The IAFOR Journal of Education

Volume 4 – Issue 1 – Spring 2016

Analysis of Compositions Written by a Chinese Child in Japan

Lucy Spence and Yang Tao

	
  

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Abstract
This discourse analysis focuses on the Chinese and Japanese writing of a young student living
in Japan who is ethnically Chinese and multilingual. A method for analyzing linguisticallydiverse student writing was used to explore the literary elements and heteroglossic voices inthis student’s writing. Such analysis has been shown to be beneficial to teachers forunderstanding linguistically diverse student writers. The findings were triangulated withobservational data from the student’s home and school, an interview with the student’s teacher
and interviews with the mother, who is the co-author of this study. The analysis revealed
evidence of writing strengths in two languages, including flexible bilingualism and agency.
Implications for school curriculum that develops student languages as a resource for learning
are explored.
Keywords: multilingual; writing; children; discourse analysis; translanguaging; flexible
bilingualism; agency

	
  

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Introduction
Multiple languages are prevalent in our increasingly connected world, and thisinterconnectivity brings languages together in contact zones (Pratt, 1991) where speakers ofmultiple languages interact with one another. Schools are a common contact zone, yet whilemost educators are comfortable with the dominant language of instruction, they need tools forunderstanding multilingualism (Piccardo, 2013). Discourse analysis can shed light on how
children develop multilingual competency, providing much needed information to educators,
especially at the elementary school level.
Literature Review
Discourse Analysis of Student Writing
Discourse analysis in literacy research most often involves analyzing transcripts of oral
discourse in order to understand how the literacy education of all students can be accomplished(Rex, et al., 2010). The present study however, analyzes multilingual student-generated
writing. A socially situated perspective on student writing undergirds this study (Mercer, 2004;
Lemke, 1995; Street, 1995). In this view, writing is understood as constructed within a culturalcontext, embedded in activity (Lave & Wenger, 1990). It is productive to analyze student
writing from a socially situated perspective because students draw upon authentic experiences
as they construct the written text. Discourse analysis can be used to reveal aspects of student
experiences that informed their writing. Studies that use discourse analysis with multilingual
writing are few, however we review several such studies in this emerging area of scholarship.
The following studies reveal how multilingual students draw upon their linguistic resources as
they write for a variety of purposes.
Harman and Varga-Dobai (2012) used a critical socio-cultural approach to discourse analysis
to explore writing within an arts-based participatory education experience of middle school(ages 10-13) multilingual students in the United States. The students chose to write about issuesof discrimination in their community and created a newsletter to publicize these issues. The
young people exercised agency by using all their linguistic resources, choosing their topic, anddisseminating information to others. The study illustrated how discourse analysis of children’s
writing can reveal issues that are important to students as well as actions students take to create
better conditions in their lives and the lives of others. Discourse analysis can also be used tounderstand how writing styles interact among cultures. Curdt-Christiansen (2006) analyzed thewriting of a nine year old Chinese heritage language learner in Canada. The analysis revealed
direct quotes, which the student used in a culturally appropriate manner. Although the practiceof quoting famous writers and poets in Chinese writing can be seen as reliance on authoritative
discourse, Curdt-Christianson discussed how authoritative discourse co-existed with internallypersuasive discourse. This process combines the literacy practices of multiple cultures to create
written works that express the writer’s identity. This process is highlighted in translanguaging
theory (García & Wei, 2014), which enourages students to draw upon multiple language
practices in their writing. This theory posits that multiple languages are part of an integrated
system, and speakers move between languages as needed during a speech event as well as inwriting. Canagarajah (2011) described how one college student strategically used her homelanguage to compose an English essay that included Arabic words and phrases. The student
forgrounded communication above correctness while writing an essay that deviated from theexpected form.

	
  

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Students not only use multiple languages, but also rely on multiple media in crafting texts. Lam(2000) described a Japanese high school English learner who designed a webpage melding
extracts from magazines, music, celebreties, and other websites. The webpage allowed thestudent to connect with an international audience as he adjusted to life in a new culture. The
present study builds upon these previous studies by using a discourse analysis method uniquely
suited to discovering the resources students draw upon in their writing including languages, thewords of others, media, and concerns that lead to agency. This study situates the multilingual
student within a social world in which multilingualism is an asset.
Multilingualism is an Asset for Learning
It is important for educators to understand why multilingualism is an asset. “Bilinguals havean expanded repertoire with which to amplify communication and express comprehension.
These resources have the potential to be both communicative tools and pedagogical tools”(Hopewell, 2013, p. 235). This stance is in opposition to educators who believe that multiple
languages interfere with one another or that children should use only one language in order toincrease the speed of language acquisition (Schwartz & Soifer, 2012). In the US, the state of
Arizona mandated English-only instruction for English learners. However, JiménezCastellanos, Blanchard, Atwill and Jiménez-Silva (2014) found that when children studied in
the English-only model, less than half met age or grade level performance. Ignoring students’multiple languages does not benefit their learning.
The advantages of learning and using multiple languages are many. Some multilingual students
use their languages to help their families understand school, medical, and other official
documents and to negotiate parent-teacher conferences. Although such language brokering has
its problems, some families rely on it for everyday life (Corona, et al., 2011). Anotheradvantage for multilingual students is in learning world languages for academic purposes(Hernández-León & Lakhani, 2013) and students’ multiple languages may also eventuallyprovide employment opportunities (Kondo, 1999). Additionally, multilingualism is an asset forcognitive development. Neuroscientists have discovered cognitive benefits to bilingualism
such as enhanced performance of the attentional system (Costa, Hernández & Sebastián-Gallés,
2008). Multilingualism can be an asset to learning. Canagarajah (2011) illustrated how using a
dialogic approach to instruction develops students’ linguistic resources in order to create texts
in which two languages are complimentary. While writing, students draw upon their languages
to make rhetorical choices. Indeed, even people who view themselves as monolingual use otherlanguages in writing. For example, English authors often use French, German, Spanish, andLatin to illustrate their meaning.
There are benefits to writing in multiple languages, just as there are benefits to speaking
multiple languages (Creese & Blackledge, 2010; Riley, 2015). For example, early oral
language abilities are a resource that can lead to accomplished readers and writers whensufficient educational contexts are employed. Taylor, Bernhard, Garg and Cummins (2008)
depicted such a learning context in a Canadian kindergarten where children wrote dual
language books in collaboration with the classroom teacher and multiple generations of family
members in the child’s home. Educators are increasingly utilizing students’ multiple languages
for writing instruction (Fu, 2009), therefore, it is necessary to analyze such writing tounderstand the rhetorical strategies used. Building on previous work using discourse analysis
with multilingual writing, our paper traces the linguistic moves made by a multilingual childwhen writing in two languages, Japanese and Chinese. Writing samples from her third, fourth,and fifth grade school years were chosen for analysis in order to explore how she wasdeveloping as a multilingual writer. Theories of translanguaging and multilingualism
	
  

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contributed to our exploration of the following question: What can be learned throughanalyzing a bilingual Chinese/Japanese student’s writing in both languages?
MethodA Discourse Analysis Method for Student Writing
Spence (2014) developed a method for analyzing linguistically diverse student writing called
Generous Reading. In a study of 61 fifth grade students and their teachers (Spence, Fan,
Speece, and Bushaala, forthcoming) it was found that when teachers used this method in a
professional development setting, the teachers made more nuanced observations than a control
group of teachers. The Generous Reading teachers drew from broader sources of knowledge
about student writing. They noticed how their students used description, explanation, concepts,
and expression contrasted with the control group, which took very little or no notice of theseand continued to utilize a skills discourse of writing instruction.
Generous Reading draws from composition scholars and childhood educators who haveanalyzed student writing for contributing voices, or influences (Bakhtin, 1986; Dyson, 2003;
Freedman & Ball, 2004; Halasek, 1999; Ryan & Barton, 2014; Welch, 1993) and for literaryor descriptive language (Armstrong, 2006; Coady and Escamilla, 2005). Bakhtin referred tolanguage as a heteroglossia, or diversity of voices. Analysis of voices “explicitly bridges the
linguistic and the sociohistorical, enriching analysis of human interaction” (Bailey, 200, p.
269). Such an analysis helps uncover the historical and social influences in writing.
Heteroglossic voices and literary language are internalized ways of using language, notauthorial embellishments to writing. “The generalizations governing poetic metaphoricalexpressions are not in language, but in thought” (Lakoff, 1992, p. 203). Literary elements suchas figures of speech used in everyday language can be analyzed to reveal the thought process
behind that language.
Discourse analysis focusing on voices and literary language provided a framework foranalyzing the writing of one child, Lala. First, we read one written work to get an overall
understanding. Then we read it again, sentence by sentence, looking for voices of others in thewriting. These voices could be from Chinese or Japanese literary tradition, phrases the family
used at home, videos, or school events, for example. Next, we read the piece a third timelooking for literary language for example, metaphors, symbols, repetition, alliteration andrhyme. Finally, we discussed what this analysis revealed about the child as a person and as awriter. We analyzed each of three pieces of one child’s writing in this way, taking notes on the
Generous Reading form (Table 1).
Data Collection
In the present study, the researchers collected all Lala’s writing over a three year time spanwhen she was 9, 10, and 11 years old. We chose a representative written work from each ofthese years. In addition to visiting Lala’s school and interviewing one of her teachers, Spence
engaged in four research visits to Lala’s home. Observational notes were recorded at Lala’s
school and her home. Second author, Yang Tao is Lala’s mother, a college-level teacher ofEnglish language who provided insights into Lala’s early childhood and family life throughseveral interviews. Yang Tao analyzed Lala’s Japanese and Chinese writings and translated
them into English.

	
  

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Table 1. Generous Reading Form

Generous Reading
Student
Genre

Date

Grade

Teacher

Title
Voices of Others

Literary Elements

What does this tell you about the person?

What does this tell you about the writer?

What does this reveal about the writing?

What is the student doing especially well that I want to reinforce?

What can I teach that will help the student grow as a person or as a writer?

What can I teach that will help improve this piece or future writing?

	
  

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Context
We report on the multilingual writing of an ethnically Chinese elementary student who wasborn and raised in Japan. Chinese are a significant population group in Japan. As of 2015, theethnic breakdown of population was Japanese 98.5%, Koreans 0.5%, Chinese 0.4%, other 0.6%
(Central Intelligence Agency, 2015). The researchers and child participant, Lala (pseudonym),
became acquainted through a previous study of Japanese writing instruction when Lala was astudent at one of the schools where the researchers observed her fourth grade teacher (Spence& Kite, 2013).
Lala’s Early Years
Lala’s father and mother are both Chinese and moved to Japan soon after they were married.
Lala was born in Japan and began attending Japanese nursery school at nine months. She was
immersed in the Japanese language while at nursery school. At home, her mother spoke to her
in Mandarin Chinese, English, and Japanese, depending on the situation. Her father spoke toher only in Mandarin Chinese. Thus, Lala was multilingual from infancy. She continued toattend Japanese nursery school until the age of three, when she spent most of her third year in
China with her grandmother. There, she attended a Chinese preschool. She came back to Japanat four years old, and continued to attend Japanese schools until the present time. Lala’s family
lived in the center of a large city in Japan within a predominantly Japanese neighborhood. In
general, the family did not interact with a Chinese community, so Lala had little Chinese
language input from the local environment. Beginning when Lala was five, her mother taught
her about three hundred Chinese written characters using the Chinese national textbook. She
continued teaching Chinese characters until Lala was in third grade, when she stopped. She
thought Lala might be confusing Japanese kanji with Chinese writing, as the two are sometimes
subtly different.
Analysis
We used the Generous Reading method to analyze three written works that were chosen as
exemplars of Lala’s multilingual writing (see appendix for the original language versions). The
Japanese works were chosen as typical writings from third and fifth grade. The Chinese piece
was one of only two Chinese writings that Lala completed during third, fourth, and fifth grade.
Lala’s only encouragement to write in Chinese during these years were through the open
exploration notebook and the Chinese speech contest.
Yang Tao was familiar with the Generous Reading method. Thinking about the voices andliterary elements in the writing, she read through each written work, while verbally translating
into English for Spence. Together we discussed the heteroglossic voices within the written
work, followed by a discussion of the literary elements. Finally, we discussed what this analysis
revealed about Lala as a person, and as a writer. As this occurred, Lala played with her brothernearby, therefore, we could ask Lala to clarify aspects of the written work throughout theanalysis and discussion.
Although we found many voices and literary elements in each piece of writing, we focus on
those which suggest a pattern in how Lala was developing as a person and as a writer. For eachpiece of writing, we present contextual information and an English translation of each piece ofwriting, followed by our findings from the discourse analysis. The names of places and people
are pseudonyms.

	
  

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Findings
Japanese Nikki Entry
The first Japanese text we analyzed was written when Lala was in third grade. Her teacher
asked the class to write on Monday about something they did on the weekend. The students
wrote in a nikki (journal) and the teacher subsequently read the entries and commented in red
pen, focusing on the content of the writing. Nikki is a common type of writing practiced inJapanese elementary schools. Lala’s teacher required writing in the nikki every week. She also
assigned writing during language arts lessons and across school subjects. The teacher provided
the students with a notebook to explore topics of their own choice at home. Lala used thisnotebook extensively during her third grade year, and even used the notebook to engage in aself-study of Chinese. One Japanese nikki entry was analyzed for this study.
Takihotobashiru Park
Yesterday, because of good weather, we went to Takihotobashiru. We always go thereby car but yesterday I asked my father, “Let’s go there by bicycle.”
And then my father said, “Okay.” And I felt happy. We rode bicycles to the park.
I felt like only a few minutes later, my brother said, “Hey, look, Takihotobashiru is overthere. Look, look.” he said.
Really, it’s true. We realized we arrived already. So we went to Children’s Square. We
tried our best to play. First of all, I played on the monkey bars. My brother worked very
hard on it at that time and I said, “You can do it.”
But my brother fell down from the monkey bars repeatedly, with one more to go. Only
one more! So he cried very loudly. At that time I went to his side and said, “Are you
okay? I’m sure you can do it!” I comforted him.
So with my words, my brother stopped crying. He said, “Okay, I’ll try to pass the bars
again, so please, my sister, watch me. Focus on me only, please.” he requested.
So once again he started from the very beginning and went to the very end. He finishedit, he did it! “Great,” I said, “you worked so hard, congratulations.”
My brother smiled. “Thank you” he said. That was fun for me, so I would like to go
there again.
The hetergolossic voices and the literary language found in this piece of writing illustrate how
Lala explored the power of words. The heteroglossic voices were cultural maxims, direct
quotes of the father and brother, and dialogue typical of children’s talk to each other. The
literary elements were repetition, comparisons and theme development. These aspects of Lala’s
narrative initiated and sustained a theme: the power of words. For example, the dialogue
between Lala and her father began with “We always go there by car but yesterday I asked myfather, ‘Let’s go there by bicycle.’” Her father agreed, the first instance of Lala using the powerof words to influence others.
Lala also used common Japanese maxims such as ganbare, “you can do it!” that indicate thebelief that encouragement is important and can lead to success. This idea was reinforced by
Lala’s use of the phrase ishokenme, “do as well as you can.” The idea that one can succeed

	
  

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through trying hard was reinforced in the narrative through repetition, “I’ll try to pass the bars
again” and “So once again he started” The dialogue between brother and sister continued thetheme of the power of words as Lala’s words of encouragement had the effect of her brothersuccessfully completing the monkey bars. Lala directly addressed the theme by writing, “Sowith my words, my brother stopped crying.” Lala expressed the power of words to comfort,
motivate, and create a successful outcome.
Lala also expressed agency by helping her brother to achieve a goal. This agency was directed
toward the betterment of the family unit. This narrative revealed Lala as an agent inencouraging physical activity for her family. First, she encouraged her father to allow thefamily to bicycle to the park, rather than take the car. Second, she encouraged her brother toachieve an athletic goal of completing the monkey bars. Lala’s actions resulted in increased
physical activity for the whole family.
Chinese Speech
The next written work we present is the Chinese speech, written in fourth grade for a speech
contest. The contest officials provided the topic, which was to write about a future goal or
dream.	
   The Chinese speech contest was held in a nearby city with a substantial Chinese
population. Lala wrote the speech mainly in Chinese, using Japanese when she did not know
how to express an idea in Chinese. Once she had written a draft of the speech, she asked hermother for suggestions of how to express the Japanese words and phrases in Chinese. She used
her mother’s suggestions to rewrite the speech completely in Chinese. Then she continued torevise the speech until she had a final copy to be used in the speech contest.
What is Your Dream?
I want to be a person who is helpful to people who need help and to protect the earth.
Even though I am still in elementary school, I can do two things. The first one, I candeposit my pocket money so I can do something. Every day I help my mom do somehousework, washing dishes, cleaning house, watching my brother. My mom gives me
400 yen a month and I deposit this money and I never spend it at all. In Szechuanprovince there was an earthquake and also in Japan. My family and I donated money alittle bit. One day a TV program introduced a place in Thailand where there was a flood.
Every day it flooded and the school floated away. Money was donated for a floating
school and the teachers taught in the floating school. That inspired me.
The second one, it is very important to separate trash in Japan. It is important to protect
the environment. Separating garbage is a very good idea to protect the environment. It
can decrease the pollution in the air and save the environment. Unfortunately Chinese
people do not do very well on this point. I would like to tell my friends, my relatives,
my family members about pollution and teach them how to separate garbage. In my
opinion separating garbage is a good idea. What’s more I think carbon dioxide will
pollute the environment very much, so I always persuade my father not to drive. If we
can take a bus or take a train, I don’t want my father to take a car.
What’s more I decided not to eat potato chips. Potato chips are really delicious, but itneeds a lot of palm oil. In order to make potato chips, a lot of forests are cut down toinstead grow palms for oil. The earth’s environment has been destroyed and a lot ofanimals have lost their homes. This I remember from a good book. So I decided not to
eat potato chips but it is something I can do to protect the environment. So my

	
  

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Volume 4 – Issue 1 – Spring 2016conclusion is, my dream is to be a person who is helpful to other people in the society
and I want to realize my dream bit by bit.
The hetergolossic voices and the literary language found in this piece of writing illustrate how
Lala explored helping others in society. The heteroglossic voices in this speech were: television
broadcasts of the Szechuan and Fukushima earthquakes and Thailand flood, people who camefrom Fukushima to the school, environmental slogans in Japanese lessons, books, pamphlets,and posters from the train station. The literary language was reminiscent of proverbs.
The speech had an obvious theme due to the nature of the writing prompt for a future goal or
dream. Lala’s dream was to help others in society. Lala developed this theme through texts she
encountered, including television, posters, books, and pamphlets. Although the family does not
usually watch television, the media had a strong influence on the speech. The natural disasters
and resulting nuclear power plant accident at Fukushima had a devastating effect across Japan.
Everyone was affected in some way. News broadcasts were shown at Lala’s elementary school
and in the aftermath of the disaster, people from Fukushima came to the school to speak. Thatsame year, Thailand was devastated by their worst flooding in five decades and as a result many
people were left homeless and many buildings were destroyed.
Lala directly referred to television broadcasts in her speech, “One day a TV program introduced
a place in Thailand where there was a flood.” Lala also directly referred to a book about habitat
destruction in the rainforest, “The earth’s environment has been destroyed and a lot of animals
have lost their homes. This I remember from a good book.” Lala’s writing was also influenced
by community pamphlets with detailed instructions on how to separate household trash forrecycling; “Separating garbage is a very good idea to protect the environment.” These
influential voices in Lala’s world reflected her growing awareness of her place in the worldand society.
Lala felt that she could make a small difference in the world, but that small gestures by many
people can have a large impact. The phrase, “bit by bit” is reminiscent of proverbs from China
and other cultures that mean something like, “A single drop of water helps to swell the ocean.”Lala’s speech is a series of small actions that when combined with the actions of other people
around the world, can have a larger impact.
The speech shares a message from the previously analyzed narrative. In both, Lala told herfather not to drive the car. In the speech, she directly states that driving causes carbon dioxide
emissions, which pollute the air. By analyzing Lala’s writing across time, a clear picture of herinterests and concerns begins to emerge. In the speech, she told her family in China that theyshould recycle their trash. This shows that Lala continued to take action for for the bettermentof the planet. She tries to make an impact on her immediate family in Japan and on her extended
family in China. Her writing reveals her as a responsible world citizen.
Japanese Impression
The last work we will present was written in Japanese when Lala was in fifth grade. In thisnarrative, Lala described a school activity in which team members worked together to read a
map to find their way to each teacher, who then gave them a quiz that they must answer inorder to move on to finding the next teacher. It is an impression written after a school activity.
The school she attended was small, so all the grade levels engaged in outdoor activities together
and the school principal promoted the practice of writing impressions about such activities. Her
fifth grade teacher required impression writing only infrequently, and he did not require thestudents to write as often as Lala had in third and fourth grade. Also, Lala began attending juku,
	
  

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after-school lessons in math, language arts, and science. So she did not have much time to write
at home for her own purposes as she had in third grade. Lala’s body of written work in fifth
grade was much smaller than in the previous years.
Enjoyable, Exciting Picnic
On May sixteenth, we had an exciting picnic. We went and came back on foot, so ourlegs became more and more heavy. At first we tried to reach the goal as fast as we could
so we chose a short cut and arrived at Ms. Nomura’s place. But from there we became
more and more lost. So we took out the map and had a look and went back to the placeof Ms. Nomura.
From there we were able to find the other teachers. After answering the quiz from Mr.
Yamada, homeroom teacher of second grade, about ten meters from him, we saw a firstyear girl fall down on the ground. Her legs were bleeding. The leader said, “Can I carryyou?”
She said, “No.” So listening to her words I felt how stubborn she was as a first year girl.
But I saw the blood came out of her mouth more and more, and her steps became
weaker.
So the leader said again, “Can I carry you on my back?” But the girl seemed she didn’t
want to be carried. Her arms and legs were wobbly and it was hard for her to jump on
the back to be carried.
I was called because I had a brother and was used to carrying my brother, so I
immediately carried her to the place of Ms. Kimura then to the main office for treatment
for her injuries. Although it had many troubles, this exciting picnic was fun for me.
The hetergolossic voices and the literary language found in this piece of writing illustrate how
Lala explored overcoming obstacles and solving problems in her social world. The
heteroglossic voices in this writing were an English loan word and Japanese maxims. The
literary language included repetition, alliteration, and opposites. Lala used the word goru, goal,
an English loan word. This word was spelled with the alphabet used for foreign words and canbe found in sporting events and games. The repetition and alliteration in words such as waku
waku, exciting, don don, more and more, and chikamichi, short cut, have the effect of recreating
the children’s sense of urgency as they read the map and rushed to each goal. Lala also usedbinary opposites, tsuyoi and yowai, to describe the first-year girl’s strong mind and her weaklegs. This narrative ends with another opposite pair, “Although it had many troubles, thisexciting picnic was fun for me.” The contrast between “many troubles” and “fun” suggests thatfor Lala, overcoming obstacles is what makes an event worthwhile and enjoyable. Lala showedagency by solving the problems of becoming lost and finding a hurt child and helped her teamtoward a social purpose within the school setting.
This narrative connects with themes in the previous two pieces of writing. In all three, Lala
was concerned with helping others. In all three, Lala showed agency through her interventions
and her words. In the nikki writing, Lala helped her family to be more physically active, avoid
causing air pollution, and she helped her brother achieve a goal. In the speech, Lala encouraged
her father and grandparents to avoid causing pollution and took action to help others by saving
her money to donate to disaster victims. In the final narrative, she took action to help her teamand to help a little girl who was hurt. The three pieces of writing, from three consecutive years
show that Lala was developing into a caring, concerned citizen. Lala ultimately used writing

	
  

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to achieve a social purpose and influence a wider audience when her Chinese speech was
published in a newspaper.
The three pieces of writing also show us how Lala was developing as a writer. Lala drew upon
resources to write, such as proverbs, books, news reports, and people. She internalized aspectsof Japanese language that helped her compose, such as using alliteration to stress action, andusing repetition for emphasis. She discussed her writing with her mother in both Chinese andJapanese in order to write in Chinese, using flexible bilingualism to accomplish writing tasks
in each of her languages.
Discussion
The analysis of Lala’s three compositions revealed aspects of agency and flexible bilingualism.
In this discussion, we connect previous work on agency and flexible bilingualism with thecurrent study.
AgencyLooking across the three written works over a time span of three years, it is clear that Lalacontinued to address themes that were important to her. When she was confronted withobstacles in life, she relished overcoming the obstacles. It is also evident that Lala demonstrated
agency in nurturing the actions of others such as her brother, her father, and her peers. Whenher brother could not succeed at the monkey bars, she comforted and motivated him until he
was successful, demonstrating the power of words. When her group became lost during aschool activity and they found a hurt child, Lala expressed agency in solving the problems.
Lala also extended her agency to problems in society such as natural disasters andenvironmental issues. She expressed agency by asking her father not to drive the car, and byasking her grandparents in China to recycle items from their trash. Lala made the decision to
not eat potato chips in order to help prevent deforestation. As Lala learned about problems in
the world, she responded as a responsible world citizen. Lala’s writing was strong because ofher sense of agency. She understood that words have power and actions can make a difference.
Previous research on multilingual writing has shown how children use multiple languages in
identity development and agency. Kabuto (2012) described how young children used English
and Japanese scripts in identity formation when writing at home. Maguire and Grave’s, (2001)
analysis of bilingual students’ daily journal entries revealed children’s views of the world andtheir sense of selves as writers. Multilingual children must develop an identity that includes
multiple languages and cultures. Writing teachers can facilitate identity development throughproviding opportunities for children to draw upon all their linguistic resources. Teachers canencourage writing at home or in school using journals, or open exploration notebooks. Parents
can be encouraged to provide materials and opportunities for children to write at home and in
multiple languages.
Harman and Varga Dobai’s (2012) study provided the opportunity to write about social topics
that were meaningful to the students. They expressed agency by researching, revising, anddisseminating information on discriminatory practices. Multilingual students have realconcerns about social issues. They may experience discrimination or bias in their social life
both inside and outside school. They are often globally aware, due to familial ties to multiple
countires. Teachers can learn about students concerns through analysis of their journal writingand explore some of their concerns within the school curriculum. Japanese approved textbooks
contain examples of social issues such as the large amount of trash discarded each day in Japan,

	
  

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and the declining physical activity of Japanese children (Sanseido, 2015). Children’s own
concerns can be connected to the curriculum through exploratory writing.
This study adds to the literature exploring discourse analysis of student generated writing. Suchanalysis reveals the complexity, identity development, and social concerns embedded in written
works. Lala’s three writings reveal how she was developing her identity and agency as ahelpful, encouraging person, who cares about the environment. She was not afraid to express
her views to others and encourage others to act in accordance with her views in order toimprove the environment and improve society.
Flexible Bilingualism and Translanguaging
Flexible bilingualism and translanguaging were used by Lala and her mother. Flexible
bilingualism was used as a strategy within the process of writing and resulted in a persuasive
speech for a contest. Such bilingual strategies have also been found in classrooms. Flexible
bilingualism has been used by teachers to link the social, cultural, community, and linguistic
domains of student’s lives (Creese & Blackledge, 2010). The multiple languages in suchclassrooms overlap languages, rather than artificially separating them. Multilingual students
engage in literacy practices using various languages outside of school. Although school literacy
pratices are of consequence for developing academic identities, non-school settings are equallyimportanat in the overall development of students’ identities (Haneda, 2006) .
Lala and her mother moved fluidly between Japanese and Chinese in the co-creation of the
speech. First, Lala wrote a draft of the speech using as much Chinese language as she could on
her own. She used Japanese words and phrases when she did not know how to express the idea
in Chinese. Then Lala asked her mother for help in thinking of Chinese phrases. Through thisinteraction, the mother-daughter pair engaged in flexible bilingualism, in which the boundaries
between the languages were permeable (Creese and Blackledge, 2010). By discussing the ideas
in both languages, Lala developed concepts that could be described in both Japanese andChinese.
Lala and her mother used translanguaging, drawing upon multiple languages to communicate(Canagarajah, 2013; Garcia and Wei, 2013). Moving between languages was the usual methodof communication for Lala’s family. Spence observed Lala’s family engaging intranslanguaging in informal dialogue in their home during each of the four research visits. For
Lala’s family, translanguaging was a natural way to communicate. This was clearly benificial
to Lala as she developed as a writer of Chinese and Japanese. Yet, this strength was seldom
drawn upon in Lala’s school life.
Lala is now in sixth garde and to date, has only once been asked by her teachers to use Chinese
in school. At that time, the class was studying classical Chinese poetry, written in Japanese.
This is a conventional unit of study in Japanese elementary school. However, in this case theteacher asked Lala to read a poem with original Chinese pronunciation for the whole class tohear. Lala was a bit shy, but performed the reading to the best of her ability. Multilingual
students have linguistic abilities that can be valuable assets for their own learning and to sharewith others. These assets should not be ignored by educators. Although there are ethnic schools
in Japan (Japanese-Chinese, or Japanese-Chinese-English), they are not protected under theJapanese Education Law Act (Sakamoto, 2012). Hence, Japan does not currently place value
on developing children’s languages other than Japanese and English. This study adds to theargument for valuing multilingual educational practices, such as incorporating flexible
bilingualism into writing instruction.

	
  

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Early language experiences are important in developing multilingual literacy. Lala’s Chinesewriting highlights a combination of experiences that led to multilingual literacy. Theseexperiences were: early learning of Chinese literacy, continued exposure to Chinese in a varietyof venues, and using translanguaging and flexible bilingualism in order to express ideas inwriting. By revising the speech with her mother’s help, Lala was successful in writing andperforming a polished Chinese version of her speech for the contest. Her speech was also
published in a Chinese language newspaper. Early exposure to languages, continuing
development of languages and utilizing flexible bilingualism are valuable practices that
educators might draw upon in crafting curriculum and policy.
Implications
Discourse analysis using Generous Reading is one way to analyze student writing, revealing
who students are becoming as people in relation to society. Through her writing, Lala is seen
as a person who thrives on solving problems and helping others in difficult situations. This canbe seen in her simple narratives of family and school life, as well as the speech she wrote toexpress her dreams for the future. Often educators do not look beyond surface features ofwriting such as spelling, handwriting, grammar, and organization. They never see the person
behind the writing, even when the words are clearly describing that person’s ideas. Educators
should take the time to read student writing, thinking about who the student is becoming andwhat the student is thinking. Discourse analysis can also help educators to see what the student
is doing as a writer. By noticing their literary language, educators can see that students haveinternalized aspects of language such as alliteration and repetition. Students use metaphors,
proverbs and symbolism without intentionally trying to embellish their writing. Educators
should pay attention to what students are doing with language in their writing. This information
also reveals aspects of the student’s life such as their interests and concerns.
Parents and family members of multilingual children are tremendous assets in helping
educators understand how children are translanguaging (Canagarajah, 2013; Garcia and Wei,
2013). When given opportunities, children will use all their linguistic resources to develop
themselves as people in society and as writers. Teachers and parents should share student
writing and together discuss the child as a person and how the child is using their linguistic
repertoire in speaking and writing. Teachers could ask how language is used in the home, andencourage the family to discuss ideas in multiple languages. Homework assignments that
include opportunities for translanguaging would be beneficial to students’ writing and language
development. Pre-service teachers would also benefit from learning how to accomplish agenerous reading in order to provide them a better understanding of student writing. Finally,
policy makers should consider the benefits of bilingual education opportunities. There is very
little opportunity for Mandarin Chinese development in Japan, yet the development of bilingual
Chinese can benefit Japanese society, filling a need for translation services and intercultural
understandings.
Conclusion
This discourse analysis adds to the research on translanguaging and flexible bilingualism. By
exploring one child’s Japanese and Chinese writing over three years, we have shown how thischild continued to write about themes that expressed her agency as a family member, a memberof a school team, and as a responsible citizen. The study also revealed how translanguaging
was used in the home setting and in academic writing for a speech contest. The mother andchild engaged in flexible bilingualism, stimulating the development of biliteracy. The discourse
analysis method uncovered heteroglossic voices and literary elements in writing and provided

	
  

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insights into the child as a person and as a writer. In future studies, this method could be used
to analyze the writing of multilingual students in classroom settings in order to see how writing
ability in multiple languages can be developed through flexible bilingualism in the classroom.

	
  

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Appendix
Lala’s third grade Japanese writing
１１月２６日月曜日「三年生」	
 わたしは、きのう、お天気がよかったのでつるみりょくちに行きました。	
 いつもなら、車だけど、わたしがお父さんに、「自てん車で行こうよ。」	
 と、いいました。そしたら、お父さんが、	 「いいよ。」と、いってくれてうれしかったです。	
 そして自でん車で何分かこいてたら弟が「あ、つるみりょくちがあったよ。ほらみて。」	
 と、いいました。そしたらみんなもきづいて、「ほんまや。」	
 といいました。そして、子ども広場にいって、いっしょけんめい遊びました。わた
しは、とにかくうんていであそんでいると、前に弟がいっしょけんめいうんていでがんばていました。わたしは、「がんばれ＿。」	
 といいました。けれど弟が半分でおちたり、あといっぽんでいけれたところをおちらり。とうとうないでしまいました。わたしは、弟のそばにいって、	 「だうじょうぶ。ぜったいいつかできるよ。」	
 となぐさめてあげました。そしたらなきやんで、弟が	 「もう一ど、うんていを、がんばるから、おねえちゃん、しっかりみていてね。」	
 と、いってくれました。それから一回目、さいしょうからさいごまで弟がいけました。わたしは、「よく、ここまでがんばったね。おめでとう。」	
 といいました。弟はえがおになって、「ありがとう。」	
 といいました。とても楽しかったです。また行きたいです。	
 	
 Lala’s Chinese fourth grade writing
我的梦想	
  	
  李晓	
  （女）	
  10岁	
  小学四年级	  日本大阪	  	  我长大了，想当一个对社会有用的人，帮助那些需要帮助的人，并且全力保护地球环
境。	
  
	
  
我现在是小学四年级学生，还不能直接去帮助别人，但是我可以做两件事情。第一件
事情是我可以积攒一些零花钱，积少成多，就能做一些善事。我每天都帮妈妈做一些
家务活儿，	  洗碗，叠衣服，收拾屋子，照顾弟弟等等。这样妈妈一个月给我四百日元，我把这些钱都攒起来，从来不乱花。在中国发生大地震时，在日本海啸时，我和家里人都捐过钱。在电视里，我看到一个地方每年都发大水，把学校都冲了。孩子们没有学校，不能学习，非常可怜。我长大了，一定好好工作，攒更多的钱给那些孩子建新的学校。	
  
	
  

	
  

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另外一件事我可以做的是保护地球环境。在日本，把垃圾分类是一个保护环境的好办法。不仅可以减少对大气的污染，还可以节约能源。但可惜的是中国在这方面做的不好。我要告诉我在中国的朋友和亲人，教给他们把垃圾分类处理。另外，汽车尾气会
污染环境，所以我经常劝告我爸爸，不让他开车出门。我真想大声呼吁，少开汽车吧！还有，我决定不吃土豆片了。土豆片好吃是好吃，但需要很多很多的椰子油。很
多地区为了制造更多的椰子油，砍了大片森林种上油椰子，这样导致了生态被破坏，动物们无家可归。这是我在一本书上看到的。所以我不吃土豆片也是对环境保护做贡
献。	
  
	
  
我的梦想是做一个对社会有用的人。我要从现在做起，从一点一滴做起。	
  Lala’s Japanese fifth grade writing
楽しかったわくわく遠足（五年生）	
 

わたしは５月１６日にわくわく遠足へ行きました。	
 行きも帰りも歩いていったので足がどんどん重たくなっていきました。	
 最初は、できるだけ速くゴールに行きたかったから、近道をして中東先生の所に行きました。	 けれど、そこからは、どんどん道に迷ってしまいました。そこで地図を見て、また中東先生の所へもどってしまいました。でも、そこからはどんどん先生たちを見つけていき、２年生の担任の西川先生のクイズに答え終わって歩いて１０ｍくらいのところで、一年生がころんでしまいました。足からは血が出ていました。そこでわたしは、	
 「おんぶしようか。」	
 と聞いたけど、「いやだ。」	
 と、言われ、わたしは、「一年生なのに強いな。」と思いました。けれどきず口から血がどんどん出ていて、あるいてもよろけるだけたっだので、班長が、「やっぱりおんぶするよ。」といいました。	
 けれど、１年生は、されたくなかったので、手や足をぶらんとして、おんぶができなかったので、わたしが、	 「おんぶかわるよ。」	
 といいました。弟がいるので、おんぶをするのはなれているから、おんぶしてすぐに竹下先生の所へ行き、それから本部へもどりきず口をふせげました。	
 このわくわく遠足は、いろいろこまったこともあったけど、楽しかったです。	
 
	
  

	
  

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