An Assessement of
Science and Technology
Capacity building in
Sub-Saharan Africa

O. Akin Adubifa

ATPS SPECIAL PAPER SERIES No. 19

Published by the African Technology Policy Studies Network, P.O. Box 10081, 00100
General Post Office, Nairobi, Kenya.

© 2004 African Technology Policy Studies Network (ATPS)

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ABOUT THE AFRICAN TECHNOLOGY POLICY STUDIES NETWORKThe African Technology Policy Studies Network (ATPS) is a multi-disciplinary network of researchers,
policy makers, actors in the private sector and other end users interested in generating, promoting
and strengthening innovative science and technology policies in Africa. With a regional secretariat in
Nairobi, the network operates through national chapters in 17 countries, with an expansion plan tocover the entire sub-Saharan Africa.
One of the objectives of the network is to disseminate research results to policy makers, legislators,
the organized private sector, civil society, mass media and farmers’ groups through publications,dialogue and advocacy. Among its range of publications are the Working Paper Series (WPS),
Research Paper Series (RPS), Special Paper Series (SPS) and the Technopolicy Briefs.
Papers published under the ATPS Special Paper Series are those commissioned as concept
papers, think pieces, leading conference papers and keynote addresses. In keeping with
our knowledge brokerage function, ATPS publishes, with permission of the author(s) or
journal editors, papers (published or unpublished) produced by distinguished academics/
researchers for a different purpose but judged by ATPS to be of excellent quality. Thesepapers address significant policy questions relevant to the work of ATPS and/or support
the Southern voice or an African perspective. We also consider theoretical papers that
advance our knowledge of science and technology policy issues.
ATPS is supported by a growing number of donors including the International Development ResearchCentre (IDRC), the Carnegie Corporation of New York, the Rockefeller Foundation, the World Bank,
the OPEC Fund, Ford Foundation, Coca-Cola Eastern Africa, the African Development Bank, InfoDev,
and the Royal Dutch Government.

List of Abbreviations and Acronyms
AAS
AAU
AERC
AFREPREN
AIHTTR
ANSTI
ARCEDEM
ARCT
ARIPO
ARSO
ATPS
CAPAS
CGIAR
COHRED
GDP
GNP
IDRC
IHPP
NASO
UNDP
UNECA
UNESCOUNIDOUSAID
USHEPiA

African Academy of Sciences
Association of African Universities
African Economics Research Consortium
African Energy Policy Research Network
African Institute of Higher Technical Training and Research
African Network of Scientific and Technological Institutions
African Regional Centre for Engineering Design and Manufacturing
African Regional Centre for Technology
African Regional Intellectual Property Organization
African Regional Standards Organization
African Technology Policy Studies Network
Coordinated African Programme of Assistance in Services
Consultative Group on International Agricultural ResearchCouncil of Health Research for Development
Gross Domestic Product
Gross National ProductInternational Development Research Centre
International Health Policy Program
Network of African Scientific Organizations
United Nations Development Programme
United Nations Economic Commission for Africa
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
United Nations Industrial Development Organization
United States Agency for International Development
Universities Science, Humanities and Engineering Partnerships in Africa

Table of Contents
Abbreviations & Acronyms
1

Introduction

1

2

Status of Science and Technology in Sub-Saharan Africa
2.1 Historical context
2.2 General Characteristics of the State of Science and Technology

3
3

3

Building Science and Technology Capacity
3.1 Regional Initiatives
3.2 Less Successful Regional Initiatives
3.3 National Projects
3.4 Capacity Building Through Industrial Development

6
6
7
8
10

4

Lessons from Past Efforts

12

5

Recommendations for a Regional Strategy for the Development of Science andTechnology Capacity in Sub-Saharan Africa
14
5.1 Study to Collect and Analyze Science and Technology Data
14
5.2 The Millennium Science Initiative15
5.3 Specific Programmes at the Country Level
16
5.3.1 Promoting Public Awareness and Advocacy
16
5.3.2 Promoting Science and Technology Policy Research
16
5.3.3 Building Capacity to Foster National S&T Systems
16
5.3.4 Strengthening National Academies
17
5.3.5 Arranging Technology Missions
17
5.3.6 Promoting Scientific Production
17

6References

18

1.

Introduction

Since the 1979 Vienna Conference on Science and Technology for developing countries, international
development agencies as well as national governments have attempted several initiatives for the
economic development of the African continent. The results are mixed. There have been pockets ofoutstanding successes, but also many abandoned expectations. Regretfully, it is the catalogue of
failed efforts and attendant obstacles that has dominated the presentation of the state of science andtechnology development in the continent. The negative reporting has been so persistent that it has
taken on a life of its own, sometimes crippling the enthusiasm and morale of otherwise talented
innovators, daring investors, and budding scholarly communities. The pessimism, however, hasoften been exaggerated. An array of accomplishments under challenging circumstances can also
be interpreted to produce a more optimistic characterization of the continent’s potential, pointing to
the prospects and opportunities rather than to the failures and obstacles. Although the technologicalorder between the developed countries and the developing countries has greatly improved in many
countries in Asia, Latin America and Eastern Europe, this is not the case in Africa where the gap
between the two groups continues to grow.
The African Governors of the World Bank concluded in 1998 that ‘Africa is a continent rich in natural
resources but lacking the capacity to transform that potential into a standard of living that would
enable the African people to become full partners in the global economy’ 1. Indeed, the present
economic profile of sub-Saharan Africa is worrying: the continent is poorly integrated into theinnovation-based global economy; its share of global trade fell from 3 % in the mid 1950s to 1 % asof 19972, and more recently it is estimated to be falling further (Adubifa, 2000). The World Bank
projects growth rates of the African economy to increase modestly to only 3.3 % by the year 2000.
Export growth is expected to advance by 6.3 % in 2000 (4.6 % if South Africa and Nigeria are
excluded); and the continent will continue to be highly vulnerable to commodity prices and global
economic developments3.

Partnership for Capacity Building in Africa: Strategy and Business Plan, Report of the African Governors of the World Bank
to Mr. James D. Wolfensohn, Sept. 1998.
2
Business Africa, May 1-5, 1997; The Economic Intelligence Unit.
3
Africa: Policy Outlook 2000, Africa Policy Information Centre, Jan. 2000.
1

1

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ATPS SPECIAL PAPER SERIES N O. 19

Section 2 of this report reviews the status of science and technology capacity in sub-Saharan Africa.
It has been necessary to describe the science and technology systems of the countries throughsubjective interpretation of scattered, incomplete, and sometimes inaccurate or totally missing dataon performance indicators. Comparison of available data was equally difficult since data sourcesand quality across the continent were not standardized. Nonetheless, the study provides a synthesisof policy analytical documents on the status of science and technology in sub-Saharan Africa,
supplementing the sparse published data with information from discussions with donor representatives
and locally based practitioners.
Section 3 reviews experiences in science and technology capacity building in sub-Saharan Africa.
It discusses the elements that have contributed to the successes of some of the national efforts, aswell as the factors that have limited the ability of other initiatives to achieve expected impact.
In recommending a regional strategy for the development of science and technology capacity,
especially the capacity for undertaking research and improving its social benefits in sub-SaharanAfrica, Section 4 is a review of lessons from past efforts. Section 5 proffers a number of specificrecommendations, with some addressed to national governments and others to the World Bankand its partner development institutions, as well as to other donors supporting African
development.

2.
2.1

Status of Science and Technology in SSA
Historical context

Researchers on African economic development generally confirm that credible data on scienceand technology indicators are difficult to collect. Available data give skewed results when aggregated,
and are sometimes incompatible with physical evidence. While South Africa, for example, is part ofsub-Saharan Africa, its science and technology indicators are considerably higher in value thanthose of the rest of the continent. Major international handbooks that regularly publish comparative
data on global development (including UNDP’s Human Development Report, UNESCO’s Statistical
Yearbook, and National Science Foundation’s Science and Engineering Indicators) are usuallyunable to provide complete data in reporting on African countries. Yet the availability of such data
and the credibility of their sources would facilitate national planning and assist external donors tomake wise investment decisions.
Africa has never had a clear definition nor a comprehensive characterization of its state of scienceand technology development. Several studies have been carried out by locally-based researchers to
capture the thrust, scope, implementation, and outcomes of the many initiatives that are internally or
externally generated, and to describe their effects in building a science and technology capacity at
the national level. The outcome of many such studies generally fall short of expectation because:•
researchers are unable to find appropriate statistical data;•
the research objective is poorly defined;•
the scope and coverage of research activities are too wide for the available funding;•research methodology and data gathering are not designed to allow comparison
across countries; and•research efforts do not benefit from rigorous peer review.
2.2

General Characteristics of the State of Science and Technology

Sub-Saharan Africa’s internal science and technology capacity lags behind the continent’s economic
potential. This realization is compelling African countries to take the science and technology sector
more seriously, leading to calls from many countries for urgent international assistance to help themdevelop their incipient capacities and harness their potential more systematically. A crucial beginningof this new willingness to act is to forge an understanding of the existing strengths and assets, whichshould form the cornerstone of new and innovative initiatives.

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ATPS SPECIAL PAPER SERIES N O. 19

In the 1960s and 70s the international development assistance community gave a lot of emphasis todeepening Africa’s science and technology capacity. It supported both government and academic
institutions, but not the private sector.
The results (presented below) are below expectation:•
Science and technology sectors and professions are still in their infancy and not strong
enough to compete globally; universities have suffered from inadequate funding for long
periods and their academic standards have declined in many cases.
•
Science itself, as a field, is not fully appreciated since it is not introduced into early education.
•
Apart from a few groups and individuals scattered across the continent, the academic
communities are largely isolated from their global colleagues.
Under these conditions, there have been limited private investments in technological development
or scientific applications. Sub-Saharan African countries have not acquired adequate scientific andtechnological capabilities to meet the challenges of globalization, particularly the attendantinternational negotiations in the economic, financial, and environmental regimes.
A breakdown of global expenditure on science and technology shows that the high-income OECD
countries account for about 85 % while Africa’s share is only about 2 %.4 Furthermore, the distributionof the world’s scientific and technological outputs as measured by indicators of scientific publications
and registered patents shows considerable disproportionality: 80 % of publications are owned by thehighly industrialized countries plus India, while 96 % of the world’s patents are registered in the
United States, Japan and Western Europe. While capital flows to developing countries as a whole
reportedly averaged 3.2 % of GDP during the 1990s, African countries averaged only 1.9 %. Africa’s
share of the total foreign direct investment flowing to developing countries was a mere 3 % in 19975.
The number of African scientists and engineers in professional practice is also considerably lower
than the world average, on population basis. The continent furthermore accounts for only 0.8 % of
the world’s listed peer-reviewed publications, and only 0.2 % of registered patents.
Results of science and technology policy research and promotion of policy dialogue in some ofthese countries, funded by IDRC and the Carnegie Corporation of New York over the past 10 years,
show that the level of public sector awareness has been greatly elevated, and there is increasingcollaboration between government functionaries and academicians in addressing science andtechnology development issues. Some countries are improving and expanding their channels ofcommunication between scientists and technologists, government officials and advisers,
parliamentarians, and service sector practitioners. For example, Zimbabwe Institute of Development

4
5

see UNESCO, World Science Report 1996
Business Africa, May 1-5, 1997, The Economic Intelligence UnitAN ASSESSMENT OF SCIENCE AND T ECHNOLOGY C APACITY BUILDING IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA

5

Studies has convened working groups of stakeholder representatives for each of the economic
sectors to deliberate on sectoral performance, and to formulate strategies for strengthening these
sectors and optimizing their potential. This has been possible with funds from the Carnegie
Corporation of New York.6
Several opportunities for science and technology development are beginning to appear in the horizon,
and many countries are determined not only to use them effectively but also to enlarge them in orderto accelerate national development. Some of these opportunities are:•a new generation of students is emerging as university enrollment soars and competition
for excellence increases;•
literacy levels are rising in all countries, elevating the national capacity to facilitate scientificapplications and participate more effectively in national development;•
skilled entrepreneurs with talent and dedication are growing in number, and equally
increasing their global outreach through the new information and communication
technologies;•
democracy, accountability, and the rule of law are spreading rapidly across the continent,
and becoming entrenched in irreversible ways in many countries where such prospects
could not be contemplated only a few years ago;•
with democratic dispensation taking root and under the pressures of globalization, many
countries are beginning to open their formerly closed markets; and•new wireless technologies and mobile computing devices are enabling ambitious
institutions and civil society organizations to leapfrog into the digital world, avoiding thehigh costs previously associated with traditional computer and telecommunications
infrastructure.

This consensus-building mechanism has helped the nation to rally efforts for the development of science and technology. The
national parliament is now paying attention to this and its Budget Committee, led by the Deputy Speaker, schedules meetings
with these working groups before annual budget considerations. The Ministry of Science and Technology is allocating someresources to boost the work of the working groups. This initiative by the researchers has led to the preparation of Zimbabwe’s first-ever draft of a National Policy on Science and Technology.
6

3.

Building Science & Technology Capacity

This section discusses experiences in building science and technology capacity in sub-SaharanAfrica. Perhaps the best example is the Green Revolution initiative pioneered by Ford and Rockefeller
Foundations. Their funded research for the production of high-yielding rice and maize varieties led
to the establishment of the Consultative Group for International Agricultural Research (CGIAR).
Similarly, the African Economics Research Consortium (AERC) was initially launched by IDRC, andlater supported by the Rockefeller Foundation, to strengthen economic management in sub-SaharanAfrica. It is now a flourishing capacity-building research network funded by a consortium of donors.
These successful models point clearly to the kind of framework that effectively builds and sustains
capacity. The framework is characterized by:•funding commitment to sustain the initiative over the long term, and beyond the threshold;•sound institutional management under strong scientific leadership; and•elimination of resource uncertainties regarding scientific careers, research facilities,
access to the international research system, and a conducive academic environment.
3.1

Regional Initiatives

Regional initiatives concentrated mostly on institution-building, but some operated as networks
housed in existing institutions. Apart from the CGIAR institutions and the AERC network, othersuccessful programmes include the African Technology Policy Studies Network (ATPS), theCoordinated African Program of Assistance in Services (CAPAS), the Council on Health Research forDevelopment (COHRED), the International Health Policy Program (IHPP), and the Universities
Science, Humanities, and Engineering Partnerships in Africa (USHEPiA). All these initiatives receive
their entire funding from donors.
While the initiatives have been largely successful they have also suffered, to varying degrees, fromcertain weaknesses:•
capacity building activities did not always emphasize scientific quality;•
programmes took on wider scope than optimal, thereby losing thematic coherence;•lack of clarity regarding financial and administrative support for the host institution,
especially as some donors only provided programme support and not core support for the
institutions;•donor support waned just when it became necessary to consolidate the emerging gainsof the initiative.
6

AN ASSESSMENT OF SCIENCE AND T ECHNOLOGY C APACITY BUILDING IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA

7

The African Academy of Sciences (AAS) is a special case of an institution in the forefront of building
scientific capacity in Africa, but which continually struggles against odds to accomplish its mission.
It enjoyed strong donor support at its founding because the need for such an organization was clearly
apparent. Its objectives were laudable and its programmes compelling. It achieved outstanding
success with its regular publication of a world-class scientific journal-Discovery and Innovation.
However, its programmes rely almost totally on external funding which has usually been below
threshold.
3.2

Less Successful Regional Initiatives

Three examples of important regional initiatives that did not achieve expected impact are described
below:
1. The USAID’s Programme of Science and Technology Cooperation sought to support researchin developing countries in collaboration with US scientists (or scientists from other developed
countries who would have to bear their own portion of the research costs). This highly competitive
international grant programme made no allowances for the weak scientific infrastructure of theinstitutions of the African applicants, nor for their lack of access to current knowledge in theirresearch fields. Very few African scholars benefited from the grant scheme. Others expressed
frustration at the disadvantages that they faced in the competition against more advanced
developing regions.
2. A number of intergovernmental science and technology institutions were established by Member
States in the late 1970s when African leaders were full of optimism and had liberal access todonor resources for development. These included:•
The African Regional Centre for Technology (ARCT)•The African Regional Centre for Engineering Design and Manufacturing (ARCEDEM)•
The African Regional Standards Organization (ARSO)•
The African Regional Industrial Property Organization (ARIPO)•
The African Institute for Higher Technical Training and Research (AIHTTR)
The respective mandates of these institutions were unrealistic with respect to available funding,staffing and operating facilities. Beyond initial funding, the Member States gave little attention toscience and technology development, especially as their national economies took an unexpected
downturn. The institution-building efforts also took on political dimensions by which the management,
staffing, service conditions, and international status of the institutions were to be politically negotiated.
Without adequate core funding most of the institutions could not be sustained, and their skilled
professional staff departed. This quickly led to loss of project funding from donors.
AIHTTR was closed down within ten years. ARCEDEM’s elaborate technical and mechanical facilities
are largely idle, and ARCT does not have the resources to play a regional role anymore. Between
these three organizations a lot of capacity that was built in the initial years has hardly been put toproductive use. ARSO and ARIPO are still functioning, but are barely effective as regional engines fordevelopment.

ATPS SPECIAL PAPER SERIES N O. 19

8

3. The Association of African Universities (AAU) has a membership of more than 140 institutions
across the continent. It has made efforts in recent years to promote capacity building for scientificresearch in the universities. It established a programme to market top research proposals that aredeveloped and submitted jointly by inter-university collaboration between two or more institutions.
Forty two such proposals were submitted for experts’ review in 1998, out of which the best seven
were presented to the meeting of donors to African higher education. Although the donors acclaimed
these proposals to be rigorous and compelling, they did not agree to a proposed pool-funding
mechanism. They merely endorsed the proposals as worthy of support, and advised the applicants
to seek funding individually from interested donors. This raised concerns among African scholars
about the conflicting signals that seemed to be emanating from the donor community.
3.3

National Projects

At the national level, research systems continue to grow slowly, mostly with the support and advocacyof donor agencies, in contrast to national inertia. Previous efforts have created isolated layers ofsuccessful scientific research, but lacking a broad base of competent mid-level technicians (qualified
laboratory assistants, analysts, statisticians and data processing specialists, equipment maintenancespecialists, etc.) all of whom play important roles in research.
The national research systems are generally characterized by:• instability of support to research and development;• lack of political commitment at top governmental levels;• low public awareness of the need and importance of scientific and technological capacity(mostly due to the absence of a science-based culture); and• poor recognition and reward for achievements in science.
It is relevant to note that no single indicator is available yet for measuring science and technology
capacity in Africa. Only a detailed assessment in a given country can reveal the real and present levelof its research capacity, and properly characterize its structure. National experiences are reviewed
below under three of the most common models:
1. Support for Individual Scientists
This modality has had limited success in countries like Nigeria, Ghana and Sierra Leone. Although
the individual scientists received personal benefits that upgraded their skills or expanded opportunities
for international exposure, the impact of the projects were hardly felt beyond their immediate
environment. Financial support from donors did not usually anticipate the requirements for
institutionalization of project outcomes, nor did it provide specifically for project outreach that would
multiply the effects of capacity strengthening.
2. Support to Universities and Research Centers
The number of scientists in African universities often increased more rapidly than the available
funding for research. But, regardless of the amount of resources available, a number of practicalAN ASSESSMENT OF SCIENCE AND T ECHNOLOGY C APACITY BUILDING IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA

9

considerations continue to limit African efforts to increase research capacities through institution
building. Among them are the following:•
universities and public research centres lack adequate numbers of technicians,
specialists, and qualified managers to support the desirable level of research•
universities often tend towards the European tradition which pursues scientific knowledge
without entrepreneurial enthusiasm; they do not generally emphasize applied researchthat would interface closely with the private sector. Their academic culture promotes
scholarly research and publication, but it is not geared towards business development or
industrial applications•
the trend of diminishing funds per researcher has intensified in the last decade•
the imbalance between human and financial resources has exacerbated another problem:the cost of maintaining research infrastructure (laboratories, equipment, physical plant,etc.) has risen sharply, leading to their stagnation, degradation and obsolescence•
research teams do not always have functioning basic facilities, access to current literature,compatible teaching and administrative load, nor the cooperation of their institutions•
because the key ingredient-funding-is often not reliable nor programmed for long term
support, research teams easily become isolated; they need to be nourished by external
contacts at conferences, in networks, and by exchanging research fellows•
nationally-sourced funds (especially government subvention) are applied mainly to staff
salaries. It is the external funds that usually support research projects. This leads to thetendency to load excessive numbers of under-qualified workers on to the research fund•promotion policies and rewards are more favorable to administrative and managerial
functions than for research and scientific achievements. This leads inevitably to highrates of turnover in research staff, which in turn undermines efforts to develop a cadre ofskilled and experienced researchers.
3. Support for Networks and Promotion of Networking
In an initial attempt to identify success factors in research networks, a 1998 colloquium in Bellagio,
Italy, identified a number of critical elements. These were reported by Prewitt (1998) to include:•balancing open membership with quality•
good governance system•common needs assessment with shared ideas about problems and solutions•
financial stability•
adequate project management capacity•
institutional ownership of the research programme
Examples of strong and successful networks that are coordinated from within the region are ATPS,
AERC, and USHEPiA, all of which have been described as regional initiatives. Others include theAfrica Energy Policy Research Network (AFREPREN). They all enjoy, for the most part, adequate
donor funding to sustain their research programmes. They have also all managed to keep
administrative costs low by remaining as programmes within existing institutions. In USHEPiA
particularly, the enthusiasm of participating institutions, researchers and their joint supervisors, aswell as the effective linkages at the senior management level of participating universities have

ATPS SPECIAL PAPER SERIES N O. 19

10contributed enormously to the network’s outstanding impact. A distinguishing feature of the programmeis the provision of re-entry grants to visiting researchers to enable them upgrade their local research
environment upon returning home.
Other important but less successful networks include the AAS’s Network of African Scientific
Organizations (NASO), the African Network of Scientific and Technological Institutions (ANSTI), andseveral discipline-focused regional and sub-regional networks. The most crucial limitation thatthese face is sustainable funding.
3.4

Capacity Building through Industrial Development

The countries of sub-Saharan Africa have not explored the full potential of industrial manufacturing
as a vehicle for building scientific and technological capacity. Most local industries are still in theirinfancy and do not generally have the risk capital to engage in basic research and technologicalinnovation. On the other hand, the multinationals normally conduct research and development attheir parent companies, leaving African subsidiaries to acquire technology through basic training,production, and quality control functions.
In South Africa, which is the most technologically advanced country in the region, efforts are underway
to convert some of the existing technological capacities which were built under military and nuclear
energy programmes into commercial production capacities for public benefit. This link between the
public and private sectors will facilitate rapid upgrading of technological skills in industry.
The countries of the region are beginning to discover what works and what doesn’t with respect toindustrial development as shaped by the national science and technology system. They are findingthat apart from financing there are four other parameters that need to be firmly in place to assure
successful transition of their economies from rural agrarian to modern industrial. These parameters
are policies, legislation, institutions and training.
Even though case studies would be necessary to determine how well the industrial sector has faredwith respect to the national science and technology policies and legislations, there are already anumber of success stories that can inspire other countries in similar circumstances. These are:•
Morocco, although not part of sub-Saharan Africa, has demonstrated that careful andtargeted planning for the application of science and technology to socio-economic
development would reap rich dividends. According to Jugessur (1998) the country has
adopted modern technologies like green house technology, tissue culture and overhead
irrigation methods to meet national food requirements and produce other goods andservices.
•
Mauritius, a country of only one million people, is taking advantage of its high literacy rate,
political stability and the hard-driving work ethics of its people to achieve an annual growthrate of about 6 %. Its industrialization process is being driven by a well-focused set of

AN ASSESSMENT OF SCIENCE AND T ECHNOLOGY C APACITY BUILDING IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA•

11

science and technology policies that include very attractive incentives. The country seeks
to become a leading African centre for micro informatics technology.
Governmental collaboration with the private sector in Zimbabwe has promoted thedevelopment of solar photovoltaic technology which is now being rapidly commercialized
throughout the country. This low cost energy system will find wide applications in homes,
schools and farms. Zimbabwe’s ATPS chapter is taking a leadership role in preparing thecountry’s science and technology policy and planning framework while its Scientific andIndustrial Research and Development Council is mobilizing the country’s research potential
for effective utilization.

4.

Lessons From Past Efforts

Stakeholders in African development, particularly the donor community, have been increasing theirsearch for lessons of past experience in order to guide their future investment in the science andtechnology sector. They appear keen to find out what impact has been achieved by these past efforts(both public and private) to build capacity during the past several decades. No overall assessments
are available. However, there is enough anecdotal evidence to suggest that the impact has been
below expectation. Many of the following experiences address the performance of external
assistance:•
The skills and capacities that have been developed have not been harnessed purposefully
to maximize their potential. Opportunities for their direct application were often missing,as external assistance that built the capacity did not always extend into such long-term
practical applications that would be found in the private sector. Generally, the capacity
building also was not a direct result of private sector demand.
•
External assistance came in various forms from many sources, usually addressing different
aspects of the process for developing a science and technology system. Donor collaborationand national programming of assistance were not given sufficient attention, leading to
uncoordinated implementation of similar activities, and over stretching the limited humanresources available for specialized functions. Generally, this led to a reduction of thepossible impact of the projects as initially conceived.
•
The models used by external assistance to address science and technology issues wereseldom able to build adequate capacity to tackle the problems confronting the countries.
Assistance that was provided consistently over the long-term and targeted at a specificneed has been shown to achieve better results. An example is the CGIAR model for
agricultural research that is well-funded by a consortium of donors and devoted for morethan 30 years to the development in Africa, of new and improved varieties of seeds andfood crops.
•
Centers of excellence were sometimes established to build capacity, but these later required
high maintenance costs which the beneficiary countries could not afford amid competingsocial needs.
•
Where building of research capacity has been the objective, the final product has often
been a research report or journal publication. The results of such research were nottransferred to industry or commercialized through patents. A general and recurring findingof policy research across the continent is that much of the previous efforts to build capacity

12

AN ASSESSMENT OF SCIENCE AND T ECHNOLOGY C APACITY BUILDING IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA

13

did not link projects to end users. It can therefore be said that capacity-building initiatives
sometimes met narrow objectives and did not produce sustainable development.
•
Past efforts had focused too heavily on studying the economic profiles and their indicators
without adequate specificity of science and technology components of those indicators.
This is probably why analytical data on scientific and technological performance ofindividual countries have been so hard to find.
•Foreign firms operating in African manufacturing industry usually source their technologicaland engineering inputs from abroad, and also carry out research and development in theirparent organizations. They therefore built local capacity only for equipment maintenanceand quality control.
•
Global trends in technological advancement and application have not always allowed
opportunities for the infant science and technology systems in sub-Saharan Africa toimpact on domestic economies. In addition, the few scientists and scholars who acquire
critical capacity are often drawn away from local needs towards global issues.
•
It is fair to say that after so many years of training, fellowships and research support, a large
number of individuals have been strengthened in their personal skills for scientific endeavor.
But the impact of all this is not quite institutionalized. This is a systemic weakness that isproving difficult to overcome. Governments and their external collaborators would need
to form a stronger partnership to implement modalities that make all development
assistance more effective through appropriate institutionalization.
•
Support for science and technology development is still facing a dilemma of choosing
between alternative models of building capacity. External assistance would like to achieve
rapid results, but is also concerned that previous investment did not point clearly to a
specific model as the strategy of preference.
For example:• in choosing between support for science versus support for technology inAfrica, the extent to which a country should devote resources to basic researchis always difficult to estimate. Longer-term strategy requires the developmentof capabilities to assimilate and adapt foreign technologies, to produce
engineering designs, and to carry out consulting services.
• the choice between investing in policy research or in technological research
will vary from country to country. Very little technological research appears to
be going on now in most countries, partly because its costs far exceed theresources needed to pursue policy research.

5.

Recommendations

Recommendations for a Regional Strategy for the Development of Science and Technology
Capacity in Sub-Saharan Africa
It is recommended that a regional strategy should seek to simultaneously achieve the following
goals:•
Strengthen internal capacity of government machinery to address science and technology
effectively and integrate its system into the national development and planning strategies.
Science and technology policies need to be explicit, well articulated, and integrated into
the overall national economic policy framework.
•
Create awareness among stakeholders about the need to invest in science and technology,
the potential benefits to society, and the opportunities that become available for utilizing it
to foster social and economic development.
•
Promote consensus building for science and technology policy and planning through theestablishment of working groups of appropriate public and private sector representatives.
Operationally, implementation of the strategy should be complemented by national action. While it isrecommended that different approaches be targeted to meet the needs of selected countries, acommon need for all of them is the use of structured formal training to nurture a cadre of scientists
and young scholars who can keep the countries engaged in global intellectual production.
The following three elements are proposed as possible mechanisms of intervention:•
a comprehensive study to collect and analyze credible science and technology data•a programme of the Millennium Science Initiative•
specific programmes in groups of countries
5.1

Study to Collect and Analyze Science and Technology Data

There is a chronic lack of statistical data to describe the characteristics and performance of subSaharan Africa’s science and technology sub-sector. Building a dynamic system for the developmentof the sub-sector requires considerable, but not insurmountable, investment. However, it should
begin with the collection and analysis of baseline data as well as time-series measurement of theindicators that would describe the profile of sectoral progress and development. Where informationis scanty and indicators for assessment are difficult to measure, the paucity of data increases therisks for investment decisions. This has been the case in sub-Saharan Africa.

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AN ASSESSMENT OF SCIENCE AND T ECHNOLOGY C APACITY BUILDING IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA

15

Provision of factual data and quantifiable information will not only enhance the quality of analysis ofscience and technology parameters for sub-Saharan Africa, but it would also facilitate a more realisticcomparison of development potential and characteristics among its countries, and between themand their counterparts in other developing regions of the world. Such comparisons would also assist
African countries to identify and select more appropriate strategies based on similarities (or otherwise)of their science and technology profiles with those of more advanced developing nations whose
efforts have yielded fruit.
Most countries of the region do not have the appropriate tools and personnel trained to collect andanalyze the required data properly. The World Bank should lead efforts to initiate the appropriate
process in its client countries, working with the governments and urging them to involve the private
sector and academia in the programme.
5.2

The Millennium Science Initiative

Representatives of sub-Saharan Africa’s scholarly community are investigating the efficacy of
establishing vibrant research programmes under the Millennium Science Initiative (MSI) that isbeing fiercely promoted in Latin America by the World Bank. Several options are available, each ofthem carrying different risks and opportunities.
For the MSI to make a significant impact in Africa, especially in meeting its primary objectives of‘promoting frontier research and educating the best scientific talent in developing countries,’ it will
be necessary for its programmes to involve a sizable number of African research scholars andscientists, to nurture a modest number of research centres or units in specific priority disciplines,
and to receive the committed support of the respective national governments.
Financing the selected centres for the MSI programmes would be a challenge unless there isadequate long-term commitment of research funds from external donors. National governments
can be persuaded to give firm political support and recognition. Relatively wealthy countries may
find it possible to also provide necessary resources to fund the MSI institutes or centres, but it isdoubtful if many of the other countries would be willing to take new loans (as expected by the World
Bank) to execute the MSI programmes.
It is therefore recommended that the World Bank and the African Development Bank jointly assume
the responsibility of providing the resources to initiate model MSI institutes and, further, of mobilizing
donor collaboration to assure the sustainability of selected centres over a 10 year period, at theminimum.

ATPS SPECIAL PAPER SERIES N O. 19

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5.3

Specific Programmes at the Country Level

The objectives and suggested modalities for implementing six types of activities are described
below:
5.3.1

Promoting Public Awareness and Advocacy

There is need to increase public awareness amongst countries of the importance of science andtechnology in the context of efforts to modernize national economies; improve national security;
participate in international trade; strengthen the base for economic and social development;
employment opportunities; and wealth creation. Countries need strong professional associations toguide, advocate, set standards, and regulate the practice of their professions in the scientific andtechnological fields. They also need to introduce science into early education.
5.3.2

Promoting Science and Technology Policy Research

In general, scientific and technological research in sub-Saharan Africa has been directed mostly
towards agriculture, particularly the production of food crops. Now that several African governments
are beginning to recognize the imperative of technology as an important tool for pursuing theirdevelopment goals, and are also willing to embrace its potential, they would need an improved
analytical framework of information to enhance their ability to make critical decisions and investment.
Policy studies in science and technology can help to illuminate the gaps that must be addressed andprovide a practical road map to guide various stakeholders as they contemplate next steps.
5.3.3

Building Capacity to Foster National Science and Technology Systems

Countries need to establish science and technology working groups as vehicles for responsible
national dialogue among key stakeholders. Immediate benefits would include better articulation ofways in which science and technology might be applied effectively. External assistance shouldcollaborate with host governments to create policy dialogue mechanisms. The assistance should
also contribute technical expertise to backstop these initiatives which should facilitate theestablishment of effective collaboration between policy makers, scientists and technologists, andthe private sector. External assistance may also be able to assist countries to establish a funding
mechanism, possibly with development banks, to be dedicated to national science and technology
development. Other vital initiatives would include the strengthening of the policy, supervisory andregulatory institutions.
All the countries of sub-Saharan Africa should aim to enhance their capacity for research anddevelopment, transfer of technology, and commercialization of significant research findings. This
would require partnerships between private, public and academic leadership of respective countries
to examine what has worked elsewhere and why, what has been tried that failed, and how to adapt
these experiences to their own settings.

AN ASSESSMENT OF SCIENCE AND T ECHNOLOGY C APACITY BUILDING IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA
5.3.4

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Strengthening National Academies

Only a few of the countries of sub-Saharan Africa have functioning academies of science. Thesehonorific organizations play an important role in showcasing the best of the academic community,
and in providing appropriate reward and recognition for outstanding performers. They also help toshape the culture and tradition of intellectual communities, placing appropriate values upon meritand performance. It is recommended that national university systems lead a new effort to rally
external support, particularly from foundations, to strengthen national academies where they alreadyexist, or otherwise to catalyze the founding of new ones.
5.3.5

Arranging Technology Missions

A useful modality for building capacity around critical issues is to mount technology missions. A
mission would arise from a deliberate decision by stakeholders to define a social objective that
requires a major technological input, and then to mobilize all necessary resources for achieving that
objective within a specified time frame. Such a mission should seek specific collaboration that links
all stakeholders and leverages other resources. Priority areas which might present mission
opportunities include:•
renewable energy research•food production and security•
environmental sanitation and water resources•
telecommunication, electronics and information technology
5.3.6

Promoting Scientific Production

Africa’s scholarly community needs to substantially increase its contribution to the global pool ofknowledge. A significant amount of on-going research as well as indigenous knowledge remains
either unpublished or poorly documented. The current global knowledge revolution powered by new
information technologies provides an unprecedented opportunity for reducing the isolation of African
scholars, and for expanding the knowledge resources of the continent.
National research institutions should increase intensity and coverage of their research programmes.
They should conduct critical studies that lead to the determination of priorities for strategic research.
They should also identify those research areas that are most likely to benefit society within a shortperiod of time, and reposition themselves to address the priority needs of their countries. African
institutions need to carefully seek out and utilize emerging opportunities for this purpose.
Reform of the university system in sub-Saharan Africa is a necessary step to enhance research
environment. Such reform would include cultivating linkages with the private sector and encouraging
collaboration with non-university research and development. The institutions should also improve
the reward system to compensate scientific production and technological innovation. Increased
contribution of African science to the global intellectual knowledge base would greatly boost the
morale and enthusiasm of African scholars whose relative isolation tends to diminish the appreciationof their scholarship.

References

Adubifa, O. A. (October 2000). Research Proposal for the Study of Science and Technology Assets in
Sub-Saharan Africa.
Africa Policy Information Centre. (Jan. 2000). Africa: Policy Outlook 2000.
Jugessur, S. (1998). Science and Technology for African Development: Partnerships in a Global
Economy. Paper presented at the Conference on Science and Technology for African
Development: Partnerships in a Global Economy, March 15-18, 1998 Harare, Zimbabwe.
Partnership for Capacity Building in Africa: Strategy and Business Plan. Report of the African Governorsof the World Bank to Mr. James D. Wolfensohn, Sept. 1998.
Prewitt K. (ed.) (1998). SSRC Working Paper 2. Networks in International Capacity Building: Casesfrom Sub-Saharan Africa
The Economic Intelligence Unit. Business Africa. (May 1-5, 1997).

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Other Publications in the ATPS Special Paper SeriesSpecial Paper Series 1
Globalization and Technology: Africa’s Participation and Perspectives: Concept Paper and Research Agenda by Melvin Ayogu &Osita Ogbu (2002)
Special Paper Series 2
Globalization, Markets for Technology and the Relevance of Innovation Policies in Developing
Economies by Sunil Mani (2002)
Special Paper Series 3
Biotechnology in sub-Saharan Africa: Towards a Policy Research Agenda byJohn Mugabe (2000)
Special Paper Series 4
The Impact of Globalization in sub-Saharan Africa Countries by Mwindaace N. Siamwiza (2002)
Special Paper Series 5
A Blueprint for Developing National ICT Policy in Africa by Clement Dzidonu2002
Special Paper Series 6
Impact of Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) on Technology Transfer in Africa by Moses M. Ikiara(2002)
Special Paper Series 7
Pursuing Technology Policy Research in sub-Saharan Africa: Reflections on the Dimensions,Applications and Implications of a Methodological Framework by M.H. Khalil-Tammy (2002)
Special Paper Series 8
African Response to the Information Communication Technology Revolution by G. Olalere Ajayi(2002)
Special Paper Series 9
Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs): Poverty Alleviation and Universal AccessPolicies by Andrew Dymond & Sonja Oestmann (2002)
Special Paper Series 10
ICT Human Resource Development in Africa: Challenges, Strategies and Options by T.M. Waema(2002).
Special Paper Series 11
Applications of ICTs in Africa: Development of Knowledge Workers in Centres of Learning by John

Muraguri Waibochi (2002).
Special Paper Series 12
State of Science and Technology Capacity in sub-Saharan Africa by Khalil-Timamy (2002).
Special Paper Series 13
Strengthening National Information and Cmmunication Technology Policy in Africa: Governance,
Equity and Institutional Issues by Melvin Ayogu
Special Paper Series 14
A Science Agenda from An Afrian Perspective by Turner T. Isoun
Special Paper Series 15
International Trends in Modern Bio-technology: Entry by and Implications for African Countries byJohn Mugabe
Special Paper Series 16
Foreign Direct Investment (FDI), technology Transfer and Poverty Alleviation: Africa’s Hopes andDilemma by Moses Ikiara
Special Paper Series 17
Global Governance of Technology and Africa’s Global Inclusion by Banji Oyeyinka
Special Paper Series 18
Science and Technology and Poverty Reduction Strategy in Sub-Saharan Africa byO. Akin Adubifa

Dr. Akin Adubifa is currently undertaking commissioned research and providing advisory services tointernational organizations. Previously he worked for the Carnegie Corporation of New York, as a
Program Officer.