Download the BCA iPhone app
BCA has developed an iPhone app that can be used to plan tours, identify
avalanche problems, and facilitate group communication. Available from the
iTunes Apps Store, it provides the following tools:• Tour Planner: Locate your touring destination on the topo map, then plot

Human Factors andGroup Communicationeach leg by double-clicking on each waypoint. The Tour Planner provides themileage and vertical feet (or meters) for eachleg, and a total time estimate for the complete
tour. You can move, add waypoints and update
the data with actual measurements once inthe field. Store variations of each tour plan, incase conditions change. These tour plans, withaccompanying notes, can be saved for futurereference.

• 3-in-1 Measuring Tool: Measure aspect,elevation, and slope angle, then store anddirectly compare them to the avalanche
forecast in your chosen region.

• Avalanche Forecasts: Updates the avalanche
forecast each time the app is turned on, so
they can be viewed even in areas with no cell
reception. Pre-select forecasts from a menu ofavalanche centers worldwide.

• AIARE Tools: A menu of risk-management tools including the AIARE Decision
Making Framework, AIARE Communication Checklist, and AIARE Observation
Reference.

• Rescue Guides: Bulleted summaries of how to perform an avalanche rescue,

including videos of proper beacon searching and shoveling technique. A section
on “Calling for Help” provides a list of information to gather at the scene of an
accident. It auto-populates the GPS coordinates, then allows the user to store all
the recorded information for transmission to emergency personnel.

• Float Pack Refill Locations: Locates BCA retailers and refill centers for BCA’s
Float avalanche airbags.

• BCA Products: Links to BCA’s website for researching and ordering BCA products.
We look forward to your feedback. Please send comments to:appfeedback@backcountryaccess.com

Including two-way radio protocols
for the backcountry rider
If you’re a backcountry rider, you know by now that you need to carry a beacon, shovel,
probe, and airbag into the backcountry–and take an avalanche course. You’ve probably
also learned that snow science is inexact: snow stability can be difficult to evaluate anddecision-making is never black-and-white. The biggest variable in the field is often withinyour own group: humans.
Managing human factors is just as important in the backcountry as observing thesnowpack. In fact, most avalanche fatalities are the direct result of mistakes in decisionmaking caused by human factors and communication. This is particularly prevalent ingroups of well-educated, expert backcountry riders, including the well-publicized incident
near Stevens Pass, Washington in February, 2012.
This pamphlet provides an introduction to the human factors that can often lead to poor
decisions in the backcountry. We then focus on the process of promoting good planning,communication, and teamwork–and the use of important communication tools, including
two-way radios.

What are “human factors?”

www.backcountryaccess.com

www.avtraining.org

www.glissemedia.com“We’re all human.” This is a common explanation when people make inconsequential
mistakes that you wouldn’t expect: a fender bender, losing your keys, or catching an edge
on a groomed run. Even the most experienced snow safety professional is susceptible
to making mistakes. In the avalanche setting, “human factors” are often used to explain
decisions that are made based on psychological rather than objective criteria. Human
factors have a tendency to cloud our judgment and cause us to ignore obvious signs ofavalanche danger.

Researchers and educators have identified the following human factors as the mostcommon in contributing to avalanche accidents1, 2, 3.

Attitude

Pride, ego, and ”summit fever” can all create pressures that override good decision
making. When a group is intent on reaching a goal, this can lead to “tunnel vision,”or a narrow focus on the goal without seriously weighing the hazards.

Familiarity/Complacency“Been there done that.” Familiarity with a location can often lead to a false sense of
security. This can lead to riskier decision making.

Testosterone

Males tend to engage in riskier behavior than females—especially when there’s a female toimpress in the group.

Peer Pressure/Herding Instinct

This was the biggest factor in the Tunnel Creek incident. In large groups, peer pressure is more
intense and individuals are less likely to voice their concerns than in smaller groups. The groupoften follows a de facto leader assumed to have more skills and knowledge, but who may not
in reality. In a healthy group, members constantly challenge each others’ assumptions.

Scarcity/First Tracks

There is a finite amount of terrain to ride–and often more demand than supply.
This competition for fresh tracks is known to impact sound decision making.

“Blue Sky Syndrome”

Like familiarity, nice weather can also lead to a false sense of security. Many accidents
occur on bluebird days immediately following a storm. Conversely, in bad weather,groups often rush decisions in their haste to “get back to the barn.”

Poor Planning

Unrealistic assumptions and goals–with no backup plan–can lead to a stressful anddangerous “epic” in the mountains. Proactive tour planning is crucial to prevent situations
that can result in hasty and drastic decisions.

Lack of Communication

Clear verbal communication within the party is critical in preventing accidents and is acommon denominator in most accidents involving human error. Recently published researchfrom Backcountry Access highlights numerous case studies in which communication
gaps directly led to fatalities in avalanches and tree well incidents.4 The second half of thispamphlet, “Two-way radio protocols for the backcountry rider,” addresses the importanceof two-way radios and how to use them to maximize both safety and powder-chasing
enjoyment. These devices are essential tools for facilitating teamwork within your group.
1 McCammon, I., “Heuristic Traps in Recreational Avalanche Accidents: Evidence and Implications.

Avalanche News: No. 68, spring 2004.

2 Atkins, D., Human Factors In Avalanche Accidents, 2000

3 Fredston, J., Fesler, D., and Tremper, B., “The Human Factor - Lessons For Avalanche Education,” ISSW 1994
4 Edgerly, B, “Talking the Talk: Human Factors, Communication, and the Next Frontier in Snow Safety.”• When you finish communicating a message, say “over” to let the group know you are

done. “Dave to the whole crew, The avalanche has stopped, I have a last scene point,
standby…over.” If your radio sends and automatic “Roger beep” at the end of eachtransmission, this may be unnecessary.
• When you receive a message AND understand it, reply with ‘Roger’ and repeat the
key points to ensure your message was heard correctly. “Roger Dave, this is Kim…theavalanche has stopped, you have a last seen points, standing by for further instructions.”- If you do not understand a message, ask for it to be repeated.
		“Dave this is Bob…please say again!...over”- To keep communications to a minimum, it is sometimes best to confirm a 				 message by saying “copy.” “Jane, this is Scott…copy.”- Use the term “relay” when you are transferring a message through someone. 		
		 Typically it is best not to relay UNLESS you are asked to. “Dan, this Jane…relay to		 Scott…victim is conscious and has a broken leg…over.” (in this example Scott may 				 be at a position where he has cell phone service to a search-and-rescue team.)- Constantly monitor how effective communications are. Do not speak if it does not		 add new information. Try not to talk over other users; be patient and wait to transmit.
- Watch your language: profanity is not only illegal, but may be offensive to other users.

Strategies for using two-way radios in an avalanche
emergency:

Hopefully by using two-way radios in your team you have managed to AVOID an
emergency situation; sharing of information and real-time guiding through the radio cansignificantly reduce the chance of mishap. But if you do find yourself in an emergency,
two-way radios can help coordinate the rescue process in the following ways:

1. Organize and direct self-rescue efforts within your touring party.
2. Relay to another party member who has a cell phone connection toa search-and-rescue team.
3. Communicate to other users on the same or other channels.
There is no guarantee you can contact another group of two-way radio users,
especially in the backcountry.

Some things to consider when using two-way radios during
a touring party’s self-rescue operation:

Consider the big picture. Even if a touring party self-rescues a victim(s), serious backcountry
accidents typically require the assistance of a search-and-rescue team for treatment and/or evacuation. Touring parties need to be aware of their communications’ link to outside
rescue resources–typically by cell phone. Before dropping into a line, check and see if you
have cell service (reception is typically better on ridges than in valleys or gullies). If there
is an emergency, the two-way radios can be used to “relay” critical information to a teammember who has cell service and can contact a search-and-rescue team.
NOTE: When searching with an avalanche beacon, always keep it a minimum of 16” (40 cm)
away from electronic devices, including radios.

ISSW Proceedings, 2012.

1

6

Emergency two-way radio uses for the backcountry:• Warn a user of an ongoing event. “AVALANCHE, GO RIGHT”• Coordinate rescue efforts including:- Guide rescuers to last seen point.
		- Guide rescuers to victim’s location.
		- Coordinate searcher position and spacing.

• Relay communication for outside rescue resources to another party member with acell phone. Requires pre-planning so that you have one party member in a known location
with BOTH cell service and radio reception.

Keep in mind that reception with a two-way radio usually requires line-of-sight between
units. While the range on an FRS radio can be up to five miles distance, it is severely
degraded if there are obstacles, especially ridgelines.

Establishing a risk-management process
While human error is inevitable and often inconsequential, in avalanche terrain it can
result in tragedy. There’s a process of communicating and managing risk that you don’t
see behind the scenes in the ski and snowboard films. Professional guides and athletes
know that to stay alive they need to have a process.
There are many formal processes that are have been developed by avalanche
professionals to facilitate good decision making:

AIARE Decision Making Framework

Developed by the American Institute of Avalanche Research and Education (AIARE),
this tool provides an overview of the decision making process necessary to manage
risk in the backcountry. A team traveling into avalanche terrain works to implement thedecision making process through planning, observing and communicating:Selecting an open channel:

The BC Link™ and other two-way radios use the publicly available FRS and GMRS
frequencies designated by the Federal Communications Commission. As these are public
frequencies, all users must “share” the available frequencies. When you turn on yourradios at the touring location, listen for at least 30 seconds to determine the channel isvacant. The informal rule is “first come, first served” so if someone is using a channel, finda vacant channel. If you cannot find a vacant channel and have to share, use the protocols
below and be very brief to respect other users.

Travel Wisely
Manage Group & Use Travel
Techniques To Further Reduce Risk

Choose Terrain
Identify Options & Evaluate Consequences

General two-way radio communication protocols:

When talking on two-way radios, the following protocols will ensure your team members
have the best chance of effective emergency and non-emergency communications.

• Remember that everything you say is public.
• Think of what you want to say BEFORE using the radio.
• Hold the transmit button down for one second before speaking into the mic.
• Speak clearly and be brief.
• NEVER transmit anything to a moving skier/boarder/snowmobiler UNLESS it is an

Discuss Group Goals, Experience, Abilities
Share Tasks & Responsibilities
Travel Together, Decide Together, Build Consensus

Avalanches & Observations Reference
Field Observations Page

Plan

Communication Checklist
Review The Day

emergency! “STEVE…AVALANCHE…GO RIGHT, GO RIGHT!!!!”• The single exception to never transmitting to a moving skier/boarder/snowmobiler iswhen the person in motion has pre-arranged with another party member to help guide
him on his line. Use ONE party member for guiding by radio ONLY!

Review Observations & Team
Evaluate Terrain Travel Options
Plan Emergency Response• When giving directions like this, always state where TO go, not where NOT to go.
• Keep your mouth one to two inches away from the mic. Holding your mouth against

As subsets of its Decision Making Framework, AIARE has developed a Trip Plan andCommunication Checklist to help identify avalanche problems and discuss them among
the group. These skills are best learned in a Level 1 AIARE avalanche course. They canalso be found in BCA’s new Backcountry Assessor iPhone app.

“Karen…traverse right, rocks below” or “Karen…traverse left for the best snow”

the mic often results in distorted or garbled communications. Try speaking across themic (at 90 degrees) if your communications are garbled.
• Slow down your speech and talk in a steady voice. In a stressful situations mostpeople tend to talk too fast. Think first, then talk.
• Clearly identify the intended recipient to get their attention, identify yourself.
Then wait for their response so you know they are listening.“Jane, this is Dan”………
“Dan, go for Jane”• Break up long messages into several shorter communications. This gives other team

5

Teamwork

Observe

Observe Avalanches, Snowpack, Weather
Identify Patterns & Trends (Regional, Local)

members a chance to contribute, add additional information, or request you to repeat
the message.
• If due to an emergency you need to interrupt general communications, use the word
“break.” “BREAK, BREAK, BREAK...AVALANCHE! All eyes on slope!!!” The word, “break,”is sometimes also used to separate portions of a very long message.

Trip Plan

Avalanche Hazard Evaluation Checklist

Developed by Alaskan rescue specialists Jill Fredston and Doug Fesler,5 this has been
the gold standard in backcountry decision making for over 25 years. The user evaluatesa concise menu of parameters related to the four key variables in avalanche hazard
evaluation: weather, terrain, snowpack, and human factors. By assigning red, green
or yellow-light status to each, the user is likely to make more objective “Go/No Go”
decisions.
5 Fredston, J. and Fesler, D., Snow Sense: A Guide to Evaluating Snow Avalanche Hazard. Alaska Mountain

Safety Center, 2011.

2

Maintaining Contact

Good decision making is the result not only of good planning, but good group
communication. Team members should be assertive and involve everyone in decision
making while respecting individual veto power. To do this, you must always maintain voice
and sight contact. If this is lost–and regrouping points are not respected–there’s a goodchance the group will get spread out and unable to share observations.
If both sight and voice contact are lost, then two-way radio communication is essential.
Do not rely on cell phones: cell coverage is unreliable in the backcountry. They are also
limited to one-on-one communication–versus true group communication. Two-way radios
provide real-time, group-accessible communication not available by cell or text.
The following section provides information on how to most effectively use your two-way
radios to facilitate group communication and, in the worst case, rescue operations.

Two-way radio protocols
for the backcountry rider
The advent of radios designed for backcountry skiers, boarders, and snowmobilers has
given touring parties a new tool that not only allows them to reduce risk, but also enhancetheir experience by sharing run quality information. While these radios can be very useful,team members need to exercise some discipline in their use so they remain as usefultools. This guide is designed to help users learn when and how to use these radios in the
backcountry. Two-way radios serve three important functions in the backcountry:

1. Allow team members to share information on the best conditions;
2. Allow team members to warn of hazards and dangers;
3. Facilitate more efficient rescue operations.

Avaluator™

Canadian professionals recommend using a Canadian Avalanche Centre tool called theAvaluator™ Trip Planner. Users correlate the avalanche danger rating for the day with apre-determined terrain rating for the tour they are planning. This facilitates the evaluationof red/green/yellow-light conditions. Of course, it’s up to the user to determine which ofthese levels fall within their risk tolerance “comfort zone.”

BC Link from
Backcountry Access

Non-Emergency two-way radio uses for the backcountry:
Good

Bad

• Share information on where the best conditions are.

• Telling your friends how great
your line was.

• Guide fellow team members to the best parts of a run.
• Guide fellow team members to areas of safety.
• Warn fellow team members about hazards on a run.
• Guide fellow team members to avoid hazards on a run.

• Cheering your buddy on
DURING a run.
• Extended non-criticalcommunication.
• Communication not related
to backcountry travel.

34

Maintaining Contact

Good decision making is the result not only of good planning, but good group
communication. Team members should be assertive and involve everyone in decision
making while respecting individual veto power. To do this, you must always maintain voice
and sight contact. If this is lost–and regrouping points are not respected–there’s a goodchance the group will get spread out and unable to share observations.
If both sight and voice contact are lost, then two-way radio communication is essential.
Do not rely on cell phones: cell coverage is unreliable in the backcountry. They are also
limited to one-on-one communication–versus true group communication. Two-way radios
provide real-time, group-accessible communication not available by cell or text.
The following section provides information on how to most effectively use your two-way
radios to facilitate group communication and, in the worst case, rescue operations.

Two-way radio protocols
for the backcountry rider
The advent of radios designed for backcountry skiers, boarders, and snowmobilers has
given touring parties a new tool that not only allows them to reduce risk, but also enhancetheir experience by sharing run quality information. While these radios can be very useful,team members need to exercise some discipline in their use so they remain as usefultools. This guide is designed to help users learn when and how to use these radios in the
backcountry. Two-way radios serve three important functions in the backcountry:

1. Allow team members to share information on the best conditions;
2. Allow team members to warn of hazards and dangers;
3. Facilitate more efficient rescue operations.

Avaluator™

Canadian professionals recommend using a Canadian Avalanche Centre tool called theAvaluator™ Trip Planner. Users correlate the avalanche danger rating for the day with apre-determined terrain rating for the tour they are planning. This facilitates the evaluationof red/green/yellow-light conditions. Of course, it’s up to the user to determine which ofthese levels fall within their risk tolerance “comfort zone.”

BC Link from
Backcountry Access

Non-Emergency two-way radio uses for the backcountry:
Good

Bad

• Share information on where the best conditions are.

• Telling your friends how great
your line was.

• Guide fellow team members to the best parts of a run.
• Guide fellow team members to areas of safety.
• Warn fellow team members about hazards on a run.
• Guide fellow team members to avoid hazards on a run.

• Cheering your buddy on
DURING a run.
• Extended non-criticalcommunication.
• Communication not related
to backcountry travel.

3

4

Emergency two-way radio uses for the backcountry:• Warn a user of an ongoing event. “AVALANCHE, GO RIGHT”• Coordinate rescue efforts including:- Guide rescuers to last seen point.
		- Guide rescuers to victim’s location.
		- Coordinate searcher position and spacing.

• Relay communication for outside rescue resources to another party member with acell phone. Requires pre-planning so that you have one party member in a known location
with BOTH cell service and radio reception.

Keep in mind that reception with a two-way radio usually requires line-of-sight between
units. While the range on an FRS radio can be up to five miles distance, it is severely
degraded if there are obstacles, especially ridgelines.

Establishing a risk-management process
While human error is inevitable and often inconsequential, in avalanche terrain it can
result in tragedy. There’s a process of communicating and managing risk that you don’t
see behind the scenes in the ski and snowboard films. Professional guides and athletes
know that to stay alive they need to have a process.
There are many formal processes that are have been developed by avalanche
professionals to facilitate good decision making:

AIARE Decision Making Framework

Developed by the American Institute of Avalanche Research and Education (AIARE),
this tool provides an overview of the decision making process necessary to manage
risk in the backcountry. A team traveling into avalanche terrain works to implement thedecision making process through planning, observing and communicating:Selecting an open channel:

The BC Link™ and other two-way radios use the publicly available FRS and GMRS
frequencies designated by the Federal Communications Commission. As these are public
frequencies, all users must “share” the available frequencies. When you turn on yourradios at the touring location, listen for at least 30 seconds to determine the channel isvacant. The informal rule is “first come, first served” so if someone is using a channel, finda vacant channel. If you cannot find a vacant channel and have to share, use the protocols
below and be very brief to respect other users.

Travel Wisely
Manage Group & Use Travel
Techniques To Further Reduce Risk

Choose Terrain
Identify Options & Evaluate Consequences

General two-way radio communication protocols:

When talking on two-way radios, the following protocols will ensure your team members
have the best chance of effective emergency and non-emergency communications.

• Remember that everything you say is public.
• Think of what you want to say BEFORE using the radio.
• Hold the transmit button down for one second before speaking into the mic.
• Speak clearly and be brief.
• NEVER transmit anything to a moving skier/boarder/snowmobiler UNLESS it is an

Discuss Group Goals, Experience, Abilities
Share Tasks & Responsibilities
Travel Together, Decide Together, Build Consensus

Avalanches & Observations Reference
Field Observations Page

Plan

Communication Checklist
Review The Day

emergency! “STEVE…AVALANCHE…GO RIGHT, GO RIGHT!!!!”• The single exception to never transmitting to a moving skier/boarder/snowmobiler iswhen the person in motion has pre-arranged with another party member to help guide
him on his line. Use ONE party member for guiding by radio ONLY!

Review Observations & Team
Evaluate Terrain Travel Options
Plan Emergency Response• When giving directions like this, always state where TO go, not where NOT to go.
• Keep your mouth one to two inches away from the mic. Holding your mouth against

As subsets of its Decision Making Framework, AIARE has developed a Trip Plan andCommunication Checklist to help identify avalanche problems and discuss them among
the group. These skills are best learned in a Level 1 AIARE avalanche course. They canalso be found in BCA’s new Backcountry Assessor iPhone app.

“Karen…traverse right, rocks below” or “Karen…traverse left for the best snow”

the mic often results in distorted or garbled communications. Try speaking across themic (at 90 degrees) if your communications are garbled.
• Slow down your speech and talk in a steady voice. In a stressful situations mostpeople tend to talk too fast. Think first, then talk.
• Clearly identify the intended recipient to get their attention, identify yourself.
Then wait for their response so you know they are listening.“Jane, this is Dan”………
“Dan, go for Jane”• Break up long messages into several shorter communications. This gives other team

5

Teamwork

Observe

Observe Avalanches, Snowpack, Weather
Identify Patterns & Trends (Regional, Local)

members a chance to contribute, add additional information, or request you to repeat
the message.
• If due to an emergency you need to interrupt general communications, use the word
“break.” “BREAK, BREAK, BREAK...AVALANCHE! All eyes on slope!!!” The word, “break,”is sometimes also used to separate portions of a very long message.

Trip Plan

Avalanche Hazard Evaluation Checklist

Developed by Alaskan rescue specialists Jill Fredston and Doug Fesler,5 this has been
the gold standard in backcountry decision making for over 25 years. The user evaluatesa concise menu of parameters related to the four key variables in avalanche hazard
evaluation: weather, terrain, snowpack, and human factors. By assigning red, green
or yellow-light status to each, the user is likely to make more objective “Go/No Go”
decisions.
5 Fredston, J. and Fesler, D., Snow Sense: A Guide to Evaluating Snow Avalanche Hazard. Alaska Mountain

Safety Center, 2011.

2

Researchers and educators have identified the following human factors as the mostcommon in contributing to avalanche accidents1, 2, 3.

Attitude

Pride, ego, and ”summit fever” can all create pressures that override good decision
making. When a group is intent on reaching a goal, this can lead to “tunnel vision,”or a narrow focus on the goal without seriously weighing the hazards.

Familiarity/Complacency“Been there done that.” Familiarity with a location can often lead to a false sense of
security. This can lead to riskier decision making.

Testosterone

Males tend to engage in riskier behavior than females—especially when there’s a female toimpress in the group.

Peer Pressure/Herding Instinct

This was the biggest factor in the Tunnel Creek incident. In large groups, peer pressure is more
intense and individuals are less likely to voice their concerns than in smaller groups. The groupoften follows a de facto leader assumed to have more skills and knowledge, but who may not
in reality. In a healthy group, members constantly challenge each others’ assumptions.

Scarcity/First Tracks

There is a finite amount of terrain to ride–and often more demand than supply.
This competition for fresh tracks is known to impact sound decision making.

“Blue Sky Syndrome”

Like familiarity, nice weather can also lead to a false sense of security. Many accidents
occur on bluebird days immediately following a storm. Conversely, in bad weather,groups often rush decisions in their haste to “get back to the barn.”

Poor Planning

Unrealistic assumptions and goals–with no backup plan–can lead to a stressful anddangerous “epic” in the mountains. Proactive tour planning is crucial to prevent situations
that can result in hasty and drastic decisions.

Lack of Communication

Clear verbal communication within the party is critical in preventing accidents and is acommon denominator in most accidents involving human error. Recently published researchfrom Backcountry Access highlights numerous case studies in which communication
gaps directly led to fatalities in avalanches and tree well incidents.4 The second half of thispamphlet, “Two-way radio protocols for the backcountry rider,” addresses the importanceof two-way radios and how to use them to maximize both safety and powder-chasing
enjoyment. These devices are essential tools for facilitating teamwork within your group.
1 McCammon, I., “Heuristic Traps in Recreational Avalanche Accidents: Evidence and Implications.

Avalanche News: No. 68, spring 2004.

2 Atkins, D., Human Factors In Avalanche Accidents, 2000

3 Fredston, J., Fesler, D., and Tremper, B., “The Human Factor - Lessons For Avalanche Education,” ISSW 1994
4 Edgerly, B, “Talking the Talk: Human Factors, Communication, and the Next Frontier in Snow Safety.”• When you finish communicating a message, say “over” to let the group know you are

done. “Dave to the whole crew, The avalanche has stopped, I have a last scene point,
standby…over.” If your radio sends and automatic “Roger beep” at the end of eachtransmission, this may be unnecessary.
• When you receive a message AND understand it, reply with ‘Roger’ and repeat the
key points to ensure your message was heard correctly. “Roger Dave, this is Kim…theavalanche has stopped, you have a last seen points, standing by for further instructions.”- If you do not understand a message, ask for it to be repeated.
		“Dave this is Bob…please say again!...over”- To keep communications to a minimum, it is sometimes best to confirm a 				 message by saying “copy.” “Jane, this is Scott…copy.”- Use the term “relay” when you are transferring a message through someone. 		
		 Typically it is best not to relay UNLESS you are asked to. “Dan, this Jane…relay to		 Scott…victim is conscious and has a broken leg…over.” (in this example Scott may 				 be at a position where he has cell phone service to a search-and-rescue team.)- Constantly monitor how effective communications are. Do not speak if it does not		 add new information. Try not to talk over other users; be patient and wait to transmit.
- Watch your language: profanity is not only illegal, but may be offensive to other users.

Strategies for using two-way radios in an avalanche
emergency:

Hopefully by using two-way radios in your team you have managed to AVOID an
emergency situation; sharing of information and real-time guiding through the radio cansignificantly reduce the chance of mishap. But if you do find yourself in an emergency,
two-way radios can help coordinate the rescue process in the following ways:

1. Organize and direct self-rescue efforts within your touring party.
2. Relay to another party member who has a cell phone connection toa search-and-rescue team.
3. Communicate to other users on the same or other channels.
There is no guarantee you can contact another group of two-way radio users,
especially in the backcountry.

Some things to consider when using two-way radios during
a touring party’s self-rescue operation:

Consider the big picture. Even if a touring party self-rescues a victim(s), serious backcountry
accidents typically require the assistance of a search-and-rescue team for treatment and/or evacuation. Touring parties need to be aware of their communications’ link to outside
rescue resources–typically by cell phone. Before dropping into a line, check and see if you
have cell service (reception is typically better on ridges than in valleys or gullies). If there
is an emergency, the two-way radios can be used to “relay” critical information to a teammember who has cell service and can contact a search-and-rescue team.
NOTE: When searching with an avalanche beacon, always keep it a minimum of 16” (40 cm)
away from electronic devices, including radios.

ISSW Proceedings, 2012.

1

6

Download the BCA iPhone app
BCA has developed an iPhone app that can be used to plan tours, identify
avalanche problems, and facilitate group communication. Available from the
iTunes Apps Store, it provides the following tools:• Tour Planner: Locate your touring destination on the topo map, then plot

Human Factors andGroup Communicationeach leg by double-clicking on each waypoint. The Tour Planner provides themileage and vertical feet (or meters) for eachleg, and a total time estimate for the complete
tour. You can move, add waypoints and update
the data with actual measurements once inthe field. Store variations of each tour plan, incase conditions change. These tour plans, withaccompanying notes, can be saved for futurereference.

• 3-in-1 Measuring Tool: Measure aspect,elevation, and slope angle, then store anddirectly compare them to the avalanche
forecast in your chosen region.

• Avalanche Forecasts: Updates the avalanche
forecast each time the app is turned on, so
they can be viewed even in areas with no cell
reception. Pre-select forecasts from a menu ofavalanche centers worldwide.

• AIARE Tools: A menu of risk-management tools including the AIARE Decision
Making Framework, AIARE Communication Checklist, and AIARE Observation
Reference.

• Rescue Guides: Bulleted summaries of how to perform an avalanche rescue,

including videos of proper beacon searching and shoveling technique. A section
on “Calling for Help” provides a list of information to gather at the scene of an
accident. It auto-populates the GPS coordinates, then allows the user to store all
the recorded information for transmission to emergency personnel.

• Float Pack Refill Locations: Locates BCA retailers and refill centers for BCA’s
Float avalanche airbags.

• BCA Products: Links to BCA’s website for researching and ordering BCA products.
We look forward to your feedback. Please send comments to:appfeedback@backcountryaccess.com

Including two-way radio protocols
for the backcountry rider
If you’re a backcountry rider, you know by now that you need to carry a beacon, shovel,
probe, and airbag into the backcountry–and take an avalanche course. You’ve probably
also learned that snow science is inexact: snow stability can be difficult to evaluate anddecision-making is never black-and-white. The biggest variable in the field is often withinyour own group: humans.
Managing human factors is just as important in the backcountry as observing thesnowpack. In fact, most avalanche fatalities are the direct result of mistakes in decisionmaking caused by human factors and communication. This is particularly prevalent ingroups of well-educated, expert backcountry riders, including the well-publicized incident
near Stevens Pass, Washington in February, 2012.
This pamphlet provides an introduction to the human factors that can often lead to poor
decisions in the backcountry. We then focus on the process of promoting good planning,communication, and teamwork–and the use of important communication tools, including
two-way radios.

What are “human factors?”

www.backcountryaccess.com

www.avtraining.org

www.glissemedia.com“We’re all human.” This is a common explanation when people make inconsequential
mistakes that you wouldn’t expect: a fender bender, losing your keys, or catching an edge
on a groomed run. Even the most experienced snow safety professional is susceptible
to making mistakes. In the avalanche setting, “human factors” are often used to explain
decisions that are made based on psychological rather than objective criteria. Human
factors have a tendency to cloud our judgment and cause us to ignore obvious signs ofavalanche danger.