TRANSPORT POLICY INPERSPECTIVE : 2005
Preface
Automobiles made rapid advances in the last century, surpassing railways to take over the main roleof surface transport, and contributed greatly to the advancement of global socio-economic systems.
Therefore, the 20th Century is very much "the Century of Automobiles".
Automobiles are now playing a major role in moving people and transporting goods. Our lifestyles
and the economy are based upon the mobility provided by automobiles in all aspects of our society,from where we live and how we do business. Our "automobile-dependent society" has become thebase for more affluent lifestyles. On the other hand, road traffic problems including traffic accidents,
traffic congestion, and environmental problems such as global warming and air pollution, social
problems including the transport poor, urban sprawl and the decline of city centers, are widely
acknowledged as serious problems throughout the world.
Under these circumstances, we are reaching a major turning point in the movement toward a mature
motorized society for the 21st Century. Fortunately, advanced road traffic systems and next generation
motor vehicles that will be safer as well as more environmentally friendly are beginning to emerge.
These include technological innovations for motor vehicle themselves, such as less polluting andmore efficient hybrid motor vehicles, and the development of intelligent motor vehicles and roads thatuse ITS (Intelligent Transportation Systems) technology. In addition to the globalization of oureconomy, we must reassess the significance of roads and motor vehicle traffic systems in the overall
transportation system in Japan, where the society has become more urbanized while the total
population is declining and the population is aging rapidly. We must also solve a variety of existing
problems and move toward a road and motor vehicle transport system for a vibrant and sustainable
society.
The Japan Research Center for Transport Policy was founded in 1971. Since then, the Center (aprivate non-profit organization involving transportation specialists and researchers active inuniversities, private industry, government, and local governments) has been carrying out
interdisciplinary academic research focused on transport policies for roads and motor vehicles, andproviding educational activities and proposing policies regarding a comprehensive transport systemthat will contribute to the beneficial development of Japanese society.
Every year since the year 2000, with the full support of the Japan Automobile Manufacturers
Association, the Japan Research Center for Transport Policy has published "Research on Automobiles
and Transport - Environment and Policy" annually, a booklet giving a general view of the trends inpolicy and research concerning motor vehicles and road traffic in Japan. From last year, the Centerhas published the majority of the contents of the booklet in English.
The original work was completed mainly for Japanese interested in transportation problems.
Bearing in mind that the amount of information in English concerning transport of Japan is limited,
this booklet summarizes the current situation, policies and research trend in Japan and other countries
concerning transport, focusing mainly on Japan, and provides some basic statistical data. We intend
this booklet to provide comprehensive information that will be useful for those interested in thetransport policy of Japan. We hope that this booklet will be effectively used for a wide range ofeducational, research, and policy study activities in many nations.
Finally, we would like to express our sincere gratitude to the Japan Automobile Manufacturers
Association, which has given us its full support, and to all those who have given their valuable time inwriting or editing, or who have provided important data for inclusion in the booklet.
December 2005
Katsutoshi Ohta, Representative Director
Masahiro Sugiyama, Representative Director
Japan Research Center for Transport Policy

11Recent Trends in Japanese Transportation
Masahiro Sugiyama

1. Countermeasures for Natural Disasters

Chuetsu Earthquake(Collapsed lane on Kan-etsu Expressway)(Photograph: Japan Highway Public Corporation Hokuriku
Branch)2004 was a year with an unusually high occurrence of natural disasters.
There were 10 typhoons from June and the country was visited by heavy
rains in the Niigata/Fukushima region and Fukui region in July. The disasters
led to more than 230 dead or missing and almost 170,000 homes immersed
in water. In October, the Chuetsu Earthquake with an intensity of 7 rocked
the country, resulting in 40 deaths and the evacuation of over 100,000
people. In December, furthermore, the Sumatra-Andaman Earthquake andensuing tsunami, led to approximately 100,000 dead or missing in 10
countries around the Indian Ocean. Many Japanese were among the victims.
Faced with such a serious situation, the annual White Paper on Land,
Infrastructure and Transport in Japan 2005 published in fiscal 2004 mentions
the disaster recovery countermeasures and rebuilding support offered by thenational government and the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport
under the title of "Aiming to Build a Country Resilient to Disasters." This
attempt was made to actively respond to social needs, and discussion
includes actions taken against heavy rains and typhoons, earthquakes andtsunamis.
It is essential to quickly restore damaged lifelines such as transportation in
affected areas as stated in the White Paper. Confirmation made throughTraffic in Japan this year

Passengers(100 million
passenger
kilometers)

Traffic
volumeFreight(100 million
ton kilometers)

Number of automobiles
owned*(Thousands, annual)1)

Driving license holders**(Thousands)1)

FY2003

FY2004

Change(%)

Total
Passenger cars, etc.
Buses
Railways
Maritime
Aviation

14,255
7,566
862
3,822
39
839

14,265
7,551
864
3,850
40
833

0.1
-0.2
0.2
0.7
2.6
-0.7

Total
Motor vehicles
Railways
Coastal shipping
Aviation

5,707
3,120
221
2,356
10

5,639
3,219
228
2,182
10

-1.2
3.2
3.2
-7.4
0.0

Total
Passenger cars
TrucksBuses
Other

75,64054,571
17,342233
3,494

76,02055,28817,014
232
3,486

0.5
1.3
-1.9
-0.4
-0.2

Total
Male
Female77,46844,78632,682

78,24745,02033,227

1.0
0.5
1.7

8,344

8,344

0.0

High-standard arterial highways***(km)2)
1)

Improved national and prefectural roads (km, start of year)

131,327

132,4120.8

Accidents (Thousands)

948

952

0.4

Fatalities within 30 days

8,877

8,492

-4.3

Traffic accidents* Figures for end of March (Registered vehicles + light motor vehicles)** Figures for end of preceding December*** Figures for end of fiscal year
Note: The following sources were referred to for data.
1) Annual Report on Road Statistics
2) Road Handbook3) Traffic Statistics

8

TRANSPORT POLICY IN PERSPECTIVE 2005

horrible incidents of disasters is not necessarily appropriate, but it creates akeen awareness of the functions and roles of transportation in an open
economic society. Many people came to realize that today’s social andeconomic lifestyle cannot be maintained without transportation services.
This led to a reemergence of discussion on redundancy, but putting ideals
aside, discussion on transportation infrastructure cannot be realisticallycarried out independently from the issue of cost burden. It is necessary to
conduct investigations backed by the ability to procure financial resources
for infrastructure.
Whereas restoration of railways physically requires time, roads make up a
relatively dense network including local streets, and partly due to the fact
there is a high likelihood of rapid restoration, trucking services played asignificant role in logistics after disasters. This was one lesson that came outof the Kobe Earthquake that occurred ten years ago. There is a detailed
description on countermeasures made through road transportation during thisperiod in a special feature in the May 2005 edition of a journal "Kosoku
Doro to Jidosha [Expressways and Automobiles]". As natural disasters arelikely to occur in the future, it is necessary to learn from the past, and make aclear manual for people towards the future.

2. Supply of New Services
Many new services were provided in 2004. Looking at roads, attention
should be paid to the expansion of the expressway network and theimplementation of a variety of social experiments. In December, theimplementation of four lanes was completed on the Kyushu Expressway(Hitoyoshi Interchange - Ebino Interchange), making the expressway from
Aomori to Kagoshima and Miyazaki have four-lanes for its entire length. Thisis significant with respect to securing capacity for the artery. The Ise Coastal
Expressway (Toyota Junction - Toyota-minami Interchange) was also opened
in December, linking the Tomei Expressway and the Higashi-Meihan
Expressway. Social experiments include nighttime long distance discounts for
ETC-fitted vehicles on national expressways in April, lowering of the toll forthe bridge to Kansai International Airport in July and the use of smart ICs in
the Kamigo Service Area on the Tomei Expressway in October. There is greatinterest in how the results of these experiments will affect the tollway businessin the near future. In the pricing system, approval was given for national
expressway toll discounts in September and the elimination of coupon tickets
for high traffic volume in the Metropolitan Expressway and the Hanshin
Expressway in October. With the privatization based on the four laws related
to the Four Highway-related Public Corporations issued in June, a significant
amount of attention has been paid to the pricing systems and pricing levels of
expressway services offered by private companies.
Railway services included the opening of the Minato Mirai 21 Line
(Yokohama - Motomachi/Chinatown) in February, the Kyushu Shinkansen(Shin-Yatsushiro - Kagoshima Chuo) and the Hisatsu Orange Railway(Yatsushiro - Sendai) in March, Joetsu Shinkansen Honjo Waseda Station alsoin March, the Line No.4 (Nagoya Daigaku - Aratamabashi) of the Nagoya

Kamigo Smart Interchange Experiment
Photographed by Motohiro Yamazaki,TTRI

Enlarged view

To Nagoya
Kamigo SA(inbound)

To
m

ei

Ex

pre

ss

Kamigo SA(outbound)Prefectural
Oshikam roado-Miyoshi Lineg
City RinwayInstallation point of
Smart IC(Exit for
ETC vehicles only)

Road 5

Exit for outboundlane only

To Tokyo
Available for vehicles equippedwith ETC device only; light-vehicles,
standard-sized cars, mid-size cars(freight cars with total weight of lessthan 8t and minibus)

Kamigo Smart Interchange(Materials: Toyota City Transportation Policy Section)

9

Nagoya2005
World Exposition

Kuwana

w
xp
re
ss
ei
E

Kin
te

ts u

Na
g

oya

Lin

e

To
m

ToyotaOkazaki

Me
it

ets

uN

Meitetsu Kowa Line

Meitetsu Tokoname Line

Nishichita Road

Yokkaichi

Chita Peninsula Roaday

NagoyaRing Road 2
Ise Bay Coastal Road

Tsu

ag

oy

aL

ine

Tokaido Shinkansen
Tokaido Line

Mikawa Bay
Centrair Line,
airport access railway

Ise Bay
Ise Expressway

Matsuzaka

Toba

Central Japan International Airport (Centrair) Access

Opening of Central Japan International Airport (Centrair)
Photographed by Motohiro Yamazaki,TTRI

Subway in October, the Kyoto Tozai Line (Rokujizo - Daigo) in November
and the Tokyo Monorail Haneda Line (Haneda Airport Terminal 1 - Haneda
Airport Terminal 2) in December. Looking at freight transportation, service ofSuper Rail Cargo began in March and high-speed freight trains were allowed
to operate on the Tokaido Line. Expansion of the IC card usage including theinterchangeable use of JR East’s SUICA and JR West’s ICOCA in August, andthe implementation of the common PiTaPa card for use with railway
companies such as Keihan and Hankyu.
Regarding airports, paving work on runways, taxi ways and aprons wascompleted at Chubu International Airport in March, and after the passenger
terminal was completed in October, the airport was opened in February 2005.
Before this, the Central Japan International Airport Railway (RinkuTokoname - Central Japan International Airport) started its service under
separation system of operation and infrastructure. The Narita International
Airport Corporation was established in April 2004, and the name of the
airport was changed from Shin-Tokyo International Airport to Narita
International Airport. The total cumulative number of passengers that haveused the airport recorded over 500 million in September. In December,
Passenger Terminal 2 became available at Tokyo International (Haneda)
Airport. At the end of December, it was decided to extend the runway at the
New Ishigaki Airport. With regard to airlines, it was decided to provide
assistance to Skynet Asia Airlines from the Industrial Revitalization
Corporation of Japan, which came into question for the management of new
airline companies.
Although there were essentially no new services in ports, in July, Keihin
Port, Ise Bay and Hanshin Port were designated as Super Core Ports with theaim of lowering port costs by 30 percent and reducing lead time to around oneday. In the same month Super Liner Ogasawara became the first Techno Super
Liner to be put into use when it was named and a launching ceremony was
conducted. The ship was scheduled to operate on the Ogasawara route in2005, but this is feared to be postponed to April 2006 or later due to thenational government’s assistance policy.

3. Efforts for Preventing Global Warming
As is commonly known, the Kyoto Protocol obligates Japan to reducegreenhouse-effect gas emissions to six percent less than 1990 levels during
the first stage from 2008 to 2012. The most recent data available shows the2003 figure to be 1.339 billion tonnes (CO2 conversion, same applies below),
exceeds the base level of 1.237 billion tonnes and significantly exceeds thetarget of 1.163 billion tonnes. Assuming a BAU(Business as Usual) case of
only the current policies being implemented, this is expected to be 1.311
billion tonnes in 2010, but based on the current volume of emissions, there are
difficulties in achieving the target. Ratification by Russia in November 2004
provided the impetus for the Kyoto Protocol being brought into force inFebruary 2005, over 7 years after it was adopted. Japan responded with the
Kyoto Protocol Target Achievement Plan, following on from the Guideline for
Measures to Prevent Global Warming, Action Program to Arrest Global

10TRANSPORT POLICY IN PERSPECTIVE 2005

CO2 emissions and reduction targets in the transportation sector

Warming, Basic Policy on Measures against Global
Millions of tonnes
Purchase of vehicles meeting
Warming, further accelerating concrete steps toward theof COfuel consumption
300
Improved fuel 54.9
standards
reduction of greenhouse-effect gases.
consumption million t
21 million t
Looking at the transportation sector, it has been
Clean energy
vehicles, etc.
confirmed that the CO2 emissions that make up a large
5.6 million t
268
268
267
265
Traffic
policy264
262 260
part of greenhouse-effect gases have decreased since
28.3 million t
1997. Decreases in 2002 and 2003 are notable, and tax
250
Target 250 million t(1990 level + 15.1%)
breaks for low emission vehicles and the demand shift
from commercial to private trucks have been proven217
beneficial. These deserve considerable praise. Even
though the figure for 2003 is 10 million tonnes over the
200
1990 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003
2010
250 million tonnes target for 2010, additional policies(Source: Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport)
are required. In May 2004, the Environmental
Subcommittee of the Council of Transport Policy madean interim report on reduction target figures based on fiscal 2001 data, and thiswas recalculated when the data for fiscal 2002 became available. According tothis, the necessary reduction for the transportation sector is 24.5 million
tonnes, of which 16.1 million tonnes can be achieved by using existing
policies, with 8.4 million tonnes requiring new policies. The former is madeup of more environmentally friendly automobiles and driving (4.5 million
tonnes), traffic policies (5.1 million tonnes), more efficient logistics (4.5
million tonnes), promotion of the use of public transportation (1.8 million
tonnes) and improved energy consumption efficiency by trains and aircraft(200,000 tonnes), while the latter is made up of the demand shift fromcommercial to private trucks used in logistics and improved load efficiency(3.9 million tonnes), commuter traffic management (900,000 tonnes) and theuse of sulfur-free and bio fuels (3.6 million tonnes). The feasibility of such
steps is being considered. In the open economic society of today, it isimportant to find ways of securing mobility while reducing CO2. In thisrespect, wide-ranging collaboration between logistics businesses and shippers,such as seen in the Green Logistics Partnership Council (formed in December2004), is expected to be essentianl of effectively reducing CO2.
Meanwhile, there has been discussion on the introduction of anenvironmental tax in Japan. The proposal put forward by the Ministry of theEnvironment is to set the tax at 2,400 yen per carbon tonne (approximately 1.5
yen per liter of gasoline), and the expected revenues of 490 billion yenis
planned to be used for global warming policies and allocation to maintaining
and improving corporate activities as part of general financial resources, withthe effect of implementation being a 52 million tonnes reduction ingreenhouse-effect gases, and a 0.01% reduction in GDP. It was planned to be
introduced in January 2006, but was postponed due to debate about the basis
and reliability of the figures showing the effect of the policy s introduction.
Environmental policies for emissions were stated in the Central Environment
Council s so-called Post New Long-term Regulations Report submitted in
February 2005, with the PM and NOx regulation targets being lowered by 7585% and 41-50%, respectively, from the current levels in the New Long-term
Regulations that are the strictest in the world. Examination is required fromthe perspective of EST (Environmentally Sustainable Transport).
211

4. New Developments in Automobile Transportation

ITS World Conference(source: ITS Japan)

Cover of "Transport Policy in Perspective 2004"

12

Two events that gained a lot of attentions throughout society regarding thedevelopment of automobile technology were the ITS World Conference
Aichi/Nagoya 2004 held in October 2004 and the Tokyo Motor Show held thefollowing month. Reports were made on Advanced Safety Vehicles (ASV) inthe executive session and special session of the former, with exhibitions andtest drives also offered. The Japan Research Center for Transport Policy
distributed "TRANSPORT POLICY IN PERSPECTIVE: 2004" at the venue
and it was well received. At the Tokyo Motor Show, a prototype developed ina next-generation low-pollution vehicle research project was presented, andthe symposium became a great success. There are strong expectations thatthese new technologies will spread throughout society in order to create a safeand environmentally-friendly automobile society.
There were also new systems and laws linked to new developments in
automobile transportation that were introduced in the first half of 2004. A
system for evaluating and publishing the fuel efficiency of vehicles began in
January, and tax breaks for low emission vehicles began in fiscal 2004. The
Law on One-Stop Service for Automobile-Related Procedures was establishedin May in an attempt to improve convenience for automobile users. The
Nagoya ITS Taxi Verification Test of a system directly linking taxi drivers tocalls in Nagoya began at the end of May, This is a test aimed at allowing taxi
drivers to use ITS technology before the ITS World Conference.
In January 2005, the Automobile Recycling Law came into force, offering
another layer of environmental policies. The law was announced in July 2002
with the objective of recycling and properly disposing of the 4 million
automobiles that are discarded every year, and the framework was ready after
a preparation period of two and a half years. The law makes it mandatory for
automobile manufacturers and importers to recycle or dispose of shredder
dust, airbags and CFCs, with automobile owners bearing the cost in the formof a recycling fee. Despite the increased burden on automobile owners, thesmooth enforcement of the Automobile Recycling Law is desirable in respect
to social cost burden because of the beneficial effect it is expected to have on
the environment.
With regard to toll roads, the four laws related to the highway-related public
corporations (Law Concerning Expressway Companies, Law Concerning theJapan Expressway Holding and Debt Repayment Agency, Law Concerning
the Establishment of Road-related Laws Accompanying the Privatization of
the Japan Highway Public Corporation, Law for Enforcement of Laws
Concerning the Privatization of the Japan Highway Public Corporation) was
passed in June 2004 as actual steps were taken in preparation for privatizationin October 2005. Executive managers from the private sector have beenchosen to head the highway service companies that will become corporations
and the Japan Expressway Holding and Debt Repayment Agency that will
become an independent corporation, and this is expected to result in tollway
services being provided smoothly and in an appropriate fashion.
Despite such new developments, one remaining issue is that the number ofTRANSPORT POLICY IN PERSPECTIVE 2005

vehicle recall incidents recorded in 2004 was the highest ever. It is hoped that
automobile transportation become more sound through the serious actions
taken to prevent the recurrence of unethical activity related top recalls.

5. Traffic Accidents and Safety Policies
The number of traffic accidents reported in 2004 were 952,192 (up 0.4%
from the previous year), fatalities numbered 7,358 (down 4.5%) and injuries
1,183,120 (up 0.1%).The number of fatalities fell further from the previous
year’s figure, when this fell below 8,000 for the first time in 46 years.
Although it is a positive sign that this figure fell into the low 7,000s, theslight increase in accidents and injured compared to the previous year is aproblem. The fact that the number of accidents exceeded 900,000 for fiveconsecutive years and the number of injured exceeded 1 million for six
consecutive years is a serious social issue. We tend to focus on the decreasein the number of fatalities but there is a strong need to reduce the number ofaccidents and also the number of injured.
One characteristic of fatal accidents is the involvement of elderly people.
The ratio of elderly victims in the total fatality count is quite high at 41.4%
and the number of fatal accidents involving the elderly, especially those aged
70 or more, is increasing (up 0.2% and 6.0% respectively). Overall, thenumber of fatal accidents resulting from speed violations or driving under the
influence of alcohol has decreased significantly (down 19.5% and 9.0%
respectively) but accidents resulting from not checking for safety is rising (up1.9%) and the increase of elderly drivers (up 11.9%) is also seen to be a
problem here. It could be said that there is an extremely high need for
effective actions targeting elderly drivers. Within the Cabinet Office, theCentral Traffic Safety Measures Council was launched to establish the 8th
Basic Plan for Traffic Safety. Discussion was started in a special council in
February 2005 and the plan is to be decided upon in the Central Traffic Safety
Measures Council at the end of fiscal 2005.
Attention should be given to the numerous tragic railway accidents thathave occurred since the start of 2005. In March, a derailment occurred in
Sukumo station on the Sukumo Line of the Tosa-Kuroishio Railway, killingthe driver and injuring 10 others. In April, a derailment occurred between
Amagasaki and Tsukaguchi on the JR West s Fukuchiyama Line, resulting intragedy with 107 fatalities and 460 injured. Improving safety to prevent suchtragic accidents is an important issue that needs to be addressed. Investigationof the cause and implementation of safety policies are much needed. As theformer accident was in a local railway and the latter a urban railway, theactions implemented cannot be identical, but ensuring safety in both cases isimportant. The number of level crossing accidents has been decreasing in thelong term, but the fatal accident that occurred in the manual level crossing
inside Takenotsuka Station on Tobu Group s Isesaki Line, Tokyo in March
2005 was horrific. There is a need to carry out further debate on safety versus
economy.
JR West,railroad accident(9:43am, 25 April, 2005)(Amagasaki-shi, Hyogo)
Provided by Asahi Shimbun(Source: 25 April, 2005 Evening Edition）

13

1. Diverse Means of Mobility and the Supporting Transport System

1-1

Quantitative and Qualitative
Changes in Mobility
Fumihiko Nakamura
Professor, Graduate School ofEnvironment and Information Sciences,
Yokohama National University

The trend in the flow of people remains almost unchanged. Increases in number of trips and travel distance andincreasing trends in motor vehicle use by females and the aged was confirmed. Concerning the flow of goods, thenumber of tonnes decreased, and the number of motor vehicles is leveling off. Air transport, however, was up slightly.

Annual number of trips by air and motor vehicle is on an upward trend, while annual trips by rail and passenger ship has been on a slightdownward trend for 10 years. Trends for annual kilometers traveled are similar. Increased number of trip of air travel and kilometers traveledby air leads to the conclusion that overseas travel has become easier.
Fig.1 Annual number of trips (per person)(FY)

Motor vehicles

Fig.2 Annual kilometers traveled (per person)

Railways(FY)

Motor vehicles

Railways

1970

2,716

2,750

46 Ships

0.1 Ships
230

1970

157
0.7 Air

89 Air
48

0.3
155

283

1983

2,689

3,883

1983
1.3

256
49
0.6
182

475

1993

3,223

7,123

1993

457

1.3
32
0.7
517

2003

170

0

100

7,477

2003

0.8
200

300
400
500
600
700
800
（Trips/person/year)
Source: Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport "Annual Land Transport Statistics 2004"

0

2,000

3,016

653

4,000

6,000
8,000
10,00012,000（km/person/year)
Source: Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport "Annual Land Transport Statistics 2004"

As for flow of goods, over the past 10 years, tonnes transported have decreased, but transport tonne-kilometers have increased slightly.
Tonnes transported by motor vehicle were flat, while tones transported by rail and coastal shipping continued on a downward trend. The rateof decrease in coastal ship transport over the past 10 years has been remarkable. Air transport increased slightly. The same tendency is visible
in transport tonne-kilometers, which are on an overall upward trend, with an upward trend for motor vehicles. As with the movement ofpeople, air transport is probably becoming more convenient year by year.
Fig.3 Annual freight transport tonnage (per person)
Railways

Motor vehicles

(FY)

1970

44

Fig.4 Annual freight transport tonne-kilometers (per person)
Ships

(FY)

Motor vehicles

Railways

2.4 3.6

1970

1,299

602

Ships

1,455

Air

0.7

0.001 Air
229

1.0
43

1983

3.7

1,679

1,619

1983

0.004
0.6

204

4.2

47

1993

3.3

6.5

1,869

2,208

1993
0.007

179

0.4
41

2003

3.5

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

(Tonnes/person/year)
Source: Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport "Annual Land Transport Statistics 2004"

16

1,710

2,522

2003

0.008

0

1,000

2,000

3,000

8.0
4,000

5000

(Tonne-kilometers/person/year)
Source: Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport "Annual Land Transport Statistics 2004"

TRANSPORT POLICY IN PERSPECTIVE 2005

The motor vehicle usage rate in major regional cities is high for each age group, with higher usage among males than females. For females,
the percentage over age 65 that walks was remarkable.
Fig.5 Modal share by male age/district group
RailwaysFig.6 Change in the share for different female age/district group

Twowheelers

Motor
Bus vehicles

Railways

On foot

65 years old(Nationwide)
65 years old(Major local cities total)
65 years old(Three metropolitan areas total)
15-64 years old(Nationwide)
15-64 years old(Major local cities total)
15-64 years old(Three metropolitan areas total)
5-14 years old(Nationwide)
5-14 years old(Major local cities total)
5-14 years old(Three metropolitan areas total)

MotorvehiclesBus

Twowheelers

On foot

65 years old(Nationwide)
65 years old(Major local cities total)
65 years old(Three metropolitan areas total)
15-64 years old(Nationwide)
15-64 years old(Major local cities total)
15-64 years old(Three metropolitan areas total)
5-14 years old(Nationwide)
5-14 years old(Major local cities total)
5-14 years old(Three metropolitan areas total)
0

20

40

60

80

100
（%)

0

20

40

60

80

100（%)

Source: Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport "Fiscal 1999 Survey of Personal
Travel in Japanese Cities"

Source: Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport "Fiscal 1999 Survey of Personal
Travel in Japanese Cities"

Trips per person per day showed a slight declining trend for those under 65, with a slight increasing trend for those 65 and older. By purpose,
the rate of increase and number of trips was higher for commuter trips to Utsunomiya than for other major local cities.
Fig.7 Change in trips/person/day for each age group

Fig.8 Trip purpose in various cities
toCommuting Going
school

3.5

2.8

2.9
2.7

2.7

2.6

2.7

2.7
2.5 2.5

2.5

2.5

9.6

41.9

22.4

10.7

Tokyo
1998

16.2

7.1

41.9

25.3

9.4

1.9

Sendai
1992

15.2

9.3

39.9

21.6

14.0

Sendai
2002

15.8

7.5

41.3

25.6

9.8

Utsunomiya
1975

12.8

9.4

39.6

22.0

16.5

Utsunomiya
1992

17.2

2.5

2.4
2.2

2.2

5 14 years old
15 29 years old
30 49 years old
49 64 years old
65 years old
〜〜〜

〜

0.0

1.5

1.4

1.3

0.5

2.2

1.9

1.6

1.5
1.0

2.3

1988

1992

1999

1988

1992

0

1999

Source: Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport "Fiscal 1999 Survey of Personal
Travel in Japanese Cities"

Busines

15.4

2.7

2.6
2.4

2.3

2.0

2.8

〜

Trip/person/day

2.5

2.8

Privatebusiness

Tokyo
1988

3.2
3.0

Going home

9.4
20

40.6
40

20.6
60

12.1

80

100（%)

Source: Prepared from Survey Reports on Person Trip in Each Urban Area

Looking at usage rates by city, the usage rate for motor vehicles increased for each city, most notably in the areas around local cities. Amongthe three metropolitan areas, the number of bus passengers in the Chukyo(Nagoya) and Keihanshin(Kyoto/Osaka/Kobe) areas decreasedslightly from 2001 to 2002. In addition, the number of rail passengers in the Chukyo and Keihanshin areas was on a year-by-year declining
trend.

Tokyo 1988
1998

20.0
16.2

Keihanshin 1980
2000

3.3
2.8

Motor
vehicles
27.7
33.1
26.1
32.9

Bicycle/Motorcycle
17.6
16.7

On foot

Others

26.8
22.3

0.1
0.1

21.6
21.9

28.9
24.0

0.1
0.1

2.0
1.4

49.9
56.3

16.8
14.5

21.0
17.8

0.0
0.0

Sendai 1982 8.8 5.6
2001 8.9 4.2

47.2
53.2

14.0
13.2

24.3
20.2

0.1
0.0

23.1
17.7

0.0
0.1

23.0
15.7

0.1
0.0
0.3
0.0

Chukyo 1981 10.3
2001 10.0South
3.0 4.1
Okayama 1982
Pref 1994 3.8 2.1

39.4
56.4

3.3 4.6
Niigata 1978
2002 2.8 2.6

19.9

52.0

17.0
69.6

2.1 4.1
Tokushima 1983
2000 1.6
1.3
0

30.4

40.1

9.3
32.0

59.2
20

21.4
16.3

22.5
40

60

80

Source: Prepared from Survey Reports on Person Trip in Each Urban Area

（%)
100

Fig.10 Changes in passenger-kilometers and number of three
metropolitan area passengers
1,450

Tokyo
railways

1,400

12,800Tokyo motor 10,800
vehicles

1,350
1,300

8,800
Annualpassengerkilometers

1,250

6,800

1,200

Keihanshin
motor vehicles
Keihanshin 4,800
railways

1,150
1,100

Million persons

Bus/
Railways Streetcar
2.8
25.0
25.5
2.4

1 billion person-kilometers

Fig.9 Modal share of various cities

Chukyomotor vehicles 2,800

1,050

Chukyorailways

1,000

800

1990 1995 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002
Source: Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport "Annual Land Transport Statistics 2004"17

1. Diverse Means of Mobility and the Supporting Transport System

1-2

Professor, Graduate School ofEnvironment and Information Sciences,
Yokohama National University

Transport Network Today

Fumihiko Nakamura

There is a continuing trend where the rate of road network extension is unable to keep up with the increased demandin road traffic. As a result, the average travel speed on roads has been leveling off. On the other hand, new initiatives
such as the effective use of unused road capacity, resolving bottlenecks by partially increasing the number of lanes, or
techniques for developing smooth traffic flows by centrally controlled management are gradually increasing.

For road traffic, there is a continuing trend in which the number of new roads being constructed is unable to keep up
with the increase in demand. As a result, the average running speed on roads has been leveling off at a low figure.
Fig.1 Changes in traffic volumes and extensions to the road network

Fig.2 Average travel speed on national roads

Road network extension and road traffic volume have been on an
increasing trend since 1990, although road traffic volume has been up
and down subsequent to 1990.

Although annual changes are not large, at 10-20 km/h, average travel
speed in the Tokyo and Osaka areas is about half the national averageof 35-40 km/h.

150

1,000

500

428

400

389
300
200
100
0

101

124 128

115 118
106 112528 551145
129 132 149

100

610 615 614 626 631

596
566 569 576

151 156 165
640 634 629
75

50

25

1980 1995 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003

Fig.3 Changes in road length density for cities recognized bygovernment ordinance

37.3

19.5

20.1

19.1

21.5
21.4

15

10

1980

17.1

16.5 16.7

17.3

17.3

1983

1985

1980
1990
2000
2003

3.7

5.0 5.2

1988

Tokyo

1990

11.6
1994

1997

10.5

10.1
8.5 8.3
7.8

5.9

4.9 5.3

1999

41.5
38.4 38.5

33.9

9.3
6.0

15.8

48.0

17.417.6

7.8

5.8

16.7

40

11.0

4.4 4.6

19.3

18.3

41.0

20.1

15

5

19.6

An upward trend since 1980 is apparent for national expressways,
national roads, and principal local roads. Ordinary prefectural roads
show no change since 1990.

19.1

17.8

19.8

11.1 11.4

9.0 9.5

33.3

32.8

30

26.4
20

6.0
10

3.7

2.6

4.7

2000

17.6

20.1

(Fiscal year)
Source: Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport 1999 Road Traffic Census

1990

18.7

20.3

37.1

Osaka

16.6

1980

19.5 19.1
18.6

18.1

36.7

25

20

Road length(1,000 km)

20

36.0

30

50

25

Road length density(km/km2)

37.3

Fig.4 Improvements and new construction by road type

Yokohama, Nagoya, Osaka, and Kyoto were on a downward trend
from 1980 to 2000. Yokohama rapidly increased in 2003.

6.6

0

Sapporo Yokohama Kawasaki Nagoya

Kyoto

Osaka

Kobe Hiroshima(Names of cities designated by government ordinance)
Source: Annual Report on Road Statistics (each year)

18

36.9

35

0

Source: Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport Annual Land Transport Statistics
2004 , Annual Report on Road Statistics 2004

0

Nationwide

36.4

14.8

(Fiscal year)

10

39.4

40

Average travel speed

600

96

125

Light motor vehicle traffic volume

700

140

137

134

131

127

123

119

107

129

125

121

117

800

Light
motor vehicle
traffic volume

Traffic volume, including light vehicles(Billions of vehicle-kilometers)

900

45

138

136

133

Length of road network extension(1000 kilometers)

Length of road network extension

Kita- Fukuoka
KyushuNational expressways

National roads

Principal local roads(Road classification)
Source: Annual Report on Road Statistics (each year)

Ordinary prefectural roads

TRANSPORT POLICY IN PERSPECTIVE 2005

Fig.5 Metropolitan Expressway night discount experiment (FY2004)

New initiatives such as the effective use of unused road capacity,
resolving bottlenecks by partially increasing the number of lanes, or
techniques for developing smooth traffic flows by linear centralized
management, have gradually started to increase.
Toll rate

Regular toll charge

Regular toll charge (¥700)
10% discountTokyo area

10% discount¥560

20% discount

20% discount
10-20% discount(Tokyo area)

12
Toll rate

19

2223

56

12 Time

10% discount

10% discount¥420
10-30% discount(Kanagawa area)

30% discount12

19

Kanagawa area (Standard-sized car)¥600 ⇒ ¥540 (10% discount): 20:00-23:00, 5:00-6:00¥420 (30% discount): 23:00-5:00

Regular toll charge

Regular toll charge (¥600)

Kanagawa area

Tokyo area (Standard-sized car)¥700 ⇒ ¥630 (10% discount): 20:00-23:00, 5:00-6:00¥560 (20% discount): 23:00-5:00

2223

30% discount56

The Metropolitan Expressway night discount experiment provides a
discount on the Metropolitan Expressway at night, when traffic is
relatively light. It is intended to shift traffic from ordinary roads to theExpressway, improving roadside environmental conditions and easing
traffic for those roads. It was implemented from April 27, 2004, throughMarch 31, 2005, and continues during FY 2005 with some changes.

12 TimeNote:With the elimination of the FY 2003 ETC advance payment discount, the maximum
discount in Tokyo declined from 34% to 20%, and that in Yokohama from 42% to30%.
Source:Metropolitan Expressway Public Corporation

Fig.6 Redundancy of wide-area expressway networks

The Niigata-Chuetsu Earthquake closed part of the Kanetsu Highway.
This led to traffic volume increases of 40 percent on the Banetsu
Expressway and 60 percent on the Joshinetsu Expressway compared withthe average. Because a wide-area expressway network between the Tokyo
area and Niigata Prefecture was in place, the Banetsu and Joshinetsu
Expressways could be utilized as alternative routes when part of the
network was closed by the earthquake.
Traffic per day(Number of vehicles)

Banetsu Expressway(Nishiaizu Interchange - Tsugawa Interchange)

Niigata

Approx. 60% increase (5,700 → 9,500)

Banetsu
Expressway

Fig.7 Area traffic congestion mitigate project at Tomei Expressway(Up line) Ayase

On March 20, 2003 the Japan Highway Public Corporation (JH)completed an acceleration lane(about 3 km) merging into the main lanefrom the Ebina Service Area (SA), to mitigate traffic congestion on theTomei Expressway between the Atsugi Interchange and the Yokohama
Machida Interchange (Up [toward Tokyo] line).
Average speed of the congested section(km/h)
50
40

Joetsuearthquake occurrence

30
Kanetsu
Expressway

Joshinetsu
Expressway
Nagano

26

％

27

44
20

33

20

20

10

10

Joshinetsu Expressway(Myoukoukougen Interchange- Shinanomachi Interchange)
TakasakiTraffic per day(Number of vehicles)％
33

Koriyama

Delay time
(Minute)30

00BeforeTokyo

Beforeafter

Previous access lane 0.2km

Approx. 40% increase (9,000 → 12,800)

Opened 2002.3.18~1.0kmearthquake occurrence

after

Additional section 3.0km
Opened 2003.3.20~2.0kmEbina SA

Ayase BS

NagoyaTokyo

Source: Road Bureau of the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport
Source: Japan Highway Public Corporation

Table.1 Area traffic congestion mitigate projectFig.8 "Smooth Tokyo 21" initiative
Establishment of bus bay
Changes in carriageway
markings

Signaladjustment

Parking control video system

Establishmentof left-turnlane

The five-year "Smooth Tokyo
21: Expanded Strategy" began
in 2003. It aims to smoothtraffic in Tokyo by redoing lane
composition, adjusting signal
lengths, establishing bus bays
and loading zones, providing
audio warnings via a parking
control video system to those
who park illegally, and guiding
drivers to parking lots.

Districts with busy streets
Shinjuku, Shibuya, Ikebukuro

Major arterial roads Meiji-dori,
Yasukuni-dori,Kasuga-dori, Yamanote-dori*Open utilization of corporate
parking areas*Taxi pools*Off-road sites for freight
handling*Red color pavement*Improvement of stopping
sections*Changes in road signs andcarriageway markings*Parking meters for freight handling*Parking deterrent system*Traffic guides, etc.
Source: Japan Highway Public Corporation

Red color (glittery) pavement and guidanceand education from crossing guards

Extensionof right-turn
Establishment oflane
off-street loading
zones
Securing of loading space

Source:Metropolitan Police
Department Website

19

1. Diverse Means of Mobility and the Supporting Transport System

1-3

Professor, Graduate School ofEnvironment and Information Sciences,
Yokohama National University

Public Transport Today

Fumihiko Nakamura

Demand for the Shinkansen lines (new trunk railway lines) and for air travel, has been increasing, while the use of
conventional railways and buses is leveling off. In light of the fact that bus network extension is not declining, halting
the decrease in bus passengers is particularly difficult. In metropolitan areas, the easing of traffic congestion has
progressed, and the number of cases of transport services such as through-operations of railway tracks owned bydifferent companies has increased. While still few in number, new transport systems including monorail systems havebeen increasing gradually. Development of debates regarding the renewal of existing lines and the beginning of workon planned lines can be expected.

Demand for the Shinkansen lines (new trunk railway lines) and for air travel, has been increasing, while the use of
conventional railways and buses is leveling off.
Fig.1 Operating kilometers and train-kilometers for conventionallines in three metropolitan areas
250

21.6

11.8

5.1

Tokyo
Tokyo
ChukyoKeihanshin Chukyo
Keihanshin
Note: Train-kilometers shown for the Tokyo Metropolitan area are for fiscal 2000, JR
train-kilometers shown for the Chukyo and Keihanshin areas are for fiscal 1985,
others are for fiscal 2000. Also, JR train-kilometers for the Chukyo area show
numerical values for the Tokaido Line.
Source: Annual Urban Transportation Reports (each year)

Fig.3 Transition in operating kilometers and number of passengers
Shinkansen lines
275.9

1,000

2,036.5

1975

200

179.9
150

1,176.5
100

552.6

1985

1990

1995

2000

0

2004

1985

1990

1995

2000

258.5

120

100

80

69.4 73.1

60

0

102.9

100.9
93.2

177.0

40

250

102.3

96.7

300

118.5

112.2

107.8

304.9

300.4

297.6

nationwide

20

1975

480

350

200

86.1
61.4

150

57.6

53.6

53.4
100

50

23.9

25.0

25.9

26.7

27.5

1985

1990

1995

2000

2001

31.6

1965

576

Fig. 4 Extensions to bus routes

50

0

1980

140

2,152.9500

650

Source: Annual Land Transport Statistics 2002

Each metropolitan area (100 km)

1,500

157.3

2,032.9700

160

Number of passengers (million)

2,000

Operating kilometers

Operating kilometers(km)2,011.8

810

(FY)

250

2,387.1

912

1,000

0

208.6

Number of passengers

1,500

Number of buses passengers

260.1
2,500

2,165

Number of railways passengers

500

300

3,000

1,800

1,759

2,263

(FY)

Fig.6 Domestic air transportation passenger-kilometers anddomestic airline airport landing frequency

400

300

200

100

0

Railway transport person-kilometers

Railway transport person-kilometers(1 billion person-kilometers)

500

1,200

1,000

800

600

400

200

Passenger car train-kilometers (Million kilometers)

1,400

1985 1988 1989 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 0(FY)

Source: Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport Annual Land Transport Statistics

20

100

80

60

40

Domestic airline transport person-kilometers

Fig.5 Railway transport passenger-kilometers and passenger
train-kilometers

Domestic airline transport person-kilometers (1 billion person-kilometers)

Source: Annual Urban Transportation Report (each year)

Passenger car train-kilometers
1,227 1,213
1,203 1,197
1,184
1,168
1,159
1,128
1,197
1,198
1,186
1,172
1,157
1,053 1,101
400 402 403 396 400 402 395 389
385 384 385 382 385
949
362 369
330

0

(FY)

Source: Statistical Railways (each year)

600

Three metropolitan areas /nationwide (1,000 km)

31.3

1,899

51.6

Domestic airline airport landing frequency
893
862 861 871 874 881
832
83.9
83.3
812
789
79.3 79.7 81.5
758
76.0
73.2
709 714
69.0
65.0
61.3
55.3 56.7 57.1

1,000

800

600

400

33.1

200

20

0

1985 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003
(FY)

Source: Annual Air Transport Statistics(each year)

0

Domestic airline airport landing frequency (1,000 times)

0

45.6

2,000

Three metropolitan areas

23.9

69.7

2,256

Keihanshin

51.3

147.4

Tokyo
Chukyo

100

50

17.2

0

150

2,500

10,000 persons

Train kilometers

909.2

Streetcars

500

Urban railways

Operating kilometers (km)1,444.3

1,500

159.9

Subways

200

2,000

1,000

3,000

200.7

Private railways/streetcars

2,275.3JR

2,500

Fig. 2 Trends in passengers of railways and buses(nationwide)

TRANSPORT POLICY IN PERSPECTIVE 2005

As for major urban areas, the railway congestion rate is easing in each of the three major metropolitan areas. In the Tokyo
area, the number of track sections with through-operation between multiple railway companies is increasing, as are throughoperation services. In the Keihanshin and Chukyo areas, however, through operation has changed little since the late 1980s.
Fig.7 Trends in railway congestion rate in three metropolitan areas

Fig.8 Change in the number of track sections with through-operation
60

240

54

230

221

205

50

212

204

203
192

199
Congestion rate (%)

41
197

200

189

190

188

40

183

187

180

186

Tokyo area
183
180
175

174

170

164

171
166

160
150

151

140

175

173

162 Chukyo area (Nagoya)
157
153
150 149
147
149
147
144
144 142
Keihanshin area (Osaka) 138

171

Number of track section

210

214

33
30

20

146
10

Tokyo area
Keihanshin area
Chukyo area

220

20
14

19

Source: Statistical Railways (each year)

19

6

137

1975 1980 1985 1990 1993 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003

24

12

12

5

130
120

24

22

0 0
1965

0

0
1975

1985

3

3

2

2
1990

1995

2000

2003

Source: Statistical Railways (each year)

Fig.9 Examples of monorails, new transport systems, and subways in Japan

Many examples of new transport systems such as monorails can be found in the three metropolitan areas of Tokyo, Keihanshin, and Chukyo. In Naha, amonorail has been adopted as a core transport system. New subway projects are being implemented in Yokohama and other cities, and the Nippori-Toneri
Line, a new transport system, is under construction. Subways and new transport systems are expected to increase, especially in the three metropolitan
areas.
Monorail
New Transportation System
SubwayOkinawa Urban Monorail

Metropolitan Tokyo
Maihama Resort Line

Sapporo City

Saitama New Urban Transport
Seibu Railway
Yamaman(Yuukarigaoka line)

Tama Urban Monorail

Chiba Urban MonorailYokohama New
Urban Transport
Shonan Monorail

Yurikamome
Tokyo Monorai
Sendai City
Nagoya Railway
Toukadai New Transport

Sky Rail Service
Hiroshima Rapid Transit

Kyoto City
Kobe City
Saitama Rapid Transit
Tokyo-to・Tokyo Metro
Yokohama City

Osaka City

Aichi Rapid Transit (Linimo line)
Nagoya Guideway Bus
Nagoya City・Nagoya Railway.
(Ajima 〜 Kami-iida)

Kobe New Transport

Osaka Rapid Transit
Osaka Port Transport System
Osaka City

Hiroshima Rapid Transit.
(Hondori 〜 Kencho-mae)
Kita-kyushu Rapid Transit
Fukuoka city
Note: The Aichi Rapid Transit Linimo line was completed for the Aichi World Expo 2005.
Source: Prepared from Annual Urban Transportation Reports21

1. Diverse Means of Mobility and the Supporting Transport System

1-4

Developments in New
Urban Transport Systems

Professor, Graduate School ofEnvironment and Information Sciences,
Yokohama National University

Fumihiko Nakamura

Various forms of transport systems that adopt new technologies have been designed and introduced into many cities
as ways for coping with diversified travel needs. Various new developments can be seen in modes of transportation,
not only including new technology such as mini-monorails for transport on slopes, but also new developments
involving ingenious methods for using various modes of transportation, such as car-sharing systems, and contrivancesfor greater use of public transportation such as existing street cars and buses.

Table 1 New urban transport system trends

Table 2 Innovative measures of public transport

Proliferation of various new urban transport systems has started allover Japan.

Innovative measures are being used in cities to solve a variety of
public transport problems.

Type of Demand
Support for shortdistance trips

Improving theoverall convenienceof travel in urban
areasRoad-based System

Rail-related System

Utilization of bicycles(see 2-7)
City rent-a-cycle
Park & Cycle

Slope elevator
New capsule technology
Sky rail

Joint use of cars
Car sharing
Eco Park & Ride
(sharing electric vehicles)
Bus utilization
Demand responsive bus

Improvement of existing
system : LRT.
Utilization of new technology:
Monorail,
New transport system

Improvement
Category

Major recent
developments

Related cases

Vehicles/equipment

Implementation of non-stepvehiclesStation/stop facilities with
better information services

Hiroshima (street car), Kanazawa(mini-bus)
Hamamatsu (high grade bus stop)
Hanover

Access, etc

Common station platforms forrail and bus transfer
Improved connections withmonorail and existing rail
Rail and bus allowing thecarriage of bicycles
Providing real-time travel
information
Demand responsive bus
system using ITS
Route-type shared ride taxi
services
Elastic travel fare system
Travel system responsive torainy weather

Yokohama, Okayama

Guideway bus (rail + road travel)
IMTS (un-manned rail + road travel)
Service

Kokura (use of subsidy for grade
separated road construction)
Mie Prefecture, etc.

Kochi, Nakamura
Adachi, Quebec (taxi bus)
Fukuoka (100 yen bus)
Hamamatsu (rainy bus)

Fig.1 Slope transportation system in Saruhashi

Fig.2 Low-floor LRV in Okayama City

Fig.3 Community bus in Yokohama City

The slope transport support system "menu" isbeing diversified.

The spread of low-floor streetcars has beenoutstanding, but mass introduction has not yettaken place because the cars are expensive
and the subsidy system is restricted.

Many communities have started to introduce
low-floor vehicles, and their introduction in
Japan is on the increase.

Saruhashi's BTM System: Connects JR Saruhashi
station with mountain top housing area with analtitude difference of 100m in 3 minutes. It is amagnetic belt monorail where a caterpillar type"magnetic belt" grasping the rail girder from bothsides while the magnetic belt is mobilized to move thetransport system.

Photographed by Tsutomu Yabe

Source: Yokohama City website

Experimental urban transportation systems were adopted for the Aichi World Expo held in 2005.
Fig.4 LINIMO

22

Fig.5 IMTS

Fig.6 Global Tram

Fig.7 Velo Taxi

TRANSPORT POLICY IN PERSPECTIVE 2005

Fig.8 "Eco-Park-and-Ride"

Some joint utilization systems formotor vehicles have developed fromthe social experiment stage and are
now in practical use. Ways of putting
suburban residential area type "Ecopark-and-ride" systems into practicaluse are now being sought throughlong-term trials.

Factories and Research Institutes
remote from station□company

Reserved
parking○bank"E" Station○○Co., Ltd.
Reserved parking△ Trading Co., Ltd.
"H" Station

Client "B"

CommutingWorking
Client "A"
Going
home

Travel of shared small-size car
Travel of commuter
Travel of worker

Table 3 Summary of deregulation of buses

Table 4 Expansion of ¥100 fares, and diversified fare systems

In the two years since bus deregulation, the gradual entry of new bus
companies has been seen, although the relationships between the running ofthese new corporate buses and road administration and operations as well as
the relationships between the running of the new buses and overall urban
transportation plans have become important problems to be resolved.

Diversified fare system was introduced just before deregulation
started.

Category

Before deregulation

After deregulation

Related legislation

Road Transport Law

Entry

License by route

Permission by operation

Withdrawal

Permission

Prior application only (6 months
before, if there are no adverse
effects, 30 days before)

Fare/rate

Permission

Prior application under a permitted
ceiling(change order possible)

Method of setting 100 yen fares

Cases

Same rate applied to new routes

Musashino city, etc.

Similar to above (100 yen/day)Fukaya city

Setting minimum fare for short distances andcutting rates

Gunma prefecture, etc.

Cutting fares for current minimum fare sections
on existing routes

Takaoka city, etc.

Cutting neighboring section fares in addition to
the above

Hamamatsu city

Setting new districts within existing routes andlowering fares

Fukuoka city

Practical application of BRT (a high-speed trunk bus system) has begun.
Fig.9 A four-lane bus-only
Fig.10 A rubber-tired tramroad(Bogota, Colombia)that can operate
without a guide rail
(Nancy, France)

Fig.11 A bus that follows awhite line(Las Vegas,
USA)

Fig.12 The number ofarticulated bus lines isincreasing in Japan(Fujisawa City)

Fig.13 An articulated bus line inJapan, where they are
increasing(Fujisawa City)

Fig.14 Model diagram of Transit Oriented Development in Curitiba City, Brazil

Fig.15 Development axis in Curitiba City

The concept of linking urban planning with urban public
transportation planning is coming to fruition overseas.

The Curitiba City development axis is reaching completion after 30
years.

Source: Curitiba City materials

Photographed by Katsutoshi Ohta

23

1. Diverse Means of Mobility and the Supporting Transport System

1-5

Transportation Accesibility
Improvement for People
with Disabilities

Hyogo Assistive Technology Researchand Design Institute Research Unit 1

Hiroshi Kitagawa

Accessible environments on transportation facilities are progressing in various locations because of the aging society
and to enable greater participation by the elderly and people with disabilities in Japan. Currently, pedestrian spaces arebeing made accessible environment mainly in accordance with Transportation Accessibility Improvement Law, whichprioritizes improved access in train stations and surrounding areas. In addition, recent years have seen continuingenhancement of the "support by people" concept and other information-related initiatives, as well as welfare-relatedtransportation services and other new initiatives to ensure mobility.

Fig.1 Basic concepts for Transportation Accessibility Improvement submitted

Fig.4 Call for train station volunteers

Setting forth of basic concepts for transportation accessibility environmentis progressing in various local government.

Volunteers are sought at train stations as part of the "support by people"
initiative.

Cumulative
submissions
Number of submissions

Number of submissions

60
50
40
30
20

200

150

100

Cumulative submissions

250

70

50
10
0

2001

2002

2003

2004

(FY)

0

2005

As of July 29, 2005
Source: Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport materials

Fig.2 Pedestrian environment considering a pedestrian network
Train station

City hallCommercial facility
Shopping area
Source: Materials from the Policy Bureau of the Ministry ofLand, Infrastructure and Transport

LibraryPark

Community center
Post office

Fig.5 Example of barrier-free route search on the Internet

Enhancement of information is implemented for realization of barrierfree. (Easy Outing information service).

Hospital
Welfare center for the elderly

Barrier-free pedestrian space
Source: Website of the Road Bureau of the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport

Fig.3 Number of non-step buses in use
12,000

Number of buses

10,000

8,000

6,000

2,000

0

Buses with lifts
Low-floor buses
Low-floor buses that are no-step

In 2003, 9.3 percent of all buses used are non-step.

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

Source: Materials from the Road Transport Bureau of the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure
and Transport

24

Source: Transport Ecomo Foundation website

TRANSPORT POLICY IN PERSPECTIVE 2005

Table 1 Outline of universal design policy concepts

Fig.8 Flow chart for councils on the operation of volunteer basedtransportation

Building a participatory society
Integration of barrier-free policies
Public transportation that anyone may easily use
Town planning that enables anyone to live safely and at ease
Response to diverse activities through technology and methods

Guideline for the creation of operation councils:
From determining a contact to establishment (model case)

Process for establishing
operation councils
Advance preparation(about 3—4 months)

Source: Website of the Policy Bureau of the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport

1) Determination ofgroup in change

Fig.6 Dissemination of scooter-type power wheelchairs(about 1 week)

The number of scooter-type power wheelchairs is rapidly increasing
mainly among the elderly.
Joystick type (standard/simplified)Three-wheeled scooter type
Four-wheeled scooter type(cumulative)

150,000

100,000

10,0003) Examination, adjustment,
and determination ofunit to be established

Cumulative total(cumulative)(cumulative)

15,000200,000

Joystick type

20,000(about 1 month)Three-wheeled scooter type

Four-wheeledscooter type

Number of wheelchairs

25,000(about 1 week
to 1 month)4) Selection and requestingof council members(about 1—2
months)

50,0005,000

02) Ascertain need for paid
welfare transportation

250,000

30,0001995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004

Concrete action5) Notification and application
guidance to transportation
providers0(about 1 month)

Determine contacts within local government
bodies.
Consult among agencies involved with
1) the welfare of elderly and/or disabled
persons and with transportation.
Jointly decide the supporting agency.
Determine the status and needs of people
requiring care, people with disabilities,
and others with limited mobility.
Contact groups that provide transport
2) services. Ascertain which groups will apply
for licenses. If necessary, conduct advancehearings with probable applicants.
Ascertain current conditions of welfare
and care related transportation by taxi
and so on. (Effective use of existingdata and cooperation with transportation
agencies are preferable.)
Examine whether the unit should be anindividual municipality or a group of3) them.
Consult with relevant municipalities andprefectures.
In deciding the membership composition,4) cooperation is possible if transportation
agencies are consulted.
Provide notification and application
5) guidance through local government
public relations media and so on.
Hold explanatory meetings.

(FY)
Source: Association for the Promotion of Electric Vehicle Safety

Operation of council(1—2 months)

Fig.7 Increase in elderly persons certified as In Need of Assistanceor In Need of Grade 1

The number of elderly persons requiring care is climbing, so improved
transportation services and transportation for those needing care is necessary.

6) Meeting of operation
councilNumbers of time held (one to several
times; will vary by council)
6) The presiding local government body
explains the need for paid welfarerelated transportation.

7) Holding of deliberations

After deliberations are held, municipalities
7) send requests for cooperation to volunteer
groups. (Letter of recommendation may
also be used.)

500,000

April 2000

Persons

1,000,000

May 2005

1,500,000

8) License applications
to transport offices, etc.
(from transportation providers)(Prompt approval after application.
Generally about 2 weeks.)

9) Approval0

18. In Needof AssistanceIn Needof Care 1

In Needof Care 2

In Needof Care 3

In Needof Care 4

In Needof Care 5

Priority guidance period

Source: Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare "Report on Status of Long-term care
Insurance Businesses"

Source: Website of the Road Transport Bureau of the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure
and Transport

Fig.9 The "Noritaku" (shared ride taxi) system

A new community bus transportation initiative is making progress.
Residential area

Telephone reservation

Apartment complex A

Noritaku
Ms. C is dropped off at the clinic.

Ms. A is going shopping inTama Center
Apartment complex B

Department store

Tama Center

Supermarket
Mr. B is going to takea train to the heart of Tokyo Apartment complex C

Ms. C is going to a clinic

Train station*Reservations can also be made for the
return trip from Tama Center.
Source: Tama Center information site

Note:This is a test of a DRT(demand responsive
transport) system
operating shared taxis
based on aregistration/reservation
system. It is for theelderly and others inurban areas who havedifficulty using routed
buses.

25

1. Diverse Means of Mobility and the Supporting Transport System

1-6

Future Transport
Infrastructure Development

Associate Professor, Graduate School ofEngineering, Yokohama National University

Toshiyuki Okamura
Research Associate, Yokohama
National University GraduateSchool ofEnvironment and Information Sciences

Tsutomu Yabe
The government released a new Comprehensive National Development Plan which envisages the Grand Design for the 21stCentury. (Approved by the Cabinet in March 1998) Future transport infrastructure improvement plans are expected to call forinvestment in the urban sector and investments to construct trunk transport networks that offer high cost-effectiveness. The
plans are also expected to put an emphasis on investments that promote effective use of existing networks including theIntelligent Transport Systems (ITS) for transmitting information from the road to vehicles using information andtelecommunications technologies. The Cabinet also approved the Social Infrastructure Improvement Priority Plan to unify nine
sectorical infrastructure improvement plans which the government formulates every five years. Under the new social
infrastructure plan, the government will evaluate policy measures and their implementation, using selected outcome indexes.

Table 1 Outlines of the Comprehensive National Development plans

Under Comprehensive National Development Plans, Japan’s transportation infrastructure was improved to form the backbone of national land development.
Development plans

Outline and goals

Main projects

Comprehensive
National
Development Plan
(1962-)The plan was designed to prevent the widening of gaps in development
between regions and to achieve balanced national land development by
distributing capital, labor, and technology appropriately among all regions.
The plan focused on development of selected areas by designating 15
cities as "new industrial cities" subject to such development.

Start of Tokaido Shinkansen bullet train service(1964).
7,600 km expressway scheme (1966).
Completion of Tomei and Meishin Expressways(1969)New Comprehensive
National Development
Plan (1969-)

The plan was designed to promote preservation of nature, balanced regional
development on a nationwide scale, revised use of national land, andimprovement of surrounding conditions for safe, comfortable, and culturerich livelihood. The plan centered on upgrading transportation andtelecommunications networks.

Establishment of Honshu-Shikoku Bridge Authority(1970).
Start of Sanyo Shinkansen bullet train service(1972).
Scheme to reform the Japanese Archipelago(1973-)

Third Comprehensive
National Development
Plan (1977-)

The plan was designed to promote balanced use of all national land andimprove living conditions in a comprehensive manner. The plan proposed
making the natural environment, people's livelihoods, and manufacturingconditions harmonious while seeking to shorten the distance between
workplaces and residences.

Opening of New Tokyo International Airport (1978)
Start of Tohoku and Joetsu Shinkansen bullet train
services (1982)

Fourth Comprehensive The plan was designed to create a multi-polar, dispersed land structure so
National Development as to achieve balanced development of national land. The plan promoted
expanding networks for regional interaction in order to achieve these goals.
Plan (1987-)

Scheme to extend expressway and regional
expressway networks for 14,000 km (1987)
Opening of the Seto-Ohashi Bridges linking Honshu
and Shikoku and the Seikan Tunnel linking Honshu
and Hokkaido (1988)
Opening of Kansai International Airport (1994)
Opening of Trans-Tokyo Bay Aqualine (1997)

The plan was designed to pave the way for creation of a multi-axial land
structure while promoting participation by a variety of parties and regional
coordination. The plan did not specify aggregate investment sums but
showed priority areas for investment and policy direction for efficient landdevelopment.

Opening of the Akashi Kaikyo Great Bridge (1998)
Start of Kyushu Shinkansen bullet train services(2004)
Opening of Central Japan International Airport(2005)

Grand Design for the
21st-century (1998-)

Source: Compiled based on data provided by the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, and Transport

Fig.1 Outline of previous and future infrastructure improvement plans

Under infrastructure improvement plans, improvements have been implemented by taking into account not only quantitative aspects of the plans but thequalitative aspects. How to secure financial sources should be considered when formulating these plans.
Roads

New five-year road improvement plan (fiscal 1998-2002)
Goals (1) Supporting creation of new economic structure(2) Helping revitalize regions and urban areas(3) Helping create better living conditions(4) Realizing safer national landSpecific steps: Improvement of expressway and regional
expressway networks
Research and development of ITS

Airports

Seventh five-year airport improvement plan (fiscal 1996-2002)
Goals (1) Improvement of hub airports in major metropolitan areas(2) Improvement of regional hub airports and local airports(3) Promotion of anti-earthquake policies and introduction of
new technologies
Specific steps: Second phase project for Kansai International Airport
Opening of Central Japan International Airport
Prioritizing improvement of airports located in the Tokyo Metropolitan
Area

FutureissuesIncreasing efficiency of road improvement projects,
prioritizing improvement projects, and addressing
environmental concerns

FutureissuesLowering airport landing fees

Railways

Deliberation No.20 by Transport Policy Council (2000)
Basic direction of Japan's comprehensive transport policyin the early 21st century
Basic Goals: Addressing economic and social changes,
and promoting the "mobility" revolution
Specific steps: Improved transfer convenience and higherspeeds on trunk railway networks

Ports

Ninth seven-year port improvement plan (fiscal 1998-2002)
Goals (1) Establishing internationally-competitive physicaldistribution networks(2) Creating reliable port space(3) Revitalizing regional areas
Specific steps: Improvement of container terminals.
Making quays quake-resistantSetting up disaster prevention centers in coastal areas

FutureissuesRailway improvements and modal shift of flow of goods
through collaboration among businesses and national/local
governments

FutureissuesAdding functions to ports to make them internationallycompetitive hub. Establishing internationally competitive port
operation methods

Source: Compiled based on data provided by the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, and Transport

26

TRANSPORT POLICY IN PERSPECTIVE 2005

Fig.2 Outline of Social Infrastructure Improvement Priority Plan

The government reviewed the five-year Comprehensive National Development Plans that started in 1962, and the Cabinet approved the new Social
Infrastructure Improvement Priority Plan (implementation period runs from 2003 through 2007) based on the Social Infrastructure Improvement Priority
Law. As a result, improvement programs in 13 areas, including long-term plans in nine sectors such as roads, ports, and airports undertaken under theprevious Comprehensive National Development Plans, were placed under the Social Infrastructure Improvement Priority Plan.
Prioritized, effective, and efficient implementation ofsocial infrastructure improvement projects
1 Strict assessment of projects
2 Cost reduction and speedy implementation of projects through technologicaldevelopment
3 Winning understanding and cooperation from local people
4 Promoting cooperation and linkage between different projects
5 Effective use of existing social infrastructure and support by policy
measures
6 Fair bidding and contracts for public works projects
7 Use of private sector funds and private sector human resources
8 Establishing new relations between central government and local
governments in social infrastructure improvements【Previous five-year plans (nine sectors)】
Flood control
Steep surface land
Seashore
Sewerage

These plans are now covered under a single plan

Urban parks
Road improvements
Traffic safety measures
Ports
Airports

Social Infrastructure Improvement Priority Plan
Goals of prioritized and concentrated social infrastructure improvements
Living - Improving quality of life
*Creating a barrier-free society in response to society's aging andthe decreasing childbirth rates*Creating beautiful and nature-rich urban communities
Safety - Ensuring safe and fear-free living*Making the national land more resistant to flooding and otherdisasters.
*Making the national land more resistant to large-scale earthquakes
and fires.
*Formulating comprehensive traffic safety measures andstrengthening crisis management systems
The environment - Promoting environmental conservation andcreating a beautiful landscape*Prevention of global warming*Improvement of living environment related to urban air pollution andnoise*Creation of a recycling-based society*Conservation, regeneration, and creation of a good naturalenvironment*Improving water-related environments
Vitality - Recovery of economic vitality through regional cooperation
and urban renaissance*Ensuring world-class transport services and enhancing international
competitiveness and attractiveness.
*Improving mobility of domestic trunk-line transport networks*Making urban transport services more comfortable and moreconvenient*Revitalizing regions and their economies through mutual regional
exchanges and tourism interchanges

Source: Compiled based on data provided by the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, andTransport

Table 2 Priority items for road improvement under the Social Infrastructure Improvement Priority Plan and examples of Assessment indexes

Road improvement projects focuses on the efficient construction of roads and their effective use based on a set of policy themes. As a result, high-quality,
reasonably-priced road services are provided while the participation of citizens in road planning and management is made possible.
PolicythemesPriority items

Living*Creating high-quality living environments by giving pedestrians
and cyclists special priority areas*Making walking space for pedestrians barrier-free at major
railway stations and their surrounding areas*Removing electric poles along non-trunk roads in residential
areas and historical areas known for their landscape beauty inaddition to trunk roads

SafetyVitality

Numerical targets for assessment indexes
2007

2002

Ratio of roads that are freeof electric poles

7％

→

15％

*Concentrated implementation of traffic safety measures andcomprehensive safety measures for pedestrians in dangerous
areas along trunk roads

Percentage of traffic accidents 118 cases per 100 million vehicle km
About a 10% reduction in these rates
resulting in death or injury(108 cases per 100 million vehicle km)*Minimizing areas being isolated in the event of heavy rain andsnow, road improvements to ensure traffic access to medical
institutions in emergencies, and implementation of roadrelated measures against disasters, earthquakes, and heavy
snow to support rescue operations during disasters

Maintenance rates for roadstructures (paved roads)

91％→

Current levels
maintained

Maintenance rates for roadstructures (bridges)

86％

→

93％

Percentage of targets
achieved on night-time noiselevels

61％

→

72％

*Efficient and meticulously-planned maintenance andmanagement of road structures, including the introduction ofcomprehensive asset management systems

Environment

Assessment indexes*Improvement of surrounding road environments, conservationof the global environment, and the creation of beautiful roadlandscapes through the expansion of trunk-road networks,
and implementation of TDM measures, reduction of carderived air pollution, and roadside tree planting*Reducing traffic congestion through road improvement
projects, thorough streamlining of street construction work,and promotion of ETC systems

Loss of time due to traffic
congestion
ETC diffusion rates

An average 38.1 hours were lost per
year for 100 million people Reduction of
about 10%
5％

→

70％

Source: Compiled based on data provided by the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, and Transport27

1. Diverse Means of Mobility and the Supporting Transport System

1-7

Revenue Sources and theUse for Road Facilities

Professor, Graduate School ofEnvironment and Information Sciences,
Yokohama National University

Fumihiko Nakamura

There are three main revenue sources for road construction: (1) tax revenues collected from vehicle users at each stageof vehicle purchase, ownership, and use, and earmarked for road construction, (2) general revenues paid to the central
government and local governments, and (3) borrowings under the government's fiscal investment and loan program. Tax
revenues allotted for road construction account for the largest portion of the total sum. With increased investment in roadprojects, the government's collection of tax revenues designated for such projects has increased through the applicationof provisional tax rates. The first two categories of revenues are used to finance expenditures by the central government
and local governments, with almost all of these funds allocated for general road construction projects or projects
undertaken independently by local governments. Borrowings under the fiscal investment and loan program are used mainly
to finance projects by the Japan Highway Public Corp. and other government-sponsored corporations to build toll roads.

Ownership stage

Acquisition
stage

Table 1 Vehicle taxes and revenues earmarked for road construction
Tax

National tax/local tax

SystemUse

Tax rate/tax amount

Consumption tax

National tax/local tax

Levied on vehicle price

General revenues(national and local)

25%(Note 2)

Vehicle acquisition
tax

Prefectural tax

Levied on acquisition price at thetime of purchase(¥500,000 or less is tax exempted)

Earmarked for road
construction(local)Private use 5%.
Business use/light vehicles 3%.
(Provisionally levied until March 2003)

3%

Vehicle tonnage tax

National tax

Levied on vehicle weight at every
vehicle inspection

Earmarked for road
construction(national) Note 1

Private-use car example:¥6,300 per year for every 0.5 ton of weight(Provisionally levied until April 2003)¥2,500

Vehicle tax

Prefectural tax

Fixed amount levied on eachowner as of April 1 every year

General revenues (local)

Private passenger car example:
1,001-1,500 cc ¥34,500 per year

Light-vehicle tax

Municipal tax

Fixed amount levied on eachowner as of April 1 every year

General revenues (local)

Private light-vehicle (four-wheel) example:¥7,200 per year

Levied on gasoline.
Levied on diesel fuelEarmarked for road
construction(national)¥48.6 per liter.
(provisionally levied until March 2003)¥24.3

National tax

Earmarked for road
construction(local)¥5.2 per liter.
(provisionally levied until March 2003)¥4.4

Diesel fueltransaction tax

Prefectural tax

Levied on liquefied
petroleum gas

General revenues(local)¥32.1 per liter.
(provisionally levied until March 2003)¥15.0

Liquefied petroleum
gas tax

National tax

Levied on fuel prices

Earmarked for road construction(national 50%; local 50%)

¥17.5 per kg¥17.5

General revenues(national and local)

25%(Note 2)

Use stage

Gasoline tax
Local road tax

Consumption tax

National tax/local tax

Basic tax rate

Revenues earmarked for road construction
Note 1: Three-quarters of vehicle tonnage tax revenues are earmarked for road construction by the national government and one-quarter is earmarked for road construction by local
governments.
Note 2: The 1% portion of the 5% tax rate is local consumption tax (local tax).
Source: Japan Automobile Manufacturers Association

Parties in charge ofroad construction

Use of collected
revenues

Revenuesources

U.K.

FranceGermany

U.S.A.

Japan

Automobile-relatedtaxesTo 2) and 4) To 1) and 2) To 1) and 4) To 1) and 3) To 1) and 3)
and 4)
To1) and 2) To 2) and 4) To 2) and 4) To 2) and 4)
To
2)
and
4)
Other taxes
and 4)b) via fiscal .
Private-sector funds, To c) and d) To c) and d) To a) and d) To b) and d) Toinvestment.
tolls
and loan program
1) Revenues earmarked
To a) and b) To a) and d) To a) and b)
by central (federal) goverTo a) and b)
NoneTo c) and d)
and d)
nments for specific purposes
2) General-purpose revenues
To a) and b)
by central (federal)To a) and d)
To a) and d) To a) and b) To a) and b)
To c) and d)
and d)
governments
3) Revenues earmarked by
To a) and b) To a) and b)
None
None
municipal(state)governments
and d)
for specific purposes
4) General-purpose revenues
To a) and d) To a) and b) To a) and d) To a) and b) To a) and b)
by municipal (state)
and d)To c) and d)
governments
Road and .publica) governments
Roads
Roads
Roads
Roads
transportation
systemsb) governmentsponsored corporations

None

None

None

Expressways Expressways
and others

Vehicle tonnage tax(passenger car: per year, every 0.5 ton of weight)¥24.3¥13.0 ¥14.8 ¥19.2 ¥22.1
Gasoline tax¥11.0(¥/Liter)
¥4.4
¥4.0
¥3.5
Local road tax (¥/Liter)
¥2.0
¥15.0
¥8.0 ¥10.4 ¥12.5
Diesel fuel transaction¥17.5
tax (¥/Liter) ¥6.0
¥10.0
LPG tax (¥/kg) ¥5.0
800,000 Vehicle acquisition tax.(passenger cars)
3%
700,000¥5,000 ¥6.300¥2,500¥45.6¥29.2 ¥36.5¥5.3 ¥6.6
¥19.5

¥48.6

¥8.2

¥5.2
¥32.1

¥24.3

5%

760,000 780,000

600,000

530,000
500,000

382,000

400,000

285,000

300,000

195,000

200,000c) private businesses

Toll roads

Toll roads

None

Toll roads

None

100,000d) public transport
operators

Publictransport

Publictransport

Publictransport

Publictransport

Publictransport

0

Source: Based on International Comparison of Data 2000, supervised by the Ministry ofLand, Infrastructure and Transport

28

Fig. 1 Investment amounts under 5-year Road Improvement Plans and changes
in provisional tax rates concerning revenues earmarked for road construction(¥100 mil.)Table 2 Revenue sources for road construction in major countries

2,600 10,000 21,000

41,00066,000103,500

1st
2nd
3id
4th
5th
6th
7th
8th
9th
10th
11th
12th
('54-'58) ('58-'62) ('61-'65) ('64-'88) ('67-'71) ('70-'74) ('73-'77) ('78-'82) ('83-'87) ('88-'92) ('93-'97) ('98-'02)
Notes: 1) □:basic tax rate2) The 2nd Plan through the 7th Plan were revised midway, resulting in some years
overlapping

TRANSPORT POLICY IN PERSPECTIVE 2005

Table 3 Revenue sources for road investment (FY 2006 initial budget)

Amount(¥100mil.)RatiosBreakdown

Gasoline tax
LPG tax
Vehicle tonnage tax
Loan redemption☆
General revenues☆

29,629.06
152.725,851.00
601.57534.32

80.6%
0.4%
15.9%
1.6%
1.5%

Total

36,768.67

100.0%

Users' burden(other than ☆)30,996.72

84.3%

Breakdown
Revenuecategories

Total

RatiosFiscal investment
and loan program

Local budget

State budget

Amount(¥100mil.)RatiosLocal road transfer tax
LPG transfer tax
Vehicle tonnage transfer tax
Diesel fuel transaction tax
Vehicle acquisition tax
General revenues☆

3,072.00
147.003,767.00
10,556.00
4,655.00
26,744.26

6.3%
0.3%
7.7%
21.6%
9.5%
54.6%

Total

48,941.26

100.0%

13,500.15

49.3%

¥24.3
13.6%

37.1%

Source: Compiled based on data provided by the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, and Transport

Total¥2,50013,500.15

Table 4 Road-related budget
Breakdown : Category

3%(Unit: ￥100 mil.)2005 initial2004 initial

Growth rate

Temporary subsidies for local road improvements
Road improvements, etc.

7,408
23,5897,072
24,9901.05
0.94

Total for special accounts for road improvements

30,99732,062

0.97

Subsidies for town planning
Subsidies for road improvements
Funds to promote the Hokkaido model project for the regional system
Promotion of the spread of ETC
Support for independent movement
Smoothing traffic through use of information systems
Technical development to promote the removal of electric poles
Measures concerning the setting of diverse and flexible rates for toll roads
Land register surveys for the smooth promotion of urban renewal
Support for the introduction of DPF/oxidation catalysts
Honshu-Shikoku debt alleviation

550
100
27
56
4
70
17
89
29
4,829

300
27
17
115
30
40
3,049

1.83
1.00
0.98
0.77
0.98
1.58

Total for general accounts

5,772

3,578

1.61

Total

36,76935,6401.03

Source: Compiled based on data provided by the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, and Transport

Table 5 Composition of road investment by implementing body

(Unit: ￥100 mil.)2005 initial2004 initial

Growth rate

Total expenditures for general road projects

46,720.78

48,615.10

0.96

Total expenditures for toll road projects
Total expenditures for projects undertaken independently by prefectural andmunicipal governments

16,217.35

18,850.35

0.86

30,500.00

37,100.00

0.82

Total

93,438.13

104,565.45

0.89

Source: Compiled based on data provided by the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, and Transport

Table 6 Breakdown of general road project funds
Category(Unit: ￥100 mil.)2005 initial2004 initial

Growth rate

National expressways
General national roads
Municipal roads
Streets
Cold weather
Machines
Research expenditures
Traffic safety
Roadside improvements
Grants to independently-operated public corporations
Road related social infrastructure

2,000.00
20,797.50
6,885.03
9,132.41
992.16176.08301.36
4,693.39
104.3014.65
1,623.90

1,720.52
21,737.38
7,463.53
9,774.32
1,083.89
190.81279.784,458.42
109.7814.71
1,781.96

1.16
0.96
0.92
0.93
0.92
0.92
1.08
1.05
0.95
1.00
0.91

Total expenditures for general road projects

46,720.78

48,615.10

0.96

Source: Compiled based on data provided by the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, and Transport29

2. Efforts to Assure Safe and Comfortable Mobility

2-1

Trends and Present Situationof Road Traffic Accidents

Senior Researcher, Toyota
Transportation Research InstituteSeiji Hashimoto

The number of traffic fatalities fell below 8,000 and totaled 7,358 in 2004 in a continuation of the downward trend
seen in the past several years. The decrease resulted from all-out efforts by society to reduce traffic accidents,
including the June 2002 revision to the Road Traffic Law and the strong resolve shown by the Prime Minister (whoheads the Central Transport Safety Council) in a statement issued in January 2003 to halve the number of traffic
deaths. Improved vehicle safety systems also led to the decrease in traffic fatalities. However, the number of overall
traffic accidents and the number of accidents resulting in injury continue to rise, requiring the promotion of further
countermeasures. In addition, the number of traffic fatalities involving senior citizens and pedestrians is relatively higher
than for similar accidents in other countries, which indicates the need for further efforts to prevent accidents.

Fig.1 Changes in traffic fatalities, injuries, and number of accidents

Table 1 Traffic injuries per 100,000 people and per 10,000 vehicles
for the worst 10 prefectures (2004)

The number of traffic fatalities decreased but the number of accidents andthe number of accidents resulting in injury are still high.

Traffic injuries
1,000,000

18,00016,765

981,096

Per 100,000 people

20,0001,183,120

16,000952,191
Traffic fatalities

14,000800,000
12,000720,880

10,000600,000

Traffic fatalities

Number of traffic accidents and casualties

1,200,000

8,000

7,358
400,000

6,000

Traffic accidents

4,000

200,000

2,000

Per 10,000 vehicles

Kagawa Prefecture

1,655.9

Kagawa Prefecture

189.6

Saga Prefecture

1,550.1

Saga Prefecture

185.3

Saitama Prefecture

1,521.1

Ibaraki Prefecture

177.3

Fukui Prefecture

1,417.2

Fukuoka Prefecture

176.6

Okayama Prefecture

1,389.4

Osaka Prefecture

174.8

Fukuoka Prefecture

1,236.0

Fukui Prefecture

170.6

Miyazaki Prefecture

1,153.9

Saitama Prefecture

163.1

Toyama Prefecture

1,120.6

Kanagawa Prefecture

162.5

Aichi Prefecture

1,064.2

Okayama Prefecture

157.9

Tokushima Prefecture

1,049.8

Hyogo Prefecture

153.1

Nationwide

131.6

Nationwide

932.4

Source: Institute for Traffic Accident Research and Data Analysis,"Traffic Statistics"(2004 edition)001945 1950

1960

1970

(year)

1980

1990

2000 2004

Source: Institute for Traffic Accident Research and Data Analysis, "Traffic Statistics"(2004 edition)

Fig. 2 Changes in traffic fatalities by age bracket

Fig.3 Changes in traffic fatalities by travel mode

Deaths among senior citizens (aged 65 or older) remain at high levels. But
the number declines sharply for the 20-29 age group.

Vehicle occupant fatalities are falling. Measures need to be adopted tocurb fatalities for pedestrians and cyclists.
7,000

3,500
Aged 65 or older

Pedestrians
3,046

3,000

6,000
Vehicle occupants
5,000
Traffic fatalities

Traffic fatalities

2,500
Aged 20-29
2,000
Aged 16〜19
1,500

4,000

3,000

2,918

Aged 50〜59
Aged 40〜49

1,000

Aged 30〜39500

0Aged 60〜64
Aged 15 or younger

1980

1985

1990

Source: Traffic Statistics (2004 edition)

30(year)

1995

2000

930
916
716
563
545
421
221
2004

2,250

2,000
Motorcycle riders

1,313
1,000

859
OthersBicyclists

1801955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2004
(year)

Source: Traffic Statistics (2004 edition)

TRANSPORT POLICY IN PERSPECTIVE 2005

Fig.4 Breakdown of ratios of accidents for deaths occurring
within 24 hours and deaths occurring within 30 days

Death within
24 hours

Vehicleoccupants

Motorcycle
ridersMotorcycle（engines up
ridersto 50cc) Cyclists

Pedestrians

39.7%(2,918)

9.1 8.7 11.7
(673) (640) (859)30.6(2,250)Fig.5 Change in number of fatalities after penalties against
driving under the influence of alcohol were strengthened
110.0

7,526 7,607

Others

100.0

0.2
(18)

90.0

7,083

1,458
1,391

9,954
6,558

1,296
1,240

80.0

6,502 6,554

6,305

1,267 1,257 1,276

6,127

1,191

5,897

5,694
No alcohol

70.0

Death after
24 hours andwithin 30 days

24.7%
(280)

6.8 11.5(77) (130)

25.4
(288)

31.7
(359)

0.0
(0)

0
20
40
60
80
100 (%)
Notes:Death within 24 hours: death resulting from the accident and occurring within 24
hours of the accident
Death within 30 days: death resulting from the accident and occurring within 30
days of the accident, excluding the first 24 hours
Source: Cabinet Office "Traffic Safety White Paper" (2005 edition)

Fig.6 Number of fatal accidents by road configuration

780

50.0

Alcohol involved
710

40.0

1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 (year)
Note: The contribution of driving under the influence of alcohol to fatal accidents in1994 is set as 100. Penalties for driving under the influence of alcohol were
strengthened in the June 2002 revision of the Road Traffic Law.
Source: Cabinet Office Traffic Safety White Paper (2005 edition)

Fig.7 Changes in traffic deaths by country (Number of fatalities

Railway crossing/other73 (1.0%)

Tunnel/bridge
133 (1.9%)

997
60.0

(person） per population of 100,000)
35
30

Curve
2157 (16.3%)

25
In intersection
2,650 (37.4%)

Basic road Intersection
section
3,223
3,788(45.5%)(53.6%)

20
15

U.S.A.
Italy

10

FranceGermanyJapan

General basicroad section
2,498 (35.3%)

5

U.K.
The Netherlands

Near intersection
573 (8.1%)

01970 1980 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 (year)

Source: Cabinet Office "Traffic Safety White Paper" (2005 edition)

Source: Traffic Safety White Paper (2004 edition)

Table 2 Traffic deaths in each country by situation (2003)

Table 3 Traffic deaths in each country by age bracket (2003)

Motorcycle
ridersFatalities Vehicle. Motorcycle
occupants riders (engines up Cyclists
to 50cc)Pedes
triansOthersFatalities 5or 6-9 10-14 15-17 18-20 21-24 25-64
younger

65 or Unknown
older

Germany

6,613
100.0

3,774
57.1

946
14.3

134
2.0

616
9.3

812
12.3

331
5.0

Germany

6,613
100.0

47
0.7

61 1000.9 1.5

316
4.8

720
10.9

672
10.2

3,367 1,329
50.9 20.1

1
0.0

France

6,058
100.0

3,709
61.2

859
14.2

393
6.5

201
3.3

626
10.3

270
4.5

France

6,058
100.0

69
1.1

48 106
0.8 1.7

273
4.5

565
9.3

722
11.9

3,090 1,099
51.0 18.1

87
1.4

Italy
(2000)

6,736
100.0

3,555
52.8

859
12.8

409
6.1

315
4.7

1,188
17.6

410
6.1

Italy
(2000)

6,736
100.0

50
0.7

36 102
0.5 1.5

186
2.8

399
5.9

672
10.0

3,554 1,404
52.8 20.8

333
4.9

The
Netherlands

1,028
100.0

483
47.0

95
9.2

94
9.1

188
18.3

97
9.4

71
6.9

The
Netherlands

1,028
100.0

16
1.6

17
1.7

31
3.0

54
5.3

85
8.3

94
9.1

510
49.6

221
21.5

0
0.0

U.K.

3,658
100.0

1,861
50.9

690
18.9

25
0.7

116
3.2

802
21.9

164
4.5

U.K.

3,658
100.0

39
1.1

29
0.8

77
2.1

201
5.5

411
11.2

361
9.9

1,865
51.0

658
18.0

17
0.5

U.S.A.

42,643 19,460
100.0
45.6

3,633
8.5

28
0.1

622
1.5

4,749 14,151
11.1
33.2

U.S.A.

42,643
100.0

741
1.7

457 938 2,448 3,988 4,360 22,964 6,630
9.4 10.2
1.1 2.2
5.7
53.9 15.5

117
0.3

South
Korea

7,212
100.0

1,717
23.8

906
12.6

232
3.2

256
3.5

2,896
40.2

1,205
16.7

South
Korea

7,212
100.0

170
2.4

144
2.0

80
1.1

158
2.2

254
3.5

396
5.5

4,267 1,707
59.2 23.7

36
0.5

Japan

8,877
100.0

2,230
25.1

803
9.0

766
8.6

1,243
14.0

2,739
30.9

1,096
12.3

Japan

8,877
100.0

83
0.9

84
0.9

67
0.8

256
2.9

493
5.6

472
5.3

3,769 3,653
42.5 41.2

0
0.0

Figures shown in upper half of cell are the number of fatalities and those in lower half
represent percentage shares.
Source: Institute for Traffic Accident Research and Data Analysis, "Traffic Statistics"(2004 edition)

Figures shown in upper half of cell are the number of fatalities and those in lower half
represent percentage shares.
Source: Institute for Traffic Accident Research and Data Analysis, "Traffic Statistics"(2004 edition)31

2. Efforts to Assure Safe and Comfortable Mobility

2-2

Associate Professor, Faculty ofUrban Environmental Sciences,
Tokyo Metropolitan University

Traffic Safety Measures

Takashi Oguchi

Japan's so-called social losses from traffic accidents are estimated to total ¥4.2 trillion a year. Of this sum, losses deriving fromdeath or injury of a person are calculated by estimating incomes and other economic benefits that the person would accrue over the
rest of his/her life if he/she were not dead or had not become handicapped. But given the worldwide tendency to estimate humanlosses by using the Willingness-to-Pay method (WTP), total losses in Japan from traffic accidents would swell further and reachhuge levels. The central government and local governments have taken measures to ensure traffic safety based on the Traffic Safety
Measures Basic Law. Their efforts have produced the desired outcomes, since they are concentrating their financial and humanresources for traffic safety on areas where accidents have occurred frequently in the past. The central and local governments aremaking efforts to improve the safety of vehicle-driving conditions, by introducing advanced safety facilities, advanced traffic-control
systems, and improving road conditions and road facilities. But their safety efforts go beyond these conventional approaches to thelaunching of public relations campaign, for example, so that dangerous road conditions and traffic risks in certain areas are widely
disseminated to the general public.

Fig.1 Government efforts for traffic safety

The central government has implemented comprehensive and meticulously-planned safety measures based on the Traffic Safety Measures Basic Law andimproved traffic-related facilities and systems based on the Social Infrastructure Improvement Priority Plan.
Traffic Safety Plan based on the
Traffic Safety Measures Basic Law

The law is intended to implement safety measures in ground, marine, andaviation traffic in a comprehensive and meticulously-planned manner.
・Devised by the Central Traffic Safety Measures Council (headed by Prime Minister Junichiro
Koizumi).
・Stipulates policy guidelines and policy measures for traffic safety

Basic Plan for Traffic Safety

Seventh basic plan for traffic safety (approved by the Central Traffic Safety Measures Council on March 16, 2002)
for fiscal 2001-2005
Outlinea. Safety measures addressing the actual conditions of traffic accidents and the changes in social and economic
situations are necessary in order to create a safer traffic society in the 21st century.
b. The government will formulate adequate and effective traffic safety measures in a comprehensive manner byaddressing issues associated with three elements constituting our traffic society - people, modes of transport, andtraffic environments. The government will firmly implement these measures while winning understanding andcooperation from the citizens.
c. The government will promote comprehensive research and analysis on causes of traffic accidents as a basis for
introducing measures on the three elements.
d. The government will implement measures to reduce the damage deriving from traffic accidents and measures torelieve the victims of traffic accidents.
e. The government will implement adequate measures in a concentrated and effective manner in accordance with thechanges in society, such as the rapid aging of the population and advancements in information technology.
f. The government will promote traffic safety campaigns with general citizens participating in the move.
Traffic Safety Plans by prefectural governments

Traffic safety facilities improvement
projects (after revision)

Traffic Safety Plans by municipal governments

A five-year comprehensive plan to improve traffic safety facilities was abolished in March
2003, and was integrated into the Social Infrastructure Improvement Priority Plan along withother infrastructure improvement projects.

Central government

Prefectural and municipal governments
Designation of roads

Opinions

Parties in charge of road management
and the Public Safety Commission
Implementation Plan for projects to improve
designated traffic safety facilities

Social Infrastructure Improvement Priority Plan

Special schemes such as subsidies

Implementation

Table 1 Social losses caused by traffic accidents (FY 1999)

In Japan, human losses (calculated by projecting economic costs that victims of accidents would accrue over the rest of their lives if they were not dead or
had not become handicapped) and physical losses together account for the bulk of total social losses from traffic accidents.
Human losses

1,726,855

40.5

Notes
Medical fees, business compensation, consolation money, econonic loss of victims, etc.

Physical losses

Losses (¥1 million) % shares
1,804,100

42.3

Repair of vehicles and damaged structures, and payments of damages.

Losses of business operators

77,183

1.8

Decline in business value of persons involved in accidents stemming from their death,physical injury, and suspension from work.

Losses of public organizations

676,883

15.5

Ambulance fees, paperwork fees charged by police, insurance management fees,
financial assistance to victims of accidents

4,285,021

100.0

Total

Source: Economic Losses of Traffic Accidents, compiled by the Director-General in charge of comprehensive planning and research at the Cabinet Office in June 2002

32

TRANSPORT POLICY IN PERSPECTIVE 2005

Emergency safety measures began in 1996 to focus on accident black spots, where traffic accident had occurred frequently.
As the measures produced the intended results, 4,000 other black spots were designated as "dangerous" areas in July 2003.
Fig.3 Effects of emergency safety measures at accident
Level that would be reached if
accidents increase at the national average rate

Traffic accidents on trunk roads concentrate on certain sections.

11,000 km
6%178,000km

15,000400,000

Safety measurescurbed number of
12,000 accidents by about30%

300,000

32.8%
increase

431,888
cases

9,000

325,126
cases

140,000
cases
100,000

0

20

40

60

80

100 (%)
0Note: Traffic accident figures are averages for 1996-1998
Source: Website of the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport
http://www.mlit.go.jp/road/road/traffic/sesaku/03.html

9,169
cases

6,000

3,000

2000

74,000 cases
53%

1990-1993
average

200,000

Number oftraffic accidents
with casualties

9,835
cases

13,065
cases

0

2000

Road
Extension

500,000

1990-1993
averageFig.2 Correlation between road extensions on single-lane areas oftrunk roads and the number of traffic accidents with casualties

BeforeAfter
implementation implementationof measuresof measures

BeforeAfter
implementation implementationof measuresof measures

Nationwide trunk roads

Accident black spots

Source: Website of the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport
http://www.mlit.go.jp/road/road/traffic/taisaku/

Fig.4 Enhanced visibility after introduction of LED-type traffic signal
lamps

Fig.5 Pavement with better drainage, which is designed to maintaintraction and prevent water splashing up from the road’s surface

An LED-type traffic signal lamp gives an instantly recognizable signal. In
addition, it consumes less electricity and has a longer life.
<Light bulb-type traffic signal lamp><LED-type traffic signal lamp>

Fig 6 Project to halve traffic accidents in Kamagaya City, Chiba Prefecture

The local government makes available data on locations with frequent accidents.

People’s written accounts of close calls can be examined.
3. Return to home page for close-call information provided by visitors
view list
You can enter your own "Hiyari Hatto (potential accident spots)"

Accidents while crossing roads

Click here for how to use
Click a point on the map for detailed information

Chuo 1

Source: Website of the Administration Section, Civil Engineering Department, operated
by Kamagaya City(English Translation from the Source)
http://www.utef.co.jpkamagaya/top.html

33

2. Efforts to Assure Safe and Comfortable Mobility

2-3

The Second Stage of ITS

Assistant Manager in Charge,
ITS Japan Planning Group

Masahiro Sakakibara(Intelligent Transport Systems)

Intelligent Transport Systems (ITS) are designed to increase safety, transportation efficiency, and comfort, as well as promote
environmental conservation by organically communication between people, vehicles, and roads using the most advanced
information and telecommunications technologies. In Japan, four government agencies (five before reorganization, i.e., the National
Police Agency and the former Ministries of International Trade and Industry; Transport, Posts and Telecommunications; andConstruction) released an overall scheme for ITS in July 1996. Practical use of ITS has been implemented in the Vehicle Information
and Communication System (VICS), Electronic Toll Collection (ETC), and the HELP emergency reporting system, with effective
results. This was the first stage of ITS. In September 2004, industry, government, and academic users formed the ITS Infocommunications Forum, which announced its second-stage Policy on ITS Promotion. In addition, the e-Japan Strategy II, in its final
year, decided on the IT Policy Package 2005 as a priority initiative, with ITS included to "improve the convenience and safety of
movement and transportation." In particular, strengthened industry-government-academia collaboration is moving forward on thegovernment's goal of reducing annual traffic fatalities to less than 5,000 by 2012.

Overall theme

Individual themes(1) Improving the safety ofroad traffic*The intelligent automobile*Enhancement of infrastructure*Vehicle-to-vehicle and roadto-vehicle cooperation*Supporting the safety ofpedestrians, bicyclists, andmotorcyclists*Enhancement of first-aid rescueof traffic-accident victims

Safety andSecurityFig.1 Direction of the ITS second stage(2) Development of a new mobile society
Diverse services will develop during the ITS second stage. ITS will becomea part of life and society, contributing to the solution of social problems
and to social reform.
1995

2000

2005

Car navigation(2) Ensuring smoothertraffic and reducing
Efficiency andenvironmental impact
Environment(3) Improving convenience
to individualsl

Comfort andConvenience

Multiplefields*Optimization of traffic demand*Advanced road traffic
management systems*Advanced parking systems
The increase in efficiency of
freight distribution*Raising the quality of roadtraffic information provided
and promoting its active use*Advanced application of ITS
content*Improving convenience to theelderly disabled(4) Stimulating regional
economic activity*Improving access between
regions and expressways*Raising the convenience ofintermodal transportation
using public transport(5) Preparation of a common
platform and promotion ofinternational standards
and global technicalregulations*Construction of an ITS
platform*Promoting the international
standards and global technicalregulations

Source: ITS Info-communications Forum (Website of the ITS Japan)(http://www.its-jp.org/topics/topics017.html)

Fig.2 Government efforts to promote ITS
The Strategic Headquarters for the
Advanced Information and Telecommunications
Network Society (IT Strategic Headquarters)

Four-ministry Liaison
Conference
ITS
Standardization
Committee

Ministry of Land, Infrastructure
and Transport

Promotion ofinternational
standardization
ISO: International
Organization forStandardization

National Police Agency
Ministry of Internal
Affairs andCommunications
Ministry of Economy,
Trade and Industry

ITS Japan.
(universities,
companies
and other relevantorganizations)
An industryacademia ITS
promotionorganization
Organizing the ITSWorld Congress,
etc.

Source: ITS information shown on the website of the Road Bureau of the Ministry ofLand, Infrastructure and Transport(http://www.mlit.go.jp/road/ITS/j-html/index.html)

34

2010

2015

2020

October 2004 ITS Nagoya conference

VICS
ETC
ASV
Probe systems
Bus location systems

First stage(advancement, popularization)

Improved quality of movement
and transportation(Safety, peace of mind,
environment, convenience)･ Reversing the negative legacy
of motorization･ Ensuring mobility for the elderly･ Developing affluent communities
and lifestyles

New mobile society

Field

Evolution, integration,and cooperation of systems

Table 1 ITS Info-communications Forum’s Policy on ITS Promotion･ Improving the business climate

To the second stage(changing lifestyles and society)Source:Smartway Project Advisory Council, Road Bureau, Ministry of Land,
Infrastructure and Transport(http://www.its.go.jp/ITS/j-html/Smartway/20040609/)

Fig.3 The position of ITS as a national strategy
The position of ITS (intelligent transport systems)
Basic Law on the Formation of an Advanced Information andTelecommunications Network Society (IT Basic Law; effective January 6, 2001)
Sets forth principles and measures related to basic policy on the formation of anadvanced information and telecommunications network society

Strategy

Priority Program

e-Japan Strategy II(July 2003 decision of the IT
Strategic Headquarters)
As the second phase of the IT
strategy, the e-Japan Strategy II
promotes the construction of ITS
infrastructure, particularly road traffic
infrastructure, and is improving theinformation environment byeffectively using IT.

e-Japan Priority Policy Program
2004(June 2004 decision of the IT
Strategic Headquarters)
The e-Japan Priority Policy
Program 2004 will address
issues in order to solve
challenges and create vitality
to become a world-leading,powerful IT nation that sets an
example to others.

IT Policy package 2005
(February 2005 decision of the IT Strategic Headquarters)
Lifestyle sector
1.Improvement in the convenience and safety in movement of people andtransportation(1) Measures towards the advanced Intelligent Transport Systemsa) Promotion of driver support systems for the prevention of traffic accidentsb) Promotion of a dedicated short range communication (DSRC) systemc) Promotion of the provision of highly accurate road traffic informationd) Promotion of ETC
Source: Website of the Strategic Headquarters for Advanced Information andTelecommunications, the Prime Minister of Japan and his Cabinet(http://www.kantei.go.jp/jp/singi/it2/)

TRANSPORT POLICY IN PERSPECTIVE 2005

2,000

1,809

1,800
1,600
1,400
1,200
1,000
800
600
400
200

Car navigation systems
VICS units

Cumulative shipments (in units of 10,000)

Fig.4 Spread of car navigation systems and VICS

1,189

0

1997
3

1998
3

1999
3

2000
3

2001
3

2002
3

2003
3

2004
3

Source:Created from materials of the Road Bureau of the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure
and Transport

2005
3

Source:Taken from the Vehicle Information and Communication System Center(http://www.its.go.jp/ITS/j-html/ITSinJapan/navi.html)

Fig.6 Third-Phase Advanced Safety Vehicle (ASV3)

Research and development is planned between 2001 and 2005 on 32
systems in six fields to develop practical applications and eventual diffusion.
I

Preventive safety technology

70

II

Accident-avoiding technology

60

III

Automated driving technology

IV

Collision safety technology

Fig.5 Number of ETC units installed in autos and status of use

600

Approx. 560.000/month (March)

500

50

400

40

300

30

Units installed (cumulative)

200

20

Units installed (monthly)

100
July

(Units in use: 10,000s/day)

2001

October January
2002

April

July

October January
2003

April

July

ETC use

360
340
320
300
280
260
240
220
200
180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0

October January
2004

April

July

October January
2005

April

June 10—16, 2005
approx. 3.2 million/day
usage rate 43.8%

0

Honshu-Shikoku Bridge Authority
Osaka Expressway Public Corp.

40

Metropolitan Expressway Public Corp.

35

25

Usage rate

20

October January
2003

April

Advanced Mobile
Information Systems（AMIS)

Environment Protection
Management Systems(EPMS)

10

July

October January
2004

April

July

October January
2005

Mobile Operation
Control Systems（MOCS)

Information
Gathering
Function

Dynamic Route
Guidance Systems（DRGS)

Integrated
Traffic Control
Systems(ITCS)
Information
SignalAnalysis
Control
Function
FunctionIntelligent Integrated
ITV Systems（IIIS)0
July

Basic vehicle technology

Public Transportation
Priority Systems(PTPS)

5
April

Technology to prevent spread of damage from traffic disasters

VI

15

After December 2001
nationwide implementation
approx. 50,000 units/day
usage rate 0.9%

October January
2002

V

45

30

July

(protection of drivers and passengers, reducing damage to pedestrians)

Fig.7 Subsystems of the Universal Traffic Management Systems (UTMS)

Japan Highway Public Corp.

April
2001

(use of existing and new infrastructure)

Source: ITS Handbook 2002-2003, compiled by the Highway Industry Development
Organization

10(Usage rate)

0April(enhancing vehicle functions to maximum levels, automated maneuvering)(Monthly: 10,000 units)

700(Cumulative: 10,000 units)(information display, warning, and reduction of burden)

Number of ETC units installed in autos
Cumulative total 7.21 million (as of June 20)

April

Help system for Emergency
Life saving and Public safety(HELP)

Source: Website of the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport(http://www.mlit.go.jp/road/yuryo/riyou.pdf)

Fast Emergency
Vehicle Preemption
Systems (FAST)

Driving Safety
Support Systems(DSSS)

Pedestrian Information
and Communication
Systems (PICS)

Source: Taken from home page of the Universal Traffic Management Society of Japan (UTMS)(http://www.utms.or.jp/japanese)

Fig.8 Lessening of congestion at toll gates due to the spread of ETC
systems

Fig.9 Overview of the Sangubashi pilot program for an advanced
cruise-assist highway system (AHS)

Traffic congestion almost vanished after pioneering use at toll gates on
the main Metropolitan Expressway beginning in May 2005.

Toward central Tokyo

Sensor detecting congestionand standing and slow
vehicles

25
20

60

22.5

22.2

46.8

40

Congestion
volume

15

30

22.0

20

10
5
0

50

ETC usage rate

8.1

4.7

300 m before curve

Displaying the traffic
state ahead of the curveusing simple figures

0.8
May
2003

May
2004

May
2005

Source: Created from website of the Metropolitan Expressway Public Corp
(http://www.mex.go.jp/press/2005/050615/index.html)

0

Information panel reports
beginning of congestion

VICS beacon

10

2.9
May
2002

ETC usage rate (%)

Congestion volume (km/h/day)Infrared sensor
30

Toward Hachioji

To be installed byMetropolitan
Expressway
Public Corp.
(April 27, 2005)

Source:Created from materials of the Road Bureau of the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure
and Transport35

2. Efforts to Assure Safe and Comfortable Mobility

2-4Efforts to Solve Parking
Problems

Associate Professor, Interdisciplinary Graduate
School of Science and Engineering,Tokyo Institute of Technology

Yasunori Muromachi

With the revision of Standard Parking Requirements, flexible rules were introduced based on performance rather thanuniform numerical standards and the conventional principle of locating them within a building or on the same sites.
Parking lot development can consider local conditions, enabling the passage of creative and innovative local rules andintegration with town planning.

Fig.1 Changes in the number of vehicles that were temporarily parked on city streets in two metropolitan areas
250,000

250,000

Within Tokyo's 23-ward district

Within Osaka City

200,000

200,000

150,000

150,000
Legal on-street
parking

100,000

Illegal on-street
parking

50,00001990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004

Legal on-street
parking

100,000

Illegal on-street
parking

50,00001990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004

Source: Toshi Kotsumondai Chosakai, URBAN TRAFFIC 2005

Table 1 A list of who is liable in the event of illegal parking by
country
U.S.A. (Washington D.C.)(New York City)
Canada (Ontario)
U.K. (non-criminal act)
(criminal act)
Belgium
Denmark
Germany
GreeceSpain
FranceIreland
Italy
Luxembourg
The Netherlands (The Hague)
Austria
Portugal
FinlandSwedenAustralia
New Zealand (Wellington)
South Korea
SingaporeJapan

Driver is liable

Owner of the vehicle is liable

△
△
△
×
△
△
△
△
△
△
△
△
△
△
△
△
△
×
×
△
△
△
△
○

○
○
○
○
○
○
○
○
○
○
○
○
○
○
○
○
○
○(user of the vehicle)
○
○
○
○
○
○

In countries with △ for "driver is liable" and ○ for "owner is liable," authorities initiallypursue liability on the part of the driver for illegal parking, but the vehicle’s owner is held
liable if the driver cannot be identified.
Source: Japan Parking Facilities Promotion Organization Vol. 41, 2004 of JPO NEWS36

Fig.2 Consignment of matters related to parking enforcement to
the private-sector
Consignment of matters related to parking
enforcement to the private-sector
Consignment of identification work
Prefectural Public Safety Commissions
Registration

Registration

Registration

Corporation A

Corporation B

Corporation C

Consignment via bidding, etc.
of thePolice Chief A Obstruction
performance of Police Chief A
Certificate of qualificationas parking supervisor

Identification ofillegally-parked vehicles

their duties is Fair and impartial
a crimeenforcement

Duty ofconfidentiality

Parking Executive Clerical
workersupervisor

Adoption ofa qualification system

Executives, supervisors,etc.,
are expected to upholdthe same confidentiality
as public employees are

Consignment of matters related to parking fines
Public Safety Commission

Corporation
Duty ofconfidentiality

ClericalworkerDocument creation and delivery,
data input, etc.

Executive

Executives and clerical workers
have a duty of confidentiality

Source: Japan Parking Facilities Promotion Organization, JPO News 2005, vol. 47

TRANSPORT POLICY IN PERSPECTIVE 2005

Fig.3 Outline of guidelines (Ginza Rule) introduced in Chuo-ku (Tokyo) for parking requirement.
Payment of set amountof subsidies

Required parking space
multiplied by 1.2

Management of the designated parking facilities*Parking facilities need to be managed appropriately for thebuildings engaged.
*The designation of parking facilities must be indicated.
*Parking facilities need to be jointly used by loading / unloading
vehicles at nearby buildings and vehicles for the wheelchared.

Business area with 500
square meters or larger
Building
Landarea

500 square
meters or larger

1,500 square
Floor
space meters or larger

In the event that it is impossible to provide parking space within
the business site due to location or structural reasons

Fund

Certain level ofcooperation fees
is shouldered

Providing parking spacewithin the designatedparking facilities

Business area with lessthan 500 square meters
Building

Resource for traffic environment improvement projects*Subsidies for comprehensive traffic information projects.
*Subsidies for projects to improve existing parking
facilities

Providingparking
space within
the site

Land
area

Less than 500
square meters

1,500 square
Floor
space meters or larger

Scope of areas subject to the Ginza
Rule from Ginza 1 to Ginza 8
Content:*Buildings which are subject toparking requirement under an
ordinance of the Tokyo Metropolitan
Government.
*A business area of 500 square
meters or larger is required toprovide within the business area 1.2
times the number of space under
the Tokyo Metropolitan Government.
parking requirement.
*A business area of less than 500
square meters is required to provide
within the business area or thedesignated parking facilities thenumber of space under the Tokyo
Metropolitan Government parking
requirement.
Effective Date: December 2003
(April 2004 for part of thedesignated district)

Source:http://www.city.chuo.tokyo.jp/koho/150915/02-01.html

Table 2 Revised enforcement regulations for the Parking Law
Revision of regulations on entrances and exits to off-street
parking in intersections.

Revision of the regulation requiring off-street parking lot entrancesand exits to be at least 10 meters apart.

Before revision

Before revision(Article 7 Section 1) Automobile entrances and exits may not be inroads as listed in Article 44 of the Road Traffic Law.

(Article 7 Section 5) Off-street parking lots with a motor vehicle
parking area of 6,000 m2 or more must have separate entrancesand exits for vehicles and they must be at least 10 meters apartas measured along the road.

After revision

After revision

Regulations concerning the prohibition on entrances and exits do
not apply for off-street parking located alongside an intersection
and within five meters of the intersection if the Minister of Land,
Infrastructure, and Transport determines through consultation withthe relevant road administrator and prefectural Public Safety
Commission that said entrances and exits do not impede traffic
flow and safety (revision of Article 7 Sections 2 and 3).

When traffic traveling in opposite directions on the facing road isseparated by dividers, etc., the rule requiring 10 meters distancedoes not apply.
Source: Japan Parking Facilities Promotion Organization, JPO News 2004, vol. 44,
2004

Fig.4 Conception of remote parking requirement
If the system is adopted(effects of measures)*Formation of a consensus

among local landowners,
government, roadadministrators, police,
and other stakeholders*Setting forth of a plan toimplement joint use of aremote parking facility(improvement of joint-use
parking lot, projectedstructures)*Reflection of policy in thesetting and revision of aparking lot improvement
plan

Efficient vehicle traffic

A town without indiscriminate
building of parking lots
Joint-useparking lot

Urban renewal and maintenance of
town (resident) vitality throughrenewal of buildings

Improvement of jointuse parking
lots acceptance of
remote parking lots inthe vicinity

Effective use of parking lots is
enabled, eliminating traffic chaos
Joint-useparking lot

A lively cityscape is maintained on
the ground floor

Cooperation with buses leads to a
town with easy accessPublicparking lot

Effective use ofexisting public parking
lots temporary
acceptance of remoteparking lots ->compensates for thetime lag to joint-use
lots

OfficeArea traffic with outstanding
safety, convenience, and comfort

Comfortable pedestrian environments, better
cityscapes, and towns with vitality

Source: Japan Parking Facilities Promotion Organization, JPO News 2004, vol. 44, 200437

2. Efforts to Assure Safe and Comfortable Mobility

2-5

Developments ofKunihiro Sakamoto
Transportation Demand
Management (TDM) Measures

Research Associate, Faculty of Engineering,
Saitama University

Transportation Demand Management (TDM) is an idea that came to be rapidly gaining acceptance in recent years as ameans of helping smooth traffic flows. Its main concept is to control the "traffic load" in urban cities in accordance with thetraffic "capacity." TDM places an emphasis on taking demand-side measures based on conventional supply-side measures
such as new road construction and improvement of intersection systems. Given physical and environmental limitations thatweigh heavily on the formulation of supply-side measures, TDM, which is essential element of an "integrated package-type"management system, is expected to play an increased role globally in transport policy in the future. Specifically, the concept
may prompt governments to review existing frameworks on their transport policies, including regulatory rules, planning, andhow to allocate investment burdens among relevant parties, thus affecting the overall demand-supply balance of transport
services. In Japan, TDM has become a major pillar of the government's transportation policy from the viewpoint of curbing
global warming. Many social experiments on traffic control are now under way in Japan based on the TDM concept.

Fig.1 Changing the paradigm of urban transport management
policy, and the TDM concept

TDM is a new concept that calls for limiting transport demand to certain
levels in line with environmental constraints and limitations on transport
policy.

Fig.3 "Connection Map" to promote use of public transportation

Intergovernmental cooperation on a TDM initiative extending beyond theborders of Osaka and Nara Prefectures

Environmental
constraints

b.New approach(Integrated package-type approach)a.Conventional approach(Demand-led approach)

Source: Katsutoshi Ohta Development of Traffic System Plan and Community

Fig.2 TDM database of the Road Bureau of the Ministry of Land,
Infrastructure, and Transport

Source:http://218.224.224.229/tdm/servlet/TDM

Table 1 Number of pilot programs solicited by the Road Bureau of
the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, and Transport

Direct TDM support such as promotion of public transportation use is declining.
Theme

Fiscal year 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004
Number of Number of Number of Number of Number of Number of
implemented implemented implemented implemented implemented implemented

Pedestrian/bicycle prioritization measures("Kurashi no Michi" zones, transit malls)
Locally-oriented road use(sidewalk cafes, etc.)
Promotion of use of public transportation
Improved traffic flow in tourist areas
Improved environments for bicycles
Measures on flow of good and parking
Other measures
Total

0

0

0

1

11

9

1

1

2

1

4

19

4

3

3

1

1

0

1
0

1
3

3
1

3
3

0
0

0
0

0
0
6

1
0
9

3
2
14

0
5
14

2
2
20

0
1
29

Source: Website of the Road Bureau of the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, and Transport

38

Fig.4 Changing routes from general roads to expressways with smart IC

Fourteen percent of survey respondents said they would not use expressways
without smart IC, confirming its strong effect on route guidance anddecentralization.
Takashimizu
Chojahara Service Area

Tajiri
Furukawa City

Source: Website of the Miyagi Prefecture

TRANSPORT POLICY IN PERSPECTIVE 2005

Fig.5 Application of a parking guidance system that takes
preferences into accountFig.6 Increasing number of users of environmental load pricing

Use of the environmental load pricing on the Metropolitan Expressway
Wangan Line is steadily increasing.

Tokyo Prefecture and the Metropolitan Public Corporation for Road
Improvement and Management have begun providing information on
parking lots with discounts and so on in accordance with driver
preferences to car navigation systems throughout Tokyo.

Toll area

Tokyo Line
Tonomachi

Chart of application during FY 2004
HanedaKanagawa Line

3rd Keihin
Road

DaishiUkishima

Yokohama Kanjo-hokusen

KawasakiUkishima
Junction
EastboundTokyo Bay
Aqua Line
DaikokuJunction

Yokohama
ShindoWestbound
HigashiougijimaKeyLines in operationLines under construction
Environmental load pricing
Applicable section
Applicable route

Yokohama
Yokosuka Road

Vehicles to which environmental road pricing applied (weekday average)Wangan Line

System concept before practical application (during testing)
Parking lot informationcollection system(private-sector parking
lot companies, etc.)

22,000P P
P P
P P

Database of open
parking spaces

18,000･Lot location andopening information(2) Set destination(3) Send destination
location data

8,000
6,000
(6) Guidance anddirections toparking lot via
car navigation
functions

4,000
2,000
0

101

(1) Set vehicle andpreferences(4) Guidance to(5) Set parking lot
suitable parking
as route
lot near destination
information

Parking lot~

Nearing destination~

2001/11 2002/7 2003/4 20042005
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
2002/6 2003/3 2004/3~

Before departure

4,492
4,450
4,681
5,183
5,194
5,774
6,224
6,431

･User ID
･Destination
location

After expanded trial run

10,000･User ID･Vehicle data,
etc

FY 2003

12,0001,987

14,0008,368
7,951
10,002
11,661

16,000

Before expanded trial run

Public institution

VehiclesInternet

Optimalparking lot

P P
P P
P P

385

Information provider
User information
database

20,00014,226
14,50815,686
17,521

Metropolitan Parking Public Corporation
Database ofparking lot locations

19,631
21,007
20,746
21,60324,000Automatic updatingof location andopening information

Car navigation parking guidanceand direction system

Source: http://www.shutoko.jp/etc/service/road/sisaku.html

Fig.7 Progress of the Travel Feedback Program (TFP)

This communication-type program combines the mobility management techniques of "behavioral planning" and "feedback" to promote voluntary
behavioral change by individuals.
Desire to use car less became "stronger"
Valid responses: 362

The majority of people plan to continue "smart use of cars"

BeforeIn the future, I wantto consider bettertransportation as
much as possible
when using my car

6.4

I want to think a little
bit about how I use my car

Approx. 20% increase
Valid responses
351
After

7.7

0
Small

1

2

3

4

5

Desire to use car less(9-point scale of response)

6

7

8

I’m not very interested
in carrying out measures
like theseI can’t imagine carryingout measures like theseIn the future, I want tocontinue these measures

Big

Source: Website of the Kinki Transport Bureau of the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, and Transport

39

2. Efforts to Assure Safe and Comfortable Mobility

2-6

Urban Logistics from theMetropolitan Tokyo Goods
Movement Survey

Professor, Faculty of Marine Technology,
Tokyo University of Marine
Science and Technology

Hirohito Kuse

Data on the flow of goods is said to be hard to capture. One possible cause is that the subjects of surveys vary by the
purposes, but they may track the volume of flow, truck traffic, or volume of flow between industries, facilities, or regions. In
addition, the characteristics of the flow of goods vary widely by type of goods. With those points in mind, the Tokyo
Metropolitan Area Transportation Planning Council (see Note 1) carried out a goods movement survey of Metropolitan Tokyoin FY 2003 and 2004. It published an overview of the results in July 2005.
Along with the report on the survey's methods and findings, this section describes the direction of future study. (See Note 2.)

Fig.1 The setting of the goods movement survey of Metropolitan Tokyo

Area

Transport mode

Units

PeopleGoods

Rail, air, sea, etc.

Persons/tonnes

Survey of net passenger
flow on trunk lines

Survey of national
net freight flow

All of Japan

Persons/tonnes

Automobile

Road traffic census

Vehicles
VehiclesTokyo
metropolitan area

Automobile
Persons/tonnes

Person-trip survey

Goods movement survey

Persons/tonnes

Rail, air, sea, etc.

Data coverage for flow of both people
and goods in Tokyo metropolitan area

1) Targets and methods of goods movement survey
Transportation-related data tabulated by size of area and meansof transport mode are as in Fig.1. The goods movement surveyof metropolitan Tokyo focuses on the flow of goods, targeting
various transport modes in the metropolitan area.
In the main survey (survey of functions, places, and business) it
focuses on facilities that generate and attract goods flow.
Approximately 120,000 business units interest in the Tokyo
metropolitan areas engaged in logistics-related enterprises suchas manufacturing, wholesale, transport, and storage weresurveyed by mail. Approximately 30,000 of them responded.

2) Survey systems and characteristics
The survey of business function ascertained the volume of flowof goods (OD) between facilities (factories, distribution centers,
stores, etc.) by type of goods for each business unit. The survey
was also designed to ascertain the volumes of flow (OD)
between types of businesses (e.g. between manufacturers andwholesalers) and between areas (e.g., between North Saitama
and South Kanagawa).
In addition, supplemental surveys on corporate attitudes (byinterview and questionnaire) and on large trucks (routes andtraffic volume counts) were carried out. Finally, an area
(terminal) distribution study was carried out in the form of casestudies in five areas.

Fig.2 Volume of goods flow generated and trucks dispatched

Fig.3 OD flow between areas by type of goods

Tabulation based on departure location of the volume of goods flow
between facilities (OD) makes clear the volume carried out fromenterprises and the number of trucks used. The result shows that about 30
percent by weight and around 50 percent by number of trucks are goods
related to daily necessities such as foods.

The volume (OD) of lifestyle related goods flowing between neighboring
prefectures, especially Tokyo, is high.

Light
Agriculture
miscellane
andousfisheries
Forestry
Daily
industrial and mining
products
and foods necessities products products
18

WeightNumber oftrucks

3 5

24

6

7

6

7

10

Publications
and printed
matter10

Lifestyle-related
items

34

13

Machineindustry
products

South
Saitama

Mixed
cargo

12

4

Metalsindustry
products

Machine industry
products

4 4

11

14

Ceramics
andchemicalproducts

South
IbarakiNorth
Saitama

Tokyo
Tama
area

Items including
heavy loads

InlandTokyo
wards

Coastal
Tokyo
wards

Northwest
inlandChiba
Northwest
coastal
Chiba
Chiba City

InlandYokohama

4 3Specialty
goods,
other

SaitamaCity

Kanagawa

Coastal
Yokohama
Southwest
Chiba

1,000 tonnes/day
1.0〜2.0

0

40

20

40

60

80

100
(%)

2.0〜

TRANSPORT POLICY IN PERSPECTIVE 2005

Fig.4 Ownership patterns of logistics facilities by date of opening year

Fig.5 Logistics function by date facility opened

When ownership patterns of logistics facilities (warehouses, distribution
centers, etc.) are classified by date of opening, many that opened before
the 1970s are owned by the companies that operate them. However, thepercentage rented steadily increases until only 24 percent of those
opening in the 1990s or later is owned by the companies that use them.
This is largely due to the influence of third party logistics (3PL) and otherforms of logistics outsourcing. Such rental demand can be expected toincrease in the future.

Looking at the functions of logistics facilities, collection/delivery andlogistics processing are increasing. This indicates that the goods in thelogistics process are changing, and facilities are not just for transport andstorage, but are taking on more characteristics of collection/delivery andprocessing hubs.

1970
〜1979

Rent land

Own land

Other

32

11

52

6

37

1980
〜1989

15

48

1990〜

41

15

32

54
0

20

7

19
40

60

5

24
80

2
100
（％）

Table 1 Downloadable data
No.

Tabulation category

Unit

1

Volume of flow (OD) by transport method
between areas

Tonnes/day

2-A

Flow of goods generated, by area

Tonnes/day

2-B

Flow of goods generated, by area andby typeTonnes/day

3

Volume of flow (OD table) between
areas, by type of goods

Tonnes/day

4

Volume of flow (OD table) between
facilities, by type of goods

Tonnes/day

5

Volume of flow (OD table) between
industries, by type of goods

Tonnes/day

6

Number of places of business, byindustry and type of facility

Number of placesof business

7

Number of logistics facilities, by date of
opening and industry

Number of placesof business

8

Number of logistics facilities, by date of
opening and land ownership pattern

Number of placesof business

9

Number of logistics facilities, by date of
opening and area

Number of placesof business

10

Number of trucks used and volume ofgoods flow generated, by truck size

Number of trucks/day,
tonnes/day

11

Loading ratio, by truck size

12

Number of trucks, by type of goods andload ratio constraints

Number of trucks/day

13

Volume of goods flow generated, by typeof goods and existence of designatedtime of delivery

Tonnes/day%

Ratio of places of business (multiple answers possible)

Openingyear〜1969

Tenant in
rented facility

80Collection and delivery

60

Office and sales
Storage
Assembly, packing, packaging, inspection, etc.

40

Logistics processing

Sales and service

20

Manufacture
Other
0

〜1969

1970〜1979

1980〜1989

1990〜

Fig.6 Distribution of logistics bases of freight owners and trucking
companies

Number of distribution bases
Freight
ownersTrucking
companies
100〜
51〜99
31〜50
11〜30

The goods movement survey of Metropolitan Tokyo provides
information on the attraction and generation volumes of logistics
facilities as well as the volumes of goods flows (OD) between
industries, facilities, and areas by type of goods. This should makeit useful for both urban planning and transportation planning.
An overview of these data can be downloaded from the websiteof the Tokyo Metropolitan Area Transportation PlanningCouncil. The data are now being prepared for release to permitt
more detailed analysis without allowing individual businesses tobe identified. (http://www.tokyo-pt.jp/)
Utilization of the survey results and data is expected to further
develop research and planning in the field of logistics.

1〜10

Source: Survey on the Net Freight Flow in Japan (2000)(Note 1) The Regional Development Bureau of the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, andTransport. Ibaraki, Saitama, Chiba, Tokyo, and Kanagawa Prefectures, theCities of Yokohama, Kawasaki, Chiba, and Saitama, the Urban RenaissanceAgency, the Japan Highway Public Corp., and the Metropolitan Expressway
Public Corp.
(Note 2) The author participates as Chairman of the Logistics Survey ResearchCommittee of the Tokyo Metropolitan Area Transportation Planning Council.

41

2. Efforts to Assure Safe and Comfortable Mobility

2-7

Renewed Interest in
Bicycle Transport

Professor, Graduate School ofEnvironment and Information Sciences,
Yokohama National University

Fumihiko Nakamura

The bicycle is once again attracting attention as a non-polluting vehicle which is beneficial to health. Outside of Japan,
there have been schemes for securing bicycle lanes, schemes for linking bicycles with public transport or for carrying
bicycles on public transport, and cases where bicycles have been given priority in urban improvement plans. In Japan,
we have finally started to study ways to provide space for cyclists, and bicycles can now be carried on the railways insome regional cities. Many problems remain to be solved through programs to be carried out in future.

Table 1 State of improvements of bicycle paths

Japan has many problems concerning bicycles, such as how to provide space for cyclists, and the problem of bicycles abandoned at station plazas andalong roadsides, etc. However, many people use bicycles, and new technologies for bicycles are spreading.
Total growth by year (km) Extension by type of road (April 1, 2003)
Category
1998

2003

National road,
principal local roadPrefectural,municipal roadBicycle/pedestrian paths

93,172

99,10240,50558,497

Bicycle paths

1,978

1,622

461

1,161

Dedicated Bicycle/pedestrian roads
bicycle
space
Total

4,163

5,071

135

4,936

6,141

6,693

596

6,097

International comparison of dedicated bicycle
space
Overseas data are 1997 data from theInternational Association of Traffic and Safety
Sciences. Numbers in parentheses are thepercentage of all road extensions.
GermanyJapan

Netherlands

USA

6,097
23,10014,50024,000（0.6％） （4.7％） （8.6％） （0.4％）

Note: Bicycle path: the part of a road that is a path for bicycles built alongside a vehicular road or footpath
Bicycle/pedestrian path: The part of a road that is a path for bicycles and pedestrians built alongside that roadBicycle/pedestrian road: a separate road built solely for the use of bicycles and pedestrians
Source: Created from materials on the website of the Japan Bicycle Promotion InstituteBicycle parking demand
control

Guidance for conversion to other means.
Adjustment of parking fees.
Introduction of "Rent-A-Cycle" system.

Maintaining supply quantity

Constructing bicycle parking places

Effective use ofexisting facilities

Transfer of existing facilities to moreconvenient locations.
Lengthening of business hours.
Intensification of management including crime
prevention.
Improvement of facilities including roofs.
Improvement of access running tracks.

Strengthening of
regulations andsupervision regarding
bicycles left at station
plaza and alongroadsides

Reviewing areas where bicycles are parked in
the wrong places.
Posting parking wardens. Stronger measures
to remove bicycles (frequency, methods).
Higher fees when collecting removed bicycles

More public relations
activities

PR on the nuisance caused by bicycles
parked in the wrong places.
PR on the expense of removing bicycles
parked in the wrong places.

Table 3 Bicycle ownership and utilization rates
Number of bicycles Ownership rate
owned(10thousand bicycles) (bicycles/100 people)

Utilization rate
(%)

Japan

7,297

58

15.3

USA

12,00044

0.7

England

2,300

40

2.3

Germany

6,400

78

11.0

Denmark

450

84

18.0

1,650

105

27.0

Sweden

600

67

10.0

Switzerland

380

52

15.0

The Netherlands

Source: Katsutoshi Ohta (2001): Environment and bicycles, "National Development
and Training" Vol. 92, pp. 12-15

42Social experiment for bicycle-town based on private-public
partnership in Itabashi & Toshima, Tokyo

Placement of a bike lane along thepedestrian path on the east side of
Gekijo Dori.
Placement of guide signs for bicycle
parking around the station.
Passing of pamphlets prohibiting
illegal bike parking and intensive
educational activities (December 4,
2001-January 12, 2002).

Prevention of illegal bicycle parking
Guidance of motorcycles to parking
lots.

Bicycle lane
Test area
Ikebukuro
west
parking lot

Ike
Stabukurtion oCountermeasures menu

Classification

Fig.1

Ge
kijo
Do
ri

Table 2 Countermeasures for bicycles abandoned at station
plazas and along roadsides

Tokyo Metropolitan
Art Space

Ikebukuro
Police Station
Metropolitan
Parking・Bike lane
Approx. 250m on
Gekijo Dori・No leaving bikes on
sidewalk/bicycle
parking lot available
To Shinjuku

Table 4 Bicycle-related pilot programs of the Ministry of Land,
Infrastructure and Transport
2000

2001

2002

2003

Number of cities

5

7

9

8

Bicycle spaces

1

1

2

3

Bicycle parking lots

1

2

3

3

Rentals

4

4

8

4

Measures against illegal bike parking

0

2

1

1

Cycle and ride

3

0

1

0

Park and cycle

1

1

1

0

There are many cases where multiple measures are carried out in a single program, so
the totals in each column will not equal the number of cities.
Source: Website of the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport

TRANSPORT POLICY IN PERSPECTIVE 2005

The various good practices of bicycle use range from the microscopic level to the macroscopic level.
Fig.2 Cycle path

A cycle path network separated from pedestrian paths
has been completed in Narita New Town.

Fig. 5 Bicycle rack on front of bus

Fig.3 "Rent-A-Cycle" in Futatsuimachi, Akita
prefecture ("Cycle stations" arelocated everywhere in the town.)

Fig.4 Space for cyclists in Futatsuimachi, Akita Prefecture (Bicycle
passing zone is physicallyseparated.)

Photographed by Katsutoshi Ohta

Photographed by Katsutoshi Ohta

Fig.6 Bicycle parking place directly connected to ticket barrier area (Shonandai)

A rack that can carry two bicycles is attached to thefront of a standard specification local bus in North
America.
(Photograph shows a bus in the city of Ottawa.)
Bicycle parking place

East Exit underground plaza

Bicycle parking place

Table5 Cycling Path Plan in Davis (United States)
Category

Yokohama City Subway Line No. 1

Goal

Road

Have bicycle lanes on all trunk roads
and feeder arterial roads
Bicycle-friendly intersection design
and traffic signal control
Securing passages in districts
prohibiting private vehicle traffic

Land usecoordination

Access to greenery areas andrecreation facilities
Connections to college facilities

OthersDeveloping bicycle parking facilities
and ensuring security
Providing maps and other information
Strengthened safety education fromelementary school

Bicycle parking places were constructed in the public passageway sections on the firstunderground level near the ticket gates for three lines: Odakyu Line (ground level), Sotetsu Line
(underground) and Yokohama City Subway (underground). People can go from the bicycle
parking site to the Odakyu Line ticket barrier simply by walking 50 or 60m horizontally.

Fig.8 Conceptual diagram of Park-and-Cycle Experiment (Yokohama)

Minato Mirai 21(MM21) & Kan-nai direction

Fig.7 City "rent-a-cycle" in Copenhagen
To MM21 by bicycle

To Kan-nai by bicycle

The user of a motor
vehicle parks the motor
vehicle in the parking
location, and changes toa "rent-a-cycle." (= Park
& Cycle)To designated parking
place by motor vehicle
Photographed by Masahiro Sugiyama

To designated parking
place by motor vehicle
From home

From home432. Efforts to Assure Safe and Comfortable Mobility

2-8Efforts for Traffic Calming
Measures

Senior Researcher,
Toyota Transportation Research InstituteSeiji Hashimoto

The increasing coexistence of pedestrians, cyclists, and automobile is a new concept in traffic that has become
indispensable for addressing issues associated with urban automobile transportation. The idea of a ''Community
Zone,'' introduced in various parts of the nation since 1996, has been seen as an effective way of ensuring traffic
safety in community space. Measures based on this concept have contributed greatly to increasing traffic safety as thenumber of traffic accidents declined in areas where such zones were introduced. In addition, ''Road Rejuvenation''programs have been introduced in Japan since fiscal 2002 as a means of enhancing traffic safety in city areas
including commercial districts. The ''Road Rejuvenation'' concept was later extended, and new programs such as''Livelihood Road Zones'' and ''Safe-to-Walk Areas'' were created in fiscal 2003. As these examples show, efforts topromote coexistence among pedestrians, cyclists, and automobiles are being made in various parts of Japan in amanner that meets local needs and traffic situations.

Fig.1 Road-by-road breakdown of traffic accidents for pedestrians
and bicyclists

Fig.2 Situation-by-situation breakdown of traffic deaths occurring
within 30 days in each country (2000)
Pedestrians

Cyclists Motorcyclists

0.2
Japan
Roads used
exclusively
by vehicles

14.0

30.9

Vehicleoccupants

Others

25.1

12.3

17.7

14.1
3.2

21.9

U.K.

19.5

50.9

4.5

13.9(99%)
Trunk roads 20.2
(19%)

84.2(81%)Germany

12.3

U.S.A.

11.1

9.3

16.3

57.1

5.0

104.4
8.6

45.6

33.2

1.5
Roads usedby people for
their livelihood68.4(36%)

122.3(64%)

Pedestrians
and cyclists

190.7

Sweden10.4 6.6 10.6

France10.3 3.3

65.4

7.0

Others

0
50
100
150
200
Ratios of traffic accidents resulting in death or injury (number of accidents /100 million vehicle km)
Sources: Administrative Road Policy Fiscal 2003
Note:Ratios of accidents resulting in death or injury is the number of such accidents divided
by total vehicle-km traveled.
Trunk roads are prefectural roads, main roads in cities designated by ordinance.
Livelihood roads are all roads, excluding expressways and trunk roads.

0

20.7
20

61.2
40

60

4.5
80

Sources: Website of Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport(http://www.mlit.go.jp/)

Fig. 3 Safety measures in community space

Community Zones (1996-) 162 districts
Comprehensive safety measures aimed atensuring traffic safety in residential areas andcommercial districts by road renovation, traffic
control and so on.

"Road Rejuvenation" programs (2002-)
Ensuring traffic safety in commercial districts
Application of the "Community Zone" concept
to safety in commercial districts.

"Livelihood Road Zones" (2003-)
62 districts
Enhancing the quality of "Community Zone"
roads with electric cables buried in the
ground and roadside tree-planting so they
can be used as livelihood roads.

"Safe-to-Walk Area" (2003-)
796 districts
Safe space is created in outer areas of"Community Zone" roads for safe passage
by pedestrians.

Social Infrastructure Improvement Priority Plan
Sources: Website of Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport(http://www.mlit.go.jp/road/road/traffic/comzone/comtop.him)

44

100 (%)

TRANSPORT POLICY IN PERSPECTIVE 2005

Table 1 Changes in traffic calming measures

Fig. 4 Land use in Community Zone improvement areas

In Europe, there has been a shift away from road improvements such as
woonerfs and other programs on pedestrian-car road space sharing toZone 30 and similar inexpensive, widespread surface improvements. The
UK, however, carries out route improvements to form higher-quality
spaces as part of Home Zone community renewal programs.

Residential and commercial districts are most common.

EuropeRouteimprovements

Area
improvements

1% Residential and semi-industrial districts
1% Commercial and semi-industrial districts
1% Unknown

Semi-industrial districts 2%
Residential andcommercial districts 1%
Industrial districts 1%

Japan
Route
improvements

Area
improvements

Woonerf(Netherlands)
1970’sRoad improvements for sharingof roads by pedestrians andcars are common.
Zone 30 (WestGermany,
Netherlands),
Zone 20 (UK)1980’s"Forming
Community
Roads" program "Comprehensive
Neighborhood(1981)
Traffic
Safety"program("Roadpia"
concept 1984)"

37%

56%

Commercial
districts

Residential
districts

Source: Data taken from the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport, and the
National Police Agency

Fig.5 Land area in Community Zone improvements

The majority is in small plots of 25 ha or less.
75ha~

Surface improvements becomea staple. Road sharing dies
down due to costs.

5%
10%
~75ha

1990’sHome Zones(UK)

2000’s"Forming
Community
Zones"
program(1996)"Road
Rejuvenation"(2002)"Forming
Livelihood Road
Zones" (2003)"Safe-to-Walk
Areas" (2003)
programs

34%
~50ha

26%
~15ha

25%
~25ha

Source: Data taken from the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport, and the
National Police Agency

Table 2 Typical methods used in "Community Zones"
Speed humps
A speed hump is designed to force vehicles to curb their driving speed by creating a bump on the road.
Speed humps are categorized into several types according to their shape. The flat top of a speed humpwith a trapezoidal shaped section is often used as a pedestrian crossing.

Road narrowing
A stenosis is designed to force vehicles to curb their driving speed by placing bollards or trees on aroad that narrows the width of the road or makes it appea narrower.
A stenosis is often used along with a speed hump.

Physical devices

Chicane
Chicane is a sharp double bend in a road to prevent vehicles from going too fast by forcing the driver toconcentrate on maneuvering the vehicle. This method has been frequently used on existing community
roads.

Maximum speed of 30 km per hour for traffic in designated areas
A maximum speed of 30 km per hour is imposed on drivers of vehicles on designated roads that stretchout for a certain distance. Signs indicating the speed limit are usually set up at the entrance and exit ofCommunity Zones.
Traffic regulations

Other traffic regulations

One-way streets and designation of traffic direction are intended to enhance traffic safety by preventing
the passage of vehicles into Community Zone areas.

45

3. Symbiosis of Vehicles, People and Nature

3-1

Efforts for Vehicle Recycling

Group Leader, Environment Department,
Japan Automobile
Manufacturers Association

Tadashi Kotake

Japan's new Automobile Recycling Law has been in force since January 2005. Promoting the recycling of used motor
vehicles has become an important issue because of problems related to appropriate disposal methods for deregisteredmotor vehicles and a shortage of final disposal sites.
To resolve this problem, government, the automobile industry, and consumers are each playing their own roles inpromoting the success of this recycling program as a movement towards a recycling-oriented society.

Fig.1 Number of motor vehicles deregistered in Japan
900

800

6,499

6,695

6,972

Number of motor vehicles owned (right axis)
7,383
7,307
7,237
7,146
7,056

628
587

600

7,000

Number of motor vehicles newly registered (left axis)
597
589
586
588
582
582

533

400

300

200

100

0

503
461

504

477

507

491

516

533

538

Number of motor vehicles officially
deregistered (left axis)

500

7,407

6,000

5,000

4,000

3,000

Passenger cars
(standard, compact)

Trucks(standard, small)

1980

8.29

7.77

1990

9.26

9.28

1995

9.43

9.60

1997

9.28

9.61

1998

9.44

9.48

1999

9.63

9.84

2000

9.96

10.53

2001

10.40

10.68

2002

10.55

10.92

2003

10.77

11.23

2004

10.97

11.84

2,000

1,000

0

1995

(10,000 vehicles)

690

Year
8,000

729

700

(10,000 vehicles)

6,862

Table 1 Average years of use

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

Source: Japan Automobile Manufacturers Association

Fig.2 Flow of treatment and recycling for officially-deregistered motor vehicles* Engines (steel, aluminum) →ordinary steel products & aluminum products* Coolant (alcohol) →Combustion improver for boilers & incinerators* Wire harness (steel) →Steel products, etc..
* Batteries (lead) →Batteries.
* Engine oil (oil) → Combustion improver for boilers & incinerators.
* Radiator (steel & aluminum) →Brass & aluminum products* Body (steel)→Automobile parts & ordinary steel products* Doors (steel) →Automobile parts & ordinary steel products* Seats (foamed urethane & fiber) →Soundproofing materials for motor vehicles* Windows (glass)→glass wool, etc.

* Hood (steel)→Automobile parts & ordinary steel products* Trunk (steel)→Automobile parts & ordinary steel products* Suspension (steel & aluminum)→Ordinary steel products & aluminumproducts* Front bumpers (resin)→Bumpers, interior & exterior
finishing parts, toolboxes, etc.

* Rear bumpers (resin) .
→Bumpers, interior & exterior parts,
toolboxes, etc.

* Tires (rubber)→Raw fuel for cement, etc.
* Wheels (steel & aluminum)→Automobile parts, ordinary steel products and aluminum products
Source: Japan Automobile Manufacturers Association46* Transmission (steel & aluminum)→Ordinary steel products & aluminum products.
* Gear oil (oil)→ Combustion improver for boilers & incinerators* Catalytic converter (precious metals)→Catalytic converters

TRANSPORT POLICY IN PERSPECTIVE 2005

Fig.3 Measures under the Automobile Recycling Law
Recycling charge

Fund management center (designated corporation)

Automobile
manufacturers

ASR
calculation

Information on Freon, airbag, and ASR processing prices(Designated corporation)
resource recovery support
ASR
company(Existing vehicle)
3 years
Purchaser of new
motor vehicle

Japan Auto Recycling Partnership

DealerBreakdown facility
for Freon gases(chlorofluorocarbon gases)

Purchaser of
secondhand
motor vehicle

Freon gas
recovery company

Intermediate
traderFinal owner

ASR
disposal facility

Airbagdisposal facilit

Automobile dismantlingcompany

Shreddingcompany(Designated corporation) information management organization
Light vehicle
inspection system

MOTAS registrationand inspection system

Flow of goods

The three designated corporations are
established in the Automobile Recycling
Promotion Center

Flow of information
Flow of money
Source: Japan Automobile Manufacturers Association
Note:ASR-Automobile Shredder Residue

Table 2 Target percentage for recycling of
automobile shredder dust

Table 3 Reduction targets for environmental impact substances for new motor
vehicle models (Japan Automobile Manufacturers Association)

The recycling rate for all deregistered motor vehicles
has already reached about 80%. The recycling rate forshredder dust will be increased gradually in order toachieve the 95% recycling rate for all deregisteredmotor vehicles from 2015. (the same as the target levelset in EU Deregistered Vehicles Directive)

Targets for four-wheeled motor vehicles
Four-wheeledTwo-wheeled

After January 2006, reduce lead
use to 1/10 or less of amountused in the average vehicle in1966 (1,850 g, not including
battery)
For large commercial vehicles(including buses), 1/4 or lessWith amount of lead used in
1996 (about 80 g for a 210-kg
class bike, not including battery)as the standard,(1) Do not increase the amountand(2) Reduce it to less than 60 g
after January 2006

After implementation of theAutomobile Recycling Law(January 2005), use is prohibited
except in the following parts.
Infinitesimal use in the following
parts needed for safety is exempt*Liquid crystal displays fornavigation, etc.
*Combination meters*Discharge headlamps*Interior fluorescent lights

After implementation of voluntary
motorbike recycling measures(October 2004), use isprohibited except in the following
parts
Infinitesimal use in the following
parts needed for safety is exempt*Liquid crystal displays fornavigation, etc.
*Combination meters*Discharge headlamps

HexavalentchromiumUse of hexavalent chromium will
be prohibited from January 2008

Use of hexavalent chromium will
be prohibited from January 2008

Cadmium

Use of cadmium will be prohibitedfrom January 2007

Use of cadmium will be prohibitedfrom January 2007

Lead

ASR
recycling rate

From
2005

From
2010

From
2015

30%
or more50%
or more70%
or more2 teams; receiving of ASR, and recycle and proper disposal.
ART: Isuzu, Suzuki, DaimlerChrysler Japan, Nissan,
Nissan Diesel, P.A.G. Imports, Ford Japan, Fuji Heavy
Industries, Mazda, Mitsubishi, Mitsubishi Fuso Truck &Bus
TH team: Daihatsu, Toyota, Hino, Honda, Audi Japan,
BMW, Peugeot Japon, Volkswagen Group Japan
Source: Law for the Recycling of End-of-Life Vehicles

Mercury

Source: Japan Automobile Manufacturers Association47

3. Symbiosis of Vehicles, People and Nature

3-2

Traffic Noise Reduction
Measures

Associate Professor, Interdisciplinary Graduate
School of Science and Engineering,Tokyo Institute of Technology

Yasunori Muromachi

Evaluation of FY 2003 shows that environmental standards for noise both day and night were met about 80% of thetime nationally and around 70% of the time in spaces adjacent to arterial roads. This is a major improvement.
Comprehensive measures such as noise barriers, low-noise pavement, free nighttime driving on toll bypasses, active
noise control, and so on are progressing.

Fig.1 Results of evaluation of attainment levels for environmental
standards for noise (overall, FY 2003)

Fig.2 Attainment of environmental standards and requested limits
for noise according to Road Environmental Census

The percentages of roads that meet environmental standards according toRoad Environmental Census on national highways under the direct controlof the government, are slightly less than 40% in daytime, and slightly lessthan 30% at night. The percentage that meet the requested limits at night isslightly over 60%.

Lower than the standards only at night
Lower than the standards
Nationwide during both day and night
Lower than the standards only in daytime
Space adjacent
to arterial roads

Daytime 2001
environmental
standards 2002
Exceeding the standards during both day and nightNighttimeenvironmental
standards

Space not adjacent
to arterial roads
0

20

40

60

80

100 (%)

Note: Roads bearing arterial traffic" are national expressways, urban expressways,
national roads, prefectural roads, and municipal roads with at least four lanes.
Note: The range of "space adjacent to arterial roads" is specified according to numberof lanes and distance from the road, as follows.
･ Roads with two or fewer lanes on routes bearing arterial traffic: 15 m
･ Roads with more than two lanes on routes bearing arterial traffic: 20 m
Source: http://www.env.go.jp/air/car/noise/noise̲h15/index.html

Fig.3 Results of evaluation of attainment levels for environmental
standards for noise (by type of road and overall, FY 2003)

Requestednighttime limit
0
20
40
60
Note: The assessment unit (road length) used for Road Environmental Census isdifferent from that used for the survey by the Ministry of the Environment(number of housing units).

Table 1 Environmental standards and requested limits for noise

Lower than the standards only at nightClassification of area

National Lower than the standards
expressways during both day and night

Environmental standards (Leq)
DaytimeNighttime

AA areas50

40

A areas and B areas

55

45

C areas60

50

A areas (2 or more lanes)

60

55

B areas (2 or more lanes) and C areas

65

60

General areas

Lower than the standards only in daytime
Urban
expressways
Exceeding the standards during both day and night

Areas facing roads

General nationalroads

Special case of space adjacent to road carrying arterial traffic

Prefectural roads

Space adjacent to arterial road

Municipal roads withfour or more lanes

Classification of area

70

65

Environmental standards (Leq)
DaytimeNighttime

A areas and B areas (1 lane).

65

55

A areas (2 or more lanes).

70

65

B areas (2 or more lanes) and C areas

75

70

75

70

Areas facing road
Other roads

0

20

40

60

Source: http://www.env.go.jp/air/car/noise/noise̲h15/index.html

80

100 (%)

Special case of space adjacent to road
carrying arterial traffic

AA area (zone) - Area (zone) that must be particularly quiet
A area (zone) - Area (zone) to be used exclusively for dwellings
B area (zone) - Area (zone) to be used mainly for dwellings
C area (zone) - Area (zone) to be used for purposes of commerce andindustry together with a considerable number of dwellings

48

80 (%)

TRANSPORT POLICY IN PERSPECTIVE 2005

Fig.4 Illustration of road traffic noise control measures
Buffer building"High function" pavement withnoise-reducing effectNoise barrierSoundproofing for building
Soundproofing for building
Sound absorption plate
underneath elevated road
Noise barrier
New-type noise barrier"High function" pavement withnoise-reducing effectEnvironmental buffer zone

Fig.5 Experimental installation of a new type of noise barrier(active noise control)

Environmental buffer zone

Fig.6 Noise-reducing effect of environmental buffer zone
(Example: Minami-ku, Nagoya City)

Example of environmental buffer zone installed as a zone between anarterial road and the roadside area for conservation of the roadsideenvironment in an urban area.

The basic principle is using noise to cancel noise
Two sounds mix,
canceling each otherout and reducing
loudness
Canceling out
Sound cancels soundHousing

Environmental buffer zone 20m
Nagoya.
Expressway

Noise

Speaker cell

Noise
Road

Microphone

Structure of one speaker cell
Noise

National
Road 23

Sound-absorbing material
Weather-resistantsheeting

Detection
microphone

Microphone amp
Control circuit

Speaker

Power amp

National
Road 23

Environmental standard 65 dB (Night)

62dB(with environmental buffer zone)

76dB(without environmental buffer zone)

Control circuit

Source: Website of the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport, Nagoya National
Highway Office

Overview of installation:
A new type of speaker-equipped noise barrier that uses the recently
developed principle of "sound cancellation" has been installed as anexperiment on National Road 43 in Seidocho, Ashiya City, Hyogo

Fig.7 Environmental improvement by toll-freeing night use of
Kakegawa Bypass (Route 1)

The majority of large-vehicle traffic has been diverted to the bypass,because the bypass is toll free at night, and the nighttime noise level on
the road through the urban area has now been dramatically improved.
Traffic volume (100 vehicle)

Prefecture. The new noise barrier is equipped with microphones to
Small vehicles
on the roaddetect external sound, control circuits to reverse the phase of thesound waves, and speakers to generate the control sound. It is
installed on top of an existing noise barrier.

Small vehicles
on BP*

Large vehicles
on the road

Large vehicles
on BP*

Before toll-free
use at night

Operating principle:
At intervals, the microphone captures the sound of cars passing on

After toll-free
use at night

Route 43 and sends that signal to the control circuit. The circuit
creates a sound with the opposite phase of the highway noise andsends it out from the speakers. Sounds with opposite phases cancel

0

20

40

60

100 (%)

80

Note:BP-Bypass

Equivalent noise level at night (dB)each other out, reducing noise.
Location of installation:

Before toll-free
use at night78

The noise barrier is installed on a 250-meter stretch of National Road
43 in front of Seido Elementary School in Seidocho, Ashiya City,
Hyogo Prefecture. It runs 150 meters along the Tokyo-bound lanes
and 100 meters on the opposite side.
Source: http://www.hyogo-wo.go.jp/news/technical/press040209.html

After toll-free
use at night66
80 (%)

020
40
60
Source: Road Bureau of the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport(http://www.mlit.go.jp/road/)49

3. Symbiosis of Vehicles, People and Nature

3-3

Air Pollution Reduction
Measures Today

Associate Professor,
Faculty of Urban Environmental Sciences,
Tokyo Metropolitan University

Hiroyuki Oneyama

Air pollution has been improving since about 1999. In particular, the achievement rate of environmental quality
standard for suspended particulate matter (SPM) had been declining, but in 2003 it improved markedly. However,there are still many locations, especially along arterial roads in the Tokyo area, where SPM levels are far above
environmental quality standard. It is therefore necessary to undertake multiple measures such as strengthening
regulations of automobile exhaust emissions, strengthening fuel regulations, promotion of low-emission vehicles,
improving traffic flow, and development of roadside air cleaning technology.

The achievement rate of environmental quality standard for nitrogen dioxide (NO2) has been improving since 1999. The
rate had been declining for suspended particulate matter (SPM), but it improved markedly in 2003.
Fig.1 Changes in Achievement Rate of environmental quality
standard for nitrogen dioxide (NO2)
Ambient monitoring stations

100

Ambient monitoring stations in
specified areas
80

Roadside monitoring stations
60

Ambient monitoring stations in
specified areas
Ambient monitoring stations

100

Rate of meeting environmental standards

Achievement Rate of

Fig.2 Changes in Achievement Rate of environmental quality
standard for suspended particulate matter (SPM)

Roadside montoring stations in
specified areas

40

20

80

60

40

20

Roadside monitoring stations
Roadside montoring stations in
specified areas

0

0

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

Source: Prepared based on materials released by the Ministry of the Environment regarding air pollution in FY 2003.
Note: Specified areas are parts of Tokyo, Kanagawa, Saitama, Chiba, Aichi, Mie, Osaka, and Hyogo Prefectures where measures are taken against nitrogen oxides and particulate matter underthe Automobile NOx and PM Law.

Regulation of diesel vehicles by ordinance was jointly implemented in October 2003 by eight cities and prefectures in the
Greater Tokyo area to combat particulate matter (PM).
Table 1 Outline of ordinances adopted in Tokyo and surrounding seven cities
and prefectures to reduce exhaust gas emissions from diesel
vehiclesItems

Content

Enforcement day

October 1, 2003

Matter subject toemission control

Particulate matter (PM)Restriction areas

All areas in four prefectures (Tokyo, Kanagawa, Chiba,
Saitama)
Not including outlying islands

Specific restrictions

Diesel vehicles not achieving PM exhaust emission
standards are prohibited from operating

Vehicle types subject
to restrictions

Trucks, vans, buses, special purpose vehicles (including
freezer cars) *Passenger cars are not covered by
restrictions

Grace period

The first seven years following initial vehicle registration

Use of designatedemission control
devices

Vehicles with PM-reducing devices designated by theGovernor are deemed as achieving the regulation under theordinance

Penalty

A party in charge of operating violating vehicles is prohibitedfrom using the vehicles for its business operation. When aviolating party does not obey authorities' order regarding
the violation, its name will be disclosed to the public and it
will face up to ¥500,000 in fines

Source: Environmental White Paper 2004 for Tokyo, (revised and corrected)

50

Fig.3 Poster by eight cities and prefecturesin the Greater Tokyo area to publicize
the start of diesel-emission regulation

TRANSPORT POLICY IN PERSPECTIVE 2005

Table 2 Measures against automobile-related air pollution
Concrete measures
PM countermeasures(1) Low-emission, highfuel economy vehicles

CO2 countermeasures

NOx countermeasures*Support for the introduction of Diesel
Particulate Filter (DPF) and oxidation
catalysts*Lowering the sulfur content of diesel*Crackdown of illegal diesel oil*Promotion of the spread ofvehicles that achieve energyconservation standards(taxation, administrative
guidance, etc.)*Strengthening vehicle exhaust emission standards*Development of low-emission heavy diesel vehicles*Promotion of the adoption of CNG vehicles and other low-emisson automobiles (taxation, early
adoption by public agencies, etc.)*Promotion of the establishment of fuel supply facilities for low-emission vehicles*Promotion of practical use of fuel-cell vehicles

Measures to reduce
exhaust gas emissions(2) Controlling traffic
demand*Environmental road pricing*Traffic restrictions*Road pricing*Promotion of park and ride
*Improvement of pedestrian and bicycle paths*Improvement of train station plazas*Promotion of staggered commuting and flextime*Improvement of public transportation facilities such as LRT and streetcars*Enhanced provision of information to drivers through promotion of the spread of VICS, etc.
*More efficient logistics through freight of joint collection/delivery system, etc.
*Promotion of rail and ship transport*Promotion of the "idling stop" movement*Requiring businesses to make detours avoiding sensitive routes(3) Increasing traffic
capacity*Improvement of arterial road networks with ring roads, bypasses, etc.
*Bottleneck countermeasures such as grade-seperated intersection, improved rail crossings, etc.
*Promotion of the spread of ETC*Reduction of roadwork*Enforcement of illegal parking*Enhancement of traffic safety facilities, etc.

Source: Website of the Road Bureau, the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, and Transport (http://www.mlit.go.jp/road/sisaku/k2.html)

Fig.4 Comparison of diesel vehicle emission regulations in Japan, USA, and Europe

Around 2009/2010
Particulate matter(PM)(g/kwh)

Particulate matter(PM)(g/kwh)

Around 2005
USA

Europe0.03
0.027

Europe（2008〜）

0.03
USA
0.013 （2010〜）

Japan

Japan

0.01
2.0

USA
（2007〜）

0.27 0.7

3.2 3.5

2.0

About 1/3 of 0.7

Nitrogen oxides(NOx)(g/kwh)

Nitrogen oxides(NOx)(g/kwh)

Source: Ministry of the Environment

Fig.5 Strengthening of fuel regulations on diesel sulfur content
1976
1992

Emission Factor Ratio Comparedwith that of 60 km/h

5,000
2,000
500

1997
50

End of 2004

2007 1001,000

2,00003,000
4,0000Sulfur content（ppm)

5,0000Fig.6 Relation between average vehicle speed and emission factorof air pollutants

6,00004

CO light
vehicles3.5

CO heavy
vehicles3
2.5

SPM light
vehiclesNOx light
vehicles

SPM heavyvehiclesNOx heavyvehicles

2
1.5
1
0.5
0

0

10

20

30

40
50
60
70
80
Average vehicle speed (km/h)

90

100

Source: "Quality of the Environment in Japan, 2004"

51

3. Symbiosis of Vehicles, People and Nature

3-4

Efforts for Global
Warming Prevention

Associate Professor, Interdisciplinary
Graduate School of Science and Engineering,Tokyo Institute of Technology

Yasunori Muromachi

The Kyoto Protocol went into effect in February 2005. Japan must earnestly attempt to meet its goals for the reductionof greenhouse gas emissions. Japan set a plan for meeting its goals on emissions cuts under the Protocol in April
2005. They require sharp reduction in the transportation sector as well, but that is still not an easy task.

Fig.1 Emissions of green house gases in Japan(FY 2003)

Fig.2 Transition of CO2 generation by category at final consumption(million tonnes carbon equivalent)

CO2 comprises about 90% of total emissions.
HFCS 1％CO2 generation at final consumption increased 1% in FY 2003.
350

PFCS 1％
SF6 0％

N2O 3％
CH4 2％

Transportation
Business and Household

300
250
200

100
50
0

Total emissions
1339.1（t-CO2）（100％）

Industry150

1973 1979 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003
Source: Energy & Economy Handbook, 2005, Energy Conservation Center, Japan

Fig.4 Transition of CO2 emissions in Japan (t-CO2)
1.600

10

per capita emission (tonne)

CO2
93％

emission (1 million tonnes)
1.200

9

Source: http://www.env.go.jp/earth/ondanka/ghg/2003ghg.pgf

800

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

8

Source: http://www.env.go.jp/earth/ondanka/ghg/2003ghg.pgf

Fig.3 Itemized CO2 emissions by category inJapan (FY 2003)

Table 1 Annual change in energy efficiency rate by transportmode-Passenger (KJ/person-kilometer), Freight (KJ/tonne-kilometer)

Electric power plants 6.4％
Waste 1.9％

Passengers

1990

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

03/90

Railways

423

445

453

441

434

428

433

425

1.00

Others 0.0％

Industrial
processes 3.8％

Buses
Transportation
20.7％

Businessand othersources
15.6％

Total emissions
1,248,000,000（t-CO2）（100％）

650

779

789

813

810

820

807

806

1.24

2,376

2,759

2,742

2,827

2,784

2,846

2,837

2,794

1.18

Private trucks

1,351

1,547

1,574

1,611

1,678

1,739

1,764

1,752

1.30

Passenger ships

10,453 18,759 17,115 17,128 18,135 17,342 20,653 19,290

1.85

Air transport

1,625

1,644

1,719

1,628

1,656

1,655

1,644

1,664

1.02

Freight

1990

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2103

03/90

Passenger motor vehicles

Railways

Households
13.5％
Industry
37.8％

Motor vehicles
Ships
Air

Source:http://www.env.go.jp/earth/ondanka/ghg/2003ghg.pgf

52

471

485

496

505

474

482

484

459

0.98

4,269

4,444

4,422

4,340

4,311

4,239

4,196

3,937

0.92

504

548

549

549

541

542

539

555

1.10

21,675 21,933 22,938 21,705 22,078 22,057 21,914 22,186

1.02

Source: Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport, Transportation-related Energy List, 2005

TRANSPORT POLICY IN PERSPECTIVE 2005

Table 2 New fuel efficiency targets based on the "Top Runner Method" (introduced by an amendment to the Energy Saving Law)
Targeted standard values for gasoline engine passenger vehicles (FY 2010)
Classification (vehicle weight in kg)-720

721-827828-1015

2266-

Average

Targeted standards value (km/l)

21.2

18.8

17.9

1016-1265 1266-1515 1516-1765 1766-2015 2016-2265
16.0

13.0

10.5

8.9

7.8

6.4

15.1

Improvement rate (compared to FY 1995 value: %)

11.0

11.9

14.0

24.0

30.0

23.5

20.3

18.2

12.3

22.8

Targeted standard values for diesel engine passenger vehicles (FY 2005)
Classification (vehicle weight in kg)

-1015

2266-

Average

Targeted standards value (km/l)

18.9

16.2

13.2

11.9

10.8

9.8

8.7

11.6

Improvement rate (compared to FY 1995 value: %)

2.7

10.2

12.8

13.3

17.4

16.7

14.5

14.9

1016-1265 1266-1515 1516-1765 1766-2015 2016-2265

Note 1: Different targeted standard values are set for trucks with a total vehicle weight of 2.5t or less for each type, AT and MT.
Note 2: Top Runner Method: This concept sets the target based on the level of the product with the best energy efficiency or even better.
Note 3: Average: The value assuring the ratio of the number of vehicles shipped being the same as in FY 1995.
Source: Advisory Committee for Energy
http://www.eccj.or.jp/toprunner/interim/iscar00j.html

Table 3 Overview of Japan’s plan for meeting emission-reduction goals under the Kyoto Protocol
guideline(1998)

guideline(2002)

guideline(2005)

Vehicle technology in total

1,797

2,020

2,750

-Improved automobile fuel through Top Runnerstandards(Additional technological measures for motor
vehicles)-Promoting the use of clean-energy motor vehicles-Adoption of sulfur-free fuel and vehicles that run on it-Improvement of energy efficiency for railways &aircrafts(Improvement of consumption for ships)

1,283

1,390

2,100

Measure(10,000 t-CO2)

Overview (parentheses show numerical premises;
figures are breakdowns of reduction volume)*Gasoline 2059, diesel 18, LPG 23

260
330

220

147

150

300
120
230

*Hybrid vehicles, etc. (2.33 million) 300*Sulfur-free vehicles (gasoline 8%, diesel 100%) 120*Railways 40, aviation 190

37Development of efficient logistics in total

917

910

1,260

-Modal shift to railway transportation

110

150

90

*Modal shift to rail transport 3.2 billion tonnekilometers, about 8% of the truck unit load) 90

260

140

147

180

270

477
183

290

760

*Shift from trucks to ships (5.4 billion tonnekilometers, about 13% of the truck unit load)
140*Reduction of land shipping distances forinternational cargo 270*Increased vehicle size 370, commercial/private
truck conversion 300, Increased load ratios 90

2,053

1,600

1,480

-Promotion of public transportation

587

520

380

-Transportation Demand Management

37

70

30

-Promotion of intelligent transportation systems (ITS)ETC・VICS
Central control of traffic signals

403

370

Leveling up of traffic signals-Reduction in road works(Measures to control stopping and parking onstreet)(construction of parking facilities)-Promotion of the alternatives to transport by
information technology such as teleworking, etc.

73
37

30

(Increased convenience of railways by reinforcing
capacity)-Comprehensive measures on environmentallyfriendly marine transportation-Reduction of land transport distance ofinternational cargos-Increase in efficiency of truck transportation(development of larger vehicles, etc.)
Other measures in total-Restriction of top speed of trucks on expressways-Promotion of use of environmentally friendly
vehiclesSupport for adoption of "idling stop" vehicles
Making automobile transport businesses moreenvironmentally friendly through promotion of "ecodriving," etc.
Total

260
100

−
403

70
40
−

50
50

340

340

80

80

110

60
130

4,530

5,490

513

4,766

*Promotion of use of public transportation 290*Commuter travel management (approx. 10%
conversion) 85*Necessary extensions of bike paths to meetgoals (about 30,000 km) 30*ETC 20, VICS 240*Centralized control of traffic signals (about
40,000) 100*Upgraded traffic signals (about 20,000) 50*Reduction of congestion through decreased roadwork 50*Alternatives to commuting for the entire
telecommuting population (25% of those
employed, about 16.3 million people) 117,
alternatives to work movement 223*Reduced fuel consumption (about 13%) 80*Adoption of "idling stop" vehicles (5-10%
improvement in fuel economy) 60*Adoption of equipment related to "eco-driving"(15% reduction) 123*Adoption of advanced GPS-AVM systems(approx. 1-km reduction of delivery distances) 4

Note: Measures are summarized where appropriate. Parentheses indicate items that are not directly covered by a plan category or that are summarized in another category.
Source:http://www.env.go.jp/press/53

3. Symbiosis of Vehicles, People and Nature

3-5

Improving Energy
Efficiency

General Manager, Research 2 Department,
the Energy Conservation Center, Japan

Masaaki Taniguchi

Most modes of transportation are highly dependent on petroleum as their energy source: therefore improvements inthe energy efficiency of each transport mode, particularly for motor vehicles, has become an important theme from theviewpoints of both energy security and the prevention of global warming. Improvement in fuel efficiency for all motor
vehicles has been progressing steadily, and the effects of this are starting to appear. On the other hand, together withimprovements in the road running environment, much attention has been focused recently on improvements in drivingstyles. It is already known that energy-efficient driving is effective, and the following task is to make drivers aware of,and knowledgeable about, the way of energy-efficient driving.

Fig.1 Primary energy supply in Japan (FY 2003)

Fig. 2 Energy consumption of different modes of transportation (FY 2003)

Petroleum is the source of more than half of Japan’s energy supplies.
Almost all modes of transportation in Japan use petroleum as their energy
source.

87% of energy used is consumed in areas related to motor vehicles.
Reduction of energy consumption in these areas remains to be achieved.

New energy and others
1.3%
Hydraulic
power
3.8%

Nuclear
power
9.5%

Gas
14.5%

Total primaryenergy supply
596 million kl.
(100%)Air transport
4.3%

Marintimetransportation
6.3%
Railways
2.3%
Buses
1.5%

Petroleum
51.1%

trucks28.3%

Energy consumption ofentire transportation
category
99.5 million kl

Privatepassenger
vehicles
55.4%

Coal
19.9%
Business-use
passenger vehicles
1.8%
Note: Values have been converted to crude oil equivalents
Source: Prepared from "Energy & Economy Statistics Handbook 2005" Energy
Conservation Center, Japan

Note: Values have been converted to crude oil equivalents
Source: Prepared from "Energy & Economy Statistics Handbook 2005" Energy
Conservation Center, Japan

Fig.3 Annual energy consumption per household (FY 2001)

Fig.4 Transition in on-road fuel consumption figures for private
gasoline-engine passenger vehicles

More than half of the energy (2,135 kl) used by each ordinary household
is consumed by motor vehicles.
Lighting fixtures:71

Air conditioning:111

On-road fuel consumption figures have been gradually improving since
1997.
9.70

TVs:44

9.60

9.59

On-road fuel consumption(km/l)

9.50

Refrigerators:75

Private passenger
vehicles:1,139
Hot water supply units:390

Petroleum stoves &fan heaters:305* Unit：converted to liters of crude oil equivalents
Source: Agency of Natural Resources and Energy "Future Energy saving Measures"(March 2003)

54

9.42

9.39

9.40

9.27

9.30

9.27

9.23
9.18

9.20

9.27

9.17

9.15
9.07

9.10

9.06

9.00
8.90
8.80
8.70

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

Source: Energy-saving Committee, Comprehensive Natural Resources & Energy
Research Council (February 24, 2004)

2001

TRANSPORT POLICY IN PERSPECTIVE 2005

Fig.5 Encouraging and educating drivers for energy-saving
drivingFig.6 A Japan Automobile Federation (JAF) Clinic on energysaving driving

Four ministries and agencies have been cooperating in encouraging
energy- saving driving with "Eco Drive Declaration" stickers.

Clinics for the generalmotorist on saving energy
were held.

Eco Drive 10 advice
1. No unnecessary idling ("idling stop")
2. No unnecessary no-load engine revving
3. No haste starts or haste acceleration
4. Make every effort to drive your motor vehicle safely andat low speeds according to the traffic conditions
5. Change to a higher gear as soon as possible
6. Use engine braking for deceleration whenever possible
7. Carry out careful inspection and maintenance of motor
vehicles (tire pressure, air filter elements, etc.)
8. Do not carry unnecessary things around in your vehicle
Do not fill the fuel tank completely full (Fill with enoughfuel for the distance you are traveling, to avoid runningout of fuel)9. Only use the air-conditioning unit when necessary
10. Plan your journey well

National Police Agency, Ministry of Economy, Trade andIndustry, Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport,
Ministry of the Environment

Source: JAF materials

Fig.7 The fuel economy effect of energy-saving driving

Motorists practice energy-saving driving (smart driving) on a course thatruns almost 60 km long around Tokyo. They reduce fuel consumption bymore than 20%.
1300 cc class
Without smart driving: 68.9 (14.5 km/l)
27% reduction
With smart driving:average 50.5 (19.8 km/l)

Start
10%

Cruising
7%

Stopping
9%

Deceleration
1%
40

45

50

55

60

65
70
Fuel consumption(cc/km)

Source: The Energy Conservation Center, Japan, "Smart Driving Contest Results (2004)"

Source: Eco Drive Declaration Sticker (fiscal 2003)

Fig.9 The influence of air conditioner use on fuel consumption

Fuel consumption increases by 14%when the air conditioner is on inwarm spring and summer weather (city driving).

Fig.8 Increase in air resistance

When the air resistance increases by 10%, the fuel consumption
deteriorates by 5.5% (when the motor vehicle is running at a speed of 75km/h).
Measuring conditions
Standards

0.0

Ski rack attached

40.8

Four sets of skis on the rack

46.6

Roof box attached

25.5

Driver's window fully open

2.5

All windows fully open

10.6

AC OFF
Outside temp 25｡C
Interior fan: AUTO

124
13.9%

AC ON
Outside temp 25｡C
Interior circulation: AUTO

141
21.1%

AC ON
Outside temp 35｡C
Interior fan: AUTO

171
3.5%

AC ON
Outside temp 35｡C
Outside air fan: AUTO

177
14.0%

AC ON
Outside temp 35｡C
Interior fan: MAX

195

50
Source: Energy Conservation Center, Japan
Four sets of skis
on the rack

Roof box attachedSource: Energy Conservation Center, JapanThe system provides a subsidy of a maximum of 50% of the difference
between the price of the motor vehicle when purchased with idling stopand the price of the basic motor vehicle.
180

Results of driving a motor vehicle through Japan (National highway
3,700 km).

Idling stop

Inter Urban

Intra Urban

time (7.9%)

Intra Urban

10

20

120

117
362

261

80

243

60

30

0

Source: Energy Conservation Center, Japan (actually measured in August 2002)

361 400

Monthly totals for 2004
Monthly totals for 2005

101

284

20

50 (%)

500

Cumulative total for 2004

100

Idling stop time (25.9%)40600(As of 7/29)

140

44

40 117

Vehicle stop time (48.3%)

0

Cumulative
total for FY 2005 161
523
144

160

Number of vehicles(Fuel reduction)

Vehicle stop time (15.0%)

150
200
Fuel consumption(cc/km)

Fig.11 Applications for subsidy for the purchase of "idling stop"vehiclesFig.10 Effect of idling stop while waiting for the signal to changeInter Urban

100

9
9

142
113

14
23

19

86

27

314
300

257

202
60

47

41

25

27

30

200

Number of vehicles

Ski rack attached

Air resistance(%)

2500 cc minivan/City driving/Interior temperature: 24｡C

100

14

42

0

April May June July August September October November December January February March
Source: Energy Conservation Center, Japan

55

3. Symbiosis of Vehicles, People and Nature

3-6

Environmentally Friendly
Institutional Measures

Associate Professor, Interdisciplinary
Graduate School of Science and Engineering,Tokyo Institute of Technology

Yasunori Muromachi

The adoption of environmentally friendly institutional measures, such as considering the environment in cost-benefit
analyses when investing social capital, has become an international practice. With Japan having passed theLandscape Law in 2004, environmental impact assessment for landscape in road projects is becoming more
important.

Fig.1 Consideration of landscape in road projects
The Landscape Law system

Stages of environmental impact assessment

Generalprovisions(1) Survey: Ascertain the status of each important view point,
scenery resource, and landscape view
(2) Forecast: Use methods of visual expression such as photomontages and computer graphics to ascertain the degree ofchange that would take place in landscape views(3) Examine environmental protection mechanisms: If necessary
based on the results of forecasting, examine mechanisms toprotect the environment(4) Assess: Based on the results of the forecast and examinationof environmental conservation mechanisms, assess whether
the enterprise is doing everything possible to avoid andreduce the impact of the road’s existence on the landscape

Basic principles, the duties of the national and local
governments, enterprises, and residents

Landscapeplans

Measures taken by administrative bodies for landscapes(in principle, municipalities)

Regulation of activities within the areas covered by landscape plans
Notification and warning system
Designs and colors of buildings etc. may be ordered/changed by ordinance

Designation of buildings and trees important to landscapes
Buildings, structures, trees, etc., can be designated as important to the local
landscape and protected

Improvement of public facilities important to local landscapes
Improvements take into account the scenery of roads, rivers, urban parks,
harbors, and so on

Landscape agreements
Source: Eiji Takahata, "Landscapes in environmental impact assessments of roadprojects," Douro, no. 2, pp. 25-28, 2005, etc

Detailed rules may be set with the consent of residents

Landscape improvement agencies
Nonprofit organizations and public benefit corporations may be designated tohelp the efforts of residents

Cooperation with national government agencies
Creation of landscape agriculture improvement regional development plans(TheMinistry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries)
Special exceptions to the Natural Parks Law (Ministry of the Environment)
Important cultural landscapes (Agency for Cultural Affairs; revision of the
Law for the Protection of Cultural Properties)

Cooperation with national government agencies
Landscapearea

Municipalities may so designate areas with outstanding sceneryin their city plans.

Sources: Landscape Law Study Group, the Landscape Law, Gyousei, 2004

Table 1 Assessment items in various European countries (environmental impact only)

Noise

AUS

BEL
road

M

M
M
M
M

Vibration
Local airGlobal air
Separation

M
M
M

Visual impairment

M

Loss of important sites

DEN
road

FIN

FRS

GER

M

Soil pollution
Water quality degradation

M

IRL

M

＊
＊
＊

＊
M
M
＊
＊
＊

＊

Resource consumption
Scenery

GRE
road

＊

＊

NRL

POR

SPA

SWE
road

UK
road

M
M

＊

＊
＊
＊
＊
＊

＊

＊

M
＊

＊

M
＊

＊

M

ITA

＊
＊

＊

Note: Darkly shaded cells indicate the items included in cost-benefit analysis (monetary analysis), Lightly shaded cells indicate quantitative analysis. * indicates qualitative analysis,
and M indicates multi-criteria analysis.
Source: Grant-Muller.S.M.et al,Economic appraisal of European transport projects:the state of the art revisited,Transport Reviews,Vol.21,No.2,pp.237-261.2001

56

TRANSPORT POLICY IN PERSPECTIVE 2005

Fig.2 Tokyo Metropolitan Government studying introduction of "road pricing" (Tokyo Metropolitan Government Road Pricing Study
Committee)
Simulation Results of 4 alternative districts

Districts subject to study
Districts subject
to study

District/Areas

Circular Route No.7 Arakawa River district

Circular Route No.6 Sumida River district

Circular RouteNo.2 Sumida
River district

Amount ofNOx reduction

Yamanote JR Circular Route Circular RouteLine Sumida No.6 Sumida No.7 Arakawa
River district River district River district

150

300

330

400

54

121

155

196

Increase in average
driving speed

0.8

1.6

1.8

1.9

(km/hour)(within districts subject to study)(km/hour)

(4.6)

(3.2)

(3.2)

(2.2)

(tons/year)

Amount of traffic
flow reduction(units of 10,000 vehicle-km/12 hours)
Circular Route No.2 Sumida River district
Yamanote JR Line Sumida River district

Sources: Environment in Tokyo 2004, compiled by the Tokyo Metropolitan Government Environment

Fig.3 Introduction of strategic environmental impact assessment at the Tokyo Metropolitan Government
Number of environmental impact assessments made for eachproject type

Others14.3%

Collection ofearth and rocks
4.2%

Factories
5.5%
Land
Readjustment
6.3%

Total number of assessments:238 cases
Introduction of strategic environmental impact assessment at the Tokyo Metropolitan
Government.
Based on an ordinance, the Tokyo Metropolitan Government introduced a system
intended to assess the environmental impacts of certain projects from the planningstage, the first of its kind in Japan. Large-scale projects sponsored by the Tokyo
Metropolitan Government became subject to such assessments from January 2003. The
system is intended to have the Tokyo government reflect the assessment's findings in its
project planning.
Under the system, for a certain large-scale public works project in Tokyo it obligated to
draw up several alternative plans for the project so that possible environmental impacts
can be thoroughly examined by comparing the results of environmental impact
assessment among alternative plans.

High-risebuildings
16.0%

Railways
15.5%

Total number
238(1981-2004.1)

Waste-disposal
facilities
11.8%

1.Projects subject to strategic environmental impact assessment
1) Individual projects (Projects that are twice the scale of those subject toenvironmental impact assessment are covered by strategic ervironmental impact
assessment)
2) Regional complex development projects (30 hectare or more)
2.The project's environmental impacts are assessed by comparing several alternativeplans at an early planning stage of the project
3.The party which manages the new strategic environmental impact assessment system:
Tokyo Metropolitan Government

Roads
13.0%
Residential
complexes
13.0%

Sources: 2004 White Paper on Environment in Tokyo, compiled by the Tokyo Metropolitan Government

Fig.4 Introduction of PRTR (Pollutant Release and Transfer Register)
Definition of PRTR
PRTR is a system designed to collect, compile andpublicize data concerning harmful chemical
products-the origins of such chemicals, and how
much of them was emitted into the environment or
brought outside the plant as waste. Businessestablishments that manufacture chemicals subject
to the register system or use them for
manufacturing of secondary products aresupposed to maintain data on the amount of suchchemicals emitted into the environment or brought
outside the plant as waste. Such establishments
are obligated to present the data to government
agencies once every year. A government agency
which has received the data compiles it fordisclosure to the public. The agency also collects
and compiles data on designated chemicals
emittedfromhouseholds,
farmland
andautomobiles for disclosure to the public.

Estimated amount of designated chemical emissions (2003)
Dioxins
CFC-12Asbestos
Benzaldehyde
AcroleinAcetaldehyde
Formaldehyde
Styrene1, 3- butadiene Non-reporting automobiles
Ethyl benzene

Non-reporting non-automobiles Reported emissions

1,3,5-trimethyl benzene
TolueneBenzeneXylene
0

20

40

60

80

100 (%)

Sources: http://www.env.go.jp/chemi/prtr/risko.html

57

3. Symbiosis of Vehicles, People and Nature

3-7

Development andPromotion of Environmentally
Friendly Vehicles

Group Leader, Environment
Department, Japan Automobile
Manufacturers Association, Inc

Tadashi Kotake

To prevent global warming, automobile manufacturers have introduced various technologies to improve fuelconsumption, and have achieved 2010 fuel consumption standards stipulated by the law (Energy Conservation Law)ahead of time. Also, the number of models on the market that meet the fuel consumption standards and low-emission
gasoline-powered motor vehicles has been increasing due to the synergistic effect of the "Green Taxation System."
For heavy vehicles as well, manufacturers are introducing a succession of vehicles with ultra-low particulate matteremissions, vehicles complying with new long-term regulations, and other "green diesel" vehicles. Development andspread of clean-energy autos and fuel-cell vehicles are also progressing.

Fig.1 Technology to improve motor vehicle fuel consumption
Improvements in engine efficiency

Reduction in air resistance

Development of lightweight vehicles

Improvements in heat efficiency
Lean burnDirect injection into cylinder
Variable mechanism(variable cylinder, VVT, etc.)
Reduction in friction losses.
Reduction in piston & ring friction
Low-friction engine oil
Driving using variable auxiliary equipment

Improvement of body form

Expansion in use of lightweight materials
Improvement in body structure

Expansion of lock-up range

Reduction in rolling resistance

Increase in number of shift
steps
CVT

Tires with low rolling resistance

OthersElectric power steering
Idling stop
Hybrid vehicles

Source: Japan Automobile Manufacturers Association, Inc.

Fig.2 Transition in the average fuel consumption for gasolineengine passenger vehicles (*Sales, 10-15 mode)

Fig.3 Transition in the average fuel consumption for gasolineengine vehicles

16

15.4
15

Fuel consumption standard

100

15.1
80

14
60

13

40

12.3

12

20

00

1995

2000

2004

Source: Japan Automobile Manufacturers Association, Inc.

58

2010

1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010

Source: Japan Automobile Manufacturers Association, Inc.

TRANSPORT POLICY IN PERSPECTIVE 2005

Fig.4 Plan to introduce motor vehicles authorized as low emission
motor vehicles

Table 1 Taxation system to accelerate spread in FY 2004 and 2005
Motor vehicle acquisition tax

500

★★★

★★★★

¥200,000
deduction¥300,000
deduction

The number of vehicles shipped (unit: million)

Total number of vehicles shipped2010 fuel consumption standard + 5%
400

★
★★

¥200,000
deduction2010 fuel consumption standard* When there is a discount of ¥300,000 on the purchase price of a ¥2 million
motor vehicle, the acquisition tax will be reduced by ¥15,000.

300
★★★
＋
★★★★

200

Motor vehicle tax★★★

2010 fuel consumption standard + 5%
100

25% reduction 50% reduction
in taxin tax2010 fuel consumption standard

2001

2002

2003

25% reduction
in taxNote: 2010 fuel consumption standard: improved by 22.8% over fiscal☆☆☆☆: 75% of 2005 regulatory value☆☆☆: 50% of 2005 regulatory value

0

2000

★★★★

2004

1995

Fig.5 Examples of environmental improvement efforts and systems for heavy vehicles
DPNR Diesel Particulate-NOx Reduction system-Companies started to sell ultra-low-PM
motor vehicles with DPF (compatible
with the new short-term regulations)
EGR cooler-Started to sell hybrid motor Vehicles +DPF (comparison with new short-term
regulations NOx-50%, PM-85%))-Sales of DPNR (DPF + NSR catalyst)
equivalent to ULEV (NOx-75% PMInter-cooler
85%) satisfying the new short-term
regulation which specifies 10ppm.
(authorized by the Minister)-Motor vehicles using urea SCR catalyst
which are compatible with the new Air intake
long-term regulations, are expected to
go on sale within this year.

EGR valve
Common rail system

DPNR

ExhaustTurbo-charger

Fig.6 Actual record of introduction of "Ultra-Low-PM" motor vehicles

20,000Over 12t

Methanol motor
vehicles

15,000250,000
Diesel-substitute
LPG motor vehicles

10,0005,000

Natural gas motor
vehicles

12t or less

Cumulative number of vehicles

Fig.7 Changes in numbers of clean-energy motor vehicles in use(Vehicles)
300,000

25,000200,000

0

★★★

★★★★
150,000

Actual record of shipments of ultra-low-PM motor vehicles(as of the end of February 2004)

100,000

Table 2 Changes in numbers of models of clean-energy motor
vehicles sold2000 2001 2002 2003
7
8
11
18
Hybrid motor vehicles
64
93
109 134Natural gas motor vehicles
24
38
46
48
Diesel-substitute LPG motor vehicles
86
73Electric motor vehicles
0003
Fuel cell motor vehicles
103
145
173 206
Total

2004
15
93
30
2
3
143

Source:Japan Automobile Manufacturers' Association (JAMA) (from:Clean Energy
Vehicle Guidebook)Hybrid motor vehicles
50,0000Electric motor vehicles

1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004

Source: Japan Automobile Manufacturers Association

59

TRANSPORT POLICY IN PERSPECTIVE 2005

Table 3 Major fuel cell vehicles and their distinctive features
Manufacturer

Date announced

Vehicle name

Motor output

Fuel cell output

Maximum speed

ToyotaDecember 2002

Toyota FCHV

80kW

90kW

155km/hToyota・Hino

September 2002

FCHV-BUS

100kW

90kW×2

NissanDecember 2003

X-TRAIL-FCV

85kW

63kW

Honda

December 2002

Honda FCX

60kW

78kW

Mitsubishi

September 2003

MITSUBISHI FCV

65kWSuzuki

October 2003

wagonR-FCV

33kW

Daihatsu

January 2003

MOVE FCV-KⅡ

GM

October 2001

HydroGen3

DC

March 2003※

F-CellCruising distance

Fuel

300km

Hydrogen・high pressure 35MPa

80km/h─Hydrogen・high pressure 35MPa

145km/h

350km

Hydrogen・high pressure 35MPa

150km/h

355km

Hydrogen・high pressure 35MPa

68kW

140km/h

150km

Hydrogen・high pressure 35MPa

50kW

110km/h

130km

Hydrogen・high pressure 35MPa

32kW

30kW

105km/h

120km

Hydrogen・high pressure 25MPa

60kW

129kW

160km/h

400km

Hydrogen・high pressure 35MPa

60kW

20kW

140km/h

150km

Hydrogen・high pressure 35MPa※After obtaining ministerial authorization
Sources: JHFC public relations data, company's web sites

Fig.8 Scenario for the introduction of solid molecule type fuel cell/hydrogen energy
2002˜

2005˜

Stage of completion of foundation and technical verification
Enterprise program

2010˜

Introduction stage

2020˜

Propagation stage

2003˜04
Start of limited sales to the generalpublic of fuel cell motor vehicles andstationary fuel cells

The USA, Germany, Canada,
and Japan are currently
leading the race to develop
this technology.

[Issues]

Full-scale expansionof market

By around 2005 theresults of the current
development race will
determine the positionof dominance in future
development.

*The comprehensive fighting strength of the combined industries of anation is necessary to develop fuel cells and extend their practical use,
including industries related to basic materials, components,
intermediate materials, industries related to final products, and energy
and infrastructure industries.
*Japan needs a vigorous program to improve performance and achieve
low costs combining the concerted efforts of Japanese industry; thiswill have a great impact on the whole of Japanese industry.

Full-scale expansionof market

2010 introduction
targets.
Number of fuel cell
motor
vehicles: about 50,000
Stationary fuel cells:
about 2,100,000 kW

2020 introduction
targets.
Number of fuel cell motor
vehicles: about
5,000,000
Stationary fuel cells:
about 10,000,000 kW

Aim: to reduce cost by mass-production
Concentrated support for introduction
is provided in the short term,
until the market becomes viable.

Link with measures for introduction and spread
Acceleration ofpractical use andspreadEstablishment ofmotor vehicle fuelsupply system

Construction ofsoftware segmentof infrastructure(systems, etc.)

Support for introduction
Verification testing (2002〜2004)* Fuel cell motor vehicle running tests on public roads.
* Verification of hydrogen supply stations.
* Verification of fuel cells for housing and business uses

Safety is the most important
issue in using hydrogen as the fuel.

[Introduction of fuel cell motor
vehicles ahead of othersby public organizations andrelated enterprises]

Acceleration of spread

Stage-by-stage
development of fuelsupply system

Establishing a fuelsupply system under theprivate industry initiative[expansion into private sector]*Accumulation of safety data

Review of regulations
Setting standards and criteria, and international standardization(extensive use of the Millennium Project)

Technological development,research & development
Technological development of fuel cells
Technological development in the field of hydrogen utilization

Technological development of common elements, to achieve
low cost and further improvements in performance[Present situation and issues]*Ongoing development of fuel cells toward the goal of practical use in 2003
*Fuel cell development race between Japan, the USA, and Europe has become fierce.
*Fuel cell technology has the potential to set the history of the development of engines
for motor vehicles back 100 years, to the starting point..
*Not only large enterprises, but even small and medium-scale enterprises can enter thefield of element's technology..
*The important issues are to improve performance factors such as durability and toachieve low cost.

Source: Fuel Cell Project Team Report

60

Most important development issues*Common-element technology for solid
polymer membranes,electrodes,
catalysts, separators, etc.
*Hydrogen storage technology*Development of GTL(Gas To Liquid)
manufacturing technology