Journal of Socio-Informatics
Vol., No.Sep. 

◆CONTENTS◆［Preface］
Rebirth of Journal of Social-Informatics

Kaoru ENDO …

Kuniomi SHIBATA …

［Refereed Original Papers］
Evaluation of an Anonymity Measure as an Index of Voting Privacy
Atsushi IWAI …

Development of digital science museum based on visitors memories
Kumiko IWAZAKI et al. …

［Special Article］
The Project Salvage Memories On-line― Finding Albums and Photos for the Tsunami Disaster
Victims by using Information Technology ―The Growth of Service Economy: The Impacts of Information Technology (IT) and
Knowledge-Intensive Services (KIS) on Productivity in Japans Service Sector
Yumiko MOTOMURA-KINOSHITA …
Discovery and Analysis of Web Pages Censored by Google Search Engine in Japan
Noriaki YOSHIURA, Takanori MOROI …

［Refereed Research Notes］
Social Construction of U.S. Propaganda Organization: Discourse Analysis of the United
Junichi HIRAMATSU … States Information Agency (USIA)
Social Recruiting of University Students in Japan

Keita MATSUSHITA …

Fukushima-method for Local Dissemination of Information to Recover Living
Yoshiyuki MIZUNO, Ryoko ANDO …
Conditions after Nuclear Accident

Analysis of Organization of New Zealand Television Industry
Enabling Acceleration of Complete Transition to Digital Broadcasting and
Improvement of Proportion of Domestic Program Production
Yasutaka UEDA …

Rebirth of Journal of Social-Informatics

Kaoru ENDO, Gakushuin University■Birth of the Society of Socio-Informatics
The Society of Socio-Informatics (SSI) for which it had waited for a long time was established in
April, .
Our magazine also makes a fresh start as an academic journal of this social information society
anew.
The newness of Socio-informatics can be considered from three angles.

First, the world is un-derstood anew on the basis of a new universal phase by approaching from the basic concept information, which is beyond the frame of the natural science and social science.

Second, the essential

dynamism (interactivity) of information can analyze continuously from a micro phenomenon to a
macroscopic phenomenon.

And third, as big concern gathered for social media in the Great East

Japan Earthquake and Spring of Arab, the interaction of sociality of information and new technology will be clarified.
Thus, the socio-informatics not only can constitute discipline which is important itself, but canplay a role of the hub or the platform of already established various learning domains.

That is, thesocio-informatics will serve as a catalyst which connects various ideas across all boundaries, andwill serve as a place that facilitates emergence of new civilization out of the collision of the heterogeneous way of thinking.
■What is Socio-Informatics?
Information is the key concept of Socio-Informatics.
The attention to information appeared according to the world change in the beginning of the th century, and change of a view of the world.
In , Max Planck presented the paradigm of the new physics of the quantum theory. It was
shown clearly that the world was not what is collateralized by absoluteness of existence like theclassical mechanics of Newton.

A physical phenomena are only probabilistic uncertain phenom-

ena for which it moreover depends on an observer.
Then, the concept of information, which controls uncertainties or entropies, has come to theacademics attention.

Wiener defined Information as a name for the content of what is ex-changed with the outer world as we adjust to it, and make our adjustment felt upon it (Wiener, :  -).

Based on this definition, Wiener advocated the new concept of cybernetics and didthe important contribution important for computer science.
In  , James D.
ture.

Watson and Francis Crick showed clearly that DNA has a double-helical struc-

It was the discovery which proves that the information of the gene inherited from animate life

to animate life is physically described by DNA.
Baumer, who is a researcher on the history of thought, has expressed a series of such intellectual
deployment as existence to generation (Baumer, tion theoretical revolution of a view of the world.

). There are scholars who call it informa-

As a result, the intellectual paradigm which re-examines the world by using information became a big current.

Such a paradigm provides theframework to interpret the target system in the following ways:
. Mutual dependence of components in the system will realize a certain phenomenon.
. In the form of information exchange, the interaction of elements and the environment is carried out, and they depend on each other.
. The system that comprises these interdependent elements recursively self-recreates.
■The concept of information supports various domains
It is obvious that such a framework can apply to various domains, as
paragraph.

described in the foregoing

It is applied to a physical phenomenon, a life process, an information processing sys-

tem and also other various phenomena.
With this characteristic, an information concept offers an analysis axis for the existing learning
system, which is different from the traditional.
The modern science has been divided into natural science and human and social science.
The former discovers the universal general law about the object in which recognition and analysis
are possible.

The target of the latter is phenomena recognized depending on individual subjectivity

and feeling.

They are considered impossible to be understood by a universal law.

However, there

is a question also in this matter considered to be too much obvious.
Previously, all scholarship had been called philosophy by the Greeks.

Learning which inves-tigates the wisdom and principle about the world or a human being. All truth recognition beyond
dogma or an illusion (in Japanese Dictionary) was connoted by this word.
and art, which are

Similarly, technology

nowadays considered as in the opposite poles, had been expressed by thesame word art.
Even in Japan, Gakumon (scholarship) means the whole of the knowledge explained and systematized by the fixed principle, and the method of research etc. which were constituted theoretically, and human and social science and natural science are not separately-isolated.

The Japa-

nese word Geijutsu (art) was also used for outstanding Waza (technical, artistic, or any othercraft).
That is, in the past, the whole world had been thought to be the unified one.

However, modern

science has reached the new ground level of knowledge according to analytic methodology, and it
has progressed by leaps and bounds.

In this process, separation of liberal arts and science has alsoarisen.

And when the progress was reached at a certain point, again the question came out wheth-er this separation is absolute.
New knowledge which appeared in the th century has shaken the belief that distinction of thesubjectivity-objectivity and of life-non-life (organic-inorganic) was obvious, as stated previously.

In

this way, modern science will need the new view of the world which unifies natural science andhumanities-social science again.

At this time, it is thought especially that information study

serves as that key.
Wiener also has described information, as follows.
information.

To live effectively is to live with adequate

Thus, communication and control belong to the essence of mans inner life, even as

they belong to his life in society. (Wiener, .

In these words, a possibility that the existence-

phenomenon such as machine-humans inner life-society, which had been considered to bein another dimension can be generalized as an informationOur Socio-Informatics is positioned in the base of this very modern science.

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. No. Sep. The Project Salvage Memories On-line― Finding Albums and Photos for the Tsunami Disaster
Victims by using Information Technology ―Keywords:
Tsunami, Cleaned and Digitized Captures, Finding Photos, Search System, Using IT

Kuniomi SHIBATA, Otsuma Womens University
JSIS Young Researchers Workshop (JSIS-BJK)

Abstract
After the earthquake hit on the day of March th , a massive tsunami swept away
houses, and everything that was inside them.

Photo albums were swallowed up and turned

to waste.
We began to sort out the photos and prepare them for the photos so that they can be returned to their owners in Yamamoto town.

The images were cleaned and digitized captures.

The cleaning processes involves the following steps, sweep dirt and rinse photographs withwater, classify, reproduce and digitize all of the photos, and find their owners by using thesearch system, facial recognition system.

The purpose of this paper is to describe our project

Salvage Memories, and discuss the two information systems.

The Project Salvage Memories On-line

SHIBATA

. IntroductionAt : pm on March th, a unimaginable
earthquake occurred off the Pacific coast of
Eastern Japan.

After the earthquake hit, amassive tsunami swept away houses, and everything that was inside them.

Many port towns

throughout Miyagi Prefectures were devastated,countless citizens lost their lives as cars andbuildings were washed away and instantly
Figure  The downtown area of Yamamoto,turned into rubble by a wall of black water.

Miyagi obliterated by the tsunami

The devastated coastal line was an areawith declining population which was aging. The
area had many elderly people with disabilities.
Many vulnerable people consisted mostly of elderly persons and persons with disabilities
faced difficult situation.
The coastal towns were buried in rubble.
Cars, clothes, refrigerators, photo albums: everything was swallowed up and turned to waste
as people stood speechless.

A countless pho-tographs and photo albums which were swept
away the tsunami were retrieved and collected.

Figure  An old woman search for
her photos and memories

We began to sort out and prepare the photos
to return to their owners in Yamamoto town.
Each one was someones treasured memory until that somebody wanted to keep.

The images

. Finding Memories in Worst-hit area,

were cleaned and digitized captures.

Yamamoto-town

The purpose of this presentation is to discusses and evaluate our project, Salvage Memories.

There is an example in Yamamoto-town to il-

It is our hope that the results of this re-lustrate how important it is to salvage photos

port will contribute to prepare other coastal

for tsunami survivors with disabilities and ad-

population against future tsunami.

vanced age.

Yamato is a town in Miyagi pre-fecture, Japan.
％ of the town was flooded when the tsunami came after the earthquake hit.
The tsunami not only swept the harbor away,
but also many houses, cars, trains, as well asJournal of Socio-Informatics Vol. No. Sep. people.

 people died out of the towns pop-

ulation of ,#,  still missing, and ,# buildings were completely destroyed, ,- buildings
half destroyed, and ,- buildings were partially destroyed (Sep #. ).
Numbers dont tell what it is like to lose their
loved ones all of a sudden and not being able tosee them again to tell a joke or even to apologize or just to say thank you anymore.

And allFigure  Washing photos by the volunteers.

the photos we have here today were in peopleshomes.

There are still , families who losttheir homes and still having to live in temporary
shelters today.
As the search for survivors ended and attention turned to the clean-up mission, the SelfDefense forces, firemen, and policemen who
were in Tohoku to help survivors began to pickup photos they found in the mud, and to store
them in an elementary school gymnasium inYamamoto.

They were not asked to do it, nor

did they have a clear sense of their objective.

Figure 

Perhaps they were just desperate to find some-

Digitized images by using
digital cameras.

thing in of the rubble that could be saved.
Over time, the gymnasium began to fill up withsalvaged photographs.

. The Project Salvage Memories

Two months after theearthquake hit, our group called the Memory
The Project Salvage Memory was started by

Salvage Project began to sort out the photos

a team of young researchers from The Japanand prepare them to return to their owners.

Society for Socio-Information Studies (JSIS-

Each of these images, kept in a drawers or
cabinet, was someones treasured memory until

BJK).

JSIS-BJK comes from a workshop thatthat fateful day.

The photographs here were

was entrusted with a mission to promote young

also taken to immortalize a moment shared withacademics studies among the young researchers.

The

Our first purpose for going to temporary shel-

depth of emotion might vary from one to theters was to support the elderly and disabled sur-other, but each one captures a point in time thatvivors by setting up computers and internet ac-

somebody wanted to memorialize.

cess, but this project began when some victims

family, friends, and community members.

asked us to clean photos which were swept
away by the tsunami.

#

The Project Salvage Memories On-line

SHIBATA

Many people came from all over Japan to

The people who were working on the earlystage of the project were professors, college stu-

participate in this process.

More than  peo-dents and volunteers, but as the project got

ple volunteered for this project, and - photo

known through twitter and blogs, many people

albums and , photographs have been re-

who specialize in photography, professional

turned to their owners by using the data whichphotographers, and private companies fromtook  months to build.

various fields started to join the project as well.
The photo images were cleaned and digitizedby our volunteers who came from Tokyo andother parts of Japan.

The images varied in

condition, from relatively clean to damage beyond recognition.

The process involves thefollowing steps.
）Sweep dirt and rinse photographs
The dirt was cleaned off the photo albums
with a cloth.

The surface of individual photos

was washed using a brush with water.
Figure ）Classifying

The top page of search system

Washed photos were hung to dry using laundry pins.

The photographs and photo albums

were numbered, sorted, and enumerated after
being washed.
）Reproduce and digitize the photographs
The digital images of photos were made byusing digital cameras.

The photos whose im-ages had been digitized are being stored, waiting to be discovered by their owners.

Figure 

Elderly persons who aresearching images

）Find its owners by using the digitalsearch system

. Conclusion

The digital images were processed by the college students as part of their class-room activities or by the volunteers.

We are continuing to look for owners of the

The processed data

photographs by providing a space at a town of-

were archived enabling a search using key

fice where people can come to look for theirwords.

photos as well as by visiting temporary shelters-

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. No. Sep. to find their owners many of whom are elderly
persons and persons with disabilities.

Acknowledgments

The

search system is proving to be effective in unit-

The authors thank Yamamoto town office anding photos with their owners.

all of Yamamoto citizens, especially tsunami

The following graph (Graph ) illustrates theactual performance of finding photos.

survivors, for whom we have the most profoundIt wasrespect; Sakurako Shimizu, for her translation,

confirmed that our search system would pro-advice, and activity with us; all volunteers, whovide high performance. The photos and al-participated in the project (images of this paperbums were treasured memory of survivors who

were shoot by them); JSIS board member, forare still faced difficult situation but enter thetheir support and advice.

first stages of recovery.

The work described in this report was fund by

The method of our project Salvage Memo-the Grants for Social Welfare Activities ,ries will be very helpful in preparing all coastal

The Mitsubishi Foundation, The CIPA Photo

population against tsunami.

The people who

Aids, The Nippon Foundation, and KAKENHI

could salvage their memories can find a way- (Grant-in-Aid for Young Scientists B),

forward.

We plan to walk along with them so- (Sayaka Matsumoto: Grant-in Aid forthat we can help these people achieve the chal-

Scientific Research (C)), from the Japan Societylenging goal of reconstruction of their commu-

for the Promotion of Science.

nity by using On-line technology.
References
Cabinet office (): vwxyz{|}~z{
{ x}yz{}}zzy{.
MHLW, (): ¡¤}¦{¨z}¦yw®{°}²¤{}¹{vz¦¾}z{Ãz~y{Î.
JSIS-BJK Web Page, ,http://jsis-bjk.

cocolog-nifty.com/.
Kahoku Shimpo Publishing Co., , Ûwz{ßz}y{
å}y{ê}~}{
å}ywõ¤}øz{}¹{Û¤}x.
Yamamoto-town Web Page, , http://www.
town.yamamoto.miyagi.jp.

ĊJournal of Socio-Informatics Vol. No. Sep. 

Evaluation of an Anonymity Measure
as an Index of Voting Privacy
Key words:
anonymity metric, electronic voting, privacy, entropy, combinatorial approach

Atsushi IWAI, Gunma University

Abstract
A key issue in secret voting and many other kinds of private communications is ensuring
the anonymity of individuals.

Researchers in Information Studies have been aiming to estab-lish metrics of anonymity to enhance the protection of privacy in information and communication systems.

Many related papers, however, focus on so-called connection anonymity.

Little research can be found for metrics of voting privacy, except for the entropy-based approach of Endo et al. (, ).

This study illustrates and evaluates an unknown anonym-

ity measure presented by Iwai ( ) in the field of Japanese mathematical sociology.

Themetric utilizes a combinatorial approach and has some advantageous aspects over the approach of Endo et al. (, ) as a metric that measures the degree of preventing the identification of particular voters.

Although, in general, Edman et al. () is recognized as thefirst study that demonstrated a combinatorial approach to defining an anonymity measure,the main idea is shared by the earlier research of Iwai ( ).

Even now, the mathematicalrepresentation forms in the older research seem to be more suitable for measuring anonymity
in voting contexts.

Evaluation of an Anonymity Measure as an Index of Voting Privacy

IWAI

approach to define anonymity in small-scale

. Introduction

voting.
The anonymity of individuals has been a key

This study illustrates and evaluates an un-

issue in secret voting and many other kinds ofknown anonymity measure presented by Iwai

private communications. With the Internet( ) in the field of Japanese mathematical so-

providing increasingly newer opportunities forciology.

secret information exchange, there are still

research was conducted independently frommany concerns about the protection of ano-other information studies and in the very differ-

nymity in information and communication sys-

ent context of the social sciences.

tems.

as the research focused on a comparison be-

The metric has been unknown, as theMoreover,As part of the efforts to enhance the protec-

tween its metric and another DanonymityE no-tion of privacy, researchers in Information

tion in social choice theory,) sufficient illustra-Studies have been trying to form metrics of ano-tion of the nature of the metric and its evalua-

nymity.

tion as an information study are lacking.

The notion of anonymity set byThis

Chaum (&) and the two entropy-based met-

paper demonstrates the mathematical nature ofrics presented by Serjantov and Danezis ()the metric, provides comparisons with otherand Díaz el al. () are well known examples.

typical metrics proposed in other information

The combinatorial anonymity metric by Edman

studies, and presents a discussion about its po-

et al. () has recently been recognized as atential application.
This paper shows that the metric of Iwai

major new approach.
Many related papers, however, focus on so-( ) utilizes a combinatorial approach to mea-

called connection anonymity, which involves

sure voting anonymity, and that it has some ad-hiding source and destination identities during

vantages as a metric that measures the degree)A metric for con-of preventing the identification of particularnection anonymity contributes to various pri-voters compared to the entropy-based ap-

vate communication system studies, but it isproach of Endo et al. (, ), and the othersometimes inadequate in systems for secret vot-

combinatorial approach of Edman et al. ().

data transfer in a system.

ing (as illustrated later in .), where anonymity

The rest of this paper is structured as follows:

is related to hiding the identities of the data

Section  provides a short outline of major relat-

source at the destination.

ed works in measuring anonymity.

In voting, there is al-

Sectionso the characteristic that part of the informa-gives the basic criteria for evaluating a metric oftion, with regard to data contents, will be open

voting anonymity in this paper.

to the public. (Typically, the result of the votetrates the measure presented by Iwai ( ) andcount is to be disclosed.) The latter type of ano-

provides the informational mathematical nature

nymity is called voting anonymity in this paper.

of the metric.

For a metric of voting anonymity, little similar

studies with other typical metrics and, in Sec-

metric research is known, except Endo et al.

tion _, discussion about its potential application(, ), which utilized an entropy-basedis presented.

Section Y illus-

Section  presents comparison

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. No. Sep. 

tropy of the system, which is equal to log(n).

. Related Works

By dividing H(X) by HM, d is normalized to theThis section provides a short outline of major
related works in measuring anonymity.

range [, ].

As

Tóth et al. (Yb) critically analyzed the two

mentioned above, most of these have focusedentropy-based metrics and showed that non-on connection anonymity.

desirable systems can be evaluated as near op-

As a first common approach, Chaum (&)

timal according to the measures. From theintroduced the notion of an anonymity set,

perspective of individual users, they argued

which is a set of all participants who could havethat the appropriate metric for measuring local

initiated an action (especially participants whoanonymity should be based on, with respect toare likely to be the sender or recipient of a par-a particular message, the maximum probability

ticular message).

with which an attacker can assign it to a sender

The metric is the cardinalityof the anonymity set S.

or recipient. )Assuming a uniform

probability distribution, the probability that any

As shown in this argument, the definition ofindividual i turns out to be the initiator is simply

anonymity can vary even within a connection

defined as follows:

anonymity scheme, reflecting differencesamong the focuses of researchers.Y) The met-()

ric presented by Tóth et al. is one goal based on
their emphasis on the perspective of individual

Serjantov and Danezis (), however,users.

showed that simply measuring the size of an anonymity set is inadequate for a set of users with

Edman et al. (), on the other hand, pre-non-uniform probabilities of having performed

sented a system-wide metric that measures thean action.

Based on the information theoretic

amount of information needed by an observerconcept of entropy, they defined an effective

to reveal the communication pattern as aanonymity set size as follows:

whole.

The metric is based on the calculus of

the permanent of a matrix, and the result is()equivalent to the combination number between
the inputs and outputs (see .).

Here, n is the number of users in the anonym-

They argued

ity set, and pu is the probability that a user uthat existing information-theoretic metrics typi-

had the role of sender or recipient for a particu-

cally consider the anonymity of the system fromlar message.

the perspective of a single user or message, andDíaz et al. () independently proposed athat their combinatorial approach can serve as

similar entropy-based metric which they calla complementary tool and help to identify thethe degree of anonymity.

properties of a system that other metrics might

They defined the de-gree of anonymity d as follows:

not. (See also Gierlichs et al. () and Bagai etal. ()).

( )Here, H(X) is as S and HM is the maximum en-Evaluation of an Anonymity Measure as an Index of Voting Privacy

IWAI

obtained as .& with a simple entropy calcu-

. Evaluation Criteria

lation, as described in the figure._) (The base
The concept of anonymity tends to have multiple aspects.

of any logarithm is  and the anonymity level

This section examines the typi-

calculated by this approach is denoted with En

cal aspects of voting anonymity and provides

in this paper.) The result of this entropy-based

the basic criteria for evaluating a metric of it incalculation turns out to be highest when thethis paper.

vote result is nearest to the draw among alter-

Firstly, a simple entropy-based

metric approach is considered carefully.

)natives.

It turns out to be zero when all voters

voted for S (N), where it is obvious to outside

One of the aspects involved with voting anonymity would be that it creates difficulty for es-

observers that everyone voted S (N).

As there

timating what vote each voter casted [Aspect

is no difference among votes that are casted forA].

If we focus on this, one of the most naturalan alternative, the need for a separate calcula-approaches to evaluate voting anonymity is totion of probability for each vote does not exist.

employ a simple entropy-based metric, as how(The problem with the entropy-based metrica voter voted can be estimated by examining

discussed in Tóth et al. (Yb) is avoided in

the vote shares (for example, if ％ of votersvoting anonymity.)

voted supportively in a confidence vote, theHowever, a simple entropy-based metric does

content of each voters vote is expected to be

not reflect some critical aspects of voting ano-

supportive with ％ certainty) and the value of

nymity.

entropy reflects the randomness of the voting

fidence vote in a dictatorial country.

pattern.

voters cast non-confidence votes on a govern-

Let us take a simple example of a conIf somement policy, the most critical privacy issue
would be preventing the identification of who
the supportive and negative voters are.

If wefocus on the aspect of preventing the identification of particular voters [Aspect B], the simple
entropy-based metric presents some drawbacks, as in the following comparative cases:

Figure i) Larger voter size and same vote share

Simple Entropy-Based Metricfor Voting Anonymity

The two cases of voting A and B in Figure 
are equal in vote share, but the voter size of thelatter is larger.

Figure  is an illustration of this approach,

En levels for both voting are

where five voters (V, V, ..., V) conducted a se-

the same (Ena = Enb).

cret vote.

a difference in the actual level of privacy.

Each voter is making a choice be-

However, there may be
Vot-

tween S (supportive vote) and N (negative vote).

er VA, may feel less anonymous to outside ob-

Two voted S, and three voted N.

servers than VB,_.

If the results

were revealed, the level of anonymity can beYJournal of Socio-Informatics Vol. No. Sep. This paper focuses on Aspect B.

ii) Larger voter size and same minority number

From theThe two cases of voting A and C in Figure 

viewpoints discussed above, the anonymity lev-

are the same as with the number of negativeels of Voting B and C should be higher than that

voters, but the voter size of the latter is larger.

of Voting A.

The En level of voting C is less than that of vot-

signing a metric for voting anonymity in this paper.

ing A (Enc＜Ena).

These are the requirements in de-However, voter VA, may feel. A Metric of Anonymity in a Voting Context

less anonymous to outside observers than VC,.

This section illustrates the anonymity metricpresented by Iwai ( ) and gives the informational mathematical nature of it.
. Basic Design of the Metric
The research of Iwai ( ), under the translated Japanese title DFormalization of the Concept of Anonymity in Voting BehaviorE, proposed a metric to measure voting anonymity.
The original argument starts by commentingthat the anonymity concept in social choice theory does not reflect voter privacy.

This section

will omit this part and simply follow the arguments for designing the metric.
The research proposed a measurement technique to evaluate the level of voting anonymity
by summation of informational values of all

Figure  Drawbacks in Measuring Anonymity
with a Simple Entropy-Based Metricvoters votes.

The informational value of each

vote is evaluated as −log(generation probability), following the concept of self-information in

In the above examples, one reason why VA, is

the information theory of Shannon (&Y).

expected to feel less anonymous to outside ob-

Figureservers than VB,_ or VC, can be explained asdemonstrates the calculation of thethat it easily becomes obvious that the only neg-sum of self-information for a vote illustrated in

ative vote is voted by VA, when a single voter of

Figure .

VA, is proved to be supportive. (To find that a

information is added in order from V to V.

negative vote is voted by VB,_ or VC,, any infor-

When V and V are to be known as supportive

mation of other single voters vote is not suffi-

in this order, the proportion of supportive vot-

cient.) If we focus on Aspect B, VB,_ and VC, areers are / and /Y respectively, and the calcu-

regarded as participating in more secured vot-lus described in the figure is based on these)In this example, each piece of self-

numbers. After the votes by V and V are

ing .



Evaluation of an Anonymity Measure as an Index of Voting Privacy

IWAI

in designing the formulae defined in (Y), (), and(_) was not clearly discussed.
. Mathematical Nature of the MetricFirstly, we introduce the notation AL to referto the anonymity level of the metric of Iwai( ) and generalize its definition for convenience.
Figure 

Basic Calculation of Iwai ()The antilogarithms of the formulae (Y), (),known, it is obvious that the remaining mem-and (_) are combination numbers calculated

bers are all negative.

from the numbers of votes.

Reflecting this fact, each

AL can be rede-fined asof the three following terms equals zero.
The sum obtained in this procedure is inde-()

pendent of the order of calculation.) Actually,
the calculation only needs the number of total

where C is the combination number to be calcu-

voters and supporters (or opponents).

In gen-lated as the number of ways of dividing inputs

eral, if the number of total voters and support-(votes that have not been revealed or declared)

ers are N and M, respectively, the anonymity

into output categories (alternatives) under thelevel of voting for an outside observer is definedcondition which reflects the voting result (Aas follows:

condition is typically that each output category
should have a particular number of inputs or an(Y)obtained number of votes). The AL scoreequals the sum of the related self-information

Similarly, the anonymity level of voting for avalues.

supporter and an opponent, respectively, is de-

The formula (Y) can be rewritten as

fined as follows:

()

()

Similarly, the formulae () and (_) can be re-(_)

written as (&) and (), respectively:

If unanimity appeared in the result, the score
would be zero.

(&)

The score turns out to be thehighest when the vote result is nearest to the
draw.

()

These are common characteristics in a

simple entropy-based metric.

In the remainder of this paper, this measure is

Iwai ( ) also argued the metric could possi-

referred to as the metric of the basic combinato-

bly measure the Dremaining anonymityE whenrial approach (in contrast to the combinatorialsome voters actually declare their votes.

But,approach of Edman et al., which utilizes thethe merit of avoiding an entropy-based metricpermanent calculation of an adjacency matrix_Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. No. Sep. and normalization), or just as the BC metric.&)

quirements in designing a metric for voting ano-

Now, the BC metric can be characterized as anymity in this paper are satisfied.

metric that measures the degree of preventing

Finally, the formulae listed above can havethe identification of particular voters, which

other representational forms corresponding to

was discussed in the last section.

voting scenarios.

That is to

For example, when voting

say, the BC metric measures the degree of diffi-

with n-multiple alternatives, The formula ()culty in dividing voters into particular catego-

can beries (alternatives).

Figure Y demonstrates the()calculation of the BC metric for each voting illustrated in Figure .

Actually, the scores forwhere N is the number of total voters and eachvoting B and C turn out to be higher than that ofof r, r,..., r(n-) is the number of votes for the

voting A.

alternative , ,..., n-, respectively.

Generally, if the vote share is the

As anoth-same, the AL of a voting with a larger vote size

er example, in a scenario where only the elec-

is higher than the AL of a voting with a smaller

tion winner is disclosed without the number ofvote size (log(aNCaM) ＞ log(NCM), when a＞).

votes for each alternative being disclosed, theIfformula can be described as

the number of minorities is the same, the AL ofa voting with a larger vote size is higher than()

the AL of a voting with a smaller vote size(log( N+a C M ) ＞ log( N C M ), when a ¯ ).

The re-where i is assumed to be an integer.
The metric can be applied to various votes
with different voter sizes and/or different voteshares.

We can compare the anonymity levelsof different vote cases consistently in the senseof preventing the identification of particular
voters.
. Comparison Study
This section compares the basic combinatorial (BC) metric with other typical metrics. .
compares it with the entropy-based metric forvoting presented by Endo et al. () and .
compares it with another combinatorial metricpresented by Edman et al. ().
. Comparison with a Preceding Metric of
Voting Anonymity

Figure  Anonymity Measuringwith the BC MetricEspecially focusing on the topic (i) DLargerEvaluation of an Anonymity Measure as an Index of Voting Privacy

IWAI

voter size and same vote shareE in Section ,sets of events in the model as follows: X={Votethe following argument shows that the metricfor C, Vote for C}, Y={Draw, C wins, C

presented by Endo et al. (, ) is notwins}, Z={, , ..., I}.

about Aspect B or preventing the identification

event of the voting result randomly selectedof particular voters.

from those of the neutral members, Y repre-

Where X represents theEndo et al. (, ) considered voting pri-sents the event of all the cases of the voting re-vacy in small-scale voting and compared s), a

sults, and Z represents the event of all the cases

conventional voting scheme where the numberof the number of votes for C.

And they ex-of votes for each candidate is disclosed at theplain that these events are equal to sets of prob-

end of voting, with s), a new voting scheme

ability variables of X={, }, Y={, , }, and Z=

where only the election winner is disclosed{, , ..., I}.

without the number of votes for each candidate

Based on this setting, the anonymity for the

They demonstrated how thes) scheme is formalized as H(X¦Z) which is thelatter scheme contributes to keeping the ano-

entropy where the number of votes for each

nymity level when compared with the former

candidate is disclosed.

scheme.

But what we focus on is the entropy-

ity for the s) scheme is formalized as H(X¦Y),

based anonymity metric they defined in the re-which is the entropy where only the election

search.

winner (or no winner, i.e., a draw) is disclosed

being disclosed.

Figure  is an illustration of the setting.
total number of voters is I.

The

without the number of votes for each candidate

There are two can-being disclosed.

didates, C and C, and both have supporters

For example, Endo et al. showed H(X¦Z) has
the following form:)

who are sure to vote for their favorite candidates.

The number of supporters for C andC are e and e, respectively.
are less than half of I.

Similarly, the anonym-( )Both e and e

The number of neutral

where the following definitions are employed:

members is n.

(Y)
()
Although Endo el al. employed conditional
entropy, not simple entropy, their definition ofanonymity inherits the same problem discussed
in topic (i) of Section .

FigureA draw voting of two

voters is treated equally with a draw voting of

A Model of Small Voting

in Endo et al. ( , )more voters.

To see this problem clearly,

some decomposition of calculus would be adeThe following is mainly based on the description of Endo et al. ().

quate.

They define three

Figure _ is an illustration of this. (a) is H(X¦Z)

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. No. Sep. . Comparison with Another Combinatorial
Approach to Measuring Anonymity
Edman et al. () is known for its combinatorial approach to defining an anonymity measure.

Although it is introduced in the connec-

tion anonymity context, the definition can be

Figure  Problem Areas in Anonymity Measuringwith a Conditional Entropy Based Metricrecognized as one form of the formula ().
This section compares it with the BC metric,

calculus under the condition of n=, and e=e=and shows the latter is more adequate in mea-

; (b) is the same under the condition of n=Y,

suring the degree of Aspect B or preventing theand e=e=.

identification of particular voters.

Note that H(X¦Z) is the expecta-tion value of H(X¦Z=z) over all possible values

Edman et al. () considered messages asof z, not an exact entropy value of H(X¦Z=z)

inputs and outputs of an anonymous network

where z has a particular value in Z.

and modeled this system as a bipartite graphIn the cal-culation of expectation values in Figure _, bothwhich can be represented by a matrix.

of the two parts marked with stars that are forthe draw cases, have the same value.

Figure  is the illustration of the framework ofThis an-the research. (a) Let the inputs and the outputs

onymity definition does not distinguish betweenof an anonymity network be denoted by the set

the various draw cases.

S={si} and T={ti}, respectively. (b) Given a set of

The problem with the topic of (ii) DLarger vot-

possible associations between inputs and out-

er size and same minority numberE in Section

puts, a bipartite graph G=(V, V, E) is con-can be found similarly with decomposition of

structed to represent the system, where V=S,

calculus.

Although the representation form isV=T, and E is the set of edges representing all

different from the simple entropy-based metric,

possible (si,tj) mappings. (c) Graph G can also be

this metric is also recognized as one type of an-

represented by its adjacency matrix A, where

onymity measure that focuses on estimating

the elements ai,j of the matrix are  if the edge

what vote each voter casted, or Aspect A.

linking si and tj exists in G, and  if it does not

The proposed conditional entropy-based met-

exist.

ric itself is valid and consistent within its framework.

However, in measuring the degree ofAspect B, the BC metric has more advantageous
aspects.

Note that it is also possible to com-pare the s) and s) schemes with the BC metric.

Figure

The anonymity level and its expectation

value in the s) scheme can be obtained by arranging and utilizing the formula ().

A Model of an Anonymous Network
in Edman et. al. ( )Although there are many possible one-to-one
relations between inputs and outputs in general(i.e., many cases of perfect matching on the as-&Evaluation of an Anonymity Measure as an Index of Voting Privacy

IWAI

sociated bipartite graph G), only one of them isthe true relation.

In order to measure the ano-

nymity provided by the system, Edman et al.
proposed counting the number of possible perfect matches in G, which is equivalent to computing the permanent per(A) of the adjacency

Figure matrix A.

A Problem in Permanent-BasedAnonymity Calculation

They define the systems anonymity level as
umn has to be separately treated in the matrix(_)

framework.

Let us take the simple example of

Figure  and map a set of five voters to S={si}where n is the number of messages.

If only

and a set of five votes to T={ti}.

As each of theone perfect match is possible, the anonymity

voters has the possibility of having casted any

level provided by the network system is zero.

of the votes, all of the entries of adjacency ma-

The denominator log(n!) is for normalization.

trix A have to be .

An anonymous network gets the highest scorethe fact that two voted S and three voted N.

It is difficult to representof  when the system is represented as a fully

Second, use of the denominator for normal-

connected graph, as the permanent of a matrix

ization is harmful in some cases, as it violates

A whose entries are all  is per(A)=n!. )

the property of additivity in information theory.

The antilogarithm of the numerator log(perThe normalization method would work when(A)) is the combination number of all possible

the calculus is continuously applied to one sys-perfect matches in G.

tem where inputs and outputs are unchanged

Mathematically, it canbe recognized as one form of the formula ().

and only E in G can be different.

In this sense, the definition of the anonymity

lead to paradoxical results when applied to themetric is similar to that of the BC metric.

comparison of different systems.

For

example, log(per(A)) for an adjacency matrix A

But, it may

The following is an illustration of this prob-

whose entries are all  is equal to the formulalem.

() under the condition of N=n and r=r=...=

networks, N and N, as shown in (a) of Figurer(n-)=.

, and that their adjacency matrixes, A and A,The adjacency matrix-based approach, how-

Suppose that there are two anonymous

are as shown in (b).

The anonymity levels of

ever, seems to have two types of limitations:these networks are calculated as d(A)≈.Y _

one is found when applying it to voting

and d(A)=. Now, if we regard N and N as

schemes, and the other is found in both voting

one anonymous system N , then we can recal-

and message-sending schemes.

culate the anonymity level with the correspond-

First, the use of an adjacency matrix is not

ing adjacency matrix A , as shown in (c).

Thesuitable for the voting privacy problem, as dif-result is d(A )≈. _, which is confusing, as

ferent votes for one alternative should be treat-

the score is smaller than both of the originals,

ed equally in a voting scheme, while each col-d(A) and d(A).

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. No. Sep. utilizes the BC metric.

On the other hand, if we focus on the numer-

An example scenario

ator log(per(A)), which can be counted as one

and an illustration of an appropriate system de-form of the formula () in the BC metric, we findsign are as follows:that log(per(A))≈._, log(per(A)) ≈. , andlog(per(A )) ≈.& .

The last term equals thesum of the preceding two terms.

As N is a

unified network of N and N, this result would
be more acceptable.
As shown above, the mathematical represenFigure tation forms of the BC metric seem to be more

Rezoning of Land and Voting

suitable, especially for measuring anonymity invoting contexts.

The BC metric of voting ano-

[Example Scenario] A local government

nymity in this paper keeps the property of addi-

planned a rezoning of land.

tivity.

communities titled A, B, C, D, and E in the area.

Based on the utilization of this property,

There are fivethe next section illustrates an electronic voting

The map is shown in Figure & (a).

system as a potential application.

bers in brackets to the side of each community
are the number of residents.

. Potential Application

The num-

The communities

agreed to vote on whether to accept the government plan.

People are interested in the votingThis section discusses the potential applica-

results of each community, but they also wish totion of the BC metric, using a problem of vote

be guaranteed a determined level of anonymity

count districts as an example.

(VAL in the below) and a determined level of

In some voting, the vote count is separately
operated in distributed districts.

similarity of the score (or DequalityE) among the

Only the total

communities (VCV below).

For this purpose,

numbers are used to determine the final result.

they used an electronic voting system that can

However, voters often wish to know the results

count the votes for each community separately,of the counts in each district.

but can also hide the details of the result by

The disclosure

in districts may increase the possibility of viola-

merging some of the voting units (districts) au-tion of voting privacy.

tomatically, if necessary.

As the level of anonym-

ity can be radically different among districts,

Now, the voting results of each community

disclosure is also concerned with the DequalityE

are as shown in Figure & (b) (the numbers areamong districts.

In designing voting, there is ajust stored in the system and have not yet beenpotential problem between i) disclosure of theopened), and the algorithm that is to be em-vote result in districts and ii) maintaining theployed for the above purpose is as follows:

privacy of voters and the DequalityE among dis() Define S as the set of all remaining voting

tricts.
To cope with this problem, there might be aunits and set the value of the flag F as .

way to design an electronic voting system that() Define S as the set of all remaining votingEvaluation of an Anonymity Measure as an Index of Voting Privacy

IWAI

units whose ALs, ALn, or AL is less than thethreshold value VAL. (ALs, ALn, and AL referto the AL score for supportive voters, negative voters, and outside observers, respectively.)( ) Set the value of F as  if the coefficient ofvariation for the AL scores of all voting
units is more than the threshold value VCV.
(Y) If S is not empty, take the voting unit withthe lowest AL among S (naming it as VUx)
and unify it with the voting unit with thelowest AL among S - {VUx}.

Else if F is ,take the voting unit with the lowest AL
among S (naming it as VUy) and unify itwith the voting unit with the lowest AL
among S - {VUy}.
() Repeat (), (), ( ), and (Y) until S is empty
and F is zero.

Figure  An Example of the Unification
Process of Vote-Counting Units

In the above, S is the set for finding problems in keeping the anonymity level, and F isfied units.

the flag for finding a problem in keeping thein the table for Stagesimilarity among districts.

metric values and CV value are to be deleted

Setting the thresh-

Only the numbers of obtained votes
are to be opened (BCold values of VAL and VCV can be arbitrary, but

automatically).

VAL= log(C) and VCV =. would be reason-no violation of any predefined condition is ob-able assignments.

served and voters can know to some degree the

Figure  is an illustration under this setting.

details of the vote count.

The left-hand numbers of each cell correspondto voter numbers.

When the result is disclosed,

The process of the electronic voting system

The right-hand numbers of

discussed above includes addition and otherthe cells in columns of Supportive, Negative,

calculus of the BC metric values.

and Total are the scores of ALs, ALn, and AL, re-property of additivity, development of this typespectively.

of application could not be achieved.

ues.

Each table is sorted with AL val-

Without the
The BC

metric is consistent with the framework of infor-

The numbers under each table are the coEach un-mation theory and the characteristic is expect-derline indicates that the value violates a condi-

ed to be helpful in applying it to a variety oftion.

new types of application development.

efficient of variation for each stage.

As shown in Stageof Figure , three voting

units are left in the end. Two of them are uni-

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. No. Sep. Acknowledgments

. Concluding Remarks

I would like to thank the reviewers for theirinsightful comments, which have helped me

This study illustrated an unknown anonymity
measure for voting privacy by Iwai ( ) andsignificantly improve the paper.

Part of thisevaluated it by demonstrating the mathematical

study was also supported by grants from the Ja-

nature of the metric, comparing it with other

pan Society for the Promotion of Science, KAK-

typical metrics, and discussing its potential ap-

ENHI  __.

plication.
The metric utilizes a combinatorial approachNotes

and has some advantageous aspects over the）The term Dconnection anonymityE is intro-

approach of Endo et al. (, ) as a metric

duced by Díaz et al. (), where it is con-that measures the degree of preventing the

trasted with data anonymity which is con-identification of particular voters.

In general,cerned with Dfiltering any identifying infor-

Edman et al. () is recognized as the firstmation out of the data that is exchanged in astudy that demonstrated a combinatorial ap-

particular application.E Notice that the vot-

proach to defining an anonymity measure.

ing anonymity to be introduced below in thisBut, the main idea is shared by the earlier re-paper is different from data anonymity, al-search of Iwai ( ), and even now, the math-though both are related to the evaluation of

ematical representation forms in the old re-the contents of transferred data.
）Iwai ( ) focused on the anonymity con-search seem to be more suitable for measuring

cepts discussed in Chapter  of Sen (&).

anonymity in voting contexts.
Notice that each of the anonymity metrics

This concept, which is actually about equal-

discussed in this paper is basically valid andity among individuals rather than their pri-consistent within their own frameworks. Invacy, was originally presented by May

measuring the degree of preventing the identifi-(&).

cation of particular voters, however, the BC）Their key notions of source-hiding andmetric seems to have more advantageous as-

destination-hiding in the research are firstpects.

introduced in Tóth and Hornák (Ya).

Although there is great potential to utilize theY）See also Andersson and Lundin (), which

BC metric in new system designs, the electronic

examined a set of state-of-the-art anonymity

voting system illustrated in Section _ is expect-

metrics. In the research, Andersson anded to be one of the most promising applications.

Lundin showed none of the studied metrics

To check its efficacy, a prototype system with afulfill all criteria they defined.
）The entropy-based metric of Endo et al.

more detailed design needs to be developedand experiments undertaken.

(, ) includes utilization of condition-

These are tasks

al entropy.

for the next stage of this study.

The details of the research aredescribed in ..

Firstly, this section focus-

es on simple entropy.

To clearly distin-Evaluation of an Anonymity Measure as an Index of Voting Privacy

IWAI）The number of combinations of voting re-guish it from the conditional entropy-based

sults for neutral members is

metric of Endo et al., the term D simple
entropy-based metricE is used in this paper.
_）This calculation reflects the level of anonymity from the viewpoint of an outside observ-

and it is expected that each combination iser.

Anonymity levels from the viewpoints

an equally likely event in Endo et al. ().

of a supportive voter and a negative voter

For this, the formulae ( ) and (Y) include

can be calculated similarly.

combination notations.

These view-

However, the defi-

points are also important and will be dis-nition of anonymity is basically entropy-

cussed formally in later sections.

based.

）There might be a critical comment that VC,）See section II of Edman et al. () for details of the calculation of the permanent.

is less anonymous than VA,, as supportive
voters are the majority in voting C, and it isReferences

likely for an outside observer to guess that
VC, is supportive.

Andersson, C. and Lundin, R. (): On the

However, this view is
If we fo-

Fundamentals of Anonymity Metrics, in IFIP

cus on Aspect B, it should be noticed that

International Federation for Information

based on the concept of Aspect A.

Processing, Vol. _, pp. - Y.

the vote of VC, cannot be proved to be supportive unless VC, is found to have casted a

Bagai, R., Lu, H., Li R., and Tang, B. (): An

negative vote. (Even after confessions fromAccurate System-Wide Anonymity Metric

all the other eight voters in voting C, VC, still

for Probabilistic Attacks, in Proceedings ofremains as uncertain as VA, with regard tothe th Privacy Enhancing Technologies

his or her vote.)

Symposium (PETS-), pp.-.

）For example, if the order of calculation was

Chaum, D. (&): Untraceable electronic mail,different, as V (N), V(S), VY(N), V(S), V(N),return addresses, and digital pseudonyms,

the adding process would be changed asin Communications of the ACM, Y(), pp.Y-−log( /) −log(/Y) −log(/ ) −log(/) −log(/),.
Díaz, C., Seys, S., Claessens, J., and Preneel, B.

but the result remains the same as log().
&）Notice that addition of related self-(): Towards measuring anonymity, in

information values always derives a loga-

Proceedings of Privacy Enhancing Technol-

rithm of a combination number, which re-ogies Workshop (PET), Dingledine, R.

flects the degree of difficulty of guessing theand Syverson, P. Eds. Springer-Verlag,

internal structure of any target system.

LNCS Y, pp.Y-_.

Al-

though this paper is especially interested in

Edman, M., Sivrikaya, F., and Yener, B. ():voting anonymity and introduced the BC

A combinatorial approach to measuring ano-

metric in a voting context, the notion of ad-

nymity.

dition of self-information values itself can bematics,  IEEE, pp. _- _ .

valid in other anonymity contexts, too.

In Intelligence and Security Infor-

Endo, T., Echizen, I., and Yoshiura, H. ():Y

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. No. Sep. Sen, A. K. (&): Collective Choice and Social

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to Shakai-Rinli, ( &), pp. -YY.
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Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. No. Sep. Development of digital science museum based on
visitors memories
Keywords:
museum, digital museum, digital content, memory, archive

Kumiko IWAZAKI, Kinjo Gakuin University
Masato GOTO, Kinjo Gakuin University
Misato WAKATA, Nagoya University
Katsuhiro MOURI, Nagoya City Science Museum
Takami YASUDA, Nagoya University

Abstract
The five major functions of a museum are collection, preservation, exhibition, research,and education.

Previously, museums concentrated primarily on collecting objects and ex-

hibiting them effectively.

Recently, however, the focus has shifted to what the visitor is do-

ing in the museum, the so-called museum experience. It has become clearer that a visitor
not only learns in a museum, but has various individual experiences.

In this study, we use

Falks theory of making of meaning in a museum to investigate museum experiences at the
Nagoya City Science Museum.

We develop a digital museum, the Digital Time Capsule,

which uses visitor recollections of their interaction with the museum.

Development of digital science museum based on visitors memories

IWAZAKI et al.

This new undertaking addresses visitor recol-

. Introduction

lections because many museum studies have
In recent years, museums have expanded

not yet investigated the museum experience.

their functions from not only exhibiting the

However, it remains very important to focus onpast, but to also researching the presentnot only the exhibition, but also visitor experi-

through collaboration with the public.

ences in order to get the whole picture of a mu-

For ex-ample, Workshop: Research of Sagami River

seum.

History at the Hiratsuka City Museum andField Reporter at the Lake Biwa Museum un-

. Museum experience and memory

dertook the unique approach of having the public research and report on the nature or cultureof a local area with a curator.

. Value of memories

In addition, mu-

In recent years, the value of memories has

seums now address not only objects, but con-been recognized and there has been a move tocepts such as social trends and emotions.

archive them.

example, YOU!

For

The Memory of the World

and the Memoro Project are examples.

The Experience at the Mu-

Theseum of Science and Industry in Chicago, U.S.

Memory of the World, a project of the UnitedA., tries to describe human thinking and emo-

Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Or-tion by assembling visitor messages.

ganization (UNESCO), began in .. .

These tri-

Its goalals thus change the one-way relation of exhibi-

is the protection and preservation of recordedtion - inspection and produce a new relation-

inheritances, including social values that had

ship between the museum and visitor.

This

an important influence on history, such as na-

means that the museum is tapping various re-ture, incidents, places, and people. The Diary

sources, such as local culture, nature, and peo-of Anne Frank is an example.

ple, as precious assets and the possibilities ofProject started in Italy in 

the museum are therefore expanded.

interviews people born before

The Memoro.

This project.

, and col-Such endeavors have increased worldwide as

lects and exhibits video clips on the Internet.

museums investigate the visitors experience

The purpose of this project is to pass down toin the museum. That is, the museum is forced

the younger generations information on cus-

to consider what the visitor wants to experience

toms, traditions, the meaning of life, etc.,

rather than the museum wants to exhibit.

through experiences, dreams, and events.

In this study, we focus on visitor museum ex-

Currently, a new approach has been devel-

periences and develop a digital museum called

oped that records memories of visitors to thethe Digital Time Capsule using visitor recol-museum.

lections.

Specifically, the Digital Time Cap-

Museum and the Museum Meijimura, com-sule contains recollections about the Nagoyaments or photographs of visitors are collected

City Science Museum, which demolished andand made available to the public on the Inter-rebuilt its Science and Technology Building andnet.

Astronomy Building in September from new viewpoints through the comments of.

>As an example, at the Mitsuo Aida

By doing this, visitors can appreciate art

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. No. Sep. other visitors or can appreciate exhibitions

The physical context plays a great role in how amore deeply by empathizing with others mem-

visitor acts and what a visitor looks at or learns

ories.

in the museum.
According to Falk, visitor experience is influenced not only by one context, but also by the. Museum experience based on context
John H.

interaction that changes continuously among

Falk, a specialist in museum stud-ies, has analyzed the making of meaning in a

the three contexts.

That is, there are just as

museum and proposed the following threemany experiences as there are visits.
In this way, a visitors experience is not one-

viewpoints:

way, such as with exhibition (museum) - in. Personal context: material related to per-spection (visitor), on which curators have pre-sonal interests, motivations, etc.

viously focused.

. Sociocultural context: material related to

The visitor experience is aprocess that personalizes the museum based

culture, immediate environment, conversa-

on the visitors interests or impressions.

tion, etc.

In this study, we develop a digital museum

I. Physical context: material related to ex-

based on not only physical context, but also

hibitions, exhibit room space, atmosphere,

personal and sociocultural contexts.

As a re-sult, it is possible to express a complete image

etc.

of the museum in virtual space.
In personal context, when visitors learn
. Analysis of recollections in the Digital

something, their understanding passes throughTime Capsulethe lens of their own knowledge, past experience, interests, etc.

The lens or context varTherefore, theIn this study, we use Falks theory of threeamount of information, depth of understanding,contexts to thoroughly analyze the backgroundor strength of impression varies according tofactors of the visitors experience at the Nagoya

each personal context.

City Science Museum.

ies with each individual.

Concretely speaking,In the sociocultural context, a visitor is affect-

we collected I I museum recollections; each

ed by family, friends, or the company withrecollection was analyzed and seven keywords

whom they visit.

for the recollections were noted as follows:

Therefore, such interaction

has a large influence on the museum experience, e.g., conversation based on the persons〈personal context〉

background (hometown, family, pet, or school)

learn: learning, exhibition, knowledge, etc.

or the persons role at the time (mother, stu-

enjoy: amusement, laughing, amazement, etc.

dent).

relax: peace, healing, encouragement, etc.
〈sociocultural context〉

With physical context, a visitor is affected according to the physical context, such as the ex-love: love, family, friends, etc.

hibitions, building, atmosphere, smell, or noise.

wish: wishes, dreams, hope, etc.

.

Development of digital science museum based on visitors memories

IWAZAKI et al.

It is difficult to classify each recollection into

〈physical context〉
visit: visits, school trips, participation, etc.

one context because the museum experience iscreate: staff, curators, volunteers, etc.

a fusion of the three contexts; many recollections relate to two or more keywords.

Thus,

we create a Memory Map based on the con-

The following are examples of recollectionsclassified based on these keywords.

texts.

〈personal context: learn〉. Developing the Digital Time Capsule

When I was in elementary school, I put mywallet into an exhibition about X-rays.

. Purpose and features of the Digital TimeI re-member clearly that the form of a coin was

Capsulevisible, but my wallet was not.

In this study, we developed a virtual museum

It was soamazing (age: c s).

of the memory base called the Digital Time

〈personal context: enjoy〉

Capsule that is an archive of visitor recollec-

Around  years ago, my mother brought metions of the Nagoya City Science Museum relat-

to the planetarium every summer vacation.

ed to the Science and Technology Building andIt was a kind of rich, short trip for me because

the Astronomy Building, which were demol-

I lived in Gifu.

ished in September 

Even now, I like the planetar-

opened in March 

ium a lot (age:  s).

, and rebuilt and re-.

In Japan, there are few instances in which〈personal context: relax〉
Ipast exhibitions have been digitized and ar-looked at the starlit sky of the planetarium

chived. As an example, in the National Muse-and was greatly heartened as I stood at theum of Nature and Science, which was renovat-

brink of my second cancer operation (age: k s).

ed in  c, the former main building andIt was a little episode someyears ago.

〈sociocultural context: love〉

Midori-Kan building have been reproduced in

At a planetarium, I could not recline my seatdetail at a virtual museum, where it is possible

because I weighed so little as a kid.

to have an immersive experience of the pastI re-member that my dad held my seat back withmuseum through movies or QuickTime VR (Ap-his elbow so I could watch the program (age:

ple).

I s).

However, in a virtual museum, there are only

〈physical context: visit〉

digitized exhibitions and their related data.

If

When I went to the science museum as a

the museum is to pass history down to the gen-child, I participated in a science class, anderations, it is desirable to archive not only thethen I had lunch and an ice-cream soda for

exhibitions, but also the visitors experiences

dessert at the underground restaurant.

there.

After

sists of the following four parts:

that, I stayed at the museum and watched a
program at the planetarium (age:Thus, the Digital Time Capsule con-s).
. CGI (Computer-generated imagery) of theIJournal of Socio-Informatics Vol. No. Sep. The digitized places include all floors no lon-

past museum (SketchUp, QuickTime VR).
. Data of the exhibitions.

ger in existence, such as the Science and Tech-

I. Memory Map of visitor memories.

nology Building (from the st to the th floor)c. History of the museum.

and the Astronomy Building (from the st to the
Ird floor, including the planetarium).

Numbersand  above reproduce the pastscience museum faithfully in virtual space.

) Development with SketchUp

The most important purpose is to archive pre-SketchUp is ID-modeling software fromcious data and property, such as that at the Na-

Google that provides good imagery and enables

tional Museum of Nature and Science, in virtual

exact modeling with numerical inputs.

space forever.

In addition, the system as-

study, to reproduce the past Nagoya City Sci-

sumes a large role as a tool to recall memories.

ence Museum faithfully, we constructed ID CGI

Number I above, the Memory Map, col-by entering numbers from a blueprint (Figure ).

lects and displays visitor recollections.

In thisBy

In addition, the exhibitions were created us-classifying various memories into the sevening tools, such as a line and a rectangle, andkeywords, these museum experiences can be

photographs of every exhibition. It thus be-seen comprehensively.

came possible to reproduce more realistic ID

The Memory Map isa core content of this system.

images through mapping (Figure ).

We describe thedetails of this content in the next chapter.
Number c above digitizes books about themuseums history, which were published every
ten years, including pamphlets on special exhibitions and photographs.
Incidentally, when treating various data,
copyright is a serious issue. In this system,
when collecting messages from visitors, the visitors agree to publication in the Digital Time
Capsule beforehand.

Figure  Exact modeling by numerical input

Additionally, for photo-graphs or data, we archive and open only thedata presently in the possession of the Nagoya
City Science Museum.
. CGI of the past museum
In this study, we digitize the interior of the
Nagoya City Science Museum in exact detail sousers can enjoy some time travel using)

SketchUp (Google) and ) QuickTime VR (Apple) technologies.

Figure Ith Floor Exhibitions

Development of digital science museum based on visitors memories

IWAZAKI et al.

photographs of visitors are archived and viewable on the Internet.

However, they are sim-

ply listed in order on a time-axis.

In this re-search, we classified recollections into seven
keywords based on Falks theory and devised
the system so that the effects of empathy anddeep appreciation might be acquired fromothers recollections.
Figure 

We primarily collected recollections from two

nd floor (Astronomy Building)classes of individuals: Astronomy club members and common visitors.

Two types of col-lection methods, message and video, were) Development with QuickTime VR
Because SketchUp creates a still picture orused.

The sum total of the messages was I I.

video clip ultimately, the user cannot freely see

Tablepresents the details.

the inside of the virtual museum.

The features of recollections are described

Therefore,

below:

using QuickTime VR, it is possible to view Ik
degrees using a mouse.

Furthermore, it is pos-sible to move from point to point and from) Astronomy club members

room to room by setting up nodes (Figure I).

We collected messages from astronomy clubmembers in November  > during a regular

The digitized work is important for expressing
memories and is worthy as archive data of themeeting.

The questionnaire items were

past museum.

Please describe your visit to the museum,Please express your feelings about the museum, Please tell us about your favorite place at

. Development of the Memory Map

the museum, etc.

On the assumption that theastronomy club member likes the Nagoya City

. Collection of recollections
Recollections of the museum can be valuable.

Science Museum, specific questions were given.

As noted in Chapter - , in the Mitsuo Aida Mu-

Many empathetic recollections and profoundseum or Museum Meijimura, the comments andmessages were collected.

Table subject

Collection of recollections

methodnumber of recollections

collection dateastronomy club member

message.

Nov. 

visitormessageccAug. 

visitorvideo

I

Aug. 

staff, curator

video

Aug. 

I

>Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. No. Sep. 

Figure A draft of Memory Map excerpt

. Classification of recollections

Message (language)

After investigation of the recollections, it became clear that most visitor recollections andexperiences are not directly related to exhibitions, but are related to family or friends who
visited together or on school trips.

These rec-ollections can be classified by the seven keywords presented earlier.

A museum experi-ence involves several contexts, as Falk points
out.

In the early stage of our research, wedrew a picture of the relation between the recVideo (image)ollection keywords (Figure ).

The picture in-dicates the complexity of museum experiences.

Figure  Messages from visitors

Nevertheless, the museum experiences wereclassified as well as possible, the results of) Visitors

which are shown in Figure k.

We collected messages from common visitors
for two weeks in August 

The recollec-. Recollections

were collected by two methods: message (language) and video (image) (Figure c).

For amessage, the visitor answered the questionnaireon the spot.

There were two questionnaire

items: Please describe your recollections of themuseum and Please write a message to themuseum. On the video, the visitor freely spoke
about favorite exhibitions or recollections of themuseum over several minutes.

FigureII

Results of museum experiences

Development of digital science museum based on visitors memories

IWAZAKI et al.

mine the intention of the system.

tions can be broken down as follows: learn

I. When a visitor reads recollections, intelligi-

k％, enjoy II％, and love .％.

ble contents are displayed, with which thevisitor can relate.

. Interface design
After the recollections are classified, content

With the above background, the interface isis displayed by FLASH animation software

very simple.

(Adobe).
The operation details are provided below

However, as described in the fol-lowing chapter, certain tasks remain.

(Figure ):The mu-seum of the past must continue to be comprehensively and effectively developed and dis-

. On the top page, the seven keywords areplayed.

listed along with illustrations.
. When the illustration of a keyword is

. Management of recollections

clicked, a screen appears with many icons

Of necessity, the Memory Map does not

representing the recollections.

show all visitor recollections, as very simple

I. When an icon is clicked, recollections arerecollections such as It was interesting or I

displayed.

would like to come again are trivial.

Thus, anadministrator selects and prioritizes interesting
recollections.

When a recollection is marked,

it is highlighted for attention.
To manage or classify recollections easily, amanagement system should be used.

In thisstudy, we use WordPress, one of the most popu-

FigureAs FigureMemory Map

shows, the interface design is sim-ply a D model, even though recollections consist of complex contexts.

This is because thissystem must be designed as an exhibition.

The

following are part of the background of the interface design.
. A visitor can view any screen or situationof the system.
. With merely a glance, a visitor can deter-

Figure 

Ic

View of WordPress

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. No. Sep. 

lar Content Management Systems (CMSs).
ure > shows a view of WordPress.

is a clear correlation between empathy, recall,Fig-

and archive.

The admin-

When a person empathizes

istrator can easily input recollections, key-strongly with the recollections, they tend towords, images of an icon, or set a priority.

more easily recall their own experiences(Ĵ= .k k, Ĺ＜ .

) and want to archive their own

recollections (Ĵ= .c.>, Ĺ＜ .

. Evaluation of the Digital Time Capsule).

However, there is no function in which visitors can enter new recollections freely in theThirty people completed a questionnaire forthe Memory Map that ranked interest, empa-

Digital Time Capsule in real time because ofthy, recall, archive, operability, etc. on a one-the required management of the recollections.

to-four scale: c: emphatically yes, I: yes, : no,

We now, therefore, propose an external means

and : emphatically no.

of recollection entry using Twitter, which is outside the system.

) Interest

In recent years, many people have become

A high evaluation of I.c was obtained for thefamiliar with social networking services (SNSs)question Is the Memory Map interesting?

such as Mixi or Facebook, so they are used toSome people responded that it was interesting,

replying to the opinions of others freely.

brought back memories, etc.

example, in Facebook, if people agree positivelyForwith an opinion, they click the like icon.
Therefore, in the next version of our system, we) Empathy, recall, archive

will introduce similar new features regarding

The questions on empathy, recall, and archive are listed below.

empathy.

〈empathy〉

I) Operability
Operability received an evaluation score of

Did you empathize with the other visitors

only .>.

recollections?
〈recall〉

Reasons given included difficulty

knowing where to click.

Did you recall with the other visitors recol-

Because the system is intended for the public

lections?

as an exhibition, a range of users from children〈archive〉

to the elderly must be accommodated and,

Would you like to enter your own recollec-

thus, the system must be designed to be moretions or add a comment to the system?

intuitive and simpler to use.

The question on 〈empathy〉 received a score!. Conclusionof I., 〈recall〉 a score of I., and 〈archive〉
a score of I.I, all of which are high.

In this study, the virtual museum Digital
Time Capsule was developed based on visitor

Moreover, our evaluation investigated thecorrelation between these three items.

recollections.

There

I

The Digital Time Capsule ar-Development of digital science museum based on visitors memories

chives time literally.

IWAZAKI et al.

ƌĴƎŲŬŭŮůūŮŲůž Altamira Press

For the Nagoya City

Science Museum, which spans a history of c

Hiratsuka City Museum. http://www.hirahaku.

years or more, the system must store every-jp/kyoushitsu̲circle/saguru/index.html

thing. That is why we have begun to research

Lake Biwa Museum.

the question, What is a museum? and to ar-fieldrep/index.html

http://www.lbm.go.jp/

chive not only exhibitions and related data, but

Memoro Project. http://www.memoro.org/

also visitor memories. In the Digital Time

Memory of the World. http://www.unesco.org/

Capsule, the former was archived with Quick-new/en/communication-and-information/

Time VR and SketchUp, and the latter was ar-flagship-project-activities/memory-of-the-chived by collecting museum experiences.

world/homepage/
Mitsuo Aida Museum.

In our investigation, the Memory Map ob-

http://www.mitsuo.co.jp/museum/community/

tained a high evaluation, but more work is required.

voice

As empathy correlates with recall and.html

archive, the system should better address thisMuseum Meijimura.

correlation.

http://www.meijimura.com/miryoku/albam̲index.asp
Acknowledgements

Museum of Science and Industry, Chicago.

We would like to thank all the people con-

http://www.msichicago.org/whats-here/ex-

nected with the Digital Time Capsule project,hibits/you/especially the Nagoya City Science curators andNational Museum of Nature and Science (Mainstaff.

building). http://www.kahaku.go.jp/exhibitions/vm/past̲parmanent/honkan/index.html
References

National Museum of Nature and Science

Falk, J. H., & Dierking, L. D., .., ũŪūŬŭŮůūŮŲŬ
ŴŵĹūĴŹūŻżūž Whalesback Books
Falk, J. H., & Dierking, L. D., (Midori-Kan building). http://www.kahaku.
go.jp/exhibitions/vm/past̲parmanent/mido-, ƃūƅĴŻŹŻƊŬ

Ik

ri/index.html

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. No. Sep. 

The Growth of Service Economy: The Impacts of Information Technology (IT) and Knowledge-Intensive Services (KIS) on Productivity in Japans Service Sector
Keywords:
Knowledge-intensive services (KIS), information technology (IT), service economy, productivity

Yumiko MOTOMURA-KINOSHITA, The University of Tokyo
Graduate School of Interdisciplinary Information Studies

Abstract
The service sector consists of -％ of the global economy in advanced countries.

How-

ever, there are few empirical and statistical studies performed with regard to the service sector.

As a result, productivity of service sectors has not been identified clearly in relation to

the sectoral growth because the productivity of service sectors has not been improved for decades in Japan as well as major OECD countries.

Based on major statistics and previous lit-

eratures, it is essential to realize the development of expertise knowledge, internally or externally, that aim to improve productivity in knowledge creation with the use of Information
Technology (IT).

In this regard, it is suggested that knowledge-intensive services (KIS) havea special role to play for facilitating knowledge creation in services.

It is also pointed out thatthe role of smaller firms should be identified as they consist of a large part of the service sectors.

In line with these trends, this research aims at identifying productivity for the selected

service sectors with the appropriate use of KIS and IT.

By incorporating business size dimen-

sion, empirical analyses successfully reveal that a balanced combination of IT and KIS inputs
is related to revenue trends.

In conclusion, it is important for future economic directions totake into account the balance of inputs into IT and services to support the growth of the entire
economy and productivity growth through the development of smaller firms.

The Growth of Service Economy

MOTOMURA-KINOSHITA

. Introduction: Service Economy, Informa-take for years ahead.

To respond to thesetion Technology (IT), and Knowledge-

challenges, an essential question is how we deal

intensive Services

scientifically with the creation of knowledge, its
process to evolve into the innovation in servic-

Service is a primary growth driver for thees, and the contribution to the growth of pro-present world market as the tertiary sector of
the economy.

ductivity and total output in the economy.

Starting from factor prices, in-In this regard, one area focused in recent

termediate inputs used in services, and idiosyn-

years is consideration on knowledge-intensive

cratic parameters of consumers (Fuchs ),services (KIS) in economic growth. In

the questions that are addressed recently areOECD has published a report on KIS (OECDthe role of supporting technologies and its rela-).

tion to expertise knowledge used to create andas Jthe production or integration of service ac-deliver diversified services (Finnish Funding

tivities, undertaken by firms and public sectors

Agency for Technology and Innovationin the context of manufacturing or services, in,Miles , ).

,

According to the report, KIS are defined

combination with manufactured outputs or as

According to Eurostat, for instance, ％ ofstand-alone service.

KIS include information

Science and Technology jobs in EU  countries

and communication services, R & D, manage-

are in the service sector (Eurostat ).

Not

ment consulting, human resource management

only global services but also locally traded ser-and recruiting, legal services (including intellec-

vices are affected by systemic research and de-tual property rights), accounting, financing, andvelopment (R&D) activities more than before

marketing services.

To

It is observed that KIS play a role to strength-transform the service sector based on potential

en knowledge production activities not only ininnovativeness of knowledge generated throughservices but also in manufacturing as they con-service, it has been suggested that increasing

tribute to some types of technological and ser-connection and adoption of service-related

vice innovation directly and form a link of tech-technologies, such as IT services, should be

nologies and knowledge beyond sectors (OECD(European Commission , Wolfl ).

, Council on) by being consumed as intermediaries.

Competitiveness , Atkinson & Castro ,

Furthermore, KIS are considered as contribu-

European Commission ).

tors for economic growth as one of the fastest

pursued (Atkinson & Wial

Furthermore, as

we have witnessed in the financial crisis in ,

growing sectors.

the direction of future services has a huge im-

These observations have led this research topact on the course of the entire service sector toconcern with the role of information and knowl-In this research, Jthe service sectorS refers to all non-manufacturing sectors as a tertiary sector of the economy incontrast to manufacturing sectors. Each sector in the service sector is mentioned as Jservice sector(s).S Each
service-related activity or service as a product is expressed as Jservice(s).S A singular form of service may refer to aconcept on service. If capitalized as JServiceS, it refers to a specific sector defined by Tokyo Stock Exchange (pleaserefer to the note section of Table ).

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. No. Sep. edge as vital components for the analysis ofshows different patterns in service sectors com-

productivity and output in service sectors.

pared to manufacturing, leading to different
structures for productivity and sectoral growth.

. Business Size and Productivity

OECD ( a, b) also mentions that small
to medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) are facing a

Meanwhile, according to statistics in Japan

structural change in the global economy, and(Figure ), it is clarified that the Pareto distribu-

the role of SMEs is becoming more important.

tion of revenue per employee and firm size

From firm-level perspectives, firms are required
to enhance the degree of expertise in the production and delivery of knowledge more tocompete in the global market due to the increasing introduction and diffusion of IT.

In

recent years, in particular, even systemic R&D
efforts in the field of services are intensified
across small firms to generate new knowledge
pertaining to service (European Commission, Miles , OECD ).
With these observations, this research articulates the needs for designing an analyticalframework to measure the impact on economic
growth and productivity focusing on businesssizes. This research references to major panel
data models, and modify to reflect the impact ofknowledge creation activities such as R&D withthe support of IT and KIS more precisely.
. Growth models

Figure  Revenue per employee in the manufacturing and service sector by firm size

. Choice of models

Note: Y-axis refers to revenues in millions of Yen divided by the number of employees. X-axis shows data input for each year by firm size. Size classes are: , -,- , -, and +. Years covered are from  to. Industry classification is based on Japan Standard Industrial Classification. The top figure corresponds to Manufacturing (F). The figure at the bottom
shows the aggregate of Information and telecommunication (H), Transportation (I), Wholesale and Retail (I),Real-estate (L), Restaurant and lodging (M), and Services (Q).
Source: Created by author based on Survey of SMEs
Business Activity, The Small and Medium Enterprise
Agency of Japan ( - ).

Focal points of analysis in this research are
the impact of firm size on productivity and output in service sectors considering the role ofknowledge creation activities in accordancewith the impacts of knowledge-intensive services (KIS) to play on productivity growth in relation to IT services.

In this research, IT areconsidered to be major contributors for creating
new markets, improving productivity, and de-The Growth of Service Economy

livering services.

MOTOMURA-KINOSHITA

of service intermediate inputs such as KIS.

The role of KIS is also taken

into account as they are supposed to promote

As previously mentioned, the relationshipknowledge creation activities and innovation.

among productivity, firm size and investment

To examine these questions, empirical analyses

into R&D must be studied in relation to invest-

are performed by using Japanese firm-level data.

ment into IT that may facilitate innovation in

For the purpose of measuring the impact ofservices, which is defined in OECD () as ainvestment into IT and the use of intermediateconcept broadened more than that for manu-

inputs into KIS, this research refers to models

facturing.

presented by Olley and Pakes () (hereinaf-

Firm¨s capacity for innovation has not been

ter referred to as JOPS) incorporating the find-addressed often in a way which is able to show

ings of Levinsohn and Petrin ( ) (JLPS).

firm¨s competence to use external sources for

As Castellani ( ) says, measurement errors

expertise for generating innovation, and to in-

occur in OLS as OLS allows for correlation be-

troduce IT for supporting the uses of external

tween inputs and productivity.

expertise.

Fixed effects

Several reports published by EU saymodels and instrumental variables are used tothat system competent providers may have an

deal with this issue.

However, a downward bi-

important function in lowering the threshold foras tends to be found in fixed effects models

small firms in particular, and the first experi-caused by within-group variations.

Simultane-ence of using external KIS can have far-ity bias has not been fully overcome either byreaching effects on the firm¨s future service use

fixed effects models, instrumental variables, or(EU Scientific and Technical Research Commit-

Generalized Method of Moments (GMM).

tee , European Commission , ).

InIn

response to the situation, OP and LP have chal-

this regard, LP¨s model is useful for measuring

lenged to yield satisfactory results in the estima-

the impact of intermediates on productivity

tion of productivity.

shocks in line with the extended concept of in-Firstly, OP propose to use investment as anovation in services.

proxy for unobserved productivity to accountfor the endogeneity of inputs.

Based on the discussion in this section, microThis specific im-

panel models are constructed by focusing onplication can be aligned with the role of invest-

the role of investment and intermediate inputs

ment into research and IT for firms in service

to control productivity.

sectors.

This model has been used in manyand equations are defined by cross-referencing

empirics studying manufacturing sectors. It

OP, LP, and, supplementarily Ackerberg, et al.

seems not difficult to ascertain the robustness of( ).

The following models

the model when it is applied to service sectors
appropriately.

. Production functions

At the same time, this model is

not sufficient to be concerned with the impact

First of all, the Cobb-Douglas production

There is an empirical analysis investigating the impact of KIS using French micro-data.
( ).



Please refer to Lelarge

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. No. Sep. 

The productivity follows an exogenous first-

function is defined for a firm Ä:order Markov process:()
where output,
and labor,.

, is a function of capital,

()

,
with

, with unobserved efficiency level,, the firm¨s information set at time Ñ.

OP assume that productivity in the next peri-

By taking the natural logarithmic of theod is expected based on current productivity

equation, the following equation is derived:

level.

( )In the second stage, the productivity is

estimated:

is defined as the mean efficiency level acrossfirms.

()represents a transmitted component
is an

The level of probability that the expected pro-Ackerberg, Benkard, Ber-ductivity in the next period is achieved is ho-

as a state variable, or productivity, andi.i.d. component.

ry & Pakes ( ) add ËÌÍ in the equation

mogenous across time.

above.

sumption is attached to the evolution of productivity over time.

The choice of labor for firm Ä is described:

Also, a fixed effect as-

is treated as unexpected in-novation between time Ñ and Ñãä, which is uncorrelated to ÚÑ for that ÚÑ is determined at time

()

Ñãä.
Based on OP, productivity,

Then, the relationship of output, investment,, takes the fol-and capital can be described:

lowing form with investment, ÐÑ :
()

()

Rewriting Equation ( ) obtains the following:

The capital accumulation for firm Ä is defined:

()

()

where
Equation () have tangibles (ÚóÄ), intangibles()(ÚóÐ), and R&D (øùÄÑãä) with individual depreciation rates,

The first-stage estimator that is linear in ÖÑ andnon-parametric intent estimate of

.

,

, and

, respectively, so thatis used to obtain a consis-

capital accumulation patterns in service sectors

A fourth-order polynomial

will be observed by the type of capital.

in ÐÑ and ÚÑ is used to approximate, estimat-

In the second stage of OP¨s model, anding () using OLS, with output regressed on la-

are estimated nonparametrically after estimat-bor and the polynomial terms.

ing the values of



and

.

Based on Corrado, Hulten, and Sichel ( ), a depreciation rate is set at ％ for . As forand , Nikkei data
for tangible and intangible capital are after depreciation, for which depreciation rates are not specified in this paper.

The Growth of Service Economy

MOTOMURA-KINOSHITA

The firm¨s profit at time t is to derive:in a designated industry are incorporated togive the analysis more information on market-()in which

specific conditions, for example, competitionlevels and efficiency of the market as a business

represents the economic environ-ment surrounding the firm (i.e. input prices, in-environment.

dustry characteristics, and market structure)

produced in OP model are to represent market

andcaptures the cost of investment func-

spillover effects.

tion.

According to Ackerberg et al. ( ), thefactors describing

These treatments allow theanalysis to become more suitable for each sector.

can change over time but

Assuming that kit and ait are known to ob-should be constant across firms at a time.
Please note that

Also, standard error which isserver at time Ñãä, and thatis not included in this func-

is not correlatedtion, for which labor is a static choice of input

with exit at time Ñ.

When the firm exits with in-in OP.

formation set at time Ñãä, we have:

The firm¨s maximization problem is written asa Bellman equation within OP¨s specification:()

In LP¨s model, the equation ( ) is revised as:

( )

()
with the given profit condition insingle point in time, and the sell-off value,, at aProductivity, ofis also rewritten by replacing

investment for intermediate inputs (īÑ) to ob-

production equipment or service delivery

serve productivity:equipment.

()The exit decision of the firm is expressed as
the rule:įÑ, is predicted given
least squares.

()by using weighted

OLS is used with a polynomial

approximation in LP in the same way as OP.
In the first stage,

The investment demand function is:is estimated, but not

.

()

The equation () has the next form in thesecond stage:

In OP, the decision on exit is not counted in
the first-stage estimation because of the assumption that()is controlled, which implies
Given

that endogenous input choice and exit are controlled.

Ú

In the second stage, the exit decision

is incorporated in the estimation process.

and

and

two
ī,

momentconditions

for
and

, the residuals are

Theestimated:variables that represent entry and exit choices

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. No. Sep. 

The original data files were checked to detect()As withorinconsistencies in individual tracks and missing
tracks due to administrative factors or for any, the moment condition canreason except for firm¨s choice of exit or fail-be also written:

ures.

( )
for thatis not correlated with īÐÑãä.

This cleaning procedure reduced the to-tal number of observations in the database to be,.

Given

Its decomposition is shown in Table .

other moment conditions expressed in
where

, the

Sectorfollowing GMM equation is solved by minimiz-

Electronics

ing:
( )
where ń is the instruments in ŅÑ, and óÐŉ and óÐä
are the first period and last period that firm Ð is. Data and Estimation Procedure. Data
This research uses a -year panel of Japan¨s obtained from

Nikkei Needs (www.nikkei.co.jp/needs).

NS
C

NS
C

NSC

NSC

Total







,

,







, 

Info &
TelecomService







,

,

,

Total







,

,

,

Table Number of observations by NSC

Note: National Size Class (NSC-) corresponds to -employees (NSC), - (NSC ), - (NSC), -(NSC), and + (NSC), respectively. JServiceS sector
in this Table is not equivalent of general perception ofwhat JServiceS industry is as the tertiary sector of theeconomy. The JServiceS sector in Table  covers anarrower range of sectors in accordance with Tokyo
Stock Exchange Industry Code.
Source: Nikkei Needs Databases (Balance Sheet, Profit
and Loss, and Cash Flow) (- )observed.

listed firms from  to

NS
C

It is

comprised of annual financial statements (BalPlease refer to Tableance Sheet, Profit and Loss, and Cash Flowand Table  for the de-statements) of firms that are traded at least for

scription of variables, and descriptive statistics,

one period during the that period.

Firm code

respectively. The measure of KIS (ŭŮů) is a to-and Industry code are assigned to each track of

tal of sales fees expensed for promotion anddata.

Nikkei database allows the use of the in-marketing of products for the purpose of im-vestment and intermediates proxy to observe

proving the delivery of products, and spending

productivity.

for acquiring knowledge such as purchased pat-To examine service sectors incomparison with manufacturing, three sectors

ent and design.

This selection of variables forare selected: Electronics (Tokyo Stock Ex-

the measurement of KIS is based on OECDchange Industry Code: ), Information &( ).

Telecommunication ( ), and Service ().



Please refer to http://www.tse.or.jp/sicc/category/ct̲chart.html to find which sector is classified in Electronics (Tokyo Stock Exchange Industry Code: ), Information & Telecommunication ( ), and Service ().



The Growth of Service Economy

MOTOMURA-KINOSHITA

NameҒғËøÐËҘÖÍқҜ Unit

Description
Net income after tax. Income
refers to operating income (sales
from merchandise, products,
amount of completed work,
sales income in industries suchas transportation, storage,
Revenue ҒįқҜ Mil- broadcasting, electricity, gas,lions
entertainment, and sales revenue in industries such as trust,securities, and futures) and nonoperating income less costs,
sales expenditures, administration overhead, and nonoperating expenditures.
Total of current assets, fixed asFixed assets total
sets, and consolidated adjustҒŭқҜ Millions
ment account
Capital expendiCapital investment
tures ҒÐɒɓқҜ Millions
Consolidated number of employees including those working
as full-time, dispatched to thefirm, exclusive of trade union,
Employee ҒÍīɻÍқҜ
leave of absence, board memPerson
bers with multiple appointments, temporary, and dispatched to the other firm who
incur human resource costs
Number of years in operation.
Age ҒËÌÍқҜ YearAny gap of operation is also
identified.
Firms not surviving for the conExit ҒÍ˂ÐÑқҜ Dummy
secutive  years from ( or )through 
Total of tangible fixed assets,
Tangible fixed asland, and allowance for funds
sets ҒŭóҜқҜ Millions
used during construction
Total of goodwill, patent, indusIntangible fixed as- trial new design, software, consets ҒŭŮҜқҜ Millions
solidated adjustment account,
and other intangible fixed assets
Research and development (R&R&D ҒøùқҜ Millions D) expenditures including depreciation
Income from exports, amount ofExport and sales work completed in overseas,ҒùқҜ Millions profits and operation of hotels andtechnical assistance and transfer
Amount paid for programs, sysSoftware ҒλμνÑқҜ Mil- tem specifications, and related
lions
documentation such as flowcharts to run on computers
Total of sales fees, promotion
fees, and provision for accrued
Sales fees ҒŭŮůқҜfees dealer, wholesaler, sales
Millions
agents and designated sales
agentsExpenditures paid for advertiseMarketing ҒŭŮůқҜ
ment, marketing, promotion andMillions
expansion
Patent and design Payment for the use of patentҒŭŮůқҜ Millions
and design

Variable
Ǽ

ŭ

Ðɒɓ

ÍīɻÍ

ËÌÍ

Í˂ÐÑ

ŭó

ŭŮ

øù

ù

λμνÑ
Sales fees,ŭŮůMarketing,ŭŮů
Patent anddesign, ŭŮů

Table Electronics
,

,
, ,,
, 
,
,
,
, 
,
,

.
,
.
.
,
,.
 ,.
,,.
,., ,.,., ,.,.
,,.
 , .
,, .,., . ,. , .,.

Info &
Telecom, ,,, , 
,
, 
,
,
, 
,
,
, 

.
, 
.
. 
,
 , .
,,.
, ,.
, .
,. ,.
, .,.
,.
, ., ,.
,.
, . ,.,. , .Service
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,

.
,
.
. 
, 
,.
,.
, ,.
,. ., . , . ,.
,
,.,., ,.,., .,.

.
. 

Descriptive statistics of variables

Note: The number of observations is shown in the firstrow. Mean is presented in the middle row. Standard
deviation is expressed in the lowest row.
Source: Nikkei Needs Databases (Balance Sheet, Profit
and Loss, and Cash Flow) (- ). Estimation Procedures
Estimation procedures are described below.

Table  Description of Variables

The procedures are programmed using STATA

Source: Nikkei Needs Databases (Balance Sheet, Profit
and Loss, and Cash Flow) (- )(www.stata.com) to run estimators.

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. No. Sep. 

. Use Firm ID (Ð) and Year (Ñ) as panel and time-correlation; Breusch-Pagan Cook-Weisberg

series variable, respectively, to declare data-

test for heteroskedasticity; Ramsey regression

set as panel.

specification-error test for omitted variables. Classify firms by size according to National

using powers of the fitted values of the depen-Size Class (NSC), grouping into Size  to Size .

dent variable.

. Transform data into logarithmic forms for de-

. All regression models are tested by variancependent and independent variables.

In thisinflation factor (VIF) and residual plots,

step, ËÌÍ and Í˂ÐÑ are also calculated.

Whenwhich graphs a residual versus fitted values.

a firm has a non-operating period, it is identi-

Check VIF to see if it does not exceed .

fied as has̲gaps flagged with ԏԑ, or else ԏԑ.

the regression fails to meet any of the test re-

A record is removed as an outlier if it exceeds

sults, the model is considered to be insuffi-a threshold, or standard deviation multiplied

ciently valid, and removed from further con-by three.

sideration.

Check autocorrelations and partial

If

autocorrelations for each variable, perform-

. Repeat the same regression, however, in thising Portmanteau (Q) statistics test for whitecase, with checking autocorrelation (AR())noise and Dickey-Fuller test for a unit root.

by residuals with Cochrane-Orcutt transfor-

In this step, a correlogram is produced bymation with no constant.

This process is togenerating point-wise confidence intervals.

test the assumption that the errors follow a

A partial correlogram is also created with

first-order autoregressive process, in which

confidence intervals based on a standard er-

the errors are assumed to be correlated withror of /sqrt(n).

the residual serially.

. Find the growth of size for each firm as a dif-

The regression uses es-

timated value of rho in Ñãä so that the esti-

ference of the number of empe each year.

mates are robust to heteroskedasticity.

This may result in a negative growth.

ables are omitted programmatically if collin-Gen-erate a logarithmic form of the growth, andVari-earity is observed.

squared.

Then, calculate S.D. for the. In each estimation, results are stored and thegrowth.

Find the growth of Ǽ in the same

estimates are used to compute the function toway.

obtain the projection of Ǽ.

Repeat the same process for other. Fit a cross-sectional time-series regression

variables: øùҜԛŭŮů and λμνÑ.

model of revenue on the independent vari-

. Run a linear regression of Ǽ on the independent variables with a robust bias correlation

ables.

by using a squared root of the residual over 

the second model is for random-effects.

minus the diagonal element of the projection.

Variables are omitted if collinearity is detect-

This estimation is performed using OLS withed.

heteroscedasticity-consistent covariance ma-

multiplier test for random effects as well astrix (HCCM).

Hausman test to determine which model fits

. Run statistics tests with regard to the estima-

The first model is for fixed-effects andPerform Breusch and Pagan Lagrangian

better.

tion: Durbin-Watson Test for first-order serial

. Run a Arellano-Bover/Blundell-Bond linearThe Growth of Service Economy

MOTOMURA-KINOSHITA

dynamic panel-data estimation using lags

tal is not divided into tangibles and intangi-

one and two of independent variables as in-bles as LP estimation takes only one type ofstruments, in which the second order of thecapital.

autocorrelation (AR( )) test is calculated, andused instead in the second estimation.

the conventionally derived variance estima-

. List all estimates to report R , log likelihood,

tor is used for GMM estimation.

chi-square, Akaike Information Criterion

 . Repeat a Cochrane-Orcutt AR() regression
for firms engaging in trade.

The squares of λμνÑҜԛøùҜ and ŭŮů are(AIC), and Bayesian information criterion

Repeat the same(BIC).

process for firms engaging in R&D.
. Run a linear regression on the independent. Results of Micro Panel Analysis

variables, incorporating NSC as categoricaldummies

The estimation results in Table  are based on. Proceed to OP estimation, using ŭó and ŭŮ as

OP methodology,

show, first of all, Electronics

state variables in the production function,

sector benefits most by tangible capital (ŭó) in

empe, employee squared ҒÍīɻÍՏՐқҜԛλμνÑҜԛ
øùҜ

the estimation titled OP- in the table. øù and ù

and ŭŮů as control variables, Í˂ÐÑ as the status

are significant and positive.

of firm¨s entry and exit, and Ðɒɓ as a proxy

cient on ŭŮů is the second largest to that on ŭó,variable controlling productivity.

it causes the coefficient on øù becomes smaller

State vari-

Since the coeffi-

ables and the proxy are used in its second-

than that of conventional views expect.

degree polynomial expansion. ËÌÍҜԛńËλհÌËɻλis then significant and positive in OP- , with aand ù are used only in the second equation.

smaller coefficient.

Bootstrap is set random-number seed to 

is insignificant in this estimation.

performing

is indicated that the amount of inputs into ŭŮů is bootstrap replications with％ confidence level.

Store the projectionof Ǽ and estimate productivity.

øùՏՐOn the other hand, ŭŮůՏՐ
Therefore, it

more important than the rate of ŭŮů growth.

The interac-It

is interesting that λμνÑ is insignificant in both＊tion of soft and KIS ҒλμνÑ ŭŮůқ is included tocases.

The squares ofAs for Service, only ŭó is significant. The

rd, soft and ŭŮůԛҒøùՏՐҜԛλμνÑՏՐԛ
ËɒùԛŭŮůՏՐҜ re-significance of ŭó in the current term does not

spectively) are also included in the second es-

eliminate the importance of ŭ Ů for sectoral

timation.

growth.

check combinatory impacts.

. Run LP estimation of Y based on () andThis result may indicate that the cur-rent service sectors are weak in the capacity to() with . (％) confidence level, on ŭҜԛ utilize intangible capital and other inputs asÍīɻÍҜԛ
ÍīɻÍՏՐҜԛËÌÍҜԛńËλհÌËɻλҜԛλμνÑҜ and øù byusing ŭŮů as a proxy of productivity.

much as it yields a satisfactory balance of tangibles and other inputs.

Capi-



Therefore, the interpre-

Please refer to Blundell and Bond () for further information.
Trade (ù) is excluded from the estimation using LP after various experiments because the inclusion of trade will fail
Wald test.

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. No. Sep. (Table ).

The result for Electronics is general-ly consistent with OP ¨ s result.

The resultshows difference from OP¨s especially for Service, in which KIS is significant with downward
biases on capital, labor, and R&D and upward
biases on ńËλհÌËɻλ.

The discrepancy may becaused by an insufficient investment made byfirms in Service, which may make intermediates
more responsive.

These biases are also seenin Information & Telecommunication.
The discrepancy may be also because the estimation is performed using full samples, dealing with firm¨s behavior regardless of size.

Tocheck this question, an estimation is performed
with OLS including firm size dummies definedaccording to NSC to test the existence of busi-

Table  Productivity with Olley and Pakes

ness size differences throughout time.

Note: Coefficients in the first row. Standard errors inparentheses. ＊＊＊ p＜., ＊＊ p＜., ＊ p＜.. The
column labeled JOP-S includes rd, soft, and KIS as independent variables. In the columns labeled JOP- S,
rd, soft, and KIS are replaced with rd^ , soft^ , and KIS^ , respectively.

Accord-tation of the estimation should be accompaniedwith the results obtained with LP¨s model to see
if productivity is responsive also to other factors.
As for Information & Telecommunication, as
is the case, ÍīɻÍՏՐ is positive and significant.
In addition, λμνÑՏՐ and ŭŮůՏՐ are positive andsignificant although λμνÑ＊ŭŮů is significant andnegative.

Adding the coefficients on λμνÑՏՐand ŭŮůՏՐ gives an impact close to ÍīɻÍՏՐ.

Table  Productivity with Levinsohn and Petrin

This indicates that the speed of growth in both

Note: Coefficients in the first row. Standard errors inparentheses. ＊＊＊ p＜., ＊＊ p＜., ＊ p＜.. The
column labeled JLV-S include ŭҜԛËÌÍҜԛńËλհÌËɻλҜԛÍīɻÍҜԛ
ÍīɻÍՏՐҜԛøùҜԛλμνÑҜԛ
ŭŮůҜ and exit as independent variables. In the columns labeled JLV- S, øùҜԛλμνÑҜ and ŭŮů
are replaced with øùՏՐҜԛλμνÑՏՐҜ and ŭŮůՏՐҜ respectively.
The other blank cells are because the variable is removed due to collinearity.

soft and ŭŮů is important, and that they may also cause a negative effect if the total amountspent for these two inputs is too much andcrowd out spending for the other factors.
The next estimation is based on LP¨s modelThe Growth of Service Economy

MOTOMURA-KINOSHITA

ing to the result in Table , the coefficients onaligned with service sectors.

size dummies are negative in Service and Infor-

focused on the role of knowledge creation activ-

mation & Telecommunication.

ities, i.e.

This showsthat the proportional size effect on output and/

R&D, the use of IT, and the impacts

of intermediates, such as KIS.

or productivity growth is not always true in nonmanufacturing sectors.

This research has

The empirical evidences suggest that the use

Combining this resultof IT and KIS certainly affects output and pro-with those of OP and LP, it shows importance toductivity although the scale of impact varies

decompose firms by business size to capture

across sectors and firm sizes.

growth trends of firms in the service sectors.

the combination of software and KIS works well

In some sectors,

for the output growth.
. Summary

According to OECD ( , ), the numberof SMEs in Japan¨s service sectors is decreasing

The relationship of input choices and produc-

while SMEs are increasing in other major OECDtivity with firm size variations in services are ex-countries.

amined using the firm-level data.

In this re-taining to Japan. It is important to be remind-

search, specific functional forms and assump-ed of this fact when we discuss service sectors

tions are introduced so that the analyses arefrom the viewpoint of firm sizes.

This is a unique characteristic per-The decreas-

ing SMEs means that Japan is not being able toutilize the positive effect of the shifts of productivity distributions, where smaller firms canachieve higher productivity.
One of the contributions of this research is tohave incorporated service R&D, software and
KIS, as well as their combinatory impacts, into
analysis.

By doing so, the estimations success-fully suggest a reason for the heterogeneity inproductivity by firm size, and the factors for thecurrent trend of output in service sectors.
Acknowledgement
Table  GrowthThis research is supported by Development ofby business size

Note: Coefficients in the first row. Robust standard errors in parentheses. ＊＊＊ p＜., ＊＊ p＜., ＊ p＜..
Observations are clustered by size denoted in NSC, andall equations include the grouping as dummy variablesfrom NSC to NSC. Missing results except for NSC
dummies are because of omitted variables due to collinearity. As for NSC and NSC dummies, most sectors do not have sufficient numbers of observations in
the datasets. Therefore, the lack of estimations are
not due to collinearity issue but the lack of observation.

the Fastest Database Engine for the Era of Very
Large Database and Experiment and Evaluationof Strategic Social Services Enabled by the Database Engine, led by Kitsuregawa Masaru, The
University of Tokyo, Funding Program forWorld-Leading Innovative R&D on Science andTechnology (FIRST), Japan¨s Cabinet Office.

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. No. Sep. European Commission. ( ).

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The Growing Importance

Estimating

Production Functions Using Inputs to Con-

CREST Conclusions on R&D introl for Unobservables.

Services - Review and Case Studies: Promot-‫ܩ‬ÍɓÐÍ݄ԛμνԛۭ‫ۮ‬μɒμī-Ð‫ۮ‬ԛůÑ‫ܐ‬ùÐÍλҜԛߩŉҒՐ޼ܲқҜ -.

ing the Role of Systematic R&D in Services.

Miles, I. ( ). Knowledge Intensive Businessregister.

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http://consilium.europa.eu/pdf/en//st/stࠒμøÍλÐÌńÑҜԛߩҒࠟқҜ -.
Miles, I. ( ).

 .en.pdf

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MOTOMURA-KINOSHITA

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OECD. ().

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Services -Measuring Real Annu-

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Outlook.
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Wolfl, A. ( ).

Enhancing the Role of SMEs in

The Service Economy inOECD Countries.

Global Value Chains.
OECD. ( b).

ۭ‫ۮ‬μɒμīÍÑøÐ‫ۮ‬ËҜԛࠟ޼ҒࠟқҜ - .

Innovation and Knowledge-

Intensive Service Activities.
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: OECD Publishing.

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. No. Sep. Discovery and Analysis of Web Pages Censored by
Google Search Engine in Japan
Keywords:
Search Engine, Censorship, World Wide Web

Noriaki YOSHIURA, Saitama University
Takanori MOROI, Saitama University

Abstract
Google is a popular search engine but censors search engine results.

This paper producesa system of discovering semi-automatically web pages that are removed from search results
by Google censorship in Japan.
covered by the system.

This paper also analyzes removed web pages that are dis-

The aim of this analysis is to find the tendency of the censorship.

The method of discovering web pages that are removed from search results by Japanese
Google censorship uses the difference between Google search engine results in America andin Japan. The experiment in this paper discovers  web pages that are removed by Japanese Google censorship in  and  web pages in .



Now, Takanori Moroi works at Central Japan Railway Company.

Discovery and Analysis of Web Pages Censored by Google Search Engine in Japanor accusation.

. Introduction

YOSHIURA and MOROIIt also removes the web pages

where search engine optimization (SEO)(Google ) is applied too much.

The Internet has become indispensable in

It is reason-

daily life.

The Internet provides enormous in-able to remove these web pages, but there is noformation.

Many people use search engines toguarantee that the search engine always re-efficiently obtain information from the Internet.

moves web pages that should be removed be-

Search engines are indispensable to informa-cause of libel, crime, child pornography, accu-

tion collection.

Google is the most popularsation or search engine optimization.

search engine.

One of the reasons of this pop-

More-over, it can artificially remove or modify searchularity is that the search results provide infor-

results for itself.

mation that we want.

sures such as PageRank do not decide the

PageRank is one of the key technologies of
Google search engine (Page ).

Because only objective mea-

search engine results, search engine users

PageRank

should know tendencies of the search engine

is an algorithm that measures importance of

results.

web pages.

The idea of PageRank is A goodsearch results web pages of accusation against a

web page is linked from many good web pag-certain corporation, Google users may lose aes; this idea assigns importance degree to eachchance to obtain useful information about the

web page.

corporation.

The importance degree decides the

For example, if Google removes from

Because we have to use searchorder of listing search results; the more impor-engines to obtain information from the Internet

tant a web page is, the nearer to the top of

today, search engine censorship is an importantsearch result lists it appears.

problem.

In Japan, Information Grand Voy-

Google (Google ) declares that Google"sage Project, which is carried out by Ministry ofcomplex automated methods make human tam-Economy, Trade and Industry, deals withpering with our search results extremely diffi-

search engine censorship.

cult; almost all people think that the search re-ton ) researched Internet censorship, but

sults of Google are determined based on objec-

we find few researches of search engine censor-

tive measures.

However, the search engine ar-ship. It is important to discover web pages

tificially manipulates several search results (Yo-that are removed from search results by searchshimoto ) (Finkelstein *).

engine censorship because of the following rea-

For example,

Clayton et al. (Clay-some corporations or parties in Japan complainsons.

to Google about search results containing web

5The Internet is one of the major information

pages that have inconvenient information formedia and has the same influence as regular

the corporations or parties.

mass media.

Because of these

Search engines have importantcomplaints, Google censors search engine re-roles in the Internet.

Thus, tendencies ofsults so that some web pages that should be dis-search engine results should be monitored.

It

5Search engines should not manipulate infor-

removes from search results the web pages thatmation on search results because this manip-

are related with libel, crime, child pornographyulation is the same as information manipula-

played in search results are not displayed.

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. No. Sep. results by Japanese Google censorship and thattion of mass media.

are related with accusation against corpora-

5Although everyone should have an ability totransmit information on the Internet, searchtions.

Thus, one of the reasons why web pages

engine censorship robs us of this ability.

are removed by the country-by-country censor-

5Censorship of the web pages that accuse badship is that the web pages are related with accu-

or illegal things of corporations or parties pre-sation against corporations or groups, whichvents us from knowing the accusations.

ask Google to remove the web pages fromsearch results.

It follows that discovering theThis paper focuses on the web pages that are

web pages that are removed by the country-by-

removed from search results by Google searchcountry censorship is discovering accusationengine censorship because it is the most popu-

web pages, which may have important informa-lar search engine and because its censorship istion.

known very well (Finkelstein *).

covering web pages that are removed from

This paper proposes the method of dis-

Google censorship can be divided into two

search results by Japanese Google censorship.

types: a worldwide Google censorship andIn the experiment in this paper, this method ob-

country-by-country Google censorship.

The

tains  web pages in  and  web pages

worldwide censorship is that censored web pag-in , which are removed from search results

es do not appear on any search result of theby Japanese Google censorship.

search engine all over the world; web pages on

so analyzes them and finds tendencies of cen-worldwide censorship do not appear on thesorship.

This paper al-

search results of http://www.google.com,

This paper focuses on search engine censor-

http://www.google.co.jp or so on. The country-

ship, which is one of information manipula-by-country censorship is that censored web

tions.

pages do not appear on search results of a cer-sorship on the Internet. Kreimer discusses

tain country Google search engine but on thosecensorship of T.V., press, the Internet or so onof other country Google search engines; thefrom the viewpoint of law (Kreimer ).

web pages that are removed from search results

imer tells that Internet service providers tend to

by Japanese Google censorship do not appear

censor web pages that may be illegal.

on search results of http://www.google.co.jp,

al. propose a method of avoiding the Internet

but on search results of American Google site or

censorship ( Ding). Greengard reports

so on.

that countries use Internet censorship to domi-

Several researches are related with cen-Kre-

Ding etIllegal web pages or web pages modified bynate the political dialogue and to create favor-

SEO are removed from the search results ofable conditions for government-controlled busi-

Google search engine sites all over the world.

nesses (Greengard ).

On the contrary, web pages of country-by-

China censors the Internet.

country Google censorship are not illegal or

the Internet Firewall of China (Clayton ).

modified by SEO.

Crandall et al. also research Internet censorship

The authors of this paper

find web pages that are removed from search(Crandall  ).

*It is well known that
Clayton surveys

Internet censorship has been

Discovery and Analysis of Web Pages Censored by Google Search Engine in JapanYOSHIURA and MOROI

researched and many of the researches are re-engine result for the keyword  Tiananmen

lated with Chinese Internet censorship, but

Square Incident (天安門事件) is different fromthere are few researches that are related with

American or Japanese Google search engine re-Internet search engine censorship.

Many pa-sults for the same keyword. This difference

pers such as (Tashiro  ) and (Yoshida  )originates from Chinese Google censorship ofhave researched Internet search engines, butsome web pages that are related with Tianan-

not focused on Internet search engine censor-

men Square Incident.

ship.

American and Japanese search engines do not

On the other hand,remove these web pages from search results.
. Background. Classification of removed web pages
. Google censorship

According to the president of Google Japan

Google censorship is Google Corporation"s(Murakami ), Google Corporation removes

removal or lack of inclusion of information fromthe following web pages from search results.

its services in order to comply with local laws or

5Web pages violating the guideline of Google

with the company"s policies.

Google censor-

Corporation

ship is divided into worldwide censorship and5Web pages modified by SEO

country-by-country censorship (Yoshimoto

5Web pages related with child pornography,
drug or libel).

5Web pages that individuals or corporations() Worldwide Google censorshipcomplain that infringe their rights

The worldwide Google censorship is thatsome web pages are removed by censorship

However, all web pages that belong to thefrom search results of Google all over the world.

above categories are not always removed fromAll the search engines in the world censor ille-

search results. There are several reasons; one

gal web pages and web pages modified by SEO.

reason is a technical problem.

Because Google is an American corporation, allheavy labor to choose automatically the web

the search engines in the world remove, frompages that belong to the above categories.

search results, web pages that violate American

other reason is that it is sometimes difficult tolaws and web pages that are removed by Ameri-

determine whether web pages belong to the

can Google censorship.

above categories; determining whether web()Country-by-country Google censorshippages belong to the above categories depends

Besides the worldwide censorship, Google
censors web pages in each country.

It is difficult orAn-on people.

Country-

by-country Google censorship is that some web

. Google censorship notice

pages are removed by censorship from search

When Google removes some web pages fromresults of a country Google search engine but

search results, it shows censorship notice mes-

not from those of other country Google searchsage on search results.

engines.

sorship notice message on search results of the

For example, Chinese Google searchFigure  is Google cen-

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. No. Sep. keyword 悪徳商法 (unethical business prac-

web pages that do not appear on search resultstice).

This message tells that some web pagesof Japanese Google but on those of American

are removed from search results by Google cen-

Google are not always the web pages that aresorship.

However, this message does not tellremoved by Japanese Google censorship.

what web pages are removed by Google censor-

Thus, the method of this paper uses Google in-ship.

This notice message tells that Chill-fo option to determine whether the web pages

ingEffect.org site shows the reason of this cen-

are removed by Japanese Google censorship.

sorship, but this site does not provide any infor-

The result of info option shows whether themation about the censorship of search results ofweb pages are removed by Google censorship.

the keyword  悪 徳 商 法  (unethical businesspractice).

This site sometimes gives informa-

. Outline of discovery methodtion for removed web pages, but does not al-

The outline of the discovery method is as fol-ways information for removed web pages.

lows.
5Obtaining search results by some keywords in
American and Japanese Google search engines
5Determining whether some web pages exist
on search results of American Google but noton those of Japanese Google
5Regarding such web pages as candidates of
web pages that are removed by Japanese
Google censorship if such web pages exist

Figure  Google censorship notice

5Using the search option info in Japanese
Google search engine to determine whether

. Method of discovering removed web pages

the candidates of removed web pages are reThis paper focuses on Japanese Google cen-ally removed by Japanese Google censorshipsorship, but not on worldwide Google censor-

Using info option requires searching info:

ship.

web page URL by Google.

As described in the previous sections,Figure  shows the

web pages that are removed from search results

search result of info:web page URL.

This

by Japanese Google censorship appear on themessage tells that web page URL is removed

search results of other country Google searchfrom search results by censorship.

engines.

This fact enables discovery of web

page is removed from search results by censor-

pages that are removed by Japanese Google

ship, searching info: the web page URL ob-

censorship; comparison between search results

tains a message like Figure .

If a webof Japanese Google search engine and anotherWeb pages that appear on search results ofcountry Google search engine can find web

American Google but not on that of Japanesepages that are removed from search results by

Google become the candidates of web pages

Japanese Google censorship.

that are removed from search results by Japa-

However, theDiscovery and Analysis of Web Pages Censored by Google Search Engine in JapanYOSHIURA and MOROI

However, these webtion, that the candidates of removed web pages

pages are not always web pages that are re-are really removed by Japanese Google censor-

moved by Japanese Google censorship because

ship.

nese Google censorship.

American and Japanese Google search engines

The system repeats this procedure to find

do not always provide the same search results

web pages that are removed by Google censor-of the same keywords. If search results in-

ship.

clude similar web pages, they select and show

keywords.

only one web page among the similar web pag-keywords from removed web pages that are dis-es.

However, this system requires many
The system of this paper obtains

covered by this system.

The way of selecting one web page among

Thus, all we have tosimilar web pages is different between Ameri-

do is to input several keywords to the system

can and Japanese Google search engines.

before the system starts.

De-

The system obtains

termining the web pages that are removed by

keywords automatically every time it discovers

censorship requires confirmation of the re-web pages that are removed by Google censor-

moved web pages by using the option info.

ship. To automatically obtain Japanese keywords from the web pages that are removed
from search results by Google censorship, thesystem uses ChaSen, which is a morphologicalanalysis tool for Japanese (NAIST *).
It is possible to produce an automatic program of the discovery method, but Google

Figure terms of service prohibit using automatically info  option message

Google by software or so on.

In the proposedsystem of discovering web pages that are re-. Method of discovering censored web

moved by censorship, the search engine is used

pages

manually.

The method in section *. discovers web pag-This paper defines searcher as peo-es that are removed by Japanese Google cen-ple that use the search engine in the discovery

sorship.

method.

However, this method requires sever-

Figure * shows the system behavior.

al keywords for the search engine. To save

The system consists of web server, ChaSen andthe labor of selecting and inputting keywords

the produced program.

for the search engine, we produce a system for

keywords from the keyword list file and produc-

the discovery method. This system selects

es web pages to search web pages that are re-several keywords from a keyword list file, looks

moved by censorship.

up the selected keywords in American and Jap-

es contain CGI links, which the searcher manu-

anese Google search engines, compares theally clicks to use the search engine.

search results of these search engines, checks

gram sends the searcher e-mail that contains

whether some web pages appear on the search

URL of the produced web pages.

The produced web pagThe pro-We provide an initial keyword list file to theresult of American Google but not on that ofJapanese Google and confirms, by infoThe program selects

system, which repeats the procedure in Figure

op-



Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. No. Sep. New keywords are obtained from removed

ChaSen, which is used as a morphological anal-

web pages that are discovered by the system.

ysis tool in this paper, does not always generate

The system adds the new keywords to the key-

good morphological analysis results for web

word list file.

pages.

*.

However, this system obtains

In Japanese, to obtain nouns is easier

many keywords from the removed web pages.

than to obtain other parts of sentence.

Thus,

Some of them are usual words and not related

the discovery system uses nouns as keywords.

with web pages that are removed by censor-

The reason for the second condition is as fol-ship.

These words are useless and sometimes

lows; words that often appear on removed web

become obstacles to find removed web pages.

pages are words that are often used in many

Efficient discovery of removed web pages re-

web pages.

quires filtration of words.

terize web pages that are removed by Google

This paper uses thefollowing conditions to obtain keywords fromThus, these words do not charac-

censorship.

web pages that are removed by Google censorship.

. Experiment

5Obtained keywords should be nouns.
. Environment

5Each obtained keyword appears on a cen-This experiment uses three PCs.

sored web page less than or equal to ten

Each PC

times.

has a keyword list file independently, but the

The reason for the first condition is as fol-same keyword list file at the beginning of thelows; in Japanese, it is difficult to obtain words

experiment.

from sentences because Japanese words are notaddress and sends e-mail, which includes a web

separated by space in sentences and because

page URL to search removed web pages, toJapanese has many verb forms and particles.

searchers two times per one hour because fre-Figure 

System behavior

Each PC also has a different IP

Discovery and Analysis of Web Pages Censored by Google Search Engine in Japan

Table Numbers of web pages (BBSpractice, religion and political things.

)

words that are related with them are used as initial keywords in this experiment.

Wiki pages* pages

Minor news sites

 pagesSpecific purposes* pages

The experiment in  obtains  web pages that are removed from search results by Japanese Google censorship and that in  obtains  web pages.

Numbers of web pages ( )

BBS

Thus,

 pages

Blog

Table YOSHIURA and MOROIThe removed web pages

* pagesthat are discovered in  and in  are notrelated with SEO or child pornography.

Wiki pagesBlog pages

Minor news sites

 pagesSpecific purposes pages. Tendencies of Google censorshipThis paper classifies and analyzes the web
pages that are discovered in the experiment.

quent accesses to the search engine in a short

Examining the web pages that are discovered in

duration from one IP address are possibly DoS

the experiment suggests the following classifica-

attack (Denial of Service attack).

tion.

From each

5Web based bulletin board system

PC, the searchers receive e-mail and click CGI
link in the web page in the e-mail.

In Japan, -channel is the most famous andthe largest web based bulletin board system

. Results(BBS).

This paper performs this experiment two
times; one is in 

The participants of BBSes can anony-mously post documents to BBSes.

weeks from October  th

Posteddocuments appear in chronological order or

 to January th  and the other is in 

reference order.

weeks from July th  to October th .

post any kinds of documents anonymously.

In both experiments, the total number ofSome of the documents posted to BBSes aresearching is  ,.

Both experiments use therelated with accusation, corporation, unethi-

same initial keyword list, which contains two

cal business practice, sexual crime, drug,

BBSes enable everyone towords that are related with unethical businesscopyright infringement, politician or religion.

practice, six words that are related with religion

Some of web pages including these docu-

and fifty words that are related with politician

ments are removed from search results by

name.

Before producing the method of dis-

Google censorship; especially, the result ofcovering web pages that are removed fromthe experiment shows that many of them aresearch results by censorship, the authors of thisrelated with invasion of privacy or libel.

paper surveyed web pages that are removed by

5Web pages to share information on specificJapanese Google censorship.

This survey

things (Wiki)found several web pages that are removed by

One of these web pages is Wikipedia (Wikipe-

Japanese Google censorship.

dia ), which is a free web-based encyclo-

These removed

web pages are related with unethical businesspedia.



Everyone can post documents toJournal of Socio-Informatics Vol. No. Sep. such web pages to increase information of thekinds of censorship causes; Accusation against

web pages.

corporation is one kind of cause and Invasion

Like BBS, everyone can anonymously postof privacy is the other kind of cause.

any documents to this kind of web pages.

* and Table , which are intended to show theSome of documents have inappropriate infor-

numbers of kinds of censorship causes, even if

mation; especially, the result of this experi-a web page has two accusations against differ-ment shows that some of them are related

ent corporations, it is deemed to have one kindwith corporation and trial.

of censorship cause.

5Blog (Weblog)

In TableOn the other hand, Table  and Table  are

Blog web pages are like a diary web page that

intended to show the numbers of web pages ac-

is written by individuals or groups. Some ofcording to the number of censorship causes.

Blog web pages are related with accusation,

In Table  and Table , if a web page has twocrime, religion, corporation and trial.

accusations against different corporations, the5Minor news sites

web page is deemed to have two causes.

Minor news sites are the sites of local news-

These two tables also show that the kind of web

papers in Japan or information magazines.

pages correlate with the numbers of censorship

These web pages are related with corpora-causes.
Table * and Tabletion, scandal, politician and crime.

show that some web pag-es have more than one kind of censorship

5Web pages for specific purposes
Each of these web pages has a specific pur-cause.

pose.

Table * is more than that in Table .

For example, some of web pages areThus, the total number of web pages in
In Tablewritten for accusation against unethical busi-*〜, the web pages with the mark ± repre-

ness practice.

Clearly, these web pages aresent that the cause of censorship of them can-related with unethical business practice, trial,

not be found; this paper can also find no kind ofreligion, accusation or malpractice.

causes that do not belong to the six categories

Table  shows the numbers of web pages infrom the result of the experiment.

 and Table  shows those in .

Table *

shows the numbers of each kind of web pages

. System run time and the number of dis-for each kind of censorship causes and Table

covered web pages

shows those in .

Table  shows the num-

Figure * and Figure  show the number of dis-bers of each kind of web pages for the number

coveries of removed web pages over system runof causes and Table  shows those in .

time in  and in .

it is different between Table

web pages with allowing duplication over sys-

Similarly,

and Table .

and Figure show the number of discoveries of removed

Notice that the way of counting causes is different between Table * and Table .

Figuretem run time in  and in .

For

The twoexample, in Table * and Table , a BBS web

kinds of graphs show that the number of discov-

page that has accusation against corporation

eries decreases with time progress.

and invasion of privacy is deemed to have twoDiscovery and Analysis of Web Pages Censored by Google Search Engine in Japan

Table YOSHIURA and MOROI

Number of each kind of web pages for each kind of causes (classifications

Minor newssite)

Web pages for
specific purposes

BBS

Wiki

Blog

Accusation against corporation









Invasion of privacy







*

Libel











*

*

























kinds of causes

Crime
Religion





Trial





Nothing±Table 



Total
*
*

Number of each kind of web pages for each kind of causes ( )classifications

BBS

Wiki

Blog

Minor newssite

Accusation against corporation



*





Invasion of privacy









Libel













Crime





*

*





Religion











Trial









*

Nothing

±









kinds of causes

Table Web pages for
specific purposes

Number of each kind of web pages for the number of causes (classifications

Minor news
site

Wiki

Blog

Over







〜

























±









Total





*



*

Table

)

Web pages for
specific purpose

BBS

causes

Total

Number of each kind of web pages for the number of causes ( )classifications

Minor newssite

Web pages for
specific purpose

BBS

Wiki

Blog

Over







〜





















*



±









Total

*









causesJournal of Socio-Informatics Vol. No. Sep. . Discussion
. Target of Google censorship
Table  and Table  show that about half of
web pages that are removed by censorship are
BBS web pages.

Table * and Table

show thatmany removed BBS web pages are related with
accusation against corporation, invasion of
Figure  Number of discoveries (privacy, libel and crime.

)The reason ofthis tendency is that everyone can post manykinds of documents to BBSes anonymously.
Table * and Table

show that removed web

pages such as wikipedia are related with accusation against corporation, religion and trial.

These tables also show that many of blog

web pages and minor news sites deal with corporations or crimes.
Figure 

The cause that these web

pages are removed from search results is that

Number of discoveries allowing
duplication ( )they contain the names that are related with accusations or crimes.
Table  and Table  show tendencies of thenumber of censorship causes; BBS web pages,
blog and minor news sites have many causes.
On the other hand, wikipedia and web pages for
specific purposes do not.

In BBSes, many peo-

ple post documents for one theme.

For exam-ple, many people post to BBSes many docuFigure

ments about unethical business practice; a BBS

Number of discoveries ( )

web page contains many documents that describe many cases of unethical business practice.

If the web page is removed by censor-

ship, it is difficult to find the cause of the removal among many documents in the web
page.

However it is possible to recognize un-

ethical business practice as causes of the removal.
Each web page of blog and minor news sites

Figure 4 Number of discoveries allowing
duplication ( )

contains many documents of corporation scan-Discovery and Analysis of Web Pages Censored by Google Search Engine in Japandals or crimes.

YOSHIURA and MOROI

with crime and malpractice.

It is difficult to find the cause

An arrow in Fig-of the removal among many documents be-ure  represents dependency between two key-cause of the same reason as BBS.

words.

On the other

The arrow from unethical business

hand, it is easy to decide the cause of censor-

practice (悪 徳 商 法) to organization (組 織)ship for removed wikipedia web pages because

represents that discovering removed web pages

each of them deals with one topic.

by the keyword unethical business practiceadds the keyword organization to the key-. Web pages discovered newly by this ex-

word list file.

The keywords unethical busi-

periment

ness practice and a proper noun (a first name

The authors of this paper know several webof a politician), which are on the top of Figure ,

pages that are removed by Japanese Google

are contained in the initial keyword file.

censorship before the experiment of this paper.

ure  hides the real names of three proper

These web pages are related with unethicalnouns.

business practice or accusation against corpora- are not directly related with the keywords

tion.

Unethical business practice and a proper

The experiment in this paper newly dis-Fig-

The two removed web pages in Figure

covers web pages that are removed from searchnoun in the initial keyword file.

results by censorship.

removed web pages are discovered from theSome of these pages are

related with malpractice and some of them mi-

However two

initial keyword file.

nor news sites.
. Discovery effectiveness. Keyword relation

Figure *〜 show that the number of removed

Keywords that are obtained by the system are
related with initial keywords.

web pages that are discovered by the system

This experimentdecreases with time.

The experiment in obtains keywords such as fraud, corpora-discovered  removed web pages and  re-tion, unethical, vice and religion, which

moved web pages with allowing duplication.

appear on many removed web pages that are

The experiment in  discovered  removed

discovered in this experiment.

web pages and  removed web pages with al-

These words

are directly related with the initial keywords.

lowing duplication.

Both in  and in ,On the other hand, this experiment discovers

the number of discovered web pages is about

the removed web pages of malpractice, which

％ of the total number of web pages discov-are not directly related with the initial key-ered with duplication.

words.

This result shows that the proposedthat are used in the system are ice cream,

system can discover removed web pages thatchair, etc and October. These key-

are not directly related with initial keywords.

words appear on many web pages on the Inter-

Some of the keywords

Figure  shows relations among keywords to

net and are useless for discovery of censoreddiscover two removed web pages; one is related

web pages. Examining removed web pages

with crimes and the other is related with mal-that are discovered in the experiment clarifies

practice.

that the removed web pages contain proper

The initial keywords are not relatedJournal of Socio-Informatics Vol. No. Sep. FigureRelation among keywords

nouns such as names of persons, groups or cor-would prefer the law or rule that search engines

porations. Thus, proper nouns are better thanshould provide the function of info option,

normal nouns to discover removed web pages.

but it is important to check, without info option of the search engine, whether web pages

. Comparison of experiment results

are removed from search results by the censor-

This paper obtains  removed web pages in and  removed web pages in .

ship.

Without info option, it is possible toThischeck whether a web page is removed from

subsection compares the results in  and in

search results by the censorship; one of the.

ways of checking is picking up keywords from

The removed web pages that are discov-ered in  include those in .

It follows

the web page so that the search result of thethat the removed web pages that were discov-

keywords includes all web pages that are relat-

ered by this method in  have been still re-ed with the keywords, and checking whether

moved from search results by Google censor-

the web page is in the search result.

ship.

fo option is not indispensible for the discovery

Moreover, the experiment in  finds

more removed web pages than that in .

method of this paper.

. info! option of Google search engine

. Conclusion

Thus, in-

The discovery method of this paper uses info option of the search engine to check wheth-

This paper produced the method of discover-er web pages are removed from search results

ing web pages that are removed from search re-by censorship, but there is no guarantee thatsults by Japanese Google censorship.

the search engine always provides info op-method discovered  removed web pages intion.

 and  removed web pages in .

The discovery method of this paper

*

This
Ana-

Discovery and Analysis of Web Pages Censored by Google Search Engine in JapanYOSHIURA and MOROI

Google recommend working with compa-

lyzing them found a tendency of censorship.

nies that offer to make my site Google-

One of future works is to develop the methodof discovering web pages that are removed

friendly?,from search results by Google worldwide cen-

http://support.google.com/webmasters/

sorship.

bin/answer.py?hl=en&answer=*(Accessed Mar , )[] Kreimer, S.F. (), Censorship by Proxy:

Acknowledgement
The authors would like to thank the editors

The First Amendment, Internet Intermedi-

and the reviewers. Their comments for thisaries, and the Problem of the Weakest Link,

paper are helpful for improvement of the paper.

University of Pennsylvania Law Review,()[] Murakami, N. () Google Murakami

References[] Clayton, R., Murdoch, S.J. and Watson, R.

Shacho Google Hachibu wo Kataru  ,N. M. () Ignoring the great firewall of

http://itpro.nikkeibp.co.jp/article/NEWS/th

China, Proceedings of  Privacy Enhanc-*/  (Accessed June , )ing Technology, Lecture Notes in Comput-[] NAIST Computational Linguistics Lab.
(*) Chasen"s wiki,

er Science , pp.-*

http://chasen.naist.jp/hiki/chasen/ (Ac-[] Crandall, J. R. and Byrd, M. ( )cessed October , )Concept-Doppler: A Weather Tracker for[] Page, L. () Method for node ranking inInternet Censorship, Proceedings of thetha linked database, U.S. Patent ,, B

ACM Conference on Computer and[] Tashiro, T., Ueda, T., Hori, T., Hirate, H.

Communication Security, pp.*-*
[*] Ding, F., Yang, Z., Chen, X. and Guo, J.

and Yamana, H. ( ) EPCI: Extracting(), Effective Methods to Avoid the In-

Potentially Copyright Infringement Texts

ternet Censorship,  Fourth Internation-from the Web, Proceedings of the th In-

al Symposium on Parallel Architectures, Al-

ternational World Wide Web Conference,

gorithms and Programming, pp. - pp.-

[ ] Finkelstein, S. (*) Google censorship -[*] Wikipedia () Wikipedia,

how it works, http://www.sethf.com/anti-

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/main̲page

censorware/general/google-censorship.php(Accessed October , )(Accessed October , )[ ] Yoshida, T.

[] Greengard, S. (), Censored!, Commu-

Ueda, T., Tashiro, T., Hirate,

H. and Yamana, H.( ) Shoyoukensakue-

nications of the ACM, *( )njin no Ranking ni kansuru Teiryouhyoka[] Google () Google Terms of Service,to Tokuchoukaiseki, Jouhoukenpou, Vol.
 , No., pp. - 

http://www.google.com/ (Accessed Octo-[] Yoshimoto, T. () Google Hachibu tohaber , )Nanika[ ] Google (),  What " s an SEO? Does

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. No. Sep. Social Construction of U.S. Propaganda Organization:
Discourse Analysis of the United States Information
Agency (USIA)
Keywords
social constructionism, discourse analysis, organization studies, propaganda, United States Information Agency (USIA)

Junichi HIRAMATSU, Takushoku University

Abstract:
The purpose of this research is to examine by discourse analysis the social construction of
the United States Information Agency (USIA), a first independent propaganda organization inpeace time.

The findings show that the USIA was organized as a result of social effects of theknowledge on American propaganda and propaganda organization accumulated by the U.S.
political and governmental leaders since World War II rather than by a single reason of rationality, cost-efficiency, or legal institutions.

Through this study, it can be understood how a

propaganda organization in the U.S. government is dynamically constituted through the texts
embedded in certain historical and social contexts.

Social Construction of U.S. Propaganda Organization

HIRAMATSU

. American Propaganda, Propaganda Orga-

. Introduction

nization, and the USIA
This paper examines by drawing on discourse
. World War II

analysis how the organizing of the United States

The organizational origin of the USIA dates

Information Agency (USIA) was socially realized.

back to propaganda policies of the Franklin

The USIA should be interesting for infor-

mation and organization scholars in that it was

Roosevelt administration.

Before the war, theestablished in August   as a first and last in-State Department was conducting as part of $di-

dependent propaganda (foreign information) or-

plomacy% educational and cultural activities by

ganization in peace time.

using own emissaries. In  , Secretary ofHowever, the USIA is still under-studied by

State Cordell Hull paid increasing attention to

those other than historians while even studying

the value of civilian exchanges in Latin America

a security and propaganda organization such as

and directed his subordinates to organize a cul-

the USIA is not well-developed (Grey,  ; Os-tural relations section within the State.

good, :  ).

this time when the post $cultural attaché% wasThis paper tries to fill this re-search gap and to contribute to socio-

It wascreated.
Russo-German Non-aggression Pact on Au-

informatics from the organization and discourse

gust  , 

perspective.

pressed Roosevelt to impose astate of emergency nationwide.

In August , the president established the Office of the. Organization and Discourse Analysis

Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs within
the White House and designated Nelson Rocke-

Discourse analysis is different in perspective
and approach from other forms of qualitative

feller as its chief.

analysis.

with the State and concentrated on the bi-

It deals with the relationship be-

tween texts and contexts in human reality.

Rockefeller collaborated

national cultural/commercial advertisements toItcounter Nazi propaganda in Latin America.

varies by research objectives but is premised onthat human reality is socially constructed andIn  , when Roosevelt commented on thesocial relations are embedded in certain texts

Life magazine the coming $American Century,%

and contexts.

the Coordinator of Information (COI) was estab-

Organization, private or public,

is human reality so discourse analysis is welllished at the top level.

suited for organization studies (Phillips and

COI William Bill Donovan initially expected to

Hardy, : -, ,  , ).

be given a comprehensive authority both toAlthough first and last

The author surveyed the contextualized texts$collect and analyze all information and data,of U.S. political and governmental leaders dur-

which may bear upon national security% and to

ing the period from World War II until after the

perform $supplementary activities% including

establishment of the USIA.

propaganda, he encountered fierce opponents

The findings andfrom other government bodies.

discussion go as follows.

War Secretary

Henry Stimson, the Army G- (intelligence),Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. No. Sep. Hull, and Rockefeller all delivered their con-mation (OWI).

cerns to the president about the bureaucraticvan.

infringement by the DonovanCs office on infor-

tion, the OSS was decided to conduct secretmation.

Also, the $ domestic % propaganda$black% propaganda operations or $moral oper-function was denied by Roosevelt himself as heations% including distributing false and/or unat-

differentiated propaganda tasks given to Dono-tributed materials, or controlling front organiza-

van from motivating U.S. citizens.

tions.

With that

The OSS was headed by Dono-

As a military and intelligence organiza-

The OWI was led by Elmer Davis, alimited capacity, Donovan managed to givejournalist, author, and radio commentator.

birth to its own subordinate propaganda organi-

The OWI absorbed the FIS/USIS and the VOA,

zation, the Foreign Information Service (FIS)

and its employees consisted of many kinds ofwhose director was Robert Sherwood, a play-

non-military U.S. citizens and foreigners.

wright and speechwriter for Roosevelt (Cull,OWI was never entitled to access to the presi-

: -; Dizard, : ).

dent unlike the RockefellerCs office.

There were philosophical differences between Donovan and Sherwood, however.

The

Its respon-

sibility was to $formulate and carry out, throughFor

the use of press, radio, motion picture, and oth-Donovan who was interested in secret militaryer facilities, information programs designed toactivities and impressed by German propagan-facilitate the development of an informed andda, the FIS was supposed to be a weapon of war

intelligent understanding, at home and abroad,using $a judicious mixture of rumor and decep-of the status and progress of the war effort andtion…to foster disunity and confusion in sup-the war policies, activities, and aims of the Gov-

port of military operations.% On the contrary,ernment.% Davis further defined the OWI as $an

Sherwood followed the British practice of

information agency, setting forth the proposals$Strategy of Truth% and insisted on civilian con-of authoritative persons or agencies% (Cull,trol separate from military operations.

: -, ; Winkler,  ` : , , , ).

The FIS

opened regional stations overseas called UnitedStates Information Service (USIS).

The FIS al-

. Early Postwar Yearsso started in January  , a first American ra-

On August ,  , President Truman abol-

dio program and on February  opened its own

ished by his executive order the OWI.

radio station, the Voices of America (later Voiceer, this order also stated:

Howev-of America, VOA). From the beginning, theVOA continued trying to stand politically neu-

the nature of present-day foreign relations

tral in its broadcasting (Winkler,  ` : `-).

makes it essential for the United States toAs the war grew heated and the discrepancies

maintain information activities abroad ason American propaganda between Donovan

an integral part of the conduct of our for-and Sherwood increased, Roosevelt issued oneign affairs (Henderson,   : )June  the executive order providing that the
COI was divided into two: the Office of Strate-

Under this understanding, the president or-

gic Services (OSS) and the Office of War Infor-

dered in late   Secretary of State to create`Social Construction of U.S. Propaganda Organization

HIRAMATSU

propaganda programs $to be conducted on afense (DoD).

The DoD initially hesitated to get

continuing basis.% As such, the State took overinvolved in both overt and covert propaganda

the functions of the OWI/VOA/USIS and thein peace time.

RockefellerCs office. In a press release that

Eisenhower or Robert McClure, the U.S. mili-year, the president explained that the Unitedtary was inclined to think that it should discrim-

States would not $outstrip the extensive andinate $psychological warfare% which is conduct-

growing information programs of other nations%ed only at war from $selling democracy% which

but $endeavor to see to it that other peoples re-was thought to fall within the State (Paddock,ceive a full and fair picture of American life and: `-,  - ).

Except for Generals like Dwightof the aims and policies of the United States

In the summer of  `, a congressional group

Government.% Publisher William Benton, who

co-chaired by Alexander H. Smith and Karl E.

took office in September as Assistant Secretary

Mundt visited the USIS European posts andof State for Public Affairs, echoed thepointed out that communists were $conducting

presidentCs views on American propaganda.

aggressive psychological warfare against us.%

In a congressional statement on January,$In order to prevent this, to safeguard our na- , Benton urged the Congress to clearly dis-tional security, to promote world peace and im-cern between American $information% and Rus-

plement our own foreign policy, …a strong andeffective information and educational exchange

sian $propaganda% (Henderson, , `).
On March ,  `, Truman began the so-

program is essential.% Thus, on January `,

called $containment% anti-Soviet foreign policy.

 , the Smith-Mundt Act was signed into law

This idea derived from Minister George

after more than a hundred times modifications.

KennanCs argument that the Soviet Union was

Under this act, the State again organizationallyinternationally expansionist so the U.S. mustdrew the line between media and cultural/edu-

tackle it by economic, military, diplomatic or

cational propaganda.

$psychological% measures.

The National Secu-

this act were to ban domestic propaganda andrity Act of July   ` established the Central$to promote a better understanding of the Unit-Intelligence Agency (CIA) as a successor of the

ed States in other countries, and to increase

The main objectives of

OSS and the National Security Council (NSC)

mutual understanding% across the world (Hen-for the coordination of national security policy-

derson,   : -).

making at the highest level.

In December, theAfter late   , the Soviets started the $hate

NSC decision (NSC-A) specified the CIA as aAmerica% propaganda campaigns.

body of implementing the whole $covert% ac-

which Paul Nitze in the StateCs Policy Planningtion programs including black propaganda.

Staff drafted on April ,  , accordingly ar-

NSC / in   further asked

the CIA for thegued for the $methods short of war% to $reduce

creation of the Office of Policy Coordination

the power and influence of the USSR.% At this(OPC)

critical junction, Edward Barrett came to thefor covert action which was ordered to

NSC ,ask for policy guidance, in peace time from theState as the Assistant Secretary.

State, and at war from the Department of De-

eran and journalist, Barrett advised Truman to

The OWI vet-

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. No. Sep. practice $Campaign of Truth% to reveal theamong its members.

The CIA and the PSB

SovietsC $deceit, distortion, and lies% (Belmonte,

staff described the body as the $command post%

: ).

which would coordinate all of major policies
contemplated by the government.

Behind a veil of secrecy, the CIA set up in

The State,  the National Committee for Free Europe

who feared to lose its leadership in foreign pol-(NCFE) as a private organization.

Under theicy, tried to limit the PSBCs role to only provid-

NCFE, the Radio Free Europe (RFE) began next

ing a forum for the exchange of ideas and infor-

year in Munich the first broadcasting toward

mation on individual psychological programs

Czech Republic.

(Osgood, :  -).

Following suit with the RFE,

the Radio Free Asia in   for communist Chi. Establishment of the USIA

na and the Radio Liberation (later Radio Liber-

On January ,   , Dwight Eisenhower wasty) in   for the USSR initiated their standalone campaigns.

elected to the presidency.

The CIA radio stations andEisenhower was thethe VOA overlapped in radio broadcasting but

first president contender who dealt in publicdifferent through American propagandist lens.

with American propaganda.

The RFE/RL was mostly staffed by émigrés fromthe president said in his State of the Union mes-

the listening countries and broadcasted theirsage that he would $make more effective all ac-comments on internal matters to the limited

tivities of the government-related international

number of countries in Eastern Europe. On

information% (Henderson,   : ).

On February ,

the other hand, the VOA did not use the voices

At the request of the president, two presiden-of other countries but those of America in thetial committees were built for reviewing thename of the U.S. government (Belmonte, :TrumanCs $Campaign of Truth.% As early as Jan-; Dizard, : ).

uary  , the PresidentCs Advisory Committee on

The outbreak of the Korean War in  

Government Organization was established forawakened the U.S. military to create on January

this purpose, headed by Nelson Rockefeller.

,   the Office of the Chief of PsychologicalFive days later on January , the PresidentCs

Warfare (OCPW) with Robert McClure as its

Committee on International Information Activi-

head.

The DoD and the OCPW then began in-ties headed by William Jackson also got started

venting a strategy for psychological warfare.

by analyzing the entire range of U.S. Cold War

Since then, the OPCW had been at odds with

policies covert as well as overt.

the CIA over covert propaganda.

McClureThis is when there were some congressmen

even raised a question in   of whether thelaunching their harsh attacks against U.S. pro-

CIA would become the $fourth service% (Pad-paganda and alleged communists inside thedock, : - ,  ,  ,  ).

government.

The House Committee on Un-

In April,  , the Truman administration cre-American Activities and the Permanent Sub-

ated the Psychological Strategy Board (PSB) to

committee on Investigations of the Government$coordinate% propaganda policies. However,Operations Committee of the U.S. Senate

the views on the role of the PSB were divided

chaired by Senator Joseph McCarthy called forSocial Construction of U.S. Propaganda Organization

HIRAMATSU

the abolishment of the StateCs propaganda divi-that the State should concentrate solely on tra-sion and the VOA replete with alleged $com-

ditional $diplomacy% and foreign $policy% so hemies.% Their arguments were based mostly on

wanted to abandon its propaganda or liberation

speculations or political motives.

$operations.% He even tried to disband theAfter the death of Stalin on March , theVOA, against which C. D. Jackson soon

USSR began moderating its propaganda over-warned.

seas from $hate America% to $peace offensive.%find a basis of cooperation with McCarthy% to

On April `, the Rockefeller Committee recom-

avoid being criticized by the Congress (Hender-

He also ordered his subordinates $tomended the establishment of $a new foreign in-son,   : -; Osgood, : ``-; Belmonte,

formation agency% under the NSC.

: ; Dizard, : `).

Partly re-sponding to this, Eisenhower submitted on June

Based on the Reorganization Plan, the USIA,   to the Congress the Reorganization Plan

was legally established on August ,   , ab-No..

The subsequent official reports contin-

sorbing the propaganda functions of the State,

ued to express different views on American pro-

Mutual Security Agency (MSA), Technical Co-

paganda and propaganda organization.

The

operation Administration (TCA), and occupied

report issued by the Hickenlooper committee ofareas other than cultural and educational ex-

the Congress suggested either giving greater au-changes. On October , in a press release

tonomy to the StateCs propaganda organization

Eisenhower stated:or creating an independent agency while keeping the function of exchange-of-persons under

The purpose of the United States Infor-

the State in order to prevent it from being politi-

mation Agency shall be to submit evidence

cal and too closely associated with propagan-to peoples of other nations by means of

dists.

The Jackson Committee C s report oncommunications techniques that the objec-

June  did not directly tackle the new informa-tives and policies of the United States are intion organization issue.

Instead, it stressed theharmony with and will advance their legiti-

importance of overall propaganda coordination

mate aspirations for freedom, progress andand recommended the establishment of an Op-

peace (Henderson,   : ).

erations Coordinating Board (OCB) under theFormer VOA consultant Theodore Streibert

NSC.

became the first Director of the USIA.

The influential but not decisive individuals in

He con-the government were Eisenhower, Rockefeller,

firmed the presidentCs commitment by promis-

C. D. Jackson, or State Secretary John Foster

ing that the USIA keeps $avoiding a propagan-

Dulles.

distic tone.% The USIA distributed fact-based in-

Eisenhower claimed to distinguish be-

tween overt and covert propaganda.

C. D.

formation on American life and policy throughJackson, a WWII veteran, was a member of theradio, publications or exhibits to the foreign

Jackson Committee and the first $psychologicalpublic except for high-level governmental offi-

warfare% adviser to the president from February

cials.

  to March  .

often engaged in $unattributed% (gray) propa-

Dulles personally thought`

Simultaneously, the USIA (not the VOA)Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. No. Sep. The USIA used abroad theorganized separately while professionals in

name $USIS% to avoid the misunderstanding

military-civilian, intelligence, or diplomacy con-that the USIA was a U.S. $(intelligence) agency%

tinued to compete for propaganda. Following(Cull, : ; Osgood, :  - ).

this tradition, the USIA was discursively posi-

ganda activities.

tioned as an overt and gray foreign information
That said, the USIA could not become a lead-organization to counter enemy propaganda ander or coordinator of U.S. propaganda among

to explain American life and policy on a factual

the government.

basis.

The USIA made overt andAt the same time, the USIA was depict-gray foreign propaganda materials together

ed in a negative way by American political andwith other federal organizations under thegovernment leaders as a non-military, non-StateCs guidance.

The USIA also had to keep

intelligence, non-diplomatic, non-cultural/edu-

the virtually master-servant relations with thecational, and non-domestic operational organi-

State, the CIA and the DoD since unlike them,zation with little bureaucratic privilege.

the USIA had no authorities to make policy andAlthough there were some powerful Ameri-

USIA officials had no chance for high-level pro-

can leaders in the organizing of the USIA, theirmotion at least until  .

texts could not be completely immune to thePlus, the Director of

American historical and social contexts.

the USIA firstly had the access to the OCB but

Edu-

not to the NSC.

The USIA was even chal-cational and cultural exchanges continued to belenged from inside.

The VOA often insisted onrecognized as separate parts of American pro-its journalistic independence from the State andpaganda.

After the ambitious efforts by thethe USIA (Dizard, : - ; Cull, : `,

COI, few U.S. leaders dared to advocate for a).

single centralized propaganda organization.
Consequently, the USIA was independent but. Discussion

just one of the propaganda organizations in thegovernment with no authority over central co-

The findings show that the USIA was orga-

ordination and covert/domestic propaganda af-

nized as a result of social effects of the knowl-

fairs.

edge on American propaganda and propaganda
organization accumulated by the U.S. political. Conclusionand governmental leaders since World War II
This paper examined the social construction

rather than by a single reason of rationality,
cost-efficiency, or legal institutions.

of the USIA.

The dis-Through the analysis of the relat-

course on U.S. propaganda and propaganda or-

ed discourse, it is concluded that the organizing

ganization revolved around political, bureau-of the USIA was achieved as a result of social ef-

cratic, or professional negotiations.

fects of the knowledge on American propagan-

As illustrated above, WWII brought about theda and propaganda organization accumulated

texts and contexts where both cultural/educa-by the U.S. leaders in the political and govern-tional and overt/covert propaganda should be

mental arena since World War II.

`

The under-Social Construction of U.S. Propaganda Organization

HIRAMATSU

standing of the organizational fluctuation of theOrganization Studies: Parallels and Possibili-

USIA since the  s requires more researchties,% ̇ȝȔȠȓȒ̍ȠȖȒȯȓɈ pp.  -.

and discussion.

Henderson, John W.(  ): ɍȗȏȕȨȓȒȖȏȵȕ
ȎȖȠȖȏɮȕɰȓɲȯȝțȠȖȒȯȓȕ
ȚȔȏȓȟȥɈ Praeger, New York.
References

Osgood, Kenneth (): ɍȯȖȠȐȕ
ɀȯȐȵȕ
ȣȠȝȦȕ
͖Ȓɮȏȓ-

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ȗȯ͝ȏȝCɮȕȎȏȟȝȏȖȕ
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University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadel-

Lawrence.

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Cull, Nicholas J. (): ɍȗȏȕ
ɀȯȐȵȕ
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ȣȠȝɲȠȝȏ ȕɰȖɮ ȕ̇ȝȒȔȒȓɮ ȕȭɮȥȟȗȯȐȯȔȒȟȠȐ ȕȠȓȵȕ

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ʣȒȰȐȯțȠȟȥɈȕʮʯʰʱʲversity Press of the Pacific, Honolulu.

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ȭȝȯȟȏɮɮȕȯɲ ȕDizard Jr., Wilson P. (): ɰȓʾȏȓȖȒȓȔȕ
ȭʝʞȐȒȟȕ
ʣȒȰȐȯțȠȟȥȦȕ
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`Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. No. Sep. Social Recruiting of University Students in Japan
Keywords:
Social Media, Facebook, Digital Natives, Social Recruiting, So-Katsu, Communication

Keita MATSUSHITA, Jissen Womens University

Abstract
Social Recruiting called So-Katsu in Japan attracts much attention in .

Many jobsearching university students use social media such as Facebook or Twitter to collect information and to communicate with each other or employees.

Especially Facebook is expected to

be a main communication platform between university students and employees.
This study illustrates the outline of So-Katsu and examines activation level of Facebook
recruiting pages.

The result from a survey of Facebook recruiting pages (N= ) suggeststhat there is no definite correlation between the number of activation level and that oflike or people talking about.
The poor correlation between activation level and like reveals that whether the Facebook recruiting page is active or not, is not influenced by whether the page is popular or not.
From this viewpoint, Facebook recruiting pages may be a chance for low profile companies toincrease their awareness, and recruit good students.

However, at the same time, Scale

free model in Facebook recruiting pages suggests the trend that new vertices (students) attach preferentially to sites (Facebook recruiting pages) which are already well connected(liked or people taking about).

Social Recruiting of University Students in Japan

MATSUSHITA

students is called  So-Katsu  (Social Job

. Introduction

Search) in Japan.

So-Katsu is the results fromJapanese university students usually start

unity between an intension of companies want

their job search in their third year, and get a job

to approach to good students and that of stu-offer before graduation.

According to an inter-dents want to contact with desired companies.

national survey on beginning time for job

While So-Katsu has attracted much attention,

search conducted by the Japan Institute for La-

few studies have examined this issue at the mo-bour Policy and Training, "".％ of Japanesement because it is latest and fluid.

students answered they started job search be-() addressed informatization of recruiting

fore their graduation.

The percentages ofand job search and a possibility of relationshipJapanese university students responded thebetween information education and career edu-

time of their graduation and after their gradu-

cation in universities.

ation were ."％ and .％.

self was rarely mentioned in his paper.

For German uni-

Matsushita

However, So-Katsu it-

versity students, percentages of before theirThis paper, therefore, reveals the overview ofgraduation, the time of their graduation and

So-Katsu in Japan, and activation level of

after their graduation were 6.％,Facebook pages for recruiting of each compa-

".％.

.％ andny.

The averages of European countries

To what extent do Japanese use social me-

were ?.％, ".6％ and .％ respectively. (Yo-dia? Why does So-Katsu become a buzz word inshimoto et al., ) These results of the survey

Japan? How much do university students visit

show the Japanese recruiting system which

or talk about Facebook recruiting pages of eachcompanies employ new graduates all at once iscompany? These questions are addressed inunique.

this paper.

This article contributes not to win-

Under these circumstances, Japanese univer-ing strategy for job hunting or recruiting but tosities have provided various supports forunderstanding the structure of communication

studentKs job search since they entered univer-on Facebook as a tool of So-Katsu.

sity.

As a result, job search occupies an impor. Social Mediatant place in campus life of university students.
In , Keidanren (Japan Federation of Economic Organizations) urged companies to post-

Social Media such as Twitter, mixi, Facebook,pone the time for recruiting activities of Octo-

allow individuals to communicate with others,

ber and start them from December. In re-and visualize their communication.

sponse, many companies reinforce recruitment

Twitter, micro-blog service, was lunched in

activities using social media such as Twitter or6, released Japanese version in ", also

Facebook.

mobile phone version in ?.

Especially Facebook is expected toTwitter enables

be a main communication platform between

people tweet a -character message (in-university students and employees.

cluding photos or web links).

People can also

Recruiting or job search through active socialfollow anyone they want and see their tweets

media communication between companies andon timeline. Mixi started their service in ,

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. No. Sep. and is now the most popular SNS (Social Network Site) in Japan with  millions users.
There are two interesting aspects of registration
on mixi.

One is that users can register withnickname.

The other is that mixi requires theirmobile phone numbers.
When we look at the world, Facebook startedin  and is the most popular SNS with "million users in .

Facebook also started

Japanese version in ".

As compared tomixi, users are encouraged to register themself

Figure  Register and Activity in Social Media

with real name to sign up and most users show

Source: Mobile Marketing Data Labo () User Insight
Investigation on Big Social Mediareal profile in their page.
music players, mobile phones.

According to MMD (Mobile Marketing Data)

M. Prensky

labo (), percentages of give out real name() called them native speakers of the digi-

and position (company, school etc)  were

tal language of computers, video games and the6."％ of Facebook users, and ?.％ of mixi us-

Internet.

ers.

Hashimoto () suggested that "6Compared with this result, .％ of Face-generation (born in around ?"6) write withbook users, and 6.％ of mixi users register as

mobile phones and read with PC, while 6 gen-nickname which my friends can recognize.

eration write with PC and read with mobile

In September , ?.％ of Facebook users,

phones in Japan.

In addition, ?6 generation.％ of Twitter users and .％ of mixi users

write and read with mobile phones mainly.

register and use regularly. [See Figure ]

Hashimoto named ?6 generation Neo Digital

The percentages of users always login Face-

Natives.

Those of

As above, communication in social media es-

users login several times a day were .％pecially Facebook is becoming active. And

and 6."％.

mobile or smart phones are main tool for Neobook and mixi were 6.％ and .％.

These percentages show facebook

users login and check more frequently than

Digital Natives to communicate with each oth-mixi users.

er through social media in Japan.

Social media use through smart phones is one
. So-Katsu (Social Job Search) in Japan

feature of the Japanese. ?.6％ of males and. ％ of females in their s have smart
phones.

. Informatization of Recruiting/Job Search

They use SNS such as mixi (".％),GREE (.％ ), Facebook (.％ ).
from smart phones was

To get a job offer in Japan requires someTwittersteps.

.％ (Internet-

Hakusyo, ).

Firstly, university students have tosearch, choose and entry companies they want

Digital Natives are surrounded by digital toys

to work for by attending seminars or meetingsor tools such as computers, videogames, digital

held by companies.

Secondly they have toSocial Recruiting of University Students in Japan

MATSUSHITA

send their entry sheet or undergo various writ-more companies than ever.

It occured often

ten tests and interviews to receive a job offer.

that seminar or meeting became full of booking

According to Ministry of Health, Labour andin a minute.

Welfare (), an employment rate of universi-

situation.

ty students in " was ".％ and dropped to

DA Co. (), .％ of job searching students"％ in , .％ in . [See Figure ] Ice

had smart phones and ".6％ of job searchingAge for employment forced university students

students did not have it answered they plan toto entry too many companies, attend too manybuy smart phones.

seminars or meetings, and write too many entry

es of smart phones in job search were booking

sheets.

seminar or meeting (6.％), map (.％),Smart phones contributed to thisAccording to research by LEGGEN-

They think the advantag-

checking web-mail (6."％), collecting information from web site of companies or job information site (6. ％).
As above, Ice Age for employment from? in Japan caused a flood of entries from job
search students and informatization of recruiting of companies.

The prevalence of smart

phones fostered this situation.
. What is So-Katsu?
Figure 

So-Katsu is a buzz word for job search or re-

Employment Rate of University
Students in Feb.

cruiting with social media in Japan. In United

Source: Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare ()Survey on Potential Recruits Among Graduating Students at Universities, Junior Colleges, Technical Colleges, and Vocational Schools

States, Jacobs (?) defined Social Recruiting
is delivering sound hiring decisions by actively
using web-based technologies to build a sharedunderstanding between employers / recruiters

According to research by LEGGENDA Co.

and passive and active job seekers. Unlike so-(), job searching students entry 6.? andcial recruiting in United States where a careerwill entry .6 companies in Nov. .

change is active, So-Katsu consists mainly ofThat

job searching students.

is, we can say a general job searching student

According to research by Syusyoku journal

entry about  companies.

(), job searching students use video sharing

On the other hand, this took companies much
Informatization ofsite such as YouTube or Nico Nico Douga

recruiting such as web entry, seminar or meet-(?.?％), Twitter (".％) and Facebook (".％).

ing through video sharing site, or web-based

For example, video sharing site such as Nico

test proceeded for cost cut.

However, infor-

Nico Douga or Ustream has no limits on thematization of recruiting brought the ironic re-number of people attending and time to watch.

sult that job searching students could entry

Job searching students interested in the semi-cost for recruiting students.

6

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. No. Sep. nar or meeting can watch the video of the semi-tion like mass media such as TV, radio, or

nar or meeting whenever or wherever they

newspapers. On the other hand, Facebook

want. Shukatsu Live Channel operated bybrings mutual communication to recruiting or

Softbank Human Capital is authorized by Us-

job search and visualize them.

tream and delivers videos of seminars or meetings of companies.

Twitter is a useful medium. Research Method

to collect or access information not only about
seminars or meetings but also about companies

This study examines an outline of activity ofthemself, interviews, or recruiting by following

Facebook for recruiting.

personnel or professionals.

study were collected by Sokatsu.com  

In addition to Twitter, Facebook attracts increasing attention in .

website in .

As I mentioned be-

Data used for this

As at November , the num-

ber of companies using Facebook for recruiting

fore, Facebook is marked by communication

was .

with real name and visualization of their activ-

and people taking about of each recruiting

ity or communication by pushing like button

Facebook page was examined and activationor leaving their comments on their friendKs ac-level of the page was calculated by dividing

tivities.

people talking about by like of  recruit-

That is to say, type of Facebook com-

In this study, the number of like

munication is a stock of information, in compar-

ing Facebook pages ( broken link was elimi-

ison with Twitter as a medium of informationnated from  pages) on  November. People

flow.

talking about is the number of people who take

There are merits for both companies and students.

following actions to pages in recent  days.

Especially low profile companies such・Liked the pageas B to B (Business to Business) or venture, find・Liked, commented on, or shared the page

it difficult to attract entries from students be-postcause job searching students have a tendency

・Answered a Question the page has asked

to entry only popular B to C (Business to Con-・Responded to the event in the page

sumer) companies.

・Mentioned the pageLow profile companies

hope that they can hire with good students and・Tagged the page in a photoraise recognition of them by using Facebook.

・Checked in or recommended the place

On the other hand, job searching students hope
. Results

that they can get instantaneous or detailed information of a company, communicate with

The average numbers of like was 6.6, andemployee of a company directly, or show theirthat of people talking about was ..

personality on their pages by using Facebook.
In summary, So-Katsu is one phase of informatization of recruiting.

the other hand, standard division of them wasVideo sharing site or

Twitter is certainly social media.

On ?.6 and . respectively.

Therefore the

Howevernumber of like and people talking about oftheir communication is one way communica-

recruiting Facebook page was not normally dis-Social Recruiting of University Students in Japan

tributed.

As Figure

MATSUSHITA

and Figure  indicate, thedistribution of like and people talking about
was power law (R=.", .?).
In the distribution of like, top ％ pages attracted like from users account for 6.％ of
the total.

Similarly, top ％ of them account-

ed for ".％ of the total in the distribution ofpeople talking about.
The average and standard division of activation level  was . and . .

As Figure shows, activation level was also not normally
distributed but power law.

Top ％ pages ofactivation level occupied 6.6％ of the total.
There was no definite correlation between thenumber of activation level and that of Likeor people talking about.

Figure Distribution and log-log graph ofpeople talking about

FigureDistribution of Activation level. Conclusion and Discussion
The goals of this article were twofold.

The

first was to illustrate the outline of So-Katsu andFigure 

the spread of social media for job search in Ja-

Distribution and log-log graph oflike

pan.

"The second was to investigate the activa-

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. No. Sep. in fact.

tion of Facebook pages for recruiting.

Despite these data limitations and its

preliminary character, this study will advanceIn summary, we found the power law distri-research on social recruiting in Japan.

bution of like, people talking about andBarabási & Albert (???) re-

The growing So-Katsu in Japan will havevealed Scale free network with features as amore impact on communication and identity

consequence of two generic mechanisms: (i)formed through job searching.

networks expand continuously by the addition

munication featured in each social media ser-of new vertices, and (ii) new vertices attach

vice is private or public, will be a significant fac-

preferentially to sites that are already well con-

tor for So-Katsu or Social Recruiting.

activation level.

For example, we can say that communicationnected. Scale free model in networks was trueof Facebook recruiting pages.

Whether com-or network in LinkedIn is public.

The poor corre-

LinkedIn is alation between activation level and like re-professional network site launched in  (Jap-veals that whether the Facebook recruiting

anese version in ), and with over  mil-

page is active: people talking about or not is notlion people around the world.

influenced by whether the page is popular or

people make network with professionals andnot. From this viewpoint, Facebook recruitingexchange information or opportunities for ca-

pages may be a chance for low profile compa-

reer.

nies to increase their awareness, and recruitand show their professional skills or experi-

good students.

ments like their curriculum vitae.

However, at the same time,

LinkedIn helps

In LinkedIn, users register in real name,
Meanwhile

Scale free model in Facebook recruiting pag-

communication in mixi is private, because peo-

es suggests the trend that new vertices (stu-ple can register nickname and use mainly fromdents) attach preferentially to sites (Facebook

mobile, as I said earlier.

recruiting pages) which are already well con-communication in Twitter or Facebook is inter-

nected (liked or people taking about).

mediate between LinkedIn and mixi.

As Table.  shows,
Some

There are several limitations to this study.

people may express their opinion on political

The number of  like  and  people talking

topics. The others may upload pictures ofabout of sample Facebook pages was not nec-

their friend or family.

essarily coincident, because the number ofon political topics and pictures of his family atpeople talking about showed latest  days ac-

once on your Twitter timeline or Facebook

tivity, while that of like was in all.

News Feed.

There

Or we can see opinions

was a possibility that the number of people
Table talking about two weeks age was quite different from the data in this article. Another limitation of this study is that actual status of Facebook recruiting pages is not sure.

It is not surethat what kind of activities has done in Facebook recruiting pages to attract job searching
students, or what kind of activities attracts them?

Profile and Communication
in Social MediaSocial Recruiting of University Students in Japan

MATSUSHITA

I recommend that future research on social

Technical Colleges, and Vocational Schools

recruiting in Japan focus on how job searching〈http://www.mhlw.go.jp/stf/houdou/rstudents and recruiting companies communi-?"6o.html〉Accessed , Augustcate or act on their Facebook pages, and what

.
・MMD labo () User Insight Investigation

is difference between get job and change

on Bigjob.

Social Media 〈http://mmd.up-date.

ne.jp/news/detail.php?news̲id=""〉Accessed , August .

References
・Barabási, A., Albert, R. (???) Emergence of・Prensky, M. () Digital Natives, Digital Im-

Scaling in Random Networks, Ȳȳȴȵȶȳȵ Vol.

migrants, ̍ȶ ɍɒ̑ȵ ɍɩɌɴȴ̘Ɍȶɸ Vol. ?, No. 

"6, no.  ? pp. ?-〈http://www.marcprensky.com/writing/pren-・Hashimoto, Y. () ɊȵɌɍɎȴɐȴɒɓɔɍ
ɊɓɒȴɚȵɍȶɌɍɠɓȶɣɌ, Diamond, Inc.

sky％-％digital％natives,％digital％immigrants ％- ％part.pdf〉Accessed

・Jacobs, P. (?) What is Social Recruiting

, August .

ɩɪɫɓȶɍ
ɯȵɱɌɪɴȳȵɱɸ pp. - 〈http://api.ning.

・Recruit（）Ȳ̑ɪɱ̑Ɍ̽ɪɍ
̀Ɍɪɴȶɓɔ〈http://jour-com/files/OXyLrKO6?EiAniOm6ia"yG-

nal.rikunabi.com/student/souken/souken̲volsExeBkqD*Bq?x*-DA̲/HRDec?Pg .

".html〉Accessed , August .
・Sokatsu.com  〈http://www.sokatsu.com/pdf〉Accessed , August .

 /〉Accessed , August .

・Jobvite Survey () Social Job Seeker Survey 〈http://recruiting.jobvite.com/re-・Shukatsu Live Channnel〈http://live-channel.

sources/social-job-seeker-survey.php〉Ac-jp//index.html〉Accessed , August .
・Syusyoku Journal () Use of SNS such as

cessed , August .
・LEGGENDA Co. () The investigation

Twitter or Facebook〈http://journal.rikunabi.

about job searching of new graduates〈http://com/student/souken/souken̲vol".html〉Ac-

www.leggenda.co.jp/news/press/pdf/news̲

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?̲.pdf〉Accessed , August .

・Vicknair, J., Elkersh, D., Yancey, K., Budden,

・LEGGENDA Co. () The periodic inquiry

M. C., () The Use Of Social Networking

on new graduates〈http://www.leggenda.co.

Websites As A Recruiting Tool For Employ-jp/news/press/pdf/news̲  ̲.pdf〉Ac-

ers, ͷɫȵɴȴȳɓȶɍ̀Ɍɪɴȶɓɔɍ
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cessed , August .

Vol.

, No. 〈http://www.omnilogos.com/

・Matsushita, K () The landing point of Ca-

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websites-as-a-recruiting-tool-for-employers/〉

General Education in a university education:

Accessed , August .
・Yoshimoto, K., Kosugi, R., Ogata, N. ()Potential of informatization Job-Hunting as a
PBL, ˉɌɫˌɪɒȵɴɍ˒ɍ˔˕ɪȳɓɒȴɌȶɸ Vol. , pp. -ɯȵɔɓɒȴɌȶɱ̑ȴˌɍοȵɒςȵȵȶɍ̑ȴɐ̑ȵɴɍ
ȵ˕ɪȳɓɒȴɌȶɍɓȶ˕ɍ

・Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare ()ɌȳȳɪˌɓɒȴɌȶɸ Japan Institute for Labour Policy
and Training

Survey on Potential Recruits Among Graduating Students at Universities, Junior Colleges,"Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. No. Sep. 

Fukushima-method for Local Dissemination of Information to Recover Living Conditions after Nuclear Accident
Keywords:
Nuclear accident, Fukushima, radiation protection, social information, living conditions, Chernobyl,
ETHOS project, self-governanceYoshiyuki MIZUNO, Kyoto Womens University
Ryoko ANDO, Fukushima Prefecture

Abstract
This paper describes a socio-informatics process in learning the effect of radiation on living
conditions after the nuclear accident in Fukushima, which Japanese society has experienced
since the . earthquake and tsunami in . First some experiences of lectures on radiation performed by an expert are analyzed from a social point of view.

In particular an exam-ple in Iwaki City of Fukushima Prefecture, which was a designed dialogue process for learning
radiation, is analyzed in detail to illustrate a local dissemination of information to recover theliving conditions of the inhabitants after the nuclear accident.

A similarity is then noticed

with the lessons of Chernobyl, in particular with the ETHOS project in Belarus, which wasreflected into the recommendations by ICRP, the International Commission on RadiologicalProtection, from  through  in their publications.

Suggestions are also noted that thelessons are extendable to a learning of self-governance of democracy in the information society of Japan.

Fukushima-method for Local Dissemination of Information to Recover Living Conditions after Nuclear Accident
MIZUNO and ANDO

Chernobyl experience of G through , the. Introduction

regime change of former Soviet Union.

In fact

the related laws in Japan are based on the pre-This paper deals with a socio-informatics process of recognition by Japanese on the autono-

vious version of ICRP Publ.G issued in .

my and self-governance of information on ra-

was after this Publ.G that the Chernobyl situa-

diological protection in Fukushima.

tion was gradually revealed into international

It is con-Itcerned with the March  (.) earthquake andsociety.

tsunami in  and the subsequent Fukushimareported on March G about this ICRP recom-

Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant (F-NPP) accident.

mendation of March .

Mass media in Japan has only once
The exception was

The gigantic scale M. earthquake which hit

another webpage on April  translated into Jap-

east Japan on . may have reminded Japa-

anese by Science Council of Japan with a prop-

nese of the self-recognition of endurance and

er reference to the ICRP publications.

endeavor under the difficult times.

probably very few people might have noticed

It goes as

Butwell as a mutual recognition of friendship withthis page.

world people, who sent us such warm-hearted

cult for people as well as for bureaucrats in Ja-

encouragements.

pan to understand the importance of ICRP Publ.

However, confusions have

unfortunately followed afterwards in radiologi-

With this circumstance it was diffi-

 through .

cal information of the accident.

In fact on April , , Japanese Ministry of

For example, German Meteorological Agency

Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Tech-

has shown on daily webpage a simulation on

nology decided, based on the data at ,Grelative distribution of emitted radioactive par-schools in Fukushima Prefecture, that mSv/

ticlesyear was the limit for new school year.

with a note in a small font, a fictive

emission .
this.

It was fictive.

But bu-But few would readreaucrats didn:t spend enough time to explain

In fact Japanese as well as neighboringthe situation-based approach , e.g. existing

countries referred heavily on this.

It is partly

exposure situation , a new terminology intro-

since Meteorological Society of Japan notified

duced in ICRP Publ. through .

on March  that the members are asked not toclearly new for Japanese, which would demand

disclose the calculations of radioactivity withcareful risk communications.

respect to the single voice of the Government.

such that parents got flatly anxious, since the

The second example is about ICRP, the Inter-

emergency evacuation limit was also mSv/

The result was

national Commission on Radiological Protec-

year, the same value.

tion.

care was taken of their children.

On March , , ICRP has issued a

It isApparently no special
This sort ofspecial recommendation directed only to Japan

confusion has become seemingly fatal on the(Cousins ) about how to cope with the diffi-

credibility and reliance to the Government.

cult situation after the F-NPP accident.
kind of document is rarely issued.

The third example to illustrate the difficulty isThisthe so-called SPEEDI problem.

It refers ac-

SPEEDI is atually to ICRP recent publications No.:s , simulation-software in Japan to forecast theand particularly .

geographic and time-dependent flow of ambient

They are issued after theJournal of Socio-Informatics Vol. No. Sep. radioactive materials when ejected from antember .

NPP accident.

nized as a designed learning.

The result of the simulation

In Sect. one of them is scrutiIn Sect. we dis-

was however not delivered properly to the in-cuss the one in Sect. with ETHOS project inhabitants in the affected area.

Belarus after Chernobyl, another design to re-

They were thus

forced to evacuate without knowing the directions of winds.

cover the living conditions after the accident.

The reason why Japanese Gov-

ernment was unable to disclose readily the

. Social Background for Lectures on Radia-

SPEEDI data was explained later that it was totion

avoid panic , according to the statement on
May  by Mr.

Hosono, the Special Advisor to

At first, it is worth noting that in Japan thethe Prime Minister (a newspaper article of Asahi

learning on nuclear radiation at schools has

Shinbun, May , in Japanese).

been excluded from the compulsory junior highIn reality thecalculation was a result of a fictive emission ofschool for more than  years.

Bq/hour as the then best assumption.

But itunit had been in the course until , but later

produced various confusing situations.

At thedisappeared.

Actually the

It must also be mentioned that

end, the data were not utilized until demanded was the first trial year (as a front-loaded

in a press conference (Investigation Committee

content from the new course) on its revival for, Independent Committee ).

It waspupil to learn radiation at the rd grade of ju-

disclosed on March , after the exposure time.

nior high school.

Based on these, it became clear that people in

At senior high school thepercentage of pupil who learn physics including

Japan were forced skeptical to the authorities orradiation is only ％.

bureaucrats.

The ultimate help is neither

few Japanese had a prerequisite knowledge on

available nor expected from their Government.

radiation nor of introductory physics course like

They are forced to rethink how to look after

the structure of atoms etc. beforehand.

These suggest that very

themselves, and where to look for the informa-

This situation therefore urged university pro-tion. This aspect in Japan must have beenfessors to lecture on radiation for ordinary peo-

blurred without the F-NPP accident.

ple, who would require the basic knowledge fordaily news, such as µSv/h of dose rate.

The purpose of the present paper is thereforeThe

to trace the social flow of information, suggest-

first actions took place were probably on twit-

ing people to improve the autonomy and self-

ter by physicists at universities, such like thegovernance in particular in and around Fuku-

author (Mizuno) or Prof.

shima.

University of Tokyo.

The task is achieved in this paper byR.

Hayano at theIn fact the number oflooking into a series of case studies on the

Hayano:s followers climbed up to , inlearning process of radiation.

days after ..

In Sect. an account is given to the social
background for lectures on radiation.

They may have acquired an

ample knowledge on radiation in the meantime.

In Sect.

On the other hand, misleading videos were a summary is described on some lectures giv-

put up on YouTube, saying erroneously thaten by the author (Y.Mizuno) from April till Sep-

man-made radiation were accumulated in bod-Fukushima-method for Local Dissemination of Information to Recover Living Conditions after Nuclear Accident
MIZUNO and ANDO

ies whereas natural ones not (truth is dependentcause the responses actually evoked the expertson each sort of elements).

to find where to stand and what to aim at in the

Other videos said

society with a future of Fukushima.

wrongly that even a minuscule level of exposure
was fatal when man-made (truth is dependent
on the dose in unit of Sv).

. Case Studies on Lectures of Radiation

These must havecreated a misunderstanding on radiation in thesociety.

These also exaggerated the distrust to

Government or close experts on NPP.

. Radiation Lecture on April  in Kyoto

The im-The first lecture was on April  organized bypression seemed prevalent since the Govern-a young physicist at Kyoto University, calling

ment didn:t give the answer people wanted, e.g.

for parents with child rearing.

the worst scenario.

about knowledge required for basic feature of

But this sort of distrust

The topic wasmade the matters worse, since it was based onradiation.

the unfounded knowledge.

reasonable, such like cumulative effects of con-There are people with solely classical media,

Questions raised in the lecture weretaminated food with different isotopes.

It was

They were kept fright-

a righteous question, since the emergency mea-

ened daily by each piece of news on F-NPP ac-sures were taken for foodstuff on March  bycident or radioactivity.

the central Government without reference tolike TV or newspapers.

No one was able toaccumulation. Likewise an apt question was

help them, since it was an actuality.
Inside Fukushima the story was different.

raised by aItmotherwith small children, ask-

was because from the beginning an authority

ing whether she could bathe them in sea a few

was employed from Nagasaki University as anmonths ahead for summer.

advisor by the prefectural government.

couldn:t answer the question either, since he

It cre-

The author

ated however another upset among some peo-

was an expert on nuclear physics.

ple due to a lack of basic knowledge on low

knowledge was necessary but not sufficient.

dose exposure.

The expert

Our experience of Hiroshima

and Nagasaki was not too helpful here, because

. Lecture on May  in Fukushima Cityin Japan it is the worship and not the source of

The second lecture was on May  in Fukushi-

scientific knowledge on radiation.

ma City, where a group of experts organized aseries of consultation facilities and lectures, city

It was thus found necessary that precise
knowledge be propagated concerning the sci-by city, in the devastated areas.

ence of radiation.

One of the first public lec-

lawyers, real estate appraisers, etc. first got to-tures in Tokyo was organized by a university

gether in G after the Kobe Earthquake to per-physicist on April .

form a one-stop service of consultation.

The author (Y.Mizuno)

The experts ofThe

was asked late March to hold another lecture inauthor and a medical doctor joined them in

Kyoto.

 as experts for radiation.

Since then until the end of September ,seven lectures were given by him.

In a shelter the author met a fisherman being

Let us now

forced evacuate from the sea coast of Namie

examine the responses to these lectures, be-Town, located at around km of F-NPP.



The

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. No. Sep. . Lecture on September  in Kyoto

fisherman just wanted to continue the fishingHe

On September  a get-together meeting was

said he would wait for ,  or even  years to re-held in Kyoto for refugees from Fukushima.

sume his work, but without the instruction or

The author gave a lecture with an emphasis on

perspective he was embarrassed.

All the refu-

individual monitoring of radiation exposure.

gees knew the dose rate around the shelter was

But he noticed awkward when a question wasmuch higher than before the evacuation.

The

raised from a young mother, Are we guinea

official instructions were without estimate at

pigs? Do you escape from Fukushima? He an-on his boat, because he loved his work.

first.

He just wanted to get an estimate for his

swered No adding the reasons why.

life.

The author couldn : t answer, but ex-

too late when he realized it was the worst an-plained the process, taking an example from theswer.

case of school restart on April .

escape from Fukushima was in vain?

Namely, atfirst the dose rate must be measured, then a

It wasActually she grieved, Do you say our

By then two opposite views on radiation safe-

scrutiny and judgment must follow etc. etc.

ty prevailed in Japan.

Scientists affirmed low

The fisherman understood the scene and saiddose effects as a black box because the risk

he was lucky by asking.

But the learning was

was too low to detect. For example with for the author because he found his ignorance.

mSv/year, an excessive risk of cancer etc. wasestimated between  and about ì (based on

. Lecture on May  in Iwaki City

Linear-No-Threshold hypothesis as maximum).

The expert team moved to Iwaki City, southof Fukushima.

This is not even sensible, together with tens ofAt the end of the lecture on ra-other risks.

But she couldn:t believe the offi-

diation one lady stood up and asked, Pleasecial safety any longer, irrespective of the scien-tell me whether we are safe or dangerous,

tific data.

please through you own mouth.

The author() has explained, Present dose of radiation

murmured to be precise with conditions as radi-is not readily influential , repeating seven times

ology, when the lawyer blocked him and passed

in total on TV continually.

on to the medical doctor, who said strongly that  he made an explanation that it was not

she was safe.

necessary on health.

This example demonstrates

Chief Cabinet Secretary Mr.

Edano

Later on November

Thereupon, agitations to-what people requires is not the precision of data

wards radiation panic got inevitable in Japan.

but the tacit implication of the situation.

This situation made the risk communication atTheleast more difficult.

cases also show a limit for experts, because theexpert knowledge is analytical but what people

As the result two types of inhabitants

requires is synthetic depending on the actual

emerged, one without care to radiation, the oth-living conditions.

er with a full swing of anxiety.

It is not foreseen without di-

Probably thealog with respect to each life of people and the

distrust of people against bureaucrats and ex-

dignity in their profession.

perts was maximized.

Experts couldn:t predict

any explosion of F-NPP.

They were even far

from being respectful to people:s lives.

Fukushima-method for Local Dissemination of Information to Recover Living Conditions after Nuclear Accident
MIZUNO and ANDO

a one-sided lecture.

After the lecture, he visited the tables of the

The objective was set up

refugees one by one to supplement the lecture.

to ease the anxiety of the inhabitants.

They remedied the situation and reached at abe therefore a dialog to resolve the problems.

mutual understanding when he tried to listen to

Secondly it must be held inside the community,

them.

since an invisible gap among the community

The point was not the respective data,

but a respect to individual:s life as the whole.

seemed present and the gap was a source of theanxiety.

. Lessons from the Lectures

The community must be reinforced to

be robust in this sense.

The above descriptions in the case studies
may sound pessimistic.

It mustAt first, a questionnaire was collected to

Of course the basic

probe the concerns of the participants, and toknowledge on radiation is required at any rate.

control the flow of the meeting. Namely it

The lectures were useful in this sense.

But it isstarts from a clear entry, through a designed se-

likewise essential to notice that expert informa-ries of steppingstones for understanding of radi-tion is only a piece of a whole, and the whole isation, up to the exit where the outcome is ex-

invisible or difficult to reconstruct.

pected for each inhabitant.

The method was

Meanwhile the authors have been using

communicated beforehand so that the lecturer

twitter , by which the abovementioned diffi-(Mizuno) shall captured the methodological ob-

culties were shared partly.

jectives.

The authors no-

He was at first a bit shocked, since heticed, through twitter conversation and a meet-

was asked not to play the important role.

ing in Fukushima in August, that the needs wereimmediately he got it and collaborated with thecertainly present for learning radiation by in-organizer.

habitants.

But it must be done without resort-

subdivided into steps, so that a scientific ac-

ing to top-down manner by one-sided expert.

count was given at first and then the corre-

It is simply because any expert is a layperson insponding questions be raised accordingly.

the other areas.

But

The progression of the meeting was

The dialog meeting was held on September

Based on these observations, the authors,  with a total of  participants in Tabito

have organized a learning process for the in-Town, Iwaki City, Fukushima Prefecture.

habitants.

city is huge with the north border at Gkm fromThe detail is as follows.

The

F-NPP, but the south end touching anotherprefecture.

. Iwaki Case Analysis: Fukushima-method

Thus the inhabitants were affectedheavily by confusing bureaucratic measures,
In a rural part of Iwaki City, at first a lectureand even by rumors.

was held on July  by an expert of fishery and

The meeting has started by self-introduction

agriculture etc. with a detail on transfer factors

to share the difference of each standpoint andof radioactivity to crops.

understanding on the situation.

for the inhabitants.

It was found difficult

The author (R. Ando) thus

The questions

were raised spontaneously in a friendly atmo-organized a second learning with a dialog.

sphere.

It was designed as a dialog meeting, and not

The answers were performed with arespect to each inhabitant, since he started toGJournal of Socio-Informatics Vol. No. Sep. In fact before theand a method of feeding while in the cattle

meeting, we held a sort of field physics experi-house, he found how to manage the problem.

ment on radiation shielding against the gamma

This case clearly tells a live example of theknow the people in the area.

rays.

This collaboration made him feel a sortof quasi-member of the community.

difference between the analytic way of under-

It wasstanding and a synthetic route to solution.

The

natural that he apologized them as a scientist

outcome of a dialog meeting must be a sharedafter such annoying accident for them.

realistic approach among stakeholders, with an

During the dialog meeting, the organizer tried
to intervene the teacherand students

expert advice if necessary.

This is nothing but

toa socio-informatics aspect of the process to findhelp them communicate the relevant informa-a solution, which lies behind the problem andtion.

often too complex to be noticed.

The meeting went smooth as a wholewith the dialog.

However, the problem is that

This finding of a sort of context-dependent

the answers were understood but not agreeable

approach, which we call Fukushima-method

to the inhabitants.

The more they learn, thehere, further suggests that ) the most essential

more distance they feel from science, because

aspect of the problem is nothing but isolation or

the issue to tackle is more comprehensive as

segregation of people in community who would

health or the life itself.

share the living conditions. This must be conOne of thesidered, ) a vicious circle may persist that an

audiences asked, I found an excessive Cesium,

Let us contemplate an example.

apparent difficulty of the contamination on landin the beef of my cattle farm, by a small amount

may render helpless feeling on one side, andover the regulation.

another difficulty of irritation or incompetence

Is the measurement so re-liable? The answer was on the origin of scien-that might multiply the anxieties.

tific errors, one by statistics and the other ofwould produce the difficulties that we may wit-

systematic one.

ness in Fukushima.

He added that at any rate

All thesesome regulation should be set at some value.

Via a formulation of tacit aspects of theIt was understood but not agreed by the farmer.

Fukushima-method , it is therefore suggested

Later the final answer was found by the farm-that ) as a first step the stakeholders should

er himself through a daily chat on various mat-share the problems among themselves, andters, like radioactive materials, radiation, na-

their solitude shall be degraded, ) hold a dia-tional or local government affairs after the acci-

logue meeting to clarify the explicit problems

dent, issue of mass media, a transformation of

now identified, and pursue to find the solution

human relations around him, influence of thesein the end by themselves.

on his living conditions, and anxieties for fu-

through the process of autonomy and self-ture.

These are all out of the scope of science.

governance as such, the relations among the

Nevertheless by talking with the organizer, hecommunity members would be refurbished to-

finally found by himself a viable solution such

wards a reliability.

that by taking the biological half-life of Cesium

would be hereupon recovered in them, so that

into account, namely with a period of coolingthey shall cope with such a difficult era.

Probably only

The dignity in humanity
TheFukushima-method for Local Dissemination of Information to Recover Living Conditions after Nuclear Accident
MIZUNO and ANDO

anxiety would be thus expected reduced

population in the management of radiologicalthrough the process herewith suggested.

situation with the perspective to improve their
quality of life on a longer term.

The objectives of dialog meetings must then

The method

be conscious not to clear the anxiety directly,

was to address jointly the technical and societal

but to proceed the way indirectly to solve thedimension with local and national stakeholders

various related issues in a sense to further con-in a decentralized approach.

tinue to cope with their realistic problems.

steps were to listen and learn from the villagers

With these processes, the expert knowledge

To realize this,about concerns and priorities with a support ofmay not be the leading actor anymore, but it islocal professionals and authorities.

a tool to be functional.

nothing but what we struggle in Fukushima.

Of course the present

situation has been initiated by radioactive material and radiation.

This isThe present coincidence reminds us of the

Of no doubt a proper know-

cultural aspect of natural disasters as being a

ing of scientific knowledge is prerequisite andlearning process in the affected society.

useful.

But it is not the goal of the learning.

radiological situation is almost unprecedented,

The scientific knowledge is a chart and com-and the characteristics of Fukushima accident

pass in a sense when tackling the reality.

are different from that of Chernobyl.

The

The

But theessence in human and societal dimension

judgment on where to go on in life is conductedwould be the same.

solely by the people in the community.

This time we learn what

In this context the role of scientists is not athe democracy is all over again in its essenceteacher, but an advisor or a neighbor who

within the current information society in Japan.

would concern the community.

In ideal the

The problems discussed here would originate

science itself is value-neutral, but in reality it

all from the humane reactions in such that one

may not be, depending on the community in-cannot determine where to go, what to do as his

volved.

As a reliable scientist in community,

profession, how to cope with his professional

the most effective theme would be to behave as

problem that he had been the master hereto-a stakeholder or a neighbor.

fore.

As a result theknowledge would be understood consequently.

We cannot live daily life due to the invis-

ible radiation.

It clearly invades the basic hu-

man

and

rightsdetermination.

. Discussions

fundamentals

of

self-

It is for this reason that the

problems discussed here are strongly related tothe autonomy and self-governance in the demo-

We realized later that Fukushima-method
was similar to ETHOS

project (ICRP ).

cratic society.

ETHOS was organized in Belarus for a few

Self-determination of patient in the informed

years since G, after ten years of Chernobyl.

consent with medical doctor is an ethical issue

It was proposed by European Commission as ain medical sociology.

pilot project for a rehabilitation of living condi-

situation is in parallel with the affected people

tions of the inhabitants after the accident.

and the scientist, described in this paper.

The point was to involve directly the local

We notify here that theThus the discussions here could also be extend-Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. No. Sep. of Japan. (in Japanese)

ed and compared to the sociological studies

Freidson, E. ( ), ŠšŢţŤťťŧŢũŪūŬ
ŭŢůŧũŪũŴŤŶŬ

treated e.g. in Freidson ( ) in the forthcom-ŸŹŤŬżŢŴŧŪūŬ
żƄšƆŴƄƆšŤŬ
ŢţŬƐŤƒŧŴŪūŬ
ƘŪšŤƜ Newing papers.

York: Atherton Press Inc.
ICRP (), ICRP publication , Ann.

Acknowledgements:
The authors express the deepest apprecia-

ICRP

 (), A.G, pp.-G.

tions to Ms. M. Maruyama for her precious ad-

Independent Committee (),  ƘŹŢƆťŪƷŬ

vice.

ƹŤũťŹŢƆŬ
ǁŢƆǄŢǄƆťŹŢŬ
ǌǍŤǏŢšƄŬ
ŢţŬƄŹŤŬǛŴŴŧƒŤũƄǣ ŬŢţŬǩƆǄƆťŹŧůŪŬ
ŭŪŧŧŴŹŧŬ
ǻƆŴūŤŪšŬ
ŠŢȅŤšŬ
References:ŠūŪũƄƜ Discover  Inc. (in Japanese)

Cousins, C. and Clement, Ch. (), Fukushima

Investigation Committee (), Accident at

Nuclear Power Plant Accident, ICRP ref:Fukushima Nuclear Power Stations of Tokyo -G-.

Electric Power Company , ȘũƄŤšŧůŬ
ǍŤǏŢšƄ ȧ

Edano, Y. and Murakami, S. (), discussions(available both in English and Japanese)

at November  Budget Committee in the DietJournal of Socio-Informatics Vol. No. Sep. Analysis of Organization of New Zealand Television Industry
Enabling Acceleration of Complete Transition to Digital
Broadcasting and Improvement of Proportion of Domestic
Program Production
Keywords:
Digital broadcasting, vertical separation, Domestic program production, Maori TV, Freeview

Yasutaka UEDA, Edogawa University

Abstract
Broadcasting in New Zealand has been in the form of vertical separation ever since industry
restructuring that occurred in .

Although implementation of digital broadcasting has

lagged behind in New Zealand as compared with other advanced nations due to a financial
crisis at the national level, as a result of severing the broadcasting division from TVNZ andassigning it to the control of Cordia, which is involved in the construction, operation andmaintenance of digital broadcast networks, broadcasting operations have been deployed in
the form of private broadcasting of TV, TV and Maori TV.

In addition, as a result of grant-

ing all licenses to Freeview, a neutral broadcaster not engaged in programming, it has become
easier to implement services by new entrants.

A new entry into the industry in the form ofMaori TV was implemented, resulting in expanded transmission of programs broadcast in the
Maori language.

As a result of TVNZ being able to specialize in the area of program produc-tion, the proportion of domestically produced programs has demonstrated an increasing
trend in recent years.
Furthermore, this study is based on findings obtained from visits to New Zealand by the author from September  to  ,  and from September  to , , a field survey of MTS,
and interviews with broadcasting personnel affiliated with TVNZ and Media Works.

Analysis of Organization of New Zealand Television Industry

UEDA

Kaserman and Mayo ( ), Gilsdorf ( ), Ver-

Introduction

non and Graham ( 8), Christensen andThe program production and transmis-

Greene ( 8=), Kitamura and Nemoto () andsion sectors of the broadcasting industry are in

Hayashi, Goo and Chamberlain ( 8).

Kaser-

a relationship of the upstream and downstream

man and Mayo ( ) proposed that verticalsectors of a vertical economy corporation in theeconomies are generally measured by expand-same manner as the electricity industry com-

ing the cost concept of multiple commodities.

posed of power generation and distribution

Cost functions of multiple stages of the electri-

sectors, and differ from the nature of an econ-cal power industry are estimated to measure theomy of scope that explains a horizontal rela-size of the vertical economy directly.

tionship.

In the past, amidst the numerous( ) demonstrated cost complementarity ofbroadcast stations in which the two businesses

each of the sectors of power generation, trans-of program production and transmission

mission and distribution by estimating the pro-were in the form of a vertical economy, New

duction cost functions of multiple commodities.

Zealand is an example of having successfully

Kitamura and Nemoto (deployed a new framework in which these twovertical economies in both the power genera-

businesses are separated vertically and estab-tion sector and transmission sector of the elec-

lished in the form of independent businesses.

tricity industry.

Gilsdorf) measured the

Hayashi, Goo and Chamber-

Production and Transmission channels arelain ( 8) confirmed whether or not verticalvertically separated, making it easy for new

economies exist by demonstrating the separa-content providers such as Maori TV in New

bility of cost functions for two sectors.

Zealand, independent content aggregators, andExamples of prior research in the field of

new Internet video services to gain a foothold.

broadcasting include that by Ueda and Mitomo

The reason for a broadcasting station specializ-that consisted of assigning the program produc-

ing in program production like the Maori Tele-tion sector and transmission sector of thevision Service (MTS) to having been able tobroadcasting industry to the upstream sector

newly enter the industry and begin broadcast-and downstream sector of a vertical economy

ing in Maori over a wide service area accompa-

corporation, and demonstrating the separability

nying the commencement of digital broadcast-of cost functions with respect to the two sectors

ing was because a specialized firm like Cordia

using a translog cost function of multiple com-

was able to function in their place in imple-

modities (although the basic concept was pro-menting digitalization of Transmission func-

posed by Christensen, Jorgensen and Lau

tions requiring extensive expertise and funding.

( 8)) followed by measurement of whether ornot vertical economies exist.

Literature Review

Furthermore,

although other research includes that conducted by Ueda and Mitomo () and Igasa andExamples of previous research providing an

Nakayama () that focus on an analysis ofanalysis of vertical economies include that byeconomy of scope of the television businessJournal of Socio-Informatics Vol. No. Sep. and radio business, this research provides an(), following the initiation of digital broad-

explanation of a horizontal relationship, andcasting in April , the fact that complete

this differs from vertical economies in a verti-

transition to digital broadcasting is expected to

cal relationship.

be able to be realized in the short period of only years is due to the contribution made by the

Acceleration of Complete Transition to Digi-organization of the broadcasting industry in thistal Broadcasting

country.
The organization of New Zealands broad-The government of New Zealand announced

casting industry was longitudinally divided into

in September  that it would move up thetwo sectors consisting of a program production

time of termination of analog broadcasting fromsector (Television New Zealand (TVNZ)) and athe originally specified time of = to Novem-transmission sector (Transmission Holdings

ber .

Ltd.) in July  following enactment of the

The fact that complete transition todigital broadcasting is expected to be able to be TVNZ Act  in February of that year.

realized in the short period of only  years isthough preparations for digitalization were de-due to the contribution made by the organiza-

layed in comparison with other advanced coun-tion of the broadcasting industry in this coun-tries due to a national financial crisis, digitaliza-

try.

tion was attempted to be implemented by sepa-

Al-

In August  , the New Zealand government

rating the transmission sector from TVNZ andestablished an administrative organization

allowing it to be left to the management of Cor-

known as Freeview for promoting complete

dia.

digitalization of television broadcasting in a

operation and maintenance of a digital broad-joint effort with the broadcasting industry, andcasting network, and is responsible for all

although it had adopted a policy calling for theTransmission functions of New Zealand televi-timing of complete transition to digital broad-sion broadcasts, including TV and TV un-casting to be proposed as a result of conducting

der the ownership of the private broadcasting

a comprehensive examination in consideration

entity Media Works and programs broadcast

Cordia is involved in the implementation,of such factors as the state of proliferation of

on MTS in the Maori language, in addition todigital broadcasting, the state of installation ofprogramming of TV One and TV broad-digital equipment, and the progress being madecast by the public broadcasting entity TVNZ.

in other countries, based on a survey result in-

In addition, it has been able to efficiently pro-dicating that the proliferation rate of digital tele-

mote digitalization by granting licenses to thevisions had reached 8％ of all households inindependent broadcasting entity Freeview

September  , it decided to move up the ter-that is not involved in programming.

mination of analog broadcasting to November

having been granted license, Freeview began.

terrestrial digital broadcasting in April .

In contrast it having taken Japan  years

Afterfrom the initiation of digital broadcasting ()(※) Freeview was established in 8 by New

to the termination of analog broadcasting

Zealands free-to-air broadcasters, includingAnalysis of Organization of New Zealand Television Industry

UEDA

TVNZ, Mediaworks TV (owner of TV and C),

portion of domestically produced programs andMaori Television, and Radio New Zealand, toa reduction of the dependency on overseas pro-offer a free digital television service.

To watchgrams along with giving consideration to minor-

programs broadcast on Freeview, viewers must

ity societies by increasing Maori language

have a television with an inbuilt digital receiver;

broadcasts and broadcasts introducing uniqueor a digital set-top box.

cultures, even the public broadcasting entity
TVNZ continued to depend on foreign countries for 8％ of its programming.

Improvement of Proportion of Domestic Program Production

However, asa result of TVNZ being able to specialize in thearea of program production, it was able to real-

The reason for a broadcasting station special-ize ％ domestically produced programming

izing in program production like the Maori Tele-through its new channel known as  TVNZ

vision Service (MTS) to having been able toHeartland began in June .

newly enter the industry and begin broadcast-

the proportion of domestically produced pro-ing in Maori over a wide service area accompa-

grams has demonstrated an increasing trend innying the commencement of digital broadcast-recent years, including the Maori language

ing was because a specialized firm like Cordia

broadcaster MTS producing roughly ％ of its

was able to function in their place in imple-

programs domestically.

In addition,

menting digitalization of Transmission functions requiring extensive expertise and funding.
Different from telecommunication, broad-

Table casting requires that interruption of service beYear of the commencement of digital
broadcasting service

absolutely avoided, and the adoption of an in-

Year

Country

dustry structure that enables a specialized firmin the form of Cordia to handle all Transmis-Swedension functions requiring advanced operation



Spain



Australia, Finland, Korea



GermanyNetherlands, Italy, Belgie, Switzerland,
Canada, India, Japan

Taiwan, Mexico

France, Czecho=Austria, Greece, Lithuania, Estonia, Saudiarabia

8％ of programming, while the proportion of

8China, Slovenia, Norway, Morocco, Brazil

domestic programming to all programming was

New Zealand (April), Hungary (December)

low at only ％ , thus resulting in foreign-Poland (January), Portugal (April), Ireland(September)dependent programming that is uncommon



Russiaand maintenance technologies made it possible
to easily overcome obstacles to newly entering

the industry.
In addition, since New Zealand is an Englishspeaking country, imported programs from theU. S., U. K. and Australia accounted for nearly

among advanced countries.

Despite theUK, USA

Source : NHK Databook () Broadcasting stations in

TVNZ Act stipulating an increase in the pro-the world pp.-Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. No. Sep. There are many benefits from switching from

Table  Simultaneous Period of Anarogue andanalogue to digital transmission for television.

Digital TV Broadcasting

These include the lower cost and greater serCountry

vice available from digital services, and the op-

Commencementof digital
service

Terminationof analogue
service

Simultaneous
period years

portunity to reallocate approximately MHzUK

of ultra high frequency (UHF) spectrum to other

Australia..

..

 years

economic activity, such as mobile broadband

USA ..8

 years

Mexico.8.

.

 years

Korea



..

 years

Algeria .8 years

..

 years
 years

services.

Government support for digital swi-tchover began in 8, with support of the Freeview digital platform.

..
..

Spain



In the field of broadcasting, in contrast to

Panama .

broadcasting stations in New Zealand which

Brazil8..

=.=.

years

are separated vertically, those in Japan are inte-Japan..

.8.

 years

grated vertically.
Broadcasting in New Zealand has been in the

Sweden8..

 years

China

8



 years..

Canada.

.

 years

Morocco8.

 years

Singapore.

 years

implementation of digital broadcasting has

Romania..

..

8 years

lagged behind in New Zealand as compared

Germany.

= years

with other advanced nations due to a financial

Italy..

..

= yearsform of vertical separation ever since industry
restructuring that occurred in .

Although

Czecho..

= years

Finland..8

8. .= years

France..

..

= years

assigning it to the control of Cordia, which is in-

Switzerland

/=

.

 years

volved in the construction, operation and main-South Africa

=.

..

 years

tenance of digital broadcast networks, broad-Hong Kong8..

 years

casting operations have been deployed in the

New Zealand.

.

 years

Taiwan=.8 years

crisis at the national level, as a result of severing the broadcasting division from TVNZ andform of private broadcasting of TV, TV andNetherlands=..

 years

Hungary..

..

 years

In addition, as a result of granting all licenses

Poland ..

..

 years

to Freeview, a neutral broadcaster not engaged

Portugal .

.

 years

in programming, it has become easier to imple-

Norway8. . .

 years

Maori TV.

ment services by new entrants in the field such

Source : NHK Databook () Broadcasting stations inas banks and web operators, thereby making it

the world pp.-

possible to further promote digitization.

In ac-

tuality, the industry restructuring implemented
by the New Zealand government was correct.
A new entry into the industry in the form ofMaori TV was implemented, resulting in ex-Analysis of Organization of New Zealand Television Industry

UEDA

panded transmission of programs broadcast inLocal Content Report has been tracking thethe Maori language.

hours of New Zealand made programming

Differing from commu-

nications, in the case of broadcasting, where

broadcast free-to air since  .

TV One andinterruption of radio waves must be avoided at

Maori Television recorded the most local con-

all costs, and since advanced operation andtent in  ; Prime and C the least. Three

maintenance technologies are required for thischannels increased their local-content hours

purpose, this has resulted in the formation of aslightly TV, TV and Prime; the others showedbarrier that hinders entrance of new businesses.

a slight decrease.

In  , , hours of New

Zealand-made television programmes screenedon the countrys six free-to-air channels.

This

figure was down .= percent from  - the firstdecrease since .

Total local content on

the six free-to air channels was .8 percent.
TV One screened most local content at ,
hours.

Maori Television was second, with , hours.

Maori Television screened the most

local content in prime time (=pm-pm).
The reason why New Zealand was able tocomplete digital broadcasting in the short peri-

Figure  Vertical Integration and Vertical
Separation

Table od of time of only five years was mainly due tocontracting implementation to Cordia, a specialized firm having its own transmission func-

Hours of Local Content on Network

tions.

Television
Year

TV
One

TV

TV



,

,



,8



In addition, New Zealand was able todeploy the production of original programming

Prime Maori
TV

C

Total

as a result of concentrating funding and person-

,

=,=

nel on production.

, 

,

=, 

,

,8

,

8,



,=

,8

,8

=,=8



.

,=

,



,

,

,

8

=

, 

,8

,

=

,

,

,=

8

,8=

,=

,

8=

,88

,

,8



. 

,

, 8=

8

,=

,=

,=



,

,

,

=

,

8

,

Moreover, the use of net-

work sharing served to reduce both costs and
time.

=,

Changes in the Industrial Structure of Japan8,

The conversion of terrestrial broadcasting todigital broadcasting was completed in the endof March  with the termination of analog

Source : TV On Airs website (www.nzonair.govt.nz)

broadcasting in the three prefectures in the Tohoku region where conversion had lagged beNZ On Air measures New Zealand pro-hind other regions due to the Great East Japan

grammes screened on television. Its anuual

Earthquake.

=Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. No. Sep. As a result, Japan has deployed one of thetation of vertical separation, the production sec-

most advanced broadband networks in the

tor of the Ibaraki Broadcast System was relieved

world throughout the entire country.

In addi-of the restriction of its public nature as a resulttion, legislation was enacted in  to facilitateof transferred its broadcast license, thereby en-

flexible utilization of this network.

In response

abling it to create programming directly linked

to these new developments, efforts are being

to promoting the sales of new products andmade towards the realization of an industrial

characters of various corporations.

structure capable of adapting to these changes
in a short period of time as in New Zealand
while also promoting the entrance of new firms
into the industry.
Following revision of the Broadcast Act for
the first time in nearly = years for the purposeof convergence of broadcasting and communications, separation of the fields of hardware
and software (vertical separation) has come tobe observed at terrestrial transmission stations
as well in which separate firms are responsible
for production and transmission operations.

Figure 

Under the provisions of the Broadcast Act en-

Vertical Separation of the Ibaraki
Broadcast System

acted on June , , the Ibaraki Broadcast
System, which is the only privately-owned radio
station in Ibaraki prefecture, implemented verti-

The Asahi Broadcasting Corporation, locatedcal separation of its production and transmis-

in Osaka, also commissioned its programming

sion functions.

function to a subsidiary known as ABC MediaThe Ibaraki Broadcast Systemtransferred its transmission operations, includ-

Communications (ABC).

ing its broadcasting license and facilities, toTV, a television station located in Tochigi pre-

IBS, while the Ibaraki Broadcast System was

fecture, having consolidated a radio station op-transformed to a software company that fo-

erated by the Tochigi Broadcasting Corporation

cused on operations such as programming andin April , Chubu Nippon Broadcasting Cor-

advertising operations.

poration (CBC), located in Nagoya, had alreadyIn contrast to Tochigi

Although the Ibaraki Broadcast System had

transferred control of its radio operations tobeen engaged in the production of programs

CBC Radio in September  while retainingthat introduced local history and culture on the

only its television operations.

basis of its public nature of contributing to thepredicted that various forms of broadcast sta-

local community, since this type of program-tion reorganization will continue to take placeming generated little advertising, profitability

in Japan in the future based on the securing of

was extremely poor.

adequate profitability.

Following the implemen-

8

It is thereforeAnalysis of Organization of New Zealand Television Industry

Figure 

UEDA

Vertical Separation of ABC

Figure 

BS Broadcasting in Japan

Although seven new channels were added toalize a multi-channel service system deploying

the existing broadcast satellite (BS) digitala total of  channels consisting of  pay chan-broadcasts in March , this can be said to benels and  free channels.

possible for the very reason that the industrial

On the other hand, communication satellite

structure of BS broadcasting had been vertically(CS) broadcasts (SkyPerfec! e) is scheduled

separated resulting in a system that only re-

add an additional  channels to its existing quired new entrants into the industry to only bechannels in the near future.

responsible for production functions.

It is un-multi-channel broadcasting through the addi-

likely that the entry of new firms into the indus-

tion of new entrants to the industry is also due

try would have been possible in the case of ain large part to the same vertically separated in-conventional industrial structure that also in-

dustrial structure employed for BS broadcast-corporates transmission functions requiring ex-ing.

tensive equipment investment and expertise.

BS broadcasting is that platform firms have also

As a result, BS broadcasting has been able to re-been added that are responsible for billing, ad-This realization of

In addition, CS broadcasting differs from

Table  New BS Channels Added in March Channel Name
Disney Channel
Imagica BS
J-Sports J-Sports Description
Disney cartoons
Western and Asian movies
and dramas
Baseball, rugby and othersports programming

BS Fishing Vision

Fishing information andtravel programs

BS Japanese Movie
ChannelPeriod dramas and Japanese movies

Dlife

Western dramas and variety
programs

Figure

CS Broadcasting in Japan

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. No. Sep. due to the contribution made by the organiza-

vertising and the like.
Starting in April , broadcasts for recep-

tion of the broadcasting industry in this coun-tion by SmartPhones (V-High Multimedia

try.

Production and Transmission channels

Broadcasting), known as NOTTV, began thatare vertically separated, making it easy for newuse frequency bands previously utilized bycontent providers such as Maori TV in New

ground-based television broadcasting.

Al-

Zealand, independent content aggregators, andthough this service is expected to be provided

new Internet video services to gain a foothold.

nationwide by  and scheduled to be utilized

The reason for a broadcasting station specializ-by = million viewers by , a huge equipment

ing in program production like the Maori Tele-

investment of about  billion yen will be re-vision Service (MTS) to having been able toquired to provide = base stations for the pur-

newly enter the industry and begin broadcast-pose of realizing nationwide coverage, anding in Maori over a wide service area accompa-

since this will be difficult to implement by indi-nying the commencement of digital broadcast-vidual production firms, a dedicated firm foring was because a specialized firm like Cordia

providing transmission functions in the form of

was able to function in their place in imple-

Japan Mobilecasting Inc. will be responsible

menting digitalization of Transmission func-

for transmitting all channels.

tions requiring extensive expertise and funding.
Acknowledgements
The author thank the comments and suggestions of Maori TV station in Auckland, who contributed to the improvement of this article.
The remaining mistakes and omissions are, naturally, the authors full responsibility.
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Figure  SmartPhone Broadcasting(V-High Multimedia Broadcasting)ory of Industry Structure, Harcourt Brace
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