The Rationale and Capacity of Pastoral
Community Innovative Adaptation to Climate
Change in Ethiopia
RESEARCH PAPER

No. 25

ATPS (2013): The Rationale and Capacity of Pastoral Community Innovative Adaptation to Climate Change in Ethiopia. ATPS Research Paper No. 25

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ATPS (2013): The Rationale and Capacity of Pastoral Community Innovative Adaptation to Climate Change in Ethiopia. ATPS Research Paper No. 25

2The Rationale and Capacity of Pastoral
Community Innovative Adaptation to Climate
Change in Ethiopia

Tibebu Solomon
Technology Transfer Team Leader
Ministry of Science & Technology	
  ATPS (2013): The Rationale and Capacity of Pastoral Community Innovative Adaptation to Climate Change in Ethiopia. ATPS Research Paper No. 25

3This paper should should be cited as:
African Technology Policy Studies Network, ATPS 2013: The The Rationale and Capacity of
Pastoral Community Innovative Adaptation to Climate Change in Ethiopia [Tibebu Solomon],ATPS Research Paper No. 25© 2013Published by the African Technology Policy Studies Network

ISBN: 978-9966-030-69-6

ATPS (2013): The Rationale and Capacity of Pastoral Community Innovative Adaptation to Climate Change in Ethiopia. ATPS Research Paper No. 25

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Table of Contents
Acknowledgements						

6Abstract								

7

1Introduction						

8

2Literature Review						

10

3Methodology						

13

4Results and Discussion					

15

5Conclusion and Recommendations				19

References							

20ATPS (2013): The Rationale and Capacity of Pastoral Community Innovative Adaptation to Climate Change in Ethiopia. ATPS Research Paper No. 25

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Acknowledgement
This report was produced as part of the implementation of the African Technology Policy
Studies Network (ATPS) Phase VI Strategic Plan, 2008 – 2012 funded by ATPS Donors
including the Ministerie van Buitenlandse Zaken (DGIS) the Netherlands, amongst others.
The authors hereby thank the ATPS for the financial and technical support during theimplementation of the program. The Authors specially thank Prof. Kevin Chika Urama, the
ATPS Executive Director for his visionary leadership as Program Director; Prof. Atieno
Ndede-Amadi, Program Coordinator; Dr. Nicholas Ozor, Senior Research Officer, ATPS;
Mr. Ernest Nti Acheampong, ATPS Research Officer and the ATPS Team for the technicalsupport during the research process

ATPS (2013): The Rationale and Capacity of Pastoral Community Innovative Adaptation to Climate Change in Ethiopia. ATPS Research Paper No. 25

6Abstract
This study was undertaken in Afar and Somali Regional States to assess the rationale andcompetence of pastoral community innovative adaptation to climate change impact. Focus
group discussion (FDG), individual interviews and key informant interviews were held inselected areas in Afar region and Somali region. For cross triangulation, in depth interviews
with ninety two respondents were held. The results indicate that Afar and Issa Somali
Pastoralists are adapting to climatic changes through locally innovative ways including;changes in house construction materials, traditional early warning system, maximization of
female animal herd, detecting and using changes in goat behavior to predict season forecast
and also traditional water cooling system of drinking water. This research output provides
a framework for addressing climate change problems faced by the Ethiopian pastoralists
and assists them in realizing their potential to rise up to the challenge. It will also enable
policy makers and NGOs to take an appropriate course of action in policy and programme
development.

ATPS (2013): The Rationale and Capacity of Pastoral Community Innovative Adaptation to Climate Change in Ethiopia. ATPS Research Paper No. 25

71. Introduction
Ethiopia’s pastoralist community of ten million people occupies over 60% of the country’s
land mass which is semi-arid lowland and dominated by the livestock economy (UNOCHA,
2007). The main pastoral communities are the Somali (37%), Afar (29%) and Borana (10%)
living in the Southeast, Northeast and Southern parts of Ethiopia respectively (ANRS, 2010).
Ethiopian pastoralists raise a large portion of the national herd, estimated at 42 percent of
the cattle, 7 percent of the goats, 25 percent of the sheep, 20 percent of the equines and allof the camels (PFE, IIRR and DF, 2010).
Over the years, records show that rangelands for pastoralists have experienced marked by
drastic events such as environmental degradation and climate variability which are contributing
to recurrent drought, rainfall declines, loss of livestock and shrinking rangelands that exceed
those predicted by models of future climate. But, despite all these challenges, similar studies
have revealed that concern and adaptation to climatic events is not a completely new idea inthese areas. The fact that the communities in this region have survived with a fast population
growth rate is an indication that they have developed indigenous mechanisms and strategies
to cope with those harsh conditions (Nyong, 2007). This knowledge on how local populations,cope with previous droughts has the potential of providing important guide to addressing
current and future climatic changes.
The climate of the pastoral lands in Ethiopia is characterized by scarce absolute rainfall
which falls unreliably and within short rainy seasons, and which is often of limited availability
for human use. High temperatures during rainy seasons ensure that much of the rainfall islost in evaporation, and intensive rainfall results in floods. Arid and semi-arid areas that serveas the source basis for the livestock production system known as pastoral production system
in Ethiopia are facing enormous threat (Kassahun et al., 2008).
The National Adaptation Programme of Action (NAPA) provided analysis of rainfall variability
and trend in Ethiopia (NAPA, 2007). Baseline climate was developed using historical dataof temperature and precipitation from 1971–2000 for selected stations. Analysis of year-toyear rainfall variation over the country expressed in terms of normalized rainfall anomaly
averaged from 42 stations shows that the country has experienced both dry and wet years
over the last 55 years. The trend analysis of annual rainfall shows that rainfall remained moreor less constant when averaged over the whole country. However, the recent years are thewarmest, compared to the early years. The data reveals that there has been an increasing
trend in the annual minimum temperature over the past 55 years. Temperature has been
increasing steadily by about 0.370C every ten years (NAPA, 2007).
Very little is known about the rationality of local adaptation mechanisms because of insufficient
documentation and awareness (Macchi et al 2008, Pandey 2006, and IPCC 2007a). However,there is a slow but growing recognition of local adaptations to the changing environment interms of efficiency, effectiveness and sustainability (PROLINNOVA,2008). Recognition of
local adaptation is seen as an entry point to strengthen the resilience of local people toclimate change. This implies that local innovation for climate adaptation needs to be assessed
together with the environmental and socio-economic conditions. This dynamic process helps
also to avoid the trap of romanticizing local practices. It also implies that the present scanningof local innovation is only partially addressing the complex and diverse issues of adaptation
ATPS (2013): The Rationale and Capacity of Pastoral Community Innovative Adaptation to Climate Change in Ethiopia. ATPS Research Paper No. 25

8to climate change. The aim of the paper is to document effective indigenous and innovations
for climate change adaptation used by pastoralist in Ethiopia whilst examining the rationale
rationale and capacity of pastoral community innovative adaptation to climate change impact
in Ethiopia. A better understanding of pastoralists` perceptions of climate change, ongoing
adaptation measures, and the decision making process is important to inform policy maker,
so that they may promote successful adaptation on pastoralist livelihoods.
1.1 Objectives
The overall objective of the study is to assess the rationale and capability of pastoral
community innovative adaptation to climate change in Ethiopia.
The specific objectives are to:• Understand the perceptions of climate change in different pastoral communities in arid
and semi-arid areas of Ethiopia;• Identify, describe and document effective indigenous and innovations for climate change
adaptation used by pastoralists.
• Identify local practices that lessen the impacts of climate changes ;• Make policy recommendations for enhancing behavioral changes & Building climatechange resilience.
1.2 Organization of the Paper
This research paper is composed of five parts. The first part deals with an overview about the
research objectives needs and the background of the research. The second part presents
the literature review. The third part presents the research method and procedures. The
fourth part presents research results and findings. The final section of the paper presents theconclusions and recommendations.

ATPS (2013): The Rationale and Capacity of Pastoral Community Innovative Adaptation to Climate Change in Ethiopia. ATPS Research Paper No. 25

92. Literature Review
2.1 Pastoral Livelihood in Ethiopia
Pastoralism, the use of extensive grazing in rangelands for livestock production, is oneof the key production systems in the world’s dry lands. The most common categorizationof pastoralism is by the degree of movement, from highly nomadic through transhumant
to agro-pastoral (Roger, 2001). According to Amaha (2006), the dry lands of Ethiopia aredominated by rangeland based livestock production systems known as pastoralism andagro-pastoralism (partly involved in opportunistic cropping) and represent a significant sectorof the national agriculture in the country. The Ethiopian Ministry of Agriculture estimates that
pastoralists own 73% of the nation’s goats, 25% of the sheep, 20% of the cattle and the entire
camel population (Roy et al., 2007; Amaha, 2006). The livestock sector contributes about
40% of agricultural Gross Domestic Product (GDP), or more than 20% of the total GDP.
However, this important livelihood is threatened by climatic events.
Degradations in biological and physical rangeland resources have become serious
challenges, bearing negative impacts on the pastoral ecosystems, livestock production andlivelihoods (Vetter, 2005). As a result, there are high livestock mortalities in most pastoral
areas. Simultaneous outbreaks of livestock diseases are also common and spread along the
drought fronts, aggravating the number of animal mortalities. Climate change and variability
are said to be seriouse environmental issues for the sustainability of pastoral lands over the
next 30 years.
2.2. Adaptation to climate change
In the climate change context, adaptation is commonly seen as a set of actions and decision
making processes (Petheram et al., 2010; Nelson et al., 2007). Adger et al. (2009) statedthat the goals of adaptation differ depending on ‘who or what is adapting’. Adaptive capacity
is usually defined as the ability of a community (or social system) to withstand environmental
changes. Some authors underlined that a community with generally high adaptive capacity
will be less vulnerable in the future than other communities to the potentially detrimental (and
often unpredictable) effects of climate change (and other stresses) on their landscape andlives (Petheram et al., 2010; Pelling et al., 2008; Roncoli, 2006).
Most research on climate change has been dominated by studies in the physical andbiological sciences aimed mainly towards prediction of effects (Petheram.et al, 2010). Suchstudies based on hard science are vital, however, it can be argued that lack of attention tosocial aspects has often led to a rather limited analysis of adaptation which can underplay thecomplex relationships between people and their environment (Klein et al., 2007). Smit andWandel (2006) noted that social conditions can provide practical understanding of the social
ecological drivers and factors that affect a system’s vulnerability, and the adaptive capacityof communities.
2.3 Local innovation to climate change
Local innovation refers to the dynamics of indigenous knowledge (IK) the knowledge thatgrows within a social group, incorporating learning from own experience over generations
but also knowledge gained from other sources and fully integrated with local ways of thinking
and doing (World Bank, 2005; Waters-Bayer, 2009).
ATPS (2013): The Rationale and Capacity of Pastoral Community Innovative Adaptation to Climate Change in Ethiopia. ATPS Research Paper No. 25

10The value of indigenous knowledge is now widely acknowledged, also in scientific circles,
and studies of indigenous knowledge have led to better understanding of local practices inagriculture however, poor farmers are innovating in biodiversity management in order toincrease their options to cope with variable environmental conditions and to exploit microenvironments (“niches”) in their agro-ecosystems (Abay et.al ,2009).
Pastoralists apply their indigenous knowledge through flexible natural resource-use
techniques, which are elaborated, transformed and preserved by the interaction with thecommunity. Indigenous system of information exchange are essential to find and use
information and for normal updates of rangeland conditions, water availability and diseaserisk as well as temporary user agreements. The effective dissemination and sharing of
information about indigenous knowledge is realized through agents such as herders,
community leaders and elders. The co-ordination of strategies in natural resource use withother users ultimately depends on the social networks, developed within and among different
user groups (Niamir-Fuller, 1999).
Pastoralists maintain and conserve their indigenous knowledge through indigenous
institutions such as Medaa Aba. It is through a complex process which the institutions playa purposeful effort in providing security to the users and to uphold the chances of survival
on the long run (Roe et al., 1998). In this context, the overlapping interests and clashes
about natural resource use can be seen as a means of redefining the positions and therelations between and among the groups. The rights and responsibilities for access to the
key resources are to be utilized and defended depending on the norms of the resources andthe frequency of their use (Bonnet, 2000). From this, it can be argued that the importance of
pastoralists’ indigenous knowledge for sustainable natural resource management depends
on the ‘self-organizing’ capacity of pastoral groups based on the institutional adaptabilityof the pastoralists and the ecological resilience of the vegetation (Abel & Langston, 2002).
Likewise, Ethiopian pastoralists have chained social-cultural systems for effective resource
management and for sustainability of the long lived indigenous knowledge itself. The structure
involves all members of the community irrespective of gender and age (Sabine, 2004).
Rangeland degradation is less understood by policy makers, development planners andresearchers (Gemedo, 2004; Vetter et al., 2006), rather confused with desertification(Mortimore, 2009), and influenced by biases of western intellectuals (Ellis and Swift, 1988;
Sandford, 1983). As a result, pastoral perceptions are overlooked (Gemedo et al., 2006;
Katjiua and Ward, 2007), and the production system considered as ecologically unfriendly
and unsustainable (Kassahun et al, 2008).
Research indicates that contrary to the assumption of herder irrationality and destructivenessinherent in most conventional range development projects, many indigenous pastoral
management systems are rational, efficient, and sustainable (McCabe, 1990; Niamir-Fuller,
1999; Scoones, 1995). A result of these new understandings of pastoral systems, several
researchers have sought to understand indigenous pastoral knowledge in order to develop
successful pastoral development projects (Davis, 2005; Briggs et al., 1999; FernandezGimenez, 2002). Here, the focus is on the current innovativeness of local people: not how theirancestors developed, but rather the current dynamics of indigenous knowledge: It focuseson how pastoralists took their own initiative to develop new ways of using and managing
climate change impact on their livelihood. The outcomes of these innovation processes
are local innovations developed by local people. These innovations may be technical andsocio-institutional, including policy change at local level. According to Wettasinha et al 2008,
successful process of local innovation leads to improve the lives of many people in the area.
2.4 Traditional society in global climate change policy
Traditional societies in many cases have built up knowledge over long periods about changes
in the environment and have developed elaborated strategies to cope with these changes.
However, traditional knowledge systems in mitigation and adaptation have for a long time
ATPS (2013): The Rationale and Capacity of Pastoral Community Innovative Adaptation to Climate Change in Ethiopia. ATPS Research Paper No. 25

11been neglected in climate change policy formulation and implementation and have only
recently been taken up into the climate change discourse. Indigenous people, who havesurvived over long periods to many kinds of environmental changes, may have valuablelessons to offer about successful adaptations which could be vital in the context of climatechange(Macchi et.al, 2008).
The issues of indigenous people and their traditional knowledge systems are approachedby global climate change policies and mechanisms including the UNFCCC; the Kyoto
Protocol and the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) and the assessment reports of theIntergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC).
All the documents mentioned above consent that the costs of climate change are going to beinequitably borne by developing countries and specifically poor, natural resource-dependentcommunities, and therefore stress the importance of monetary, knowledge and technology
transfer from developed to developing countries for adaptation to and mitigation of climatechange. However, only a few of these policy documents acknowledge or even mention thepotential of local communities’ own-coping strategies and adaptive capacity latent in theirtraditional knowledge.
It is striking that in the IPCC reports (2001 and 2007) the main emphasis has predominantly
been on indigenous communities living in developed countries, i.e. in North America,
Europe, Australia and New Zealand and the Polar Regions where they can count on at least
some support from their governments, whereas the majority of indigenous people living indeveloping countries receive little government intervention.
2.5 Climate Change related National policies and program in Ethiopia
Ethiopia ratified the UNFCCC in May 1994 and the Kyoto Protocol in February 2005. Withinthese frameworks, Ethiopia prepared National Adaptation Programs of Action and identified
priority areas for development interventions and adaptations. The country has also a numberof environmentally oriented policies, strategies and action plans that directly or indirectly
contribute to the objectives enshrined in the UNFCCC. Despite such developments, mostdevelopment policy and strategy documents have hardly captured the threat of climatechange.
The country has adopted a comprehensive environmental policy with the overall goal ofpromoting sustainable economic development through sound management and use ofnatural, man-made and cultural resources and the environment. Ethiopia is also playing animportant role at regional and global area. The country through its prime Minister is in factleading the Africa negotiation team in global warming and climate change agenda. This canbe seen as the direct result of the concern and understanding of the environmental issues by
the Ethiopian top leadership (ANRS,2010).

ATPS (2013): The Rationale and Capacity of Pastoral Community Innovative Adaptation to Climate Change in Ethiopia. ATPS Research Paper No. 25

123. Research Methodology
3.1 Study Areas
The study was conducted in the Afar and Somali Regions of Ethiopia, specifically in Awash
Fentale from Afar and Shinile zone from Somali Region The two regions selected due todifferent system availability and pastoralism is the predominant livelihood activity. In bothstudy areas, animals play a central role in all walks of life; cattle, goats and camel in particular,
have a special place that goes beyond the production of meat and milk. The main pastoral
communities in Ethiopia are the Somali (37%) and Afar (29%). Their asset and aesthetic
values as a form of saving and social dignity, respectively, has a great importance in theircultural system (ANRS, 2010).
3.1.1 Afar Regional StateThe Afar region has one of the largest pastoral groups in the horn of Africa. Their settlement
distribution covers the borders of the three countries of the horn: Ethiopia, Djibouti andEritrea. In Ethiopia, the Afar region is organized as one of the nine autonomous Regional
States. Afar National Regional State (ANRS) is located in the great East African Rift Valley
in the north-eastern part of the country. It borders Eritrea to the northeast, Tigray, Amhara,
Oromia, and Somali Regional States to the north-west; south-west; south, and south-east
respectively, and Djibouti to the east (as shown with the green star in Figure 2).
Awash Fentale is one of the districts (weredas) in zone three of the Afar national regional
state, and it is divided into six sub districts (kebeles). The Awash town is the capital of thewereda and is located 230 Km from Addis Ababa. The total area is 1089 km2 and has analtitude range of 750- 1050 metres above sea level. The agroecology of the area is arid andhome to huge state-owned irrigation schemes, private farms and Awash national park. It also
shares boundaries with the Kereyu Oromo in the east and southeast, the Issa Somali thesouthwestern escarpments bordering the Amhara region.
According to the Afar National Regional State (ANRS) plan on adaptation to climate change,
there is an increasing trend of rainfall in central Ethiopia while an overall declining trend wasrecorded in the water stressed northern and southern lowland regions. In Afar, the rainfall
patterns are perceived to have changed over the past decades, particularly in terms of timing
and duration (NAPA,2007). The frequency of drought is viewed as increasing particularly
over the past two decades. ANRS Programme of Plan on adaptation argued that the changes
have become more noticeable since the major famine in 1984. Except in drier years, changes
in the seasonality, distribution and regularity of rainfall were more of a concern than theoverall amount of rainfall.
3.1.2 Somali Regional State
Somali Region borders Afar Region to the north-west. It has nine administrative zones: Shinile,
Jijiga, Fik, Degahbur, Korahe, Warder, Gode, Afder and Liban. The Shinile administrativezone is located in the north-west of the Somali regional state. The Shinile zone borders theAfar region to the north-west, the Oromia region to the south, the Jijiga zone (Somali region)
to the south-east, and Djibouti to the north-east. The Shinile zone is made up of six districts:
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Shinile, Dambal, Aysha’a, Erer, Afdem and Meisso. The altitude in the Shinile zone ranges
from 950 to 1350 m above sea level. Its terrain consists of undulating hills, stony outcrops
interspersed with plains of loose soil covered by bush and woody grasses. Three seasonalrivers, namely Erer, Hurso and Chow, and several dry river beds are found in the area (SCUK
and DPPA, 2008).
3.2 Data Collection Procedure
The study adopted a purposive sampling technique fot the collection of data. The rationale
for using purposive sampling is to select key informants deemed to have information on what
the study is trying to address (Creswell, 2003). The study used both primary and secondary
data. Primary data collected using Participatory Rural Appraisal techniques especially,
Focus Group Discussion (FDG), individual interviews and Key Informant Interview. These
instruments contained both open ended and semi structured questions. To understandclimate change adaptation process among pastoralists in Ethiopia, a series of brainstorming
sessions was carried out in Government and Non Government offices (Awash Fental Care
Ethiopia, Awash Fental Pastoral, Agriculture Rural Development office, Afar National Region
Office, Save the Children UK (Somali), Shinile Pastoral Agriculture Rural Development office,Ministry of Agriculture Rural Development & Pastoral Forum Ethiopia).
Focus group discussions were conducted in the two selected kebeles (sub district) of study
areas- Dudub and Boloyita of Afar region and eight at Degahjabis, Barak, Mete, Millo, Goadand Berdher of Shinile zone in Somali region. Participants included herders, elders and clan
leaders focused on the livestock species owned, community perceptions of major climatechange hazards, probable cause and impacts; adaptive measures of climate change, patternof the rainy season and the amount of rainfall during last decades; traditional signs andknowledge held for season forecasting; different practices that lessen the impact of climatechange, issues of pasture and water access and conflicts. For cross triangulation, in depth
interviews with ninety two respondents were held with prominent individuals on Climatechange perception, impact and adaptation.
3.3 Data Analysis
The Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS 15) and the excel spreadsheet wereused for data capturing, validation and analyses. Presentations were done using descriptive
statistical inferences like frequency tables, cross-tabulations and statistical graphs.

ATPS (2013): The Rationale and Capacity of Pastoral Community Innovative Adaptation to Climate Change in Ethiopia. ATPS Research Paper No. 25

144. Results and Discussion
4.1 Perception of Climate Change and its impact
The individual interviews and the focus group discussion (FGD) revealed that the pastoralists
were of the view that there is an observed decrease in length of rainfall pattern from afavourable period of four to two months. The rainy season is progressively becoming shorter
starting late and finishing earlier with high rate of unpredictability. The dry season is also
becoming longer leading to shortage of pasture contributing to the gradual extinction ofindigenous grasses. This observation is backed by the findings of the ANRS who observedthat indigenous grass are gradually being replaced by an unknown exotic plant. The interview
and FGD indicated an increasing trend of temperature as observed by the communities in the
study areas. This condition according to the respondents have contributed to extreme heatstress in the past five years (from 2006-2010).
During extended dry periods, livestocks’ access to pasture and water is limited. The lack of
pasture and water weakens the livestock making them susceptible to variety of diseases.
Livestock diseases contribute to rapid loss of livestock assets, reduction in milk supply andreproduction during disaster incidence. Livestock are the primary victims of the impacts ofclimate change. The interviews revealed reported cases of increase occurrence of parasites
and infectious disease during the dry season, characterized by recurrent drought andtemperature increase. Camels and goats, which are said to be most resistant to droughts,
have been affected by these emerging diseases. Individual interviews revealed that majorityof the respondents (91%) acknowledge the existence of the threat of diseases to theirlivestock over the past 7 years. Similarly, the key informant’s interview from Afar Pastoral,
Agricultural and Rural development office of Awash Fental Wereda reported that there is a
new camel disease at least 30% of the camel population in the wereda. The wereda office, incollaboration with National Veterinary Institute (NVI) are not yet identified the type of disease.
According to the key informants in both study areas, the problem of rangeland degradationin the Afar and Somali regions are related with the prevalence of prolonged drought. A
notorious invasive species called Prosopis juliflora is repeatedly reported to have invaded
the Afar and Somali rangelands. Due to severe environmental degradation in the area, theecosystem has lost its natural immunity to react against the invasive species. Majority of the
respondent (92%) were of the view that, the reduction in rangeland has in part contributed to
the reduction of milk and meat products in the regions.
4.2 Traditional Strategies for Climate Change Adaptation
The focus group discussions revealed that pastoralists have traditional natural resource
management strategies that are aimed at providing the capacity to adapt to harsh environmental
conditions including climate change and climate variability, and also to manage rangelandand livestock during the dry and wet seasons. In the Afar region, traditional institution Medaa
Aba, a legal system that makes decisions governs the proper management and fair utilizationof rangeland. It has a hierarchical structure starting with clan leaders at the top level tothe head of a household. The Medaa Aba is the highest decision making body of all theclans. Medaa Aba encompasses every aspect of legal issues and decisions on range of legal
matter from simple to a serious one.
Through this traditional institution, responsibilities are assigned to young people in thecommunity to undertake the assessment responsibilities of available water sources and
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pasture for livestock during the wet and dry season. They report back to the community about
the situation with due consideration of the availability of feed both in quality and quantity, andestimate for how long the feeds and water sustain the livestock. After the assessment, thedecision making body decides the number of livestock and the duration of stay at a particularplace. Failure to respect the Medaa Aba’s instruction results in a penalty of slaughtering
female animals, regarded as highly valuable assets.
Pastoralists interviewed are aware of the existence and the impact of climate change on
pasture and water resources. In Shinile, there is no local rangeland management system.
The FGD at Shinile zone revealed that the pasture lands in the area is regarded as common
resource for pastoralist other than their clans; even the Issa (neighboring tribes), as far as
from Djibouti have the right to use pasture and water found in their localities.
The study in Northern Kenya (Luseno et al, 2002) also revealed that pastoralists watch the
behavior of livestock & wildlife towards particular features on the upcoming season’s climate.
Based on the authors´ findings, it seems to be considerable tacit knowledge and much roomfor exploration of the scientific foundations of ethno-metrology among East African pastorals.
4.3 Local knowledge and Innovations for Climate Change Adaptations
Pastoralists have long applied indigenous forecasting approaches to predict seasonal
climatic events. The focus group discussion revealed one of the classical local approach
known as “Dagu”. It is an indigenous form of organized information exchange and network
mechanism in the Afar region. This system helps pastoralist to assess the availability of
pasture and information exchange, which serves as a traditional early warning system intheir locality. In this traditional exercise which is embedded in the culture of locals in the Afarregion, when one person meets another person from a different locality (whether they are
strangers or they know each other), they spend the sometime to exchange information andabout their livestock, pasture and new events observed during their journey. Through Dagu,
the clan leader passes the information for the community to take measures in readiness foradverse weather conditions such as drought or extreme temperature. Such measure include
the slaughtering of newly born calves to maintain standing stock during adverse conditions
when water and pasture resources are scarce.
In both study areas, certain characteristics of animals have been decoded by pastoralist in
the study areas and used for predicting the beginning of new season:
Animal behaviors
The change in behavior of livestock in a certain manner may be used as indicators of emerging
rains or drought. For example, goats may shake their legs as if they are stuck in mud, erectionof body hair and shivering. These sign are taken by pastoralists to indicate the emergenceof rain in the area. In the events of water shortage or beginning of a drought period, cattle
may lose appetite for grazing and become sleepy and breathe as if they are tired. Suchsymptoms are taken by pastoralists to indicate that they may travel longer distance in searchof water and pasture. Based on this information, some measures to be prepared to cope withshortage or absences of rain.
Astrologic phenomena
Through the observations of stars around the moon, star readers are able to forecast
weather events that will unfold in the course of time. For instance, if that star is covered by
the moon this indicates that there is no rain in the season. This information is passed on totheir clan to inform decision that is made to cope with the eminent shortage foe rainfall. For
example, calves are slaughtered as a coping mechanism to maintain the standing population
for available resources.

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The Afar communities have adopted the heat and make water cool enough to drink, throughbuilding a bed like structure in the traditional houses with two gates. One gate serves to allow
air intake and the other functions as exhaust. Water is stored in traditional bags made of goathide. The bags will be suspended a few inches above the ground. After a while the water
will get cool and becomes ready to drink. This is how they construct a traditional air coolingsystem to get cool drinking water.
In Shinile zone of Somali region, water bag is put on the floor with a water-soaked sack asa cooling mechanism. The science behind this traditional innovation is that water molecules
during the process of evaporation are converted from the liquid to vapor and escape fromthe surface. During the process, water molecules take heat energy with it which is from thesurface of the bags creating a cooling effect on the behind.
In regions with arid climates such as Afar and Somali regions, excessive heat is a major
problem that causes thermal discomfort to human. The field visit reveals that pastoralist
construct their houses with soil roofs which is deemed as an adaptation methods to regulate
the excessive heat in the Shinile zone of Somali region. This soil roof evaporation andtranspiration provide is believed to provide a natural cooling system to pastoral local buildings.
Another adaptation measure taken in the study areas is maximization of the number offemale animals while keeping males at a minimum. Female-dominated-herd-structure is
an imperative adaptive strategy that ensures a fast revival of herds in case of a minimum
number of animal survival following exceptional harsh droughts incidence. FGD explained
pastoral communities have a culture not selling pregnant female animals. According to the
key-informant, the sale of pregnant female animals in the market is an indication of crisis
occurring and this information is processed as an early warning system by nearby Pastoral
Agricultural Offices.
4.4 Policy recommendations for enhancing climate change resilience
Policy and development programming aimed at pastoralists and the lands in which they live
have often been based on misconceptions about the nature of both pastoralism and thenon-equilibrium environments in which pastoralists live (Ellis and Swift 1988; Scoones 1995). Furthermore, a number of researchers have argued that mobile pastoralism represents
a response to the variability of rainfall and pasture resources in dry lands which is both
ecologically and economically rational (Scoones 1995; Niamir-Fuller 1998). While a deeper
understanding of the nature of pastoralist livelihoods and production systems is gradually
seeping into policy and programming (Davies 2008), there are still many unansweredquestions about appropriate policy directions.
Building on the recognition of the need for a bottom up approach, recent projects havestarted to employ a more local level strategy to climate change adaptation. Policymakers andother stakeholders can play a role in local adaptation, and trigger a process of recognition
and reflection. At local level, pastoralist might be able to benefit from knowing what otherpastoralists are practicing to cope up with climate change, then introduce and implement
these to their own situations .The documentation of innovations is not an end in itself. It
remains, nevertheless, important as a symbol of the local capacity to create and react tolocal problems.
Local people are innovative in climate change adaptation on their own initiative. Researchand development to mitigate climate change in a sustainable way will be more effective if it
recognizes their innovativeness to build upon it, deliberately seeking to integrate with these
local initiatives. This will also strengthen local capacities to adapt more quickly to climatechange conditions. Specific lessons for policy that can be drawn from analyzing the above
results are:
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•

•

•

•

•
•
•

Scientists and development practitioners need to be more aware of local people’s
innovation in managing their resources through local institutions. They need to lookbeyond traditional knowledge about climate change adaptation and recognize the local
emerging technologies for climate change adaptation.
Not only men but also women pastoralists are engaged in innovation for climate change
adaptation. It is therefore important to ensure that climate change adaption related
policies are gender sensitive and recognize and support women’s role in climate change
adaption.
Capacity building is needed to prepare numerous researchers, development agentsand local administrators to recognize local innovation and to facilitate pastoral led
experimentation and learning. Climate change development projects should giveadequate attention to rangeland and animal diseases that are locally important to meetcultural needs and to suit specific agro ecological conditions.
Systematically identify local innovations in climate change adaption and seek tounderstand how they are deliberately managing their resources in the face of climatechange. Together with these and other local stakeholders, assess the merits and demeritsof these innovations, and agree on activities needed to support the ones regarded as
successful in improving local livelihoods.
Offer locally appropriate forms of rewards and encouragement in terms of recognitionand socio economic benefits to encourage pastoralists to innovate for sustainable
management of natural resources.
Support local pastoralist institutions in organizing climate change innovation event as away to share their knowledge and achievements.
Partnerships of different stakeholders can enhance local innovation processes togenerate sustainable uses of natural resources. Multi stakeholder partnerships to deepen
knowledge about the local emerging technologies are essential to make full use of theirinnovation and reveal opportunities to add value to the local climate change innovation.

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5. Conclusions and Recommendations
Afar and Somali Pastoralists are adapting to these climate changes in local innovative ways.
Pastoralists are aware of climate variability including decreasing trends of rainfall inamount and distribution. It is important for stakeholders to recognize the role of local andindigenous knowledge. Management of mobility and resources has long been guided bytraditional institutions, and therefore these institutions have been a vital part of pastoralists’adaptive strategy, helping pastoralists take advantage of opportunities and cope with theconsequences of climate variation. Therefore, building the capacity of this local institution is
crucial in implementation of adaptation strategies and measures.
Planned adaptation interventions under rangeland management could build on existing coping
capacity and fill gaps where this capacity is being undermined. The management of invasive
alien species also has the potential of securing the asset base of pastoral communities.
The Government of Ethiopia has identified rangeland management as a priority adaptation
project in its NAPA. Intervention activities include the introduction of fodder species andthe management of invasive alien species and bush encroachment. It is important to notethat not all current local innovation used to cope with hazards is appropriate for long term
adaptation. Some strategies, based on short-term considerations can worsen environmental
degradation. i.e. traditional coping strategies such as charcoal and firewood selling. However,charcoal and firewood selling leads to massive deforestation, leading to intensification ofclimate change impacts. Government and NGOs should focus on enhancing alternativetechnologies & income generating activities

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ISBN: 978-9966-030-69-6
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