2011/11/11

超新星放出ガス中でのダスト形成と衝撃波によるダストの破壊
野沢 貴也（Takaya Nozawa）
東京大学 国際高等研究所
数物連携宇宙研究機構（IPMU）

Collaborators;
T. Kozasa, A. Habe (Hokkaido University)
K. Maeda, K. Nomoto (IPMU), H. Umeda (U.T.)
N. Tominaga (Konan Univ.), M. Tanaka (IPMU)

Outline
1. Introduction－ Properties of interstellar dust in the Galaxy－ Observations of dust at high redshift

2. Formation and evolution of dust in Pop III
Type II-P and pair-instability SNe
3. Formation of dust in various types of SNe

4. Implication and Summary

1. Introduction

1-1-1. Cosmic dust
○ Cosmic dust ： solid particles with radii of a few nm to~0.1 mm in astronomical environmentsinterplanetary dust, interstellar dust, intergalactic dust …
Milky Way (optical)

Milky Way (infrared)

Dust grains absorb UV/optical lights and reemit
it by their thermal radiation at IR wavelengths!

1-1-2. Interstellar dust in our Galaxy○ Dust in our Galaxy ➔ when and where is dust formed?
－ composition : graphite (carbonaceous) grains
silicate (SiO2, MgSiO3, MgFeSiO4, …) grains－ size :n(a) = f(a)da = a-3.5 da (0.005~0.25 μm)－ amount :Mdust / Mgas ~ 1 / 140 (~109 Msun)➔ MRN dust model (e.g., Mathis+’77; Draine & Lee’84)
extinction curve
IR spectral featuredepletion of elements

1-1-3. Formation site of dust
○ Formation sites of dust
・ abundant metal (metal : N > 5)・ low gas temperature (T < ~2000 K)・ high gas density (n > ~106 cm-3)－ mass-loss winds of AGB stars－ expanding ejecta of supernovae－ molecular clouds (grain growth only)－ red giant, W-R stars, novae, protoplanetary disk …
➔ relative contribution of these sources is unclear!

1-2-1. Discovery of massive dust at z > 5・ The submm observations have confirmed the presenceof dust in excess of 108 Msun in 30% of z > 5 quasars
SDSS J1148+5251 at z=6.4－ age : 890 Myr－ IR luminosity : ~(1-3)x1013 Lsun
－ dust mass : (2-7)x108 Msun
－ SFR : ~3000 Msun/yr (Salpeter IMF)
－ gas mass : ~3x1010 Msun (Walter+’04)－ metallicity : ~solar*Herschel (3.5m)
・ PACS :70, 100, 160 μm・ SPIRE
250, 350, 500 μm

stellaremission

dustemission

Leipski+’10, A&A, 518, L34

1-2-2. What are dust sources in high-z quasar?
・ Supernovae (Type II SNe)

➔ ~0.1 Msun per SN is sufficient(Morgan & Edmunds’03; Maiolino+’06; Li+’08)➔ > 1 Msun per SN (Dwek+’07)
・ AGB stars + SNe(Valiante+’09; Gall+’11; Dwek & Cherchneff’11)➔ 0.01-0.05 Msun per AGB (Zhukovska & Gail ’08)
➔ 0.01-1 Msun per SN・ Grain growth in dense clouds + AGB stars + SNe(Draine’09; Michalowski+’10; Pipino+’11; Mattsson’11)➔ τgrowth ~ 10^7 (Z / Zsun) yr・ Quasar outflows (Elvis+’02)

1-3-1. Extinction curves at high-z quasars
Maiolino+’04, Nature, 431, 533
SDSS J1048+4637 at z=6.2
Broad absorption line (BAL) quasars

different dust properties
from those at low redshift1-3-2. Extinction curves at 3.9 < z < 6.4
Gallerani+’10, A&A,523, 85

7 of 33 requires
substantial dust
extinction,
which deviatesfrom the SMC

The mean
Extinction
curves forBAL quasars
deviates fromthe SMC withlevel > 95 %

1-4. Summary of Introduction
・ There is clear evidence for huge amounts of dust
at z > 4, but the dust sources remain unexplained➔ SNe? AGB stars? grain growth in the dense clouds?
quasar outflow? any other sources?

・ Properties (composition & size) of dust at high z
are likely to be different from those at low z➔ high-z quasars and GRBs are good targets to probe
the extinction curves in their host galaxies

At z > 4, short-lived SNe II (M = 8-40 Msun) dominate
the dust production over AGB stars (M < 8 Msun) ??

1-5. Aim of our study
・ Dust absorbs stellar light and emits it by thermal radiation➔ plays a crucial role in interpreting the evolution
history of the universe from high-z observations
・ Dust has great impacts on formation processes of stars－ forming molecules (mainly H2) on the surface(e.g., Cozaux & Spaans’04)－ providing additional cooling pathways of gas throughthermal emission(e.g., Omukai+’05; Schneider+’06)－ controlling the energy balance in interstellar space

We aim at revealing the evolution of composition,size, and amount of dust, considering formationand destruction processes of dust consistently!!

2. Formation and evolution ofdust in Pop III SNe II-P and PISNe

2-0. Death of single massive stars
Heger+’03, ApJ, 591, 288

At high metallicity
・ Type II-P SNe:MZAMS=8-25 Msun?
massive H envelope
significant mass loss
little mass loss

・ Type IIb SNe:MZAMS = 25-35 Msun?
very thin H-envelope

・ Type Ib/Ic SNe :MZAMS > 35 Msun?
no H / He envelope

At low metallicity (Z < 10-4 Zsun)
・ Type II-P SNe:MZAMS=8-40 Msun

・ pair-instability SNe:MZAMS=140-260 Msun

・ Type Ia SNe :thermonuclear explosionof C+O white dwarfs
Mpre-explosion ~ 1.4 Msun

2-1. Dust Formation in Pop III SNe
at ~1 days
He-coreH-envelope

NS or BH
He–layer (C>O)
O–Ne-Mg layer
Dust formation
Si–Satlayer~1-3 years
afterlayer
explosion
Fe–Ni2-1-1. Dust formation in primordial SNe
Nozawa+’03, ApJ, 598, 785〇 Population III SNe model (Umeda & Nomoto’02)
・ SNe II-P ： MZAMS = 13, 20, 25, 30 Msun (E51=1)
・ PISNe ： MZAMS = 170 Msun (E51=20), 200 Msun (E51=28)

Menv ~ 12 Msun

Menv ~ 90 Msun

・ nucleation and grain growth theory (Kozasa & Hasegawa’88)

・ no mixing of elements within the He-core
・ complete formation of CO and SiO

2-1-1.5. Calculations of dust formation
・ nucleation and grain growth theory taking
account of chemical reaction at condensation(Kozasa & Hasegawa’87)

・ key species：
gas species with theleast collision frequency
among reactants

key species controls thekinetics of the nucleationand grain growth2-1-2. Nucleation rate of dust
Steady-state classical nucleation rate

Supersaturation ratio

2-1-2.5. Steady-state nucleation rate
c1c(2)

J1c(3)J2c(n+1)

Jn

Js = J1 = J2 = ・・・ = Jn
= { 1/(α1c1) + ∑ 1/(αnc12) exp[g(n)] }-1

2-1-3. Basic equations of dust formation
Equation of conservation for key species

Equation of grain growth2-1-4. Dust formed in primordial SNe
Nozawa+’03, ApJ, 598, 785

・ Various dust species (C, MgSiO3, Mg2SiO4, SiO2, Al2O3,MgO, Si, FeS, Fe) form in the unmixed ejecta, according
to the elemental composition of gas in each layer
・ The condensation time: 300-600 days for SNe II-P
400-800 days for PISNe

2-1-5. Size distribution of newly formed dust
Nozawa+’03, ApJ, 598, 785

・ grain radii range from a few A up to 1 μm
・ average dust radius is smaller for PISNe than SNe II-P
amount of newly formed dust grains
SNe II-P： Mdust = 0.1-1 Msun, Mdust / Mmetal = 0.2-0.3
PISNe ： Mdust =20-40 Msun, Mdust / Mmetal = 0.3-0.4

2-1-6. Behavior of dust formation

2-2. Dust Evolution in SNRs
T = (1-2)x104 K
nH,0 = 0.1-1 cm-3

He coreFSRSCD

2-2-1. Time evolution of shock wave

2-2-2. Initial condition for shock waves
・ Hydrodynamical model of SNe (Umeda & Nomoto’02)
・ SNe II : Mpr=13, 20, 25, 30 Msun (E51=1)
・ PISNe : Mpr=170 (E51=20), 200 Msun (E51=28)

・ The ambient medium (homogeneous)・ gas temperature : T = 104 K・ gas density : nH,0 = 0.1, 1, and 10 cm-3

・ Dust Model・ initial size distribution and spatial distribution of dust
➔ results of dust formation calculations
・ treating as a test particle
The calculation is performed from 10 yr up to ~106 yr

2-2-3. Dynamics of dust

2-2-4. Erosion rate of dust by sputtering2-2-5. Erosion rate of dust by sputtering
Nozawa+’06, ApJ, 648, 435
for primordial composition gas

for oxygen ions・ erosion rate by sputtering quickly increases above
105 K and peaks at 107 -108 K・ erosion rate : da / dt ~ 10-6 nH μm yr-1 cm3for the primordial gas (H and He) at T > 106 K

2-2-6. Temperature and density of gas in SNRs
Nozawa+’07, ApJ, 666, 955
Model : M pr= 20 Msun (E51=1)
nH,0 = 1 cm-3

Downward-pointing arrows:
forward shock in upper panel
reverse shock in lower panel
The temperature of the gas
swept up by the shocks➔ 106-108 K↓
Dust grains residing in theshocked hot gas are erodedby sputtering2-2-7. Evolution of dust in SNRs
Nozawa+’07, ApJ, 666, 955
Model : M pr= 20 Msun (E51=1)
nH,0 = 1 cm-3

Dust grains in the He core collidewith reverse shock at (3-13)x103 yr

The evolution of dust heavily
depends on the initial radiusand compositionaini = 0.01 μm (dotted lines)➔ completely destroyedaini = 0.1 μm (solid lines)➔ trapped in the shellaini = 1 μm (dashed lines)➔ injected into the ISM

2-2-8. Total mass and size of surviving dust
Nozawa+’07, ApJ, 666, 955

total dust mass surviving thedestruction in Type II-P SNRs;
0.08-0.8 Msun (nH,0 = 0.1-1 cm-3)

size distribution of surviving
dust is domimated by largegrains (> 0.01 μm)

2-2-9. Flattened extinction curves at high-z
Hirashita, TN,+’08, MNRAS, 384, 1725

Gallerani+’10, A&A, 523, 85

z=5.8, BAL

z=5.1, BAL

Maiolino+’04, A&A, 420, 889

2-3. Summary of dust production in Pop III SNe・ The fate of newly formed dust within primordial SNRs
strongly depends on the initial radii and compositions.

・ The size distribution of dust surviving the destructionin SNRs is weighted to relatively large size (> 0.01 μm).
・ The total mass of surviving dust grains decreases withincreasing the ambient gas density
for nH,0 = 0.1-1 cm-3
SNe II-P ➔ Mdust = 0.1-0.8 Msun
PISNe ➔ Mdust = 0.1-15 Msun
・ Extinction curves in the early universe are expected tobe flat if SNe II-P are main sources of dust at high z.

3. Formation of dust grains invarious types of SNe

3-1-1. Dust formation in Type IIb SN○ SN IIb model (SN1993J-like model)－ Meje = 2.94 Msun
MZAMS = 18 Msun
MH-env = 0.08 Msun
－ E51 = 1－ M(56Ni) = 0.07 Msun

3-1-2. Dependence of dust radii on SN type
SN IIbSN II-P

0.01 μm－ condensation time of dust
300-700 d after explosion－ the radius of dust formedin H-stripped SNe is small－ total mass of dust formed
・ 0.167 Msun in SN IIb
・ 0.1-1 Msun in SN II-P・ SN IIb without massive
H-env ➔ adust < 0.01 μm

Nozawa+’10, ApJ, 713, 356

・ SN II-P with massive
H-env ➔ adust > 0.01 μm

3-1-3. Destruction of dust in Type IIb SNR
homogeneous CSM (ρ = const)

stellar-wind CSM (ρ ∝ r-2)
330 yrnH,1 = 30, 120, 200 /cc ➔ dM/dt = 2.0, 8.0, 13x10-5 Msun/yr for vw=10 km/s

Almost all newly formed grains are destroyed in shockedgas within the SNR for CSM gas density of nH > 0.1 /cc➔ small radius of newly formed dust
➔ early arrival of reverse shock at dust-forming region
Nozawa+’10, ApJ, 713, 356

3-1-4. IR emission from dust in Cas A SNRAKARI corrected 90 μm image

・ total mass of dust formed
Mdust = 0.167 Msun・ shocked dust : 0.095 Msun
Md,warm = 0.008 Msun
・ unshocked dust :Md,cool = 0.072 Msun
with Tdust ~ 40 K
Nozawa et al. 2010, ApJ, 713, 356

AKARI observation
Md,cool = 0.03-0.06 Msun
Tdust = 33-41 K(Sibthorpe+’10)

Herschel observation
Md,cool = 0.075 Msun
Tdust ~ 35 K (Barlow+’10)

3-2-1. Missing-dust problem in CCSNe
Matsuura,Tanaka,...,TN,TN,etetal.al.2011,2011,submitted
Sciencecool dust in SN1987A
theorycold dust ??

young SNRs

Herschel detects cool (20K) dustof 0.4-0.7 Msun toward SN 1987A!
young SNe

There is a big difference in the mass of dust between
observational estimates and theoretical predictions!!

3-2-2. Resolving cold dust in SN87A with ALMA
ALMA Cycle 0 Proposal‘Detecting cool dust in SN1987A’（PI：Nozawa）

Band 7 (850 μm)

Band 9 (450 μm)

0.1 Msun of silicate ➔ 5σ detection

This proposal is ranked in thehighest priority to be observed !

3-3-1. Dust formation in Type Ia SN○ Type Ia SN modelW7 model (C-deflagration) (Nomoto+’84; Thielemann+’86)－ Meje = 1.38 Msun

－ E51 = 1.3－ M(56Ni) = 0.6 Msun

3-3-2. Dust formation and evolution in SNe Ia
average radius

Nozawa+’11, arXiv/1105.0973

dust destruction in SNRs
0.01 μm

・ condensation time :100-300 days
・ average radius of dust :aave <~ 0.01 μm
・ total dust mass :Mdust = 0.1-0.2 Msun

newly formed grains arecompletely destroyed for
ISM density of nH > 0.1 cm-3
➔ SNe Ia are unlikely to bemajor sources of dust

3-3-3. Carbon dust and outermost layer
・ There has been no evidence for dust formation in SNe Ia➔ Formation of massive carbon dust does not matchthe observations
Observational data : SN 2005df at
day 200 and 400 (Gerardy+’07)－ massive unburned carbon(~0.05 Msun) in deflagration➔ change of compositionof WD by He-shell flash➔ burning of carbon by adelayed detonation

observationally estimatedcarbon mass in SNe Ia :Mc < 0.01 Msun
Nozawa+’11, accepted(Marion+’06; Tanaka+’08)

3-3-4. Dust formation in super-Chandra SNe?
－ super-Chandra SNe :M(56Ni) ~ 1.0 Msun

SN 2009dc, Tarbenberger+’10

detection of CII line
➔ presence of massive
unburned carbon

enhanced fading at ~200 day➔ formation of carbon dust?

4. Implication and Summary

4-1. Implication on evolution history of dust (1)〇 metal-poor (high-z or starbust) galaxies
・ massive stars (SNe) are dominate
・ mass loss of massive stars would be less efficient➔ Type II-P SNe might be major sources of dust
・ average radius of dust is relatively large (> 0.01 μm)
・ grain growth makes grain size larger➔ dust extinction curve might be grayz=0.69z=4
z=0.54z=1.16

Stratta+’05, A&A, 441, 83

Li+’08, ApJ, 678, 1136

4-2. Implication on evolution history of dust (2)〇 metal-rich (low-z or Milky Way) galaxies
・ low-mass stars are dominate
・ mass loss of massive stars would be more efficient➔ SNe (IIb, Ib/c, Ia) might be minor sources of dust
・ dust from AGB stars may also be large (0.01-0.1 μm)➔ How are small dust grains produced?
grain shattering－ warm ionized medium (WIM)
relative velocity of dust inturbulence : 1-20 km/s

Dust size distribution at t=5 Myr (nH=1 /cc)

－ grain shattering is efficientin WIM at t=5 Myr if metallicity
is solar and more
－ the production of small grains
by shattering steepens theextinction curve

Hirashita, TN, +’10, MNRAS, 404, 1437

4-3. Summary of this talk・ SNe are important sources of dust?
－ maybe, Yes in the early universe(at least, to serve the seeds for grain growth in the ISM)・ Size of newly formed dust depends on types of Sne－ H-retaining SNe (Type II-P) : aave > 0.01 μm－ H-stripped SNe (Type IIb/Ib/Ic and Ia) : aave < 0.01 μm➔ dust is almost completely destroyed in the SNRs
➔ H-stripped SNe may be poor producers of dust
・ Our model treating dust formation and evolution selfconsistently can reproduce IR emission from Cas A

・ Mass of dust in SNe must be dominated by cool dust
➔ FIR and submm observations of SNe are essential