Farmers' Perceptions of Climate Change
and Adaptation Strategies in Northern
Nigeria: An Empirical Assessment
African Technology Policy Studies Network

RESEARCH PAPER | No. 15
Dr. Blessing Kaletapwa Farauta
Chukwudumebi Leticia Egbule
Dr. Yusuf Lawan Idrisa
Dr. Victoria, Chinwe Agu

Farmers' Perceptions of Climate Change
and Adaptation Strategies in Northern
Nigeria: An Empirical Assessment

Dr. (Mrs.) Blessing
Kaletapwa Farauta
Federal University of Technology
Adamawa State, Nigeria
Chukwudumebi
Leticia Egbule
University of Nigeria
Enugu State, Nigeria

Dr. Yusuf Lawan Idrisa
University of Maiduguri
Borno State, Nigeria

Dr. (Mrs.) Victoria Chinwe
Agu
Federal Ministry of Agriculture andWater Resources
Abuja, Nigeria

The African Technology Policy Studies Network (ATPS) is a multidisciplinary network of researchers, private sector actors andpolicy makers promoting the generation, dissemination, use andmastery of science, technology and innovation (ST&I) for African
development, environmental sustainability and global inclusion.
ATPS intends to achieve its mandate through research, capacity
building and training, science communication/dissemination andsensitization, participatory multi-stakeholder dialogue,knowledge brokerage, and policy advocacy.
Published by the African Technology Policy Studies Network
P O Box 10081, 00100 GPO Nairobi Kenya
2011

Published by the African Technology Policy Studies Network

ISBN: 978-9966-030-20-7

Table of Contents
Acknowledgement

4

Abstract5

List of Acronyms

6

1.

Introduction

7

2.

Literature Review

10

3.

Methodology

16

4.

Results & Discussion

19

5.

Summary & Conclusion

29

References

30

Farmers' Perceptions of Climate Change and Adaptation Strategies in Northern Nigeria: An Empirical Assessment | 3

Acknowledgement
This report was produced as part of the implementation of the ATPS Phase VI
Strategic Plan, 2008-2012 funded by ATPS Donors including the Ministerie van
Buitenlandse Zaken (DGIS) the Netherlands, and the Rockefeller Foundation,
amongst others. The authors hereby thank the ATPS for the financial andtechnical support during the implementation of the program. The Authors
specially thank the ATPS Climate Sense Program Director, Dr. Kevin Urama(ATPS); and the Program Coordinators including Prof. Francis Mutua (ATPS
Kenya); Dr. George Essegbey (ATPS Ghana), Prof. Eric Eboh (ATPS Nigeria), Dr.
Nicholas Ozor (ATPS), and Ms. Wairimu Mwangi (ATPS) for their technicalsupport during the research process.

4 | Farmers' Perceptions of Climate Change and Adaptation Strategies in Northern Nigeria: An Empirical Assessment

Abstract
This research paper looked at farmer's perception of causes, constraints andstrategies towards effective climate change adaptation in northern Nigeria. Data
were collected from 500 respondents using both qualitative and quantitative
approaches through multistage random sampling technique. Simple descriptive
statistics such as percentage and mean scores were used in data analysis. The
results of the study showed that the respondents were informed of the incidenceof climate change as regards uncertainties in terms of higher temperatures, delayin the onset of rains, erratic rainfall pattern; extremities of weather events such as
desertification, heavy rainfall, drought; and increased farming problems such as
loss of soil fertility; reduction in farm yields and high rate of disease incidence.
The extent of climate change on farms were revealed by changes in uncertainties
of onset of farming season, including the delay in onset of rainfall, less rainfall,
higher temperature; extremities of weather events such as high sun intensity, lossof forest resources, heavy winds; and increase in farming problems, in particular,
reduction in crop yields and loss of soil fertility. Respondents perceived thecauses of climate change as bush burning, continuous cropping, deforestationand excess chemical use on farms. Adaptive strategies used included multiple
cropping, intensive manure application, and use of wetland/fadama, use ofresistant varieties, processing to minimize post harvest loss, and reforestation.
Constraints to adaptation included: lack of financial resources, lack of access toweather forecasts, and limited access to improved crop varieties.

Farmers' Perceptions of Climate Change and Adaptation Strategies in Northern Nigeria: An Empirical Assessment | 5

List of Acronyms
IPCC
UNFCCC
GHGs
CFC
GDP
USDA

International Panel on Climate Change
United Nations Framework Committee on Climate
ChangeGreen House Gases
Chlorofluorocarbons
Gross Domestic Products
United States Department of Agriculture

6 | Farmers' Perceptions of Climate Change and Adaptation Strategies in Northern Nigeria: An Empirical Assessment

1. Introduction
1.1 Problem Statement
Climate change has been defined by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change (IPCC) as statistically significant variations that persist for an extended
period, typically decades or longer. It includes shifts in the frequency andmagnitude of sporadic weather events as well as the slow continuous rise inglobal mean surface temperature. Climate change manifests in a number ofways. They include: changes in average climatic conditions – some regions may
become drier or wetter on average; changes in climate variability – rainfall events
may become more erratic in some regions; changes in the frequency andmagnitude of extreme weather events and changes in sea levels.
Climate change is a process of global warming, in part attributable to thegreenhouse gases generated by human activity. These greenhouse gases are
generated from the burning of fossil fuels such as coal, oil and gas. These fuelscontain carbon and carbon dioxide is one of the gases which contribute to global
warming.
Climate change impacts are felt on agricultural production, health, biodiversity,
social and economic conditions, and affect people and the environment ingeneral. It is predicted to worsen the incidence of drought and desertification andmillions of people will become refugees as a result. The impacts of climatechange are being felt by both developed and developing countries, and in
Nigeria for example, more than two thirds of the country is thought to be prone todesertification. Mohammad (2009) reports that desert, which now covers about
35 percent of Nigeria's land mass, is advancing at an estimated 0.6 km perannum, while deforestation is taking place at 3.5 percent per annum. The desert
Farmers' Perceptions of Climate Change and Adaptation Strategies in Northern Nigeria: An Empirical Assessment | 7

belt has moved from Kebbi, Kano, Maiduguri to new Bussa, Kaduna, Jos,
Sheleng while Savannah now interface between desert and forest along Oyo,
Osun, Kogi and Benue states. Moreover, the Sudano-Sahelian region of Nigeria
has suffered a decrease in rainfall in the range of 3-4 percent per decade since
the beginning of the nineteenth century. The concern with climate change isheightened given its linkage to the agricultural sector and poverty. In particular, it
is anticipated that adverse impacts on the agricultural sector will exacerbate theincidence of rural poverty. Impacts on poverty are likely to be especially severe in
Nigeria where the agricultural sector is an important source of livelihood for amajority of the rural population. Our agriculture is rain fed. Our food production
system will be adversely affected by the variability in timing and amount of
rainfall, frequent outbreaks of crop pests and diseases and heat stress.
Although Nigeria has made some efforts to adapt and mitigate climate changerisks, the efforts are still rudimentary especially when compared with theimpending catastrophe. Hence, the pertinent questions that guided this research
work are: what are the perceived causes of climate change in northern Nigeria;
what are the constraints being faced by farmers in adapting to the effects of thechanging climate; and what adaptive strategies are been used in the study area
to ameliorate the impacts of climate change on farming activities.
1.2
Objectives of the Study
The overall objective of this research paper is to ascertain farmer's perception of
causes, constraints and strategies towards effective climate change adaptationin northern Nigeria. Specifically, the study sought to:
1. examine the nature of climate change impact in northern Nigeria;
2. identify the perceived causes of climate change in the area;
3. identify and describe the indigenous adaptation practices used by farmers
in the area; and;4. identify the problems farmers face due to the effects of climate change.
1.3
Justification of the Study
There is an urgent need for advocacy on climate change in order to enlighten
people on the dynamics of climate change; this cannot be done effectively
without any evidence. Research on climate change will therefore promote
evidence-based advocacy. It is these facts that this work wants to provide.
8 | Farmers' Perceptions of Climate Change and Adaptation Strategies in Northern Nigeria: An Empirical Assessment

With appropriate adaptation practices in place, the vulnerability to climatechange will be minimized. Although the issue of climate change and agriculture is
not a recent development, there has been little or no efforts aimed at scientifically
documenting the existing situation among agrarian communities in northern
Nigerian as regards the various indigenous innovative technologies andadaptation measures to combat the negative effects of climate change. The needfor such baseline information, especially as it concerns designing appropriate
strategies for mitigating climate change effect on agriculture, cannot be
overemphasized.
This work will therefore go a long way to provide vital information on what the ruralcommunities are doing to adapt their agricultural production properly in order toavoid losses, since their livelihood depend on agriculture. Again, due to thecomplex interactions between climatic, environmental, economic, political,
institutional, social and technological processes, the findings of this study will be
relevant to the agrarian rural poor, the researchers, NGOs, policy makers, thegovernment and international organizations for information and policy.

Farmers' Perceptions of Climate Change and Adaptation Strategies in Northern Nigeria: An Empirical Assessment | 9

2. Literature Review
2.1
The Concept of Climate Change
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) (1992)
defines climate change as a change of climate which is attributed directly or
indirectly to human activity that alters the composition of the global atmosphere
and which is in addition to natural climate variability observed over comparable
time periods. The UNFCCC thus makes a distinction between climate change
attributable to human activities altering the atmospheric composition, andclimate variability attributable to natural causes. Climate change refers to astatistically significant variation in either the mean state of the climate or in its
variability, persisting for an extended period (typically decades or longer); climatechange may be due to natural internal processes or external forces, or due topersistent anthropogenic changes in the composition of the atmosphere or inland use.
According to De Chavez and Tauli-Corpus (2008) global warming is the averageincrease of the earth's surface temperature and oceans as compared to previous
centuries. This is a result of the continuous trapping of heat within the earth's
atmosphere due to increased quantity of greenhouse gases. Global warming is
one of the key aspects of climate change. Global warming can lead to the rise in
the sea levels, oceans warm and glaciers melt, thereby threatening agricultural
productivity and human settlements. Other impacts may include; changes inrainfall patterns and increase in soil erosion, storms, floods and drought. The
ultimate result at the end would be a deepening food crisis, as well as worsening
weather, energy decrease and general environmental breakdown throughout theworld.

10 | Farmers' Perceptions of Climate Change and Adaptation Strategies in Northern Nigeria: An Empirical Assessment2.2
Causes of Climate Change
According to the summary of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change(IPPC) 4th Assessment Report (IPCC, 2007), human actions are very likely thecause of global warming; meaning a 90% or greater probability is attributable tohuman action A comprehensive assessment by the IPCC of the scientificevidence suggests that human activities are contributing to climate change, andthat there has been a discernible human influence on global climate(www.gcrio.org). Climate changes caused by human activities, most importantly
the burning of fossil fuels (coal, oil, and natural gas) and deforestation, aresuperimposed on, and to some extent masked by, natural climate fluctuations.
Climate change and global warming are caused by the build up of greenhousegases (GHGs) such as carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide, chlorofluorocarbons(CFCS) and methane, in the atmosphere as a result of human activities among
them, the burning of fossil fuels, bush burning, use of machines that produce
smoke, cooking etc (http://www.news.dailytrust.com). The planet (earth) issurrounded by an atmosphere containing gases that regulate temperature.
Various activities carried out by man have varying contributions to the changes in
the climate systems. The burning of coal, oil, and natural gas, as well as
deforestation and various agricultural and industrial practices, are altering thecomposition of the atmosphere and contributing to climate change(www.gcrio.org). These human activities have led to increased atmosphericconcentrations of a number of greenhouse gases.
According to De Chavez and Tauli-Corpus (2008) GHGs are chemicalcompounds such as water vapour, carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide
found in the atmosphere. These are gases that are able to absorb and radiate
heat. Many greenhouse gases occur naturally such as water vapour, carbon
dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), Ozone (O3) and nitrous oxide. Others such ashydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs) result exclusively fromhuman industrial processes. All of these gases are responsible for greenhouseeffect, but water vapour and CO2 contribute 90% of this effect (www.undp.org,
www.gcrio.org). In their direct contribution of these greenhouse gases, CO2
contributes 55%, methane 15%, CFCs 7%, CFC (11 and 12) 17%, and N2O 6%(www.undp.org).
Natural changes in climate result from interactions such as those between the
Farmers' Perceptions of Climate Change and Adaptation Strategies in Northern Nigeria: An Empirical Assessment | 11

atmosphere and ocean, referred to as internal factors, and from external causes,
such as variations in the sun's energy output which would externally vary theamount of solar radiation received by the earth's surface(www.eoearth.org/articles/causes-of-climate-change) and in the amount ofmaterial injected into the upper atmosphere by explosive volcanic eruptions(www.gcrio.org).
2.3
Effect of Climate Change on Crops
According Zhu (2005) climate change has both positive and negative effects on
farming, but there could be a more negative influence in the long run, which maylead to food scarcity if there are no immediate efforts to confront these problems.
Crop yields are affected by many factors associated with climate change which
includes: temperature, rainfall, extreme weather events, climate variability andeven carbon dioxide concentration in the atmosphere which is predicted to cause
global warming that will have a significant impact on crop production (USDA,
2007).
According to Brett (2009), 75 to 250 million Africans are projected to be exposed
to an increase of water stress due to changes in rainfall pattern, and the amountand availability of water stored in the soil which is a crucial input to crop growth,which will be affected by changes in both the precipitation and seasonal annual
evapo-transpiration. Agricultural production and access to food in many Africancountries is projected to be severely compromised by climate variability andchange in precipitation. The area suitable for agriculture, the length of growing
seasons and yield potential, particularly along the margins of semi-arid and arid
areas, are expected to decrease. In some countries, yields from rain-fed
agriculture could be reduced by up to 50% by 2020 (Brett, 2009).
In Nigeria, some areas like the Niger Delta regions receive more than normal
rainfall while some areas in the Northern region receive almost no rainfall as aresult, growing seasons are changing, ecological zones are shifting, and rainfall
is becoming more unpredictable and unreliable both in its timing and its volume(Brett, 2009). The crop water regime may be affected by changes in seasonal
precipitation, within- season pattern of precipitation, and inter annual variation of
precipitation. Too much precipitation can cause disease infestation in crops,
while too little can be detrimental to crop yield leading to decline in agricultural
productivity (IPCC, 2007), especially if dry periods occur during critical
12 | Farmers' Perceptions of Climate Change and Adaptation Strategies in Northern Nigeria: An Empirical Assessment

development stages. For example, moisture stress during the flowering,
pollination, and grain-filling stages is very harmful to maize, soya bean, wheat
and sorghum even rice which feeds more than half of the world's population canalso be jeopardized (Lorraine, 2007).
2.4
Effect of Climate Change on Soil
Change in climate will also have an effect on the soil. Soil structure is affected byvariation is temperature and rainfall, particularly during hotter and dryer season;
there is an increased tendency for subsoil to become strong making it moredifficult for roots to penetrate. Some soils are likely to form impenetrable caps,
increasing the risk of run-off and subsequent pollution events and floods areprojected to affect local crop production negatively, especially in subsistence
sectors at low latitudes (Brett, 2009). Others may form cracks through which any
rainfall will pass, reducing the trapping effect of the surface layers, further
increasing risk of drought in the following year and also reducing the filtering
effect of soil and increasing pollution risk.
In general, climate change is a contributory factor to food price crisis, and its
impacts on agriculture in developing countries is expected to get more serious,
for instance disease outbreak which may put the local and rare breed (plants andanimal) at risk of being lost through the impact of climate change and diseases
epidemics. Also expansion of vectors during wetter years reaching to large
outbreak of disease expansion to the North (Lancelot, Rocque and Clievalier,2008).
2.5
Climate Change Adaptation
Adaptation to the adverse effects of climate change is a key issue for all countries,
especially developing countries, which are often the most vulnerable and at least
equipped to adapt. Adaptation is widely recognized as a vital component of any
policy response to climate change because it helps farmers achieve their food,income and livelihood security objectives in the face of changing climatic andsocioeconomic conditions, including climate variability, extreme weather
conditions such as droughts and floods, and volatile short-term changes in local
and large-scale markets (Kandlinkar & Risbey, 2000).
Studies show that without adaptation, climate change is generally detrimental tothe agriculture sector; but with adaptation, vulnerability can largely be reduced
Farmers' Perceptions of Climate Change and Adaptation Strategies in Northern Nigeria: An Empirical Assessment | 13

(Easterling, Crosson, Roseberg, MicKenny et al. 1993; Rosenzweig and Parry
1994; Reilly and Schimmelpfennig 1999; Smit and Skinner, 2002). The degree towhich an agricultural system is affected by climate change depends on its
adaptive capacity. Adaptive capacity is the ability of a system to adjust to climatechange (including climate variability and extremes) to moderate potential
damage, to take advantage of opportunities, or to cope with the consequences(IPCC, 2001). Thus, the adaptive capacity of a system or society describes its
ability to modify its characteristics or behaviour so as to cope better with changes
in external conditions (Glwadys, 2009).
Adaptation to climate change requires that farmers and / or communities first
notice that the climate has changed, and then identify useful adaptations
measures and implement them (Maddison, 2006). Adaptation to climate change
refers to any adjustment that occurs naturally within ecosystems or in humansystems in response to climatic change that either moderates harm or exploits
beneficial opportunities in response to actual or expected climate related
environmental changes (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC),
2007). It looks into ways of responding to changes that pose greater risks to lifeand livelihood and increasing damage-related costs such as climate change
effects on rainfall, the strength and distribution of tropical storms, sea levels andglacier melt.
Adaptation measures always seek to reduce the risks and impacts of climatechange, to moderate the negative effects, and to exploit beneficial opportunity.
Adaptation is a proactive process because it envisages possible future changes
in the climate . The devastating effects of climate change can be reduced if
appropriate adaptation measures are employed. Many agricultural adaptation
options have been suggested in the literature. They encompass a wide range ofscales (local, regional, global), actors (farmers, firms, government), and types:(a) micro-level options, such as crop diversification and altering the timing ofoperations; (b) market responses, such as income diversification and credit
schemes; (c) institutional changes, mainly government responses, such as
removal of present subsidies and improvement in agricultural markets; and (d)technological developments—the development and promotion of new cropvarieties and advances in water management techniques (Smith and Lenhart
1996; Mendelsohn 2001; Smit and Skinner 2002; Kurukulasuriya and Rosenthal
2003).
14 | Farmers' Perceptions of Climate Change and Adaptation Strategies in Northern Nigeria: An Empirical Assessment

De Chavez and Tauli-Corpus (2008) noted that in Africa, local farmers arepracticing zero-tilling practices in cultivation, mulching, and other soilmanagement techniques. These activities are known to moderate soil
temperatures, suppress diseases and harmful pests, and conserve soil moisture.

Farmers' Perceptions of Climate Change and Adaptation Strategies in Northern Nigeria: An Empirical Assessment | 15

3. Methodology
3.1. Area of Study
The study was carried out in the northern Nigeria, an area which lies
predominantly across four ecological zones, from Kogi State in the humid to
Borno State in the semi- arid zone.
3.2. Population and Sample
A multistage random sampling technique was used to select the respondents forthis study. In the first stage, four states were randomly selected for the study, one
from each of the ecological zones, as follows: Semi-arid zone – Adamawa; Dry
sub-humid – Borno; Sub-humid – Kaduna; and Humid – Kogi. Since there wereover-laps in the states belonging to different zones, a state may belong to morethan one agro-ecological zone. Hence those that belong to the previous zone
from which a state was selected were removed from the list of states belonging to
the next. This was to make sure that only states that have predominantly thecharacteristics of such ecological zone are considered in the selection and thatstates that are selected do not have the same characteristics with respect to agroecological delineations.
In the second stage, one local government area was randomly selected fromeach of the senatorial zone of each state. This constituted the sampling frame.
Hence, a total of 12 local government areas were sampled. From each of thethree LGAs in each state, three communities were randomly selected. The laststage was the selection of 45 farmers from each LGA, giving a total of 540
respondents for the study. The data for the analysis were based on a crosssectional farm household survey in the different local government areas. In all a
total of 500 completely filled interview schedules were used in the analysis.
16 | Farmers' Perceptions of Climate Change and Adaptation Strategies in Northern Nigeria: An Empirical Assessment

3.3. Data collection
Tools of participatory research namely: semi structured interview schedule, key
informant interviews and focus group discussions (FGDs) were used in datacollection. These instruments contained both open ended and semi structured
questions.
3.4. Measurement of Variables
The interview schedule was divided into seven sections but only four sections
were used for this research paper. The first section sought information on thenature and extent of climate change impacts using a five point Likert-type scale.
Each respondent was required to respond by ticking any of the options namely:“To a very great extent”, “To a great extent” “To some extent”, “To a little extent”
and “To no extent”. Values assigned to these options were 5, 4, 3, 2 and 1
respectively. These values were added to obtain a score of 15, which was thendivided by 5 to obtain 3.0, taken as the mean. Factors with mean score less than
3.0 were taken as those with less extent of change while those with mean scoreequal or above 3.0 were taken to have large extent of impacts on climate change.
Section B sought to elicit information on respondent's perceived causes/different
practices that exacerbate the impact of climate change. This was achieved on athree point Likert –type scale. Each respondent was required to indicate his/her
responses by ticking any of the options namely: “Often”, “Seldom” and “Never”.
Values assigned to these options were 3, 2 and 1 respectively. These values wereadded to obtain 6, which were divided by 3 to obtain 2.0, which was regarded as
the mean. Factors with mean score less than 2.0 were not perceived as causes ofclimate change while those with mean score equal or above 2.0 were taken as
perceived causes of climate change.
Section C of the interview schedule sought information on the adaptive measures
being used to adapt to the negative effects of climate change. A list of measures
was provided and the respondents were required to tick against an appropriate
option of “Yes” and “No”. The options provided on the list included: mulching,processing to minimize post harvest loss, use of resistant varieties, increased
weeding, changes in planting and harvesting dates etc.
Section D of the interview schedule sought to elicit information on problems
encountered by rural communities in adapting to the effects of climate change.
Respondents indicated the extent to which variables like poor access toFarmers' Perceptions of Climate Change and Adaptation Strategies in Northern Nigeria: An Empirical Assessment | 17

information, lack of financial resources, poor/low extension services, risk ofadaptation, limited knowledge on adaptation measures etc acted as constraints
to climate change adaptation on a three point Likert type scale of “Very serious”,“Serious”, and “Not serious”. Values assigned to these options were 3, 2 and 1
respectively. These values were added to obtain 6, which were divided by 3 toobtain 2.0, which was then regarded as the mean. Factors with mean score lessthan 2.0 were as not considered as serious problems while those with meanscore equal or above 2.0 were taken as serious problems.
3.5. Data analysis
Simple descriptive statistics were used in the data analysis. Objectives 1, 2 and 4
were analysed using mean scores, while objective 4 was realized using
percentage calculations.

18 | Farmers' Perceptions of Climate Change and Adaptation Strategies in Northern Nigeria: An Empirical Assessment

4. Results & Discussion
4.1. Incidence of Climate Change
The mean scores of respondent's perceived prevalence of climate change (Table1) reveal that they noted that the incidence of climate change in the study area
manifests as uncertainties in the onset of farming season, extreme weather
events and increase in farming problems. Factors that informed them of theincidence of climate change with regards to uncertainties in the onset of farming
season include unusual early rains that are followed by weeks of dryness(M=2.84), higher temperature (M=2.81), delay in onset of rain (M=2.72), lessrainfall (M=2.70), erratic rainfall pattern (M=2.66), long period of dry season(M=2.62), no or reduced harmattan (M=2.23), long period of harmattan(M=2.23) and heavy and long period of rainfall (M=2.12).
The factors which support their understanding of climate change with regard to
extremities of weather events were desertification (M=2.83), heavy rainfall(M=2.77), increase in atmospheric temperature (M=2.73), drought (M=2.68)
among others. Also, the respondents noted that the incidence of climate change
reflects as increased farming problems: loss of soil fertility (M=2.90), reduction infarm yields (M=2.68), high rate of disease incidence (M=2.67) etc. This finding is
supported by Hir (2010) which noted that sand dunes and the harsh arid climate
in Sahel area of Toshua in Yobe State of North-Eastern Nigeria, is another climatechange reality. The report further noted that for the third consecutive year, thisarea in the extreme North East recorded below normal rainfall and higher thannormal temperatures during the hot season. In addition to the low rainfall,desertification (as a result of wind erosion), is of particular concern as
encroaching sand dunes threaten the few surviving oases and even houses
within the settlement.
Farmers' Perceptions of Climate Change and Adaptation Strategies in Northern Nigeria: An Empirical Assessment | 19

Table 1: Mean distribution of respondents' perception of changing
climate phenomenon
Worsening climate phenomenon*

M

Standard Deviation

Uncertainties in the onset of farming season
Unusual early rains that are followed by weeks of dryness
Erratic rainfall pattern
Delay in the onset of rains
Long period of dry season
Heavy and long period of rainfall
Less rainfall
No or reduced harmattan
Long period of harmattan
Higher temperature

2.84*
2.66*
2.72*
2.62*
2.12*
2.70*
2.23*
2.23*
2.81*

0.46
0.60
0.57
0.67
0.47
0.60
0.74
0.72
0.48

Extreme weather events
Unusual dust that covers the atmospheremaking it difficult for people to work

2.36*

0.67

Thunderstorms
Heavy winds
Floods and erosion
Drought
Heat waves
Increase in atmospheric temperature
High sun intensity
Heavy rainfall
Desertification or lost of forest resources
Increase in the volume of sand encroachment

2.11*
2.50*
2.61*
2.68*
2.53*
2.73*
2.77*
2.18*
2.83*
2.41*

0.60
0.65
0.60
0.58
0.77
0.58
0.51
0.45
0.44
0.71

Increase in farming problems
High rate of disease incidence
Increase weed infestation
Loss of soil fertility
Drying up of streams/rivers
Overflowing of streams/rivers
Reduction in farm yields

2.67*
2.62*
2.90*
2.81*
2.14*
2.68*

0.61
0.60
0.36
0.46
0.54
0.59

Source: Field survey, 201020 | Farmers' Perceptions of Climate Change and Adaptation Strategies in Northern Nigeria: An Empirical Assessment

Figure 1: Shrinking River Bed
4.2. Extent of Climate Change on Farms
As shown in Table 2, the respondents noted that changes due to uncertainties in
the onset of farming season reveal that factors like higher temperature (M=3.68),
unusual early rains followed by weeks of dryness (M=3.63), long period of dry
season (M=3.57), delay in onset of rain (M=3.50), less rainfall (M=3.41) among
others informed them that the climate has changed to a considerable extent.
The data further revealed that the respondents noted that extremities of weather
events: high sun intensity (M=3.77), desertification or loss of forest resources(M=3.68), increase in atmospheric temperature (M=3.55), droughts (M=3.44)
and heavy winds (M=3.18) etc have increased to a large extent.
Increase in farming problems: reduction in crop yields (M=3.60), loss of soil
fertility (M=3.43), and high rate of disease incidence (M=3.03) also informed
them of the large extent of the changing climate. These findings are in support of awork by F&D (2008) which noted that the impacts of climate change could affectFarmers' Perceptions of Climate Change and Adaptation Strategies in Northern Nigeria: An Empirical Assessment | 21

agriculture in a variety of ways. For example, beyond a certain range oftemperature level, warming tends to reduce yields because crops speed throughtheir development periods thereby producing less grain in the process. The work
also noted that higher temperatures also interfere with the ability of plants to get
and use moisture. Evaporation from the soil accelerates when temperatures riseand plant increase transpiration (lose moisture from their leaves) (F&D, 2008).
This problem is reflected mainly in reduction in crop yields. There has been adrastic reduction of yields of crops in northern Nigeria, and this is making therealization of attaining food sufficiency in the country unrealizable.
Environmental degradation and attendant desertification are major threats to thelivelihoods of the inhabitants of the northern states of Nigeria. This willsubsequently lead to increase in population pressure, intensive agricultural landuse, overgrazing, bush burning; and extraction of fuel wood and other biotic
resources.

22 | Farmers' Perceptions of Climate Change and Adaptation Strategies in Northern Nigeria: An Empirical Assessment

Table 2: Mean distribution on extent of the changing climate
phenomenon

Extent of change*

M

Standard
Deviation

Uncertainties in the onset of farming season
Unusual early rains that are followed by weeks of dryness
Erratic rainfall pattern
Delay in the onset of rains
Long period of dry season
Heavy and long period of rainfall
Less rainfall
No or reduced harmattan
Long period of harmattan
Higher temperature

3.63*
3.45*
3.50*
3.57*
3.12*
3.41*
3.00*
3.21*
3.68*

0.93
1.00
1.11
1.14
1.26
1.11
1.08
1.65
1.11

3.56*

1.27

2.94
3.18*
3.16*
3.44*
3.33*
3.55*
3.77*
3.27*
3.68*
3.24*

1.12
1.11
1.20
1.26
1.15
1.09
1.05
1.24
1.22
1.24

3.03*
2.91
3.43*
3.52*
3.17*
3.60*

1.22
1.18
1.09
1.18
1.19
1.18

Extreme weather events
Unusual dust that covers the atmospheremaking it difficult for people to work
Thunderstorms
Heavy winds
Floods and erosion
Drought
Heat waves
Increase in atmospheric temperature
High sun intensity
Heavy rainfall
Desertification or lost of forest resources
Increase in the volume of sand encroachment
Increase in farming problems
High rate of disease incidence
Increase weed infestation
Loss of soil fertility
Drying up of streams/rivers
Overflowing of streams/rivers
Reduction in farm yields
Source: Field survey, 2010

Farmers' Perceptions of Climate Change and Adaptation Strategies in Northern Nigeria: An Empirical Assessment | 23

4.3. Perceived Causes of Climate Change
The mean scores of respondents in Table 3 reveal that they perceived bushburning (M=2.51), overgrazing of farmland by livestock (M=2.29), continuous
cropping (M=2.27), deforestation/indiscriminate cutting down of trees(M=2.34), burning of firewood for cooking (M=2.16), burning of crop/household
wastes (M=2.08), use of excess chemicals in farmlands e.g. fertilizers,
herbicides, pesticides etc., (M=2.05) as the major causes of climate. This result isin agreement with the fact that deforestation and various agricultural andindustrial practices are altering the composition of the atmosphere andcontributing to climate change (www.gcrio.org). The above causes of climatechange are a reflection of human activities; these activities lead to an increase inconcentration of green house gases in the atmosphere.
Table 3: Respondents' perceived causes of climate change
Perceived causes of climate change

MStandard
Deviation

Bush burning
Continuous croppingOver-grazing farmland by livestock
Burning of crop/household wastes
Gases released from cement production
Burning of fossil fuel by industries
The use of fertilizers
Use of excess chemicals in farmlands
e.g. fertilizer, herbicides, pesticides etc

2.51*
2.27*
2.29*
2.08*
1.78
1.84
2.16*
2.05*

0.75
0.82
0.80
0.77
0.85
0.88
0.80
0.83

Burning of fossil fuel from vehicles,machines, (motorcycles) etc

1.84

0.83

Deforestation/indiscriminate cutting down of trees
Indiscriminate use of generators to generate electricity
Burning of firewood for cooking
High use of irrigation water

2.34*
1.92
2.16*
1.67

0.87
0.82
0.87
0.80

Source: Field survey, 2010

4.4. Adaptive Strategies Adopted by Respondents
Table 4a shows the indigenous adaptive measures being used by farmers tocushion the harmful effects of climate change. The measures being used include:changes in planting dates (88.4%), changes in harvesting dates (85.4%), multiple
24 | Farmers' Perceptions of Climate Change and Adaptation Strategies in Northern Nigeria: An Empirical Assessment

cropping (cropping of many crops on same piece of land) (81.8%), intensive
manure application (69.2%), intercropping main crops planted with subsidiaries
at low densities (61.8%), expansion of cultivated land area (59.2%), movement todifferent site (56.8%) mixed farming (54.6%) and use of wetland/river valley (e.g.
fadama) (52.6%).
Table 4a: Percentage distribution of indigenous adaptive
strategies used by farmers

Adaptive strategies

Yes %Mulching
Use of wetlands/river valleys (e.g. Fadama)Contour cropping across slopes
Planting deeper than the usual planting depth
Expansion of cultivated land area
Intensive manure application
Increased weeding
Move to a different site
Changes in the timing of land preparation activities
Changes in planting dates
Changes in harvesting dates
Multiple cropping (planting of many crops in the same piece of land)
Mixed farming (crop and animal production)
Relay cropping- planting and harvesting in succession
Intercropping- main crops planted with subsidiaries at low densities
Decreasing animal stock
Change from crop production to animal rearing
Change from animal production to crop production
Agro-forestry practice
Change from production to marketing of agricultural products

43.2
52.6
35.8
32.2
59.2
69.2
77.0
56.8
79.8
88.4
85.4
81.8
54.6
38.6
61.8
31.8
17.8
21.2
34.2
20.6
88.2

Prayers for God’s intervention
Source: Field survey, 2010

Farmers' Perceptions of Climate Change and Adaptation Strategies in Northern Nigeria: An Empirical Assessment | 25

From Table 4b, it is evident that the emerging adaptive measures being used byrespondents include: planting of early maturing crops (87.2%), use of chemicals
e.g. herbicides and pesticides (79.0%), increased use of fertilizers (78.6%), use ofresistant varieties (78.4%), processing to minimize post harvest losses (61.4%),
and afforestation i.e. planting of trees (60.4%).
These findings are in support of strategies put forward by First National
Communication (2003) and Canada-Nigeria Climate Change Capacity
Development project reports (2004). These reports emphasized the need fordiversification to new plant species and varieties that would have higher
resistance to anticipated temperature increase and reduced rainfall, adopting
zero/minimum tillage and other appropriate technologies to reduce soil erosion
and loss of organic nutrients, but increase soil moisture availability and reduce
weed and pest infestation.
Table 4b: Emerging adaptive strategies used by farmers
Adaptive strategies

Yes %Purchase/use of water for irrigation

27.8

Construction of drainage or dam within the farm/household

23.2

A forestations: planting of trees

60.4

Use of resistant varieties

78.4

Processing crops to minimize post-harvest- losses

61.4

Increased used of fertilizers, seeds

78.6

Cultivation on marginal lands

50.6

Use of chemicals: herbicides, pesticides etc

79.0

Changing of crops formerly grown and replacing with new types

46.0

Total change from farming to other occupations

21.0

Planting of early maturing crops

87.2

Source: Field survey, 2010

4.5. Constraints to Climate Change Adaptation
According to the results in Table 5, the major constraints farmers face in adapting
to climate change include the lack of financial resources (M=2.61), nonavailability of credit facilities (M=2.50), high cost of irrigation facilities (M=2.45),
26 | Farmers' Perceptions of Climate Change and Adaptation Strategies in Northern Nigeria: An Empirical Assessment

absence of government policy on adaptation (M=2.37), lack of access to weather
forecasts (M=2.24), poor access to information source relevant to adaptation(M=2.21), poor/low extension services (M=2.14), limited access to improved
crop varieties (M=2.09), lack of access to improved livestock breeds (M=2.30),
non-availability of storage facilities (M=2.35), limited presence of adaptation
measures (M=2.23), poor response to crises related to climate change by thegovernment and interest groups (M=2.39), risk of adaptation (M=2.02), high costof fertilizers and other inputs (M=2.54), non-availability of farm inputs (M=2.27),
non-availability of processing facilities (M=2.42), inadequate knowledge of how
to cope (M=2.12), high cost of farm labour (M=2.18), and non-availability ofstorage facilities (M=2.25).
It is a fact that climate change and measures of adaptation and mitigation are
current global phenomenon which is covered in the news on a daily basis. This
fact notwithstanding, farmers in northern Nigeria are being constrained toadaptation by mere factors as poor access to information source relevant toadaptation, poor/low extension services, inadequate knowledge on how to cope,poor response to crises related to climate change by the government and interest
groups etc. Availability and accessibility to adequate and effective information on
climate change and adaptation is one of the basic ways of adapting to thechanging climate scenarios. Information will keep individuals abreast of current
happenings and will also empower them to make the right decisions in case ofclimate upsurges or emergencies. This makes it imperative that relevant
ministries e.g. Ministries of Agriculture, Environment, Agricultural Development
Programmes (ADPs) and NGOs etc should rise up to the challenge and be at fore
front of information dissemination on climate change and adaptation.

Farmers' Perceptions of Climate Change and Adaptation Strategies in Northern Nigeria: An Empirical Assessment | 27

Table 5: Mean distribution of constraints to climate change
adaptation
Constraint variables *MStandard
Deviation

Poor access to information source relevant to adaptation
Type of land tenure system practiced in my area
Ineffectiveness of indigenous strategies
Traditional beliefs/practices does not allow me
use the adaptive strategies
Lack of financial resources
Poor/low extension services
Lack of access to weather forecasts
Limited access to improve d crop varieties
Lack of access to improved livestock breeds
High cost of improved crop varieties
Non-availability of storage facilities
Absence of Government policy on adaptation
Non-availabilit y of credit facilities
Limited presence of adaptation measures
Poor response to crises related to climate changeby the government and interest groups

2.21*
1.96
1.97
1.58

0.74
0.81
0.76
0.73

2.61*
2.14*
2.24*
2.09*
2.15*
2.30*
2.35*
2.37*
2.50*
2.23*
2.39*

0.55
0.69
0.71
0.71
0.76
0.75
0.71
0.68
0.63
0.68
0.63

Risk of adaptation
High cost of fertilizers and other in puts
High cost of irrigation facilities
Non-availability of farm inputs
Non-availability of processing facilities
Inadequate knowledge of how to cope
Non-availability of farm labour
High cost of farm labour
Non-availability of storage facilities

2.02*
2.54*
2.45*
2.27*
2.42*
2.12*
1.87
2.18*
2.25*

0.76
0.59
0.68
0.65
0.64
0.70
0.75
0.78
0.76

28 | Farmers' Perceptions of Climate Change and Adaptation Strategies in Northern Nigeria: An Empirical Assessment

5. Summary & Conclusion
5.1
SummaryThis research paper in summary reveals that the incidence of climate change ison the increase as highlighted by low rainfall, higher temperature, desertificationand encroaching sand dunes, increased weed infestation and low crop yield etc.
Adaptive measures (indigenous and emerging) being used by respondents incushioning the effects of climate change included: changes in planting andharvesting dates, multiple cropping, use of wetland/river valley (fadama), use ofresistant varieties, processing of farm produce and afforestation. The major
constraints to adaptation were: poor access to information, poor/low extension
services, lack of financial resources, absence of government policy on
adaptation, and limited adaptation measures.
5.2
Conclusion
The extent of climate change incidence is on the increase in northern Nigeria. Thiswas shown by the vagaries of climate conditions as reflected by uncertainties in
onset of farming seasons, extremities of weather conditions and increase infarming problems. The study revealed that there are various problems associatedwith the changing climate. These problems ranged from loss of crops andrevenue, loss of forest resources, poor crop yield and quality, increase in weed
infestation, increase in pest attack and delay in planting time. It is also important
to note that these problems result from the perceived causes of climate change.
The respondents noted that human activities like bush burning, indiscriminate
cutting of trees and overgrazing of farmland by livestock among others were theperceived causes of the changing climate.

Farmers' Perceptions of Climate Change and Adaptation Strategies in Northern Nigeria: An Empirical Assessment | 29

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32 | Farmers' Perceptions of Climate Change and Adaptation Strategies in Northern Nigeria: An Empirical Assessment

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