Refereed Original Paper
The Effects of Generalized Trust and Group Identification
on Social Support Networks and Feelings of Stress inJapan: Comparing Face-to-face and Instant Messaging1)
Keywords:
Generalized trust, Group identification, Social support networks, Feelings of stress, Instant messaging

Shaoyu YE, University of Tsukuba

Abstract
This study focused on international students (ISs) studying in Japan and investigated (a) the
effects of their generalized trust and group identification on their social support networks (SSNs)
with Japanese people, same-language speakers, and other-language speakers; (b) their SSNs
formed through face-to-face (FTF) communication and instant messaging (IM) usage; and (c)whether these relationships differed between Chinese ISs and other ISs, as over 60% of ISs in
Japan are Chinese, who more easily form in-groups than other ISs. A self-report questionnaire
survey was conducted in 2018, and the following results were observed based on 209 valid
responses. (a) ISs with higher levels of generalized trust felt less stress, while ISs with higher
levels of group identification felt more stress. (b) ISs with higher levels of generalized trust wereable to receive more social support from Japanese people and other-language speakers, but only
social support from Japanese people helped decrease their feelings of stress in Japan. (c) ISs withhigher levels of group identification tended to form larger SSNs with same-language speakers andreceived more social support from them, which in turn, led them to feel more stress. (d) The
above results were found both in SSNs formed via FTF communication and through IM usage. (e)For non-Chinese ISs, their group identification did not lead them to receive more social support
from the same-language speakers. The results suggest that it is necessary to distinguish theeffects of generalized trust toward out-group members between Japanese people and otherlanguage speakers when examining ISs’ intercultural adaptation.

Received: 2 February 2021; Accepted: 9 June 2021

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The Effects of Generalized Trust and Group Identification on Social Support Networks and Feelings of Stress in Japan: Comparing Face-to-face and Instant MessagingYE

therefore

1. Introduction

considered“in-group”

members.

Conversely, they may have a lower level ofTrust is fundamental to social life. Trust is

generalized trust toward others, especially local

described as people’s belief in the good intentions

residents (hosts), who are considered “out-of others— that is, the intentions of others not togroup” members owing to cultural differences,do harm, to respect people’s rights, and to carrylanguage boundaries, and so on. Based on thisout1998).

distinction, Ye (2018) found that ISs with higher

According to Yamagishi (1998) and Yamagishi

levels of generalized trust were able to receive

and Yamagishi (1994), there are two types ofmore social support from Japanese people, whichtrust: generalized trust and particularistic trust.

led them to experience a greater sense ofGeneralized trust is a general belief in humanacceptance in Japan. No similar effects could be

benevolence, suggesting that trustworthiness is

detected for those who received more social

an aspect of human nature and that most people

support from those with the same mothercan be trusted, with some exceptions. By

language (“same-language speakers” below).

contrast, particularistic trust or assurance arises

However, the effects of other- language speakers

from secure relationships with particular others.

were not studied.

theirobligations(Yamagishi,

Prior research has pointed out that these two

Another important factor that influences

types of trust may play different roles in thepeople’s tolerance level is group identification.

formation and maintenance of social networks.

According to the social identity theory, theSince generalized trust encourages people togroups to which people belong are an important

approach others to form social relationships,

source of pride and self-esteem (Tajfel & Turner,

people with a higher level of generalized trust are1986). Groups give people a sense of social

more likely to cooperate with strangers compared

identity— a sense of belonging to the social world

to those with a lower level (Yamagishi, 1986). On(Tajfel & Turner, 1986; Shuter, 2012). To improve

the other hand, particularistic trust—assurance

their self-image, people enhance the status of themarked by emotional connectedness—may help

group to which they belong. Therefore, people

people maintain narrow social relationships.

divide the world into an in-group (us) and an out-

Once relationships are formed, people maygroup (them). Based on these groupings, it isrequire a sense of emotional connection withreasonable to believe that ISs with higher levels

those others to maintain secure and committedof group identification may tend to communicatesocial relationships. Therefore, people may notwith a greater number of same-language

feel encouraged to seek out new social

speakers,

opportunities by finding and forming new social

opportunities to communicate with Japaneserelationships. This would be more obvious whenpeople and other- language speakers. However,people encounter out-group members.

because there are also other-language speakers

which

would

decrease

theirInternational students (ISs) who study in Japan

from other countries, it is necessary to clarify

may feel strong assurance toward other ISs,

these roles as they may be categorized as “in-especially those from the same country, as theygroup” members when the definition is “non-share more similarities than differences and areJapanese speakers” but “out-group” members
2Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. 14 No. 1 Sep. 2021

when the definition is based on the “same motherIn fact, Kim (2003) conducted a survey in 2002

language” and “same cultural background.”and found that ISs used cell phones to make voice

Therefore, this study also compared the effects

calls to same-language speakers only rather thanof generalized trust toward Japanese people andsending text messages to Japanese people.

other language speakers.

Therefore, she suggested that ISs’ use of cellPrevious studies (e.g., Tanaka, 2000) havephone voice calls may inhibit their communicationsuggested that increased communication with

with Japanese people and thus hinder theirhosts would be an effective way for ISs to better

understanding

adapt to Japanese society. Forming stable andacquisition of the Japanese language, and so on.

fruitful relationships with Japanese people is

Additionally, Ye and Murota (2014) conducted alikely to lead to an enhanced ability to cope withsurvey in early June 2011 and found a significant

stress and improve adaptation. Such beneficial

relationship between ISs’ communication media

relationships are known as “social support

usage and adaptation situations. Their results

networks” (SSNs), a general psychological term

indicated that cell phone usage (especially text

referring to personal relationships expected tomessages) had a particularly positive effect onprovide both tangible and intangible support andISs’ satisfaction improvement, with this positive

promote intercultural adaptation. Therefore, thiseffect exceeding that of computer usage.

study proposed the following hypotheses:

However, whether the communication partnersofJapanese

culture,their

H1: ISs with higher levels of generalized trust

were Japanese or same-language speakers was

will be able to form larger SSNs with Japanese

not clarified. Furthermore, Ye (2017) indicatedpeople and other-language speakers and receivethat while face-to-face (FTF) communication

more social support from them. However, only

could help decrease ISs’ levels of maladaptationsocial support from Japanese people will help

in Japan, communication through voice calls, IM,them decrease their feelings of stress.

or email had no such effect, as these SSNs

H2:

ISs

with

higherlevelsofgroupincluded a greater number of same-language

identification will form larger SSNs with same-

speakers than Japanese speakers and other-language speakers and receive more social

languagesupport from them, which will, in turn, increase

proposed the following hypothesis:

speakers.

Therefore,

this

study

H3: H1 and H2 will be more obvious when ISs

their feelings of stress in Japan.
Furthermore, compared to two decades ago,

communicate through IM than via FTF.

the spread of mobile devices and social media

Regarding ISs’ social support received frommeans that ISs use various kinds of media,

others, Jou (1993) found that this support could be

especially instant messaging (IM) (e.g., WeChat,

categorized into four areas (research/study, humanLINE), to communicate with same-language

relationships, emotional, and environmental-

speakers, as IM allows ISs to use their mothercultural) and four types (tangible, mental,

language, rather than Japanese or English. This

directive, and informational). Following on thishad led to a decreasing motivation and necessity

finding, Ye (2018) indicated that, among the fourfor ISs to form “strong ties” with Japanese local

areas and four types, ISs received most social

people.

support in the human relationship, emotional,
3

The Effects of Generalized Trust and Group Identification on Social Support Networks and Feelings of Stress in Japan: Comparing Face-to-face and Instant MessagingYE

and environmental/cultural areas and of thehave a strong group identification toward SLSs

mental and informational types from same-and rely on them to receive more social support,

language speakers. They received most social

but such support may not help them fully

support in the research/study and environmental/

understand the Japanese culture and improve

cultural areas and of the material, directive andtheir communication skills with Japanese people.

mental types from Japanese people. On this basis,

Therefore, they may feel more stressed. This

this study investigated the effects of social

would be more obvious among Chinese ISs, as

support from Japanese people, same-language

they easily form relationships with other Chinese

speakers, and other-language speakers.

ISs. On the other hand, ISs with a longer length

Additionally, in Japan, over 90% of ISs are fromof stay in Japan and/or longer length of learning

Asia, and over 60% are Chinese ISs (JASSO,

of the Japanese language and higher level of the2020), who find it comparatively easy to form in-Japanese/English language proficiency may

groups with other Chinese ISs. This is in contrast

have a higher level of generalized trust and beto others who may find it difficult to form in-able to communicate with more Japanese people

groups with same-language speakers and might

to receive more social support. This will help

rely on Japanese people and other- language

them understand the Japanese culture, etc., andspeakers. Therefore, this study also examineddecrease their level of stress. Moreover, this will

the following hypothesis:

be more obvious among non-Chinese ISs,

H4: The previous three hypotheses will beespecially those who do not easily form in-groups.

obvious for those ISs, such as Chinese ISs, who

2. Research Methodfind it easy to form in-groups, while they will bedifferent for those ISs who do not find it easy to

To examine the issues raised above, a self-

form in-groups.
Based on these findings and discussions, thereport survey (pencil-and-paper version and web

present study investigated the model shown inversion) was conducted from June to July 2018.2)

Figure 1 and compared the differences andWe prepared the survey in Japanese, English,

similarities between Chinese ISs and other ISs

Chinese (Simple and Traditional), and Korean

and their SSNs formed via IM and FTF. In Figure

and allowed the ISs to freely select the version

1, “Demographics” refers to age, length of stay inthey wished to answer. The English version was

Japan, length of learning of the Japanesetranslated by the author and received English-

language,

languagenative speakers’ proofing; the Chinese andproficiency, and experience of doing a part-time

Korean versions were translated by nativejob. The “SSNs with JSs/SLSs” includes ISs

speakers of Chinese and Korean, whose Japanese

numberJapaneseofandEnglishcommunication

partners,

language proficiency was close to that of Japanesefrequency,

level

of

native speakers. All versions were confirmed bysatisfaction with their relationships. For example,

back translation. The participants were ISs

ISs with a shorter length of stay in Japan and/or

enrolled at several general national universities

shorter length of learning of the Japanesein the Kanto Region of Japan. They received

language and limited Japanese language may

instructions (in either oral or written form)

communication

and4

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. 14 No. 1 Sep. 2021

Figure 1. The model analyzed in this study
before answering concerning the storage of their

TOEFL-iBT, TOEIC, and self- evaluation ofdata, free and informed consent, freedom to

Englishcooperate and withdraw without penalty in thelistening, speaking, and writing as compared tocase of not agreeing to cooperate, privacy andan adult native English speaker, reported as aprotection of personal information, and so on. A

percentage), 4) living situation, experience with/total of 213 ISs submitted their responses. Four

frequency of doing part-time jobs, and so on (seeincomplete responses were eliminated, and theTable 1 for details).

language

proficiency

inreading,remaining 209 responses were analyzed. When

Additionally, 13 items were chosen fromcompared with the sample size in Ye (2017) andYamagishi and Yamagishi (1994) to measure theYe (2018) of 99 and 206, respectively, the sample

participants’ level of generalized trust. A further

size in this study was considered to be sufficient.

12 items were chosen from Karasawa (1991) to

The questionnaire survey included three parts:

measure group identification. In this study, inPart A, Part B, and Part C. The content in each

addition to other scales, the respondents werepart was as follows:

asked to use a five-point scale (“5. Strongly
agree”; “3. Neither”; “1. Strongly disagree”) toPart A gathered personal information, whichrate each of the items.

included demographic data (e.g., gender, age,nationality, and academic standing), total length

Part B measured the ISs’ use of media,

of stay in Japan, Japanese language learning

including regular smartphones, computers, daily

history, level of Japanese language ability (scoretime spent accessing the Internet via theseand level from the Japanese Language Proficiency

devices (“8. Over 6 hours”; “1. Don’t use”), 5) and

Test (JLPT), and self-evaluation of Japanesethe most frequently used social media. This part

language proficiency in reading, listening,of

speaking, and writing as compared to an adultparticipants’nativeacommunications. Following Tanaka’s (2000)

percentage), English language ability (score on

definition, “SSNs” were defined as “important

Japanesespeaker,reported

as

3)

5

the

study

gathered

SSNs

information

through

FTF

about

and

IM

The Effects of Generalized Trust and Group Identification on Social Support Networks and Feelings of Stress in Japan: Comparing Face-to-face and Instant MessagingYE

relationships in their daily lives,” and the ISs weredifferences among these variables.7) The results

asked to list UP TO 10 people they had met inindicated no significant differences among these

person or sent instant messages to over thevariables except for the length of learning of theprevious

Japanese language (t(192.8)=11.43, p<.05, malethreemonthsforimportantconversations. For each SSN, the ISs were asked

vs. female: 34.76 vs. 46.18).

to provide their contact person’s gender, age,

As Table 1 shows, more than 40% had received

nationality, relationship, frequency of contact

scholarships, over half of which were from(from “5. Almost every day” to “1. Seldom meet”),

MEXT, but only one third had a daily part-timeand place of residence (Japan; Home country;

job, which meant that 2/3 did not have many

Other

their

opportunities to communicate with Japanesesatisfaction with that person (“5. Very satisfied”;

people off the campus. Furthermore, over half of“3. No preference either way”; “1. Not satisfied atthem used computers to access the Internet forall”). Additionally, the ISs were asked whether

over four hours, which was longer thanthe person(s) listed in the SSNs via IM was/weresmartphone use.

country/region)

and

to

rate

also listed in those via FTF, and so on (Table 2).
Part C addressed the ISs’ feelings of stress

3.2 Configurations of SSNs and social support

using 11 items (“5. Very much” to “1. Not at all”)

Prior to examining the relationship shown inchosen from Tanaka (2000). The 14 items for

Figure 1, this study investigated the configurationsocial support were chosen from Okunishi andof each SSN. As indicated in Table 2, which

Tanaka (2008), and the respondents were asked

shows the average number of people interacting

whether they received social support from each

via IM and FTF and their relationships, theof three specific groups: Japanese people, same-largest number was in the category of SLSs via

language

IM usage, followed by SLSs via FTF, and Japanese

speakers,

andother-language

speakerss (Table 3).

people via FTF. The results show that over half of6)

the communication partners met in person werealso contacted by IM. And these had no

3. Results

relationship with gender.

3.1 Descriptive results

Table 3 shows the social support that ISs

Table 1 reports the details of the respondents

received from Japanese people, same-language

included in the study: 94.3% of the analyzed ISs

speakers, and other-language speakers. The

were regular course students. The top fiveresults show that ISs received the most social

nationalities were Chinese (including ISs fromsupport from same-language speakers in the

Hong Kong), South Korean, Indonesian, Thai,

human relationship and emotional areas and theandsimilarmaterial and informational types. They received

distribution to national survey results (JASSO,

the most social support from Japanese people in2020). Over one third of the ISs had passed thethe research/study area and type of mental, area

JLPT Level 1, and over 80% had taken at least oneof environment/culture and types of directiveof the English tests. This study conducted a t-test

and informational. This study further considered(independent example) to examine gender

whether such support might vary based on

Vietnamese,

which

shows

a

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Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. 14 No. 1 Sep. 2021

Table 1. Analyzed ISs’ information
Gender ratio

Males: 46.9%

Females: 52.6%

Age (in years)

24.5 years (SD: 4.4)
Undergraduate: 39.2%

Academic standing
Nationalities (Top 5)
History of stay in Japan

Other: 0.5%

Master’s: 34.0%

Doctoral: 21.1%

Research/Special research students: 4.8%

Others: 1.0%

Chinese: 49.4%

Korean: 7.7%

Indonesian: 7.2%

Thai: 4.3%

Vietnamese: 3.3%

31.1 months (SD: 21.4)

History of learning Japanese

41.1 months (SD: 38.9)

2)(JLPT-N1/L1 holders: 34.9%)

English language abilities

TOEIC: 37.8%

TOEFL: 29.2%

IELTS: 17.2%

Other: 1.9%

University dormitory: 24.9%

Dormitory for ISs only: 12.4%

Living place

Private rental housing: 60.3%

Rental/house share for foreigners: 1.0%

Other: 1.4%
Alone: 52.5%

Living with someone

With other ISs: 32.3%

With Japanese students: 2.0%
Yes: 44.5% (MEXT: 60.3%

ScholarshipWith family/relatives: 9.1%

Other: 4.0%
Private: 21.6%

Other: 18.1%)

No: 55.5%

Daily part-time job
Internet time (Computers)
Internet time (iPhone/Android)Internet time (iPad etc.)

Yes: 33.0%

No: 67.0%

Don’t use: 1.0%

-1h: 7.2%

1-2h: 12.0%

2-3h:14.8%

3-4h: 12.4%

4-5h: 14.4%

5-6h: 10.0%

Over 6h: 28.2%

Don’t use: 0.0%

-1h: 3.8%

1-2h: 17.2%

2-3h: 18.2%

3-4h: 22.5%

4-5h: 13.4%

5-6h: 5.7%

Over 6h: 19.1%

Don’t use: 63.6%-1h: 15.8%

1-2h: 10.0%

2-3h: 3.3%

3-4h: 2.9%

4-5h: 1.4%

5-6h: 0.5%

Over 6h: 2.4%

Table 2: ISs’ SSNs formed through IM and FTF
Total (same gender vs. cross-gender)

Japanese

SLSs

OLSs

6.11 (3.73 vs. 2.47)

1.12

4.16

.84

Contact frequency

3.89

10.53

2.86

Satisfaction with partners

4.91

18.87

3.45

1.35

2.03

.77

Contact frequency

4.93

6.89

2.85

Satisfaction with partners

5.80

8.81

3.28

Same person between IM & FTF

.60

1.38

.40

IM
Number of contacts

FTF
Number of contacts

4.15 (2.51 vs. 1.63)

7

The Effects of Generalized Trust and Group Identification on Social Support Networks and Feelings of Stress in Japan: Comparing Face-to-face and Instant MessagingYE

Table 3: ISs’ social support received from others
Received social support

Nationality
JSs

SLSs

OLSs

90.4%

73.7%

51.7%

2. Corrected my mistakes in Japanese when writing or speaking

75.1%

56.0%

38.8%

3. Explained Japanese culture and customs to me

38.8%

68.4%

46.9%

4. Became interested in my country’s culture and customs and tried to

82.8%

59.8%

65.1%

5. Helped me finish my homework and pass examinations

45.0%

47.8%

39.2%

6. Helped me conduct my research

58.4%

44.5%

38.8%

1. Explained the Japanese to me when I did not understand it, even after
reading or listening to it

understand them

7. Could be consulted when I experienced personal problems

47.4%

84.2%

45.9%

8. Encouraged me when I did not do well

57.4%

83.3%

54.5%

9. Invited me for dinner at home or had dinner on/off-campus

67.9%

86.6%

58.9%

10. Went out for leisure and to have fun together

58.9%

85.6%

60.3%

11. Gave me necessary/useful items

60.8%

83.3%

56.0%

12. Lent me money when I needed it

26.8%

63.2%

27.8%

13. Provided useful information for my life in the local area

81.3%

81.3%

57.4%

14. Told me how to conduct necessary procedures and provided

72.2%

74.2%

50.7%

information about important notices at the university

Table 4: ISs’ feelings of stress in Japan
Items

Mean

1. Understanding the real meaning of vague and unclear Japanese expressions

3.12

2. Completing necessary daily life tasks, for example, throwing away garbage, preparing meals, or

2.49

washing
3. Maintaining good relationships with Japanese people with whom I am in contact in my daily life

2.84

4. Knowing that once I leave my room, I enter a Japanese language world

2.17

5. Being in a situation in which Japanese people are laughing cheerfully, but I do not find it funny

2.74

6. Experiencing difficulty obtaining necessary daily living information

2.59

7. Wanting to study the Japanese language but not having an opportunity to practice it

2.60

8. Experiencing difficulty having intimate relationships with Japanese students

3.17

9. Getting special treatment because I am a foreigner

2.56

10. Feeling anxious about being in an emergency situation such as having a serious illness, being

2.89

injured, and so on
11. Being ignored when asking a Japanese person something or trying to join their conversations

8

2.44

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. 14 No. 1 Sep. 2021

gender, and the results indicated that females

support from same-language people, which, inreceived more social support from same-turn, increased feelings of stress when including

language speakers than males (t(185.24)= 1.403,

both Chinese ISs and non-Chinese ISs. (c)p<.01, males vs. females: 9.22 vs. 10.63).

Generalized trust had no effect on SSNs withJapanese people or other-language speakers,

3.3 Internal reliability for each scale

while group identification had a positive effect onThis study confirmed each scale’s internal

SSNs with same-language speakers.

reliability by calculating its Cronbach’s a : .86 forMeanwhile, the results indicated that (a)generalized trust, .88 for group identification andgeneralized trust had a positive effect on.81 for feelings of stress. These scales all showedreceiving more social support from Japanesevery high internal reliability. Therefore, thispeople and other-language speakers, but only

study used the total scores for each scale in thesocial support from Japanese people helped

following analysis. This study also conducted an

decrease feelings of stress. (b) In the case of IM

independent t-test to confirm whether there wereusage, there were slightly significant effects ofany differences due to gender. The results

demographic factors on SSNs with Japaneseindicated no differences among these scales.

people, but no similar effects could be found interms of FTF; moreover, demographic factors

3.4 
The relationships between generalized

had significant effects on SSNs with other-trust /group identification, SSNs, social

language speakers among non-Chinese ISs when

support, and feelings of stresscommunicating via IM. (c) Group identification

This study conducted SEM analysis to test theshowed a positive direct effect on social support

relationships as Figure 1 shows, comparing IMfrom same-language speakers when including

and FTF (Figures 2–5). Additionally, this study

both Chinese ISs and non-Chinese ISs, but noconducted multi-group SEM to detect whether

similar effects could be found among non-the relationships would differ between Chinese

Chinese ISs.

ISs and non-Chinese ISs. As a result, the goodnessof fit of the model for Chinese ISs was not high

4. Discussion

enough to adopt; therefore, only the relationships
for non-Chinese ISs comparing FTF and IM

The present study investigated the effects of

between Japanese people and same-language

ISs’ generalized trust and group identification on

speakers could be detected (Figure 6). All thetheir social networks with Japanese people, same-indexes, parameter estimates, and goodness of fit

language speakers, and other-language speakers

are shown in Figures 2–6.

formedthroughcommunication.

The following commonalities could be found:

IM

usage

Additionally,

and

FTF

this

study

(a) Generalized trust had a direct effect on

examined whether these relationships would

decreasing feelings of stress, while groupdiffer between Chinese ISs and non-Chinese ISs,

identification had a direct effect on increasing

as the former more easily form in-groups withfeelings of stress. (b) Group identification had aother Chinese ISs.
The results indicated that, when including

direct positive effect on receiving more social
9The Effects of Generalized Trust and Group Identification on Social Support Networks and Feelings of Stress in Japan: Comparing Face-to-face and Instant MessagingYE

Figure 2. Results for IM usage (Entire: Japanese vs. Same-language speakers)

Figure 3. Results for IM usage (Entire: Other-language speakers vs. Same-language speakers)
both Chinese ISs and non-Chinese ISs, those

only social support from Japanese people helpedwith higher levels of generalized trust were able

decrease their feelings of stress (H1). One of theto receive more social support from Japanesemain reasons for this might be the type of social

people and other-language speakers. However,support received. As Table 3 shows, ISs received
10

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. 14 No. 1 Sep. 2021

Figure 4. Results for FTF communication (Japanese vs. Same-language speakers)

Figure 5. Results for FTF communication (Other-language speakers vs. Same-language speakers)
most social support from Japanese people in the

support from other-language speakers overall

area of environmental-cultural and the type ofcompared

informational, etc., which helped them adapt

Japanese people. These results indicate thebetter. By contrast, ISs received the least social

necessity of distinguishing ISs’ generalized trust
11

tosame-language

speakers

andThe Effects of Generalized Trust and Group Identification on Social Support Networks and Feelings of Stress in Japan: Comparing Face-to-face and Instant MessagingYE

Figure 6. Results for FTF communication (Non-Chinese: Japanese vs. Same-language speakers)
Table 5. The average number of ISs’ SSNs in different period
Different
studies

FTF: Total
JSs

SLs

Contact persons via IM

IM: Total
OLSs

JSs

SLs

OLSs

in Japan / Home country / Other

7.76
Tanaka (2000)

4.14

Ye (2017) *This study

1.35

2.56

1.06

8.66 & 8.90

7.74 & 7.99

T1: 4.46

3.28

3.77 & 3.78

5.09 & 5.20

T2: 5.43

2.56

4.15

6.11
3.26

2.29

2.03

.77

1.12

4.16

.84

.41

* Note: Ye (2017) conducted a panel survey that measured the ISs’ SSNs in July 2014 and December 2014.
toward Japanese people from other-language

speakers, no effects could be found on theirspeakers, as they were all treated as “out-group”

forming SSNs with them. One of the main

members traditionally.

reasons might be the small size of their SSNs.

It was also expected that ISs with higher levels

Table 2 indicates that the average number ofof generalized trust would be able to form larger

same-language speakers was four times that of

SSNs with Japanese people and other- language

Japanese people and other-language speakers inspeakers and receive more social support from

SSNs formed via IM. Even for SSNs formed via

them. Although ISs with higher levels of

FTF communication, the average number ofgeneralized trust did receive more social support

same-language speakers was larger than that offromJapanese people and more than twice that ofJapanese

peopleandother-language
12

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. 14 No. 1 Sep. 2021

other-language speakers. In fact, the number ofChinese ISs to form in- groups with their same-

ISs’ SSNs (both FTF and IM) was smaller

language speakers and receive social support

compared to previous studies (Table 5). In

from them. These results suggest that group

particular, the percentage of same-language

identification has different effects on receiving

speakers in both FTF and IM was higher

social support from same-language speakers

compared to previous studies, which was higher

between Chinese ISs and non-Chinese ISs.

in IM (68.1%) than FTF (48.9%). In addition, theOne reason that no model with high goodness

ratio of contact person in home countries wasof fit can be found for Chinses ISs would be thehigher than in Ye’ study (2017). This wasdifficulty in defining “same-language speakers.”

consistent with the possibility that IM usage

According to previous studies, “same nationality”

promote ISs’ selective interpersonal relationships,

means “same-language speakers.” Based on this,as they can type messages and talk in their

this study included ISs from Hong Kong as

mother language by using IM in this “mobile X

Chinese ISs, who may have different perceptionssocial” period that Ye (2017) described. In thiscompared to those from mainland China. Thissense, H1 was partly supported and H3 wassuggests that it is necessary to divide them up

almost supported.

more concretely.

Additionally, ISs with higher levels of group

5. Implications and future work

identification formed larger SSNs with samelanguage speakers and received more social

5.1 Implications

support from them, which increased theirThefeelings of stress in Japan (H2). As Table 3 shows,results

indicatedthatraising

ISs’

ISs received the most social support from same-generalized trust of Japanese people would be

language speakers in the areas of human

helpful for receiving more social support from

relationships (e.g., personal problem solving)

Japanese people, which could help decrease theirand emotional, and the type of tangible (e.g.,

feelings of stress in Japan. For ISs with a higher

money lending), yet these support did not help

level of group identification, receiving morethem fully understand the Japanese culture orsocial support from same-language speakers

learn the Japanese language. Therefore, as they

does not help decrease their feelings of stress inremained unable to understand the JapaneseJapan. As ISs prefer to use IM to communicate

communication style and behaviors, their stressmore with same-language speakers than with

did not decrease.

Japanese people, it is necessary to aware that

Furthermore, when dividing the ISs intosuch usage could inhibit their communication

Chinese and non-Chinese, the results showedwith Japanese people from the perspective ofthat the group identification for non-Chinese ISs

better understanding of the Japanese culture andhad no direct effect on the social support received

learning of the Japanese language.

from same-language speakers through FTF

5.2 Future workcommunication (H4). As previously mentioned,

To date, the definition of “same-language

over 60% of the ISs in Japan were Chinese,

speakers” has been based on “nationality,” whichmeaning there were fewer opportunities for non-does not necessarily apply to some ISs. For
13

The Effects of Generalized Trust and Group Identification on Social Support Networks and Feelings of Stress in Japan: Comparing Face-to-face and Instant MessagingYE

example, some non-Chinese ISs used the Chinese

calculated as L2 score/400 x .08 or N2 score/ 180

version to answer the survey, although English is

x .08. (L2/N2’s level is approximately 80% of L1/

one of their official languages. Based on existing

N1’s.); (c) For ISs who did not take the JLPT, it wastheory, this study categorized them as “non-calculatedas:(self-evaluation

percentageofChinese ISs.” However, it is possible that these“listening” + “speaking” + “reading” + “writing”)/400.

ISs might have different perceptions and consider4) As TOEFL and TOEIC have different standards,

Chinese ISs as “same-language speakers.” It is

English ability was calculated as follows: (a) For anecessary to reconsider the definition of it in the

TOEIC score over 950, TOEIC score/10 + 8; for a

future.

TOEIC score of 901–950, TOEIC score/10+4; for a

It is necessary to note the generality of the

TOEIC score of 851–900, TOEIC score/10 + 3, andfindings in this study, as over 95% of the analyzed

so on; (b) For those who did not take any test,

targets were regular course students in generalproficiency was calculated as (self-evaluation

national universities in the Kanto Region. The

percentage of listening + speaking + reading +present study did not provide any findings for ISs
enrolled

inprivateuniversities,

writing)/400.

vocational5) Following Ye et al. (2017), the frequency of Internet

schools, or junior colleges. Furthermore, thisuse was converted as monthly; namely, “6” wasstudy did not investigate how ISs’ motivation

counted as “30,” “5” was counted as “25,” “1” wasrelates to their adaptation, as previous studies

counted as “0.”indicated that different factors influence ISs’6) This study calculated the score of each item foracademic and social/cultural adaptation. In thesocial support as “1” when it was chosen and “0”future, it would be necessary to examine how ISs’

when it was not chosen and added up.

motivation relates to the two kinds of adaptation
andtoconsiderinteractionswith7) Since “gender” is a nominal scale, this study codedthemale as “0,” female as “1” and other as “2” whensociolinguistic environment.

conducting analysis.

Notes

Acknowledgement

1) Parts of the results have been reported in the 13th

This study was supported by JSPS KAKENHI

Biennial Conference of the Asian Association of

Grant Number 17K17620. The author would like toSocial Psychology (AASP) (2019) and SIETAR

thank all the students who helped answer thisJapan 34h Annual Conference (2019).

questionnaire survey.

2) The survey was conducted with the approval of the
Research Ethics Review Board at Faculty ofReferences

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