Exacerbating Risk
Building Resilience?
or

Exposing the Intersectional Vulnerabilities of
Women in Japan during the COVID-19 Pandemic

Dr. Jackie F. Steele, Political scientist and CEO, enjoi Japan KK
Kristin Wilson, Researcher, enjoi Japan KK
Megumi Patchett, Researcher, enjoi Japan KK				 Table of Contents
Executive Summary 								1Executive Summary Endnotes 							4Introduction									5Case Studies 									10Case 1 									11The economic impact of stimulus payments to families
and the ability for womento address basic needs amidst
higher unemployment.

Case 2									14The socio-economic impact of public school and childcare
service closures on the care burden of women in Japan.

Case 3									17The socio-economic impacts on women and girls’ access tobasic services and support networks.

Case 4									19Connections between states of emergency and unemployment todomestic violence and mental health issues among women.

Analysis and Implications of Present Policy				Best Practices and Policy Recommendations for Effective Crisis Risk		

23
25

Governance

Conclusion										28Acknowledgements								29Endnotes										30@naka | Adobe Stock1

Executive SummaryA

Domestic Violence•

The total number of domestic violence cases
consulted increased 140% from 2019. 8

s of 2022, Japan boasts the lowest COVID-19•

population mortality rate—a mere 0.02%—

80% of DV survivors that reached out to theof all the G7 countries. This is an entire order ofDomestic Violence Consultation Plus service

magnitude lower than the G7 average of 0.21%,1 anwere unable to reach support.

extraordinary feat of patience and understanding

Migrant

women

are

especiallyvulnerable.

on the part of the Japanese people.

Interviews reviewed significant difficulty accessing
social support due to a ‘dependent’ visa status. Of

But this extraordinary feat came at an extraordinary

course, if these women divorce their husbands they

cost—one the women of Japan are paying.

will be deported.

Due to pre-existing faults in Japan’s public andSuicide and Mental Health•corporate policies around gender equity, theSuicidesincreased

by

83%

for

women,

compared to 22% for men year-over-year. 9

pandemic and subsequent control measures•resulted in women—especially vulnerable women—

Roughly 70% of the people reaching out

being thrown into the economic meat grinder of

to nonprofit Lifelink for suicide prevention

COVID-19. Below is a summary of the disparate

assistance in September were women. 10•

effects across five key areas.

The percentage of mothers showing signs of
postpartum depression rose to 24%. 11

Job and Income Loss••

73% of the total jobs lost were among women.2

These effects actively harmed not only women, but

Single mothers faced job losses and furlough

society. Women with “full-time, permanent work

rates of 8.7% due to their job types and thecontribute 42.7% of their household income, andinability to find adequate child care.3

even women with contract work contribute 23.8%of their household income.” 12 In houses where

Impact of Public School & Childcare Service

women’s income decreased, the rate of unpaid bills

Closuresis between double to quadruple. When women•

Women with child rearing responsibilities faced

lose, the men, children, and economy of Japana 22.7% reduction in work hours, twice as large

loses.

as that of men. 4•

16.6% of single mothers had to stop working

The threat to economic well-being doesn’t end

due to school closures.5

there. The majority of job losses in Japan wereexperiencedbywomen.

If

corporationsandAccess to Basic Services & Support Networks

governments cannot rebuild the trust needed•

As many as 17,000 long-term residents of Japan

to convince both women and other minorities towould become stuck outside the country. 6

come back to work, the already dire talent shortage

At

will increase.

•

least

900

disability

serviceproviderssuspended caregiver dispatch services. Those
caregiving responsibilities, in most cases, fell on

Moreover, Japan, which already has the lowest rate

women relatives.7of employee engagement in the G7, risks further
alienating and demoralising the male, native-2

born workforce. According to the 2018 World

need to adopt an intersectional approach hinged

Happiness Report, the better the life evaluation of aon emotional leadership, themes echoed in the G7

country’s immigrants, the better the life evaluation

Gender Equality Advisory Council 2021 Report. 15 We

of its entire resident population. 13 In other words,

recommend the following broad strategies:

countries that successfully care and protect its least•privileged populations experience higher rates ofCreating systems of disaggregated,intersectional data•

life satisfaction at all levels of society.

Ensuring diversified, participatory
representation in decision-making processes•

Japan’s conservative approach to immigration iswell known, and it has repeatedly scored the lowest

Relently pursuing results-based genderequality policy design and policy enforcementof the G7 countries in the World Economic ForumThe

Global Gender Gap Report (No. 120 of 156; theimplementation can be found in the Policy Analysis

remaining countries average 27.8). This is no secret:and Implications section of this report.

14

detailsof

thesestrategies

and

their

Japanese citizens are well aware their government
and economic elites are undeserving womenWith its long history and uniquely sustainable

and minorities. The increase in domestic violence

cultural and corporate knowledge, Japan is poisedalone greated a wave of Japanese news coverage.

to strike a daring reentry into the post-COVID

To reiterate: by failing to address these systematicworld—but only if all genders work toward that

inequalities, Japan’s safest, most protected citizens

future together.

are being kept from happier lives.
To mitigate the ongoing economic fallout of
COVID-19 and successfully build a bulwark against
future disasters, Japan needs to increase theparticipation of women and other marginalised
groups in both government and corporate settings.
In doing so, governments and corporations aliketake the first step towards undoing the systems
failing to protect women and patching the ruinous
gap that allowed COVID-19 to harm so manyfamilies.
It’s time to strike while the memory is fresh.
Policy Recommendations
As Japan emerges into the post-COVID world,
economic and political leaders have the chance toimplement changes that could save corporations
trillions in yen annually and raise the happiness andefficiency of their workplaces across the board.
To do this, both corporate and economic leaders will3

Executive Summary Endnotes
1
Calculated on April 10, 2020 using data from Data Commons, Johns
Hopkins University, and Our World in Data.

Pesek, W. (2020, June 17). Coronavirus fallout highlights failure ofJapan’s womenomics. Nikkei Asia. https://asia.nikkei.com/Opinion/
Coronavirus-fallout-highlights-failure-of-Japan-s-womenomics

2Zhou, Y. (2021, March). コロナショックと女性の雇用危機[Koronashokku to josei no koyō kiki]. The Japan Institute for Labor
Policy and Training.

3

4

Ibid.

しんぐるまざあず・ふぉーらむ [Shin guru ma zāzu fuo-ra mu].
(2020, April 21). 新型コロナでの影響：シングルマザー世帯への支援策
に関するアンケート結果（2020/04/13暫定版）[Shingata korona de noeikyō: Shingurumazā setai e no shien-saku ni kansuru ankēto kekka].
https://www.single-mama.com/topics/covid19-support/

5

Dooley, B. (2021, May 18). Coronavirus Leads Japan to Lock
Borders, Shutting Out Foreign Workers. The New York Times.
https://www.nytimes.com/2020/08/05/business/japan-entry-bancoronavirus.html

6Bookman, M. (2020). The Coronavirus Crisis: Disability Politics andActivism in Contemporary Japan. The Asia-Pacific Journal, 18(18),
1–11. https://apjjf.org/-Mark-Bookman/5465/article.pdf

7

Calculated with figures from アジア女性資料センター [Ajia josei
shiryō sentā]. (2021 February 17). 【COVID-19とジェンダー】コロナ
禍でDV相談件数が過去最多 [[COVID - 19 to jendā] korona wazawai deDV sōdan kensū ga kako saita]. https://jp.ajwrc.org/4361 and The
Japan Times (2020 March) Domestic violence cases in Japan reached
new high in 2019.

8

9

Zhou (2021).

Asahi Shimbun. (2021, January 23). Isolation due to COVID-19
a key factor in suicide surge in 2020. The Asahi Shimbun | Asia &Japan Watch. https://www.asahi.com/ajw/articles/14130555

10藤田日.向子. (2021, September 27). 「産後うつ」倍増か ～1人で苦しまないで [`Sango utsu’ baizō ka ~ 1-ri de kurushimanaide].
NHKニュース. https://www3.nhk.or.jp/news/html/20201016/
k10012665491000.html

1112Zhou (2021).

United Nations Sustainable Development Solutions Network.
(2018). 2018 World Happiness Report. Page 29. https://s3.amazonaws.com/happiness-report/2018/CH2-WHR-lr.pdf.

13World Economic Forum. (2021). 2021 World Economic Forum
Global Gender Gap Report. https://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_
GGGR_2021.pdf

14

G7 Gender Equality Advisory Council. (2021) Report on the G7
Gender Equality Advisory Council 2021. https://assets.publishing.
service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_
data/file/1028387/Report_of_the_G7_Gender_Equality_Advisory_
Council_2021-_Building_Back_Better_for_Women_and_Girls_.pdf

154

@ RawPixel.com | Adobe Stock5

Introduction

A

they mask the differential and disproportionately
negative impacts of policies upon some groupss seen in the impact of other natural ormore than others, and in this case, upon women.

politically-madedisasters,

globalstudies

Japan’s gender-blind policies exacerbated therevealeddevastating

blow

of

the

already precarious position of women and other

COVID-19 pandemic upon sustainable gender

marginalised groups due to the biassed impacts ofequality. Women, girls, and other at-risk groups

existing laws and institutional structures. Moreover,with decreased representation in decision-making

these policies reflect the pervasive patriarchal

have

negative

conservatism of the ruling political elite whose

effects in terms of economic security, physical andorganisational culture systemically denies women

mental health, and increased precarity related

positions of leadership and democratic decision-

to complex caregiving loads. Women as a groupmaking across the public sectors.3 4

have

the

experienced

disproportionately

were largely left out of COVID-19 decision-making
structures, consultation processes, and policy

Meanwhile, within the private sector, the post-

decisions—decreasing the responsiveness of the

WWII strategy driving families into the model ofcrisis response and threatening the overall recovery“breadwinning salaryman supported by dependentand resiliency of our economies and the integrity

housewife/homemaker” has restricted women’sof our democracies. If we fail to invest in the softaccess to lifetime employment and career track

infrastructure (human capital) of our communities

positions. Instead, women continue to be culturally

during peace times, and when we fail to design andtreated as a reserved labour force best suited for

implement structural equality through data-driven

part-time, low-wage, and precarious contract

policy solutions1, our national economic recovery

positions that lack healthcare, pension and otherand collective resilience as a vibrant liberal-

critical benefits of corporate membership that

democratic society experiences devastating effects

bestow opportunities for training and upward

both during the disaster itself and throughout themobility. These factors combine to exacerbate thedecade to follow.

economic dependence and precarity of women
amidst disproportionately steep responsibilities

In Japan, where we continue to face a historically low

forcaregiving,householdmanagement,

andranking on the World Economic Forum’s Genderunder-paid full time contracts due to the declining

Gap Index Report—120th place in 20212—genderability of most Japanese men’s salaries to be “soleequality has suffered significant setbacks during

breadwinners” in practice. The public safety net in

the pandemic. The gender-blind policies enacted

Japan is rife with holes, and it is women and theirby the Japanese government to mitigate thechildren of all genders who continue to fall throughfallout of COVID-19, such as lockdowns and states

the cracks.5of emergency, sudden school closures, one-timestimulus payments to households, and strict border

What we present now is a summarised version of anclosures did not take into account the intersecting

original 65-page comprehensive study on this topic

and compounding precarities faced by women
3 Emma Dalton. 2015. Women and Politics in Contemporary Japan,
Routledge.
4 Jackie F. Steele and Eriko Miyake. 2021. “Patriarchal Leadershipand Women’s Exclusion from Democratic Institutions”, Springer.
5 Kristin Wilson. 2020. “Japan Needs a New Path for Womenomics
and Gender Equality”, Tokyo Review. https://www.tokyoreview.
net/2020/10/japan-needs-a-new-path-for-womenomics-and-genderequality-in-post-abe-era/and other at-risk groups. Gender-blind policies
are in fact structurally discriminatory because

12

Steele and Kimber
WEF Report.

6

produced for UNESCO Beijing as a contribution totalent sustainability. According to Gallup, this poor

their Gender in Asia Research Network. Our goal iscorporate hygiene and lack of emotional leadership

to issue a call to action and convey the urgency ofcosts companies as much as 34% of each burned-a rational,evidence-based approach to integratingout employee’s salary, wasting trillions of yen eachintersectional diversity into both Japanese public

year.7 Might does not equal right, nor does it result

policynewin the kind of emotionally intelligent leadershipapproach is a response to the pressing man-madethat can influence up, down and across ancrisis that is impacting national population decline,

organisational structure with integrity and agility.

andcorporateecosystems.

Thisnational economic decline of Japan in Asia, and theinability of companies to attract and retain global

Indeed, UN Women announced the theme fortalent to drive innovation solutions for the now andMarch 8th, 2022 International Women’s Day (IWD)

future of Reiwa Japan.

as follows: “Gender equality today for a sustainable
tomorrow.” The theme celebrates the tremendous

Creatingadiversity-positive

national

cultureefforts by women around the world towards aand economy must become a top political andthriving and sustainable future. We need to support

corporate priority. It requires the development ofand invest in the impact of women in leadershipa holistic public-private partnership and targeted

and how we inspire and empower others to live

strategy investing in innovation. To drive innovation

up to their full potential and leave a mark on theirinto the DNA of a country and national economy,households,

we need rational investments in public and private

and the world over. In the Reiwa Era, this means

sector cultures that support and nurture a vibrantconsistent investments in non-hierarchical gender-

competition of ideas, diversity of thought and lived

equal relationships of mutual respect;experiences across all spheres and at all tiers ofand corporate cultures valuing thought diversity;

decision-making, and the conscious leveraging ofand conscious efforts to design and measure thediverse forms of excellence and individual creativity

performance of political and corporate leaders inin the service of inclusive innovation for people,

supporting people’s happiness and diverse models

profits, and the planet.

of workplace wellbeing.

Regrettably,Japan has fallen behind other Asian

There are countless international best practices

countries during the pandemic. It must now workfor building diversity-positive public policies andharder than ever to not only attract but support

ecosystems that pave the way for constructive

diverse talent within the workplace and society atsocietal diversification and culture change. We

large. A recent report by McKinsey urges companies

need genuine political and corporate leadershipto do “the deep cultural work necessary to create

thata workplace where all women, and all employees,

dismantles the post-WWII systems of taxation,

feel like they belong.”6 Gender equality is not only

employment and family law that perpetuate

the right thing for democracies, it is also vital tothe instrumentalization of Japanese women as

the economy. Existing “command and control”

the caregivers of male citizens. More than 70% of

hierarchical leadership styles and the culture ofJapanese citizens believe couples should be allowed

long working have run their course, resulting into retain different last names after marriage, yetburnout, toxic corporate group-think, and a lack ofpublic policy has not been altered to allow for

6

7

McKinsey Report

7

organisations,consciously

andcompanies,

carefully

2013. State of the Global Workplace. Gallup.

societysocietaldisrupts

andsuch a possibility. 8 The fact is support for gender

impacting foreign residents and international

equality and diversity is present and vibrant at themarriages, as well as the mental and physicalgrassroots among Japanese citizens, pointing to an

health of diverse women as a result of COVID-19 andincreasing failure of representative democracy andmitigation policies. These case studies reveal thea growing disconnect between the political elite

well-documented realities that echo reports fromand the Japanese citizens whom they are electedsimilar global studies9: women faced increased care

to serve.

burdens in the home coupled with less public andprivate support; women disproportionately faced

To ensure that Japan remains an influential global

greater rates of unemployment and income loss

economy, Japanese political and economic elites

and struggled to access important social services

must disrupt patriarchal values and beliefs and(regardless

finally recognize the tremendous and essential

women faced a compromised ability to meet some

contributions of diverse women in all spheres ofof their basic needs including food/physical safety,

society. This will inspireyounger generations tohealthcare and mental health supports—withregain pride in Japan’s performance as a G7 nation,

many foreign women separated from their families

as well as feel that their worth and individuality will

and other support networks due to discriminatory

find a rewarding home within Japanese society.

re-entry rules; and women faced higher exposure

These steps will nurture intergenerational hopeto emotional, psychological and physical violence

for a more diverse, egalitarian, and vibrant Reiwa

by an intimate partner, a contributing factor to

Era for all who call Japan home. We call uponincreased suicides and overall declines in women’s

Prime Minister Kishida to inspire diverse citizens

mental health during the COVID-19 crisis.

of

the

cash-stimulus

payments);

and residents to believe in the potential of Japanto remain a respected and democratically leadingThis report then outlines the key findings of eachnation. The Japanese economy within Asia requires

case study and concludes with an analysis andconstant gardening to evolve into an equitable,

policy recommendations, sharing best practices

diverseupon

from Canadian public policy approaches to genderinclusive innovation supported by a new public-equality, LGBTQ+ inclusion, diversity integration,

private partnership by democratic and corporate

and multicultural cohesion, that urge the necessity

design.

of inclusive, evidence-based, gender-responsive

andthriving

community

built

policyprescriptionsforfuturedisastersandIn this report, we shine an intersectional lens uponemphasise best practices and policy implications

the outcomes for women and other groups whofor effective crisis and risk governance, including:experience discrimination, exclusion and precarity.

•

Evidence-based

policiesthat

involve

Across four different cases in Japan we look at thedisaggregateddifferential impacts of school closures and thegathering methods, and engagement withburdens of care disproportionately upon women,

experts in intersectional analysis•

economic losses and the impact of biassed

data,

participatory

data-

Participatory and democratic policy-making

stimulus payments targeting men as heads ofprocesses that are accessible, equitable, andhouseholds, border closures and reduced mobility

responsive to the diverse needs and identities
of citizens—with substantive input from key

8 株式会社インテージ [Kabushiki Gaisha Inteiji]. (2020 November
18). “47都道府県「選択的夫婦別姓」意識調査” [47 to dō fu ken‘
sentaku-teki fūfu bessei’ ishiki chōsa]. Sentakuteki Fufubessei
Zenkoku Chinjou Action. https://chinjyo-action.com/47prefecturessurvey/

stakeholders in civil society
98

UN Women Report•

Policies that are gender-and-equity responsive
to the particular political, economic, and social
inequalities and material realities for women,
minorities, and other at-risk social groups inJapan, including robust enforcement andoversight measures that measurably reduce
inequality

9

@ Naka | Adobe Stock10

@naka | Adobe Stock

Case 1:The economic impact of stimulus payments to families and the ability
for women to address basic needs amidst higher unemployment

W

hen the Japanese government declaredexperienced

the first state of emergency in early April

conditions compared to men and 1.6 times

2020, this precipitated a flood of business closuresachangein

employment

more women became unemployed. 11•

and layoffs, reduced hours and/or wages for“Women working in irregular, face-to-face, andemployees, interruptions of regular public services,

rigidly scheduled jobs experienced economic

and a steep decline in economic activity. As a policy

losses equivalent to 9.8% of their earnings due

measure, the Japanese government distributed

to the COVID-19 pandemic, compared to 5.2%

¥100,000 to every resident of Japan, paid to theof earnings for men in these jobs.” 12

head of the household. Yet, despite this subsidy,
the pre-existing economic precarities for women

Women, and especially single mothers, were

were exacerbated by the states of emergency

already facing decreased lifetime earnings andand economic downturn as a result of pandemic

lower incomes than men, despite the fact thatmitigation policies. These were far beyond thetheirability of a single stimulus payment to rectify.

and precarious work are playing an increasingly

economic

contributions

frompart-time

important role in family economic stability and•ability to meet basic needs.

In April 2020, when job losses peaked in Japan
at around 970,000, 73% of the total job losses•

were among women.10

•

Women

with

“full-time,permanent

work

There was a clear gender disparity in theeconomic impact, as 1.4 times more women

11 Zhou. (2021).
12 Feng, Y. (2020, August 3). Japan’s Women Disproportionately
Hurt by Covid-19 Income Slump. BloombergQuint. https://www.bloombergquint.com/global-economics/japan-s-womendisproportionately-hurt-by-covid-19-income-slum

10 Pesek, W. (2020, June 17). Coronavirus fallout highlights failureof Japan’s womenomics. Nikkei Asia. https://asia.nikkei.com/Opinion/
Coronavirus-fallout-highlights-failure-of-Japan-s-womenomics

11

Men

Women

25%

20%

15%

10%

5%

Figure 1: Pictogram depicting the percentage
of jobs lost according to gender.

0%

Full TimePart Time/IrregularPart Time/Irregular

Full Time

Figure 2: Change of employment type inthose who experienced a change in working
conditions (Zhou 2021).

contribute 42.7% of their household income,and even women with contract work contribute
23.8% of their household income.13•

About 60% of working married women earnservices due to complicated bureaucratic rules,

less than 2 million yen (roughly $16,000 USD)

lack of knowledge among public officials, and poor

annually. Many of these women, especiallyinformation sharing.

those with children, dropped out of the labour•

force during the pandemic.14

One survey among Vietnamese residents, amajority of whom were women, found thatAs a result, even with the stimulus payment,

53.5% of respondents experienced income

many families continued to struggle with food

reduction and 27.0% experienced housing

and housing insecurity and an inability to meet allenvironment deterioration during the COVID-19

monthly expenses.

epidemic.16••

Single mothers faced job losses and furlough

One study found that “of the one in fiverates of 8.7% due to their job types and thehouseholds where women’s income decreased,inability to find adequate child care.17•

more than 10% are tightening their food budget

The director of an NPO called Childrearing

and the rate of occurrence of unpaid bills is(Kosodate) Palette, which provides support

twice to four times more than before.” 15services for single mothers, noted that theirorganisation “received a flood of applications

This was especially the case for women experiencing

from more households than [they] could

compound marginalities, such as migrant women,

accept.” 18

women with disabilities, single mothers, and sex
16 Ito, T. (2020). A Survey On The Health of Vietnamese
Individuals Living in Japan Under a Declared State of Emergency Due
to COVID-19: A Cross-Sectional Survey. Research Square. Published.
https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-36025/v1
17 Zhou. (2021).
18 及川.夕子. (2021, January 4). １杯のうどんを子どもと4人で. . .母たちを襲うコロナ貧困の現実 [1-Pai no udon o kodomo to 4-ri de. . .
haha-tachi o osou korona hinkon no genjitsu]. FRaU | 講談社 [Furau |Kōdansha]. https://gendai.ismedia.jp/articles/-/78974

workers, who all struggle to access basic public
13 Zhou. (2021).
14 “Conducted mainly by Shintaro Yamaguchi (Professor, The
University of Tokyo) at the “Study Group on Impacts and Issues on
Women Under Corona” (September 2020-April 2021)
15 Zhou. (2021).

12

Men

Women

Reduction in Hours

Women w/ Children
8%

30%

6%

20%

4%

10%

2%

0%

0%

W
ee
k)

W
ee
k)
em
ov
N

Figure 3: Percentage of employees
teleworking at least one day a week (Zhou2021).

The disproportionate economic impact on womenmeans that, despite the government interventions,fiscal programs, and stimulus money, it will beinsufficient to overcome the systemic inequalities
that keep women at a disadvantage and “it isdoubtful whether these relief measures will be
sufficient in coping with the novel coronavirus overan extended time.” 19

19

Men

Reduction in Pay

Women

Women (Part Time/Irregular)

Figure 4: Percentage of employees who
experienced a reduction in pay, hours, orboth according to gender (Zhou 2021).

be
r(
4t
h

h
(5
t
Ju
ly

(2
nd
M
ay

Pr
eP

an
de
m

ic

W
ee
k)

40%

Zhou. (2021).

13

@mylenela | Unsplash

Case 2:The socio-economic impact of public school and childcare service
closures on the care burden of women in JapanW

hen former Prime Minister Abe madeaverage of 41 minutes per day, the lowest

the abrupt decision to close all schools

among all OECD countries.20

on March 2, 2020, despite low coronavirus casenumbers (241) and deaths (3) and no consultation

While many men were able to more easily work fromwith an expert panel, the decision left womenhome, and some took on greater responsibilities,

scrambling for childcare solutions. A systemic lackoverwhelmingly, women reported being moreof public or private investment in childcare services

stressed

for women, who are expected to provide the bulk

duties while simultaneously trying to maintainof caregiving while also participating in the labour

employment and pay.

byincreased

care

and

houseworkforce, proved especially detrimental during the•

pandemic and compounded their existing careburden.

According to one study, “women with childrearing responsibilities faced a severe reduction
in work hours (22.7%) during the peak of school•

According to the most recent OECD time use

closures, only rebounding close to pre-closure

surveys, women in Japan spend an average oflevels by August. This was two times larger than

224 minutes (or 3.7 hours) per day on unpaid

20 OECD. (2018–2021). OECD.Stat Time Use [Dataset]. https://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?DataSetCode=TIME_USE

work, Meanwhile, Japanese men spend an

14

FIgure 6: Responses by Single Mothers to a
Survey on the Impacts of the Coronavirus
Pandemic

Figure 5: Minutes per day spent on unpaid
labor, by gender.

Women

Men

“Therearemanypublicbenefits

such as child support, single-parent
medicalexpensesdeduction,schoolenrollment support, and exemption fromschool children’s burden—but all havedifferent upper limits on income, and theprocedure is different and changes every
time.”

41 min.
“Even if the elementary school was
closed and I stopped working, there wasno support for the elementary school
closure, and I was asked to take a special
leave out of my own pay. ““This society does not allow single
parents who cannot receive the supportof their parents’ homes to raise theirchildren on their own. I cannot receive
support until I am ready to work.”“[Child support] should be a national
obligation. The country exploits the
feelings that parents have for theirchildren. I want to stop imposing theburden of child support on women.“

224 min.
many daycare centres elected to close along withthat of men.”•21

schools) forced women to suddenly take on extra

In a survey sent out by the Single Mothers

burdens typically provided (and funded) by theForum, 11.2% of respondents lost work during

public sector, including education, elder care, andthe pandemic, 16.6% stopped working andnutrition, while they received little substantive or

14.1% experienced reduced working hours duemonetary support for these extra care duties.

to school closures, placing a strain on the family•

budget.22

According to a Ministry of Education survey,
only 5% of all schools were able to offer online

Closures of public schools and childcare services (asinstruction to students, with most relying on
textbooks and paper-based learning materials

21 Zhou, Y. (2021, March). コロナショックと女性の雇用危機[Koronashokku to josei no koyō kiki]. The Japan Institute for Labor
Policy and Training. https://www.jil.go.jp/institute/discussion/2021/
documents/DP21-09.pdf
22 しんぐるまざあず・ふぉーらむ [Shin guru ma zāzu fuo-ra mu].
(2020, April 21). 新型コロナでの影響：シングルマザー世帯への支援策
に関するアンケート結果（2020/04/13暫定版）[Shingata korona de noeikyō: Shingurumazā setai e no shien-saku ni kansuru ankēto kekka].
https://www.single-mama.com/topics/covid19-support/

and assignments—with about 20% being able
to provide other digital/TV-based activities.23
23 文部科学省 [Bun bukagakushō]. (2020, April 16). 新型コロナ
ウイルス感染症対策のための学校の臨時休業に関連した 公立学校における学習指導等の取組状況について [Shingata koronauirusukansenshōtaisaku no tame no gakkō no rinji kyūgyō ni kanren shita kōritsu

15•Additionally, during the state of emergency
only 4% of schools had plans in place to provide
meals to children.24

These issues were compounded for women facing
compounded marginalities, such as single andlow-income mothers, who already face stigmas
that prevent them from accessing greater social
support services.

gakkō ni okeru gakushū shidō-tō no torikumi jōkyō ni tsuite]. 文
部科学省: Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science andTechnology-Japan. https://www.mext.go.jp/content/20200421mxt_kouhou01-000006590_1.pdf
24 文部科学省 [Bun bukagakushō]. (2020).

16

@mast3r | Adobe Stock

Case 3:The socio-economic impacts on women and girls’ access to basic services
and support networks

I•n addition to school closures and states ofJapan was the only country among G7 nations

emergency, the Japanese government enacted

to impose such heavy restrictions on foreign

harsh border control measures to reduce the spread

residents and other legitimate visa holders,of COVID-19. Foreign residents who left Japan after

while others allowed such individuals re-entry

April 2020, including permanent residents andsubject to testing and quarantine requirements.

spouses of Japanese nationals, were not allowed to
re-enter Japan once the border measures were put

The border closures and reduced mobility from

into effect.

states of emergency compromised the ability
for various groups of women in Japan to access•Conditions for return were not laid out at thebasic needs and services. For women of various

outset of the ban, and even after requirements

nationalities and/or work visa statuses, the borderwere stipulated, “return [was] not guaranteed.

policy physically distanced them from family and

Before leaving the country, travellers [had to]

traditional support networks while placing unequal

sign a document acknowledging that theyburdens on these tax-paying residents to manage

may not be allowed to return.”25

their finances and other expenses while navigating
strict and opaque travel ban rules. Many wereunable to return to their home countries to attend

25 Dooley, B. (2021, May 18). Coronavirus Leads Japan to Lock
Borders, Shutting Out Foreign Workers. The New York Times.
https://www.nytimes.com/2020/08/05/business/japan-entry-bancoronavirus.html

to important personal matters, such as weddings17•In a survey of Vietnamese foreign residents,
the majority of whom were female (89.2%),“82.7% respondents [felt] difficulties in visiting
Japanese

healthinstitutes...In

total,

experienced a decrease in income.”

•

53.5%

29

One study found that at least “nine hundreddisability

serviceprovidersacrossJapan[suspended] their caregiver dispatch services
and refused clients who [were] predisposed to
infection and illness,” putting a greater careburden on women. 30
Many of these precarious groups had little tono public support to turn to. On top of existing

Figure 7: Percentage of Vietnamese foreign
residents who received a reduction in pay.

discrimination and barriers, the pandemic closed
many of the regular public and private facilities andand funerals.

•

reduced staff and other volunteers who provide
these important services.

The travel ban directly affected anywhere•

between 100,000 to 200,000 foreign residents•

One vulnerable migrant population includes

of Japan who had travelled or had need to travel

Nepali women, of which there are 29,992 underoutside the country.

the status of “dependent” in Japan, which is a

26

Early estimates suggested that, “as many asvisa that lacks many of the protections of other

17,000 long-term residents of Japan could

classes.31•

remain stuck outside the country, according togovernment data.”

27

Many community organisations that typicallyprovided services to these marginalised groups“greatly scaled back their support, while others

Even women who stayed in Japan—especiallyhave stopped their activities completely.” 32•

migrant populations, the elderly, and disabled—

74.8% of respondents from a survey said thatwere cut off or had reduced access to important

help with basic needs (i.e. goods and othersocial services, health care, and other basic needs.

utilities) should be a priority for government•

support33
Many clinics postponed scheduled surgeries
for breast cancer and cancelled breast cancer
screenings. One study noted that, “based on
the previous year’s figures, approximately 90%
of population-based cancer screenings were
not performed.” 28
29 Ito. (2020).
30 Bookman, M. (2020). The Coronavirus Crisis: Disability Politics
and Activism in Contemporary Japan. The Asia-Pacific Journal,
18(18), 1–11. https://apjjf.org/-Mark-Bookman/5465/article.pdf
31 Tanaka, M. (2020).
32 Slater. (2020).
33 Suppasri et al. (2021).

26 NHK. (2020, July 10). 再入国拒否で日本に戻れない外国人たち [Sainyūkoku kyohi de Nihon ni modorenai gaikoku hito-tachi volume_up].
外国人“依存”ニッポン [Gaikoku hito “izon” Nippon volume_up] NHK.
https://www3.nhk.or.jp/news/special/izon/20200710kyohi.html
27 Dooley. (2021).
28 Toyoda et al. (2021).

18

@ayumikubo | Unsplash

Case 4:
Connections between states of emergency and unemployment to domestic
violence and mental health issues among womenA•

declaration by UN Women early in the

From the beginning of the state of emergency

COVID-19 pandemic highlighted the spikedeclaration, consultations on domestic violencein worldwide cases of domestic violence, which it

to national and local government offices

dubbed the “shadow pandemic.” In Japan, states

increased by 60%.36

of emergency, stay-at-home orders, and thesubsequent economic fallout had serious psycho-

While the government mounted a modest responsesocial consequences for women and other at-riskand set up an expanded consultation service calledgroups as well. Isolated from support networks and“Domestic Violence Consultation Plus,” they were

faced with increased barriers to access services,

unable to provide adequate resources to these

women experienced greater rates of domestic

vulnerable groups.

violence and suicides.

•

The government allocated $3.5 million to the
All Japan Women’s Shelter Network (AJWSN) to•

According to a survey by the Cabinet Office, “theset up the expanded consultation service andtotal number of domestic violence (DV) cases

provide access to shelters across Japan.

•

consulted in [April] 2020 through November
last year reached 132,355, the highest number
ever.”

34

cases.

Yet 85.7% of women who had experienced
domestic

violence

during

the

state

of

This is a 140% increase in consulted

35

2019. Calculated April 10, 2022.
36 Nomura, S., Kawashima, T., Yoneoka, D., Tanoue, Y., Eguchi,A., Gilmour, S., Kawamura, Y., Harada, N., & Hashizume, M. (2021).
Trends in suicide in Japan by gender during the COVID-19 pandemic,
up to September 2020. Psychiatry Research, 295, 1–5. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.psychres.2020.113622

34 アジア女性資料センター [Ajia josei shiryō sentā]. (2021 February
17). 【COVID-19とジェンダー】コロナ禍でDV相談件数が過去最多[[COVID - 19 to jendā] korona wazawai de DV sōdan kensū ga kakosaita]. https://jp.ajwrc.org/4361
35 Calculated using statistics published by The Japan Times in

19

100%

Consulted DV Cases
150,000

75%

100,000

50%

50,00025%

AN pri
ov l 2
em 0
be 20
r2 –
02
0

Al

lo

f2

01
9

0
0%

on the Women’s Protection Project, “47.3%
of women admitted to Women’s Protection

emergency could not easily seek help.37

Facilities have some kind of disability or disease”

The DV Consultation Plus service was not

yet policies do not address their particularexpanded sufficiently to meet demand. Early

needs.

during the state of emergency the phone•

connection rate was a mere 20%, “leaving 80%

as a ‘dependent.’ Despite the threat of physicalviolence her husband poses, she knows that

Moreover, the one-time stimulus payment paid

she cannot extend her visa if she chooses

to the head of household was useless for many

divorce.” 40

women trapped in households with their abusers.
Other mitigation policies also did not consider the

The ongoing stigma against reporting such issues

specific needs of other marginalised groups suchsuggests the increased official numbers of domestic

as women with disabilities and migrants.

violence cases still do not capture the whole scope.

One domestic violence survivor who was•

surveyed noted, “I can’t apply for financial

women who experienced domestic violence

to do it.” 39
According to the 2016 Implementation Report

37
38
39

Suppasri et al. (2021).
Suga. (2021).
Ando. (2020).

In a survey by the Cabinet Office on Violence
Between Men and Women, “only 2.2% of

support directly under my own name, I’m afraid•

Another migrant woman found, “that she could
not get [social] support due to her visa statusof survivors waiting to be connected.” 38

•

Women

Figure 9: Percentage increase in suicide
according to gender.

Figure 8: Consulted domestic violence casesin 2019 versus 67% of 2020.

•

Men

actually reported their case to the police, while
nearly 50% of participants did not tell anyone.”41
40
41

20

Tanaka, M. (2020).
Ando. (2020).

Whether because of domestic violence, increased
care burdens, economic precarity, isolation, orsome combination thereof, the pandemic andits mitigation measures took a serious toll on themental health of women in Japan—in a country
where affordable, accessible mental health careremains scarce.

•

In October 2020, suicides had “increased by 83%
for women, while it was 22% for men comparedto the same months in the previous year.” 42•

Already 3,633 women committed suicide in
the first six months of 2021, an increase of 742
people than the previous year”•

The percentage of mothers who “had symptomsof postpartum depression” rose to about 24%
among 2,132 mothers who had given birth lessthan a year earlier.43

Many nonprofits stepped in to fill gaps left byinadequate government policy and resources,
though they also found themselves overwhelmed bydemand. Without the support of such organisations
that stepped up during the pandemic, it is likely
the outcomes for women would have been muchworse.

•One such nonprofit, Lifelink, which works
to prevent suicides, reported “about 3,000
consultations in March, but in September,
after the second wave of the pandemic hit, thefigure rose to 15,000. About 70 percent of thosesending messages were women.”44

42 Zhou. (2021).
43 藤田日.向子. (2021, September 27). 「産後うつ」倍増か ～1人で苦しまないで [`Sango utsu’ baizō ka ~ 1-ri de kurushimanaide].
NHKニュース. https://www3.nhk.or.jp/news/html/20201016/
k10012665491000.html
44 Asahi Shimbun. (2021, January 23). Isolation due to COVID-19
a key factor in suicide surge in 2020. The Asahi Shimbun | Asia &Japan Watch. https://www.asahi.com/ajw/articles/14130555

21

@imtmphoto | Adobe Stock22

Analysis and Implications of Present
PolicyA

systematically underrepresented across all levels ofgovernment and other institutions of democratic
power.45 The numerical dominance of men andt present, Japanese public policy requires

their perspectives in the fields of political science,

attention in three distinct areas: intersctionallaw, policy making and implementation in Japandata, diversified representation, and intersectional

leads to an absence of critical reflection on thepolicy design.

various complexities and impacts of the “politics
of race, of sexualities, of age and disability” in how

Dearth of Disaggregated Intersectional Data

resources and power are shared.46 47 These systemic

The goal of this research report was to survey

biases generate cumulatively nefarious and long-the impact of policy prescriptions during theterm consequences for Japan in the post-COVID

coronavirus

rebuilding phase, as diverse women and men

pandemicongenderequality

measures in Japan. However, most studies andremainunderrepresented

statistics continue to employ a binary approach

focused laws and policies.

among

recovery-48

to the term “gender” and typically even misuse
this term interchangeably with “women.” This

Recommended Best Practice: Participatory andtendency overlooks the variability and social

democratic policy-making processes that are

construction of gender and does not adequately

accessible, equitable, and responsive to the diverse

consider the various rights and needs of multiple

needs and identities of citizens—with substantive

groups that do not fit within the gender binary. To

input from key stakeholders in civil society

continue with frameworks that do not extend themeaning of “gender” to include the intersectional

Lack of Results-Based, Intersectional Policy

complications faced by other marginalised or at-

Design and Policy Enforcement

risk groups with complex gendered identities

Furthermore, these policy making practices arefurther exacerbates disadvantages in times ofexacerbated by existing policies and institutions in

disaster. Yet, the Japanese government has not yet

Japan which systematically disadvantage womenembraced an intersectional diversity lens throughand men of diverse nationality, ethnocultural or

which to assess vulnerabilities and resilience, nor

racial background, ability and sexual orientation. For

for policies and their impacts.

example, the Japanese family register system largely
posits Japanese national men as the presumptive
Evidence-heads of households, under the post-WWII hetero-based policies that involve disaggregated data,normative model of male breadwinner/housewife

participatory

andsocio-economic organization. Excluding common

engagement with experts in intersectional analysis

law heterosexual couples and all same-sex couples,

Lack of Diversified, Participatory Representation

45 Steele and Miyake. (2021).
46 Enarson, E., & Pease, B. (2018). Men, masculinities anddisaster: an action research agenda. In Men, Masculinities andDisaster (Routledge Studies in Hazards, Disaster Risk and Climate
Change) (1st ed., pp. 219–233). Routledge.
47 Steele, J. F. (2016b). Japanese political science at a crossroads?
normative and empirical preconditions for the integration of womenand diversity into political science. European Political Science, 15(4),536–555. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41304-016-0074-7
48 Tanaka, Y. (2020, September 17). Gender and Diversity in theTime of Covid-19: Lessons from 3.11 [Slides]. Google Slides. https://drive.google.com/file/d/1nelnqGlA68tWEn5CmUjbDq7iNbeHVKyU/
view?usp=sharing

RecommendedBest

Practice:data-gathering

methods,

in Decision-Making Processes
There

also

remains

a

lack

of

substantive,

intersectional representation in policy making
and analysis as Japanese women and other
under-served

citizens,

such

as

peoplewithdisabilities, LGBTQ, and indigenous citizens remain

23this one biased model of legally married, patriarchal,

Japan have been shown to result in improvised

patrilineal family household continues to serve as

and non-performing policy measures that have not

the base unit for ethno-nationalist and patriarchal

supported greater equality for women and diverse,

policies. This model unjustifiably privileges married

under-served residents and citizens, nor led toheterosexual male heads of household as thegreater substantive democratisation.50“ideal citizen”, to the detriment of the full diversityof individual taxpayers and citizens/residents with

Indeed, in the case of COVID-19, gender-blind

diverse needs that ought to form the basic unit ofpolicies that lack a holistic, intersectional approacha modern constitutional democracy and G7 nation.

todiversity

havestymiedJapan’s

economic

performance and recovery while exacerbating the
Beyond laws and policies, corporate culture in Japan

precarity of families with increased social/emotional

and the norms around corporate warrior salarymen

risks due to increased domestic violence, mentalroles discourage men from taking parental leave,

health burdens and suicide. This is all amidst

while simultaneously placing a double burden

decreasing access to the essential social services

on employed Japanese women who continue tomitigating these risks throughout the 24 months

shoulder the bulk of caregiving, childrearing, andand counting length of this global pandemic. This

household management on top of full-time labour

paints a bleak picture for Japan’s future economic,

force participation. This care burden experienced

societal and household resilience as we prepare to

by Japanese women, and the inadequate market-

enter Reiwa year 4.

based policies, styled “Womenomics” by previous
Prime Minister Abe that purported to empower

The analysis and calls for action here seek to lay

womendisposable

the foundation for renewed investments in theeconomic resources49, have persisted in holding

best practices and wise approaches most apt

back achievements of true gender equality for

to build a more equitable, resilient, and vibrantwomen in Japan, contributing to the persistently

Japanese society. This report aims to raise theembarrassing rank of 120th place internationally ofurgency and also appeal directly to political andthis otherwise leading G7 nation.

economic decision-makers and policy practitioners

whiletreating

themas

to prioritise evidence-based commitments for
Recommended Best Practice: Policies that are

sustainable and systemic change towards thegender-and-equity responsive to the particular

substantive enjoyment of democratic equality forpolitical, economic, and social inequalities andall who call Japan home.

material realities for women, minorities, andother at-risk social groups in Japan—including
robust enforcement and oversight measures thatmeasurably reduce inequality
Implications
As Steele notes, structural inequalities that manifest
across the legal and bureaucratic institutions in

49 Wilson, K. (2020, October 12). Japan Needs a New Path for
Womenomics and Gender Equality. Tokyo Review. https://www.
tokyoreview.net/2020/10/japan-needs-a-new-path-for-womenomicsand-gender-equality-in-post-abe-era/

24intersectional lens that makes visible the differential

Best Practices and Policy
Recommendations for Effective Crisis
Risk GovernanceGexperiences of marginalization, discrimination, andvulnerability.

Recommendation

3:

Annualinvestments

inlobal economies built upon the foundations

and capacity-building/training with civil societyof rule of law associated with advanced

partners and women’s organisations with expertisedemocracy must take seriously the contemporary

in the intersectional gendered implications of crisis/demands and implications of “diverse citizenship”

disaster risk reduction.

and what “economic resilience” requires as acollective

strategy.

Forgovernments,

Ensure Diversified, Participatory Representation

privatein Decision-Making Processes

sector actors, and civil society, this implies a
coherent, evidence-based “diversity and equity”
strategy and implementation, led by governmentBest

Practice:and supported by the private sector, to ensure

policy-making

democratic equality is ensured within peace times

equitable, and responsive to the diverse needs andas a means of supporting economic resilience andidentities of citizens—with substantive input fromsocietal stability in crisis times.

key stakeholders in civil society.

Create Systems of Disaggregated, Intersectional

Recommendation 4: Hold annual, multi-level

Datagovernment public policy fora, exchanges, andParticipatory
processes

that

and

democraticareaccessible,

learning communities that are diverse, cross-Best

Practice:

Evidence-based

policies

sectoral, and multi-stakeholder.

that

involve disaggregated data, participatory datagathering methods, and engagement with experts

Recommendation 5: Hold annual report-backin intersectional analysis.

and consultations with feminist thought leaders
and women’s organizations for best practices andRecommendation

1:

Consistent,

implementation of international standards onlongitudinal

gender equality and intersectional equity.

collection of reliable quantitative demographic
data that tracks and disaggregates across multiple
intersecting rick factors on an individual level andRecommendation 6: Invest in local to nationalby historically marginalised or under-represented

and international dialogues and hold annual

social groups.

participatory

gatheringsongenderandintersectional equity-responsive practices to drive•

The current method of data collection by headcritical innovations in Japanese law, policy andof household leads to under-reporting of thestatecraft.

diverse needs and perspectives of women andRecommendation 7: Ensure the participation ofyounger generations

a minimum of 40% women, 40% men, as well as

Recommendation 2:

representation of trans and gender fluid residents51

Consistent investments

in long-term qualitative data and participatory
51 In the interests of displacing and decentring binary gender as
the “norm” of concpetual understanding of gendered identities andbiological sex, we intentionally use the term “gender fluid” rather

research with affected communities through an

25

from diverse sectors and backgrounds in all

meaningful, equity-based hiring policies with clear,governmental policy-making and decision-making

effective compliance mechanisms and sanctions tobodies.

incentivize corporations to reform employment andlabour practices in ways that that are responsive•

Representation of women and marginalised

to gender and intersectional inequalities and thatgroupsintentionally, measurably reduce the vulnerabilities

indecision-making

bodiesandfacing diverse women.

leadership positions remains exceptionally low
in Japan•Relentlessly

PursueResults-Based

GenderExisting labour contracts and Japanese labour
market practices approach women as non-Equality Policy Design and Policy Enforcement

regular, expendable, contract-based labour•

Rigid corporate practices demanding long

Best Practice: Policies that are gender-and-equity

facetime working hours in a fixed office location

responsive to the particular political, economic, andsystematicallysocial inequalities and material realities for women,with caregiving responsibilities and actively

minorities, and other at-risk social groups in Japan,

discourage men’s participation in caregiving

includingrobustenforcementand•oversight

measures that measurably reduce inequality.

disadvantage

employees

Access to public support for unemployment
or low income households often involves
complicatedRecommendation 8: Invest in universally accessible

paperworkandopaque,indiscriminate bureaucratic rules

social safety nets, including for caregiving, domestic
violence, and mental health, that are responsive

Recommendation 10: Invest in reforms andto gender and intersectional inequalities and that

innovation of the national taxation, education,

intentionally, measurably reduce the vulnerabilities

daycare, eldercare, pension, and healthcare systems

facing diverse women.

in ways that that are responsive to gender andintersectional inequalities and that intentionally,•

Supports for victims of Domestic Violence (DV)measurably

reducein Japan are chronically underfunded, withdiverse women.

thevulnerabilities

facinghigh procedural barriers to access•••

Mental health counselling is not currently
covered by National Health Insurance schemes

as dependents of male Japanese nationals–

Tax laws based on family registry and malesystematically externalising collective care andbreadwinner model deny women’s rights

social production burdens onto women andto independent legal standing as individual

other marginalised groups•

citizens and residents•

Laws and policies currently define women

National household taxation rules limit women’s

Current border reentry policies and regulations

income through economic incentives

unjustifiably punish women who are non-encourage the externalisation and privatisation

Japanese permanent residents

of care onto the family and women•
Recommendation 9: Develop and implement

that

Existing public and private childcare andhealthcare services in Japan fail to integratea holistic equity-based approach to ensure

than “non-binary” as the latter inadvertently accords legitimacy tothe idea that gender should be thought of along a dualistic binary
offering but two options and legal categories.

anti-sexist, anti-racist, LGTBQ-inclusive service

26

provision•

The

Japanesenational

childcareandeducation systems teach national standardised
curricula that fail to meaningfully integrateconsiderations for equity, gender equality,
diversity, and inclusive learning goals

27

Conclusion
We are aware that our recommendations may beserious and systemic in scale, and would counterthat such resolutions are necessary for such a
serious and systemic problem.
Japan is not unfamiliar with overhauling legal andbureaucratic processes. The implementation of
the MyNumber system in the 2010s, for example,
demonstrates the ability of the government tooverhaul processes in the face of both traditionand controversy. What was needed then, and whatis needed now, is pressure from economic andcorporate ecosystems to focus the attention of theJapanese Diet.
Our recommended policies are not solely about
avoiding repeated negative outcomes. Companies
and governments in all areas of the world have
implemented policy lookalikes to great success,most notably Canada and the United Nations
Women.
Weareconfident

that,

given

properencouragement, Japanese citizens and legislators
can craft public policies that adopt the spirit ofthese recommendations while remaining wholly
and uniquely Japanese. After all, such action would
benefit not only intersectional women living within
Japan, but all citizens.

28

Acknowledgements
Several partners warrant a mention for their roleand contributions to this enjoi Japan K.K. report.
First, we wish to thank the Embassy of Canada inTokyo for fruitful collaboration in co-hosting the2020 Speakers Series on Gender, Diversity and
COVID-19 Vulnerabilities that lay the groundworkformulti-stakeholder

conversations

on

the

intersectional impacts of the pandemic on diverse
women in Japan.
Secondly, UNESCO Beijing reached out in 2021
to commission a Japan-focused research reportthat empowered us to deepen our findings andanalysis on the realities impacting diverse womenin Japan. That research report forms the backboneof this practitioner report, introducing an explicitlyintersectional analysis of womens experiences ofcomplex inequality during the pandemic.
Finally, we wish to convey our appreciation to
Megumi Ishimoto, Founding Member of the Single
Mothers Research Project, for sharing original
research findings from their survey on single
mothers implemented during the early phares of
COVID19 and throughout the pandemic. Without
the dedicated efforts of researchers and civil society
collaboration working at the grassroots, the stories
and qualitative voices of single women’s significant
caregiving burdens and economic predatory would
not have been captured.

29

Endnotes

19 Toyoda, Y., Katanoda, K., Ishii, K., Yamamoto, H., & Tabuchi, T.
(2021). Negative impact of the COVID-19 state of emergency onbreast cancer screening participation in Japan. Breast Cancer, 28(6),1340–1345. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12282-021-01272-7

1 OECD. (2018–2021). OECD.Stat Time Use [Dataset]. https://stats.
oecd.org/Index.aspx?DataSetCode=TIME_USE

20 Ito. (2020)

2 Zhou, Y. (2021, March). コロナショックと女性の雇用危機[Koronashokku to josei no koyō kiki]. The Japan Institute for Labor
Policy and Training. https://www.jil.go.jp/institute/discussion/2021/
documents/DP21-09.pdf

21 Bookman, M. (2020). The Coronavirus Crisis: Disability Politics
and Activism in Contemporary Japan. The Asia-Pacific Journal,
18(18), 1–11. https://apjjf.org/-Mark-Bookman/5465/article.pdf

3 しんぐるまざあず・ふぉーらむ [Shin guru ma zāzu fuo-ra mu].
(2020, April 21). 新型コロナでの影響：シングルマザー世帯への支援策
に関するアンケート結果（2020/04/13暫定版）[Shingata korona de noeikyō: Shingurumazā setai e no shien-saku ni kansuru ankēto kekka].
https://www.single-mama.com/topics/covid19-support/

22 Tanaka, M. (2020). Limitations of Social Protections of Migrant
Families in Japan Exposed by COVID-19: The Case of Nepalese
Women. The Asia-Pacific Journal, 18(18), 1–9. https://apjjf.org/Masako-Tanaka/5477/article.pdf
23 Slater, D. H. (2020). Vulnerable Populations Under COVID-19 inJapan: A Lull in the Storm? The Asia-Pacific Journal, 18(18), 1–15.
https://apjjf.org/-David-H--Slater/5482/article.pdf

4 文部科学省 [Bun bukagakushō]. (2020, April 16). 新型コロナウイル
ス感染症対策のための学校の臨時休業に関連した 公立学校における学習指導等の取組状況について [Shingata koronauirusukansenshō taisaku notame no gakkō no rinji kyūgyō ni kanren shita kōritsu gakkō ni okeru
gakushū shidō-tō no torikumi jōkyō ni tsuite]. 文部科学省: Ministry of
Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology-Japan. https://www.mext.go.jp/content/20200421-mxt_kouhou01-000006590_1.
pdf

24 Suppasri, A., Kitamura, M., Tsukuda, H., Boret, S. P., Pescaroli,G., Onoda, Y., Imamura, F., Alexander, D., Leelawat, N., & Syamsidik.
(2021). Perceptions of the COVID-19 pandemic in Japan with respect
to cultural, information, disaster and social issues. Progress in
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