IAFOR Journal of Education

Volume 5 – Issue 2 – Summer 2017

Self-Efficacy Reduces Impediments to Classroom Discussion forInternational Students: Fear, Embarrassment, Social Isolation, Judgment,
and Discrimination

Junko Maeda
Hachinohe Institute of Technology, Japan141

IAFOR Journal of Education

Volume 5 – Issue 2 – Summer 2017

Abstract
Approximately one million international students were enrolled at U.S. universities in theacademic year 2015–2016, and the number has been steadily rising since. Although thesestudents aim to increase intercultural communication skills, international knowledge, andcritical thinking skills, some international students experience difficulty participating in classdiscussion. Several studies have revealed a range of obstacles to full participation in in-classdiscussions, including language, cultural differences, academic differences, and social
isolation. Among these barriers, some studies have identified emotional factors thatsignificantly affect learning. This study was an in-depth exploration of the adverse emotional
factors that impede discussion participation. Using a qualitative approach, twenty-threeinternational students at one university were interviewed, and their responses analyzed.
Students reported that fear, embarrassment, social isolation, judgment and discrimination werebarriers to participation. These findings are discussed in the context of a framework forreducing negative emotional states, employing self-efficacy theory. This framework wasapplied to the interview results and the author’s observation of international students’ behavior
in dormitories and university offices. These findings suggest a possible intervention approachfor educators to help international students express themselves in the classroom.
Keywords: international students; classroom discussion; negative emotions; self-efficacy
theory; educators’ intervention.

142

IAFOR Journal of Education

Volume 5 – Issue 2 – Summer 2017

Introduction
Approximately one million international students were enrolled in U.S. institutions of higher
education in the academic year 2015–2016 (Education USA, 2016). International students
typically aim to increase their intercultural communication skills, global knowledge, andcritical thinking skills through discussion and international education (Urban & Palmer, 2014).
In U.S. classrooms, international students provide a number of benefits, including: (a)increasing the diversity in educational settings, and (b) contributing new perspectives todiscussions in the classrooms (Lee & Rice, 2007). Class discussion is considered one of thebest ways to foster educational growth, because individuals can enhance their ideas throughcollaboration with others. This exposure heightens mutual understanding and motivates
students to continue learning. Educators can harness pedagogical discussion techniques indiverse classrooms (Brookfield, & Preskill, 2012). In addition, from an economic viewpoint,international students contributed $35.8 billion to the U.S. economy in the academic year
2015–2016 (Institute of International Education, 2015).
While the internationalization of American higher education institutions is mutually beneficial
for international students and domestic students, some international students face a number ofcommunication/discussion problems. Lobo and Gurney (2014) reported that while international
students’ expectations of course components and teaching materials were largely met within
U.S. universities, many international students struggled with an expectation of in-classdiscussion in increasingly multicultural classrooms. Specifically, a large number ofinternational students were reported to be unable to contribute in communication-related
activities. One study reported that some international students may not be accustomed to inclass participation, and may be used to more teacher-centered classroom environments in theirhome countries (Karuppan & Barari, 2011). Educators are often apprehensive about thesestudents’ lower levels of class participation and the effect on their learning (Kim, 2012). Some
researchers have attempted to identify the causes of international students’ infrequent
communication within intercultural classrooms, finding that they commonly encounter culturaladjustment, social isolation, and academic challenges including communication withprofessors, classmates, and staff, as well as confronting culturally different ways of thinking
and doing in the US (Wu, Garza, & Guzman, 2015).
Much of the research on international students has examined cultural differences or differencesin learning styles between domestic and international students (Welikala, 2015). To expand theexisting literature on international students’ in-class discussion, the present study focuses on
negative emotional factors as impediments to participation in discussion. Negative emotions
such as fear of making language mistakes can erode individuals’ abilities to make decisions(Kligyte, Connelly, Thiel, & Devenport, 2013). Weisfeld (2014) reported that individuals
sometimes respond uncomfortably or inappropriately when another person commits a minor
linguistic mistake; consequently, embarrassment is often created and exacerbated by others’
laughter or smiling. This emotional agitation is associated with negative impacts on self-esteem.
The current study used a qualitative approach, interviewing 23 international students at one
university and analyzing their responses. In-depth emotional factors were predicted to function
as impediments to discussion participation. If adverse emotional factors negatively impact oninternational students’ classroom discussion, there may be a need to reduce the levels of these
emotions. Employing self-efficacy theory as a theoretical lens may be useful for reducing
impediments and improving expressiveness. Thus, the current study sought to discern which

143

IAFOR Journal of Education

Volume 5 – Issue 2 – Summer 2017

adverse emotional factors are impediments for international students to participate in classroom
discussion, and to find a way to reduce their impact.
Literature Review
U.S. classrooms include students from a variety of backgrounds in both culture and language.
However, it has been observed that most international students exhibit a lack of participationin class discussion, with adverse impacts on their academic performance (Kim, 2012).
International students in the U.S. face cultural adjustment, social isolation, and academic
challenges, including communication with professors and classmates (Wu, Garza, & Guzman,2015). International students with a lower level of English proficiency often experience
difficulties in class participation. In addition, international students often struggle with culturaldifferences, including social expectations of interaction, educational values, and teachercentered pedagogies (Bista, 2012). Moreover, some international students spend more than 5hours per day studying. This tendency to perfectionism can result in creating an unbalanced
environment in which to learn. If perfectionism is channeled in a healthy and positive way, thestudent can feel fulfillment in learning. However, maladaptive perfectionism can create
problematic situations, including constant concerns about making mistakes, and self-doubt inlearning and the associated perceived expectations (Hamamura & Laird, 2014).
Fear and embarrassment have been found to contribute to international students’ reticence toengage in in-class discussion. Typical fears of international students include making mistakes,
experiencing shame, and uncertainty. Previous research demonstrated that the fear of making
language mistakes was most related to overall fears of failure for international students (Conroy,2004). A major drawback of the fear of making mistakes is that fearful emotions erode
individuals’ ability to make decisions, and fear of making language mistakes can impede
individuals’ thoughts and actions (Kligyte et al., 2013). The fear of failure generates shame andembarrassment and involves feelings of inability (Sagar & Stoeber, 2009). Weisfeld (2014)
found that some individuals responded uncomfortably or inappropriately when another person
committed a minor or unusual linguistic mistake; subsequently, embarrassment was often
created and exacerbated by others’ laughter or smiling. This emotional perturbation included
negative self-respect and was sometimes accompanied by a slumped posture, gaze avoidance,and blushing. Meanwhile, Uphill, Groom, and Jones (2014) reported that among the emotionsof anger, apprehensiveness, embarrassment, and happiness, embarrassment significantly
predicted increased unsuccessful involvement.
International students commonly have perceptions of social isolation and discrimination.
Social isolation is derived from the perception of a person as an outsider. A segment ofdomestic students perceive individuals as “others” or members of an outgroup, or, alternatively,
a sequence of overlapping outgroups based on features such as nationality, their status assecond language speakers, cultural framework, and work orientation. The “other” is related to
the label “international student” (Harrison & Peacock, 2010). Although international students
provide substantial benefits to universities, a considerable number of international students
experience prejudice and discrimination from American classmates (Charles-Toussaint &Crowson, 2010). Wadsworth, Hecht, and Jung (2008) described how discrimination negativelytransforms international students’ learning experiences in an educational environment.
American students may have a bias towards international students regarding English skills,
which can be interpreted as discrimination against international students. International students’discriminatory experiences symbolize a rejection by others, which may intensify theirperception of being considered an outsider who is unwanted by others (Wang, Wong, & Chu-

144

IAFOR Journal of Education

Volume 5 – Issue 2 – Summer 2017

chun, 2012). Moreover, because international students who perceive discrimination from theirclassmates tend to have detrimental outcomes, their educational dissatisfaction may be one of
the adverse consequences (Wadsworth, Hecht, & Jung, 2008).
Self-efficacy theory may be a useful framework for developing approaches to reduce negative
emotions, by elevating self-efficacy. According to self-efficacy theory, the perception ofefficacy is influenced by four factors: (1) experience of mastery that has led to prior successes
can raise self-efficacy, because people are more likely to believe they can succeed at new tasks,(2) vicarious experience, observing someone who is similar to themselves successfully
achieving something, (3) verbal persuasion and encouragement by others to increase theconfidence that they can accomplish tasks, and (4) somatic and emotional states involving
stress, anxiety, and fear can adversely affect self-efficacy, and can cause failure or inability; incontrast, relaxation techniques and positive self-talk can reduce negative emotional states(Bandura, 1994).
Applying the above four factors in a classroom setting, educators can help international
students express themselves by providing them with clear opportunities. This can increase thelikelihood of a successful experience, which can induce subsequent success. When an educator
uses verbal persuasion and praises an international student’s expressiveness, they may feel
more confident in classroom discussion. When an international student observes otherinternational students’ learning achievements, they may have a positive perception of their own
ability to accomplish the same work. When an international student is able to overcome initialadverse emotional factors and develop a positive mindset, other international students facing
negative emotional factors may be encouraged to develop similarly positive mindsets.
Based on the literature reviewed above, the present study investigated the emotional factors
impeding international students’ participation in the classroom. These theoretical foundations
suggest that international students may be able to raise their efficacy and overcome adverse
emotions, and that educators may be able to help reduce the negative impact of these factors
by assisting international students using self-efficacy theory.
Methods
Participants
The target participants were international students at a U.S. university. In line with Creswell(2013), in the current study, international students of various ages, nationalities, and genders
were recruited, as well as those with different length of time at the institution. There were no
restrictions based on race and gender in the sampling. However, participants were required to
be international students who used English as a second language. I conducted 23 individualinterviews with volunteers from 15 different countries in the library of the university. The 15
countries included: Brazil and Venezuela in South America; Mexico in Central America; Haiti
in the West Indian Islands; Vietnam, Korea, Sri Lanka, Japan, Nepal and Malaysia in Asia;
Saudi Arabia, Afghanistan in the Middle East; and Macedonia, Spain and Germany in Europe.
Four Saudi Arabian students, three Japanese students, two Venezuelan students, two German
students, and two Brazilian students volunteered to take part in the study. Thus, five countries
in the sample were represented by more than one participant. For the remaining 10 countries,
one student from each country took part (See Appendix).

145

IAFOR Journal of Education

Volume 5 – Issue 2 – Summer 2017

The recruiting processes followed four phases in a 3-month period from October to December
2014. The four phases included: (a) random samples via email in which every member ofinternational students has an equal opportunity to be interviewed for participation in the study(Baxter & Babbie, 2004); (b) flyers delivered to locations in which international students
gathered, such as the university dormitory and a university office; (c) personal contact withpotential participants within courses, and assistance from the university faculty to identify
potential participants, and (d) the offer of a participation incentive by providing a cup of coffee
for interviewees.
In qualitative methods, researchers collect data until saturation has been attained. According to
Baxter and Babbie (2004, p. 319), “Saturation means that you have reached the point where
your data are repetitive. Saturation occurs when additional data do not add additional insights”.
In many types of quantitative research, theoretical saturation is considered to occur with around
20–25 interviewees (Creswell, 2013). In the present study, 23 individual interviews wereconducted, producing 421 double-spaced pages of transcripts.
Data Collection
International students volunteered via email to participate in this project. Each participant wassent an Excel table in which the date and time inputs were set up so that they could insert checkmarks in the boxes to indicate the times at which they were available to be interviewed. At thebottom of the Excel table, participants were instructed to report their gender, nationality, thelength of time learning at the university, and major. The interviews were scheduled, andconfirmation of the scheduled date, time, and place was emailed to each participant. Theinterviews began on October 5 and ended on December 23, 2014.
Before the interviews, informed consent was obtained, and participants were instructed thatthey could withdraw at any time and that their confidentiality would be secured, based on theInstitutional Review Board guidelines. Audio was recorded during the interviews, and therecordings ranged from 30 to 73 minutes in duration. Each interview was transcribed verbatim.
International students’ behavior and conversations were observed at the “Cultural Day Parties”
held at the university dormitory (three times), at the President’s Open House (once), and at aparty for international students held at a university office (once). Notes about students’behaviors and conversations were recorded in a notebook.
Qualitative Method
In the interviews, it was important to establish relationships with international students, toenable understanding of implicit and explicit meanings in each participant’s responses andbehaviors. A qualitative approach enables researchers to comprehend the meanings and actionsof each participant by focusing attention on their communicative acts (Creswell, 2013).
Interpretive and inductive approaches allow researchers to study the intentions, meanings, andactions of the participants directly from the data, rather than from predetermined hypotheses(Charmaz, 2005). For these reasons, a qualitative approach was selected as the preferred
methodology in the current study, and semi-structured interviews were employed. Following
the method described by Baxter and Babbie (2004), the semi-structured interview consisted ofa list of open-ended questions. The use of open-ended questions encouraged interviewees to
use their own words, and provided freedom to the interviewer in terms of order and the use ofalternative language. Semi-structured interviews have two major benefits. First, researchers

146

IAFOR Journal of Education

Volume 5 – Issue 2 – Summer 2017

can focus on gaps in information. Second, researchers can compare participants’ responses anddiscern common themes in their conversations by summarizing the frequencies of their
responses. In the current study, semi-structured interviews provided a way of comparing
interviewees’ responses and commonalities, enabling emerging themes to be identified.
Coding and Data Analysis
To analyze the transcribed interviews, I conducted analysis of the qualitative data, according
to Chamaz’s (2005) coding method: (1) in vivo coding, (2) sub-focus coding, and (3) focus
coding. In the in vivo coding, I checked and circled the words line by line that I interpreted as
obstacles to expression, referring to the in vivo codes. After choosing the in vivo codes of the
23 interview transcripts, all of the codes were input into the Excel table, which totaled 85 invivo codes.
In vivo coding involves naming each data in line, enabling researchers to consider the datafrom a range of perspectives that may differ from participants’ interpretations. In sub-focus
coding, I organized similar in vivo codes together, classified them in the Excel worksheet, andnamed subthemes, such as social isolation, shallow expression, or discrimination. The
subthemes amounted to 39 items. Subsequently, I analyzed the 39 subthemes, focus-coded
them into an over-arching theme, “Emotional Factors.” Following this procedure, I reduced 39
subthemes into three. The components of the themes were fear, embarrassment, social
isolation/judgmental discrimination, which represented in-depth emotional factors. Figure 1
illustrates the layers of the codes. Data analysis in qualitative research typically utilizes three
analysis strategies: preparing and organizing data, reducing the data into themes through aprocess of coding and condensing the codes, and finally representing the data in figures, tables,
or a discussion (Creswell, 2013). The present study used these three recommended qualitative
data analysis strategies.

Figure 1: Codes representing emotional factors of less expressiveness.

147

IAFOR Journal of Education

Volume 5 – Issue 2 – Summer 2017

Fear
Participants reported that they were often embarrassed and fearful of making language mistakes
or giving responses that are beside the point. They reported being embarrassed when they mademistakes, as other students often reacted by laughing, even if the laughter was not meanspirited. This mix of embarrassment and fear resulted in students keeping to themselves,
reducing expressiveness, and evading social interaction with their classmates. All participants
except one expressed emotions of fear and embarrassment.
James mentioned the fear of making mistakes in front of his classmates, such as giving a wrong
answer, and a mixture of feelings about being an outsider. Because he did not want to give an
incorrect answer resulting in his classmates laughing at his linguistic mistakes, he kept quiet.
Moreover, he felt that his classmates should understand that he came from a different country
and may face language challenges.
Making language mistakes is the biggest problem. I am scared of saying something
in the classroom. I want to say the right thing. I don’t want them to laugh at mylanguage mistakes… I am the only international student, an outsider, and the others
are all local students, so I want to tell the right thing so that they can understand me.
I don’t want to be a wrong person or a wrongly answered person… They should
understand that I am coming from a different culture from a different part of theworld where accent is obviously different and the writing is going to be different as
well. (James)
James made this statement with a disappointing facial expression and a low tone of voice.
However, when James was talking about his classmates’ laughter at his language mistakes, heraised his voice. When he stated that he wanted his classmates to understand that he is fromanother country, I sensed his strong desire for his classmates to empathize with his
circumstances within the classroom.
Kate also described a sense of frightfulness during group discussion, because her classmatescorrected her language mistakes, although she felt her English was not bad. Over time, Kateentered contexts in which she was frightened that she would not understand what herclassmates were discussing. Kate’s fear was increased when her classmates corrected her
mistakes. In the interview, Kate initially spoke English quickly, then began speaking evenfaster about this fearful situation, with more gesturing. This behavior revealed Kate’s strong
emotional experience of fear, reduced confidence, and sadness. Another participant, Ariel, felt
a strong sense of fear/embarrassment of being laughed at after giving a wrong answer, which
made her lose confidence in herself. In the first semester, Ariel was highly motivated, but
gradually became disappointed and remained silent within the classroom. Ariel looked
exasperated then discouraged when she was describing her classmates laughing at her language
mistakes.
Embarrassment
Jordan mentioned that he was laughed at for his accent or incorrect answers, and began to avoid
participating in class discussion.
I never ever raised my hand and said anything in class because I got embarrassedof my accent so saying something wrong. In my first semester at the university, I

148

IAFOR Journal of Education

Volume 5 – Issue 2 – Summer 2017

was doing presentation and then I said a word different and my classmates laughed.
It was so embarrassing. So after that, I was like, not raising my hand and didn’t say
anything at all in discussion because if I say something, everyone laughs again. But
with time it gets better. At the time, I was really embarrassed because I didn’t really
understand why they were laughing. (Jordan)
Although he reported that the situation was improving, Jordan shrugged his shoulders andlooked down. This behavior appeared to suggest that Jordan was not able to find any solutions
that he was satisfied with. In the interview, Jordan was passionately speaking in a high pitch,emphasizing his emotional appeal regarding his classmates laughing at his accent or incorrect
answer. His use of the term “everyone” in the phrase “…if I say something, everyone laughs
again” was indicative of his experience of social isolation.
Roy reported losing confidence speaking English in class discussion, because every time hespoke English he made language mistakes. Roy did not want to be embarrassed within theclassroom. Professors did not ask for Roy’s opinions, so Roy said that he did not have any
experience in the classroom. The professors realized that Roy did not want to be embarrassedin the classroom, which led the professors to be hesitant to ask him to express his opinions.
Roy described this context with a negative facial expression, and expressed that he was alone
in the classroom. Meanwhile, Meryl reported that her classmates proceeded with the discussion
at a very fast pace, so she asked them to explain the content of the conversation. Her classmates,
however, explained very quickly, in a way that was still difficult for her to understand. Meryl
was very embarrassed, and felt lost. Finally, Meryl said that her classmates were not able tounderstand the extent to which she was not able to understand them, implying that she desiredfor her classmates to understand her circumstances.
Perceptions of Social Isolation/Judgmental Discrimination
Participants expressed that they were eager to share opinions through fruitful discussion. Somestudents, however, perceived judgment and discrimination by domestic classmates, especiallytoward their English skills. Such perception of judgment and discrimination led to international
students’ dissatisfaction with their learning.
Tom felt that his classmates were judgmental when he asked questions within the classroom,and he recognized their judgmental facial expressions. Subsequently, Tom avoided speaking
up within the classroom.
Some students can be very judgmental to my talking, my accent. They think why I
am asking to them. I see some students can be very judgmental when I ask questions,like American students really do. They look at me like, I’m damn, I don’t know. So,
I don't ask in the classroom. His or her facial expressions can tell obviously, and it's
not that hard to tell if somebody's judgmental. (Tom)In the interview, Tom seemed to let off his emotions, articulately describing his classmates’
judgment, and blaming them in a sharp tone. Tom’s behavior implied the current state of his
reduced expression and sense of social isolation within the classroom. The last sentence “You
can tell obviously, it's not that hard to tell if somebody’s judgmental.” emphasized his feelingsof social isolation derived from his classmates’ inappropriate responses.

149

IAFOR Journal of Education

Volume 5 – Issue 2 – Summer 2017

Demi reported that her classmates judged her because she made mistakes when expressing
herself in English. Consequently, Demi had a strong fear of her classmates’ judgment when
she expressed her opinions. Demi said she was nervous, unable to open her mouth, and felt
completely paralyzed. Demi reported she did not speak English because her classmates would
judge her English skills. She continued to explain that English was not her first language andit was natural to make language mistakes. Given that Demi is generally a student with a cheerful
sprit, and that she did not have any difficulty expressing herself in her country, her reticenceindicated how strongly she perceived judgment from her classmates. In the meantime, Ariel
felt a strong perception that she was a foreigner after she gave an off-topic response and waslaughed at by her classmates. Ariel did not want to be in this situation, and kept silent in theclassroom. Ariel said she was the only international student and non-citizen in her class, anddescribed her negative perception that her classmates viewed her as a target in the classroom.
In the interview, Ariel articulately spoke in a loud voice, sometimes in a dispirited tone of voice,and her perception of being the only international student was accompanied by sighing. Her
behavior and negative facial expressions indicated that she felt she could not do anything otherthan remain silent in the classroom.
In summary, some international students felt social isolation and avoided communication.
These obstacles have serious negative impacts on communication for international students.
The themes underlying these perceptions influenced their expression within the classroom.
Moreover, the results indicated that international students experienced fear, embarrassment,
perception of social isolation and discrimination in classroom discussions at a tertiary
education institute, even though they enrolled because of a desire to learn critical thinking andinternational communication skills through classroom discussions.
Experience of Mastery and Verbal Encouragement from Professors and Classmates
Some international students continued to hold adverse emotions and became increasingly
reticent within the classroom, even though some had attended the university for 3 or 4 years.
On the other hand, a small percentage of the participants came to embrace positive states ofmind over time. This change directed them toward holding more efficacious mindsets,
providing confidence in expressing themselves and generating perceptions of fulfillment andenjoyment about participating in discussions. Some students reported a range of successful
experiences, as described below.
Susan was initially silent in the classroom, and completely avoided speaking. She had strong
opinions and wanted to express herself but felt that she did not have an adequate vocabulary
and was afraid to speak up. However, when she had an opportunity to give a presentation about
her country’s traditions, food, how people spend their vacations, and how people greet eachother, her classmates became interested in her culture. Susan discussed her culture with herclassmates, and they provided feedback and discussion. She was able to see on her classmates’
faces that they were enjoying her presentation. Even if Susan was unable to find the correct
word during the discussion, she would attempt to find another similar word. This change in her
emotional state increased her confidence.
When Donald answered a question in the classroom, he saw that most of his classmates did notunderstand what he was trying to say, which at first made him greatly embarrassed. He felt
further embarrassment when attempting to answer subsequent questions. However, he learned
that his professor enjoyed having international students in the class when the professor told theclass that international students were able to provide new perspectives and different ideas to150

IAFOR Journal of Education

Volume 5 – Issue 2 – Summer 2017

those of American students. Subsequently, Donald began to feel that his contributions could
improve classroom discussion. One day, Donald’s professor asked the class about a project thatwould plan to make more parking lots. Most of the American classmates said that they would
create more parking lots in various locations. In contrast, Donald said that people could better
utilize public transportation instead of using cars, thus using parking lots less often, which
could lead to more free parking spaces. Donald’s opinion was highly appraised by his professor
and classmates.
Ashton took a drawing class, in which each student presented their drawing. The other students
asked each presenter questions about their drawing, such as the intention behind the drawing,
and what was implied by each color. After the question and answer session, the class had acritique hour, regarding design, color, lines, images, and implications. Ashton was extremely
nervous thinking about how his teacher and the other students would evaluate his work.
Moreover, Ashton was afraid of speaking English, because he wondered whether he would be
able to answer their questions and convey what he wanted to express. These feelings often
occurred during class discussion. In one class, Ashton had already written notes about his
critique at his apartment beforehand. Ashton presented the critique, based on his writing. He
described the relationships between color and emotion in his work, noticing that someclassmates nodded their heads and seemed to deeply understand his critique. Ashton felt that
he was able to express what he intended to convey about the meaning of his drawing, and it
was easy for others to understand him when he wrote about the meaning of his work beforehand.
Encouragement by Other International Students’ Vicarious Experiences
The International Program Office at the university provides opportunities for international
students to gather, such as in the President’s House, university dormitories, and a university
office. This encourages international students to exchange information about academic learningand adjustment to life in the U.S. The author visited these locations, to observe international
students’ behaviors, and listen to conversations among them. International students were highly
talkative and responsive, regardless of differences in nationality. At an event called the“Cultural Day Party” held for domestic and international students at the dormitory, students
were even more open-minded and socially interactive, educating each other about their cultures,
education, sightseeing spots, and food through a presentation by a representative of eachcountry. Recognizing others’ fulfillment could lead to having vicarious experiences that refers
to learning by observing someone similar to oneself doing successfully. The following
conversations were among those at the dormitory.
Carlos was asked about his government providing money to learn for students to study in the
U.S. Carlos explained that an international student who obtained a grade-point average (GPA)
above 3.5 was eligible to receive financial support. Fortunately, Carlos achieved a GPA of 3.7
each semester, so his government provided $3,000 at the end of each semester. The otherinternational students in the conversation were very interested in the amount of money andCarlos’ achievements, telling him that he obtained superb grades and was from an immensely
affluent country.
Two international students praised Emily’s presentation about her culture. Presentations were
held twice a month as an event at the “Cultural Day Party.” Emily told two international
students about her experience of building confidence giving presentations. At university in herhome country, Emily had given at least 21 presentations per semester. The international
students were excited about her experience, commenting that this was an impressive number

151

IAFOR Journal of Education

Volume 5 – Issue 2 – Summer 2017of presentations, and asking what she had learned as a result. Emily told them that she learned
to always face the audience, and avoided looking at the Power Point slides.
Donald and several international students sitting around him mutually asked and answeredquestions about how they were engaging in their learning. Donald said that he had moreassignments than at university in his home country, but he continued trying his best, and wasachieving good grades. The other students said they managed to complete their assignments,
but it was sometimes difficult to finish every assignment, even with their best efforts. Donald
explained that he scheduled his time for assignments and exams each week. The other students
were very interested in Donald’s methods of learning.
The international students sitting around Carlos, Emily, and Donald were excited and inspiredby their successful learning experiences, expressing admiration and bright facial expressions.
Valuable information about learning situations was exchanged through interactions that were
enlivened by informal and responsive communication.
Although the author did not hear conversation about classroom discussions at these locations,
it was obvious from listeners’ bright facial expressions that the international students withsuccessful experiences heightened the other students’ motivation to learn at the university.
Emotional States
The emotional states of some international students regarding self expression changed fromnegative to positive mindsets over time. These students stopped worrying about their accents,
grammatical mistakes, incorrect responses, and cultural differences. Some expressed the belief
that making language mistakes was natural for international students, and it was important tomake themselves understood. Students expressed that speaking up in the classroom made an
individual confident even if they made language mistakes, and noted that individuals can learn
different perspectives from classroom discussion.
Jordan was initially embarrassed about other students laughing at his accent and incorrect
responses. Over time, Jordan believed that his English would improve, and that this would
happen to everyone. Jordan considered that the most important thing was whether heunderstood his professor and his classmates, and whether they understood what he expressed,
not whether his sentences were grammatically incorrect, or whether his classmates talked about
his accent or inappropriate responses. Although Jordan still had language barriers regarding
pronunciation, grammar, and structure, he did not pay undue attention to them. Jordan assumed
that there would be continuous improvement. Moreover, Jordan felt that it was beneficial toparticipate in discussions and get different perspectives in the classroom.
When Robert expressed himself, he noticed his classmates talking about his accent, but it did
not matter to him. Rather, Robert considered that speaking up about his opinions in classroom
discussions made him confident because he was able to engage in the course, understand it
better, and learn from discussions. With regard to cultural differences, Robert thought that itwas natural for cultures to be different, and he was able to understand the differences.
Julia sometimes misunderstood what her professor asked the class and gave incorrect answers,
which led her to become less expressive in the classroom. Julia, however, considered that shecame to the U.S. to study, and she did not want to lose the opportunity to learn. Unless Julia
participated in discussions and ask questions, she would not be able to learn from the class.

152

IAFOR Journal of Education

Volume 5 – Issue 2 – Summer 2017

Thus, Julia asked her professor to write the important points on the blackboard so that she could
participate in discussions. Although Julia once considered that cultural differences in
discussions might affect her ability to express herself in the classroom, she believed that, if she
ascribed her self-expression to her culture, she would be less able to achieve as an international
student. Unless Julia stepped beyond her culture, her only option would be to go back to her
country, she said.
Gil did not understand technical terms and had to ask about the meaning of words that wererelatively simple for domestic students, such as “agenda”. In addition, Gil was unable tounderstand what her professor said if they spoke too quickly. Thus, when she first got to theuniversity, Gil was very uncomfortable with her English. She was, however, aware that thisexperience was natural. When Gil misunderstood something, her professor and classmatescorrected her mistakes. However, she thought this happened to everyone. Gil had heard someof her friends commenting that they were sometimes uncomfortable in classrooms because they
did not want to make mistakes in English or be made fun of for their accents. Gil felt thatstudents had those thoughts were because they were afraid to participate in classroom
discussions, and believed they should be able to be more involved in the class and learn fromparticipation. Gil stressed that everyone makes mistakes, even in their own language.
Jordan, Robert, Julia, and Gil enthusiastically described their changed beliefs. Obviously, theirpositive emotional states emerged from their strong desire to absorb different viewpoints andinternational knowledge and from a shared idea that making mistakes is natural. Moreover,they felt strongly that international students came to the U.S. from their countries to learn, andthis should not be disrupted. These changes in their thoughts contributed to their ability toembrace positive emotional states and mindsets.
Discussion
The results revealed several in-depth emotional factors that were impediments to participationin class discussion for international students, which are supported by the literature (Conroy,
2004; Kligyte et al., 2013; Saga & Stober, 2009; Weisfield, 2014; Uphill et al., 2014; Harrison& Peacock, 2010; Wadsworth et al., 2008; Wang et al., 2012): (1) fear of making language
mistakes, (2) embarrassment when an international student was laughed at for their language
mistakes or incorrect responses, and (3) perceptions of social isolation, judgment or
discrimination within the classroom resulting from English language ability, or being the onlyinternational student or non-citizen in a classroom. The literature has provided evidence thatsuch adverse emotional states can contribute to an inability to make decisions, as well as
increasing unsuccessful involvement and educational dissatisfaction (Conroy, 2004; Kligyte etal., 2013; Weisfield, 2014; Uphill et al., 2014; Harrison & Peacock, 2010; Wadsworth et al.,2008; Wang et al., 2012; Charles-Toussaint & Crowson, 2010). The following section
discusses the findings in the context of developing methods for reducing the negative emotional
factors identified above, utilizing self-efficacy theory.
Self-efficacy theory is based on four sources of self-efficacy: (1) mastery experience, (2)vicarious experience, (3) verbal persuasion, and (4) somatic/emotional states. In the current
study, some respondents reported experiences of mastery (e.g., successfully presenting ideas
and opinions about increasing parking lots, educating other about their cultures, and presenting
an analysis of the meanings of colors and lines in a drawing). In these cases, professors
provided or allotted time for international students to present their ideas and opinions.
Simultaneously, their expressiveness was evaluated positively by their professors and153

IAFOR Journal of Education

Volume 5 – Issue 2 – Summer 2017classmates, and, in several cases, the value of international students providing uniqueperspectives was expressed. These types of evaluation and commenting constitute verbal
persuasion.
The observation of international students’ behavior at social events revealed that someinternational students conveyed successful experiences about their learning, such as learning
about delivering good presentations and obtaining good grades, and managing time well in
preparation for exams and assignments. Although vicarious experience typically requires
observation rather than simply hearing about success, learning that someone who is similar to
one’s self has successfully achieved a task, may provide international students with
opportunities to observe other international students’ successful performance. At the university
examined in the current study, a great number of international students attend the “Cultural
Day Party” and exchange information about their learning environments, providing many
opportunities for mutual support and learning.
Research on emotional states has revealed that positive self-talk can reduce adverse emotional
states (Brown, Malouff, & Schutte, 2013). The adverse emotional states of some international
students developed into positive mindsets over time. In some cases, strong beliefs led to achange in thought patterns, derived from the aspiration to absorb different perspectives andinternational knowledge. In addition, a number of students expressed the idea that making
mistakes is normal, and emphasized that the aim of international students was to study criticalthinking and understanding different perspectives.
Self-efficacy theory provides a framework for reducing negative emotional factors, byheightening self-efficacy, which involves strengthening mastery experience, vicarious
experience, verbal persuasion, and somatic/emotional states, by emphasizing international
students’ successful experiences and robust beliefs. Thus, students can generate prior successes
and observe others’ successful performance by exchanging information about learning settings.
This enables students to develop confidence in their expression, spurred by others’ applauseand positive emotional responses.
Conclusions
An increasing number of international students coming to the U.S. struggle to participate inclassroom discussion, even though their intention is to learn critical thinking and obtain
valuable knowledge through discussion. The current study explored the adverse emotional
factors impeding discussion participation among international students. The results revealed
that international students commonly experienced fear, embarrassment, social isolation,
judgment and discrimination. In addition, the study developed a potentially useful approach for
reducing negative emotional states by employing self-efficacy theory and emphasizing masteryexperience, vicarious experience, verbal persuasion, and somatic/emotional states, followinginternational students’ successful experiences and robust beliefs.
The proposed approach involves an educational intervention, in which educators can help
international students enhance their self-efficacy and reduce adverse emotions. Within theclassroom, educators can provide opportunities for international students to speak up within
the classroom and praise their expressiveness. They can highlight the strong points ofinternational students who have different viewpoints and encourage them to focus on positive
emotional states. A previous study by Brown, Malouff, and Schutte (2013) supports the
proposed methodology. In that study, participants were asked to focus on or imagine one or154

IAFOR Journal of Education

Volume 5 – Issue 2 – Summer 2017

more thoughts of a great athlete that were related to the sources of self-efficacy. As a result,participants experienced more positive affect than control group participants (Brown, Malouff& Schutte, 2013).
The current study involved several limitations that should be considered. First, the degree towhich a participant’s personality is extroverted or introverted is related to their expressiveness,and this trait was not examined in the current study. Second, the degree to which participants
were able to describe their feelings in detail in the interview may have been limited by theiruse of English as a second language. Finally, the extent to which participants were able toexpress their true feelings was unclear. These limitations could potentially be addressed byasking participants to answer a simple post-interview questionnaire about their personality
traits, and whether they felt they were able to express each detail they desired to convey in theinterview.
The study leaves a number of questions open for future research. Future studies could compare
the effectiveness of each of the four components of self-efficacy theory. In addition, data could
be collected from a large number of international students from a range of institutions, rather
than from a specific group at one university. Comparisons could be conducted by personality,
gender, country, and length of learning at a university.
In conclusion, the current study explored in-depth emotional factors as impediments toparticipation in classroom discussion for international students at a U.S. university. The results
revealed that international students experienced fear, embarrassment, and perceptions of social
isolation, judgment and discrimination, which led to less expressiveness and reluctance toparticipate. The findings indicated that the four components of self-efficacy theory may be
useful for increasing students’ efficacy and reducing negative emotional states. These results
suggest that educators may be able to assist students in reducing negative emotional factors via
educational intervention.
Acknowledgements
The author would like to thank the IAFOR editorial team for reviewing her paper, Dr Wes
Durham at University of Southern Indiana, for giving important advice, and the international
student participants for responding to the interview questions. The author would also like tothank the United States National Communication Association for the opportunity to present thefirst version of this study in 2016. The author thanks Benjamin Knight, MSc, from Edanz
Group (www.edanzediting.com/ac) for editing a draft of this manuscript.
A previous version of this article was presented at the 102nd US National Communication
Association Annual Convention in Philadelphia (NCA) in 2016: Maeda, J. (2016). Social
Isolation and Communication Avoidance for International Students at University: In-Class
Participation. Communication's Civic Callings, 2016. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA,
November 10-13 2016. Presentation for the Methodological Approaches to Research on Civics
in International and Intercultural Communication, p. 91, Participant Index Number, 115305.
https://www.natcom.org

155

IAFOR Journal of Education

Volume 5 – Issue 2 – Summer 2017

References
Bandura, A. (1994). Self-efficacy. In V. S. Ramachaudran (Ed.), Encyclopedia of humanbehavior (Vol. 4, pp. 71–81). New York: Academic Press.
Baxter, L. A., & Babbie, E. R. (2004). The basics of communication research. Belmont, CA:
Wadsworth/Thomson Learning.
Bista, K. (2012). Silence in teaching and learning: Perspectives of a Nepalese graduate student.
College Teaching, 60(2), 76–82. https://doi.org/10.1080/87567555.2011.633943
Brookfield, S. D., & Preskill, S. (2012). Discussion as a way of teaching: Tools and techniques
for democratic classrooms. Hoboken, New Jersey, US, Wiley.
Brown, L. J., Malouff, J. M., & Schutte, N. S. (2013). The effectiveness of a self-efficacy
intervention for helping adolescents cope with sport-competition loss. In Self-efficacy
theory(pp.
23-35).
Retrieved
July
27,
2017
from
from
http://samples.jbpub.com/9781449689742/Chapter2.pdf
Charles-Toussaint, G. C., & Crowson, H. M. (2010). Prejudice against international students:
The role of threat perceptions and authoritarian dispositions in U.S. students. Journal of
Psychology, 144(5), 413–428. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223980.2010.496643
Charmaz, K. (2005). Rethinking methods in psychology. London: Sage Publications.
Conroy, D. E. (2004). The unique psychological meanings of multidimensional fears of failing.
JournalofSport&
Exercise
Psychology,
26(3),
484–491.
https://doi.org/10.1123/jsep.26.3.484
Creswell, J. W. (2013). Qualitative inquiry & research design: Choosing among five
approaches. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.
Education USA (2016). International students to the United States. Retrieved July 27, 2017from http://www.fulbright.jp/study/directory/basic.html
Hamamura, T., & Laird, P. G. (2014). The effect of perfectionism and acculturative stress onlevels of depression experienced by east Asian international students. Journal ofMulticultural Counseling and Development, 42, 205–217. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.21611912.2014.00055.x
Harrison, N., & Peacock, N. (2010). Cultural distance, mindfulness, and passive xenophobia:
Using integrated threat theory to explore home higher education students’ perspectives
on internationalization at home.
Institute of International Education (2015). The economic impact of international students.
Retrieved July 27, 2017 from http://www.iie.org/Research-and-Publications/OpenDoors/Data/Economic-Impact-of-International-Students#.V7kMGJiLSUk
Karuppan, C. M., & Barari, M. (2011). Perceived discrimination and international students’learning: an empirical investigation. Journal of Higher Education Policy & Management,
33(1), 67–83. https://doi.org/10.1080/1360080X.2011.537013

156

IAFOR Journal of Education

Volume 5 – Issue 2 – Summer 2017

Kim, E. (2012). An alternative theoretical model: Examining psychosocial identity
development of international students in the United States. College Student Journal,
46(1), 99–113.
Kim, H. N. (2012). Model of blogging structure for intercultural communication environments
in higher education. Interactive Learning Environments, 20(6), 533–546.
https://doi.org/10.1080/10494820.2010.539897
Kligyte, V., Connelly, S., Thiel, C., & Devenport, L. (2013). The influence of anger, fear, andemotion regulation on ethical decision making. Human Performance, 26(4), 297–326.
https://doi.org/10.1080/08959285.2013.814655
Lee, J., & Rice, C. (2007). Welcome to America? International student perceptions of
discrimination. Higher Education, 53(3), 381–409. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-0054508-3
Lobo, A., & Gurney, L. (2014). What did they expect? Exploring a link between students’
expectations, attendance, and attrition on English language enhancement courses.
JournalofFurther&
Higher
Education,
38(5),
730–754.
https://doi.org/10.1080/0309877X.2013.817002
Pandit, K. (2007). The importance of international students on our campuses. Yearbook of the
AssociationofPacific
Coast
Geographers,69,
156–159.
https://doi.org/10.1353/pcg.2007.0012
Sagar, S. S., & Stoeber, J. (2009). Perfectionism, fear of failure, and affective responses tosuccess and failure: The central role of fear of experiencing shame and embarrassment.
JournalofSport&
Exercise
Psychology,
31(5),
602–627.
https://doi.org/10.1123/jsep.31.5.602
Thushari, W. (2015). Universities don’t understand how international students learn. Retrieved
July
27,
2017
from
https://www.theguardian.com/higher-educationnetwork/2015/jul/03/universities-dont-understand-how-international-students-learnh
Uphill, M., Groom, R., & Jones, M. (2014). The influence of in-game emotions on basketballperformance.
European
JournalofSport
Science,14(1),
76–83.
https://doi.org/10.1080/17461391.2012.729088
Urban, E. L., & Palmer, L. (2014). International students as a resource for internationalizationof higher education. Journal of Studies in International Education, 18(4), 305–324.
https://doi.org/10.1177/1028315313511642
Wadsworth, B. C., Hecht, M. L., & Jung, E. (2008). The role of identity gaps, discrimination,
and acculturation in international students’ educational satisfaction in Americanclassrooms.
Communication
Education,
57(1),
64–87.
https://doi.org/10.1080/03634520701668407
Wang, K. T., Wong, Y. J., & Chu-Chun, F. (2012). Moderation effects of perfectionism anddiscrimination on interpersonal factors and suicide ideation. Journal of Counseling
Psychology, 60(3), 367–378. doi:10.1097/a0032551

157

IAFOR Journal of Education

Volume 5 – Issue 2 – Summer 2017

Weisfeld, G. E., & Weisfeld, M. B. (2014). Does a humorous element characterize
embarrassment? Humor: International Journal of Humor Research, 27(1), 65–85.
https://doi.org/10.1515/humor-2013-0050
Wu, H., Garza, E., & Guzman, N. (2015). International student’s challenge and adjustment tocollege.
Education
Research
International,
ArticleID
202753.
https://doi.org/10.1155/2015/202753
Corresponding author: Junko Maeda
Email: junkomaeda22@gmail.com

158

IAFOR Journal of Education

Volume 5 – Issue 2 – Summer 2017

Appendix
Demographic summary of international students

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23

Pseudonym

Nationality

Duration(min.)

Female1, male
2

Ariel
Julia
RobertNicole
Evan
Susan
Emily
JordanRoy
DonaldJames
Shelly
Joe
Gil
Lily
Kate
Brad
CarlosHanna
Ashton
Meryl
Tom
Demi

Saudi Arabia
Japan
Haiti
Nepal
Vietnam
Saudi
MexicoVenezuela
Korea
BrazilSri Lanka
Malaysia
Saudi Arabia
Venezuela
Germany
Germany
Macedonia
Saudi Arabia
Spain
Japan
Japan
Afghanistan
Brazil

73
62
54
30
50
58
45
47
65
47
54
52
53
42
55
62
62
73
45
71
60
62
69

1
1
2
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
1
2
1
1
1
2
2
1
2
1
2
1

159

Undergrad 1,
grad 2,
PhD 3
2
3
1
1
1
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
1
1
1
2
1
1

Year
status
3
3
2
1m
1m
2
3m
3
3
1.2
2
3m
2
3
4m
4m
1.5
3
3m
3.5
4m
1

Degreeseeker
1, not 2First
Language

1
2
1
2
2
1
1
1
1
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
1
1
2

ArabicJapanese
CreoleNepalese
Vietnam
ArabicSpanishSpanishKoreanPortuguese
Tamil
Mali
ArabicSpanishGermanGermanMacedonian
ArabicSpanishJapaneseJapanese
PashtuPortuguese