Perceptions on the Implementation of L1 Use in the Classroom
Alison KOGA, Sojo University
Suggested Citation: Koga, A. (2024). Perceptions on the Implementation of L1 Use in the Classroom. Nagoya JALT
Journal,X(1), xxx–xxx.

Abstract
The Japanese education system has notoriously pushed for an English-only language policy
for foreign teachers within EFL classrooms. This approach has, unfortunately, led to unduestress and perplexity not only for students but for educators as well. To empower students toreach their utmost linguistic potential, it is essential to grant them access to their complete
language repertoire.
Using a mixed methods survey with both closed and open questions, the research presented inthis paper examines the perspectives of students and teachers at university level on theimplementation of Japanese into the English learning process.Teacher‟s frequency andcontext of Japanese use will be analyzed as a teaching tool. Invaluable student feedback andinsights will be examined, shedding light on how integrating L1 in the classroom cansubstantially enhance the educational experience for lower-level students, fostering
comprehension, confidence, and interpersonal connections.

Keywords:L1, Japanese use, L1 integration, L1 implementation, translanguaging, student
perspectives

Perceptions on the Implementation of L1 Use in the Classroom
The objective of this research is to explore student perspectives regarding the foreign
English teacher's use of Japanese, looking at both positive and negative viewpoints.
Additionally, the study aims to investigate the frequency, reasons, and contexts in which EFL
teachers incorporate Japanese within the classroom setting. The researcher hopes that thisstudy will help to alleviate feelings of guilt associated with language use among both teachersand students, reinforce the notion that incorporating Japanese can serve as a valuable tool,and foster a positive environment by diminishing communication barriers between students
and native English teachers. Drawing on the researcher‟s 15 years of teaching experience inJapan, she has observed considerable success in employing Japanese language to enhancecomprehension, facilitate understanding, and cultivate stronger relationships with students.
While gathering the perspectives of both students and teachers at Sojo University and throughthe collection and analysis of the data in this study, the overarching goal is to contribute to theresearch advancement on learning outcomes for students by presenting successful
pedagogical methods for implementation of L1 in the classroom, or translanguaging.
Theoretical BackgroundIn recent years, the concept of translanguaging has gained increasing prominence
within the educational landscape of Japan. “The term has also entered the discourse ofteacher education programs and professional development not only in North America but also
globally” (Cummins, 2019). Initially coined by Cen Williams in the 1980s, the term was used
after observing his Welsh students using a blend of Welsh and English to communicate in theclassroom. Another definition was put forth by Ofelia Garcia in the early 2000s,
characterizing translanguaging as "the deployment of a student's full linguistic repertoire"(Garcia, 2014). It is important to distinguish translanguaging from code-switching, which
denotes the practice of bilingual individuals moving, or switching, between languages within
a single sentence or thought. Unlike code-switching, translanguaging “emphasizes anindividual's comprehensive linguistic repertoire encompassing all known language elements”(Liu, 2023). Students leverage this repertoire to facilitate communication, using their first
language (L1) to compensate for deficiencies in their second language (L2) proficiency.
Understanding this difference can help both students and teachers realize the benefits of usingtranslanguaging in the classroom because translanguaging can be seen as a tool rather than an
involuntary act. Previous research on the topic of the importance of translanguaging states
that:
On the one hand, educators must continue to allocate separate spaces for the named
languages although softening the boundaries between them. On the other hand, theymust provide an instructional space where translanguaging is nurtured and usedcritically and creatively without speakers having to select and suppress different
linguistic features of their own repertoire. (García & Lin, 2017: 127)
Gwyn Lewis has stated that utilizing translanguaging will:
Give multilingual students an advantage within educational systems because it:(1)promotes a more thorough understanding of content; (2) helps the development of
the weaker language for bilingual or multilingual speakers; and it (3) fosters hometo-school links within language use; and (4) integrates fluent speakers with earlylearners, thus expediting the language learning process. (Lewis, 2021)
In Japan, researchers such as Darlene Yamauchi have discovered in their studies that Japanese
students prefer to use L1 in the classroom. “Preliminary results indicate that students foundthe use of L1 during class beneficial in every class evaluated and based on these results nostudents perceived the use of L1 detrimental in this study” (Yamauchi, 2018). This research isan important step into dismantling the traditional monolingual English classroom ideals aswell as a step in the right direction for supporting students‟ needs. Yamauchi‟s research also
showed that “Overall student comments portrayed a positive opinion of L1 usage withcomments about ease of activity completion” (Yamauchi, 2018). The implementation of

translanguaging in the Japanese English classroom holds significant promise and stands toyield numerous benefits for both language learners and teachers.
Research Issues and Questions
Research Question 1: In what frequency and contexts and for what reasons do teachers use
Japanese in the English language learning classroom?

Research Question 2: What are the perceived merits and demerits of Japanese use in the
English language learning classroom by both teachers and students?

The research aims to gather insights through surveys to evaluate the perceptions ofteachers and students regarding the utilization of Japanese (L1) within an English classroom.
The researcher hopes that the data collected from the survey will reinforce the notion thatincorporating Japanese can serve as a valuable tool and foster a positive learning environment
by diminishing communication barriers between students and native English
teachers. Additionally, teachers can supplement instructions and information with thestudents' L1 to further comprehension as well as tofoster rapport, trust, and better
relationships with students. Allowing foreign English teachers in Japan to “promot[e] pupils‟
translanguaging would enhance knowledge acquisition as it enables students to develop
metacognitive aspects, interact in fluent and confident ways, manage tasks, mediate
understandings and co-construct meaning” (Vallejo, 2018).

Method
The research methodology used in this study is centered on a mixed methods survey
approach. The survey included Likert scale closed questions for quantitative data collection
and open-ended questions for qualitative data collection. Analysis and interpretation of
open-ended questions within the student survey have been conducted and manually translatedby the researcher from the original Japanese. At this stage of the research, the open-ended
questions have undergone a broad analysis rather than a meticulous examination on aphrase-by-phrase basis. The focus has been on assessing responses in a general sense,
comparing the frequency of negative and positive sentiments expressed. The discussion will
center on summarizing the collective opinions of the students based on an overall assessmentof their responses and exploring ways teachers have used L1 in the classroom. In the case ofopen-ended questions within the teacher survey, the collected responses will serve as a basis
for advancing discussions during subsequent follow-up interviews. However, it's important tonote that at this point of the research, these interviews have not yet been conducted.
For further analysis, a flexible and open approach has been adopted for organizing thecollected data. Subsequently, during the forthcoming phase of the research, responses
obtained from the teacher interviews will be subjected to a similar methodological treatment
and analysis.
Participants and the Research Context
English Communication 1, 2, 3, and 4 courses are taught to first- and second- year
students belonging to various departments including Computer and Information Sciences, Art
and Design, Biology and Life Sciences, Nanoscience, Architecture, Mechanical Engineering,and the Pharmacy and Pilot programs at Sojo University in Kumamoto. Most students have
low English proficiency, and taking these courses is a prerequisite forgraduation. This survey
was given to 359 first- and second-year students at Sojo University in November andDecember of 2023. Their English proficiency levels, departments, histories, and teachers vary.

The survey was completely anonymous.
The 7 teachers surveyed have various teaching experiences and Japanese proficiency: somehaving Japanese N2 proficiency while some only beginner level Japanese.
Data Collection Instruments and Procedures
Students in both first- and second- year English Communication courses were given
an anonymous survey with questions using both the Likert scale as well as open-ended
questions using Microsoft Forms. The Likert scale quantitative data was counted andanalyzedusing percentages provided by Microsoft Forms. The qualitative data provided withthe open questions has been translated and compared and has undergone a broadanalysis
using descriptive coding and comparing the frequency of negative and positive sentiments
expressed. The teachers involved were also given a mixed methods survey, though only thequantitative data was analyzed using tables and percentages provided by Microsoft Forms.
The open answer questions will later be analyzed before conducting future one-on-one
interviews.
There are several research concerns, including the Japanese proficiency of the teachers
involved with the survey. Discrepancies in student responses may arise based on theirteacher's proficiency in Japanese, while the teacher's responses may also vary depending on
their self-perceived competence. Currently, the data cannot be analysed based on the teacher's
Japanese proficiency, necessitating a more in depth look in future. Additionally, a notable
research gap exists in the absence of survey elements exploring students' preconceived
notions regarding the use of their first language (L1) in the classroom and their understandingof translanguaging. Consequently, interpretations of student responses to the open questions
must be accepted at their stated face value.
Results
Overall, the data shows that both students and teachers are using Japanese in theclassroom to some extent. Teachers express a stronger acknowledgment of the benefits ofusing L1 to supplement instruction while students view their own use of L1 in the classroom
slightly more negatively. However, notably, the students‟ responses about their own teacher
using Japanese were overwhelmingly positive. This paper will not examine in detail each
response to every question in both surveys but will highlight a few more important andstriking results followed-up with practical ways for L1, or translanguaging, to be used within
the English classroom.
Teacher Perspectives
7 instructors at Sojo University participated in thissurvey.Participants were invited toanonymously respond to the survey queries, with an option provided for those amenable toparticipating in subsequent interviews to disclose their identities. The following data shows
the frequency for Sojo EFL teachers‟ Japanese usage as well as how often they allow theirstudents to use it. The data also shows their confidence in their own Japanese proficiency.
Figure 1
How often do you use Japanese to communicate with students while instructing?
How often do you use Japanese to communicate withstudents while instructing?
Sometimes, 29%

Frequently, 57%
Often, 14%

Frequently

Often

Sometimes

NeverFigure 2
Have you ever felt the need to improve your Japanese proficiency in order to aid you in theclassroom?
Have you ever felt the need to improve your Japanese

proficiency in order to aid you in the classroom?
No
14%

0%

Yes
86%
Yes

No

Maybe

Figure 3
How often do you encourage students to use Japanese in class?
How often do you encourage students to use Japanese in class?
00

14.30%

28.60%

Never

Rarely57%

Sometimes

Frequently

The results above indicate a noteworthy departure from the conventional assumptionthat English Communication courses operate exclusively in English. Instead, it can beconcluded that because the teachers are so frequently using Japanese to communicate withstudents (Figure 1), teachersunderstand thatthe use of L1 in the classroom is useful andimportant. The survey responses from EFLteachers at Sojo University show that L1 is usedpredominantly for instructional purposes, followed by one-on-one interactions with students,
email correspondence, and finally for written elements in class presentations and lectures.
Moreover, spoken Japanese emerges as more prevalent than its written counterpart.
Interestingly, while teachers readily utilize Japanese themselves, they appear less inclined toactively encourage its use by students (Figure 3). However, instances where encouragement
is extended typically manifest in activities like reflections and email communication withteachers.
Furthermore, a significant majority of teachers expressed a desire to enhance theirproficiency in Japanese (Figure 2), a testament to the perceived usefulness of L1 for
instruction. These findings collectively support the notion that L1 integration holds value
within the classroom, warranting further exploration and consideration in pedagogicalapproaches.
Student Perspectives
This survey was given to 359 first- and second-year students at Sojo University.
Their English proficiency levels, departments, histories, and teachers vary. The survey wascompletely anonymous. The following data shows students‟ frequency of L1 use, how often
they perceive their teachers to use Japanese, their preferred type of English class, and whether
they perceive using L1 as useful when learning English.

Figure 4
How often do you use Japanese during your English class?
How often do you use Japanese during your English class?
Usually
Sometimes

17%

25%

Often
58%
Usually

Often

Sometimes

Never

Figure 5
How often doesyourteacheruse Japanese during your English class?
How often does your teacher use Japanese?
Never, 4% Usually, 4%
Often, 25%

Sometimes, 67%

Usually

Often

Sometimes

NeverFigure 6
Which kind of English class do you think is best?
Which kind of English class do you think is best?

18

25

84
232

English Only

Students may use Japanese
Teachers can speak Japanese and use it in the classroom
Students and teachers both use Japanese and English

Figure 7
Using Japanese is useful when studying English.
Using Japanese is useful when studying English.
2

2

19
50

184

Strongly Agree

Agree

Neither Agree or Disagree

DisagreeStrongly Disagree

Based on the analysis of the graphs presented above, it is evident that both students
and teachers are utilizingL1 in the classroom. However, it is interesting to note that while
teachers all responded that they use L1 to some extent, this is not necessarily reflected in thestudents‟ responses (Figure 5). Some students answered that their teacher “never” uses

Japanese while all teachers reported using L1 to some degree. This suggests a potential
discrepancy in perception between educators and learners. This is perhaps due to a flaw in the
research surveys or perhaps there are nuances to the use of L1 by the teacher that cannot be
researched using a survey alone.
Additionally, students overwhelmingly expressed a preference for a classroom
environment where both teachers and students use Japanese (Figure 6). This underscores
students' appreciation for instruction and communication in L1. Furthermore, most students
recognize the utility of L1 to facilitate English language learning, although they tend to view
their own use of L1 negatively, possibly due to perceived inadequacies and language
deficiencies. The following are a sample of some of the student responses that have beentranslated manually by the researcher. It is also interesting to note that most students chose torespond to the survey with Japanese, with only the last comment here being given in English.
“I think it is okay to use some Japanese as long as it is when I don’t understand or tocheck with my friends what the teacher is saying.”“I should use English as much as possible, but I suppose (using Japanese) is better
than a stilted conversation.”“I think this is a good idea because I use it to communicate necessary information.”“I want to use it when communicating with other students.”“I agree with this because sometimes it is difficult to convey a message without
using Japanese when the English translation is not clear.”“I disagree using Japanese in the English classroom. However, I don't have thecourage to speak English in communication”
Although this sample only represents a small fraction of the 359 student responses,
it's evident that many students find it advantageous to use L1due to necessity and lack ofproficiency in English.
Students generally appreciate the benefits of their teachers' L1 utilization, consideringit "very helpful" and "useful." Concerns regarding potential overreliance on L1 were raisedby some students, but overall, responses were predominantly positive. Notably, students
value L1 supplementation for conveying new, challenging, or crucial information. Negative
comments were in the minority and included concerns about how using Japanese too much
may affect their language acquisition. Some examples of student responses are as follows:“To be honest it’s very helpful”“I think explaining in Japanese will help students understand the content, give a senseof security to students who find English difficult, and increase familiarity with theteacher, thereby lowering the hurdle for communicating with the teacher.”“It is good for ours to use Japanese.

Because, if we can't understand the word or

sentences, we can understand it.”“I think this is a good thing because it makes explanations easier to understand.”“Most of the explanations are in simple English, so I can generally understand themin English, but the explanations in Japanese are easy to understand.”“I would like them to use a little Japanese because sometimes I don't understand what
the teacher is saying and I don't know what I am supposed to do.”
“It is helpful because they can use it when students do not understand the meaning.”
From this limited set of responses, it is apparent that many students perceive it
positively when their teacher utilizes L1, particularly for supplementing explanations.
Negative comments were sparse, with only a few expressing sentiments such as "sometimes
it's okay" and "Japanese shouldn't be used too much."
At this point in the research, while a full analysis of all student responses to both
open-ended questions has not yet been completed, a preliminary examination suggests a
prevailing positive perception of both the students‟ and the teachers‟ use of L1 in theclassroom.
Moving forward, a more comprehensive analysis of student responses is warranted

to delve deeper into their perspectives on teachers' L1 usage. Future research endeavors will
aim to explore the nuances of L1 incorporation in the classroom setting, shedding light on thespecific ways in which teachers leverage L1 to enhance student learning experiences.
Discussion
Following the analysis of this preliminary research, it is evident that both students andteachers at Sojo University who participated in this survey are usingJapanesewithin theclassroom environment for instructional purposes, communication, and relationship-building
by fostering communication between teachers and students. Drawing upon the initial findingsof the survey, it is possible to discuss a variety of approaches to incorporate the use ofL1
within classroom settings. Since teachers surveyed have shared that they use Japanese tosome degree or another in the classroom, it can be assumed that the incorporation of L1 in theclassroom can be incredibly useful when teachers seek to facilitate students „understanding of
instructions, familiarize them with class rules and expectations, communicate important dates
and information, help them use words and phrases appropriately, and provide rationale forvarious learning activities. In future follow-up interviews, the details of how teachers areusing Japanese can provide more insight into how it can be incorporated as a useful teachingtool. Providing explanation in L1 enables students to attain a deeper understanding of theseconcepts and in turn might create greater engagement. Teachers can supplement English
instructions with follow-up verbal L1, ask students for questions and allow them to answer inJapanese, and can communicate with students before and after class. Through written L1,teachers can effectively communicate via email, provide clearer explanations of class syllabi,
incorporate translations into presentations and lectures, and offer supplementary instructionsin L1 on worksheets.
Additionally, teachers can promote the use of L1 among students by providing
opportunities for asking questions, reporting absences, and expressing concerns to the teacher
in L1. Responses from students in the open-ended survey questions indicate that when given

the chance to communicate in L1, it makes it easier to interact with the teacher and helps toovercome communication barriers. To foster student engagement with L1 during classroom
activities, teachers can advocate for its use in tasks like pre-writing exercises. This allows
students to access their entire breadth of knowledge and effectively plan and prepare theirthoughts or presentations in their native language, thus eliminating potential barriers
stemming from language proficiency limitations. Allowing students to perform pre-writing
tasks in L1 can also limit the time hurdles or in fact, reduce time wasted by eliminating thelanguage barriers with which students struggle. “The use of L1 as a mediational means
becomes imperative to achieve the object of the task” (Columbo, L. 2012). The students canthen translate and submit their writings or presentations in English for assessments.
Furthermore, permitting reflections on activities and assessments to be written in L1 canfacilitate greater openness and depth in students' expression of thoughts and opinions. Writingreflections in their native language tends to encourage more thoughtful responses, thereby
enabling teachers to make more accurate assessments and adjustments based on students'
feedback. Further research is needed to look into the effect a teacher‟s Japanese proficiency
could have on their student‟s L1 usage. In the classroom setting, teachers can facilitatecommunication by permitting students to use L1 when preparing for conversations, prior to
responding to discussion questions, and when providing peer feedback. “A student‟s homelanguage can serve as a scaffold in the process of acquiring additional languages and ascaffold for learning academic content in the new language” (Freeman, 2017). Allowing
students the opportunity and space to utilize L1 fosters their readiness and confidence toengage in activities, ultimately encouraging them to use English as needed, equipped with thenecessary tools and preparation.
Conclusion
In conclusion, the findings thus far from this research underscore the importancestudentsplaceon teachers who augment instructions and integrate the use of L1 in theclassroom. Furthermore, the data supports the notion that there is no need for teachers to feelguilty about using L1as an overwhelming number of students had positive feedback relating
to their teacher usingJapanese.Instead, teachers can demonstrate to students the beneficial
ways of incorporatingL1themselvesshowcasing to students that feeling guilty for L1 use
isunnecessary. Whenteachers are at liberty to utilize L1for instruction, communication andrelationship-buildingpurposes, studentstend to experience enhanced learning outcomes.
This research is currently in its preliminary stages, with the qualitative data fromopen-endedresponses yet to be extensively analyzed, relationships between quantitative andqualitative dataunanalysed as well as other factors that could contribute to a better
understanding of the research.
Moving forward, a more thorough examination of this data may uncover new
discrepancies orprovide additional insights. Moreover, conducting further interviews withteachers anddesigning a new set of questions for a student survey could yield valuable
informationilluminating the benefits of translanguaging or the use of L1 in the classroom.
These future stepshold the potential to enhance our understanding of the topic oftranslanguaging in the classroomand contribute to the advancement of pedagogical practices
in Japan.
Acknowledgments
I would like to express my sincere gratitude to the members of the NUFS Teacher
Symposium for affording me the opportunity to present my research. Additionally, I extend
my appreciation to those who contributed to the peer-review process of this manuscript.
Special thanks are also due to the survey participants, with particular recognition to Gareth
Humphreys, Jon Rowberry, and Branden Kirchmeyer for their invaluable support andassistance in developing this research project.

BIO DATA
Alison KOGA holds a BA in East Asian Languages and Cultures and an MA in
Education for Multilingual Learners. Her interests lie in the study of translanguaging in theclassroom and its benefits forlower-level students. She is currently a Senior AssistantProfessor at Sojo University in Kumamoto.

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Appendix A Teacher Survey
The following survey was taken by 7 first- and second-year English communication lecturers
at Sojo University.
1. How often do you use Japanese to communicate with students while instructing?
-

Never

-

Rarely-Sometimes

-

Often

2. In what cases do you use Japanese?
-

To give instructions-

Written cues (on Power Points / worksheets)-

During 1 on 1 meetings with students-

In emails-

Never use it

-

Other

3. Do you use spoken or written Japanese in the classroom-

Spoken mostly-

Written mostly-

Both equally-

No Japanese

4. How often do you encourage students to use Japanese in class?
-

Never

-

Rarely-Sometimes

-

Often

5. In what cases would you encourage students to use Japanese?

-

Pre-writing-

Group conversations-

Worksheets / Reflections-

When speaking to you-

Emails-Other

6. Do you agree that English only environments are best for learning English?
-

Strongly agree

-

Agree

-

Neither agree nor disagree

7. Please explain your reasoning for your answer to number 6.
8. Have you ever felt the need to improve your Japanese proficiency to aid you in theclassroom?
-

Yes

-

No

-

Maybe

9. Have you heard about the benefits of translanguaging in the classroom?
-

Yes

-

No

-

Maybe

-

What‟s translanguaging?

10. Data published from the results of this survey will remain anonymous. If you would be
comfortable with a follow-up interview, please enter your name below. Thank you foryour contributions!
Appendix B Student Survey
The following survey was given to 359first- and second-year English communication

students at Sojo University.
1. How often do you use Japanese during your English class? 英語の授業中に日本語を使うことはどれくらいありますか？
-

Never 使わない-

Sometimes たまに使う-

Often よく使う-

Usually いつも使う

2. How often does your teacher use Japanese in your English class？あなたの英語の授業
で、先生はどれくらいの頻度で日本語を使っていますか？
-

Never 使わない-

Sometimes たまに使う-

Often よく使う-

Usually いつも使う

3. How do you feel about using Japanese in your English class? 英語の授業で自分が日本語を使うことについてどう思いますか？
-

Not good at all 全然よくない-

Not very good あまりよくない-

No Opinion 特になし-

It‟s good いいこと-It‟s useful 役に立つ

4. How do you feel about your teacher using Japanese in your English class? 英語の授業
で先生が日本語を使うことについてどう思いますか？
-

Not good at all 全然よくない-

Not very good あまりよくない-

No Opinion 特になし-

It‟s good いいこと-It‟s useful 役に立つ

5. Which kind of English class do you think is best？どのような英語の授業が良いと思いますか？
-English Only /英語のみ-

Students may use Japanese /生徒は日本語を使うことができる。

-

Teacher can speak Japanese and uses it in class /教師は日本語を喋れることができる、授業で使うこともある-

Students and teachers use a blend of both English and Japanese / 生徒も教師も英語と日本語を使い分ける

6. When do you use Japanese in English class? / 英語の授業で日本語を使うのはどんなときですか？
-

When I plan what to say or write / 何を話すか、何を書くかを計画するとき-

To communicate with classmates / クラスメートとのコミュニケーション-

To communicate with my teacher / 教師とのコミュニケーション-

Other / その他

7. Using Japanese is useful when studying English. 日本語を使うことは、英語を勉強する
際に役に立つ-Strongly agree / 非常に賛成-

Agree / 賛成-

Neither agree nor disagree / どちらでもない-Disagree / 反対-

Strongly disagree / 非常に反対

8. Please share your thoughts about your personal Japanese use in the English classroom.
英語の授業で自分が日本語を使うことについて、意見を教えてください。
9. Please share your thoughts about your teacher using Japanese in the English classroom.
英語の授業で教師が日本語を使うことについて, 意見を教えてください.
10. We will use the information you provide in this survey to improve our research andEnglish education. The information you provide will be used for research purposes only,
and will not be processed or disclosed in a way that identifies you. If you agree to the useof your survey data, please check the "consent" box. 今回、皆さんに回答いただいた情報は研究や英語教育の向上に役立てるために活用させていただきたいと思います。またご提供頂いた情報は研究目的のみに用いられるものであり、回答者を特定する形で処理・公表されることはありません。尚、アンケートデータの活用に同意される方は「承諾」にチェックを入れてください。
-

承諾

-

拒否