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The Utilisation of Peer-Assisted Learning/Mentoring and Translanguaging
in Higher Education
Eleni Meletiadou
London Metropolitan University
UK

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Abstract
The use of peer-assisted learning/mentoring (PALM) and translanguaging (TRL) as inclusive
learning strategies to support students’ transition into Higher Education and enhance theirwellbeing in the post-Covid era has not been widely explored. Lecturers express their deep
concern about the mental health issues and lack of confidence an increasing number of learners
have faced lately in the UK due to the COVID-19 pandemic. In terms of the present study, 80
undergraduate multilingual students were involved in PALM tasks during which they could
use their first language through translanguaging and English, the target language, for one
academic semester. The main goal was to ensure they had equal opportunities to develop theiroral fluency while preparing group presentations. Paired T-tests were used to compare students’
pre- to post-tests scores. In terms of this mixed-methods case study, the researcher also
analyzed students’ reflective reports and the anonymous feedback learners provided
thematically to explore their attitudes. Findings indicated that these two approaches enabledstudents to improve their academic performance significantly although learners felt uneasy at
the beginning. The combination of these two methods created a psychologically safe space as
learners gradually developed a personal relationship with their peers. In response to the needfor more information, as regards the use of PALM activities and TRL with multilingual
learners, this study intends to contribute student voice since the inclusion of learner opinion
has been minimal. Recommendations for the successful implementation of these two
instructional approaches in undergraduate courses and suggestions for further research areprovided.
Keywords: peer-assisted learning/mentoring, translanguaging, well-being, presentation skills,
undergraduate students, inclusion

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Higher Education (HE) has increasingly moved away from an elitist and exclusive mentality,
focused on power and privilege claims, and towards a more egalitarian and inclusive mindset,
based on justice and human rights claims (Blessinger & Stefani, 2017). In view of the call forHigher Education Institutions (HEI) to create support mechanisms to help learners adjust to
university requirements, it is crucial to consider arguments that the majority of learners’ failure
or withdrawal tends to indicate challenges in adapting to the environment rather than learning
difficulties (Haverila, Haverila & McLaughlin, 2020). Moreover, international students face
additional problems as they speak English as a foreign/second or even third language (Gorter& Cenoz, 2017).
Peer Assisted Learning/Mentoring (PALM) has become prominent in educational learning andresearch (Hobson, 2020). It provides a setting for learners to work together while interacting
and solving problems, reflecting on examples and the content of class sessions, and exchanging
feedback (Hilsdon, 2014). PALM can be defined as an instructional intervention in terms ofwhich learners interact with each other and depend on one another to enhance theirunderstanding of the content of lectures and seminars and develop their autonomy as learners.
Whilst PALM improves students’ academic performance by fostering a deep approach tolearning in which individual learners can develop high level cognitive capacities, it also offers
the medium through which learners can increase their autonomy (Louden, McComb, Moore &Cole, 2019) offering and receiving emotional support.
The benefits of PALM as regards the enhancement of students’ presentation skills and overall
well-being have been chronicled by researchers (Hobson, 2020). The present research was
conducted with the goal of examining the effectiveness of a well-developed university-based
PALM intervention design to foster inclusivity and help the diverse student cohort, including
low-achieving students and international students, at a University in the UK amidst the
COVID-19 pandemic. The research outcomes are expected to make an important contribution
to the context field of language education by offering a rigorous assessment of the impact of
the use of PALM as an inclusive learning technique in undergraduate practice (Beatty, Acar &Cheatham, 2021). Additionally, there are few studies which explore the combined use oftranslanguaging (TRL) and PALM as a means of promoting inclusion and supporting students’
well-being in the post-COVID-19 era in HE (Di Sabato & Hughes, 2021).
This article intends to examine if the combined use of PALM and TRL, as inclusive learning
strategies which promote equality and cooperation among learners in HEI, can improveundergraduate multilingual students’ presentation skills and well-being even in the midst of the
COVID-19 pandemic. These strategies promote involvement as they allow more international
students to engage actively with their peers. For instance, in terms of TRL, these learners canuse words and phrases from their own mother tongue when they find it difficult to express theirideas in the target language. In terms of PALM, international students can be supported by
local students, who can help them express their ideas more accurately, and, thus, become more
confident. Consequently, these two approaches foster tolerance and inclusion for all learners,
irrespective of their (linguistic) background. The study aspires to investigate the following
research questions:
1. What is the impact of PALM and TRL on undergraduate multilingual students’ oral
fluency and presentation skills?
2. What are the attitudes of undergraduate multilingual students towards PALM and TRL?
3. What is the impact of PALM and TRL on multilingual students’ wellbeing?

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The remainder of the article will explore the latest literature regarding the use of PALM andTRL as inclusive learning strategies to enhance students’ presentation skills and well-being
with the anticipated outcome being to add to the body of information that addresses issues
related to academic success for language learners especially in terms of the current pandemic(Tigert, Groff, Martin-Beltrán, Peercy & Silverman, 2019). Subsequently, the methodology ofthe study and its findings will be examined and discussed taking into consideration previous
research findings. Finally, conclusions will be drawn, the limitations of this research study willbe identified, and suggestions for further research as well as ideas for the effective applicationof PALM and TRL will be provided.
Literature Review
The Use of PALM and TRL in HE
PALM, as an educational and instructional method, has been present since Ancient Greek
philosophers, like Socrates, began discussing their ideas in small groups. It refers to students’learning from and with students (Boud & Cohen, 2014). Collaborative learning has been
considered as an important pedagogy in HE, as it paves the way for students to interact among
themselves in small groups (Cabrera, Crissman, Bernal, Nora, Terenzini & Pascarella, 2002).
Taking into consideration the multilingual and multicultural student cohorts in HEI nowadays,
several studies have explored TRL, which is defined as the deployment of a speaker’s full
linguistic repertoire without regard for watchful adherence to the socially and politicallydefined boundaries of named, usually national and state, languages (Otheguy, García & Reid,
2015, p. 281). This concept is increasingly influential in HE in English dominant contexts(Andrei, Kibler & Salerno, 2020). However, more studies on the pedagogical implications ofcombining TRL methods and PALM in HE are necessary, especially in situations where
English is the main language of HE (Rodriguez, Musanti & Cavazos, 2021).
Several researchers have investigated the use of TRL to date. Fang and Liu (2020) exploredthe impact of TRL on multilingual students using a mixed-methods approach, together withclassroom observations, semi-structured interviews, and a questionnaire. They reported thatlearners held a neutral-to-positive stance towards TRL practices. Lecturers also recognised theefficacy of TRL for content learning as it seemed to enhance understanding, strengthen
students’ social relations, and improve learning for undergraduates with lower English
competence. The study revealed that there was some discomfort with the application of TRL
and exaggerated use of the mother tongue (L1). Despite the instability of L1 as a resource forsubject learning, the researchers suggested that educators and students had to assume an openminded plurilingual approach to language learning and teaching.
Moreover, Motlhaka and Makalela (2016) examined the use of TRL in a university writingclass based on Bakhtin and Vygotsky’s sociocultural framework on first year BA students in
Education. They claimed that interactive instruction raised learners’ awareness as they formed
their own distinct voices in writing using compensation and various social techniques when
they moved between L1 and L2 writing. Despite the small sample of the study, the researchers
argued that TRL was a suitable framework for academic literacy and that it offered excellent
conditions for interactive pedagogy in multilingual settings.

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The Impact of PALM and TRL on Multilingual Students’ Oral Fluency, Presentation
Skills, and Wellbeing
The present study also aspired to explore the influence of PALM on students’ presentations
skills. Many modules in undergraduate courses require learners to prepare an oral presentation
either alone or as part of a group. International and multilingual students often complain thatinterference from their L1 or from other languages they have mastered prevents them frompreparing high-quality oral presentations (Denizer, 2017). They also confess that they do notunderstand the instructions of the tasks or the main concepts that they are asked to present andelaborate on (Meier, 2017).
PALM, when combined with TRL, seems to provide a viable solution to most of the problems
that students encounter as they develop their understanding of the theory with the help of theirpeers finding support and useful advice regarding how to overcome the multiple barriers they
face as multilingual learners (Caruso, 2018). Using their L1 also allows them to feel
psychologically safe as they can resort to their L1 if they cannot think of a word or a phrase in
the L2 (Charamba & Zano, 2019). Various researchers have reported their findings regarding
the impact of TRL and PALM on learners’ presentation skills but not amidst the COVID-19
crisis which has inflicted a heavy burden on students’ mental health and overall wellbeing.
Kohls, Baldofski, Moeller, Klemm and Rummel-Kluge (2021) reported that university students
in Germany who participated in their study seemed to be vulnerable and suffer from elevateddepressive symptoms due to the pandemic.
Furthermore, Mbirimi-Hungwe and McCabe (2020) used a “transcollab” model of teachingcombining TRL and collaborative learning to support learners’ understanding of academic
concepts. The aim was to assist them to comprehend academic texts. Results showed thatthrough collaborative learning, TRL can be used to improve plurilingual students’ mastery ofconcepts. Although the study involved South African medical students only, the researchers
argued that TRL can be utilized in cooperative learning tasks to enhance deeper understandingof the content, major theories and concepts.
Dalziel and Guarda (2021) also explored student TRL practices in the English as a Medium of
Instruction (EMI) classroom at the University of Padova in Italy. In terms of this study, learners
were invited to actively engage in group work or oral presentations, to unveil the possible useof spontaneous TRL practices. Despite the common belief in the benefits of an English-only
approach, this study revealed that in many EMI classes both lecturers and students activate
TRL practices. The researchers of this research confirmed that TRL is intended as the strategic
use that multilingual speakers make of their entire linguistic range so as to facilitate theeffective learning of content (Canagarajah & Said, 2011).
Additionally, Chester, Burton, Xenos, and Elgar (2013) examined the efficacy of a mentoring
programme assisting the transition of first year undergraduates at a university in Australia.
There were 241 first year students who participated in and provided data for the evaluation
study. The researchers reported considerable positive change in three of the five aspects oflearner success, with a significant increase in deep and strategic learning methods, and areduction in surface learning. Although the effects demonstrated in this research could be theresult of maturation, the outcomes indicate that proactive implementation in the first semesterof the first year in a university setting can enhance crucial aspects of learning and wellbeing,lead to positive changes in academic self-efficacy and academic performance, and increase thesuccess rate for undergraduate students.

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As can be seen, there appear to be some gaps in the literature regarding the impact of PALM
and TRL on undergraduate multilingual students’ well-being and presentation skills (Back,
Han & Weng, 2020). Although the use of PALM is associated with increased academic
performance (Hodgson, Benson & Brack, 2015), more studies are necessary to explore the
combined impact of PALM and TRL, when used as inclusive learning strategies with
undergraduate language learners in HEI in the UK especially amidst crises, such as the COVID19 pandemic (Mbirimi-Hungwe & McCabe, 2020). The present study intends to add to thebody of information that addresses issues related to academic success for language learners
using a case study and data from anonymous student feedback, reflective reports and focus
group discussions. It examined the use of PALM and TRL as innovative inclusive instructional
techniques with undergraduate multilingual students in HEI and explored their impact on theselearners’ presentation skills and well-being amidst the unprecedented COVID-19 crisis.
Methodology
Participants
The study under consideration involved 80 multilingual students (Table 1), aged 19-27, whoparticipated in well-structured PALM activities for an entire academic semester (12 weeks)
and a lecturer who conducted this research. The goal was to develop learners’ presentation
skills, self-confidence, and oral fluency to perform well in their final assignment which was anindividual oral presentation. The researcher received ethics approval from the university andinformed consent from the students. Students had just joined the university after the COVID19 pandemic and needed support as many of them either faced mental health issues or had
caring responsibilities. Participants were multilingual and multicultural learners (i.e., students
whose one parent was from Italy and the other from Poland) and were intimidated at the thoughtof presenting to an audience (Table 1).
Table 1
Demographic Characteristics of Students

GenderOriginStudents

Frequency

Male
FemaleLocal students
International students (i.e., French, Italian, Spanish, Polish)

33
47
24
56

Students attended three one-hour classes per week. The instructor asked learners to offer
anonymous feedback every 2-3 weeks through Mentimeter. Mentimeter is an online polling
tool frequently used in education to increase classroom engagement and ensure that everyone's
voice is heard (Ożadowicz, 2020). She also held focus group discussions with ten groups ofeight students each time (Cohen, Manion & Morrison, 2018) using the same prompt questions(Appendix A) to examine whether learners faced any challenges during the implementation
twice with assessments during Weeks 4 and 8. These discussions provided valuable insights
into the nature of problems that students faced during the implementation and allowed them toshare their views and voice their concerns. The lecturer could then discuss and agree with thestudents on ways in which she could accommodate their needs taking her own restrictions into
consideration.

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For instance, as students complained about the lack of sufficient time to complete tasks, thelecturer provided an extension of one week. Moreover, since some learners indicated that theyneeded more time to interact with their peers, the lecturer also increased the time devoted tointeraction in groups and pairs offering 15 additional minutes per week. Students were also
encouraged to reflect on their own behaviour, such as their tendency to dominate conversations,and think of ways in which they could foster inclusion for all students and allow them to share
their own ideas as well. Some students indicated that one of them could have the role of atimekeeper in his/her group to ensure that all learners participated in the conversations. The
lecturer therefore made necessary changes responding to students’ feedback to support alllearners as much as possible, emphasizing inclusivity and providing equal opportunities forstudent progression and academic success. Participation in the discussions and the provision of
feedback was optional, but learners engaged with enthusiasm.
Although most PALM schemes involve the interaction of first year with more experienced
learners such as third year students, the current research innovated by exploring the interactionof first year peers who mentor each other. The lecturer chose to have learners work in mixedability groups of 4 students in which there was at least one native English speaker who could
provide linguistic support to the other students. Multilingual international learners were also
encouraged to contribute more in terms of content and ideas and were allowed to use words or
short phrases in their L1.
Instruments and Procedure
Students had to present on a specific topic of their choice which was different for each groupas a pre-test in week 2. They were then engaged in bi-weekly oral presentation tasks for a totalof 4. The groups of 4were randomly assigned. Learners had to prepare 4 slides in their groups
and present them to their peers and lecturer. As an observer, the researcher saw that learners
first ensured that they understood the instructions for the task, then elaborated on the key
concepts. They worked on a different topic every 2 weeks, and finally divided their work in
half. Students then worked in pairs as they focused on 2 of the 4 slides. Afterwards, learners
worked individually to complete their part of their work and then discussed their work in groups
to finalise the slides they would use and decide how they would present them to the othergroups (Figure 1).
Participants were encouraged to use their L1 when they worked in groups and pairs wheneverthey could not remember a word or a phrase in L2. However, their presentation was in English,
and they had to use the L2 while presenting their work. The researcher played the role of thesupervisor and moderator and made sure all students were supported and contributing equallyto the tasks. Learners were encouraged to change groups every 2 weeks to network and receive
feedback and support from different peers. After spending a year and a half in isolation,
students needed more exposure to people and enjoyed interacting with peers while developing
their oral fluency and presentation skills (Kohls et al., 2021). The lecturer was always present
to resolve minor disagreements or misunderstandings. The overarching goal was to promotecollaboration taking into consideration diverse students’ learning styles (Mbirimi-Hungwe &McCabe, 2020).

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Figure 1
Implementation of PALM Tasks

1. Groupwork
2. Pairwork
3.
Individua
l work
4. Group
work

Students provided feedback to their peers after each presentation in the form of comments
highlighting strengths and providing suggestions for further improvement. However, only thelecturer provided marks based on the assessment criteria (pre-test in week 2 and post-test in
week 10). The lecturer explained the assessment criteria to the learners and provided support
to ensure that the feedback was constructive and polite. The overarching goal was to enhancetheir academic performance and improve their engagement in the learning process.
At the end of the implementation, learners had to write a reflective report regarding their groupexperience. The lecturer analysed the content of students’ anonymous feedback, focus group
discussions, and final reflective reports to identify the strengths and potential challenges of thisintervention. Learners participated in these tasks in a face-to-face setting, and the researcher
collected field notes from observations to triangulate the data and increase the reliability of thedata collected (Flick, 2018). The researcher analysed all data using thematic analysis (Nowell,
Norris, White & Moules, 2017) to identify patterns in the data and use these themes to address
the research. She also had an assistant who analysed 10% of the data, which were chosenrandomly, to enhance the reliability of the analysis. The researcher and her assistant identified
and agreed on themes which provided a response to the research questions of this research.
Results and Discussion
This section of the article is divided into three subsections. Each one presents and discusses thefindings of this study in relation to the three research questions.
Impact on Students’ Presentation Skills
The present study examined the impact of PALM and TL on students’ presentation skills bycomparing learners’ post- versus pre-test scores (Table 2) (Hincks, 2003). Students had topresent a set of 4 slides before and after the implementation of four PALM tasks in terms ofwhich learners were allowed to use TL. The researcher provided a score based on theassessment criteria for all students’ group presentations and a second assessor, an experienced
lecturer, checked 20% of the presentations. She used the same marking criteria, and theinterrater agreement was 90%, which is considered relatively high (Belotto, 2018).

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Table 2Students’ Pre- and Post-test ScoresM
Pre-test
Post-test
Paired t-test (pre-vs post-test)
Cohen’s d

SD

29.88
14.99
54.54
9.95
t (79) = 21.76, p < .05
d = 1.93

A paired t-test was conducted to explore students’ progress (George & Mallery, 2016). This
indicated that there was a statistically significant difference between learners' pre-test (M =29.88, SD = 14.99, n = 80) and post-test (M = 54.54, SD = 9.95, n = 80) in their oral
performance (t (79) = 21.76, p < .05). Cohen’s effect size value (d = 1.93) suggested a “large”
effect size and high practical significance for the enhancement of these students’ oralpresentation skills (Cohen et al., 2013). The findings of the study support the results of previous
research which has explored the impact of these two approaches in isolation and reported theirbeneficial impact on students’ academic performance (Dalziel & Guarda, 2021; MbirimiHungwe & McCabe, 2020).
Perceived Benefits and Challenges of PALM and TL
In terms of the present research, several challenges and benefits related to the use of PALM
and TL were identified and reported by most of the participants (Table 3).
Table 3
Benefits and Challenges of PALM and TRL

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TRL* = translanguaging

The researcher tried to create TRL spaces for teaching and learning using PALM to allow
students to interact freely with each other. Learners chose the language they preferred as theyjointly reflected, exchanged ideas, and used language to enhance their understanding of boththe content and tasks of the current module drawing on their linguistic repertoire and cultural
background (Table 3). The lecturer made the strategic instructional decision to explain content
in the L2 but allowed students to further explain and elaborate on the basic concepts and the
instructions of the various tasks using words and phrases from other languages as well. She
also allowed the more proficient students who were native speakers to help their peers byrestating their comments. High-achieving students could therefore benefit from low-achieving
students’ ideas and contributions. They helped them improve their linguistic performance inthe L2, while less proficient students also felt appreciated for their input.
International students then overcame their hesitations and were able to make explicit
connections between concepts and vocabulary development in both L1 and L2 (Table 3). Fluid
language use was modelled and encouraged, and learners felt psychologically safe to share
their thoughts after being in isolation for quite some time due to the COVID-19 pandemic.
They were encouraged to use their multilingualism naturally and fluidly. This turned thesesessions into a playful game and allowed even the shyest students to overcome theirreservations and engage in the interactions contributing to the main tasks. Learners built theirconfidence as they felt safe to display their multilingualism and enhance their learning drawing
on their multilingual/ multicultural background when discussing academic concepts and ideas
for their group presentations. In this TRL festival, learners were allowed to voice their ideas in
L1 and then translate them in the L2 validating students’ multilingual skills and bridging all
languages in an academic context.
Students did not laugh at each other but came to their peers’ rescue. This reminded learners of
the notion of ubuntu (Table 3) which Makalela (2016) first reported. Students felt they needed
each other to understand the theory and the task to prepare their presentations no matter which
language they had to use to reach their goal. For them, it was natural and even amusing to move144

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from one language to another, while preparing their presentations in English. Successfulcommunication, negotiation of meaning, and active interaction among students were nothindered by TRL. Learners felt relieved as they did not have to admit their shortcomings intheir lecturer’s presence (García, 2012; García & Wei, 2014; Makalela 2016). Monolingualinteraction was a thing of the past. International education necessitates the fluid movement oflanguages (Makoni, 2017) and proposes that students should transcend linguistic boundaries tograsp meaning. The researcher promoted a series of collaborative activities in terms of whichlearners shared and exchanged knowledge to prepare their group tasks (Table 3) and their final
individual presentations.
During the group and pair interactions, students often resorted to English when there were
misunderstandings due to the use of various languages. Ultimately, English was used as aresource to enhance the understanding of the theory and the instructions for the task (Table 3).
Learners could make sense of the concepts and guidance for the task in which ever language
they found more convenient, and they could then use English more confidently (Makalela,
2016; Mbirimi-Hungwe & Hungwe, 2018). Native English speakers could also learn new
words and gain insights into exciting new cultures. They were then able to understand theirpeers better and work more effectively in terms of the task (Table 3). They all knew that theywould have to work with people from various countries in the future, and this was the perfectopportunity for them to start developing their intercultural and multilingual awareness.
Students also knew that they needed each other to complete the task successfully. They allcontributed equally as some peers provided explanations in some learners’ L1, others shared
their innovative ideas, and some even offered technical support to improve their presentations.
The combination of TRL and PALM allowed learners to understand the theory using various
linguistic repertoires. This highlighted the interrelatedness of languages and the value of peer
support as students - acting as mentors and mentees - were able to transcend linguistic andcultural boundaries to help their peers and support them when they faced challenges in termsof the L2 or the task itself (Table 3). The fact that all students completed the task successfullyin the L2 without complaints, major misunderstandings or conflicts indicated that learners
should be allowed to interact in whichever language they found appropriate for learning(Heugh, 2014).
Although several educators still insist that using many languages creates confusion (García,2012), students in the present research were able to negotiate meaning and complete their tasks
successfully without their lecturer’s intervention. Possibly the interrelatedness, exposure, andappreciation of other languages and the joy of interacting with peers (Table 3) and supporting
each other to reach a final learning goal, after a period of physical and mental isolation due to
COVID-19 pandemic, were two of the reasons which may explain why the combination ofthese two instructional techniques proved to be helpful for these students who faced various
barriers, linguistic, mental, and educational.
As English is the language for business and employment (Mbirimi-Hungwe, 2019), it isfrequently used as the medium of instruction globally. This puts international and multilingual
learners at a disadvantage as they need additional teaching support to learn the concepts in theL2. However, if students are allowed to negotiate meaning through peer learning/mentoring
and understand the main theories and instructions of the different tasks through the use ofdifferent languages, they could then contribute to their groups and master the main concepts asthey improve their mastery of the L2 (Table 3).

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In terms of the present research, it was surprising to observe learners as they used phrases invarious languages keeping English as the central language of communication (Table 3).
Moving easily from one language to the other enabled all students to feel included as the
combination of PALM and TRL widened learners’ participation and engagement in thelearning tasks. The PALM and TRL implementation scheme also catered for all students’learning styles as learners were involved in group, pair, and individual work. This facilitated
not only deep learning, and self-reliance, but also support and inclusion for all students (Table3). Learners were also encouraged to interact, negotiate meaning, and reflect on a variety of
key concepts as they engaged in the preparation of their group presentations developing avariety of skills, but most of all their oral fluency. They defied all barriers imposed by theirdiverse linguistic and cultural background and promoted equal participation and inclusion of
all learners irrespective of their background.
Students indicated that the lecturer should play the role of the supervisor and facilitator
allowing learners to develop their skills and improve their academic performance by realising
the value of interdependence and interconnectedness of learners as they tried to make sense of
the world and their own learning (Table 3). This intervention allowed them to become whothey wanted to be by developing their autonomous and collaborative skills. Therefore, theyfirst interacted with their peers and clarified the concepts and the tasks in groups, then in pairs
and finally were allowed to work autonomously and reflect on their previous experience as
they completed their individual tasks. Students were thus able to work and carry their peerswith them during these collaborative activities in which learners continuously changed roles(mentors vs mentees) and languages with the ultimate goal of engaging all students in the
preparation of their presentations after clarifying the theory and the task at hand. The affectiveside of this task was clear as learners enjoyed this interdependence placing emphasis on thecollective good which also allowed them to complete their assignment successfully.
Although previous studies stress the importance of peer learning/mentoring as a highly valued
academic practice (Hilsdon, 2014), educators still face some challenges in terms of groupcomposition, time required, and misunderstandings (Table 3) which need to be addressed tomaximize the mediating role of the collaborative activity. If groups and pairs, comprising
students with varying degrees of content and language mastering, share the common goal ofcompleting a group presentation or helping one another to grasp the module content, thispromotes constructive interaction and eventually facilitates subject matter understanding.
While mentoring relations in this study revealed a contribution to enhanced subject matter
understanding, they sometimes made certain students dependent on peers more than wasappropriate. In this case, the use of group, pair, and individual work discouraged learners’
overdependence on their peers.
Perceived Impact of PALM and TRL on Student Well-Being
Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, HE students’ lives and learning conditions have changed
dramatically. Self-determination theory (SDT) (Deci & Ryan, 2000) states that the basic
psychological needs for competence, independence, and relatedness represent core conditions
for personal growth, integration, social development, and psychological well-being as
empirical studies have also indicated (Riggenbach, Amouroux, Van Petegem, Tourniaire,
Tonelli, Wiener, Hofer & Antonietti, 2019). Moreover, the satisfaction of basic psychologicalneeds can act as a buffer in times of stress, reducing appraisals of anxiety and promoting
adaptive coping (Vansteenkiste & Ryan, 2013). To enable personal growth, intrinsic
motivation, and psychological well-being, satisfaction of basic psychological needs has been146

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increasingly taken up and promoted in the educational context with SDT acting as a framework
for interventions (Lüftenegger, Klug, Harrer, Langer, Spiel & Schober, 2016).
The students in the current study indicated that the combination of the two approaches
improved their self-confidence (Table 3) satisfying their need for competence which refers toexperiencing one’s behaviour as effective. For example, learners felt competent when they
were able to meet the requirements of their studies. This also satisfied their need for autonomy(Table 3) which refers to experiencing one’s behaviour as volitional and self-endorsed. For
instance, these learners felt autonomous when they willingly devoted time and effort to thecompletion of their group presentation. Finally, the need for relatedness refers to feelingconnected with and experiencing mutual support from significant others (Niemiec & Ryan,
2009) which was the core goal of the research since inclusivity was promoted by enabling all
students to strive to reach their full potential.
The current study contributes in terms of the need for HEI to improve learners’ quality of life
in various ways as they need not only to impart knowledge, but also to develop the whole
student by providing opportunities for personal growth and fulfilment. Therefore, students needa range of transversal skills such as complex and autonomous thinking, creativity, and effective
communication (Succi & Canovi, 2020). As social spaces, enabling social interaction, HEI
must offer learners opportunities for formal and informal networking allowing students to feelthat they belong (Table 3) and helping them unfold their potential (Tonon, 2020). This wasincredibly difficult during the COVID-19 pandemic due to the disruption it caused representing
an unprecedented challenge for students’ quality of life and thriving.
As HEI resorted to distance education as an emergency response to the pandemic, the lack ofphysical presence and the lesser extent of informal discourse and spontaneous interaction
created a communication gap which caused negative emotions, gaps in understanding, andmisconceptions. To counteract these responses, it is crucial to explicitly address learners’
individual needs, feelings, and difficulties and promote interaction among learners andrelatedness which contributes to psychological wellbeing (Olsson, McGee, Nada-Raja &Williams, 2013). These were supported by the present scheme (Table 3).
The current research reveals that these practices enhance learners’ emotional well-being
alleviating language learning anxiety, reducing negative behaviour, and promoting social
justice through equity in education (Table 3). These two practices have resulted in giving backvoice to multilingual, multicultural (Anderson & Cowart, 2012; Lehtomäki, Moate & PostiAhokas, 2016), and low-achieving students (Table 3), transforming cognitive structures byfostering language fluidity, raising well-being and attainment levels, and eventuallytransforming an unequal classroom into a more just educational space. The researcher’s efforts
in part legitimize PALM and TRL Education for Social Justice agenda which allows
universities to become places for releasing subjectivities, ensuring well-being, anddecolonizing society as they promote inclusivity and equality of opportunity for all learners
irrespective of their background.
Provided that multilingual learners often show lower educational attainment when comparedwith their monolingual peers for whom English is their first language (Duarte & Gogolin,2013), these students are refrained from using their full linguistic repertoires and thus
constrained in learning and expression (García & Wei, 2014). Since the lack of attention to
students’ home languages has been repeatedly described as possibly having far-reaching
negative effects, TRL pedagogy is presented as a unique approach through which diverse

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learners may use all their languages in formal education (Table 3), despite teachers not knowing
those languages (García & Wei, 2014). The benefits are even better when it is combined with
PALM which facilitates the whole procedure placing TRL in an extremely supportive
framework.
The simultaneous use of PALM and TRL closes the gap among students from different
linguistic and cultural backgrounds and allows learners to recognise and use linguistic andcultural diversity as a resource for learning. This can help all students prepare for globallyconnected societies and changing working styles (García & Wei, 2014). The current study
addresses calls from practitioners about ways in which TRL can be successfully implemented
in education (Canagarajah & Said, 2011). The use of these two approaches allowed learners in
the present research to make cross-linguistic friendships (Table 3) as multilingualism andmulticulturalism were promoted increasing students’ motivation and positive attitudes towards
learning (Günther-van der Meij, Duarte & Nap, 2018). There is a clear link between the use of
TRL and PALM and learners’ social-emotional well-being. Students indicated that they
enjoyed making new friends and working closely with them, especially after almost 2 years of
isolation (Table 3). TRL and PALM reduced individual differences between students andhelped them deal with negative emotions such as feeling mad or sad about not being able toimprove their academic performance.
It is noteworthy that the current study indicated that the combined use of PALM and TRL may
offer various benefits to university students, including mentor modelling, strategy knowledge,
and spontaneous strategy use. These seem to have a positive impact on learners’ academic
progress, language development, engagement, and social-emotional well-being. TRL and peer
learning/mentoring were used effectively by students in the present research as they utilized
them for specific and meaningful reasons, such as academic success and well-being. This led
to the development of all learners up to a certain degree, depending on their individual learning
styles.
Recommendations and Conclusion
PALM and TRL have been “hot topics” in HE for quite some time in terms of their relevancefor students, lecturers, and educational institutions internationally. While PALM research has
grown exponentially with the increasing focus on the social aspects of teaching and learning,
the notion of TRL is currently widely used when responding to multilingual students’ needs inthe increasingly plurilingual universities (García & Lin, 2017). The present study aspired to
explore the impact of PALM and TRL on learners’ academic performance and well-being andadd to the existing literature. It has some limitations as it implemented these two approacheswith university students only, for a limited amount of time, and without explicitly training
learners in peer learning/mentoring strategies. Moreover, the researcher could use additional
ways of eliciting feedback from the students, possibly in the form of diaries, and involve morelecturers in the intervention so as to explore additional challenges of the combined use of these
two strategies.
Despite its limitations, the current research promoted “translanguaging to construct meaning”
instead of forming barriers for learning and relying upon peers as “funds of knowledge” (Moll,
2007, p. 74) as yet another successful strategy to support international and/or local students in
the UK deal with the challenges of HE studies in a second or foreign language of instruction.
Apparently, the use of more than one language in HEI potentially assists rather than diminishes
the development of academic discourse (Van der Walt & Dornbrack, 2011). Languages are148

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vehicles through which learners grasp and make sense of the content to convert information
into knowledge. The use of a language that students are conversant with to clear up any kindof confusion is revealed to be a common practice in HEI.
Consequently, if the aim of teaching is to facilitate knowledge acquisition, then students could
use any language that would be conducive to knowledge acquisition for as long as it is possible,
as was the case with the current intervention. Sticking to the use of a language that constitutes
a barrier to knowledge acquisition, as is sometimes the case when only English is permitted ina class, would undermine the facilitating role of peers, who can act as mentors, since thelearning sessions would be less productive in terms of knowledge acquisition. Thus, drawing
upon languages used by learners to facilitate knowledge acquisition in terms of peer work isrevealed to be one of the strategies that students believe leads to enhanced comprehension(Table 3).
Taking into consideration the findings of the present study, we could recommend that educators
should be involved in professional development training seminars/courses and create
communities of practice with colleagues to share best practice and challenges they may face interms of the implementation of PALM and TRL in their classes. Practitioners need to carefullyplan and supervise relevant activities, but also allow some space for spontaneity and flexibility
always taking their learners’ specific needs and mood into consideration. They should also
invite more knowledgeable colleagues to mentor them and discuss the challenges they may befacing.
Additionally, HEI should consider training their staff to help them adopt these practices more
widely because their consistent use by educators can increase multilingual students’, often the
majority in many HEIs in the UK, comprehension, support their language and academic
development, and encourage their socio-emotional well-being. The present research indicatedthat PALM and TRL can act as scaffolds for multilingual students’ emotional well-being
minimising learning anxiety and behavioural issues, and allowing emotional scaffolding (Park,
2014) in addition to improving acquisition of content.
These findings emphasize the link between emotion and cognition, highlighting the role ofpositive affect in increasing classroom engagement (Pekrun & Linnenbrink-Garcia, 2012).
They speak to the power that anxiety holds among learners and provide further evidence of theability of TRL and PALM strategies to alleviate some of this stress and increase interaction.
Hopefully, these findings will further encourage educators to dedicate time and space toemotional and cognitive scaffolding with a combination of these two approaches. It can be
anticipated that future research will continue to delve into the power of TRL and PALM forstudents in primary, secondary and tertiary education in the UK and globally.

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Corresponding author: Eleni Meletiadou
Email: elenim@outlook.com

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Appendix A
Focus Group Questions
1. How do you feel about using PALM in your classes?
2. How do you feel about using TRL in your classes?
3. Based on your experience, can you name any benefits of PALM? Can you elaborateon them? If there are no benefits, can you possibly tell us why you think PALM is notbeneficial for your learning?
4. Based on your experience, can you name any benefits of TRL? Can you elaborate onthem? If there are no benefits, can you possibly tell us why you think TRL is notbeneficial for your learning?
5. Are there any challenges regarding the use of PALM in your classes?
6. Are there any challenges regarding the use of TRL in your classes?
7. Are there any suggestions for improvement for the use of PALM in your classes?
8. Are there any suggestions for improvement for the use of TRL in your classes?
9. Would you like to use PALM in the future?
10. Would you like to use TRL in the future?

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