IAFOR Journal of Education: Technology in Education

Volume 12 – Issue 2 – 2024

The Influence of E-Comics on English Lexical Competence in Virtual
Higher Education
Norma Flores-González
Universidad Autónoma de Puebla, México
Vianey Castelán Flores
Universidad Autónoma de Puebla, México
Mónica Zamora Hernández
Universidad Autónoma de Puebla, México

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Abstract
The development of lexical competence in foreign languages is one of the skills that presents
difficulties in the teaching-learning process, as it requires stimulation and retention on the partof the student and creativity from the teacher. In this sense, digital resources emerge as aconducive means to promote new knowledge and consolidate acquired vocabulary. In thiscontext, the present research aimed to determine if digital comics influence the developmentof lexical competence in English in virtual environments at the higher education level.
Methodologically, an experimental design divided into three phases (pre-treatment, treatment,
and post-treatment) took place with a sample of 60 students during the autumn of 2023. The
results demonstrated an association between digital comics and lexical competencedevelopment variables, influencing lexicon acquisition, experiencing creativity, dynamism,
and language involvement. Besides, comics supported by Canva, Makebeliefscomix, andPixton applications contributed to students' cultural, linguistic, and communicative repertoire.
Concurrently, users' confidence increased through gradual and systematic recovery, use, andinventive writing activities. Supports such as images, dialogues, characters, and colors
encouraged the retrieval of words for subsequent use. In this way, the cognitive process ofrecall ceased to be merely memorising to transition to a level of long-term significant
comprehension. In conclusion, digital comics were plausible for encouraging practical,
flexible, and playful vocabulary improvement in a virtual environment.
Keywords: lexical competence, e-comics, virtual learning, applications, foreign language

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Learning a foreign language involves the development of various linguistic, cultural, and social
skills related to the language, as it is the means through which a speaker interacts and connectswith the outside world. Among the skills required for authentic communication is vocabularyacquisition because it allows access to a wide range of information and generates fluid
dialogue. In this context, the Faculty of Languages from the Benemérita Universidad
Autónoma de Puebla in the area of English aims for students to primarily develop
communicative competence, as one of the most frequent limitations is the reduced lexicalrepertoire for expression, which limits the possibilities of effective oral interaction. Besides,
after adding the virtual component, students' participation decreases due to a lack of word
knowledge, contextual understanding, and confidence to speak in public. In theseenvironments, the need to produce didactic resources and active environments leads toinnovative and meaningful activities for the participants. Thus, facing various educational
modalities, the aim is to address lexical weaknesses to benefit foreign language students.
From this context, the purpose of this paper is to identify whether the development of lexicalcompetence is influenced by the use of e-comics in virtual environments in higher
education. In foreign language didactics, the desire to innovate and address this educational
issue gives rise to the design, development, and use of various strategies and resources thatprovide the necessary stimulus for students to understand and appropriate new knowledge.
Therefore, digital resources emerge as a means to meet these teaching-learning needs of thetarget language. The use of digital comics with applications such as Canva, Makebeliefscomix,
and Pixton is proposed to enable gamified learning with a communicative approach, allowing
contact with the foreign language in an appealing, motivating, and flexible manner, generating
contextualized language practice for the user. In this sense, such tools promote activities witha communicative focus to appropriate the lexicon. Along with this dynamic resource, the comic
strip is incorporated as one of the educational supports with high stimulation and creativity.
Indeed, it represents one of the cultural elements of contemporary society and Generation Z.
Considering the organization of this research, the sections include 1) Theoretical Framework,where the main conceptual foundations are presented. 2) Methodology, which analyzes lexicalcompetence. 3) Results, which describe the evaluation of the proposed pedagogicalintervention with data. 4) Discussion, 5) Recommendations, derived from the study, 6)
Conclusions, and 7) References.
Theoretical Framework
Origins of lexical competence in the foreign language didactics, is found in the works oflinguists such as Chomsky with his semantic analysis of corpus (Barón et al., 2013), and Hymes
with his ethnographic studies of language, framing the lexicon from its context, usage, andintention (Roselló, 2021). However, it was not until the publication of Michael Lewis's bookin 1993, The Lexical Approach: The State of ELT and a Way Forward, that importance wasgiven to the study of the lexicon in foreign language didactics, as this work highlights it as an
essential component in language learning, especially in the development of communicativecompetence. Following Lewis's contribution, studies have focused on viewing the lexicon not
as a series or list of words learned randomly but rather as a competence, involving the speaker's

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knowledge and skills that make them competent to interact effectively in oral or written
communication (De la Maya & López-Pérez, 2021; Castillo et al., 2022; Marin-Marin &Hernández-Romero, 2022).
In more recent studies, the most researched topics are those that explain what linguisticcompetence is and how it develops, such as the works of Alejos (2017), Rodríguez-Montes(2020), and Pasuy & Agudelo (2022), which focus on analyzing the development of lexicalcompetence through linguistic, semantic, and sociolinguistic approaches to understand theimportance of word usage in authentic contexts. Other works, such as those by Onieva-Palomar(2019) and Robles (2018), highlight the importance of mastering the lexical factor as a didactic
strategy for effective foreign language learning. However, there are also more specific studies,such as those by Cáceres et al. (2018), Valdés-León (2021), and Zambrano & García (2022),
that explain how the effective development of lexical competence supports the enhancementof literacy skills. In the particular case of this research, the situation that prompted the study
deals with a very recurrent problem in the development of communicative competence.
The knowledge of the lexicon has three dimensions: form, meaning, and use (Sanhueza et al.,2018). In the Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR), the lexical component
associated in the first instance with linguistic competence links it to both pragmatic andsociolinguistic ones. It emphasizes the speaker's capacity in terms of two dimensions: richness
and mastery of vocabulary. Richness is the size of vocabulary acquired in the language learning
process through stimulus (input) and production (output) from daily interactions of each
communicative activity. Besides, the mastery of the lexicon refers to the assimilation andassociation processes presented at each of the syntactic and semantic levels that occur whenstructuring words to form messages (Consejo de Europa, 2020). For his part, Robles (2018)
mentions that the lexicon is an essential element for the mastery and linguistic development ofa language since it allows the effective development of comprehension and oral expression
skills.
Regarding its teaching, Torres & Aristu (2021) assert that beyond understanding cognitive
processes, word dimensions, and strategies for learning and usage, it is essential to consider
the speaker's identity, focusing specifically on the learner's areas of knowledge, interests, andpersonal relationships; thus, contextualized vocabulary learning is unavoidable. In his study,
Beghadid (2022) classifies the vocabulary: 1. Technical vocabulary that deals with a particulardisciplinary area, including its idioms and technical terms. 2. General vocabulary that consistsof words used to name everyday activities commonly known by everyone. 3. Potential
vocabulary is a set of words usually unknown to the student but whose meanings can beinferred or understood through their relationship with other known words or by context. 4.
Passive vocabulary that is known but not frequently used in routine interactions. 5. Active or
productive vocabulary is the lexicon a student constantly employs in their oral and written
productions.

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Strategies for Learning Vocabulary
Mastery of a language must adhere to both theoretical and practical aspects of vocabulary usage(Guerrero et al., 2022). For this reason, it is of utmost importance to have didactic strategies
that are cognitive and socio-affective, including memorization, organizational, andmotivational aspects (Gómez et al., 2021) to help learners acquire new vocabulary. Beghadid(2022) indicates that students often use three memorization skills to learn new vocabulary:visual, auditory, and kinesthetic. These strategies enhance the integration and recall of newwords and their association (Berthely et al., 2023). Moreover, organizational and motivational
strategies act as triggers for meaningful vocabulary learning. From a communicative-functional
approach, reading comprehension tasks and academic and creative writing are used, as thesecontextual references stimulate the need to acquire vocabulary to interact correctly in a realcommunication task (García et al., 2020).
However, when discussing vocabulary learning strategies, it is impossible to overlook theclassification by Levin & Pressley (cited in García-López, 2000) because most research
dedicated to identifying strategy types has its basis in their studies. According to these authors,
there are four groups of strategies: 1. Repetition Strategies are for students to repeat a list ofwords orally or in writing. 2. Sensory Strategies can be visual, tactile, or audiovisual, supported
by materials such as vocabulary cards, images, and videos, to mention a few. 3. Semantic
Strategies that focus on associating new vocabulary with previously learned words
and analyzing their relationships for word memorization. Known semantic strategies include
association, contextualization, imagery, and the morphosyntactic analysis of the word. 4.
Mnemonic Strategies refer to all the resources or techniques students use to memorize a word.
García et al. (2020) classify vocabulary-learning strategies into three types: 1. Cognitive
strategies. These are conscious activities to understand or learn vocabulary, such as repetition,reference materials, translation, grouping, note-taking, deduction, imagery, and keywords. 2.
Communicative or compensatory strategies. These encompass all resources or techniques that
aid in understanding the meaning of words, such as guessing, inference, association,
exemplification, and questioning, among others. 3. Memorization strategies. These activities
assist the student in remembering, understanding, and appropriating vocabulary, as well ascomprehending meanings and recognizing new concepts within discourse to store them in theirmental structure.
Technology-Mediated Vocabulary Learning
Technological advancements have opened a new way of interacting with knowledge, whereimages become a relevant element for knowledge transmission and communication within an
educational context governed by telecommunications (Hernández et al., 2020; Flores, 2023).
Furthermore, students are seen as digital natives who use mobile devices and digitalapplications for everything, meaning they see, know, and interact with their world through theweb. Therefore, in teaching, it is fundamental to implement these digital tools to facilitate
learning since cyberspace offers countless pedagogical and non-pedagogical resources inwhich any type of educational task can be developed significantly (Flores-González, 2020;

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Ccoa & Alvites, 2021). Furthermore, Vargas-Murillo (2020) presents a classification thatspecifies educational strategies developed with digital technological tools used in virtualenvironments to work on the cognitive part of lexicon learning, which are:•••Conceptual-graphic-organizer strategies. They include concept maps for information
retention and concept development. Mind maps for the construction and information
management, creativity for taking notes and planning thoughts, and the semantic
networks in which the meanings and interrelationships of words are for learning andenriching the lexicon. Some tools for this type of strategy are Draw.io, CmapTools,
Microsoft Visio, Lucidchart, MindMeister, XMind, Creately, GitMind, ATLAS ti, andInspiration.
Visual-representation strategy. For example, infographics and illustrations thatsynthesize and encode information through texts, images, diagrams, and symbols. The
information resources used for its design are Google Drawing, Piktochart, Canva
Genially, Prezi, RealWorld Paint, and GIMP.
Processing information strategies. They refer to three elements: (a) Interspersed
questions, focused on feedback, resolution of doubts, and self-assessment; (b)summary, used in abstraction, synthesis, and reformulation to identify key ideas andconcepts; and (c) narrative texts, whose function is the construction of mental andsituational models through textual narrative, as well as literary creativity. Some digital
tools for these strategies are Google Forms, Survery Monkey, Microsoft Forms,
Resoomer, Text Summary, Google Docs, iA Writer, Penultimate, Celtx,
Makebeliefscomix, and Pixton.

One of the disciplines that has most benefited from technology is foreign language didactics,
as technological resources have been present in methodologies developed over time. In thissense, Borromeo et al. (2018) mention this in their study on the use and evolution of technology
in foreign language teaching, stating that it was from the audio-lingual method onwards thattechnological resources and tools began to be exploited, even more so with the communicative
method or approach, where the development of both communicative and digital competencies
allows students to have experiences of ubiquitous, immersive, autonomous, and recreational
learning (Trujillo et al., 2019).
The E-Comic Strip
The e-comic strip is a student-centered activity defined as a textual technique within the
narrative genre, where stories are told through texts and images intentionally structured to
evoke an aesthetic response in readers upon reading. This characteristic of combining text withimages is one of the most outstanding features of comic strips, as it allows for the retention of
information conveyed in each part of the narrative in a more substantial way (Mosquera &Rendón, 2021). For some authors, the origin of comic strips dates back to prehistory, with cave
paintings, while others associate it with the invention of the printing press. However, it wasn't
until 1894 that the comic strip as we know it today was born. The first comic strip was
published in the New York World newspaper in 1876, featuring The Yellow Kid, where anarrative in panels depicting the life and actions of the characters, as well as descriptions of154

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their expressions, was presented (Maza, 2012). In 1920, comic strips transitioned fromnewspaper to formal publications. In 1938, the first standalone issue appeared featuring
Superman. With this event, the true origin of comic strips, as we know them today, isestablished (Salinas, 2022).
The comic strip is considered a multimodal text where visually constructed experiences enable
the understanding of culture (Pickel, 2018). Most authors agree that comic strips handle textual
multimodality with elements such as panels, kinetic lines, visual metaphors, text, speech
bubbles, images, perspectives, layout, and chromatic codes. Regarding the textual style, comic
strips use satirical, lyrical, and aesthetic language to transmit the values and lifestyles of aparticular society. They implement the structure of literary narrative where sequentiality inchapters or episodes is employed to give progression to the stories told (Cordero & Mejía,2021). Besides, rhetorical figures predominate, enriching the texts with aesthetic resources tocapture attention and interest (Vilches-Fuentes, 2019).
The e-comic strip can be employed as a didactic support tool in communication and culture.
However, it is essential to develop narrative competence and reading ability in students basedon the sociocultural elements of the language because its reading is not like any other. The
decoding and interpreting process involves knowledge of the cultural-linguistic expressions
and codes in which the comic strip was created (Flantrmsky, 2022). In foreign language
teaching, the comic strip is considered a discursive technique that significantly enhances lexicallearning and dynamizes the development of communicative competencies (Jiménez-Arriagada
et al., 2020).
Moreover, in works such as those by Soto-Cano (2019) and Córdoba-Baldrich & Maturana(2022), the use of the comic strip is a resource for developing students' linguistic, pragmatic,
and sociolinguistic competencies in a foreign language. They also see it as a mediator toencourage reading due to its attractive nature. Additionally, Huerta & Ortega (2021) emphasize
its use to work on vocabulary and its retention through association and playful learning.
Moreover, it aids in working on communicative activities of reception and production, bothoral and written (Martínez, 2023). All these aspects together promote conscious vocabulary
learning in an everyday context.
Methodology
To ascertain how the e-comics supported by the Canva, Makebeliefscomix, and Pixton
applications influence the lexical competence development in a virtual environment at higher
education, the present study uses an experimental design aimed at manipulating theindependent variable (use of e-comics with three applications based on tasks) to observe its
possible effect on the dependent variable [development of lexical competence (LC)](Hernández-Sampieri & Mendoza, 2018). To this end, there is an experimental and a control
group. To register how e-comics influence the LC, a techno-pedagogical model was applied in
the experimental group to develop such LC using e-comics through Canva, Makebeliefscomix,
and Pixton with three tasks. In contrast, the control group developed their LC with traditional
methods, isolated from the proposed techno-pedagogical model. Finally, to test and verify the155

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plausibility of the proposal, pre-and post-treatment tests were administered to measure theeffect of using e-comics with the applications for vocabulary learning. Therefore, the study isa cross-sectional quantitative study with an associative design based on the following
hypothesis: The use of e-comics supported by Canva, Makebeliefscomix, and Pixton influences
the development of LC in a foreign language in virtual environments.
Instruments: Pre-treatment, Treatment, and Post-treatment
The following instruments were used in the three phases:••

Pre and post-treatment. A standardized test was administered to measure the students'
lexical repertoire, taking the CEFR levels as a reference to record the possible influenceof e-comics after working with the techno-pedagogical design (treatment). It had amultiple-choice format, including filling in the blanks, unscrambling, and selecting theword that best fits a context.
Treatment. A technology-mediated model was designed to teach vocabulary through ecomics using Canva, Makebeliefscomix, and Pixton according to three tasks based on
the Technique Features Analysis (TFA) Model (see Table 3). It is hosted on the Moodle
platform with hyperlinks to the Canva, Makebeliefscomix, and Pixton applications sothat students can create comic strips based on three tasks and a set of 300 pre-specified
words determined from the CEFR for Languages and according to the level
corresponding to the critical path of the English Teaching Bachelor program. Table 1
shows the design of the techno-pedagogical model.

Table 1
Design of the Techno-Pedagogical Model
Tasks withapplications
Canva

Targetwords
100 different
words for
Makebeliefscomix eachapplication(40 nouns, 40
Pixtonverbs, and 20
adjectives)

Implementation
25 words were
worked per week in
3 two-hour sessions
during a month foreach application.

Instruments to evaluate thisphase
18 components Productivefrom the TFA
and receptivemodel toacquisition
measure thetests tolexicalmeasureacquisition
students’ LC
with apps
with eachbased on tasks application

Tasks for Each Application
Canva
1. Students carried out individual recreational activities for the presentation of keywords, theirrecovery, and memory (word search and crossword puzzles).

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2. Subsequently, they used collaborative graphic organizers to categorize ideas, working on
spaced recovery and the form-meaning union with the main ideas of the dialogues for the
comic.
3. Finally, they elaborated the narrative outline individually, using the dialogues created in theprevious classes to match them with the pre-designed images in Canva, allowing productive
recovery and recognition of the mental representation of the concept. Thus, the students
became aware of learning the new lexicon, stimulating their motivation for learning.
Makebeliefscomix
1. A collaborative reading of instructions was carried out, establishing the target lexicallearning and the exemplification to elaborate on each part of the comic.
2. Each student developed their e-comic, choosing characters and settings to associate images
with their stories to promote form-meaning identification, recovery, and memory.
3. Finally, the story is built by adding dialogue balloons in which attention to the keywords andspaced and productive recovery took place for the narrative thread, contributing to theawareness of learning new lexis and motivation towards the process.
Pixton1. Students' attention was encouraged through an individual activity by highlighting the targetwords and clarifying the lexical learning objective to associate them with images toremember their meaning through the mental-lexical image. After that, students select the
keywords for vocabulary recovery, representing their understanding through the formmeaning union.
2. Participants did a group activity called the use of context that consisted of multiple recoveriesof the keywords in different exercises provided by the teacher like the construction andcombination of sentences with exemplification, spaced recovery with gap filling, andproductive recovery with the generation of simple texts
3. As a final activity, they individually wrote the narrative of the e-comic, taking into accountthe productive generation of the dialogues and the marking of keywords to be aware of the
new vocabulary. Then, the students read aloud to identify the key ideas in their narratives
and negotiated the correct use of words in the dialogues to avoid interference or confusion,
contemplating the high degree of generation in the final evidence of their learning,enhancing their motivation in this task.
The activities were both individual and collaborative, based on active methodologies,
gamification, and the use of technological applications. Besides, to evaluate the participants'
LC in each implementation period, two instruments were used:•

Receptive and productive written tests were used to evaluate the three applications where
every 100 words have a ten-weighted score in both instruments. The receptive test consistsof a list of 100 target words for each application in English and asks the student to enter
their meaning in Spanish. In contrast, the productive test contains the same target words in
Spanish and asks the student to write them in English.

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In each task, the TFA model was used to identify which of the three applications promotes
the most vocabulary learning, based on the premise that 1 means presence and 0 absence ofeach element belonging to five categories: motivation, notation, recovery, generation, andretention with a maximum of 18 points [see Table 3] (Nation & Webb, 2011).

SampleSixty first-semester students, the entire population of the English Teaching Bachelor of the
Benemérita Universidad Autónoma de Puebla, who signed the informed consent form,
participated in this research. Some of their characteristics are low proficiency level incommunicative situations, lack of lexical background to interact in varied situations orcontexts, and enrolled in virtual classes for six hours a week. Half of the students wererandomly assigned to the control group and the rest to the experimental group.
Data Collection and Analysis
Data collection was done in three phases. Phase 1: Pre-treatment. This was administered at the
beginning of the study and before the treatment to both the control and experimental groups toassess their level of lexical competence. Phase 2: Treatment. Data was collected only from theexperimental group at the end of each implementation of the applications (Canva,
Makebeliefscomix, and Pixton). First, the receptive test was administered individually.
Subsequently, the teacher administered the TFA instrument as a group so that each student
recognized the absence or presence of the 18 elements in each application task. Finally, eachparticipant answered the productive test. Phase 3: Post-treatment. This was administered after
the treatment to both groups and at the end of the 2023 semester to obtain a reference for
evaluating the proposal and to corroborate the hypothesis. Table 2 presents the data analysis
model used to display the results.
Table 2Analysis Model. Own Elaboration
PhasesPre-treatment
Treatment

Post-treatment

PurposeMeasure initial lexical competence
Measure vocabulary learning from e-comic
strips using the Canva, Makebeliefscomix, andPixton applications
Measure final lexical competence
Results

The following section presents findings related to participants' baseline LC, the results of LC
according to the TFA model, the receptive and productive tests, and the post-treatment results
to analyze and verify the influence of e-comics on LC.

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Figure 1
Pre-Treatment Stage Results

Students' vocabulary level
A126

A1
24

6

4
Control group

Experimental group

As seen in Figure 1, in both groups, a majority of students are at level A1- (26 in the control
and 24 in the experimental group), with only a few students at level A2 (4 in the control and 6
in the experimental group. The graph corroborates the background information on theparticipants, as it shows a lack of vocabulary diversity, resulting in the use of simple words andphrases that do not align with the level demanded by the course. It has led to poor
communication, which can even cause misunderstandings. The results suggest a limited
development of higher-level linguistic skills, impacting reading comprehension and written
production. It underscores that a limited vocabulary hinders the successful expression andcommunication of ideas, affecting the student's confidence and motivation to communicate in
the target language, in this case, English.
Treatment
Table 3Components and Criteria of the Technique Feature Analysis (TFA) Model. Source: Nationand Webb, 2011.

Criterion

Motivation
1. Objective:
lexical learning
2. Motivation
toward learning

Number of students who perceived presence of element
Explanation
Week 1-4
Week 5-8
Week 9-12
Canva
Makebeliefs
Pixton
comix
N=30
N=30
N=30
Is there a clear objective
for lexical learning?
Do they motivate
students?

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2

29

29

29

28

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3. Student word
selection
Noticing
4. Attention to
keywords
5. Awareness of
new lexicallearning
6. Negotiation

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Do students choose thewords they will learn?

1

2

30

Does it encourage
students to pay attention
to keywords?
Does the activity makestudents aware they arelearning new
vocabulary?
Does the activity offer
negotiation
opportunities?

3

27

30

28

29

30

1

2

29

Does the activity
provide retrieval
opportunities?
Is there productive
retrieval?
Does it involve recall?
Does the activity
involve multiple
retrieval opportunities
for each keyword?
Does the activity lead tospaced retrievals?

28

29

30

29

29

30

28
1

29
1

30

27

29

30

Does the activity
promote generation?
Does the activity
involve productive
generation?
Does the activity
involve a high degree ofgeneration?

2

29

30

2

3

30

0

1

29

Does the activity
provide opportunities tosuccessfully link form
and meaning?

28

29

30

Retrievaal
7. Retrieval

8. Productive
retrieval
9. Recall
10. Multiple
retrievals

11. Spaced
retrievals
Generation
12. Generation
13. Productive
generation
14. High degreeof generation
Retention
15. Retention

30

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16.
Exemplification

Does the activity
promoteexemplification?
17. Mental image Does the activityof the concept
promote a mental imageof the concept?
18. Avoiding
Does the activity avoid
interference
interference or
confussion between
words?

1

30

30

30

1

30

0

0

30

In the first month when using Canva, majority of participants distinguished 8 out of 18
components of the TFA model: one component for the motivation dimension (motivation
towards learning), one component for notoriety (awareness of learning new lexicon) with thegeneration of the outline of its narrative, four for recovery (recovery, productive recovery,
remembering, spaced recovery), and two of retention (form-meaning union and mental imageof the concept) with recreational activities, use of graphic organizers and writing the narrative.
For the generation dimension with the Canva application, they did not identify any of its threecomponents.
During the second month, while working with the Makebeliefscomix application, students
pointed out 11 of the 18 components of the TFA model. In each dimension, they observed thelack of one or two components. Considering the motivation category, the clarity of the lexicallearning objectives and motivation towards learning through construction activities in the
comic stood out. For noticing, they consider attention to keywords and awareness of the new
lexicon in the comic construction. In the recovery component, the evocation and form-meaning
union through associated images with meanings stood out, as well as productive and spaced
recoveries. Finally, through reading instructions aloud, they perceived the receptive generativeuse of the word and exemplification.
In the third month with Pixton, participants recognized the development of the 18 componentsof the 5-dimensional TFA model in the task. With the activity of using or reusing the keyword,
they identified lexical learning objectives, a motivation towards learning, and an appropriate
selection of words. In the dimension of noticing, the reading activity with marking allowed
them to highlight the attention to the keywords, become aware of learning new lexis, andmanage negotiation. The mental-lexical image activity helped them perform the productive,
multiple, and spaced retrieval tasks. In the case of the generation component, reading alouddetonated productive generation and a high degree of generation through creativity andappropriate use of words. Finally, the mental-lexical image task promoted retention bystimulating the form-meaning union, exemplification, and mental concept image, avoiding
interference.

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At the end of the four weeks of working with each application, receptive and productive
acquisition tests were administered to identify the average lexical knowledge of participants'
target words after the treatment.
Table 4
Results of the Receptive Acquisition Test

Canva
Makebeliefscomix
PixtonSum of grades

Average

Variance

243
262
283

8.10
8.73
9.43

0.67
0.76
0.58

TFA
elements
8
11
18

Pixton reflects the highest average in receptive acquisition (Table 4) and less variability inratings (Table 3). These data indicate that the majority of students have a consistent andpositive opinion about the application to learn vocabulary. Besides, Makebeliefscomix has ahigh average but presents dispersion in the grades, so the students' perceptions vary. Finally,
Canva shows the lowest average and an intermediate variance. Then, students evaluated it more
uniformly but less favorably than the other applications.
Table 5Results of the Productive Acquisition Test

Canva
Makebeliefscomix
PixtonSum of grades
242
261
281

Average
8.07
8.70
9.37

Variance
0.26
0.22
0.18

Pixton recorded the highest average along with the lowest variance in the productive aquisition
test, making it the best-evaluated tool, with strong consensus for user satisfaction.
Makebeliefscomix has a lower average than Pixton and a lower variance than Canva, however,satisfaction with this tool is more consistent despite the lower average. Last but not the least,
Canva reports the lowest average but high variance, which means that opinions about this tool
are discrepant.

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Post-Treatment
Figure 2
Results of the Post-Diagnostic Stage

Students' vocabulary level
after the treatment
Control group

Experimental group

22

21

9

8

A1-

A1

A2

With a radical change in experimental group and minimal change in control group, the results
highlight the relevance of implementing e-comics to develop lexical competence. Posttreatment, 21 students are at level A1, and nine students at A2. In contrast, only four more
students from the control group reached level A2 compared to the pre-treatment stage, where
eight students were at this level and 22 at level A1-. This phase demonstrates a positive
association between e-comics and LC, asserting that digital co mics with three applications
influence the development of students' lexical competence.
Discussion
The findings suggest that the use of e-comics as a pedagogical tool promotes lexicalcompetence in English as a foreign language, which was achieved from ludic, creative, anddynamic activities based on the components of the TFA, exposing the student to keywords
within dialogues and texts for subsequent recovery and use, improving the acquisition of new
vocabulary. These indicators coincide with the studies by Hidalgo (2020), Breda (2021), Aristu& Torres (2021), and Verano & Carrillo (2023).
In the process of using Canva to create the first e-comic, the individual recreational activities
proved to be plausible for lexical learning due to the activation of 8 TFA components such as
motivation towards learning from the tasks, awareness of learning new vocabulary, recovery,
productive and spaced recoveries, memory retrievals, form-meaning union and mental imageof the concept. The findings indicate that the presentation and retrieval of target words throughexercises such as word searches, crossword puzzles, and e-comics facilitated the memorizationand learning of target words. This data matches Mayer's (2017) assertion that learning based

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on interactive activities significantly improves information retention by involving students inactive and continuous learning.
Furthermore, the development of collaborative graphic organizers with Canva allowed thecategorization of ideas and spaced retrievals, techniques that enabled the visual organizationof information, contributing to the connection between form and meaning, especially when
they integrated their dialogues into digital narratives in the e-comic template. This supports
Johnson & Johnson’s (2019) assertion that collaborative learning leads to deeper and more
retentive understanding. Finally, individual narratives using dialogues and clipart images in
Canva favored productive recovery and recognition of the mental image, a process thatreinforces the learned vocabulary, stimulating creativity and metacognitive awareness. In thisway, visual applications and techniques enhance retention and understanding by creating a
dynamic environment.
When creating the second e-comic with the application of Makebeliesfscomix, the 11
components identified by students for each dimension were: in the motivation dimension,clarity of the objectives of lexical learning and motivation towards learning generated byconstruction of the e-comics, seen as a unique experience to learn vocabulary that goes beyond
memorization. As it was based on a design already established by the application itself, it
promoted a didactic sequence guided through the construction of dialogues, scenes, andnarratives in their e-comics. This coincides with the study by Sanhueza (2018), which alludes
to the idea that narrative activities promote the generation process that deals with thereconceptualization processing. Thus, it consists of generating or creatively using the
vocabulary acquired in a different context within e-comics.
In the noticing dimension, the results showed that with this application, students focused theirattention on word marking and becoming aware of the new lexicon, which led them to focus
on the target word connotation, being aware of their lexical growth and learning. Similarly,
Gohar et al. (2018) and Sánchez et al. (2019) also found that input in the comic helps highlightand capture students' curiosity towards a target word, improving lexical memory.
In the recovery dimension, productive and spaced recovery was highlighted and remembered
due to image-meaning association, making students creative and facilitating the assimilationof the new lexicon. This is in line with studies by Palacios & Plazas (2019) and Morales (2021),
who mention that comic illustrations generate emotions, positively influencing the student's
attitude toward learning and stimulating their imagination, facilitating conceptual assimilation
due to the visual-lexical association process in multiple scenarios. Besides, images helped
generate a playful environment that favors understanding the communicative situation, as
Marin's (2022) study shows.
Considering retention, form-meaning union, and exemplification were identified with thepractice of writing the e-comic sentences taking into account the contextualization and correct
use of the words in combination and sentence construction activities as mentioned by Olagbaju& Popoola (2020) in their study. Finally, in the generation dimension, receptive generative use

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was achieved by reading instructions aloud and writing their e-comics, stimulating theircreativity, and increasing lexicon, coinciding with Jiménez's work (2023).
Regarding the third e-comic design with the Pixton application, the students developed themost vocabulary acquisition according to the receptive and productive tests and a posttreatment test. This is because of the activation of the 18 components of the dimensions fromthe TFA model thanks to the ludic, dynamic, and creative activities. Students perceived the
motivation of lexical learning through experimenting with activities that focused on the clarityof the lexical learning objective and an appropriate selection of words. Findings by Caiza(2023) and Jiménez (2023) similarly affirm that activities using target words in sentence
replacement favor retention.
In noticing, students could highlight attention to keywords, be aware of learning the new
lexicon, and manage negotiation of meanings with activities such as reading and marking thewords within their productions. Olagbaju & Popoola (2020) and Tovar & Pineda (2021) havealso demonstrated that target-word noticing in narrative texts allows students to become awareof vocabulary use, developing lexical competence. Furthermore, mental-lexical image activity,
sentence combination and construction, gap filling, and image-to-lexical association in Pixton
performed productive, multiple, and spaced retrieval tasks, similar to Chinga & Pérez’s study(2023), where sentence creation allows students to understand the use of keyword in different
writing situations.
In the case of the retention dimension, four elements are present for the treatement group: theform-meaning union, exemplification, mental image of the concept, and interference avoided,
thanks to the mental-lexical image task that took place at the same time when the students
designed the characters, settings, and images they used in their e-comics. This confirms thefindings by Alcaraz-Mármol (2021) and Hidalgo (2020) that the mental image of the word
stimulates creativity in writing dialogues in a comic strip and avoids word confusion.
Finally, in the generation dimension, the students focused on writing their e-comic and readingit aloud to develop a productive and high-grade generation that evidenced creativity andappropriate use of words. Similar studies by Sanhueza (2018), Sánchez et al. (2019), and Nadal& Thome (2021) affirm that the implementation of reading aloud as a generative activity
promotes clarity of meaning of words, expanding lexical knowledge.
It follows that using the e-comic strip based on intentional activities is more conducive toimproving vocabulary learning in English, primarily promoting the retrieval, creation, andextension of the lexicon. Moreover, the results show that the e-comic strip stimulates students'
creativity through visual, sensory, and graphic elements that capture their attention, promote
active participation, and increase L2 literacy. To achieve this, the teacher selects specificlexical content and segments the comic strip's themes into semantic fields that categorize thewords for easy assimilation (Caiza, 2023). In linguistic terms, the comic strip emphasizes
deducing lexical meaning through its illustrations and situational content. In summary, the e-

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comic strip offers a new, easily readable experience with simple and accessible syntax, creating
enriching experiences with varied linguistic and lexical content.
It is worth mentioning that previous studies have focused on activities using physical materials
and are conducted in face-to-face settings (Hu & Nassaji, 2016; Zou & Xie, 2018 and Nakata& Webb, 2016). The contribution of this study lies in its analysis of the development of lexicalcompetence through technology-mediated activities in a virtual environment.
Recommendations
The didactic applications of e-comics go beyond simple language exposure making it afavorable means for learning vocabulary in a foreign language. However, it is worth notingthat one of the main limitations of this research is the sample size, as it only works with English
language learning. There is also variation in the participants' performance with each app,prompting reflection on the possibility of considering the specific characteristics of theapplications used in activities. Thus, exposing students to different resources may lead toenriched data to interpret individual perceptions (Hidalgo, 2020). Secondly, before replicating
the research in favor of innovating teaching practices in hybrid or virtual environments, wesuggest verifying that participants have access to the Internet and possess a device for work, aswell as minimal digital skills to carry out their activities. Teachers need to design a technopedagogical model framed within an active methodology and aligned with their program,containing activities with explanatory tutorials and evaluation instruments. Finally, we
recommend collecting qualitative data to complement quantitative findings for a more
complete understanding of the phenomenon.
It is crucial to consider these limitations for future research and expose the same groups todifferent treatments. Thus, future research could explore the influence of grammaticalcategories and their relationships for vocabulary learning, implications of incidental
vocabulary teaching mediated by technology, the articulation between writing and reading in
L2 through comics, creativity in discursive areas, the digitalization of comic strips as a technopedagogical tool, the development of cultural and colloquial language in L2 through narrative
comics, cultural analysis through idiomatic expressions in English, among others.
Conclusion
As a pedagogical resource for vocabulary learning in English, the comic strip has proven to bea creative medium to develop receptive and productive lexical skills. The activities developedaround its application generated motivation, creativity, and student engagement in newlearning. This process of interest contributed to the cognitive processing of reflective recall,reducing lexical forgetting. The characteristics of the comic strip, such as visibility, graphics,
and color, generated confidence and enthusiasm for actively participating in constructive
exercises. Likewise, these properties stimulated the student's memory through the formmeaning association of words, reinforcing lexical recall. Additionally, the search for word
meanings encouraged participants to expand their tools and sources of information. They166

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utilized dialogue, negotiation, internal memory, and various means to diversify their resources,
thus demonstrating a more active and committed approach to their learning.
At the same time, negotiation promoted the development of communicative skills in thelanguage, significantly improving the student's oral and written expression. Regarding form
retrieval, it was also observed that using definitions or derivations mitigated confusion or
guessing of word connotations. The tasks of filling in gaps, creating sentences, and writing a
comic strip did not merely involve using notable words but also activated the cognitive basefor lexical learning through decontextualization exercises. These activities stimulated the needfor appropriate use of the learned words, which in the long term led to their satisfactory
application in different communicative contexts. Similarly, enhanced analysis and synthesis
skills offered by ICTs, created innovative spaces for activities and fostering creativity in task
design. The digitalization of exercises facilitated the development of technologicalcompetencies related to learning English vocabulary.
Finally, it is essential to highlight that our hypothesis was confirmed, demonstrating that the ecomic strips as a pedagogical tool supported by technological mediation (using applications
like Canva, Makebeliefscomix, and Pixton) with well-designed activities is effective forlearning vocabulary and even developing reading and writing skills in an innovative andmotivational way from the student's perspective; a model that addresses the needs and demandsof today's educational modalities.

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Corresponding author: Norma Flores-González
E-mail: norma-fg@hotmail.com

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