United Nations
Security Council (UNSC)

Background Guide Topic:

Support of Rape Victims in Conflict Areas_____________________________________________​

Special Advanced Background Guide

Director’s Note

Dear Delegates,

Thank you so much for participating in the 6th annual Japan Metropolitan Model United
Nations! My name is Yuki Mizumura and I will be the director for this committee. Our topic
this year is the support of rape victims in conflict areas — an extremely timely one as many
regions around the globe are in conflict today and women and men’s rights are infringed as aresult of sexual violence. The usage of rape as a means to gain power over innocent civilians
is a tactic that has suppressed both male and female victims not only by the hands of theiroffenders but also by their communities as a result of the social stigma surrounding rape
itself. It is important that this alarming issue not be left unaddressed due to such stigma andsolutions to combat the physical and psychological trauma that victims face. The speedy
prosecution of rape offenders is urgently required as well.

As chair, I hope that each delegate will gain insight into this topic by holding discussions
with other delegates, and am excited to hear solutions each country proposes to reconfirm
men and women’s basic rights. The Special Advanced committee is a new committee startingfrom this year, and I am looking forward to a fast-paced, animated debate about the topic.
See you at the conference!

Sincerely,

Yuki Mizumura
Special Advanced Committee, Director

History of the Committee

when the Soviets were boycotting the

The United Nations Security Council

Security Council over China’s UN(UNSC) is the United Nation’s mostmembership. The absence of The Soviet

powerful body. Its main function is toUnion allowed the United States to“maintain international peace and security

approve a series of resolutions thatin accordance with the principles andauthorized the use of military force topurposes of the United Nations”1

support South Korea in the Korean War.

(Functions and Powers), and to“investigate any dispute or situation which

Between the late 1980s and the early 21stmight lead to international

century, the Security Council’s power

friction”(Functions and Powers).

grew. Beginning in the late 1980s, thenumber of peacekeeping operations

The Security Council was established inauthorized by the Council increased. From1945 at the end of World War II. The

1948 to 1978, only 13 missions had been

Security Council held its first meeting inauthorized, but from 1987 to 2000, around

January 1946 at Church House,

three dozen operations were approved.

Westminster, London. Since its firstmeeting, the UNSC has taken permanent

In the conflicts of the 21st century,

residence at the United Nations

however, the Security Council has been

Headquarters in New York City.2

less effective. The most notable exampleof this is what was called the first genocide

During the Cold War, constantof the 21st century. Beginning in 2003,

disagreements between the United States

Arab militias backed by the Sudaneseand the Soviet Union made the Security

government carried out a terror campaign

Council ineffective. One of the notablein the region of Darfur. In August 2006,

exceptions to that occurred in June 1950,

the Security Council authorized thecreation and deployment of a​“Functions and Powers Security
Council.” United Nations, United Nations,
https://www.un.org/securitycouncil/conten
t/functions-and-powers​.
2​“What Is the Security Council? Security
Council.” United Nations, United Nations,
https://www.un.org/securitycouncil/conten
t/what-security-council​.
1peacekeeping force to Darfur. However,the Sudanese government rejected themeasure, which made this the firstpeacekeeping mission to have ever failed
to deploy that had been authorized by the

UNSC. Later, a compromise was found inwas the most difficult thing to achieve.

a joint peacekeeping force known as the

The Roman leader, Romulus, held ahybrid United Nations/African Union

religious festival and invited theMission in Darfur (UNAMID), authorizedneighboring Sabine tribe. At Romulus’s

by the Security Council in July, 2007.

signal, the Romans attacked and killed the
Sabine men at the festival and carried off

The Security Council originally consisted

the women. They were raped by theof eleven members: five permanent

Roman men. In the resulting war, themembers ( China, France, the Soviet

Sabine women called a halt to theUnion, the United Kingdom, and thehostilities, making allies of the tribes andUnited States) and six non-permanent

allowing the Romans to multiply.

members elected by the UN General
Assembly for two-year terms. An

Columbus and Slavery

amendment to the UN Charter in 1965

When Italian explorer Christopher

increased council membership to fifteen.

Columbus voyaged to the Caribbean in the

The non-permanent members are generally

1490s, he not only discovered new lands,

chosen to achieve equitable representation

at least one of his men would document

among geographic regions, with fivehis own rape and torture of an indigenous

members coming from Africa or Asia, one

woman. Carib women were given to thefrom eastern Europe, two from westerncrews by Columbus. When women fought

Europe, and two from South America.3

back against their attempted sexualattacks, they took a piece of rope andHistory of the Topic

whipped the women soundly. Columbus’

The Rape of the Sabine Women

ships sailed back to Europe, carrying moreIn the mid-8th century B.C., the warrior

than 1,000 sex-slaves.

tribe in Rome was facing a shortage ofwomen. In that time, population growth

Sexual Assaults Before the American CivilWar​ ritannica, The Editors ofB
Encyclopaedia. “United Nations Security
Council.” Encyclopædia Britannica,
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.,https://www.britannica.com/topic/UnitedNations-Security-Council​.
3

Many women of color were assaulted byslave owners in the colonies and theUnited States before the end of the Civil
War. Such instances were common andwouldn't have been considered assault. In

UNHCR operations. The UN has taken a

1662, Virginia’s governing body, theseries of decisive actions over recent years

House of Burgesses, instituted rules

to reinforce mechanisms for preventing

addressing children born of enslaved

and responding to sexual exploitation,

women, no matter if the father might be aabuse and harassment. UNHCR now has awhite man, they were slaves. Surviving

well-established, effective safeguarding

stories of such assaults only came fromteam, and a Senior Coordinator was

escaped or freed slaves, who managed toappointed in March 2018 to lead therecord them.

UNHCR’s work on sexual exploitation,
abuse and harassment.

India Rape Crisis
Jyoti Singh Pandey was raped in2012. This

Health and Care of Victims

attracted global outrage and seemed for a

Effects of Rape on Survivors

time to be the catalyst that would force

Sexual assault leads to several after-effects

change on an issue that has long plagued

in survivors with “physical, psychologicalIndia. However, that effort has faltered.

and social effects”4 (Mental health and

The systemic changes have not yet

psychosocial support) and affecting notaccompanied the change in law and policy

only the survivors themselves but to theirfor six years after the rape and murder ofsociety and community. ​After rape,

Jyoti Singh Pandey. Following the case,victims’ lives are changed drastically:

the government brought in new laws

“women are often unable to care for theirlengthening prison terms and introducing

children or households, fear leaving their

the death penalty for the rape of girls

homes, can become socially ostracized andunder 12 years of age. Although there is a

isolated, and may be rejected by their

lot of focus on punishment, the systemic

husbands, families, or communities”5changes are missing.
​ ental Health and Psychosocial Support
M
for Conflict-Related Sexual Violence:Principles and Interventions, World HealthOrganization, 2012.
5​The PLoS Medicine Editors. “Rape in
War Is Common, Devastating, and Too
Often Ignored.” PLoS Medicine, US
National Library of Medicine, 27 Jan.
2009,
4

UN Resolutions
UNHCR's position is clear, and has beenreiterated on a number of occasions by ourHigh Commissioner: sexual misconduct isunjustifiable and must be eradicated from

(Rape in War) Financially unstablesuch as counseling, “up to 50% of women

mothers may be unable to care for a childretain symptoms of stress.”7 (Sexual

if they not receive an abortion, potentially

Violence) Employing counselors andsubjecting the child to poverty. Differingsocial workers fully equipped to work withreligious beliefs surrounding abortion andsuch rape victims in conflict areas isrape in nations illustrates the improbability

undoubtedly necessary.

of a uniform solution to this issue andSocially, the victims face “stigma and its

must be adapted reflecting circumstances.

sequelae – including social exclusion,

Physical effects “include sexuallydiscrimination, rejection by family andtransmitted diseases, including HIV,community, and further poverty.” Suchunwanted pregnancies, unsafe abortions,exclusion from social contact prevents

gynaecological problems and physicalrapid care towards the survivors.

injuries.” (Mental health and psychosocial

Awareness and education that the fault of

support) Such victims in conflict areas

rape lies not with the victims but thehave less access to immediate medical

perpetrators themselves are crucial.

help, and the social stigma surrounding
rape victims can hinder them from seeking

Case Study: Nduta

help.
Psychologically, rape survivors are more
likely to develop “depression, PTSD,
substance use disorders, eating disorders,[and] anxiety” and many “​report
flashbacks of their assault, and feelings ofshame, isolation, shock, confusion, andguilt,”6 (Sexual Assault and Mental
Health) ​regardless of the circumstances of
the crime itself, ​and even with treatment
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2631054/​.
6​“Sexual Assault and Mental Health.”
Mental Health America,
https://www.mentalhealthamerica.net/conditions/sexual-assault-and-mental-health​.

​ oa EB et al. A comparison of exposureFtherapy,
stress inoculation training, and their
combination
for reducing post-traumatic stress disorderinfemale assault victims. Journal ofConsulting andClinical Psychology, 1999, 67:194–200.
Tarrier N et al. Cognitive therapy or
imaginal
exposure in the treatment of post-traumaticstressdisorder: twelve-month follow-up. British
Journalof Psychiatry, 1999, 175:571–575.
Kilpatrick DG, Edmonds CN, Seymour
AK. Rape in
America: a report to the nation. Arlington,
VA,
National Victim Center, 1992.
7

In 2016, the Human Rights Watch

camps) Victims claim that perpetratorsinterviewed 70 rape victims in a ​Nduta

include “other Burundian refugees andrefugee camp aiding Burundi refugees. As

Tanzanians.” Few of these perpetrators

a result, the organization discovered thatreceive justice for their crimes -- as of“in many cases women were not identified

2016, out of the five convicted since theas rape victims when they arrived at

Nduta camp opened on October 2015,

humanitarian transit camps on the“four were found not guilty.”9 (Burundi:

Tanzanian side of the border and so did

Gang Rapes by Ruling Party Youth)

not get emergency care for HIV exposure

Although terribly inadequate, the camp hasor emergency contraception,” 8(Burundian

put in efforts to solve this issue: “theywomen in Tanzanian refugee camps)

were continuing to train staff at the borderbringing to light the slow response and thepoints, had stockpiled drugs at the border,

lack of emergency care surrounding theand were trying … to encourage women to

attack itself. Better emergency care and thereport sexual violence.” However, a lackneed of distributing it directly to victims inof funding -- the Nduta refugee camp only

such conflict areas needs to be addressed

received 40 percent of the necessary

urgently. Furthermore, rape is heavily

funding requested from donor countries --rampant even inside refugee camps; theand a lack of adequate psychological andNduta refugee camp reported that not only

trauma care, as evinced by rape victims

women but also girls were subject to suchillustrate an urgent need for better support

crimes, occurring “as many as three orof victims in not only military areas

four cases a week” at “both inside thethemselves, but also the presumed shelter

camps and in areas outside where theyof refugee camps.

collect firewood or goods for market.”(Burundian women in Tanzanian refugee

Organizations and UN Branches
The Refugee Law Project​ afe Abortion. “Burundian Women in
S
Tanzanian Refugee Camps Women
Experience Pregnancy after Rape.”
International Campaign for Women's
Right to Safe Abortion, 5 Aug. 2016,
https://www.safeabortionwomensright.org/
burundian-women-in-tanzanian-refugee-ca
mps-women-experience-pregnancy-after-r
ape/​.
8

The Refugee Law Project works with malerape victims, often hesitant to discuss their“​ Burundi: Gang Rapes by Ruling Party
Youth.” Human Rights Watch, 27 July
2016,
https://www.hrw.org/news/2016/07/27/bur
undi-gang-rapes-ruling-party-youth​.
9

experiences for fear of being condemned

The International Review of the Red

as homosexual, through​ “rehabilitation …

Cross[the Refugee Law Project handles] medical

The International Review of the Red Cross

issues such as anal bleeding before theendorses “over forty programmes” thatvictims join a support group.”10 (Male rape

aim to help not only the rape survivors

survivors fight stigma in Uganda) Christhemselves but also their communities as a

Dolan, the organizer of the Refugee Law

result of rape. Such programmes “provide

Project, speaks that through a support

mental health and psychosocial support

group, survivors “become more confident(MHPSS) to victims of sexual violence, as

about speaking about what happened” andwell as families of missing persons,more male victims have begun to discuss

detainees, and other victims of violence.”11

their experiences. The Project claims that(​After sexual violence: Paths to recovery​)although they have provided aid forand operates mostly in Sub-Saharansurvivors “from Congo, Rwanda, Uganda,

Africa, although “future programs will be

Burundi, Somalia, Ethiopia and Eritrea …

developed in South Sudan, Lebanon andthe majority are from the Democratic

Mexico.”Republic of Congo” as of 2013. However,male rape victims are disregarded or at

UN Action

times dismissed: “Many of the victims

The UN Action Against Sexual Violence

who spoke to Al Jazeera at the conference(UN Action) represents thirteen UN

said when they reported the experiences toorganizations -- including UNWOMEN,

doctors or policemen they were not

UNICEF, and UNHCR -- aimed tobelieved, and some were even told that

eradicate sexual violence and is also linked

male rape does not exist.” (Male rapeto numerous NGOs. UN Action introduces

survivors fight stigma in Uganda) Boththree main goals to achieve its goal:

male and female rape need to be brought

Country Level Action, in which theto attention.

organization collaborates with UN
Country Teams and Peacekeeping
Operations to further capacity building;​ atabaalo, Grace. “Male Rape Survivors
N
Fight Stigma in Uganda.” Al Jazeera, Al
Jazeera Media Network, 12 Apr. 2013,https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/2013/04/2013411111517944475.html​.
10“​ After Sexual Violence: Paths to
Recovery.” International Committee of the
Red Cross, 9 Sept. 2015.
11

Advocating for Action, raising awarenessand murder in the Central African

to directly address sexual violence on a

Republic.14

global level; and Learning by Doing,
where UN Action creates “a knowledge

All war crimes and crimes againsthub” regarding sexual violence.12 (Abouthumanity can be extremely difficult to

UN Action)

investigate and to prosecute. Gathering
evidence during any situations where
periods of open hostility or even genocide

Prosecution and Legislation

is an extremely challenging task, if not

Prosecution of Rape in War

impossible. Patricia​ ​Sellers, a prominent

Violence against women in warzones

international criminal attorney and special

situations assumes many forms. Rape has

adviser for prosecution strategies to thebeen used as a war tactic for a long time,prosecutor of the International Criminal

and rape is one of the only ways in which

Court, says that “in reality, the sexual

women are directly targeted. While otherassault victim or survivor might also haveabuses, such as murder, have been

been subjected to multiple war crimes orprosecuted as war crimes, rape has, until

crimes against humanity. The sexual

recently, been downplayed as an

assault investigation and prosecution,

unfortunate side effect of sending men to

therefore, usually takes place within thewar. Because of this, rape was only

context of the pursuit of other crimes. To

prosecuted as a crime against humanity inclaim that sexualized violence crimes are1998 by the International Criminal

too difficult is a self-defeating proposition

Tribunal, following the discovery of thethat might, and usually does, weaken therape camps used by Serb soldiers during
the Bosnian war.13 The first conviction
issued by the International Criminal Court
was in 2016, when it held Congo’s
Jean-Pierre Bemba responsible for rape​“About UN Action.” Stop Rape Now ,http://www.stoprapenow.org/about/​.
13​The Secret War Crime, Aryn Baker,
Time, ​https://time.com/war-and-rape/12​Lazareva, Inna. “Nobel Laureate Urges
End to Impunity on Rape as Weapon ofWar.” Reuters, Thomson Reuters, 19 Oct.
2018,
https://www.reuters.com/article/us-nobel-p
rize-peace-congo-interview/nobel-laureate-urges-end-to-impunity-on-rape-as-weapo
n-of-war-idUSKCN1MT1O1​.
14

overall case.”15 (When Rape Became a“​The United States acknowledge

War Crime)and protect, in hostile countries
occupied by them, religion andDuring the past two decades, themorality; strictly private property;

acknowledgement of rapes in war, among

the persons of the inhabitants,

other conflict-related sexualized violence

especially those of women: and theas international crimes, has dramaticallysacredness of domestic relations.

advanced. However, only an extremely

Offenses to the contrary shall besmall percentage of the sexual crimes uponrigorously punished.” (Article 37)

females and males has ever been“all rape … [is] prohibited underinvestigated or charged.

the penalty of death, or such othersevere punishment as may seem

The Lieber Codes

adequate for the gravity of the

The Lieber Codes were developed in 1862

offense.

and published in 1863 by Abraham

A soldier, officer or private, in the

Lincoln during the Civil War originally as

act of committing such violence,a war code for the North specifying theand disobeying a superior orderingpunishments for offences by Francis

him to abstain from it, may be

Lieber, a German professor. Although rape

lawfully killed on the spot by such

was discussed very little in that period,

superior.” (Article 44)

rape of enslaved African-American“​Crimes punishable by all penal

women was especially rampant throughout

codes, such as arson, murder,

the region. However, three clauses in themaiming, assaults, highway

Lieber Code addressed rape, one of whichrobbery, theft, burglary, fraud,

specified the punishment of such sexual

forgery, and rape, if committed byviolence:an American soldier in a hostile
country against its inhabitants, are
not only punishable as at home, but​ aterson, Kerry K. “When Rape BecameP
a War Crime (Hint: It's Not When You
Think).” Women's Media Center,
http://www.womensmediacenter.com/wom
en-under-siege/when-rape-became-a-war-c
rime-hint-its-not-when-you-think1​.
15

in all cases in which death is notinflicted, the severer punishment

shall be preferred.”16 (Article 47,

The first significant international court“General Orders No. 100 : Thecase where rape was prosecuted as a war

Lieber Code.”)crime

Thanks to the Lieber Code, the U.S was

was after World War II. “While postwar

effectively able to “​[govern] the United

courts such as the International Military

States throughout the latter half of the

Tribunal in Nuremberg heard evidence ofCivil War and through the First World

rape being committed, the actual crime ofWar.”17 (​The Lieber Code)​ The success ofrape was missing from the tribunal’s

the Lieber Code formed the basis -- almost

charter and not mentioned within thean exact copy -- of the Geneva Convention

definition of a crime against humanity.”19

in 1864, where European world leaders(Rape as As a Weapon of War) Some of

convened to discuss the foundation of

the members of the Imperial Japanesebasic human rights.

Army were charged with failing to prevent
rape during the Nanking Massacre (also

The Tokyo War Crimes Trials

known as the Rape of Nanking), which

Following World War II in 1945-46, themade headlines in The New York Times,

Tokyo War Crimes Trials, also known as

which read: “For First Time, Court

the International Military Tribunal for the

Defines Rape as War Crime”20. (For FirstFar East, “charged rape as an offense”18

Time, Court Defines Rape as War Crime)(Treatment of Sexual Violence in“This historic ruling included “theInternational Law)

indictment of eight Bosnian Serb militaryand police officers for their connection

World War II“General Orders No. 100 : The Lieber
Code.” Avalon Project - General Orders
No. 100 : The Lieber Code,avalon.law.yale.edu/19th_century/lieber.asp#sec2​.
17​“The Lieber Code.” History Revived, 1
May 2013,
historyrevived.blogspot.com/2013/04/the-lieber-code.html​.
18​“Treatment of Sexual Violence inInternational Law.” Women’s Initiatives
for Gender Justice,
iccwomen.org/resources/crimeschart.html​.
16

with the rapes of Muslim women during
the war in Bosnia (April 1992 throughDecember 1994.) This historic ruling,“​ Rape As a Weapon of War.” Facing
History and Ourselves,
https://www.facinghistory.org/nanjing-atrocities/judgment-memory-legacy/rape-weap
on-war​.
20​The New York Times, The New YorkTimes,
https://archive.nytimes.com/www.nytimes.
com/specials/bosnia/context/0628warcrim
es-tribunal.html​.
19

heard at the International Criminal

civilians.”23(How to Counter Rape During

Tribunal for the former Yugoslovia

War) This is mainly due to the type of(ICTY), was a landmark in the efforts tocommanders. Some commanders use rape

prevent and prosecute sexual violence

as a strategic assault on a specific target, or

during war. It was the first international

tolerate it, while others prohibit rape. One

tribunal to try a case exclusively forof the examples for the latter is the Tamilcharges of sexual violence and was being

Tigers in Sri Lanka. The Tamil Tigers,

prosecuted as a crime against humanity.”21“while otherwise very violent during their(Rape as a Weapon of War)insurgency in the 1980s and ’90s, closely
monitored their troops and brutally

Security Council Resolution 1820

punished the few soldiers who raped.”

The resolution created by the Security(How to Counter Rape During War)Council in 2008 stated that “rape and other

Zainab Bangura, UN Special

forms of sexual violence can constitute a

Representative on Sexual Violence inwar crime, a crime against humanity, or a

Conflict, says that making the price forconstitutive act with respect to genocide”.

rape expensive for the perpetrator is one

22

effective way to reduce rape. This

(Resolution 1820)“[means] they will be prosecuted andPrevention of rape in war

imprisoned, they will never be integrated

Prosecution as a form of prevention

into state security forces or allowed to

While rape is often common in war zones,

work for the state, and they will be named“a significant percentage of both armies

and shamed in the community.”24

and rebel groups in recent civil wars were,(Changing the equation: prosecution as

surprisingly, not reported to have raped“​ How to Counter Rape During War.”The New York Times, The New YorkTimes, 28 Oct. 2015,
https://www.nytimes.com/2015/10/29/opin
ion/how-to-counter-rape-during-war.html​.
24​Tickle, Louise. “Changing the Equation:
Prosecution as Prevention of War Rape.”
The Guardian, Guardian News and Media,
10 June 2013,https://www.theguardian.com/global-devel
opment-professionals-network/2013/jun/0
7/prosecution-prevent-war-rape​.
23“Rape As a Weapon of War.” Facing
History and Ourselves,
https://www.facinghistory.org/nanjing-atrocities/judgment-memory-legacy/rape-weap
on-war​.
22​Resoultion 1820, United Nations
Security Council,
https://www.securitycouncilreport.org/atf/
cf/%7B65BFCF9B-6D27-4E9C-8CD3-CF
6E4FF96FF9%7D/CAC%20S%20RES%2
01820.pdf
21

prevention of war rape) Another way tofrom their communities, disowned by theirprevent rape is to publicly name andhusbands, prosecuted for illegal sexual

shame armies who have raped, “​a tactic

activity or pregnancy, or even murdered bythat research shows significantly
ameliorated the severity of genocides andstate-sponsored killing in the last several
decades.”(​How to Counter Rape During

their own families to restore “honor” in thewake of their sexual assault.”25 (What are
the solutions to wartime rape?) This
stigma makes it difficult for rape victims
to come forward to seek help or take legal

War) If a soldier or a commander isaction. Often, the victims suffer in silence.

publicly identified as a rapist, the shame

This silence only adds to the culture ofand threat to their reputation could prevent

impunity surrounding wartime sexualpeers from raping.

violence.
While this cycle of silence and violencePrevention through education

seems inescapable, there is a proven

Another example of an army which

method of ending this vicious cycle.

prohibited rape is the Farabundo MartíF​ormer UN Peacekeeping Commander

National Liberation Front in El Salvador.
The commanders required their soldiers toattend classes that emphasized the group’s
ideology which prohibited the abuse ofPatrick Cammaert describes how mobile
cinemas were take from a village toanother, showing films about sexual
violence denouncing rape as anunacceptable crime that should be properly

civilians. While rapes where rare andprosecuted. Cammert stated that “If local

infrequent, after the classes began, it

women know that rape need not be

virtually stopped.

suffered silently, with impunity for the

Putting an end to the impunity thatperpetrators, they can begin to work

surrounds rape during wartime requires

against the problem, too.”

more then implementing laws to prosecute
rapists. To end wartime rape also means
tackling the history of silence and shamethat surrounds rape victims. In many
countries affected by wartime rape, fromthe Democratic Republic of Congo to
Libya, there is a cultural stigma against
rape survivors. The stigma surrounding
rape is so strong that “many are ostracized​ ates, Laura. “What Are the Solutions to
B
Wartime Rape?” Women's Media Center,
http://www.womensmediacenter.com/wom
en-under-siege/what-are-the-solutions-towartime-rape​.
25

Questions to Consider
What are some steps that are/can be taken to lower the number of wartime rape in yourcountry?
What is the penalty for rape in your country?
How does your country educate about rape in schools?
How does your country provide asylum for the rape survivors?
What does your country do to support organizations that work to treat rape survivors?
Works Cited“About UN Action.” Stop Rape Now , ​http://www.stoprapenow.org/about/​.

“After Sexual Violence: Paths to Recovery.” International Committee of the Red Cross, 9
Sept. 2015.
Bates, Laura. “What Are the Solutions to Wartime Rape?” Women's Media Center,
http://www.womensmediacenter.com/women-under-siege/what-are-the-solutions-to-wartimerape
Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia. “United Nations Security Council.” Encyclopædia
Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.,https://www.britannica.com/topic/United-Nations-Security-Council​.
“Burundi: Gang Rapes by Ruling Party Youth.” Human Rights Watch, 27 July 2016,
https://www.hrw.org/news/2016/07/27/burundi-gang-rapes-ruling-party-youth​.
Disney, Abigail. “Rape in Wartime Can Be Eradicated, U.N. Peacekeeper Says.” The Daily
Beast, The Daily Beast Company, 8 Nov. 2011,https://www.thedailybeast.com/rape-in-wartime-can-be-eradicated-un-peacekeeper-says​.
“Functions and Powers Security Council.” United Nations, United Nations,
https://www.un.org/securitycouncil/content/functions-and-powers​.
“General Orders No. 100 : The Lieber Code.” Avalon Project - General Orders No. 100 : The
Lieber Code, ​avalon.law.yale.edu/19th_century/lieber.asp#sec2​.
“How to Counter Rape During War.” The New York Times, The New York Times, 28 Oct.
2015, ​https://www.nytimes.com/2015/10/29/opinion/how-to-counter-rape-during-war.html​.
Lazareva, Inna. “Nobel Laureate Urges End to Impunity on Rape as Weapon of War.”
Reuters, Thomson Reuters, 19 Oct. 2018,https://www.reuters.com/article/us-nobel-prize-peace-congo-interview/nobel-laureate-urges-end-to-impunity-on-rape-as-weapon-of-war-idUSKCN1MT1O1​.
Mental Health and Psychosocial Support for Conflict-Related Sexual Violence: Principles
and Interventions, World Health Organization, 2012.
Natabaalo, Grace. “Male Rape Survivors Fight Stigma in Uganda.” Al Jazeera, Al Jazeera
Media Network, 12 Apr. 2013,https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/2013/04/2013411111517944475.html​.
Paterson, Kerry K. “When Rape Became a War Crime (Hint: It's Not When You Think).”
Women's Media Center,
http://www.womensmediacenter.com/women-under-siege/when-rape-became-a-war-crime-hi
nt-its-not-when-you-think1​.

“Rape As a Weapon of War.” Facing History and Ourselves,
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