Summary

Guaranteeing
indigenous
people’s rights
in Latin America
Progress in the past decadeand remaining challenges

Summary

Guaranteeing
indigenous
people’s rights
in Latin America
Progress in the past decadeand remaining challenges

This document was prepared by the Economic Commission for Latin America andthe Caribbean (ECLAC), through the Latin American and Caribbean Demographic
Centre (CELADE)-Population Division of ECLAC, under the supervision of Dirk
Jaspers-Faijer. This study was carried out at the request of the United Nations
Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues (UNPFII) and the Continental Networkof Indigenous Women of the Americas, with support from the Ford Foundation.
Technical cooperation was undertaken by Dirk Jaspers-Faijer and Fabiana Del
Popolo, Population Affairs Officers of CELADE; Mirna Cunningham, Presidentof UNPFII in 2012-2013; and Tarcila Rivera Zea, Coordinator of the Continental
Network of Indigenous Women of the Americas.
The various parts of the document were drafted by Fabiana Del Popolo
and Leandro Reboiras, consultant with CELADE, who received substantive
contributions from an indigenous advisory team comprising Ana María Barbosa,
ECMIA; María Eugenia Choque, Indigenous Women’s Biodiversity Network);
Gerardo Jumi, Coordinadora Andina de Organizaciones Indígenas (CAOI); José
Antonio Medina and Gilberto Solano, del Mesoamerican Indigenous Council;
Álvaro Pop, member of UNPFII; Donald Rojas, Central American Indigenous
Council; Edwin Vásquez, Coordinating Body of Indigenous Organizations in the
Amazon Basin (COICA); and Teresa Zapeta, Alliance of Indigenous Women of
Mexico and Central America.
Substantive inputs were also prepared by Mikel Berraondo, Ferran Cabrero, Mirna
Cunningham, Beatriz Fernández, Ciro Martínez, Ana María Oyarce, Víctor Toledo
Llancaqueo and Rodrigo Valenzuela; and assistance was received from Bernardo
Arroyo, Mathilde Bourguignat, Ninoska Damianovic, Laura García and MiguelOjeda. The census information was processd by Laura García and Miguel Ojeda
and the Demographic and Health Surveys, by María Marta Santillán.
ECLAC wishes to thank the following for their collaboration and valuable
contributions: Inter-Agency Support Group on Indigenous Peoples, comprising
the FAO Regional Offices, the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner
for Human Rights (OHCHR), the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF), the
Pan American Health Organization (PAHO), the International Labour Organization(ILO), the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), the United Nations
Development Group - Latin America and the Caribbean (UNDG-LAC), the United
Nations Population Fund (UNFPA), the United Nations Educational, Scientific andCultural Organization (UNESCO), the United Nations Entity for Gender Equality
and the Empowerment of Women (UN-Women); the Fund for the Development of
the Indigenous Peoples of Latin America and the Caribbean of the country officesof UNICEF and Chile and the Plurinational State of Bolivia.
Cover illustration: “Mirada de vuelos múltiples”, oil on canvas by Carlos
Jacanamijoy, 2013.

Distr.: Limited • LC/L.3893/Rev.1 • November 2014 • Original: Spanish© United Nations • Printed in Santiago, Chile

Content
Foreword........................................................................................ 5
Introduction................................................................................... 9I.

Background and sociopolitical context of indigenous
peoples’ rights in Latin America......................................... 11
A. Historical aspects.........................................................11
B. Rights of indigenous peoples: international standards
and progress in State laws and institutions....................12
C. Demands and experiences of indigenous peoples’
autonomies in Latin America........................................15
D. Current situation and new perspectives on
the participation of indigenous peoples,
including free, prior and informed consent...................18
E. Participation of indigenous organizations inthe social, cultural and political reality at
the country level, and at the regional
and international level.................................................25
F. Development, good living and self-determination........28

II.

Mapping the demographics of indigenous peoples:
counting is relevant............................................................ 33
A. Who are the indigenous peoples in data sources?........34
B. Recent census results...................................................34
C. Indigenous population and peoples in
Latin America: how many are there,
and how many are left?................................................36
D. Age and sex structure and their policy implications......39
E. Indigenous fertility levels and trends: a key factor
in population growth....................................................41

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Guaranteeing indigenous people’s rights in Latin America • Summary

III.

Territorial rights and spatial mobility of indigenous
peoples in Latin America................................................... 45
A. Territorial rights of indigenous peoples:the framework for action..............................................45
B. Gaps in implementation of indigenous peoples’
territorial rights and challenges in the region................48
C. Territorial distribution and internal migrationof indigenous peoples..................................................55
D. Cross-border mobility of indigenous peoples:international migration and ancestral mobility ............61

IV.

The right to well-being of indigenous peoples ................. 69
A. The right to health: the need for a holistic approach.....69
B. The status of indigenous infants and children...............74
C. Indigenous women.......................................................78
D. The right to education..................................................87

V.

Right to information and communication ........................ 97
A. Freedom of expression, self-determination andthe right to information and communicationof indigenous peoples .................................................97
B. Right to information with an emphasis on
demographic and socioeconomic aspects....................99
C. Right to communication: from access to
information and communications technologies
to development of their own media............................102

Bibliography...............................................................................110

4

Foreword

Over the past few decades Latin America has made significant gains(at different speeds and in ways that differ from country to country) in
economic and social development. This is seen in sustained economic
growth, poverty reduction and substantial improvement in a rangeof social indicators. However, ECLAC has noted that progress inconsolidating and building on these gains is encountering constraints
and that there are challenges that region must address in order to close
the gaps arising from structural heterogeneity, external vulnerability andpersistently high levels of inequality. Indigenous peoples are the mostdisadvantaged groups, owing to complex sociohistorical processes thatdate back more than 500 years, have fed into discriminatory practices thatare still in place and involved systematic dispossession of their territories,
with grave consequences for their well-being.
But in this globalized, pluricultural post-cold-war world, theemergence of indigenous peoples and their rights agenda (a process thatis not unique to the region but is, instead, worldwide) is one of a numberof struggles for recognition and human dignity. The steadfast resistance ofindigenous peoples is currently focused on establishing a new politicaland territorial status quo and on building new kinds of institutional
relationships between States and indigenous peoples. The United Nations
Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples emerged from the latter’slong struggle and sets out the international standard that is binding on
States and provides an explicit public policy framework. And while thisreport notes indisputable progress in the implementation of these rights,
it also notes that gaps remain and inequalities still run deep.

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Guaranteeing indigenous people’s rights in Latin America • Summary

One of the major challenges facing the region in the search forequality is, then, to make the rights of indigenous peoples a policy
priority. The challenges are enormous: as will be seen in this report, in
Latin America there are more than 800 indigenous peoples accounting
for a population of close to 45 million. Their vast sociodemographic,
territorial and political diversity ranges from peoples living in voluntary
isolation to large urban settlements. This picture is compounded by thefact that economic growth in the region is highly dependent on natural
resources and international prices for them, and that these resources
are poorly governed. The reprimarization of the economy has put
considerable pressure on indigenous peoples’ territories and sparked
much socioenvironmental conflict that remains unresolved.
ECLAC, as seen in its last three sessions, is now advocating
development focused on the value of equality with a rights-based
approach. And it has called for striking a new balance between theState, the market and society to build compacts to underpin far-reaching
political agreements. There is, therefore, no question that indigenous
peoples should be included and that such compacts should open up spacefor greater strides in putting those standards in place. A key challenge
in this regard is the integration of indigenous peoples’ rights in a new
natural resource governance model. The idea is to move from “newdeals” to “new covenants”.
Ancestral knowledge, innovations and traditional practices ofindigenous peoples for the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity,
as well as the development of new, collective forms of indigenous
economies, provide a unique opportunity for building a new development
paradigm based on structural change for equality and sustainability. The
contribution of indigenous peoples to addressing the challenges facing thefuture of a sovereign Latin America must be recognized.
This report falls within the framework of the high-level World
Conference on Indigenous Peoples to be held in September 2014, andwe hope that it makes a contribution in that regard. It is also part of
implementation and follow-up of the post-2015 development agenda.
We trust, as well, that the World Conference on Indigenous Peoples willbolster both the commitments and the political will to advance the equalenjoyment of human rights for indigenous peoples, as well as women

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ECLAC 2014

and children, the young and older persons, and the right of these groups
to be different. It is not only a matter of social justice: we are convincedthat this will do much to further the profound changes that the region
and the world need. And we are convinced that this will lay a more solid
foundation for world peace.

Alicia Bárcena
Executive Secretary of the Economic Commission
for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC)

7

Introduction

In December 2010 the United Nations General Assembly decided toorganize a high-level plenary meeting of the General Assembly in 2014:
the World Conference on Indigenous Peoples (resolution A/RES/65/198).
The main objective of this conference is to share perspectives and bestpractices on the realization of the rights of indigenous peoples andprogress in implementing the United Nations Declaration on the Rights
of Indigenous Peoples. The organization of the conference is assigned
to the President of the General Assembly, in conjunction with the threemandates of the United Nations, which are the Permanent Forum on
Indigenous Issues (UNPFII), the United Nations Expert Mechanism on the
Rights of Indigenous Peoples and the United Nations Special Rapporteuron the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, who must ensure the participationof indigenous peoples throughout the process.
UNPFII has a central role in the preparations for the World
Conference; at its eleventh session (New York, 7-18 May 2012) itrecommended the organization of conferences and joint regional and/or thematic preparatory workshops, as well as other such meetings, withthe support of Member States, agencies, funds and programmes of theUnited Nations and indigenous peoples and with the full participationof indigenous peoples and Member States, in addition to the Expert
Mechanism on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, the Special Rapporteuron the Rights of Indigenous Peoples and the Permanent Forum. It alsoemphasized that the preparatory conferences should focus on practical
initiatives based on inclusive and participatory processes.

9Guaranteeing indigenous people’s rights in Latin America • Summary

In this context, and considering the contributions made by ECLAC
relating to indigenous peoples in the region, UNPFII asked ECLAC to draft
a reference document for the World Conference on Indigenous Peoples
in keeping with the guidelines provided by the organizing committee ofthe conference. Thus, with the support of the Ford Foundation, a project
was undertaken with the following objectives: (1) provide an update on
progress and challenges concerning the rights of indigenous peoples in
Latin America in conjunction with the indigenous peoples of the region,and (2) contribute substantively to an evaluation of the past decadeand to identifying post-2014 actions for discussion at the 2014 World
Conference on Indigenous Peoples.
In order to establish a participatory mechanism for drafting the study,
a coordinating body was formed comprising CELADE-ECLAC, UNPFII
and the Continental Network of Indigenous Women of the Americas.
An Indigenous Peoples Advisory Committee was also established,consisting of experts and indigenous experts, UNPFII and regional andsubregional indigenous organizations in Latin America: the Allianceof Indigenous Women of Central America and Mexico (AMICAM),
the Indigenous Council of Central America (CICA), the Indigenous
Council of Mesoamerica (CIMA), the Andean Coordinator of Indigenous
Organizations (CAOI), the Coordinator of Indigenous Organizationsof the Amazon River Basin (COICA), the Continental Network of
Indigenous Women of the Americas (ECMIA) and the Indigenous Women’s
Biodiversity Network (RMIB). The representatives forming part of thisadvisory group were selected by the organizations themselves. The
content of the document, the approach and the general guidelines forthe study were agreed with the Coordinating Group and the Advisory
Group, which also provided valuable substantive inputs, comments andobservations throughout the drafting process.
Since ECLAC is part of the regional Inter-Agency Support Group on
Indigenous Issues (IASG), contributions to the document by the agenciesof the United Nations system were added to the list of Group activities,
thereby also bringing in valuable inputs and comments from them.
These are the regional offices of FAO, OHCHR, UNICEF, PAHO, ILO,
UNDP, UNDG LAC, UNFPA, UNESCO and UN Women. The Fund forthe Development of the Indigenous Peoples of Latin America and the
Caribbean is also part of IASG.

10I. Background and sociopolitical context
of indigenous peoples’ rights
in Latin America

A. Historical aspects
The only way to understand the current situation of indigenous peoples
in Latin America is to see it as the historic outcome of the process thatbegan with the arrival of Europeans more than five centuries ago, strippingthem not only of the territories they lived in and their spaces for socialand cultural reproduction but also of their culture, their worldviews andtheir ways of interacting with nature. This intrusion meant the loss of the“political territoriality” of the indigenous peoples of the continent andthe loss of sovereignty over their territories. And it set in motion a long
cycle of history.
The war machine was not the only thing that helped the European
occupation of the continent and the depopulation of its historicalinhabitants. The burden of diseases brought by the Europeans decimatedindigenous populations. Along with the introduction of new diseases
such as smallpox, measles, typhus, yellow fever and malaria cameforced labour and inhuman punishment. Denevan (1976) estimated thatat the time of European contact 57.3 million indigenous persons lived
throughout the continent, of which 47 million were in countries thattoday are called Latin American. It is estimated that in 130 years thispopulation decreased by 90% and that the indigenous population of the
Caribbean was nearly exterminated in less than 50 years.
On top of occupation justified on the grounds of terra nullius(literally “no man’s land”; i.e. uninhabited land or land inhabited by11

Guaranteeing indigenous people’s rights in Latin America • Summary“barbarians”) came the creation of institutions designed to develop
and exploit the work of indigenous persons. Years later, independence
movements exacerbated indigenous dispossession. Consolidation of
the new nation States just increased dispossession via the adoption oflegal frameworks that favoured private ownership and established theprimacy of individual rights over collective ones. Towards the end of
the nineteenth century, the terra nullius doctrine found justification ingeopolitics and in the expansion of agricultural and livestock borders,with military campaigns that continued to decimate the population ofindigenous peoples, especially in Argentina and Chile.
In the mid-twentieth century, colonization of the Amazon and other“peripheral areas” in the region set off a second cycle of deterritorializationof indigenous peoples that had serious consequences for their living
conditions. More recently, the cycle of extractive pressure on natural
resources by national and transnational corporations and major civil
works projects with negative impacts on ecosystems have swept across thecontinent with unprecedented force, compounding the historical pictureof dispossession and vulnerability. The most recent cycle (appropriationof traditional knowledge, the biodiversity associated with it and genetic
resources) is the corollary of dispossession of the indigenous peoples of
Latin America down through history.
However, each of these cycles and junctures was met by indigenous
resistance until a new political and territorial status quo took root. These
periods have brought demographic recovery of indigenous populations,as will be seen below.

B. Rights of indigenous peoples: international
standards and progress in State laws
and institutions
The struggle of indigenous peoples for the defence and recognitionof their rights has been continuous throughout history. This drawnout pattern of demanding and achieving recognition has in recent
decades led to a rights framework based on two main pillars: ILO
Convention No. 169 on Indigenous and Tribal Peoples (1989), which
recognized their collective rights for the first time; and the United
Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (2007),

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ECLAC 2014

which recognized the right of these peoples to self-determination. The
minimum standard of indigenous peoples’ rights, binding on States,
is in turn set out in five dimensions: the right to non-discrimination;
the right to social development and well-being; the right to cultural
integrity; the right to own, use, control and access land, territories andnatural resources; and the right to political participation.
The United Nations has led the way in addressing the rights ofindigenous peoples. Since the establishment of the Working Groupon Indigenous Populations in 1982 it has woven a broad range ofactivities and policies into its agenda, culminating in this century in theestablishment of the Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues (2000), theappointment of a Special Rapporteur on the Situation of Human Rights
and Fundamental Freedoms of Indigenous Peoples (2001), the creationof the Expert Mechanism on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (2007) andthe adoption of the above-mentioned Declaration by the United Nations
General Assembly (2007).
And there are the international agreements that have been
implemented since the 1990s, notably the Earth Summit (Rio deJaneiro, 1992), the World Conference on Human Rights (Vienna,1993), the International Conference on Population and Development(Cairo, 1994) and the World Conference on Women (Beijing, 1995).
These were watershed events in defending the rights of indigenous
peoples, recognizing their inherent dignity and unique contribution todevelopment and the plurality of society. At the regional level are thegovernmental agreements reached by the countries of Latin America
and the Caribbean in the first session of the Regional Conference on
Population and Development in Latin America and the Caribbean(Montevideo, 2013); these are embodied in the Montevideo Consensus
on Population and Development, which has a specific chapter on therights of indigenous peoples and will guide the post-2015 development
agenda with respect to these matters.
Indigenous organizations themselves more recently reached global
milestones in the form of the Global Indigenous Preparatory Conference
for the World Conference on Indigenous Peoples in 2013 (better known
as the Alta Conference) and the Alta Declaration, as well as the World
Conference of Indigenous Women, held also in 2013, in Lima.

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Guaranteeing indigenous people’s rights in Latin America • Summary

This process is about to culminate in the High-level Plenary Meetingof the sixty-ninth session of the General Assembly of the United Nations,
to be known as the World Conference on Indigenous Peoples (WCIP),1 tobe held on 22 September 2014 in New York in order to share perspectives
and best practices on the realization of the rights of indigenous peoples
and to pursue the objectives of the 2007 Declaration on the Rights ofIndigenous Peoples. The outcome of the World Conference is expected
to be a concise, action-oriented final document taking into account theviews of Member States and indigenous peoples —in the case of thelatter, in the spirit of the Alta Declaration.
At the international level, there are two direct mechanisms for theprotection of human rights, including the rights of indigenous peoples:
those of the United Nations system and those of the Inter-American
Human Rights System of the Organization of American States (OAS). In
the latter, Inter-American Court rulings binding on States have been key forthe new international legal order in regard to indigenous peoples’ rights.
In the case of the United Nations, bodies and protection mechanisms areof indisputable political relevance for the recognition and implementationof the rights of indigenous peoples.
In the universal system of the United Nations for the protection ofhuman rights there are (i) mechanisms based on the Charter of the United
Nations, such as the Human Rights Council itself (composed of States that
adopt resolutions) and which in turn includes several mechanisms: special
procedures (like the Special Rapporteur), the Universal Periodic Review
mechanism whereby States assess the status of other States according to apredefined format and advisory bodies (such as the Expert Mechanism on the
Rights of Indigenous Peoples; and (ii) treaty-based mechanisms for reviewing
the implementation of the principal binding treaties of international humanrights law by countries that have ratified them. These mechanisms, also
called “committees” are composed of experts as well. There is then a rangeof possibilities for lodging complaints with the Human Rights Council andthe committees, with special procedures for emergencies.
The OAS also plays a significant role in upholding the rights ofindigenous peoples. In the 1980s came the first rulings of the Inter-American
1

14

Resolutions A/RES/65/198 Indigenous issues (2010) and A/RES/66/296 Organization of thehigh-level plenary meeting of the sixty-ninth session of the General Assembly, to be known
as the World Conference on Indigenous Peoples (2012).

ECLAC 2014

Commission on Human Rights (IACHR). Later, in the 1990s, the InterAmerican Court of Human Rights (IACHR) began to build jurisprudence.
In 1990, the Commission established the Office of the Rapporteur on the
Rights of Indigenous Peoples to strengthen the role of the Commission
in this area. In April 1997, the Commission submitted to the Permanent
Council a Draft Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, which
since 1999 has been worked on by the Committee on Juridical and Political
Affairs. In 2009 the Department of International Law adopted the Programof Action of Indigenous Peoples in the Americas.
ILO Convention No. 169 has had a major impact on constitutional
reforms in the countries of the region since 1987, either as new
constitutions or amendments of existing ones. In the past decade, following
the adoption of the Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, thishas come to include the recent constitutions of Ecuador (2008) and
the Plurinational State of Bolivia (2009). Among the reforms are thoseof Argentina (1994); Plurinational State of Bolivia (1994, 2004, 2009);
Brazil (1988/2005); Colombia (1991, 2003); Costa Rica (1999); Ecuador(1996, 1998, 2008); El Salvador (1983/2000); Guatemala (1985/1998);
Honduras (1982/2005); Mexico (1992, 1994/1995, 2001), Nicaragua(1987, 1995, 2005); Panama (1972, 1983, 1994); Peru (1993, 2005);
Paraguay (1992); and the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela (1999).
Indigenous peoples have been positioning their rights in thelegislation and institutions of the States in which they live, in a difficult
process that continues to this day. Over the past decade significant
progress has been made in enacting laws and decrees in a number ofspheres; these differ in scope in each of the countries of the region.
However, this process of inclusion does not come without contradictions
or even setbacks and there are still critical gaps in the implementationof the rights of indigenous peoples as enshrined in constitutions anddomestic legislation, as will be discussed in this report.

C. Demands and experiences of indigenous peoples’
autonomies in Latin America
The benchmarking framework for autonomy demanded by indigenous
peoples is expressed in recognition of the right to self-determination,
which means the existence and exercise of collective rights, as well

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Guaranteeing indigenous people’s rights in Latin America • Summary

as respect for indigenous peoples’ institutions and systems of selfgovernment. As noted in article 4 of the United Nations Declaration on
the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, “Indigenous peoples, in exercising
their right of internal self-determination, have the right to autonomy orself-government in matters relating to their internal and local affairs,
as well as ways and means for financing their autonomous functions”.
Some requirements for the exercise of self-determination are thestrengthening of the relevant institutions, as well as the potentials andcapacities to engage with the State, and honouring even treaties oragreements concluded in the past. Experiences of indigenous autonomy
in the region are diverse, and they sprang from individual sociohistoricalsituations. Indeed, the first experience of autonomy in the region, whichdates from 1925 when the State of Panama recognized Comarca Kuna
Yala (even though the right to self-determination was not used as anargument), did encompass elements such as the right to culture andcustoms, recognition of and respect for their authorities and territory,
and the non-imposition of national forces.
In recent decades, thinking about self-determination has progressedin that recognizing the right to self-determination of indigenous peoples“as peoples” changes the nature of their relationship with States and iscentral to the demand for and negotiations on autonomy. This has laid
the foundations for attaining equality vis-à-vis other peoples, ratifyingthat they can freely determine their political regime and pursue theireconomic, social and cultural development, as well as choose (andnegotiate) agreements that will ensure their continuity as peoples. It
also entails the obligation of States to negotiate with a collective entity
whose rights pre-exist the creation of those States. Autonomy, as an
expression of self-determination, allows for making decisions andimplementing practices related to worldview, indigenous territory, land,
natural resources, sociopolitical organization, administration of justice,education, language, health, medicine and culture.
Experiences of indigenous autonomy in the region are being built
in response to factors and contexts inherited from colonial times. For
example, treaties concluded during colonization have served as areference for the recognition of land rights in the autonomous regionsof Nicaragua. Another path to indigenous autonomy has started withre-establishing and strengthening ancestral institutions of indigenous

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ECLAC 2014

peoples. One experience in the exercise of indigenous autonomy isin Oaxaca (Mexico), where the indigenous municipality has beenrecognized as a jurisdictional space for indigenous peoples to exercise
their autonomy rights. Of the 570 municipalities of Oaxaca, 418 aregoverned by the system of uses and customs, and it is recognized by
the Mexican constitution. The Colombian constitution also recognizes
indigenous territories as political and administrative territorial entities witha certain autonomy, in which indigenous authorities carry out functionsof self-government.
Delimiting territorial jurisdiction has been a central focus ofindigenous autonomy experiences in the region. The relationship ofpeoples to their lands, territories and natural resources is an essential
component of the right to self-determination. It is for them a source of
cultural identity, knowledge and spirituality and is closely related totheir survival.
Constitutional reforms have undoubtedly been the best framework
for recognizing and strengthening processes for indigenous autonomy.
Autonomy means the direct election of authorities, the management of
economic resources and the exercise of legislative, regulatory, oversightand executive powers by the organs of self-government within theirjurisdiction. This is where gaps remain to a greater or lesser extent inall of the countries of the region. In the Plurinational State of Bolivia,
plurinationality is a way to recognize indigenous peoples as distinct
historical and political entities (authority, territory, institutions, cognitiveand spiritual) that make up the State and intercultural society. In thisframework, the economic model, transformations of the State anddecolonization policies reflect changes driven by indigenous peoples, ina country in which they also form the majority of the population.
In the range of experiences, the gradual deepening of selfdetermination has been a common trend. In all of them gradualprogress is being made in regard to the expansion of powers andtransfer of competencies from States at the central level to autonomous
bodies. Over the past decade there has been a growing trend toward
negotiating the administration of natural resources and territories,
implementing agreements and reforms for the structural transformationof States to achieve equality between indigenous peoples and therest of society.

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Guaranteeing indigenous people’s rights in Latin America • Summary

D. Current situation and new perspectives on theparticipation of indigenous peoples, including
free, prior and informed consent
For indigenous peoples the right to participate in decision-making on
issues that affect them has a direct impact on the full enjoyment of otherhuman rights such as self-determination, equality, cultural integrity, free,prior and informed consent and the right to property. Hence, full andeffective participation is part of the standards of rights of indigenous
peoples. Their participation takes place at different levels against a
backdrop of diverse interests and actions, as summarized below.
Participation at the local and community level tends to be spurredby the search for answers to problems, needs and interests. It changes
quickly to adapt to the context and, although in some cases it ties in withorganizations at another level, it tends to be highly dispersed. There arethose who participate through ancestral community structures; otherstructures are established to press for the provision or improvement ofbasic services, production, cultural activities or ethnic demands, among
other claims. But an issue that has catalysed community organization
has been the struggle for territorial rights and pressure for exploitationof resources in their territories or for participation in mobilizations.
Community participation has also taken the form of sports and cultural,religious and spiritual activities. And growing migration to urban centres
has increased the number of urban indigenous organizations created topress for differentiated services.
Despite unfavourable contexts that have eroded traditional
indigenous roles, there are some noteworthy trends. Among them areaccess to community leadership positions following traditional patternsof rotation, inheritance or election on the basis of personal worth or
honourability; in such cases there is still discrimination against women andyoung people in many communities, as well as interference by politicalgroups and, sometimes, chief systems. Community authorities, spiritual
guides, individuals with gifts –traditional doctors and midwives, among
others– have begun to take on complementary roles as they work with
State authorities on indigenous or intercultural policies and programmes
while continuing to promote traditional collective decision-making.

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ECLAC 2014

This practice has been incorporated into some legislation concerningindigenous peoples and has expanded to the urban environment as well.
The municipal arena remains a challenge for indigenous peoples.
Over the past few decades, they have nominated men and, less frequently,
women as candidates for municipal positions. Since the establishmentof democratic governments in Latin America, political participation byindigenous peoples has gradually increased, although in some cases thishas been on an individual basis in the form of political party membership.
Indigenous peoples have participated in civic committees in Guatemala,and in expressions of political organization typical of ancestral peoples asin the case of Guatemala, Mexico and other countries. The Plurinational
State of Bolivia stands out here, since changes to the structure of the State
have also led to the formation of indigenous governments in most of thecountry’s municipalities.
As indigenous peoples began to form indigenous political parties insome countries, they have also begun to reach positions of power at themunicipal level, taking alternative approaches to municipal policymaking
and management. In some cases the municipal space is changing, too,
to accommodate the reconstitution of ancestral indigenous community
organizations. In Guatemala, where the 1985 constitution recognizedpluriculturalism, indigenous mayors’ offices that had been dismantled
in 1871 have begun to play a visible role in municipal governance as
an expression of resistance in order to maintain indigenous forms ofgovernment. There are 15 indigenous mayors’ offices at the municipal
level and in ancillary positions at the community level. It is here that
inequalities against indigenous women resurface. It has been documented
that when indigenous women do attain leadership positions it tends to
be in the poorest and most marginalized municipalities. In some cases
these are communities subject to tension and conflict. Most are womenwith exceptional leadership skills and intergenerational family experience
with the struggle. The relationship between their private and public life is
impacted; in order to take on a commitment they are forced to negotiatewith their families. Their approach differs in these cases, mainly in closer
community contact. They are seen as an option for resolving conflicts
and changing how policy is made.
At the national level, indigenous peoples have strongly questioned
the current development model and the kind of democracy it has given

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Guaranteeing indigenous people’s rights in Latin America • Summary

rise to. They have gone from being social subjects to being active politicalsubjects. One of the first strategies for participation at the national levelhas been to run for elected office at the State level. The first experienceswere in national parliaments. But electoral processes entail a number of
constraints in the spheres of information, economic capacity, language(monolingual in a multilingual setting), urban coverage when the
population is rural and geographic, climate and cultural distances.
In addition to the option of competing for seats in politicalparties, there are limited cases of political parties that set quotas forindigenous persons, although in some countries laws provide for special
constituencies for indigenous candidatures. Another modality has
been for national political parties to ally themselves with indigenous
movements, platforms and political parties. In some countries, there
is also experience in creating indigenous political parties in keepingwith national requirements, as in Ecuador with the Pachakutik politicalmovement (launched in 1995) and Guatemala with the Winaq politicalmovement (launched in 2007), or legal procedures defined by theelectoral authorities such as the recent case of the Alternative Indigenous
and Social Movement (MAIS) in Colombia.
The collective dimension has been added to the right to electoral
participation thanks to demands for respect for traditions and customs
that, while garnering a more favourable response in local elections, havenot been absent from the debate in national elections. In the Yatama
versus Nicaragua case, the Inter-American Court of Human Rights
recognized indigenous peoples’ right to participate in the broader public
life of the State, which includes a collective element requiring States totake special measures to ensure effective participation based on values,
traditions and customs of indigenous peoples in political structures andinstitutions of the State.
Quotas have a role to play in measures to foster the politicalparticipation of indigenous women. But they need to be supplemented withother affirmative action measures targeting indigenous peoples. And progressneeds to be made with active measures to reduce the negative effects ofstructural factors that put indigenous women at the greatest disadvantage.
As indigenous autonomies grow stronger, political participation on
the part of indigenous women has moved up the agenda; Nicaragua andPanama are cases in point. In Nicaragua, scant political participation

20

ECLAC 2014

of women in autonomous governments led to adoption of the regional
gender equality policy containing measures for the empowerment of
women, and the national quota law requiring that 50% of the candidates
be women, in an equitable and alternating order in each district. As aresult, in the span of just two regional elections the share of women in
the North Atlantic Autonomous Regional Council has gone from 4%
to 50%. In Panama’s Kuna Yala indigenous territory, the Kuna General
Congress (CGK) is the highest authority. The territory is led by threechiefs elected by the CGK, which comprises the local congresses of 49
communities through 49 sailas (leaders) who represent their communities.
Each community must include a woman in its delegation. Some haveheld positions within the territory’s hierarchy, such as President of the
Emberá-Wounaan General Congress and as female chiefs.
In a number of countries there are some experiences of indigenous
women in cabinet positions (the the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela,
Ecuador, Guatemala, Mexico Nicaragua and the Plurinational State of
Bolivia) as ministers of foreign affairs, justice, peace, culture, productive
development and plural economy, rural development and lands. The
justice system has also had women magistrates in Ecuador and Nicaragua.
In Guatemala the Office for the Defence of Indigenous Women’s Rights
was established following the signing of the peace agreements; this strategy
was followed in other countries as well. The opening of these channels
for participation has allowed the development of strategies to address
indigenous peoples’ affairs politically, making women visible, although
gains are still limited. The Plurinational State of Bolivia has reached thehighest percentage of indigenous representation in parliament: close
to 32% of the total, trailed at some distance by Guatemala, with 12%.
In the rest of the countries the proportion of indigenous parliamentarians
remains well below 10% (UNDP, 2013).
Under ILO Convention No. 169, in implementing its provisions
Governments should establish means by which the peoples concerned
can freely participate, at least to the same extent as other sectors of the
population and at all levels of decision-making in elective institutions andadministrative and other bodies responsible for policies and programmesthat concern them. Seventeen States in the region have institutions
created for handling indigenous peoples’ issues. Because some of themwere created when indigenist-based policies were still in place, their

21

Guaranteeing indigenous people’s rights in Latin America • Summaryorganization, forms of work and relationship with indigenous peoples
vary widely. Their focus is also affected by the poverty reduction policies
followed by States.
The challenges of free, prior and informed consent
The State duty to consult is part of indigenous peoples’ rights standards;
as a procedure for ensuring the right to free, prior and informed consent(FPIC) it is part of the current legal system. Under articles 6, 7 and 15 of
ILO Convention No. 169, not only should States make every effort tofully consult with indigenous peoples on issues related to development,
land and resources, but they also should establish means by which they
can freely participate at least to the same extent as other sectors of the
population at all levels of decision-making in elective institutions andadministrative and other bodies responsible for policies and programmes
which concern them.
Demands for States to comply with Convention 169 are being
made internationally and by indigenous peoples themselves. In 2010
the ILO Committee of Experts on the Application of Conventions andRecommendations requested that the Government of Chile take thenecessary steps to align national legislation with the Convention in order
to consult with indigenous peoples on investment projects likely to impact
them directly and enable them to share in the benefits from exploitation ofmineral resources; in November 2013 Chile adopted regulations governing
the procedure for consultation with indigenous peoples (Supreme Decree
No. 66). In Peru, indigenous organizations making up the Unity Pact ofIndigenous Organizations of Peru filed complaints with the Peruvian
State concerning regulation of the law of 2011 on prior consultation
with indigenous peoples. And the National Indigenous Organization ofColombia (ONIC) made a number of points on the legal framework relating
to the right to consultation, which warrant consideration.
The international system of treaties recognizes FPIC in thejurisprudence of several committees, so ratification is binding on Stateson the basis of international law. The guidelines of the United Nations
Development Group (UNDG) for work with indigenous people’s issues
also call for applying FPIC to programmes and projects on traditional
lifestyles, lands and territories and cultural integrity. The Special
Rapporteur on the rights of indigenous peoples, James Anaya, included

22

ECLAC 2014

this in his country visit reports and annual reports to the Commission
on Human Rights. The Expert Mechanism has noted the intersection
between the right of indigenous peoples to participate in decision-making
and the right to self-determination, the right to autonomy, the right tobe consulted and the duty of States to seek to obtain the free, prior andinformed consent of indigenous peoples.
In 2005 UNPFII held a meeting of experts on the subject; some of
the bases for operationalizing FPIC were examined and areas of relevancefor implementing it were identified. The International Finance Corporation
describes a number of situations where its performance standards
require the free, prior and informed consent of indigenous peoples, inparticular when there are impacts on land and natural resources under
traditional ownership or under customary use, in the event of relocationof indigenous peoples away from their lands and natural resources under
traditional ownership or under customary use, or impacts on a particular
cultural heritage, such as holy places.
In the case of the Kichwa indigenous people of Sarayaku versus
Ecuador, the Inter-American Court of Human Rights analysed international
policy developments and comparative jurisprudence, including incountries that have not ratified Convention No. 169. It concluded thatthe obligation to consult indigenous peoples, in addition to being a
convention rule, is also a general principle of international law. Basedon such precedents, IACHR proposed the following elements for FPIC:•the State has the obligation to consult in an active andinformed manner;•

the consultation must be in accordance with the customs andtraditions of the affected communities;•

the consultations must be undertaken in good faith, using
culturally-appropriate procedures and must be aimed at reachingan agreement;•

consultation must be during the early stages of the development
or investment plan, and not only when it is necessary to obtainthe community’s approval;•

the State must ensure that the members of the people or thecommunity are aware of the potential benefits and risks.

The first item for discussion in the region is the relationship between
consultation, FPIC and participation of indigenous peoples. The purpose
23

Guaranteeing indigenous people’s rights in Latin America • Summaryof consultation and consent is to ensure indigenous peoples’ rightto effective participation in decisions affecting them. For indigenous
peoples the right to participation does not mean consultation alone but
also encompasses other forms of participation in decisions affecting
their rights and interests in a differentiated way. Some examples are
participation in electoral processes, mobilizations and other activitiesof political relevance and public interest. That is, through consultation
it is sought to reach State agreements and decisions ensuring the rights
of indigenous peoples. What happens is that too often there is greater
emphasis on the consultation procedure than on reaching agreements
for the full exercise of indigenous peoples’ rights.
Another much-debated subject is the argument put forth by some Statesthat see FPIC as a threat in that it gives indigenous peoples the opportunity
to veto policies, measures and provisions. What international law seeks isprecisely, through consultation, to reverse the history of marginalizationand exclusion suffered by indigenous peoples. Therefore, the goal is, rather,mutual understanding and consensus in decision-making. The intention isthat none of the parties impose anything on the other.
In many cases there is still doubt about the need for consultation
with indigenous peoples. ONIC notes that the objectives of consultation
are, essentially: (i) safeguard the life and integrity of indigenous peoples,
avoiding threats that can negatively impact them by causing their culturalor physical extermination; and (ii) ensure their effective participation in
making decisions that affect them, as full subjects of rights. This is, infact, the essence of human rights protection mechanisms and indigenousorganizations. The Constitutional Court of Colombia has identified
prior consultation as a fundamental right arising from the constitutional
protection of the ethnic and cultural identity of indigenous peoples.
In any case, growing pressure on natural resources has brought
exponential growth in discussions and legislative and policy proposals
on these matters. But they are focused more on consultation procedures;experiences of implementation (which tend to be quite recent) arecomplex and controversial. This has even spread to areas such as the
production of information, as in the 2013-2014 agricultural census in
Colombia, where the consultation procedure has been instrumental inensuring the participation of indigenous peoples all census processes,
another part of the international recommendations in this area.

24

ECLAC 2014

Undoubtedly, this is one of the greatest challenges facing the democraciesof the twenty-first century, where participation, consultation and FPIC
cannot be left out of the new compacts for equality in the triad of State,society and the marketplace.

E. Participation of indigenous organizations in thesocial, cultural and political reality at the country
level, and at the regional and international level
The status of platforms of indigenous peoples’ organizations falls within
the framework of the rights defined by the United Nations Declarationon the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, including the right to maintainand strengthen their own political legal, economic, social and cultural
institutions, while retaining their right to participate fully, if they sochoose, in the political, economic, social and cultural life of the State.
After two decades of mobilizing to promote constitutional reforms incountries and achieve the current rights standards, indigenous peoples aredemanding that those rights be respected and fulfilled. The central axesof their struggle have been the recognition of their distinctive identities as
subjects of collective rights, among them the right to self-determination,collective ownership of their territory and political participation. These
struggles enabled them to launch collective reconstitution processes as
peoples and reclaim collective knowledge, wisdom, beliefs, spirituality
and institutions of their own. However, the struggle of indigenous peoples
is not limited to claiming their own institutionality, but also includes
putting forward a new model of society, questioning the development
paradigm and proposing good living as an alternative.
There are some trends among indigenous organizations in Latin
America. At the local level, traditional authorities and indigenous
governments at the community and territorial level prevail, with acomprehensive mandate of self-government. There are also community
structures that ensure the functioning of health, education, resource
conservation, production and food systems, reproduction of traditional
knowledge, administration of justice, child-raising standards, relations
between genders and families and election of authorities, among
others. These levels of indigenous government are combined with otherorganizations of various kinds: women, religious, spiritual and youth.

25

Guaranteeing indigenous people’s rights in Latin America • Summary

These are structures at the community and territory level; they
promote efforts geared toward full enjoyment of territorial, environmental,
political, economic, social and cultural rights. Community-based ancestral
structures —authority structures, ancestral institutions, traditional rituals
and systems— are being revitalized and made part of self-government. In
the Andean area, for example, there are institutions like Minga, RantiRanti,
Priostasgos, Cargos, Compadrasgos, MarkakTayta, Ayni, Minka, Jayna or
Phayna, Anxata, Jaqqhata, Yanapa, Sataqawi and Manq’xaruña.2 Some,even if they have undergone adaptations as a result of integrationist policies,and even when they refer to themselves as “peasants”, maintain theircharacteristics as indigenous communities. As more and more indigenous
persons migrate to cities they encounter new ways to live indigenous
identities and therefore take on new forms of organization.
Both at the local level, and between it and organizations at otherlevels, indigenous organizations are tending toward coordinationand complementation strategies. The axes of work undertaken byindigenous organizations in the region are, in a nutshell: (i) local
community organizations and indigenous governments whose main
objective is to ensure the exercise of self-government; (ii) national andterritorial organizations (subregional) in coordination with mandates for
movements, negotiations and policy impact actions to press for fulfilmentof indigenous peoples’ rights; and (iii) specialized organizations andnetworks on global issues and negotiations.
The changes in organizations include adopting strategies in theirrelations with State bodies. There is greater use of legal and administrative
resources to compel the State to meet its obligations. They even callon the electoral authorities to pronounce themselves on indigenous
rights within the framework of the right to self-determination. There areindigenous organizations seeking to promote structural changes “fromwithin” States that are therefore participating in elections ranging fromlocal to national and are taking office in the various branches of States,
as was seen in the previous section.
In the case of indigenous women the situation is still complex.
Despite the discourse about complementarity and indigenous duality,
2

26

These are indigenous institutions which establish functions for collective work, such as
agricultural work which are governed by principles of interconnectedness and reciprocity.
Each has specific functional characteristics.

ECLAC 2014

what prevails, with very few exceptions, are practices of exclusion
and lack of recognition of their contributions to the organizational andpolitical processes of their peoples. There is a clear gender division ofpolitical and organizational tasks: more women at the base, in uprisings,
organizational processes, community work such as the mingas and inglobal and regional processes. But there are still are few women andyoung people as leaders and in decision-making positions. The barriers toparticipation are two-fold: discrimination and structural racism to which
they are subject as indigenous persons, and their position as womenin a patriarchy. The region is also the setting for interesting processes
whereby indigenous youth are organizing at the local, national andsubregional levels.
The strengthening of subregional indigenous organizations led tocoordination at the regional level through a single regional platform: theIndigenous Forum of Abya Yala, which was established for coordination
between regional and subregional organizations. It has held regional
preparatory meetings for the Conference of the Parties (COP) in
Cancun, the Rio+20 process and the United Nations World Conferenceon Indigenous Peoples in 2014. The Abya Yala Indigenous Forumcomprises three subregional territorial organizations, two environmentalorganizations, a subregional organization of women and a continentwide organization of indigenous women. The International Indian Treaty
Council (CITI), the International Indigenous Women’s Forum (IIWF),
indigenous youth networks and the Guaraní People’s Continental Council
have occasionally been invited as observers. Another coordination
mechanism that organizations have used has been thematic regional
forums and continental summits. The impact of cooperation amongindigenous organizations at the regional and subregional level has beensignificant, ranging from political participation to the production of
statistics. One impact of this coordination is the formation of a working
group to support the preparation of this study.
The long process of struggle for and recognition of rights that carved
space for participation of indigenous peoples in each country had its
correlate in spaces for multilateral dialogue, boosting involvement inand influence on international organizations, regional bodies and spaces
for regional integration. These processes are ongoing and growing more
consolidated as the participation of indigenous organizations becomes27

Guaranteeing indigenous people’s rights in Latin America • Summary

institutionalized. They are furthering the global agenda of the indigenous
movement, among many other interventions, by playing a very activerole in the World Conference on Human Rights (Vienna, 1993), theEarth Summit (Rio de Janeiro, 1992), the Fourth World Conference on
Women in Beijing; and the International Conference on Population andDevelopment (ICPD) in Cairo, as well as by participating as observers
in the Committee on World Food Security of the Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations (FAO), the Indigenous Peoples’
Forum at the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) andthe Civil Society Advisory Group of the United Nations Development
Programme (UNDP), among others.
The United Nations mechanisms for indigenous peoples are thespaces with most involvement of indigenous peoples in Latin America,
both at the annual sessions of the Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues
in the United Nations and in the Expert Mechanism. Representativesof indigenous organizations in the region also participate in meetingsof certain treaty bodies, particularly the Committee on the Eliminationof Discrimination against Women, the Commission on the Status of
Women, and the Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination.
As inter-agency groups have been created for coordinated work amongagencies in the system, indigenous advisory groups have been set up at
the regional level in Latin America as well as in a number of countries.
Some indigenous organizations have acted through mechanisms of theInter-American Human Rights System, participating in hearings before
the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights and, where possible,
bringing cases before the Inter-American Court of Human Rights. Throughvarious forums, indigenous organizations are involved in the Fund forthe Development of the Indigenous Peoples of Latin America and the
Caribbean and in forums for regional integration such as the Andean
Community, the Southern Common Market (MERCOSUR), the Central
American Parliament, the Indigenous Parliament of America and theCommunity of Latin American and Caribbean States (CELAC).

F. Development, good living and self-determination
In a process spearheaded by the United Nations, in recent years
development has come to be understood as a human right instead of an
economic problem. Despite progress since 1949 in thinking about and28

ECLAC 2014

measuring development as it came to be viewed a right and as a process
of extending freedoms and options, for indigenous peoples the concept(and especially the practice) falls short in areas that indigenous people
themselves regard as essential, such as the relationship with nature.
The development paradigm continues to be weighed down byinherent faults and shortcomings, such as greater inequality, cultural
homogenization and environmental degradation. Hence the limitationsof using development to frame the discussion of well-being and therealization of the rights of indigenous peoples. Moreover, indigenous
peoples have suffered directly from such shortcomings, as victims of thedevelopment models that have been in vogue in recent decades.
In the first decade of the twenty-first century, and in the context ofcriticism of the development paradigm, the indigenous world’s moreexperiential viewpoint has been shaping an alternative discourse andconcept summed up as sumak kawsay (in Kichwa), suma qamaña (inAymara), ñandereco (harmonious life, in Guaraní), qhapaj ñan (noble
path or life, in Quechua) and encompassing principles of living such asayni, minka, reciprocity, solidarity, respect, complementarity, dignity,
collective participation, social justice, harmony with Mother Nature andwith the community, group and family well-being that could be translated
as living well or good living. Since indigenous peoples base their lives
on experiences within their own cultures and livelihood systems in close
relationship with Mother Nature, their languages have a way to express
the concept of good living.
Recovering or building good living refers, then, to a close relationshipbetween the past, present and future of a people. Its point of referenceis the memory of the historical past, known as the time of freedom, andit has been a constant since the beginning of the struggle, stretchingfrom the occupation by other cultures down to the present day. That is
why the longing for good living is coloured by the historical memory of
struggle, respect for their territories, identity, language, food sovereignty
and rights that concern and affect indigenous peoples.
This concept has lent itself successfully to institutionalization, tothe point where the indigenous movement was able to build it into
the constitutions of Ecuador (2008) and the Plurinational State of
Bolivia (2009). But including it in State legislation has led to inflation

29

Guaranteeing indigenous people’s rights in Latin America • Summaryof meanings and practices that, according to indigenous organizations,jeopardizes the original spirit of the concept. Some of the policies
implemented by certain States have shown this contradiction by failingto respect in full the ideals of good living: on the one hand they haveencouraged the preservation of natural resources, but on the other
hand they have put in place aggressive extractivist policies that impact
indigenous peoples’ territories.
How does good living translate into concrete measures? Shiftingfrom concepts and indicators that are too broad and vague to othermore specific and contextualized ones is not easy. And it is not madeeasier by the fact that some defenders of good living have already said
that it cannot be measured, so there is no use in designing indicators.
Others do see a need to move in the direction of quantification andmeasurement, as the United Nations has been advocating at theinternational level. This is therefore a new approach to the major issue ofdevelopment as discourse and as practice impacting future experiential
scenarios in which indigenous peoples of Latin America have turned
an experience, an attitude and an ideal of living into a model for the
rest of society to emulate.
In a number of countries of the region, the experience of indigenous
economies is an expression of good living and a development approachbased on practice. These initiatives have emerged from the indigenous
communities themselves (in areas such as tourism and coffee production)
as a way to highlight the daily activities of those communities, helping
to improve the quality of life of their families, creating jobs, reducing theimpact of migration and contributing to the working of the local economy.
But despite the value of good living, within the indigenous
movement itself there are those who are warning of the risks of turning
it into an empty concept that could be used by some governments toactually extend classic neoextractivist models of development based on
reprimarization. From the indigenous viewpoint, if the concept of goodliving is to be useful for emancipatory social action it should be linked
to the rights-based approach and then, as a priority, to the two basic
collective rights instruments: ILO Convention No. 169 on Indigenous
and Tribal Peoples and the United Nations Declaration on the Rights ofIndigenous Peoples.

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ECLAC 2014

Recommendations
In view of the need to bridge the gap between the proclamation ofprinciples and facts on the ground that prevents full enjoyment of thefundamental rights of indigenous peoples and their access to good living,a number of policy recommendations are set out below.
•

•

•

•

•

•

•

The State must respect and support institutions and systems ofself-government of indigenous peoples by strengthening theirpolitical, economic, social, cultural and spiritual institutions
and promoting organizational and technical capacities for theirinternal governance and their interaction with State institutions.
There is a need to document, systematize and promoteexchanges among the experiences of indigenous autonomy
processes in Latin America on issues related to the expansionof powers, transfer of competencies, institution building andintercultural public policies, among others.
It is necessary to promote respect and support for communitybased cultural revitalization processes (forms of authority,
ancestral institutions, rituals and traditional systems, including
languages) that are being incorporated into the conduct ofautonomy and self-governance processes and initiatives for theprotection and development of the traditional knowledge ofindigenous peoples.
Organizational processes that contribute to inclusion andrecognition of the contributions of indigenous women and theirincorporation into leadership and decision-making roles should
be promoted and encouraged by States.
In the same vein, there must also be support for indigenous
youth organizational processes, both local and national as wellas subregional.
Stronger measures are needed to ensure and enhance theparticipation of women and men from indigenous peoples inelectoral processes in the countries, whether through quotas forindigenous peoples and special constituencies for indigenous
candidates, or by promoting indigenous movements, platforms
and political parties.
States should also devote efforts to promoting and strengthening
experiences of electoral processes where the collective

31

Guaranteeing indigenous people’s rights in Latin America • Summary

•

•

•

•

•

•

32

dimension of the right to electoral participation has begun to beincorporated at different levels, as well as the measures taken
to ensure the political participation of indigenous women inthese contexts.
The participation of representatives of indigenous peoples inUnited Nations mechanisms on indigenous peoples, as well as
in the activities of treaty bodies, and the promotion of measuresin countries for monitoring their specific recommendations, isanother area that requires renewed commitment and political
will of States.
It is necessary to continue creating and/or strengthening
mechanisms for the systematic participation of indigenous peoples
in States in the framework of ILO Convention No. 169 and theUnited Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples.
It is crucial and urgent to establish consultation mechanisms
for applying the principle of free, prior and informed consent
in the countries of the region, especially in cases of extractive,
forestry and energy industry concessions and infrastructure
projects in indigenous territories, and for adopting legislative
and administrative measures. The mechanisms must be culturally
appropriate and achieved through procedures that take into
account the customs and traditions of indigenous peoples andtheir traditional decision-making methods.
States need a new approach to development that adopts theperspective of living well/good living not only as a discourse
but also in practice in the respective national societies’ future
experiential scenarios.
There is a need for the State to promote and enhance indigenous
economies as a new strategy for the development of indigenous
communities and peoples within the framework of good living.
Public policies and State statistics should include items defining thewell-being of indigenous peoples and the population as a wholewithin the framework of living well/good living.

II. Mapping the demographics of indigenous
peoples: counting is relevant

Knowledge of the population dynamic of indigenous peoples and its
inherent components (fertility, migration and mortality rates) is crucial for
defining policies aimed at closing the gaps in implementing indigenous
peoples’ rights, because their biological reproduction and their social andcultural survival depend on it. That is why making the dynamic specificto indigenous peoples a policy consideration with a focus on indigenous
peoples in danger of disappearing is one of the governmental agreementsin the region included in the Montevideo Consensus on Population andDevelopment (ECLAC, 2013a).
The most basic information here is a count of the indigenous
population and information on what and how many indigenous peoples
are in each country and in the region. The generation of these data, which
are of great political and technical relevance, has been the subject ofintense conceptual and methodological discussion and has not been
without significant differences among sources of information both within
the State apparatus and with regard to the figures handled by indigenousorganizations. In recent years, though, and owing primarily to the factthat the 2010 census round was approaching, the countries of Latin
America have made significant efforts to improve the statistical visibilityof indigenous peoples, in conjunction with the peoples themselves. But
progress has been mixed.

33

Guaranteeing indigenous people’s rights in Latin America • Summary

A. Who are the indigenous peoples in data sources?
Including questions to identify indigenous persons and peoples indata sources is necessary (but not enough) for constructing statistics inmulticultural States. It is also one of the demands of indigenous peoples’organizations as one of the building blocks of the right to information.
The first step towards progress in this regard is to define the issue.
Over the years, an international consensus has been reached to use
the definition set out in ILO Convention No. 169 concerning indigenous
and tribal peoples in independent countries. This makes it possible toidentify at least four dimensions related to indigenous peoples: recognitionof their identity, common origin, territoriality, and language and culture.
These should be taken into account in establishing operational criteria.
And it is imperative to respect the position consistently sustained byindigenous organizations as well as by the United Nations system, inthat it is the peoples and individuals who consider themselves to be
indigenous who should define themselves as such, as part of the rightto self-determination.
That is why their representatives must participate in the decisions
made in official sources, among other issues, which has been a recurring
recommendation at the international level. This can be seen in thereports that human rights committees have submitted to the countries of
the region and in the reports of the United Nations Special Rapporteurs
for the Rights of Indigenous Peoples. In other words, the criterion ofself-identification is the one that should be paramount for quantifying
indigenous peoples. The other criteria associated with the rest of thedimensions will help to paint a picture of them and show how different
their situations are.

B. Recent census results
The availability of information on indigenous peoples in national
population and housing censuses is crucial because it is the only sourcefor estimating their numbers, even in the case of indigenous peoples witha relatively small population size. Furthermore, the census allows thedisaggregation of information down to smaller territorial scales. This isessential for constructing indicators at the level of indigenous territories andcommunities and provides the framework for designing specialized surveys.

34

ECLAC 2014

The remaining sources, although they do not make it possible to estimate
size, provide more detailed, complementary information for designing andmonitoring policies and for oversight by the indigenous peoples themselves.
A review of the region shows that in censuses taken in the 1980s
only half of the countries of Latin America were close to quantifying
the indigenous population. The situation remained virtually unchanged
in 1990, when linguistic criteria provided most of the grounds forquantification. In this approach, indigenous peoples were considered“policy objects”.3 In censuses taken early in the current century,sociopolitical changes came along with a significant quantitative leap:
16 of the 19 countries that took a census in the 2000s identified theindigenous population. The most significant change was the inclusionof the criterion of self-identification, consistent with the recognition ofindigenous peoples as subjects of rights.
The 2000s brought much action to promote and strengthen thestatistical visibility of indigenous peoples, with a view to the 2010 census
round. The aim was to shift from the “quantitative leap” seen between
1990 and 2000 to a “qualitative leap”, substantially improving information
quality. These actions resulted in a set of recommendations applicable to
the region, based on those emanating from UNPFII, making them morestrategic and operational. The dialogue between statistical institutes,
indigenous organizations, academia and other national and international
agencies led to a “minimum standard” for the inclusion of indigenous
peoples in population and housing censuses. It includes aspects relating
to the criteria and questions for identifying these peoples and aspects
that relate to the entire census process, from design to dissemination andanalysis of information, stressing the effective participation of indigenous
peoples as a sine qua non in all stages (ECLAC/UNICEF/UNFPA, 2013).
All of the countries that took censuses, then, have made progressin this area and have implemented (to a greater or lesser extent) current
regional and international recommendations. All of them respected thecriterion of self-identification, although there are still significant semantic
differences arising from operationalization of that criterion. The questions
were reviewed through participatory mechanisms with indigenous
3

The term “indigenous population” is used instead of “indigenous peoples” becausesome countries provided for identification as indigenous or non-indigenous but not formembership of a specific people.

35

Guaranteeing indigenous people’s rights in Latin America • Summary

peoples, via discussions, reflections and pilot tests. The end result was
rewording —substantial in some cases. There were also improvements
in training the census workers and supervisors, as well as in maps andin coverage. Ad hoc outreach campaigns were organized.
With the exception of three Latin American countries (Cuba, Haiti
and the Dominican Republic), all of the countries have included selfidentification in this decade’s censuses or plan to do so (Colombia, El
Salvador, Nicaragua and Peru will conduct their population censuses
between 2015 and 2017). Peru, the only country that did not consider
this approach in past censuses, is already working on the design andimplementation of pilot studies for including it in 2017. More countries now
include questions about indigenous languages. In some cases they refer tolanguages learned in childhood; in others they refer to the languages spoken
by each individual or the one that is used most frequently in the home.

C. Indigenous population and peoples in
Latin America: how many are there,
and how many are left?
On the basis of census data it is estimated that in 2010 the indigenous
population of the region was nearly 45 million people. The figures vary
widely from country to country. At one extreme are Mexico and Peru (withan indigenous population of almost 17 million and 7 million, respectively).
At the other are Costa Rica and Paraguay (with little more than 100,000
indigenous people) and Uruguay (with nearly 80,000) (see table II.1).
As a result of the actions taken in recent years, there has been asignificant increase in the indigenous population of the region. Bearing
in mind that ECLAC (2007) estimated that Latin America had some
30 million indigenous persons in 2000, the figures in or around 2010reflect an overall increase of 49.3% in 10 years, which would mean an
average annual increase of 4.1%. This is a “demographic recovery” ofsignificant magnitude, particularly given that over the same period the
population of Latin America increased by 13.1%, at an average annual
rate of 1.3%. This rebound is likely due not only to the demographic
dynamic of indigenous peoples (which would be expected in view of
their demographic profiles), but also to an increase in self-identification.
With the exception of the Plurinational State of Bolivia, these increases
are seen in all countries to varying degrees. The largest is in Mexico.
36

ECLAC 2014
Table II.1
Latin America (17 countries): population of indigenous peoples
according to censuses and estimates, around 2010
(Numbers and percentages)
Country and census year

Total population

Total indigenous
population

Indigenous
percentage of thetotal population

Argentina, 2010
Brazil, 2010
Chile, 2012 a
Costa Rica, 2011
Ecuador, 2010
Mexico, 2010 b
Panama, 2010
Paraguay, 2012 c
Uruguay, 2011 d
Venezuela (Bolivarian
Republic of), 201140 117 096
190 755 799
16 341 929
4 301 712
14 483 499
112 336 538
3 405 813
6 232 511
3 251 654

Census findings
955 032
896 917
1 805 243
104 143
1 018 176
16 933 283
417 559
112 848
76 452

2.4
0.5
11.0
2.4
7.0
15.1
12.3
1.8
2.4

27 227 930

724 592

2.7

9 995 000
46 448 000
6 218 000
14 334 000
7 619 000
5 813 000
29 272 000
538 153 481

Estimates as of 2010 e
6 216 026
1 559 852
14 4085 881 009
536 541
518 104
7 021 271
44 791 456

62.2
3.4
0.2
41.0
7.0
8.9
24.0
8.3

Bolivia (Plurinational State of)Colombia
El Salvador
GuatemalaHonduras
Nicaragua
Peru f
Total

Source: Latin American and Caribbean Demographic Centre (CELADE)-Population Division of
ECLAC, on the basis of special processing of census microdata, except in Argentina:
National Institute of Statistics and Censuses, “Censo Nacional de Población, Hogaresy Viviendas 2010. Censo del Bicentenario: Resultados definitivos”, Serie B, No. 2,
Buenos Aires, 2012; and Brazil: Brazilian Geographical and Statistical Institute (IBGE)(2012), “Censo Demográfico 2010: Características gerais dos indígenas. Resultados
do universo”, Rio de Janeiro, 2012.
aThese are the results of the 2012 census in Chile, but the current administration does
not regard them as official owing to quality issues. The National Socioeconomic Survey(CASEN) showed an indigenous population of 8.1% for 2011.
b
Because the question on ethnicity was applied to the population aged 3 years and overin Mexico, children aged under 3 years were classed as indigenous where the head ofhousehold or spouse reported themselves as indigenous.
c
These figures are preliminary results of the indigenous census in Paraguay. They do not yet
include the indigenous population counted in the general census, which is not yet available.
d
In Uruguay the question of recognition of descent with multiple response categories showsa total of 159,319 indigenous persons.
e
For these countries there are still no census results available for the 2010 decade. The
percentages for the indigenous population were therefore taken from the latest census
available and applied to the estimated population in 2010, which is based on population
estimates produced by the Latin American and Caribbean Demographic Centre (CELADE)Population Division of ECLAC (ECLAC, 2013b).
fPeru’s 2007 census included only the mother tongue, so the indigenous population was
estimated by classing all household members as indigenous when the head of householdor spouse reported an indigenous language.

37

Guaranteeing indigenous people’s rights in Latin America • Summary

Today, 826 indigenous peoples are accounted for in the countriesof the region. Here, too, the picture varies markedly from country tocountry, ranging from Brazil (305 indigenous peoples), followed by
Colombia (102), Peru (85) and Mexico (78) down to Costa Rica andPanama (9 indigenous peoples each), El Salvador (3) and Uruguay (2).
Censuses in this decade helped to improve this information by taking
account of the names of the indigenous peoples themselves. In several
countries this was the result of joint efforts among statistical offices, Stateagencies in charge of indigenous peoples’ affairs and indigenous peoples’organizations, coupled with the cooperation of academic centres.
Within each country there is in turn tremendous demographic
diversity in terms of peoples. In those countries of the region with thelargest indigenous populations (Plurinational State of Bolivia, Guatemala,Mexico and Peru) the largest peoples far exceed 1.5 million individuals.
According to preliminary census figures for 2012, the Plurinational Stateof Bolivia has 1.84 million indigenous Quechua and 1.6 million Aymara.
ECLAC estimates on the basis of Peru’s 2007 census that 5.5 million
people live in households where Quechua is the mother tongue of thehead of household or the spouse (that is 85% of the total number of people
in households where an indigenous language is the mother tongue of thehead of household or the spouse).
Census figures highlight a priority issue: the demographic fragilityof many indigenous peoples, who are in danger of physical orcultural disappearance. This can be seen in Brazil, the Plurinational
State of Bolivia, Colombia and Peru. In Brazil, it has been found that70 indigenous peoples (representing 23% of the country’s indigenous
peoples) are in an extremely fragile situation, with a population of lessthan 100 individuals. In the Plurinational State of Bolivia, in 2013 theMinistry of Justice itself acknowledged that the physical and culturalsurvival of at least 13 of the country’s 39 indigenous peoples is under
extreme threat. In Colombia, the Constitutional Court acknowledged
the existence of 35 indigenous peoples at risk of cultural or physicaldisappearance as a result of armed conflict and gross violations offundamental human rights, both individual and collective. In Peru,
the 2007 census showed less than 50 members remaining of theindigenous peoples of the Kisamberi, Resígaro and Sapitiere. Elevenpeoples of Amazonia registered a population of between 50 and 200, and38

ECLAC 2014

another ten a population of over 200 but less than 500. If demographic
fragility is compounded by other factors of socioenvironmental andterritorial vulnerability (such as forced displacement, food shortages,
water pollution, land degradation, malnutrition and high mortality rates,
to mention a few), the number of peoples in danger of disappearing isprobably significantly higher.
In addition, it is estimated that there are approximately
200 indigenous peoples living in voluntary isolation in the Bolivarian
Republic of Venezuela, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Paraguay, Peru and
the Plurinational State of Bolivia, who, owing to pressure on natural
resources in their territories or nearby areas, are in a situation of extreme
vulnerability. The Inter-American Commission on Human Rights notedthat incursions by non-indigenous people cause serious violence,
epidemics, food shortages and the loss of their culture (IACHR, 2013).
The Commission therefore calls upon States to establish the right ofindigenous peoples to choose to remain in voluntary isolation; toprotect their lands, territories and natural resources in order to prevent
their disappearance; and ensure respect for and safeguarding of theprinciple of no contact by any person or group. It recently issued aset of recommendations on this matter (IACHR, 2013). In 2012 theOffice of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR), withthe cooperation of the Spanish Agency for International Development
Cooperation (AECID), issued guidelines for protecting indigenous
peoples in isolation and in initial contact in the Amazon Basin and El
Chaco, the eastern region of Paraguay (OHCHR, 2012).

D. Age and sex structure and their policy implications
Recent data on structure by age and sex indicate a downtrend in the
proportion of younger generations. This development marks a change
in reproductive patterns, at least with respect to the average number ofchildren indigenous women are bearing. This is confirmed by recent
censuses and demographic and health surveys. But the situation varies
among countries and indigenous peoples. For example, the age structureof the indigenous population is still very young in Panama (with a highpercentage of children) while in Uruguay, although it is an exception,
the indigenous population structure clearly skews old. The very young
structures of the Ngöbe, Achuar and Yukpa peoples stand in contrast with39

Guaranteeing indigenous people’s rights in Latin America • Summary

the older ones of the Chorotega, Salasaka and Kumanagoto peoples in
Costa Rica, Ecuador and Venezuela, respectively.
While there has been progress in the demographic transition, in allof the countries the populations of indigenous peoples are still younger
than non-indigenous ones. This means higher growth potential andshould lead to a higher proportion of indigenous persons in nationalsocieties in the coming years provided that the population dynamics are
not compromised by non-implementation of the rights of indigenous
peoples. And the relatively high proportion of indigenous children,which is still a distinctive feature of the region, calls for paying attention
to the allocation of resources in sector-based policies while also taking
into consideration the particular situation of indigenous adolescentsand young people.
Owing to the impact of migration and displacement from territories
of origin, in cities indigenous women and men are concentrated largelyin the reproductive and economically active age brackets (between 15
and 59). The proportion of girls under 15 years of age is lower than it isin rural areas. This means that many adult and young adult indigenous
women migrate without their children, who are likely to stay behindin their territories under the care of other women of the community,
mainly older adult women. This could be indicating the fragmentationof families and communities, largely as a result of migration in search of
better living conditions, but it cannot be ruled out that the push factor
might be survival strategies followed by indigenous peoples, in which
women take a leading role.
The age structures also show that in 9 of the 11 countries withavailable data, the percentage of older indigenous women (aged 60 andover) is consistently higher than for indigenous men (Costa Rica andPanama are exceptions). This pattern is to be expected because life
expectancy for women is often higher than for men. This calls for athorough review in the light of the gender inequities that usually impact
older women, as well as unequal access to opportunities throughout life.
And while among indigenous peoples old age does not have a negative
connotation but is rather associated with cultural continuity (status andsocial role may even increase with age), it would be useful to examine
the extent to which these concepts are equally valid for indigenous men
and women and to what extent they are still true.

40

ECLAC 2014

E. Indigenous fertility levels and trends: a key factor in
population growth
Examination of the census data also revealed falling fertility levels
among indigenous women, at least in the five countries with available
data from the 2010 census round. The declines were most striking in
Ecuador and Mexico (see figure II.1). Even so, the most recent estimatesshow substantial differences among countries. In the majority (9 outof 13 countries), indigenous women average between 2.4 children
and 3.9 children. In two countries (Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela andNicaragua) the figure is about four children per woman; Guatemala andPanama have the highest indigenous fertility rates, at five children per
woman. The figures also show that regardless of their level, fertility rates
for indigenous women are still consistently higher than for non-indigenous
women. The largest differences are in Brazil and Panama, where fertility
rates for the former are at least twice those for the latter. These gaps areundoubtedly affected by the higher percentage of indigenous women than
non-indigenous women in rural areas. Nonetheless, these inequalities
in fertility levels between indigenous and non-indigenous women are inrural areas and the gaps do not disappear in cities.
Figure II.1
Latin America (5 countries): overall fertility rates of indigenous women, 2000
and 2010 censuses, and non-indigenous women, 2010 census
7

5.9

6

5.3

5.0

5
4

4.7
4.0

4.2

3.9

3.7

4.3

2.9

3

2.6
1.8

2

2.2

2.4

2.3

1
0

BrazilEcuadorIndigenous women, 2000 censuses

MexicoPanamaVenezuela(Bol. Rep. of)Indigenous women, 2010 censuses

Non-indigenous women, 2010 censuses

Source: Prepared by the authors, on the basis of Latin American and Caribbean Demographic
Centre (CELADE)-Population Division of ECLAC, processing of census microdata.

41

Guaranteeing indigenous people’s rights in Latin America • Summary

The factors behind these figures are many. As has been raised byindigenous women’s organizations, in the case of their peoples fertility
must be seen in the broader context of their idea of good living: children
represent the potential for biological and cultural reproduction that is underconstant threat. The status of these peoples is so complex that it difficult
to generalize the situation and social position of indigenous women, but
at least it is known that in their life systems dual complementarity (where
everything is female-male) is essential for ensuring reproduction, growthand development in balance. The social and cultural organization ofindigenous peoples, which in turn governs gender relations, contributes
directly to what are called direct or intermediate fertility variables. Amongthe most relevant ones are contraceptive use, patterns of union or family
formation, abortion practices and duration of breastfeeding.
However, the figures also partly mask the gaps in implementation ofindigenous women’s right to reproductive health, where structural factors
like historical discrimination come into play, expressed in greater degrees
of material poverty, low levels of formal education and living in remoteareas that hinder their access to health services, coupled with the lackof cultural accessibility of such services.
Recommendations
These findings are warning signs that major challenges remain. The
following actions are recommended for them, supplemented by thoseset out under the right to well-being and the right to information andcommunication.

42•

Conduct a thorough assessment of this census round, systematizing
processes based on national technical reports that examine, forexample, how they were organized and how participatory
mechanisms have worked with indigenous peoples, with a viewto identifying concrete actions to strengthen the processes thatwere initiated.

•

Contribute to the strengthening of post-census phases, namely:
data evaluation, disaggregated data processing, dissemination,
training, use and policy impact, with participation ofindigenous peoples.

•Strengthen the institutional framework for the production ofdisaggregated statistics, ensuring participatory processes.

ECLAC 2014•

The land-rights perspective necessitates having information onsocial, demographic, biotic, physiographic and other aspects
of indigenous territories, including the location of humansettlements and their spatial distribution. Progress in mapping
this new census round provides a unique statistical opportunity
for conducting useful studies such as the demographic impact of
extractive industries and megaprojects in indigenous territories,
as well as identifying socioterritorial equity gaps, to name a few.

•

Urgently carry out a thorough analysis in each country on
demographic fragility of indigenous peoples, to contribute topolicy design and implementation. Progress must be madeon legal frameworks and targeted strategies to reverse thesesituations. We must design and implement policies aimed at
safeguarding forms of individual and collective life of these
persons, taking into account population dynamics and respect
for their cultural identity, language, political organization,
ancestral territoriality, rituals and worldview.

•

With regard to the peoples in voluntary isolation or with nocontact, and with a view to preventing their disappearance,
it is crucial to advance the implementation of their rights,
considering the guidelines developed by the United Nations andthe recommendations of the Commission.

•

In designing policies and programmes, account must be takenof distinctive demographic profiles characterized by young
age structures, that is, with a significant proportion of children,
adolescents and young people. Adequate resourcing is essential
to address mainly the challenges in health and education, whichshould fulfil both individual and collective rights, particularly theright to cultural integrity.

•

Consider the variability of situations within countries, according
to social and cultural factors that affect the “demographicbalance” and composition by sex and age of the population ofindigenous peoples. They require a thorough review –considering
the indigenous peoples of each country and geographical area–
to highlight the impacts that these demographic ratios have on
the lives of indigenous peoples and indigenous women andyouth in particular.

43Guaranteeing indigenous people’s rights in Latin America • Summary•

44

Observed fertility levels partly mask unequal access to healthservices. This necessitates implementing policies to ensure
effective and relevant access to contraception that peoples,
couples and women choose, including traditional and natural
methods and respecting the principle of free, prior andinformed consent.

III. Territorial rights and spatial mobility ofindigenous peoples in Latin America

A. Territorial rights of indigenous peoples:the framework for action
Among the significant developments that have taken place ininternational law with regard to the rights of indigenous peoples,
territorial rights figure prominently as can be seen in ILO Convention
No. 169 and the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous
Peoples. Worthy of note is the influence of the inter-American humanrights system (the Commission and the Inter-American Court of Human
Rights), whose reports and interpretive rulings on the American
Convention on Human Rights have become a must in the area ofindigenous peoples’ territorial rights.
This trend in international law has led to clearly defined standards
on indigenous peoples’ right to territory, which focuses on threeelements (land, territories and natural resources) that cannot be
considered separately because of the special cultural and spiritual
relationship between indigenous peoples and their territories. The
cornerstone of territorial rights is the concept of indigenous territory(in contrast to Western views) and their conversion into substantive law
and an international standard. In the words of the Inter-American Courtof Human Rights: “the close ties of indigenous people with the land
must be recognized and understood as the fundamental basis of theircultures, their spiritual life, their integrity, and their economic survival”(IACHR, 2009). The Inter-American Court adds, “The relationship with45

Guaranteeing indigenous people’s rights in Latin America • Summary

the Earth is not merely a question of possession and production but
rather a material and spiritual element to be fully enjoyed, including topreserve their cultural heritage and to transmit it to future generations”(IACHR, 2009). The territorial claim of indigenous peoples has, then,two dimensions: space and processes. The former is expressed indemand for the use, enjoyment and management of natural resources.
And the latter is expressed in the demand for control over political,
economic, social and cultural processes for ensuring reproduction
and the material and cultural continuity of the group so that they arecompleted within the normative traditions of indigenous peoples.
The territory is therefore regarded as a system of resources, as a
jurisdictional space where the collective rights of indigenous people
are exercised.4
The right to territory ties in to the right to communal property, which
entails the right to recordation, demarcation, restitution, compensationand indemnification. The normative action of the bodies of the interAmerican system concerning indigenous communal property rights toland, territories and natural resources has spelled out the obligationsof States members of the system arising from recognition of this right.
While the right to indigenous communal property has limits that may
be established by States when necessary, proportional and intended toachieve a legitimate goal in a democratic society, priority is given to theproperty rights of indigenous peoples because violating them impacts anumber of fundamental rights, such as the right to life, the right to selfdetermination, cultural rights, the right to non-discrimination and theright to effective judicial review.
Situations should be considered on a case-by-case basis, todetermine whether an indigenous people, for example, recovers its landor is compensated. To this end there is a wide range of standards andsafeguards that States must always fulfil whenever indigenous peoples’
territorial rights are curtailed. Consideration should be given to theimplications that this would have for their cultural identity and material
4

46

The term “territory” is not to be confused with the concept of “territorial integrity” used
in international law. This case does not involve the territory’s political separation from theState, because it is clear that all indigenous people, even when exercising their right to selfdetermination and self-government, remain linked to the sovereign political territory of theState to which they belong.

ECLAC 2014

survival. Running along with implementation of territorial rights, States
must respect and ensure the right of participation and the right to free,prior and informed consent of indigenous peoples. The State has a binding
duty to consult, so current standards include a number of elements thatshould be guaranteed during the proceedings: good faith, prior notice,
constant communication, access to information, culturally appropriate
procedure and the intention to reach agreement.
In Latin America, recognition of indigenous territorial rights has
shown significant progress in recent decades, albeit at different speeds
and depending on the characteristics and specificities of each country.
In the space of only 20 years there has been a shift from denial of rights
to legal recognition in most of the countries of the region. Recognition,
recordation and demarcation of indigenous lands are taking place in all
countries —with varying degrees of success— starting with enactmentof laws that recognize and protect indigenous peoples’ territorial rights.
This substantial change in recognition has been driven by pressure
from indigenous peoples themselves, together with evolving international
standards. Overall, there is a high level of constitutional recognitionof indigenous territorial rights: among the rights enshrined in theconstitutions of many countries is some form of recognition of andprotection for indigenous territorial rights. There are also various kinds oflaw that complement this recognition by means of legislation, executive
decree and regulations. Generally, these regulatory frameworks establish
procedures for implementation. In several countries (such as Honduras,
Nicaragua and Panama in Central America, and Brazil, Colombia,
Ecuador and the Plurinational State of Bolivia in South America) they
have made a significant difference because they have made it possiblefor indigenous peoples to make progress with recordation and access toproperty rights over their lands and territories.
Despite this progress, so far none of the State efforts aimed atrecognizing territorial rights have managed to meet international
standards defined in the sphere of the United Nations and theOrganization of American States. Implementation therefore falls short.
While in countries such as the Plurinational State of Bolivia and Ecuador
they rank as constitutional law and there are extensive regulations forrecognition, recordation and demarcation of territories, international

47

Guaranteeing indigenous people’s rights in Latin America • Summary

standards continue to provide a more complete recognition of rights
and are closer to the ongoing claims of indigenous peoples. These
include the political component of territorial control and ownership ofnatural resources. That is why in the Alta outcome document from the
Global Indigenous Preparatory Conference for the World Conferenceon Indigenous Peoples, one of the four overarching themes of greatest
importance for indigenous peoples is Indigenous Peoples’ lands,
territories, resources, oceans and waters.

B. Gaps in implementation of indigenous peoples’
territorial rights and challenges in the region
Local conflicts related to the control and use of territory and natural
resources are becoming common in all regions of the world, including
the countries of Latin America. The emergence of conflict may be asymptom of the lack of recognition of indigenous territorial rights and of
the persistent gaps in implementing them. The Special Rapporteur himself
has reported that there are still many obstacles to the full enjoyment of
the rights of indigenous peoples, particularly limitations on the exercise of
the rights to traditional territories and resources, serious acts of violence
and forced displacement resulting from large-scale economic projects,
and the suppression of indigenous organizations and traditional formsof government.
All of the countries of Latin America have, in the past few years, seen
escalating conflict related to the control and use of territory and natural
resources. Expansion of the primary and export sectors in the region has
had serious environmental impacts, involved reclassification of spaces
and been detrimental to the rights, interests, territories and resources ofindigenous peoples. Disputes associated with control over territories
and natural resources easily lend themselves to violent conflict but canbe exacerbated in contexts of political exclusion, social discriminationand economic marginalization.
Against this backdrop, the boom in mining and hydrocarbon
exploitation that the countries of the region have seen in recent years has
become a vector of conflict concerning the rights of indigenous peoples
over their historical territories, as shown in map III.1.

48

ECLAC 2014
Map III.1
Latin America: map of extractive projects in the mining
and hydrocarbon sector in territories inhabitedby indigenous peoples, 2010-2013

MexicoGuatemalaHonduras
Nicaragua
El Salvador
PanamaCosta
Rica

Venezuela(Bol. Rep. of)Colombia
Ecuador
Peru
Bolivia(Plur. State of)BrazilParaguay

Argentina

Chile

Conflicts over mining

Conflicts over hydrocarbons

Source: Victor Toledo, “Catastro de proyectos de industrias extractivas en territorios indígenas”;
and “Support Project for the United Nations Special Rapporteur on Indigenous Peoples
at University of Arizona” [online] http://unsr.jamesanaya.info/study-extractives/map/.
Note: The boundaries and names shown on this map do not imply official endorsement or
acceptance by the United Nations.

According to the listing of conflicts sparked by extractive industry
projects in indigenous territories, and based on a review of reports fromthe United Nations Special Rapporteur on the Rights of Indigenous
Peoples during 2009-2013, there are six hubs of problems. Most of themoverlap to one degree or another. These hubs are:(i)

Conflicts due to inadequate or non-existent legal safeguards
for indigenous peoples’ rights to their lands, waters and natural
resources, biodiversity and territory.

49

Guaranteeing indigenous people’s rights in Latin America • Summary(ii) Conflicts over impacts on sacred sites of indigenous peoples.
(iii) Weak or non-existent independent assessments of theenvironmental, social, economic and territorial impacts ofextractive projects.
(iv) Non-compliance of the State’s duty to consult indigenous
peoples and to put in place safeguards and measures toprotect their before awarding concessions or authorizing
extractive projects.
(v) Exclusion of indigenous peoples from sharing the benefits of
exploitation of resources in their territories.
(vi) Criminalization of indigenous social protest against investment
projects that impact their rights and territories.
Over the past decade, booming international demand for primary
goods (minerals, hydrocarbons, soybeans and other agriculturalcommodities) has boosted economic growth in the countries of
Latin America but has had its cost in the form of a growing numberof environmental, social and ethnic conflicts involving extractive
industries located in or near indigenous territories. Competition between
governments of the region to attract investment aimed at exploiting
natural resources and exporting raw materials has created incentives
for the extractive industry and skewed the apparatus of the State in thisdirection. Most of the concessions and projects that are under way havebeen undertaken without appropriate consultation; this has contributed
to the exclusion of the indigenous peoples affected. Pressure fromextractive projects and large-scale infrastructure construction projects has
an impact on the enjoyment of all rights —economic, social, cultural,
civil and political.
International bodies have also noted the severity of conflicts
sparked by projects carried out by companies in proximity toindigenous peoples’ communities. In 2013 the Expert Mechanismon the Rights of Indigenous Peoples expressed concerns about thenegative impact that conflicts between indigenous peoples andcorporations have on indigenous women and girls. The experts stressed
the importance of national and regional dialogue with States, businessenterprises, civil society organizations and indigenous peoples topromote understanding of the rights of indigenous peoples in thecontext of extractive industries.

50

ECLAC 2014

The Special Rapporteur has stressed that the generally negative
impact of extractive operations should not lead to the conclusion thatthe interests of extractive industries and indigenous peoples are always
divergent. Resource extraction models should be laid out in a mannerconsistent with respect for the rights of indigenous peoples.
These conflict scenarios concerning territory and control overnatural resources are largely due to persistent gaps in implementation
and recognition of indigenous peoples’ territorial rights. These gaps areeven wider when it comes to the right to consultation, to free, priorand informed consent, and to the full and effective participation ofindigenous peoples.
With regard to the State’s duty to consult —and despite the specificstandards and procedures established by international mechanisms (suchas CERD, the Special Rapporteur and the Inter-American Court) there aresubstantial differences between the consultation procedures that are being
developed in the countries of the region and international standards. In
the case of free, prior and informed consent, the situation would seemto be even worse because States do not see it as an option and do notrespect the standards set by the Inter-American Court or the United
Nations Declaration. And as for the right to participation, while it is being
respected during public policy planning and development in a numberof countries, the gaps between international standards and national
ones grow wider when the discussion turns to specific development andinfrastructure projects in the indigenous territories themselves.
As far back as 2006, the Special Rapporteur on the Rights ofIndigenous Peoples stated that the effective enjoyment of rights could
only be achieved with the full participation of indigenous peoples,
acting constructively in the framework of national institutions, seeking toresolve conflicts and reaching consensus that would ultimately benefit theentire national society. An indispensable tool in the search for solutions
to territorial rights issues therefore lies in establishing a permanent andinstitutionalized dialogue between States and indigenous peoples.
There are other factors that add to the complexity of conflict scenarios
involving indigenous peoples’ territories, making their communities more
vulnerable. Climate change, along with pollution and environmental
degradation, is a serious threat to many peoples because they often
live on marginal lands and in fragile ecosystems that are particularly

51

Guaranteeing indigenous people’s rights in Latin America • Summary

sensitive to changes in the physical environment. Indigenous peoples
are the first to face the direct consequences of climate change becauseof their dependence on the environment and its resources. This not
only impacts their own subsistence but also erodes their cultures andtraditional government structures.
Although there are still not enough data or evidence as to the causal
connection, some studies suggest that the effects of climate change,
combined with economic, social and political problems, could help
heighten the level of conflict over territories. Climate-change-related
conflicts could then be a driver of forced displacement. In addition, afundamental right of indigenous peoples that might be affected by climatechange is the right to food, threatening food and nutrition security. Poor
nutrition is one of the problems that most affects indigenous peoples
in Latin America; it is caused by environmental degradation, pollutionof their traditional ecosystems, loss of their lands and territories and a
decline in their traditional food sources or access to them. The data forseven countries of the region show that in the vast majority (five out ofseven), chronic undernutrition among indigenous children is at least
double the figure for non-indigenous children. And the ethnic gaps areeven wider in the case of severe chronic undernutrition, with the pattern
being similar for general undernutrition levels.
Food insecurity is clearly greater among the indigenous population
than in the non-indigenous population. This is a paradox, because it is
the indigenous territories that are home to the greatest genetic diversity
and wealth. In addition to explaining how the original communities
survived, these resources have been the basis of food systems for modern
societies throughout the world.
The Human Rights Council of the United Nations has stressedthat repercussions of climate change have an impact on the effective
enjoyment of human rights, including the right to life, the right to adequate
food, the right to the highest attainable standard of health, the right toadequate housing, the right to self-determination and the right to safe
drinking water and sanitation, recalling further that in no case may a
people be deprived of its own means of subsistence.
There are a number of resolutions and policy documents on
indigenous peoples and climate change that have come to be seen as
a new paradigm for conservation, such as the resolution adopted by

52

ECLAC 2014

the 2008 World Conservation Congress of the International Union forConservation of Nature, the Durban Action Plan and the Convention on
Biological Diversity Programme of Work on Protected Areas (PoWPA).
Despite the relevance of this set of decisions, their implementation has
been neither consistent nor effective.
The actions of international agencies notwithstanding, indigenousorganizations and networks in Latin America have undertaken major
efforts to report on and support negotiations on climate change andimplementation of policies in this area. Among other actions, theseorganizations have been challenging the support provided by governments
to the economic areas that contribute most to deforestation, degradationand pollution, such as agribusiness, oil palm, biofuels, hydropower,
extensive livestock operations, oil, mining and infrastructure megaprojects.
Recommendations
Recently, at the first session of the Regional Conference on Population
and Development in Latin America and the Caribbean, the Governmentsof Latin America and the Caribbean agreed to “Respect and guarantee theterritorial rights of indigenous peoples, including those of peoples living involuntary isolation and those in the initial phase of contact, with special
attention to the challenges presented by extractive industries and othermajor global investments, mobility and forced displacements, and design
policies that facilitate free, prior and informed consultation on mattersthat affect these peoples, pursuant to the provisions of the United Nations
Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples” (ECLAC, 2013a).
As already noted by ECLAC, establishing new compacts for equality
requires open discussion on the challenges facing natural resource
exporting countries with regard to public policies, institutions andregulation of appropriation and effective use of rents. And in the lightof international standards, those processes should include indigenous
peoples: the new governance of natural resources must integrate therights of indigenous peoples, in particular territorial rights.
In the light of this analysis, outlined below are policy recommendations
geared toward implementation of indigenous peoples’ territorial rights
and current agreements.
•

Progress must be made in the alignment and harmonizationof national legislation and public policies with international

53

Guaranteeing indigenous people’s rights in Latin America • Summary

standards. In cases where there is no consistency between
national standards, an order of priority should be establishedso the human rights standards protecting indigenous peoples
and their territories prevail.

54•

Legislation on land tenure, mining and the extraction ofrenewable and non-renewable resources, as well as forestry
and environmental legislation, cannot promote measures thatare contrary to the territorial rights of indigenous peoples,nor can they be given priority on grounds of the so-called
general interest. It is critical to harmonize the different national
regulatory frameworks in the shortest possible time, respecting
indigenous peoples’ territorial rights and making it a priority toapply the pro homine principle of international law.

•

Justice systems must be strengthened in each country, seeking toeliminate any racist thinking and practice in the application ofjustice so as to ensure the legal security of indigenous territories.

•

To ensure and legally guarantee indigenous territories in amanner consistent with international standards, there is a needto strengthen legal figures that recognize indigenous territorial
rights as well as to reinforce the processes for recordation,
demarcation and protection of indigenous territories that have
not yet been recognized.

•

It is crucial to ensure free, prior and informed consent, especiallywith regard to extractive and development projects in or close
to their territories that could have a direct impact on areas ofcultural importance, in particular holy places, or on natural
resources that are used for their survival. The State’s duty of
consultation must be fulfilled, designing and implementing
procedures consistent with international standards.

•

Establish reasonable mechanisms for indigenous peoples toparticipate in the benefits of extractive development projects
affecting them; carry out impact studies and develop mitigationand compensation measures with the full and effective
participation of indigenous peoples.

•

There is a need to promote dialogue and round tables between
indigenous peoples and States until they are institutionalized
as a regular mechanism and become a permanent practice.

ECLAC 2014•

There is a need for systematic documentation, mapping andmonitoring of ongoing consultative processes and conflicts,
mainly concerning extractive projects. This should include thecompilation and analysis of good practices by institutions andagencies that enjoy legitimacy and objectivity in the region, butalso by those Government actors that have direct responsibility
for protecting and promoting the rights of indigenous peoples.

•

While the Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights
have received a very uneven reception from indigenousorganizations, their conceptual framework reflects a minimum
consensus with the corporate sector on what can be requiredof companies. If the Guiding Principles become operational
and are integrated into national regulatory frameworks, they
can become a very useful conflict prevention and management
tool, underpinned by due diligence on the part of companies
with the participation of all actors.

•

International cooperation should give priority to issues related
to local socioenvironmental conflicts and actively engage,
early and in a planned way, to design effective conflict
prevention strategies.

•

There is a need for States to promote sustainable models of
economic development and territorial management within theframework of good living.

•A variety of organizations such as the International Union forConservation of Nature (IUCN) have noted the importance oftraditional indigenous knowledge to address climate change.
Integrating these forms of knowledge with existing practices
could increase the effectiveness of adaptation to climatechange and the search for solutions for the benefit not only ofindigenous peoples, but of all mankind.

C. Territorial distribution and internal migrationof indigenous peoples
Territorial inequalities express the limitations experienced by the people inexercising their rights. For indigenous peoples they are more intense andbear special significance. In a territorial analysis of indigenous peoples,
as well as in public policies, there is a need for a concept of territory and55

Guaranteeing indigenous people’s rights in Latin America • Summarya practice of territoriality that, beyond the physical dimension, include
the social, cultural and symbolic dimension. All of these are essential in
defining the identity of indigenous peoples and in the exercise of theirrights to own, use, develop and control their territories and resources.
Indigenous peoples have not been on the sidelines of the rapid
urbanization that has taken place in Latin America. The percentage ofindigenous peoples in urban settings is significant: according to the2010 census round, about 50% of the indigenous population lives inurban areas (see table III.1). Beyond this average, there are substantial
differences among countries in the region. The indigenous population
is highly urbanized in Uruguay, Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela, Peru
and Mexico, where more than half of the indigenous persons are living
in cities; it is somewhat urbanized in Nicaragua, Costa Rica and Brazil(between 40% and 50%). It is still predominantly rural in Ecuador,
Colombia and Panama, although in the latter cases the indigenous
population in urban areas is not inconsiderable in absolute terms (200,000
to 300,000 indigenous persons overall).
Table III.1
Latin America (10 countries): indigenous population in ruraland urban areas, around 2010
(Numbers and percentages)
Country andcensus year
Brazil, 2010
Colombia, 2005
Costa Rica, 2011
Ecuador, 2010
Mexico, 2010
Nicaragua, 2005
Panama, 2010
Peru, 2007
Uruguay, 2011
Venezuela (Bolivarian
Republic of), 2011
Total

Total urban
and rural
821 501
1 392 623
104 143
1 018 176
16 933 283
311 704
417 559
6 489 109
76 452

Total urban

Total rural

321 748298 275
42 517218 571
9 093 447
123 852
99 655
3 621 440
73 723499 753
1 094 348
61 626799 605
7 839 836
187 852
317 904
2 867 669
2 729

Percentage
urban
39.2
21.4
40.8
21.5
53.7
39.7
23.9
55.8
96.4

Percentage
rural
60.8
78.6
59.2
78.5
46.3
60.3
76.1
44.2
3.6

724 592458 219266 373

63.2

36.8

28 289 142

14 351 447

13 937 695

50.7

49.3

Source: Prepared by the authors, on the basis of Latin American and Caribbean Demographic
Centre (CELADE)-Population Division of ECLAC, processing of census microdata.

In addition to regional imbalances in access to State goods and services
that lead people to move from the countryside to the cities, for indigenous
peoples the decision to move depends on more drastic expulsion factors
linked to gaps in implementation of territorial rights. Other factors are

56

ECLAC 2014

also behind growing indigenous urbanization. Among them are urban
expansion (which can result in the absorption and reclassification ofindigenous territories close to large cities) and the natural growth of theindigenous population already located in urban areas. In other cases, cities
have been founded directly in indigenous territories.
The economic, social and demographic factors driving urbanization
are mediated by their sociocultural systems of origin. All of this meansthat the degree of urbanization of indigenous peoples differs not only
among countries but also within countries. Recent census figures show
extreme situations. In Colombia, on average, the indigenous populationis still predominantly rural: about 90% of the individuals from the Nasa,
Emberá and Wayuu peoples are rural. But there also are indigenous
peoples whose members are largely urban. For example, the Quimbaya,
Calima, Makaguaje, Chiricoa and Mokana peoples are between 93%
and 86% urban. In Costa Rica, more than 91% of the Cabécar people
still live in rural areas; for the Ngöbe the figure is 81.4% while the
Chorotega are mostly urban (55%). In Ecuador, the peoples with thelargest proportion living in urban areas are the Andoa and the Pastos(48% and 41%, respectively). In the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela,
almost the entire population of the Yanomami, Hoti, Mako, Shiriana andEñepa indigenous peoples is rural while some 85% of the Guajiros, Añú
and Wayuu live in cities.
In Brazil, Colombia, Costa Rica and Panama, where censuses canidentify residence in indigenous territories, it was found that in Brazil
and Colombia about 42% lived outside the territories, rising to more thanhalf of indigenous persons in Costa Rica and Panama (65.5% and 53.2%,
respectively). This reflects the difficulties currently facing indigenous
peoples to remain and survive in their territories.
A look at the territorial distribution of the indigenous populationaccording to political and administrative divisions confirms a highconcentration in certain areas. Among them are the states of north andnorth-east Brazil (two thirds of the country’s indigenous population as awhole), especially the State of Amazonas; the Atlantic and Pacific coastal
regions of Colombia (more than 75% of the total); the departments ofLimón and Punta Arenas in Costa Rica (70% of the total); the Sierra andAmazon regions in Ecuador (more than 90% of the total indigenous
population of the country); the Sierra region in Peru (more than 70% of57Guaranteeing indigenous people’s rights in Latin America • Summary

the total indigenous population); and the State of Zulia in the Bolivarian
Republic of Venezuela (61% of the total indigenous population).
Nevertheless, it should be borne in mind that these results are determinedby the most numerous indigenous peoples; asymmetries in population
size among peoples, as discussed earlier, mask the specific status of theless numerous ones.
Information on recent internal migration flows between the larger
administrative divisions in the 2010 census round in 10 countries withavailable data show some 816,000 indigenous individuals migrating
between major administrative divisions in the five years prior to each
census. In general, indigenous individuals are still migrating less than
non-indigenous individuals, reflecting their link to their territories aboveand beyond any adversities. Figure III.1 shows that this lower mobility
is very obvious in Colombia and Peru but that the hypothesis of lower
mobility is not proven in Panama or Uruguay.
The reprimarization of the region’s economy, with its focus on theextraction of natural resources and the conflicts mentioned above, could
be driving migration rates up. However, it is difficult to assess the extent
to which this is the case, not only because the 2000 and 2010 census
rounds are not 100% comparable in terms of the approach to ethnic
self-identification but also because it is quite likely that movements
between major administrative divisions are not really driven by thesepressures. Comparisons between the 2000 and 2010 census rounds
indicate very small changes in the percentages of internal migrants—hence the need for detailed analysis at a smaller territorial scale. By
way of illustration, the 2010 census in Ecuador showed that expulsion
and the decision to stay are both ways in which the incursion of extractive
industries shapes indigenous peoples’ mobility patterns. In the provinceof Morona Santiago, in the Ecuadorian Amazon, cantons affected by
the recent entry of oil companies show no indigenous migration as an
explicit expression of territorial defence. In other cantons, where theextractive industry dates back a long time, the indigenous exodus isalarming, possibly as a result of environmental degradation. In somecantons the balance is clearly in favour of non-indigenous immigration
related to extractive activities, further exacerbating the situation becauseof the negative impact of this migration on indigenous territories, as
documented in qualitative studies.

58

ECLAC 2014
Figure III.1
Latin America (10 countries): internal migrants between majoradministrative divisions in the five years prior to the census,
by ethnicity, latest census(Percentages)
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1

Indigenous

Non-indigenous

Venezuela( Bol. Rep. of)(2011)

Nicaragua(2005)

Colombia(2005)

Brazil(2010)

Mexico(2010)

Peru(2007)

Ecuador(2010)

Costa Rica
(2011)

Uruguay(2011)

Panama(2010)

0

Total

Source: Prepared by the authors, on the basis of Latin American and Caribbean Demographic
Centre (CELADE)-Population Division of ECLAC, special processing of census microdata.

With regard to the main points of origin and destination, the majoradministrative divisions with the greatest draw for indigenous persons are
the most highly developed ones in each country (which usually containthe capital city and other cities of national importance), as is the casewith the non-indigenous population. But indigenous migrants, men andwomen alike, also tend to prefer destinations in geographic areas close
to their ancestral territories. Part of indigenous migration is drawn byalternative development poles, mainly the agricultural export sector. The
major administrative divisions associated with their territories tend tohave a net population loss. These cases show that while the legalizationof indigenous territories is a prerequisite for territorial rights, othereffective measures are needed to ensure tangible progress in improving
their economic and social conditions.
Setting aside the positive potential of indigenous migration to cities(often in response to survival strategies and not necessarily involving delinking from territories of origin), it is important to consider its negative
aspects. Case studies have found that indigenous migrants are subject toextreme poverty or end up living in marginal areas with environmental

59

Guaranteeing indigenous people’s rights in Latin America • Summaryand social risks and without security. And migrants encounter difficulties
in maintaining and exercising their identity and culture and in accessing
services and employment opportunities in cities owing to structural
discrimination. This is particularly true for young women and men.
Particular attention must be paid to indigenous women because
evidence indicates that they fare worse, not only in comparison with
the non-indigenous population but also compared with indigenous men.
During the migration process (and even more so when it comes to forced
displacement), indigenous women are very often subjected to physicalabuse and sexual violence. In places of destination indigenous womenface more serious barriers than men in accessing basic social services,and they are more likely to work in domestic service occupations, inmaquila industries or in informal own-account activities with extremely
precarious working conditions such as miserable wages, total lack ofsocial security and health coverage, and even trafficking and sexual
exploitation. Traditional cultural patterns require indigenous women to
assume responsibility for all reproductive activities in their homes, inaddition to shouldering a very large burden of productive activities. At
times the entire burden of responsibility for sustaining their homes falls
to them because of their partners’ unstable job situation.
Recommendations
In view of these data on the specific distribution of indigenous persons
and peoples in the territory, as well as their mobility and related specificvulnerabilities, some policy recommendations are outlined below.

60•

In designing and implementing public policies on territorial
impact, consideration must be given to the wide diversityof situations among indigenous peoples, so that ensuring
indigenous peoples’ right to participation helps to ensure more
realistic and effective policies in the territories.

•

States should implement policies to address impoverishment
and difficulties of access to essential services for indigenous
peoples living in cities. These policies should be based on ahuman rights perspective, which therefore implies consideringboth the individual and the collective dimension and bridging
the urban-rural divide. In particular, the right to cultural integrity
must also be guaranteed in cities.

ECLAC 2014•

Migration cannot be the only way for indigenous peoples toimprove their living conditions. The wide variety in terms ofmagnitude, routes, causes and consequences of indigenous
migration in the region must be taken into account in public
policies so that, in conjunction with indigenous peoples, living
conditions in their territories of origin are improved while
respecting the right to self-determination of indigenous peoples.

•

There is a need for deeper understanding of the migrationof indigenous peoples. Censuses taken this decade provide
a statistical opportunity that should be seized to rebuild
geographical units of analysis that make sense for indigenous
peoples above and beyond the legal status afforded by
State recognition. These studies must incorporate and becomplemented by a qualitative assessment of these processes
and should be carried out jointly with indigenous peoples.

•

Considering the crucial role that indigenous women play inmaintaining sociocultural ties and the cohesion of their homes
and communities, States should take all actions necessary toeliminate the violation of their rights by creating conditions
that facilitate their access to basic services and opportunities for
improving the quality of life for them and their homes. Similarly,
the efforts of States should focus on eliminating violations of therights of girls and boys, especially those who migrate withoutaccompanying family members or older caregivers.

D. Cross-border mobility of indigenous peoples:international migration and ancestral mobility
Indigenous migration is not only an internal dynamic in the countriesof the region, but also a crossborder phenomenon in many cases.
Accordingly, indigenous international migration has been receiving more
attention in recent years.
In light of sociohistorical processes, a conceptual distinction must be
made between actual indigenous international migration and ancestral
territorial mobility, which occurs in the case of indigenous peoples who
were split apart when the boundaries of newly created States were drawn.
Data from the 2010 round censuses confirm a phenomenon first seen61

Guaranteeing indigenous people’s rights in Latin America • Summaryin the 2000 censuses: indigenous migration is primarily a cross-borderphenomenon, from which the two cited trends are inferred. Regardlessof the causes, migrants maintain social and economic ties with theircommunities of origin and reproduce sociocultural traditions in theircommunities of destination, sustained by family networks and participationin organizations that uphold ethnic identity (ECLAC, 2007).
Given the characteristics of international mobility in the region, therights dimension is doubly present in the case of indigenous peoples andthe problems they face. Their vulnerability —due to their dual status asmigrants and members of indigenous communities— is exacerbated by
the absence or inattention of the State and their isolation from family
and community networks.
In the nine countries with available data, the corresponding
censuses report more than 83,000 indigenous international immigrants.
Looking beyond the specific characteristics of each community andnational context, some general patterns and trends with respect toindigenous international migration in the countries of Latin America
begin to emerge. Although mobility increased in several countries overthe last intercensal period, indigenous migration continues to represent
a small proportion of the total volume of international migration in the
countries with available data, as shown in figure III.2. At one extreme,
not even 1% of the total number of international immigrants in Brazil
are indigenous, whereas in Nicaragua, indigenous immigrants makeup over 7% of the total, with the figure varying around 4% to 5% inMexico and Peru.
Although the situation varies, a characteristic feature of indigenousinternational migration is that most immigrants are men, with the
exception of Mexico, Peru and Uruguay, where most are women.
Migration has an undeniable impact on the reconfiguration of roles in
the home, family and community. As a result of the migration of men,or of women themselves, the latter assume new roles of leadership andresponsibility in their communities. Female participation has led to anumber of qualitative transformations in networks, roles and gender
relations, which can be seen in the connections that are made and in
the new migratory social transnationalism (Morales, 2007). However, italso means that indigenous women are exposed to grave new situationsof vulnerability, given their female, migrant and indigenous status.

62

ECLAC 2014

A first look at settlement patterns reveals that indigenous immigrants
are more likely to settle in rural areas than their non-indigenous
counterparts (except in Uruguay), which is related, in part, to a patternof ancestral mobility. In five countries with data available from two
censuses, there was a relative increase in urban settlement rates, except
in Ecuador (see figure III.2). However, patterns vary considerably among
the region’s countries: in some countries, indigenous international
immigrants settle mainly in rural areas (Nicaragua and Panama),
whereas in others, settlement is evenly divided between the city andthe countryside (Costa Rica, Ecuador and Mexico), and in still others,
immigrants tend to put down roots in the city (Brazil, Colombia, Peru
and Uruguay).
Figure III.2
Latin America (9 countries): proportion of total international immigrants
who are indigenous, censuses between 2005 and 2011
(Percentages)
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
Brazil(2010)

Costa Rica Colombia(2011)(2005)

Ecuador(2010)

Mexico(2010)

Nicaragua(2005)

Panama(2010)

Peru(2007)

Uruguay(2011)

Source: Latin American and Caribbean Demographic Centre (CELADE)-Population Division of
ECLAC, on the basis of special processing of census microdata.

In relation to origin, as is the case with migration generally within
the region, the vast majority of indigenous immigrants come from othercountries in Latin America, primarily adjacent countries. However,there are also cases of indigenous communities that migrate to countries
outside the region, with younger generations subsequently returning
to the countries of origin of their parents (as in the case of indigenous63

Guaranteeing indigenous people’s rights in Latin America • Summary

immigrants in Mexico who were born in the United States, or Spanishborn Otavalans who have returned to Ecuador).
An analysis of settlement patterns by major administrative divisions
points to migration corresponding to mobility within ancestral territories,
such as indigenous international migration among the Pastos, 60% ofwhom reside in the Ecuadorian province of Carchi, which borders theColombian department of Nariño, which is home to 84% of Ecuadorianborn Pastos international immigrants. However, the figures reveal
other migratory patterns too. For example, capital cities attract flows
of indigenous international migrants regardless of the presence or notof ancestral territories straddling two or more countries. There is also
the case of indigenous immigrants from origin communities locatedin a single country —such as Ecuadorian-born Otavalan immigrants
residing in Colombia— who migrate to neighboring countries as partof a type of historical mobility. These are patterns associated with tradeactivities that entail some degree of mobility into territories beyond the
traditional ethnic boundary.
Against a backdrop of important but insufficient progress towards
recognizing and enforcing the rights of indigenous peoples, andbeyond the regional diversity that exists in terms of the magnitudeand characteristics of indigenous mobility, the figures clearly showthat migration across national borders is another challenge that Statesshould take up as part of actions to close gaps. For example, granting
dual citizenship to members of indigenous territories that straddle
two countries —a measure that is in the works in Colombia and the
Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela— is a path that should continue tobe pursued in the region. The Andean Community and the SouthernCommon Market (MERCOSUR) have been making interesting advances
since the last decade in terms of allowing unrestricted circulationand easing migration procedures at border crossings and residency
requirements. These measures may not be explicitly formulated forindigenous peoples, but indigenous peoples nonetheless stand tobenefit from them inasmuch as they are part of the dynamic of mobility
at borders, and the measures could be further developed to address
situations specific to these communities.

64

ECLAC 2014
Figure III.3
Latin America (5 countries): distribution of Latin American and Caribbeanborn indigenous international migrants in the destination country,
by urban or rural residence, various censusesaround 2000 and 2010
(Percentages)
100
90

14.1

19.3

80
70

61.4

48.7

51.0

44.2

51.3
74.4

60

74.1

82.6

50
40

85.9

80.7

30
20

38.6

51.3

49.0

55.8

48.7
25.6

10

25.9

17.4

0
2000

2010

Brazil

2000

2011

2001

Costa Rica

2010

2000

Ecuador

Rural

2010

Mexico2000

2010

PanamaUrban

Source: Latin American and Caribbean Demographic Centre (CELADE)-Population Division of
ECLAC, on the basis of special processing of census microdata.

These advances, which in some cases have been in place for over a
decade, are necessary for achieving greater recognition of the rights ofindigenous peoples whose territories are spread across borders, but they
are not enough. This is reflected in the Declaration of the II Continental
Summit of Indigenous Women (La María Piendamó, Cauca, Colombia,
November 2013), which states, “[…] the borders that prevent us frommoving freely within our territories have especially impacted our lives as
women” (Enlace Indígena, 2014). A similar sentiment was expressed by
the Global Indigenous Preparatory Conference for the Plenary Meetingof the World Conference on Indigenous Peoples in the Alta Outcome
Document (June 2013), which recommends, “[…] the repeal and/or
discontinuance of ‘anti-terrorist,’ national security, immigration, bordercontrol and other special laws, regulations, operations and executive
orders that violate the rights of Indigenous Peoples.” (WCIP, 2014).
In other words, institutional, regulatory and political obstacles
continue to affect the rights of indigenous international migrants. Asa region, Latin America and the Caribbean has the most countries
signatory to the International Convention on the Protection of the65Guaranteeing indigenous people’s rights in Latin America • Summary

Rights of All Migrant Workers and Their Families (17 countries as ofFebruary 2014), yet national laws must be harmonized in line with theterms of the Convention.
Recognizing indigenous international migrants who move back andforth across borders as subject to protection is a key element in promoting
their rights, with special attention paid to the plight of women —who
are made vulnerable by their migrant, indigenous and gender status—and of children. In the case of the latter, there is even greater cause forconcern given the migrations of unaccompanied minors that the media
have been reporting on, and the serious violations of their basic rights.
It is essential to recall that although the region has taken formal steps
towards implementing standards of protection of rights, there are alsosituations in which efforts to execute policies and implement laws andregulations have stalled. This is no small matter when it comes to addressing
indigenous cross-border mobility and the primary responsibility that States
have to protect migrant rights: in many cases, the specific vulnerabilities
that affect indigenous migrants are exacerbated by problems that affectmigrants generally, regardless of their ethnicity or nationality, such as
irregularities, trafficking and slavery and forced migration.
Recommendations
Based on these findings, the policy recommendations are as follows:66•

As ECLAC has been urging in recent decades, it is of utmost
importance for the countries that have not yet done so, andespecially those that are migrant destination countries, to ratify
the International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of
All Migrant Workers and Members of their Families, since it
adds another level of protection for indigenous people who areinternational migrants.

•

It is essential for States to take all necessary precautions andmeasures to protect and guarantee the integrity of indigenous andnon-indigenous children who cross borders, with unconditional
respect for the best interest of the child, in a migratory context
in which the spotlight is on the migration of unaccompanied
minors, who tend to be victims of mistreatment, violence, abuse
and sexual and labour exploitation.

ECLAC 2014•

Given the complexity of migratory dynamics in border regions
and the specific problems that characterize these dynamics, itis crucially important to strengthen the presence of the State interms of the provision of health services, particularly sexual andreproductive health, for indigenous and non-indigenous maleand female migrants, with a special emphasis on women, who
tend to be more exposed to acts of violence and abuse.

•

In the case of indigenous peoples whose territories have been
divided by national boundaries, mechanisms to allow for theunrestricted circulation of their members must be created orstrengthened. Dual citizenship for members of indigenous
communities straddling both sides of a national border is one
option. The modalities should be agreed upon by the respective
countries and indigenous peoples, and advances towards
regional integration and bilateral or subregional agreements inforce can be useful in this regard. Groups in voluntary isolation
who are forced to move due to pressure on their territories
constitute a special situation. Thus, bilateral or subregional
agreements, mainly between countries in the Amazon basin and
the Chaco region, must take into account the United Nations
guidelines on peoples in voluntary isolation and initial contact
and the rules and regulations of the Inter-American Commission
on Human Rights (IACHR).

•

Efforts must be redoubled and resources rallied to look into andinvestigate the cross-border displacement of indigenous peoples
caused by the environmental effects of those industries andpressure and/or violence perpetrated by certain companies, paraState groups and criminal organizations against communities
and natural habitats and ecosystems of ancestral territories in
the affected areas.

•

With respect to destination countries, the figures indicate that
attention should be focused on the situation of indigenousinternational migrants who settle in large cities, which alsoentails challenges in terms of formulating pluricultural policies
in all areas of the lives of indigenous individuals and groups.

•

In terms of information, it is critical to continue gatheringknowledge about the sociodemographic characteristics of67

Guaranteeing indigenous people’s rights in Latin America • Summary

the indigenous individuals and groups that are experiencing
international migration, by fine-tuning existing instruments
and conducting specific studies. In the case of censuses, theself-identification question must also be asked of foreign-born
individuals, and the possibility of specifying to which indigenous
group a person belongs must also be explored.
•

68

Given the complexity of indigenous mobility, qualitative andethnographic studies must be conducted, all of which willlead to greater understanding of the processes of social andcultural reproduction of the indigenous peoples in the region
that are moving across borders and settling in cities as well as
the countryside.

IV. The right to well-beingof indigenous peoples

A. The right to health: the need for a holistic approach
For indigenous peoples, health is viewed as the harmonious coexistenceof human beings with nature, with themselves and with others inpursuit of well-being. The indigenous concept of health melds physical,
mental, spiritual and emotional elements, from the point of view ofboth individuals and communities, and has political, economic, socialand cultural components. It addresses the historical experiences andworldviews of each group, and beliefs and practices around healthbecome part of the community code.
In view of the foregoing, the right to health of indigenous peoples
should be understood as having both an individual and a collective
component, and it is clearly interdependent of the enjoyment ofother human rights. At present, the minimum standard summarized in
the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples
establishes the following: (i) indigenous individuals have the right ofaccess, on a nondiscriminatory basis, to health care; (ii) they have the rightto the highest attainable standard of physical and mental health by meansof adequate and quality access; (iii) indigenous peoples have the rightto promote, develop and maintain their own institutions, which meansthat States must take measures to ensure not only the right of indigenous
individuals to health, but also the collective right of indigenous peoples
to promote and strengthen their systems of traditional medicine; (iv) they
have a right to their traditional medicines and to maintain their health69

Guaranteeing indigenous people’s rights in Latin America • Summary

practices, including the conservation of their medicinal plants, animals
and minerals, as well as territorial spaces of vital interest for the healthsickness-healing process, which generates an indissoluble link withterritorial rights; and (v) their right of political participation entails
meaningful involvement in the design and social control (resources) of thehealth policies and programmes that affect them (United Nations, 2007).
In the Americas, the Health of the Indigenous Peoples Initiative,
established in 1993 by the Pan American Health Organization (PAHO), hasbeen instrumental for the region. The initiative was launched in recognitionof the following: (i) the need for a holistic approach to health; (ii) the rightto self-determination of indigenous peoples; (iii) the right to systematicparticipation of indigenous peoples; (iv) respect for and revitalizationof indigenous cultures; and (v) reciprocity in relations between diverse
actors (PAHO, 1993).
In this framework, the various United Nations human rights treatyorganizations have made myriad observations on the health status ofindigenous peoples in the region, expressing concern about their higher
morbidity and mortality rates, which suggest that indigenous peoples
are experiencing cumulative and more intense harm. In particular, they
have cited child and maternal mortality, unwanted pregnancy and sexual
abuse derived from structural violence; the incidence of chronic diseases
caused by environmental pollution and extractive industries; mental
health problems primarily affecting youth; and the lack of access toculturally sensitive health services. The United Nations Permanent Forumon Indigenous Issues (UNPFII) has zeroed in on the health situation ofindigenous peoples, developing content and preparing a broad set ofrecommendations that have not yet been fully implemented. For their part,the United Nations member agencies have been providing systematic
support to help the region’s countries take action to close gaps as they
enforce the right to health.
The structural discrimination that affects indigenous peoples, alongwith the impoverishment resulting from the systematic plunder of theirterritories and the loss of traditional ways of life, obstacles to politicalparticipation and institutionalized racism, have a strong adverse impact
on the health of indigenous individuals and communities. Although thedata is still insufficient and fragmented, it shows that the epidemiological
profile of indigenous peoples is polarized and protracted, with various

70

ECLAC 2014

overlapping stages of epidemiological transition marked by persistently
high rates of incidence and mortality from both communicable diseases,
such as tuberculosis, and non-communicable diseases, such as diabetes
associated with malnutrition and obesity. For example, indigenous
communities have higher rates of tuberculosis than the general populationin the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela, Brazil, Colombia, Chile, Mexico,
Paraguay, Peru and other countries (see table IV.1).
Table IV.1
Chile, Paraguay and Peru: incidence of tuberculosis in the indigenous andnon-indigenous population, per 100,000 inhabitants, selected years
Health services

Chile, 2004-2006

Paraguay, 2005 and 2010
Peru, 2005

Indigenous

Non-indigenous

Arica

121.9

18.0

Antofagasta

57.3

7.9

Arauco28.0

12.0

Bío-Bío

23.0

11.9

Araucanía Norte

16.2

10.5

Araucanía Sur

21.6

10.0

Valdivia

21.5

10.4

Osorno52.7

17.5

Indigenous

Total
38.1

National, 2005

393.0

National, 2010

351.0

32.8

Department

AymaraNon-Aymara

Puno

33.0

19.6

Moquegua

68.0

52.9

Source: Prepared by the authors, on the basis of data from the Ministry of Health of Chile,
Ministry of Health and Social Welfare of Paraguay, and Dante R. Culqui and others,“Tuberculosis en la población indígena del Perú 2008”, Revista Peruana de Medicina
Experimental y Salud Publica, vol. 27, No. 1, Lima, 2010.

With respect to non-communicable diseases, diabetes has reachedepidemic proportions in some indigenous communities, threatening
their very existence. It has also been found that people with diabetes
are at higher risk of contracting tuberculosis due to their weakened
immune response.
Mental health is another area deserving of special attention.
Many indigenous peoples continue to face problems of violence dueto the imposition of development projects, forced displacement andexpropriation of their lands, armed conflict and economic exploitation,
all with psychological repercussions for individuals and communities.

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Guaranteeing indigenous people’s rights in Latin America • Summary

Compounding these problems, which are exacerbated by poverty andmarginalization, are other types of social breakdown, such as alcoholism,
drug abuse, depression and suicide, especially among young people.
In 2003, the Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues was already shining
a light on the high rate of mental illness and suicide in indigenous
communities, particularly among adolescents and young adults. The
number of indigenous children, adolescents and young adults who taketheir own lives has reached alarming levels in Argentina, the Bolivarian
Republic of Venezuela, Brazil, Colombia, Chile, Nicaragua and Paraguay,a phenomenon that has been observed for several years now.
By way of illustration, while indigenous people represent 0.4%
of Brazil’s total population according to the 2010 census, 1% of all
suicides in the country during the period 2008-2012 occurred within
the indigenous community. In Amazonas, indigenous people accountfor 4.9% of the total population but 20.9% of suicides. In Mato Grosso
do Sul, indigenous people account for 2.9% of the population but 19.9%
of suicides. Also in Mato Grosso do Sul, around half of all suicides arecommitted by young people, and in the 13 municipios with the highest
rates of indigenous suicide, between 56% and 78% of the victims areyoung people, a figure that is truly astounding (Waiselfisz, 2014).
Although there is a range of situations based on the socioterritorial
context of each group, the excess mortality rate from suicide that issystematically higher among indigenous people than non-indigenous
people indicates, first, that they share a series of social determinants(such as ethnicity, poverty and discrimination) that are interacting withan escalation in stress factors caused by pressures external and internal
to the communities. Combined with an increasing loss of community
organization mechanisms, accelerated cultural changes and an entry tomodernity without cultural control, this begins to explain how and why
indigenous youth are disproportionately affected by suicide.
Implementing sexual and reproductive rights is another major
challenge that the region must take on, with gaps in implementation
particularly affecting indigenous women, as well as children, adolescentsand young adults. The following paragraphs delve into some aspects ofthis challenge, and it should be noted that human immunodeficiency virus(HIV) is cause for great concern given that some local data, in Panama
and Brazil for example, show that the disease is having a disproportionate

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ECLAC 2014

effect on indigenous peoples (UNPFII, 204). Cervical cancer is anotherarea of growing concern on the health agenda for indigenous women.
Some studies find high morbidity and mortality from this cause andargue that the issue has received insufficient attention from the various
sectors, as the “maternalization” of women’s health has overshadowed
the problem, which is highly preventable if diagnosed in time.
In addition, concern is growing over the negative impacts on healthin general and on mothers, children and youth, in particular, of the use ofchemicals associated with agro-industry and the extractive industries andthe environmental contamination of indigenous territories. For example,
Chile’s Ministry of Health reported high rates of stomach cancer in somemining areas in the northern part of the country in the period 2004-2006,
but further studies are needed to establish the causal relationships anddesign effective prevention policies. Unfortunately, the region’s countries
do not have systematic data in these areas.
In terms of State responses, it should be noted that the right tohealth of indigenous peoples as differentiated groups is enshrined in
the constitutions of the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela, Ecuador,
Mexico and the Plurinational State of Bolivia. Nicaragua recognizes
the right of autonomy of indigenous peoples and ethnic communities
along the Caribbean and has created Autonomous Regions, which
are responsible for health administration, ensuring coordination withindigenous traditional medicine. In practice, to manage cross-cultural
health, 17 countries in the region have some type of State infrastructurewith that specific mandate. These are vice ministries, national offices,cross-cultural health programmes within the health ministries, national
commissions on indigenous affairs and regional health commissions inautonomous regions, with diverse institutional hierarchies and availabilityof resources.
The vast majority of countries in the region have enacted legislationin this area, but with different approaches, areas of emphasis and specificfeatures, ranging from recognition of the right to health as an individual
good, mentioning indigenous peoples as priority groups, to recognitionand promotion of collective rights and traditional medicines, such as in
the case of the Plurinational State of Bolivia. For their part, indigenous
peoples are preparing specific proposals, from the implementation of a
Regional Programme of Indigenous Health, which respects each group’s

73

Guaranteeing indigenous people’s rights in Latin America • Summary

indigenous language, views and knowledge, gives their leaders an activerole, and prioritizes training for indigenous women and documentation of
citizenship for children, to the construction of life and well-being plansfor each group. These plans comprehensively address health-related issues
along with territory, education and culture, economy and production,
institutional development, organization and conflict resolution.
Despite the efforts made to establish cross-cultural health systems, amajor obstacle to measuring the impact of these experiences has been thelack of statistical data disaggregated by ethnicity in the countries. Therefore,
there is no systematic generation of quantitative data, and the data that isavailable pre-dates implementation of activities or is local in scope, suchthat the main assessments are largely based on qualitative aspects.

B. The status of indigenous infants and children
There is growing concern over the rights of indigenous children in Latin
America due to the serious deprivations facing these boys and girls, manyof whom live in extreme conditions of material poverty. Given these
conditions, it is crucial that States allocate efforts and resources so that
information can be generated and policies designed and implemented toshine a light on the plight of indigenous children, adolescents and young
adults, a priority that has been repeatedly identified by human rights treatyorganizations, in particular the Committee on the Rights of the Child,the United Nations mechanisms for the rights of indigenous peoples,and at the regional level, the various intergovernmental agreements, theMontevideo Consensus on Population and Development being among
the most recent (2013), which sets the post-2014 agenda on populationand development in Latin America. This has also been identified asa priority area by the various regional and international summits andagreements promoted and organized by indigenous organizations, andof course the Alta Outcome Document emphasizes the situation ofindigenous children.
In general terms, indigenous children experience alarmingly highrates of poverty in Latin America, well above the rates for non-indigenous
children and other demographic groups. According to ECLAC/UNICEF(2012), in 2000-2005 nearly 63% of children in the region were subject
to some type of deprivation, and the situation was worse for indigenous

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ECLAC 2014

children, for whom the rate is 88%. This situation is not only a flagrantviolation of the rights of children based on international standards but
also represents a high cost for society in terms of human capital andsocial inclusion. Because indigenous groups have age structures that are
still young, these wide gaps threaten their physical and cultural survival.
The status of indigenous children with respect to the right toeducation, which is key in this stage of life, is analysed in detail in section
D of this chapter. The emphasis here is on the impacts of discriminationand structural and institutional violence on the health of indigenous
children. Chapter III, on territorial rights, pointed up the disproportionate
effect of chronic and global malnutrition on indigenous children, withdata indicating that efforts are still falling short. Another very directindicator of these inequalities is infant mortality (death in the first year oflife) and child mortality (death before the age of five), with most deathsin the latter case being preventable.
Data from the 2010 round censuses and the latest available surveys
are showing that infant mortality in the indigenous population continues
be higher across the board than in the non-indigenous population, andby a large margin, except in Costa Rica. The largest gaps are seen in
Panama and Peru, where indigenous communities experience infantmortality at three times the rate in non-indigenous communities, and in
the Plurinational State of Bolivia where the rate is over twice as high in
the indigenous population. These disparities are seen in urban and rural
settings but are generally larger in rural areas, regardless of the level ofmortality. Child mortality rates follow a similar pattern. At one end of thespectrum, Costa Rica and Uruguay report the lowest indigenous childmortality rates, at 11.5 and 15.8 deaths per 1,000 live births, respectively.
At the other end, Panama and Guatemala report 46.4 and 55 deaths
per 1,000 live births, respectively, and conditions are worse still in the
Plurinational State of Bolivia, where 77 of every 1,000 indigenous boys
and girls die before reaching the age of five (see figure IV.1). The situationin the cities is somewhat better than in the countryside, but ethnic
inequalities are persistent and, with the exception of Brazil, always more
pronounced in the countryside. There is also considerable variability byindigenous group and the corresponding territorial context. Moreover,national averages for indigenous groups can obscure major disparities
based on territorial context and indigenous group.

75Guaranteeing indigenous people’s rights in Latin America • Summary
Figure IV.1
Latin America (9 countries): child mortality per 1,000 live births,by ethnic status, around 2000 and 2010
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
2000 2011 2000 2010 2000 2010 2001 2011 2001 2010 2000 2010 2000 2012 2002 2008 2003 2008
Costa Rica

MexicoBrazilVenezuela(Bol. Rep. of)Indigenous

EcuadorPanamaPeru aGuatemala a

Bolivia(Plur. State of) a

Non-indigenous

Source: Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), Social
Panorama of Latin America 2006 (LC/G.2326–P), Santiago, Chile, 2007. United
Nations publication, Sales No. E.06.II.G.133; Economic Commission for Latin America
and the Caribbean/Pan American Health Organization/United Nations Population Fund
(ECLAC/PAHO/UNFPA), “Mortalidad infantil y en la niñez de pueblos indígenas yafrodescendientes de América Latina: Inequidades estructurales, patrones diversos yevidencia de derechos no cumplidos”, Project Document, LC/W.348, Santiago, Chile,
Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), 2010; andLatin American and Caribbean Demographic Centre (CELADE)-Population Division of
ECLAC, on the basis of special processing of census microdata and Demographic and
Health Surveys.
aFigures come from the Demographic and Health Surveys.

There has also been progress. Significant reductions have been
made in infant and child mortality over the past 10 years. Mexico andthe Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela achieved a reduction in childmortality of around 64% between 2000 and 2010. The rate was cut by
more than half in Costa Rica (54.0%), Brazil (51.4%), Ecuador (55.6%)
and Peru (50.5%), and Panama reduced it by 37%. The figures fromthe Plurinational State of Bolivia (14%) and Guatemala (20%) are lessencouraging, but they come from demographic and health surveys
from 2002 and 2003, respectively, and 2008, a period of just five years;
if the annual rate of decline in child mortality is calculated, the results
are similar to several of the aforementioned countries. All told, if the
Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela, Brazil, Costa Rica, Ecuador andMexico continue to reduce child mortality at the present rate, they will

76

ECLAC 2014

easily achieve the Millennium Development Goal (MDG) of a two-thirds
reduction by 2015 not only at the national level but also for indigenous
children. With Peru, it will be close, so the country should redouble its
efforts. Panama, Guatemala and the Plurinational State of Bolivia needto step up their efforts. In terms of ethnic inequalities, figure IV.1 showsthat five of the nine countries —the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela,
Costa Rica, Ecuador, Mexico and Panama— are closing the gap.
The most successful intercultural health and education policies andprogrammes in the region have targeted indigenous children and women,
and many initiatives have benefitted from varying degrees of participation
by indigenous organizations and from the support of agencies of theUnited Nations System. However, the inequalities in infant and childmortality reflect the structural inequities that continue to affect indigenous
peoples in the region. These gaps will not be resolved until the health ofindigenous children is addressed synergistically with the rest of sector
policies, with due attention to the collective dimension of the situationof indigenous groups. Furthermore, the global commitment to implement
the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples must
be renewed and strengthened.
Any approach must address institutional violence against indigenous
peoples and the numerous conflicts it begets for the legitimate recovery
and defense of their territories, with devastating effects on indigenous
children. Institutional violence has been perpetrated repeatedly in the vast
majority of the region’s countries. The occupation of indigenous territories
by police forces makes indigenous children victims of harassment andrepression, and there have even been cases of criminal punishment ofminors, in violation of international commitments assumed by the Statesin the area of children’s rights.
From a human rights perspective, material poverty is anotherexpression of structural violence. The 2000 censuses revealed that88% of indigenous children were subject to some type of deprivation(ECLAC-UNICEF, 2011). Although in some countries, the deprivations
affecting indigenous children fell between 2000 and 2010, a much greater
improvement was seen for non-indigenous children, which suggests thatthe gap between these groups has widened. The 2010 round of censuses
offers an opportunity to examine whether these trends are occurring
throughout the region.

77

Guaranteeing indigenous people’s rights in Latin America • Summary

C. Indigenous women
There is no longer any doubt that indigenous women and theirorganizations are a driving force in change processes involving therelationship between indigenous peoples and States, as described in
the first chapter of this paper. At present, these demands revolve aroundthe deep ethnic, gender and generational inequalities that affect them.
Drawing on an extraordinary capacity to establish national, regional andinternational alliances, indigenous women back up their political activism
with content and proposals, promoting the rights of indigenous peoples
in the various international forums. At the regional level, for example,
the Continental Network of Indigenous Women of the Americas (ECMIA)
promotes training, research, development of proposals and politicaladvocacy in the following areas: nonviolence and ancestral justice;territory, environment, climate change and food sovereignty; training ininternational legal instruments; intellectual property and biodiversity;
health and spirituality; sexual and reproductive health, adolescentpregnancy prevention, maternal mortality and intercultural health policy
advocacy; political participation; indigenous youth and intercultural
education; and racism and discrimination.
Throughout this study, the specific situation of women has been
mentioned. This section focuses on sexual and reproductive health andthe eradication of violence, since these are precisely the areas where,
in the framework of social determinants of health, ethnic and genderinequalities converge most clearly to the detriment of indigenous womenand impact their fundamental right to life. Therefore, this is a priority issue
not only for the organizations of indigenous women, including girls andyoung women, but also for the States and the international community, asestablished in the various regional and international agreements in force.
Promoting and guaranteeing sexual and reproductive rights in multiethnic contexts means creating the right conditions for individuals andcouples to exercise these rights according to their own practices and modelof well-being. Clearly, the consensus indicators established to monitor
the Millennium Development Goal of guaranteeing universal access to
reproductive health care by no later than 2015 are insufficient from thisperspective, and owing to the lack of culturally relevant information, theindicators and underlying concepts should be re-evaluated.

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ECLAC 2014

Family planning and cultural beliefs
Based on plentiful evidence, there is consensus around the fact thatfamily planning is very beneficial for the health of women, children andfamilies, mainly because it offers the possibility of spacing pregnancies
and choosing from among various methods of contraception, which help
reduce maternal mortality and improve women’s health by preventing
unwanted high-risk pregnancies and curbing the practice of unsafe
abortions. In addition, some contraceptives improve women’s health bydecreasing the likelihood of transmission of diseases and protecting themagainst some types of cancer and other health problems (PAHO, 2004;
ECLAC, 2013a). Therefore, failing to meet the demand for contraceptives
among the population deprives women of the ability to exercise theirright to health and limits, directly or indirectly, their ability to exercise
other social and economic rights.
Information could be obtained for some of the region’s countries
on prevalence of the use of contraceptive methods, an indicator that isstrongly inversely correlated with unmet demand for family planning
services. Conditions vary across the region. Based on data from thelatest available survey, Guatemala has the lowest rate of use, with 40%
of indigenous women using some form of contraception. Meanwhile, inColombia, Paraguay and Peru, the use rate surpasses 70% (see figure IV.2).
Inequalities detrimental to indigenous women persist in all countries andare especially severe in Guatemala and Ecuador. Nevertheless, the mostrecent surveys show fewer differences between ethnic groups.
In addition, the unwanted pregnancy rate obtained for six countries
in the region was higher among indigenous women than non-indigenous
women, except in Paraguay. The rates for this indicator range from 19%
in Nicaragua (2006-2007) to 43.5% in the Plurinational State of Bolivia(2008). These indicators reveal gaps in implementation of the reproductive
rights of indigenous women. However, policy design should taken into
account that acceptance of contraceptive methods and programmes ispart of a complex process largely rooted in the pre-existing system ofcultural beliefs that indigenous peoples have about menstruation, sexual
relations, conception, gestation, pregnancy, birth, infertility, abortion,
menopause and other subjects. Ethnographic studies have found thatwhen oral contraceptives are introduced, the practice must be assimilated
into a larger cultural framework for understanding how a woman’s body79

Guaranteeing indigenous people’s rights in Latin America • Summary

works and health in general. Although cultural beliefs are dynamic, atraditional practice is never simply replaced by a modern practice but
rather acquires new dimensions as a result of assimilation into the cultural
matrix and the existing knowledge base (ECLAC/PAHO/UNFPA, 2010). It
is therefore essential to understand these matrixes, beliefs and perceptions
if programmes are to be effective.
Figure IV.2
Latin America (8 countries): prevalence of contraceptive use
by ethnic status, around 2000-2012(Percentages)
90
79.3

80
70
60

64.8
54.3

68.6

71.3

70.5
63.3

56.1

47.4

50

81.1

77.1

74.6

53.0

62.2

72.9 75.4

70.9

76.0
73.6

60.1
53.1

46.4
40.2

40
30

23.9

20
10
0

2003

2008

Bolivia(Plur. State of)

2010

2004

Colombia Ecuador

2002

2008

GuatemalaIndigenous women

2003

2006

Mexico20062007

2008

Nicaragua Paraguay

2000

2012

Peru

Non-indigenous women

Source: Prepared by the authors, on the basis of special processing of Demographic and
Health Surveys of the respective countries, except Mexico: National Women’s
Institute, Fecundidad y preferencias reproductivas en las mujeres indígenas
mexicanas. Panorama actual con base en los resultados de la Encuesta Nacional
sobre la Dinámica Demográfica 2006, Mexico City, Federal Government, 2009.

Several studies and diagnostic assessments, some conducted byindigenous women’s organizations, have documented the low qualityof services, as well as discriminatory practices and the lack of cultural
sensitivity. Diagnostic assessments of note have been conducted in
Peru, the Plurinational State of Bolivia and Ecuador as part of the United
Nations Population Fund (UNFPA) project “Indigenous Women: Healthand Rights” to support the governments of five countries in the region.
Under this initiative, indigenous women in the three aforementioned
countries have identified their main challenges and opportunities andhave agreed on priority lines of action to guarantee their health and rights,
including sexual and reproductive rights.

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ECLAC 2014

Adolescent pregnancy
The adolescent pregnancy rate among indigenous young women between
15 and 19 years old has fallen in the majority of the countries, with the
exception of Ecuador. The largest declines have been seen in Costa Rica,
Mexico, Panama and the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela. However,in 15 countries with available data, the adolescent pregnancy rate isconsistently higher among indigenous youth, ranging from nearly 12%
of indigenous young women who are mothers in Uruguay to 31% inPanama. The largest ethnic gaps, in order of size, are in Panama, Costa
Rica, the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela, Brazil and Paraguay, countries
where indigenous teenagers get pregnant at well over twice the rate of
their non-indigenous peers. In the Plurinational State of Bolivia, Ecuador
and Peru, the gaps are not as large.
The data confirm the adolescent pregnancy rates among indigenous
youth fall when they have more years of formal schooling. However, inseveral countries, pregnancy rates are always higher among the indigenous
population than the non-indigenous population, even when controllingfor educational levels. Access problems —derived from economic andterritorial factors— and cultural accessibility to sexual and reproductive
health services by indigenous women and adolescents have been well
documented in the region, but more research is needed to understandthe relationship between the reproductive lives of indigenous women andcommunities and their sociocultural organization. To this end, a review
could be conducted of the local studies that have been carried out in Brazil,
which are very illustrative and useful for policy design. By convention,
indicators are calculated for young women between the ages of 15
and 19, but pregnancy for an indigenous young woman in a traditional
territorial area does not have the same implications as pregnancy for ayoung woman who has migrated to the city, so the figures need to beadequately contextualized. However, more attention must be focused on
girls under the age of 15, inasmuch as the risks to life and well-being are
considerably higher for this age group regardless of environment.
Maternal mortality
Maternal mortality is among the more urgent health problems, one thatcompromises the health and life of the mother, the newborn and themother’s other children. The limited availability of quality information onmaternal mortality, a reproductive health issue of paramount importance,81Guaranteeing indigenous people’s rights in Latin America • Summaryis very troubling, especially in the case of indigenous women. Available
figures are from targeted local studies, with no systematic time series
data, and all show excess maternal mortality rates to the detriment ofindigenous women. Given the lack of reliable information, one of theconsensus indicators for monitoring this problem is type of birth care,due to the role of care in the prevention of maternal mortality.
Recent evidence shows that the proportion of births attended byhealth professionals is low across the board in the case of indigenous
women, and among the countries with data from 2010 or thereabout, thePlurinational State of Bolivia and Guatemala have the lowest coverage(66.1% and 29.6%, respectively). In Guatemala midwives are extremely
important, since they attend 62.3% of all births, and in the Plurinational
State of Bolivia and Ecuador community and family play a key role,since they attend 28% and 35% of births, respectively. These situations
also occur in the other countries, although to a lesser extent. However,progress has been observed in all countries for which there is time series
data. In effect, significant advances in the proportion of professionallyattended births among indigenous women have been verified, especiallyin Colombia, Mexico, Paraguay and Peru, countries where the rate isaround 80%, as illustrated in figure IV.3.
Figure IV.3
Latin America (7 countries): births attended by skilled personnel,
by ethnic status, selected years(Percentages)
100

91.5

90
80

60
50

95.4

89.7

98.7

98.9
91.5

70.3

66.1

57.0

82.5

80.7 78.4

81.3

77.6

79.0

70

96.7

68.3
57.1

66.8
56.7

52.7

51.1

39.8

40

29.6

30

21.7

19.1

20
10
0

2003

2008

2010

2004

Bolivia
Colombia Ecuador(Plur. State of)

2002

2008

GuatemalaIndigenous women

2003

2012

Mexico2001

20062007

Nicaragua

2008
Paraguay

2000

2012

Peru

Non-indigenous women

Source: Prepared by the authors, on the basis of processing of data of Demographic and Health
Surveys of each country.

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ECLAC 2014

Prenatal, birth and post-partum care is an area in which intercultural
health has been widely promoted, beginning with the pioneeringexperiences in Guatemala and Mexico, which have incorporated
practices and practitioners of indigenous traditional medicine, which
would be reflected in the observed data and would be expected tocontribute to reductions in maternal mortality among indigenous women.
Nevertheless, it should be noted that intercultural care models are notwidely established in the rural areas of the countries and in many cases
do not follow accepted standards, placing midwives in a subordinate
role to the health team, for example. Over the last decade, a seriesof conditional cash transfer programmes have been implemented,
with conditions including institutional prenatal, birth and post-partum
care. Notwithstanding the critiques that have been directed at these
programmes, their effects could be limited to the short term and there
is a real risk of setbacks in the region unless intercultural health caremodels are properly promoted and implemented.
Violence against indigenous women
As with the reproductive health of indigenous women, there is a lack ofsystematic information on the issue of violence against women, itself asevere expression of inequality and discrimination. Although national
figures are not available, serious situations of violence against indigenous
women and children have been recorded in the region and should be
examined in the context of racism, colonialism and patriarchy. In thisregard, indigenous women have made an important contribution to theway in which violence is viewed, drawing on their own perspective andintroducing concepts such as structural violence, spiritual violence,violence against the Earth and healing processes. All these elements
should be an integral part of diagnostic assessments and the identificationof effective strategies.
According to the limited available data on domestic violence,indigenous women have suffered an act of physical or sexual violence at
the hands of their partner at a rate of around 38% in Ecuador and Peru,
24% in Guatemala and 20% in Paraguay. However, there is no way toseparate out the ethnic and gender biases that might be at play behindthese figures, much less to provide a complete picture of the many
expressions of violence against indigenous women and the multitude
of contexts in which they occur. In the case of structural violence and83

Guaranteeing indigenous people’s rights in Latin America • Summary

situations involving territorial defense, the information is also fragmented
and scarce but nevertheless suggests the heavy toll taken on indigenous
women and children.
The empowerment of indigenous women is essential to counter
situations of violence, upholding the practices and beliefs that they
regard as positive and challenging those that they feel are harmful.
Several initiatives that follow this logic are under way in the region,
including Women’s Houses in Mexico, which provides health services
and addresses violence against women in 12 states in the country.
Empowering indigenous women also contributes to policy advocacy
in this area, as seen in Ecuador, where a restructuring of the Justice
Administration System has included priorities on the agenda of theindigenous women’s organization; in the Plurinational State of Bolivia,
where indigenous women have negotiated agreements guaranteeing theirrights and ensuring their participation in justice oversight committees
at the municipal level; and on the border between Brazil and Paraguay,
where indigenous women and girls have been empowered to document
and report violations of their rights, including trafficking, to name afew cases. These experiences have received significant and systematic
support from the United Nations, through the corresponding agencies.
This support must be continued and strengthened to consolidate theprogress made.
Recommendations
In order to guarantee indigenous peoples’ right to health, including
sexual and reproductive rights, States should redouble their efforts sothat policies, programmes and guidelines are designed and appliedin accordance with existing standards, guaranteeing the right to freedetermination of indigenous peoples and their full participation in all
activities that affect them. There is a need to promote a holistic andintercultural approach informed by indigenous perspectives in thearea of health, including traditional medicine and health practices, aswell as strengthen the empowerment of indigenous women, youth andcommunities for health care delivery and access.
It is urgent that States adopt the necessary measures, together with
the indigenous groups, to ensure that indigenous women, children,
adolescents and young adults receive protection and full guarantees

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against all forms of violence and discrimination. It is particularly importantto curb the violence associated with socioenvironmental conflicts andcontexts of criminalization and militarization in indigenous territories,
as well as address the mental health issues afflicting adolescents andyoung adults in particular, both in territories affected by conflicts andin urban centres.
As a general recommendation, it is crucial for international donors
to renew their commitments and continue supporting the governments
and the indigenous peoples through the diverse initiatives that haveundoubtedly led to major advances in the region in all the areas
mentioned. However, the discrimination and poverty to which indigenous
peoples are subject have not yet been overcome in the region, so ongoinginternational support is key.
In addition, the following specific points should be considered:•

Implementing policies and programmes for intercultural health,including sexual and reproductive health, requires the negotiationof agreements, consensuses and mutual understandings.
Intercultural dialogue requires genuine recognition of theknowledge systems, worldview and health concepts of indigenous
peoples, including women, adolescents and young adults.

•

Mechanisms need to be created and strengthened to enforce andevaluate compliance with public policies and health standards.
Creative use should be made of the institutional resources ofombudsman’s offices, for example through special reports on
indigenous health, legislative initiatives, accountability, appeals
to the executive branch and other strategies.

•

Participatory processes must be strengthened to identify
indicators and statistical tools and to build capacity so that thosecollecting data understand the perspectives of indigenous groups
and especially of indigenous women and youth, and also so thatindigenous communities make intensive use of information forpolicy advocacy, noting the gaps that they face.

•Strengthen the generation of information and knowledge on
health problems from an indigenous worldview —on issues suchas tuberculosis, diabetes, suicide, maternal health and sexualand reproductive health— enabling researchers to focus on therights, gender and intercultural issues of the communities.

85

Guaranteeing indigenous people’s rights in Latin America • Summary86•

It is important to generate more knowledge on chronic diseases,
such as cancer, considering cultural and socioenvironmental
factors, and in particular the health impacts of the extractive
industries. The latter is a key input for consultation proceduresthat guarantee the right to free, prior and informed consent.

•

Promote the exchange of experiences between the region’s
countries, including programmes supported by the United
Nations, in order to build upon achievements and avoid
repeating mistakes.

•

Set up health networks with an intercultural focus thatserve as learning communities and help to strengthen andadvance intercultural health models, in line with the different
socioterritorial contexts of indigenous peoples.

•

Design and implement community strategies to comprehensively
address mental health issues, with an emphasis on indigenous
women, children and youth. Intercultural research is urgently
needed on how depression manifests in youth.

•

Develop and implement intercultural strategies for the prevention
and treatment of diseases, especially those introduced throughcontact with Western society.

•

Concerning the contributions of traditional medicine to healthprogrammes, consideration must be given to the fact thatindigenous communities, their healers and medicines arerelegated to a subordinate position with respect to biomedical
medicine. Thus, it is important to create democratic spacesthat guarantee the dynamics and procedures for indigenous
participation and decision-making and serve as opportunities
for mutual learning.

•

Recognizing the contributions of indigenous traditional
medicine, research in this area cannot be isolated in a laboratory
and removed from the cultural context that makes traditional
practices effective and therapeutic. Therefore, it is suggested
that a more comprehensive assessment of traditional medicine
should be conducted, ensuring that empirical practices arestudied in light of their symbolic and cultural dimensions.

•

Another major challenge facing health institutions is to movebeyond merely applying the practices of indigenous traditional

ECLAC 2014

medicine to also incorporating the social and collective dimensions
that make up the underlying ideology of indigenous traditional
medicines. Only an intercultural process that fully reflects these
dimensions can respond to the complex epidemiological profileof the indigenous peoples of Latin America.
•

In addition to improving how violence against indigenous
women and children is measured, it is necessary to develop
diagnostics defined by the women themselves that are flexible
and can be adjusted in real time to respond to their needs andbuild trust and confidence.

•State programmes or initiatives to eradicate violence, alongwith guaranteeing the participation of indigenous women’sorganizations in all stages of the process, should include
opportunities for indigenous women to reflect on the definitionof violence and its various manifestations from their own
perspective, engage with indigenous children and youth tolearn what they think about violence and how they experienceit, and work with men, government representatives, ancestraland traditional authorities in the communities and health andeducation sector representatives.

•

Processes to empower indigenous women continue to be
central to efforts to counter situations of violence, upholding thepractices and beliefs that they regard as positive and challenging
those that they view as harmful.

D. The right to education
Education is a powerful tool in the fight to eradicate exclusion anddiscrimination, as well as a right that has long been demanded by
the indigenous peoples of Latin America. The right to education is
also essential to the full enjoyment human and collective rights. In
general, although significant progress has been made in the countriesof Latin America in terms of ensuring that indigenous children andyouth have access to education, ethnic, generational and genderinequalities persist. Moreover, the data obscure geographic inequities
and disparities between indigenous groups within each country. The
most disadvantaged areas with respect to education indicators tend tocoincide with indigenous territories.

87Guaranteeing indigenous people’s rights in Latin America • Summary

A comparison of data from the 2000 and 2010 round censuses showsthat progress on education in indigenous communities has manifested,
for example, in a significant increase in school attendance rates among
all age groups,5 (see figure IV.4). Specifically, children between 6 and 11
years of age are now starting school earlier, remaining in school for moretime, and completing the various levels of schooling at a higher rate. In
the eight countries with data available from the censuses taken in 2010
and 2011, attendance ranged from 82% in the Bolivarian Republic ofVenezuela to 99% in Uruguay. Although school enrolment among 12- to
17-year-olds is much lower than in the younger age group —between
72% and 80% for the same group of countries— the improvement in thepast 10 years is nonetheless encouraging. The age group that is least likely
to attend school are the 18- to 22-year-olds, with an enrolment rate that
does not exceed 40% in any country in the region (ranging from 24% inMexico to 40% in Costa Rica).
Census data also points to progress in educational persistence amongindigenous women and girls and a sizeable increase in the percentageof young women between 15 and 19 years of age who completed
primary school. However, these achievements are not enough, given
the ethnic gaps that persist to the detriment of indigenous women, as
well as territorial and generational gaps, which lead in the former caseto sharp inequalities between the countryside and the city and between
indigenous territories and other geographic areas of the country. This puts
indigenous women at a clear disadvantage, particularly young women,
just as they are entering the job market and making decisions about theirreproductive lives.
In this context, State policies and action cannot overlook the fact thataccess to education, and thus to information, impacts the decisions andautonomy of indigenous women, as well as other aspects of their wellbeing and their families’ well-being. The structural discrimination that
affects indigenous women and communities manifests in the educational
system in various ways and at various levels: delivery of services well
below the recommended minimum standards compared with the services
provided to other sectors of the population, poor geographic access, weak5

88

The 6- to 11-year-old age group roughly corresponds to the official ages for primaryeducation, the 12- to 17-year-old group to secondary education and the 18- to 22-year-old
group to higher or university education. However, the percentages presented her refer only
to attendance at some type of school, regardless of level.

ECLAC 2014

infrastructure, absence of culturally appropriate educational policies andlack of mechanisms for effective community participation in teachinglearning projects and processes.
Figure IV.4
Latin America (6 countries): indigenous children and youth attending
an educational establishment, censuses between 2005 and 2011
(Percentages)
100
90
80
70

96.1

88.2
82.8

77.8

74.4

72.9 72.1

52.9

20

38.3

81.9

77.6

74.7

72.6
57.9

72.0
59.3

51.7

50

30

78.3

76.8

75.3

92.3

62.2

60

40

95.7
90.6

86.3

39.8

34.9

34.5

32.6
20.4

20.2

24.0
13.3

24.5
15.0

18.8

10
0

6-11 12-17 18-22 6-11 12-17 18-22 6-11 12-17 18-22 6-11 12-17 18-22 6-11 12-17 18-22 6-11 12-17 18-22
Years
Years
Years
Years
Years
Years
Brazil
Costa Rica
EcuadorMexicoPanamaVenezuela(Bol. Rep. of)2000 censuses

2010 censuses

Source: Latin American and Caribbean Demographic Centre (CELADE)-Population Division of
ECLAC, on the basis of the Socio-demographic System on Indigenous People andPopulations in Latin America (SISPPI) and special processing of census microdata.

The roles and functions assigned to indigenous women in certain
more traditional contexts also condition educational access andpersistence. Therefore, a detailed analysis is needed on how these aspects
impact educational access and quality for indigenous women and girls, ineach socioterritorial context (ECLAC, 2013b). The flip side of the progresson the school enrolment front is the loss of central aspects of the lives
of indigenous peoples, such as language. Having their own language isa right and an essential part of the ethnic identity of any group (Expert
Mechanism on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, 2010) and has beenamong the fundamental claims of indigenous organizations. The rightto use their own language is consistent with the desire to keep theirculture alive and represents a basic pillar of identity, a practice that helps
indigenous peoples endure.
Census data has made it possible to develop a more complete pictureof this topic, inasmuch as most of the region’s countries include questions

89

Guaranteeing indigenous people’s rights in Latin America • Summaryon this topic in their censuses, as well as questions on self-identification.
Some of the findings show that many indigenous groups are working very
hard to preserve their languages within their territories, but outside thesecommunities only a small proportion of indigenous youth are speaking
them. In other cases, indigenous languages are seriously threatened bothin and outside the indigenous territories, and in yet other communities,
indigenous languages are rapidly becoming extinct.
This is largely explained by the conditions that have shaped the entryof Latin America’s indigenous peoples into modernity and globalization,
which have contributed to a gradual loss of their languages and dialects,
or to the loss of those languages as their mother tongues. The role ofeducation and public policies is key to mitigating and reversing theseprocesses and safeguarding the linguistic diversity and cultural wealthof the region’s countries.
Although the countries of Latin America have made great strides in
updating their legal and constitutional systems to recognize and promoteindigenous peoples’ right to education, it must also be provided in theinstitutional framework, promoting interculturality and bilingualism at
all educational levels.
In recent years, there has been a paradigm shift around intercultural
education. Whereas bilingual education was originally conceived as forindigenous children, it is now regarded as a system-wide modality, notonly for indigenous peoples but also for the entire population in the school
system. The evidence suggests that bilingual intercultural education has
been positive in general in the countries in the region where it has been
implemented (UNESCO, 2013).
Given that access to the educational system is not guaranteed per se,
nor is the quality or cultural relevance of the teaching-learning process,education should also take into consideration the content, values andknowledge of indigenous cultures, as well as those of the rest of society. In sodoing, indigenous languages and culture come to be important pedagogicalresources in this process. The idea is to “de-colonize” educational
content and begin to consider dimensions such as gender, spirituality andinterculturality (Cunningham, 2011, cited in SITEAL, 2011). The challenge
is to include these elements in sector policies, in the framework of rights
of autonomy, territorial control and full participation. It is also essentialthat governments guarantee educational continuity, from early childhood
education to university and specialized and/or post-graduate training, while

90

ECLAC 2014

also ensuring the quality of education for indigenous peoples, especiallyas it relates to the cultural background of the students.
The available information indicates that few indigenous students
participate in post-secondary and higher education in Latin America.
Gaps in access and persistence among indigenous youth at thiseducational level continue to be large (SITEAL, 2011). There are gaps by
place of residence, ethnicity and gender among young adults between theages of 20 and 29 with 13 or more years of schooling. The first of thesegaps is reflected in the evident disadvantage attaching to young adults—indigenous and non-indigenous alike— in rural areas, compared with
their urban peers, as shown in figures IV.5 and IV.6. The disadvantage iseven sharper for rural indigenous youth, especially in Brazil, Colombia,
Nicaragua and Panama, where not even 5% of that population grouphas 13 or more years of education.
Gender gaps among young indigenous people are generally notsignificant when rural and urban areas are analysed separately, except
in the case of Uruguay and the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela, where
young indigenous women are at a clear advantage.
Figure IV.5
Latin American (10 countries): proportion of urban youth aged 20-29
with 13 or more years of schooling, by ethnic status and sex,
censuses between 2005 and 2011
(Percentages)
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0

Brazil(2010)

Colombia Costa Rica Ecuador(2005)(2011)(2010)

Indigenous men

Mexico(2010)

Indigenous womenNicaragua Panama(2005)(2010)

Non-indigenous men

Peru(2007)

Uruguay Venezuela(2011) (Bol. Rep. of)(2011)

Non-indigenous women

Source: Latin American and Caribbean Demographic Centre (CELADE)-Population Division of
ECLAC, on the basis of special processing of census microdata.

91

Guaranteeing indigenous people’s rights in Latin America • Summary
Figure IV.6
Latin American (10 countries): proportion of rural youth aged 20-29
with 13 or more years of schooling, by ethnic status and sex,
censuses between 2005 and 2011
(Percentages)
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0

Brazil(2010)

Colombia Costa Rica Ecuador(2005)(2011)(2010)

Indigenous men

Mexico(2010)

Indigenous womenNicaragua Panama(2005)(2010)

Non-indigenous men

Peru(2007)

Uruguay Venezuela(2011) (Bol. Rep. of)(2011)

Non-indigenous women

Source: Latin American and Caribbean Demographic Centre (CELADE)-Population Division of
ECLAC, on the basis of special processing of census microdata.

The main reasons for the lower rate of participation of youth inpost-secondary education are material poverty, early incorporation into
work (including subsistence activities), distance between higher learning
institutes and place of residence and the poor quality of primary andsecondary education, to mention the most obvious. Moreover, unlike
primary and secondary schools, these institutions incorporate barely
any cultural elements specific to indigenous peoples or modifications forbilingual intercultural education. In this regard, a number of intercultural
post-secondary institutions of diverse origin have been created, ranging
from State initiatives —such as the Network of Intercultural Universities,
which comes under the Office of the General Coordinator for Intercultural
and Bilingual Education (CGEIB) of the Ministry of Public Education of
Mexico— to institutes created by indigenous peoples themselves, suchas the Kawsay University in the Plurinational State of Bolivia or the
University of the Autonomous Regions of the Nicaraguan Caribbean Coast(URACCAN) and the Bluefields Indian and Caribbean University, bothin the autonomous regions of Nicaragua. Nine Latin American countries
have some sort of intercultural or indigenous university today, which
certainly offer a framework of experiences for moving forward with regard

92

ECLAC 2014

to both indigenous peoples’ right to education and the construction ofpluricultural societies.
Both the incorporation of an intercultural perspective into existing
conventional institutions and the establishment of new institutes ofhigher learning, that reflect indigenous needs and cosmovisions, areindispensable strategies for transforming social, cultural, economic andpolitical relationships in the region’s countries by providing a forum forengaging in balanced, mutually enriching and respectful dialogue andfor strengthening diversity.
The limited relevance of the majority of higher learning institutionsin Latin America with respect to the social and cultural diversity thatcharacterizes the region’s countries has not only reinforced forms of
discrimination against indigenous individuals and communities but also
affected the content and quality of training provided by these institutions.
This lack of relevance to the social and cultural diversity of the contexts inwhich they operate also limits the ability of these institutions to generate
useful social and educational innovations, technologies and knowledge
that could prove beneficial not only for indigenous peoples in particular
but also for the respective national societies as a whole.
Formulating intercultural education policies is closely tied to thecapacity of States to take into account the educational demands oftheir populations through the active participation of the communities.
Baronnet (2013) argues that without the involvement of indigenous
families and authorities in educational planning and administration, it
makes no sense to design intercultural programmes because this conflicts
with the legitimate desire of indigenous groups to execute their own
community development projects. The emphasis should instead beplaced on developing teacher skills, including instructing in the students’
mother tongue and sensitizing them to the importance of involving thecommunity in formal education (UNESCO, 2013).
“Nothing about us without us” is an old saying that has taken on
real meaning for indigenous peoples, whose expertise in traditional
knowledge, culture, ways of life, worldviews and teaching methods
often exists only within the communities themselves. Therefore, a goodeducation requires the participation of the local communities, not only inteaching classes but also in developing curricula and teaching materials
and in training teachers (UNESCO, 2013).

93

Guaranteeing indigenous people’s rights in Latin America • Summary

There follow some policy recommendations based on this analysisof the educational situation of indigenous peoples in Latin America.
Recommendations

94•

It is essential for the States —in accordance with ILO
Convention 169 and the United Nations Declaration on the
Rights of Indigenous Peoples— to adopt all relevant measures
to guarantee that indigenous peoples have access to a quality
education at all levels, ensuring their participation in theformulation and execution of educational programmes.

•

States must take action to ensure that all indigenous school-age
children have access to a free education, including in indigenous
schools in their neighborhoods or communities that provide
instruction in their native languages in line with culturally
appropriate teaching and learning methods.

•

Instruction must be guaranteed safe and appropriate from acultural viewpoint, for which for curricula must be based on,or adequately reflect, the beliefs and cultural values of theindigenous peoples.

•

Access to education and skills development for indigenous
women should be a priority, including any reforms to theeducational systems that are needed for them to take advantageof training and job opportunities.

•

The States need to take the necessary actions to attack the factors
hindering participation of young indigenous men and womenin higher education.

•

Government efforts should therefore position education withina larger framework of well-being that seeks to achieve not
only greater coverage but also quality and cultural relevance.
Educational institutions must incorporate culturally specificelements and make modifications aimed at delivering educationthat is more bilingual and intercultural.

•

States must redouble their efforts to promote and respect theuse of indigenous languages and take urgent measures to avoid
the loss of indigenous languages at risk of extinction, since they
are, moreover, part of global heritage.

ECLAC 2014•

In order to reduce existing inequalities and gaps, intercultural
educational formats should not be limited solely to thetranslation of content into indigenous languages, but rather
broader approaches should be taken that incorporate theexperiences of indigenous peoples and their epistemologies,
histories, knowledge, techniques and means of transmission.

•

Public investment in indigenous education is generally insufficientand lower than the amounts spent on other segments of the
population, so the States should take the necessary measures
to overcome these deficiencies, and regular studies should be
conducted to assess public spending results in this area and theimpacts of educational policies among indigenous groups.

•

In the framework of free determination and of processes ofautonomy, indigenous education systems must be recognized,
and States must promote and them and contribute tostrengthening them.

•

Lastly, it is crucial for the States to allocate resources —financial
and technical— to compiling and analysing data disaggregatedby indigenous people, in order to build indicators on accessto and progression in education, and the quality and cultural
relevance of education at all levels of schooling.

95V. Right to information and communication

A. Freedom of expression, self-determination andthe right to information and communicationof indigenous peoples
The right to information is an essential, basic and fundamental humanright that is directly associated with freedom of expression and has
been recognized in all human rights instruments, such that States must
guarantee it, regardless of whether it is provided in a country’s nationallaws, for all citizens without discrimination. Since the 1990s, freedomof expression has been redefined to encompass not only freedomof information but also freedom of communication or the right tocommunication, in response to the constant and growing penetrationof the press, radio and television and the emergence and proliferationof information and communications technology, such as the Internet(ECLAC/UNICEF/UNFPA, 2011; Fuenmayor, 2004).
At present and in light of the advances made in international law,indigenous peoples’ right to information and communication is part ofthe standard set of rights that States must implement. The constituent
components of this standard are the right of indigenous peoples toestablish their own information and communications media in their own
languages and also the right to obtain access to all other non-indigenous
information and communications media on a nondiscriminatory basis.
In addition, States must adopt measures to ensure that State-owned
communications media and information systems duly reflect indigenous
cultural diversity, and to encourage the private sector to do the same. The
States must also guarantee full freedom of expression.
97

Guaranteeing indigenous people’s rights in Latin America • Summary

This also entails unrestricted access to relevant, reliable and timely
data as a technical and policy tool that enables indigenous peoples tobe agents of their own development and to participate in State decisionmaking. For these purposes, access to information on public budgets andexecution thereof at the various levels of government (national, provincial,
municipal, comunal) is indispensable. In order to evaluate rights,
information is needed to identify nonfulfillment (or progress towards
fulfillment) of duties and obligations. In this regard, information becomesan invaluable tool for evaluating and promoting human rights. It is alsoessential for any procedure related to free, prior and informed consent.
The standard includes full and effective participation by indigenous
peoples in all information production processes.
The need for disaggregated information on indigenous groups
has been raised repeatedly at various regional and international
conferences and summits, as well as by mechanisms for monitoring therights of indigenous peoples and various treaty organizations, whichhave observed that the majority of the region’s countries have gaps
in their implementation of the right to information. Specifically, theright to information and communication is among the commitments
made by the governments in the Montevideo Consensus on Population
and Development, which will guide the post-2014 population anddevelopment agenda, indicating that the existing standards andrecommendations should be taken into account.
Initially, the claims and demands of indigenous organizations were
for the right to information and communication related to the role ofmass media —such as the press and especially radio and television—and subsequently and increasingly were for their inclusion in official
statistics systems. In more recent years, these organizations have pushed
for the development of statistical tools in accordance with indigenous
requirements and ways of life, access to new information technologies
and the development of their own communications media. Although
this issue has been systematically included in all of the declarations
and proposals that have come out of conferences and summits
organized by indigenous groups, the Continental Summit of Indigenous
Communication should be mentioned in particular, which met first in2010 and for a second time in 2013. This topic has been included as apriority in the Alta Outcome Document.

98ECLAC 2014

B. Right to information with an emphasis on
demographic and socioeconomic aspects
The right to information is so fundamental to the exercise of other rightsthat it has become, along with access to participation, justice andequality, a crosscutting indicator of progress towards State enforcementof social, economic and cultural rights. It is a right that underpins and isa requirement of the State obligation to consult with indigenous peoples
on actions and decisions that affect them, as well as respect for free, priorand informed consent. This entails not only an obligation by the Stateto guarantee the right by providing access to available data, but also apositive obligation to generate information and disseminate it.
ECLAC has been actively supporting the region’s countries inthis area, considering the recommendations of the UNPFII, providing
technical assistance to strengthen national capacities and developing
guidelines and support tools, together with PAHO, the UNPFA and
UNICEF. The national statistics institutes, lead agencies in the productionof sociodemographic information, have started to respond to these Stateobligations, which have been accompanied by strong and growing
demands from the indigenous organizations. However, there are still
major challenges ahead, which can be grouped into three categories:
including self-identification in all data sources; making information
systems culturally appropriate; and developing complementary systems
in line with the needs of indigenous peoples. The full and effective
participation of indigenous peoples crosscuts all three areas.
Asking self-identification questions is the first step towards being
able to disaggregate information. Although 17 countries in Latin America
include self-identification questions in their population and housing
censuses, the situation is not nearly as encouraging when it comes to otherdata sources. In the case of employment, income and living condition
surveys, aside from the modalities applied in each case, only 11 countries
made at least one request for self-identification information fromindigenous peoples in the period 2000-2011, and not all have collected
this information systematically. In the case of demographic and healthsurveys, 10 countries collect selfidentification information. In addition,
there are some limitations to be addressed: even when selfidentificationquestions are included, the information does not tend to be disaggregatedand disseminated. This is due in part to the fact that the sample sizes are99

Guaranteeing indigenous people’s rights in Latin America • Summary

not often revised to be “representative” of the indigenous groups. Andin many cases, the way in which the questions are asked differs from theway in which they are asked on the population censuses, compromising
the comparability of the information.
In the case of continuous records, such as birth and death registries
and health, education, housing and other records, major gaps persist.
Several countries in the region have started to make progress, but so far
Brazil is among the few, though not the only one, to incorporate ethnic
identification information throughout the statistics system, including on
registries, and to process and disseminate that information. In the restof the countries, the issue is at least being addressed. In some cases,
there are local experiences that function very well but have yet to be
implemented throughout the country. As for health records, Colombia,
Ecuador, Guatemala and Paraguay are some of the countries that are
paying a fair amount of attention to the matter, and in the health sector,
highly participatory strategies have been implemented with indigenous
communities to move towards inclusion.
Agriculture censuses are another data source of considerable
importance for indigenous peoples, because they compile informationon the total area of farm operations, land tenure, size and use, livestock
count and use of machinery, water sources, infrastructure and other data
points. In the past, these censuses rarely included any identification ofindigenous peoples, whether through identification of the producer(which could be an individual or group) or identification of the production
unit as an indigenous community. There has been real forward momentum
in this regard over the past decade, and 7 of 14 countries with recent(2007- present) agriculture censuses now gather some of this information.
Colombia and Costa Rica stand out, having incorporated this information
in a highly participatory way with indigenous peoples.
Cultural appropriateness refers both to the dimensions and categories
included in the data sources and to the procedures that each source usesin the various stage of data production. In the case of population andhousing censuses, a number of countries in the region (such as Colombia,
Guatemala, Mexico, Peru and the Plurinational State of Bolivia) have longincluded questions on indigenous languages, and still others incorporated
questions on indigenous languages in the 2010 census round, bringing thetotal number that collect this information to at least 12 countries. This makes

100

ECLAC 2014activities such as mapping indigenous languages possible, paving the way
for public policies to recognize, preserve and promote these languages.
Some countries have made efforts to incorporate questions onother distinctive aspects of the indigenous experience, customizing
dimensions and variables that are traditionally included in populationand housing censuses, as a result also of consultations with indigenousorganizations. In Brazil, for example, a custom questionnaire wasdistributed in indigenous territories that included for type of housing
the option of indigenous housing (oca or maloca); for birth records, acategory for the administrative registry for indigenous births (RANI) was
included; and for questions on marriage, respondents were given theoption of identifying more than one spouse, since polygamy is practiced
by some indigenous groups. The Plurinational State of Bolivia, Chile andthe Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela have also included the option ofindigenous traditional housing. The 2012 census in Chile considered
not only types of housing tenure but also land tenure, and the category“indigenous spirituality” was added to the question on religion. In the
Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela, the option of intercultural education
was added to the section on level and type of last grade of school attended.
But these experiences are still isolated an insufficient.
In terms of territoriality, the expectation has been for all countries thatrecognize indigenous territories and lands to include the corresponding
designation on the census questionnaire (a variable that does notnecessarily coincide with the country’s political-administrative divisions),
adjusting the map to allow for the construction of indicators consistent
with those territories. Progress in this regard was seen in Brazil, Costa
Rica, Panama, Paraguay and the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela in the2010 censuses. In Colombia, the delineation of indigenous territories
in the 2013-2014 agriculture census set a new precedent given that themap was prepared jointly by the National Administrative Department of
Statistics (DANE) and the National Indigenous Organization of Colombia(ONIC) using the territorial boundaries established by the indigenous
peoples, regardless of their legal status.
Regarding complementary tools, some countries —Paraguay,
Peru (only in Amazonia) and the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela—
administered a community questionnaire in the indigenous territories alongwith their population and housing censuses. These questionnaires offer

101

Guaranteeing indigenous people’s rights in Latin America • Summary

great potential for monitoring collective rights, gathering information on theland and natural resources, access to justice, the supply and characteristicsof health and education services (including intercultural and indigenous
aspects) and ancestral practices and knowledge. Unreservedly, thesethree cases are valuable experiences that should be integrated into theformulation and monitoring of policies to improve implementation of therights of indigenous peoples. Unfortunately, there has not yet been any real
attempt to use this information in the region, and strengthening national
capacities—of both public officials and indigenous organizations— is
one of the areas where efforts must be stepped up in the region. In thecase of Argentina, and also in conjunction with the census process, a
Supplementary Survey of Indigenous Peoples was administered in 20042005, using a sample-based design so it would be representative of thedifferent indigenous groups in the country, in both urban and rural areas.
Lastly, it should be noted that statistical systems are built withinconceptual frameworks that reflect the dominant culture. Therefore,transformation processes towards pluricultural democracies willentail a re-design of official information systems, not only in terms ofcontent but also control and management, including the recognitionof the information systems of indigenous groups. Regarding content,
the “good living” paradigm imposes not-insignificant challenges interms of statistical measurements. A proposal that emerged in 2006,
initiated by organizations of indigenous peoples in the region, is todefine structural, process and results indicators for key issues that
determine the “well-being” of indigenous peoples, such as: (i) land andterritories; (ii) collective natural and cultural heritage; (iii) forms of socialorganization; (iv) identity (collective and gender); (v) free determination;(vi) autonomy and self-governance models; (vii) intercultural relations;and (viii) degree or level of well-being. Each one of these areas should
be defined according to indigenous epistemologies.

C. Right to communication: from access to informationand communications technologies to developmentof their own media
The United Nations specialized human rights agencies have stated thataccess to the Internet is essential for a truly democratic society, both tofacilitate enjoyment of the right to freedom of opinion and expression,102

ECLAC 2014

as well as other rights, such as education, freedom of association andassembly, citizen participation and social and economic development.
However, there are large discrepancies and inequalities in the region inInternet access in Latin America and the Caribbean, which are expressedboth in terms of an overall gap in access between the region’s countries
and in relation to developed countries, and in terms of social gaps inaccess within the countries, with digital stratification as the result.
Although the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous
Peoples establishes the right to communication (Article 16), 6 theinternational community has also expressed its concern that indigenous
peoples should be included in the information society in other
instruments and forums, notably the Declaration of Principles – Building
the Information Society: a global challenge in the new millennium of
the World Summit on the Information Society (2003), and the World
Telecommunication Development Conference (Doha, 2006). In theregion, it is important to take into account the Plan of Action for the
Information and Knowledge Society in Latin America and the Caribbean(eLAC2015), approved in 2010 at the Third Ministerial Conference on
the Information Society in Latin America and the Caribbean.
The expression “digital divide” describes the gap that exists
between those with good access to digital and information technologies,
particularly the Internet, and those with very limited or no access.
Although the digital divide consists of factors related to both technology
and the skills needed to use it, access to the Internet is a key variable.
This digital divide can be seen in inclusion/exclusion dynamics and is an
outgrowth of pre-existing social and economic inequalities, while also
serving to reinforce and exacerbate them.
The indicator for households connected to the Internet provides
a rough idea of the digital divide without reflecting all the factors that
contribute to it, such as connection speed or different Internet use skills.
Moreover, the first digital divide —Internet access— is being replaced asecond, even more exclusive digital divide —broadband access. As the6

Article 16, paragraph 1: Indigenous peoples have the right to establish their own media
in their own languages and to have access to all forms of non-indigenous media without
discrimination; paragraph 2: States shall take effective measures to ensure that State-owned
media duly reflect indigenous cultural diversity. States, without prejudice to ensuring full
freedom of expression, should encourage privately owned media to adequately reflect
indigenous cultural diversity.

103

Guaranteeing indigenous people’s rights in Latin America • Summary

United Nations General Assembly declared in its resolution 67/195 ofFebruary 2013, the digital divide is taking on new dimensions, marked
by broadband access (United Nations, 2013).
The 2010 round censuses are a valuable source of data forcomparative studies on ethnicity-based gaps in access to the Internet and
ICT, because this census round had specific modules for selfidentification
and affiliation with indigenous groups, and ICT equipment and access. A
review of census data from nine countries confirms that there is a large
digital divide for indigenous peoples, which is a new contemporary
manifestation of the historical exclusion that such groups have faced.
Indigenous households are connected to the Internet at a lower rate than
the total average for the countries analysed (see table V.1).
Table V.1
Households connected to the Internet, by ethnic status and areaof residence, census data around 2010
(Percentages)
Country andcensus year

Percentage of households with Internet access
Indigenous
Non-indigenous
Ethnic gaps bhouseholds ahouseholds
Urban Rural Total Urban Rural Total Urban Rural Total

Brazil, 2010

24.7

0.8

15.1

35.2

4.0

30.8

1.4

5.2

2.0

Costa Rica, 2011

33.5

6.9

20.7

40.6

14.7

33.8

1.2

2.1

1.6

Ecuador, 2010

6.3

1.4

2.7

17.9

5.6

13.8

2.9

3.9

5.1

Mexico, 2010

14.9

1.1

9.3

29.7

3.4

24.9

2.0

3.2

2.7

Nicaragua, 2005

4.4

0.1

2.1

7.0

0.5

4.4

1.6

3.7

2.1

Panama, 2010

11.1

0.3

3.3

29.0

3.6

21.9

2.6

11.9

6.6

Peru, 2007

2.6

0.0

1.4

10.2

0.1

8.5

3.9

3.9

5.9

Uruguay, 2011
Venezuela (Bolivarian
Republic of), 2011

39.4

21.1

38.7

44.3

23.1

43.2

1.1

1.1

1.1

7.2

0.4

4.9

26.9

2.1

24.2

3.7

5.1

4.9

Source: Latin American and Caribbean Demographic Centre (CELADE)-Population Division of
ECLAC, on the basis of special processing of census microdata.
aIndigenous households: households where the head of household or spouse self-identifies
as indigenous, except in the case of Peru, which considers an indigenous mother tongue,
and Uruguay, which uses indigenous ancestry.
b
Ratio between the rate of access among non-indigenous households and the rate of accessamong indigenous households.

The gaps between indigenous and non-indigenous households
appear across the board regardless of the level of access in each country.
In Ecuador, Peru, the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela and Panama,
the rate of Internet access among non-indigenous households is five to104

ECLAC 2014

six times greater than the rate among indigenous households, territorial
inequalities in the digital divide are significant and even more so when
ethnicity is considered. Ethnicity-based gaps in Internet access between
indigenous and non-indigenous households in rural areas are larger thanin urban areas in the vast majority of the countries studied.
Challenging this framework of inequality, indigenous peoples aremaking intensive use of ICT, at various levels, within their organizations,
between different indigenous groups and towards society in general. In
the past few years, indigenous media have grown notable in the region.
These media are community-based and participatory, drawing on local
realities to strengthen networking activities for building partnerships,
as well as serving as an important tool for political participation andprotection of indigenous peoples’ individual and collective rights.
With respect to traditional technologies, such as radio and television,indigenous peoples have an undeniable wealth of experience with radio,
which has been their main tool for transmitting information at the local or
national level. Indigenous radio stations can be found throughout Latin
America and tend to broadcast in two or three languages —indigenous
languages and Spanish (or Portuguese in the case of Brazil). Many ofthem now have websites where they can transmit their programmingand be heard around the world, as well as profiles on social media sites
like Facebook. The work done by community radio stations is key fordisseminating human rights. Many are located in highly marginalized
communities or conflict zones, which has given them an instrumentalrole in rebuilding the social fabric and helping to foster a culture ofpeace. Paradoxically, this also places them in a highly vulnerable
position, without full rights to exercise community communication.
For example, although community radio stations have been present
in Mexico for over 35 years, of the stations that are the result of civic
initiatives, few have obtained a broadcast license and the others havebeen denied the opportunity to obtain a license, whether by omission,
because the authorities do not respond to the applications, or by setting
requirements that most of these stations could not possibly meet. There
are similar situations in other countries, where the constant is the highconcentration of the sector and the lack of an adequate legal framework.
As for television projects, there have been some achievements overthe past decade, though relatively few in the region, where there are105

Guaranteeing indigenous people’s rights in Latin America • Summary

more social and economic obstacles to obtaining the equipment needed
for television transmission. However, there are some experiences ofprogrammes transmitted on national channels. In Colombia, for example,
on Canal Capital, in conjunction with the ONIC, indigenous groups havea news show “Colombia Nativa” that airs twice per week. In 2013, theindigenous channel “Wall Kintun” was launched in Bariloche, Argentina, as
the first open-signal television channel in the country run by an indigenousorganization, although it is still in the implementation phase. In Ecuador,
TVMICC (Indigenous Campesino Movement of Cotopaxi), was the firsttelevision channel in the country to be run by an indigenous organization.
In Guatemala, TV Maya, which first aired in 2007, represents substantial
fulfillment of the Agreement on Identity and Rights of Indigenous People
and is attached to the Guatemalan Academy of Mayan Languages. In thecase of Nicaragua, both community radio and televised media have playeda key role in the full exercise of rights to autonomy, and both have been
expanding significantly in the autonomous regions.
Meanwhile, new information technologies provide a way to spreadthe word on activities carried out by indigenous organizations and serve
as a platform for indigenous peoples to communicate their beliefs andworldviews, as well as discuss the intersection between these and theprecepts and opinions emanating from the non-indigenous context.
With these technologies, networks have emerged that extend beyond
the reach of radio and television, because they use the Internet as theirplatform, which provides greater coverage and enables them to be
configured around different ideas and interests, modalities and at different
levels. An example of this new type of network is the Latin American
Coordination Office of Film and Communication of Indigenous Peoples(CLACPI), which produces audiovisual materials on indigenous culturesand provides training in audiovisual production to various indigenousorganizations. An online news network is the SERVINDI News Agency,
created to promote intercultural and pluralistic communication of current
events to indigenous communities in Peru and other countries in theregion. National indigenous organizations have websites in nearly every
country in the region. The website of Centro de Culturas Indígenas delPerú (CHIRAPAQ) is a widely disseminated news source that presents
information on Andean and Amazonian indigenous issues from multiple
perspectives and does important work with indigenous women, youth andchildren. Similar initiatives have arisen throughout Latin America at the106

ECLAC 2014

local level too. For example, the Mapuche community has an independent
news source, Mapuexpress, which reports on news that contributes toplurality of thinking and on prominent Mapuche-related events in Chileand Argentina and other news highlights relating to indigenous peoples
in general. A number of regional news and information networks also
cover indigenous issues as part of their content. Alainet, Indymedia andAdital are a few examples.
Although there are a multitude of media outlets reporting on and forindigenous peoples in Latin America, the context of discrimination andinequality in which they operate imposes serious restrictions that must
be addressed in light of human rights standards. These restrictions takemany forms, from the absence of indigenous peoples in the regulatory
frameworks and the fight for frequencies to the lack of technical trainingthat would allow for effective use of information and communications
technologies. Specifically, and in the framework of the new governanceof natural resources that should include the rights of indigenous peoples,
an emerging challenge to consider the radio spectrum in this new systemof governance, where one of the elements is participation in its benefits.
There are already some examples of how this can work in the region,such as the negotiation of agreements between the autonomous regional
government of Nicaragua and an international company for paymentof a fee to run broadband cable through the territories of autonomous
regions. Agreements have also been negotiated between the company
and community authorities, for each communal territory through which
the cable is laid. As part of the requirements established at the Second
Continental Summit of Indigenous Communication on Abya Yala (2013),
it was agreed that the indigenous territorial autonomy includes the radio
spectrum, and a proposal was tabled for 33% of the spectrum, as wellas the assignment of frequencies in the digital transition.
Recommendations
In view of the situation described, some recommendations are:•Strengthen the legal and regulatory context for the inclusion ofindigenous peoples throughout the national statistics system,
including the institutions needed to guarantee the participationof indigenous peoples in all stages of the information
production process.

107

Guaranteeing indigenous people’s rights in Latin America • Summary

108•

States should promote coordination between all informationproducing institutions to include consistent and comparable
self-identification questions in the different data sources.

•

Together with the indigenous groups, the entities in charge ofstatistics systems should redouble efforts to ensure the cultural
appropriateness of the statistics instruments and procedures foreach stage of the information production process.

•

Advance with the development of pluricultural information
systems, for which the various existing proposals in the region
must be reviewed and discussion forums must be promoted
to identify a set of well-being indicators that address therequirements of indigenous peoples.

•Strengthen the technical capacities of indigenous peoples toactively use available information and advocate for policy,
and of government officials to understand their obligations to
produce information and the importance of participation andcultural relevance to improve the quality and validity thereof.

•

Between indigenous groups and statistics institutes, jointly
evaluate progress and setbacks in these areas, in order to shareexperiences and identify operational strategies in line with eachdata source that allow for more comprehensive action, taking
into account recommendations already existing in this area.

•

The States should redouble efforts to ensure that broadband
Internet access becomes available to all indigenous individuals
and communities as soon as possible.

•

States should design and implement policies for spectrum
assignment that explicitly include indigenous peoples. Also,
given that the radio spectrum is a natural resource, effective
measures should be taken to ensure that it is covered bystandards already in place with respect to the territorial rights
of indigenous peoples.

•

It is important for the States to adopt regulatory frameworks
that provide certainty, promote deconcentration of radio andtelevision and help generate a pluralistic media environmentthat is accessible to all sectors of the population, especiallycommunity radio, so it can operate without discrimination.

ECLAC 2014•

Guarantee that radio and television licensing is regulated bylaw in a comprehensive, clear and transparent way, based on
objective, clear, public and democratic criteria, with the fullparticipation of indigenous peoples.

•

In order to correct the deficits and delays that affectindigenous peoples, the States have an obligation to extend
the communications network to integrate these communities,
through the construction and expansion of communications andtelecommunications networks.

•

Establish conditions that enable indigenous groups to acquire,
operate and run media outlets, adapting the relevant legislation.

•

Explicitly include indigenous peoples in observatories on racismand discrimination in the media, which should also provide
guiding principles and relevant proposals to help eliminate racist
content directed at indigenous peoples. Guatemala’s experiencecan serve as an example for other countries to follow.

•

Professional training should be promoted for indigenous
people in journalism and other technical careers associatedwith information and communications technologies, including
software development.

•

The States should promote and strengthen the active
participation of indigenous peoples in the meetings of theeLAC2015 ministerial follow-up conference, as well as in theworking groups.

109

Guaranteeing indigenous people’s rights in Latin America • Summary

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As the twenty-first century advances, the countries of Latin America
are building deeper democracies and looking critically at thedevelopment process, in the growing conviction that development
should focus on equality and be approached on the basis of rights.
This means tackling the region’s persistent inequalities, especiallythose affecting indigenous peoples, who have historically
suffered exclusion and discrimination. It also means guaranteeing
indigenous people both the enjoyment of human rights on an
equal footing to the rest of society, and the right to be collectively
different. This is a challenge for this century, which began with therecognition of the rights of indigenous people and the role they
unquestionably play on national and international agendas.
As the Second International Decade of the World’s Indigenous
People draws to a close, it is time to take stock of progressin implementing indigenous people’s rights and in building
pluricultural democracies: how much progress has been made,and how it has been made? This study, prepared during the run-up
to the World Conference on Indigenous Peoples, uses empiricalevidence to show the undeniable progress made in the region in
the past decade, as well as the contradictions, the difficulties
encountered and the urgent challenges regarding implementationand follow-up of the post-2015 development agenda.
In this document, ECLAC recognizes the contribution indigenous
people have made to building a new development paradigm andoffers policy recommendations for moving from “new deals” to“new compacts”. In the words of its Executive Secretary, Alicia
Bárcena, “this is not just a matter of social justice, but a way to lockin the profound changes needed in the region and the world, andpart of stronger foundations for global peace”.