https://doi.org/10.20575/00000056
Polar Data Journal, Vol. 8, 55–66, August 2024
Ⓒ 2024 National Institute of Polar Research. This work is distributed
under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license.

Long-term measurements of black carbon concentrations at Syowa
Station, Antarctica
Keiichiro Hara1*, Masanori Yabuki2, Masataka Shiobara3**,4**, Naohiko Hirasawa3,4, andTakashi Yamanouchi3,41Department of Earth System Science, Faculty of Science, Fukuoka University, 8-19-1,
Nanakuma, Jyonan, Fukuoka, Fukuoka 814-0180.
2

Research Institute for Sustainable Humanosphere, Kyoto University, Gokasho, Uji,
Kyoto 611-0011.

3

National Institute of Polar Research, Research Organization of Information and Systems,
10-3, Midori-cho, Tachikawa, Tokyo 190-8518.
4

Polar Science Program, Graduate Institute for Advanced Studies, SOKENDAI,
10-3, Midori-cho, Tachikawa,Tokyo 190-8518.
*Corresponding author. Keiichiro Hara (harakei@fukuoka-u.ac.jp)**Currently retired(Received October 10, 2023; Accepted April 22, 2024)

Abstract: Black carbon (BC), with strong optical absorption, is emitted to the atmosphere from naturaland anthropogenic combustion processes. After BC deposition onto snow surfaces, BC can alter the
Earth’s surface albedo, which is related closely to climate effects in polar regions. However, the BC
source strength is slight or negligible in Antarctic regions. Therefore, BC is useful as a tracer for longrange transport from low latitudes and mid-latitudes into Antarctic regions. Continuous BC
measurements have been taken at Syowa Station, Antarctica, with an aethalometer since 2005 andwith a multi-angle absorption photometer (MAAP) since 2016 to elucidate transport processes ofatmospheric substances to the Antarctic and to assess climate effects. Daily mean BC data after thescreening of locally contaminated data are provided herein.

1. Background and Summary
The Antarctic region is isolated from human activities taking place at low and middle latitudes.
The area is therefore the cleanest area on Earth. Nevertheless, atmospheric aerosols are present evenin the Antarctic troposphere. Earlier works have revealed that aerosol particles released fromcombustion processes and desert areas in mid-latitudes are transported to the Antarctic 1,2,3,4.

55

K. Hara et al.

Atmospheric aerosols are related to atmospheric chemistry 5,6 and climate change7. Black carbon (BC),which is released directly from natural and anthropogenic combustion processes, has persisted as aconcern for atmospheric radiation budgets and climate effects 8 because BC is an extremely strong
light-absorbing material. Furthermore, BC can alter the Earth’s surface albedo after deposition ontosnow surfaces8,9,10,11,12. In the Antarctic, the local sources of BC are limited to (1) human activity at
research stations, (2) usage of snow vehicles for travel, (3) operation of airplanes and research vessels
mainly during summer, and (4) ship-borne tourism mainly around the Antarctic Peninsula13,14. In fact,
the BC source strength is likely to be slight or negligible throughout the Antarctic, although local
contamination from these sources can engender temporarily high BC concentrations in polar
regions15,16,17. Indeed, earlier work has shown lower BC concentrations in the Antarctic than in otherregions15,18,19 and has revealed a latitudinal gradient with lower concentrations at higher latitudes15,18.
Therefore, BC must be supplied to the Antarctic by long-range transport to maintain the backgroundBC level and seasonal features. Recently, the concept of aerosol atmospheric rivers (AARs) has been
proposed20. Their climatological aspects have begun to be investigated20. Because of low BC
concentrations in the Antarctic atmosphere, BC effects on radiation budgets are regarded as
negligible18,21,22. In other words, atmospheric BC in the Antarctic is useful as a tracer of atmosphericsubstances derived from combustion processes at the low latitudes and middle latitudes into the
Antarctic. In the following report of our work, we present long-term BC measurements as a part ofmonitoring measurements taken at Syowa Station, Antarctica.

2. Location
At the clean air observatory at Syowa Station, Antarctica (69.005S, 39.591E, 20 m), BC
measurements were made. Syowa Station has been located on East Ongul Island in Lützow-Holm Bay,
Antarctica since January 1957 (Figure 1a). East Ongul Island, which is ca. 5 km distant from coastlineof the Antarctic continent, is usually surrounded by multi-year sea-ice (i.e. fast ice). Although sea-ice
is usually present around Syowa Station throughout the year, the land surface on the island becomesvisible because of snow melting during summer (mainly January). The main area of Syowa Station is
located in the northern area of East Ongul Island. The clean air observatory is easterly ca. 400 m fromthe main area which has a diesel power station (Figure 1b). Similarly to other Antarctic stations23,
katabatic winds (i.e. outflow from the continent) blow from the prevailing wind direction (NNE– ENE)
at Syowa Station through the year. Strong wind events (blizzards) occur 20–30 times per year becauseof the influence of synoptic-scale disturbances. The wind direction during such events is also from thenorth-northeast and northeast24. Some of these strong wind events might be related to long-range
transport of BC. Characteristics and statistics related to the meteorology at Syowa Station wereexplained in an earlier work reported in the literature25.

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3. Measurements and Data correction
Aerosol measurements have been conducted at the clean air observatory (Figure 1). An air inlet
tower is located at the northern side of the clean air observatory. Through the air intake, locatedapproximately 5 m above the ground, air was taken into the observatory by a stainless steel tube with
inner and outer diameters of 96 mm and 100 mm, and a sirocco fan running at a nearly constant speedof 2–3 m s-1 in the stainless steel tube. The sampled air used for BC measurements was distributed
using conductive tubes with inner and outer diameters of 11.2 mm (0.44 inch) and 19.1 mm (0.75inch). Because instruments were operated inside the observatory under room temperature of ca. 20 C,
BC concentrations were measured under conditions of lower relative humidity (i.e., dry condition; lessthan 10%). As described by Hara et al. (2023)26, particle loss by the inlet and tubes is expected to be
negligible for our aerosol measurements taken in the sub-micrometer range.
For measurements of BC concentrations, a multi-wavelength aethalometer (AE31; Magee
Scientific) and a multi-angle absorption photometer (MAAP, model 5012; Thermo Scientific) havebeen used respectively at Syowa Station since February 2005 and January 2016. To verify the qualityof BC data measured using the aethalometer and MAAP, simultaneous BC measurements wereconducted at Syowa Station from January 2016. Because of instrument trouble, aethalometermeasurements were not made from January 2007 to January 2008. To avoid collection of coarse
aerosol particles, which can engender strong light scattering and large errors in BC measurements, animpactor and cyclone were used, respectively, to remove particles larger than 2.5 m from theaethalometer and MAAP. The aethalometer operated at a flow rate of ca. 9 L min-1 during 2005–2006
and ca. 11 L min-1 during 2008–2022. In addition, MAAP operated at a flow rate of ca. 16.7 L min-1.
The wavelengths of light sources in the aethalometer were 370, 470, 520, 590, 660, 880, and 950 nm.
The wavelength of light sources in the MAAP was given as 670 nm by the manufacturer. According
to earlier works27,28, the peak wavelength of the light source in MAAP was 639 nm. Data record
resolutions are 15 min for the aethalometer and 30 min for MAAP. Quartz-fiber tape (Q250F; Pallflex
Corp.) and glass-fiber tape (GF10; Thermo Scientific, Whatman plc) were used, respectively, for theaethalometer and MAAP. Filter spots changed every 24 hr or when the transmittance decreased to
80%. In most cases, the filter spots changed every 24 hr because of low BC concentrations at Syowa
Station. The areas of the circular spot to collect aerosols on the filter tape were 60.3 ± 1 mm 2 in theaethalometer and 215 ± 2 mm2 in the MAAP.
For BC measurements using both the aethalometer and MAAP, BC concentrations were
measured based on light attenuation by the light absorption of light-absorbing particles collected on
the filter tape. Earlier works demonstrated that filter-based BC measurements have scattering andshadowing effects that can engender error of BC measurements8,29. Therefore, these effects must be
reduced and corrected for better quality of BC data before data screening of local contamination andscientific use. Procedures to correct BC concentrations in the aethalometer and MAAP were described57

K. Hara et al.

in the following paragraphs. As recommended by Petzold et al. (2013)30, the corrected BC
concentrations mean “equivalent BC” concentrations.
Weingartner’s correction procedures29 were used to correct BC concentrations from lightattenuation data measured using the aethalometer. The correction procedures are described hereinafter.
Light attenuation (ATN) is defined as𝐼

ATN ≡ ln 0 ,(1)𝐼where I0 and I respectively represent the light intensity incident to the filter and the light intensity after
passing through the filter spot. The light attenuation coefficient (bATN) is calculated using the following
equation.
𝑏𝐴𝑇𝑁 =

𝐴∆𝐴𝑇𝑁

(2)

𝑄∆𝑡

Therein, A, Q, t, and ATN respectively stand for the aerosol spot area, flow rate, time interval, andlight attenuation change. Then, BC mass concentrations (MBC) are corrected as
𝑀𝐵𝐶 =

𝑏𝑎𝑏𝑠
𝜎𝑎𝑏𝑠

=

𝑏𝐴𝑇𝑁

,

1
𝑙𝑛𝐴𝑇𝑁−ln(10%)
𝜎𝐴𝑇𝑁 ((𝑓−1)𝑙𝑛(50%)−𝑙𝑛(10%)+1)(3)

where babs, abs, and ATN respectively denote the absorption coefficient, mass absorption cross-section,and mass attenuation cross-section. Correction parameter f is estimated as shown below.
f = a(1–0)+1(4)

In equation (4), 0 is the single scattering albedo. The parameters a are 0.87 ( = 450 nm) and 0.85 (= 660 nm). Because of the low BC concentrations in the Antarctic regions, 0 was found mostly as
0.97–0.99 at the Antarctic coasts18. Therefore, f values of 1.02–1 are applicable for our measurement
conditions. Here, we used 1.01 as the f value. Furthermore, t was 120 min (2 hr) for this study becauseof the lower BC concentrations. The value of ATN is 14625 nm m2 g-1 -1, as recommended by the
manufacturer. The corrected BC concentrations were calculated for all BC data (recorded every 15min) in this study. Because light attenuation and light attenuation coefficients in UV and visible ranges
can be influenced greatly by light absorption of organics and mineral dusts8, attenuation at 880 nm isused widely for BC retrievals. Therefore, we used light attenuation data in the IR channel ( = 880nm) to estimate the BC concentrations. Additional details of the aethalometer data at Syowa Station
were described in a report by Hara et al.19.
In contrast to the aethalometer, MAAP monitored the optical transmittance simultaneously acrossthe filter tape (i.e. optical attenuation), in addition to the reflectance at scattering angles at 130 and58

Polar Data Journal, Vol. 8, 55–66, August 2024

165 to compensate scattering effects of aerosol particles on the filter and to correct the massconcentrations of BC. The BC data outputted from MAAP were already corrected using opticalscattering data31. Two-hour mean BC concentrations were calculated before screening of local
contaminated data. The MAAP-BC concentrations were converted from optical attenuation using themass absorption cross section (MAC) of 6.6 m2 g-1 at  = 670 nm, as recommended by the
manufacturer. As described by Hara et al. (2019)19, BC transported to Syowa Station was supplied bylong-range transport from biomass burning and anthropogenic processes in South America andsouthern Africa. In actuality, MAC of BC in the Antarctic has never been reported. Therefore, MAC
evaluated in locations and regions with biomass burning and anthropogenic processes were used.
Kanaya et al. reported from long-term BC measurements28 that MAC for MAAP is 10.3 m2 g-1 at ruraland urban sites of Japan where BC derived from biomass burning and anthropogenic processes can betransported. The BC concentrations measured using MAAP at Syowa Station were corrected using the
spot area as described above and using the MAC value of 10.3 m2 g-1. When MAC in the Antarctic isevaluated, BC concentrations can be converted easily and mathematically in the future using thedataset used for the present study.
The detection limit of BC in the aethalometer depends on the optical signal-to-noise ratio. As
presented by Hara et al.19, the detection limit (Weingartner’s correction value) of BC in theaethalometer was estimated as 0.2 ng m−3 in the IR channel under our measurement conditions (t=120
min and flow rate, 10 L min−1). From similar experiments by Hara et al. (2019)19, the detection limit
for MAAP-BC was approximately 0.1 ng m−3. Uncertainty of the measured BC concentrations is
associated with (1) stability of the optical signal, (2) flow rate control, (3) spot area, and (4) scatteringand shadowing effects. The detection limit value corresponds to uncertainty resulting from processes(1) – (3). Uncertainty by process (4) depends on the aerosol number concentrations and on opticalproperties (single scattering albedo). The BC concentrations corrected using Weingartner's method
were mostly lower by 0.5–2 % than the uncorrected BC concentrations19. The small difference
between the corrected and uncorrected BC concentrations might be attributable to the high single
scattering albedo and replacement of the filter spot before optical attenuation reaches the thresholdvalues (e.g., 10% in the aethalometer) in most cases in our measurement conditions at Syowa.
When local contamination occurs, BC concentrations can increase considerably. Before scientificuse and analysis, the contaminated BC data were screened using wind data (direction and speed)provided by the Japan Meteorological Agency and using condensation nuclei (CN) concentrations
obtained from JARE aerosol monitoring data. The CN concentrations are very sensitive for local
contamination. For that reason, BC data were filtered using the screened CN data26. When local
contamination was identified in CN data within 2 hr, the BC data were removed as “locallycontaminated” and “locally contaminable”. Details of the procedures were described by Hara et al.19.
Figure 2 depicts seasonal features of the monthly mean data-remaining rate. The data-remaining
rate represents the fraction of the number of the remaining BC data after data screening to the total

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number of the observed BC data. Long local-contamination-free conditions (>2 hr) are necessary for
BC measurements at Syowa Station using the aethalometer and MAAP, except for mechanical troubles
and optical signal stability. Therefore, the data-remaining rate in 2 hr resolution was 20–60%: lower
than the remaining rate of CN-data. The data-remaining rate for MAAP was slightly higher than thatfor the aethalometer because there was less instrument trouble, including data records by PC, andgreater stability of optical signals for MAAP. Nevertheless, more than 80% of BC data were mostly
available in daily mean BC data, except for periods with long durations of mechanical difficulties andfrequent local contamination. The data remaining rate of daily BC data in January often dropped toless than 60%. The lower remaining rate in January was attributable to (1) exhaust from the Icebreaker
Shirase, which was tied up at Syowa during end-December – end-January, (2) logistic work at thestation during summer, and (3) calm wind conditions during daytime.
Figure 3 depicts variations of the screened BC concentrations at Syowa Station obtained using
the aethalometer and MAAP. Seasonal features and spike peaks matched well in both BC
concentrations during measurements. However, the aethalometer-BC concentrations tended to behigher than the MAAP-BC concentrations.
Figure 4 depicts the relation between the aethalometer-BC concentrations and the MAAP-BC
concentrations at Syowa Station during 2016–2022. Although high correlation (R2 = 0.71) was found,as shown in Figure 4, the aethalometer-BC concentrations were clearly higher than the MAAP BC
concentrations. The relation can be expressed using least squares fitting as the following equation.
[MAAP-BC]daily = 0.4073 [Aeth-BC]daily + 0.7036(5)Here, [MAAP-BC]daily and [Aeth-BC]daily respectively stand for the daily mean MAAP-BC
concentrations and daily mean aethalometer-BC concentrations. Considering that MAAP-BC
concentrations were estimated (corrected) using simultaneous measurements of optical aerosol
scattering at multiple angles, the aethalometer-BC might be overestimated in spite of BC data
correction using Weingartner’s correction procedure. Although a positive intercept was found using
equation (5), positive bias in MAAP-BC relative to Aeth-BC was not clear because of the large 95%
prediction bands (data population). Therefore, the aethalometer-BC concentrations must be converted
to MAAP-equivalent BC concentrations using equation (5) to analyze and compare the long-term BC
records at Syowa Station, as shown in Figure 5.

4. Data Records
BC records (unit: ng m-3) each year are listed in the respective files. In BC data obtained using
the aethalometer, the BC data corrected by Weingartner’s correction and MAAP correction are stored
in the “v1” and “v2” folders. Data fields in daily mean and median are shown as presented below.

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Date: Universal time (UT) was used in the BC records. The difference between UT and local time(LT) was 3 hr (LT = UT + 3 hr).
Amb_Mean: BC concentrations in ambient air pressure
STP_Mean: BC concentrations in standard conditions (0 C and 1 atm)
Amb_Median: BC concentrations in ambient air pressure
STP _Median: BC concentrations in standard conditions (0 C and 1 atm)
Daily median and mean concentrations were calculated based on universal time (UT). The
difference between UT and local time (LT) was 3 hr (LT = UT + 3 hr). Daily mean BC concentrations
are listed in the respective data files. The term “NA” signifies that no BC data are available becauseof mechanical difficulties or local contamination. The provided BC data are (1) BC concentrations
corrected using Weingartner’s method (v1), (2) MAAP-equivalent BC concentrations (v2), and (3)MAAP-BC concentrations. The BC data are provided in the respective folders.

5. Competing Interests
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

6. Figures

Fig. 1. (a) Location of Syowa Station, Antarctica and (b) locations of the clean air observatory anddiesel power station at Syowa Station. The red circle in (a) shows the Syowa Station location.
Buildings marked as 1 and 2 in (b) are the respective locations of the clean air observatoryand diesel power station. Gray arrow indicates the directions of north and prevailing winds
presented by Sato and Hirasawa25. The map in (b) was provided by the Geospatial
Information Authority of Japan (GSI: https://www.gsi.go.jp/antarctic/index-e.html)

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K. Hara et al.

Data-remaining rate, % Data-remaining rate, %Aethalometer
MAAP
100
80
60
40
20
2 hr base
0
120
100
80
60
40
20
0

Daily base'05'06'07'08'09'10 '11'12'13'14'15'16'17 '18'19'20'21'22'23
Year

Fig. 2. Variations of monthly mean data-remaining rates of the aethalometer and MAAP. No BC

BC conc., ng m

-3

measurement was taken in 2007. Blue line indicates values of 100%.

40

Daily mean

MAAP
Aethalometer

30
20
10

BC conc., ng m

-3

0
40

Daily median

30
20
10
0
J FMAMJ JASONDJ FMAMJ JASONDJ FMAMJ JASONDJ FMAMJ JASONDJ FMAMJ JASONDJ FMAMJ JASONDJ FMAMJ JASONDJMonth in 2016-2022

Fig. 3.

Variations of daily mean and daily median BC concentrations measured using theaethalometer and MAAP at Syowa Station, Antarctica. The ambient concentrations wereshown in this figure.

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Polar Data Journal, Vol. 8, 55–66, August 2024

60
Daily mean
MAAP-BC, ng m-3

50
40
30
20
10
0
-10
0

10

20

30

40

50

60

Aeth-BC, ng m-3

Fig. 4. Comparison between daily mean BC concentrations measured using the aethalometer and
MAAP at Syowa Station, Antarctica during 2016–2022. The black line is a regression line;
blue and red lines respectively show the 95% confidence band and the 95% prediction band.

BC concentrations, ng m

-3

BC concentrations, ng m

-3

Pink dash line shows X=Y line.

30

Daily BC concentrations at Syowa Station, Antarctica
JARE46 (2005) - JARE63 (2022)
Daily mean

25
20
15
10
5
0
30

Daily median
25
20
15
10
5
0

2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022

Year

Fig. 5. Variations of daily mean and median BC concentrations measured using the aethalometer at
Syowa Station, Antarctica. The BC concentrations are MAAP-equivalent BC concentrations(provided as v2). Gray areas show periods of no BC measurements and no data because of
mechanical trouble. The ambient concentrations were shown in this figure.

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K. Hara et al.

Author contributions
KH did Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Writing - Original Draft,and Visualization. MY did Data curation and Investigation. MS did Project administration andFunding acquisition. NH did Data curation and Funding acquisition. TY did Conceptualization,
Project administration and Funding acquisition.

Acknowledgements
We thank Kazuo Osada and the members of the Japanese Antarctic Research Expedition for
operation and assistance with aerosol measurements taken at Syowa Station. Meteorological data were
provided by the Japan Meteorological Agency. This study was supported as an “Observation projectof global atmospheric change in the Antarctic” for JARE 43–47, Grants-in-Aid for Scientific Research(B) (no. 22310013 and 15H02806, PI: K. Hara) from the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports,
Science and Technology of Japan, JARE monitoring measurement (AMP03 and AMP0902), National
Institute of Polar Research (NIPR) through Project Research no. KP-302, and ROIS-DS-JOINT(038RP2022, 016RP2023, and 003RP2024).

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