Tracking Effective Indigenous Adaptation
Strategies on Impacts of Climate Variability
on Food Security and Health ofSubsistence Farmers in Tanzania
African Technology Policy Studies Network

RESEARCH PAPER | No. 4
Riziki Silas ShemdoeTracking Effective Indigenous Adaptation
Strategies on Impacts of Climate Variability on
Food Security and Health of Subsistence
Farmers in Tanzania

Riziki Silas Shemdoe (Ph.D)
Institute of Human Settlements Studies, Ardhi University,
Dar es Salaam, Tanzania.

The African Technology Policy Studies Network (ATPS) is amulti-disciplinary network of researchers, private sector actors
and policy makers promoting the generation, dissemination,
use and mastery of science, technology and innovation (ST&I)
for African development, environmental sustainability andglobal inclusion. ATPS intends to achieve its mandate throughresearch, capacity building and training, science
communication/dissemination and sensitization, participatory
multi-stakeholder dialogue, knowledge brokerage, and policy
advocacy.
Published by the African Technology Policy Studies Network
P O Box 10081, 00100 GPO Nairobi Kenya
2011

Published by the African Technology Policy Studies Network

ISBN: 978-9966-030-01-6

Table of Contents
Acknowledgement

4

Abstract

5

1.

Introduction

6

2.

Objectives of the Study

93.

Literature Review

10

3.

Methodology

14

4.

Results & Discussions

17

5.

Conclusions & Recommendations

32

References

35

Tracking Effective Indigenous Adaptation Strategies on Impacts of Climate Variability on Food Security and Health of Subsistence Farmers in Tanzania | 3

Acknowledgement
This paper was produced as part of the implementation of the African Technology Policy Studies
Network (ATPS) Phase VI Strategic Plan, 2008 – 2012 funded by ATPS Donors including the
Ministerie van Buitenlandse Zaken (DGIS) the Netherlands, Rockefeller Foundation, amongst
others. The authors hereby thank the ATPS for the financial and technical support during theimplementation of the program. The Authors particularly thank the ATPS Climate Sense Program
Director, Dr. Kevin Urama (ATPS); and the Program Coordinators including Prof. Francis Mutua(ATPS Kenya); Dr. George Owusu Essegbey (Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR),
Ghana), Prof. Eric Eboh (ATPS Nigeria), Dr. Nicholas Ozor (ATPS), and Ms. Wairimu Mwangi (ATPS)
for their technical support during the research process.

4 | Tracking Effective Indigenous Adaptation Strategies on Impacts of Climate Variability on Food Security and Health of Subsistence Farmers in Tanzania

Abstract
Both long and short term changes in climate, disproportionately affect regions in both the semi-arid
and arid parts of the globe and the more humid tropics. As smallholder farmers have been staying inthese areas and that the climate variability has been affecting them, farmers throughexperimentation over time, have developed different traditional technologies in order to cope withthe climate change vulnerability. In the case study areas of Lushoto and Mpwapwa districts, little
has been done in tracking indigenous adaptation strategies developed to address impacts ofclimate variability on food security and health of subsistence farmers. This paper therefore provides
a highlight of the existing indigenous and other related technologies that farmers in the respective
districts in Tanzania are employing to counteract to the impacts of climate change and climate
variability. Data were collected through key informants interviews, focus group discussions and indepth interviews using a structured questionnaire that was administered to 400 household heads ineight villages from two agro-ecological zones namely humid (Lushoto district) and semi-arid(Mpwapwa district) zones. In this paper, both short and long term adaptation strategies developedby different rural communities are elucidated; policy recommendations for building climate change
resilience at local and national levels in Tanzania are proposed. Based on the findings from thisstudy a framework to support policy decisions in crop/livestock production and human healthsystems in Tanzania is recommended.

Tracking Effective Indigenous Adaptation Strategies on Impacts of Climate Variability on Food Security and Health of Subsistence Farmers in Tanzania | 5

1. Introduction
1.1
Background
Climate change will have a significant impact on livelihoods and living conditions of the poor indeveloping countries. Long-term changes in climate will disproportionately affect regions in boththe semi-arid and arid parts of the globe and the more humid tropics. Within these areas, the effects
of climate change vary across regions, farming and food systems, households and individuals.
The United Nation's Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has stated that Africa ingeneral and sub-Saharan Africa in particular is highly vulnerable to the impact of climate change“because of factors such as widespread poverty, recurrent droughts, inequitable land distribution,and over-dependence on rain-fed agriculture” (IPCC 2001). This has serious implications for many
sectors including those related to food security, water resources, the productivity of natural
resources, sea-level rise, desertification, and the spread of disease.
Already climate change has altered hydrological cycles and weather patterns, raised sea levels andincreased the intensity and frequency of extreme weather conditions all of which have a significant
impact on the livelihoods and living conditions of the poor in developing countries (FAO, 2007).
Projections of climate change suggest increasing climate risks as a result of mid-continental drying,increased frequency and severity of some climate extremes, and greater variability in rainfall. In
East Africa, a warming of 0.5 0C per decade is expected with increased frequency and magnitude ofelevated temperatures (Pascal et al, 2006; Githeko and Ndengwa, 2001).
A more ElNino-like climate is projected but dry regions are expected to get more drier while wet
regions more wetter (Hulmes et al , 2001), thus a high likelihood of more extreme events such as
droughts , floods and episodes of heavy rains that have profound impacts on the agricultural
systems ( food production) and human health.
On the positive scene, some East African areas were (and some still are) endowed with naturalforests which helped to modulate the climate and protect the soil, support biodiversity and also
provide forest related resources like timber and building materials. A large part of these forests havebeen destroyed in the straggle put up by the vulnerable group to obtain requirements ofsubsistence life which has resulted into environmental degradation. Soils and water bodies havebeen overused/ misused due to poor farming systems. This is evidenced through trends of soil
6 | Tracking Effective Indigenous Adaptation Strategies on Impacts of Climate Variability on Food Security and Health of Subsistence Farmers in Tanzania

erosion, drought incidences, floods, and change in rainfall patterns all of which are associated withclimate change. This has affected the social and economic status of the citizens in these regions
and especially the peasants. Poverty and hunger among peasants have been on the increase
resulting into starvation, malnutrition and in some cases, famine and death. Long-term changes inclimate will disproportionately affect regions in both the semi-arid and arid parts of the globe andmore for humid tropics Climate change and variability will hamper the ability of East Africancountries to attain food security and reduce disease burden in the region. In the absence of effective
adaptation, food insecurity and ill-health will deepen poverty and affect livelihoods, assets,
infrastructure, environmental resources and economic growth thereby slowing poverty reduction
and sustainable development strategies.
The current vulnerabilities and future climatic risks warrant increased efforts to improve capacities,
infrastructure, knowledge and partnerships related to climate risks management in the agricultural,
health and other sectors. Impacts of climate variability in Tanzania as it is for many other developing
countries will still be high.
This is due to the fact that, the economy of the country is predominately dependent on agriculture
and specifically rain-fed subsistence agriculture. Agriculture in Tanzania is a significant economic
base and about 80 percent of total population depends on agriculture for their livelihood.
Smallholder farmers occupy about 80 percent of total cultivated land accounting for 80 percent offood production. About 65 percent of the country is located on arid and semi-arid land, whichcontains about 30 percent of the human population and 59 percent of the livestock population(United Republic of Tanzania [URT] 2001). This, as a fact, any change in climate will have significant
impact onto the agricultural production systems and hence cause a lot of stresses to communities
especially in rural areas where majority of the dwellers are employed in the subsistence agricultural
sector.
In the literature, it is stated that some of the most important impacts of global climate change will be
felt among populations, predominantly in developing countries, referred to as “subsistence” or“smallholder” farmers. Their vulnerability to climate change comes both from being predominantly
located in the tropics and from various socioeconomic, demographic, and policy trends limiting
their capacity to adapt to climate change (Morton, 2007). Furthermore, according to Morton (2007),these impacts will be difficult to model or predict because of:(i)the lack of standardized definitions of these sorts of farming system, and therefore of standard
data above the national level,(ii) intrinsic characteristics of these systems, particularly their complexity, their location-specificity,and their integration of agricultural and nonagricultural livelihood strategies, and(iii) their vulnerability to a range of climate-related and other stressors.
As defined by Cornish, (1998), “Smallholder agriculture” is used more generally to describe rural
producers, predominantly in developing countries, who farm using mainly family labor and forwhom the farm provides the principal source of income. As smallholder farmers have been staying
in these areas and that the climate variability has been affecting them, farmers throughexperimentation over time, have developed different traditional technologies in order to cope with
Tracking Effective Indigenous Adaptation Strategies on Impacts of Climate Variability on Food Security and Health of Subsistence Farmers in Tanzania | 7

the climate change vulnerability. Local people have a lot of relevant traditional knowledge about
their environment and have developed indigenous coping mechanisms and methods, which are
well adapted to local conditions. Based on this fact, as stated in Shemdoe et al (2009a), it isimportant that traditional practices are carefully studied, documented, and harmonized with similarscientific-based knowledge. Thus, improved practices derived in this way, may be better suited toaddress poverty and optimize effective sustainable farming.

8 | Tracking Effective Indigenous Adaptation Strategies on Impacts of Climate Variability on Food Security and Health of Subsistence Farmers in Tanzania

2. Objectives of the Study
2.1
Main objective
The main objective of the present study was to track effective indigenous adaptation strategies
developed to address impacts of climate variability on food security and health of subsistence
farmers in Tanzania.
2.2
Specific objectives> Identify and document effective indigenous and emerging technologies and innovations forclimate change adaptation in the case study areas;> Enhance behavioral changes towards climate change adaptation measures at individual andinstitutional levels in the study area;> Build capacity and develop strategies to the farming communities in the study areas to adapt toclimate change impacts;> Assess the impacts of climate variability on food production;> Assess the impact of climate variability on health of farmers and food security;> Determine short and long term adaptation strategies developed by different rural communities;> Make policy recommendations for building climate change resilience at the state and national
levels in Tanzania;> Develop robust framework to support policy decisions in crop/livestock production and humanhealth systems in Tanzania.

Tracking Effective Indigenous Adaptation Strategies on Impacts of Climate Variability on Food Security and Health of Subsistence Farmers in Tanzania | 9

3. Literature Review
3.1
Climate change in the Tanzanian Policies
Although the impact of climate change on social and economic sectors in Tanzania started to be felt
as far back as in the early 1980s, the gravity of the impacts began to be recognized just over the
recent years. Apparently this state of affairs is attributed to the fact that the country did not havescientific evidence that would be the justification for any concern and response to the impacts ofclimate change. In the recent study on mainstreaming climate change to policy and governance,(Shemdoe, 2010a), it is reported that Tanzania has no stand alone policy for climate change, andindeed this is the same for many other developing countries; hence there is no legislation on climatechange per se which may be used to guide implementation of the policy. The only existing
document available on climate change is the National Adaptation Programme of Action (NAPA,
2009) which is designed to provide an opportunity to look at the country's climate change related
vulnerabilities in various sectors which are important for the economy. As reported in Shemdoe(2010a) there are however, several sectoral policies which touch on issues of climate change
haphazardly. The policies that have showed a link with climate change issues in Tanzania include:
National Environmental Policy, National Energy Policy of Tanzania, National Water Policy(NAWAPO), National Livestock Policy, National Forest Policy and National Wildlife Policy of
Tanzania. In these policies, issues that are highlighted which have a direct link to climate variability
and climate change include: land degradation; environmental pollution; as well as deforestation.
Others include minimization of wood fuel consumption through the development of alternative
energy sources and ensure efficient utilization of wood fuel; promotion of sustainable renewableenergy resources; develop and utilize forest and agricultural residues for power and cooking
energy production. On agricultural aspect, the policies highlights the impacts of agricultural
practices have contribution on climate change through slash and burn practices; extension ofcultivation to the sensitive and marginal lands such as wetlands hence contributing to climatechange as more carbon dioxide is added to the atmosphere. Based on ecosystem goods andservices, the policies have highlighted ecosystem stability through conservation of forest
biodiversity, water catchments and soil fertility should be ensured; and encroachment, wildfires,
illegal logging and poaching in the reserved forests to have contributed to the deterioration of
wildlife population. Moreover, the policies have also highlighted water issues and specifically thatwater is a fundamental for various social – economic development activities hence the need toconserve water sources; and that there is a need for integrated water resource management(IWRM) to ensure that water does not become a constraint to national development.
10 | Tracking Effective Indigenous Adaptation Strategies on Impacts of Climate Variability on Food Security and Health of Subsistence Farmers in Tanzania

3.2

Smallholder farmers' based indigenous technological adaptation
strategies to the impacts of climate variability in different agroecological zones of Tanzania
Tanzania has about seven agro ecological zones (Plate 2), whereby different crops under different
farming systems are produced. In all these zones, climate variability and climate change can have
impacts. The agro-ecological zones in Tanzania include: Coast, Arid lands, Semi-arid lands,
Plateaus, Southern and Western Highlands, Northern highlands and alluvial plains. In this paper,
the agro-ecological zones have been divided into two main categories; these are the highlandagro-ecological zone, and the arid and semiarid zones. Smallholder farmers residing in these agroecological zones have developed a number of indigenous techniques and practices that are usedby smallholder farmers in their farming systems. Some of the most frequently used technologies
and their link to farming systems are described in the subsequent section.

Source: de Pauw 1984

Figure 1: Agro-ecological zones of Tanzania
3.3
Indigenous technologies in highland agro-ecological zone
Farmers in the Matengo areas in Ruvuma region apply Ntambo as one of the indigenous strategy incrop production. “Ntambo” as described in Matee, (2000) and Kato (2001) is a unit of land that isboarded by small (river) valleys and is normally located on mountain slopes. It is a suitable area thatis used in raising crops during low rain seasons, thus community use these areas as a coping
strategy to counteract drought as one of the impacts of climate variability in Tanzania. Anothermatengo indigenous farming system/technology is ingolu or ngolo. As described in Matee (2000)
and Kato (2001) ingolu is characterized by a combination of anti-erosion and soil fertility
maintenance techniques of pits and ridges on steep slopes. This technique evolved among thematengo over 100 years ago (Pike, 1938 in Matee 2000). This indigenous technique has been
Tracking Effective Indigenous Adaptation Strategies on Impacts of Climate Variability on Food Security and Health of Subsistence Farmers in Tanzania | 11

effective in controlling soil erosion, maintaining soil fertility and increasing crop yields produced invery steep slopes (Allan 1965; Kato 2001).
In the Sukumaland, Shinyanga region, farmers are used to and exercise Ngitiri system. Ngitiri
system refers to a system of 'bush fallow' management used by the Sukuma people. They are
actually areas of grazing land, which have been 'closed' to livestock, by the village council, or a
private landowner, and they are an example of an indigenous silvopastoral technology for land
rehabilitation. Studies by Kamwenda (1999) indicate that the ngitiri has the potential of improving
the ecology of the site where trees enrich the soil surface through decomposition and mineralizationof their litters (i.e. leaves flowers, twigs and branches). The extensive ground cover of shrubs,
grasses, herbs and forbs also help prevent soil erosion and facilitate water infiltration andpercolation by reducing surface runoff and increasing soil water storage (Kamwenda, 1999). Thereis an increasing body of evidence that ngitiri is a widespread and very popular system among the
Wasukuma of Shinyanga region comprising six districts since 1920's. The primary importance of the
Ngitiri system is in fodder production, with some authorities estimating fodder production of up to 4 t
DM/ha for the traditional Ngitiri and 8 t DM/ha for the improved systems (Kitalyi et al. 2004) in Jama
and Zeila (2005). The interesting aspect about the Ngitiri system is that it is a farmer-led and farmermanaged initiative that has evolved after years of traditional grazing management.
Farmers in the northern Tanzania have also developed their indigenous intensive crop management
systems that they refer to as iraqw system by the Iraqw tribe (Shetto, 1998). The iraqw systems areprepared in the hilly areas, where the crop residues in the field and manure from stall fed cattle isincorporated into cultivated ridges. Terraces are made to control soil erosion, and fodder is cropped
on the edges of the terraces for the cattle, being supplemented by grass from fallow fields. Trashlines and cut off drains are also used to slow down surface runoff and to increase infiltration (Shetto,
1998).
In the Usambara Mountains as reported in Sokoni and Shechambo (2005), smallholder farmers
have been using Ndiwa which is an indigenous traditional irrigation system that has been in
operation in Usambara Mountains for several decades since 1940s. Sokoni and Shechambo(2005), describe Ndiwa as an overnight reservoir or farm pond. Ndiwa is often dug on mountainslopes and is fed by springs. Spring channels are dammed; the water is allowed to accumulate for
12 to 24 hours and then released for irrigation. Sometimes a dam is constructed beside a spring or a
stream channel. Ndiwa has been useful in crop production in the mountainous areas during dry
seasons and are one of the suitable indigenous technologies that can be used as an adaptation
strategy to the impact of climate variability.
3.4
Indigenous technologies in arid and semi arid agro-ecology
For years now farmers in semi arid central Tanzania have been applying different soil and water
conservation methods in order to improve crop production. Hatibu and Mahoo, (1999) mention
pitting, as a traditional system of sowing to have been used by farmers to collect runoff during theearly growing stages of the crops in the area. Hillside sheet and runoff utilization which exploits
valley bottoms and plains where runoff collects, have been widely used by farmers for growing highwater demand crops such as maize in the area (Hatibu and Mahoo, 1999). Shemdoe et al (2008;2009b) report some farmers in semiarid central Tanzania to have used traditional terraces (matuta)
12 | Tracking Effective Indigenous Adaptation Strategies on Impacts of Climate Variability on Food Security and Health of Subsistence Farmers in Tanzania

and mulching from the crop residues left from the preceding season to conserve soil moisture andto increase soil water availability to plants hence improve crop production.
In most of the Tanzanian arid and semi-arid areas, other local-based coping strategies withdroughts have included remittances from migrant household members, collecting wild fruits,switching to non-farm activities or, in extreme cases, selling assets. Eriksen et al. (2005) give an
example of farmers in Same District, one of the semiarid districts in Tanzania to have resorted tocasual labor, brick making, handicraft, collecting honey and charcoal burning during droughts,
allowing household to make money to purchase food and to obtain other necessities.

Tracking Effective Indigenous Adaptation Strategies on Impacts of Climate Variability on Food Security and Health of Subsistence Farmers in Tanzania | 13

4. Methodology.
In this section, descriptions of the case study areas are highlighted. In this section data collection
methods used in this study are also detailed. The data gathering method used include key
informants interviews, focus group discussions and detailed in-depth interviews with selected 400
heads of households as representatives of the communities in the two case study agro-ecologicalzones where the study was carried out.
4.1
Study area
This study was carried out in two different districts with two different distinctive characteristics (plate1). These districts are Mpwapwa district in Dodoma Region Tanzania which is semi-arid. Other
district is Lushoto found in Tanga region with humid environment.
Mpwapwa District is characterized by a semi-arid ecological zone, with un-imodal rainfall, which isunreliable, and varies between 350 to 800 mm per year, concentrated between December and April.
The main economic activities for the majority of people in the district are crop production andlivestock keeping (URT, 2003). The main food crop in the case study villages is sorghum (Sorghum
bicolour), though a few farmers plant maize (Zea mays) intercropped with groundnuts (Arachis
hypogaea) in some fields. On the other hand, Arachis hypogaea is the main cash crop of the area;other cash crops include vegetables such as onions (Allium cepa), tomatoes (Solanum
lycopersicum), cabbage (Brassica oleracea), and Amaranthus tricolor which are grown in thevalleys (Shemdoe and Mwanyoka, 2006).
Lushoto district, West Usambara, northeastern Tanzania lies between 38° 10' and 38° 36' E and 4°
24' and 5° 00' S with altitudes ranging from 800 to 2300 m a.s.l. The population density ranges from68 to 400 persons per square km. The area falls under rainforest vegetation type and soils are
generally latosols. Rainfall is in bimodal pattern; short rains from October to December and longrains from March to June. The rainfall ranges from 600 to more than 1200mm. The existing land use
pattern is divided into four categories, namely; dry land farming contributing to 58%, tree crops andirrigated area (11%), forest reserve (16%) and grazing area (15%).

14 | Tracking Effective Indigenous Adaptation Strategies on Impacts of Climate Variability on Food Security and Health of Subsistence Farmers in Tanzania

Figure 2: Map indicating locations of the case study district in Tanzania
4.2
Data collection method
Data collection included key informants interviews and focus group discussions during the pilot
study, literature reviews and detailed surveys that involved the use of in-depth interviews using a
structured questionnaire whereby a total of 400 heads of households 200 from each district wereinterviewed.
4.2.1 Key Informant and Focus Group Discussions
For the pilot study (PS), Lushoto District was selected and key informants interviews and focus
group discussions were carried out. During this phase, a visit to the district was scheduled andmeetings with the District Executive Director (DED), District Agricultural and Livestock Officer(DALDO) and the District Soil and Water Conservation Officer were held. In these meetings, anumber of issues were discussed including the introduction on the study; perceptions of theofficials on the research project and on issues related to impact of climate variability and emerging
technologies were discussed. As such, selection of the case study villages was carried out after a
deep discussion with the officials. Two villages were selected located in Vuga ward in Soni Division.
These villages are Kishewa and Kidundai. The selection of these villages in this ward was based on
the grounds that they are the villages within the landscape that typically represents Lushoto District
as the ward has a number of topographical features that represents the district. This is to say theward starts from mountains and ends up with the lowland where a number of agro ecological zones
within the two villages exists and hence suitable for this study.
After the meetings with the district officials, a visit to the villages was done and interviews with thevillage officials (Village chairpersons and Village Executive Officers) as key informants were carriedout. The key informants schedule was used to capture key informants' insights on the objectives.
Tracking Effective Indigenous Adaptation Strategies on Impacts of Climate Variability on Food Security and Health of Subsistence Farmers in Tanzania | 15

Focus group discussions with village representatives was arranged and carried out. Thesemeetings were carried out where by village representatives were invited. A total of 30
representatives composed of 16 participants from Kidundai village and 14 from Kishewa village
attended the focus group meetings. Participants were mainly members of village environmental
committees (VEC). In these meetings, a focus group discussion schedule was used to capture theinsights of village representatives. A house hold questionnaire that will be used in the main survey
was also tested by collecting general information from the members attended in the focus group
discussion. The pretesting of this questionnaire was not deeply carried out due to shortage of time
but adequate information to improve the questionnaire was collected in this general focus group
discussion meeting which was subsequently followed by a general session to discuss thequestionnaire and the issues therein.
4.2.2
Literature reviews
Literature reviews included review of effective indigenous technological adaptation strategies
employed by farmers in different agro-ecological zones in Tanzania. In the review we started byhighlighting historical trends of climate change issues as highlighted in different Tanzanianpolicies, through a review of different policies that have addressed climate change issues whether
directly and /or indirect. This helped to show how the implementation of the policies could take into
consideration smallholder farmers' technologies and indigenous adaptation to climate change
impacts in different areas in the country.
4.2.3
Questionnaire survey
In each of the two districts where the study was carried out, four villages were selected whereby atotal of fifty respondents were interviewed using the questionnaire in each village. In-depth
interviews with heads of households using a structured questionnaire with both open- and closeended questions were conducted in July and August 2010. In the two districts a total of 400 headsof households were interviewed. Issues that were included in the questionnaire include climatechange and copping strategies by communities in the case study areas, copping strategies to theimpacts of climate variability, behavioral changes towards climate change adaptation measures atindividual and institutional levels in the study area, and behavioral changes towards climatechange adaptation strategies instituted by the local government to the communities' district level.
Others include communities' preferences on the local government strategies towards influencing
communities to adapt to climate change, capacity building to the communities on climate change
issues and information, effects of climate change on food security, effects of climate change onhuman health and livestock, and measures taken to reduce the impacts of human diseases linked
to climate change. The information was useful in developing a framework to support policy
decisions in crop/livestock production and human health systems in Tanzania.
Most of the qualitative data collected were analyzed using content analysis (Mayring 2000).
Descriptive statistics were also used in analyzing quantitative information collected during in-depth
interviews from the structured questionnaire.

16 | Tracking Effective Indigenous Adaptation Strategies on Impacts of Climate Variability on Food Security and Health of Subsistence Farmers in Tanzania

5. Results & Discussion
This chapter contains findings from the field research on tracking effective indigenous adaptation
strategies on impacts of climate variability on food security and health of subsistence farmers in
Tanzania. The study was carried out in two case study agro-ecological zones i.e. semi- arid andhumid zones. The chapter aims at providing answers to the questions derived from the key specificobjectives. The questions/issues that are addressed in this chapter are as follows:> Characteristics of the communities in the case study areas> The effective indigenous and emerging technologies and innovations for climate change
adaptation in the study area;> Behavioral changes towards climate change adaptation measures at individual and institutional
levels in the study area;> Impacts of climate variability on food production;> Impact of climate variability on health of farmers and food security;> Adaptation strategies developed by different rural communities.
5.1
Respondents' Characteristics
Characteristics of the respondents involved in the study from the two different agro-ecosystems
were determined. This was done purposely to determine capacity of communities with different
characteristics in order to understand the climate variability and its associated impacts to theirproduction systems and their livelihoods at large. The characteristics of the respondents included
age, sex and education. Others included originality in the area of residence as well as occupations.
5.2
Age, sex and education levels of the respondents
Respondents interviewed in this study were from 18 to 60 years old. Respondents were grouped
into three different age categories notably between 18-35, 36-60 years and those above 60 years. In
the two agro-ecosystems, there was a slight difference in numbers of respondents interviewed inthose age groups. Mpwapwa district had a large number of respondents within the 18-35 years age
category compared to Lushoto district. Whereas Mpwapwa district has a good number of
respondents in a productive age that can invest their labour power in different economic activities,
Lushoto district has a large number of respondents aged above 60 years which indicate highdependency ratio (Fig.3).

Tracking Effective Indigenous Adaptation Strategies on Impacts of Climate Variability on Food Security and Health of Subsistence Farmers in Tanzania | 17

Figure 3: Age of respondents in the two case study areas
With regards to the sex of the respondents, in the two agro-ecosystems, majority of respondents
were male (Fig. 4). In this study, female representatives were 26.5% in highland ago-ecosystem(The Lushoto district) and 35% in the semi-arid agro-ecosystem (The Mpwapwa district). The trend
is normal for male dominated systems where males tend to be the ones with a mandate to stand andspeak for their household issues than females. Nevertheless, the interviewed female
representatives have given their understanding on the issues of climate variability and how it affects
them and the way it contributes to changes in gender roles and goals in the respective societies inthe two agro-ecological zones.

Figure 4: Sex of respondents
The majority of respondents in the two different agro-ecological zones studied have some formal
education. About 85% of the interviewed respondents in Lushoto and 83% in Mpwapwa district haveacquired primary education with the majority having one to seven years of primary school
education. Just 6.5% in Lushoto and 2.5% in Mpwapwa have acquired secondary education (Fig.5).
This observation is supported by Jörgensen (2002) mentioning land-using persons in tropical andsub-tropical regions to have a limited education and in this case the primary education for Lushoto
and Mpwapwa districts. Low level of education in the respective areas is also reported in Shemdoe
et al, 2009a; and Ngware et al 2006). Undoubtedly, low levels of education in these areas make18 | Tracking Effective Indigenous Adaptation Strategies on Impacts of Climate Variability on Food Security and Health of Subsistence Farmers in Tanzania

people depend much on the subsistence agriculture and livestock keeping which are the sectors
highly impacted by climate variability and climate change and as a result communities in theseareas are compelled to have their own coping strategies which are being tracked in this study.

Figure 5: Respondents levels of education
5.3
Respondents original place of birth and occupations
Residence status of the respondent's interviewed in the area was also assessed. This was deemed
important in determining communities coping strategies to the impact of climate change andclimate variability in the respective areas. It was observed that most of the respondents in Lushoto
district were born within the villages; only 4% migrated into the area. This is contrary to the
respondents in Mpwapwa district where about 16% of the respondents migrated into the area (Fig6). This attests that the migration of people in arid and semi-arid areas is high probably due to thehigh negative impacts of climate variability and climate change in this agro-ecological zone. Of the
16% who migrated from other areas in Mpwapwa district, 12% were from within the district but
moved from one village to the other, 2% out of the district and 2% out of the region. The reasons for
migrating from one village to another to search areas for cultivation due to changes in rainfall andpoor quality of soils in the places they were residing.

Figure 6: Respondents areas of origin

Tracking Effective Indigenous Adaptation Strategies on Impacts of Climate Variability on Food Security and Health of Subsistence Farmers in Tanzania | 19

Respondents' occupation status for the two districts does not differ much. The study observed that,most of the respondents in the case study areas practice both subsistence farming and traditional
livestock keeping which is dominated by free range systems as listed in figure 7. Of the 200
respondents in each district, 60% in Lushoto and 66% in Mpwapwa district practice bothsubsistence farming and livestock keeping while those who practices subsistence farming only are
34% for Lushoto and 27.5% for Mpwapwa district (Fig 7). This information implies that, livelihoods ofmost of the people in these two districts depend much on subsistence farming and livestock
keeping which are currently reported by the interviewed representatives to have been affectedsignificantly by the unpredictable amount of and rainfall patterns in the respective areas. Other
studies such as Shemdoe et al, (2009) and Ngware et al,( 2006) confirms subsistence farming andlivestock keeping to be highly affected by rainfall patterns and amount within these two agroecological zones.

Figure 7: Respondents occupation
5.4

Climate change and copping strategies by communities in the casestudy areas
In the case study areas, existence of unpredictable rainfall pattern and amount as well as prolonged
droughts has been referred to as the main indication of climate change. All of the 400 (100%)
respondents involved in this study in Lushoto and Mpwapwa districts, confirmed climate change to
be a reality in their areas. Several indicators of climate change in the two agro-ecological zones
reported by the communities include prolonged drought, unpredictable rainfall, pattern of rainfall,
food shortage, poor pasture regeneration, and human and animal emerging diseases. Drought was
the frequently mentioned indicator for climate change in both districts. Of the 200 respondents ineach district, 46% in Lushoto and 44% in Mpwapwa mentioned drought as the main indicator which
contributes to food shortages and reduced pastures (Fig. 8) in the respective areas.

20 | Tracking Effective Indigenous Adaptation Strategies on Impacts of Climate Variability on Food Security and Health of Subsistence Farmers in Tanzania

Figure 8: Indicators of existence of climate variability and climate changereported by communities in the case study areas
5.4.1 Copping strategies to the impacts of climate variability in the casestudy areas
In these areas, as a way to counteract the impact of climate variability and climate change, local
communities have developed a range of strategies. Such measures include traditional terracing(matuta), destocking, tree planting, traditional food preservation methods, drilling traditional wells,
construction of locally based water reservoirs (Nkunisa), mixed cropping and crop diversification.
Tree planting was found to be more practiced in both case study areas. Of the 200 respondents
interviewed in each district, 46% and 39% of respondents in Lushoto and Mpwapwa district
respectively, indicated tree planting as an adaptation strategy to the impact of climate variability as
well as to climate change. Another locally based technology that is used by local communities inboth agro-ecological zones is traditional terracing (Matuta) that was reported by 40% of the
respondents in Mpwapwa and 18% of respondents in Lushoto district. This practice increases soil
water holding capacity when applied in the field as reported in Shemdoe at el 2009b.
Respondents in Lushoto district practice drilling traditional wells and traditional water reservoirs(Nkunisa) and practicing mixed cropping as adaptation measures to climate change. These
techniques are not practiced in Mpwapwa most likely due to the fact that the area is drier and there isno spring water which could be used as a source of water for traditional irrigation. In Mpwapwa the
traditional technology that farmers apply most is the traditional food preservation method which ispracticed by the majority of the respondents in Mpwapwa district than in Lushoto district (Tab. 1).

Tracking Effective Indigenous Adaptation Strategies on Impacts of Climate Variability on Food Security and Health of Subsistence Farmers in Tanzania | 21

Table 1: Copping strategies to the impacts of climate variability

LushotoAdaptation Measures

Frequency % response

Mpwapwa
Frequency % response

Traditional terracing (Matuta)

36

18

80

40

Destocking

16

8

25

13

Tree planting

91

46

78

39

Traditional food storage methods (vihenge)

2

1

17

8

Drilling traditional water wells and

37

18

0

0

Crop diversification

13

7

0

0

Family planning

5

2

0

0

Total

200

100

200

100

construction of traditional water reservoirs(Nkunisa)

Adaptation measures to the effects of climate change and variability in the study areas are found to
be feasible solutions. The majority, (90.5% and 98%) of the respondents in Lushoto and Mpwapwa
district respectively (Fig. 9) commended some of the indicated adaptation measures to be feasible
in overcoming the effects of climate change and variability as they have helped them to survive over
the years.

Figure 9: Usefulness of locally based adaptation measures towards impactsof climate variability in the case study areas

22 | Tracking Effective Indigenous Adaptation Strategies on Impacts of Climate Variability on Food Security and Health of Subsistence Farmers in Tanzania

5.4.2Behavioral changes towards climate change adaptation measures atindividual and institutional levels in the study area
Climate change and variability has impact on communities' social well being. Community
representatives interviewed indicated that majority of the people in the respective areas havechanged their living and working behaviors. Issues that have been indicated to have changed
include reduced grazing of cattle around water sources, reduced free grazing on farms, single meal
to double meals per day from the usual three meals, eating one type of food, growing drought
resistant crops, mixed cropping and crop diversification. This behavioral change is attributed topoor harvests leading to more people changing eating habit by having a single meal per day, which
has been reported by 32% in Lushoto and 50% of respondents in Mpwapwa district. The prolonged
drought periods experienced in the study areas have been indicated to result into poor pastureregeneration for livestock and subsequently more livestock are now grazed through zero grazing
where fodder are collected from areas around water sources and from the collected crop residues.
In other cases it was reported that due to poor regeneration some livestock keepers have hugely
reduced size of their cattle. Of the 200 respondents in each district, 35% in Lushoto and 23% in
Mpwapwa district (Tab.2) mentioned to have reduced a number of livestock being grazed aroundwater sources. Food insecurity has been indicated to affect more people in Mpwapwa district than in
Lushoto. This was mentioned by the respondents reported to have changed their eating habit due
to unavailability of food caused by poor harvest that has been linked with changes in climate.
Representatives' interviewed in this study proposed a number of technological behavioral changes
that should be instituted by communities in the respective areas. These include practices that will
help to restore water sources including land use planning, education and awareness raising on foodstorage, environmental education, research on crop diseases, destocking, enforcement ofenvironmental by laws and improvement of traditional irrigation systems. In the two study areas,teaching environmental education was found to be given highest priority. About 53% of the
respondents in Lushoto district and 52% in Mpwapwa district proposed for extensive and effective
awareness creation. Other suggested interventions is water sources conservation whereby 12% of
the respondents in Lushoto and 19% of the respondents in Mpwapwa district proposed it as one of
the interventions to be done as a way to counteract to impacts of climate change and climate
variability.

Tracking Effective Indigenous Adaptation Strategies on Impacts of Climate Variability on Food Security and Health of Subsistence Farmers in Tanzania | 23

Table 2: Behavioral changes as a copping strategy to climate change
adaptation

LushotoBehavior

Mpwapwa

Frequency% response

Frequency% response

Reduced grazing around water sources

69

35

46

23

Free grazing on farms

3

1

40

20

Single meal per day

64

32

100

50

Double meals per day

20

10

0

0

Eating one type of food

26

13

0

0

Growing drought resistant crops

10

5

10

5

Mixed cropping and crop diversification

8

4

4

2

Total

200

100

200

100

Community representatives interviewed indicated a number of strategies that have been instituted
by local government in their respective districts (see table 3). Such strategies include awarenesscreation on conservation of water sources, proper land use planning, environmental education,
food storage, research on crop diseases, and awareness on the need to reduce livestock heard(destocking), enforcement of village environmental bylaws as well as improvement of traditional
irrigation systems (table 3). As such these strategies if well applied by communities may result inproper use of natural resources in the respective agro-ecosystems where the climate variability
and climate change has a lot of negative impacts.

24 | Tracking Effective Indigenous Adaptation Strategies on Impacts of Climate Variability on Food Security and Health of Subsistence Farmers in Tanzania

Table 3: Behavioral changes towards climate change adaptation strategies
instituted by the local government to the communities' district level

Lushoto
Awareness strategy

Mpwapwa

Frequency% response

Frequency% response

Water sources conservation

25

12

37

19

Land use planning

5

3

14

7

Food storage

6

3

26

13

environmental education

105

53

105

52

Research on crops diseases

6

3

18

9

Destocking

15

7

0

0

Enforcement of Village environmental by laws

18

9

0

0

Improving traditional water streams

20

10

0

0

200

100

200

100

. Total

5.4.3

Communities' preferences on the local government strategies towards
influencing communities to adapt to climate change
Respondents in both districts were asked to rank local government strategies towards influencing
communities to adapt to climate change instituted by their respective local government in theirrespective districts. In Lushoto District as presented in table 4, the ranks were environmental
education, environmental bylaws, improvement of traditional water systems, water source
conservation and the last was destocking. In Mpwapwa districts (Tab. 4) the ranks were biased toenvironmental education, water source conservation research on crop diseases, land use planningand food storage. Apart from environmental education that was ranked first in both agro-ecologicalzones, other strategies were ranked based on the needs of the respective community in respective
particular agro-ecological zone.

Tracking Effective Indigenous Adaptation Strategies on Impacts of Climate Variability on Food Security and Health of Subsistence Farmers in Tanzania | 25

Table 4: Communities' preferences on the local government strategies
towards influencing communities to adapt to climate change

Rank

LushotoMpwapwa1

Teaching environmental education

Teaching environmental education

2

Enact environmental by-laws

Water source conservation

3

Improving traditional water streams

Research on crops diseases

4

Water sources conservation

Land use planning

5

Destocking

Food storage awareness

5.4.4

Capacity building to the communities on climate change issues andinformation
In this study, different approaches used in building capacity to the communities on climate change
issues in the respective districts were elucidated. Community representatives interviewed in thecase study areas indicated a number of climate change related information dissemination
approaches as a capacity building strategy to the communities to include mass media (radio andtelevision), traditional groups, village meetings, artist works, seminars and teaching environmental
education in primary schools (Tab. 5). Village meetings seem to be the most feasible dissemination
strategy in both districts as mentioned by 28% and 49% of the respondents in Lushoto andMpwapwa district respectively.
Table 5: Approaches used in climate change information dissemination
LushotoMpwapwa

Frequency% response

Frequency% response

Radio

23

11

24

12

Television

13

6

25

13

Traditional groups

16

9

44

21

Village meetings

56

28

98

49

Artists works

22

11

9

5

Seminars

60

30

0

0

primary school

10

5

0

0

Total

200

100

200

100

Dissemination approaches

Environmental education in

26 | Tracking Effective Indigenous Adaptation Strategies on Impacts of Climate Variability on Food Security and Health of Subsistence Farmers in Tanzania

5.4.5 Effects of climate change on food security
Currently, food security is a global concern because majority of the people in different communities
are starving particularly in Africa. In this study, communities indicated effects of climate change onfood security as increased frequency of crop pests and diseases and poor crop harvests caused bypoor rainfall and reduced soil fertility. Respondents in the two districts indicated pests and diseases
to have more effects on food availability. About 42% and 80% of the interviewed respondents in
Lushoto and Mpwapwa respectively indicated pests and diseases to negatively affect foodavailability in the district (Fig.10)
Poor crop harvest which is caused by poor rainfall and reduced soil fertility was indicated by 58%
and 20% in Lushoto and Mpwapwa districts respectively (Fig.10) as one of the negative effects
caused by climate variability to food security in the respective districts and agro-ecological zones atlarge.

Figure 10: Effects of climate change on food security
In the case study areas, communities have developed some strategies to address the problem
associated with the pests and diseases and those from poor crop harvest. Such strategies include:spraying pesticides, application of fertilizers, destocking, growing drought resistant crops,
irrigation farming and shifting to non-farming business. All these measures have cost implications
and therefore add more burdens to the already poor and marginalized communities.
As indicated in table 6, a fairly good number of respondents (38% in Lushoto and 37% in Mpwapwa)
indicated the growing of drought resistant crops as the most useful strategies in the case study
areas. The crops mentioned include millet, sun-flower, cassava and cereal crops. These crops arereported in Shemdoe et al, 2009a&b to be the main crops planted by farmers in different areas incentral Tanzania as a strategy to counteract impacts of drought. Short term growing crops such as
African egg plant (ngogwe) has been introduced in the vegetable production in Lushoto district.
Due to prolonged drought periods the communities shifted from depending only on rain-fed
agriculture to irrigation agriculture especially in those areas having access to water sources. Thiswas reported to be practiced by more farmers in Lushoto district than in Mpwapwa district (Table 6)
this is due to the fact that the topography in Lushoto is suitable for easy flow of water downstream asreported by Ngware et al, (2006).
Tracking Effective Indigenous Adaptation Strategies on Impacts of Climate Variability on Food Security and Health of Subsistence Farmers in Tanzania | 27

Table 6: Climate change adaptation measures for food security

LushotoStrategy

Mpwapwa

Frequency% response

Frequency% response

Spray pesticides

14

7

70

35

Application of Fertilizers

16

8

28

14

Destocking

11

5

0

0

Growing drought resistant crops

77

38

74

37

Irrigation farming

44

23

28

14

Shifting to off-farm activities

38

19

0

0

Total

200

100

200

100

5.4.6 Effects of climate change on human health and livestock
As it has been stated in a number of literatures (FAO, 2007), climate change has effects on humanhealth and livestock in different areas. In the two agro ecological systems in Lushoto and Mpwapwa
districts the large majority 99.5% and 98% of respondents respectively acknowledged to haveexperience of the effects of climate change on human health and livestock. Climate change islinked to death of livestock due to shortage of drinking water, pests and diseases; and drought
causing poor pasture availability. Pests and diseases were mentioned to have high effects onhuman health and livestock (Table 7).
Table 7: Effects of climate change on health and livestock

LushotoEffects

Frequency % response

Mpwapwa
Frequency% response

Poor pasture regeneration

34

17

17

9

Pests and diseases outbreaks

79

40

108

54

Food shortage

71

35

58

28

Death of livestock

16

8

17

9

Total

200

100

200

100

28 | Tracking Effective Indigenous Adaptation Strategies on Impacts of Climate Variability on Food Security and Health of Subsistence Farmers in Tanzania

5.4.7
Effects of climate change on human healthIn the case study areas, respondents linked change in climate variability to have resulted into
several diseases. The diseases mentioned include skin, stomach, cancer, malaria, and malnutritiondiseases. In both case study areas, Malaria was indicated to be in the increase as reported by 44%of the respondents in Lushoto and 53% of respondents in Mpwapwa districts (Tab. 8). Results fromthis study is supported by Parry (1990), reported that the increase in temperature may extend thegeographic range of some insect pests currently limited by temperature to thrive in a particular area.
Also FAO (2007) reported that, changing temperatures and rainfall in drought prone areas are likely
to shift populations of insect pests and other vector borne diseases in both human and crops.
Table 8: Human diseases linked to climate change

LushotoDiseaseMpwapwa

Frequency% response

Frequency% response

Skin diseases

17

8

7

4

Stomach diseases

54

27

36

18

Cancer

19

10

23

11

Malaria

87

44

106

53

Malnutrition

23

11

28

14

Total

200

100

200

100

5.4.8 Livestock diseases linked to climate variability
From the responses given by the representative of the communities interviewed in the two casestudy areas, livestock are also affected by diseases that are said to have emerged due to climate
variability. Such diseases according to the respondents are the following: Ndigana, East Coastfever, Anthrax, Rift valley fever, Kono, Sotoka and Kideri. Ndigana and East Coast fever are the mostdiseases affecting livestock in both areas agro-ecological zones (Tab.9). The names given in a local
language (Kono, sotoka, ndigana and Kideri) were not translated to common names as thecharacteristics described by the respondents did not match the common names of these diseases
in the literature.

Tracking Effective Indigenous Adaptation Strategies on Impacts of Climate Variability on Food Security and Health of Subsistence Farmers in Tanzania | 29

Table 9: Livestock diseases linked to climate variability

LushotoMpwapwa

DiseaseFrequency% response

Frequency% response

Ndigana

54

26.8

55

28

East Coast fever

1

0.3

75

37

Anthrax (Kimeta)

25

12.7

52

26

Rift valley fever

2

0.9

18

9

Kono

52

26.0

0

0

Sotoka

17

8.8

0

0

Kideri

49

24.5

0

0

Total

200

100.0

200

100

5.4.9

Measures taken to reduce the impacts of human diseases linked toclimate change
Due to the existence of diseases linked to climate change that affect human and livestock health,rural communities have different measures of overcoming them. For human health, the indicatedmeasures include destruction of mosquito breeding sites, use of mosquito nets and use of
traditional medicines (Tab.10).
Table 10: Measures taken to reduce impacts of human diseases linked withclimate change

LushotoMeasures taken

Mpwapwa

Frequency% response

Frequency% response

Cleaning environment surrounding homes

86

43

41

20

Use of mosquito nets and Hospital Treatment

69

34.5

159

80

Traditional medicine

45

22.5

0

0

Total

200

100

200

100

30 | Tracking Effective Indigenous Adaptation Strategies on Impacts of Climate Variability on Food Security and Health of Subsistence Farmers in Tanzania

Due to the existence of livestock diseases in the study area, rural communities have developed
different strategies, some have been introduced in these areas and some are community based
strategies. As shown in Figure 11, majority of the respondents indicated that people in the casestudy areas use introduced technologies as measures to combat livestock diseases associatedwith climate change. These measures include vaccination and dipping.

Figure 11: Strategies employed to control livestock diseases

Tracking Effective Indigenous Adaptation Strategies on Impacts of Climate Variability on Food Security and Health of Subsistence Farmers in Tanzania | 31

6.

Conclusions & Recommendations

6.1.
Conclusions
As in most cases, communities are found to complain and link failure of their expectations to climatechange and climate variability in many areas of the developing countries, results from this study
that are supported by the data obtained from both the field and the literature, have indicated that
there exists impacts of these changes and variability to the communities. These impacts haveforced communities to device strategies to allow them survive in such changing environment. In
these two agro-ecological zones where this study was conducted, there exists a number ofindigenous and emerging technologies and innovations for climate change adaptation that are
working better as a way to counteract to the impacts of climate change and climate variability.
Communities in the case study areas have changes their behavior due to the impacts of climatechange and climate variability. Some of the changes are positive to the environment and should bescaled out to more people in other areas with similar conditions in Tanzania. It has been observed
during the whole course of the study and also reported by the community representativeinterviewed that, there exist impacts of climate variability on food production and on health offarmers in the two agro-ecological zones which forced communities to develop a number of shortand long term adaptation strategies developed.
From the findings obtained in this study, to aid decision making on ensuring that the impacts ofclimate change and climate variability is reduced to the communities, a framework (adapted from
Descheemaeker, et al 2009) with two entry points that should have a mutual interactions is
recommended.
The first entry point in the framework is through strengthening local communities' effective copying
strategies that has been indicated to work better and that the communities in the respective agroecological systems have indicated to work better. This will help in improving the resilience of theecosystem towards climate variability. Practices such as traditional terracing, destocking, tree
planting, traditional food storage, drilling of traditional wells and constriction and maintaining oftraditional water reservoirs as well as crop diversification will help the communities in different agroecological systems to cope with the impacts of climate variability and climate change and this will
also reduce vulnerability to different societies in different ecosystems.
The second entry point in the framework is on the interventions geared to influence policy and
32 | Tracking Effective Indigenous Adaptation Strategies on Impacts of Climate Variability on Food Security and Health of Subsistence Farmers in Tanzania

institutions that are dealing either direct or indirectly with the impact of climate change and climate
variability be improved. Main issues such as providing evidence based scenarios of the impact ofclimate change to the policy makers, developing a harmonized unit to work on issues related toclimate change, lobbying for increased budget to the climate change impacted sectors, i.e.
agriculture, forestry and health, enhancing awareness creation to the societies, stabilizing andlowering the prices of alternative energy sources, provision of alternative income generation to thecommunities in different agro-ecological zones, exploring current opportunities such as the
Payment for Ecosystem Services (PES) and carbon market through the Reduced Emission from
Degradation and Deforestation (REDD) will help communities in different agro-ecological systems
to reduce degradation hence improving the quality of ecosystems which will have impacts to the
reduced impacts of climate change to the livelihoods of the communities in different agro-ecologicalzones of the country.
6.2
>
>

>

>

>

Policy recommendations for building climate change resilience at local
and national levels
Integration of indigenous technologies that communities in the respective areas are applying
in different local plans and national developmental plans
Formation of a platform for different stakeholders dealing with issues related to climate change
to facilitate wider circulation of the effective technologies that farmers and livestock keepers
have indicated to work better. Moreover, the platform will also assist in lobbying for more
research to improve the effective traditional technologies and integrate them with the modern
technologies that will help farmers and livestock keepers cope with the impact of climatechange and climate variability in different ecosystems in the country.
Local institutions should be strengthened or formed where such institutions are not available towork with farmers in the respective agro-ecological zones to build capacity to farmers andlivestock keeper to develop robust are resilient strategies that will help the respective
communities towards coping with the impacts of climate change in the country.
Developing suitable alternative income generating activities in these communities in order forthe community members to cope with the impacts of climate variability and climate change inthe respective agro-ecological zones
At the national level, there has to be special efforts to develop a systematic longer term climatechange adaptation strategies that should be integrated in the national plans that will help thestate to help its people to cope with the impacts of climate change and climate variability.

Tracking Effective Indigenous Adaptation Strategies on Impacts of Climate Variability on Food Security and Health of Subsistence Farmers in Tanzania | 33

Two entry points to adapt to the impacts of climate change
modified from Descheemaeker, et al 2009

Community based effective
strategies directed at
improving agricultural andlivestock production

Interventions directed atpolicies and institutions
FARM

VILLAGE

Traditional terracing
Destocking

WARD

Tree planting
Traditional food storage
Maintaining water sources

CATCHMENT

Robustclimatechangeadaptation
strategies

BASIN

Developing a harmonized unit towork on issues related to climatechange,Lobbing for increased budget to theclimate change impacted sectors,
i.e. agriculture, forestry and health,Enhancing awareness creation to thesocieties

DISTRICT
Stabilizing and lowering the pricesof alternative energy sources,

REGIONAL

Provision of alternative income
generation tot eh communities indifferent agro-ecological zones,

NATIONAL

Exploring current opportunities suchas the Payment of Ecosystem
Services (PES) and carbon market
through the Reduced Emission from
Degradation

MUTUAL INTERACTIONSBIOPHYSICALSOCIO-POLITICAL-ECONOMIC

34 | Tracking Effective Indigenous Adaptation Strategies on Impacts of Climate Variability on Food Security and Health of Subsistence Farmers in Tanzania

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