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Promoting Autonomy in and out of the Classroom
ANDREW D. TWEED
Soka University

Abstract
Providing learners with an increased amount of autonomy can lead to higher levels of motivation(Ryan & Deci, 2017). This reality, combined with the fact that learning a foreign language
requires many hours of study, suggests that teachers need to help learners take control of theirlearning. This paper first provides a theoretical background to explain what learner autonomy is.
Following that, the article discusses why it is important to promote learner autonomy to ourlearners. Finally, it introduces a number of practical ways for teachers to give more control tostudents over their learning. These methods range from giving students choices in the classroom,
introducing websites or apps, and promoting self-access and other learning beyond theclassroom. A list of relevant resources for teachers appears at the end of this article.

My first job teaching English began in 2000, as an eikaiwa teacher. Teaching at that school, I
noticed that some students made significantly more progress than others; and those students haddecided to do extra work outside of the classroom. For example, one student did a listening
transcription every week, and another wrote a daily diary in English. Throughout my TESOL
career, I would go on to notice that those students who took more responsibility for their learning
seemed to make more rapid developments in their learning.
As a learner of foreign languages, too, I have had similar experiences. During those times
when I was not simply following a teacher’s direction, but made important decisions about myown learning (e.g., choosing the materials; setting my own goals; and determining the methodsof learning), I noticed that I was able to learn more effectively, and I also felt more motivated.
Ultimately, these realizations, from both a teacher’s and a learner’s perspective, led me to focus
on autonomous learning as my primary professional interest.

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But what does learner autonomy actually mean? Why is it important? And how canteachers foster it? This paper will seek to provide answers to these questions.
What is Learner Autonomy?
Based on past communication with teachers working in a number of different educational
contexts, it seems many language teachers today are familiar with the notion of learnerautonomy. When asked to explain what it is, teachers have used a wide variety of terms, such as
self-study, self-regulated learning and self-access.
While all of these are indeed related to learner autonomy, they often refer to different
aspects of the learning process. For instance, self-study often indicates the type of materials used(Benson, 2011); self-regulated learning, studied by educational psychologists, is concerned withcognition and motivation (Zimmerman & Schunk, 2008); and self-access is most often discussed
in relation to collections of materials and the physical spaces where autonomous learning ispromoted (Cotterall & Reinders, 2001). In the field of TESOL, learner autonomy is perhaps themost commonly used term for those who are interested in these and other related practices. Beingthat it operates as a kind of umbrella term, however, learner autonomy is not easy to define.
One oft-quoted definition came from Henri Holec (1981, p. 3), who defined learnerautonomy as “the ability to take charge of one’s own learning.” Holec further explained that thismeans “to have and to hold, the responsibility for all the decisions concerning all aspects of thislearning, i.e.: determining the learning objectives; defining the contents and progressions oflearning; selecting methods and techniques to be used; monitoring the procedure of acquisition;and evaluating what has been acquired” (p. 3).
Benson (2013) pointed out that this early definition of learner autonomy described thedecision making process involved in autonomous learning in technical terms, and it neglected toinclude cognitive capacities. Benson himself proposed this definition: “The capacity to takecontrol of one’s own learning (p. 61).” He went on to explain that there are three dimensions
over which learners can have control: learning management, cognitive processes, and learning
content. Benson also argues that a definition of learner autonomy should include its politicalcharacter, as learners making decisions about the learning contents can afterall pose a challenge
to established classroom and institutional power relationships (p. 61).
Other scholars in the field have provided further clarifications of learner autonomy. Little(1990) explained that learner autonomy is not a teaching method; not a single easily described

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behavior; nor a synonym for self-instruction. Whereas early manifestations of learner autonomy
were represented by individual study carrels and audio headsets in the self-access centers of the1970s and 1980s, more recent research and corresponding educational programs demonstrate its
social dimensions. A collection of papers under the title Social dimensions in learner Autonomyand language learning (Murray, 2014) is a clear indication from the literature. Furthermore,
many self-access centers have spaces or programs designed to promote social interaction. They
also hold events and workshops, promote the formation of student groups, and self-accesscenters explicitly reach out to help learners through advising programs. In this way, autonomous
learning is no longer simply viewed as independent learning.
Why is Learner Autonomy Important?
For most EFLstudents, learning a language requires a significant investment of time, as well asperseverance. Second language acquisition research shows us that a higher amount of time ontask is generally beneficial for language development (see, e.g., Turnbull et al., 1998). By
promoting autonomy, we can encourage more contact with the target language. Furthermore, as
autonomous learning can include a good amount of variety in terms of learning activities andresources, it can be more intrinsically motivating than rigid, comparatively traditional forms ofinstruction. The more students enjoy the learning process, the more likely they are to study anduse the language.
While students can learn autonomously in or outside of the classroom, learner autonomy
is often associated with learning beyond the classroom. Anecdotally, students and teachers reportthat learning is more successful when it includes learning outside of the classroom (Nunan,2014; Benson & Reinders, 2011). Richards (2015) lists a number of benefits associated withlearning beyond the classroom, including developments in communicative and pragmaticcompetence, improved fluency and accuracy, extended contact with English, and enjoyment inlearning (pp. 19-20). Language learning is a complex process. If students do more autonomous
learning beyond the classroom, then they will have an increased number of opportunities tounderstand these complexities and develop more confidence using the language.
Educational psychologists also stress the importance of supporting students’ autonomy.
According to self-determination theory, a theory of motivation that has been rigorously appliedin educational and other contexts, autonomy is an essential human need and it is a crucialcomponent of the learning process. Ryan and Deci (2017) explain that “There are three basic

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psychological needs, the satisfaction of which is essential to optimal development, integrity, andwell-being. These are the needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness” (p. 242). In modern
classrooms, competence can be included through assessments, and relatedness can be addressedby social groupings. However, autonomy is sometimes neglected. At a recent conference inTokyo, Ryan (2018) emphasized the link between autonomy and motivation and strongly
advocated for autonomy supportive teaching. Fostering autonomy is vital for students’ learning,motivation, and development.
How Can We Promote Learner Autonomy?
There are many ways that English language educators can promote learner autonomy to theirstudents. Teachers can promote autonomous learning in and out of the classroom, and the scopeof this support can range from using teacher language more carefully to offering courses whichenable students to carry out self-directed learning. Below, a variety of methods will be described.
For teachers who want to begin by making small changes to support autonomous
learning, one simple thing that they can do is to involve students in class decisions. For instance,
they can ask the class if they would like to work in groups or individually. Teachers can also ask
them how long they would like to complete an activity. Such involvement shows students thatteachers value their opinion and input, and gives students a more active role in making decisions
about their learning.
Another thing that teachers can do is to offer students choices. For instance, they can givethem different topic options for a paper or a presentation. Students who are given more control
over their assignments are more likely to be invested and motivated in them. Some activities like
extensive reading or using language learning apps and websites inherently involve student choiceas learners can select topics, genres, language skills and online platforms that appeal to them.
Finally, surveying students about their preferences by conducting a needs analysis is a great way
to find out more about what students would like to do in the class. By collecting your students’opinions, you could make simple decisions about the class that reflects their desires or makemore significant changes leading to a negotiated syllabus.
When teachers support students’ autonomous learning, they show their learners that theyrespect them as individuals. One simple way that they can do this is to be more mindful of thelanguage that they use in the classroom. While it is important to carefully consider the level andcomplexity of the language that they use with our students, there are some small changes that

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they can make that demonstrate their support for students as individuals. For instance, teachers
might ask questions such as “What is your favorite sport?” The question assumes that thestudents do in fact enjoy sports. This can create cognitive dissonance for students who are notinterested in sports. These kinds of questions can be changed to “Do you like sports? If so, whichones?,” or “What do you think about sports?” These changes allow students with different
opinions to respond honestly to the question. Another example would be to use classroom
language that it is more polite and friendly. For instance, rather than using imperatives, such as“Stand up,” a teacher could use a softer approach by asking, “Could everybody please stand up?”This kind of language shows more respect for the students. Of course, body language and facial
expressions also play a role in communicating the tone of the discourse and delivering classroom
language with a smile may help to dissolve a sense of hierarchy in the classroom.
In a practical article, Thornton (2010) describes how classroom teachers can promote
self-directed learning. She advocates a four-stage process in which students make a Plan,Implement their plan, Monitor their learning, and Evaluate their learning progress (P. I. M. E.)
Thornton includes a number of practical tips for teachers new to promoting self-directed learningand she includes example learning plan documents at the end of the article.
There are of course many ways that autonomous learning can be carried out beyond theclassroom. Self-access centers are a popular way of supporting students’ autonomous learning.
These can range from designated rooms where students go to read books or converse in the target
language, to purpose-built centers where administrative staff and advisors are hired on a full-timebasis. Cotterall and Reinders (2001) offer this definition of self-access centers:
A Self Access Centre consists of a number of resources (in the form of materials,activities and support) usually located in one place, and is designed to accommodate
learners of different levels, styles, goals and interests. It aims to develop learnerautonomy among its users (p. 1).
There are a number of groups and publications based in Japan that are dedicated to researchingand sharing practices related to self-access centers, including the Japan Association for SelfAccess Learning, Research in Learner Autonomy Education and Studies in Self-Access Learning.
Links for these and other sites are listed in Appendix A.

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Sometimes included in self-access centers, advising has become an increasingly popularpedagogical approach. Carson and Mynard (2012) define it as follows: “Advising in language
learning involves the process and practice of helping students to direct their own paths so as tobecome more effective and more autonomous language learners” (p. 4). As Carson and Mynard
explain, advisors draw on the discourse practices of language teaching and humanistic
counseling. They go on to explain that advisors support learners and promote autonomy by“raising awareness of the language-learning process; helping learners identify goals and makelearning plans; motivating, supporting, and encouraging learners; helping learners to selfevaluate and reflect on their learning,” as well as other ways (p. 16).
Appendix B contains a list of ways to promote learner autonomy that was shared during
the symposium. Most of these are discussed above.
Discussion: Promoting Autonomy at Japanese Universities
For teachers who would like to include more choices for their students, it may be best to startsmall. From the author’s experience, most Japanese students are not accustomed to making key
decisions about their own language learning, and many of them seemingly want to be told what
to do and how to study. This may especially be true with first-year students, who have mostlyexperienced a rather teacher-centered approach to learning.
In terms of promoting learner autonomy outside of the classroom, one simple thing
teachers can do is to encourage students to visit a self-access center or learning website (e.g., aYouTube channel). This gives them a focus on learning outside of the classroom. Extensive
reading and extensive listening projects are another a effective way to begin. Teachers can offer
advice in terms of what types of materials are suitable, but students can choose the books orlistening resources that appeal to them. With the author’s first year university students, we havean extensive listening project in spring semester, which is followed by an autonomous learning
project in fall semester, where students set a goal, create a plan, and carry out their learning in away that best suits their wants and needs. The autonomous learning project is broader in scope,and the spring semester helps prepare them for this by asking them to begin making decisions
about their learning. By gradually introducing ways to promote autonomy, students are likely tofeel more comfortable with these unfamiliar ways of learning.

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Conclusion
This paper examined learner autonomy by answering three questions: what is learner autonomy?;
why is learner autonomy important?; and how can we promote learner autonomy? Learnerautonomy is not a simple concept. There are a number of reasons for teachers to support
learners’ autonomy, and many pedagogical approaches have been developed. These range fromsimple changes in teacher talk to the installation of sophisticated self-access centers. It is hopedthat this paper will encourage teachers to experiment with these approaches in an attempt topromote learner autonomy.

BIO DATA

Andrew is a coordinator of the WLC Self-Access Center at Soka University inTokyo. His research interests include autonomy and psychology in language learning.
He holds an MA TESOL from the University of Washington and an EdD in TESOL
from Anaheim University.

References
Benson, P. (2011). Language learning and teaching beyond the classroom: An introduction tothe field. In. P. Benson, & H. Reinders (Eds.), Beyond the language classroom (pp. 716). Palgrave Macmillan.
Benson, P. (2013). Teaching and Researching Autonomy (2nd ed.). Routledge.
Benson, P., & Reinders, H. (2011). Beyond the Language Classroom. Palgrave Macmillan.
Cotterall, S., & Reinders, H. (2001) Fortress or bridge? Learners’ perceptions and practice inself access language learning. Tesolanz 8, 23-38.
Carson, L., & Mynard, J. (2012). Introduction. In J. Mynard & L. Carson (Eds.), Advising inlanguage learning: Dialogue, tools and context (pp. 3-25). Pearson.
Holec, H. (1981) Autonomy in Foreign Language Learning. Pergamon. (First published 1979,
Strasbourg: Council of Europe.)NUFS TEACHER DEVELOPMENT SYMPOSIUM
Little, D . (1990 ) Autonomy in language learning. In I. Gathercole (Ed.), Autonomy inlanguage learning (pp. 7-15). CILT.
Murray, G. (2014). Exploring the social dimensions of autonomy in language learning. In G.
Murray (Ed.), Social dimensions of autonomy in language learning (pp. 3-11).
Palgrave Macmillan.
Nunan, D. (2014). Beyond the classroom: A case for out-of-class language learning. Retrieved
online: https://nsjle.org.au/nsjle/media/2014-NSJLE-05-DAVID-NUNAN.pdf
Richards, J. C. (2015). The changing face of language learning: Learning beyond the classroom.
RELC Journal, 46(1), 5-22.
Ryan, R. M. (2018, June 8th). Motivation in Development, Second Language Learning, andTeaching: Research on Promoting Engagement Using Self-Determination Theory(Plenary). Psychology in Language Learning, Tokyo, Japan.
https://www.iapll.com/pll2018-tokyo
Ryan, R. M. et Deci, E. L. (2017). Self-determination theory. Basic psychological needs inmotivation, development and wellness. Guilford Press.
Thornton, K. (2010). Supporting self-directed learning: A framework for teachers. Language
Education in Asia, 2010, 1(1), 158-170.
Turnbull, M., Lapkin, S., Hart, D., & Swain, M. (1998). Time on task and immersion graduates’
French proficiency. In S. Lapkin (Ed.), French second language education in Canada:
Empirical studies (pp. 31-55). University of Toronto Press.
Zimmerman, B. J., & Schunk, D. H. (2008). Motivation: An essential dimension ofself-regulated learning. In D. H. Schunk & B. K. Zimmerman (Eds.), Motivation andself-regulated learning: theory, research, and applications (pp. 1-30). Routledge.

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APPENDIX A
Resources for Learning more about Learning Autonomy

Based in JapanSiSAL Journal
https://sisaljournal.org/
RILAE
https://kuis.kandagaigo.ac.jp/rilae/
Relay Journal
https://kuis.kandagaigo.ac.jp/relayjournal/
JASAL
https://jasalorg.com/
JALT Learner Development SIG
http://ld-sig.org/

Based outside of Japan
IATEFL Learner Autonomy SIG
https://lasig.iatefl.org/
International Association for the Psychology of Language Learning
https://www.iapll.com/
International Association of Language Learning and Teachinghttps://iallt.org/

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APPENDIX B
Ways to promote learner autonomy

1. Having students make learning plans and carry out their own individual autonomous learning

2. Asking for student input on classroom decisions (groupings, topics, etc.)

3. Conducting a needs analysis; a negotiated syllabus

4. Project learning
5. Vocabulary notebooks

6. Extensive reading

7. Introducing English language learning websites to your classes
8. Language learning spaces such as self-access centers, conversation lounges
9. Organizing (virtual) language exchanges/tandem learning projects

10. Study abroad programs
11. Advising (in self-access centers; in the classroom; during office hours)
12. Language learning diaries or language learner histories
13. Consciously using teacher language that promotes autonomy