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Sense of Belonging at School: Defining Attributes, Determinants, andSustaining Strategies

Jerome St-Amand
Université du Québec en Outaouais, Canada
Stéphanie Girard
Université du Québec à Trois-Rivières, Canada
Jonathan Smith
Université du Québec en Abitibi-Témiscamingue, Canada

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Abstract
Building and sustaining students’ sense of belonging at school has been proposed by teachers
and researchers as a means of stimulating students’ intent or desire to learn and of reducing
student attrition. This article will present the results of an inquiry into the literature on
belonging to support the perspective that is it necessary, not only to foster a strong sense of
belonging, but also to place much greater emphasis on school belonging in educational
programs, practices, and research. The aims of the paper are: (a) to review the theoretical
literature on school belonging with an emphasis on its defining attributes and main
determinants, (b) to review the measurement instruments of school belonging, and (c) to
identify various strategies that may enhance school belonging. In light of the defining attributes
identified, the authors propose six general recommendations for educational stakeholders
wishing to build and sustain students’ sense of belonging at school.
Keywords: students’ sense of school belonging; defining attributes; determinants; sustaining
strategies.

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Introduction
Researchers in psychology consider individuals to be complex beings. Individuals have, after
all, a unique spirit, their own goals and ambitions. At the same time, they feel an innate need
to belong to a group; to get closer to the people who are part of their environment; to havemeaningful, intimate, and satisfying social relationships (Baumeister & Leary, 1995; Lavigne,
Vallerand, & Crevier-Braud, 2011); to love and to be loved; to take care of others and to betaken care of (Deci & Ryan, 2000). The need to belong is in fact universal, as is the need toestablish stable and loving relationships (Baumeister & Leary, 1995).
In school settings, researchers have noted that school belonging significantly and positively
affects several motivational measures such as expectancy of success, valuation of school work,and self-reported effort (Goodenow, 1993a). Enhancing school belonging can also have apositive effect on academic achievement and school engagement (Allen, Kern, Vella-Brodick,& Waters, 2016; Eccles & Roser, 2009; Juvonen, 2006; Neel & Fuligni, 2013; Roeser, Midgley,& Urdan, 1996; Wehlage, Rutter, Smith, Lesko, & Fernandez, 1989). Indeed, in her literature
review aiming at addressing the question, is this experience of belongingness important in an
educational setting? Osterman (2000) pointed out other positive outcomes associated withbelonging, such as participation in classroom activities and prosocial behaviors. Other
researchers have noted a positive and significant relationship between school belonging andinvestment in extracurricular activities, reduction in school absenteeism rates (Flynn, 1997),
positive social relations (Hagborg, 1994), and positive mental health (Hagerty, Williams,
Coyne, & Early, 1996). Osterman (2000) has also highlighted the importance of school
belonging, writing: “[F]rom a review of even these limited sources it is possible to conclude
that belongingness is an extremely important concept. As a psychological phenomenon, it has
far reaching impact on human motivation and behavior” (p. 359). On the other hand, a lack ofschool belonging is a dropout risk factor that should be seriously considered (Berktold, Geis,& Kaufman, 1998). In line with this, Christenson and Thurlow (2004) indicated that a lack ofbelonging could be a key indicator of a process of disengagement from school.
Despite the weighty importance that sense of school belonging has been understood to bear,researchers observe that the work done thus far has shown a distinct lack of scientific clarity
and thus does not allow us to understand the concept fully so as to adopt more targetededucational practices to build and sustain it (Allen & Bowles, 2012; Allen et al., 2016). Allen
and Bowles (2012) note:Research on belonging in educational settings has been unsystematic and dilutedby disparities in definition and terminology […] One explanation for this lack ofinterest may be the disparity in measurements, terminology, and definitions thatmake empirically-driven findings and interventions difficult to translate into school
practices (p. 108).
In their work, Allen and Bowles (2012) demonstrate the importance of a sense of belonging
and suggest new perspectives for further research. In our view, our paper complements theirargument by suggesting more avenues of research and by formulating a few recommendations
for educational stakeholders. The aims of this paper are: (a) to review the theoretical literatureon school belonging with an emphasis on its defining attributes and determinants, (b) to review
the measurement instruments of school belonging, and (c) to identify various strategies that
may enhance school belonging.

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Literature Review
We commenced this project by generating synonyms for school belonging in order to make an
exhaustive literature search and to obtain relevant documents. A thesaurus was used to identify
English and French synonyms which included membership, belonging, school membership,
school connectedness, youth connectedness, sense of school belonging, identification to school,
sentiment d’appartenance, appartenance, and climat d’appartenance. These keywords were
employed in general (e.g., Google, Google Scholar) and specialized (e.g., PsycInfo, Eric,
Francis) search engines. As for the year of publication of the identified documents, the authors
remained flexible in order to include older publications that are fundamental to theunderstanding of this concept. A first reading of these documents was undertaken to target thedefinitions of belonging, the measurement instruments, and the theoretical models that takebelonging into account. Subsequently, another literature review was conducted among the
documents identified to target more relevant publications.
Toward an Understanding of School Belonging
As pointed out by many researchers, school belonging has been described in many different
ways (Allen & Bowles, 2012; Allen et al., 2016). In recent years, numerous definitions ofschool belonging have been proposed, in both the field of education and other areas of research.
Our literature review has yielded several definitions of belonging in research areas such as
health (Anant, 1967; Hagerty, Lynch-Sauer, Patusky, Bouwsema, & Collier, 1992; Hagerty &Patusky, 1995), psychology (Kestenberg & Kestenberg, 1988; Maslow, 1962, 1970; Mucchielli,
1972, 1980; Smith & Berg, 1987), management (Richer & Vallerand, 1998), and educational
sciences (Deci, Vallerand, Pelletier, & Ryan, 1991; Goodenow, 1993a; Janosz, Georges, &Parent, 1998; Langevin, 1999; Wehlage et al., 1989; Williams & Downing, 1998). A careful
examination of these definitions has helped us identify a few interesting perspectives on school
belonging as well as three definitional attributes we believe are critical when defining thisconcept.
First, belonging is a major factor that contributes positively to an individual’s psychologicaldevelopment. Mucchielli (1980, p. 99) suggested that membership is not just about being in orout of a group; it involves the development of a personal identification and a social identity.
The impact of belonging on a person’s psychological development is also reflected in thedefinition provided by Kestenberg and Kestenberg (1988, p. 536): “Belonging encompasses
many spheres of interest. It is a component of identity and object relationships. It manifests
itself of familiar space and objects to whom the space belongs.” For his part, Maslow (1962,1970) noted that membership is an essential need which must be satisfied in order to selfactualize as individuals. Maslow (1970) described self-actualization in these terms:
It may be loosely described as the full use and exploitation of talents, capacities,
potentialities, and other factors. Such people seem to be fulfilling themselves andto be doing the best they are capable of doing, reminding us of Nietzsche’s
exhortation “become what thou art.” They are people who have developed or aredeveloping to the full stature of which they are capable (p. 150).
Second, a sense of belonging is a basic need that leads people to build social bonds and toaffiliate with members of a group (Hagerty et al., 1996). As suggested by Anant (1967), thequest for group affiliation is based on the assumption that the individual will, as a result, build
strong social bonds with others to the point of considering the group as an important element

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Volume 5 – Issue 2 – Summer 2017of his/her life: “Belongingness was defined as personal involvement (in a social system) to theextent that the person feels himself to be an indispensable and integral part of the system”(Anant, 1967, p. 391). Langevin (1999, p. 116) stressed the importance of a reciprocal
relationship between students and adults of the institution; these social relationships exist in
both the formal and informal aspects of school life. According to Deci and his colleagues(1991), these positive social relationships must be safe and satisfactory. Furthermore, Williams
and Downing (1998, p. 103) suggested that friendships are important components of belonging:
Students thought that being a part of the class meant that they had a place in theclassroom, felt welcomed, wanted, and respected by their classmates and teachers.
Being familiar with their classmates and having friends who understood them madethe student feel as if he or she belonged to a group and/or to a class as a whole.
Finally, four definining attributes emerged from the definitions identified, namely positive
emotions, positive social relations, involvement, and harmonization. According to Walker and
Avant (2011), defining attributes are key characteristics that help to differentiate one conceptfrom another related concept and clarify its meaning.
• Defining attribute 1: First, positive emotions are an important defining attribute ofbelonging. Indeed, authors have suggested that these include a feeling of attachment(Mucchielli, 1980), a feeling of intimacy (Kestenberg & Kestenberg, 1988), a feeling of
usefulness and support (Mucchielli, 1980), and a sense of pride (Janosz et al., 1998).
• Defining attribute 2: Second, the student must maintain positive relations with his or
her peers and teachers. These social relations must be accompanied by encouragement,
acceptance, support, respect (Goodenow, 1993b), valorization (Goodenow, 1993b,
Hagerty et al., 1992), and warmth (Williams & Downing, 1998).
• Defining attribute 3: Third, the individual must demonstrate energy and a willingness
to get involved in a meaningful way within a group (Hagerty et al., 1992). This
involvement can be in class or outside, such as active participation in extracurricular
activities (Wehlage et al., 1989; Williams & Downing, 1998).
• Defining attribute 4: Fourth, harmonization is another defining attribute often
mentioned in the definitions (Wehlage et al., 1989), including that of Maslow (1962). In
his definition, Maslow mentioned that individuals must adapt and adjust by changing
personal aspects to align with any situations or people that would warrant such anadaptation.
In sum, a close examination of the definitions found in the literature allows us to pinpoint thesefour defining attributes of belonging. In our view, this helps us to carry out a more thoroughconceptual analysis specifically to delineate the main components of school belonging and theirrelated concepts. Knowing the defining attributes could lead teachers to adopt more precise
pedagogical strategies and, ultimately, help researchers to measure the concept more accurately.
Methodologies and Methods
Measurement Instruments
Our literature review made it possible to identify instruments, mainly of the quantitative type,that measure sense of belonging in specific groups of individuals. Such instruments have been
applied to measuring belonging in given groups of individuals – e.g., a group of offenders(Negola, 1998) – as well as in educational settings, such as a school-based intervention program109

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(Anderson-Butcher & Conroy, 2002) and a sports team (Allen, 2006). From this search, wehave chosen to focus on three quantitative research tools aimed specifically at measuring
students’ general sense of school belonging.
First, Carol Goodenow (1993b) developed the Psychological Sense of School Membership(PSSM) questionnaire at Tufts University in Boston. The PSSM has been the most frequently
used instrument in recent years to measure the concept. In 2011, 40 studies had already used
this tool (You, Ritchey, Furlong, Shochet, & Boman, 2011). The theoretical work of manyscholars contributed to the development of the instrument (Finn, 1989; Wehlage et al., 1989).
The PSSM is made up of 18 self-reported items describing various features of students’relationship with their schools, such as acceptance and inclusion (e.g., most teachers at [nameof school] are interested in me), respect and encouragement (e.g., people here notice when I’m
good at something), as well as peers’ reactions toward a student’s opinion (e.g., other students
in this school take my opinions seriously). Some items were also developed to measure students’sense of belonging from a broader perspective that characterizes the relationship between thestudent and his/her school (e.g., I feel like a real part of [name of school]). Participants respondon a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (not at all true) to 5 (completely true). The PSSM is a
research instrument that is suitable for use with both teenagers and younger students, andresearchers have translated it into several languages including Mandarin (Cheung, 2004),
Hebrew (Sagy & Dotan, 2001), and French (Boily, 2002).
Second, Janosz and colleagues (1998) developed the Questionnaire sur l’environnement
socioéducatif (QES), which comprises several French-language measurement scales, at least
one of which measures students’ school belonging. Overall, the QES is a measurement tool
used to document the quality of the school environment; it also helps to study the influence ofthe school environment on students’ success and adaptation (Janosz et al., 2007). The items
essentially measure the emotional dimension of school belonging: je suis fier d’être un élève
de cette école (I am proud to be a student of this school); j’aime mon école (I like my school);
je me sens vraiment à ma place dans cette école (I really feel a sense of my place in this school);je préférerais être dans une autre école (I’d rather be in another school); cette école est
importante pour moi (this school is important to me).
Third, Midgley et al. (2000) developed the Manual for the Patterns of Adaptive Learning
Scales (PALS) in 1998 at the University of Michigan. Overall, the scales in the PALS are used
to examine the relationship between factors in the learning environment and the student’s
motivation, emotions, and behaviors. In the validation of their theoretical model, Roeser andcolleagues (1996) used a few items from the PALS to measure school belonging. The items inthis scale also measure the emotional dimensions of belonging: I feel like I belong in this school;
I feel like I am successful in this school; I feel like I matter in this school; I do not feel I am
important in this school. Table 1 assesses the limitations and strengths of these threequantitative instruments in regard to the items composing them and the four defining attributes
raised in the current study.

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Table 1: Comparative analysis of the main quantitative instruments for measuring the sense of
belonging at school: strengths and limitations.
Instruments and main
Strengths
Limitations
characteristics
Questionnaire sur l’environnement socioéducatif (QES)
The
Questionnaire
sur Thescaleswere There is an absence of items
l’environnement
socioéducatif developed in French, measuring defining attributes(QES) consists of many different thus facilitating the 2 and 3.
scales used to examine the impact instrument’s usage forof the school environment on French-speaking
students’ success and adaptation. samples; presence ofOne scale (six items) measures items
measuringschool belonging on a six-point defining attributes 1
Likert scale (1 = totally disagree; and 4.
6 = totally agree).
Patterns of Adaptive Learning Scale (PALS)
Scales derived from the PALS are The PALS has been the There is an absence of items
mainly used to examine the subject of several measuring defining attributes
studies; 2, 3, and 4.
relationship between the learning validation
environment
andstudents’ presence of items
motivation, affects, and behaviors. measuring
defining
In the validation of their attribute 1.
theoreticalmodel,
Roeser,Midgley, and Urdan (1996) usedfour items from the PALS tomeasure school belonging. A fivepoint Likert scale (1 = not all true;
3 = somewhat true of me; 5 = verytrue of me).
Psychological Sense of School Membership (PSSM)
The PSSM is used exclusively to The PSSM has a strong
measure school belonging. It theoretical backgroundconsists of 18 items on a five-point (Finn 1989; Wehlage
Likert scale (1 = not all true; 5 = et al., 1989). It hascompletely true).
been the subject ofseveralvalidation
studies, and items
measuringdefining
attributes 1, 2, and 4
are present.

Attribute 3 is the least well
represented within the itemsof the PSSM. Other themes
reflecting the notion of
involvement
couldbeconsidered: (1) showing
initiative in class; (2)participating actively inextracurricular activities (e.g.,sporting
activities,
sociocultural events, etc.).

Delineating the defining attributes of a concept is an important step toward understanding it
fully. A clear conceptualization of a concept can help to improve substantially the way in which
researchers measure it. If a measurement instrument adequately reflects the various attributesof a concept, it can facilitate interpretation of the results and comparison among studies, as well111

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Volume 5 – Issue 2 – Summer 2017as any scientific advances in a given field of study. Therefore, the quality of the measurement
instrument and its validation are of paramount importance:
Researchers should develop instruments measuring the functioning of factors thatprovide data about both qualitative and quantitative characteristics. To do so, notonly should the construct validity of the instruments be examined but also thevalidity of the measurement framework, and this should be done by making use of
the Classical Test Theory and/or the Item Response Theory (IRT) (Creemers,
Kyriakides, & Sammons, 2010, p. 32).
Theoretical Models and Key Determinants
It should be noted that many theorists in the field of educational sciences have been interested
in the study of school belonging from a theoretical viewpoint to explain phenomena such as
school engagement and academic achievement (Anderman & Freeman, 2004; Beaumeister &Leary, 1995; Connell, Spencer, & Aber, 1994; Creemers & Kyriakides, 2008; Eccles & Roeser,
2009; Finn, 1989; Janosz et al., 1998; Juvonen, 2006; Newmann, Wehlage, & Lamborn, 1992;
Roeser et al., 1996; Wehlage et al., 1989). In their literature review on belonging, Allan andBowles (2012) mentioned many other relevant factors: parental involvement (Epstein, 1992),
typologies of love (Lee, 1973), belonging and attachment (Bowlby, 1969, 1973; Cohen, 1982,
1985), social capital (Putnam, 2000), and self-presentation (Fiske, 2014). A thoroughexamination of these theoretical models is beyond the scope of this paper.
However, a close examination of the theoretical models that have been developed in the
educational sciences allows us to pinpoint two important determinants of students’ school
belonging. First of all, it appears that positive social relations among peers contribute directly
and positively to building and sustaining students’ school belonging (Janosz et al., 1998;
Juvonen, 2006). In a thorough literature review on that perspective, Juvonen (2006) suggested
many types of social relations among peers that can be examined, such as dyadic relations,friendships, or peer acceptance. Theorists have also argued that positive social relations
between teachers and students directly and positively influence students’ school belonging(Janosz et al., 1998; Newman et al., 1992; Roeser et al., 1996; Wehlage et al., 1989). Juvonen(2006, p. 658) noted, “Students are presumed to comply and be motivated to learn when they
feel supported and respected by their teachers.” Along the same lines as Osterman (2010),
Wehlage and colleagues (1989) suggested that positive social relations between students andthe teacher can be considered through the lens of support and caring behaviors. These
researchers suggested offering: (1) constant support for students having difficulties, (2)constant support for students in order for them to meet the standards and skills required by theschool, (3) constant support so that students feel included in society, and (4) constant efforts to
help students establish and maintain respectful relationships.
Educational Strategies to Build and Sustain Students’ School Belonging
Allen and Bowles (2012) suggested effective strategies to guide teachers in building andmaintaining students’ school belonging. Some of these strategies were taken from theWingspread declaration on school connections (2004) and are congruent with Osterman’s(2010) position regarding the notion that school belonging can be enhanced throughinterpersonal support, encouragement of autonomy, and methods of instruction that shapepositive social dynamics with peers. For example, having high expectations of each student,
being fair and consistent in disciplinary management, making sure students adhere to school112

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Volume 5 – Issue 2 – Summer 2017and classroom rules, creating a trusting climate, and considering students’ needs are multiple
strategies to enhance students’ school belonging (Wingspread, 2004). Other strategies reported
by Allen and Bowles (2012) were originally proposed by the Centers for Disease Control andPrevention (2009). Many of these are part of theoretical models in the field of educational
sciences that take school belonging into account. These strategies include adult support(Newman et al., 1992), a positive school climate and positive perceptions of the learning
environment (Janosz et al., 1998), and positive peer relations (Juvonen, 2006).
In our view, teachers should also examine Osterman’s (2010) work to gain insight into the mosteffective strategies in terms of intervening to develop students’ sense of belonging at school.
Osterman (2010) described a few studies aimed at identifying various teaching strategies andteachers’ attitudes/behaviors that possibly have a positive influence on school belonging.
Through a very long list of strategies, Osterman (2010) proposed two roles that teachers should
adopt: (1) academic support (teacher as instructional leader) and (2) personal support (teacher
as a person). Osterman (2010) used the expression academic support (teacher as instructional
leader) to address the wide range of teaching strategies that positively influence students’school belonging. Among these educational strategies Osterman (2010) suggested giving
examples, checking for understanding, engaging in problem solving, and giving students’choices. Osterman (2010) used another expression, personal support (teacher as a person), toemphasize the fact that effective teaching strategies are not enough alone to develop students’school belonging. On a daily basis, teachers must show adequate interpersonal support because
students perceive sound teaching partly through their teachers’ caring behaviors. Among many
personal support behaviors, Osterman (2010) suggested offering students guidance, knowing
students’ names, listening to students, using humor, and encouraging discussion.
Discussion
Considering the significant role of students’ school belonging in their engagement andacademic success, this paper makes six recommendations that can be applied by teachers,
school principals, school board leaders, school psychologists, or any other behavioral
intervention workers. In developing these recommendations, the four defining attributes ofbelonging have been considered, as well as teachers’ behaviors and instructional strategies.
Recommendation 1
Given that positive emotions are a fundamental element that defines a sense of belonging, theauthors recommend that school principals provide their teachers with ongoing training in active
listening to decode and take greater account of their students’ emotional well-being. According
to Gordon and Burch (2003, p. 76):
Active listening is not a gimmick that teachers can pull out of their bag of tricks topatch up students when they have problems. It is a specific method for putting towork a set of attitudes about students, about their problems, and about the role ofthe teacher as a helping person.
Gordon and Burch (2003, p. 74) suggested several aspects related to active listening strategies
in order for them to be effective:•

The teacher must have a deep sense of trust in students’ ability ultimately to solve theirown problems […].

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•
•
•
•
•
•

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The teacher must be able to genuinely accept the feelings expressed by students […].
The teacher must understand that feelings are often quite transitory […].
The teacher must want to help students with their problems and make time for it […].
Teachers must be “with” each student who is experiencing troubles […].
Teachers need to understand that students are seldom able to start out by sharing thereal problem […].
Teachers must respect the privacy and confidential nature of whatever the student
reveals about himself and his life […].

Recommendation 2
Because positive social relations, effective pedagogy and fulfilling needs – such as competence,autonomy, and relatedness – are essential elements for learning, the authors recommend thatteachers adopt two distinct roles with their students. First, as Osterman (2010) suggests, they
can offer personal support to the students (teacher as a person); this refers to the many ways of
supporting and of building and sustaining strong social bonds, and could include demonstrating
enthusiasm for teaching and learning through words and body language, disciplining
proactively rather than punitively, and understanding what is going on in the students’ lives.
The second role is related to academic support (teacher as an instructional leader); this preciselyrefers to effective teaching strategies (Osterman, 2010) and includes developing relevant
lessons, providing sufficient time for completion, emphasizing mastery in learning, andavoiding making comparisons between struggling students and other more capable students.
Recommendation 3
Because positive social relations among peers is an element that defines a sense of belonging,
the authors recommend the adoption of teaching strategies that encourage positive social
relationships, such as teamwork or cooperative learning tasks (Osterman, 2000). In the authors’view, attention must be paid to make sure that each student has a chance to play a role in a teamand feel accepted by their peers.
Recommendation 4
Because many theorists have suggested that positive social relations contribute to building andsustaining school belonging (Eccles & Roeser, 2009; Janosz et al., 1998; Juvonen, 2006;
Newman et al., 1992; Roeser et al., 1996; Wehlage et al., 1989), the authors recommend theimplementation of social competence programs quite early on in the students’ school career. In
reviewing the work of other scholars, Kalvin, Bierman, and Erath (2015, p. 1) suggested:To effectively promote positive peer relations, preschool programs need to target
the social-emotional skills that are “competence correlates” – skills that areassociated with peer acceptance and protect against peer rejection. During thepreschool years, these skills include: 1) cooperative play skills (taking turns, sharing
toys, collaborating in pretend play and responding positively to peers); 2) language
and communication skills (conversing with peers, suggesting and elaborating joint
play themes, asking questions and responding to requests for clarification, inviting
others to play); 3) emotional understanding and regulation (identifying the feelingsof self and other, regulating affect when excited or upset, inhibiting emotional
outbursts and coping with everyday frustrations); and 4) aggression control andsocial problem-solving skills (inhibiting reactive aggression, managing conflicts

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Volume 5 – Issue 2 – Summer 2017verbally, generating alternative solutions to social problems and negotiating withpeers).
Recommendation 5
Because many authors define school belonging using the concept of harmonization (similarity
with members of the group) (Wehlage et al., 1989), the authors recommend educational
activities in which students can develop common interests with their peers within the classroom.
For instance, teams consisting of three to four students could create a website based on theteams’ interests early in the school year so that many projects could revolve around it (e.g.,
members share a team blog).
Recommendation 6
Because students’ participation in extracurricular activities positively influences school
belonging (Finn, 1989), the authors recommend engaging students in many extracurricular
activities related to various interests, such as sports, arts, technology, culture, etc. In doing so,
it will be possible to provide opportunities for students to develop common interests withstudents outside of their classroom.
Conclusion
Enhancing students’ school belonging is of paramount importance for students’ academic
success and engagement, and must therefore be taken into account in educational programs,
practice, and research. This paper, aligned with that of Allen and Bowles (2012) and Allen etal. (2016), allows us to present well-supported arguments in favor of more research on thispivotal concept. On a final note, researchers and teachers should be aware of the complexity of
the concept. In the authors’ view, more research could be carried out (1) to delineate thedefining attributes of belonging, and (2) to address the conceptual overlap among related
concepts associated with school belonging. Such work would facilitate the clarification ofmany concepts in education while refining the interpretation of results when examining school
belonging and its related concepts. By clarifying school belonging and its related concepts, theauthors believe it will greatly benefit practice and research.

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Corresponding author: Jonathan Smith
Email: jonathan.smith@umontreal.ca

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