Enhancing Agricultural Yields by
Small-holder Farmers throughIntegrated Climate Change
Adaptation in Sierra Leone
African Technology Policy Studies Network

RESEARCH PAPER | No. 8
Teddy Amara Morlai
Chris Bobo Squire
Kelleh Gbawuru Mansaray
Gibril Vandy

Enhancing Agricultural Yields by Small-holder
Farmers through Integrated Climate Change
Adaptation in Sierra Leone

Teddy Amara Morlai
Leonard Cheshire Disability,
West Africa
Chris Bobo Squire
Fourah Bay College,
University of Sierra Leone

Kelleh Gbawuru Mansaray
Fourah Bay College,
University of Sierra Leone
Gibril Vandy
St. Joseph's Convent,
Sierra Leone

The African Technology Policy Studies Network (ATPS) is a multidisciplinary network of researchers, private sector actors andpolicy makers promoting the generation, dissemination, use andmastery of science, technology and innovation (ST&I) for African
development, environmental sustainability and global inclusion.
ATPS intends to achieve its mandate through research, capacity
building and training, science communication/dissemination andsensitization, participatory multi-stakeholder dialogue,knowledge brokerage, and policy advocacy.
Published by the African Technology Policy Studies Network
P O Box 10081, 00100 GPO Nairobi Kenya
2011

Published by the African Technology Policy Studies Network

ISBN: 978-9966-1552-9-0

Table of Contents
Acknowledgement

4

Abstract5

List of Acronyms & Abbreviations

7

1.

Introduction

8

2.

Research Methods & Procedures

23

3.

Research Results & Discussions

26

4.

Conclusions & Recommendations

59

Bibliography

63

Appendices

66

Enhancing Agricultural Yields by Small-holder Farmers through Integrated Climate Change Adaptation in Sierra Leone | 3

Acknowledgement
This paper was produced as part of the implementation of the African Technology Policy Studies
Network (ATPS) Phase VI Strategic Plan, 2008 – 2012 funded by ATPS Donors including the
Ministerie van Buitenlandse Zaken (DGIS) the Netherlands, Rockefeller Foundation, amongst
others. The authors hereby thank the ATPS for the financial and technical support during theimplementation of the program. The Authors particularly thank the ATPS Climate Sense Program
Director, Dr. Kevin Urama (ATPS); and the Program Coordinators including Prof. Francis Mutua(ATPS Kenya); Dr. George Owusu Essegbey (Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR),
Ghana), Prof. Eric Eboh (ATPS Nigeria), Dr. Nicholas Ozor (ATPS), and Ms. Wairimu Mwangi (ATPS)
for their technical support during the research process.

4 | Enhancing Agricultural Yields by Small-holder Farmers through Integrated Climate Change Adaptation in Sierra LeoneAbstract
The present trend of climate change impact is especially affecting poorer communities, particularly
small-holder farmers, in developing countries. While small holder farmers play an important role inspurring economic growth of a country, they lack the coping capacity to tackle the most impacting
and quite expensive-to-solve climate change problems. This has high negative repercussions on
developing countries like Sierra Leone.
This research was therefore conducted using multi-stage cluster sampling technique to solicit both
qualitative and quantitative information from 500 farmers on climate change impacts on smallholder agriculture and the adaptive capacity of Sierra Leonean farmers to respond to such impacts.
The research was carried out across the four agro-climatic regions in Sierra Leone. It was in bid tocontribute to the development of robust adaptation policy that would be streamlined into national
and local development programmes for enhanced agricultural productivity and socio-economic
growth in Sierra Leone.
The findings revealed quite interesting, but thrilling issues that need the attention of the government
and its partners. It was realized that small-holder farmers are already moving from an apriori
situation to building a culture on an already observable changed climate. According to them,phenomenal changes in rainfall, temperature and cold are already taking place in an uneven anderratic manner in the past two to three years. Various indigenous predictions that no longer work
well as a result of the changing climate were acknowledged by farmers. Thus they have often
missed their locally predicted start-of-farming and start-of-seasons dates. This had reportedly
resulted to crop failures, pest and disease proliferation and extreme hunger.
Few indigenous innovations/ emerging technologies to solve these problems were identified, butfrom limited locations. The capacity of small-holder farmers to adapt to climate change, it causes
and impacts were also discovered to be very low. Information transfer was found to be from a single
source (radio); and assistance to tackle climate-related problems were concentrated in only one
region, the rainforest, but at very low rate (30%) and from only NGOs/CBOs and government
institutions. The burden of climate-related diseases was also identified as an inhibiting factor
responsible for low agricultural yields, food self-sufficiency and local economic growth. A simple
bivariate analyses revealed that all costs on sickness is at least 30% more than returns from yields
and this in combination with expenditure on farming activities can lead to a substantial decrease in
Enhancing Agricultural Yields by Small-holder Farmers through Integrated Climate Change Adaptation in Sierra Leone | 5the earning power of small-holder farmers. In addition, only a few farmers, an average proportion of
1%, agreed on year-round feeding on reserved food.
Urgent attention to these problems should not be overemphasized. The need for collaborated
efforts to mobilize resources and promote research, technology and indigenous innovations in the
country is paramount. Science and technology (S&T) communications strategic framework should
be developed, and the capacity of small-holder farmers should be built in the area of climate change
impacts and adaptation responses.

6 | Enhancing Agricultural Yields by Small-holder Farmers through Integrated Climate Change Adaptation in Sierra Leone

List of Acronyms & Abbreviations
ARI
ATPS
CaCO3
CARE
Ch4
CILSS
Co2
DRR
ENSO
FAO
FEWS
FGDs
GCMs
GDP
GEF
GHGs
GtCO2
LCDF
LDC
MAFFS
NAPA
NaSTEC
O3
PEMSD
STI
SPSS
SRI
SSA
UNFCCC
USAID

Acute Respiratory Infections
African Technology Policy Studies Network
Calcium Carbonate
Corporation of American Relief Everywhere
MethaneInterstate Committee for the Control of Drought in the Sahel
Carbon Dioxide
Disaster Risk Reduction
El Nino Southern Oscillation
Food and Agricultural Organisation
Famine Early Warning System Network
Focus Group Discussions
General Computation Model
Gross Domestic Product
Global Environmental FundGreenhouse Gases
Giga tons of Carbon Dioxide
Least Developed Countries Fund
Least Developed Countries
Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Food Security
National Adaptation Programme of Action
National Science and Technology Council
Ozone
Planning, Evaluation, Monitoring and Statistics Division
Science, Technology and Innovation
Statistical Package for Social Scientists
System of Rice Intensification
Sub-Sahara Africa
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
United States Assistance for International Development

Enhancing Agricultural Yields by Small-holder Farmers through Integrated Climate Change Adaptation in Sierra Leone | 7

1. Introduction
The advent of climate change debates seems to put scientific research on climate change at theheart of development. There is fear of leaving a gap that will completely militate against
development and increase poverty in countries, communities and among individuals that are
already at the margin of survival due to climate change impacts. The fact that scientific research on
climate change impacts largely concentrates on reduction of greenhouse gas emissions, andlarge-scale agricultural technology seem to be given high priority, could leave indigenous farmers
in poverty and their knowledge underutilized for sustainable food self-sufficiency and economic
growth.
1.1
Background
Climate change debate is not a recent phenomenon. Since the 19th century, scientists have argued
on a foreseeable increase in greenhouse gas (GHG) concentration which would lead to higher
mean temperature (Wiki, 2005), further creating risks and opportunities worldwide (USAID, 2007).
According to the most recent climate change models, doubling of preindustrial gases is likely tocreate a rise in global mean temperature between 2-50C – a scale that is considered to be outside
the experience of human civilization (Schellnhuber, 2006). Other scientific evidences even showthat if annual GHG emissions remain at this rate, concentration will be more than three times that ofthe pre-industrial levels, committing the earth to 2-30C by 2100(IPPC, 2001). This according to
generalized conclusion from different climatic modeling, This according to generalized conclusionfrom different climatic modeling could lead to increases in rainfall in higher latitudes and to reduced
rainfall in the sub-tropics (Schar et al, 2004).
In particular, countries in Africa are faced with high negative impacts of climate change as a result of
low adaptive capacity of their growing population. Almost all countries in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA)
lack the necessary institutional, economic and financial capacity to cope with the impacts of thechanging climate, and in some cases rebuild damaged infrastructure due to climate-related natural
disasters. Climate variability causes uneven disruptions that take a major toll on the economy of acountry, particularly when a reasonable part of its economic activities is sensitive to weather andclimate (Dieudonne 2001, Sokona and Denton 2001). The main impact of climate change will beevidenced on food security, agriculture, water resources, human health, natural resource
management and biodiversity (Dieudonne, 2001). This in turn profoundly undermines economic
growth and social stability in a country (Funk, 2009)- a result that militates against Africa's
8 | Enhancing Agricultural Yields by Small-holder Farmers through Integrated Climate Change Adaptation in Sierra Leonedevelopment. Presently the economies are gradually experiencing reduced food and financial aid
at a point of rising global economic downturn- a time that help is needed most by underdeveloped
nations. It is estimated that 75% of the world's population (particularly in Africa), are poor, and mostly
live in rural areas where agriculture and related activities form their main source of livelihoods(Bruisma, 2003). These conditions are likely to be exacerbated with a 2-30C rise in temperature.
Potentially the people most at risk from this are estimated to be between 30-200 million, particularly
in Africa where: 1) the declines in yields are greatest; 2) dependence on agriculture is highest, and3) purchasing power is limited (Warren et al, 2006). Furthermore, an estimated 70-80 million people
would be exposed to malaria in Africa with 3-40C increase in temperature; and 300,000 deaths
would result from climate-related problems with a 10C rise. Climate change impacts are alreadyhighly visible in Sierra Leone; but the trend and nature of such impacts, and the corresponding
indigenous responses from the most affected are yet to be understood in the country- which is why
this research has been undertaken.
1.2
Problem Statement
Sierra Leone is no exemption to the debilitating effects of climate change on developing countries
across the globe. The country (like any other developing country), lacks the coping mechanisms
and financial back-ups to reverse and/or adapt to the climate change and climate variability
currently threatening humanity. At present Sierra Leone is experiencing de-facto climatic hazards
such as floods, changed rainfall patterns, strong winds, thunderstorm and seasonal drought.
In spite of all these visible indications, there is lack of established/ adapted technology, as well as
specific adaptive measures to redress the impact of climate change on agriculture, food security,
human health and economic growth- a result from limited knowledge on what exists and what needs
to be done by policy shapers, policy-makers and decision makers to reveal the inter-related factors
responsible for climate change, climate variability and impacts felt by poorer communities and theirsurroundings in Sierra Leone and elsewhere. Most dispiriting is that the current climate change
debate seems to focus on large-scale adaptations. In agriculture large-scale mechanized farming isgiven priority. Little attention is paid to small-holder farmers, who form the majority (over 70%) of the
farming community. This group of the farming population has been relentlessly tilling small (lessthan 2 hectares) and marginal (less than 1 hectare) farms since pre-industrial age. The impact ofclimate change is highly felt on them and their families. It has been long established that inextricablelink does exist between climate-related health risks, disaster, agricultural development andeconomic growth. Poor health and injury can greatly reduce the working capacity of farmers; andthe present climate change dynamics is offering such possibilities to farmers in Sierra Leone.
The adaptive capacity of small-holder farmers is very low. In addition, human population increase in
the Sierra Leone, which is at the rate of 1.9% per annum, and climate change impacts on agriculture,
health and food security, presents serious challenges. to Sierra Leoneans themselves. This might
have pushed indigenous farmers to be making countless strides to adopt /come up with local
innovations/technologies that can help improve on their agricultural yields. Contrary to this, is thatindigenous farmers lack the capacity of using scientific predictions, high cost technologies as well
as gaining access to credits that would help reduce future climatic shocks in their farming activities.
Information on how farmers cope with the changing climate, its impacts on yields and local
economic growth have limited research interest- hence little/no formalized documentations with
Enhancing Agricultural Yields by Small-holder Farmers through Integrated Climate Change Adaptation in Sierra Leone | 9

regards indigenous innovations/technologies to adapt to climate change impacts have been donein Sierra Leone. It is therefore important that these knowledge-based innovations/technologies be
identified to give future directions on possible value addition/improvements for sustainableagricultural development and local economic growth in Sierra Leone.
1.3
Research Objectives
This research was undertaken to address the problems posed by climate change on agricultural
production. It generally intends “promoting a comprehensive climate change adaptation policy
through stakeholder participation for enhanced food production, food security and poverty
reduction at local and national levels in Sierra Leone”. Specifically, the research seeks to achieve
this general aim through the following objectives:> Understanding the socio-economic status of indigenous people, their knowledge, perceptions
and behavior towards climate change;> Identify and document effective indigenous and emerging technologies and innovations forclimate change adaptation in the study;> Build the capacity of the farming communities in the study area to adapt to climate change
impacts;> Enhance behavioural changes towards climate change adaptation measures at individual andinstitutional levels in the study area;> Examine the state of climate change and climate variability across agro-climatic regions in
Sierra Leone.
> Build a model on how climate links health, natural disaster, to food security and the local
economic growth;> Make policy recommendations for building climate change resilience at the state and nationals
in Sierra Leone;> Build capacity in the area of climate change.
1.4
Rationale/Justification for undertaking the Study
Sierra Leone is presently experiencing untimely thunderstorms, destructive landslides and floods(claiming tens of lives, particularly in coastal towns and lowland farm settlements). Rainfall now
takes unanticipated seasonal directions, causing farmers to miss their start-of-farming dates. In
addition, the main food crops produced in the country (maize, cereal, groundnut, potato, cassava
and vegetables) survive under varying climatic conditions. The present down pour of rain andduration is a course of concern for agricultural yields in Sierra Leone. A serious decline is seen inrecent years. There are four agro-climatic regions in the country, but these might have been shifted
considerably due to the present tangible climate change impacts. Even though climate change
observations are done for several years, the need to develop an early warning system in the country
is essential. In particular, Start-of-Season (SOS) and Start-of-Farming (SOF) systems must be inplace to inform farmers and flood-prone coastal and lowland dwellers in the country. The need for
temporary mapping of the shifted agro-climatic regions should also not be overemphasized forincreased food yields, livestock production and reduced climate-related diseases in the country.
The cost for high modern technological transfers on climate change adaptation is high but
unavoidable, considering the cost of damage caused by climate change impacts. Studying the
economics of climate change is therefore vital because modern climate change adaptation
techniques remain costly and unaffordable in Sierra Leone.. However, one main asset that is often
10 | Enhancing Agricultural Yields by Small-holder Farmers through Integrated Climate Change Adaptation in Sierra Leonedisregarded but yet highly essential to build on, is the traditional knowledge on climate change. Thisis a knowledge-based system comprising innovations, technologies and cultural expressions thathas been in existence since pre-industrial revolution. The indigenous people have developed thissystem and related innovations as valuable sources of technology in response to risks and needs in
a constantly changing environment. It could be cost effective therefore if this knowledge isharvested and tapped into scientific ideas for sustainable climate change adaptations in the
country. Little has been known about climate change impacts on human health and the implications
on food production and economic growth in countries like Sierra Leone. Infectious diseases affect alarge number of people in developing countries (WHO, 2002c). Generally, poor individual healthcan lower work capacity and productivity (Philips and Verhasselt, 1994).
It is worth noting that Sierra Leone is entirely within the tropics and climate change is likely to be
exceeding the threshold of human tolerance, and contributing to disease burden such as malaria,
yellow fever, cholera and diarrhea. This in combination with injuries and other forms of disabilities
have strong correlation with agricultural production, food security and economic growth. It isnecessary therefore, that such study is included, to estimate the burden posed by climate-relateddiseases on farmers in Sierra Leone. Sierra Leone is part of the African Ministerial Conference on
Environment (AMCEN), and participated at in the 2008 AMCEN Conference in Johannesburg,
South Africa, where climate change adaptation was considered as the most immediate priority,
considering the vulnerability of countries in the continent. Meanwhile, despite this agreement,
Sierra Leone still lacks adequate information on climate change and its adaptation measures. The
results from this research therefore will feed policy makers with relevant recommendations andbuild the capacity of individuals, institutions and local stakeholders for sustainability. It can also
serve as a reference base/spring-board for future research ventures in related field in the country
and other parts of the world, particular Africa, whose countries share uniformity in climate, culture
and tradition.
1.5
Limitations
Ideally, this research was meant to be executed over a period of nine (9) months; - that is 31st
December 2009 to 30th September, 2010. This time was limited to carry out the requireddeliverables, which included intermittent reports/evaluations and time delays in budget processing
for execution of action. Hence, a slight shift to October was made to produce the final report. It isalso necessary to note that one of the objectives of this research was to track climate change andvariability across the agro-climatic regions in the country. However, it was observed that secondary
data on key climatic parameters such as temperature and rainfall were not available in a consistentmanner at the meteorological departments- making it difficult to make substantive conclusion on
the state of rainfall and temperature in each of the agro-climatic regions.
1.6
Organisation of Report
This paper t presents results from research findings on “enhancing agricultural yields by smallholder farmers through climate change adaptation programme in Sierra Leone”. It starts with: (i)background information that gives a global view of the trend in climate change and its impacts; (ii)problems/gaps and rationale for undertaking such research; (iii) literature review that verify the
problems/gaps identified (iii) research method and procedures, and (iv) research results, fromwhich conclusions and policy recommendations were made.
Enhancing Agricultural Yields by Small-holder Farmers through Integrated Climate Change Adaptation in Sierra Leone | 11

2. LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1
Causes of Climate Change and Climate Variability
Over the past 150 years there has been an increase in greenhouse gas concentration (with the
exception of water vapour which remains constant in the system). This increasing apparent effect islargely due to rising world population and growth in human activities such as agriculture, fossil fuelburning and several other economic activities- augmenting greenhouse gas emissions.
Scientific findings show that there is a close link between temperature change and the content ofcarbon dioxide in the atmosphere (Waugh, 1998). Carbon (both as an element and in its oxidised
form CO2) is cycled continuously through the natural systems. Findings show the natural flows in
the carbon-cycle total around 440GTCO2/yr between the land and the atmosphere and areapproximately in balance. Meanwhile, due to human-induced disturbances the CO2 concentrationin the atmosphere has increased by one-third since the inception of the industrial revolution.
Hence most scientists now confirm that adding greenhouse gases to the atmosphere increases theability to trap heat and that such effect is causing what is today referred to as 'global warming'.
Presently world temperature stands at a rate of 0.50C since the middle of the 19th century and latest
predictions suggest that temperature could increase by between 10C and 3.50C by the year 2100 –with best guess being about 20C. Other scientific evidences even show that if annual green housegas emissions remain at the present rate, concentration would be more than three-times that of the
pre-industrial levels by 2100 (IPCC, 2001).
2.2

How much does Agriculture and Land-use contribute to Greenhouse Gas
Emissions?
It is worth nothing that half of all human-induced emissions (from land-use change, burning fossil
fuels and cement production) are taken stock of carbon. This according to evidences leads to anatural response to the rising concentration of carbon in the atmosphere. A stock equivalent to justover 7,300 GtCO2 is currently stored in plants and soils – more carbon than contained in all
remaining stocks, and more than double the amount current in the atmosphere.
In 2000, it was estimated that land-use change alone accounted for 18% of global green house gas
emission, making it the second largest source of emissions after the power sector. Thoughmeasuring the flows of carbon dioxide emissions in the atmosphere is difficult, estimates from
12 | Enhancing Agricultural Yields by Small-holder Farmers through Integrated Climate Change Adaptation in Sierra Leone

Haughton (2003) indicate that in 2000, human changes to land uses led to a loss (release) of around
8 GtCO2. This seems clearly small – less than 2% of the total flow to the atmosphere from the land,but can have a significant impact on the climate.
The natural processes of nitrification and de-nitrification release normal flow of Nitrous Oxide (N2O),
but fertilizer applications (both man-made and natural) releases its output – making such practicethe largest single source (38%) of emission from agriculture. The application of the Nitrogen
fertilizers is possibly the largest human-induced source of N2O emissions in developed countries;
and N2O is estimated to have approximately 296 times the radioactive forcing of CO2 (Sivakumar
and Stefanski, 2008).
Methane (CH4) is produced as a waste product of digestion by ruminants particularly the cattle,
through what is referred to as enteric fermentation. In combination, cattle, buffalo, sheep, goats andcamels account for the majority of CH4 emissions made. This makes livestock to be the second
largest source of emission (accounting for 31% of agricultural emission). CH4 is also produced as aresult of incomplete decomposition of organic matter.
During the growing period, any flooded rice does not decompose in the presence of oxygen (i.e.
anaerobic decomposition), leading to the release of CH4. Meanwhile the level of emissions
depends on the specific water management practices and quantity of organic matter involved.
Overall 11% of all agricultural emission comes from this practice. CH4 gas emission is also possible
when the manure is not stored in a sufficiently oxygenated environment, leading to anaerobic
decomposition. On the other hand, nitrogen in livestock manure and urine encourages nitrificationand de-nitrification, releasing, nitrous oxides. Thus, manure managements according to records(including the handling, storage and treatments of livestock waste) causes 70% of agriculturalemission.
Burning of agricultural residue and open burning from forest clearing contribute to other non – CO2
emissions from agriculture (accounting for 13% of emissions from the sector). Agriculture also
releases CO2 through soil and biomass management practices that disturb the natural carbon sink.
2.3
Emissions from Sierra Leone
Even though Sierra Leone is among the poorest nations, and more than 70% of its populace
depends on agricultural sectors in the country, emissions seem to be minimal when rated at global
level. The country served as a net sink of CO2 in 1990- placing 360 GgCO2 above equilibrium pointwith 303,058 GgCO2. Meanwhile the IPCC TAR for Sierra Leone reveals that the energy industries(MCI), metal products, conversion of forest and grasslands (FGC), removals of other woody
biomass (CFWB), abandonment of managed lands (AML), burning of savannahs and ricecultivation are the principal engines of emissions-contributing to the release of carbon dioxide(CO2), carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen oxides (NOx) and methane (CH4) as the main greenhouse(GHGs) in the country.
In 1990, 360 GgCO2 and 6,108 GgCO were emitted in the atmosphere. 99% of the CO2 emissions
came from the energy sector, whilst manufacturing and construction industries contributed 42%.
Also 82% and 18% of the CO emission came from the agricultural and land-use change/forest
Enhancing Agricultural Yields by Small-holder Farmers through Integrated Climate Change Adaptation in Sierra Leone | 13

sectors respectively. Burning of the savannahs is also responsible for 80% of CO emissions in the
country. CH4 which is more important because of its global warming potentials with an equivalent
rate of 1.2 x 1015 tons CO2 equivalent (TCO2E) represents 100% of the total emissions in Sierra
Leone – the bulk of which come from rice cultivation. Meanwhile, taking a reference base of CO2
concentrations of about 350 parts per million (ppm) in 1990, the MAGGICC/SCENGEN models
predicted doubling of CO2 concentration levels of about 580ppm by 2025 and about 700ppm by
2100.
2.4
Profiling History on the Impacts of Climate Change and Variability
Several climate models predict that in the future, average rainfall patterns will look more like an El
Nino. Meaning, a significant shift in weather occurs in many parts of the world, with areas that arenormally wet perhaps rapidly becoming dryer. Also extreme high temperature will occur more often,
increasing human mortality during the pre-monsoon months and damaging crops. Criticaltemperatures are likely to be exceeded more frequently and predictions show that up to a 70%
reduction in crop yields resulting from such climate is likely to occur at the end of the century
assuming no adaptations take place.
It is obvious that, as all regions eventually feel the impact of climate change, developing countries
will see disproportionately harmful effects – with poorer communities, who are already living at orclose to the margins of survival, feeling the greater part of it. A defense to this statement is thatdeveloping countries are exposed to an already fragile environment, an economic structure that is
highly sensitive to an adverse and changing weather, and low income that constrain their ability toadapt.
Sach (2001) argues that poor soils, the presence of pest and parasites, high crop respiration rates
due to warmer temperature, and difficulty in water availability and control explain much of thetropical disadvantage in agriculture. Meaning climate change will have a disproportionately
damaging impact on developing countries, in part, at least, to their location in low latitudes, theamount of variability of rainfall they receive and the fact that they are already “too hot”.
In Sierra Leone, poor people rely on forest products for their livelihoods. As stated by Vedeld et al(2004), the poor has the forest for: (a) insurance purpose when food and cash income have
unexpected shortfall; (b) Gap filling in terms of regular shortfalls; (c) regular subsistence uses offuel wood, wild meat, medicinal plants, etc; and (d) low-return cash activities which include a wide
range of extractive or “soft management” activities. Due to the rapid consumption demands fromsuch over-dependence on the fragile ecosystems, there has been a considerable decrease in thenumber of forest areas in Sierra Leone. This in part, at least, has led to an increase in carbon dioxide(CO2) concentration in the country- having a cyclic effect on the poor, who have high vulnerability
and low adaptive capacity to climate change impacts. Projections from the Sierra Leone IPCC Third
Assessment Report (TAR) even indicates doubling of the 1990 reference rate of 350ppm by 2100
(i.e 700ppm).
It is worth noting that the rate of CO2 emission has a direct relationship with temperature. Any
increase in CO2 can lead to a corresponding increase in temperature (Waugh, 1998). A doubling of
CO2 concentration therefore would have high impacts on agriculture in Sierra Leone. In particular,
14 | Enhancing Agricultural Yields by Small-holder Farmers through Integrated Climate Change Adaptation in Sierra Leonecrops that have reached the threshold of temperature extreme would be greatly affected- further
threatening the food security situation in the country.
Major crops grown in the country are very sensitive to climate variation and other climate-related
elements. According to the IPCC Third Assessment Report (TAR) for Sierra Leone, taking areference base of 1990, average monthly temperature falls around 28°C, with a maximum
temperature of 32°C from June to October. Temperatures of about 36°C have also been recorded in
March. This means that any further increase in temperature would place most of the major crops
grown, at risk in Sierra Leone. Crops that are likely to be affected include: rice (with limit of 25°C),
Cocoa (18°C to 21°C), Oil Palm (25°C to 28°C). Meanwhile crops such as maize, millet, and cassava(which are less of staple food in the country), may have growth potentials.
Linking climate change impacts to food security and health is also significant tounderstand the implications on economic growth.
Climate change impact on food security, health and disaster management forms a complex
labyrinth of network that has strong correlation with socio-economic growth and development. For
instance, it has long been acknowledged that the health status of the population of any place or
country influences development. It can be a limiting factor, as generally poor individual health canlower work capacity and productivity; this impact can severely restrict the growth of economies(Philips and Verhasselt, 1994). Similarly, poor diet as a result of food shortage leads to protein andvitamin deficiency which in turn results to Kwashiorkor, Marasmus, Rickets and Berry-Berrysicknesses. On aggregate, this increases expenditure and low work capacity of poorer
communities-further constraining local economic growth.
Climate change influence on food productivity is already impacting on humanity. Around 800
million people are currently at risk of hunger (approximately 12% of the world's population) (Parry et
al, 2004), and malnutrition causes around 4 million deaths annually- almost half of Africa. Studies
reveal that a 30C temperature increase by will put additional 250 – 550 million at risk – over half inAfrica and Western Asia. However, if crop responses to CO2 are stronger, the effects of warming on
risk of hunger will be considerably smaller.
Also, though with limited information on climate change impacts, fisheries is another important
agricultural element that needs attention. About a billion people worldwide (1/6 of the world's
population) rely on fish as their primary source of animal protein. It is proven evidence that higher
ocean temperatures may increase growth rates of some fish, but the disadvantage is that reduced
nutrient supplies may occur due to warming which has the potential to limit growth.
2.5
Capacity Building on Climate Change and Impacts
Knowledge, accessibility, availability and affordability of resources are crucial to people's response
to climate change. Developing countries are especially characterized by: low-income andunderdeveloped financial market; poor water-related infrastructure and management; and poor
public services whose availability would otherwise help them adapt.
The poor are often constrained both by low-income levels and limited access to credit, loans or
insurance (in terms of accessibility and affordability). Globally, over one billion low-income people
Enhancing Agricultural Yields by Small-holder Farmers through Integrated Climate Change Adaptation in Sierra Leone | 15

do not have access to bank account with less than 20% of people in many African countries having
access compared to 90-95% of people in the developed communities. In addition, poor people are
typically constrained by their lack of collateral, insufficient information to enable leaders to judge
credit risk, unclear property rights, volatile income and lack of financial literacy, among other things.
These constrains are likely to become increasingly worsened for poor people as wet and dry
season become difficult to predict. This is often exacerbated by weak social safety nets that leave
the poorest people very vulnerable to climate shocks. At national level, many low-income countries
have limited financial reserves to cushion the economy against natural disasters as well as toreduce impact on agriculture. In Sierra Leone, for instance between 2004 and 2008 real GDP growthrate fell sharply by 1.3% (7.4-6.1), and revenue and grant fell by 1.6% (21.3-19.7) though
investment rate increased by 4.6% and export of goods and non-factory services rose by 6%leading to low expenditure rate and fragile fiscal balance of -2.7 in 2008. Presently the demand forinvestment in agriculture alone in Sierra Leone (with irrigation being a single component) is about
US$1.32bn if and only if 147,300 Ha of land should be under irrigation for 618,660MT milled riceequivalent. This is exclusive of providing 1,584 tractors, 2,438 power tillers, 660 harvesters and 990
milling machines, 1,267,000 bags of fertilizer, 178,000 liters insecticides and 178,000 liters ofherbicides by 2010 for mechanization. Achieving this stands a long way off without external
support-considering the slow pace of economic growth and negative fiscal reserves.
Dependence on water, which is the most climate sensitive economic resource, is also high for thegrowth and development of developing countries. In particular, agricultural and industrial activities,
the energy and transport sectors highly rely on water for increased productivity, in addition todomestic uses. Hence irrigation and effective water management would be very important in
helping to reduce and manage the effects of climate change on agriculture. Studies indicate that
irrigation plays an important role in improving returns from land- an increase in cropping intensity of
30% being observed with the use of irrigation (Commission for Africa, 2005).
Meanwhile, many developing countries have low investment in irrigation systems, dams andground water. Ethiopia for example, has less than 1% of the artificial water storage capacity percapita of North America, despite having to manage for greater hydrological variability (World Bank,
2006c). Sierra Leone, on the other hand, has very high potential for irrigation-with about 241,600 Haof irrigable land area enhanced by more than 6 river courses across the country1. Yet the country
lacks the investment capacity to explore this opportunity. As stated by Brown and Lall (2006), Sierra
Leone has only 3% (2.14/km3) of seasonal storage index (SSI) and a total of 100% hard water2.
Meaning the country has 100% storage deficit that could be tapped during the wet season.
Inadequate resources and poor governance (including corruption) on the other hand result in poor
provision of public services. Early warning systems for extreme weather conditions, education
programs on raising awareness on climate change, and preventive measures and control
programs for disease spread by vectors or caused by poor nutrition are example of public services
1
The main river courses include Rokel , Great Scarcies, and Little Scarcies, Tabei, Sewa, Mano, Wanjei, Taia ,Panpana ,Maboli, Mongo.
2
SSI indicates the volume of water need to satisfy annual water demand base on the average seasonal rainfall
cycle (calculated as the volume of water needed to transfer water from wet months to dry months “hard water”
is the water storage requirements.

16 | Enhancing Agricultural Yields by Small-holder Farmers through Integrated Climate Change Adaptation in Sierra Leone

that would help manage and cope with the effects of climate change, but receive weak support andattention in developing countries. Capacity building is therefore an important asset in building
climate change resilience in an extremely fragile society. According to UNCED “a fundamental goalof capacity building is to enhance the ability to evaluate and address the crucial questions related topolicy choices and modes of implementation among development options, based on anunderstanding of environment potentials and limits and of needs perceived by the people of thecountry concerned” (UNCED, 1992). Strengthening the capacity of people so that they candetermine their own values and priorities, and organize themselves to act on these, is the basis ofdevelopment (Eade and Williams, 1995). Also one main concern about capacity building is therelationship between social and political dynamics and can therefore be viewed in the wider social,economic, and political environment- governments, markets, and the private sector as well as
CBOs, NGOs and other institutions, right down to the community, household and personal level.
Capacity building for climate change refers to the development or strengthening of personal skills,
expertise, and relevant institutions and organizations to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions
and/or to reduce vulnerability to climate-related impacts. Capacity building often involves theparticipation of multiple stakeholders, including host country governments, nongovernmentalorganizations (NGOs), research institutions, local communities, and international organizations.
2.6

Policy Responses, Farming Systems Adaptations and Technologies/
Innovations to Climate Change Resilience
Crop yields to a large extent depend on prevailing climate conditions vis-à-vis; temperature andrainfall patterns. Food production therefore, will be particularly sensitive to climate change. And it isnoteworthy that agriculture currently accounts for 24% of world output, employs 22% of the global
population, and occupies 40% of the land area. 75% of the poorest people in the world (the 1 billion
people who live on less than $1.00 a day) live in rural areas and highly rely on agriculture for theirsustenance (Bruinsma, 2003).
For the mid to high latitudes (Austria, Europe, US, Siberia and some parts of China), low levels ofwarming may improve the conditions for crop growth- by extending the growing season and/or
opening up new areas for agriculture. However, additional warming will have extremely highnegative impacts, as damaging thresholds are reached more often and water shortages limit
growth in some regions like Southern Europe and western USA. Also high temperature episodes
can reduce yields by up to half, if they coincide with a critical phase in the crop cycle such as
flowering (Slingo et al, 2005; Caias et al 2005). The size of “carbon fertilization” effect is crucial indetermining climate change impacts on agriculture. CO2 is a basic building block for plant growth.
As such, rising concentrations in the atmosphere may enhance the initial benefits of warming andeven offset reductions in yield due to heat and water stress. Predictions for carbon fertilization effectsuggest that yields of several cereals (wheat and rice in particular) will increase for 2 or 30C of
warming globally; however, yield would start falling as temperatures reach 3 to 40C (risingtemperatures may pose significant challenge for maize cultivation, which declines as temperature
increases– since it has a different physiology that makes it less responsive to the direct effects ofrising CO2). Correspondingly, world cereal production only falls marginally (1-2%) for warming up to
40C (Warren et al, 2006). Meanwhile, as a weak carbon fertilization effect is used, worldwide cereal
production declines by 5% for a 20C rise in temperature and 10% for a 40C rise. At this limit, entire
Enhancing Agricultural Yields by Small-holder Farmers through Integrated Climate Change Adaptation in Sierra Leone | 17

regions may be too hot and dry to grow crops.
Nonetheless, while agriculture in higher-latitude developed countries is likely to benefit frommoderate warming (2-30C), even small amounts of climate change in tropical regions will lead to
decline in yields. In the tropics crops are already close to critical temperature thresholds and many
countries have limited capacity to make economy-wide adjustments to farming patterns. The
impacts will be strongest across Africa and Western Asia (including the Middle East), where yieldsof the predominantly regional crops may fall by 25-35% (weak carbon fertilization) or 15-20%(strong carbon fertilization) once a 3 or 40C temperature threshold is reached. Also, maize- based
agriculture in tropical regions, such as part of Africa and Central America, is likely to suffer
substantial declines, because maize has a different physiology to most crops and is lessresponsive to the direct effects of rising carbon dioxide (Fischer et al 2005). Food production in
Sierra Leone is seeing a steady increase after a sharp fall during the war-period. However, foodinsecurity is one of the problems faced by Sierra Leoneans both in terms of food access and poor
quality of food intake. FAO estimate in 2002 shows that out of 580,000 MT required by the country,
only 46% of cereal consumption (especially of rice, the staple food), was met by local productionwith the balance of 54% coming from imports and as food aid. It is worth noting that currently
agriculture's share of GDP stands at about 45%, account for over 25% of export earning and by far
the largest employer (almost 75%) in Sierra Leone (Sesay, 2009). Hence, even a slight decline
would have very high negative implication on development for majority of the population and othersectors of the economy. The interventions taken by countries, the international community, firms,
donor agencies and individuals, to address climate change impacts on people's livelihoods, foodproduction, health and economic growth need to be critically examined. This section therefore
looks at the policy responses, farming systems adaptations, technology/innovations to climatechange impacts in Sierra Leone and other parts of the world.
2.6.1

Policy Responses to Climate Change Resilience in Sierra Leone andother Parts of the World
The present trend of climate extremes has made governments, firms and individuals to realize that
adaptation is a vital component of any policy response to climate change. Nonetheless the ability ofa system or society to modify its characteristics or behaviour to cope better with changes inexternalities is highly essential. According to evidences, climate change is generally detrimental tothe agricultural sector, if no adaptations are done (JokoAfrika, 2009). Adaptation can be short-termor long-term and localized or widespread (IPCC, 2001).
Meanwhile global concerns in tackling climate change problems seem to concentrate largely on
reduction in GHG emissions, with limited attention to addressing impacts on agricultural
production and food self-sufficiency. There are however inadvertent attempts to increase food self
sufficiency and improve on some other development priorities which perhaps may reduce
vulnerability in terms of impact on climate change. But the policies are biased against smallholders, who are more often than not, the poor (World Bank, 1997).
2.6.2

Policy Responses in Favour of Climate Change Resilience for Enhanced
agricultural yields in Sierra Leone
In Sierra Leone the overall policy objective for agricultural productivity is “making agriculture the18 | Enhancing Agricultural Yields by Small-holder Farmers through Integrated Climate Change Adaptation in Sierra Leone

engine of socio-economic and development through commercial agriculture”. More specifically thepolicy objectives include:i. To enhance increase in agricultural productivity through intensification,
ii. To promote diversified agricultural commercialization (extensification) through private sector
promotion,iii. To improve research and extension delivery services,
iv. To promote efficient and effective resource management system,
v. To mainstream cross-cutting themes such as gender and youth development as well as farmer's
health (including HIV/AIDS) and sustainable development.
The Ministry of Agriculture and Food Security has taken tremendous strides in recent years toachieve these policy goals and objectives. The challenge is in bid to meet and surpass thegovernment Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (PRSP) agricultural targets. Meanwhile, targets for
rice, cassava and sweet potatoes were well achieved in 2005 (see table 1), but much need to bedone to meet other targets and projections considering the population growth rate of 1.9% perannum.
Table 1: Comparing Targets and Actual Production (MT) for the First Year of
PRS Implementation
2005
Crop

TargetActualDifference

Target 2006

Target 2007

Rice

540,000

552,000

12,000875,000

1,290,000

Cassava

1,935,221

2,287,060

351,839

2,100,000

2,300,000

Sweet Potato

160,856

191,498

30,642

185,368

203,905

Groundnut

95,684

167,200

71,516110,265

121,292

Source: Ministry of Agriculture

Recent estimates however reveal that by 2012, the Sierra Leonean population will be at 5.7 million.
In order to meet the food demand for such population, it is estimated that 524,200 MT milledequivalent (120% sufficiency ratio) would be the expectation. For such projections/targets to be
met, robust and appropriate science (research), technology and innovation (STIs) need to be
adopted. Fortunately, the science and technology policy is already in existence in Sierra Leone; andit is designed in way that it cuts across all development priorities with the objective of spurring
national development and poverty reduction. The policy goals on science and technology in Sierra
Leone therefore include:i. the development of manpower;ii. provision of atmosphere for creation of Science and technology culture in society; (3)intensification of basic and applied research;iii. promotion of female participation in S & T programmes;
iv. application of research findings to developmental activities in all sectors of the economy;v. promotion of development and integration of indigenous technology into modern technology,
andvi. fostering regional and international cooperation.
Enhancing Agricultural Yields by Small-holder Farmers through Integrated Climate Change Adaptation in Sierra Leone | 19

Agriculture, food security and agro-allied industries form the top-most priority in the science andtechnology policy, suggesting that they have the potential to increase output on crop, livestock andmarine resources with the emphasis on fish, and diversified food sources. The objectives gear
towards the PRSP and other national targets on food self-sufficiency and food security in the
country. This implies that science and technology should be applied if PRSP policy objectives are to
be achieved. Specifically the S & T Policy objectives for food self-sufficiency and food security areto: (a) stimulate economic production of crops, animals and fisheries and encourage prudent
intensification and diversification of products; (b) develop and promote appropriate land use
practices, and (c) upgrade, popularize and rationalize production of farm tools and implements andimprove local agricultural practices. These objectives need cost-effective and appropriate
implementation strategies which are already outlined in the policy.
Areas such as environment, whose ignorance can militate against efforts to reduce climate change
impacts, are also emphasized in the S&T policy in Sierra Leone. In particular, the policy seeks tocomplement national environmental policy objectives that tend to enhance environmental quality.
Hence the S&T policy specifically seek to:> Provide ways in which S&T would be applied to reduce levels of environmental degradationand pollution,> Encourage proper environmental management in urban and rural areas,> Encourage the use of environmental-friendly and economically viable technologies in natural
resource exploitation and development,> Monitor regularly environmental quality using recent techniques in S&T,
> Collect and make available technical scientific data for national decision-making on resource
use and conservation.
Considering the large number of indigenous farmers, who are basically poor and who live on
less than US$1.00/day, by-passing the traditional technological knowledge would also
undermine efforts to meet food self-sufficiency targets. Frantic effort is seen in the S&T policy
formulation, as it tends to capture indigenous technology by suggesting upgrading andmodernizing such technology so that it can better serve the needs of the society. The policy aims at:(a) increasing the productivity of surviving indigenous technology through the infusion of modern
scientific and technological methods; (b) increasing appeal, popularity and affordability ofindigenous technologies nationwide; and (c) encouraging the development of labour and costsaving devices using local materials and internally generated indigenous knowledge. Various
implementation strategies to achieve these aims and objectives have been identified:> Supporting R&D in indigenous technological systems,> Providing an enabling environment for the production and marketing of goods using
indigenous methods,> Providing formal and non-formal instructions in materials, methods and finishing techniques to
producers,> Fostering the integration of indigenous and modern technology in the production of drugs frommedicinal plants and in the production of key chemical products such as detergents, salt,preservatives, etc.
> Undertaking R&D in indigenous technology including the study and assessment of existing
systems at the highest levels possible, including industry, polytechnics and the university,
20 | Enhancing Agricultural Yields by Small-holder Farmers through Integrated Climate Change Adaptation in Sierra Leone

> Introducing courses at the universities, polytechnics institutions and informal education which
stimulate creativity to aid production of prototypes of machinery/labour saving devices, building
materials to bridge gaps,> Introducing curricula related to indigenous technology.
2.6.3

Farming Systems Adaptations, Technologies/Innovations to Climate
Change Resilience
Climate change is increasingly becoming a serious global problem, particularly when over 70% of
the world's population relies on the agricultural sector (which is largely hit by the compounding
impacts of climate change). Generally speaking, the world is making efforts to offset these impacts
on food production through alternative technologies (including value addition change). Meanwhile,high illiteracy has often suppressed successes in the efforts as the World's population keeps onincreasing, making Thomas Malthus' famous prediction that “the earth would not be able to support
its growing population”, a truism. The most widely affected are small-holder farmers. The
emergence of climate change impacts makes it more difficult for them to cope. However, farmers are
adapting and experimenting with their farms in order to respond to changes over which they havevery little control; going on with the slogan “you either adapt or die”. These challenges have been
complemented by various governments. That is, small- (and large-) scale farmers around the world
already make countless adaptations and coming up with dynamic innovations in order to make theirfarms more sustainable. One instance is the micro-irrigation and water-use efficiency practices.
Several micro-irrigation methods have gained considerable popularity over the last fifteen years- in
particular “drip irrigation systems” and “sprinklers”- which have been adopted for efficient use ofwater for agricultural purpose in areas of water scarcity. That is, using less water to produce thesame crop. This section therefore presents on-going adaptation practices (including technologies)
and lessons learnt in selected countries around the globe.
A.

Adaptation System of Rice Intensification (SRI) and Efficient Water Use
in Madagascar
SRI is a set of rice cultivation practice that aims at high productivity of the crop with very limited
consumption of water. This is a practice developed and used in Madagascar- but is becoming
increasing popular in many parts of the world in response to the increasing climate change impacts
and climate variability. It is an innovative farm practice that ensures that rice seedlings aretransplanted early- that is within a period of eight (8) days. The transplanting is done in carefully
prepared squares to enhance effective weeding. The method allows for intermittent use of irrigationin about 2-3 days intervals. Thus the roots of the rice plant under this method develop much more
and faster under the SRI, as seen in conventional farming systems. Sometimes farmers inundate thepaddy to control weed growth, but the philosophy of SRI is that water is too costly to just use as aherbicide. Farmers therefore use botanical herbicides in addition to manual weeding and removal of
paddy plants. The lesson learn from this SRI is that water saving of more than 20% are common andyields have been observed to be usually 10-30% higher.
B.

Adaptation/technological Adoption Efforts to Combat Food Security
Problems in Sierra Leone
The growing rate of the population of Sierra Leone and the challenges offered by climate-related
impacts have been pushing Sierra Leoneans to find adaptation solutions to address food
Enhancing Agricultural Yields by Small-holder Farmers through Integrated Climate Change Adaptation in Sierra Leone | 21

insufficiency problems. Food crop production in Sierra Leone is mainly rain-fed and changes inweather patterns may pose significant decline in food production. Looking at the slow pace in foodproduction by dominant small-scale agriculture and the foreseen climate-change impacts, thegovernment of Sierra Leone is adopting various strategies to increase yield and maintain steadyincrease in a sustainable manner. Identified agricultural implementation strategies have thus beengrouped into short, medium and long term.
Meanwhile, whilst taking cognizance of agricultural intensification the Ministry is planning robust
adoption of extensification (mechanized farming) for rice self-sufficiency as a staple for 100% of
Sierra Leoneans. In order to achieve rice self-sufficiency by 2010 for instance, and assuming that533,400 Ha (80%) of rice field area should be tilled, it has been estimated that 1,584 tractors and2,438 power tillers would be required accordingly. Also to increase outputs (yields) per unit of land,
the use of high yielding varieties (e.g. NERICA rice) and agro-chemicals (e.g. fertilizers, pesticides
and herbicides) through agricultural intensifications have been recommended. In addition, Sierra
Leone has high potentials for irrigation technologies.
It has a total irrigable land of about 241,600 Ha. Exploiting this potential has also been an ambitious
priority because it: (1) reduces the areas under cultivation leaving substantial space for some othereconomically viable activities; (2) is environmentally friendlier; (3) produces more yields throughyear-round cultivation; (4) provides the opportunity for the production of other varieties other thanrice; (5) could be a potential source of drinking water, and (6) can promote aquaculture at the sametime. Specifically over half of the irrigable area is in the SOUTH, especially Torma Bum andGbundapi in Bonthe and Pujehun Districts respectively. Fortunately too, Torma Bum and Gbundapi
have very high level of suitability for irrigation (75%) that will depend on the “never-dry” Sewa andWanji Rivers. In the NORTH, Kumrabai Mamilla leads not only in terms of acreage (35,500 Ha) but
also in relation to suitability (62.5%). Rhombe is also next (14,700 Ha with 75% respectively). Even
though Rolako has low suitability (27%), it is very strategic in terms of location and access albeit
with a problem of a drying Tabai River. Presently the main irrigation priorities are Toma Bum,
Kumrabai Mamilla, Rhombe, Gbundapi and Rolako as shown in table 2.
Table 2: Irrigation Priorisation in Sierra Leone
Priority

Location

District

Area (Ha)Av. annual
Rainfall(mm)Water Source

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Torma Bum
Kumrabai Mamilla
RhombeGbundapi
RolakaBontheTonkolili
Port Loko
PujehunBombali

51,30035,50014,70041,100
5,100

3,344
2,750
2,714
3,344
2,925

Sewa
Panpana
Little Scarcies
Wanjei
Tabei

Total

147,700

Source: Adapted from MAFFS

22 | Enhancing Agricultural Yields by Small-holder Farmers through Integrated Climate Change Adaptation in Sierra Leone

3. Research Method & Procedures
3.1
Study Area
The ideal setting of the research is the entire Sierra Leone. It is a small country with an area ofapproximately 72,300 km2 and population of 4.9 million (2004 census est.). 71% of the country's
population comprises of those between ages 10-59 years; 24% are children under five years of age
and 5% are 60 years of age and above. The country is endowed with significant natural and humanresources. Despite all this, the economy has seen serious and prolonged socio-economic setback, including low standard of living of the vast majority of its inhabitants. Unfavourable policies,
corruption and civil strife are in part, some of the inhibiting factors responsible for such end-results.
Sierra Leone lies entirely within the tropics- Latitudes 6055´ and 10000´ north of the equator andLongitudes 10014´ and 13017´ west of the Greenwich Meridian. Based on its location, the country
has a tropical climate: Dry season characterized by cool, dry and humid north-easterly (harmattan)
trade wind which sometimes blow at intervals, and is accompanied by fine dust from the Sahara;
Wet (Raining) season also characterized by a wet and moist southwest monsoon wind.
Sierra Leone has five distinct physical regions- Freetown Peninsular, Coastal Plain, Interior
Lowland, Interior Plateau and the Mountain Ranges. Ideally, during the late 1970s to early 1980s,
four agro-climatic regions were identified (with no further adjustment done to date) in the country(see figure). These identifications were done based on certain climatic features: (a) duration of
growing periods of crops; (b) Physiographic influence of environmental conditions; and (c) altitude
and effects of temperature of agro-climatic influence. The agro-climatice regions were therefore
used for the purpose of this research.
3.2
Research Design
The nature and structure of the research seek to solicit in-depth information on the trend in climatic
variations, state of climate change impacts on the farming population and their responses to suchimpact. Both personal interviews and Focus Group Discussions were used in the research.
Descriptive and exploratory research designs were therefore implored in the research procedures.
The descriptive research design was used to collect a set of scientific methods and procedures tocollect raw data, from which data structures were developed to describe findings on key elements
such as socio-demographic characteristics of farmers, crop diversities across agro-climatic
regions, structured adaptation measures, state of capacity building, responses to climate change
Enhancing Agricultural Yields by Small-holder Farmers through Integrated Climate Change Adaptation in Sierra Leone | 23

adaptation measures, etc. This was done using structured and coded questionnaires that were
designed to generate quantitative data. The exploratory research was used to solicit in-depth
farmers' emerging/adopted technologies in response to climate change impacts and documenting
these practices by agro-climatic regions using informal/ unstructured procedures.
3.3
Types of Data/Data Collection Procedures
Both Primary and Secondary data were collected as part of the research. The primary data werecollected using structured questionnaires. Initially, a pilot survey (PS) was done to determine inpart, some scale measurement options on sources of climate change information, list ofadaptations/innovations, etc. Primary information was also solicited from Focus Group
Discussions (FGDs) with the farming communities in each of the regions. Soliciting Secondary
information was also key in the research process. Scientific data on climatic parameters such as
rainfall and temperature was obtained from the national meteorological department of Sierra
Leone and the IPCC report for Sierra Leone. A thorough review of literature on climate change,
climate variability, impacts and farming systems adaptations and innovations/technologies forclimate change resilience in Sierra Leone and other parts of the world was also carried out.
3.4
Sample and Sampling Method
The sample frame of the research is the entire small-holder farming population of Sierra Leone.
Given estimates of 75% of the population comprising of small-holder farmers, this gives a figure of
3.675 million farm families. A sample size of 500 farm families was selected; and this was done using
multi-stage random sampling technique. First the four (4) agro-climatic regions in Sierra Leone
were identified. The agro-climatic regions were then divided into districts, which were further
cascaded into chiefdoms and localities. In all five (5) districts, twelve (12) chiefdoms and thirty-four(34) localities were randomly selected. One district was selected from each of the four (4) agroclimatic regions with the exception of the transitional zone (from which two districts were selected
as a result on its elongated nature passing through most of the administrative regions of Sierra
Leone). 125 questionnaires were equally administered to farmers using simple random samplingtechnique in each of the agro-climatic regions making a total of 500 respondents. In addition, ten(10) Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) were done with identified farmers' groups in each of theregions (see table 3 in appendix). Five (5) young enumerators from the universities/tertiary
institutions were trained on elements of climate change and farming techniques, questionnaire
design, interview techniques and were assigned to specific locations in all the agro-climatic regions
across the country.
3.5
Specification of Model and Techniques
In terms of farmers' responses to adaptation measures, the Ajzen's and Fishbein's(1980:53-89)
attitude-towards-behaviour model was used by adopting scale measurements to solicit informationon outcome(ai) using the following formula:n
ATBr=∑birair
i=1
Where ATBr is a separate indirect derived composite measure of the combined thoughts andfeelings of farmers' groups for or against carrying out a particular adaptation measure or behavior
24 | Enhancing Agricultural Yields by Small-holder Farmers through Integrated Climate Change Adaptation in Sierra Leone

towards climate change adaptation; bi is strength of each group's response/belief (subjective
probability) that the action or behavior will produce outcome i; ai is the group's expressed feeling(affect) towards outcome i (e.g. favorableness feeling of adaptation measures working well in aparticular agro-climatic region); r is the group; n is the total pair of questions (bi and ai) asked on thesalient action outcome on climate change adaptation measures, etc; ai is an indicator that there aren salient action outcomes making up the behavior over which the multiplicative combinations of bi
and ai for the outcome are summated. The scores were then interpreted to mean that the lower thevalue, the weaker the attitude and the higher the value, the stronger the attitude towards each given
attribute of climate change adaptation options. The data were generated from the Statistical
Package for Social Scientist (SPSS) and analyzed using the excel spreadsheet.
3.6
Data Analyses and Presentation
Post survey activities were data processing (including editing, validation and analyses) andpresentation. The Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) and the excel spreadsheet wereused for data capturing, validation and analyses. Presentations were done using descriptive
statistical inferences vis-à-vis; frequency tables, cross-tabulations and statistical graphs.
A bivariate graphical presentation was also made to understand the relationship between
expenditure on climate-related disease impacts and/or farming activities and returns from farm
produce. This was in bid to predict the benefits derived from reducing climate-related diseaseprevalence through certain adaption measures.

Enhancing Agricultural Yields by Small-holder Farmers through Integrated Climate Change Adaptation in Sierra Leone | 25

4. Research Results & Discussions
Analyses of the research findings follow internal consistency of the research design. The
findings present the socio-demographic dynamics of farmers interviewed. This is then followedby the extent of farmers' knowledge on climate change, how they perceive climate change
influence and their reactions. Emerging technologies and innovations for climate change
resilience, state of capacity building on climate change, climate variability, farmers' responses toclimate change measures and linkages between climate change, diseases and foodsecurity/self-sufficiency were also captured in the analyses.
4.1
Socio-demographic Dynamics of Indigenous Farmers
The research did not intend testing hypotheses regarding differences between male and female
respondents. Farmers were therefore targetted by the process of simple random sampling(irrespective of gender) through multi-stage random sampling plan. The analyses however,
captured the sex composition of both male and female farmers in bid to make some comparative
conclusions on specific emerging issues. Approximately 25% and 75% of female and male farmers
were interviewed in the research respectively (see Figure 1).

Figure 1: Sex composition of farmers
Most of the farmers interviewed fall between ages 35 and 49. Meaning 54% of all farmers
26 | Enhancing Agricultural Yields by Small-holder Farmers through Integrated Climate Change Adaptation in Sierra Leoneinterviewed are in the most active and responsible age brackets (see table 4). Their responses tofarming systems, adaptations and climate-related components in the research findings would
therefore play an invaluable role for generalization across the country and its surroundings.
Table 4: Age composition of respondents

Age brackets

Frequency

Percent

Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

18-25 Years

13

2.6

2.6

2.6

26-33 Years

77

15.4

15.4

18.0

34-41 Years

141

28.2

28.2

46.2

42-49 Years

130

26.0

26.0

72.2

50-56 Years

74

14.8

14.8

87.0

Above 56 Years

65

13.0

13.0

100.0

Total

500

100.0

100.0

In addition, most of these farmers (about 72%) have stayed on farming/farm settlement since birthand 24% reported staying on farm locations for over five (5) years (see Figure 2). The highexperience in traditional farm practices clearly depicts the quality of farmers' experience on theimpacts of the changing climatic variables in their farming activities.

Figure 2: Length of stay of farmers in their farm locations
The major marital characteristics observed from the findings are polygamous and monogamous
practices (see table 5). The view that most farmers are poor and as such lack the financial capability
to undertake large-scale farming activities, presents a clear picture of why polygamous marriages
Enhancing Agricultural Yields by Small-holder Farmers through Integrated Climate Change Adaptation in Sierra Leone | 27

(in this case 28%) are common among the farming communities in countries like Sierra Leone.
Farmers tend to bind forces with many family members with the intention of raising their farm
productivity, perhaps through additional family labour.
Table 5: Marital status of respondents

Marital Status

Frequency

Percent

Valid Percent

Cumulative Percent

Never Married

22

4.4

4.4

4.4

Engaged

37

7.4

7.4

11.8

Separated

12

2.4

2.4

14.2

Married Polygamous

142

28.4

28.4

42.6

Married Monogamous

233

46.6

46.6

89.2

Divorced

22

4.4

4.4

93.6

Widowed

32

6.4

6.4

100.0

Total

500

100.0

100.0

The aspect of polygamous marriages also starts giving signal of the size of individual farm families
in the country. Over 70% (as shown in Figure 3) of farmers across the agro-climatic regions agreed
having a total number of over 5 dependants. There is therefore a mixed feeling in the perception of
farmers gaining more yields with a large number of dependants and poverty that overhangs them.
The predictions of destructions emerging from the changing climate and farmers' low capacity toadapt to shocks explains much of why farmers will continue being in poverty in the absence of
capacity building and adaptation policies in the country.

Figure 3: No. of dependents reported by farmers

28 | Enhancing Agricultural Yields by Small-holder Farmers through Integrated Climate Change Adaptation in Sierra Leone

Various farm practices were captured in the research. Food crops and livestock farming andfisheries were all agreed on as adopted farm practices across the agro-climatic regions. Meanwhile,
the most widely used agricultural practices reported by farmers are swamp rice farming (77%),
shifting cultivation (72%) and market gardening (61%) (see figure 4). Bush fallow and livestock
farming showed up but of low score in terms of practice. Also, cash cropping which is one of theeconomic resource bases of the country for export overseas is practiced, but at low rate.

Figure 4: Farm practices across agro-climatic regions
4.2

Indigenous Farmers' Knowledge, Perceptions and Behaviour towards
Climate Change
Climate change requires a long-term observation for confirmation. However, the speed at which
modernisation is going and the widespread speculations about the impacts of climate especially on
the poor, need to be proven at regular intervals. It is believed that famers are the most widely hit.
Their knowledge and perception would give future directives on solutions to this problem.
Meanwhile Figure 5 shows marked affirmative responses from farmers across all the agro-climatic
regions that rainfall and excessive heat are mostly felt in all the regions. In addition, cool conditions
have been observed by most Sierra Leoneans at particular periods in the year, but farmers in the
Savannah Woodlands of Northern Sierra Leone especially reported extreme cold beyond thenormal limit of tolerance (see Figure 5). A combination of these weather events might be very
alarming for future agricultural development by small-holders in Sierra Leone especially in agroecological zones that are hardly hit.

Enhancing Agricultural Yields by Small-holder Farmers through Integrated Climate Change Adaptation in Sierra Leone | 29

Figure 5: Farmers' experience of seasonal change in weather events
Mixed patterns of change in climatic variables were however observed from the findings. Generally,
farmers have observed long rainfall duration (74% of responses), long drying season (61% of
responses) and high temperatures (55% of responses). Short and heavy rainfall was also reported(42%). Meanwhile, regional confusing patterns were observed in terms of experiences in thephenomenal occurences of climatic parameters. Whilst the savannah woodlands and transitionzone experience both long rainfall duration and short/heavy rainfall, the rainforest and coastal
plains see more of long rainfall duration. In addition high temperature was reported by most
respondents in the coastal plains (74%) and savannah woodlands (72%). Other climatic variables
that were listed from the farmers are heavy storms, long and short harmattans.The resultant effects
have been late start-of-farming in the transitional zone (56%) and coastal plains (40%) as well as
early start-of-farming in the transitional zone (71%) and rainforest (62%).
Table 6: Perceived views of the nature of weather events
Observations

Agro-Climatic Region

Coastal Plains

Rain Forest

Savannah
Woodlands

Transitional
Rainforest/
Savannah
WoodlandsLong rainfall duration

95(76.6%)

105(84.0%)

99(82.5%)

67(53.6%)

366(74.1%)

Short and heavy rainfall

51(41.1%)

15(12.0%)73(60.8%)70(56.5%)

209(42.4%)

Long drying season

94(75.8%)

44(35.2%)

104(86.7%)60(48.0%)302(61.1%)

Late start of farming

50(40.3%)

13(10.4%)10(8.3%)70(56.0%)143(28.9%)

Early start of farming

30(24.2%)

77(61.6%)30(25.0%)89(71.2%)

226(45.7%)

High temperature

92(74.2%)

46(36.8%)

86(71.7%)45(36.0%)269(54.5%)

Others122(98.4%)6(4.8%)

109(90.8%)

97(77.6%)334(67.6%)

Total

30 | Enhancing Agricultural Yields by Small-holder Farmers through Integrated Climate Change Adaptation in Sierra Leone

Farmers are gradually moving from a-priori situation of weather observation to a gradual building of
culture on permanent weather change in Sierra Leone. It was reportedly agreed by most of the
farmers (about 71%) that weather changes (particularly in rainfall, heat and cold) have really been
observed in the past two to three years. In fact some responses (13%) even show that changes inthese events have been observed since 2006 (see Figure 6)

Figure 6: Years of experiencing changes in weather events
Whilst changes in patterns of climatic events are observed, patterns in agriculture production,
especially food crop productions which are climate-sensitive in Sierra Leone need to be tracked. It
was observed that rice, cassava, maize, groundnut, sweet potato, pepper and yams are the major
food crops grown in the country as depicted in figure 7. Oil Palm, beans, banana and millet are also
grown to an extent. Production of major livestock such as goat, sheep and cattle were also observed
from the findings.

Enhancing Agricultural Yields by Small-holder Farmers through Integrated Climate Change Adaptation in Sierra Leone | 31

Figure 7: Farmers' responses to agricultural produces across agro-climatic
regions in Sierra Leone
The findings also examined crop diversity across the various agro-climatic regions in Sierra Leone.
This was in bid to observe changes that might have occured in agricultural production patterns ineach of the regions. The agro-climatic regions were developed based on certain physiograhic andclimatic characterics. Crops that respond well to these characteristics were identified in each of theregions. The findings show that rice, cassava and pepper are markedly grow across all the agroclimatic regions in the country (see figure 8)- given some directions on what staple food(s) Sierra
Leoneans are presently leaning on. Groundnut production is highly practiced in the Savannah
Woodlands, rainforests and transitional zones. Other crops are either found distinctly in each of theregions or two. For instance, cash crops such as cacao and coffee show clearly in the rainforest
region; banana in the savannah woodlands; cabbage in the coastal plains, and sorghum in the
trainsitional zone. Oil palm production on the other hand is high in the savannah woodlands and tosome extent in the rainforest region. Also sweet potato is markedly grown in the savannah
woodlands and coastal plains.

32 | Enhancing Agricultural Yields by Small-holder Farmers through Integrated Climate Change Adaptation in Sierra Leone

Figure 8: Map showing agricultural diversity across the agro-climatic regionsin Sierra Leone
NOTE: This map was adapted for the purpose of this research. The agro-climatic regions were not drawn to scale
but were rather sketched from the original map depicting these regions. Hence diversity of agricultural produces
does not necessarily mean that the positions on the map are the specific harvest areas. It shows the generalized
picture of the types of major produces in each region.

4.3

Indigenous and Emerging Technologies and Innovations for Climate
Change Problems in the Study Area
The observation of/and agreement on climatic changes must be followed by responses to its
impact on agricultural production as a focus in the findings. Almost all of the famers (99.6%)
admitted that indeed they have experienced in one way or the other climate-related problems intheir farming activities. This gives a clear picture of the extent to which climate change impacts havebeen felt in the country. The major problems reported by farmers, which they deemed have affected
them most are low crop yields and prevalence of pests and diseases. An approximated 96% and
89% of farmers reported of low crop yields and pests and disease proliferation respectively (seetable 7). In addition hunger was reported (87%) to be one of the resultant effects of climate change
impacts on the farming. Specifically, the findings reveal that extreme hunger is felt among farm
families in the savannah woodlands (97%), transitional zone (97%) and rainforest (95%) regions as
opposed to those in the coastal plains (58%). This again explains in part, much of the foodsecurity/food self-sufficiency and poverty situations among farmers that dwell at distanced
proximity to the city.
Enhancing Agricultural Yields by Small-holder Farmers through Integrated Climate Change Adaptation in Sierra Leone | 33

Table 7: Farmers' responses to types of climate-related problems
Agro-Climatic Region

Coastal Plains
N=125

Rain Forest
N=125

Savannah
Woodlands
N=125

Transitional
Rainforest/
Savannah
Woodlands
N=125

Prevalence of pests & diseases

104(83.2%)

101(80.8%)118(95.2%)

123(98.4%)446(89.4%)

Low crop yields

105(84.0%)

125(100.0%)123(98.4%)

125(100.0%)478(95.6%)

Hunger72(57.6%)

119(95.2%

121(96.8%

121(96.8%)433(86.6%)

Flooding

10(8.0%)12(9.6%)30(24.0%)16(12.8%)

68(13.6%)

Land sliding0(0.0%)

0(0.0%)

8(6.4%)

0(0.0%)

8(1.6%)

Thunderstorm

65(52.0%)1(0.8%)

53(42.4%)12(9.6%)131(26.2%)

Extreme drought condition

2(1.6%)

8(6.4%)

57(45.6%)4(3.2%)

71(14.2%)

Displacement from homes/farm sites

7(5.6%)

3(2.4%)

2(1.6%)

5(4.0%)

17(3.4%)

Less fish catches

47(37.6%)0(0.0%)

8(6.4%)

16(12.8%)

71(14.2%)

Others97(77.6%)

14(11.2%)

112(89.6%)

69(55.2%)

292(58.4%)

Type of climate -related problems

Total
N=500

Adaptation practices to solve some of the impacting climate-related problems reported by farmers
were also identified. Over twenty (20) ways in which farmers tend to respond to climate-related
problems for agricultural production were noted in the findings. Meanwhile, findings show that
farmers tend to maintain old traditional ways of responding to crop failures and animal deaths. The
research underscores clearing around farm lands (81%), manual fencing of farm and setting ofrodent traps (80%), green manure application (66%) physically clearing of un-burnt farm (64%),
mulching (57%) and application of animal dung (56%) as the most highly adopted adaptation
practices by farmers in Sierra Leone. However differences in practices were observed by agroclimatic regions. Farmers in the coastal plains and savannah woodlands admitted that on manyoccasions they move from unproductive zones/farmlands for high yields. Tree planting (60%) on
the other hand was observed in the savannah woodlands. Also farmers in the savannah woodlands(79%) and rainforest (69%) agreed on change of crop varieties in periods of continuous failure anddestruction. Adoption of modern innovative applications is rarely seen across the agro-climatic
regions. Meanwhile irrigation of farm/garden and applying mixed animal feeds, capsule andpowered tobacco were observed. (See table 8).

34 | Enhancing Agricultural Yields by Small-holder Farmers through Integrated Climate Change Adaptation in Sierra LeoneTable 8: Adaptation practices in response to climate-related problems
Agro-Climatic Region

Total

Savannah
Woodlands

Transitional
Rainforest/
Savannah
Woodlands

N=125

N=125

N=125

N=500

3(2.4%)

21(16.8%)11(8.8%)139(27.8%)32(25.6%)

46(36.8%)

41(32.8%)

93(74.4%)

212(42.4%)8(6.4%)

86(68.8%)

99(79.2%)

25(20.0%)

218(43.6%)

Using kerosene and soap on plants10(8.0%)0(0.0%)

5(4.0%)

0(0.0%)

15(3.0%)Using crushed grasshoppers as pesticides

12(9.6%)0(0.0%)

9(7.2%)

2(1.6%)

23(4.6%)

Fencing farm and setting rodent traps

59(47.6%)

115(92.0%)102(81.6%)124(99.2%)

400(80.2%)

Hunting

44(35.2%)

49(39.2%)

99(79.2%)

111(88.8%)

303(60.6%)

Tree planting

55(44.0%)61(48.8%)75(60.0%)6(4.8%)

197(39.4%)

Mulching

75(60.0%)33(26.4%)

92(73.6%)85(68.0%)285(57.0%)

Harvest of bush yams

12(9.6%)32(25.6%)

83(66.4%)

109(87.9%)236(47.3%)

Clearing around farm

91(72.8%)

111(88.8%)119(95.2%)

86(68.8%)407(81.4%)

2(1.6%)

0(0.0%)

13(10.4%)

88(70.4%)

103(20.6%)

Physical clearing of un -burnt vegetation

74(59.2%)6(4.8%)

117(93.6%)

121(96.8%)318(63.6%)

Applying animal dung to the soil

101(80.8%)2(1.6%)

58(46.4%)120(96.0%)281(56.2%)

Green manure application

92(73.6%)9(7.2%)

113(90.4%)

118(94.4%)332(66.4%)

Applying mixed animal feed, capsule & powdered tobacco

1(0.8%)

1(0.8%)

22(17.6%)

73(58.4%)

97(19.4%)

Creating fish ponds0(0.0%)

1(0.8%)

4(3.2%)

1(0.8%)

6(1.2%)

27(21.6%)0(0.0%)

26(20.8%)2(1.6%)

55(11.0%)

Adaptation Practices

Coastal Plains

Rain Forest

N=125
Application of salt dung

104(83.2%)

Irrigation of garden/farm
Change of crop varieties

Performance of ancestral ceremony/spiritual invocation

Using small-meshed fishing nets
Using chemicals to catch fish
Use of indigenous weather predictions
Use of scientific weather forecasts

1(0.8%)

2(1.6%)

1(0.8%)

8(6.4%)

12(2.4%)51(40.8%)25(20.0%)28(22.4%)

49(39.2%)

153(30.6%)1(0.8%)

2(1.6%)

4(3.2%)

2(1.6%)

9(1.8%)

37(29.6%)

36(28.8%)

115(92.0%)17(13.6%)

205(41.0%)

Use of rain water harvesting for farm irrigation

1(0.8%)

29(23.2%)

1(0.8%)

0(0.0%)

31(6.2%)

Use of underground water for farm irrigation

13(10.4%)5(4.0%)

67(53.6%)1(0.8%)

86(17.2%)

Construction of small dams for irrigation

62(49.6%)3(2.4%)

67(53.6%)0(0.0%)

132(26.4%)

Change from farming to trading/other occupation

13(10.4%)0(0.0%)

3(2.4%)

3(2.4%)

19(3.8%)

Shift from crop production to animal production

4(3.2%)

3(2.4%)

1(0.8%)

2(1.6%)

10(2.0%)Shift from animal production to crop production

2(1.6%)

0(0.0%)

1(0.8%)

0(0.0%)

3(0.6%)

82(65.6%)0(0.0%)

105(84.0%)1(0.8%)

188(37.6%)8(6.4%)

0(0.0%)

19(15.2%)

1(0.8%)

28(5.6%)16(12.8%)

125(100.0%)

5(4.0%)

4(3.2%)

150(30.0%)

Change of farming datesMove from climate risk/unproductive zone/farm land
Adoption of agro -forestry
Others

Farmers' agreed that their adopted adaptation strategies have also been complimented byindigenous meteorological predictions. It was observed that small-holder farmers, particularly
those in the rainforest (100%) and transitional zone (51%) have been using predictions to meet theirstart-of-farming periods3. But it was reportedly agreed that these predictions have failed them (44%)
in many cases. (see Figure 9)3

In-depth discussions on the meteorological predictions are made in the report on FGDs in the next section.
Enhancing Agricultural Yields by Small-holder Farmers through Integrated Climate Change Adaptation in Sierra Leone | 35

Yes

No

100%
87%
51% 49%49% 51%

53%

47%

13%
0%

Figure 9: Responses to indigenous weather predictions and effectiveness
4.4

Outcomes of Focus Group Discussions on Farming Systems Adaptation
for Climate-related Problems
A total of ten (10) Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) were done with selected farmers' groups acrossthe four (4) agro-climatic regions in the country. The main aim of the FGDs is to have an in-depth
understanding of the actual climate-related problems impeding farmers' activities and highagricultural productivity in the country and the associated indigenous responses to help amelioratesuch problems. Qualitative analytical procedures were taken and documentations of the solicited
information were done in blocks of agro-climatic regions.
A. The Coastal Plains
Four (4) FGDs were conducted in the coastal plains with farmers' groups namely: (i) Youth Coalition
for Peace and Agricultural Development; (ii) Tamaraneh Farmers' Group; (iii) Vegetable Growers
Association- Regent Village, and (iv) Kalameara FMP Co-operative Society.
a. Key Issues/Problems: Farmers complained of the occurrence of short and heavy rainfall in an
uneven pattern (usually falling late) in recent years as opposed to the past when rainfall used to be
for a long duration. This has been accompanied by heavy winds and thunderstorms. Excessive
heat and bright sunlight for a long duration, as well as less cold were also reported. Suchunanticipated weather events, according to farmers have led to:> Seeds sown on the soil germinate poorly;> Over flow of water in swamps impeding farmers to take-up swamp rice farming;> Late rainfall has encouraged the proliferation of pest such as grasshoppers, termites, bugs, etc,
and fungal diseases that often affect crops and farm animals leading to dramatic reduction inyields;> Crops such as lettuce now take longer days (45 days on average) for harvest instead of the usual
21-30 days. Runner beans no longer grow well in the absence of artificial fertilizer;> Too much heat leading to warm sea both day and night have led to numerous rotten fish in shortduration before reaching the land. Dead fish floating on sea surface have also been observed in

36 | Enhancing Agricultural Yields by Small-holder Farmers through Integrated Climate Change Adaptation in Sierra Leone

the past two years. In particular there has been significant reduction in the quantity of species
called Herring.
> Heavy wind and intermittent flooding destroying boats, houses and killing several people.
b. Indigenous Meteorological Predictions: Various traditional meteorological predictions usedby indigenous farmers to combat the problem of lost of farming dates were documented from the
FGDs in the coastal plains. However farmers reported that most of these predictions have failed
them in recent years. Some of these predictions and their corresponding evaluations are given in
Table 9.
Table 9: Description of indigenous meteorological predictions in the coastal
plainsDescription of Predictions

Have worked well?

Lunar Direction: Leaning of the new moon in a westward direction signifies heavy rainfall in that particularmonth. Towards the east, hot dry season would be expected.

No for 4 years now.

Appearance of a flower called “Lortor” in Loko language indicates the beginning of raining season.

No for 4 years now

Croaking of frogs indicates the beginning of raining season.

No for 4 years now

Appearance of a large number of termi tes at the beginning of raining season indicates excess rainfall andlong raining season.

No for 4 years now

Crying sound of a particular insect called “Tengai” in Loko indicates the beginning of dry season.

Hardly works in recent years

Dividing cloud with blue coloured sky in between signifies very hot dry season.

Hardly works in recent years.

Three particular stars appearing in a straight line at 19:00 GMT indicates hot dry season.

Hardly works in recent years

Sea appearing black at a distance with dark cloud signifies rains.

Not working recently

Clear sea and excess wind indicates hot sunny day and dry season.

Not working recently

Germination of yams in March indicates that rainy season is drawing near.

Fails in recent years.

Appearance of certain types of snakes signifies raining season.

No longer works. Rainscome without seeingthemAppearance of mushrooms and millipedes indicates rainy season.

Still works well

Appearance of cattle egrets indicates that raining season is drawing near.

Still works wellc. Farming Systems Adaptations and Indigenous Technologies/Innovations: Farmers were inplace to explain the various adaptation techniques (including emerging innovations) they haveadopted to tackle the problems climatic events have posed in their farming activities. The
documented responses a given in Box 1.

Enhancing Agricultural Yields by Small-holder Farmers through Integrated Climate Change Adaptation in Sierra Leone | 37

Box 1: Adaptation/Innovations Practiced in the Coastal Plains

1. Control of Grasshopper Prevalence on Crops
Farmers complained that grasshoppers eat the leaves and stem of cassava and potatoes. To minimize thisinfestation, farmers have been killing these insects physically. The farmers observe that grasshoppers
bunch themselves around the stem of plants. Every morning the farmers place a container filled with water
under the stems and shake the grasshoppers to fall in the water and die. This process continues until
harvest time is reached. Meanwhile, this activity has been improved on. An empty bag is used to capture
the grasshoppers early in the morning when they are clustered together. They are then killed, crushed andstirred with water. This results to a very stinky odour that is sprayed on plants; and it has been very help inpreventing further attacks by grasshoppers.
Also farmers tie a bunch of dry grass on sticks and set fire on it. The flame is then slightly moved over theleaves, which destroys the grasshoppers without any harm on the leaves. In addition, a collection ofcigarette filter is stirred with water and placed in the sun for a while. After that, the water is immediately
poured into a watering can and is then sprayed on the plants. This kills grasshoppers and other insects that
affect the plants.
2. Control of Soil Bugs
Farmers agreed that soil bugs eat the root and stem of plants such as rice, pepper, etc. To solve thisproblem, a red chemical called 'malatium' is mixed with water and sprayed on plants, especially on thestem and roots. This kills away the bugs and it usually has long-term effect.
3. Control of Caterpillars
Caterpillars are said to destroy plants such as okra and other vegetables by eating the leaves. They are
driven away by collecting appreciable amount of dry ash and sprinkling it on the plant.
4. Control of Birds Flu
Birds' flu was also reported to be common in recent years. It attacks birds like ducks and domestic fowls.
One control measure adopted by farmers is mixing chloramphenicol (red and yellow) capsule with water;
and is then given to the infected birds which helps them recover very fast.
5. Control of Sheep and Goat Flu
Farmers explained that this kills the animal very quickly. Farmers use palm wine and Oral Rehydration Salt
(ORS) to heal the animals from the flu. An appreciable amount of palm wine is diluted with ORS and given
to these animals at frequent intervals. It helps them return to normal condition very fast. Sometimes
animals are also attacked by ticks. The affected animals are dipped into palm wine to prevent them fromtick invasion.

38 | Enhancing Agricultural Yields by Small-holder Farmers through Integrated Climate Change Adaptation in Sierra Leone

B. The Rainforest Region
Two (2) FGDs were done in this region. Farmers groups that were engaged are the “Tegloma
Farmers' Association-Bandajuma Town” and “Amuloma Farmers' Youth Organisation-Bayama”.
a. Key Issues/Problems: Farmers in the region agreed that the weather has absolutely changed
when compared to the past. They reported the observance of abnormal rainfall events- taking placeeither early or late. This according to them has not been witnessed in previous years. The major
problems they reported encountering are poor crop and animal yields which results from untimely
farming activities, severe dry conditions, pest and disease prevalence.
b. Indigenous Meteorological Predictions: The farmers in the rainforest region also mentioned
some traditional predictions they have been using during their farming periods. These predictions
were also documented as shown in Table 10.
Table 10: Description of indigenous meteorological weather predictions in the
Rainforest region
Description of Predictions

Have worked well?

The crocking of frogs determines rainfall.

Hardly works in recent years

Cloud at the top of a mountain as a belief in some areas signals rainfall and better yields in the year.

Yes

Continuous calling of the young sheep by the mother indicates the arrival of rains.

Still works

The steady position of the plantain leaves determines rainfall

Hardly works in recent years.

Ancestral Ceremony can bring rains in times of dryness.

Hardly works in recent years

c. Farming Systems Adaptations and Indigenous Technologies/Innovations: Very interesting
farming systems adaptations and emerging indigenous technologies and innovations were also
observed in the rainforest region. These technologies have been tested and rated by the farmers
themselves as very effective in the value food chain. Box 2 presents some of the explanations
gathered from farmers in the region. Some of these emerging technologies and innovations wereintroduced by organizations such as GTZ and “Bio-united Program on Organic Manure Farming
System”.

Enhancing Agricultural Yields by Small-holder Farmers through Integrated Climate Change Adaptation in Sierra Leone | 39

Box 2: Emerging Technologies /Innovations Practiced in the Rainforest

6.Controlling Post-harvest Lost of Coffee, Cacao and Cereal Crops through Solar Dryer
Technology and Innovation
Post-harvest losses have often been one of the problems faced by indigenous coffee and cacao growers in
the rainforest region. This has had negative impacts on the livelihoods of farmers due to spoilage, physicalloss, quality degradation and contamination. Coffee and Cacao have in the past been the main export cash
crop source of earning in Sierra Leone. Export has fallen dramatically due to the stated problems in
addition to poor road infrastructure. The recent and most affordable and effective technology that has been
introduced in the rainforest is Solar Drying Technology and Innovation. The solar dryers apply hightemperatures, faster drying rates and lower final moisture contents. The high temperature generated acts asdeterrent to insect and mould growth and the products are protected from dust. The Solar drying machine
operates by starting a generator that supplies air which produces flame in the primary collector, which thensupplies heat to the drying chamber until the seeds are dried up and collected into the secondary
collected. The figures below show how this technology works. The Polythene solar dryer is another
innovative way of applying natural solar energy for high quality product for sales in the market. It ischaracterized by a transparent polythene material, used as a greenhouse to trap the sun's rays. This
protects the product from rain and wind and reduces the scale of labour.

The Solar Drying Machine

The Polythene Solar Dryer

The Solar drying technology and innovation, according to farmers are comparatively cheap and simple touse and have recently raised the earning power of farmers and traders.
7.Control of high Termite Prevalence in Swamp/ Swamp irrigation
Farmers reported that termites also serve as impediment in their swamp rice farming. As a control
measure, lime water is often poured in swamps, which kills the insects. Through training from GTZ, farmers
are also practicing local irrigation technology, and water has been easily channeled to

40 | Enhancing Agricultural Yields by Small-holder Farmers through Integrated Climate Change Adaptation in Sierra Leone

C. The Savannah Woodlands
Focus Group Discussions were held with two (2) farmers' groups in the Savannah Woodlands aswell. The groups engaged were: (i) “Cam Wok Agricultural Farmers Corporative-Gbawuru II”, and“United We Stand Farmers Association”.
a. Key Issues/ Problems: Start-of-season is no longer known by farmers in the Savannah
Woodlands. They complained of the relative yearly alteration in the length of rainfall- sometimes
long and sometimes short and erratic. According to farmers in this region, there has been a “7-days”
rainfall- a period that continuous rainfall is observed for seven consecutive days; but this no longer
occurs in recent years. They are also observing long and hot drying season, and heavy cold andchilly wind. To them the region is known to be cold, but the present cool weather condition is
gradually exceeding their tolerance capacity. These phenomenal weather events have resulted in
one way or the other in the following farming problems in the region:> Never-dry streams are presently seen dried up- resulting to disease proliferation such as
cholera- greatly posing burden on farmers during their farming activities.
> The extreme cold conditions has often resulted to frequent marked death of creations andstunting in crop growth.
> Swamps dry up and crack, making it impossible to grow any type of crop on the lands.
> Frequent and extreme cold conditions also prevent farmers from carrying out their normal
farming activities.
> Disease and pest proliferation have in many cases led to the death of animals and destruction ofplants.
b. Indigenous Meteorological Predictions: Various traditional predictions that farmers' have beenusing in the Savannah Woodlands to determine the farming seasons were also identified.
Meanwhile they generally confessed that most of these predictions are no longer of good use tothem (see table 11).
Table 11: Description of indigenous meteorological weather predictions in the
Savannah Woodlands
Description of Predictions

Have worked well?

Hot temperatures in the early months of the year had been used to predict that early rainfall in that year.

Hardly works in recent years

Long Harmattan indicates short dry seasons

Yes

Disappearance of lizards signifies the occurrence of hot dry season.

No in recent years

A bird named as “Gbokidondo” in Limba reminds farmers about due time to work. It cries “gbokidondo” totell farmers that rains are over. Also when farmers heard it cry “ekokonday”, it tells them to stand up for it isdue time to work.

No in recent years

Drying up of streams signifies dry season

Hardly works in recent years

Appearance of fresh cotton tree signifies the approach of rainy season

Hardly works in recent years

Appearance of a fish called “Cowreh” predicts that thunderstorm is about to occur

No in recent years

Wind blowing in a southward direction indicates dry season

Hardly works in recent years

The year farmers see an animal called “Dekpelemgbeso” signals expectation of good yields that year.

Hardly works in recent year

A bird called “Tabadufa” in Fullani language informs farmers about early rainsthrough it cries at 04:00 GMT
in the morning and 19:00 GMT in the evening.

No in recent years

A surat in the Holy Kuran pronounced ‘AYATHALKOORSIYOU’, when read would neither prevent rodents
from the farm, nor destroy the crops.

Yes

Enhancing Agricultural Yields by Small-holder Farmers through Integrated Climate Change Adaptation in Sierra Leone | 41

c. Farming Systems Adaptations and Technologies/Innovations: No new/ emerging
technologies/innovations were observed in the Savannah Woodlands. Meanwhile farmers havebeen using some adaptation strategies to cope with the changing climatic impacts in their farming
activities. In particular, the most common practices include: (a) Clearing round farmlands to scarerodents; and (b) Using hand-dug wells and small dams for irrigation purposes.
D. The Transitional Rainforest/Savannah Woodlands
Two farmers' groups were also engaged on the FGDs in the Transitional Zone- the “Deegloma
Farmers Association-Mokassie” and “Muude (ours) Farmers Association- Dandabu”.
a. Key Issues/Problems: Farmers in the transitional zone reported fluctuating patterns in climaticparameters such as rainfall, temperature and wind. This according to them, has caused serious
problems in their farming activities:> Unanticipated rainfall patterns have often resulted to un-burnt farms, wild weed
encroachments- which lead to low crop yields, less earning power to purchase seeds,
agricultural tools and poor living standards of farmers.
> Appearance of swam of insects such as grasshoppers have in recent years led to thedestruction of young shoots of crops before maturity.
> The flowering period of crops such as beans, mangoes, etc have often been disrupted byuntimely rainfall and heavy winds- leading to food crop damage during flowering stage.
> Excess heat and less rainfall have often resulted to the frequent death of livestock such as goat,
sheep, fowls, pigs, ducks, etc.
> Short and erratic rainfall also causes overflow of water on farmlands- particularly common
during the flowering stage of plants.
b. Indigenous Meteorological Predictions: Farmers in the transitional region on the other handagreed on the fact that they have indeed observed weather patterns through traditional predictions.
They however reiterated that most of these predictions no longer serve them well in recent years as
a result the acrobatic patterns of the weather systems. Table 12 presents some of these predictions.

42 | Enhancing Agricultural Yields by Small-holder Farmers through Integrated Climate Change Adaptation in Sierra LeoneTable 12: Description of meteorological weather predictions in the Transitional
Rainforest/Savannah Woodlands
Description of Predictions

Have worked well?

Lunar Direction: Leaning of the new moon in a westward direction signifies heavy rainfall in that particularmonth. Towards the east, hot dry season would be expected.

No in recent years

Cold and chilly wind indicates the arrival of rains

No in recent years

Crying of the Kennedy bird and the singing of a pigeon signifies hot sunlight

No in recent years

Wind blowing northwards signifies raining season

No in recent years

Excessive heat from the ground signifies rains

Hardly works in recent years

The appearance of large number of soil organisms indicates thearrival of rainy season

Hardly works in recent years

The appearance of insects called “Kpaagbelui” in Mende language during farm burning period signals thatthe farms will fail to burn.

Yes.

Sprouting of leaves of a flamboyant flower indicates the arrival of rainy season

Yes

Continuous dew formation signifies the time for dry season.

Hardly works in recent years

Spiritual invocations through pouring of libations during low rainfall brings rain

Fails in recent years.

c. Farming Systems Adaptations and Technologies/Innovations: New innovations are rare in thetransitional zone. Meanwhile farmers reported changing old crop varieties with new ones that copewith the weather systems. Presently the new variety called 'Pla-Camp' is regarded by farmers as newhope to reduce the on-going climatic shocks in their farm production. According to the farmers, thiscrop is a variety that does not question the type of soil. It is a fast bearing rice and very fruitful. Other
new varieties include 'Flajuai' and 'Ngenekie' which are also fast-growing and very palatable.
E. State of Climate Change and Variability across Agro-climatic Regions
The state of climate change and variability were observed from this study based on secondary
information from existing data. The IPCC TAR on climate change for Sierra Leone presents abaseline scenario based on data from 1961 to 1990. Data were collected from meteorologicalstations from Lungi, Bonthe, Kabala, Njala and Bo. Presentations on the pilot survey are based on
climatic parameters such as rainfall and temperature.
Rainfall has been taken normal routine of occurrence between 1960 to 1961- during which thehighest amount of rainfall was observed between May and November (see Figures 10 and 11). Fromthe period 1961 to 1990 rainfall average in the country was about 2746 mm. It varied from 3659 mm
at Bonthe (along the coastal plains), 2979 mm at Lungi (along the coastal plains), 2618 mm at
Kabala (in the Savannah Woodland) and 2618 mm at Bo (Savannah Woodland and Rainforest
transition). Rainfall average was however projected to decrease by 3% (using the CSIRO-TR model)
and 10% (using HADCM2 model) by the 2100

Enhancing Agricultural Yields by Small-holder Farmers through Integrated Climate Change Adaptation in Sierra Leone | 43

BONTHELUNGIKABALABO

DARU

Figure 10: Rainfall estimates by available meteorological stations

Figure 11: Mean monthly estimates of rainfall
Similarly the mean long-term air temperature regime has normally shown a monthly average of 260280C from June to October with a maximum of 320C. Temperature of up to 360C has also beenrecorded particularly in the month of March. Mean minimum temperature of 200C has been
observed- mostly in the months July and August, mainly due to continuous cloudiness and rain
during these months (see figure). The average annual temperature as recorded from 1961 to 1990
is 26.70C. When this annual average temperature was combined with the 2*CO2 output from theGCMs, the project increase would be 7 to 9% by 2100. (See Figure 12 & Table 13).

44 | Enhancing Agricultural Yields by Small-holder Farmers through Integrated Climate Change Adaptation in Sierra Leone

Figure 12: Average monthly temperatures of Sierra Leone for the period 19611990
Table 13: Current climate (1961-1990) and projected climate change
temperature scenarios at 2100
ScenarioJAN

FEB

MAR APR

MAY

JUN

JUL

AUG SEP

OCT

NOV

DEC

ANN

1961-1990

26.2

27.5

28.0

27.9

27.1

27.0

25.2

25.1

25.5

27.8

26.1

26.3

26.7

HADCM2

28.7

30.1

30.5

30.6

30.2

29.7

27.6

27.4

27.8

30.0

28.5

28.8

29.2

UKTR

28.3

29.3

29.8

30.0

29.3

29.0

27.3

27.1

27.4

29.9

28.3

28.5

28.7

CSIRO TR

28.1

29.5

29.9

29.8

28.9

28.8

27.0

26.8

27.1

29.5

27.9

28.3

28.5

ECHAM4

28.6

29.8

30.3

30.1

29.3

29.0

27.1

26.9

27.3

29.7

28.3

28.7

28.8

Source IPCC TAR for Sierra Leone

Recent data were also sourced from meteorological stations from Freetown, Bo, Makeni, Lungi andBonthe in bid to understand variations in mean annual maximum estimates for rainfall andtemperature in Sierra Leone.
Random selection of yearly average estimates between 1991 to 2008 show relative uneven trend in
rainfall as well as differences across agro-climatic regions. Bonth (along the coastal plain) seems tobe having intensive downpour of rain fall averaging around 300mm compared to other regions.
Other regions somehow show similar rainfall average with the exception of Lungi which shows
relatively lower fluctuations in annual rainfall average. Freetown on the other hand experienced its
lowest average in 2006 with an average rainfall of 97mm. (See figure 13)
Mean maximum annual temperatures seem to take similar trends but somehow higher in
Enhancing Agricultural Yields by Small-holder Farmers through Integrated Climate Change Adaptation in Sierra Leone | 45

comparison to past estimates. Makeni (in the savannah woodland) however experiences adistinctively higher temperature regime- signifying that annual rainfall experienced is short andintensive. (See figures 13 and 14)

Figure 13: Annual Mean Rainfall

Figure 14: Mean Maximum Annual Temperatures
Recent reports from CILSS/FAO/FEWS Net in October 2009 shows that though changes in climatic
variables depicts slight increases, the impact of climate change is highly felt by vulnerable farm
families in Sierra Leone. Rainfall is becoming erratic and small-holder farmers no longer have theability to predict. The report shows that recent flood affected total of 30 localities, 499 farm families
and 1157 acres of farm lands (see Table 14). The flood height was estimated to be 2.5 feet after 2days destroying 28 houses and displacing 823 people (whose coping strategy was living on bushyams).

46 | Enhancing Agricultural Yields by Small-holder Farmers through Integrated Climate Change Adaptation in Sierra LeoneTable 14 : Climate Variability Depicted by Flooding
CHIEFDOMSECTIONVILLAGEECOLOGY

N0. OF FARM
FAMILIES AFFECTEDTOTAL ACREAGE

Mambolo

Mambolo
Rowollon
Robis

Mambolo
MakothRobis
Mando
Rokethegbeh
Malambay
RoteinTombo Walla
Makribo
Robali
Kalainkay
Royal-Kankokon
12

Mangove

46
31
20
126
20
35
40
7
9
11
6
4
355

85.5
70.5
45
276.5
48.5
72
92.5
26
25
46
32
9
837.5

Kagbulor

Gbonkor Maria
Mapangbo
Rokeinhen
MakasaKabayaGbonko-maparay
Mayana7

Mangove

17
2
2
2
4
6
2
35

47
4
4
4
11
17
6
91

KulunaKonomaka
KukunaKukumaKuluruTeneba -Bramaia
Bobalia
Kabaya
5

Bolis

7
5
1
1
3
12

25
16
2
3
11
57

Bolis

Total

MadinaBanekehKasumlePetefuKamasasa
Yankanbor
6

5
4
11
15
51
11
97

8
5
14
22
111
20
180

Grand Total

30

499

1156.5

RoteinTombo-walla

Total
Magbema

Total
Bramaia

Konimaka
Total
Tonko Lima

MadinaAsso Mangrove

Mangove

Inland Valley Swamps
(IVS)

IVS
Boli
IVS

Source: CILSS/FAO/FEWS NET (2009)

F. State of Capacity Building of Farming Communities to Adapt to Climate
Change Impacts
Capacity building of farmers to adapt to climate change problems is crucial, if only sustainableagricultural development and steady economic growth should be achieved. Farmers must be able
to respond to, prepare for and tackle climate change impacts through information, training andtechnical assistance. The research however revealed that farmers are aware of climate change.
About 81% of farmers agreed that they have heard of some climate-related issues. Meanwhile,
regional differences still show in terms of the extent on awareness raising on climate change.
Farmers in the transitional zone seem to have less knowledge on climate change as do those in theother zones. Whilst those in the coastal plains (93%), rainforest (100%) and savannah woodlands(91%) admitted to have got some information on climate change, only 41% in the transitional zone
agreed. In terms of gender perspectives, there seem to be close rate of accessing information
between both male (80%) and female (86%) across the regions. (See figure 15)
Enhancing Agricultural Yields by Small-holder Farmers through Integrated Climate Change Adaptation in Sierra Leone | 47

Figure 15: State of Climate Change Awareness raising by agro-climatic regionand sex
Key information farmers reported acquiring include: (i) the importance of tree planting (59%); (ii)rainfall/weather information (57%), and (iii) impact of deforestation (54%). Again, a wide regional
gap in terms of accessing this information does exist. More than half, (54%- 116 respondents) of all
those getting information (295 respondents) on the importance of tree planting come from thecoastal plains; 38% (112 respondents) come from the savannah woodlands, and the remaining 8%
come from the other regions. Rainfall/weather information is mostly accessed by farmers in therainforest (59%) and savannah woodlands (57%). Information on impacts of deforestation is on theother hand highly accessed by farmers in the coastal plains (93%) and savannah wood lands(86%). Most interesting also is that it was reportedly agreed by most farmers in the savannah
woodlands (86%) that planting dates have been shared; and most of them (81%) acknowledgedthat the information were useful. (See Table 15)

48 | Enhancing Agricultural Yields by Small-holder Farmers through Integrated Climate Change Adaptation in Sierra LeoneTable 15: Types of climate-related information accessed by farmers
Type of climate related information

Agro-Climatic Region

Sex
Rainforest/
Savannah
Woodlands
N=125

Male
N=374

Female
N=126

N=500

Coastal Plains
N=125

Rain Forest
N=125

Savannah
Woodlands
N=125

Importance of tree pl anting

116(92.8%)46(36.8%)

112(89.6%)21(16.8%)

213(57.0%)82(65.1%)

295(59.0%)

Rainfall/weather
information/forecast

42(33.6%)

74(59.2%)

111(88.8%)51(40.8%)

213(57.0%)65(51.6%)

278(55.6%)

Impact of deforestation

116(92.8%)

19(15.2%)

112(90.3%)

23(18.4%)

196(52.4%)

74(59.2%)

270(54.1%)

Planting dates

29(23.2%)0(0.0%)

106(85.5%)4(3.2%)

108(29.0%)31(24.6%)

139(27.9%)2(1.6%)

110(88.0%)26(20.8%)1(0.8%)

101(27.0%)38(30.2%)

139(27.8%)

Yes

116(92.8%)

125(100.0%)114(91.2%)

51(40.8%)

298(79.7%)

108(85.7%)406(81.2%)

No

9(7.2%)

0(0.0%)

11(8.8%)74(59.2%)

76(20.3%)

94(18.8%)

94(18.8%)

OthersTotal

Was the information useful?

Despite the fact that most farmers agreed they had heard some climate-related information, most ofthese information were gained from either a single source or through limited channels. Radio wasreported to be the most widely used source of information - though farmers in the transitional zone
seem to have limited access to it. Other means which farmers (mostly those in the savannah
woodlands) reported are friends (82%) and community members (91%). Hence it is seen thatawareness raising by both government and NGOs seem to be of less interest. (See table 16)
Table 16: Sources of climate-related information accessed by farmers
Source ofinformation

Agro-Climatic Region

Sex

Coastal Plains

Rain Forest

Savannah
Woodlands

Transitional
Rainforest/
Savannah
WoodlandsRadio

113(90.4%)

83(66.4%)

89(71.2%)

50(40.0%)243(65.0%)

92(73.0%)335(67.0%)

Government

38(30.4%)0(0.0%)

61(48.8%)9(7.2%)

87(23.3%)

21(16.7%)

108(21.6%)

Friends

29(23.2%)

1(0.8%)

103(82.4%)32(25.6%)

128(34.2%)

37(29.4%)

165(33.0%)

News Papers

6(4.8%)

0(0.0%)

11(8.8%)9(7.2%)

21(5.6%)5(4.0%)

26(5.2%)

Television2(1.6%)

1(0.8%)

2(1.6%)

5(4.0%)

8(2.1%)

2(1.6%)

10(2.0%)NGOs/CBOs

14(11.2%)

49(39.2%)

42(33.6%)7(5.6%)

85(22.7%)27(21.4%)

112(22.4%)

Community Members

24(19.2%)0(0.0%)

114(91.2%)

20(16.0%)119(31.8%)

39(31.0%)158(31.6%)7(5.6%)

125(100.0%)1(0.8%)

3(2.4%)

97(25.9%)39(31.0%)136(27.2%)

OthersMale

FemaleTotal

Enhancing Agricultural Yields by Small-holder Farmers through Integrated Climate Change Adaptation in Sierra Leone | 49

Farmers' responses on assistance to solve climate-related problems seem to be very weak. Onlyan average proportion of 37% agreed to have acquired some forms of assistance to respond toshocks and climate-related uncertainties; and most of the farmers (100%) who affirmed to thiscome from the rainforest region. Only 15%, 9% and 8% of farmers from the coastal plains,transitional zone and rainforest respectively agreed on any form of assistance rendered to them.
Moreover, more of female farmers seem to acquire assistance than male farmers.

Yes

No

100%
92%

91%
70%

67%
59%
41%

30%
15%
8%
0%

33%

9%

0%

Figure 16: Responses to assistant for climate-related risks in farming activities
The research revealed that the sources of assistance are few and very difficult to access.
NGOs/CBOs emerged to be the highest available source of assistance on farming systems
adaptations; but even so, only few farmers (about 31%) have access to whatsoever form ofassistance they render. The public sector was also reported to be assisting, but at low scale (22%).
Another observation was that both the public sector and NGOs seem to be focusing more of the
farmers in the rainforest than other regions- 99% and 78% of farmers in this region agreed to bereceiving assistance from NGOs and the public sector respectively; whilst the second highest
assistance coming from the NGO targets only 15% of farmers in the coastal plains. In addition, theproportion of female farmers receiving assistance from NGOs nearly doubles those of malefarmers. (See figure 17)

50 | Enhancing Agricultural Yields by Small-holder Farmers through Integrated Climate Change Adaptation in Sierra Leone

Response rate tosources of assistance

100%
80%
60%
40%
20%
0%
CoastalPlainsRain
ForestSavannah
Woodlands

Transitional
Rainforest/
Savannah
Woodlands

Male

FemaleTotal

Government

1%

78%

2%

6%

21%

25%

22%

NGO/CBO

15%

99%

6%

5%

28%

41%

31%

Private Company
Community members

0%
1%

2%
8%

0%
2%

2%
2%

1%
2%

2%
6%

1%
3%

Figure 17: Sources of assistance to respond to climate-related risks
The kinds of assistance are many, but (as revealed from the findings) very limited in supply. For
instance supply of seed rice for farming came up as the most available kind of assistance, but only
30% of farmers mostly coming from the rainforest (24% of the total beneficiaries), reported
accessing this kind of assistance. 20% of farmers also agreed to have received training on farm
practices- again 19% of this proportion are farmers from the rain forest. In addition most of thosereceiving assistance on food supply and supply of farm tools/machinery are farmers from therainforest region. Meanwhile, the most useful kinds of assistance such as provision of high yielding
varieties (HYVs), post-harvest facilities, provision of credits/loan facilities, etc are of very low or no
supply across the agro-climatic regions.

Enhancing Agricultural Yields by Small-holder Farmers through Integrated Climate Change Adaptation in Sierra Leone | 51

Table 17: Types of assistance on climate-related risks in farming activities
Type of assistance on climate
related risks in farming
activities

Agro-Climatic Region

Sex

CoastalPlainsRain Forest

Savannah
Woodlands

Transitional
Rainforest/
Savannah
Woodlands

Provision of seed rice for farming

16(12.8%)

118(94.4%)6(4.8%)

10(8.0%)104(27.8%)46(36.5%)

150(30.0%)

Provision of chemicals/Pesticides

1(0.8%)

2(1.6%)

1(0.8%)

4(3.2%)

7(1.9%)

1(0.8%)

8(1.6%)

Provision of credits/loan facilities

0(0.0%)

29(23.2%)2(1.6%)

4(3.2%)

24(6.4%)11(8.7%)35(7.0%)Training on farm practices

1(0.8%)

93(74.4%)5(4.0%)

1(0.8%)

68(18.2%)

32(25.4%)

100(20.0%)

Training on weather forecasts0(0.0%)

2(1.6%)

1(0.8%)

0(0.0%)

1(0.3%)

2(1.6%)

3(0.6%)

Distribution of farming calendars0(0.0%

0(0.0%)

2(1.6%)

0(0.0%)

1(0.3%)

1(0.3%)

2(0.4%)

Provision of fertilizers

1(0.8%)

6(4.8%)

1(0.8%)

5(4.0%)

8(2.1%)

5(4.0%)

13(2.6%)

Construction of small irrigation dams0(0.0%)

1(0.8%)

1(0.8%)

0(0.0%)

0(0.0%)

2(1.6%)

2(0.4%)

Provision of farm tools/mac hinery

1(0.8%)

84(67.2%)3(2.4%)

3(2.4%)

65(17.4%)

26(20.6%)

91(18.2%)

Provision of fast -growing seed varieties0(0.0%)

3(2.4%)

6(4.8%)

7(5.6%)

9(2.4%)

7(5.6%)

16(3.2%)

Provision of post -harvest facilities

0(0.0%)

3(2.4%)

2(1.6%)

0(0.0%)

3(0.8%)

2(1.6%)

5(1.0%)

Provision of food1(0.8%)

86(68.8%)5(4.0%)

1(0.8%)

65(7.4%)28(22.2%)

93(18.6%)

Provision of settlements/farmlands0(0.0%)

4(3.2%)

3(2.4%)

1(0.8%)

4(1.1%)

4(3.2%)

8(1.6%)

Construction of fish ponds

1(0.8%)

0(0.0%)

0(0.0%)

0(0.0%)

0(0.0%)

1(0.8)

1(0.2%)

Provision of fishing nets/boats0(0.0%)

0(0.0%)

0(0.0%)

0(0.0%)

0(0.0%)

0(0.0%)

0(0.0%)

18(14.4%)

96(76.8%)1(0.8%)

0(0.0%)

77(20.6%)

38(30.2%)

115(23.0%)

OthersMale

FemaleTotal

G. Linkages between Climate Change, Human Health, Food Security and Local
Economic Growth
Identifying the relationship between climate change impacts on health and the corresponding
effects on food security and economic growth is also very vital in developing strategies for climatechange resilience in a region. The burden of disease on the farming population reduces theirworking capacity, yields and local economic viability. It was therefore realized from the findings thatvarious climate-related pests and diseases are strongly impacting on farmers across all agroclimatic regions in the country. Malaria emerged to be the highly prevalent disease across theregions, followed by yellow fever, diarrhea and cholera (see figure 18). Farmers also reported highepisode of pest and disease effects on food crops and animals. Malnutrition also showed, giving
some signals of shortages in sufficient balanced diet in the regions. Another very important issue
that came up from the findings is that disability caused by climate-related events showed up(affecting about 2% of farm families) - also giving new directions on the importance of adopting
research on disability adjusted life year (DALY) in agriculture.

52 | Enhancing Agricultural Yields by Small-holder Farmers through Integrated Climate Change Adaptation in Sierra Leone

Figure 18: Disease prevalence across agro-climatic regions
Death/destructions resulting from the identified diseases were also noted. The findings revealed
that at least two members in 3% of the farm families are exposed to malarial death. 2% and 1% of
farmers also reported loosing at least two family members from the prevalence of cholera anddiarrhea respectively. Farm animals have also been reportedly affected by climate-related pests anddisease invasion. About 10% of farmers reported that lost of more than 10 animals from diseaseattacks in their regions. (See table 21 in appendix). The burden of disease on farmers in the farming
activities was also shown to be very impacting. Nearly 50% of farmers reported having diseaseattacks that have led to an approximated two weeks on seek bed. Attacks that last for over one
month on sick bed were also revealed by 15% of farmers across the agro-climatic regions.
Meanwhile, regional analysis reveals that the burden of disease prevalence on farmers is mainly felt
by those in the savannah woodlands (51% for over one month on sick bed) as shown in table 18.
Table 18: Perceived responses of longest period taken on sick bed by family
members
Agro - Climatic Region

Coastal Plains

Rain Forest

Savannah
Woodlands

Transitional
Rainforest/
Savannah
Woodlands

Less than 7 days

27(21.6%)

28(22.4%)

21(16.8%)

17(13.6%)

93(18.6%)

7-14 days

84(67.2%)

61(48.8%)28(22.4%)

71(56.8%)244(48.8%)

15-21 days

8(6.4%)

23(18.4%)

3(2.4%)

22(17.6%)

56(11.2%)

22-28 days

1(0.8%)

9(7.2%)

9(7.2%)

9(7.2%)

28(5.6%)

Above 28 days

5(4.0%)

4(3.2%)

64(51.2%)5(4.0%)

78(15.6%)

What was the longest
duration of recovery for any
sick member of your family
in the past five years?

Total

Enhancing Agricultural Yields by Small-holder Farmers through Integrated Climate Change Adaptation in Sierra Leone | 53

The health impacts on agricultural productions, yields and economic returns were criticallyexamined in the research findings. A simple bivariate excel based graphical analyses were done todetermine the relationship between the combined effect of expenditure on health and farming
activities on economic returns from farm produce. Given that the research can only account for
72.8% of this finding at R2=0.728 for % returns from farming (y) = 0.422x +0.022 (for which x is the
combined expenditure on health and farming), the findings revealed that the combined
expenditure on health and farming more than doubles the economic returns derived fromagricultural production. That is, at any 1% rate of expenditure on both health and farming, the rate of
economic returns from yields would only be at 0.4% (see figure 19). Meaning there is an inextricablelink between additional expenditure on health burden from climate-related diseases and poor
economic outcomes from agricultural production. For instance, taking expenditure on sickness
alone (see figure 19 b) and its relationship with farming will give the linear relationship, y= 0.649x +0.059 at R2=0.494. This will yield 0.7% rate of economic returns for a 1% expenditure on climaterelated disease burdens. Meaning expenditure on health will lead to a 30% loss in returns and that a
reduction of just 30% of expenditure on sickness will put farmers return to an equilibrium state. Also
as shown in figure 19 a, it was revealed that expenditure on farming has less impact in the absenceof any externality such as sickness, diseases proliferation on food crops and animals, etc. Given
the relationship, y= 0.967x + 0.001 at R2= 0.925, a 1% investment on farming will be equal to an
economic return at an approximated 1% rate. Thus conclusively, just a 30% decrease in all
expenditure on climate-related sicknesses and very little reduction in high investment on farming
through the introduction of certain adaptation strategies will lead to an increase in the earning
power of small-holder farmers and local economic growth.

Figure 19: Expenditure on sickness versus returns from agricultural produces

54 | Enhancing Agricultural Yields by Small-holder Farmers through Integrated Climate Change Adaptation in Sierra Leone

Expenditure on
farming

Linear (Expenditure on
farming)

Returns from farming

Linear (Returns fromfarming)60%

y = 0.9677x - 0.0012
R² = 0.925

50%% Expenditure on sickness% Returns from farming

60%

40%
30%
20%
10%
0%

50%
40%

y = 0.6498x + 0.0592
R² = 0.4947

30%
20%
10%
0%

0%

20%

40%

60%

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

% Returns from farming% Expenditure on farming

19 b. expenditure on sickness
vs. returns from farming

19 a. expenditure on farming
vs. returns from farming

Farmers' perception of the impact of health on their farming activities was somehow negative.
Almost half (49%) of all farmers, mostly from the coastal plains (72%) and the transitional zone(65%) perceived low yields in the year they experienced longest period on sick bed/high cost on
sickness in the past five years. Meanwhile on the contrary, it was perceived by farmers in the coastal
plains to be less impacting, mainly due to less expenditure (see tables 21 and 22 in the appendix).
Table 19: Nature of yields in the year of highest expenditure on sick bed
Agro-climatic Regions
Yields in the year of
longest time on sick
bed/highest
expenditure on
sickness

CoastalPlainsExtremely low

Rainforest

Savannah
Woodlands

Transitional
Rainforest/Savannah
Woodlands

Total

12(9.7%)17(13.6%)0(0.0%)

16(12.8%)45(9.0%)Somehow low

23(18.5%)

57(45.6%)3(2.4%)

19(15.2%)

102(20.4%)

Low

89(71.8%)51(40.8%)22(17.6%)81(64.8%)

243(48.7%)

High0(0.0%)

0(0.0%)

64(51.2%)0(0.0%)

64(12.8%)

Somehow high0(0.0%)

0(0.0%)

36(28.8%)8(6.4%)

44(8.8%)Extremely high0(0.0%)

0(0.0%)

0(0.0%)

1(0.8%)

1(0.2%)

Most farmers (about 92%) agreed that they have had agricultural reserves in the past five years
particular in the year they experienced high expenditure on sickness. Meanwhile, most of thesereserves, according to them went back to farming activities and feeding of family members. Only
few farmers- 54% and 42% in the savannah woodlands and transitional zones respectively agreed
making reserves for external shocks and 55% each from the coastal plains, savannah woodlands
and transitional zones acknowledged using some reserves for marketing purpose. (See figure 20)

Enhancing Agricultural Yields by Small-holder Farmers through Integrated Climate Change Adaptation in Sierra Leone | 55

Coastal Plains
100%

Rainforest

97%

Savannah Woodlands

Transitional Rainforest/Savannah Woodlands

100% 100%
93%

93%

83%
66%
55%

54%

55% 55%

42%

18%
4%

Reserve meant forfarming

Reserve meant for
feeding

1%

Reserve meant for
unexpected shocks

Rserve meant formarketingFigure 20: Agricultural reserves and purpose of reserves
Despite the fact that farmers have made some forms of reserves in the past five years, foodinsecurity/self-sufficiency is a major problem observed from the findings. Only few members
agreed at a moderate of having reserved food for feeding, and most of them are from the savannah
woodlands (52%) and transitional zone (50%). An average proportion of 45% of farmers from all
agro-climatic regions only feed on their reserved food for about 3-5 months. (See figure 21)

Coastal Plains

Rainforest

Savannah Woodlands

Transitional Rainforest/Savannah Woodlands

52%
45%

50%

43%

42%
36%

22%

22% 21%

19%
7% 6% 7%0%2% 1%

11% 10%5%

0%Reserve forfeeding was
sufficient for thewhole year

Reserve forfeeding was
sufficient for 9 -11
months only

Reserve forfeeding was
sufficient for 6 -8months only

Reserve forfeeding was
sufficient for 3 -5
months only

Reserve forfeeding was
sufficient for only
less than 3 months

Figure 21: Perceived responses to food self-sufficiency
H. Responses and Behavioural Changes of Indigenous Farmers towards Climate
Change Adaptation Measures
Local ownership of policies, projects and programmes is crucial in any development endeavors.
The crafting and implementation of such activities should therefore engage those that would be
mostly affected. Climate change policies/adaptation measures must follow suit. Small-holder
56 | Enhancing Agricultural Yields by Small-holder Farmers through Integrated Climate Change Adaptation in Sierra Leonefarmers who would be highly affected by adaptation measures for climate change resilience in the
agricultural sector should be engaged on any adaptation measures for feasibility and acceptability
in their respective regions. The research therefore identified adaptation measures that would be
potentially feasible to implement across the agro-climatic regions in Sierra Leone and other parts ofAfrica. Thirteen (13) adaptation strategies were identified, after which measurement scales (Likert
Scales) were developed at two levels. First, importance measurement scales were developed at a
range of 5 (very important) to 1 (not important) to capture farmers priority in terms of the usefulnessof each of these adaptation measures. Second, scales of location-specific suitability weredeveloped from a range of 5 (work very well) to 0 (not applicable) to capture farmers behaviors interms of acceptability towards each of the given adaptation attributes.
The Adzen's and Fishbein's (1980: 53-39) “Attitude-toward-behaviour” model was therefore
adopted to analyse the results of farmers' behavior towards each of the given adaptation attributes.
The 500 respondents were all engaged on each of these attribute, after which a multiplicativesummative model was used to identify the most preferred adaptation measures in each of the agroclimatic regions and in the country as a whole. It is taken that the higher the summation for eachmeasure, the most preferred it is, and the lower the result indicates low acceptability. In this case thehighest possible target is 325- that is 13 attributes x a scale of 5 (very important) x 5 (work very well)= 325. Also the lowest possible target is 13 attributes x 1(not important x 1 (cannot work well) =13.
Each farmer's response was noted and the average summation was divided by 125 (no. of
respondents by location) to obtain the global priorities from the given measures in each region.
It was realized from these analyses that the adaptation measures have varying location-specificacceptability. In the coastal plains, the most preferred adaptation measure is value addition/accessto market finance, followed by formation of early warning systems to inform farmers on start-offarming and start-of-season dates. Introducing HYVs and provision of food storage facilities are themost preferred measures in the rainforest. All scores are actually too weak from farmers in thesavannah woodlands- with the highly preferred been the provision of food storage facilities.
Similarly in the transitional zone, provision of food storage facilities and value addition/access tomarket finance are the most preferred. Other priorities are highlighted in table 20). Overall
introducing high yielding varieties, value addition/ access to market finance, provision of foodstorage facilities and constant monitoring of water qualities are national priorities noted from thefarmers.

Enhancing Agricultural Yields by Small-holder Farmers through Integrated Climate Change Adaptation in Sierra Leone | 57

58 | Enhancing Agricultural Yields by Small-holder Farmers through Integrated Climate Change Adaptation in Sierra Leone
4
4

4

3

3

4

3

4

3

3

5

4

5

Training of farmers on agro -climatology

Construction of embankments

Construction of drains

Constant Monitoring of water quality
Production of energy -saving
technologies

Construction of small dams for crops

Provision of ponds /wells for livestock

Construction of discharge control dams

Value addition/access to market financeIntroducing rain harvest technology

Provision of food storage facilities

23

15

25

9

9

15

12

20

12

12

18

296

201

320

123

121

195

158

265

156

157

231

246

x(13)
306

5

1

4

1

1

2

1

4

2

4

3

5

∑bi/N
1

5

1

3

1

1

3

1

4

2

4

5

5

∑ai/N
1

25

1

12

1

1

6

1

16

4

16

15

25

1

N=125
∑[(bi)(ai)]/N

Rainforest Region

325

13

156

13

13

78

13

208

52

208

196

325

x(13)
13

4

2

4

3

3

4

2

3

3

3

4

3

∑bi/N
4

4

1

3

3

3

3

2

3

3

3

3

2

∑ai/N
3

14

3

12

8

10

10

5

11

8

8

10

7

∑[(bi)(ai)]/N
14

N=125

182

35

155

100

133

135

69

136

105

102

129

85

x(13)
180

Savannah Woodlands

5

3

5

3

3

3

3

4

3

3

4

5

∑bi/N
5

5

2

5

2

3

3

3

4

2

2

5

5

∑ai/N
5

24

8

23

6

12

11

12

18

8

6

20

21

∑[(bi)(ai)]/N
21

N=125

313

102

303

82

152

147

155

228

104

78

156

276

x(13)
273

Transition Rainforest/Savannah

279

88

233

80

105

139

99

210

104

136

178

233

N=500
193

GlobalAffect

Where: bi is the strength of the respondent's belief (importance weight) that a particular attribute (adaptation measure) would result to a positive or negative impact in theregion; ai is the respondents expressed feeling (affect) that the action would be suitable in a agro-climatic zone or not; N is the number of respondents; ∑ indicates that
there are n salient of action outcomes (in this case 1≤n≤325) that makes up the behavior over which the multiplicative combinations of the bi and ai of those outcomesare summated. The scales are rated as:a. Scales for bi: 5=Very Important; 4=Somehow Important; 3=Important; 2=Somehow not Important and 1=Not Importantb. Scales for ai: 5=Work Very Well; 4=Generally Work Well; 3=Somehow Work Well; 2=Slightly Work Well; 1=Cannot Work Well; 0=N/A (Not Applicable)

5

3

5

3

3

4

4

3

4

19

4

Introducing High Yielding Varieties

4∑[(bi)(ai)]/N
24

∑bi/N
5

Adaptation measures
Formation of early warning Systems

∑ai/N
5

N=125

Agro-climatic Region

The Coastal Plains

Table 20: Farmers' Responses and Recommendations to Climate Change Adaptation Measures5 Conclusions & Recommendations
Various issues that need urgent and periodic attentions came up very strongly in the research. The
findings revealed that climate change impact is not a story, especially when it comes to agriculturaldevelopment and socio-economic rejuvenation in a country like Sierra Leone. Farmers, who havebeen considered as aliens to the emergence of climate change and its impacts, already believe thatthe occurrence of climatic events such as rainfall and temperatures are no longer based on normal
patterns observed s before, and most of these events have been erratic over the past two to three
years. This has caused abrupt and unstable shifts in start-of-farming dates in the local farming
calendars- as agricultural activities in the country are linked to rainfall and mild temperatures, withno due consideration of technological application. Small-holder farmers have therefore been
greatly affected by slow and low returns from their farming activities, and hence have very often
been gripped by poverty leading to poor economic status of their families. Specifically key
observations that need urgent attention from the state, donors, NGOs/CSOs, the private sector, theacademia, science experts, etc, were made:5.1
Farmers are still adopting the old methods of farming; and quite too often these methods havefailed them to produce yields even as the low yields they have had in the past because of lack of theadaptive capacity to address failures. The climate has been erratic with strange occurrences.
Temperatures are almost about to exceed the tolerance limit for most crops, animals and humans.
Rainfall is becoming uneven- areas with low rainfall patterns having intensive rainfall, and those withhigh rainfall experiencing low rainfall and intensive heat. In addition, it was observed from thefindings that there is gradual shift in patterns of agricultural diversity identified during thedemarcation of the agro-climatic regions: (a) in the coastal plains high adoption of new agricultural
productions such as rice, sweet potatoes, cassava, pepper and maize is seen, and old crops suchas carrot, lettuce are gradually disappearing; (b) only small amount of lettuce, carrot and cabbage
are presently being produced in the savannah woodlands; (c) in the transitional zone, cowpea, oilpalm, rubber, sisal, and sugar cane productions are gradually disappearing; and (d) yams, avocado
and citrus plants are gradually disappearing or grown at low pace in the rain forest. To address theseissues the following recommendations have therefore been made:
5.1.1
There is need for collaborated efforts by the national science and technology council of Sierra
Enhancing Agricultural Yields by Small-holder Farmers through Integrated Climate Change Adaptation in Sierra Leone | 59

Leone (NaSTEC), the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Food Security (MAFFS), themeteorological department, poverty-/Science and technology- oriented institutions/NGOs,
national and international agencies, etc to pool resources and promote research and developmentin the country. In particular, the adoption of agro-meteorological technology should be essential totest the climatic requirements of crops across the country to identify crop suitability in each of theagro-climatic regions.
5.1.2
A shift in the agro-climatic regions might have occurred. It is recommended that the meteorologicaldepartment, statistics office, the agriculture ministry, World Food Programme (WFP) and FAO be
engaged in bid to develop new agro-ecological zones based on observed climatic variability.
Meanwhile the meteorological department is a key player, but has low technical and humancapacities to carry out effective and efficient meteorological data collection; the institution's
capacity therefore needs to be built in terms of training and provision of modern agrometeorological equipments that would be relocated in each of the agro-climatic regions for weather
observations.
5.2
Capacity building amongst small-holder farmers has been very low across the agro-climatic
regions in the country. Farmers are already knowledgeable about the changing and erratic natureof climatic events, but they lack the capacity to adapt. They have in the past used indigenous
meteorological predictions to catch up with their start-of-farming and start-of-seasons dates, butthese too have failed them in recent years. Proliferation of pests and diseases, low crop yields andhunger were reported as the results from climate variability in their farming periods. There are
emerging indigenous adaptations/ innovation for the climatic impacts on small-scale agriculture
which are far-fetched to address the food self-sufficiency/insecurity problems across the country. It
was observed that farmers, particularly those in the farther regions from the urban areas havemostly used a single-source (the radio) of climate-related information, but with very limited access:(i) farmers in the coastal plains and transitional zone have limited information on weather; (ii) thosein the rain forest, coastal plains and transitional zones have little or no information on planting
dates; (iii) information on the importance of tree planting is especially accessible by farmers in the
coastal plains and savannah woodlands than the other regions. NGOs/CBOs and government
institutions were identified as playing a leading role in helping farmers adapt to climate-related
problems in their farm activities. Meanwhile, these assistances are highly concentrated in therainforest region, and at a very low strength. For instance the supply of seed rice was identified as
the highest form of assistance, but only 30% of farmers (24% of which are from the rain forest) havebeen reached. Other assistances are of very infinitesimal importance in terms of supply andimpacts. The following recommendations have therefore been made to address these issues:
5.2.1
There is need to develop a science and technology communications strategic framework in the
country. In particular, expert institutions such as the National Council of Science and Technology,
African Technology Policy Studies (ATPS) Network and the National Telecommunication
Commission (NATCOM) should play a leading role in this process. Specifically, the framework must
include the formation of an advocacy committee to promote the adoption of science and60 | Enhancing Agricultural Yields by Small-holder Farmers through Integrated Climate Change Adaptation in Sierra Leone

technology for full-scale mainstreaming in national and sectoral development with specificemphasis on spurring small-scale agricultural development. In addition the framework should
include the formation and networking of early warning committees in each agro-climatic region thatwould be linked directly to small-holder farmers for improved viability of their agricultural produces.
The committee must include the media, meteorologists, and farmers' representatives locally basedin each region; and should be coordinated by the National Early Warning Committee.
5.2.2
Innovations/technologies for climate change resilience are very uncommon across the country.
Meanwhile few indigenous and emerging technologies/innovations were identified in the coastal
plains and rainforest. Improvement on such innovations should be made and diffused across thecountry. The agricultural sector (including research institutions), NaSTEC, etc should link with the
National Farmers' Federation of Sierra Leone to further identify new and cost-effective
innovations/technologies that farmers would be willing to adopt for food security/self-sufficiency
and local economic growth. HYVs and other hybrids (which are drought and disease-resistant)should be introduced at a large and faster rate to small-holder farmers across the country.
5.2.3
Capacity building on climate change is very essential and should be done in a sustainable manner.
Farmers should be trained on farm and other practices that would help mitigate greenhouse gas
emissions (which will otherwise create cyclic but negative impacts on the farming systems). In
addition, adaptation of the educational curriculum (especially in science courses) should be madeby incorporating some form of education on causes of climate change and impacts.
> Capacity building in terms of technical assistances such as supplies and introduction of postharvest technologies are also very crucial in small-holder agricultural production andcommercialization. Meanwhile an attitude-toward-behavior model was adopted to gain farmers
perception on possible and acceptable adaptation measures for climate change resilience inthe country. The national priorities that were identified include: (a) introducing high yielding
varieties (b) value addition/ access to market finance (c) provision of food storage facilities, and(d) constant monitoring of water qualities. Regional-specific priorities are presented in table 20.
5.3
Climate change impact on human health was also identified to have strong negative repercussions
on food production and local economic growth. Climate-related diseases such as malaria, cholera,
diarrhea and yellow fever were identified to have debilitating effects on the farming populationleading to more than 30% decrease in economic returns from agriculture, taken all otherassistances constant. This in part gives a clear picture of low health and environmental
campaigns/treatments to reduce the proliferation of these diseases. Massive campaigns on the
climatic factors that encourage the prevalence of these diseases must be effected. In addition,
public health policies should incorporate discount rates of treatment for highly agriculture-oriented
small-holder farmers. They should be encouraged with subsidies to increase their earning powers
to tackle such externalities.

Enhancing Agricultural Yields by Small-holder Farmers through Integrated Climate Change Adaptation in Sierra Leone | 61

5.4
Recommendations for further research have also been identified. In-country and international
support for such research should be made to track progress in effectiveness of climatic datacollections, improvements in the low adaptive capacity of small-holder farmers to tackle climaterelated impacts on their farming activities, as well as technology and innovation diffusions acrossthe agro-climatic regions in the country, etc. The need for specific research on the burden of
diseases on the farming population, by calculating and documenting the Disability Adjustment Life
Year is also paramount.
5.5
Funds for the National Adaptation Programme of Action (NAPA) should not only be directed
towards research on emissions of greenhouse gases. The implementation of NAPA should ensurethat funds are allocated for research on climate change impact on small-holder farming, as well as
mitigation benefits for small-holder agricultural commercialization. The effort to build thequadruple helix by ensuring that climate-sensed programmes build coherence between policy
makers, science experts, the private sector actors and civil society actors for stronger and moresustainable adaptation programme of action must be made and achieved.

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Enhancing Agricultural Yields by Small-holder Farmers through Integrated Climate Change Adaptation in Sierra Leone | 65

Appendices
Table 3: Sampling selection through multi-stage sampling technique
No. ofRespondents

Research
CodeLocality Name

Chiefdom/ward

District

Agro-climatic Region

1

Affia

Wara Wara Yagala

Koinadugu District

Savannah Woodlands

82

Baima Mandu

Mandu Chiefdom

Kailahun District

Rain Forest

14

3

Bandajuma

Bagruwa Chiefdom

Bo District

Transitional zone

104

Bandamjuma Town

Luawa Chiefdom

Kailahun District

Rain Forest

14

5

BayamaKissi Teng Chiefdom

Kailahun District

Rain Forest

13

6

BumpehKori Chiefdom

Bo District

Transitional zone

25

7

Dodo

Luawa Chiefdom

Kailahun District

Rain Forest

11

8

Dandabu

Bagruwa Chiefdom

Bo District

Transitional zone

10

9

FaduguKasunko Chiefdom

Koinadugu District

Savannah Woodlands

26

10

Fowa Ngopi

Kissi Teng Chiefdom

Kailahun District

Rain Forest

12

11

Gbonkogbon

Kasunko Chiefdom

Koinadugu District

Savannah Woodlands

11

12

KabalaWara Wara Yagala

Koinadugu District

Savannah Woodlands

24

13

KafokoKasunko Chiefdom

Koinadugu District

Savannah Woodlands

12

14

Kasangban

Kasunko Chiefdom

Koinadugu District

Savannah Woodlands

10

15

Kathawuya

Wara Wara Yagala

Koinadugu District

Savannah Woodlands

5

16

Kathombo II

Wara Wara Yagala

Koinadugu District

Savannah Woodlands

617

Leicester

Mountain Rural Ward

Western Rural District

Coastal Plains

918

LevumaMandu Chiefdom

Kailahun District

Rain Forest

12

19

MadinaKasunko Chiefdom

Koinadugu District

Savannah Woodlands

13

20

MahaineKoya Ward

Western Rural District

Coastal Plains

25

21

Malambay

Koya Ward

Western Rural District

Coastal Plains

25

22

Mobai

Mandu Chiefdom

Kailahun District

Rain Forest

13

23

Mokassie

Bagruwa Chiefdom

Moyamba District

Transitional zone

25

24

Njagbahun

Fakunya Chiefdom

Moyamba District

Transitional zone

10

25

Nyadehun

Luawa Chiefdom

Kailahun District

Rain Forest

11

26

Ogoo Farm

Mountain Rural Ward

Western Rural District

Coastal Plains

1027

RegentMountain Rural Ward

Western Rural District

Coastal Plains

1028

Sandeyalu

Luawa Chiefdom

Kailahun District

Rain Forest

1329

Sembehun

Bagruwa Chiefdom

Moyamba District

Transitional zone25

30

SenehunKamajei Chiefdom

Moyamba District

Transitional zone

20

31

Songo

Koya Ward

Western Rural District

Coastal Plains

37

32

Tombo

Waterloo Rural Ward

Western Rural District

Coastal Plains

11

33

Upper Jui

Waterloo Rural Ward

Western Rural District

Coastal Plains

1034

YatayaWara Wara Yagala

Koinadugu District

Savannah Woodlands

10

Total Number of Respondents

66 | Enhancing Agricultural Yields by Small-holder Farmers through Integrated Climate Change Adaptation in Sierra Leone500

Table 21: No. of deaths resulting from climate-related problems
Agro-Climatic Region
Rain
ForestSavannah
Woodlands

Transitional
Rainforest/
Savannah
Woodlands

2(1.6%)

9(7.2%)

19(15.2%)

1(0.8%)

31(6.2%)0(0.0%)

15(12.0%)0(0.0%)

0(0.0%)

15(3.0%)1(0.8%)

4(3.2%)

1(0.8%)

0(0.0%)

6(1.2%)

None

122(97.6%)

97(77.6%)

105(84.0%)124(99.2%)448(89.6%)

1 Person1(0.8%)

9(7.2%)

9(7.2%)

3(2.4%)

22(4.4%)2 Persons0(0.0%)

9(7.2%)

0(0.0%)

0(0.0%)

9(1.8%)

3 Persons0(0.0%)

0(0.0%)

1(0.8%)

0(0.0%)

1(0.2%)

None

124(99.2%)

107(85.6%)115(92.0%)122(97.6%)468(93.6%)

1 Person1(0.8%)

9(7.2%)

2(1.6%)

1(0.8%)

13(2.6%)2 Persons0(0.0%)

5(4.0%)

0(0.0%)

0(0.0%)

5(1.0%)

None

124(99.2%)

111(88.8%)123(98.4%)124(99.2%)482(96.4%)

1 Person0(0.0%)

7(5.6%)

3(2.4%)

1(0.8%)

11(2.2%)2 Persons0(0.0%)

1(0.8%)

0(0.0%)

0(0.0%)

1(0.2%)

3 Persons1(0.8%)

0(0.0%)

0(0.0%)

0(0.0%)

1(0.2%)

124(99.2%)

117(93.6%)

122(97.6%)124(99.2%)487(97.4%)

Thunder shocks deaths 1 Person0(0.0%)

1(0.8%)

0(0.0%)

2(1.6%)

3(0.6%)

2 Persons1(0.8%)

6(4.8%)

0(0.0%)

0(0.0%)

7(1.4%)

Above 5 Persons0(0.0%)

0(0.0%)

2(1.6%)

0(0.0%)

2(0.4%)

124(99.2%)

118(94.4%)123(98.4%)123(98.4%)488(97.6%)0(0.0%)

4(3.2%)

0(0.0%)

0(0.0%)

4(0.8%)

0(0.0%)

0(0.0%)

1(0.8%)

0(0.0%)

1(0.2%)

125(100.0%)121(96.8%)124(99.2%)

125(100.0%)495(99.0%)

DiseasesNo. of Deaths

CoastalPlainsMalaria deaths

1 Persons
2 Persons
3 Persons

Cholera deaths

Diarrhoea deaths

Yellow Fever deaths

None

None
Flood & displacement 2 Person
deathsAbove 5 Persons
None
Drought &displacement deaths

2 Persons

Pest infections on
animal deaths

No. Crops destroyed
from pest infestation0(0.0%)

4(3.2%)

0(0.0%)

0(0.0%)

4(0.8%)

125(100.0%)121(96.8%)

125(100.0%)

125(100.0%)496(99.2%)

1-2 Animals0(0.0%)

0(0.0%)

2(1.6%)

0(0.0%)

2(0.4%)

3-4 Animals

1(0.8%)

2(1.6%)

3(2.4%)

1(0.8%)

7(1.4%)

5-6 Animals

6(4.8%)

0(0.0%)

4(3.2%)

1(0.8%)

11(2.2%)

7-8 Animals

2(1.6%)

0(0.0%)

3(2.4%)

0(0.0%)

5(1.0%)

9-10 Animals

3(2.4%)

0(0.0%)

1(0.8%)

1(0.8%)

5(1.0%)

Above 10 Animals

26(20.8%)0(0.0%)

22(17.6%)

2(1.6%)

50(10.0%)None87(69.6%)

123(98.4%)90(72.0%)120(96.0%)420(84.0%)0(0.0%)

3(2.4%)

0(0.0%)

1(0.8%)

3 Acres0(0.0%)

0(0.0%)

1(0.8%)

0(0.0%)

Above 5 Acres

2(1.6%)

0(0.0%)

0(0.0%)

0(0.0%)

2(0.4%)

123(98.4%)

122(97.6%)124(99.2%)

124(99.2%)493(98.6%)

None

2 Acres

None
Malnutrition/
Kwashiorkor deaths

Total

1 PersonNone

4(0.8%)
1(0.2%)

0(0.0%)

0(0.0%)

0(0.0%)

2(1.6%)

2(0.4%)

125(100.0%)

125(100.0%)

125(100.0%)123(98.4%)498(99.6%)

Enhancing Agricultural Yields by Small-holder Farmers through Integrated Climate Change Adaptation in Sierra Leone | 67

Table 22: Comparative range of expenditure on farming and sickness
and returns from yields
Agro-Climatic Region

Income Range

CoastalPlainsRain
ForestSavannah
Woodlands

Transitional
Rainforest/
Savannah
Woodlands

Total

Highest amount spent on sickness in the past five years<Le100,000

84(67.2%)

58(46.4%)29(23.2%)

67(53.6%)

238(46.8%)

Le100,000-399,00033(26.4%)60(48.0%)77(61.6%)

43(34.4%)

213(42.6%)

Le400,000-699,000

6(4.8%)

7(5.6%)

9(7.2%)

14(11.2%)

36(7.2%)

Le700,000-999,0000(0.0%)

0(0.0%)

7(5.6%)

0(0.0%)

7(1.4%)

Le1000,000-1,399,0002(1.6%)

0(0.0%)

3(2.4%)

1(0.8%)

6(1.2%)

Expenditure on farming activities during the year of highest expenditure on sickness<Le100,0007(5.6%)

93(74.4%)

3(2.4%)

35(28.0%)138(27.6%)

Le100,000-399,00085(68.0%)28(22.4%)

87(69.6%)40(32.0%)240(52.1%)

Le400,000-699,000

25(20.0%)4(3.2%)

27(21.6%)

38(30.4%)

94(18.8%)

Le700,000-999,0007(5.6%)

0(0.0%)

6(4.8%)

8(6.4%)

21(4.2%)

Le1000,000-1,399,0000(0.0%)

0(0.0%)

2(1.6%)

1(0.8%)

3(0.6%)>=Le1,400,0001(0.8%)

0(0.0%)

0(0.0%)

3(2.4%)

4(0.8%)

Amount received from farming activities during the year of highest expenditure on sickness<Le100,00050(40.0%)14(11.2%)5(4.0%)

10(8.0%)79(15.8%)

Le100,000-399,000

74(59.2%)

75(60.0%)44(35.2%)

79(63.2%)

272(54.4%)

Le400,000-699,0001(0.8%)

36(7.2%)47(9.5%)27(5.4%)111(22.2%)

Le700,000-999,0000(0.0%)

0(0.0%)

19(15.2%)7(5.6%)

26(5.2%)

Le1000,000-1,399,0000(0.0%)

0(0.0%)

7(5.6%)

1(0.8%)

8(1.6%)>=Le1,400,0000(0.0%)

0(0.0%)

3(2.4%)

1(0.8%)

4(0.8%)

68 | Enhancing Agricultural Yields by Small-holder Farmers through Integrated Climate Change Adaptation in Sierra LeoneTable 23: Module 1- Household Questionnaire for Small-holder Farmers
Introduction:
Hello. My name is __________________________________I am collecting information on farm practices and the influence of climate on your production level in the past
couple of years. Your sincere responses to these questions will help the government and development donors tobetter understand and develop solutions/strategies to reverse any difficulty you are facing with climate-related
problems in your farming activities
Locality Name…………………………

Agro-climatic
Region…………………………………………………

Chiefdom…………………………
Start time:_ _:_ _District……………………………….
Finish time:_ _:_ _Respondent’s
Name and address:……………………………………………………… ………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………
Interviewer/Enumerator:……………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………
SECTION A. SOCIO-ECONOMIC STATUS OF INDEGINOUS PEOPLE, THEIR KNOWLEDGE, PERCEPTIONS
Responses
Code
AND BEHAVIOUR TOWARDS CLIMATE CHANGE
A1.
What is the sex of the respondent?
1. Male/ 2. Female
A2.
What is your age?
1. 10-17yrs
2. 18-25yrs
3. 26-33yrs
4. 34-41yrs
5. 42-49yrs
6. 49-56yrs
7. Above 56yrs
A3.
What is your marital status?
1. Never married
2. Engaged
3. Separated
4. Married polygamous
5. Married monogamous
6. Divorced
7. Widowed
A4.
When did you come to settle in this locality?
1. From birth
2. Above 5 yrs, but not from birth
3. 5 years ago
4. 4 years ago
5. 1-3 years ago
6. Less than 1 year ago
A6.
How many dependants are presently with you?
1. 1-3
2. 4-5
3. Above 5
A7.
What type(s) of farming practice have you been engaged in since your stay at this
1. Upland shifting cult.
place?(Choose All that Apply) 1. YES 2. NO
2. Upland bush fallow
3. Upland cash cropping
4. Swamp rice farming
5. Market gardening
6. Dairy/pastoral/livestock farming
7. Fisheries
A8.
What type(s) of crop(s)/animals do you cultivate/rear? (Choose All that Apply) 1. YES 2. NO
1. Rice
2. Cassava
3. Yams
4. Sweet Potato
5. Millet
6. maize(corn)
7. Lettuce
8. Cabbage
9. Carrot
10. Wheat
11. Oil palm
12. Cocoa
13. Coffee
14. Orange
15. Cattle
16. Goat
17. Sheep
18. Groundnut
19. Oil Palm

Enhancing Agricultural Yields by Small-holder Farmers through Integrated Climate Change Adaptation in Sierra Leone | 69

A8.

A9.

A10.

A11.

A12.

20. Banana
21. Beans
22. Pepper
23. Sorghum
24. Fresh water/sea fish
25. Irish Potato
26. Others(specify………………)
What is your land ownership status for Farming?
1. Farm on own land
2. Farm on loan
3. Farm on family land
4. Farm on community land
5. Farm on government land
6. Farm on free rang e
Could you please reflect and tell me the rates of your agricultural yields as compared to what was ploughed in the past four years.
Crop/Animal
Rates of Yields/Year
2005/06
2006/07
2007/08
2008/09
1. High
2. Low
1. High
2. Low
1. High
2. Low
1. High
1. Rice
2. Cassava
3. Yams
4. Sweet Potato
5. Millet
6. Corn maize
7. Lettuce
8. Cabbage
9. Carrot
10. Wheat
11. Oil palm
12. Cocoa
13. Coffee
14. Orange
15. Cattle
16. Goat
17. Sheep
18. Groundnut
19. Oil Palm
20. Banana
21. Beans
22. Pepper
23. Sorghum
24. Fresh water/sea fish
25. Irish Potato
26. Others(specify…………)
Have you ever experienced any seasonal change in rainfall, temperature, heat or extreme cold during your farming season? (If No, Go To QUESTION A14 )1. Yes/ 2. No
1. Rainfall
2. Temperature/heat
3. Extreme ColdIf Yes to Q. A11, when did you start experiencing any
1. One year ago(2009)of these ?
2. Two years ago(2008)70 | Enhancing Agricultural Yields by Small-holder Farmers through Integrated Climate Change Adaptation in Sierra Leone

A12.

A13.

A14.

If Yes to Q. A11, when did you start experiencing anyof these ?

1. One year ago(2009)
2. Two years ago(2008)
3. Three years ago(2007)
4. Four years ago(2006)
5. Over four years ago(yrs<’06)
If Yes to Q. A11, what changes have you observed in
1. Long rainfall duration
your farming season? (Choose All that Apply) 1. Yes
2. Short & heavy rainfall
2. No)
3. Short drying season
4. Long drying season
5. Late start of farming
6. Early start of farming
7. High temperature
8. Others(specify……………)
Have you ever suffered from any climate -related problems in your farming activities?(If No, Go To
QUESTION 17)

A15.

If Yes to Q. A14, what are th
All that Apply) 1. Yes 2. No

ese problems? (Choose

A16.

If Yes to Q. A14, which strategies have you been
adopting to solve climate -related problems to havehigh yields? (Choose All that Apply)
Please provide in yourNote Pads,
descriptions/explanations of the strategies 1. Yes 2.
No

1. Yes/ 2. No

1. Prevalence of pests& disease
2. Low crop yields
3. Hunger
4. Flooding
5. Land sliding
6. Thunderstorm
7. Extreme drought condition
8. Displacement from homes/ farm sites
9. Less fish catches
10. Soil erosion
11. Others (specify…………………………………………………..)
1. Application of salt dung
2. Irrigation of garden/farm
3. Change of crop varieties
4. Using of kerosene and soap on plants
5. Using crushed grasshoppers as pesticides
6. Fencing farm and setting rodent traps
7. Hunting
8. Tree planting
9. Mulching
10. Harvest of bush yams
11. Clearing around farm
12. Performance of ancestral ceremony/ spiritual invocation
13. Physical clearing of un -burnt vegetation
14. Applying animal dung to the soil
15. Green manure application
16. Applying mixed animal feed, capsule & powdered tobacco
17. Creating fish ponds
18. Using small-meshed fishing nets
19. Using chemicals to catch fish
20. Use of indigenous weather predictions
21. Use of scientific weather forecasts
22. Change of farming dates
23. Use of rain water harvesting for farm irrigation
24. Use of underground water for farm irrigation
25. Construction of sm all dams for irrigation
26. Change from farming to trading/other occupation
27. Shift from crop production to animal production
28. Shift from animal production to crop production
29. Move from climate -risk/ unproductive zone/ farmland
30. Adoption of agro -forestry
31. Others (specify…………………………………………………… )A17.

Do you have any way of predicting when rains will start or when you will be expecting hot drying season?

1. Yes/ 2. No

Enhancing Agricultural Yields by Small-holder Farmers through Integrated Climate Change Adaptation in Sierra Leone | 71

A18.

If yes to Q. A17, how do you predict when t he following climatic conditions are about to occur?
1. Rainfall
2. Hot drying season
3. Thunderstorm

Flood

A19.

If Yes to Q. A17, has any of the predictions ever worked?

A21.

A26.

Has any institution assisted you with ways to respond to climate-related risks in yourlocality/farming activities?(If No, Go To QUESTION A24)
If Yes to Q.A21 , what type of institution? (Choose All
1. Government (specify……………………................................)
that Apply)
2. NGO/CBO (specify……………………………………………...)
3. Private Company(specify………………………………………)
4. Community Members
If Yes to Q.A21 , what were the nature of assistance rendered? (Choose All that
1. Provision of seed rice for farming
Apply) 1. Yes/ 2. No
2. Provisions of chemicals/pesticides
3. Provision of credit /loan facilities
4. Training on farm practices
5. Training on weather forecasts
6. Distribution of farming calendars
7. Provision of fertilizers
8. Construction of small irrigation dams
9. Provision of farm tools/ machinery
10. Provision of fast -growing seed varieties
11. Provision of p ost-harvest facilities
12. Provision of food
13. Provision of settlements/farm lands
14. Construction of fish ponds
15. Provision of fishing nets/ boats
16. Others(specify……………………………)
Have you ever received weather/climate infor mation? (If No, Go to Q.B1)
1. Yes/ 2. No
If Yes to Q.A24, what type of information?
1. Rainfall/weather information/forecast
2. Importance of tree planting
3. Impact of deforestation
4. Planting dates
5. Others (specify………………………….. )If Yes to Q.A24, was the information useful?
1. Yes/ 2. No

A27.

If Yes to Q.A26, what are the sources of information?

A22.

A23.

A24.
A25.

SECTION B. LINKING HUMAN HEALTH, NATURAL DISASTER, TO FOOD SECURITY AND
LOCAL ECONOMY

1. Yes, very frequentl y
2. Yes, not frequently
3. No, in recent years
4. No, at all times
1. Yes/ 2. No

1. Radio
2. Government
3. Friends
4. News Paper
5. Television
6. NGOs/CBOs
7. Community members
8. Others(specify……………………………)

Responses

72 | Enhancing Agricultural Yields by Small-holder Farmers through Integrated Climate Change Adaptation in Sierra Leone

B1.

Have you or anyone in your family been affected by any one of the following
diseases/occurrences during your fa rming activities in the past five years?
(Choose All that Apply) 1. Yes/ 2. No (If No, to all, please Go To Question
Section C)

B2.

If Yes to B1, how many were affected in the worst cases by:
1. Malaria
2. Cholera
3. Diarrhea
4. Yellow Fever
5. Thunder shocks
6. Flood & displacement
7. Drought & displacement
8. Pest infections on animal
9. Pest infestations on crops
10. Malnutrition/kwashiorkor
11. Disability caused by weather eventsIf Yes to any in Q. B1, what was the longest duration you or a family took torecover in the past five years?

B3.

1. Malaria
2. Cholera
3. Diarrhoea
4. Yellow Fever
5. Thunder shocks
6. Flood & displacement
7. Drought & displacement
8. Pest infections on animal
9. Pest infestations on crops
10. Malnutrition/kwashiorkor
11. Disability caused by weather events
No. of sickness/acres destroye d/displacement

No. of deaths

Duration/No. of days
1. Less than 7 days
2. 7-14 days
3. 15-21 days
4. 22-28 days
5. Above 28 days
B4.
If Yes to any in Q. B1, what was the highest amount spent on sickness in the
1.<Le100,000
past five years?
2. Le100,000-399,000
3. Le400,000-699,000
4. Le700,000-999,000
5. Le1000,000 -1,399,0006.≥Le1,400,000
B5.
In response to B3 & B4, did it affect your farming activities?
1. Yes, very seriously
2. Yes, somewhat seriously
3. Not affected at all
B6.
In response to B3 & B4, how could you rate your total no. of yields?
1. Extremely Low
2. Somehow low
3. Low
4. High
5. Somehow high
6. Extremely highB7.
In response to B3 & B4, did you have any reserve from your yields?
1. Yes/ 2. No
B8.
If Yes to B7, what was the purpose of the reserve? (Choose All that Apply) 1. Yes/ 2.No
1. Farming
2. Feeding
3. Unexpected shocks
4. Marketing
6. Others (specify……………………)
B9.
If you reserved food for feeding, was it enough for the whole
1.Yes, was sufficient for whole year
year?
2. No, was sufficient for 9-11 months only
3. No, was sufficient for 6-8 months only
4. No, was sufficient for 3-5 months only
5. No, was sufficient for only less than 3 months
B10.
If you marketed any of the yields, how much did you receive in cash as compared
Expenditure on farming
Amount from sales
to amount spent on farming in the year of highest spending on sickness?
1.<Le100,000
1.<Le100,000
2. Le100,000-399,000
2. Le100,000-399,000
3. Le400,000-699,000
3. Le400,000-699,000
4. Le700,000-999,000
4. Le700,000-999,000
5. Le1000,000 -1,399,000
5. Le1000,000 -1,399,000
6. >=Le1,400,000
6. >=Le1,400,000
SECTION C: BEHAVIOURIAL RESPONSES TO CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION MEASURES AT INDIVIDUAL AND INSTITUTIONAL LEVELS

Enhancing Agricultural Yields by Small-holder Farmers through Integrated Climate Change Adaptation in Sierra Leone | 73

i.

If the following adaptation measures are in troduced by the government/ partners, how will you rate them in terms of importance?
5. Very important 4. Somehow important 3. Important 2. Somehow not important 1. Not Important
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
h.
i.
j.
k.
l.
m.
n.

ii.

____ Formation of an early warning system/forecasting tables to inform fa rmers about temperature,
rainfall patterns, flood, health and start -of-farming seasons____ Replacing old crop varieties that are no longer striving well with newly genetically modified
strains that cope with present climatic conditio ns.
____ Provision of professional training for local farmers on practical use of agro -meteorologicalinformation____ Construction of embankments/Watergates to prevent floods____ Construction of drains to evacuate surface water flows from sens itive areas.
____ Constant monitoring of water quality for protection against pollution____ Increased production of energy saving technologies ( Local ovens, cookers and kerosene stoves)____ Construction of a number of small dams for agriculture____ Provision of a number of ponds and shallow wells for raising livestock (cattle, sheep, goat).
____ Construction of discharge control dams on permanently flowing water courses____ Value addition to locally produced agricultural products and improved access to markets andfinance for local farmers____ Encourage rain harvesting____ Provide a number of food storage facilities for local farmer____ Development of aqua -culture farming/ fisheries

In your opinion, please rate how well each of the follo wing measures would work well in your farming community for better production and foodself-sufficiency (please circle selected options)

Measure(N/A)

Formation of an early warning system/forecasts
Introducing genetically modified crops/animals
Training farmers on agro -climatic data collection
Construction of embankments/Watergates
Construction of drains
Constant monitoring of water quality
Increased production of energy -saving technologies
Construction of small dams for crop production
Provision of ponds/shallow wells for livestock
Construction of discharge control dams
Value addition & improved access to markets/financeIntroducing Rain harvest technology
Provision of food storage facilities
Development of aqua-culture farming/ fisheries

(0)
(0)
(0)
(0)
(0)
(0)
(0)
(0)
(0)
(0)
(0)
(0)
(0)
(0)

Work extremely
well
(5)
(5)
(5)
(5)
(5)
(5)
(5)
(5)
(5)
(5)
(5)
(5)
(5)
(5)

Generallywork well
(4)
(4)
(4)
(4)
(4)
(4)
(4)
(4)
(4)
(4)
(4)
(4)
(4)
(4)

Somehow
work well
(3)
(3)
(3)
(3)
(3)
(3)
(3)
(3)
(3)
(3)
(3)
(3)
(3)
(3)

Slightly work
well
(2)
(2)
(2)
(2)
(2)
(2)
(2)
(2)
(2)
(2)
(2)
(2)
(2)
(2)

Cannot Work
Well
(1)
(1)
(1)
(1)
(1)
(1)
(1)
(1)
(1)
(1)
(1)
(1)
(1)
(1)

Thanks for your patience
Thanks for your patience----END---

Supervisor:………………………………… ………
Signature:……………………………………………
Date:………………………………………………….

74 | Enhancing Agricultural Yields by Small-holder Farmers through Integrated Climate Change Adaptation in Sierra Leone

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