that it is important to understanddifferent types of happiness and their characteristics. For example, Hitokoto and Takahashi (2021)
found that, unlike in the Netherlands, interdependent happiness was stronger among the elderly inJapan and Costa Rica, suggesting that there may be cultural differences in the ways in which a senseof quiescence and interpersonal harmony, are cultivated or achieved. If familiar and supportive1

relationships are more fulfilling for the elderly, and if such perceptions vary across cultures, thenthere may be country-specific applications for the lifelong availability of so-called social capital.
3. Cooperative Well-being and Health in a Time of Pandemic
Previous studies have shown that the interdependent happiness scale is positively correlated with avariety of health indicators. For example, an epidemiological survey study of Japanese students
showed that interdependent happiness was correlated with students’ healthy lifestyle habits—lessabsenteeism and internet addiction, and “sleep quality” (Kitazawa et al., 2019). Sleep quality is also
known to worsen with higher levels of loneliness, a process that is fundamental for social animals(Cacioppo et al., 2006). For example, lonely primates exhibit a “conserved transcriptional responseto adversity (CTRA),” in which gene expression for inflammatory responses is promoted and that for
antiviral activity is suppressed. Measuring loneliness, psychological sense of quiescence andrelational harmony could provide empirical insight into the health of people that is fundamentally
sustained by their sociality.
Interestingly, interdependent happiness is associated with fewer symptoms of coronavirus
infections in both East and West (Hitokoto and Adeclas, under review). It is not clear whether this ismediated by the physiological mechanisms described above, but, at least, partial mediation ofloneliness has been proven. In view of the social and health properties of interdependent happiness,individuals with high levels of this type of happiness are likely to have positive characteristics forpandemic coping through family relationships. In fact, in East Asia, where pandemic control has been
relatively successful, not only is interdependent happiness negatively correlated with symptoms ofcoronavirus infections, there is also a behavioral pattern of maintaining relationships throughtelecommunication with family and friends, even in situations where there is physical distance (e.g.,
living away from family for employment). Loneliness is a subjective feeling, and even without
physical distance, the feeling can be worsened through rejection by others (Cacioppo et al., 2006). If
the psychological effects of telecommunication include mitigation of loneliness, especially inpandemic situations where physical closeness to others carries a risk of infection, the patterns of
behavior using information and communication technologies by individuals with a strong
interdependent happiness may provide clues to healthy living in the age of “With Corona.”
References
Cacioppo, J. T., Hawkley, L. C., Ernst, J. M., Burleson, M., Berntson, G. G., Nouriani, B., and Spiegel,
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Hitokoto, H. and Takahashi, Y. (2021). Interdependent happiness across age in Costa Rica, Japan, andthe Netherlands. Asian Journal of Social Psychology, 24, 445-462.
Kitazawa, M., Yoshimura, M., Hitokoto, H., Sato-Fujimoto, Y., Murata, M., Negishi, K., Mimura, M.,
Tsubota, K., and Kishimoto, T. (2019). Survey of the effects of Internet usage on the happinessof Japanese university students. Health and Quality of Life Outcomes, 17, Article 151.
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This is an English translation of the article posted on the NPI website on March 3, 2022.

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