1. Variety of Mobility Needs and Transport Systems

Mobility Changes in Quality
and Quantity

Associate Professor, The University of Tokyo

Kiyoshi Takami

This section shows the basic statistics on the recent trends of passenger and freight transport. Regarding the passenger transport, the distancetraveled per capita has risen and fallen in a cyclic manner, and the per capita vehicle-kilometers travelled by private cars has begun to increaseagain after remaining flat briefly. From the latest nationwide person trip survey, interesting trends are observed such as increases in the trip
generation rate of the elderly and in the car modal shares for the elderly and females, rise in the number of private trips, and decrease in the car
modal share for young males. Regarding freight transport, both tonnage and ton-kilometer transported per capita have decreased over the last
several decades.

⃞ Annual passenger-kilometers traveled per capita are on the rise for rail and air travel, with the rail in FY 2018 recording highs.
Those by business vehicles and passenger ships are in a long and gradual decline, while the latter has remained almost
unchanged for nearly a decade. Annual vehicle-kilometers of passenger car increased rapidly until around 2000, and then thegrowth has slowed down. More than one-third of it is attributed to mini vehicles. (Figures 1 and 2)
Figure 1 Annual Passenger-kilometers Traveled per
CapitaFigure 2 Annual per Capita Vehicle-kilometers
Traveled by Private Cars
（vehicle-km/person/year）(km/person/year)(FY) 0

1,000

2,000

3,000

4,000

5,000
Business vehicle

1970

942

1980

2,785

743

90
46
254

2,687
52

1990
2000

624

3,029

2005

642

3,062

2010

607

3,073

2015

3,364

562

2018

3,493

554

Passenger ship
Air

1970

1,000

Note: Corrected and estimated values are included.
Data source: Transportation-related statistics (MLIT)

2,000

3,000

4,000

915

1980

registered vehicle
mini vehicle

1,788

1990

418
51
628
34
651
32
576
23
694
25
761
27

3,135

727

Rail

(FY)

0

2,522

2000

3,130

571

2005

2,966

830

2010

2,674

1,067

2015

2,660

1,264

2018

2,800

1,426

Note: Statistics on light vehicle did not exist before FY 1986.
Corrected and estimated values are included.
Data source: Survey on Motor Vehicle Transport, Survey on Motor
Vehicle Fuel Consumption (MLIT)⃞ The freight tonnage per capita by rail has been decreasing since around 1970, those by freight vehicle and coastwide vessel
are also in a declining trend since the 1990s, and has remained roughly flat in recent years. The ton-kilometers transported per
capita by freight vehicles overtook coastwise vessels in the early 2000s, with small increases and/or decreases for all modes inrecent years. (Figures 3 and 4)
Figure 3 Annual Freight Tonnage Transported per
CapitaFigure 4 Annual Freight Ton-kilometers Transported
per Capita(ton-km/person/year)(ton/person/year)
0

10

20

30

(FY)
1970

40

1980

43

1990

47

2000

45

2005
2010
2015
2018

39
35
34
34

40
2.4

50

60

3.6 0.001
1.4
4.3 0.003
0.7
4.7 0.007
0.5
4.2 0.009

1,000

(FY)
1970

904

608

1980

1,057

320

2,000

Freight4,000
vehicleRail
Coastwise vessel
Air

3,000
0.7

1,458

2.5

1,898
220

1990

1,512

2000

1,675

1,978

6.5

1,904

8.5

174
179

0.4
3.3 0.008
0.3
2.9 0.008
0.3
2.9 0.008
0.3
2.8 0.007

0

2005

1,656

1,776

8.4

159
2010

8.1

1,405

1,922
169

Freight vehicle

2015

1,608

2018

1,665

Rail
Coastwise vessel

1,419

8.3

1,416

7.7

153

Air

Note: Freight vehicles do not include private light vehicles in any year, and include business mini vehicles since FY 1987. Corrected andestimated values are included.
Data source: Transportation-related statistics (MLIT)

18

TRANSPORT POLICY IN PERSPECTIVE: 2020
⃞ Trip generation rate from the Nationwide Person Trip Survey has been decreasing, except for the 2020 survey which shows adifferent tendency. By age-group, it has been decreasing among males under 65 years old and females under 45 years old andincreasing among the older age-groups. (Figures 5 and 6)
Figure 5 Trip Generation Rate

Figure 6 Trip Generation Rate by Age-group(Nationwide, Weekdays)

3.0

3.5
1987

1992

1999

2005

2010

(1992, 2005 and 2015, respectively, from left for each sex and age-group)

2015

3.0

2.5
2.18

2.17

2.5
1.73

1.63

1.68

1.5
1.0

(trips/person/day)(trips/person/day)

2.16
2.0

2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5

0.5

Weekdays

HolidaysMale

75 and overAge 65-74

Age 55-64

Age 45-54

Age 35-44

Age 25-34

Age 5-14

Age 15-24

Age 65-74

75 and over

National
averageAge 55-64

Local cityareas

Age 45-54

Three major
metropolitan
areas

Age 35-44

National
averageAge 25-34

Local cityareas

Age 15-24

Three major
metropolitan
areas

Age 5-14

0.0
0.0

FemaleData source: The 6th Nationwide Person Trip Survey (MLIT)

Data source: The 6th Nationwide Person Trip Survey (MLIT)

Figure 7 Trip Generation Rate for Private Purpose by
Age-group (Nationwide)◼ Declining for the young and middle-aged and increasing
for the elderly, regardless of sex and weekdays/holidays.

Figure 8 Modal Share of Car by Age-group (AllPurposes, Weekdays)◼ Increasing for elderly men and for women of wider agegroups and decreasing for young and middle-aged men.

Data source: The 6th Nationwide Person Trip Survey (MLIT)

Data source: The 6th Nationwide Person Trip Survey (MLIT)

Figure 9 Modal Share (Representative Modes, All
Purposes)

Figure 10 CO2 Emissions from Private Cars by
Prefectures (per Capita)◼ Car modal share has plateaued, and is already in decline inthree major metropolitan areas (especially on weekdays).

◼ Tokyo, Osaka and surrounding prefectures emit less CO2.
The tendency of “east high, west low” can also be seen.

100%
90%
80%
70%

72.1

72.0

72.5

67.0

58.6

61.0

58.2

52.3

56.3

51.2

50.6
48.0

50.1

Walk and others

40.4

52.3

54.1

31.4

30%

44.5

37.7

33.6

33.9

29.1

40%

26.4

50%

33.0

60%

Motorcycle/Bicycle
Car
Bus
Rail

20%
10%

Weekdays

Holidays

Three major metropolitan areas

Weekdays

2015

2010

2005

1999

1992

1987

2015

2010

2005

1999

1992

1987

2015

2010

2005

1999

1992

1987

2015

2010

2005

1999

1992

1987

0%

Holidays

Local city areas

Data source: The 6th Nationwide Person Trip Survey (MLIT)

Data source: Survey on Motor Vehicle Fuel Consumption (MLIT)

19

1. Variety of Mobility Needs and Transport Systems

Road Network TodayThe Institute of Behavioral Sciences

Tsutomu Yabe

The length of our roads has been steadily increasing thanks to ongoing road improvement, yet it is still not sufficient for traffic demand. As a result,the average speed on roads remains unchanged at a lower level. A case in point: in city centers such as Tokyo and Osaka, and in DID areas, there
is still chronic traffic congestion. Given that background, road network improvements (e.g., the ring road improvement plans that are proceedingin the major metropolitan areas) are obviously playing a significant role. The road subcommittee of the Panel on Infrastructure Development has
put together a policy for the effective and efficient use of the expressway network and the fare structure within the metropolitan areas.

Figure 1 Changes in Traffic Volume and Road Length◼ Traffic volume, measured in vehicle-kilometers, is on a
downward trend after peaking in 2005; but the volume oflight motor vehicles is on an upward trend. Road length
nationwide is steadily increasing.

Figure 2 Changes in Length of Completed Roads byRoad Type◼ For all types of road, the length of completed road (i.e.,with improvements completed) is increasing steadily.
60

250

2,000
Length of completed road (Eexpressways, National Ordinary roads, Prefectural roads)
Vehicle-kilometers (passegers + freight)
1,512

1,502

1,512

1,500

Road length (1000 kilometers)

1,351

150

148149150151151152152
143144145146147147
138140141142
133134136137
131
129
127
123125117119121
1,000

100

500
50

Road length (1000km)

1,470

Traffic volume (billion vehicle-kilometers)

200

1,533

50

48.0

51.5
50.4
49.1

45.6
44.7
43.6
41.5

41.0

40
33.9

33.3

30

44.9
43.6
41.9
38.4 38.5
32.8

26.4

20

10
2.6

4.7

6.6 7.4 7.8

8.6

0
0

National
expressway

0
1990

1994

1997 1999

2005

2010

2015

1980

1990

2005

Prefectural
road

2000

2010

2015

Figure 4 Changes in Average Traffic Volume and
Average Travel Speed by Type of Road

Figure 3 Average 12-hour Traffic Volume on
Ordinary Roads in Types of Vehicles◼ On ordinary roads, the traffic volume of passenger cars is
on an upward trend.

◼ The average traffic volume on expressways has been on a
downward trend since 1997, partly because the newly
constructed ones has less traffic. The average travel speed
for either type of road remains at the same level or is on aslightly downward trend.

8,000

4,000

（5,329）（5,415）（5,463）（5,144）（5,242）（5,073）（4,670）（4,419）大型（3,938）（4,004）（3,675）

小
型

2,000

0
1980 1983 1985 1988 1990 1994 1997 1999 2005 2010 2015

Notes: Figures in parentheses are the average traffic
volume of all types of vehicles

Source: Road Traffic Census (MLIT)

100

30,00080
25,00060

20,00015,00040

10,000
20
5,000

0

0
1980 1983 1985 1988 1990 1994 1997 1999 2005 2010 2015

Traffic volume on expressways
Traffic volume on regional roads
Travel speed on national ordinary roads

Source: Road Traffic Census (MLIT)

Traffic volume on national ordinary roads
Travel speed on expressways
Travel speed on regional roads

Average travel speed (km/hour)

6,000

35,000Buses
Ordinary trucks
Small trucks
Passenger cars

Average traffic volume (vehicles / 12hours)

Average traffic volume (vehicles / 12 hours）

Major
regional road

Source: Road Statistics Annual Report (MLIT)

Source: Road Statistics Annual Report (MLIT) ，Road Traffic Census (MLIT)

20

National
Ordinary roads

2019

TRANSPORT POLICY IN PERSPECTIVE: 2020

◼ There has been almost no changes in the nationwide
average. The average travel speed in the wards of Tokyoand in Osaka City is about half of the nationwide average;
there is still severe traffic congestion.

◼ The nationwide average has been on a slightly downward
trend. Though there had been changes in the average
speed in the wards of Tokyo and in Osaka City, both speed
levels remain lower than the nationwide average.

50
39.4
40

36.4

36.9

37.3

37.3

36.7

36.0

36.7

36.7

36.7

35.3

30
21.5
20

17.3

19.5

20.1

19.1

22.4

20.1

19.8

18.0

18.2

21.4

21.3
16.6

10

14.8

15.8

18.3

16.7

17.0

15.9

15.8

15.3

11.6

Average travel speed at peak hours（km/hour）

Figure 6 Average Travel Speed on Expressways(Nationwide, Tokyo, Osaka)

Average travel speed at peak hours（km/hour）

Figure 5 Average Travel Speed on National Ordinary
Roads (Nationwide, Tokyo, Osaka)

100

79.4
80

76.7

76.1

79.1

83.9

80.6
75.5

75.1

73.7

72.4

66.6
60

58.3

54.1
47.4

39.3

41.9

40
41.8
20

31.2

35.8

46.6
46.2

49.8

46.6
40.9

36.3

28.4

57.2
41.4

34.1
28.5

29.0

26.0

15.5
0

0

1980 1983 1985 1988 1990 1994 1997 1999 2005 2010 2015

1980 1983 1985 1988 1990 1994 1997 1999 2005 2010 2015
Nationwide

Tokyo

（FY）

Osaka

Source: Road Statistics Annual Report (MLIT)

Nationwide

Tokyo

（FY）

Osaka

Source: Road Statistics Annual Report (MLIT)

Figure 7 National Comparison of Expressway Network Condition◼ Many cities have implemented ring roads, and its construction is completed in London, 90% done in Paris. For major cities in
Asia (Beijin, Seoul), it is almost completed as well. In Tokyo, to make alternative expressway routes, the policy for “Smartuse of infrastructure” with a focus on expressways is being implemented (e.g. metropolitan expressway Shinagawa-line, KenO expressway).
（Capital Region）（London）（Chukyo area）（Kansai area）（Paris）（Beijing）（Seoul）

0

10

20

30km

Source: MLIT Website（2020.8）

21

1. Variety of Mobility Needs and Transport Systems

Freight Road Transport Today

Professor, Senshu University

Eiichiro Iwao

This section shows the basic statistics on the recent trends of freight road transport. Regarding the freight transport, both tonnage andton-kilometer transported per capita have decreased over the last several decades. The number of commercial trucks increased until 2007. From
2008, there is a decrease. The number of private trucks have been declining since 1990. The number of large size motor vehicle license holders
between the ages of 18 and 29 continued to decline until 2018. However, the number of large size motor vehicle license holders over the age of
70 continues to increase.

⃞ Cargo weight by vehicle type for ordinary vehicles (commercial) has been increasing since FY2009. However, from FY2012
onward, it has continued to decrease with the exception of FY2016. Cargo ton-kilometers of ordinary vehicles (commercial)has been decreasing from 2007 to 2015 except for 2013. However, it started to increase after FY2016.
Figure 1 Changes in Cargo Weight, by Vehicle Type300
Total cargo Ton-kilometers (billion ton km)

Total cargo weight（million tons）

3,000

Figure 2 Changes in Cargo Ton-kilometers, by Vehicle
Type

2,500

2,000

1,500

1,000

500

250

200

150

100

50

0

0
FY2007

FY2008FY2009Ordinary Vehicle(commercial)

FY2010FY2011FY2012

Small Vehicle(commercial)

FY2013

FY2014FY2015

Ordinary Vehicle(private)

FY2016FY2017

FY2007 FY2008 FY2009 FY2010 FY2011 FY2012 FY2013 FY2014 FY2015 FY2016 FY2017 FY2018

FY2018

Ordinary Vehicle(commercial)

Small Vehicle(private)

Small Vehicle(commercial)

Ordinary Vehicle(private)

Small Vehicle(private)

Note: It doesn’t include Hokkaido District Transport Bureau and Tohoku District Transport Bureau numbers of March 2011 and April
Source：Annual Statistical Report on Motor Vehicle Transport (Information Policy Division, Policy Bureau, MLIT)

Figure 4 Changes in Number of Light Freight Trucks
and Light Motor Truck Transportation Business◼ The number of light freight trucks owned continues todecrease since FY2007. The number of light truck
business decreased from FY2010 to FY2015, with the
exception of FY2011. However, it has been increasing
since FY2016.
10,000

180

9,000

160

8,000

140

7,000

120

6,000

100

5,000

80

4,000

60

3,000

2,000

40

1,000

20

0

0
FY FY FY FY FY FY FY FY FY FY FY2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017

Number of light motor truck transportation business

Source: Driver's license statistics (National Police Agency)

22

Number of light motor truck transportation business(Thousand companies)

Number of light freight trucks(Tousand Vehicle)

Figure 3 Changes in Large Size Motor Vehicle
License Holders◼ The number of large size motor vehicle licenses between
the ages of 18 and 29 continued to decrease until FY2018.
However, it increased in FY2019. The number of licenses
for the 30-39 age group continues to decrease, while
increasing for the over 70 group.

Number of light freight trucks

Note: The number of light freight trucks includes hearses andmotorcycles.
Source：Transportation-related statistics data collection(Information Policy Division, Policy Bureau, MLIT), Statistical data
(Japan Light Mortar Vehicle and Motorcycle Association)

TRANSPORT POLICY IN PERSPECTIVE: 2020

Figure 5 Changes in Private and Commercial Truck
Ownership

Figure 6 Changes in Transportation Frequency per
Truck per Day◼ The number of trucks in commercial use increased until
FY2007, but decreased from FY2008 to FY2011. After
that, it increased from FY2012.

◼ The transportation frequency per truck per day in actual
use by ordinary truck (commercial) increased except for
FY2012.
5.00

9,000

Transportation frequency per truck per day

Trruck ownership(1000trucks)

8,000
7,000
6,000
5,000
4,000
3,000

2,000
1,000
0

4.50
4.00
3.50
3.00
2.50
2.00

1.50
1.00
0.50
0.00
FY
2008

FY FY FY FY FY FY FY FY FY FY FY FY FY FY FY FY FY FY FY FY FY FY FY FY FY FY FY FY FY
19501955196019651970197519801985199019952000200120022003200420052006200720082009201020112012201320142015201620172018

Trucks in commercial use

Trucks in private use

Total

FY
2009

FY
2010

FY
2011

FY
2012

FY
2013

FY
2014

Ordinary Vehicle(commercial)

Small Vehicle(commercial)

Ordinary Vehicle(private)

Small Vehicle(private)

FY
2015

FY
2016

FY
2017

FY
2018

Light Vehicle(commercial)

Note: It doesn't include Hokkaido District Transport Bureau and Tohoku District Transport Bureau numbers of March 2011 and April
Source：Transportation-related statistics data collection
Source：Annual Statistical Report on Motor Vehicle Transport(Information Policy Division, Policy Bureau, MLIT)(Information Policy Division, Policy Bureau, MLIT)

Figure 7 Changes in Load Factor, by Type of Use(Private vs. Commercial)

Figure 8 Changes in Rate of Loading Distance toTotal Transport Distance, by Type of Use (Private vs.
Commercial) Type45.00%
40.00%

Load factor

35.00%
30.00%
25.00%
20.00%
15.00%
10.00%
5.00%
0.00%

FY
2008

FY
2009

FY
2010

FY
2011

Ordinary Vehicle(commercial)
Special used vehicle(commercial)
Ordinary Vehicle(private)

FY
2012

FY
2013

FY
2014

FY
2015

FY
2016

FY
2017

FY
2018

Small Vehicle(commercial)
Light Vehicle(commercial)
Small Vehicle(private)

Rate of loading distance to total transport distance

50.00%

80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
FY
2008

FY
2009

FY
2010

FY
2011

FY
2012

FY
2013

FY
2014

FY
2015

FY
2016

FY
2017

Ordinary Vehicle(commercial)

Small Vehicle(commercial)

Ordinary Vehicle(private)

Small Vehicle(private)

FY
2018

Note: It doesn't include Hokkaido District Transport Bureau and Tohoku District Transport Bureau numbers of March 2011 and April
Source: Annual Statistical Report on Motor Vehicle Transport
Source: Transportation-related statistics data collection(Information Policy Division, Policy Bureau, MLIT)(Information Policy Division, Policy Bureau, MLIT)

A m o u n t h a n d le d
( Te n m i l l i o n p e r c e l s / m a i l i n g s )Figure 9 Changes in the Amount of Package and Mail Table 1 Trends in Courier Redelivery Rates◼ Redelivery rates are higher in urban area than in Local
Handling, as Well as Regular Parcel Post Delivery
area. Comparing the 2017 and 2019, the redelivery rate isdecreasing everywhere except for urban areas.
600
550
500
450
400
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0

Oct-17Oct-19Total
Total
Number of Redelivery
Number of Redelivery
number of
number of
Redelivery
rate
Redelivery
rate
deliveriesdeliveries

Delivery service (truck)
Delivery service (air, etc.)
Mail delivery

FY
FY
FY
FY
FY
FY
FY
FY
FY
FY
FY
2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018
Source: website of MLIT

Urban
area
Suburban
area
Local
area

884

151

17.1%

839

139

16.6%

1,354

199

14.7%

1,325

190

14.3%

119

16

13.5%

131

15

11.5%

Total

2,357

366

15.5%

2,295

344

15.0%

Note: The unit of total number and redelivery number is 1,000.
This number is the total of Sagawa Express: Hikyaku Express
Courier, Japan Post: Yupack, Yupacket, Yamato Transport:
Takkyubin.
The October 2017 term is from October 1st to October 31st.
The October 2019 term is from October 1st to October 31st.
Source: website of MLIT

23

1. Variety of Mobility Needs and Transport Systems

Public Transport Today

Professor, Ryutsu Keizai University

Kazuya Itaya

In recent years, the downward trend in the use of public transportation is slowing down. On the other hand, the use of private cars is on a recovery
trend. From the statistical data, it can be said that the mobility in Japan has improved overall. In the three major metropolitan areas the utilizationof railway is increasing. But the congestion rate of trains has continued to decline. In the Chukyo and Kansai areas, congestion is being relieved.
The bus business has become unprofitable for a long time. The balance ratio has been improving. As a whole, the public transport safety has been
maintained. However, many of the railway lines destroyed by the disaster are difficult to recover.

Figure 1 The Number of Passengers of Railways and
Buses◼ The use of Railways and buses remains almost unchanged.

Figure 2 Railway and Bus Passenger Kilometers◼ The use of railways has been gradually increasing, but theuse of buses is almost unchanged.

Source: Annual Statistical Report on Motor Vehicle Transport,
Annual Statistics Report on Railway Transport

Source: Annual Statistical Report on Motor Vehicle Transport,
Annual Statistics Report on Railway Transport

Figure 3 The Number of Intercity Passengers, by Mode
◼ The use of Shinkansen, aircraft and express buses
continues to increase.

Figure 4 Operating Kilometers and Number ofPassengers of Shinkansen◼ Since 2010, the use of Shinkansen has increased.

Source: Annual Statistical Report on Railway Transport, Bus
Business in Japan, Annual Statistical Report on Air Transport

Source: Before 1985: Railways 2008: the Numbers.
After 1990: Annual Statistical Report on Railway Transport

Figure 5 Modal Share in the Three Metropolitan Areas◼ The use of railway tends to increase and automobile tends
to decrease in each area.

Figure 6 Railway Congestion Rates in the Three
Metropolitan Areas◼ Railway congestion rates keep decreasing in all three areas.

Source: Urban Area Person Trip Survey Results in Tokyo, Osaka(Keihanshin), Nagoya (Chukyo) Area

Source: Railways 2019: the Numbers

24

TRANSPORT POLICY IN PERSPECTIVE: 2020

Figure 7 Bus Industry Incomes vs. Expenditures◼ In the past 20 years, the balance ratio overall has neverexceeded 100. [Balance ratio = (current income / current
expenditure) × 100]

Figure 8 The Number of Municipalities Introduced
Community Bus◼ Mainly in the areas where bus operators withdrew, thecommunity bus routes are continuing to increase.

Source: Bus Industry Income and Expenditures

Source: White Paper on Transport Policy 2020

Table1 Long-Term Suspended Railway Lines
Due to a Disaster◼ Many railway lines have been suspended for a long time
due to disasters. There are some lines that are unlikely tobe restored due to the great damage.

Figure 9 The Number of Traffic Fatalities with
Public Transport◼ The number of fatalities with buses, hired cars, and taxis
continues to decrease. Compared to the number of traffic
fatalities with motor vehicles (3532 in FY 2018), public
transport safety is outstanding.

Names and Section of Lines
JR East Tadami Line
(Aizu-Kawaguchi - Tadami)●JR Hokkaido Hidaka Line
(Mukawa - Samani)
Minami-Aso Railway Takamori Line
(Tateno - Nakamatsu)●JR Hokkaido Nemuro Line
(Higashi-Shikagoe - Shintoku)●JR Kyushu Hitahikosan Line
(Soeda - Yoake)
JR East Suigun Line
(Fukuroda - Hitachi-Daigo)
Abukuma Express Line(Tomino - Marumori)
Ueda Kotsu Line
(Ueda - Shiroshita)

PeriodDetails of the Disaster
July 2011 Heavy rain in
2011/Jul/30Niigata and Fukushima
Sediment runoff due to
2015/Jan/8high waves
The 2016 Kumamoto
2016/Apr/14Earthquake
2016/Aug/31-

2016 Typhoon No. 10

2017/Jul/5-

July 2017 Heavy rain in
northern Kyushu

2019/Oct/12-

2019 Typhoon No. 19

2019/Oct/12-

2019 Typhoon No. 19

2019/Oct/12-

2019 Typhoon No. 19

Note: As of August 2020, lines that have been suspended
for over a year due to a disaster are listed.
● has no plans to restore.
Source: Author’s Investigation

Source: (Railway and Automobile): White Paper on Traffic Safety inJapan, (Bus, Hired Car and Taxi): Statistics on Traffic Accidents ofMotor Vehicles for Business Use

Figure 10 Newly Established / Discontinued Railway Lines
Examples between 2010 and 2020 Newly-established lines：●
Discontinued lines：○

2012
2014
2016
2018
2019
2020

No.
Name and Section of Discontinues Lines(○)
A Towada Kanko Dentetsu Misawashi - Towadashi
B Nagano Electric Railway Yashiro - Suzaka
C JR Hokkaido
Kikonai - Esashi
D Hankai Tramway
Sumiyoshi - Sumiyoshikouen
E JR Hokkaido
Rumoi - MashikeF JR West
Gotsu - Miyoshi
G JR Hokkaido
Shin-Yubari - Yubari
H JR Hokkaido
Hokkaido-IryoDaigaku - Shin-Totsukawa◼ There are many newly established lines in the
Hokuriku region. The case of the JR West in 2017is a revival of a line that was once abolished. At
the same time, the number of discontinued lines
has been on a downward trend over the past
several years.
2010
2011
2014
2015

2016
2017
2018
2019
2020

No.
Name and Section of New Lines(●)
1 Keisei "Narita Airport Line"
Keisei Takasago - Narita Airport
2 JR East "Tohoku Shinkansen"
Hachinohe - Shin Aomori
3 JR Kyushu "Kyushu Shinkansen"
Hakata - Shin Yatsushiro
4 Nagoya City Transportation Bureau
Nonami - Tokushige
5 Manyosen
Takaokaeki - Takaokaekimae
6 Toyama Chihou Tetsydou
Toyamaeki - Dentetsu Toyamaeki・Esta Mae
7 JR East, West "Hokuriku Shinkansen" Nagano - Kanazawa
8 Transportaton Bureau City of Sendai Yagiyama Zoological Park - Arai
9 Sapporo City Transportation
Susukino - Nishi yon chome
10 JR Hokkaido "Hokkaido Shinkansen" Shin-Aomori - Shin-Hakodate-Hokuto
11 JR West
Kabe - Aki-Kameyama
12 JR West
Shin-Osaka - Hanaten
13 Yokohama Seaside Line
Kanazawa Hakkei Station extension
14 Okinawa Urban Monorail
Shuri - Tedako-Uranishi
15 JR East, Sotetsu
Nishiya - Hazawa Yokohama-kokudai
16 Toyama Chihou Tetsydou
Toyama Station north-south direct service started

Source: Author’s Investigation25

1. Variety of Mobility Needs and Transport Systems

Recent Trends in New Urban
Transport Systems

Professor, Yokohama National University

Fumihiko Nakamura

New technology has been meeting the diverse needs of mobility and responding to policy issues. Vehicle design with advanced technology has
been applied to several cases in LRT and BRT. BHLS (Bus with High Level of Service) has been popular in EU. One-way car sharing with electricvehicles has been demonstrated. Innovations in bicycle sharing systems have enhanced management efficiency. Ropeway systems and escalators have been applied for mobility needs in hilly urbanized areas.

Table 1 Summary of Trends in New Urban Transport Systems
Modes
LRT and trams
BRT and buses
BicyclesAutomobiles
Pedestrian support
Service Integration
OthersEnvironment, Safety
Social Welfare, Social Inclusion
Low floor and low emission
Fuel cell, EVs
Low floor, community buses
Bicycle sharing
Car sharing
Personal mobility
MaaS (Mobility As A Service)
Ropeways, escalators, elevators

Planning, landscapeNo catenary tram
Designers’ involvement

Figure 1 Catenary-less Tram

Figure 2 Rubber-tyre Tram

Figure 3 Bus with High Level ofServiceAnges (France)
Source: http://www.angers.fr/actualites/photos/

Medelline (Colombia)
By the authorMetz (France)
By the author

Figure 4 Car-sharing Station Map inTokyo

Figure 5 One-way Car-sharing
Demonstration at Yokohama

Figure 6 Cancellation of EV
Sharing in Paris (Auto’lib) Due toProblems

Source: http://www.carsharing360.com/site.html

Source: http://www.smart-j.com/smaco/

By the author

Figure 7
Increase of Bike
Sharing Projects
Shang-Hao
I (xqchuxing)
By Ms. Hanako
Kaminokado

26

Figure 8 E-scooter
Demonstration
Initiated by Sharetaxi Operator in
Jakarta

By Mr. Akira Hosomi

TRANSPORT POLICY IN PERSPECTIVE: 2020

Figure 9 Chinese EV Bus Introduced in Kyoto◼ Batteries above front tyre houses

Figure 10 Japanese Hybrid Articulated City Bus

By the author

Source: ISUZU◼ Isuzu Motor started selling.

Figure 11 Japanese Fuel CellBus

Figure 12 Hybrid Bus in Beijing,
China

Figure 13 Autonomous Bus
Demonstration

Introduces in Tokyo in 2018
Source: Tokyo Metropolitan Transit
Authority

Trolly-driven with catenary and battery driven
By the author

Robot Shuttle
Source: DeNA HP

Table 2 Classification of MaaS

Figure 14 Japanese MaaS Demos. In 2019 (19 Projects)

Lv.

Outline

DetailExamples０No
integration

Info. provided byeach operator

App. by each
operator

１

Information
provision

Integration of
information

Trip PlannerApp.

２Booking andpayment

By each of trip

Hanover３Service
integration

Subscription andmembership

Helsinki,
Los Angeles

４

Policyintegration

Coordination
between regions
Private-Public
Partnership

EMMA

By the author

Source: MLIT

Figure 15 Segway Sightseeing Tour

Figure 16 Ropeways and Escalators in Low Income Districts

San Francisco
By the author

Ropeway (left) and Escalator (Right) in Medellin, Colombia
By the author.

27

1. Variety of Mobility Needs and Transport Systems

Easy-to-use Transportation for
EveryoneSpecified Nonprofit Corporation
Healthy town development

Atsushi Matsubara

Six years have passed since the Government of Japan ratified the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities in 2014. The Olympic andParalympic Games were about to be held, but there remain problems because Japanese Government has not admitted "the right to transport".
Elderly people and people with disabilities, who are vulnerable, are refraining from going out due to fear of COVID-19 infection. There is a problem
that the measures to encourage going out that have been tackled so far are not useful. Not going out is associated with deterioration in physicalstrength. Even when traveling by private car, which can be expected to prevent infection, driving errors due to deterioration in cognitive functionof elderly drivers is becoming a social problem.

Figure 1 Future Population by Age Group◼ Japan's total population and productive population are
steadily decreasing.

Figure 3 The Number of the Persons with Disabilities

Source: MHLW "in 2016: Survey on the difficulty of life
(nationwide home handicapped Survey)"

Table 1 The Number of Persons with Disabilities at
HomeSource: Statistics Bureau of Japan : 2020

Fault type

Total number

Physically disabledIntellectually disabled
Mentally disabled

4.36 million people
1.09 million people
4.19 million people

Source: Annual Report on Government Measures for Persons
with Disabilities 2019

Figure 2 Changes in the Elderly Population over Time
◼ Aging rate (over 65 years old) is 28.4%. The
proportion of people aged 75 and over is 14.7%.
From 2018, the number of late-stage elderly
exceeded the number of early-stage elderly. Superaging is progressing.

Figure 4 Breakdown of Japan’s Total Population(126 Million People)

Source: Annual Report on the Aging Society: 2020, Annual Reporton Government Measures for Persons with Disabilities 2019

Source: 2020 version of "aging society White Paper"

Table 2 The Compliance of Standards Stipulated in
the Transportation Barrier-Free Law
2020 year-end target 2018 year-end
Year-on-year
Railway
70%
73.2%
2.0p+
vehicle
70%
58.8%
2.8p+
Low-floor bus
28,000 vehicles
28,602 vehicles 8,489 vehicles+
Welfare taxi
Passenger
50%
46.2%
2.4p+
ship
90%
98.2%
0.4p+
Aircraft
Source: Compiled from MLIT documents

28

TRANSPORT POLICY IN PERSPECTIVE: 2020
Figure 5 Rate of Elimination of Grade Disparities
in Railway Stations◼ As the population ages, stations are becoming barrier-free.
The number of newborns using strollers is decreasing.

Table 3 The Number of Driver License Holders by
Gender and Age Group◼ Decrease in driver's license possession among young people.
age

2 0 1 7 ye ar - e n d

2 0 1 8 ye ar - e n d

2 0 1 9 ye ar - e n d

2018-2019in c re ase o r
de c re ase ratio

men
women
men
women
men
women
men women
16～19547,135
378,755
520,310363,264
508,314356,736 -2.3 -1.8
20～24 2,565,106 2,174,669 2,567,301 2,174,090 2,531,713 2,140,939 -1.4 -1.5
25～29 2,935,654 2,590,231 2,874,219 2,536,875 2,867,111 2,530,227 -0.2 -0.3
30～34 3,445,970 3,112,442 3,353,104 3,019,729 3,239,191 2,908,120 -3.4 -3.7
35～39 3,858,449 3,543,644 3,766,712 3,457,413 3,695,692 3,389,708 -1.9 -2.0
40～44 4,607,085 4,520,685 4,433,462 4,090,554 4,256,783 3,927,731 -4.0 -4.0
45～49 4,656,760 4,294,527 4,755,227 4,392,762 4,818,948 4,454,490
1.3
1.4
50～54 3,974,943 3,640,619 4,086,014 3,756,213 4,177,627 3,850,087
2.2
2.5
55～59 3,622,611 3,251,334 3,650,321 3,298,832 3,711,229 3,373,090
1.7
2.3
60～64 3,566,117 3,054,565 3,519,656 3,064,001 3,490,170 3,078,885 -0.8
0.5
65～69 4,299,868 3,367,040 4,066,902 3,271,012 3,793,321 3,105,198 -6.7 -5.1
70～74 3,124,570 1,997,104 3,368,967 2,289,675 3,598,414 2,528,031
6.8 10.475～79 2,177,322 1,006,977 2,262,875 1,110,327 2,329,766 1,211,247
3.0
9.1
80～84 1,240,107
380,742 1,242,698
407,636 1,232,337
430,319 -0.85.685～
512,074
78,090526,934
87,839528,080
94,9240.2
8.1
total 45,133,771 37,391,424 44,994,702 37,320,222 44,778,696 37,379,732 -0.5
0.2

Source: National Police Agency “driver‘s license statistics 2019
version”
Source: Compiled from MLIT, MHLW of documents

Figure 6 Trends in the Sales of Welfare Vehicles

Figure 8 The Number of Persons Who Voluntarily
Return Their Driver’s Licenses◼ By conducting a driver's license aptitude test, the numberof people returning licenses is increasing rapidly.

◼ Sales of welfare vehicles are picking up.

Source: National Police Agency “driver’s license statistics
2019 version”

Figure 9 Electric Wheelchair Shipments

Source: Compiled from JAMA documents

Figure 7 The Number of the Welfare Taxi
◼ With the introduction of wheelchair-friendly vehicles,
welfare taxi number is increasing rapidly.

Source: Electric wheelchair safety Promotion Association material

Figure 10 The Advent of Wheelchair-accessible Taxi
◼ Before the Olympic and Paralympic Games, wheelchairaccessible taxis were introduced by Japan Taxi in 2017.
And to improve thetime to get on andget off the wheelchair,
the special temporary
slope was added in
2019.
Source：Compiled from MLIT document29

1. Variety of Mobility Needs and Transport Systems

The Future of the Transport
Infrastructure

The Institute of Behavioral Sciences

Yuichi Mohri

The table summarizes transportation policies and other initiatives from 2015 to 2018. In addition, for 2019, the following plans were formulated andlaws were issued. 1) Promulgation of the "Law for Partial Amendment of the Road Vehicles Act", 2) Formulation of the "Draft Basic Plan for Safety
and Security on Expressways", 3) Promulgation of the "Anti-Monopoly Law Special Provisions for Buses and Regional Banks", 4) Implementationof road pricing (additional charge of 1,000 yen) on the Metropolitan Expressway during the Tokyo 2020 Olympic and Paralympic Games,
5) Formulation of Road Policy Vision: "Changing Road Landscape in 2040".

Table 1 Transportation Policy and Other Initiatives in 2015-2018
Year and month

Transportation policy and other initiatives in 2015-2018

August 2015

Based on the National Spatial Planning Act, the Cabinet approved the new National Spatial Strategy, the seventh national
plan in the post-war era.

September 2015

Based on the Act on Priority Plan for Infrastructure Development, the Cabinet approved the Fourth Priority Plan for
Infrastructure Development for the planning period from FY2015 to FY2020.

December 2015

The "Report on the Basic Direction of Future Logistics Policy" which indicates the way to proceed with future initiatives
and concrete measures to achieve them was compiled.

March 2016

New Regional Plans for each of the eight blocks across the country have been finalized in light of the National Spatial
Strategy of August 2015.

April 2016

In light of the progress of the development of the three ring roads, an expressway toll scheme that promotes it use via a
distance-based system was introduced in the Metropolitan Area.

June 2017

A part of the Environmental Action Plan of the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism (MLIT) has beenrevised, and the inspection results of the MLIT's environment-related measures for the period up to 2020 have beenpresented.

June 2017

As in the Metropolitan Area, a new toll scheme was introduced for the Kinki region's expressways, using a distance based
system to promote it use.

July 2017

In addition to setting out guidelines for logistics policies and administration, the Cabinet approved the Comprehensive
Logistics Policy (FY2017-2020), which aims to promote comprehensive and integrated logistics policies in cooperation
with the relevant ministries and agencies.

July 2017

A (draft) proposal “Road/Transport Innovation: Realizing affluent lifestyles by pursuing functional improvement andutilization of “Michi”” was presented as a road policy that should be pursued in the future.

July 2017

The national government, the Tokyo Metropolitan Government, and the Metropolitan Expressway Company Limited, incoordination with the development of the Nihombashi area, jointly presented a proposal of burying the Metropolitan
Expressway underground, including its alignment, structure, and expressway sections of the project.

January 2018

A (draft) proposal for transportation management of the Tokyo 2020 Olympic and Paralympic Games was presented.

February 2018

The Cabinet has approved the "Bill to Revise a Part of the Road Law", which takes measures such as the obligation tomaintain and manage properties occupied by the road and the establishment of an important logistics road system for the
purpose of further improving safety by enhancing road management and strengthening the function of important road
networks for logistics.

June 2018

Based on the Bicycle Utilization Promotion Act, the Cabinet approved the Bicycle Utilization Promotion Plan, which is abasic plan for the comprehensive and systematic promotion of measures to promote the bicycle use.

November 2018

An interim report of the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport (MLIT) has been published, which shows the
directions of the Ministry's technology policy and the main technology policy.

December 2018

" Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism's Future Efforts toward the Realization of Autonomous Driving"
was published toward the solution of various problems involving automobiles and roads.

Promulgation of the "Law for Partial Amendment of the Road Vehicles Act".
◼ The Bill of Partial Amendment of the Road Vehicles Act, which establishes a system to ensure the safety of automatedvehicles and other vehicles in an integrated manner from design and manufacturing to their use, while promoting the safe
development, commercialization, and dissemination of automated vehicles and other vehicles, was approved by the Cabinet in
March 2019 and promulgated in May 2019. The bill (1) adds automatic navigation devices to the devices subject to safety
standards, (2) organizes the legal entities that will be required to perform administrative tasks related to the management oftechnical information necessary for the electronic inspection of vehicles, (3) expands the scope of overhaul and require theprovision of necessary technical information for inspection and maintenance, and (4) establish a licensing system to modify
automatic navigation devices and other devices by modifying the embedded programs. Based on this bill, the targets are thecommercialization of automated driving on expressways (level 3) (by 2020), the commercialization of unmanned automateddriving services (level 4) in limited areas (by 2020), and the installation rate of automatic braking in new passenger cars (over90% by 2020).
Source: MLIT

30

TRANSPORT POLICY IN PERSPECTIVE: 2020

Figure 1 Draft Basic Plan for Highway Safety and Security◼ In September 2019, the Draft Basic Plan for Safety and Security on Expressways was formulated including the level ofservice to aim for, in order to steadily promote measures in safety and security of the expressway network from theperspective of improving safety, reliability and user【Priority maintenance sections of provisional 2-lane 】
friendliness. The specific measures in the Basic Plan are (1)elimination of the provisional two-lane sections, (2)evolution of the expressway in response to innovations suchas automated driving, (3) realization of the safest expressway
in the world, (4) dramatic improvement of network
reliability, and (5) improvement of user-friendliness based onuser needs. In particular, in the provisional two-lane section,
the number of provisional two-lane toll sections is to be
reduced by half in 10 to 15 years (this will be fully
eliminated in the long term), and in order to promote thesystematic conversion of the sections with provisional twolane into four-lane in the tolled sections, priority is given to
sections with major problems (priority maintenancesections), which will be projected and maintained.
Source: MLIT

Promulgation of the "Anti-Monopoly Law Special Provisions for Buses and Regional Banks"◼ The "Act on Prohibition of Private Monopolization and Maintenance of Fair Trade for the Purpose of Maintaining theProvision of Fundamental Services Related to the General Ride-by-Bus Transportation Business and Banking Business in the
Region", which establishes special provisions of the Private Anti-Monopoly Law, has been introduced to maintain the services
provided by bus companies and regional banks. The law was approved by the Cabinet in March 2020 and promulgated in May
2020. This special law enables (1) setting fares and charges that allow users to use regional public transportation within its
network (e.g., flat-rate for unlimited travel, etc.), (2) joint and shared operation of routes and systems within the network (e.g.,
restructuring "hub-and-spoke" network, etc.), and (3) The Anti-Monopoly Act was exempted from the application of the AntiMonopoly Act to the conclusion of a joint management agreement that includes the setting of the number of buses andschedules of services (e.g., evenly spaced services, patterned schedules, etc.) of routes and systems within the network,
allowing for the necessary actions such as fare pooling.
Source: MLIT

Figure 2 Tokyo Metropolitan Expressway Tolling Policy for the Tokyo 2020 Olympic and Paralympic Games◼ In the summer of 2019, one year before the Games, the Tokyo 2020 Olympic and Paralympic Games Organizing Committee,
with the cooperation of traffic and road managers and other relevant organizations, conducted an experiment on easing
congestion during the Games, mainly on expressways and a part of ordinary roads, to congestion levels close to the target
levels during the actual Games. Specifically, in addition to TDM measures such as telework, staggered working hours, and socalled “Smooth Biz” measures (by the Tokyo metropolitan government) such as changing the delivery time of goods andequipment, traffic restrictions were implemented for vehicles flowing into the city from mainline toll booths on expressways
and for vehicles flowing into the city from Ring Road (Beltway) 7 on ordinary roads on Wednesday, July 24 and Friday, July
26. Based on these results, it was concluded that
【Nighttime discounts and surcharges for vehicles equipped with ETC】
additional TDM measures should be taken to further
reduce traffic volume and implement additional
measures in preparation for the Games, and after
considering the economic burden of the fees, a halfprice discount should be introduced during nighttime toencourage the shift to nighttime in the use of the Tokyo
Metropolitan Expressway and to discourage the shift
from ordinary roads to the Tokyo Metropolitan
Expressway. In order to do so, Japan's first full-scaleroad pricing (1,000 yen surcharge) will be implemented
for the first time in the country.
Source: Bureau of Tokyo 2020 Olympic and Paralympic Games Preparation

Formulation of Road Policy Vision: “Changing Road Landscape in 2040”◼ In February 2020, the Basic Policy Working Group of the Roads Subcommittee of the Council of Infrastructure
Development proposed a vision for the society of 2040, with an eye on new post-COVID-19 lifestyles and socioeconomic changes, and the direction of medium- and long-term policies to achieve this vision through road policies (2040,
Changing the Landscape of Roads - Towards Roads That Lead to People's Happiness) was developed.
Source: MLIT

31

1. Variety of Mobility Needs and Transport Systems

Funding Japan’s Highways
Following the Tax-Earmarking

Professor, Keio University

Kazusei Kato

Though more than ten years have passed since highway earmarked funding system ended in 2009, automobile users are still burdened by several
taxes in Japan. In FY 2020, the total amount of revenue from automobile-related taxes is 6.1 trillion yen. Highway expenditure remains constant,the national highway budget is earmarked for disaster prevention and reduction, and national resilience. Based on the national inspection, thenational subsidy increased because the subsidy projects were established for extending the life of highway and other structures of local governments. In the US, the highway condition in urban areas have worsen in recent ten years, though there are no permanent measures to increase
the revenue of Federal Highway Trust Fund.

◼ The System of Revenues Earmarked for Highway ended the end of March 2009. All taxes has been remaining as the generaltax, but revenues have been decreasing.
Table 1 Automobile-Related Taxes
Tax Items(Government)

Main Rules

Temporary Tax
Rate（FY2008）

Temporary Tax
Rate（FY2015）3% of Acquisiton
Cost(private)

5% of Acquisiton
Cost(private)

3% of Acquisiton
Cost(private)

402.4

84.0

＿（※３）

6,300yen per 0.5t

4,100yen per 0.5t
(less than 13years）

554.1

376.0

393.0

360.1

274.2

284.5

Implementation Earmarked for Highway
Yearin 2008

Revenue Revenue Revenue(FY2008) (FY2019) (FY2020)

Automobile Acquision Tax(Local)1968

Motor Vehicle Tonnage
Tax (National)

1971

77.5% of National Tax
Revenue(=2/3 of Total 2,500yen per 0.5t
Revenue)

Motor Vehicle Tonnage
Transfer Tax (Local)

1971

1/3 of Total Revenue

Gasoline Tax (National)
Liquefied Petroleum Gas
Tax (National)

1954

All

24.3 yen/ℓ48.6yen/ℓ

48.6yen/ℓ

2,729.9

2,303.0

2,204.0

1966

1/2 of Revenue

17.5 yen/kg

―

―

14.0

7.0

6.0

Local Gasoline Tax (Local)

1955

All

4.4 yen/ℓ

5.2yen/ℓ

5.2yen/ℓ

299.8

246.4

235.8

Liquefied Petroleum Gas
Transfer Tax (Local)

1966

1/2 of Revenue

14.0

7.2

6.3

Light Oil Delivery Tax(Local)

1956

All

All

593/1000 of the revenue from the tax is credited to theGeneral Accounts of the Central Government(above). The
remaining 407/1000 is granted to local Governments.

1/2 of the revenue from the tax is credited to the General
Accounts of the Central Government. The remaining 1/2 isgranted to local Governments.
15.1yen/ℓ

Total (billion yen)

※1
※2
※3
※4

32.1yen/ℓ

32.1yen/ℓ

991.4
5,365.7

953.7 958.6(※4）
4,251.5

4,088.2

Total may not match sum of the number due to rounding off.
The consumption tax is imposed as a national tax at the time of acquisition. The automobile tax is imposed as prefectural resident tax
and the light vehicle tax is imposed as municipal inhabitant tax in the possession stage.
Automobile acquisition tax was abolished from October 2019 and "environmental performance-based tax break" was introduced.
The taxation system of the gas oil delivery tax was revised in 2018. The number is the expected income under the existing law ,However, the expected income under the revised law is 964.1 billion yen.

Data source: MOF, MIC, Japan Automobile Manufacturers Association, Inc.

Figure 1 Tax Revenue and Automobile-Related
Taxes (FY2020)

Figure 2 Motor Fuel Tax Rates for Selected
Countries (2019)

Data source: MOF, General Account Budget,（Initial Budget）;
MIC, Revenue Estimates of Local Taxes and Local Transfer
Taxes

Note US includes the weighted average of state fuel taxes plus the federal
fuel tax.
Data source: USDOT, Federal Highway Administration

32

TRANSPORT POLICY IN PERSPECTIVE: 2020
Figure 3 Highway Budget in Recent 5 Years◼ The national highway budget is earmarked for disasterprevention and reduction, and national resilience. The
national subsidy increased because the subsidy projects
were established for extending the life of highway andother structures of local governments.

Note In addition to these, there are comprehensive social
infrastructure maintenance grants and disaster prevention/safety
grants that can be used for road maintenance in response to theneeds of local governments.
Data source: MLIT, Road Bureau and City Bureau, Budget
Summary

Figure 4 National Inspection of Facilities◼ As a result of nationwide inspection, 10% of the bridges(about 70,000) and 42% of tunnels require repairs.

Ⅰ：No Deterioration of the function of the structure
Ⅱ：No Deterioration of the function of the structure, but action
is required.
Ⅲ：Deterioration of structural functions, requires repairs.
Ⅳ：Deterioration of structural functions, requires immediate
repairs.
Data source: MLIT, Road Bureau and City Bureau, Budget Summary

Figure 5 National Inspection of Facilities◼ The cost of preventive maintenance will be reduced byabout 50% after 30 years compared with the case ofcorrective maintenance (FY2018 estimation).

Figure 6 Balance of Federal Highway Trust Fund in
the US◼ The balance of the Federal Highway Trust Fund was
decreasing. In 2015, $70 billion were transferred from thegeneral account, improving the balance.

Data source: MLIT, Infrastructure Maintenance Information.

Data source: USDOT, Highway Statistics, Fe-210c

Figure 7 Highway Conditions in the US Based on the International Roughness Index (Comparison between
2006 and 2018)◼ The larger the International Roughness Index (IRI), the worse the highway condition. The condition of the Interstate
Highway System is generally maintained and improved (left). Federal-Aid highways in urban areas are deteriorated (right).

Data source USDOT, Highway Statistics 2006,2018, HM－47

33