IAFOR Journal of Literature & Librarianship

Volume 12 – Issue 2 – 2023

Cultural Implications of Nature and Eco-Consciousness in Select 21stCentury Indian Retellings of the Mahabharata

Rashmita Devi
Rajiv Gandhi University, India
Prachand Narayan Piraji
Rajiv Gandhi University, India

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Abstract
Ecology and environmental catastrophes have found an immense place in Indian classicalliterature. As Indian mythology shapes the culture of the country, worshipping nature remains
an intrinsic part of it. The great Indian epic, the Mahabharata, is one of the earliest Sanskrit
literary texts that lay a platform to edify people about the value and importance of ecologicalequilibrium. This paper aims at studying the relationship between nature, humans, and culture
through select 21st-century Indian mythological retellings. For this purpose, Meenakshi Reddy
Madhavan’s retellings titled The One Who Swam with the Fishes (2017) and The One Who Had
Two Lives (2018) from her Girls of the Mahabharata series have been taken as the primarytexts. Primarily, it examines the role played by Nature in the lives of the protagonists as animportant character. Theologically, in the Hindu culture, nature is venerated for possessing
mythical supremacy. The present article reflects this supremacy of nature celebrated throughthe character of Yaksha. While investigating the employment of various techniques toilluminate nature’s unpredictable qualities such as soothing, nurturing, aesthetic, ethereal,
powerful, destructive and alive, the study focuses on looking at how the characters are highly
influenced by nature and on understanding the character of human influence on nature
centralizing the idea that human existence is possible only if there is a harmonious coexistencewith nature. Ecocriticism has been applied as a theoretical framework in the paper for criticalanalysis of human-nature interaction and the cultural implications of it reflected in select novels.
Keywords: Mahabharata, myths, retellings, human-nature, ecocriticism

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Mythology remains the cornerstone of shaping the cultural fabric of any society. Hence,
establishing a connection with one’s cultural roots becomes a fundamental human requirement.
In this context, re-evaluating and re-interpreting mythology within diverse cultural frameworks
would bring newness into age-old myths in a profound manner and also result in renewedinterests, novel ideas and alternative viewpoints. This, in turn, inspires people to engage withthem in innovative and intellectual manners because mythology offers versatile canvas for reinterpretation across various mediums, such as literature, fine arts, and film, providing a vivid
platform for creative exploration. Since India is rich with its own mythological heritage, Indian
writers, therefore, profoundly draw inspiration from the vibrant cultural and religious narratives
like the Puranas, epics and folklore, and actively engage themselves in the process of reexploring this intricate mythological tapestry in diverse and creative ways. In modern times,
the practice of re-telling myths and epic narratives has emerged as a means to set forth divergent
attitudes towards mythical or epic characters, plots, and incidents, with the intention ofaddressing a range of contemporary issues. Re-telling is necessary for the re-exploration ofvarious intricate areas of Indian mythology as it has played a crucial role in shaping Indianculture while becoming an integral part of it. With growing involvement in Indian epics andinterest in literary retellings, 21st-century Indian writers have facilitated a more profoundcomprehension of culture and they picture the present-day reality through their re-explorationof these classical texts. This practice of re-interpreting and re-fashioning Indian mythology incontemporary literature mostly springs from individual ideas, experiences, emotions, andintentions to address a range of current issues because, literature, as claimed by Cheryll
Glotfelty in the introduction to The Ecocriticism Reader: Landmarks in Literary Ecology, “…
does not float above the material world in some aesthetic ether, but, rather, plays a part in an
immensely complex global system, in which energy, matter, and ideas interact” (1996, p. xix).
The many styles and genres of literature always serve as a channel for transmission of theculture of the human race through successive generations. In essence, through the use of literary
retellings of myths, especially within the realm of fiction, Indian writers provide the readers an
opportunity to re-visit classical texts with contemporary sensibilities, rendering a deeper
understanding of culture and its persisting relevance.
Meenakshi Reddy Madhavan is one among such writers whose retellings of women charactersof the Mahabharata titled Girls of the Mahabharata: The One Who Swam with the Fishes(2017) and Girls of the Mahabharata: The One Who Had Two Lives (2018) offer uniquefeminine perspectives on the epic legends Satyavati and Amba, and delve into their life stories,
foregrounding their own viewpoints. Madhavan’s ideology and concerns find ample space tobe woven into the expansive tapestry of these mythical characters. Both novels provide scopefor readers to critically address and explore various areas of the epic. One such intrinsic element
is the relationship between nature, humans, and culture celebrated in these mythological novels.
In the novels, by employing various techniques, Madhavan presents how her characters’ selfrealization and deeper understanding of life become possible only through acceptance anddirect interaction with nature. In other words, the novels depict the evolving process of theprotagonists amidst nature and while doing so, the novelist further concentrates to look into theadverse effects of nature on humans as a result of their interference in natural world, andthereby, providing her readers a wider scope for ecocritical investigation.

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In the case of Madhavan’s aforementioned retellings, all the critical evaluation is mostly
centred around gender, patriarchy and women’s identity assertion. The article by Indrani, Das
Gupta and Sashi Prava Tigga, titled “Woman and Statecraft: Reading Meenakshi Reddy
Madhavan’s Novels in the Series ‘Girls of the Mahabharata’” (2021), focuses on examining
sexuality, gender and desire within the confined order of patriarchy, power politics, andstatecraft. On the other hand, Preeti Patanjali and Dr D. Uma Devi’s work, “A Reunderstanding of Female Identity through Meenakshi Reddy Madhavan’s Mahabharata
Novels The One Who Swam with the Fishes and The One Who Had Two Lives (2022), explores
the deliberation and identity of women, providing a nuanced perspective on female insights
into sexuality. Due to limited access to prior research on Madhavan’s retellings, it is presumed
that the selected novels remain relatively unexplored. On such, the focus shifts towards
deciphering the treatment of nature in Madhavan’s Mahabharata novels, as there is a notableabsence of scholarly studies examining Indian mythological retellings from ecocriticalperspective. Thus, the current study offers significant potential for exploring the texts throughthe lens of ecocriticism.
As Madhavan’s retellings immensely deal with the aspects of nature in plot development,
therefore, this paper focuses on looking at the relationship between the cultural involvement of
nature and the reflection of human-nature interaction in the select novels, and thereby, trying
to connect to the cultural roots. With these objectives, the research article employs Deep
Ecology, a sub-approach of Ecocriticism to analyse Madhavan’s retellings of the epical womencharacters from the Mahabharata. For this purpose, Arne Naess, Satish Kumar, andSwarnalatha Rangarajan’s critical works on ecology, nature, and Hindu culture are used as thetheoretical basis.
Before delving into further discussion, a brief aside is required to know the connection between
Indian Hindu culture and nature. Worshipping nature has always been fundamental to Indian
Hindu culture. This concept of worshipping nature has its roots in Indian mythology. Therefore,
the act of worshipping all the entities that exist in nature, such as, animals, birds, snakes, rivers,
plants, wind, sun, moon, ocean, and mountain, as gods has become an inevitable part of Indian
Hindu culture as it seeds deep ecological wisdom which makes nature the external source ofinspiration for people. Indian classical literature and mythology always lay the platform fornature-worshipping in educating people about the value and importance of nature and theenvironment. Klaus K. Klostermaier, a scholar of Hinduism, Indian culture, and history,emphasizes worshipping natural elements as gods because “humans are to meet nature withreverence as something divine, and doing harm to nature is equivalent to sacrilege” (1995, pp.
146–47). There is also the concept of Pancha Maha-Bhoota, five great elements, in Hindu
philosophy which is believed to be the basis of all cosmic creation – Earth, Water, Fire, Air,and Space of which the human body is made. In this context, the Indian ecocritic, Swarnalatha
Rangarajan aptly states that “… the balance of the five primary elements was considered
indispensable for maintaining ecological balance” (2014, p. 528). In Indian religious culture,
planting trees is an act of pleasing God. It is “an activity that is meritorious as well as useful.
[Puranas] teach the sacredness of nature not only as creation of God but as God’s own body”(Klostermaier, 1995, p. 146). At this point, we can claim that the teaching of nature-54

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worshipping and preservation is an indispensable part of Indian Hindu culture andmythological literature.
On this very premise, the Indian epic, the Mahabharata also lays a platform for the study ofthis omnipresent equilibrium between humans and nature, as well as the worshipping of nature
as God in Indian culture. The human-nature continuum and environmental crises find animmense place in this great epic because the epic reciprocates the interaction between humans
and nature significantly. Addressing the ethical considerations related to nature, it advocates
for the protection of natural environment. For instance, there is often interaction between the
Pandavas and the natural world during their exile. Their peaceful and harmonious coexistencewith animals, forests, mountains and rivers reflects the deeper meanings of life. The epic also
contains various instances that highlight the relationship between women and the natural world.
For example, we find the hermit Shakuntala who enjoys a close association with nature,
particularly forests because of her upbringing in sage Kanva’s secluded hermitage amidst
nature. Again, Krishna’s teachings in The Bhagavad Gita, an important part of the epic, talkabout the principles of environment and interrelation of all living beings. While reflecting on
nature-culture dualism, Chapter 3, Verse 27 of The Bhagavad Gita underlines humans’ selfish
attitude towards nature: “All actions take place in time by the interweaving of the forces of
Nature; but the man lost in selfish delusion thinks that he himself is the actor” (Mascaro, 1992).
It should be noted that the Mahabharata significantly depicts the interconnectedness of
ecology, culture and ethics as well as reflects on natural degradation and preservation to teachabout sustainable future. Here, the episode of the weeklong burning of the great forest
Khandava must be taken into consideration which offers an insight into ecology in relation to
Dharma. The Pandavas’ act of burning Khandava forest was so cruel that they even forgot tofollow the conduct of Kshatriya rules. With the aim of consolidating the Pandava kingdom, theforest was burnt while “butchering its inhabitants” (Karve, 1967/2023, p. 119). Subhash Anand,for example, in his critical essay on the same episode, titled “Khandavadaha: A Lesson on
Ecology”, reflects on uplifting of man’s ethical values in relation to ecology and argues that,in the modern context, merely acquiring knowledge through education is not efficacious but
acquiring wisdom. He says, “Ecology can only be safeguarded if it is situated in a context wider
than the merely socio-economic” (1990, p. 56) and the episode of Khandavadaha is “an everrelevant warning of a wise ancient seer to modern selfish and narrow-minded man in his
ecological apathy” (p. 56). This implies that ecology should be kept in some aesthetic ether
that provides sublimity to man and this sublimation can never be possible with a selfish,
anthropocentric attitude towards nature. In the same context, a pioneering Indian sociologist,
educationist and anthropologist, Irawati Karve also claims, in her book Yuganta: The End of
an Epoch that, “The sole aim was the acquisition of land and the liquidation of the Nagas…
[however,] all they gained through this cruelty were the curses of hundreds of victims, andthree generations of enmity” (1967/2023, p. 118). Thus, providing a thoughtful perspective on
ecological balance through this episode, the epic makes us recognize and understand theimportance of ecology in relation to Dharma, which highlights the interrelation of humanactions and their consequences on both nature as well as on our own well-being. This has been
well reflected in Narayan Bahadur Magar’s scholarly work, “Environmental Awareness: An
Advocacy of The Mahabharat”, when he writes, “The natural world was revered as godly

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image with the faith of having soul in them. Though modern people with materialistic concept
see the natural world from anthropocentric view, the spiritual ecologists accept the presence ofsoul in nature” (2020, p. 71). Again, Dr. Rajani Jairam’s article “Ecological Concerns in
Mahabharata” further offers valuable insights into how ecological awareness helps in culturalsurvival and practice. The emphasis is laid on the relevance and importance of ecologicalconcerns while discussing various incidents of the epic to ground ecology as a “strong catalyst
for the sustenance of Dharma” (Jairam, 2016, p. 63). Therefore, it becomes necessary tobalance ethical acquisition and sustainable practices to achieve long-term harmony andprosperity. Thus, the notion of “Dharmic living” invoked in the epic emphasizes respect for all
living beings and ecology. Overall, the epic’s exploration of the interaction between humans
and nature gives insight into timeless lessons about deep reverence for nature along with its
philosophical, spiritual and moral teachings. Keeping this ethos, Meenakshi Reddy Madhavan,also attempts to impart this teaching through her modern reinterpretations of the epical female
legends and reflects on human-nature relation in a positive way, embracing an eco-centric
attitude and embarking on the journey to explore cultural roots, and thereby, enriching thenarrative.
Theoretical BackgroundToday, as the planet is suffering from excessive exploitation of natural elements, a threat tohumanity has caught the attention of writers globally. Professor Pramod K. Nayar has well
explained the need for the emergence of environmental concern in his book Contemporary
Literary Theory when he writes, “… mankind is efficiently committing ecocide, making theplanet inhospitable for life of any mankind” (2018, p. 241). The sense of environmental concernof writers and its reflection in literature give rise to a new branch of literary theory in the late
20th century known as Ecocriticism, which emphasizes not only the harmony with the physicalworld but also deals with the destruction caused to it by humans because of progressive
thoughts and actions. According to Glotfelty, “ecocriticism takes an earth-centred approach toliterary studies” and she defines it as “the study of the relationship between literature andphysical environment” (1996, p. xviii). It mainly tries to examine the representation of theenvironment and nature in literary and cultural texts. Glotfelty views the connection between
nature and culture in the following way: “Despite the broad scope of inquiry and disparate
levels of sophistication, an ecological criticism shares the fundamental premises that humanculture is connected to the physical world, affecting it and affected by it” (1996, p. xix).
Ecocritics emphasize the need for the conservation of the environment and encourage people
to think about nature’s aesthetic and ethical values and environmental cries transmitted throughliterary and cultural texts. It scrutinizes the representation of human life and nature in literature.
In other words, it foregrounds ecology, nature, and environmental aspects in literary texts andattempts to observe environmental concerns raised by writers in literature. The same has been
discussed in Kumari Shikha’s critical essay “Ecocriticism in Indian Fiction” in which she
provides an insight into ecocriticism and its representation in Indian English fiction. She
argues:… as a distinctive approach to the practice of literary criticism, ecocriticism gives
increased attention to literary representations of nature and is sensitive tointerdependencies that ground the author, character or work in natural system. This

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approach shifts critical focus from social relations toward natural relationships andviews the individual as a member of ecosystem (2022, p. 10).
Thus, it is the criticism of the environment represented in literature. For literary and cultural
scholars, ecocriticism is a tool to investigate ecological crises through the convergence ofliterature, culture, and nature. It was William Rueckert who first used the term ecocriticism in1978 in his essay “Literature and Ecology: An Experiment in Ecocriticism”. Ecocriticism has
many sub-approaches among which the concept of Deep Ecology has to be taken into
consideration for the preferred study. Deep Ecology is an ecological philosophy that promotes
the fundamental interconnection of all living beings and natural features, challenging thehuman need to exploit and dominate nature. It was Arne Naess, a Norwegian philosopher who
formulated this philosophy and coined the phrase in 1973. Naess created the principle ofbiocentrism which claimed the interrelation of humans and the environment. This refers that if
humans cause harm to nature, they inevitably cause harm to themselves. In other words, deep
ecology “refers to deep questioning about environmental ethics and causes of environmental
problems” (Barnhill and Gottlieb, 2001, p. 5). Prof. Nayar considers deep ecology as “the single
most influential philosophy for environmental activism worldwide” and while describing its
central premise he comments, “Our world view, thinking, responses and action are humancentric (technically called “anthropocentrism”), but in order to ensure a safer planet we need
to become eco- or biocentric” (2018, p. 246). Deep ecology has been predominant in Indianclassical texts and scriptures because “Hinduism and ecological issues are connected and interrelated” (Kumar, 2019, p. x).
Treatment of Nature in Madhavan’s Novels
Madhavan in her Girls of the Mahabharata series depicts harmony, peace, and serenenessbetween her characters and environment. Natural degradation, destruction, and exploitation do
not find much place in the novels, rather, plots are thematically interwoven with the mutualinteraction between nature and human. Satish Kumar, an Indian-British activist in his “Three
Dimensions of Hindu Ecology: Soil, Soul and Society” (2016), writes,
There is a great deal of difference between learning ‘from’ nature and learning ‘about’nature. When we learn about nature she becomes an object of study, leading to her
exploitation… When we learn ‘from’ nature we establish a close relationship with her.
Then there is implicit humility and reverence towards the mystery of her naturalprocesses (p. 142).
In most of the ecologically conscious literary works, nature is presented as a source knowledge
to lead humans on the right path as humans can never be departed from nature. There is no
denying that human life and progress are interlinked with nature. It must be acknowledged thathuman existence cannot be claimed without any influence of the natural universe as bothhuman behaviour and personality are affected by nature. However, due to human’sirresponsible behaviour and action towards nature, it is suffering and as a result, manyenvironmental problems have arisen. In this sense, Madhavan has chiefly intended to lay

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ground for her readers to explore the sublimity and reverence that humans can achieve by
maintaining an interrelation with nature.
Nature and its Cultural Value
Madhavan has applied the flashback technique and first-person narrative to tell the story of
Matsyagandhi, later named Satyavati, and Amba who becomes Shikhandini in her next birth in
The One Who Swam with the Fishes and The One Who Had Two Lives respectively. The storyof Matsyagandhi’s birth from a Seer fish, the cursed apsara named Adrika, and being brought
up in the fisherman community amidst nature depict the harmonious relation of the community
with the natural world. The naming of her Matyagandhi is also connected to nature, namely,
fish and river. Due to the fish stink that her body constantly releases she is named “Fish SmellGirl” by her step-mother who said, “Chee, she smells like a fish, call her that, call her fishsmell girl” (Madhavan, 2017, p. 8). The stink, according to Dvipaa-ma, is the result of a divine
curse that she bears perhaps as a punishment for the sins of a parent.
In the novel, the fisherman tribe takes from nature what they need and not more without
dehiscing their ecology. They thrive upon the nature they have been living in. Thus, they
invalidate the notion of human superiority and emphasize the equilibrium between humans andnature. The respect that the tribe shows towards nature is clear from the prohibition of eatingseer fish at the fisher king’s home. He tells Matyagandhi the reason behind it: “That’s because
it was a seer who was your mother” (p. 11). While discussing land and sea ethics, Arne Naess,through a deep approach, claims that “Humans only inhabit the lands, using resources to satisfy
vital needs. And if their nonvital needs come in conflict with the vital needs of nonhumans,
then humans should defer to the latter” (p. 408). Matyagandhi’s community is seen following
this approach of Naess as they do not harm or exploit nature but rather maintain a harmonious
coexistence with it. The tribe lives perfectly in their small abode, the fishing village near thedense woods with “all sorts of animals that growl and pounce and rip and rend” (p. 2) with
their customs, rituals, culture, myths, and belief system which help to protect their sacredenvironment from outside influences. The collective consciousness and community feelingthey have among themselves reflect their shared human-nature cohesion and love for their landon the outskirts of the river Yamuna. In this context, Swarnalatha Rangarajan aptly claims thatthe “creation of myths and way of life of tribal cultures also emphasize human-nature
continuum” (2014, p. 530). The sense of collective conscience is evident from the ‘sing-song’
which is a story-telling tradition among the people of the tribe. This sing-song takes place
weekly where all gather around a fire to have “a large feast to celebrate the best catch where
everyone tells a story” (Madhavan, 2017, p. 4). Stories “about gods coming to earth to grantboons”, and “about magical animals — usually fish — that give [one] wishes if [they] catchthem” (p. 4). It is noticeable that their belief system is rooted in ecology. Although
Matyagandhi seems reluctant to remain hungry and perform a fasting ritual “for a good catch”(p. 34) or “to appease the river goddess” (p. 35), it reflects the ongoing rituals of worshipping
nature by women of the community in the novel.

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Women-Nature Association
The imagery used by Madhavan in the novels parallels two different worldviews – one is thevisual of pristine nature and the other is the feminization of nature. Women and nature areculturally seen as possessing the same qualities and therefore, nature is feminized. In bothnovels, Madhavan sets a strong bondage of her protagonists with nature and endorses a deep
association of her female characters with nature. The imagery describing the peacefulness ofthe magical island of Matsyagandhi’s Dvipaa-Ma and her husband, Parashara is indicative of
the setting of undefiled, pristine nature:… the bank of the island, which was almost eerily quiet except for the sounds of a few
birds calling trrroooo-trooooo. It smelled quiet and grave and peaceful, the rainseemingly not touching it all except for a few dappled puddles here and there (pp. 39–
40).
It is only after her banishment from her home by her stepmother and taking shelter on themagical island, Matyagandhi realizes her true self. It is nature that soothed her when she wasgrief-stricken: “I was somewhere where no one cared about the way I smelled and — I sniffed
my arm — it seemed like it was already subsiding” (p. 66). Her deep association with nature
further gets reflected in the following manner:
Something was niggling at the back of my mind, some observation, although I couldn’t
put my finger on it. Then it came to me as I looked at a sunbird dipping its beak into
pretty white and yellow flowers that we sometimes used for worship. While mysurroundings had a feel of serendipity, as though it was sheer luck, it definitely had
been cultivated (p. 67).
Not only Matyagandhi but Amba, the princess of Kashi is also seen sharing a close affinity
with nature in The One Who Had Two Lives. For her, nature becomes the healer of her pain of
abduction for a moment. This is evident from the song Amba sings taught by her maid Lalita,
the eunuch in the chariot on their way to Hastinapura after being abducted by Bheeshma. Amba
finds serenity in the lap of nature and sings:
I am green-oh
I am the new thresher,
My father-in-law put me to work,
My mother-in-law is dead-dead-deadMy husband is an as-ur-aaa
I have no family!
I am green-oh!
I am the new thresher in the fields! (Madhavan, 2018, p. 105)
This bond with nature is further investigated by Amba’s contract with Bhumi Devi that she
made by digging the knife she kept with the intention to attack Bheeshma during her abduction.

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As Bhumi Devi is considered to be the “Goddess of Earth, and the fertility form of Lakshmi”(Kumar, 2019, p. 41), therefore, by doing so, Amba vowed to take rebirth as a warrior and takerevenge on Bheeshma as he “stole her life” (Madhavan, 2018, p. 147). Satish Kumar opinesthat the Hindu’s way of revering nature is deeply rooted in the religious context. They
contextualize nature as the supreme power and each element of it is represented by different
gods. He writes,… according to Hindu philosophy, nature is intelligent and conscious. The elements
earth, air, fire and water have divinity intrinsic to them. Hindus talk about the rain god
Indra, the wind god Vayu, the fire goddess Agni and the earth goddess Bhumi… In
essence god or gods are not separate from nature (2016, p.140).
The presence of spirituality, sacredness, and venerability in natural phenomena has been
described in a visionary way in both novels through the personification of natural elements.
The tree in the wood in The One Who Had Two Lives gives shelter to both Amba and Lalita asa mother during Amba’s last hours in one birth, whereas the same tree is seen as Shikhandi and
Utsarg’s only companion when they were trapped in the forest of the yaksha 1 called
Sthunakarna, in their next birth. Shikhandi feels the tree as their old friend against which they
have been sitting for so long which shows nature’s nurturing and healing quality. He feels the
only tree’s trunk “seems to be made for [their] bodies, it embraces [them] like [they] are oldfriends” (Madhavan, 2018, p. 176). The natural elements have been used in a metaphorical way
to personify nature as a divine spirit: “a thunderstorm clapped across the sky” (p. 130), “bluelight washing over everything” (p. 169). Nature’s nurturing characteristic is also vividly
pictured in The One Who Swam with the Fishes by the way Matyagandhi describes the
sublimation she felt when she reached the island:
The moonlight lit up a snaking path that wound its way in front of me, strange flowers
dipped their cups over my head as though in benediction, and a cool breeze lifted strandsof my hair playfully, as though it was stroking my head and saying, ‘Welcome, sister’(Madhavan, 2017, p. 59).
Throughout her narration, Madhavan has attempted to depict Nature as “kind, compassionate
and generous;” that is “filled with unconditional love” (Kumar, 2016, p. 141). There is abeautiful description of Matsyagandhi’s dwelling in the wilderness with various components
of nature in a gracious atmosphere which shows positive concerns for ecology:
As time went on, I grew wiser about my searches and learned to sniff at fruit, may betake a little nibble and see if it reacted in my mouth, scratch the surface of a leaf anddab it on the underside of my wrist to see if it tingled, watch birds and squirrels looking
particularly industrious and follow them to see what seeds they were eating. (Madhavan,
2017, p. 82)
1

In Indian mythology, yaksha is believed to be a nature spirit who is usually benevolent but sometimes actsmischievously. The female form of it is known as yakshi or yakshini.

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Reflection on Nature-culture Dualism through Symbolism
Ecological concerns find little place in the second novel through Shikhandini’s embarkment on
a journey to the yaksha’s forest in the quest for identity. Symbolism has been very tactfully
employed to indicate the outcomes of destruction and damage caused to nature by humans. The
spirituality of nature presented through the yaksha symbolically qualifies him as the supremesoul of nature bearing the characteristics of sustainer and destroyer as well. Shikhandi’s
intrusion into the yaksha’s forest can be related to human’s progressive attitude against nature.
And despite being a great warrior his inability to do anything against Sthunakarna clearlyvalidates this. Shikhandi could do nothing but bow and beg for what he required from theyaksha as his powerful arrows were of no use in the forest. In the same way, human’s treatment
towards nature and his use of natural resources determines the level of reverence and threat
upon humanity because natural disasters like climate change, global warming, droughts, anddeluge are the outcomes of materialistic worldview and scientific prudence of humans without
proper care of the environment. Such supremacy of nature is celebrated in the novel throughthe character of Sthunakarna. Furthermore, Shikhandi’s act of killing the birds with his arrows
can symbolically be considered interference in the ecology. After eating the cooked flesh of
the birds both Utsarg and Shikhandi slept on the glade, and upon waking up found themselves
entrapped in a circle of thick, horny vines where their horses had disappeared. This can betaken as a reward for one’s own acts. It suggests if humans continue to disturb and destroy
ecology, they will face adverse impacts in return. Again, the way Shikhandi loses his patiencein the trap and he slashed the vines with a deep breath, which started spurting immediately deep
white sap making his fingers weltered, symbolizes the destruction caused to nature. Being
frightened and angry when he stabbed for the second time, the vines began to grow so fast
before his eyes that his feet were tangled, and he was falling toward them. For the first time,
he saw magic in his life and felt the presence and power of Sthunakarna. Madhavan describes
the ascendancy of nature in the following way:
The dust begins to swirl, and then it all moves as though it is being pulled into the air,so [they] are standing outside of the cloud that forms and watching it. It grows, so it isbigger than the tree [they] are underneath… (Madhavan, 2018, p. 203).
The yaksha, being connected with the trees, forest, fertility, and wilderness, possesses thepower of creation and destruction as well. Therefore, he provides Shikhandini the boon she
requires to assert and understand her true self which implies that valuing and praying nature
can only make harmonious co-existence of humans with nature. Similarly, Matyagandhi’s closeaffinity with nature is possible only because of Dvipaa-ma and sage Parashara which later helps
her to attain self-realization to create her destiny. It should be realized that “harmony is themost fundamental principle of ecology. Wherever there is a break-down in harmony there is
discord and conflict” (Kumar, 2016, p. 143).
In the Hindu tradition, human is believed to be the product of the main elements of nature. All
the main characters and their emergence in the novels are directly linked to nature. In thesecond novel, Bheeshma’s close relationship with nature is because of his mother, Ganga who

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is a river goddess. Nature is the cure for all pain and constraints of life for Bheeshma and Amba.
River Ganga is worshipped and is a symbol of holiness in the Hindu culture, however,infanticide can be seen as an act of damaging nature. Ganga’s act of killing her seven sons in
the first novel symbolically lays a foundation for apocalyptic destruction. Matsyagandhi’s birthis also directly connected to nature and her involvement with nature helps her to achieve hertrue self. Amba, who is reborn as Shikhandini, transforms into Shikhandi to fulfil his destiny
only because of the nature-spirit, Sthunakarna. This transformation of Shikhandini can beviewed as the bliss of nature upon human beings. Satish Kumar’s statement is suggestive
enough in this context when he says, “Love and reverence for the earth will automatically resultin sustainability, harmony and coherence” (2016, p. 143).
Conclusion
In summation, it must be admitted that the novelist, while dealing with the beauty and powerof nature, has bolstered environmental conservation in her novels which is possible in the formof harmony with the river, forest, land, and ecology. Madhavan has envisioned theinterrelationship and interdependence of humans and nature in her novels, foregrounding that
it is humans’ spirit of cooperation which only makes ecology possible. By employing various
techniques, especially by making Nature an important character throughout the narration inboth novels, she appositely advocated for treating nature as a living entity with reverence andrespect. Today, because of humans’ mindless mechanization and capitalist exploitation ofnature, the need for environmental conservation and awareness highly rises. But Madhavan’streatment of nature does not primarily focus on apocalyptic disasters due to excessive use ofland, water, or other resources, rather it has intended to explore the natural world and humanposition in it. Thus, she has fulfilled Naess’ third principle that “Human beings have no rightto reduce [the] richness and diversity [of life-forms] except to satisfy vital needs” (p. 405). The
female protagonists’ vision of life and self-realization is projected through the interaction
between nature and the characters. Nature has become that source to them which brought theideas of freedom from all the hindrances to their development process, to find their true self.
Nature, as a great healer, has rejuvenated the life of the protagonists in the novels. Both novels
thus reflect issues of nature and spiritual and cultural values of it. Much of the storyline draws
upon imagination that is situated in the undergrowth of the natural world where the forest andnatural landscapes are inherent parts and the encircling entity that carries meaning for humanlife which works as the spirit in the novels. In essence, Madhavan’s efforts in imparting theteachings of the Mahabharata through her reinterpretations bridge the gap between ancient
wisdom and modern perception to it, which further manifest her adherence to keeping the epic’s
ethos appurtenant and accessible to contemporary readers.

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Patanjali, P., & Devi, D. U. (2022). A Re-understanding of Female Identity throughMeenakshi Reddy Madhavan’s Mahabharata Novels The One Who Swam with theFishes and The One Who Had Two Lives. Literary Druid, 4(1), 27–32. Retrieved
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Corresponding author: Rashmita Devi
Email: devirashmita2@gmail.com

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