Brief Biographies of the Authors
Shuichi Iwanami
Shuichi Iwanami graduated from the Japan Coast Guard (JCG) Academy in 1981 and received amaster's degree in economics from Tsukuba University.
He has worked for the Minister's Secretariat of the Ministry of Transport and the Ministry of Foreign
Affairs at the Japanese Embassy in the Netherlands in addition to onboard patrol vessels, in Coast Guard
Offices (CGO), at the Regional Coast Guard Headquarters (RCGHqs), and at the JCG Headquarters.
After serving as Secretary to the Commandant, Director of Tsuruga CGO, Director-General of theGuard and Rescue Department (GRD) of the 5th RCGHqs, Director for the Office of Territorial Waters
Guard of the GRD of the JCG, Director of the Security Division of the GRD of the JCG, Vice Commanderof the 3rd RCGHqs, Commander of the 2nd RCGHqs, Director-General of the GRD of the JCG, and Vice
Commandant for Operations of the JCG, he served as the 45th Commandant of the Japan Coast Guard
in August 2018, and he retired in January 2020.
During his tenure as the Commandant, he chaired the Second Coast Guard Global Summit held inTokyo in 2019.

Kiyoshi One
Kiyoshi One graduated from the JCG Academy in 1981 and received a master's degree in economics
from Tsukuba University.
He has worked for the Maritime Technology and Safety Bureau of the Ministry of Transport and theInternational Maritime Organization (IMO) in addition to onboard patrol vessels, in CGOs, at the RCGHqs,
and at the JCG Headquarters.
After serving as Director-General of the GRD of the 6th RCGHqs, he served as Director for theCounter-Piracy Office of the GRD of the JCG, Director of Security Intelligence Division of the GRD of theJCG, Vice Commander of the 8th Regional CGHqs, Vice Director-General of the Administration
Department of the JCG, Commander of the 9th RCGHqs, Commander of the 11th RCGHqs, andCommander of the 3rd RCGHqs. He then retired in March 2018.

Contents
1.

Preface .............................................................................................................................................. 1

2.

Overview of the Second Coast Guard Global Summit................................................................. 2

3.

Concepts and Functions of the Coast Guard Agencies .............................................................. 3

4.

(1)

Diversity of the Coast Guard Agencies .................................................................................. 3(2)

Concepts of the Coast Guard Agencies ................................................................................. 4(3)

Functions the Coast Guard Agencies Execute ..................................................................... 5

1)

Ensuring Maritime Safety......................................................................................................... 5

2)

Ensuring Maritime Security ..................................................................................................... 5

3)

Protection of the Maritime Environment ................................................................................ 8(4)

Characteristics of the Coast Guard Agencies ....................................................................... 8

1)

Necessity of Maritime Operational Assets ............................................................................. 82)

Some Functions Being Overlapped among Other Domestic Agencies.............................. 93)

Concurrently Executing Other Relevant Agencies' Functions ............................................ 9

4)

Global Public Goods-like Characteristics in the International Community ....................... 9

Organizational Form of Coastal States' Government for the Execution of the Coast Guard

Functions ............................................................................................................................................... 10
5.

6.

Specific Organizational Forms of the Coast Guard Agencies .................................................. 11(1)

Independent Coast Guard Agencies with Main Duties as the Coast Guard Functions .. 11(2)

Coast Guard Agencies under the Umbrella of Agencies with Other Main Duties ........... 12

1)

Coast Guard Agencies under the Umbrella of Military Agencies ...................................... 12

2)

Coast Guard Agencies under the Umbrella of Border Guard Agencies ........................... 13

3)

Coast Guard Agencies under the Umbrella of Security Police Agencies ........................ 13

4)

Coast Guard Agencies under the Umbrella of Police Agencies ........................................ 13(3)

Coordinating Agencies........................................................................................................... 13

Forms of How the Coast Guard Agencies Have Developed ...................................................... 14(1)

Agencies that Developed from Existing Organizations ..................................................... 14(2)

Agencies that were Newly Established ................................................................................ 15(3)

Agencies that Developed from Coordinating Agencies ..................................................... 15

7.

Universalization and Standardization of the Coast Guard Agencies ....................................... 16

8.

Current Status of Multilateral Cooperation among the Coast Guard Agencies ...................... 18(1)

North Pacific Coast Guard Forum (NPCGF) ........................................................................ 18(2)Black Sea Littoral States Border/Coast Guard Agencies Cooperation Forum (BSCF)... 18(3)

Heads of Asian Coast Guard Agencies Meeting (HACGAM) ............................................. 19(4)

North Atlantic Coast Guard Forum (NACGF)....................................................................... 19(5)

European Coast Guard Functions Forum (ECGFF) ............................................................ 20(6)

Mediterranean Coast Guard Functions Forum (MCGFF) ................................................... 20

(7)
9.

Arctic Coast Guard Forum (ACGF) ....................................................................................... 21

Prospects for the Coast Guard Agencies.................................................................................... 21(1)

Facilitation of the Strengthening of the Coast Guard Functions ...................................... 22(2)

Strengthening of the Platform for the Collaboration among Coast Guard Agencies ..... 22(3)

Cooperation among Relevant Domestic Organizations ..................................................... 23

10.

Concluding Remarks ................................................................................................................. 24

References ............................................................................................................................................. 25
Annex 1 Table of Coast Guard Agencies which Participated in the Second Coast Guard Global Summit ..... 29
Annex 2 Photos of Various States' Coast Guard Agencies' Vessels …………………………. ….. 39
Appendix 1

Participants of Nations, Regions, and International
Organizations of the First Coast Guard Global Summit ……………….. ….. 45

Appendix 2 Chairman's Summary of the First Coast Guard Global Summit ………………....... ….. 47
Appendix 3 Participating Countries and Agencies of the Second Coast Guard Global Summit …………….... ….. 51
Appendix 4 Chairman's Summary of the Second Coast Guard Global Summit ……………….. ….. 55

Shuichi Iwanami
He assumed responsibility as the 45th Commandant of the Japan Coast Guard from August 2018 to January 2020.
During his tenure as the Commandant, he chaired the Second Coast Guard Global Summit held in Tokyo in 2019.
He graduated from the Japan Coast Guard Academy in 1981
and received a Post Graduate Degree, Tsukuba University (Economics), 1987.
For further information, please refer tothe brief biographies of the authors.

1. Preface
The Second Session of the Coast Guard Global Summit was co-convened in Tokyo by the Japan
Coast Guard and the Nippon Foundation on November 20th and 21st, 2019, with the participation of
84 coast guard agencies and relevant agencies from 75 states. At the Summit, with a view to ensuring
maritime safety, security, and environmental protection, the participating agencies shared bestpractices and advanced successful experiences among the different regions and states of the world
and discussed in detail the establishment of a system for human resource development and the bestforms of inter-regional and international cooperation among the coast guard agencies of the world.
After the two-day discussion, the Summit was closed by compiling a chairman's summary as its
outcome.1
In general, each state's coast guard agency or coast guard-like agency that attended the Coast
Guard Global Summit executes duties related to maritime safety, security, and environmental
protection and is engaged in functions related to maritime law enforcement, search and rescue, andmeasures against marine pollution. However, the differing ways each state's agency executes thesefunctions becomes clear when overviewing these agencies' organizational forms. Depending on thestate, some organizations are exclusively designated for these functions; some other organizations
are navies, police, or border guards in charge of these functions in addition to their original functions;or some other organizations are departments of navies or police exclusively responsible for thesefunctions.
On the other hand, nearly half of the participating agencies call themselves "coast guard" in theirEnglish names, whatever the organizational form of each agency is, such as an exclusively designatedagency or part of a navy, police, or a border guard.
In recent years, with changes in the maritime security environment and the natural environment,
the expansion of coast guard agencies and the collaboration among them have progressed rapidly invarious regions of the world. Coast guard agencies are being newly born worldwide. At this moment,
there are some states that are still considering launching or expanding their coast guard agencies. In
addition, as transnational crimes and terrorism spread across borders and natural disasters become
more severe due to climate change, cooperation among coast guard agencies engaged in maritime
safety, security, and environmental protection has become indispensable; consequently, multilateral
cooperation among agencies engaging in coast guard functions is rapidly progressing not only at the
Coast Guard Global Summit but also in various regions of the world.
The purpose of this research is to clarify the current state of both coast guard agencies and thedevelopment of coast guards' systems of the world through the analysis of agencies that attended the
Coast Guard Global Summit and the summarization of the state of collaboration and cooperation
among coast guard agencies in each region. There is already some previous research on coast guard

11

agencies of the world. A salient example of such is done by former Commandant Paleri of the Indian
Coast Guard.2 This research was done by referring to the previous research, including CommandantPaleri's, each coast guard agency's website, and the information obtained through the various
meetings of coast guard agencies such as the Second Coast Guard Global Summit. This researchdoes not necessarily represent the world coast guard agencies as a whole, because informationreferred to herein is limited to that of the participating agencies and time of the Coast Guard Global
Summit while each state's coast guard agency is rapidly changing and developing; and many coast
guard agencies did not attend the Summit. Also, this research does not represent the view of any
specific organization and is published under the sole responsibility of the researcher.

2. Overview of the Second Coast Guard Global Summit
It was September 2017 when the First Coast Guard Global Summit was held in Tokyo ahead of its
second session. There had been already various multilateral meetings among each state's coast guard
agencies, such as the North Pacific Coast Guard Forum (NPCGF) initiated in 2000 by the Japan Coast
Guard with the support provided by the Nippon Foundation; the Heads of Asian Coast Guard Agencies
Meeting (HACGAM) also initiated in 2004 by the Japan Coast Guard with the support provided by the
Nippon Foundation; the North Atlantic Coast Guard Forum (NACGF) launched after the HACGAM; theEuropean Coast Guard Functions Forum (ECGFF); the Mediterranean Coast Guard Functions Forum(MCGFF); the Arctic Coast Guard Forum (ACGF); and the Black Sea Littoral States Border/Coast
Guard Agencies Cooperation Forum (BSCF) established in 2000 as a multilateral meeting in theclosed waters. However, the Coast Guard Global Summit was the first to have the worldwide coast
guard agencies together and provide them with an opportunity to meet each other under one roof.
With a view to responding to challenges the world is facing, such as the expansion of internationalorganized crime, piracy, and terrorism; the expansion of threats of various matters at sea, such as theinflux of refugees and illegal fishing; and the upsurge in concerns about large scale disasters due toenvironmental changes, such as the recent vitalization of maritime activities and climate change, thesedays it has become highly significant for coast guard agencies around the world to strengthen theircollaboration and dialogue beyond regional frameworks. Under such recognition, the First Coast
Guard Global Summit was convened.
At the First Summit, 35 national and regional coast guard agencies and three internationalorganizations attended,3 while at the Second Summit, 84 coast guard agencies attended, more thandouble the first. The Second Summit was joined by many coast guard agencies from various parts of
the world, such as South America and island states. The Second Summit, with the participation ofvarious regions worldwide, deserves to be called the "Global" Summit of coast guard agencies.
At the Second Coast Guard Global Summit, the participating agencies, after reaffirming "theimportance of enhancing dialogue and cooperation among coast guard agencies worldwide beyond
existing regional frameworks and concentrating the entire regions' wisdom, expertise and knowledge
to overcome challenges that the world is facing," shared the advanced success stories and theexperiences of each region and state and considered the prospective establishment of the humanresources development system and the ideal means of regional and other international cooperation ina specific manner based on the First Summit's determination to take measures continuously to ensure
maritime safety, security, and environmental protection. Then, as a result, various items were
determined, such as

2

2

i)

the establishment of a correspondence group to consider making a framework of the Coast
Guard Global Summit more sustainable and functional;ii)

the establishment of a correspondence group for the creation of an information-sharing
website;iii) a concept for a human resource development system responding to global issues; andiv) holding the Second Working-Level Meeting for the Coast Guard Global Summit in Tokyo in
2020.
A significant achievement of the Second Summit was that the coast guard agencies were able toset a path for holding the Summits continuously as a framework for further collaboration among coast
guard agencies and others of the world.
The Second Working-Level Meeting for the Coast Guard Global Summit was, however, postponed
to 2021 and beyond due to the recent global outbreak of COVID-19.

3. Concepts and Functions of the Coast Guard Agencies(1) Diversity of the Coast Guard Agencies
Many agencies that participated in the Summit, which mainly discussed maritime safety, security,and environmental protection, call themselves "coast guard" as their English name: Still, themeaning of the term "coast guard" is not necessarily clearly conceptual as the name of agencies
that comprehensively execute maritime safety, security, and environmental protection functions.
The United States Coast Guard, a model for coast guard agencies, and the Japan Coast Guard are
examples of organizations engaged in these functions exclusively and comprehensively. However,there are many variations in the forms of coast guard agencies engaging in various duties andfunctions: These examples are coast guard agencies whose main duties are maritime safety andenvironmental protection (e.g., the Canadian Coast Guard, Her Majesty's Coastguard); whose main
duties are maritime security (e.g., the China Coast Guard); who have no maritime operational assets
but whose functions are only coordinating among agencies (e.g., the Belgian Coast Guard); or those
who also have practical military functions combined as military agencies (e.g., the Maldives National
Defense Force Coast Guard, the Saint Kitts and Nevis Defence Force Coast Guard).
On the other hand, there are some agencies that do not call themselves "coast guard" but havemaritime operational assets such as boats and are executing similar functions as the agencies
claiming to be "coast guard," such as the Pakistan Maritime Security Agency and the Bureau of
Maritime Security and Fish and Wildlife Protection of Palau.
Therefore, when discussing these agencies responsible for maritime safety, security, andenvironmental protection, they are referred to in various ways, such as the "coast guards," the"coast guard agencies," the "coast guard-like bodies," or the "maritime law enforcement agencies(MLEAs)," depending on the point of arguments. Similarly, even in Japan, these agencies arereferred to as "ENGAN KEIBI TAI" (coast guard forces) by English-Japanese translation or "KAIJOHOAN KIKAN (maritime safety agencies)" if they are categorized as agencies similar to the Japan
Coast Guard.

33

(2) Concepts of the Coast Guard Agencies
As for the concepts of the coast guard agencies, Dr. Parelli states in his research that "thecoastguard means the maritime agency including the regular and formally named coast guards
carrying out functions of law enforcement and service in the waters of an entity in its interest as its
agency under a definite charter that may or may not include national naval defense, but not an
exclusive combat naval force whose purpose is documented under military indulgence of
warfighting," which he treats as a quite broad and comprehensive concept. Also, concerning theduties and functions of coast guard agencies, he listed over 100 of them describing them as"everything associated with the ocean except direct combat action in a warfighting scenario."4
As an example of a more limited definition of coast guard functions, the European Coast Guard
Functions Forum, a multilateral meeting of agencies related to European coast guard functions,defines them as the following 12 items.5
i)maritime safety, including vessel traffic management;ii)

maritime, ship, and port security;iii) maritime customs activities;iv) the prevention and suppression of trafficking and smuggling and connected maritime law
enforcement;v)

maritime border control;vi) maritime monitoring and surveillance;vii) maritime environmental protection and response;viii) maritime search and rescue;ix) ship casualty and maritime assistance service;x)

maritime accident and disaster response;xi) fisheries inspection and control; and,xii) activities related to the above coast guard functions.
Including the above, these are a few examples of concepts about coast guard agencies, but noneof them have been recognized and established worldwide as the concept definition of coast guard
agencies.
It is challenging to define uniquely the coast guard agencies or the scope of functions the coast
guard agencies execute as their duties. Duties or functions assigned to each state's coast guard
agency or similar agency depend on various circumstances, such as each state's environment for
duties and functions, policy, organizational form, and each agency's development history; also,
coast guard agencies have started developing rapidly in just recent decades.
On the other hand, when taking a bird's-eye view of coast guard agencies of the world, mainly
these agencies that participated in the Coast Guard Global Summit, it is common for them to beengaged in functions related to maritime safety, security, or environmental protection in non-war
situations by mainly deploying their maritime operational assets such as vessels and aircraft.
For this reason, having understood the unclearness of the concepts of the coast guard agencies,in this research, an agency that is comprehensively or partially engaged in functions related tomaritime safety, security, and environmental protection by means of its maritime operational assets
such as vessels and aircraft in other-than-war situations is, from now on, referred to as the "coast
guard agency." Among them, an agency that uses "coast guard" in its English name is referred toas the "coast guard." Also, functions related to maritime safety, security, and environmental

44

protection are, from now on, referred to as the "coast guard functions."(3) Functions the Coast Guard Agencies Execute
Functions related to maritime safety, security, and environmental protection that the coast guard
agencies execute are state-inherent as coastal states or required to execute in line with each state'ssocial and geographical environment. Besides, the importance of these functions is rapidly
increasing due to various recent environmental changes. At least the following items are considered
to be included in these functions when overviewing them. In other words, the coast guard agencies
can be referred to as the agencies capable of executing these functions.
1) Ensuring Maritime Safety
Functions referred to here are related to protecting life and property at sea as well as ensuring
the smooth and safe economic activities at sea, such as the prevention of accidents and disasters
at sea and responses to them; maritime traffic control at sea; the research and maintenance ofwaterways; and search and rescue at sea. Functions related to maritime safety in coastal states
are becoming increasingly important due to increased maritime economic activities, theenlargement of ships, the expansion of large cruise ship operations, and the increased risk oflarge-scale disasters caused by climate change. Under the International Convention on Searchand Rescue at Sea, 1979 (SAR Convention), coastal states are obliged to conduct search andrescue in case a ship sailing along their coast comes under distress, regardless of the nationalityof the ship: The conduct of search and rescue is a responsibility of coastal states underinternational law.
When executing these functions at sea, communication facilities are indispensable in providing
safety information and handling the distress information in addition to maritime operational assets
such as vessels and aircraft. In the past, many states had their navies combine the search andrescue functions, but in states that launched coast guard agencies, these functions became oneof the coast guard agencies' main functions.
In addition, although firefighting agencies conducting firefighting and emergency functions andpolice agencies conducting law enforcement functions are divided on land, at sea, these functions
are not separately executed from the viewpoint of efficiency since the rescue activities, disaster
response, and maritime law enforcement activities can be carried out by vessels and aircraft ofthe same type. Therefore, in many states, coast guard agencies have been being developed to
conduct these operations together.
2) Ensuring Maritime Security
For coastal states, the sea is a border and is an area for various maritime activities, such as
maritime transportation, fisheries, and recreation. For this reason, it is essential to ensure
maritime security. The following functions are necessary for coastal states to ensure maritime
security. Further, in the execution of these functions, in addition to maritime operational assets
such as vessels and aircraft, officials' units with a thorough knowledge of domestic andinternational law are indispensable.

5

5

i)

Maintaining Public Safety and Order
Law enforcement activities at sea, such as the prevention and suppression of crimes at sea,
the detection and arrest of criminals, the enforcement of laws and regulations, and otherfunctions for maintaining public safety and order, are essential functions for coastal states, as
they are on land.
In addition, since foreign ships are allowed innocent passage in coastal state's territorial
waters where a coastal state has sovereignty (a concept like which does not exist on land), it
becomes necessary for the coastal state to take necessary measures in the sea domains while
verifying whether the passage is prejudicial to the peace, good order, or security of the coastal
state.
With the introduction of new maritime law systems such as the United Nations Convention
on the Law of the Sea, sovereign waters are expanded from the previous three nautical miles
to 12 nautical miles; and sovereign rights and jurisdictions in certain domains reach exclusive
economic zones (EEZs) of 200 nautical miles, and continental shelves that are allowed up to
350 nautical miles offshore: Thus, coastal states become required to execute the functions ofmaritime law enforcement in such vast waters.
In addition, the conduct of maritime law enforcement is also necessary not only within its
territorial waters but also on the high seas to deal with various threats to the international
community as a whole such as piracy on maritime routes and the maritime transport of
weapons of mass destruction.

ii)

Border Control
Since the sea is a border for coastal states, it is essential for them to execute functions
related to border control, such as customs, immigration, quarantine, and drug control. With
the introduction of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, coastal states havebecome able to carry out law enforcement activities regarding border control in a vast sea
area. They become able to take preventive measures against infringements of border control
rules, such as customs, fiscal, immigration, or sanitary, not only in 12 nautical miles of territorial
waters but also in 24 nautical miles of the contiguous zones.
Above all, in recent years, the risks of various threats such as terrorists, drugs, refugees,
and infectious diseases entering states from the sea have increased, and the management ofterritorial sea boundaries has become an essential element for ensuring safety and securityof coastal states.
These border-control-related functions are executed by customs authorities, immigration
authorities, quarantine authorities, and other relevant organizations in many states.
Nevertheless, since many of these authorities' vessels are relatively small and states withcoast guard agencies with larger vessels can assign these functions combined with their coast
guard functions, many states do so; the number of such coastal states is currently increasing.

iii) Securing Territory
For coastal states, it is a continuously vital function not only during wartime but also inpeacetime situations not only to manage their boundaries as the outer edge of their territories
but also to secure their territories themselves and preserve them.

66In other words, it is essential for coastal states to continue exercising their jurisdiction overtheir territories. Not only if maritime boundaries and territories are indeterminate, but even if
they are not indeterminate, other states' ships may engage in intruding into coastal states'
territorial waters in ways that do not comply with provisions related to the innocent passage or
conducting activities that are illegal in the coastal states' maritime territories. In these cases,
the coastal states are to exercise their jurisdiction, such as warning those infringing ships,
applying the coastal states' domestic laws and regulations to the ships, or excluding them inorder to maintain the coastal states' external countervailing power of claims concerning theirterritories.
Although measures such as onboard inspections and the seizure of ships cannot be
executed under international law when the infringing ships are warships or government ships,
it is exceptionally crucial with respect to territorial integrity for the coastal states to show theirwill of sovereignty to the infringing ships on-site and take necessary measures against them,in addition to measures such as protests through diplomatic channels, since the infringing acts
can also embody the will of the infringing ships' flag state.
Besides, it is difficult for land police to respond to infringement activities such as illegal
landings and installations of illegal structures on remote islands, and it becomes necessary to
respond by organizations with deployable assets such as vessels and aircraft.
While such functions related to the preservation of territorial integrity in peacetime are partof the national security, there is a growing recognition that on-site activities conducted bymaritime law enforcement agencies will contribute to preventing the spread of tensions, as
there is a risk that tensions will increase if warships confront each other over the territory.6iv) Preservation of Marine Interests
Coastal states have their sovereign rights to manage the sea areas around them, such as
the exploration and development of biological and non-biological natural resources in the
exclusive economic zones (EEZs) and the continental shelves under the United Nations
Convention on the Law of the Sea. Of these natural resources, fishing resources are essential
resources as useful food protein sources for each state or as commodities for its economic
activities. However, overfishing by illegal, unreported, and unregulated fisheries (IUU fisheries)
is a significant threat to coastal resources and fisheries industries. 7 "Conserving andsustainably using the oceans, seas and marine resources" is also one of the Sustainable
Development Goals (SDGs) (Goal 14) for 2030, which were unanimously adopted by theUnited Nations General Assembly in September 2015.8
For this reason, it is one of the indispensable and vital functions for coastal states to conduct
surveillance and crack down on foreign ships' illegal fishing in coastal state's exclusive
economic zones (EEZs) from the perspective of protecting their own and global fisheryresources.
Regarding undersea resources, many states are actively conducting marine survey
activities since mining of commercial resources such as oil and natural gas is under progressin every part of the world, and expectations are growing that the development in science andtechnology will enable the development of submarine resources such as rare earth metals in
the near future. For this reason, it is vital for coastal states to conduct surveillance on illegal

77

activities such as exploration or development of these natural resources of the exclusive
economic zones (EEZs) and the continental shelves and prevent these activities from theperspective of preserving their maritime interests.
3) Protection of the Maritime Environment
Under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, coastal states shall havejurisdiction over the protection and conservation of the marine environment within the exclusive
economic zones (EEZs) in the sea areas up to 200 nautical miles offshore and may takenecessary measures against marine pollution caused by foreign ships in their territorial waters
and their exclusive economic zones (EEZs) in accordance with relevant international rules.
Until today, the international community has been working to prevent marine pollution throughvarious treaties, such as the Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping ofWastes and Other Matter, 1972, and the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution
from Ships, 1973. Further, in recent years, in response to a growing global concern over theissues of the marine environment, international efforts are being made to address not only the
dumping of waste and pollution of the oceans caused by oil or other materials but also the issues
such as marine plastic waste, greenhouse gases emissions (GHG) from ships, the discharge ofballast water and sediments by ships, and the conservation of marine biodiversity. The protectionof the marine environment is also part of the efforts to achieve the Sustainable Development
Goals 14, which "conserve and sustainably use the oceans and marine resources."
These missions originally belong to each state's environmental authority. They become,however, one of the core missions of the coast guard agencies because their maritime operational
assets such as vessels and aircraft are indispensable for these missions such as surveillance,
confirming, cracking down on marine pollution, and activities combating marine pollution.

(4) Characteristics of the Coast Guard Agencies
1) Necessity of Maritime Operational Assets
Since every function related to maritime safety, security, and environmental protection
described in (3) is carried out by employing activities such as surveillance, law enforcement, andproviding services at sea, it is essential for the coast guard agencies to have maritime operational
assets such as vessels and aircraft; communication facilities; and officials' units with the thoroughknowledge of domestic and international law. Further, these maritime operational assets such as
vessels and aircraft are required to become larger and to have a longer range in line with the
expansion of the areas in which they operate; but these are, in many cases, insufficient.
For this reason, it becomes necessary for coastal states to have a system that maximizes andeffectively utilizes these limited resources such as maritime operational assets, the facilities, andthe officials and efficiently execute all these functions of maritime safety, security, andenvironmental protection. In this case, as described later, depending on coastal states, there arealso some states in which agencies with maritime operational assets at sea, such as navies,
police, and border guard agencies, are executing maritime safety, security, and environmental
protection functions combined with their original functions.
There are also some states in which specific administrative authorities such as maritime
authorities are responsible for all or part of maritime safety, security, and environmental protection

88

functions. In this case, if those maritime authorities do not possess sufficient maritime operational
assets such as vessels and aircraft, it is essential for them to collaborate with organizations withmaritime operational assets. One example of such is that the Nigerian Maritime Administrationand Safety Agency established the Maritime Guard Command in cooperation with its Navy.92) Some Functions Being Overlapped among Other Domestic Agencies
Functions the coast guard agencies are responsible for such as maritime safety, security, andenvironmental protection span a vast range of fields, and some of them are overlapped with thefunctions of other domestic authorities such as "maritime safety functions" of maritime authorities;"maritime security functions" of customs authorities, immigration authorities, quarantine
authorities, and fisheries authorities; "maritime environmental protection functions" ofenvironmental authorities; and "policing functions" of judicial authorities, such as police agencies
and border guard agencies.
For this reason, each state's laws and regulations stipulating the duties and functions of thecoast guard agencies often have provisions regarding relationships (e.g., duplicate operations,acting on behalf, support) with relevant agencies with which some functions overlap along with
their duties and functions' scope.
For example, with regard to the coast guard agency in the Philippines or Norway, its legal
ground is clearly stipulated in its act of the establishment that the authority to enforce the laws
under the control of relevant administrative organizations is given to its coast guard agency
respectively10. Also, in Japan, since Article 15 of the Japan Coast Guard Law stipulates that whena Japan Coast Guard official is engaged in the administration of the enforcement of a law or order,
the official shall be deemed to be acting as an agent of a relevant administrative office charged
with the administration of the enforcement of each law and each order, the official thus can
execute functions of other relevant agencies on its behalf.

3) Concurrently Executing Other Relevant Agencies' Functions
As mentioned in (3), functions that the coast guard agencies are expected to execute
sometimes increase immensely. These agencies could be called "utility players" in baseball whena player is expected to play whatever position is necessary at the time. Also, the execution offunctions needs maritime operational assets such as vessels and aircraft. Thus, depending onstates, in some states, coast guard agencies may concurrently execute other relevant functions,such as functions that are deeply related to coast guards' original functions; administrative affairs(e.g., maritime administration, port control, immigration control) that can be concurrently carriedout by their maritime operational assets; or a military function that is usually carried out by navies,
which is also a part of the reasons to form the diversity of the coast guard agencies.

4) Global Public Goods-like Characteristics in the International Community
From the contents of the coast guard operations, the coast guard agencies are considered tohave the following functions:i)the prevention of expanding threats beyond each state's territory, such as the threats
related to international organized crime and terrorists;

9

9

ii)

the deterrence of international threats on the high seas such as piracy and theproliferation of weapons of mass destruction;iii) the deterrence of the occurrence of wide–area large–scale disasters through accident
prevention measures along the coasts of each state; andiv) the enhancement of search and rescue and disaster prevention capabilities at sea,
including such on the high seas.
Since coast guard agencies have these functions, the establishment and strengthening
capacities of the coast guard agencies would not only enhance the maritime safety, security, andenvironmental protection capabilities of each its founding state but also contribute to maritime
safety, security, and environmental protection of neighboring states and their regions. Therefore,
it could be said that the coast guard agencies have global public goods-like characteristics.
Search and Rescue Operations—part of the coast guard agencies' main duties is carried out
on the high seas regardless of the nationality of a distressed ship. These operations are salient
examples indicating the coast guard agencies' characteristics as global public goods-like. Also,
this characteristic works in the field of maritime security, which prevents the spread of common
threats to each state through the rule of law at sea.

4. Organizational Form of Coastal States' Government for the
Execution of the Coast Guard Functions
The organizational form of each coastal state's government for the execution of the coast guard
functions, such as maritime safety, security, and environmental protection, varies from state to state.
By focusing on how each government carries out the coast guard functions, the organizational formsof governments can be broadly categorized into the following five forms:
i)an organizational form exclusively entrusting the execution of the coast guard functions toan independent agency with maritime operational assets;ii)

an organizational form entrusting the execution of the coast guard functions to agencies withother main duties and maritime operational assets;iii) an organizational form entrusting the execution of the coast guard functions to the lower
agencies of main agencies with other main duties and maritime operational assets;iv) an organizational form in which multiple agencies with maritime operational assets sharethe execution of the coast guard functions; andv)

an organizational form in which multiple agencies with maritime operational assets sharethe execution of the coast guard functions and an agency is placed to coordinate theseagencies with maritime operational assets.

Among these, when an agency of the form listed in iii), which is a lower agency of the main agency
with other main duties and maritime operational assets, exclusively executes the coast guard functions,
its organizational form for the execution of the coast guard functions is similar to the organizational
form listed in i).
In addition, like cases listed in i), ii), and iii), even if a specific agency with maritime operational
assets is comprehensively entrusted for the execution of the coast guard functions wholly or in largepart, other agencies with their maritime operational assets may execute a part of the coast guard
10
10

functions such as maritime safety, security, and environmental protection corresponding to theirrespective functions in parallel. A such is like a case in Japan where even though the Japan Coast
Guard, a comprehensive coast guard agency, exists, the Fisheries Agency carries out a fisheries
control, and customs carries out a smuggling control at sea.
The Coast Guard Global Summits, held twice so far, have been attended by major coast guard
agencies that execute the coast guard functions in each state, but in some cases, more than two coast
guard agencies participated from one state in which multiple agencies with maritime operational assets
share the execution of the coast guard functions as in the organizational form in iv).
The coast guard functions, such as maritime safety, security, and environmental protection, span awide range in various fields. Most of them are carried out by employing similar activities, such as
surveillance, law enforcement, and providing services at sea by maritime operational assets such as
vessels and aircraft. For this reason, in some states, the organizational forms ii) and iv) are taken as
the forms of the government for the execution of the coast guard functions from the viewpoint ofeffective use of resources when the importance of the coast guard functions is relatively low. Then,
depending on the expansion of the importance of coast guard operations or the growing need toestablish a dedicated coast guard agency, the organizational forms are considered to be adopted or
kept being transformed, such as when the form v) is adopted, then v) is transformed to the form i) oriii).

5. Specific Organizational Forms of the Coast Guard Agencies
While bearing in mind the organizational form of each coastal state's government for the coast guard
functions described in the previous section, if the agencies that participated in the Coast Guard Global
Summit were focused, it is considered that the organizational form of the coast guard agencies canbe roughly classified into the following forms.
It must be noted that these classifications only focus on the organizational form of the coast guard
agencies, thus functions carried out by each agency of the same form are different, such as somehave military functions along with the coast guard functions, and their duties are diverse.

(1) Independent Coast Guard Agencies with Main Duties as the Coast Guard
Functions
Agencies in this organizational form are independent agencies with maritime operational assets,
not belonging to any other agencies with maritime operational assets, and executing
comprehensively or in part and exclusively the coast guard functions, such as maritime safety,
security, and environmental protection. Among these, agencies that are comprehensively executing
these functions are coast guards of states such as Japan, Argentina, Bahrain, Bangladesh, Unionof Comoros, Costa Rica, Djibouti, Greece, Iceland, India, Kenya, Republic of Korea, the Philippines,
Sri Lanka, Turkey, the United States, and Vietnam; and the Malaysian Maritime Enforcement
Agency (MMEA), the Pakistan Maritime Security Agency, and the Bureau of Maritime Security and
Fish and Wildlife Protection of Palau. Many coast guard agencies calling themselves "coast guards"
in their English names fall under this form. Of these states, Costa Rica, Iceland, and Palau do nothave military forces in each state.
The administrative bodies to which the coast guard agencies under this organizational form
belong vary, such as the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism, Japan; the1111Argentine Ministry of Security, Argentine; the Ministry for Maritime Affairs and Insular Policy, Greece;
the Ministry of Defense, India; the Ministry of Oceans and Fisheries, Republic of Korea; the Ministryof Home Affairs, Malaysia; the Ministry of Defense, Pakistan; the Department of Transportation, thePhilippines; and the Department of Homeland Security, the United States.
In addition, among the coast guard agencies that participated in the Coast Guard Global Summit,
there are also some agencies that are mainly tasked with safety and environmental protection as
their duties, such as the coast guard of Canada or the United Kingdom; and the maritime authorities
of China, Ghana, Haiti, Myanmar, Sierra Leone, or South Africa. In these states, other coast guard
agencies are considered to be executing functions related to maritime security.
Among states where multiple coast guard agencies share the execution of the coast guard
functions, there are some states such as Pakistan in which, in addition to the Pakistan Maritime
Security Agency that participated in the Coast Guard Global Summit, another agency exists naming
itself the Pakistan Coast Guard which is tasked with security duties on the coast.11
Further, among independent coast guard agencies mainly tasked with the coast guard functions
as their main duties, there are some agencies that are also tasked with a coordinating function ofrelated agencies. BAKAMLA RI (the Indonesian Coast Guard), an agency that developed from acoordinating agency as its mother, possesses vessels at present and executes the coast guard
functions, still continuously has the authority to use maritime operational assets of other related
agencies such as the Navy, customs, and police.
In addition, the Nigerian Maritime Safety Agency, which is mainly responsible for maritime
administration, established the Maritime Guard Command within the Agency in an agreement with
the Navy and is executing the coast guard functions such as anti-piracy operations while operatingother agencies' vessels such as the Navy.12(2) Coast Guard Agencies under the Umbrella of Agencies with Other Main Duties
1) Coast Guard Agencies under the Umbrella of Military Agencies
Agencies under this form are military agencies' main bodies such as navies mainly tasked withmilitary duties or their lower agencies responsible for the functions of maritime safety, security,and environmental protection. Examples of military agencies' main bodies executing thesefunctions are naval or defense forces of Brazil, El Salvador, Fiji, Madagascar, Mexico, New
Zealand, Papua New Guinea, Portugal, and Tonga. The examples of lower agencies of militaryagencies' main bodies executing these functions are coast guards of Algeria, Italy, Norway, Peru
as well as the Directorate General of the Maritime Territory and Merchant Marine (DIRECTEMAR)
of Chile: Every agency is a lower agency of navy's main body.
In these latter examples, the coast guard agencies that are lower agencies of military agencies'
main bodies are exclusively and comprehensively executing the functions of maritime safety,
security, and environmental protection. In that sense, they are similar to the type of independent
coast guard agencies with the main duties of the coast guard functions listed in (1). As forSomalia's coast guard, which was under the Navy's umbrella, it is believed to still be in theprocess of building a domestic system.
In Portugal, with a structure under which the Chief of the Naval Staff is concurrently serving as
the National Maritime Authority, which has both the Directorate-General of the Maritime Authority
and the General Command of the maritime police, the Navy is also involved in the functions
12
12

related to maritime safety, security, and environmental protection.
Further, as for coast guards of the Maldives, St. Kitts and Nevis, Seychelles, and Trinidad andTobago, since every such state has no navy, its coast guard each exists as part of a militaryagency with maritime operational assets as well as military functions in addition to the functions
related to maritime safety, security, and environmental protection.

2) Coast Guard Agencies under the Umbrella of Border Guard Agencies
Agencies under this form are border guard agencies or their maritime departments that are
responsible for the functions related to maritime safety, security, and environmental protection.
Examples are the Australian Border Force, the State Border Service of the Republic of Azerbaijan,
the Estonian Police and Border Guard Board, the Border Police of Georgia, the Polish Border
Guard, the Romanian Border Police, the Border Guard Service of the Federal Security Serviceof the Russian Federation, and the Saudi Arabian Border Guards. Among these, the maritime
departments of the State Border Service of the Republic of Azerbaijan, the Border Police ofGeorgia, the Romanian Border Police, and the Border Guard Service of the Federal Security
Service of the Russian Federation call themselves "coast guard" in their English names.
Further, in the Australian Border Force, the Maritime Border Command (MBC) was set up
under the command of a Rear Admiral of the Navy, and the MBC is executing the coast guard
functions using maritime operational assets of the Australian Border Force and the Navy.13

3) Coast Guard Agencies under the Umbrella of Security Police Agencies
Agencies under this form are security police agencies or their lower agencies which areseparately established from the general police agencies and are responsible for the functions
related to maritime safety, security, and environmental protection. Examples are the China Coast
Guard under the umbrella of the Chinese People's Armed Police, and the Maritime Service(Servicio Maritimo) of the Civil Guard (Guardia Civil) of Spain.

4) Coast Guard Agencies under the Umbrella of Police Agencies
Agencies under this form are police agencies' main bodies or their maritime departments whichbear the responsibility for the functions related to maritime safety, security, and environmental
protection. Examples are the police agencies of Brunei, Cambodia, the Cook Islands, Germany,
Kiribati, the Marshall Islands, Mauritius, Nauru, Niue, St. Vincent and the Grenadines, Samoa,
Singapore, Timor-Leste, Tuvalu, and Vanuatu. This organizational form is adopted in many islandstates that do not possess military forces. Among these coast guard agencies under the umbrellaof police agencies, maritime departments of the police in Mauritius, St. Vincent and the
Grenadines, and Singapore call themselves "coast guard" in their English names.

(3) Coordinating Agencies
In some states, duties related to maritime safety, security, and environmental protection are
executed not by a single agency but by various relevant agencies which are related to these duties
such as police, customs, maritime authorities, fisheries authorities, and navies, under thecoordination of a coordinating agency. States executing the duties under this form are Belgium,1313France, Germany, Senegal, and Thailand.
In Belgium, the Belgian Coast Guard as a coordinating agency coordinates the coast guard
functions of the federal and local government agencies;14 and in France, le Secrétariat Général dela Mer (SGMer), as a coordinating body, is coordinating the relevant agencies with their maritime
operational assets through le Centre Opérationnel de la Fonction Garde-Côtes (CoFGC).15 Also, in
Germany, a coordinating body, das Maritime Sicherheitszentrum (MSZ)/the Maritime Safety andSecurity Centre (MSSC) is coordinating maritime operational assets of relevant agencies (called"Küstenwache des Bundes" (Federal Coast Guard)) through das Gemeinsame Lagezentrum See(GLZ-See)/the Joint Emergency Reporting & Assessment Centre Sea (JERACS) that was set up in
the MSZ.16 In Senegal, the High Authority for the Coordination of Maritime Safety, Maritime Security
and Protection of the Marine Environment (HASSMAR) is planning and coordinating the coast guard
functions as a whole.17 Further, in Thailand, the Thailand Maritime Enforcement Command Center(Thai-MECC) is coordinating relevant agencies.18

6. Forms of How the Coast Guard Agencies Have Developed
The organizational forms of the coast guard agencies that participated in the Coast Guard Global
Summit vary from state to state: Their establishment and developmental forms are not uniform by thestate either. Under this circumstance, the developmental form of these coast guard agencies can beroughly classified as follows.

(1) Agencies that Developed from Existing Organizations
Agencies under this form are those that have devolved as the coast guard agencies from existingorganizations with maritime operational assets, such as customs, police, border guard agencies,and navies. Since then, they have become independent agencies, or a part of these agencies, or
agencies established by integrating several existing organizations. For example, the United States
Coast Guard and the Turkish Coast Guard Command, which were established early on as exclusive
coast guard agencies and are models for the world's coast guard agencies, are agencies thatdeveloped from the customs department,19 while the Argentine Coast Guard (the Prefectura Naval
Argentina) and the Italian Coast Guard were developed from an agency responsible for relevant
functions of the captain of the port and others.20 Further, the Bahrain Coast Guard also has maritime
police as its mother.
As for agencies that became independent from navies, the long-established Prefectura Naval
Argentina (Argentine Coast Guard) left the Navy in 1984, and the Philippine Coast Guard, which
was established as a military organization under the Navy, separated from the Navy in 1998 and isa non-military organization under the Department of Transportation.21 The Vietnam Coast Guard
also developed from a department of the Navy and became independent of the Navy in 2013.22 The
Seychelles Coast Guard is a transition of the Navy's entire organization.23
Among agencies that developed by integrating existing organizations, their examples include
China's coast guard (the China Coast Guard), which was established in 2013 by integrating
maritime law enforcement departments of four administrations (the State Oceanic Administration of
the Ministry of Land and Resources, the Border Control Bureau under the Ministry of Public Security,
the Fisheries Management Bureau under the Ministry of Agriculture, and the General Administrationof Customs24); and the Georgian Coast Guard, where the Border Police Maritime Division and the14
14

Navy were integrated in 2009. 25 Also, in Australia, the Australian Border Force (ABF) wasestablished in 2015 by integrating the immigration and the customs departments.26
Among these coast guard agencies having developed existing agencies as their mothers,
although they have long histories as predecessor agencies, every agency has a relatively shorthistory as a coast guard, such as coast guards launched in 1967 in the Philippines; in 1973 in
Bahrain; in 1982 in Turkey; in 1989 in Italy; in 1993 in Seychelles; in 1998 in Georgia; and in 2013
in China, except for the United States Coast Guard that became a coast guard in 1915.

(2) Agencies that were Newly Established
Under this form, coast guard agencies are newly established agencies without being based on
an existing agency. Some of these coast guard agencies have a pre-World War II history, such as
the coast guards of Greece and Iceland, but many of them were established after World War II,
including the Japan Coast Guard, which was inaugurated in 1948, and the coast guard of the
Republic of Korea, which was inaugurated in 1953. In particular, the establishment of coast guard
agencies has become prominent since the 1970s, and the tendency has accelerated further since
2000.
The coast guard agencies that were established in the 1970s and later are, for example, thoseof India (1978), Pakistan (1987), Bangladesh (1995), Malaysia (2005), Djibouti (2010), Sri Lanka(2010), Union of Comoros (2010), and Kenya (2018).
Trinidad and Tobago launched a coast guard as part of their national defense forces withoutestablishing a navy when it became independent in 1962.27(3) Agencies that Developed from Coordinating Agencies
An example of a coast guard agency that developed from coordinating agencies is BAKAMLA of
the Republic of Indonesia (the Indonesian Coast Guard). In Indonesia, BAKORKAMLA (theMaritime Security Coordination Agency) was established in 1972 as an agency to coordinate
maritime law enforcement functions carried out by several agencies, including the National Marine
and Air Police Bureau; the Indonesian Sea and Coast Guard of the Directorate General of Sea
Transportation of the Ministry of Transportation; the Navy; the Indonesian Ministry of Marine Affairs
and Fisheries; and the Directorate General of Customs and Excise.28 It was then reorganized to be
BAKAMLA Rl and equipped with maritime operational assets in 2014.
Also, other examples of coordinating agencies, which do not, however, have maritime operational
assets, and their years of establishments are Belgium's coast guard, 2003; 29 France's Centre
OpérationneldelaFonction

Garde-Cotes(CoFGC),

2009;

30

Germany's

Maritime

Sicherheitszentrum (MSZ), 2005;31 and Senegal's High Authority for the Coordination of Maritime
Safety, Maritime Security and Protection of the Marine Environment (HASSMAR), 2006.32
Furthermore, in Thailand, the Maritime Enforcement Coordination Center was established in the
Navy in 1997 to coordinate relevant agencies related to the coast guard functions, but in 2019 thecenter was re-incorporated into the Maritime Enforcement Command Center to integratecommand.33 In Australia, the Maritime Border Command (MBC) was established in the Australian
Border Force, which was established in 2015, and is coordinating the operation of maritime
operational assets of relevant agencies.
In this way, many cases have been taken place in establishing or strengthening these15
15

coordinating agencies for the coast guard functions in each state since 2000.

7. Universalization and Standardization of the Coast Guard Agencies
As described so far, how states have developed their coast guard agencies is state-specific, suchas developing them from existing organizations as their mothers, as new agencies without originalorganizations, or from coordinating agencies. Many states, with some exceptions, did so after WorldWar II, particularly the establishments of the coast guard agencies with coast guard functions as theirmain duties have become significantly prominent since the 1970s. Then, this trend has been further
accelerated since 2000; furthermore, reinforcing these newly established coast guard agencies has
also progressed since then.
Currently, the above trend is still in progress, and many states have been further reinforcing theircoast guard agencies.34 The Philippines is rapidly reinforcing its coast guard system,35 Indonesia isconsidering the further concentration of its authorities to its coast guard,36 and In Japan, the Japan
Coast Guard is being reinforced in line with the "Policy for Reinforcing the Japan Coast Guard System"
formulated at the Relevant Ministerial Meeting in December 2016.
In this way, coast guard agencies have been rapidly expanding and universalizing. It is pointed outthat there are some factors as the backgrounds for these recent years' trend, such as37,i)

the expansion of coastal states' jurisdiction to a wide range of waters under the United
Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea;ii)

the increase of maritime activities in line with the expansion and globalization of economic
activities;iii) the expansion of issues related to maritime safety and security threats such as maritime
terrorism, piracy, and large-scale accidents;iv) frequent conflicts between states over maritime territories and interests;v)

increasing awareness on the value of coast guard agencies in response to other powers;andvi) the proactive involvement of advanced states who already have coast guard agencies,
including Japan.
As the establishment of new coast guard agencies began increasing in the late 1970s onward, thismovement, in fact, coincided with the timing of the beginning of the deliberation of the United Nations
Convention on the Law of the Sea at the Third Conference on the United Nations in 1973 as well as
the adoption of the Convention in 1982. The further expansion of coast guard agencies and the
additional reinforcement of the coordinating agencies' functions since 2000 also coincides with thevarious emerging situations in each region of the world. These are, in addition to the global security
landscape changes of the world such as the September 11th terrorist attack on the United States in2001 and the expansion of drug trafficking and poaching, for example, the rapid increase of piracy andarmed robbery cases in Southeast Asia; the expansion of friction over maritime domains in the South
China Sea and others; the rapid increase of piracy and armed robbery cases in Africa; the Prestige
Oil Spill Incident which occurred in Europe in 2002; and the rapid increase of maritime refugees.
Besides, as an example of the proactive involvement of advanced states in assisting other states,
Japan is, in cooperation with the Japan Coast Guard, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the Japan
International Cooperation Agency (JICA), and the Nippon Foundation, contributing to enhancing the1616coast guard agencies' capabilities in several regions. For example, Japan is providing assistance atthe time of the establishing coast guard agencies in various states and leading commandant-levelmeetings; and, as of 2019 (fiscal year), Japan had invited more than 1,900 trainees from 81 states
and three regions and had dispatched approximately 750 officials to 24 states: Japan has had in eachstate a significant impact on the establishment and development of its coast guard agency.38 Further,
the United States Coast Guard, as the most advanced coast guard agency, has been contributing fora long time to enhance various state's coast guard agencies' capabilities through the dispatches ofthe "Mobile Training Teams" and others. For example, in 2011, it held training courses in 60 states
and trained about 2000 personnel.39
Along with the above expansion and universalization of the coast guard agencies, thestandardization of the coast guard agencies is also in progress. As a police force is called "police," ora navy is called "navy" in English, their systems have been almost standardized worldwide. They arerecognizable to everyone on the earth by their English names since they have histories of hundreds
or even thousands of years among humanity. Whereas only a few coast guard agencies in the world
have more than 100-year histories, many are only decades old. From a human history standpoint, thecoast guard agency is indeed a very new system: Still, its standardization is also in progress both
externally and operationally since it is based on recently accumulated wisdom that every state cannotdeny.
As a salient point, calling the comprehensive coast guard agencies "coast guard" in English isgetting standardized. For example, the Japan Coast Guard used to call itself the "Maritime Safety
Agency," but in 2000, the Agency rebranded itself as the "Japan Coast Guard" in its English name forinternational identification. Malaysia had been calling its coast guard agency the "Malaysian Maritime
Enforcement Agency" in English since its establishment, but today also calls it the "Malaysia Coast
Guard." Further, the terminology "coast guard functions" is becoming common when referring tofunctions related to maritime safety, security, and environmental protection and organizations that
execute such functions. For example, the "function" appears in the titles of the multilateral coast guard
agencies' meetings, such as the "European Coast Guard Functions Forum" and the "Mediterranean
Coast Guard Functions Forum," both of which will be described later in this research.
Besides, each state's coast guard agency has vessels, in many cases, with white or gray paint color
on the hulls and "racing stripes" (diagonal stripes) on both sides of the bow, or the logo of "coast guard"or the similar names of coast guard agency on both sides of the hull. In general, gray is painted on
many vessels of coast guard agencies that are subordinate agencies to navies or with functions ofboth coast guard agencies and navies, whereas white is often painted on the hulls for vessels
possessed by coast guard agencies that are independent to navies. Furthermore, even in states that
do not have a single coast guard agency but have several relevant agencies that share the executionof coast guard functions, there are examples, such as Germany and Thailand, where the vessels of
the relevant agencies executing the coast guard functions have racing stripes on their hulls.
It is considered that the organization's name and the vessels' feature of the United States Coast
Guard, as a leading organization in the world, have significantly influenced such standardization in theexternal appearance and each coast guard agency's name. However, these standardizations havebeen naturally facilitated over time in line with not international regulations or consensus but thedevelopment of each state's coast guard agencies system in the past couple of decades.
Regarding standardization in on-scene operations, we cannot observe prominent standardizing
tendencies as much as the external standardization since each state's relevant domestic law and1717system to share the coast guard functions are state-specific. Nevertheless, almost similar law
enforcement procedures at sea are taken by following the procedures agreed upon internationally,such as pursuing, issuing stop engine orders, conducting boarding inspections, and seizing.
Furthermore, some scenes showing the propagation of new procedures are also recognized, such as
issuing warnings on electric light bulletin boards and stopping ships by the use of deluge guns rather
than weapons in addition to conventional means, such as the radio or the international signal flags.
Coast guard agencies, often facing foreign ships during the law enforcement activities at sea, arealways required to carry out their activities with legitimacy and countervailing power based oninternationally recognized and standardized measures bearing in mind not only future domestic court
procedures but also international countermeasures if a gap between states arises in their claims.
Therefore, in addition to the standardization in the external appearance, it is believed that thestandardization in operational aspects, including the law enforcement procedures as stated above,
will be further accelerated in the future.

8. Current Status of Multilateral Cooperation among the Coast Guard
Agencies
In conjunction with the accelerated establishment and strengthening of coast guard agencies andthe strengthening of the coordinating mechanisms of relevant domestic agencies related to coast
guard functions as well as the universalization and standardization of coast guard agencies since 2000,
cooperation among the coast guard agencies has been progressing, as evidenced by the fact thatmultilateral meetings of coast guard agencies have begun one after another in various regions of theworld. Examples of these multilateral meetings follow.

(1) North Pacific Coast Guard Forum (NPCGF)40i)

Establishment: 2000 (the first session held in Japan)ii)

Participating States: Six States (Japan, Canada, China, Republic of Korea, Russia, theUnited States)iii) Purpose: To ensure maritime safety and security and conserve the marine environment andothers in the North Pacific Ocean.
iv) Contents of Meetings: A commandant-level meeting and an expert-level meeting are held
once a year.
v)

Examples of Specific Collaboration and Cooperation:
 Joint fisheries surveillance patrols on the North Pacific high seas
 Multilateral multipurpose training by rotating host statesvi) Others: In December 2000, the meeting was launched with the participation of four states,
Japan, Republic of Korea, Russia, and the United States, under the name of the "HighLevel Meeting of the Coast Guard Agencies in the Northwest Pacific Region." Later, Canada
and China joined, and the name was changed to the North Pacific Coast Guard Forum. In
2019, the 20th meeting was held in Russia.

(2) Black Sea Littoral States Border/Coast Guard Agencies Cooperation Forum18
18

(BSCF)41i)

Establishment: 2000 (the first session held in Turkey)

ii)

Participating States: Six states (Bulgaria, Georgia, Romania, Russia, Turkey, Ukraine)iii) Purpose: To promote peace and stability in the region, enhance interaction among
border/coast guard agencies in order to prevent illegal activities and strengthen the safety
and security of navigation, conduct counterterrorism and weapons of mass destruction
nonproliferation activities, establish cooperation in the protection of natural resources andthe prevention of illegal fishing, establish cooperation in search and rescue, prevent marine
pollution, and protect the marine environment, etc.
iv) Contents of Meetings: A leaders' meeting is held once a year.
v)

Examples of Specific Collaboration and Cooperation:
 Consideration by working groups in four fields, "maritime security and safety ofnavigation;" "development of information exchange and analysis of the operationalsituation;" "development of common preventive system for early detection of illegal
activities;" and "information exchange via the automated information exchange system
and information systems development." Implementation of expert meetings and the conduct of exercisesvi) Others: In 2019, the 20th Leaders meeting was held in Turkey.

(3) Heads of Asian Coast Guard Agencies Meeting (HACGAM)42i)

Establishment: 2004 (the first session held in Japan)ii)

Participating States and Regions: 21 states and one region (Japan, Australia, Bahrain,
Bangladesh, Brunei, Cambodia, China, Hong Kong, India, Indonesia, Republic of Korea,
Laos, Malaysia, Maldives, Myanmar, Pakistan, Philippines, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Thailand,
Turkey, Vietnam)iii)

Purpose: To strengthen regional cooperation on the coast guard functions in Asia.

iv)

Contents of Meetings: A high-level meeting and an expert-level meeting are held once a
year.

v)

Examples of Specific Collaboration and Cooperation:
 Consideration by working groups in four fields, "search and rescue," "marine
environmental protection," "preventing and controlling unlawful act at sea," and "humanresource development."vi)

Others: This meeting has a predecessor—the "Regional Conference on Combating Piracy
and Armed Robbery against Ships—" held in 2000 among Asian coast guard agencies. In
2019, the 15th meeting was held in Sri Lanka.

(4) North Atlantic Coast Guard Forum (NACGF)43
i)

Establishment: 2007 (the first session held in Sweden)

ii)

Participating States: 20 States (Belgium, Iceland, Portugal, Canada, Ireland, Russia,
Denmark, Latvia, Spain, Estonia, Lithuania, Sweden, Finland, the Netherlands, the United
Kingdom, France, Norway, the United States, Germany, Poland)iii) Purpose: To increase cooperation on matters related to maritime safety and security in the1919region.
iv) Contents of Meetings: A leaders-level meeting and an expert-level meeting are held once a
year.
v)

Examples of Specific Collaboration and Cooperation:
 Consideration by working groups in the following fields, "search and rescue,""environmental response," "maritime security," "illegal drug trafficking," "illegal
migration," "fisheries enforcement," and "technical." Multilateral multipurpose training by rotating host statesvi) Others: In 2019, a leaders-level meeting was held in the United States.

(5) European Coast Guard Functions Forum (ECGFF)44i)

Establishment: 2009 (the first session held in Poland with the support of the European
Commission)ii)

Participating States and Other Organizations: Belgium, Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, Denmark,Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta,
the Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, European
Commission Directorate-General for Maritime Affairs and Fisheries (DG MARE), European
Commission Directorate-General for Mobility and Transport (DG MOVE), European
Maritime Safety Agency (EMSA), European Union Satellite Centre (EUSC), European
Border and Coastguard Agency (FRONTEX), European Fisheries Control Authority (EFCA)iii) Purpose: To study, contribute to, and promote the understanding and development ofmaritime issues of importance and of common interest related to Coast Guard Functions
across borders and sectors, both civil and military involvement.
iv) Contents of Meetings: A plenary conference is held once a year, secretariat meetings andworkshops and others are held several times a year.
v)

Examples of the Specific Collaboration and Cooperation:
 Through the European Coast Guard Functions Training Network (ECGF TRAININGNETWORK), cooperation among relevant educational institutes, research institutes, andtraining centers in Europe; the development of human resources; research on the coast
guard functions; and others.

vi) Others: In 2019, the 10th anniversary of the plenary conference was held in Italy.

(6) Mediterranean Coast Guard Functions Forum (MCGFF)45i)

Establishment: 2009 (the first session held in Italy)ii)

Participating States: 24 Mediterranean statesiii) Purpose: To develop potential partnerships and enhance cooperation among member
states to conduct activities in many fields ranging from maritime security and safety toenvironment protection.
iv) Contents of Meeting: A plenary meeting is held once a year.
v)

Examples of Specific Collaboration and Cooperation:
 Consideration by workshops on "Maritime Surveillance on Maritime Safety," "Maritime
Environment Protection and Cooperation on Pollution Response," "Maritime
Surveillance," and "Illegal Fishing."
2020vi) Others: A plenary meeting was held in Morocco in 2019(7) Arctic Coast Guard Forum (ACGF)46
i)

Establishment: 2015 (the first session held in the United States)ii)

Participating States: Eight States (Canada, Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, Russia,
Sweden, the United States)iii) Purpose: To foster safe, secure, and environmentally responsible maritime activity in the
Arctic.
iv) Contents of Meetings: The chairmanship duties of the ACGF rotate every two years inconcert with the chairmanship of the Arctic Council. A principals' meeting is held once a
year, secretariat's and working group meetings are held several times a year.
v)

Examples of Specific Collaboration and Cooperation: The holding of exercises with maritime operational assets, table-top exercises,
workshops, seminars, etc. In particular, the focus has been on search and rescue
exercises so far.

vi) Others: Iceland is the chair from 2019 to 2021
In addition to the above regional cooperation among each state's coast guard agency, the"European Agency for the Management of Operational Cooperation at the Extent Borders of theMember States of the European Union (FRONTEX)" established by the European Union in 2004 wasrenamed the "European Border and Coast Guard Agency (EBCGA)," and its powers were
strengthened in October 2016 in response to the surge in migrants and refugees aiming for the EU(although the abbreviation "FRONTEX" continues to be used). Further, preparations are underway to
set up a working force within this agency called the "European Border and Coast Guard Standing
Corps," which consists of each member state's border control and security authorities.47
Multilateral cooperation among the coast guard agencies that had been initiated in various regionsof the world since 2000 ended up holding the Coast Guard Global Summit within just two decades.
This movement itself is also considered to have originated from the expansion of awareness where,
amid recent changes in both the maritime security environment and the natural environment, it is
becoming difficult to respond anymore by the power of only one state to the emerging threats alongwith these changes.
Expectations are growing that collaboration and cooperation among coast guard agencies will befacilitated further from now on through several measures, such as sharing the success stories ofcollaboration in each region at the Coast Guard Global Summit.

9. Prospects for the Coast Guard Agencies
As already noted, in recent years, the establishment of coast guard agencies and the strengtheningof coast guard functions by the collaboration of relevant domestic organizations have progressed
rapidly. Further, the situations that form the background of the expansion and universalization of coast
guard agencies and the coast guard agencies' system will not change significantly in the future, suchas increased maritime activities in line with economic globalization, the expansion of threats related totransnational crimes and terrorism, emerging friction between states over territory and maritime
interests along with further progress in the utilization of the sea, and the increased risk of large-scale21
21

disasters due to climate change. Therefore, it is expected that this tendency of the universalization of
the coast guard agencies' system will continue.
Under these circumstances, at the Coast Guard Global Summit, recognition is shared that maritime
safety, security, and a clean marine environment that the coast guard agencies are aiming for are thevital foundation for the well-being and prosperity of the international community as a whole. With aview to taking advantage of this ongoing worldwide universalization more effectively and leading to
the well-being and prosperity of the international community more effectively, it is believed that thefollowing efforts would be necessary for each state and the international community.

(1) Facilitation of the Strengthening of the Coast Guard Functions
As described, supporting the establishment and capacity building of coast guard agencies willlead to the peace and stability of regions and the world since coast guard agencies have the global
public goods-like characteristic. In particular, it will lead to the whole international community's
interests if we enhance coast guard functions around the sea areas where the safety of navigation
is hindered, or the threats to transnational crimes are emerging. For example, anti-piracy operationsin the sea areas off Somalia and the waters around the Gulf of Aden are currently being conducted
mainly in cooperation with several states' naval forces. However, if these maritime law enforcement
activities are carried out by either coastal states themselves or in cooperation with the coastal states,
it would be more effective since such activities may become inter-active for each coastal state in
conducting the measures in its territory and for the reduction of the cause of piracy. This is provenby the fact that the number of piracy cases dropped sharply by strengthening coastal states' antipiracy measures in Southeast Asia in the 1990s.
Therefore, with a view to ensuring maritime safety and the prevention of spreading transnational
crimes, it is expected that the international community will support the establishment andstrengthening of coast guard agencies collaboratively. Also, while doing the above, states are
required to endeavor to give such support more efficiently and effectively by avoiding the duplicationof support contents as far as possible.
Since human resource development is a part of these core measures for strengthening coast
guard functions, it also became one of the themes for consideration at the Coast Guard Global
Summit in "Coast Guard Global Human Resources Development": Progress in this theme's
discussion is looked forward. Also, regarding various measures for human resource development
carried out by international collaboration so far, several advanced examples can be referred to,such as the information-sharing and collaboration on education and training for coast guard
agencies' officials carried out under the European Coast Guard Functions Training Network (ECGF
Training Network) of the European Coast Guard Functions Forum (ECGF)48 and the training forcoast guard agencies' officials in the Southeast Asian and African states conducted at the Malaysian
Maritime Enforcement Agency Training Center (AMSAS) in Malaysia in collaboration with the Japan
Coast Guard, the Malaysian Maritime Enforcement Agency (MMEA), and the Japan International
Cooperation Agency (JICA)49.

(2) Strengthening of the Platform for the Collaboration among Coast Guard
Agencies
It is essential for coast guard agencies to pursue further collaboration among themselves since2222

it is difficult to respond to transborder threats anymore by the power of one state alone. At present,
various specific types of cooperation are in progress not only in the fields of search and rescue anddisaster relief (e.g., joint search and rescue operations conducted by multilateral, bilateral meetings,
or through collaboration between international organizations50) but also in the fields of security
matters, such as information-sharing on security matters, joint patrol, and joint operations to crack
down on transnational crimes. The expectation is growing that collaboration among coast guard
agencies will be further facilitated from now on through sharing each region's these success stories.
In these cases, in the fields of rescue and disaster prevention, legal instruments for international
cooperation have already been adopted and are being implemented, such as the International
Convention on Maritime Search and Rescue, 1979 (SAR Convention) and the International
Convention on Oil Pollution Preparedness, Response and Co-operation, 1990 (OPRC Convention).
However, in the fields of maritime law enforcement, there is a certain limitation when cracking downon threatening ships on the high seas by collaboration among relevant states due to the principleof flag state jurisdiction, except for some international crimes such as piracy and others. Therefore,
it is required to strengthen a legal basis to facilitate the collaborative execution of law enforcement
against criminal activities posing globally common threats on the high seas. Until then, states are
required to develop collaboration in various measures, such as information exchange on ships
involved in crimes, cooperation in pursuing the ships involved in crimes beyond territory.
Furthermore, in the cases of problems that have come up in recent years, such as refugee boats
on the high seas or cruise ships that experienced a large number of COVID-19-cases, it isnecessary for the international community to lay down a legal basis to handle these matters as well
as for domestic relevant organizations, such as the coast guard agencies in each state, to respondto them in a cooperative and fully worked-out manner since it is assumed that a flag state
responsible for responding is unknown, or that it will be difficult for the flag state to respond quickly
and appropriately with only the flag state.

(3) Cooperation among Relevant Domestic Organizations
As mentioned before, coast guard agencies have a characteristic by which their functions overlap
other relevant domestic organizations' functions, such as cracking down on drug trafficking withcustoms authorities, drug control authorities, and land police; and cracking down on fisheries withfisheries control authorities. Therefore, when launching a new coast guard agency or strengthening
their capabilities, some friction could be caused with these existing organizations over the powers
and budget allocation. However, it is essential to avoid such friction as much as possible in order toensure cooperation and optimal resource allocation among these relevant domestic organizations
for more effective maritime safety, security, and environmental protection.
Further, in states that have both a coast guard agency and a military or a defense agency suchas a navy, a close collaborative structure consisting of a coast guard agency, a navy, or otherdefense agency is essential. Because, in peacetime, sea surveillance and search and rescue
operations are often conducted jointly. Also, when responding to an invasion against a coastal
state's peace and stability, there could be cases in which the coastal state is required to execute atransition from the phase of law enforcement to the phase of activation of a state's self-defense
right. This collaboration is desperately necessary to enable the coastal state to execute thistransition effectively and smoothly.
23
23

Furthermore, it is also indispensable for all these relevant domestic organizations functioning at
sea to grasp the movements of ships sailing at sea when executing their functions. It is believedthat measures will progress from now on to integrate activities relating to Maritime Domain
Awareness (MDA) due to the inefficiency in case each domestic organization develops MDA
independently.
The necessity for these relevant departments' collaboration is called for not only in the national
phase but also in the international phase. There are, therefore, already various international
networks among these relevant departments whose systems have already been universalized
worldwide, such as police, customs, or navies, including their international organizations: Still, thedevelopment of coast guard agencies' networks is in the early stages. Hereafter, the establishmentof an international collaborative system among the networks of these relevant departments
including coast guard agencies, such as information sharing on criminals or ships involved in crimes,
seems to be a long-term issue proportionate to the development stages of the coast guard agencies'
networks.
On the other hand, in the fields of MDA schemes covering every domestic department, it isobserved that measures have progressed domestically to facilitate information sharing on the ships'
movement in many states. Hereafter, it is predicted that this domestic cooperation will also
accelerate further to enhance MDA performance internationally.
Currently, maritime law enforcement activities such as counter-piracy and drug trafficking
operations are being carried out by collaboration among multilateral navies and others in various
sea areas. In case the establishment of the coast guard agencies further expands or theircollaboration progresses, it is presumed that both navies and coast guard agencies of more than
two states will take part in countermeasure activities collaboratively such as counter-piracy and drugtrafficking operations: We believe that considering how to collaborate in these cases will become
necessary.

10. Concluding Remarks
This research examined the current state of both the coast guard agencies and the development ofcoast guards' systems through the analysis of the participating agencies of the Coast Guard Global
Summit and the summarization of the state of cooperation and collaboration among the coast guard
agencies in each region.
Although the expansion and universalization of the coast guard agencies and their collaboration at
the regional level progressed very rapidly, their collaboration at the global level was just initiated by
the Coast Guard Global Summit. Expectations are growing that the coast guard agencies' cooperationand collaboration at the regional and global level will further progress and contribute to the peace,stability, and development of the world through the rule of law at sea.
Lastly, the researcher would like to express his most profound appreciation to all members of theJapan Coast Guard Foundation for the various support provided while writing and compiling thisresearch.

24
24

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23

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27

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28

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https://setkab.go.id/en/president-jokowi-officially-established-the-maritime-security-agency/＞,
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29

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26
26

30

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27
27

accessed on September 20, 2020；and Turkish Coast Guard Command, Ministry of Interior,Republic of Turkey, “Mediterranean Coast Guard Functions Forum (MCGFF)＜
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Safety Agency (EMSA).

28
28

Annex 1

Research on the Current State of the Coast Guard Agencies of the World

Table of Coast Guard Agencies which Participated in the Second Coast Guard Global Summit
Background Info. of Agency
Administrative body each Agency belongs to Organizational
Form

State

Agency1

People's Democratic
Republic of Algeria

Algerian Naval Forces Coast-Guard
National Service

Naval Forces Command Ministry of DefenceUM

2

Argentine Republic

Prefectura Naval Argentina(Argentine Coast Guard)

Argentine Ministry of Security

INDE

YOE

Australia

Australian Border Force（ABF）

4

Republic of Azerbaijan

State Border Service of the Republic of Azerbaijan

5

Kingdom of Bahrain

Bahrain Coast Guard

Ministry of Interior

6

People's Republic of Bangladesh

Bangladesh Coast Guard

Ministry of Home Affairs

7

Kingdom of Belgium

Belgian Coast Guard

8

Federative Republic of Brazil

Brazilian Navy

Ministry of Defense

UM

9Brunei Darussalam

Royal Brunei Police ForcePrime Minister's OfficeUP

10

Kingdom of Cambodia

Cambodian National Police

11

CanadaCanadian Coast Guard

Fisheries and Oceans Canada

INDE

1962

12

Republic of Chile

Directorate General of the Maritime Territory andMarchant Marine（DIRECTEMAR）

Chilean Navy

UM

1848

Home Affairs Portfolio

VesselEnglish Co- Racing
Name lor Stripes

Remark✓G○ A lower agency of the Navy's main body exclusively executing the coast guard functions

✓

W

UBG
2015*
COR

3

Kiyoshi One✓○ The Agency developed from an agency responsible for relevant functions of the captain of
the port.
○ The Agency was part of the Navy until 1984.

O#○ In 2015*, the ABF was established by integrating the immigration and the customs
departments.
○ In 2017, the Maritime Border Command (MBC) was set up in the Australian Border Forceunder the command of a Rear Admiral of the Navy in order to coordinate the operation of
the maritime operational assets of the ABF and the Navy.
#: Part of the ABF's vessels have racing stripes.

UBG

✓

O

✓

○ The maritime department of the Agency calls itself "coast guard" in its English name.

INDE 1939*

✓

W

✓

○ In 1939*, the Coastguard was formed as the Marine Police.
○ In 1973, the Agency was officially named "Coastguard Directorate" and reorganized withan increased number of boats and human resources.

INDE

1995

✓

W

✓

○ A newly established agency without being based on an existing agency

COR 2003*✓○ The Agency coordinates the coast guard functions among federal and local government
agencies.
○ In 2003*, the coast guard structure was ratified by the Royal Decree
G

1975

O

UP

13
-1

People's Republic of China

China Coast Guard

The Chinese People's Armed Police Force

USP

13
-2

People's Republic of China

China Maritime Safety Administration

Ministry of Transport of
the People's Republic of China

INDE

14

Union of Comoros

Comorian Coast Guard

15

Cook Islands

Cook Islands Police Service

16

Republic of Djibouti

Djibouti Coast Guard

Ministry of Transport and Ministry of Defense INDE

2013

2010

✓

✓

INDE

✓

G

○ A lower agency of the Navy's main body exclusively executing the coast guard functions

W✓○ Under the umbrella of the Chinese People's Armed Police Agency, the security police,
separately established from the general police agency○ In 2013, the China Coast Guard was established by integrating maritime law enforcement
departments of four administrations: the State Oceanic Administration of the Ministry ofLand and Resources; the Border Control Bureau under the Ministry of Public Security; theFisheries Management Bureau under the Ministry of Agriculture; and the General
Administration of Customs.

W✓○ A newly established agency without being based on an existing agency✓

UP
Ministry of Equipment and Transport

O

G
2010

✓

G

○ A newly established agency without being based on an existing agency✓

Explanatory Notes and Abbreviations for the State of Coast Guard Agencies, their Vessels, and Remarks
Organizational Form
INDE

An agency under an upper agency with no operational assets, not belonging to anyof the following agencies

UM

An agency with the operational assets under the umbrella of a military agency

YOE

An agency calling itself “coast
guard” in its English Name

W

White

Blank

UnknownG

Gray

UBG An agency with the operational assets under the umbrella of a border guard agency

O

Other thanWhite or Gray

USP An agency with the operational assets under the umbrella of a security police agency

Blank

Unknown

UP

An agency with the operational assets under the umbrella of a police agency

COR & One of the Lefts Dual Forms (COR & one of the left forms)

Blank

Unknown

Main Paint Color With or withoutof Vessels
Racing Stripes✓

COR

An agency coordinating otherrelevant coast guard agencies

English Name

RemarkWith Stripes a coast guard
agencyBlank Unknown✓

An agency that is comprehensively or partially engaged incoast guard functions by its maritime operational assets
such as vessels and aircraft in other-than-war situations

a coast guard
function

29 － 30

A function related to maritime safety, security,and environmental protection

Annex 1

Research on the Current State of the Coast Guard Agencies of the World
Background Info. of Agency
State

Agency17

Republic of El Salvador

Naval Operation of El Salvador

18

Republic of Estonia

Estonian Police and Border Guard Board

19

Republic of Fiji

Republic of Fiji Navy

20

21

French Republic

Georgia

Secretariat General for the Sea（SGMer）

Georgian Coast Guard (GCG)

VesselAdministrative body each Agency belongs to Organizational
Form

YOE

UM

1951

Ministry of Interior

UBG

2010

O

Republic of Fiji Military Forces

UM

1975

G

✓

SGMer
1995
COR
FGC
2009

Prime Minister OfficeBorder Police of Georgia

UBG 1998*

RemarkEnglish Co- Racing
Name lor Stripes

✓

W

*

○ Le “Secrétariat Général de la Mer” (SGMer)/the Secretariat General for the Sea, as acoordinating body, is coordinating the relevant agencies with their maritime operational
assets through le “Centre Opérationnel de la Fonction Garde-Côtes” (CoFGC)/the Coast
Guard Operational Centre which is called le “Fonction Garde-Côtes” (FGC)/the CoastGuard Function.
*: Part of the FGC's vessels have racing stripes.

#○ In 1998*, the Coast Guard Service was set up as part of the Border Agency.
○ In 2009, the Border Police Maritime Division and the Navy were integrated.
#: The Agency's vessels show their national flags on both sides of the hulls instead of racing
stripes.

#○ "Das Maritime Sicherheitszentrum" (MSZ)/the Maritime Safety and Security Centre(MSSC), as a coordinating body, is coordinating the maritime operational assets ofrelevant agencies (called "Küstenwache des Bundes" (Federal Coast Guard)) through"das Gemeinsame Lagezentrum See" (GLZ-See)/the Joint Emergency Reporting &Assessment Centre Sea (JERACS) that was set up in the MSZ.
○ The German Federal Police is one of the constituent agencies of the MSZ, GLZ-See, andthe maritime operational assets of relevant agencies ("Küstenwache des Bundes" (Federal
Coast Guard)).
○ In 1964*, the predecessor of the Federal Police Department for Maritime Security, theBorder Guard Sea was set up.
○ In 2007, the GLZ-See began its operations under the MSZ Network.
#: Relevant agencies' vessels for coast guard functions show a logo, "Küstenwache desBundes" and racing stripes of the hulls.

Federal Ministry of the Interior, Building
and Community

UP

1964*

Ghana Maritime Authority

Ministry of Transport

INDE

2002

O

Republic of Haiti

Service maritime et de Navigation d’Haiti（SEMANAH）

Ministry of Public Works, Transportand Communications

INDE

1982

W

25

Hellenic RepublicHellenic Coast Guard

Ministry for Maritime Affairs and Insular Policy INDE

1919

✓

G

✓

○ A newly established agency before World War II without being based on an existing
agency26

Republic of Iceland

Icelandic Coast Guard

Ministry of Justice
Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Defence)

INDE

1926

✓

G

✓

○ A newly established agency before World War II without being based on an existing
agency27

India

Indian Coast Guard

Ministry of Defence

INDE

1978

✓

W

✓

○ A newly established agency without being based on an existing agency✓○ In 1972, BAKORKAMLA (the Maritime Security Coordination Agency) was set up as acoordinating agency to coordinate relevant agencies responsible for ensuring maritime
safety and security.
○ In 2014*, by reorganizing BAKORKAMLA, BAKAMLA RI was set up and equipped with theoperational assets. BAKAMLA still continuously has the authority to use the maritime
operational assets of other related agencies.

22

Federal Republic of Germany

23

Republic of Ghana

24

28

Republic of Indonesia

German Federal Police

BAKAMLA RI（Indonesian Coast Guard）

Responsible directly to the President, andcoordinated by Coordinating Ministry for
Political, Law and Security Affairs

INDE
2014*
COR

✓

W

Explanatory Notes and Abbreviations for the State of Coast Guard Agencies, their Vessels, and Remarks
Organizational Form
INDE

An agency under an upper agency with no operational assets, not belonging to anyof the following agencies

UM

An agency with the operational assets under the umbrella of a military agency

YOE

An agency calling itself “coast
guard” in its English Name

W

White

Blank

UnknownG

Gray

UBG An agency with the operational assets under the umbrella of a border guard agency

O

Other thanWhite or Gray

USP An agency with the operational assets under the umbrella of a security police agency

Blank

Unknown

UP

An agency with the operational assets under the umbrella of a police agency

COR & One of the Lefts Dual Forms (COR & one of the left forms)

Blank

Unknown

Main Paint Color With or withoutof Vessels
Racing Stripes✓

COR

An agency coordinating otherrelevant coast guard agencies

English Name

RemarkWith Stripes a coast guard
agencyBlank Unknown✓

An agency that is comprehensively or partially engaged incoast guard functions by its maritime operational assets
such as vessels and aircraft in other-than-war situations

a coast guard
function

31 － 32

A function related to maritime safety, security,and environmental protection

Annex 1

Research on the Current State of the Coast Guard Agencies of the World
Background Info. of Agency
State

29

Italian Republic

Administrative body each Agency belongs to Organizational
Form

AgencyItalian Navy
Ministry of Infrastructure and Transport

Italian Coast Guard

UM

YOE

1865

VesselRemarkEnglish Co- Racing
Name lor Stripes

✓

W

✓

○ A lower agency of the Navy's main body exclusively executing the coast guard functions○ An agency developed from an agency responsible for relevant functions of the captain of
the port and others○ In1989, reorganized as a coast guard (Guardia Costiera)

1948

✓

W

✓

○ A newly established agency without being based on an existing agency○ The Agency has the authority to enforce the laws under the control of relevant
administrative organizations.
○ The Agency has been assisting various states in establishing and developing their coast
guard agencies for a long time.

INDE

2018

✓

G

✓

○ A newly established agency without being based on an existing agency

Office of the President

UP

1993*

Korea Coast Guard

Ministry of Oceans and Fisheries

INDE

1953

Malagasy Navy

Ministry of National Defense and
the Joint Staff of Malagasy Armed Forces

UM

1961

Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport, and
INDE
Tourism

30

Japan

Japan Coast Guard

31

Republic of Kenya

Kenya Coast Guard Service

Ministry of Interior and Coordination of
National Government

32

Republic of Kiribati

Kiribati Police Service

33

Republic of Korea

34

Republic of Madagascar

G✓

W○ In 1993*, the Police Maritime Unit was set up.
✓○ A newly established agency without being based on an existing agency

G

35

Malaysia

Malaysian Maritime Enforcement Agency

Ministry of Home Affairs

INDE

2006

✓

W

✓

○ A newly established agency without being based on an existing agency○ The MMEA also calls itself the "Malaysia Coast Guard" today.
○ The MMEA, the JCG, and the Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) are incollaboration to conduct training to coast guard officers of Southeast Asian and African
states at the MMEA training facility to enhance their ability to deal with maritime crimes.

36

Republic of Maldives

Maldives National Defense Force Coast Guard

Ministry of Defence and National Security

UM

1980

✓

G

✓

○ No navy, but the Agency exists as part of a military agency with military functions inaddition to the coast guard functions.

37

Republic of the Marshall Islands

Marshall Islands Police Department

G

✓

38

Republic of Mauritius

National Coast Guard

Mauritius Police Force

UP

G

✓

39

United Mexican States

Mexican Navy

Secretariat of the Navy

UM

G

*

*: Part of the Navy's vessels have a logo, "GUARDIA COSTERA" (coast guard), and racing
stripes.

Department of Marine Administration

Ministry of Transport and Communications

INDE

*

*: Myanmar Maritime Police Force's vessels have white hulls with racing stripes.

Office of the President

UP✓○ The Agency, which is mainly responsible for maritime administration, established the
Maritime Guard Command within the Agency that is executing the coast guard functions
such as anti-piracy operations while operating other agencies' vessels such as the Navy's.

40 Republic of the Union of Myanmar
41

Republic of Nauru

Nauru Police Service

42

New Zealand

New Zealand Defence Force43

Federal Republic of Nigeria

Nigerian Maritime Administration and
Safety Agency

44

Niue

Niue Police

45

Kingdom of Norway

Norwegian Coast Guard

UP

Ministry of Transportation

1987

✓

1930

UM

1941

G

INDE
COR

2006

W

UP
Royal Norwegian Navy Ministry of Defence

UM

O
1977

✓

○ A lower agency of the Navy's main body exclusively executing the coast guard functions○ The Agency has the authority to enforce the laws under the control of relevant
administrative organizations.

G

Explanatory Notes and Abbreviations for the State of Coast Guard Agencies, their Vessels, and Remarks
Organizational Form
INDE

An agency under an upper agency with no operational assets, not belonging to anyof the following agencies

UM

An agency with the operational assets under the umbrella of a military agency

YOE

An agency calling itself “coast
guard” in its English Name

W

White

Blank

UnknownG

Gray

UBG An agency with the operational assets under the umbrella of a border guard agency

O

Other thanWhite or Gray

USP An agency with the operational assets under the umbrella of a security police agency

Blank

Unknown

UP

An agency with the operational assets under the umbrella of a police agency

COR & One of the Lefts Dual Forms (COR & one of the left forms)

Blank

Unknown

Main Paint Color With or withoutof Vessels
Racing Stripes✓

COR

An agency coordinating otherrelevant coast guard agencies

English Name

RemarkWith Stripes a coast guard
agencyBlank Unknown✓

An agency that is comprehensively or partially engaged incoast guard functions by its maritime operational assets
such as vessels and aircraft in other-than-war situations

a coast guard
function

33 － 34

A function related to maritime safety, security,and environmental protection

Annex 1

Research on the Current State of the Coast Guard Agencies of the World
Background Info. of Agency
State

Administrative body each Agency belongs to Organizational
Form

AgencyYOE

VesselRemarkEnglish Co- Racing
Name lor Stripes

46

Islamic Republic of Pakistan

Pakistan Maritime Security Agency

Ministry of Defence

INDE

1987

W

✓

○ By Agency's maritime operational assets such as boats, the Agency is executing similarfunctions as agencies claiming to be "coast guard."○ The Agency has the authority to enforce the laws under the control of relevant
administrative organizations.

47

Republic of Palau

Bureau of Maritime Security
and Fish and Wildlife Protection

Ministry of Justice

INDE

1993

W

✓

○ By Agency's maritime operational assets such as boats, the Agency is executing similarfunctions as agencies claiming to be "coast guard."48

Independent State of
Papua New Guinea

Papua New Guinea Defence Force

Ministry of DefenceUM

49

Republic of Peru

General Directorate of Captaincies andCoast Guard （DICAPI）

Peruvian Navy Ministry of Defense

UM

1919

G

✓

○ A lower agency of the Navy's main body exclusively executing the coast guard functions

50

Republic of Poland

Polish Border Guard

Ministry of Interior and Administration

UBG

1991

O

✓

G
✓

○ With a structure under which the Chief of the Naval Staff concurrently serving as the
National Maritime Authority, which has both the Directorate-General of the Maritime
Authority and the General Command of the Maritime Police, the Navy is also involved in
the coast guard functions.

51

Portuguese Republic

Portuguese Navy

Ministry of DefenceUM

52

Romania

Romanian Border Police

General Inspectorate of Border Police
Ministry of Internal Affairs

UBG

1999

✓

W

✓

○ The maritime department of the State Border Service of the Romanian Border Police calls
itself "coast guard" in its English name.

53

Russian Federation

Border Guard Service of
the Federal Security Service of
the Russian Federation

The Federal Security Service of
the Russian Federation

UBG

1918

✓

O

✓

○ The maritime department of the Border Guard Service of the Federal Security Service of
the Russian Federation calls itself "coast guard" in their English name.
○ Some vessels of the Agency show a logo, "Coast Guard" in English on their hulls.
○ No navy, but the Agency exists as part of a military agency with military functions inaddition to the coast guard functions.
○ In 1997, the Coast Guard was transferred from the command of the Police to the St. Kitts
Nevis Defence Force and became the Saint Kitts and Nevis Defence Force Coast Guard.

54

Saint Christopher and Nevis

55 Saint Vincent and the Grenadines

GSaint Kitts and Nevis Defence Force Coast Guard

Ministry of National Security

UM

Saint Vincent and the Grenadines Coast GuardSaint Vincent and the Grenadines Police
Force
Ministry of National Security

UP

1980
2008

56

Independent State of Samoa

Samoa Police Service

Ministry of Police

UP

57

Kingdom of Saudi Arabia

Saudi Arabian Border Guards

Ministry of Interior

UBG

58

Republic of Senegal

High Authority for the Coordination of Maritime
Safety, Maritime Security and Protection of the
Marine Environment（HASSMAR）

Secretary General of
the Presidency of Senegal

COR

2006

59

Republic of Seychelles

Seychelles Coast Guard

President Office Department of Defence

UM

1993

60

Republic of Sierra Leone

Sierra Leone Maritime Administration

Ministry of Transport and Aviation

INDE

2000

61

Republic of Singapore

Singapore Police Coast Guard

Singapore Police Force
Ministry of Home Affairs

UP

1993*

62

Federal Republic of Somalia

Somali Coast Guard

Ministry of Ports and Somali Navy

✓

G

✓

✓

G

✓

G
G

✓
○ The Agency is planning and coordinating the coast guard functions as a whole.
*: Part of the vessels of relevant agencies have racing stripes.

*✓○ No navy, but the Agency exists as part of a military agency with military functions inaddition to the coast guard functions.
○ The Seychelles Coast Guard is a transition of the Navy's entire organization.

G
O

✓

O

○ In1993*, the Marine Division was upgraded to set up the Police Coast Guard.

✓

Explanatory Notes and Abbreviations for the State of Coast Guard Agencies, their Vessels, and Remarks
Organizational Form
INDE

An agency under an upper agency with no operational assets, not belonging to anyof the following agencies

UM

An agency with the operational assets under the umbrella of a military agency

YOE

An agency calling itself “coast
guard” in its English Name

W

White

Blank

UnknownG

Gray

UBG An agency with the operational assets under the umbrella of a border guard agency

O

Other thanWhite or Gray

USP An agency with the operational assets under the umbrella of a security police agency

Blank

Unknown

UP

An agency with the operational assets under the umbrella of a police agency

COR & One of the Lefts Dual Forms (COR & one of the left forms)

Blank

Unknown

Main Paint Color With or withoutof Vessels
Racing Stripes✓

COR

An agency coordinating otherrelevant coast guard agencies

English Name

RemarkWith Stripes a coast guard
agencyBlank Unknown✓

An agency that is comprehensively or partially engaged incoast guard functions by its maritime operational assets
such as vessels and aircraft in other-than-war situations

a coast guard
function

35 － 36

A function related to maritime safety, security,and environmental protection

Annex 1

Research on the Current State of the Coast Guard Agencies of the World
Background Info. of Agency

63

Administrative body each Agency belongs to Organizational
Form

State

AgencyRepublic of South Africa

South African Maritime Safety Authority

64

Kingdom of Spain

Maritime Service (Servicio Maritimo)

65

Democratic Socialist
Republic of Sri Lanka

Sri Lanka Coast Guard

Department of Transport

INDE

YOE

English Co- Racing
Name lor Stripes

1998

O

Civil Guard (Guardia Civil) Ministry of Interior USP 1992*

Ministry of Defence

INDE

Vessel2010✓

RemarkO✓○ The Maritime Service (Servicio Maritimo), a lower agency of the Civil Guard (Guardia
Civil), the security police set up separately from the general police, is responsible for thecoast guard functions.
○ In 1992*, the Maritime Service (Servicio Maritimo) was set up.

W✓○ A newly established agency without being based on an existing agency*○ The Maritime Enforcement Coordination Center was established in the Navy in 1997 tocoordinate relevant agencies related to the coast guard functions, but in 2019, the center
was re-incorporated into the Maritime Enforcement Command Center to integratecommand.
*: Part of the vessels of relevant agencies are white and have racing stripes.

66

Kingdom of Thailand

Thailand Maritime Enforcement Command Center（Thai- MECC）

Prime Minister's Office

COR

2019

*

67

The Democratic Republic ofTimor-Leste

National Police of Timor-Leste

Ministry of Interior

UP

2001

W

68

Kingdom of Tonga

His Majesty's Armed Forces

UM

1972

G

69

Republic of Trinidad and Tobago

Trinidad and Tobago Coast Guard

Ministry of National Security

UM

1962

✓

G

✓

○ Trinidad and Tobago launched a coast guard as part of the national defense forces withoutestablishing a navy when it became independent in 1962.

70

Republic of Turkey

Turkish Coast Guard Command

Ministry of Interior

INDE

1859

✓

W

✓

○ Developed from a customs department○ In1982, the Turkish Coast Guard Command was set up.

71

TuvaluTuvalu Police Service

Ministry of Justice, Foreign Affairs
and Communications

UP

1994*

72

United Kingdom of Great Britain
andNorthern Ireland

Her Majesty's Coastguard

Department for Transport
Maritime and Coastguard Agency

INDE

1822

73

United States of America

United States Coast Guard

Department of Homeland Security

INDE

1790

74

Republic of Vanuatu

Vanuatu Police Force

Ministry of Internal Affairs

UP

1985

75

Socialist Republic of Viet Nam

Vietnam Coast Guard

Ministry of National Defense

INDE

1998

G

○ In 1994*, the Police Maritime Wing was set up.

✓○ In 1998, the Marine Safety Agency and the Coastguard Agency were merged to become
the Maritime and Coastguard Agency.

✓○ Developed from a customs department○ As the most advanced coast guard agency, the Agency has been assisting to enhancevarious states' coast guard capabilities for a long time.
○ In 1915, the Revenue Cutter Service merged with the U.S. Life-Saving Service and wasofficially renamed the Coast Guard.

✓

W

✓

G

✓

W

✓

○ The Agency developed from a department of the Navy, and, in 2013, it became
independent of the Navy.

Explanatory Notes and Abbreviations for the State of Coast Guard Agencies, their Vessels, and Remarks
Organizational Form
INDE

An agency under an upper agency with no operational assets, not belonging to anyof the following agencies

UM

An agency with the operational assets under the umbrella of a military agency

YOE

An agency calling itself “coast
guard” in its English Name

W

White

Blank

UnknownG

Gray

UBG An agency with the operational assets under the umbrella of a border guard agency

O

Other thanWhite or Gray

USP An agency with the operational assets under the umbrella of a security police agency

Blank

Unknown

UP

An agency with the operational assets under the umbrella of a police agency

COR & One of the Lefts Dual Forms (COR & one of the left forms)

Blank

Unknown

Main Paint Color With or withoutof Vessels
Racing Stripes✓

COR

An agency coordinating otherrelevant coast guard agencies

English Name

RemarkWith Stripes a coast guard
agencyBlank Unknown✓

An agency that is comprehensively or partially engaged incoast guard functions by its maritime operational assets
such as vessels and aircraft in other-than-war situations

a coast guard
function

37 － 38

A function related to maritime safety, security,and environmental protection

Photos of Various States’Coast Guard Agencies’Vessels

39

40

41

42

43

44

Appendix 1

Participants of Nations, Regions, and International Organizations of the First Coast Guard Global Summit

45

46

Appendix 2

CHARMAN’S SUMMARY
OF THE FIRST COAST GUARD GROBAL SUMMIT

47

48

49

Appendix 3
参加国・機関Participating Countries and Agencies of the Second Coast Guard Global Summit

51

52

53

Appendix 4

55

56

57

This document shall not be copied or reprinted without permission.
8 / 2021 issue

Edited & issued by

JCGF (Japan Coast Guard Foundation)

MAEDA Central-Bid.5F, 3-3-2, Minato, Chuo-ku, Tokyo, 104-0043 Japan
Tel +81-3-3297-7580

Fax +81-3-3297-7590

Edited & Issued By JCGF