IAFOR Journal of Education

Volume 5 – Issue 2 – Summer 2017

Factors Affecting Teachers’ Perceived Proficiency in Using ICT in theClassroom
Prema Basargekar & Chandan Singhavi
K. J. Somaiya Institute of Management Studies and Research, India

67

IAFOR Journal of Education

Volume 5 – Issue 2 – Summer 2017

Abstract
Effective implementation of Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) plays animportant role in school education, especially in a developing country like India, to improve
the quality of education. School teachers’ lack of confidence and motivation for using ICT is
one of the major barriers of its implementation in schools. These barriers can be either nonmanipulative (i.e. which cannot be changed) or manipulative (i.e. which can be changed withthe help of school/government policies). This paper studies the impact of non-manipulative andmanipulative teachers’ factors on their perceived proficiency in using ICT in the classrooms.
It uses the primary data of 515 school teachers from the Maharashtra region of India teachingat high-school level (8th grade to 12th grade). The study concludes that both non-manipulative
as well as manipulative teachers’ factors are important in affecting teachers’ perception
regarding their own proficiency in using ICT in the classrooms. The study also provides somesuggestions to improve the perception by changing some manipulative factors.
Keywords: ICT; manipulative and non-manipulative teachers’ factors; teachers’ perceived
confidence.

68

IAFOR Journal of Education

Volume 5 – Issue 2 – Summer 2017

Introduction
One of the major challenges in school education in a developing country like India is to bringbetter quality and standardization. Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) can bea very valuable tool to tackle this problem. ICT not only helps in the teaching and learning
process, it also helps in assessment and evaluation, as well as in promoting inclusive education(Tikam, 2013). ICT can provide better access to educational resources, improve the quality oflearning, improve teachers’ productivity and can act as an effective tool to bridge the digital
divide between various socio-economic strata. It also enhances students’ participation which
improves their success rate (Naji, 2017). Success or failure of ICT implementation depends on
how teachers perceive themselves to be proficient in using ICT in the classroom. Teachers’
perception related to their proficiency is influenced both by non-manipulative teachers’ factors(demographic characteristics of the teachers) and manipulative teachers’ factors (such as
language of delivery, school board, training facilities, etc.) This paper studies the influence of
non-manipulative as well as manipulative teachers’ factors in forming their perception relating
to their proficiency in using ICT in the classroom. It uses the primary data of 515 teachers
teaching at high school level (8th grade to 12th grade) from Mumbai Metropolitan Region,
Maharashtra, India.
Literature Review
ICT stands for a diverse set of technological tools and resources used to communicate and tocreate, disseminate, store and manage information. Existing research has proven a positive
relationship between the active and positive role of the teachers and the successful
implementation of ICT in the classrooms (Granger et al., 2002). Afshari et al. (2009) made a
distinction between non-manipulative and manipulative teacher factors. Non-manipulative
factors are those such as a teacher’s age, work experience, gender, etc. which cannot be
influenced by the external environment or by the school. Manipulative factors are those suchas the school board, the language of delivery, teachers’ training programs, infrastructure, etc.
which can be influenced by the external environment or by school management. This
classification is also adopted by other researchers such as Drent and Meelissen (2008).
Many authors have made an attempt to see the effect of personal attributes of the teachers on
successful implementation of ICT. Buaneng-Andoh (2012) stated that personal characteristics
like gender, age, educational qualifications and teaching experience of the teachers play animportant role in effective implementation of ICT in the classrooms.
Gender is one of the attributes which affects the attitude towards computers. The discussion on‘gender’ as an attribute affecting teachers’ factor is important as it might have a long-term
impact on implementation of ICT in the classrooms. It can also throw some light on policy
implication at the school as well as at the governmental level. Volman et al. (2005) reported
that girls show a lower attitude to learning ICT based skills from secondary school onwards
which later is reflected in lower self-confidence in using computers. Jamieson-Proctor, Burnett,
Finger and Watson (2006) found that female teachers are less likely to use ICT in classrooms
compared to their male counterparts on account of a lower level of confidence.
Teaching/working experience of teachers is another attribute which may influence
implementation of ICT in the classrooms. The existing research shows that there are mixed
results to be found in the relationship between teacher’s work experience and their use of ICT
in the classrooms. For example, Hernandez-Ramos (2005) stated that teachers’ understanding69

IAFOR Journal of Education

Volume 5 – Issue 2 – Summer 2017of the use of technology for education as well as overall work experience will have a positive
impact in building a positive attitude towards ICT. Lau and Sim (2008) also demonstrated thatexperienced teachers are more willing to use technology in the classroom. At the same time
Wachiuri (2015) found that there is no correlation between teacher’s work experience and theiruse of ICT in the classrooms. Baek, Jong, and Kim (2008) found the opposing relationshipbetween work experience and ICT use in the classroom. They argued that more experienced
teachers are in fact reluctant to use technology in the classrooms as compared to nonexperienced and young teachers. Afshari et al. (2009) also pointed out that teachers with fewer
years of experience are likely to use computers more than teachers with more years ofexperience. These two opposing views might also imply different policy perspectives withrespect to selection of schools, teachers for implementation of ICT in the schools as well as fordevelopment of course material for teachers’ training program in ICT.
Teachers’ experience of working with computers is found to have a positive relationship with
their use of ICT in the classrooms (Lou and Sim, 2008; Hernandez-Ramos, 2005). The authors
further state that exposure to technology and knowledge of software application is vitally
important for successful implementation of ICT. Gilakjani (2013) mentioned that computer
self-efficacy or teachers’ judgment related to their own proficiency in computers plays animportant role in their using ICT in the classroom.
Manipulative teachers’ factors relate to school environment such as the type of school board,
language of delivery, teachers’ training program facilities and the type of subjects taught by
the teachers. These factors can be controlled or changed by designing and implementing
effective policies at the school and the governmental level.
In most of the developing countries such as India, Bangladesh, and Sri Lanka, there are two
types of Educational Boards which govern the school system. The Education Board is acontrolling authority of an education system or a unit of it. The State sponsored school system
is governed by Secondary School Certificate (SSC). Private school education is governed bydifferent boards such as the Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE), Indian Certificate
for Secondary Education (ICSE) and International Baccalaureate (IB). Education boards havea very important role in designing the school curriculum and other school administration, which
in turn has an impact on ICT implementation at the school level. State sponsored schools which
are governed by the SSC board mainly cater to mass education and mostly use regional
language as the medium of delivery. Private schools governed by other boards mainly cater toa better socio-economic class and use English as a language of delivery.
Language of delivery can also act as one of the factor affecting use of ICT. In many developing
countries like India and Bangladesh many schools are using regional languages as a languageof delivery. English being the dominant language of computer software, it also supports ICT
and ICT supported tools. ICT is integrated in the school syllabus in two ways. Firstly, it is used
as one of the compulsory subject which is taught at higher grades such as 9th grade onwards.
Secondly it is used as an effective tool to teach various subjects such as mathematics, social
sciences or languages. ICT will become truly effective only if it is used as a tool to teach othersubjects and not as a separate tool. For this purpose, it is most essential that electronic content
is available in regional languages in which the majority of the children are learning. Lack ofappropriate ICT content in the regional languages is one of the challenges of the use of ICT(Khan, Hasan and Clement, 2012).

70

IAFOR Journal of Education

Volume 5 – Issue 2 – Summer 2017

Many studies such as Bingimlas (2009), Unwin (2005), Galanouli, Murphy and Gardner (2004)
have pointed out the importance of teachers’ training programs for integrating ICT successfullyin the school education. Teachers’ training programs not only help in building technology
literacy, but also motivate teachers to use ICT in the classrooms (Hennessy, Harrison andWamakote, 2010; Abuhmaid, 2011). Lack of in-service training is cited as one of the major
barriers for integrating ICT in the classroom by many studies (Gotkas and Yildirim, 2009; Ali,
Haolader and Muhammad, 2013). Kay (2006) analyzed the gender differences in pre-service
teachers before and after a training program (laptop program). The authors conclude thatthough there were significant differences in the attitude before the program, they were
mitigated after the program.
The existing research showed that personal characteristics of the teachers have a significant
impact on the successful implementation of ICT in the classroom. It also pointed out thatexternal environment like teachers’ training programs; government policy; infrastructuralavailability can bring out positive changes. It is observed that comparatively less study is donein the context of developing economies like India. Developing countries can use ICT as one of
the tools to bridge the digital divide between urban and rural schools or between private andpublic schools. In fact, there is a risk of widening this divide if the positive actions are not taken
on time. It is in this context that this study is related to identifying teachers’ factors affective
their perceived proficiency in implementing ICT in the classroom.
Objectives
The main objective of the study was to ascertain the impact of non-manipulative andmanipulative teacher factors on teachers’ perception related to their proficiency in using ICT
in the classrooms. The specific objectives were as follows:• To discover the impact of non-manipulative teacher factors such as age, gender, work/
teaching experience, experience of working with computers, on teachers’ perception of
their proficiency in using ICT in the classroom.
• To explore the impact of manipulative teacher factors such as school board, language ofdelivery, teachers’ training programs facilities and the subjects taught on teachers’
perception related to their proficiency in using ICT in the classroom.
Methodology
The study used the primary data of 515 teachers teaching 5th to 10th grade. They were surveyedfrom Mumbai Metropolitan region, Maharashtra, India. They represent different schools fromdifferent boards such as SSC board, CBSC board, ICSE board or IB board. They came fromschools providing education using different languages of delivery such as English medium
schools or Regional medium schools.
Teachers’ perception related to their proficiency in using ICT in the classroom was investigatedusing a Likert scale of 16 parameters.

71

IAFOR Journal of Education

Volume 5 – Issue 2 – Summer 2017

Table 1: Teachers’ perception related to their proficiency.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16

I can use power point in my class
I can use email to communicate with other teachers and students
I can create a document in Microsoft word
I can print a document in Microsoft word
I can use formula in spreadsheet
I can teach my students creating newsletter using desktop publishing
I can select appropriate software to use in my teaching
I can design technology enhanced learning activities for my students
I can teach my students to use appropriate software to use in their projects
I can teach my students how can they make their own webpages
I can use internet in my class to meet certain learning goals
Computers help students to understand concepts clearly
I can teach students to use graphics software to create pictures
I can teach students use scanners to capture graphics, photos and/or text
I can teach students import clipart into text
I can teach my students browsing WWW‘1’ represents the lowest rank and ‘5’ represents the highest rank. The mean of these 16
parameters is taken as an index of teachers’ perceived proficiency in using ICT in the classroom.
An ANOVA test is used to see whether the difference across the categories is statisticallysignificant or not.
Results
The data analysis is done in two parts: Descriptive analysis and inferential analysis. The
descriptive analysis provides the profile of the surveyed teachers and their own perception
related to computer proficiency. The inferential analysis shows the relationship between
different manipulative and non-manipulative factors and teachers’ perception related to
proficiency in using ICT in the classroom.
Descriptive Analysis
The basic profile of the surveyed teachers is given in Table 2.
Table 2: Profile of the surveyed teachers.
Sr. No1Particulars
Gender2

Age category3

Language of delivery

Categories
Male
FemaleTotal
21 years to 30 years
30 years to 45 years
46 years and above
Non reporting
Total
EnglishRegional

72

Number
128
387
515
93
269
113
40
515
369
146

Percent
25
75
100
18
52
22
8
100
72
28

IAFOR Journal of Education

4

5

6

Volume 5 – Issue 2 – Summer 2017

Total
Work experience
1 year to 5 years
6 years to 15 years
16 years and above
Non reporting
Total
Experience to work 1 year to 5 years
with computers
6 years and above
Non reporting
Total
Subjects taught
Technical
Non-technicalTechnical+
Nontechnical
Total

515
124
166
203
22
515
263

100
24
32
39
4
100
41

183
69
515
217
208
90

36
13
100
42
40
17

515

100

The table reveals that nearly 75 percent of the surveyed teachers are female. More than 50
percent belong to the age group of 30 to 45 years. Most of them are teaching in English medium
schools. Around 39 percent of the surveyed teachers have work experience more than 16 years.
Forty-one percent have experience in working with the computer for at least 1 to 5 years. Thereis a good mix of teachers teaching technical and non-technical subjects.
Perception Related to Computer Proficiency Score
The surveyed teachers were asked to provide their perception related to their proficiency inusing ICT in the classroom. The Likert scale was used to measure it ranging from 1 scoring thelowest to 5 scoring for highest perceived proficiency. 15 parameters were used to cover various
uses of ICT in the classroom ranging from simple using power point presentation in the classto helping students to make their web pages. The scale used to measure perceived proficiencyof the teachers is taken from Papanastasiou and Angeli (2008). It is modified to suit Indian
context. The details of the same are given in Table 3.
Table 3: Details of the perception related to Proficiency in ICT score.
Sr.
noParameters of proficiency in ICT

Number Mean Std.
Dev

Minimum Maximum

1
2

I can use power point in my class
I can use email to communicate
with other teachers and students
I can create a document in
Microsoft word
I can print a document in
Microsoft word
I can use formula in spreadsheet
I can teach my students creating
newsletter
using
desktop
publishing

508

3.95

1.04

1.00

5.00

503

3.86

1.07

1.00

5.00

508

4.06

.98

1.00

5.00

509

4.05

1.05

1.00

5.00

499

3.89

1.11

1.00

5.00

492

3.61

1.14

1.00

5.00

3
4
5
6

73

IAFOR Journal of Education

7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15

I can select appropriate software
to use in my teaching
I can design technology enhanced
learning activities for my students
I can teach my students to use
appropriate software to use in
their projects
I can teach my students how canthey make their own webpages
I can use internet in my class tomeet certain learning goals
I can teach students to use
graphics software to create
pictures
I can teach students use scanners
to capture graphics, photos and/or
text
I can teach students import clipart
into text
I can teach my students browsing
WWW
Overall Proficiency score

Volume 5 – Issue 2 – Summer 2017

499

3.75

1.09

1.00

5.00

499

3.60

1.15

1.00

5.00

500

3.71

1.09

1.00

5.00

500

3.26

1.24

1.00

5.00

500

3.76

1.18

1.00

5.00

498

3.45

1.28

1.00

5.00

495

3.50

1.19

1.00

5.00

499

3.70

1.19

1.00

5.00

503

3.93

1.05

1.00

5.00

515

3.74

0.95

.00

5.00

The overall score of perception related to proficiency in ICT is 3.74 out of maximum 5. It
ranges from minimum zero to maximum 5. The data shows that it ranges widely across different
parameters of proficiency. It is found to be higher in using computers for routine functions likecreating a word doc (4.06), printing a document (4.05) and using power point presentation in aclassroom (3.95). It is lower in more technical use of computers such as helping students tomake their own web pages (3.26), teaching with the help of graphic software (3.45) and using
the scanners to capture graphics, text, etc. (3.50).
Inferential Analysis
ANOVA was used to discover the impact of non-manipulative and manipulative factors onteachers’ perceived proficiency in using ICT in the classroom.
Impact of Non-manipulative Factors
A number of non-manipulative factors such as gender, age group, teaching/ working experience,experience to work with the computers, and the type of subjects taught by the teacher wereconsidered for further analysis.
Impact of Gender on Teachers’ Perceived Proficiency in Using ICT
The surveyed teachers were classified into male and female s to examine the impact of genderon their perceived proficiency in using ICT in the classroom.
H1: The difference in gender of teachers affects their perceived proficiency in using ICT in theclassroom.

74

IAFOR Journal of Education

Volume 5 – Issue 2 – Summer 2017

Table 4: Perceived proficiency in using ICT as per the gender.
Sr. No12
Total

GenderMale
FemaleTotal

Number
128
387
515

Mean
3.58
3.82
3.76

S.D
1.12
.88
.95

Minimum
.00
.00
.00

Maximum
5.00
5.00
5.00

The mean of perceived proficiency in using ICT of female teachers is higher than that of maleteachers. It is found that the difference across the categories of the gender is statisticallysignificant as p < 0.05. This finding is different from that reported in the existing literature.
Impact of Age Group on Perceived Proficiency in Using ICT
The surveyed teachers were classified into 3 categories as per the age group 21 years to 30
years, 31 years to 45 years and 46 years and above.
H2: The difference in age-group of teachers affects their perceived proficiency in using ICT in
the classroom.
Table 5: Perceived proficiency in using ICT as per the age group.
Sr. No Age Group1
21 years to 30 years
2
30 years to 45 years
46 years and above
Total Total

Number
93
269
113
475

Mean
3.97
3.71
3.69
3.76

S.D
.83
.93
1.04
.94

Minimum
1.00
.00
.00
.00

Maximum
5.00
5.00
5.00
5.00

The mean of perceived proficiency score is highest for the age group of 21 years to 30 years
and lowest for the last group of 46 years and above. The difference across the groups is foundout to be statistically significant as p < 0.05. This finding confirms some of the earlier studies
by stating that younger teachers are relatively more confident and enthusiastic to use ICT in
the classroom.
Impact of Work/Teaching Experience on Perceived Proficiency in Using ICT
In order to see whether work experience has any impact on the perceived proficiency or not,the surveyed teachers were classified into three groups such as working experience up to 1 to
5 years, 6 to 15 years and 26 and above.
H3: The difference in working/ teaching experience of the teachers affects their perceived
proficiency in using ICT in the classroom.
Table 6: Perceived proficiency in using ICT as per the working/teaching experience.
Sr. No123Total

Teaching/Working experience
1 year to 5 years
6 years to 15 years
16 years and above
Total

Number
124
166
203
493

75

Mean
3.96
3.74
3.69
3.77

S.D
.81
.94
1.00
.94

Minimum
1.00
.00
.00
.00

Maximum
5.00
5.00
5.00
5.00

IAFOR Journal of Education

Volume 5 – Issue 2 – Summer 2017

The mean of perceived proficiency in using ICT is higher in the first category of 1 to 5 yearsof work experience and lowest in the third category of work experience of 16 years and above.
The difference across the three categories is statistically significant (p < 0.05). This finding
goes in tandem with our earlier finding of perceived proficiency with the age group of thesurveyed teachers.
Impact of Experience to Work with Computers on Perceived Proficiency in Using ICT
The surveyed teachers were classified into three groups such as working experience up to 1 to
5 years, 6 to 15 years and 26 and above.
H4: The difference in teacher’s experience to work with computers affects their perceived
proficiency in using ICT in the classroom.
Table 7: Perceived proficiency in using ICT as per the experience to work with computers.
Sr. No12
Total

Experience to work
computers
1 year to 5 years
6 years to 15 years
16 years and above
Total

with Number
69
263
183
515

Mean S.D Minimum Maximum
3.76
3.67
3.90
3.76

.98
.93
.95
.95

.00
.00
.00
.00

5.00
5.00
5.00
5.00

It can be seen that with rising years of experience to work with the computers the mean ofperceived proficiency in using ICT is also rising. The difference across the categories isstatistically significant (p < 0.05).
Impact of the Type of Subjects Taught on the Perceived Proficiency in Using ICT
It is believed that some of the subjects like mathematics, science and computers (technicalsubjects) might be more easily learnt with the help of technology as compared to other subjects
such as languages, social sciences, etc. (non-technical subjects). In order to find out whether
the perceived proficiency differs due to the type of the subjects taught or not, the surveyed
teachers were classified into three groups such as those who teach technical subjects, those whoteach non-technical subjects and those who teach both type of subjects.
H5: The difference in the type of subjects taught by the teachers affects their perceived
proficiency in using ICT in the classroom.
Table 8: Perceived proficiency in using ICT as per the subjects taught.
Sr. No1
2
3
Total

Subjects taught
Technical
Non- technical
Both
Total

Number
217
208
90
515

Mean
3.72
3.73
3.95
3.76

S.D
1.02
.95
.73
.95

Minimum
.00
.00
2.00
.00

Maximum
5.00
5.00
5.00
5.00

It is seen that the mean of perceived proficiency in using ICT in the classroom amongst theteachers teaching technical subjects (like mathematics, science and computer) is not so76

IAFOR Journal of Education

Volume 5 – Issue 2 – Summer 2017

different than the teachers teaching non-technical subjects (like languages, social sciences, etc.).
Also the mean of perceived proficiency of teachers taking both technical as well as nontechnical subjects is higher than other two categories. The difference across the categories is
not statistically significant (p > 0.05).
Impact of Manipulative Factors on Perceived Proficiency of Teachers in Using ICT in theClassroom
Manipulative factors included in this study are related to school environment such as type ofschool board, language of delivery and the teachers’ training program facilities.
Impact of Type of School Board on Teachers’ Perceived Proficiency in Using ICT
The surveyed teachers belong to four different types of boards. They are as follows:a. Secondary School Certificate (SSC board) – These schools are also popularly known as
state board school run with the help of state government grantb. Central Board of Secondary Education – CBSE
c. Indian Certificate for Secondary Education (ICSE)
d. International Baccalaureate (IB)There is a significant difference between the SSC board schools and other board schools. Mostof the other board schools are privately run. They have better amenities and they mainly caterto higher socio-economic strata in the society as compared with SSC board school. They all
are English medium schools. Most of the SSC board schools are catering to mass educationand many of them are regional medium schools. In order to find out whether the type of board
has any impact on teachers’ perceived proficiency in using ICT, they were classified into twogroups: SSC board and other boards. This classification also reflects the difference between
state board schools and private schools.
H06: The difference in the type of school board will not have any impact on perceived
proficiency in using ICT in the classroom.
H6: The difference in the type of school board in which teachers are working affects theirperceived proficiency in using ICT in the classroom.
Table 9: Perceived proficiency in using ICT as per the school board.
Sr. No1
23School Board
SSC
Other Boards
Total

Number
353
159
512

Mean
3.65
4.03
3.77

S.D
.96166.88175.95261Minimum
.00
.00
.00

Maximum
5.00
5.00
5.00

The mean of perceived proficiency in using ICT is lower for teachers working in SSC board
than that of other boards. This difference is found out to be statistically significant (P < 0.05).
As mentioned earlier, most of the SSC board schools cater to the mass education where theinfrastructural resources are relatively less as compared to other board schools.

77

IAFOR Journal of Education

Volume 5 – Issue 2 – Summer 2017

Impact of Language of Delivery on Teachers’ Perceived Proficiency in Using ICT
Language of delivery can have a strong impact on the teachers’ perceived proficiency in ICT.
In order to see that the surveyed teachers were classified into two groups such as those who are
working in regional medium schools and in English medium schools.
H7: The difference in language of delivery of the school affects teachers’ perceived proficiency
in using ICT in the classroom.
Table 10: Perceived proficiency in using ICT as per the language of delivery.
Sr. No12
Total

Language of delivery
EnglishRegional
Total

Number
369
146
515

Mean
3.88
3.47
3.76

S.D
.86
1.09
.95

Minimum
.00
1.00
.00

Maximum
5.00
5.00
5.00

The data analysis reveals that the mean of perceived proficiency in using ICT for teachers
working in English medium schools is significantly higher than that of teachers working inregional medium schools. This difference across the two categories is statistically significant
as p < 0.05.
Impact of Teachers’ Training Programs on Teachers’ Perceived Proficiency in Using ICT
Teachers’ training programs play an important role in building computer skills and in creating
positive attitude towards using ICT in the classroom. The surveyed teachers were asked about
the type of training taken by them to improve their proficiency. It is as follows:
Table 11: The list of training modules to improve proficiency of teachers in using ICT.
Sr. No
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14

List of the modules
Introductory course on internet use
Introductory course on general application (Basic word, spreadsheet,presentation)
Advanced course on applications (advanced word processing, relational
databases, visual learning environment etc.)
Advanced course on internet use (creating website/home page, videoconferencing etc...)Equipment specific training (interactive white board software, laptop, etc..)
Courses on pedagogical use of ICT in teaching and learning
Subjects specific training on learning applications (tutorials, simulations,
etc…)
Courses on multimedia (using digital video, audio equipment)
Participating in online communities (e.g. mailing list, twitter, blogs etc..) for
professional discussion with other teachers
ICT training provided by school staff
Personal learning about ICT in your own time
Other training related to ICT
How to use ICT to support assessment of learning
Planning and implementing e-learning in your class or school78

IAFOR Journal of Education

Volume 5 – Issue 2 – Summer 2017

The list covers a variety of training modules ranging from a basic introductory course such as
using internet to advanced courses such as use of multi-media, simulations, etc. The teachers
were classified based on the number of modules they had covered in the overall training
programs such as: training facility not accessed, 1 to 4 modules, 5 to 10 modules, and above
10 modules.
H8: The number of Teachers’ training program attended by teachers affects their perceived
proficiency in using ICT in the classroom.
Table 12: Perceived Proficiency in using ICT as per teachers’ training program facility in termsof number of modules covered in the training programs.
Sr. No Category of training modules Number Mean S.D Minimum Maximum
1036
3.50 .87 1.00
5.00
2
1-4
88
3.60 .91 1.00
5.00
3
5-10
156
3.86 .99 .00
5.00
4
Above 1160
3.88 .88 1.00
5.00
Total
340
3.76 .95 .00
5.00
The data analysis shows that the mean of perceived proficiency in using ICT in the classroom
is rising as per the rising number of modules covered in the training program. The difference
across all the categories is statistically significant (p < 0.05). It can thus be concluded thatteacher training programs have an impact on perceived proficiency in using ICT in theclassroom.
Summary of Findings
Table 13 gives the summary of inferential analysis about acceptance or rejection of hypotheses.
Table 13: Acceptance and rejection of hypotheses.
Sr. no1

Hypotheses
Gender2

Age group3

5

Teaching/working
experience
Experience to workwith computers
Subjects taught

6

School board

7

Language of delivery

8

Null hypothesis isrejected andalternative hypotheses
are accepted

4

Between the groups and within the groups
Null hypothesis is rejected and alternative
hypotheses are accepted
Null hypothesis is rejected and alternative
hypotheses are accepted
Null hypothesis is rejected and alternative
hypotheses are accepted
Null hypothesis is rejected and alternative
hypotheses are accepted
Null hypothesis is accepted and alternative
hypotheses are rejected
Null hypothesis is rejected and alternative
hypotheses are accepted
Null hypothesis is rejected and alternative
hypotheses are accepted
Null hypothesis is rejected and alternative
hypotheses are accepted79

IAFOR Journal of Education

Volume 5 – Issue 2 – Summer 2017

Discussion
Our study showed that both non-manipulative and manipulative factors play an important rolein developing teachers perceived proficiency in using ICT in the classroom. In nonmanipulative factors, gender, age group, work experience and experience to work with thecomputers are found out to be significant factors.
Our study reflected that female teachers have higher level of perceived proficiency in using
ICT in the classroom than their male counterparts. This is in contradiction to the existing
research. The existing literature states that female teachers are less proficient in using ICT in
the classroom. This might be due to two facts. Firstly, the proportion of female teachers is
significantly high at school level as it is considered to be an appropriate (safe, respectable, etc.)
job for educated females in the Indian context.
Secondly, all the state board schools (SSC) have a compulsory component of teacher training
programs in ICT where most of our surveyed female teachers are working. This finding may
have a positive implication for school management and policy makers. Implementation of ICT
may not face a gender barrier of as the proportion of female teachers is larger than that of maleteachers.
Age group and working/teaching experience has a negative relation with the perceived
proficiency in using ICT in the classroom. The existing research also shows that younger
teachers and teachers with less number of years of experience are more enthusiastic to use
technology in the classroom. This may be due to various reasons. Firstly, teachers from higher
age-groups and having longer experience may feel threatened due to new technologies such as
ICT and using computers in the classrooms. The feeling of getting easily replaced by thetechnology might have created a negative attitude in using it. Secondly adopting ICT alsomeans changing pedagogy and moving towards encouraging self-learning process rather thanteaching and instructing in the classroom.
Experience to work with the computers has a positive relationship with perceived proficiency
in using ICT in the classroom.
It might be perceived that ICT can be used more effectively for teaching technical subjects likemathematics or science rather than non-technical subjects like languages or social sciences.
Our study showed that the type of subject category taught by the teachers has no relationshipwith perceived proficiency in using ICT in the classroom. This indicates that teachers perceivethat both technical as well as non-technical both the subjects can be effectively taught with thehelp of ICT.
Manipulative factors cover type of school board, language of delivery and teachers training
program facilities. The study shows that teachers working in State education board (SSC) has
relatively lower perceived proficiency in using ICT in the classroom as compared to the teacher
working in other boards (CBSC, ICSE and IB). State education board schools are also publicgrant schools or popularly known as public schools. Most of the other board schools are private
schools. These schools also reflect the socio-economic status of the children admitted in theseschools. Most of the children from weaker socio-economic background attend public schools
which are free, whereas children from better socio-economic background attend private schools.

80

IAFOR Journal of Education

Volume 5 – Issue 2 – Summer 2017

Our study showed that perceived proficiency of teachers in private schools is higher than thatof public schools. This indicates that socio-economic context of the school and availability of
infrastructure has an impact on teachers’ perceived proficiency in using ICT in the classroom.
The study finds that the language of delivery has a very strong impact on perceived proficiency
in using ICT in the classroom. The teachers working in the regional medium schools were
found to have substantially low perceived proficiency in using ICT in the classroom ascompared to English medium schools. This result goes in tandem with the existing literature
which states that due to inadequate support of software and e-content in regional languages,
the integration of ICT in regional language schools is lesser than in English medium schools.
This is a major challenge for a developing country like India as majority of the children
attending regional medium schools and public schools are also coming from weaker section of
the society. ICT can encourage inclusive education in a true sense only if it can enableeducation in regional languages.
The study further confirms that teachers’ training programs have a positive impact on teachers’
perceived proficiency on using ICT.
Recommendations
The study provides the following suggestions:• The existing research unanimously agrees that teachers play a vital role in successful
implementation of ICT in the school. Therefore, the importance of building the
proficiency of teachers to use ICT cannot be overstated. The school management andpolicy makers can consider the non-manipulative and non-manipulative factors to
improve the teachers’ proficiency in using ICT in the classroom.
• Non-manipulative teachers’ factors are related to their demographic characteristics. It isfound that age group and working experience of the teachers have a negative relation
with the perceived proficiency. Hence, it is suggested that special teachers’ training
programs can be organized for more experienced and mature teachers. Teachers having
more number of years of experience and belonging to higher age-group often face a fearof getting replaced by new technologies like ICT. The training should also be oriented inremoving these fears and building a positive attitude for using ICT in the classrooms.
Training in building technical competencies should also be complemented with training
in changing the mind-set.
• Manipulative factors are under control of the school management. As it is found that theteachers from the SSC board school have lower perceived proficiency in using ICT, it isrecommended that the state government and school managements of these schools shouldtake active efforts to build teachers proficiency. Compulsory teachers training programs
is one such positive move which is recently taken by many state governments. Alongwith that it is also necessary to provide the supporting environment to the teachers interms of infrastructure, incentives and time availability. Attaran, Alias and Siraj (2012)
pointed out that effective implementation of ICT in schools requires creation of learning
culture which requires top management’s support, investment in technology such as
internet, portal development, computer equipment and other required machinery,common mission and values among all the stakeholders and strong course material inelectronic format.

81

IAFOR Journal of Education

Volume 5 – Issue 2 – Summer 2017

• It is seen in our study that teachers from regional medium school have significantly lower
perceived proficiency in ICT as compared to the teachers from English medium school.
This can be on account of inadequate resources such as appropriate software and econtent in regional language. Attention must be given to build-up these resources in theregional language. It may have a long-term impact of increasing or mitigating the digital
gap in the country. Development of e-content in regional languages is essential if ICT isto be used for bridging the digital divide between public and private schools.
• This study as well as the existing research has shown that teachers’ training programs areimportant to build-up their capabilities and attitudes. These training programs need to beappropriately designed and conducted based on the proficiency level, age group, work
experience and the subjects taught by the teachers. As use of ICT will lead to more selfstudy oriented learning, the teaching pedagogy also needs to be changed. The teachers
need to mould themselves as facilitators rather than as instructors. The training programs
should also focus on changing their mind-sets and building a positive attitude towards
using ICT in the classrooms.
Conclusion
This study focused on finding out the impact of non-manipulative and manipulative teachers’
factors on their perceived proficiency in using ICT in the classrooms. It has a special reference
to a developing country like India where there is a huge variation in the standard and qualityof school education due to divergent socio-economic backgrounds of population. The study
finds that teachers’ perceptions are affected by non-manipulative as well as manipulative
factors. It further recommends that intervention in terms of creation of e-content in regional
languages and encouraging teachers training program in ICT will go a long way in improving
their perceived proficiency in using ICT in the classrooms.

82

IAFOR Journal of Education

Volume 5 – Issue 2 – Summer 2017

References
Abuhmaid, A. (2011). ICT training courses for teacher professional development in Jordan.
The Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology, 10(4), 195–210.
Afshari, M., Bakar, K., Luan, W. S., Samah, B. A., & Fooi, F. S. (2009). Factors affecting
teachers’ use of information and communication technology. International Journal of
Instruction, 2(1), 77–104.
Ali, G., Haolader, F., & Muhammad, K. (2013). The role of ICT to make teaching-learning
effective in higher institutions of learning in Uganda. International Journal of Innovative
Research in Science, Engineering and Technology, 2(8), 4061–4072.
Attaram, M., Alias, N., & Siraj, S. (2012). Learning culture in a smart school: A case study.
Procedia-SocialandBehavioural
Sciences,64,417–423.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2012.11.049
Baek, Y.G., Jong, J., & Kim, B. (2008). What makes teachers use of technology in theclassroom? Exploring the factors affecting facilitation of technology with a Koreansample.
Computers
andEducation,
50(8),
224–234.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2006.05.002
Bingimlas, K. A. (2009). Barriers to the successful integration of ICT in teaching and learning
environments: A review of the literature. Eurasia Journal of Mathematics, Science &Technology Education, 5(3).
Buaneng-Andoh, C. (2012). Factors influencing teachers’ adoption and integration of
information and communication technology into teaching: A review of the literature.
International Journal of Education and Development using Information andCommunication Technology, 8(1), 136–155.
Drent, M., & Meelissen, M. (2008). Which factors obstruct or stimulate teacher educators touse
ICTinnovatively? Computers&
Education, 51(1),187–199.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2007.05.001
Galanouli, D., Murphy, C., & Gardner, J. (2004). Teachers’ perceptions of the effectiveness of
ICT-competence
training. Computers&
Education, 43(1),63–79.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2003.12.005
Gilakjani, A. (2013). Factors contributing to teachers’ use of computer technology in theclassroom. Universal Journal of Educational Research, 1(3), 262–267.
Goktas, Y., Yildirim, S., & Yildirim, Z. (2009). Main barriers and possible enablers of ICTs
integration into pre-service teacher education programs. Educational Technology &Society, 12(1), 193–204.
Granger, C. A., Morbey, M. L., Lotherington, H., Owston, R. D., & Wideman, H. H. (2002).
Factors contributing to teachers’ successful implementation of IT. Journal of Computer
Assisted
Learning, 18(4),
480–488.
https://doi.org/10.1046/j.02664909.2002.00259.doc.x
Hennessy, S., Harrison, D., & Wamakote, L. (2010). Teacher factors influencing classroom
use of ICT in Sub-Saharan Africa, Itupale Online Journal of African Studies, 2, 39–54.
http://www.a-id.org/pdf/teacher-factors-influencing-classroom-use-of-ict.pdf

83

IAFOR Journal of Education

Volume 5 – Issue 2 – Summer 2017

Hernandez-Ramos, P. (2005). If not here, where? Understanding teachers use of technology in
Silicon Valley Schools. Journal of Research on Technology in Education, 3(1), 39–64.
https://doi.org/10.1080/15391523.2005.10782449
Jamieson-Proctor, R., Burnett, P., Finger, G., & Watson, G. (2006). ICT integration andteachers’ confidence in using ICT for teaching and learning in Queensland state schools.
Australian
Journalof
Educational
Technology,
22(4),
511–530.
https://doi.org/10.14742/ajet.1283
Kay, R. (2006). Addressing gender differences in computer ability, attitudes and use: The
laptop effect. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 34(2), 187–211.
https://doi.org/10.2190/9BLQ-883Y-XQMA-FCAH
Khan, S, Hasan, M., & Clement, C. (2012). Barriers to the introduction of ICT into educationin developing countries: The example of Bangladesh. International Journal of Instruction,
5(2), 61–80.
Lau, B., & Sim, C. (2008). Exploring the extent of ICT adoption among secondary school
teachers in Malaysia. International Journal of Computing and ICT Research, 2(2), 19–36.
Naji, S. (2017). The impact of ICT on schools. IOSR Journal of Business & Management, 19,
83–85. https://doi.org/10.9790/487X-1901078385
Papanastasiou, E. C., & Angeli, C. (2008). Evaluating the use of ICT in education:
Psychometric properties of the survey of factors affecting teachers teaching withtechnology (SFA-T3 ). Educational Technology & Society, 11 (1), 69–86.
Tikam, M. V. (2013). Impact of ICT on education. International Journal of Information
Communication Technologies and Human Development (IJICTHD), 5(4), 1–9.
https://doi.org/10.4018/ijicthd.2013100101
Unwin, T. (2005). Towards a framework for the use of ICT in teacher training in Africa. Open
Learning: The Journal of Open, Distance and e-Learning, 20(2), 113–129.
https://doi.org/10.1080/02680510500094124
Volman, M., Van Eck, E., Heemskerk, I., & Kuiper, E. (2005). New technologies, newdifferences. Gender and ethnic differences in pupils’ use of ICT in primary and secondary
education. Computers & Education, 45, 35–55. https://doi.org/10.1016/S03601315(04)00072-7
Wachiuri, R. N. (2015). Effects of teachers’ experience and training on implementation of
information communication technology in public secondary schools in Nyeri, Central
District, Kenya, IOSR Journal of Humanities and Social Science, 20(3), 26–38.
Corresponding author: Prema Basargekar
Email: prema@somaiya.edu

84