3. Symbiosis of Vehicles, People and Nature

Mitigation of Climate Change

Associate Professor, Tokyo Institute of Technology

Yasunori Muromachi

Japan’s total greenhouse gas emissions in fiscal 2018 were 1.240 billion tons, a 3.9% decrease from 2017 and a 12.0% decrease from 2013. The
transportation sector’s share of CO2 emissions was 18.5%. The transportation sector’s global warming countermeasure plan is in progress, andfor most of these measures, target levels are expected to be achieved. However, the reduction rate in the transportation sector is -6% in 2018
compared the required -27% in 2030 under the Paris agreement. It is not easy to achieve the Paris Agreement and long-term goals, and necessary
to strengthen measures.

Figure 1 Breakdown of CO2 Emissions by Sectors(FY2018)◼ About 18.5% of the total emissions derived from thetransportation sector.
Energy Industry Other
0.3%
7.9%

Waste
2.5%

Industrial
Process andProduct Use
4.1%

Transportation
18.5%

Commercial
Industry
17.2%

Industry
35.0%

Source: Ministry of the Environment, 2020

Figure 2 Changes in the Amounts of Greenhouse
Gas and CO2 Emissions in Japan (Mt)
1500

1400

1300

1200
Other Greenhouse Gases

CO2

1100

9091929394959697989900010203040506070809101112131415161718

Source: Ministry of the Environment, 2020

Figure 3 Changes in the Amount of CO2 Emitted
from Transportation Sector (Mt)
300
250
200
150
100
Railways, Navigation and Domestic Aviation

50

Freight Trucks and Lorry
Passenger Road Transportation

0
90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

Source: National Institute for Environmental Studies, 2020

50

Chapter 1: Basic concept
2. Japan's long-term vision
・Japan will set a “decarbonized society” as the final goal and aim
to achieve it with ambition as early as possible in the latter halfof this century. To that end, we have set a long -term goal of
reducing greenhouse gas emissions by 80% by 2050, and wi ll
boldly implement measures to achieve that goal.
Chapter 2: Long-term vision of each sector anddirection of measures and plans for it

Total amountof emissions
1138Mt (100%)

Residential
14.6%

Table 1 Long-term Strategy as a Growth Strategy
Based on the Paris Agreement (Adapted Excerpt)

Section 1: Emission reduction measures and plans
3. Transportation(1) Current situation recognition
I. Status of the transportation sector
II. Structural changes in the automobile industry
III. Active contribution to climate change measures related toautomobiles
IV. Trends in reducing greenhouse gas emissions ininternational shipping and aviation(2) Vision to aim for- It is important to evaluate CO2 emissions from automobiles,
including the process of manufacturing gasoline, electricity,
etc., from the perspective of "Well to Wheel."
The aim is to reduce greenhouse gas by 80% per Japanese
automobile supplied worldwide compared to 2010.
(3) Direction of measures and plans for the vision
I. Basic policy of challenge for Well to Wheel Zero Emission- Large vehicles (trucks/buses) are mainly used forcommercial purposes, so there is a strong demand for"equal usability of existing vehicles" and "securing
economic advantage", and given the current battery priceand volume energy density, it is difficult to draw asustainable diffusion model at this stage because it is notpossible to secure economic efficiency simply by replacing
the power source of existing vehicles with batteries.
II. Road/traffic system- While recognizing that so-called induced/diverted traffic
may occur with road construction, the efforts ofstrengthening the trunk road network such as ring roads
that contribute to CO2 emission control, and of taking
pinpoint measures for congestion bottleneck locations
based on scientific analysis of big data using ETC2.0 andAI cameras etc. are promoted for using roads wisely.
III. Long distance modes
IV. Mobility revolution and compact city development- The efforts for the improvement of services andconvenience by promoting the development of public
transportation such as railways, and new mobility services
such as Mobility as a Service (MaaS), are promoted forrealizing seamless public transportation.
V. Logistics revolution
Source: Global Warming Prevention Headquarters, 2019

TRANSPORT POLICY IN PERSPECTIVE: 2020

Figure 4 Sector Targets for Paris Agreement and Current Status in Japan (Mt)
◼ The transportation sector faces difficulty in attaining the sector target of Paris Agreement.
500000500

Industry
Industry

400000400

Estimated emissions of each
FY 2018
sector in FY 2030
Industry-13%-14%
Commercial Industry
-29%
-18%
Residential
-41%
-20%
Transportation
-27%
-6%

300000300

Transportation
Commercial
Industry200
200000Commercial Industry
Transportation
Residential

Residential
100
10000090 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
Note: The figure is based on the Greenhouse Gas Emission Inventory in 2018.
Source: UNFCCC, Japan's Intended Nationally Determined Contribution, 2015, and Ministry of the Environment,, 2020

Figure 5 Transportation Sector Target for Paris Agreement and Current Status◼ The transportation sector's global warming countermeasure plan is in progress, and most of the measures are expected to reachthe 2030 target level.
A : 3.28Mt-CO2 (7%)
E : 4.50Mt-CO2 (10%)--

2.438 Mt-CO2
Eco-driving
Promotion of Intelligent Transport System (ITS) (centralization of the
150 Mt-CO2
control of traffic signals)
Construction and maintenance of traffic safety facilities (upgrading oftraffic signals)
0.56 Mt-CO2-

2.060 Mt-CO2
Increase in efficiency of truck transportation
Greening transportation business by the promotion of the use of
0.658 Mt-CO2
environmentally friendly automobiles
0.551 Mt-CO2
Car-sharing
Promotion of modal shift and transportation efficiency related to reverse
0.0152 Mt-CO2
logistics
Promotion of introduction of energy saving cargo handling machines
0.007 Mt-CO2

D : 1.49Mt-CO2 (3%)-

Modal shift to freight rail
1.334 Mt-CO2
Construction and maintenance of traffic safety facilities (promotionof LED traffic signals)
0.160 Mt-CO2

B : 5.58Mt-CO2 (13%)-

C : 29.50Mt-CO2 (67%)--

Improvement of energy efficiency of rail
Promotion of public transportation and bicycle use
Promotion of less carbon-intensive aviation
Promotion of the measures for traffic flow
Promotion of cooperative delivery system

Promotion of the next generation automobile, Improvement of fuelefficiency
23.790 Mt-CO2
Comprehensive measures for greening the maritime sector 1.724 Mt-CO2
Promotion of energy-saving ships
1.574 Mt-CO2
Promotion of autonomous driving
1.40 Mt-CO2
Reduction of land freight transportation distance by optimal port
choice0.960 Mt-CO2
Utilization of Structural Reform Special Zone for the measures against
0.053 Mt-CO2
global warming

A.
B.
C.
D.
E.

1.776 Mt-CO2
1.77 Mt-CO2
1.012 Mt-CO2
1 Mt-CO2
0.021 Mt-CO2

The target level for 2030 is likely to be exceeded, and the actual
value for FY 2018 has already exceeded the target level for 2030
The target level for 2030 is likely to be exceeded.
The target level for 2030 is likely to be reached.
The target level for 2030 is unlikely to be reached.
Others (The quantitative data is not available, etc.)

Source: Global Warming Prevention Headquarters, The list of progress status of measures/plans related to emission reduction and absorptionof greenhouse gases (for each evaluation), 2020

51

3. Symbiosis of Vehicles, People and Nature

Current Status and Problems ofRoad Traffic Noise and
Air Pollution

Professor, Tokyo Metropolitan University

Hiroyuki Oneyama

Due to the effects of vehicle emission regulations and vehicle type regulations such as Automobile NOx/PM Act, the achievement rate of environmental standards for nitrogen dioxide (NO2), suspended particulate matter (SPM), and fine particulate matter (PM2.5) is high. Although traffic noise
condition has been improved, there are still many problems, especially under special road conditions such as complex road sections. For both air
pollution and noise, comprehensive countermeasure promotion such as source measures, traffic flow measures, road structure measures, androadside measures is necessary. Regarding vehicle exhaust gas and noise emission, regulations are being strengthened based on an international framework.

Figure 1 Environmental Quality Standard
Compliance of Nitrogen Oxides (NOx)◼ Environmental standards have been achieved at almost all
locations in recent years.

Figure 4 Environmental Quality Standard
Compliance of Traffic Noise (2013)◼ Achievement of environmental quality standard in mixed
road section is much lower than total.
(Total)Source: Transportation-related statistics (MLIT)

Figure 2 Environmental Quality Standard
Compliance of Suspended Particulate Matter (SPM)◼ Environmental standards have been achieved at almost all
locations in recent years.

Note: APMS: Air Pollution Monitoring Station. RAPMS: Roadside Air
Pollution Monitoring Station. Specialized Area is designated for NOx
and PM measures in “Automobile NOx and PM Act”, namely, a partof Tokyo, Kanagawa, Saitama, Chiba, Aichi, Mie, Osaka, Hyogo Pref.

Figure 3 Environmental Quality Standard
Compliance of Fine Particulate Matter (PM2.5)◼ Dramatically improved from around 2015.

Note: The annual standard for PM2.5 is less than or equal to 15.0μg/m3. The 24 hour standard, which means the annual 98th
percentile values at designated monitoring sites in an area, is lessthan or equal to 35μg/m3.
Source of Figure 1, 2 and 3: "FY 2004 Status of Air Pollution",
Ministry of Environment

52(Mixed Road Section)

Note: Evaluation of the number of dwellings in the area facing the roadto be evaluated. The "space near the main road" is a certain distance(road Range of 15 to 20 m depending on the classification of the road)"Non-proximity space" refers to the area that faces the back ground of
a section that is close to a road that carries highway traffic or a roadother than a highway.

Figure 5 Trend in Proportion of Environmental
Quality Standard Achievement of Traffic Noise◼ The status of achievement of environmental standards has
been flat for the past 10 years. In particular, it is necessary to
improve the achievement rate on complex section roads.

Source of Figure 4 and 5: "Status of Motor Vehicle Traffic Noise in
FY 2018", Ministry of Environment

TRANSPORT POLICY IN PERSPECTIVE: 2020
Table 1 Roadside Traffic Noise Measures
Classification of
measures

Measures

Overview and achievements
Reduction of vehicle exhaust noise by Improvement of vehicle structures

Source measures

Vehicle exhaust noise
measures- Harmonization with international standards (UN R41-04, R51-03) for acceleration noise test method- Move to relative regulations that require in-process vehicles to have the same proximity exhaust noise value as new vehicles- Introduction of noise regulation (UN R117-02) for automobile tires

Traffic control andmanagement
Traffic flow
measures

Development of
bypasses

Sophistication of the traffic signal control, Effective traffic regulation, Traffic crackdown- Prohibition of large freight vehicles etc.: Within Ring 7 and part of Ring 8 (Saturday 22:00 to Sunday 7:00)- Regulations for center lanes of large freight vehicles etc.: Part of Ring 7 (all day) ・Part of National Route 43 (22-6)- Improvement of traffic signal control: 116,762 units (as of the end of 2018, total of centralized control, sensitive control, system control)- Maximum speed limit regulation : Part of Route 43/Route 23 (40km/h)
Reduction of inner city heavy vehicles and dispersion of traffic by development of ring roads or bypass etc.

Reduction of inner city heavy vehicles by proper placement of logistics facilities, rationalization of logistics such as joint transport and delivery.
Development of logistic- Development status of distribution business complex: 26 locations nationwide (number of planned districts for which city planning has been decided at the end of 2017)
centers- Normal truck terminal development status: 3,354 berths (end of 2017)
Installation of low-noise Installation of low-noise pavement in which there are a lot of voids.
pavement- Environmental improvement effect: about 3 dB on average
Road structure
measures

Installation of noisebarriers

Installation of high noise barrier with high sound insulation effect. This is effective in motorways with limited access.
- Environmental improvement effect: Approximately 10 dB (calculated value at a height of 1.2 m above the ground, behind a sound insulation wall with a planar structure and a height of 3 m)

Installation ofenvironmental buffer
zone

Securing of the buffer space for noise reduction of 10 or 20m between the roadside and roadway.
- Environmental improvement effect (width about 10 m): 5-10 dB
A roadside district plan is established in urban planning to promote the prevention of disorder caused by road traffic noise and the proper and reasonable land use. It promotes urban development worthy of the roadside of themain road.

Roadsidemeasures

Development ofroadside district plan

Impact prevention
measures

Implementation of
grants for residential
soundproofing

Development ofCreating organization

promotion

for road traffic pollution

organization

measures promotion- Act on Improvement of Areas Along Trunk Roads- Roadside maintenance road designation requirements/night noise over 65 dB (LAeq) or daytime noise over 70 dB (LAeq), daily traffic volume over 10,000, etc.
- Roadside maintenance road designation status / 11 routes 132.9 km designated by the prefectural governor (as of April 2016)
National Road No. 4, National Road No. 23, National Road No. 43, National Road No. 254, Circular Road No. 7, 8 etc.
- Roadside district plan formulation status / Roadside district plan formulated at 50 district 108.3km (as of April 2016)
A reduction of the impact of road traffic noise by the soundproofing subsidies of housing such as emergency measures.
・House soundproof construction subsidy by road administrator
・Subsidy for soundproofing of houses around highways
・National interest-free loans for municipal land purchases
・Part of the cost of the buffer building by the road administrator
Work closely with related organizations to solve road traffic noise problems.
- Promotion of road pollution countermeasures in close collaboration with the Ministry of the Environment/related ministries and agencies- Promotion of measures by councils with local governments/national departments, environment departments, road departments, city departments of prefectural governments, prefectural police, etc. (established by all
prefectures)

Source: ”White Paper for Environment, 2020”, Ministry of Environment (modified)Figure 6 Regulation of Vehicle Exhaust Gas and Noise◼ Regulations based on the international framework of◼ Vehicle emission regulations have been significantly
emission regulations and noise regulations are being
strengthened.
strengthened.
(Exhaust gas regulation)
Exhaust gas regulations using world-wide test modes(WHTC, WLTC) were applied from 2016 for diesel heavy
vehicles, 2018 for passenger cars and light vehicles, and2019 for light and medium-duty vehicles.
(Noise regulation)
Due to the revision of the vehicle safety standards in 2016,noise regulations have been strengthened by reviewing thestandards for exterior noise of four-wheeled vehicles andclarifying the prohibition of modification to mufflers of
unknown performance.
Source: ”White Paper for Environment, 2020”, Ministry of Environment and Document from Central Environment Council

Figure 7 Roadside Measures to Prevent Traffic Noise Problems
Guidelines for roadside/railway measures to prevent
traffic noise problems(background)・As a result of residential land development in areas where
people had not previously lived along the roadside of existingtransportation facilities, there was a problem of traffic noise
related to new residents.
・From the perspective of preventing traffic noise problems,
there are still few cases where policy is sought to harmonize
transportation facilities with land use along the roadside.
(Aim of guideline)・ Organize options for various measures (roadside/railway
measures) to harmonize transportation facilities with land
use along the roadside/railway areas, and have the person in
charge of the environment department of the municipality
select appropriate roadside/railway measures. The
guidelines that can be referred to are presented.
Source: Guidelines for roadside/railway measures to prevent traffic noise problems, Ministry of Environment, 2017 (modified)53

3. Symbiosis of Vehicles, People and Nature

Improving Energy Efficiency

Japan Automobile Manufacturers Association

Masanari Meguro

In July 2015, the Japanese government launched the “long-term energy balance outlook”, which is based on the energy policy of Japan, assuming
the policy objectives to be achieved, through the basic viewpoint of energy policy such as safety, stable supply, economic efficiency and environmental compatibility (3E+S). The expected primary energy reduction in 2030 is estimated about 50.3 million kilo-litter (about 13% compared tobefore measures) with the accumulation of all the feasible technologies and practical energy-saving measures. In this context, reduction of fuelconsumption in transportation sector is expected about 16. million kilo-litter by improvements in fuel efficiency, deployment of next-generation
vehicles and measures for smooth traffic flow.

Overview of Energy Balance Flow in Japan (FY2018)◼ Energy passes through various stages before it reaches to
end-consumers. Since there are losses in the process of
power generation, during transportation, and selfconsumption in power generation and in the conversion
process, final energy consumption equals the primaryenergy input after deducting these losses. Final energy
consumption in fiscal year of 2018 was approximately 66,
if Japan's domestic primary energy input counts as 100.
◼ Much of the nuclear energy and renewable energy
including hydro power is converted to electricity andconsumed. Most of the oil is refined and consumed as
various product as gasoline and light oil consumes intransportation sector, kerosene and heavy oil as petroleum
products, and naphtha as a petrochemical raw material.

Figure 1 Passenger/Freight Consumption Ratio in
Transport Sector◼ Transportation sector in 2018 accounted for 23.4% of thetotal final energy consumption, of which the passenger
sector energy consumption accounted for 59.3% and thefreight sector 40.7%.
(PJ)
4,500
4,000
3,500
3,000

Freight

2,500

40.7%

2,000
1,500
1,000

Table 1 Overview of Energy Consumption in Japan(FY2018)◼ Energy conservation is steadily progressing in each field,
but further efforts are needed to realize the energy mix in
FY2030.
◼ It is evaluated in governmental consultation that energy
demand in transportation sector decreased mainly due toimproved fuel efficiency of passenger vehicles.

59.3%

Passenger car

500
01965 1970 7375

1980 1985

2018 （FY）

1990 1995 2000 2005 2010

Source：ANRE Energy White paper 2020 [Fig. 212-3-1
in Japanese]

Figure 2 Changes in Consumption by Energy
Source in the Transportation Sector◼ Gasoline accounted for 53.8%, light oil 32.2%, jet fuel5.0%, and heavy oil 4.4%, looking at the composition
ratio by energy source in the transport sector in 2018.
(PJ)
4,500
3,824

4,000

5.2%
4.2%

3,387

3,500

3,061

3,000
2,500

2,302

2,000

10.6%

4.2%
4.0%

3,066

6.0%
3.5%

4.4%
5.0%

36.9%

39.0%

Light Oil

31.2%

32.2%

49.0%

55.6%

53.8%

2010

2018 (FY)

1,435

1,500

26.5%

12.4%

1,000 798
10.3%

23.4%

45.5%
52.6%

Gasoline

500
19.8%

50.4%

46.5%

0
1965

Source：ANRE Energy Conservation subcommittee 2020
[in Japanese]

54

1970

1975

1980

1985

1990

1995

2000

2005

Source：ANRE Energy White paper 2020 [Fig. 212-3-3 in Japanese]

TRANSPORT POLICY IN PERSPECTIVE: 2020

Figure 3 Energy Consumption Trends in
Passenger Sector◼ Energy consumption in the passenger vehicle sector
increased at a rate exceeding the GDP growth rate as thenumber of vehicles owned increased. Such tendency,
however, peaked in fiscal 2001 and turned to a downward
trend. In FY2018, it decreased by 20% compared to thepeak period.
◼ This trend was achieved through the improvement of fuelefficiency of passenger vehicles and increasing share offuel-efficient vehicle such as small size vehicle and hybrid
vehicle. Spreading ETC system and deployment ofadvanced control in signal systems in traffic flow also
contributed such improvement.

Figure 5 Long-term Energy Supply and Demand
Outlook◼ Energy-saving in long-term energy balance outlook
contains technologically feasible and realistic energysaving values that can be at most achieved. It is expected
the energy demand in final energy consumption in fiscal
year of 2030 will be around 326 million kl of petroleum
equivalent, by implementing energy savings of about
50.30 million kl.

(PJ)
2,500
2,252

2,026

2,000

1,816

Commercial vehicle

1,570

Passenger vehicle
1,500
80.3%

1,245

81.4%

80.4%

74.5%

1,000
667
75.7%

500 331
65.0%

0

44.5%

1965

1970

1975

1980

1985

1990

1995

2000

2005

2010

2018 (FY)

Source: ANRE Energy white paper 2020 [Figure 212-3-4 in Japanese]

Figure 4 Changes by Vehicle Type in the Number ofPassenger Cars Owned◼ 95.3% of all passenger vehicles at the peak, were gasoline
vehicles. In 2011, hybrid vehicles accounted for 2.4% of
all passenger vehicles, however, they have gradually
increased since then to 13.6% in FY2018.
◼ As for the number of passenger cars owned (62million in
total in FY2018), Gasoline vehicle accounted for 83.8%,
light oil 2.3%, and hybrid vehicle 13.6%.
7,000
Others6,000

Hybrid

2.4%

5,268

Electric

13.6%

LPG

5,000

6,200

5,837

1.9%

Light Oil

2.3%

8.5%

Gasoline

4,000

3,540
95.3%

90.9%

3,000

83.7%

9.1%

2,388

90.0%

2,000
96.6%

929

1,000
240
93.2%

96.6%

0
1965

1970

1975

1980

1985

1990

1995

2000

2005

2010

2018 (FY)

Note: In the "Comprehensive Energy Statistics", the method of
calculating numerical values has changed since 1990. For thatreason, some discontinuity is observed in Figure 1, 2, 3 and 4.
Source: Long-term Energy balance outlook (METI July 2015)

Table 2 Energy Saving Measures◼ In the transportation sector, a reduction of 16.07 million kl
is expected by improvements in fuel efficiency and thedeployment of next-generation vehicles such as Hybrid
vehicles (HEV), electric vehicles (EV), plug-in hybrid
vehicles (PHV), fuel cell vehicles (FCV), clean diesel
vehicles (CD) and measures such as eco-driving andtraffic flow improvement.
Industrial Sector▲10.42 Million kl

Business Sector▲12.26 Million kl

Household sector▲11.60 Million kl

Transportation Sector▲16.07 Million kl

Measures for improvement⚫ Improvements in fuel efficiency and the deployment of nextgeneration vehicles
・Number of next generation vehicle: 50% of annual sales
・Number of Fuel cell vehicles: more than 100,000 per year
⚫ Traffic flow improvement and Automatic driving
Source: ANRI Long-term energy balance subcommittee [In Japanese]

Source: ANRE Energy white paper 2020 [Figure 212-3-5 in Japanese]55

3. Symbiosis of Vehicles, People and Nature

Environmentally Friendly
Institutional Measures

Associate Professor, Tokyo Institute of Technology

Yasunori Muromachi

Due to the need to promote safe and attractive urban development, the Act on Special Measures concerning Urban Reconstruction was amended,and the institution for safe and attractive urban development was strengthened. The former reflects the growing interest in adaptation to climatechange as well as the adaptation plan developed in recent years. In addition, a new vision was published that proposes the picture of Japanesesociety and the direction of policy in 2040 to be realized through road policy. Furthermore, there is growing interest in green infrastructure with thediverse functions.

Figure 1 Attractive Urban Development by the Act on Special Measures Concerning Urban Reconstruction
Amendment◼ In order to respond to the declining production-age population and socio-economic diversification, it is necessary to create aspace in the urban area where various people can gather and interact, and to improve the attractiveness of the city. At the sametime, the Act on Revitalization and Rehabilitation of Local Public Transportation Systems was amended to realize sustainablelocal public transport.
Creating urban areas where “people feel comfortable and want to walk”○ Promotion of area management to liven up urban areas

Designation of an area to work on Machizukuri of urban areas where “people
feel cozy and want to walk” in urban reconstruction and maintenance plan *)and promotion of the following efforts.

- Facilitation of road / park occupancy procedures coordinated by an urban
reconstruction promotion corporation*)* Urban reconstruction and maintenance plan: A plan for Machizukuri formulated by municipalities

BeforeAfter* Urban reconstruction promotion corporation: A corporation that carries out Machizukuri activities
in the area such as NPOs and Machizukuri companies (designated by municipalities)(Budget) Support for formulation of Machizukuri plans through publicprivate partnerships(Budget) Support by low-interest loan to budget urban reconstruction
promotion corporation

Improving the environment in the living area
○ Improving the convenience of daily life
- Establishment of a system to promote the location of facilities necessary fordaily life such as hospitals and stores in residential areas within the residential
priority zone of the location adjustment plan

Car-oriented station plaza
Creation of a pedestrian space by making a transit
mall in front of the station and constructing the plaza○ Creation of a space where “people feel comfortable and want to walk”- Creation of a lively space by the public and private partnerships
Example) Designing a street as public square by public and an open space provided byprivate(Budget) Support by grants for public space renovation, etc.
(Tax system) Reduction of property tax on private businesses that provided public
space- Introduction of parking lot entrance / exit regulations in urban areas

Figure 2 Amendments to Climate Change Adaptation Plan
◼ Based on the Climate Change
Adaptation Act promulgated in June
2018, the Climate Change Adaptation
Plan was approved by the Cabinet as
a legal plan. In line with this, theMinistry of Land, Infrastructure,
Transport and Tourism's (MLIT)
climate change adaptation plan has
also been revised to reflect the latest
measures. According to the plan,some of the impacts on the land andtransport sector concerned by climatechange include increased risk oftransport infrastructure, significant
temperature rise in urban areas, andimpacts on logistics and tourism due
to wind and flood damages.
Source: MLIT, 201856

○ Measures against aging urban infrastructure- Regarding the renovation of city planning facilities, it is positioned as amatter to be stated in the location adjustment plan.
⇒ Appropriation of city planning tax for the cost required for the renovationetc.

Source: MLIT, The bill of the amendments to the Act on Special
Measures concerning Urban Reconstruction, 2020

TRANSPORT POLICY IN PERSPECTIVE: 2020

Figure 3 Road Landscape Will Change in 2040 -Roads that Lead to People's Happiness◼ A vision was published that proposes the picture of Japanese society and the direction of policy in 2040 to be realized throughroad policy. As basic ideas, the origin of road policy is "realization of people's happiness", "evolution" of roads by making fulluse of digital technology to solve problems, and "return" to the function of roads as a communication space, are indicated.
◆ Road Landscape will Change ～ Five Future Images ～① Commuting / returning
rush disappears② Park-like roads are fullof people- Due to the spread of telework,
mandatory movement such ascommuting has dramaticallydecreased.
- The restriction on the distancefrom the place of residence to theworkplace has disappeared, andthe number of people moving toand living in rural areas has
increased.

- Movements and stays increase forenjoying travel and walks.
- Roads show potential as amenity
space.

Park-like road

③ Automated andunmanned movementof people and goods- The spread of self-driving services
makes the lifestyle of owning a
car a thing of the past.
- Due to the penetration of ecommerce, small-lot distributionof logistics increases andunmanned logistics becomeswidespread.

④ The city changes fromtime to time due to the
movement of stores(services)- Eating and drinking
establishments and supermarkets
move according to customer
requests and operate on the side of
the road.
- In mountainous areas, roadsidestations and small mobile storesprovide living services to residents.

Mobility service that allows people to move
conveniently and safely without owning a car⑤ From "damaged road"to "relief road“- Disaster mode road network
ensures uninterrupted traffic,
communications and power tohelp save lives and restore disasterareas.

Moving stores (services)

Source: MLIT, Road Landscape will Change in 2040 -Roads that Lead to People's Happiness-, 2020

Figure 4 Green Infrastructure Promotion Strategy◼ Green infrastructure is an initiative to promote sustainable and attractive national land, cities, and regional development by
utilizing the various functions of the natural environment in terms of both hardware and software such as social infrastructuredevelopment and land use. An example of comfortable utilization of urban space is the formation of green infrastructure inline with urban regeneration and renewal.
Creation of a plaza space by abolishing 4-lane road in the city center (Kumamoto City)- The plaza space is integrated
with the adjacent park byabolishing roads in order toembody human-centeredwalkable and enjoyable urban
development.
- Design guidelines for landscape harmony with Kumamoto
Castle and planting are formulated, and new ordinances on
public utilization and operation management are planned(under construction).

Creation of symbol road by land readjustment(Oita City)

Integrated construction of parks, green roads,
waterside spaces, etc. (Okazaki City): Circulating
walking paths

The Image of Kagoda Park

- The 100m-wide road in front of the station, which wasconstructed by land readjustment, will be used as a lawn plazafull of greenery as a base for citizens' activities.

- As one of the bases of the city’s circulating walking paths,
a lawn plaza, a green road, a promenade, etc. are constructed
where citizens can relax on a daily life (under construction).

Source: MLIT, 201957

3. Symbiosis of Vehicles, People and Nature

Actions for Sustainable
Transport

Associate Professor, Tokyo Institute of Technology

Yasunori Muromachi

Global CO2 emissions have reached 32.8 billion tons. By country, China's share of CO2 emissions has expanded, almost doubling that of USA.
GHG emissions in the transportation sector have been on the rise in recent years in some developed countries. Meanwhile, most developed
countries have introduced several measures for attaining the target of the Paris Agreement and afterwards in the transportation sector. There isalso a growing awareness that EVs can supply power in the event of a disaster due to climate change, and has attracted attention from theperspective of environment and disaster prevention.

Figure 1 Share of CO2 Emissions from Fuel
Combustion in Major Countries and Regions (2017)◼ China's share of CO2 emissions has expanded, almost
doubling that of USA.

Figure 3 Trend and Forecast of World Final Energy
Consumption by Sector (Mtoe, Current Policies
Scenario)
16000
14000
12000
10000

China
28.3%

Others
32.7%

8000
6000

Total
32.8Bt-CO2

4000
2000
0

Japan
3.4% Russia

USA
14.5%

4.7%
India
6.6%

2010

2017

Transport

EU28
9.8%

Industry2030
Buildings

2040
Other

Source: IEA, World Energy Outlook 2019, 2019

Source: IEA, CO2 Emissions from Fuel Combustion Highlights
2019, 2019

Figure 4 Trend of GHG Emissions from Transportation
Sector in Major Countries (1,000t-CO2, except for USA,10,000t-CO2)

Figure 2 CO2 Emissions Per Capita in Major
Countries and Regions (2017, t-CO2)

300,000

World
Oceania
Asia

Japan

Middle East

250,000

AfricaEuropeAmericas200,000

North America

USA *

Japan

Germany

India

150,000

RussiaFrance

EU28

UK

USA

Italy

China

100,000
0

5

10

15

20

90

95

Source: UNFCCC, 2020
Source: IEA, CO2 Emissions from Fuel Combustion Highlights
2019, 2019

58

00

05

10

15

TRANSPORT POLICY IN PERSPECTIVE: 2020

Figure 5 Promotion of the Use of EVs in the Event of a Disaster◼ For the purpose of broadening the awareness that EVs can supply power in the event of a disaster due to climate change, etc.,
a reference manual is prepared for EV owners and local governments considering the use of EVs. For reference, the picturesof power supply from the EVs are also shown.

Power supply from FCV: Touring the area and using the FCV for lighting,microwave oven, etc. in private homes
Source: Toyota Motor Corporation

Power supply from EV: Using the EV for mobile phone charging, electric
fans, refrigerators, etc. at evacuation shelters, etc.
Source: Nissan Motor Corporation

Power supply from FCV: Using the FCV for charging air conditioners
and small storage batteries in old people’s homes
Source: Honda Motor Co., Ltd.

Power supply from PHV: Using the PHV for washing machines andwasher / dryers in old people’s homes
Source: Mitsubishi Motors Corporation

Source: METI and MLIT, A reference manual for promoting the use of EVs in the event of a disaster, 2020

Table 1 Mitigation Measures in Transportation Sector in the United States
-

-

-

-

-

On 1 June 2017, the United States announced its intention to withdraw from the Paris Agreement based on perceived costs
to the US economy. The withdrawal will not take effect until next year as the United Nations Framework Convention on
Climate Change (UNFCCC) rules dictate that the earliest a signatory can withdraw is four years following theAgreement’s entry into force, or on 4 November 2020. Under the Paris Agreement, the United States in 2015 established atarget to reduce GHG emissions by 26-28% below 2005 levels by 2025.
In 2017, energy-related emissions amounted to 4,759 million tonnes of CO2 (MtCO2), a 17% reduction since the peak in
2005. Power generation accounted for 38% of energy-related emissions and transport for 36%. The rest was from industry(9%), residential (6%), commercial (5%) and other energy sectors (5%). If continuing on the current trajectory, thetransport sector will soon surpass the power sector as the largest source of CO2 emissions in the United States.
In response to the 1973 Arab oil embargo, the United States has had Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE) standards
in place since 1975 to mitigate oil consumption growth. The EPA laid out standards for two periods, 2012-16 and 2017-25.
The standards are supposed to reach 163 gCO2-eq/mile for model year 2025 vehicles. In 2017, the administration reopened
the review in conjunction with NHTSA, and in August 2018 announced a new proposal, the Safer Affordable FuelEfficient (SAFE) Vehicles Rule for Model Years 2021-2026 Passenger Cars and Light Trucks. The SAFE rule proposes torevise the standards on both economic and safety grounds, with the preferred option to freeze 2021 standards through 2026
at around 204 gCO2-eq/m for passenger cars and 284 gCO2-eq/m for light-duty trucks.
The main policy tool offered by the federal government is a tax credit for purchases of EVs. The United States also offers
tax credits for EV charging stations. California has in place an Advanced Clean Cars Program to lower both GHG andparticulate emissions from cars and light trucks. Part of the programme includes a Zero-Emission Vehicle (ZEV)
programme, which mandates automakers to sell a growing share of ZEVs each year, starting with a 4.5% threshold in2018 and reaching a 22% share in 2025. Nine other states have since adopted ZEV programmes.
In 2017, ethanol accounted for 5.2% of total energy use in transport, which was by far the highest share among IEA
member countries. Biodiesel consumption has also increased rapidly in recent years.

Source: IEA, Energy Policies of IEA Countries Review United States, 201959

3. Symbiosis of Vehicles, People and Nature

Development and Popularizationof Eco-Vehicle

Japan Automobile Manufacturers Association

Masanari Meguro

Automanufacturers have developed and applied various technologies for conventional gasoline passenger vehicle and freight vehicle not only asa measure against global warming but also effective use and utilization of the limited resources to ensure a sustainable economy. In addition,
taking into account the demand for reduction of greenhouse gas emissions over the medium to long term and consistency with the energy mix inJapan, member companies are promoting the development and popularization of so-called next-generation vehicles consisting of hybrid vehicles(HEV), electric vehicles (EV), plug-in hybrid vehicles (PHVs), fuel cell vehicles (FCVs) and clean diesel vehicles (CDs). Next fuel efficiency
standards for the passenger cars including EV and PHV targeting 2030 were compiled in June 2019.

Table 1 Fuel Consumption Standards for Gasoline
Vehicles◼ The target fuel efficiency of vehicles is set for passenger
car, small freight car, and heavy vehicle respectively by
the top runner method with the maximum fuel efficiency
value when the next target values are examined.
◼ Currently, the target values are set for categories such as
passenger cars, heavy vehicles, and small freight vehicles.
Fuel Efficiency Standards (FY2015)

16.8km/L（Passenger vehicle mode: JC08）15.2km/L
Freight Vehicle not morethan 3.5tons (GVW)（Passenger vehicle mode: JC08）
8.9km/LBus not more than 3.5tons(GVW)（Passenger vehicle mode）
7.09km/L
Freight Vehicle more than
3.5tons (GVW)（Heavy duty vehicle mode:JH15）
6.30km/L
Bus more than 3.5tons(GVW)（Heavy duty vehicle mode：JH15）
Passenger Vehicle

29.2% up against FY2010 Standard
23.5% up against FY2004 actual
12.6% up against FY2004 actual

Figure 2 Next-generation Vehicle Sales Ratio◼ The proportion of next-generation vehicles in automobile
sales has greatly increased since 2009 when the government
started promotion policies, with next-generation vehicles
accounting for 39.2% of all the new passenger vehicle soldin 2019.
◼ While automobile manufacturers are working hard on
various issues toward next-generation vehicles, installationof infrastructures such as charging stations and hydrogenstations with effective supporting measures for theirdeployment as well as various governmental support for
promotion of next-generation vehicles is also indispensable.

7.2% up against FY2004 actual
12.2% up against FY2002 actual
12.1% up against FY2002 actual

Fuel Efficiency Standards (FY2020)
Passenger Vehicle

20.3km/L（Passenger vehicle mode:JC08）

19.6% up against FY2015 Standards
24.1% up against FY2009 actual

Fuel Efficiency Standards (FY2022)
Freight Vehicle more than
3.5tons (GVW)

17.9km/L（Passenger vehicle mode: JC08）

26.1% up against FY2015 Standards

Fuel Efficiency Standards (FY2025)
Freight Vehicle more than
3.5tons (GVW)

7.63km/L（Heavy duty vehicle mode：JH25）

13.4% up against FY2015 Standards（Calculation with FY2014 Sales mix）

Bus more than 3.5tons(GVW)

6.52km/L（Heavy duty vehicle mode：JH25）

14.3% up against FY2015 Standards（Calculation with FY2014 Sales mix）

※GVW：Gross Vehicle WeightSource: Japan Automobile Manufacturers Association

Table 2 "Automotive Industry Strategy 2014" Goal of
Next-generation Automobiles

Source: Japan Automobile Manufacturers Association

Figure 1 Average Fuel Consumption of Passenger
Car (Gasoline)◼ Automobile manufacturers are improving fuel efficiency
through technology development and introduction of nextgeneration vehicles.

◼ As part of its revitalization strategy (2015), the Japanese
government expects that between 50% and 70% of all new
vehicle sales are next generation vehicles.
◼ In addition, in March 2016, the “EV/PHV Roadmap” wasestablished setting a maximum target of 1 million vehicles
in Japan by 2020.
FY2019(Actual)

FY2030Conventinal Vehicle

61.2%

30～50％

Next-Generation Vehicle

38.8%

50～70％

34.1%

30～40％

Hybrid Vehicle (HEV)EV & PHV

Fiscal year
Source: Japan Automobile Manufacturers Association

60

Source: METI
Source:
METI

0.46％
0.41％

20～30％

FCV

0.02%

～３％

Clean Diesel (CD)

4.0%

5～10％

TRANSPORT POLICY IN PERSPECTIVE: 2020
Table 3 EV and PHV Roadmap (Outline)

Figure 3 The Spread of EV/PHV and Quick Chargers◼ In March 2016, the Ministry of Economy, Trade andIndustry (METI) launched a roadmap for popularizationof EVs and PHVs after discussions with academic experts,
automobile manufacturers, infrastructure companies, etc.
◼ Regarding the charging infrastructure, the following
deployment policy was indicated.
◼ Regarding public chargers, the Japanese government andits parties concerned will fill up vacancy to eliminate
anxiety against power shortages, and determine the policy
regarding installation of charging facility in the locations
such as Michi-no-Eki and SAs and PAs on highways. The
locations of such installation will be chosen focusing on
the number of visitors there.
◼ For non-public purpose, installation of chargers atapartment house is reconfirmed as the most effective way
because approximately 40% of population who are thepotential users for EVs and PHVs live in.

◼ The number of EVs/PHVs sold and the number of quick
chargers have been increasing year by year since theintroduction of i-MiEV in September 2009.

Items
Number of EV/PHV
vehicles

Source: METI, Next-generation Vehicle Promotion center

Targets
Up to 2020: a million on stock basis (EV&PHV total)
Up to 2030: 20-30% in New sales (EV&PHV total)
Up to 2020: Fill up vacancy to eliminate anxiety
Quick charger en route
against power shortages, and promote charging facility(Public use)in Michi-no-Eki, SAs and PAs on highways
Quick chargers at
UP to 2020: Approx. 20,000 locations focusing on
destination (Public use) large-scale commercial facilities and lodging facilities
Normal chargers in
Up to 2020: Approx. 2,000 units at apartment to be
newly constructed and large-scale repairment
apartments
Normal chargers at
Up to 2020: Approx. 9,000 units at office / Apartment
workplaces

Source: METI EV/PHV road map(EV/PHV unit)

Table 5 Introduction of Fuel Cell Vehicle◼ FCV has been in the market since December 2014.
VehicleFCV

Honda CLARITY FUEL CELL
（launched in lease market in Mar. 2016）■One filling mileage：750km (Note3)*■H2 filling duration：3min.
＊In-house measurement with JC08 mode

Source: Toyota Website, Honda Website

Table 6 Status of Charging and Hydrogen
Infrastructure Development in Japan◼ Planned development is required for charging unit both enroute and at-destination, when installing such publicchargers/stations. Rapid chargers have been installed inapprox. 7,500 facilities in Japan as of the end of FY2018.
◼ Commercial hydrogen stations are being installed
nationwide to promote FCVs. 130 locations have been
installed and 27 others are planned. (As of June 2020)

Facility

Targets

Facility

Fuel Cell
VehicleUp to FY2020 : 40,000 units on a stock basis
Up to FY2025：200,000 units on a stock
Equivalent price level to Hybrid car
Up to FY2030：800,000 units on a stock basis

Charging
station for
public use

HydrogenstationUp to FY2020：• Hydrogen station: 160 locations• Hydrogen price: Not more than fuel price of HEV
Up to FY2025：320 location
UP to FY2030：900 location

Hydrogenstation forcommerci
al useSource: METI Hydrogen-Fuel cell strategy roadmap

Current situation
Toyota MIRAI（in Market Dec. 2014）■One filling mileage：Approx.650km (Note3)*■H2 filling duration：3 min.

Table 4 Hydrogen/Fuel Cell Strategy Road Map◼ METI set up the "Hydrogen/Fuel Cell Strategy
committee" in December 2013, and members fromindustry, academia, and government have started to study
how to utilize hydrogen energy in future. The“Hydrogen/Fuel Cell Strategy Roadmap” was released inJune 2014 as a result, showing the activities of the parties
involved in realizing a hydrogen society.
◼ This roadmap was revised again in March 2019 based on
the latest situation in terms of the spread of house-use fuelcells, commercialization of fuel cell vehicles, thedeployment of hydrogen station and setting of new goals.

(charger unit)

Deployment Target in number⚫ Every 10km interval: 18,400 in nationwide⚫ Every 30km interval：6,100 in nationwide⚫ Every 50km interval: 3,700 in nationwide⚫ 160 Station: by FY2020⚫ 320 Station: by FY2025⚫ Installed: Over 130 in Nation wide
(Planning at 27 location (June 2020)

Source: METI, FCCJ website

61

Transport Today⃞ New Fuel Efficiency Standards for Passenger Vehicles
METI jointly established the working group for fuel efficiency standards for passenger vehicles in March 2018 with Agency for
Natural Resources and Energy (ANRI) and Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism (MLIT) and started theconsultation for new standards toward 2030 to meet the energy policy in Japan and activities against global warming.
Table 7 Range of Vehicles Covered by the New Fuel
Efficiency Standards

Table 9 Fuel Efficiency Improvement with New
Standards◼ When the current standard was considered, EV & PHV
was decided not to be subject to the standard because thenumber was very small. It is, however, included this time,since it is expected to spread to a considerable extent.
◼ Fuel cell vehicles, on the other hand, are not subject to the
new fuel efficiency standards due to the limited number ofvehicles at the present time. Appropriate evaluation from a
medium- to long-term perspective shall be necessary infuture.

◼ If the new fuel efficiency standard is achieved, the fuelefficiency improvement in FY2030 is estimated to be 32.4%
compared to the actual value in FY2016 and 44.3%
compared to the value in the current standards (FY2020
standard).

Seating Capacity

GVW
Not More than 3.5 ton

Not more than 9More than 3.5 ton
Passenger Vehicle
Not less than 10

Not More than 3.5 tonMore than 3.5 ton

Cargo

ーー

Not More than 3.5 ton※Excludes passenger vehicles other than type-certified※With the introduction of WLTP, passenger vehicle with a seating capacityof 10 and GVW of more than 3.5 tons were excluded.

Source: Report of fuel efficiency standards for passenger vehicle

Table 8 Target Year, Energy Consumption Efficiency
and Measurement Mode, etc.
◼ Since WtW(Well-to-Wheel) method is introduced insteadof TtW(Tank-to-Wheel), energy consumption by EV/PHV
can be compared with those of gasoline vehicle.
◼ And EVs and PHVs as well as gasoline vehicles are
subject to evaluation with the Corporate Average Fuel
Efficiency (CAFÉ) method under the new standards.
◼ In addition, WLTC mode is introduced as the evaluationindex and calculate the TtW fuel consumption value,
while the extra high phase of WLTC is eliminated inJapan.
◼ Since EV and PHV use electric power from the grid,energy efficiency of from the grid to vehicles becomesvery important, “the value obtained in WtW divided by
the energy efficiency of grid” is introduced as the newfuel efficiency in order to ensure continuity with thecurrent standard and its unit is “km/L”.
Items

Method forjudgement
Indication ofcapability
Next-gen. vehicle
Others

FY2030 Standards※Note１

Achievement19.2（km/L）※Note２25.4（ｋｍ/L)

Improvement
32.4%(ii)Fuel efficiency improvement against current standards
FY2020 Standards
FY2030 Standards
Calculated Value※Note１

Achievement※Note２

Improvement

17.6（km/L）

25.4（ｋｍ/L)

44.3%※Note2 Calculated value based on the number and weight of passenger
vehicles in FY2016
Source: Report of fuel efficiency standards for passenger vehicle

Table 10 Flexibility in Judgement of Achievement◼ In Europe and the United States, so-called "credit system"has been introduced to judge the achievement of standards.
◼ The new fuel efficiency standards require manufacturers tomake extremely ambitious efforts to improve fuel efficiency
in widespread use of EVs and PHVs and therefore,
flexibility for judgement shall be considered.
Outline of credit system in US and EU
Off-cycle• Introduction of fuel efficiency improvement
technology that cannot be evaluated in mode test
(LED lamp)

Promotion for • allowance for easing fuel consumption standards
and raising CAFÉ for EVs and PHVs under certain
introduction
conditions
Multipleyears• Allowing carry-over and carry-back to the target
year in a certain period before and after the target
year

Betweencorporations• An unachieved corporation is allowed to take overthe excess from an achieved corporation

Source: Report of fuel efficiency standards for passenger vehicle

Decisions in fuel standard report•FY2030 (From the viewpoint of ensuring sufficient development period for improving fuel efficiency)•Corporate average fuel efficiency (CAFÉ) method is applied. EV and PHV are newly added.
•Achievement of technical development that responses to strengthen safety and environmental regulations, and social
demands (e.g. automatic driving) to be considered.
•TtW value for energy consumption efficiency is newly added to the values in the catalog.
•For EV & PHV, “Distance driven electrically by one charge" is added to the catalog.
•The total spread of EV and PHV is considered to be 20%.
•An appropriate method for indication for fuel efficiency based on the WtW concept shall be considered since it isimportant to enable the comparison of energy consumption efficiency between vehicles with different power sources and toencourage consumers to select a vehicle with higher performance.

Source: Report of fuel efficiency standards for passenger vehicle

62

FY2016
Actual value※Note1 Fuel consumption value in WLTC mode converted from JC08 mode

More than 3.5 ton

Target Year(i)Fuel efficienty improvement compared to FY2016 actual value