I fJ 7 ") ~ -: /;_;I(~r-~~~/h-1()N1Zl~G RADIATION:'lJi~;r~,~~rN/ (,J_,.} /~ /:·'/'~~!'----===·~D EFFECTS.

A report of the United Nations Scientific Committee
on the Effects of Atomic Radiation
to the Genera/ Assembly,
with annexes

..
...
;

. ,~

i1·

VOLUME I: LEVELS

.,,'
\

NOTE

The report of the Committee without its appendices and annexes appears as
Official Records of the General Assembly, Twenty-seventh Session, Supplement
No. 25 (A/8725).
In the text of each annex, Arabic numbers in parenthesis refer to sources
listed at the end.
The designations employed and the presentation of the material in this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of theSecretariat of the United Nations concerning the legal status of any country or
territory or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers.
Symbols of United Nations documents are composed of capital letters combined with figures. Mention of such a symbol indicates a reference to a United
Nations document.

UNITED NATIONS PUBLICATION
Sales No.: E.72.IX.17

Price: $7.00(or equivalent in other currencies)ANNEXES
LevelsAnnex A

ENVIRONl\IENTAL RADL-\.TION
CONTENTS
Pal'agraplts

INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . .

1-4

1. The concepts of average dose .......... .
2. Assessment of dose commitments ....... .

5-13
14-20

PART ONE, NATURAL RADIATION . . . • . . . . . . . . . . .

21-146I.

Il.

COSMIC RAYS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

21-56

A. Primary cosmic rays ............. .
1. Primary galactic cosmic rays ... .
2. Modulation of cosmic rays ..... .
3. Radiation belts ................ .

22-30
23-24
25-28
29-30

B. Secondary cosmic rays ............ .
1. Ionization in the atmosphere .... .
2. Cosmic-ray neutrons in the atmosphere ....................... .

31-39
34-36

C. Doses from cosmic rays ........... .
1. Ionizing component ........... .
2. Neutron component ........... .
3. Doses to persons in supersonictransport aircraft . . . .. . . . . . . . ..

40-56
41
42-46

37-39

47-56

............... .

57-144

A. Internal irradiation ............... .
1. Cosmic-ray-produced radio-active
nuclides ...................... .
(a) Tritium .................. .
(b) Carbon-14 ............... .
2. Primordial radio-active nuclides .. .
(a) Potassium-40 ............. .
(b) Rubidium-87 ............. .
(c) Uranium and thorium series ..
(i) Uranium ............ .
a. Concentrations in theenvironment ...... .
b. Intake, levels anddoses in man ...... .
(ii) Thorium-232 ......... .
(iii) Radium ............. .
a. Concentrations in theenvironment ...... .
b. Transfer to man ... .
i. Areas of normal
external - radiation
background .....
ii. Areasof highexternal · radiation
background .....

57-131TERRESTRIAL RADIATION

c. Dose rates . . . . . _.
(iv) Radon-222, Radon-220,
and their short-lived decay
products ............. .
a. Concentrations in theenvironment . . . . . . .
i. Outdoor groundlevel air . . . . . . . .

Paragraphs

59-67
60-62
63-67
68-131
69-72
73
74-77
78-80

III.

126-130131

B. External irradiation ............... .

132-144

RECAPITULATION OF DOSE RATES . . . . . . . . .

145-146

98-101
102
103-120103-119104-107108-113114-116
117-119120
121-131121-122123-131123
124-125

PART Two. MAN-MADE ENVIRONMENTAL RADIA·TION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , , ........ · ·,,. · ·147-406

NUCLEAR EXPLOSIONS . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

147-311

A. Atmospheric and surface explosions ..

147-268

I.

78-79

ii. Indoor levels .. .
iii. Water ........ .
b. Transfer to man anddoses ............ .
i. Inhalation ..... .
(1) Size distribution ...... .
(2) Lung deposition and clearance ...... .
( 3) Distance tothe biologicaltarget(4) Doses ..... .
ii. Ingestion ...... .
(v) Radon-222 long-lived decay products ......... .
a. 21opb and 210po in theenvironment ...... .
b. Intake by man .... .
i. Inhalation ..... .
ii. Ingestion ...... .
iii. Distribution in
man ......... ..
iv. Doses ......... .

1. Transport of radio-active debris
within the atmosphere ......... . 150-165(a) Movement within the stratosphere ................... . 154-155( b) Transfer to troposphere .... . 156-158(c) Movement within the troposphere ................... . 159-163(d) Deposition ............... . 164-165
2. Internal irradiation ............ . 166-250
166(a) Tritium .................. .
(b) Carbon-14 ............... . 167-170(c) Iron-55 .................. . 171-174(d) Krypton-85 .............. . 175-177(e) Radio-strontium ........... . 178-207(i) Inventory ........... . 178-183( ii) Levels in food ....... . 184-185(iii) Transfer from deposit tofood ................ . 186-191(iv) Levels in bone . . . . . . . . 192-194( v) Transfer from food tobone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195-204

80
81-82
83-92
83-86
87-91

87-88
89-91
92
93-12093-102
93-97

19

Paragraphs

ParagraPM(vi) Dose commitment fromoosr ................. 205-207(f) Iodine-131 ................ 208-221{i) Transfer to man ....... 210-215{ii) Doses ............... 216--221(g) Caesium-137 .............. 222-239(i) Transfer from deposit todiet .................. 223-230{ii) Transfer from diet tobody ................. 231-235(iii) Dose commitments ..... 236--239(h) Plutonium ................ 240-250(i) Levels in the environment ................ 240-246(ii) Doses ................ 247-250
3. External irradiation ............. 251-264{a) Dose commitment from shortlived fission products ....... 255-260{b) Dose commitment from 1s1cs 261-264
4. Summary of dose commitments . .. 265-268
B. Underground and cratering explosions 269-311
1. Sources of radio-activity ........ 272-276
2. Contained experiments .......... 277-279
3. Cratering experiments .......... 280-290(a) Formation of crater ........ 280-284(b) Release and transport of debris 285-290(i) Cloud geometry ....... 285-286(ii) Deposition ............ 287-289(iii) Ground-water contamination .................
290
4. Doses ........................ 291-309(a) Contained explosions ....... 292-299(b) Cratering explosions ........ 300-301(i) Dose contribution fromshort-range fall-out .... 302-304{ii) Dose contribution fromlong-range fall-out .... 305-309
5. Conclusion .................... 310-311
II.

POWER PRODUCTION BY NUCLEAR FISSION . .

312-404

A. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Environmental pathways involving radiation exposure of members of the
public . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
I. Atmospheric pathways . . . . . . . . . .
2. Pathways involving the aquatic
environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C. Assessment of radiation doses to members of the population . . . . . . . . . . . . .

312-316

D. Exposures from mining and milling . .
E. Exposures from fuel fabrication andenrichment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
F. Exposures from nuclear power reactors
1. Origin and amount of radio-nuclides
produced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2. Discharges to the environment . . .
(a) Liquid discharges . . . . . . . . . .
(b) Discharges of noble gases . . .
(c) Other gaseous and particulatedischarges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3. Doses resulting from environmental
contamination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
(a) Doses from radio-nuclides discharged to the aquatic environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
( b) Doses from noble gases discharged to atmosphere ......
(c) Doses fromradio-nuclides
following other pathways . . .
G. Exposures from fuel reprocessing andwaste disposal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1. Fate of the rndio-nuclides in fuelfed to a reprocessing plant . . . . . .
2. Discharges to the environment . . .
(a) Liquid discharges . . . . . . . . . .
(b) Discharges of noble gases . . .
(c) Other gaseous and particulatedischarges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3. Doses resulting from environmental
contamination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
(a) Doses to local populations due
to discharges of radio-nuclides
to the aquatic environment . .
(b) Doses to local populations
from discharges of noble gases
to atmosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . .
(c) Dose to local populations due
to other airborne radio-nuclides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
(d) Doses to the world population
resulting from B5Kr and 3H
discharged by the nuclear powerindustry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
H. Summary of doses from the nuclear
power industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

317
318-321

ill.

RECAPITULATION OF DOSE COMMITMENTS . .

327-332333-335
336--362
336--341
342-351344-346347-350351
352-362352-358359-360
361-362363-399363-372373-383373-376377-378379-383384
385-391
392
393-395

396--397
398-404405-406Page

322-324325-326

TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

73

REFERENCES

110.........................

2. The definition of environmental radiation excludes radiation received by selected individuals for
medical reasons or in the course of their occupation,
as well as irradiation from a number of miscellaneous
sources that expose individuals. The present annex will
review environmental sources of radiation both natural(Part One) and man-made (Part Two). Annexes B,
C and D will review medical and occupational irradiation and exposure to miscellaneous sources, respectively.

Introduction
1. Environmental radiation includes cosmic radiation and radiation from nuclides naturally present in
the earth's crust, the atmosphere or in waters, as wellas radiation from radio-nuclides produced by humanactivities and introduced into the environment. Individuals are exposed to environmental radiation regardless of health or occupation and the doses received
vary widely from place to place and from time to timewith respect both to their rate of delivery and to thecontribution made by individual sources or type ofsources ( e.g.. natural and man-made).

3. The Committee reviewed environmental radiation
comprehensively in its 1958, 1962 and 1966 reports(612, 613, 615) and in its 1964 and 1969 reports it

20

reviewed only man-made radio-activity in the environment (614, 616). In reviewing the latter topic, however, the Committee directed its attention almost exclusively to contamination due to nuclear tests in theatmosphere. With the low rates of injection of nuclear
debris now experienced, the importance of this sourceof contamination bas decreased relative to radio-active
contamination due to other, rapidly expanding,activities.

of people. This may be taken to be the case with regard
to medical and occupational exposures in technologically develo~ed countries. The quantity which is easiest
to calc1;1la.te 1s t?en the per caput dose, i.e. the average
dose w1thrn a given population.
9. If the dose distribution over the individual members of ~e pop~lation is not uniform, it may be that asubstantial fract10n of the per caput dose is contributedby the exposure of individuals which, for biologicalreasons, are not at risk. This would be the case withregard to genetic effects and carcinogenic effects whendoses are received by individuals which, because of
their child expectancy or life expectancy, respectively,
would not be expected to be able to make the possible
biological effect manifest.

4. Hence the Committee has decided to devote considerably greater attention in this report than in previous ones to the contribution that nuclear industry, andthe use of nuclear explosions for peaceful purposes.
make or may make to radio-active contamination of
the environment, and a considerable part of this annex
is therefore devoted to reviewing these sources. The
reader should be cautioned, however, that the amountof space devoted to discussion of individual sources ofenvironmental radiation does not necessarily reflect
their relative importance.

10. In such cases weighting procedures are appropriate. Weighting for the individual's child expectancy
is part of the calculation of the genetically-significant
dose ( GSD) , the procedure being described in paragraphs 7-9 of annex B. A weighting for life expectancy
could properly have been an element in the derivationof a leukremia-significant dose although this calculation
has not been attempted by the Committee. Instead, theCommittee has calculated the population average mean
marrow dose without any weighting procedures. thisdose therefore being merely a per caput mean marrowdose.

1. The concepts of average dose

5. In addition to the radiation doses to individual
members of the population, that are relevant in assessments of radiation risks, average doses are also of interest. Average doses to large populations can be usedeither to assess the total number of expected injuries ina given population or to compare the risks of twosources of radiation. The latter approach has been usedby the Committee in previous reports. Both approaches
imply the assumption of a linear, non-threshold relationship between risk and radiation dose. 1 The Committee has stressed that this is a cautious assumption
which may or may not be valid.
6. In its evaluation of the environmental contamination caused by nuclear test explosions, the Committee
made use of the concept of "dose commitment" as defined in the 1969 report, in order to have a measure of
the total future radiation dose to a population causedby the given series of explosions. This concept is d.escribed in detail in paragraphs 14-15. Dose commitments may be calculated for different tissues and organs;
the Committee has made such calculations for the
gonads, the bone marrow and the endosteal cells.
7. The dose commitment is useful in assessing theconsequences of any activity per unit practice whensignificant contributions to the total dose are caused bylong-lived nuclides. It is therefore also useful to apply
to environmental contamination caused, e.g., by peaceful uses of nuclear explosions and the production of
nuclear energy. In these cases the unit practice may be
a nominal explosion or one megawatt-year of electricalenergy produced, respectively. The concept of dose
commitment is particularly useful in the assessment of
the trend in a situation before an equilibrium is reached.
In such cases the predicted annual dose in a future
equilibrium situation is numerically equal to the dose
commitment per year of the practice leading to the
expected equilibrium.
8. In situations where an equilibrium has alreadybeen reached, the actual annual dose (i.e. the dose
commitment from each year of practice) is the quantityof immediate interest for assessing the risk to a group

11. Weighting procedures are of particular interest
when the average dose in a population is composed ofcontributions from a number of practices each withdifferent weighting factors. The most striking example
is the contribution to the genetically-significant dosefrom a number of different types of diagnostic x-ray
examination. Through the appropriate weighting forchild expectancy it is possible to assess the relative
importance of the different contributions to the GSD,
which is of considerable value in planning protection
measures.
12. In the case of occupational exposures, the age
distribution makes it less important to derive the properly weighted quantities and it will in most cases suffice
to make assessments of the per capc,t doses. In this case
it is rarely meaningful to assess anything but the percaput whole-body dose or the per caput gonad dose. In
some cases true genetically-significant doses have beenreported and seem to be about half the per caput gonad
dose. Where such assessments have been made they
may be considered to give a more representative presentation of the relevant doses.
13. When a whole population is more or less uniformly exposed to radiation from a particular source,
the mean dose received from that source, with any appropriate weighting factors for age and sex of those
exposed, gives useful information about the relative importance of the exposure. When, however, only p~of the population receives exposure from a source. 1t
is important to know the number of people exposed andthe doses which they receive from the source. In thesecircumstances, in order to summarize and to compare
the population exposures from different sources it isconvenient to express the total exposure from each such
source as the product of the number exposed and thedose to which each is exposed, in "man-rads". However. when the term "man-rad" is used in the present
report it is not intended to imply that it is a measure of
the total harm from a source, because of the possible
influence of factors such as non-linearity of dose re-1 This reservation may be unnecessarily stringent in the caseof relative risk estimates for dose contributions additional to
the natural background radiation, where the differential dose
increments would be of interest.

21

sponse, non-uniformity of body radiation, time distribution of the irradiation and radiation quality. With thesereservations. the estimate affords a useful comparative
indication of the doses delivered to the population, andthe quantity may be referred to as the population dose.
When based on dose commitment rather than on annual
dose, and related to a practice which causes the exposure, it has been used in this report as a measure of
the population dose caused by that practice.

lation consists of N(T) individuals, then the average
dose rate at that time is, summing over all is,(2)

and the average dose received up to time t by the
population is(3)

2. Assessment of dose commitments

The use of - co as the lower integration limit in equation ( 3) conveniently avoids the need to define thetime scale relative to the exposure. The average dose
received by the population, accumulated over infinite
time, is14. When a source delivers radiation at a varying
rate, as with radio-active material newly released into

the environment, it is necessary to integrate over an
infinite period of time the average dose rate to individuals that results from the material released during agiven and finite time interval. The quantity thus estimated is called the dose commitment from this release.
The dose commitment may, alternatively, be referred tothe events or series of events or to the practices thathave led to the release.

(4)
and is called the dose commitment from the release.
16. The calculation of dose commitments is usually fairly simple, particularly when the radiation isexternal. With internal radiation from nuclides deposited in the body the problem may become highly
complex because of the need to predict changes in theamounts and distribution in the body of the relevantradio-nuclides. In practice, this may involve not only
considerations of the metabolism of the nuclides invarious organs and tissues but also in food-stuffs. The
chain of events leading from the primary release ofradio-active material to irradiation of tissues can be
represented schematically as follows:

15. :More rigorously, if, at time ,, an individual
i born at time t1 is exposed to a dose rate R 1(T)arising from a certain release, the dose received up to
time t isD;(t)f= t,R,(T)d,,(l)

where R;(,) can assume values other than zero only
during the individual's lifetime. If, at time T, the popu-

Inhalation
Input (0)'II<

Atmosphere -+- Earth's surface {1)Diet (3)

(2)

•

t

Tissue --+ Dose
(4)

(5)

____________,.,t,.I

External irradiation

Some of the possible simultaneous pathways are shownin the diagram. indicating the possibility that several
steps may be bypassed. Similar schemes could be
drawn up for releases into waters or into soil.
17. Since the dose commitment from a given sourceis the integral over infinite time of the dose rate resulting from that input, steps in the sequence from input
to the final dose commitment can be conveniently
described in terms of the ratios of the infinite integralof the appropriate quantity in step j of the sequence tothe infinite integral of the appropriate quantity in thepreceding step i. These ratios define the transfer coe_f{icients Pif that appear as links in the pathway from inputof radio-activity into the environment to the subsequent
radiation dose to man. These trnnsfer coefficients must
be expressed in terms of the dimensions of the twoquantities they link.
18. The tissue dose from a given source. acting
through a given sequence or chain of events. is the
product of the input from that source and of all the
relevant transfer coefficients. The dose commitment to

the tissue is the sum of the contributions of eachsequence. For instance,
Dose= Input [ (Po1 P 12 P~3 Pu P4 ;;)+ (P P14 P.1r,)
01+ (Po1 P1~ P~5) + (Po1 P1s)]

I 9. Transfer functions and the estimation of theirparameters were discussed at length for a number of
nuclides in the 1969 report. The essential informationfrom that report will be summarized in this annex
whenever necessary.
20. Consistent with the practice of the Committee.
radiation doses will. in this annex. be given in rads
without regard to their biological effectiveness, but thequality of radiation will be indicated whenever necessary. Rems will be referred to in a few instances whendoses have been so reported by the original authors.
In these cases the quality factor used by the authors
will be mentioned where possible. Population dose
rates and population dose commitments will be given
in man-rads per year and man-rads, respectively.

22

Part One. Natural radiation~terstellar sp~ce. Together with protons are 4He ionsm the proport10n of about 10 per cent. Smaller proportions of heavier particles are also present, together withelectrons, photons and neutrinos (15, 197, 504, 639
640, 643). The approximate charge composition ofprimary cosmic rays is shown in table 1. The energy
spectrum of the primary-cosmic-ray protons has beenmeasured both in and above the earth's atmosphere bymeans of instruments carried on balloons and spacecrafts (72, 453, 544). Above about 103 MeV, theproton flux density decreases exponentially with increasing energy. The energy spectrum is peaked around
300 MeV per particle and is very broad, extending
from about 1 to lOH MeV.

I. Cosmic rays
21. The high-energy radiations which enter theearth ·s atmosphere from outer space are known asprimary cosmic rays. 'When they interact with atomic
nuclei present in the earth's atmosphere, secondary
particles and electromagnetic radiation are produced
and these are called secondary cosmic rays.
A. PRIMARY COSMIC RAYS
22. The origin of the primary cosmic rays is still not
yet completely determined. However, it is known thatmost of the observed radiation originates in our galaxy.
Moreover, during periods of solar activity the sun
produces solar cosmic rays which consist mostly of nonrelativistic protons.

24. Below 104 MeV, the primary flux density is
modified by two processes. In the first place, it isaffected by the earth's magnetic field which deflects
lower-energy charged particles back into space. Thiseffect is latitude-dependent so that a greater flux of
low-energy protons reaches the top of the atmosphereat the poles than in equatorial regions. Thus the ionization produced in the atmosphere is also latitudedependent. This latitude effect increases with altitude
and is illustrated in figure I ( 453). In the second place

1. Primary galactic cosmic rays
23. Primary galactic cosmic rays largely consist of
high-energy protons which enter the solar system from

5gcm· 2

500

20
50
400

...z.

100
}00

-: "

140

<'/

"

i

200

200

280
100

60°

ao0

GEOMAGNETIC LATITUDE

Figure I. Ionization at different latitudes and atmospheric depths ( 453)

metres per second. This wind gives rise to an interplanetary magnetic field which extends out to some
5 109 kilometres and this in turn markedly distorts the
dipole pattern of the earth's magnetic field (figure II)( 183, 458, 459). The solar wind protons have insufficient energy to penetrate the earth's magnetic fieldand so do not give rise to radiation doses in theatmosphere.
26. During the 11-year solar cycle the magnitu~eof the solar wind and of the interplanetary magnetic
field and its irregularities undergo a cyclical cha_n¥e,reaching a maximum during increased solar .acuv1ty
and a minimum during the period of the qmet sun.

the intensity of the low-energy-proton flux density also
varies with the 11-year solar cycle, the density beinga minimum during times of maximum solar activity andvice versa; this is known as modulation ( 453, 455,
456).
2. Modulation of cosmic rays
25. The solar-wind theory, originally put forward
by Parker (479, 480), adequately accounts for themeasured variation of cosmic-ray intensities during thesc,lar cycle. The solar wind consists of an outward flowof plasma, mainly low-energy protons and electrons,
travelling out from the sun at several hundred kilo-

23

Because the less energetic cosmic-ray particles are deflected away from the solar system by the magnetic
irregularities transported by the solar wind, an 11-year
modulation of the galactic cosmic-ray flux density atthe earth is produced. Moreover, recent measurements
made on space vehicles have indeed detected a permanent gradient in the flux density of cosmic rays,
the flux density becoming smaller with decreasing distance from the sun (70, 191, 459).

TO

-30

•20

SUN

27. Variations in the solar wind due to changes
in solar activity over the 27-day cycle cause similar
modulations in the galactic cosmic-ray activity. Changes
in the ionization and the neutron flux density overan 11-year period are shown in figure III (310, 513).
28. Solar flares are observed as bright flame-like protuberances on the sun's surface which reach maximum
brightness in about 10 minutes and then slowly subside. They tend to occur more frequently during periodsof sun-spot maximum. Large amounts of energy in theform of visible, ultra-violet and x radiation are emitted

D

REGIONS OFVANALLENRADIATION BELTS

Figure ll. Illustration of the intersection of the solar windwith earth's magnetic field (modified from reference 458).
The numbers refer to distances in earth radii

120

100
j::

zw 80

u

C:

w

!,.

...<w 60
a:

....

z 40

::,
0

u
~
w

20

"'z
$

u 0
-20

19S4

1955

1956

1957

1958

1959

1960

1962

1961

1963

1964

1965

Figure Ill. Changes in ion and neutron count rates during a solar cycle (310, 513)

the lines of magnetic force, being reflected back andforth by the increased convergence of the magnetic
field towards polar regions.
30. The belts consist of large numbers of electronsand protons with energies ranging from tens of kiloelectron-volts to hundreds of mega-electron-volts. Although these can present a radiation hazard to astronauts travelling in space, they do not result in any
radiation dose to the general population.

and, in the largest flares, large quantiti~s of charged
particles mainly protons and alpha-particles, are also
released' ( 544). Measurements indicate that most of
the protons have energies in the 1-40 MeV region(72). Because the radiations from solar flares (solar
cosmic rays) have relatively low energy, they do not
usually cause significant increases in radiation doses
at the earth's surface. In fact, only 13 flares produced
observable effects in the lower atmosphere between
1942 and 1962 (544). However, large flares can increase the radiation dose rates in the upper atmosphereby a factor of 100 or more for short periods of time.

B.

SECONDARY cos:MIC RAYS

31. When the primary cosmic-ray particles enter
the atmosphere, those with higher energy undergo
nuclear reactions, while those with lower energy lose
energy by ionization. When reacting with nuclei ofatoms present in the air they produce neutrons andprotons, in addition to pions and kaons (197, 504).
Many of the secondary particles have sufficient energy
to initiate whole sequences of further nuclear reactions
with nitrogen and oxygen nuclei. The initial high-energy
reactions are called spallation reactions and quite a

3. Radiation belts
29. There are two so-called radiation belts, often
called Van Allen belts, situated between one and eight
earth radii above the equator, the inner belt extending
from about 30° N to 30° S, the outer belt extending
from about 60° N to 60° S ( 627). Energetic particles,
mainly electrons and protons, are trapped in thesebelts by the earth's magnetic field. They spiral along24

variety of reaction products are formed, some of themore important being 3H, 7Be and 10Be. Three basic
types of cascade are produced: the nucleon-nucleon
cascade, the nucleon-meson cascade and the photonelectron cascade. The pions rapidly decay into photons
or muons. The properties of some of the more important cosmic-ray particles are given in table 2.

George (192), 2.6 + 0.3. The inconsistency of manyof the early results has been discussed by Shamos andLiboff (552). Lowder and Beck (376) and also George( 191, 192) have compared their measurements withthe earlier recorded results. There is some discrepancy
between the results of George and those of Lowder andBeck and of Shamos and Lilioff. Carmichael ( 103) has
reviewed all the atmospheric ionization measurements~d concludes that the results of George are inconsistent
with respect to the others. In this annex a value of
2.14 ions cm-a s-1 at NTP is taken as th; cosmic-ray
ionization in the atmosphere at sea level for computing
doses.

32. The nucleonic components, protons and neutrons, are mainly produced in the upper layers of theatmosphere. The protons are formed mainly in spallation reactions, while neutrons are produced both byspallation reactions and by the so-called evaporationof neutrons due to low-energy (p, n) reactions. Neutrons lose energy by elastic collisions and, when thermalized, they are captured by HN to form 14C. Because nucleons rapidly lose energy through ionizationand nuclear collisions, the nucleonic flux density is
considerably attenuated in the lower part of the atmosphere and only accounts for a few per cent of thedose rate at sea level.

2. Cosmic-ray neutrons in the atmosphere

37. Most of the dose delivered by low-energy neutrons arises from capture reactions such as (n, ')I) and(n, p), while for high-energy neutrons it comes fromknock-on protons ( 443). Since a significant part of thecosmic-ray-neutron spectrum extends from about 0.1
eV to several GeV, some knowledge of its shape isnecessary to compute the dose from neutrons.

33. On the other hand, because muons have onlya small cross-section for interaction with atomic nuclei,
and since they have a mean life of 2.2 microseconds
before decay and largely move at relativistic velocities,
they penetrate into the lower layers of the atmosphereand are the major cosmic-ray constituent at sea level.
The third cascade process, the photon-electron cascade,is initiated from photons produced in the decay ofneutral pions. These photons create electron-positronpairs, which in turn produce additional photons byBremsstrahlung, Compton effect and positron-electron
annihilation. Except in the lower layers of the atmosphere, electrons are the main source of ionization( 468).

38. The differential energy spectrum of neutrons at
different altitudes and latitudes was computed by Hesset al. (243). Lingenfelter (365), Newkirk (462) andby others. The shape and magnitude of the computed
spectra agree reasonably well with flux densities thathave been reported for different energy ranges (21,202, 207, 240, 244, 416, 598).
39. More recently, Light et al. (361) have computed the neutron spectrum using Monte Carlo
methods, obtaining reasonable agreement with spectra
measured in the 1-10 MeV energy region. According
to these authors, the global average neutron production rate averaged over a solar cycle is 3.9 neutrons
cm-2 s-1 • According to the theory of Hess et al. (243),
about 20 per cent of these are knock-on neutrons produced by high-energy protons, the remainder being
produced by evaporation processes. Figure N shows
the differential energy spectrum of cosmic-ray neutronsat sea level.

1. Ionization in the atmosphere

34. A number of measurements of cosmic-ray ionization at various altitudes have been reported ( 191,
192, 376, 453, 454, 517, 552). As can be seen fromfigure I, the ionization in the atmosphere becomesincreasingly latitude-dependent with increasing altitude
but at high latitudes, between about 60° and 90°, theionization is almost constant. The ionization also varies
with the solar cycle in general, being greatest during
the solar minimum and smallest during the solar maximum (453, 454).
35. Ionization measurements in the upper atmosphere between altitudes of 4 and 35 kilometres havebeen made by Neher ( 454) over Thule, Greenland(latitude 76° N). These measurements were madeannually between 1954 and 1969 and so cover a complete solar cycle. The 1969 measurements agree closelywith those of Raft et al. (517) made at 54° N latitudein 1969. George (191) has reported ionization measurements made in 1965, during the solar minimum,from a satellite between altitudes of 400 and 1,500
kilometres in polar regions.
36. At sea level. the atmospheric ionization does
not vary greatly with latitude or solar cycle. There isa small variation with atmospheric pressure-about
4 per cent per centimetre of mercury ( 5 52). Manymeasurements have been made of sea level cosmic-ray
ionization since those reported by Millikan in 1931.
The most recent determinations in terms of ion pairs
per second per cubic centimetre of NTP air are:Shames and Liboff (552), 2.18 + 0.06 at 42° N;
Lowder and Beck (376), 2.1 + 0.1 at 50° N;

C. DOSES FROM COSMIC RAYS

40. For computing dose rates at different altitudes,
doses from the ionizing and neutron components willbe treated separately. The doses from the ionizing component are obtained from measured ionization in andabove the atmosphere. O'Brien and McLaughlin (468)have calculated the ionization produced by the different
cosmic-ray components at various altitudes. The energy
spectrum they obtain for the vertical components ofthe proton, muon and pion flux density at sea levelagrees well with measured values. The computed total
ionization at different altitudes also agrees with measured values to within 30 per cent. The contribution of
the different cosmic-ray components to the tissue dose
five centimetres inside an isotropically-irradiated phantom as computed by O'Brien and McLaughlin is shownon figure V. These results are very instructive for theyshow that, below five kilometres, most of the dose
arises from muons, with electrons making the next
largest contribution. Above 10 kilometres, electronsand protons are the major contributors to dose.
1. Ionizing component

41. Assuming that each ion pair in air is eq11;ivalent
to 33.7 eV, the dose in air per ion pair cm-s s-1 1s 1.50
25

103

TOTAL
ELECTRONSPROTONS100

10

2

NEUTRONS

'>

10

5

10

...

~

,.

~

'l'e
~

..9,

I!

~

e
ii
z

1

MUONS

<(

a:

u,

g,oo

-10
10

0

.,

UJ

C:

PIONS

i

<(

,o'

15
10

10 2 .._._ _L...__
6
10
ENERGY loVl

0
,010

,012

5

__J_ ___,__ _-1.._ _J __ _L...__

10

15
20
ALTITUDE lkml

25

_J

30

Figure V. Computed dose rate (5 cm inside an isotropically
irradiated tissue slab) from the difierent components of cosmic
rays as a function of altitude ( 468)

Figure IV. Differential energy spectrum of cosmic-ray
neutrons at sea level (219)

44. The measured neutron flux densities of Boella
et al. (65), Greenhill et al. (207), Haymes (240) andJenkins et al. (294) were used to compute the neutron
dose. Where necessary, this was done by taking into
account the shape of the differential-energy spectrumof figure IV. The data were also normalized to highlatitude and to solar maximum or minimum ( 454,
554). The resulting neutron dose rates are shown infigure VI. The dose rate reaches a maximum value of
30 ,urad lr 1 at 20 kilometres during solar minimum.
During solar maximum, the dose rate at 20 kilometresis reduced by a factor of two. Extrapolating the neutron
dose-rate curve of figure VI to zero altitude gives anestimate of the sea-level dose rate of about 0.48 mrad

JLrad h-1 (270). The dose rate computed from themeasured ionization in the atmosphere for high latitudes is shown in figure VI for altitudes between 1 and
1.000 kilometres. The upper curve for ionization refers to 1965 (solar minimum) and the lower curve to1969 (solar maximum). Taking the sea level ionization as 2.14 ion pairs cm-a s-1 (paragraph 36) the air
dose rate is 28 mrad y-1.

2. Neutron component
42. In computing the dose from cosmic-ray neutrons care must be taken in the choice of the geometry
used for the dose-rate model. Hajnal et al. (219) havecomputed dose-rate factors for the neutron-irradiationof a 30-centimetre tissue slab, using the fluence-to-dose
conversion factors published by Irving et al. (274) and
Neufeld et al. ( 461). This was done for the neutronenergy spectrum shown in figure IV and for themonolateral and bilateral incidence of normal or isotropic neutrons on the tissue slab. Conversion factors
for several depths in tissue are shown in table 3.

y-1.

45. A number of measurements of the neutron flux
density at sea level have been reported. Some of theseresults are shown in table 4. to!!ether with the corresponding dose rate. At sea level. the flux density isquite sma!l and difficult to measure accurately. Kastneret al. (314) found that the flux density was different
over water and dry land. In addition, they also founda considerable build-up in the low-energy-neutron flux
density due to the moderating influence of water in thesoil and the absence of nitrogen. which acts as a sink
for thermal neutrons. The most recent flux density
measurements. those of Hajnal et al. (219), compare
well with those of Boella et al. (65), Kent (325) andYamashita ( 659) and with the computed values of
O'Brien ( 467). A quality factor of 6 is assigned to

43. To compute the dose rate at different altitudes,
the bilateral incidence of isotropic neutrons on a 30centimetre slab was assumed and the dose-rate factor
was averaged for a cylindrical geometry over a depth
range fro~ 0 to 15 centimetres, resulting in 4.93
/Lrad h-1 with a flux density of 1 neutron cm-2 s-1 . Thisfactor is much the same as that for the dose rate at a
depth of 5 centimetres in a 30-centimetre slab.
26

----~---------------

1965

IONIZATION

1969

10'

UEUTRONS
10'

,, ,,

_..---..§1...---.,,..

IONIZATION

1/EUTROI/S

10'--- ........

..,.,,, ....

0

George 1191)

O

Neher (454)........

•

Neher (454)X

Rafi eta/, 1517)

eGroenhill et al, 1207)

0G, eenhill et al. 1207)

X

Haymes 1240),,. /,... .... 1969®

Boalla et al {65)0O'Brien and Mclaughlin {468)0Jinkins di al. (294)10'

Altitude (km)10

Figure VI. Absorbed dose rates from the ionizing and neutron components of cosmic rays
at different altitudes for 1969 (solar maximum) and 1965 (solar minimum)

this radiation. based upon the dose-equivalent and absorbed doses computed by Hajnal et al. (219) for
isotropic bilateral incidence on a slab averaged to adepth of 15 centimetres.

3. Doses to persons in supersonic transport aircraft
47. The prospect of the development of a supersonic aircraft transport ( SST) system on a large scale
during the next decade poses the question of the cosmic ray dose rates to which passengers and crews will
be exposed and of the contribution of this to the average doses received by the world's population. The first
generation of supersonic aircraft will fly at altitudes
which may range up to 20 kilometres compared with 12
kilometres for standard jet aircraft. The doses will ofcourse depend markedly on the altitude and latitudeof the flight operations. Judging by the ionization densities shown in figure I the dose rates delivered to persons at these altitudes' will be much greater at latitudes
higher than 50°.

46. A value of 0.35 mrad y-1 is adopted for the
average tissue absorbed dose rate from neutrons at
sea level at 40° latitude, but it must be borne in mind
that there may be considerable variation due to the effects discussed above. Using the vertical cut-off rigidity
data of Shea and Smart (554), the sea-level absorbed
dose rate in polar regions is 0.35 mrad y-1 , and 0.2
mrad y-1 in equatorial regions. In making the present
estimates of dose rates from neutrons, no account istaken of attenuation or build-up due to shielding by
surrounding structures.

27

48. When considering dose rates received by persons exposed at such high altitudes, it is necessary to
discuss separately two contributions. In the first place
are the background galactic cosmic rays, ever present,
which vary in intensity by a factor of about two during
the sun's 11-year solar cycle. Secondly, there may
occasionally be large short-term increases in the radiation as a result of intense fluxes of solar protons
originating from solar flares.

giant solar flare of 23 February 1956, dose rates at 20
kilometres and at high latitude have been estimated to
be as high as 0.2-0.6 rad h-1 (267). For this reason
SST aircraft will carry radiation warning devices enabling the pilots to take evasive action by bringing
the aircraft to lower altitudes when the dose rate
reaches a prescribed action level. These giant solar
flare events only last for about 10 hours and occur a
few times in each solar cycle, and therefore are not
likely to add significantly to the total dose burden .

. 49. Estimates of the dose rates from both the ionizing and the neutron components of galactic cosmic
rays at high latitude and at altitudes of 12 and 20 kilometres can be obtained from figure VI. These results
for solar minimum are shown in table 5. It should be
noted that neutron dose rates determined from wholebody 24Na burdens, compared with dose rates determined from surface monitors, indicate a considerable
build-up in neutron flux density inside the human body
(80, 546).
50. In order to determine dose rates at altitudes atwhich an SST might fly, Fuller and Clarke (185) made·measurements from balloons at 20 kilometres over Fort
Churchill, Canada, in July 1964, near solar minimum.
Their measurements indicated a dose rate from the ionizing component of 750 11rad lr1 • An average quality
factor of 1.5 was established for this ionizing component from a study of tracks recorded in nuclear emulsion plates. The neutron rem counter indicated a doseequivalent rate from neutrons of 500 11rem h-1 • O'Brien
and McLaughlin ( 469) concluded that this neutron
dose-equivalent measurement corresponded to a surface
dose in a phantom irradiated isotropically from above.
Since the dose-equivalent rates per neutron cm-2 s-1
for monolateral isotropic incidence on a slab surface
and for bilateral isotropic incidence averaged through15 centimetres are, from table 3, 68 and 29 11rem h-1 ,respectively. the 500 ftfem h-1 of Fuller and Clarke reduces to 210 11rem h-1 for bilateral isotropic incidence
averaged through 15 centimetres. With a quality factorof 6, this corresponds to 35 µ.rad 11-1 , in reasonableagreement with figure VI.
51. Fuller and Clarke calculated the absorbed dose
rate from nuclear stars recorded in the nuclear emulsion plates as 64 ft{ad h-1 , with an average quality factor of 8.5. Because of the high quality factor, the dose
rate resulting from stars is quite significant and h~sbeen included in table 5. The authors were not certa10
whether all or part of the dose rate from nuclear stars
was recorded in the ionization chamber measurements
or not. At the most, failure to subtract the contributionof stars from the ionizing component would overestimate the absorbed dose by 10 per cent. Using the
maximum estimates for the absorbed dose rates sho\l.'ll
in table 5 and assuming a quality factor of 1.0 for
solar radiation, the total dose-equivalent rate at 20
kilometres altitude and at high latitude is 1,700 11remh-1,
52. The average dose rates from solar particles arelisted in the last column of table 5 (267). These estimates were made by the ICRP working group by averaging the effects of solar flares over the period 19 521960. It can be seen that at these altitudes the averagecontribution from this source is small compared withthat from galactic cosmic rays. Although radiation ofsolar origin does not contribute significantly to theaverage dose rate, during an occasional intense solar
flare radiation levels at these altitudes may increase by
several orders of magnitude. For example, during the

53. The air speed of SST aircraft will be in therange 2,300-2,900 km h-1 compared with 800 km h-1
for conventional jets. A flight from Europe to North
America will therefore take some two to three hours
instead of the present eight hours. In a conventional
jet aircraft cruising at an altitude of 12 kilometres thedose-equivalent rate is 600 µ.rem h-1 or 0.7 11rem km-1 •In a supersonic aircraft cruising at an altitude of 20
kilometres, the dose-equivalent rate is 1,700 ft{em b-1 ,which also corresponds approximately to 0. 7 µ.rem
km-1 •
54. Using the dose rates of cosmic rays given intable 5, the dose for an Atlantic crossing will be about
2 millirads in an SST compared with about 2.6 millirads
for present-day jets. The latter figure does not include
the dose contribution from nuclear stars. Thus we see,as was noted by Schaefer ( 546), that the doses perpassenger-kilometre will not be very different in SST
aircraft than they are at present and may be lower.
However, the doses received by the crew of SST aircraft will depend on the number of hours flown andon the flight altitude and latitude, and may range up
to a dose equivalent of 1 rem y-1 . For the crews of conventional jet aircraft, flying 600 hours per year, thedose-equivalent rate is about 0.5 rem per year.
55. During 1970, some 4.6 1011 passenger-kilometres were flown at an average speed of 580 km 11-1 ,throughout the world excluding China (265). An upper
limit to the dose received from cosmic galactic radiation is 2.5 105 man-rads which corresponds to an average world population dose rate of about 0.1 millirad
per year per person,
56. Schaefer (546) has investigated the contribution to doses at SST altitudes of the heavy-nuclei
components of cosmic rays. These particles have a highLET and give rise to a so-called "micro-beam" irradiation. It was concluded that the "micro-beam" partof the heavy flux was virtually extinguished at SST
altitudes.
II. Terrestrial radiation

A. INTERNAL IRRADIATION
57. Radio-active nuclides occurring in our naturalenvironment enter the human body mainly throughfood and water, inhalation being of secondary importance, except for radon daughters. The dose rates toparticular body organs are ideally derived from measured tissue concentrations, although an indirect estimation of the dose rates can be made from studies ofthe distribution of the radio-nuclides in the environment and in diet and from knowledge of their metabolic
behaviour. Owing to the varying content of naturalradio-active nuclides in the environment and in diet,the levels of radio-active intake, and therefore thecorresponding concentrations in the human body,may vary from place to place for elements not subject
28

r

to haemostasis. In a given location, time variations also
occur as a result of changes in diet. Because of limited
geographical representation and of the obvious limitations of samplino, the arithmetic means calculated fromthe most freque~t values will be accepted in this annex, although they may not _be strictly representative
for the whole world populabon.

radio-active isotope of carbon with a half-life of
5730 ± 30 years.

:Cis prodl!ced in the upper atmos64. N~tural 1
phere by mteract10n of cosmic-ray neutrons with nitrogen, according to the reaction 14N (n, p) HC. Its
production rate is not accurately known, the most recent calculated averages over a solar cycle being
2.5 + 0.5 atoms s-1 cm- 2 (365) and 1.98 atoms s-1
cm-2 ( 361). A production rate of 2 atoms s-1 cm-2
corresponds to 0.03 MCi y-1 and to a steady-state
inventory of 280 MCi. The contribution of 14 C added
to the atmosphere by nuclear and thermonuclear tests
will be discussed in paragraphs 167-169.

58. The natural radio-active nuclides have beenclassified into those that arc being continually producedby the interactions of cosmic-ray particles with matter,and those that were originally present at the formationof the earth, with their decay products.
l. Cosmic-ray-produced radio-active nuclides

65. Carbon-14 is present in atmospheric carbon dioxide, in the terrestrial biosphere, and in the bicarbonates dissolved in the ocean. The specific activity ofnatural radio-carbon in the terrestrial biosphere, as
measured in wood grown in the nineteenth century, was
6.13 ± 0.03 pCi (gC)-1 but, during the recent decades, it has experienced a slight decrease caused by theartificial combustion of HC-free fossil fuel (589). The
reduction in the specific activity of atmospheric 14C in
the absence of nuclear tests has been theoretically estimated at -3.2 per cent in 1950, -5.9 per cent in1969, and -23 per cent in 2000 (34).

59, A total of twenty radio-nuclides, produced bycosmic rays in the earth's atmosphere, have been detected (table 6). From the point of view of radiation
doses, only 14C and, to a lesser extent, 3 H are worth
considering.
(a) Tritium
60. Tritium occurs naturally in the surface watersof the earth, being produced in the atmosphere by theinteraction of high-energy cosmic rays with atmosphericnitrogen and oxygen (paragraph 31). Recently, its
production rate, measured directly ( 604), has beenfound to be 0.20±0.05 tritons cm-2 s-1 • This figure
corresponds to an annual production rate of 1.6 MCi
y-1 and to a steady-state inventory in the biosphereof 28 megacuries. Since 1954 large amounts of manmade tritium have been released into the environment
from nuclear explosions, most of it arising from tritium
unused in the thermonuclear reaction. Discharges fromthe nuclear power industry also contribute to the inventory of tritium. Finally, tritium is widely used as aradio-active luminizing material in products available
to the general public such as watches and clocks. Tho~esources of "artificial'' tritium will be discussed later mthis annex and in annex D.

66. The decay rate of natural 14C is equal to theaverage specific radio-carbon activity before the adventof nuclear tests times the average number of grams ofcarbon present per square centimetre of the earth's
surface. Estimation of those quantities in the different
reservoirs of 14C yields a decay rate of 1.81 disintegrations s-1 cnr2 (589). This is less than the production
rate but considering the uncertainties in total carbon
mass estimates, this is a good agreement. It has beensuggested, however, that the present-day inventory does
not correspond to the equilibrium value, but is increasing (348. 589). In fact. measurements of wood samplesof known age show that variations of atmospheric 1 4C,
amounting to a few per cent, have occurred in the past
6,000 years. Two types of variations have been recognized: one, with a time scale of the order of 100 years,
has been explained by the solar wind modulation of
the cosmic-ray flux density (589); the other, with atime constant of more than 1.000 years. may largely
be due to a variation of the geomagnetic shielding of
the earth ( 208).
67. Assuming that 6.1 pCi (gC)-1 is the specificactivity of natural uc in the terrestrial biosphere, 50
keV the average beta energy, and 18 per cent the average carbon content of the whole body, then the average
dose throughout the human body is 1.02 mrad y-1.
The highest dose is delivered to fat. In soft tissues,
the annual dose rate is 0.68 mrad y-1 if the carbon
content is taken as 12 per cent ( 613). In bone, the reported values of the carbon content are 13 per cent(266). and 15.5 per cent (577). The average of thetwo values leads to a dose rate of 0.81 mrad y-1 toendosteal tissues. Owing to the Suess effect. the dose
reduction was approximately 0.04 mrad y-1 in 1969.

61. Prior to its injection into the biosphere from
nuclear tests, levels of tritium in waters of the midlatitude regions of the earth were in the range 6-24
pCi 1-1 (316. 637). About 90 per cent of natural tritium resides in the hydrosphere, 10 per cent in thestratosphere and only 0.1 per cent in the troposphere( 41). The low inventory of tritium in the troposphereis due to the fact that tritium in the form of HTO is
rapidly washed out by rain. Early estimates of thehalf-residence time were 21 to 40 days (42. 359), butmore recent work has shown that it is only 10 days
(339).
62. The dose rates resulting from natural tritium
have been calculated with the assumption that thetritium-hydrogen ratio in the body is essentially thesame as that in the surface waters. With an averagebeta-particle energy of 5.69 keV. the dose rate fromnatural tritium to soft tissue would be in the range
0.6-2.5 ,,..rad y-1.
(b) Carbon-14

2. Primordial radio-active ,we/ides

63. Carbon is one of the elements that are essential to all forms of life and thus is involved in most
biological and geochemical processes on earth. Associated with the stable isotopes (98.9 per cent 12C and 1.1
per cent 13 C), there is always a very small but variable
amount of 14 C, a pure beta-emitting (E50 keV)68. The primordial radio-nuclides can be divided
into those which decay directly to a stable nuclide(table 7). and those belonging to the three radio-active
series, headed by 2asu, :ia~u, and 23 ~Th (figure VII).
The only non-series radio-nuclides of significance are
4°K and B7Rb, which have similar chemical properties.

=

29

Figure VII. Decay schemes of the natural series• (boxes show mass number, historical name and half-life)

a Parallel decay branches of less than 1 per cent are not included

to the cells near the endosteal surfaces in the trabecular
cavities of 15 mrad y-1 (577).

(a) Potassium-40
69. Potassium-40 is the main naturally-occurringsource of internal radiation, despite its low isotopic
ratio of 0.0118 per cent ( 40). The activity of 4 °K in
soils is on the average an order of magnitude higher
than that of 2 ssu and 232Th. In sea-water, 4°K constitutes the bulk of the activity with a concentration of
about 300 pCi 1-1 (237).
70. Potassium enters the body mainly in food-stuffs
and is under close homeostatic control. Variations in
the composition of diet thus have little effect on theradiation dose received, so that knowledge of the behaviour of potassium in food chains is of no practicalassistance in the assessment of man's exposure to radiation ( 540). The potassium content in the body varies
considerably from one organ or tissue to another.
Some tissues such as muscle, brain. and blood cells
contain about 0.3 per cent potassium, blood serum
has a normal level of 0.01 per cent and fat contains
none (266. 577). In bone, a representative value may
be taken as 0.05 per cent by weight for wet bone
without marrow (577).
71. The average potassium coritent of the wholebody as a percentage of body weight depends uponbody build and is smaller in obese persons. Using
whole-body counting techniques, potassium levels as afunction of age have been investigated ( 44) for large
populations (figure VIII). Recent results are consistent
with those given by the Committee in its 1962 reportfor individuals of 20 years of age or older, but are up
to 15 per cent lower for younger ages.
72. On the basis of a mean potassium content intissues of 0.2 per cent, the dose rate to the soft tissues
can be calculated as 19 mrad y-1 , the beta and the
gamma doses amounting to 17 and 2 mrad y-1, respectively (577). In bone. the potassium content being
about one quarter of that in soft tissues, the annual
dose to the osteocytes or to the tissues in the Haversian canals is about 6 mrad y-1. In the active marrow,the potassium content is about 0.2 per cent whichleads to an estimated dose rate to the bone marrow and(b) Rubidium-87

73. The isotopic abundance of 87 Rb, which is apure beta emitter, is 27 .85 per cent. The average concentration of rubidium in the whole body is 17 ppm;
in bone, ovaries and testes, the corresponding figuresare 10, 4.5 and 12 micrograms per gram of wet tissue,
respectively (577). The dose rates to the gonads andto the bone tissues, resulting from decay of S7Rb in
the body, have been estimated from these concentrations ( table 8). The average gonadal dose rate would

...

2;.

~ 1.5 l-----l----'3o,dl:--,l,----f--t-4'------1

0

20

40

80

60

Age

Figure V /JI. Potassium concentration in the human body.
The upper curve and circles refer to men, the lower curve
and triangles to women. The curves represent the results of
10,000 measurements ( 466), the solid circles and triangles
802 determinations ( 16) while the open circles and triangles
are the results of measurements performed on 57 subjects ( 44)30be about 0.3 mrad y-1 while the dose rate to the small
tissue inclusions within bone would be approximately
0.4 mrad y-1 • Assuming that the concentration of rubidium in the active marrow is the same as that averaged
over the whole body, the dose rate to the bone marrow
and to the cells near the endosteal surfaces in the trabecular cavities would be 0.6 mrad y--1 •. 7~. Air and. ~vater. Uranium is present in the air~ mmute quant1t1es. The natural debris may be mixed

with ?Jan-made aerosols such as dust from building
materials or smoke from both industrial and domestic
sources ( 222) . The concentrations observed in city
air range from less than 10 t~ 1,500 pg nr 3 (222, 411,
64?). In sea water, the uramum concentration is quite
uniform (from 2 to 3.7 µ.g 1-1 ), the low values beina
associated with near-coastal waters (55, 550, 576t
On the other hand, concentrations in fresh waters
show a high variability, with reported levels ranging
from 0.024 to 200 µ.g 1-1 (433, 525, 645).

(c) Uranium and thorium series
74. Uranium and thorium are widely distributed
throuahout the earth's crust where they present on the
avera;e the same activity concentration (225). The
radio.'."active decay chains of 238 U and 232 Tb are presented in figure VII. Uranium and radium enter thebiosphere through the soil into plants, and then in
herbivorous animals and in man. Further down the
chain, radon, as a gas, escapes to a certain extent fromthe soil into the atmosphere and decays into isotopesof solid elements which are important contributors toradio-activity in the environment.
75. Thus, the 238U series has been classified in four
separate sub-series in which the activity of the parent
controls to a large degree the activity of the decay
products: (a) the isotopes 238 U and 2 ;HU Which Can
be considered to be in radio-active equilibrium in theenvironment as they are separated by two much shorterlived nuclides, ~34Th and 234 Pa. At high concentrations,these isotopes of uranium present a chemical toxicity
problem rather than a radiological hazard (540);( b) 226Ra, as its concentrations in diet and man are
not clearly related to those of its long-lived precursor
and as the environmental pathways of its decay
product, an isotope of a noble gas, are evidently not
the same as those of a solid; ( c) 2 ~2 Rn and its shortlived daughters (through 214 Po) of significance for inhalation; and (d) the long-lived 22 :Rn decay products(!! 10Pb, 210 Bi, and 210po) which enter plants mainly byatmospheric deposition.
76. The 232Tb series is constituted by different isotopes of the same elements and may be treated in thesame way as that of 238U. 232 Th will be considered byitself as its decay product is an isotope of radium
28Ra) of sufficiently long half-life to warrant an independent study. :! 28Ra is the precursor of a sub-series
which ends with 224 Ra. The gaseous element of thechain is 220Rn, with short-lived daughters. !.! 20 Rn does
not have any long-lived decay product, as opposed tob. Intake, levels and doses in man
80. There is very little information concerning theconcentrations of uranium in man and in his diet.
Values of daily intake of about 1 p.g d-1 seem to be
typical in the United Kingdom (224), the UnitedStates (645), the USSR (670) and France (550)
while it reaches 30 µ.g d-1 in one area of the Soviet
Union (683). In man, the range of concentrations has
been found to be 0.1-0.9 nanogramme per grammeof wet soft tissue, to be compared with 20-30 nanogrammes per gramme of bone ash (224, 645). The
corresponding dose rates to bone, calculated by themethod of Spiers (577), are small (table 9); in thecalculations, uranium was assumed to be uniformly
distributed in mineral bone, although that may not be
the case (223, 536). The total mass of mineral bone
in man has been taken to be 5,000 grammes corresponding to 1,000 grammes of calcium ( see paragraph 205).
Bone has been assumed to yield 2. 7 grammes of ash
per gran1me of calcium.

(ii) Thorium-232
81. Like uranium. thorium is more abundant inacidic than in basic rocks. It constitutes up to 10 per
cent of monazite, which is particularly abundant incertain areas of Brazil and India. Experiments in whichplants have been grown in solutions containing thorium
show that it is readily adsorbed on roots, largely byphysico-chemical processes ( 492), but that the concentration in shoots is negligible compared to that ofradium ( 147). In the oceans, a very small amountof thorium is found suspended; the thorium-to-uranium
concentration ratio is only 2 10-a or less (315).
82. No infonnation on the intake of 232Th has beenfound in the literature. Measured levels in rib bone
( 3 79) show a linear increase with age. The averagevalue for an adult population would be about one
femtocurie 3 per gramme of ash, which is about anorder of magnitude less than the levels obtained for
uranium.

e~2"Rn.
77. The decay chain of 235 U. also presented infigure VII, will not be dealt with here because the235
UP 38U activity ratio in nature is less than 5 percent.~ Moreover, the very short half-life of 219 Rn, thegaseous element in the chain, leads to an atmosphericactivity of its decay products which is about 2,000
times less than that of 222Rn (104) .

(iii) Radiuma. Concentrations in the environment
83. Soil. Radium isotopes are normally present inany type of soil at varying levels of radio-active equilibrium with their parents. Since, on the average, 2 3 2Tb
and ~38U have about the same activity concentration(237) the same can be said for 226Ra and 22sRa, thetwo isotopes under consideration. The normal content
of 226 Ra may be slightly increased by the use ofphosphate fertilizers ( 418). The uptake of radium byplant shoots is much higher than that of thorium, leador polonium (14 7), but is low in comparison to cal-(i) Uranium
a. Concentrations in the environment
78. Soil. The typical content of :::asu in the acces~ible lithosphere has been estimated by the Committee
m 1966 to be about 2.8 ppm. In general, igneous rocks
and granites contain hi!ilier concentrations of uranium
than sedimentary rocks~ such as limestone and chalk.
However, some sedimentary rocks of marine ori!!incontain very high concentrations of uranium ( 540) ~2 One gramme of uranium contains 0.33 /LCi of 2asu, assumed to be in equilibrium with 2,'HU, and 0.015 /LCi of 2aou.

3 One

31

femtocurie (fCi) equals 10--15 curie.

activities of 228 Tb and 226Ra in bone ash was found tovary between 0.25 and 0.5 (256, 380, 582) which,assuming radio-active equilibrium between 228 Ra and2 2 sTh in bone, leads to an estimated upper lilnit ofskeletal burden of 20 picocuries of 22 BRa in normal
areas.
ii. Areas of high external-radiation
backgroundcium (328). An exception to that _rule is constitu~edby the Brazil-nut tree (Ber.tholletz~ excelsa) w~1ch
accumulates radium, along with banu~, preferentiallyto calcium in some tissues of the fruit ( 494, 540),
although the soil on which it has been observed to
grow does not have an elevated content of radium.

84. Air. The natural background concentration isconstituted by the airborne particulate matter pickedup from the earth. In city air ( 222), it can be estimated at around seven attocuries 4 per cubic metre,
if it is assumed that uranium and radium have the sameactivity in the atmosphere. Fossil-fuelled power plants
release very small amounts of radium, which may be
detectable in the air around those installations ( 404).
The maximum activity of 226 Ra dispersed each yearby the combustion of coal has been estimated at
150 curies (291).

89. People living on food-stuffs grown in areas ofhigh natural radio-activity have daily intakes well above
normal values but indications on their body burdens
are very limited. The Indian population along the Kerala
coast, including the monazite-bearing high-radiation belt,
has an estimated per caput intake of 228Ra of 162
pCi d-1 ( 424); the corresponding figure for 226 Ra is
only 2.85 pCi d-1 ( 110). The analysis of a femur
bone yielded a 226Ra concentration of 143 fCi(g ash)-1 •85. Ocean water. In ocean surface water, the 2 ~0Ra
content is low and relatively constant, with a value ofabout 0.05 pCi 1-1 (83, 597). It is primarily suppliedby diffusion from 230 Tu-bearing deep-sea sediments( 83). Similarly, 22 BRa diffuses from 232 Th sediments
and is relatively abundant in waters in contact withterrigenous sediments ( 434) but even there it is ina lower concentration than 226Ra.

90. In Brazil, a survey in the Araxa-Tapira region(495) showed that, out of a population of 1,670 people living in or around the radio-active anomalies of
Barreiro and Tapira, only 196 individuals are ingestingalpha emitters at a level five times or more than that ofa similar group living in Rio de Janeiro. Their intakeof radium ranged from 60 to 240 pCi d-1 of 2~8Ra and
10 to 40 pCi d-1 of 226 Ra. The mean concentration of226
Ra in ashed teeth of the population living in thatarea is 85 fCi g-1 ( 496); as the level of 226 Ra in teeth
is approximately equal to that in bone (375), the result
leads to an estimated skeletal burden of 230 picocuries.
91. In Guarapari, body burdens of 208 TI, a decay
product of 228Ra, are of the order of 10 nanocuries(132). Since the levels in food are normal and the
2 ~0 Rn concentrations in breath are elevated, this highburden probably results from inhalation of fine dust
particles containing the precursors of 220 Rn.

86. Fresh water. In fresh waters, the 226Ra content
is highly variable, typical figures ranging from 0.01 to
1 pCi 1-1 (26, 139, 433). The highest concentrations,
ranging up to 100 pCi 1-1 , are found in mineral waters(139, 245, 508). Those drinking-water supplies drawn
from surface waters do not in general contain significant amounts of radium. Flocculation and watersoftening processes remove the bulk of the radium
activity from water.
b. Transfer to man

i. Areas of normal
backgroundexternal-radiationc. Dose rates

92. The fraction of radon retained by the variousorgans of the body after decay of radium has to be taken
into account when computing the doses. The half-lifeof 220Rn is sufficiently short so that most of it decays
where it is produced; however, some is detectable inthe breath. In the case of 222Rn, the Committee adopted,
in its 1966 report, an average skeleton retention factorof 0.33, but it has been shown that this factor is notconstant at all sites (507). In soft tissues, a conservative assumption is that the ~2 ~Rn retention is the sameas in bone (577). The annual alpha doses from 2 ~6Ra
and 22 sRa and their daughters, as calculated by themethod of Spiers ( 577), are presented in table 9.

87. The average daily intake of 226 Ra in areas ofnormal radiation background has been found to beabout 1 pCi (gCa)-1 in the United States, in the United
Kingdom, in Argentina, in India, in the USSR, andin France (table 10). In the Soviet Union, a study
conducted in one of the cities of Central Asia showeda high 2 " 6Ra intake of 17 pCi (gCa)-1 explained partly
by unusually high levels of 226 Ra in water and inbread (676). Individual intakes are increased whenfood items which have high concentration factors are
consumed; levels of 226 Ra and 228 Ra in Brazil nuts
may reach several thousands of picocuries per kilogramme ( 494) while Pacific salmon, which is eaten
in large quantities by Eskimos and North American
Indians, contain about 20 pCi kg-1 of 2 ~ 6Ra (293). The
22 8Ra daily intake is not well known but the few existing measurements (table 10) seem to indicate that it
is more than half of that of ~20Ra.

(iv) Radon-222, Radon-220, and their shortlived decay productsa. Concentrations in the environment
i. Outdoor ground-level air

88. About 80-85 per cent of radium is contained in
the skeleton, the remaining fraction being distributed
approximately uniformly in soft tissues. World-wide
variations in ~~ 6 Ra skeletal burdens in areas of normal
rate of intake are not large and show a spread between
4 and 40 fCi (g ash)-1 in different localities (table 11)
with an arithmetic average of 14 fCi (g ash)- 1 or about
40 picocuries per skeleton. The average ratio between

93. 22~Rn, 2 ~0Rn and their short-lived decay products constitute the main part of the radio-activity ofground-level air. The continents are the principal sourceof 2 ~2Rn and :: 20Rn. as the ratio of the emanation ratefrom the continents and from the oceans is about 500
for .2 2 2Rn ( 82, 485), and probably much higher for
220 Rn. The diurnal variation of the atmospheric 222 Rnconcentration near the ground is inversely related tothe coefficient of vertical turbulent mixing (398). Con-

4 One attocurie (aCi) equals 10-1s curie.

32.

sequently, the typical diurnal 222Rn concentration curvebas a maximum in the early morning hours and aminimum in the afternoon (25. 179. 485. 548. 549).
The ratio of the maximum to the minimum values ishighest in the summer (10 or more) and lowest in thewinter (549).
94. The short-lived decay products ( 21 BPo, 214Pb,
2HBi 21-1po) are never strictly in equilibrium with
22~R~ in surface air because of losses by deposition on
the ground and on other obstacles and/ or because of
rapid diffusion of "2~Rn (73, 179). The activity ratiowith 222 Rn is, in most ca~es, in the range 0.9-1.0 for
21spo and 0.4-1.0 for 214 P0 and 214 Bi, the lowest ratio
occurring in the evenings and during the first half ofthe night, depending on the local stability conditions in
the lower atmosphere. Equilibrium is most closely approached in the morning (179, 3 9 8) .
95. On a seasonal basis, variations of 222 Rn in the
air above the continents depend not only upon atmospheric thermal stability (362, 397), but also upon thevariation of the rate of emanation from soils ( 125,406) and upon local meteorological conditions anddistance from coast ( 442). The average annual values
from different parts of the world ( table 12) show thehigh variability of the 222 Rn concentrations.
96. 220Rn (thoron) and its daughters behave in theatmosphere in the same way as 22 ~Rn and its decay
products. However, their radio-active half-lives are very
different and the emanation rate of 220 Rn from soils is
the main factor controlling 220 Rn concentrations inground-level air. In recent years, the 220Rn-emanation
rate from soils has been directly measured by several
workers (129, 212, 277, 588). Their results are in therange 2.5-14.0 fCi cm-2 s-1 , which is consistent with
Junge's estimated value of 5.6 fCi cm-2 s-1 based on
the world-wide abundance of 232 Tb (301). Atmospheric 220Rn comes from the top six-centimetre layerof soil (588), and the exhalation is very sensitive tothe soil moisture (212, 277, 588). It is much reduced
if the soil is frozen and negligible if the soil is covered
with snow. In dry weather the rate of emanation ishighest at sunset, when convective streams develop in
the soil due to the rapid cooling of its surface, andlowest at sunrise (212, 588).
97. In normal emanation conditions, the 220 Rn concentrations one metre above ground level are of thesame order as those of 222Rn (0.04-0.4 pCi 1-1) (179,276). The distance covered by a 220Rn atom between
the point where it emanates from the ground and thepoint where it disintegrates being less than a kilometre( 212), ~20Rn levels are determined by the local sourceand by the degree of stability of the lower layers of
the atmosphere. The diurnal variation, as measured
by Israel (275), exhibits a primary peak in the evening
and a secondary one in the early morning. Because of
the long half-life of mpb, the daughter products of
220Rn, :mpo excepted. are in much lower concentrations (by a factor of 10 to 100) than 220 Rn nearground level (179, 5 64).

ii. Indoor levels. 98. The air concentration of 222 Rn and its daughters
mdoors depends upon the concentration in outside air,upon the 222 Rn emanation rate from the walls, andupon the ventilation rate in the room. Table 13 shows
the results of measurements carried out in various countries.
33

99. ~! 2~Rn concentrations are usually higher indoors
than outdoors; they are expected to be close to thevalues found outside if the rooms are efficiently ventilated. as in air-conditioned buildin2.s. or if the emanation rate fro.m the walls and the floor is low, as may
be the case m wooden houses. High concentrations arefound in rooms with very poor ventilation. for example
in some basements, where the ~2~Rn level will be proportional to the emanation rate from the walls, which
in turn varies according to such parameters as theorigin, nature, and porosity of the building material,
and the type of paint or covering layer ( 649, 680).
Between those extremes, avernge concentrations several
times higher than those recorded outside are observedin naturally-ventilated brick. aggregate. or concretebuildings, the measured levels being sensitive to theactual degree cf ventilation, which is connected to theindividual habits of the inhnbilants, and to the emanation rate from the walls (227, 498).
100. ':fhe degr:ee of rguilibrium of the 222 Rn decay
products mdoors 1s expr::ted to be ruled by the ventilation rate, the equilitrium t~ing nearly reached in rooms
with poor ventilatioI', and highly perturbed in efficiently
ventilated buildings. In naturally-ventilated rooms theequilibrium conditions rhould be about the sam'e asoutside (555).
101. Indoor concentrations of 220Rn and of its decay
products are net likely to be higher than outdoors as
papering er painting the walls prevents significant
releases of 220 Rn on account of its short half-life. However, high concentrations have been observed in houses
in monazite sand regions of Brazil ( 492).
iii. Water

102. Well away from the air-sea and sediment-sea
interfaces, the activity concentration of 222Rn in oceans
is equal to that of its parent, 2~6Ra. Even though its
emanation rate is small, 222 Rn is not in equilibriumwith 226Ra near the surface. Its mean concentration at
a depth of one metre is around 0.02 pCi 1-1 ( 81, 84).
In fresh waters 222 Rn levels do not show any relation
with the :.!~ 6Ra levels. Their concentrations range fromless than 1 pCi 1-1 in some surface waters to more than
5 105 pCi 1-1 in certain spa waters ( 111). A few nanocuries per litre seems to be a typical activity concentration for ground water (302, 571, 638). Boiling willremove most of the 222 Rn from water.
b. Transfer to man and doses
i. Inhalation

103. The radiation dose to the respiratory tract due
to inhalation of 220 Rn and 22 ~Rn is negligibly small
compared with that due to inhalation of their decay
products. which deposit and build up in the respiratory
system. The 222 Rn daughters are believed to be responsible for the greater rate of lung cancer among
the underground uranium miners than among the general population ( 169). Since the observed lung cancers appear to arise primarily in the bronchi near thehilus of the lung, most authors concerned with thedosimetric aspect of the inhalaticn of radon daughtersassume the relevant biological target to be the basal-celllayer of the bronchial tree and take into account a detailed structure of the deposition pattern along the
respiratory tract. In order to calculate the dose received
by the different parts of the respiratory system, the fol-lowine: factors have to be assessed: (a) the relative distribution of daughter products inhaled as '·free" ions or
atoms. or attached to aerosol particles of various sizes;( b) the pattern of deposition in the respiratory systemand of translocation before decay; and ( c) the distribution in the mucous layer and the thickness of the epithelial tissue separating the alpha particles emitted fromtheir biological target.

t - - - Region 1 - - -

g 0.8

·~
u. 0.6

l
C
0

0.4

o 0.2

( 1) Size distribution

104. Radon decay products attach quickly to theaerosol particles present in the atmosphere, forming aradio-active aerosol. The unattached and the attacheddecay products form two very distinct groups on account of their marked difference in geometric size.
105. The attached 222 Rn daughters have a particlesize distribution which depends on the size distributionof the stable aerosols, as the attachment of daughters
to particles seems to be related to the surface area of
the aerosol particles (514, 626). Among the experimental data available on the distribution of naturalradio-activity on aerosol particles ( 432. 572. 587),
those of Mohnen and Stierstadt (432) are representative of the average. According to them, the mean valueof the radius of the carder aerosol is 25 nanometreswith a 6-200 nanometre rane:e at a concentration of
3 10 4 particles per cubic centimetre (226).
106. The unattached 222 Rn-daughter .products
which, at their formation, are ],wavy metal ,ons, arelikely to form molecule clusters with water, oxygen, or
carbon dioxide (301 ). From their observed diffusion
coefficient (D = 0.05 cm 2 s-1 ) it can be inferred (514)that their effective radius is 0.4 nanometre, which iswell below the size of the aerosols carrying the attacheddaughter products. The only measurements of the fraction of unattached ~18 Po in open air are those of
Duggan and Howell (148) who found a range from
7 to 40 per cent with a mean value of 25 per cent. These
results agree rather well with theoretical expectations(226. 301, 514).
107. There is no indication that the fraction of
unattached 218Po is consistently higher or lower indoors
than outdoors (148). As for 214 Pb and 214Bi, the unattached fraction is 2 per cent at best. as recent measurements show that there is practically no net removal of
attached !! 18Po from the aerosol ( 23 8) . In the 220 Rnseries. the fraction of unattached 21 :!Pb has been foundto be about 2 per cent (239) and the size distributionof the 212 Pb-carrier aerosol. compared with 2 HPb, isslightly shifted toward larger particle sizes (282. 526).

Figure IX. Deposition probabilities for particles from nearlymolecular dimensions to those in the visible range. The two
respiratory divisions, URT and LRT. denote upper and lower
respiratory tracts, respectively; URT is equivalent to thesupraglottic airways, whereas LRT is the tracheo-bronchial
tree and parenchyma ( 436). The aerosol carriers of radon
daughters are found in region I; region 2 is the zone ofindustrial aerosols

tract has to be evaluated and more elaborate models
than the one put forth by the ICRP Task Group onlung dynamics (268) have to be used. Landahl's
model (350) was used by Jacobi (282) and by Altshuler et al. (14) in their extensive studies of the doseto the human respiratory tract from the inhalation ofshort-lived 222 Rn decay products. Improvements onthese studies were achieved recently (226, 238): using
Weibel's dichotomous lung model (644) (table 14),the depositions in the various parts of the lung wereinferred from the equations of Gormley and Kennedy( 206). In the range of aerosol sizes considered, thecalculations show that the bigger the particle, the less
it is deposited in the tracheo-broncbial tree and thelower is the total deposition (238).

110. The use of Gormley and Kennedy's equations
implies that the airways are tubes of constant crosssection and that the flow is laminar. In fact, airway
diameters are a function of the degree of lung inflation,vary in size from one subject to another, and may not
be circular at all (367). As for the assumption of alaminar flow, experiments made with the help of aplastic model of the upper bronchial tree show that
turbulent mixing occurs in the trachea and larger
bronchi, resulting in a higher deposition probability
and in high local deposition values around the branchings (283).
111. Moreover, total respiratory deposition ofradon daughters measured in subjects breathing normal
laboratory air was found to range from 25 to 45 percent ( 190), which is lower than the value of about 70
per cent predicted by the TCRP Task Group on lungdynamics (268). This discrepancy has been partly
explained by a rapid growth of the attached decay
products in the respiratory tract due to the high humidity present. This effect, which has been found toincrease the size of the small particles (up to 60 nm
in diameter) by a factor of two. has not been taken
into account in the regional deposition studies. The
tidal volume also has an influence on the totaldeposition value, whereas the respiratory frequency
does not ( 190).

(2) Lung deposition and clearance

108. Figure IX taken from Morrow (436) represents average deposition probabilities as a function ofsize for a man breathing normally under sedentary
conditions. The deposition probabilities for the submicronic size range are theoretical. Experimentally.
George and Breslin ( 190) found that the averagevalues of nasal deposition of unattached and attacheddaughters are 62 per cent and 2 per cent, respectively.
Those values agree very well with the theoretical curveand show that the contribution of the unattached 218 Po
to lung dose is less than what was previously thought(14, 282).
~

112. The rapid clearance mechanism of the deposited aerosols in tl1e tracheo-bronchial tree is due tothe movement of the mucous sheath. Studies of transit
times have established that daughters deposited in eachregion are carried by the mucus, eventually to disinte-

109. Since alpha particles are the main contributor
to the dose, regional deposition in the lower respiratory34

orate at a site nearer to the mouth. However, in termi~al bronchioles. the mucus transit time is so long thatthe decay products are assumed to disintegrate at thedeposition site.
113. Because of the Ion~ half-lives of ~~ 0Rn daughters lung clearance mechanisms will play an importantrole'. More than 90 per cent of the ~12Pb atoms deposited in the bronchial tree are eliminated by swalJowinrr before their decay ( 436). Those deposited in
the pulmonary region are transferred to the blood witha biological half-life of around I O hours ( 71. 257,
282) which means that about half of the potential
decay energy of 112 Pb is expended outside the lung,whereas the corresponding figure for 214Pb is only 4
per cent. In the blood, about one half of the 2 12Pb
atoms are fixed by the circulating red cells and theother half distributed to other tissues (258).
(3) Distance to the biological target
114. The dose rate to the basal cells of the epithelial
tissue depends on the distribution of the daughter products in the mucous layer and on the thickness of theepithelial tissue. The alpha-stopping power in tissue.
as inferred from measurements of attenuation in polycarbonate or in gas mixtures, shows a remarkableagreement with the theoretical stopping powers andcan be considered to be precisely known (238).
115. The distribution of 2 ~2 Rn daughters within the
mucous layer of rabbits and dogs has been recently
determined ( 669). For rabbit trachea the mucous
thickness was 10 micrometres. In the dog trachea andbronchus, 30 per cent of the total 2 HPo activity was
found in the first two micrometres of mucus. Activity
was estimated to extend throughout the layer with no
cut-off point below the surface. Although these data
may not strictly apply to the human respiratory tract,they suggest that most of the activity may stay in the
top half of the mucous layer. the total thickness ofwhich is about 14 micrometres in man (14).
116. The measured thicknesses of the epithelial
bronchial tissues of a single adult man were found tovary considerably in each class of bronchus. In segmental bronchi, an exceptionally low value of thickness
was 29 micrometres and the median thickness 56
micrometres. Assuming a distance of 7 micrometresfrom the basal cell nuclei to the basement membrane,
the radon daughter products present in the segmental
bronchi are on the average about 60 micrometres awayfrom the basal cell nuclei but may be as close as 22
micrometres if the tissue is exceptionally thin. These
dimensions are to be compared with the alpha-particle
ranges of :!1 8Po and ~14Po, which are 47 and 71 micrometres, respectively.
(4) Doses~~ 1 Rn daughters is 60 micrometres, the annual radiation
doses. calculated as the sum of the doses received in
the living accommodation and at the working site, arein the range 55-195 mrad y-1 , but they might be as highas 52~ or as low as 2 mrad y-1 if that distance is 45 or
70 micrometres. Therefore. wide variations will occur
locally because of the variability in the thickness ofthe bronchial epithelium and also because of the nonunif?rm deposition pattern of the radon daughters,
but 1t cannot be stated whether those variations affectthe over-all hazard to the trachea-bronchial tree as
the highest local dose rates are cf the order of 1
y-1
only. It should be noted that the annual dose averaoed
over the mass of the tracheo-bronchial tree is ab~ut
15 millirads.

rad118. The dose rate to the alveolar region is of theorder of 5 mrad y- 1 : it is avera2ed over the mass of thealveolar tissue as the thickness of the walls of thealveoli and the diameter of the blood capillaries are
s!Uall compared to the range of the alpha particles cons1de~ed. The doses to organs and tissues outside therespiratory system, presented in table 16. have beenmeasured in guinea-pigs ( 511); as the ventilation volume and the weight of blood are almost the same for
1:1an and for. guinea-pig when divided by their respective body weight ( 510). the results are an estimate ofthe doses in man. The doses to all organs and tissues
are much lower than the dose to the alveoli.
119. The doses received from inhalation of 220Rn
and its decay products are much lower than those due
to 222 Rn daughters and have been the object of lessattention. As in the case of 2 ~2Rn. the h12hest dosedelivered is that to the segmental bronchi. b~t the doseto the . alveoli is less by only a factor
five (282).
Assummg that the mean indoors ccncentration of 21 2Pb
and 212 Bi is 3 fCi 1-1 , the avera2e dcse rate to thebasal-cell nuclei of the segmental bronchi is calculated
as 4 mrad y- 1 while the dose rate to the alveolar tissue
i~ 0.8 mrad y-1 • The doses to tbe other organs andt1ssue.s, as. estimated from experiments on guinea-pigs,
are given m table 16 (510).

ofii. Ingestion

120. As mentioned by the Committee in its 1966
report. the ingestion of one microcurie of 22 2Rn dissolved in water leads to a dose to the stomach of about
20 millirads. the doses to the other organs being
lower by at least an order of magnitude. Assuming a
consumption of 0.3 1 d-1 of fresh water containing
1 nCi 1-1 , the annual dose to the stomach is about 2
millirads. Another, but much lower, source of ~2 ~Rn is
milk, which in Sweden was found to contain about 40
times less 221 Rn than drinking water (364, 389).
(v) Radon-222 long-lived decay products

117. The models predict that the basal-cell nuclei

a. uopb and 210Po in the environment

which receive the highest dose in the trachea-bronchial
tree are those of the segmental bronchi, which is theregion of known cancer incidence among uranium
miners. Table 15 presents calculated (226) dose rates
to the basal-cell layer of that area for various environments as a function of the distance from the basal
cells to the 222 Rn daughters present in the mucous
layer. The values correspond to mouth breathing withan inhalation rate of 10.4 1 min-1 in the living accom!llodation and 20.8 1 min-1 at the working site. Assummg that the average distance from the basal cells to the121. The main source of 210 Pb and its decay product 210 Po in the atmosphere is 22 ~Rn which emanatesfrom the ground. The average concentration of 210 Pb in
ground-level air at a given locality depends on the
2 2~ Rn-emanation rate at that point and on the global
pattern of air circulation. The observed concentrations
are higher above the continents and in the northern
middle latitudes, where the proportion of the land
surfaces from which 222 Rn emanates is 11:reater than in
the other latitude bands. For some locations, 210Pb

35

Table 1 7 shows the values of the daily dietary intake
in some countries. In the so-called western-type dietcharacterized by a high consumption of milk, the 210Pb
content is in the range 1-10 pCi d-1 , bread, meat, andvegetables contributing about the same amount. In
that type of diet, the 210Po/ 210 Pb ratio is about one(200, 24 7). An intake of 5 pCi d-1 leads to 0.4 and0.3 picocurie of 210 Pb and 210 Po reaching the blood
per day, assuming a gastro-intestinal fractional uptakeof 0.08 and 0.06, respectively (266).
125. The 210 Po/210 Pb ratio may be much greaterthan one in animal muscle and in sea food (35, 318,
320, 553), and people whose diet consists mainly ofmeat or fish are expected to ingest relatively large
amounts of 210 Po. The high 210 Po dietary intake of theLapps is due to the special lichen-reindeer-man foodchain, 210 Po accumulating in lichens and in reindeer
meat. The average intake of 210 Po by Lapps is moretha~ an order of magnitude higher than by "nonarctic" populations, while the intake of 21opb is higher
by only a factor of about two or three (317). In Japan,
the consumption of sea food accounting for 12 pCi d-1of the 210 Pb daily intake it is likely that the mpo
dietary intake is also mu;h higher than that of 210pb,

levels exhibit a seasonal variation with maximum
values in winter explained either by the occurrenceof long periods of stable air masses (298. 299) orby other climatological factors (557). The 210 Pb/"~ 2Rn
activity concentration ratios found at a site in theSoviet Union (25) are fairly constant and lie in therange 0.5 J0- 4 -1 10-4 • The average values of this ratio
for ~other locations vary from 0.2 10-4 to 2.5 104( 484). The 210Po/210 Pb activity concentration ratios
in ground-level air usually range from 0.05 to 0.30
but ratios greater than unity are found in industrial
regions ( 487), which implies that a significant amountof 210Po is released from coal burning. It is estimated( 487) that in the latitude zone between 40° N and
60° N, the quantity of "artificial" 210Po is about 10 to20 per cent of that arising naturally. Karol ( 312)
calculated that the total contents of 210Pb and 210 Po
in the atmosphere are from 20 to 26 and from 2.4 to
5.7 kilocuries, respectively. There is no thorough studyof the average size of the aerosols to which 210 Pb and
210 Po are attached. This size has been reported to beintermediate between that of short-lived :!~ 2Rn daughters and that of long-lived fission products (371).
Skewed distributions have been found with 120 and
160 nanometres as geometric mean diameters (559).
122. The annual rain deposition rate of 210 Pb,
measured in the United Kingdom ( 4 89), in India(299), and in New Zealand (447), is on the averageof 3 mCi Ian-2, which implies an activity of about
80 mCi 1an-2 in the upper layers of the soil underequilibrium conditions. The levels of 210 Pb in rainwater
are of the order of 1-5 pCi 1-1 (289, 489) while thoseof 210Po are 5 to 10 times less (96, 399). The mean
residence time of 210 Pb in the troposphere, calculated
from the 210 PoP 10Pb-activity-concentration ratio under
the assumption that there is no shmificant ground-levelsource of 210 Po has been found to be of the order of
10 days (181). In surface waters, the 210Pb concentrations are lower by a factor of 10 to 100 than thoseusually found in rainwater; however, concentrations in
222
Rn-rich waters such as mineral waters or some well
waters may reach the levels found in rainwater (288571 ).

iii. Distribution in man
126. The activity concentration of 2iopb and 21opo
in body tissues depends mainly upon the direct intakeof those elements. The contribution from other sources
such as decay of 226 Ra in the skeleton, decay of at~mo:;;pheric 222 Rn dissolved in the body fluids, anddecay of inhaled short-lived daucrhtersof 222 Rn is rela0
tively unimportant (249).
127. The major fraction of 210Pb in man is foundin bone which contains 70 per cent or more of the bodyburden (289, 326). In the temperate zone of thenorthern hemi~phere, the 210Pb concentration in wetbone is about 40 pCi kg-1 (289). In soft tissues, thehighest average concentrations, typically between 5
and 10 pCi kg-1, are found in liver, bladder and gonads(29, 57). An exception is constituted by hair, which,during its period of growth, concentrates ~1opb inamounts higher than bone. It has been suggested that
determination of 210 Pb in the hair may be used toassess the integral exposure to this nuclide over theprevious month in case of occupational poisoning'b. Intake by man
i. Inhalation
123. The averaire concentrations of 210Pb and 210poin ground-level air in the northern middle latitudes arearound 15 and 1.5 fCi m- 3 , respectively. Assuming an
intake of 20 cubic metres of air in 24 hours, 0.3 picocurie of 210Pb and 0.03 picocurie of nopo are thus
inhaled every day. Using a coefficient of transfer to theblood of 0.30 ( 437), the amounts of 21 opb and :.!lDPoreaching the blood are less than 0.1 pCi d-1. An additional intake may result from cigarette smoking: (171,250). Both 210 Pb and :.!iopo are present in cigarettesmoke, 210 Po beill!! more abundant because of its
higher volatility. Smoking 20 cigarettes a day leads toa daily intake of 0.3-0.8 picocurie of ~10 Pb and 0.4-1.4
picocuries of 210 Po, corresponding to amounts reaching the blood of 0.2 and 0.3 pCi d-1 if the same Hansfer coefficient as above is used. However, it should be
remembered that the conditions of inhalation andpossibly the particle-size distributions are very different
from those in normal respiration.

(288, 290).
128. The 210 Po/2 10Pb activity ratio is close to unity

in bone and it is likely that both the amount of 210Po
taken up from external sources and that fraction whichdeca)'.s from 210Pb and 210 Bi have a long biologicalhalf-Jrfe in bone compared with the physical half-life( 457). In some soft tissues such as the bladder. the
210 Po/ 210Pb acfrvity ratio is lower than one. whereas
it is greater than cne in others, for example the lung,the liver and the kidney (29, 57). The reason for theexcess of ::: 10Po in those tissues is not clear; it has beensuggested (24 7) that the uptake and the metabolic
behaviour cf polonium might be related to the chcmic:--1 form in which the dietary 210 Po occurs. Because theconcentrations of ::: 10Po in hair. bone tissue and liverof naturally-exposed people show some correlation,
hair monitoring has been proposed as a convenient
way of assessing the 210 Po concentration in bone ( 18).
129. Comparative studies between smokers andnon-smokers (27. 57, 246) show that the concentrations of ::: 10Pb and ::: 10 Po in the lungs and ribs of ciga-ii. Ingestion~24. For non-smokers, food usually represents themam route of uptake of both :! 10Pb and 210Po by man.

36.

to the bone tissues of the northern temperate latitudes
population (table 9), calculated by the method of Spiers(577), are 4.0 rnillirads for osteocytes, 2.4 rnillirads
for cells lining Haversian canals, 1.6 millirads for cells
lying near the endosteal surfaces in trabecular bone.
and 0.3 millirad fer the whole marrow, if the concentration activity of 210 Po in bone is taken to be 40 pCi
kg-1 (289), In the Jung. the annual average dose is of
the order of 0.5 to 1 millirad but ~10Po has been foundin very high concentrations in the bronchial epitheliumof the segmental bifurcaticns of heavy smokers, implying local doses two orders of magnitude higher than
the average (369).

rette smokers are about two or three times higher thanin non-smokers. In the soft tissues other than lung, thecontribution of cigarette smoke to the 210Pb and 210 Po
content is less important ( 28).
130. Hi2:h concentrations of 210 Pb and especiallyof !?lOPo are to be expected in tissues of arctic populations consuming reindeer or caribou m~at. The values
observed in samples from Alaskan residents who had
not eaten any caribou meat are within the normal
ranoe of values reported for unexposed populations
while the soft tissue concentrations of 210 Po and the~1op 0 p1opb activity ratio were found to increase with
consumption of caribou meat ( 58). However. none of
the individuals studied consumed caribou meat daily.
The distribution of 210 Pb and 210 Po in the tissues ofsuch a person, which would be very valuable, has notbeen measured yet owing to the difficulty of obtaining
autopsy tissue samples. However, analyses of teeth ofLapps who breed reindeer showed 210 Pb and ~10Po
concentrations about twice those of southern Finns,
who are representative of a non-arctic western population. In blood and placenta, 210 Pb and :nopo are 2
and 12 times higher, respectively, in the former thanin the latter population (317). It has been assumed
that the polonium concentration in gonads would also
be 12 times higher in Lapps than in southern Finns.

B.

EXTERNAL IRRADL\TION

132. When present in the top few centimetres ofthe earth, nuclides of the natural radio-active series,
together with 1 °K (relative abundance 0.01 per cent),
give .rise to gamma radiation near the earth's surface.
The doses from this radiation are lowest on the surfaces of oceans or Jakes. The concentration of thesenatural radio-nuclides varies greatly between different
types of rocks and soils, being highest in igneous rocks
such as granite and lowest in sedimentary rocks, suchas limestone and sandstone (563, 616). These radionuclides can also give rise to external radiation doses
to man when present in the materials used to construct buildings and to pave roadways. The gamma
radiation above the ground can be affected by the
moisture content of the soil and, in particular, bysnow cover. The effect of snow cover in reducing thenatural radiation is illustrated in figure X, which showsthe external gamma radiation measured at two sites
in Sweden between 1960 and 1971.

iv. Doses

131. The radiation dose absorbed by the body tissues from the 210 Pb chain depends mainly on the highly
energetic alpha particles of 210 Po. At equilibrium, thecontribution from the beta emission of 210 Pb and 210Bi
is only 7.5 per cent of that from 210Po and will be
neglected here. Because 210 Po concentrations in the
gonads are higher than once believed, the corresponding dose rates may be higher by a factor of two thanthose estimated by tbe Committee in its 1966 report.
Lapps might receive an annual genetic dose of 8.5
millirads from this source (317). The annual doses

133. The dose rate in air from gamma radiation
has been determined using both gamma-ray spectroscopy and ionization chamber measurements. In thelatter case, it is necessary to subtract the cosmic-ray
contribution to obtain the external gamma dose. The

pR h·1 Erken

15
snaw
,=mJ

10

cover

5

0

10

5

,\

f,

0 ~,~9s~o~~~~~~~,9~s~24~,9~s3~~~~~~~+-~,9~s~s~.~,~9~66~~,~9s~1~~1~9s~s~~,~9~~r.,~9~10~~,~9n~~oj'i!..4->

Figure X. External exposure rates at 2.5 metres above ground and monthly averagesof the snow cover in Sweden (390, 596)
Total external exposure
Exposure level summer 1960 and 1961
Average exposure from cosmic rays
Snow cover (scale on the right)

37

resulting gamma dose rate includes a contribution fro~radon tboron and their daughter products present m
the ai'r estimated to be from 2 to 3 mrad y-- 1 (563,615).
134. The dose rates obtained from recent surveys
carried out in 12 countries are summarized in table 18,
where the results of measurements made both indoors
and outdoors are shown. Although individual measurements cover a range up to 400 mrad y-1 , the averagefor the different regions of normal background aremuch more closely grouped. The average indoor andoutdoor dose rates for the three country-wide surveys
reported in table 18 show that a representative value
would be about 60 mracl y- 1 •135. In the United States survey (37), 90 per centof the populated areas bad annual doses ranging between 30 and 95 millirads. The results of this survey
also showed that 4°K, the ~38 U series and ~32 Th series
contributed 17, 13 and 25 millirads, respectively, tothe average annual dose of 55 millirads.
136. In the United States, the German Democratic
Republic and Italy, average dose rates indoors werelower than outside. while in the United Kingdom andthe Federal Republic of Germany they were higher
indoors. In most other countries, there was little difference in the average indoor and outdoor dose rate. The
shielding offered by building structures is o[ten offset
by radiation due to natural radio-nuclides present in
the building material. In New England, where homes
are of wood construction. Lowder et al. (3 78) foundthat typical radiation levels were about 70 per centof those outside, while in brick houses in Edinburgh,
U.K., Spiers (579) found that dose rates were higher
indoors.
13 7. At certain sites, the terrestrial gamma dose
rate is very low. Thus Beck et al. (39) have reported
measurements over lakes and reservoirs in the UnitedStates where the dose rate was Jess than 4 mrad y-1,
while Liboff and Shamos (360) reported levels as low
as 0.4 mrad y-1 in certain mines in the United States
and Canada.
138. There are also several areas of the world wherehigh concentrations of thorium and uranium occur inthe surface layers of the earth and result in greatly
enhanced gamma dose rates. In the coastal regions of
the Indian state of Kerala, there are patches of sandcontaining monazite, a mineral which may contain highconcentrations of thorium and uranium. This mineralalso occurs in some coastal areas of Brazil, as well as
in China and the United States ( 5 63).

141. In the towns of Guarapari and Meaipe. on
the Brazilian coast, it was estimated that some 20,000
inhabitants are exposed to levels of external radiationfrom monazite sands that vary from 0.2 to 8 rad y-1( 493). By issuing 317 inhabitants of Guarapari withthermoluminescent dosemeters for three months, Cullen( 131 ) determined the average dose rate of the group
as 0.55 rad y-1 with a range of 0.09 to 2.8 rad y-1 •Penna-Franca et al. ( 493) also measured externalradiation dose rates on a hill near the city of Pocosde Caldas, which presents the highest levels of radiation in the Brazilian volcanic region. The air dose
rates were in the range of 0.43 to 25 rad y-1, withmany sites having rates of 7 rad y-1. However, thishill has a small area and is uninhabited.
142. All the dose rates quoted so far for gamma
radiation are air dose rates. To convert these to dose
rates in tissue, say bone or muscle. they must be multiplied by the ratio of the mass absorption coefficientin tissue to that in air. Johns and Cunningham (295)have tabulated this ratio for both hard bone and muscle.
For 0.5-10-MeV gamma rays, this ratio is in the rangeof 1.07-1.11. In order to compute doses to the boneand gonads we will use the value 1.10 given by the
ICRU for these energies (270).
143. Bennett ( 49) investigated the procedures forconverting air exposure measurements into absorbed
doses to the reproductive organs. He used computed
gamma-ray spectra above the ground for both planeand exponential distributions in soil of 238 U. 232 Tb
and their daughters and of 4 °K and 137Cs. In obtaining
the gonad dose from a uniform exposure around thebody, actual anatomical drawings of body cross-sections
were used to account for shielding by overlying tissue
and bone. The resulting average conversion factor
obtained (gonad/air) was 0.8_2. It sh~uld b~ notedthat this factor already contams the tissue/iur dose
factor of 1.1 mentioned in the last paragraph. Conversion factors calculated by Bennett ( 49) and those
based upon phantom measurements by Jones (297)
are given in table 19 for exposures to gamma rays fromnatural emitters and from 137 Cs. The average conversion factors for testes and ovaries are fairly constantand therefore little error will be involved in applying
a uniform factor of 0.8. From the work of Jones (297)
it appears that the appropriate screening factors ~elating
the absorbed dose in bone marrow to the free alf doseis also 0.8 Since the above factor refers to 21r geometry, itapplicable to gamma-radiation received
outdoors.

is144. Spiers and Overton (578) determined screening factors using a phantom irradiated in 3rr geometry.
They obtained values of 0.63 and 0.64 for the exl?o~ureof gonads and bone marrow to external radrnt10n.
These factors are just screening factors and do ?ot
contain the tissue/air dose-conversion factor. Applyu~gthe tissue/ air dose-conversion factor a value of 0. 7 1s
obtained for the average gonad and bone-marrow dose.
By using this factor of 0.7 for indoor exposure and
0.8 for outdoor exposure and assuming tha~ 7 hours
per day is spent outdoors. an average conversion fact~rof 0. 73 is obtained. The product of the average air
dose rate ( 60 mrad y-1 ) and the average conversion
factor (0.73) gives a value for the gonad and bonemarrow dose rates of 44 mr~.d y-1 . This figure does
not differ significantly from the value of 50 mrad y- 1
previously used by the Committee.

139. Hioh radiation exposures are also to be foundin the reoi~nsof volcanic intrusives in the State of0
Minas Gerais in Brazil ( 493).
140. Gopal-Ayengar et al. (2~4. 205) carried out
a dosimetric survey on a 55-kilometre-l?ng coastal

strip, inhabited by some 70,000 people_, m the stateof Kerala. India. By issuing therrnolurnmescent .d~semeters, which were worn for two months, the radiation
exposures of 8.513 individuals living in 2,374 households were obtained. On the basis of these data. it wasestimated that. of the 70.000 inhabitants of that area.
16,600 received annual doses of more than 0.5 radand that. of these, 4.500 and 470 received more than
one and two rads, respectively.
38

m. Recapitulation of close rates
145. Table 20 summarizes the contribution ofnatural sources to the radiation exposure of humanpopulations. The three tissues considered are the~onads. the bone marrow and the bone-lining cells. For
comparison, table 20 includes the estimates for the
gonads and the bone marrow given in the 1966 report.
146. In addition to the doses included in table 20,
yearly doses in the range 50-200 millirads are received
by the basal epithelial cells of segmental bronchi frominhaled radon daughters. Their actual values are still
uncertain owing to the many assumptions that underlie
the estimates.

tides by condensation and coagulation, in the same way
as with atmospheric explosions. but most of it willcondense on the surface of melted ground particles.
152. The dependence on total yield of the altitude
of both the top and base of the stabilized cloud (themushroom) for surface explosions and atmospheric
explosions below an altitude of three kilometres isshown in figure XI ( 506). The initial vertical distribu-

Part Two. Man-made environmental radiation

I. Nuclear explosions
A. ATMOSPHERIC AND SURFACE EXPLOSIONS

147. More than any other subject, radio-active contamination of the environment by nuclear test explosions
has been a matter of continued interest for the Committee. When the Committee prepared its first comprehensive report in 1958, very little was known about
the movements of artificial radio-activity through thebiosphere and only some of the nuclides released into
the environment by atmospheric and surface explosions
were being monitored and considered worth studying.

o.,,.,.........J..U...___.,_.1.-J....._............___.,__.,__1...1...i..u..u....--..1....1-~o
0.1
10
so

0.03

TOTAL YIELD (megaton~}

Figure XI. "Mushroom cap" cloud top and base as a functionof total yield of device. "Equatorial" refers to 0-30° latitude;"polar" refers to 30-90° (506)tion of radio-activity within the cloud is shown intable 21 ( 5 06). The total amount of radio-activity
injected into the stratosphere by a surface explosion
is about one half of that from an atmospheric explosionof the same yield.

148. The amount of information available bas
grown over the years, as the pace of atmosphericinjections reached its peak in 1961-1962 and declined
to its current comparatively low levels. The present
review will largely be devoted to an assessment of
current radio-active contamination from all tests, andthe reader is referred to earlier reports for a recordof the situation as it changed with time. However, acertain amount of background information previously
discussed by the Committee is included in this review
so as to make it reasonably self-contained.

153. Although our knowledge of air movement in
the atmosphere is incomplete in certain respects, particularly at high altitudes, some basic features of thismotion are fairly well established. One marked featureof atmospheric circulation is the system of westerly
jet streams situated in mid-latitudes at altitudes ofabout 10 kilometres (figure XII). Velocities of 100-300
kilometres per hour are usual in these regions. In
middle and higher latitudes air is carried around the149. After a description of transport mechanisms
in the atmosphere, which largely summarizes the discussion in the 1964 report, the transport of individual
nuclides in the biosphere and the resulting doses will
be discussed, followed by a review of external radiation from radio-nuclides deposited on the ground andby a summary of the dose commitments arising fromall nuclear tests.

JO

1. Transport of radio-active debris within

the atmosphere150. After an atmospheric explosion, the fission
products and construction material contained withln thefireball are initially present in gaseous form. As thefireball rises and cools, particle formation takes placethrough condensation and coagulation. The resulting
particles are small and consist mainly of material fromthe nuclear device and its carrier.
151. With surface explosions and explosions at suchheights that the fireball touches the ground, large
amounts of fragmented ground material will be incorporated in the fireball and become melted and partly
vaporized. Some of the vaporized material forms par-

900

600

3Q0

No~th•1rn hcmi~phcrc -Wint"'r

QC

JQC

600

SQG

Sou~h:rn h.:mi~phr:nr •$,Jmm~r

Figure XII. Schematic cross-section displaying cbaracteristie;sof meridional transport ("J" locates typical jet stream post·
tions) (614)39

maximum concentration as deduced from data on radioactive debris from the nuclear explosion at 40° N of
17 June 1967:

globe in a week or so .and i~ one to two months intropical regions ( 66). S111ce, m the stratosphere, thesetimes are short compared to transfer times in themeridional and vertical directions, the debris may beconsidered to be zonally well mixed so that, several
months after a test, they will be uniformly distributed
around a circle of latitude ( 66). In the troposphere,
vertical motions are rapid but in the lower stratospherethese vertical motions and hence the associated verticaltransport are much smaller ( 66, 509).

(a) a poleward, essentially horizontal, displacementof most of the air containing the debris by mid-autumn,
accompanied by a warming of the order of 0.2° C
per day;( b) a net descending motion during late autumn
and winter north of about 55° N at a rate of 1-5 kilometres per month with the air cooling by about 1 ° C
per day;(a) Movement within the stratosphere(c) isolated patches of debris remaining near thesource region;(d) quasi-horizontal diffusion imposed on the mean
circulation, smoothing out the gradients and resulting
in a surface of maximum concentration sloping downward from about 20 kilometres at 20° N to 15 kilometres at 60° Nin spring and summer.

154. Observations of radio-active tracers have contributed greatly to the understanding of air movement
within the stratosphere. A schematic representation of
the stratospheric circulation features deduced fromdata on 90Sr. HC. 18"W, 10 ~Rh. 10 °Cd and :::ispu is shownin figure XIII ( 368). Tracer data above about 3 7 kilo---

40,....-.,....---r-.---,---r---.---r-.---r--i~.---.--.----,---.---r--,r--,Km(b) Trans/er to troposphere156. Many mechanisms may play a role in thetransfer of particulate radio-activity from the stratosphere to the troposphere. Thus, heavy particles cansettle through the tropopause but the bulk of the radioactivity in the lower stratosphere is associated withparticles too small for gravitational settling to contribute significantly to the downward transport throughthe tropopause ( 614). The horizontal transport throughthe subtropical tropopause gap makes a considerable( and often determinant) contribution in the air mass
exchange between the stratosphere and the troposphereand the well-known spring maximum concentration of
fall-out in surface air is due to a winter maximum
exchange between lower stratosphere and tropospherethrough the tropopause of temperate and high latitudes(313). Finally, stratospheric radio-activity can be incorporated into the troposphere by diffusive mixing
through folds of the tropopause (133-135).

30

...
"

<

"...

0

<(

0

0

20

z

0

z

.............
10······+l···~~o·-'--'--6~0-.-'--'--J~o·-'--'--'-o·--''-.L-~30-·-'--'--G~o7•~~~9o'
WINTER

157. The concept of stratospheric mean residence
time has been thoroughly discussed in the 1964 reportof the Committee. It is defined as the average timespent by the radio-active debris in the stratosphere
before it is transferred to the troposphere. Such a
definition in no way implies that the material is well
mixed within the stratosphere or that it is held up
during the transfer to the troposphere ( 66).

SUMMER

Figure XIII. Schematic representation of the stratosphericcirculation as deduced from radio-active tracer data (368)metres between 25° and 70° indicate a flow from thesummer hemisphere to the winter hemisphere and amean descending motion in the winter stratosphere.
Ascending motions occur near the equatorial tropopause and poleward motions in the lower winterstratosphere at latitudes higher than 70°. Virtually theentire summer stratosphere and the winter stratosphere
below 25° between 18 and 25 kilometres are dominated by mixing processes with no evidence of organized circulations in the meridional phase.

158. The mean stratospheric residence time ofradio-active debris produced by an explosion will
depend on the explosion's altitude, latitude. and possibly
its time of occurrence. Thus, fission products in lower
polar stratosphere may have a mean residence timeof six months or less, while debris from mediumaltitude explosions has mean residence times of perhaps
two to three years (300). At much higher altitudes( over 100 km) as illustrated by the 10 ~Rh experiment,
the residence time increases to 5 or 10 years (307, 308.
356, 584). The mean residence time for 90 Sr is 1.1-1.2
years (122, 167, 337, 629) and seems to be fairly
constant for all northern latitudes (167). For excess
14
C in the stratosphere the apparent half residence
time is between two and five years ( 605).

155. The level of maximum concentration of radioactive tracer material injected into the stratosphereslopes from higher altitudes over the equator to lower
altitudes and colder potential temperatures near thepole (386). Six to twelve months after the injection
into the lower stratosphere in equatorial. temperate andpolar latitudes, the configuration of the levels of
maximum concentrations was found to be almost
identical irrespective of the latitude and altitude of
injection and of the vertical distribution of the debris.
Tracers originally injected into the upper stratosphereand aerosphere follow a similar pattern. Machta et al.
(386) suggest the following genesis of the surface of(c) Movement within the troposphere159. Once the radio-active debris enters the troposphere it is mixed fairly rapidly within the hemisphere
40

'
i

'
i

through several mechanisms. Dry removal by sedimentation requires particles to be larcrer than about
five micrometres and is important only hi. local fall-out.
Dry deposition of world-wide fall-out makes an important contribution to the total fall-out only in areasof low rainf aU.

of entry since miidng by eddy diffusion and convection
is much more rapid in the troposphere than in thestratosphere. In the meridional plane there are twocirculation cells within each hemisphere, as shown in
fim.1re XII. The tropical cells are well developed, with
air rising in equatorial regions and descending into
the 20°-30° latitude region. The two cells at higher
latitudes are weaker with descending air at latitudesof 40°-50° and rising air at higher latitudes. At middle
and higher latitudes large-scale eddies give rise to rapid
meridional transport ( 614).

165. Fission products can enter rain-water by processes within the cloud, the so-called rain-out, or canbe picked up by raindrops below the cloud, the socalled wash-out. For aerosols of small particle size
the wash-out is relatively quite slow so that rain-out
is probably the most important wet-deposition process(164, 301). The small contribution of wash-out processes to total deposition probably accounts for thefact that the activity of fission products in ground-levelair does not seem to be greatly influenced by precipitation rates (162, 381, 619).

160. In the troposphere, the exchange of particulate
radio-activity across the meteorological equator isimpeded for two reasons. In the first place the convergence of low-altitude air currents (figure XII) tends
to keep air in the same hemisphere and also retards theexchange of gases. The second reason is the scavenging
of particulates by showery precipitation in the convergent zone ( 614). However, several investigators
have reported interhemispheric transport of troposphericnuclear debris from southern to northern hemisphere(97, 98, 172, 216, 448, 522, 523, 542, 574) and viceversa (115,349,413,651).

2. Internal irradiation(a) Tritium

166. Eriksson (165) estimated that l, 900 megacuries of tritium were released into the atmosphere by
tests up to 1963, most of them into the northernhemisphere. The dose commitment can be calculatedusing the relation,

161. Meridional circulation seems to constitute themain mechanism responsible for this transport. The
mean exchange time between hemispheres, defined as
the mean time spent in the northern hemisphere by amolecule of air before transfer to the southern hemisphere and vice versa, was estimated from various gaseous tracer experiments to be about 1.5 years ( 614).
162. The mean residence time of nuclear debris in
the troposphere is estimated to be about 30 days (96,387, 586). Evidence suggests that particulates residein the lower, rain-bearing, layers of the atmosphere fora period of the order of five days or less (382, 387,
402).
163. A model for predicting the atmospheric content
of radio-active material has been worked out by Krey
and Krajewski (337). The atmosphere of each hemisphere is divided into three compartments, i.e. theatmosphere above 21 kilometres, that below 21 kilometres, and the troposphere. Transfer between compartments follows first-order kinetics and the transfer
constants used are: from above 21 kilometres to thelower stratosphere 0.116 month-1 , from the lower
stratosphere to the troposphere 0.0693 month-1 andfrom the troposphere to ground level 0.693 month-1 •The debris from an injection well above 21 kilometres
is equally partitioned between the hemispheres while
for debris injected into the lower stratosphere there isa dynamic exchange between the hemispheres with atransfer constant of 0.0116 montb-1 • Using this model
Krey and Krajewski (337-339) have calcuiated strato~pheric inventory, surface air concentration and deposition and found good agreement with measurements.

w

Di, (co) = Yo -B

where yo is the dose rate from natural tritium, W is
the amount of artificial tritium released into the atmosphere and B is the amount of natural tritium produced
annually. The dose rate due to natural tritium of
0.6-2.5 µ.rad y-1 results from an annual production of
1.6 megacuries, that is 0.8 megacurie in each hemisphere ( paragraphs 60 and 62). By assuming that all
the bomb-produced tritium remains in the northernhemisphere we obtain an upper limit to the dose commitment. This will be in the range 0.6 10--a (1900/
0.8)
1.4 and 2.5 10-a (1900/0.8)
5.9 millirads.
If it is assumed that there is rapid ( compared with thehalf-life) mixing of tritium between hemispheres, alower limit to the dose commitment is obtained. This isin the range of 0.6 10-a (1900/1.6)
0.7 and 2.5 10-3
(1900/1.6)
3.0 millirads. Since the movement oftritium from one hemisphere to another appears to be
fairly slow the true dose commitment should be closer
to the upper limit. In this report, the values used as dose
commitments to the populations of the northern andof the southern hemisphere are four and one millirads,
respectively.

=

=

=

=

(b) Carbon-14

167. The activity of 14C in the co~ of tropospheric
air of the northern and southern hemispheres is shownin figure XIV, where the 14C concentrations of surface
ocean waters are also shown (464, 518, 614). During
1968-1969, levels in both hemispheres remained fairly
constant at about 60 per cent above normal, the 14C
that moved into the oceans having been replenishedby the nuclear tests in 1968. The activities in surface
ocean waters have risen much less than was expected
and now appear to be decreasing.

( d) Deposition

164. Mechanisms of deposition were discussed insome detail in the Committee's 1964 report. After
entering the troposphere from above, fission products
are transported down to the level of the rain-bearing
clouds mainly by turbulent mixing. This downward
movement is enhanced over anti-cyclonic systems andopposed over cyclonic systems ( 134). Below this level,
the radio-active particles are rapidly washed out by
precipitation and deposited upon the earth (346). In
addition, dry removal of fission products talces place168. This observation may indicate a much more
rapid exchange of 14 C between the surface and deep41

100
TROPOSPHERE
3Qo. eooNoc.goos
71°N240E
2105470E

80

;;j
~

...

1.26

OCEAN SURFACE-o-:;t 60

1.12

~

0

:z
w
>
0

.

-:-

"'

~ 40
t'.l

.98

~

'D

i

V

.84

.70

·10

I
1955

1956

1957

1958

1959

196-0

1961

1962

1963

1964

1966

1966

1967

1968

1969

1970

Figure XIV. Radio-carbon in the troposphere and surface ocean (464, 518, 614)

172. The two main routes of 55 Fe intake by humans
are the terrestrial food chain from plant to animal to
man and the marine food chain from sea-water tofish to man (280, 473). Ocean fish contains a higher
concentration of 55Fe than most other food-stuffs ( 4 73,
656). In man 1i 5Fe concentrates in the red blood cells,
which contain 65 per cent of the body burden (280)although higher concentrations are present in haemosiderin and ferritin-two proteins that store iron (503).
The body burden of many people in different parts of
the world was determined in 1966 and in 1969; mostof the results, which were in the range 20-30 nanocuries
in 1966 (473), dropped to the 1-10 nanocuries range in1969 (352). At Richland, in the United States, thebody burden of 5 r.pe in adults reached a peak level ofabout 20 nanocuries in January 1967, then started todecrease (474, 475).
173. In Alaska (United States) and in Japan.
among people consuming large quantities of fish, bodyburdens higher than 1,000 nanocuries were observedin 1966 ( 473), but in 1969 5 5Fe in Alaskan fish-eating
natives was only 10 times higher than in Richland
residents and its level was declining at a more rapid
rate, reflecting the much higher tum-over rate of ironin the marine biosphere ( 351).
174. A body burden of 30 nanocuries leads toannual doses of 1 millirad to red blood cells, 0.5 millirad to the whole blood, 0.15 millirad to the gonads
and the cells lining bone surfaces, 0.08 millirad to thered bone marrow and 0.06 millirad to the whole body( 503). The dose commitments in the northern hemisphere due to nuclear testing in the period 1954-1962
were estimated by Persson ( 503). Assuming a maximum body burden of 30 nanocuries in the temperate
latitudes, the estimates are 1 millirad to the gonads andbone-lining cells and 0.6 millirad to the bone marrow.
A reduction by a factor of four is assumed for thesouthern hemisphere.

ocean than was originally predicted ( 518). However.
the situation is not simple since the 14C activity ofsurface ocean waters varies considerably with latitude.
The value of the exchange time with the deep ocean
will directly affect that part of the dose commitment
from 14C delivered up to the year 2000, but at thistime there are not enough new data to warrant changing
the estimates made by the Committee in its 1969 report.
169. Fairhall et al. (168) estimated that the total
14 C inventory from atmospheric tests was 6.2 megacuries
compared to a steady state natural inventory of 280
megacuries (paragraph 64 ). Using the dose rates fornatural 14 C from paragraph 67, the dose commitments,
calculated in the same way as for 3H, are 140 millirads
to soft tissue and 170 millirads to endosteal cells.
170. Because of the long half-life of 14 C most of
the dose commitment is delivered over a period of
thousands of years. That part of the dose commitmentthat will be delivered up to the year 2000 can be
estimated from models representing the exchangeof 14 C between the atmosphere. the ocean and thebiosphere (614, 616). The estimates calculated in. thesame way as in the 1969 report are 12 millirads to
the gonads and bone marrow and 15 millirads to cells
lining bone surfaces.
(c) Iron-55

171. Iron-55 is almost exclusively man-made andhas been one of the major contributors to radioactivity in fall-out since the 1961-1962 series of nuclear
tests. This radio-nuclide, which decays by electron
capture into 5"Mn with a half-life of 2.6 years, is mostprobably produced from the stable "4Fe isotope by
thermal neutrons through the lHFe (n, y) nuclear reaction and from the stable 5 °Fe isotope by fast neutrons
through the 5 °Fe (n, 2n) reaction. The total production of 55Fe from tests was estimated as 50 meoacuries (248). Its activity in surface air was monito;edfrom 1964 to 1970 at 22 sites in North and SouthAmerica. Activity fell from about 500 fCi m-a in 1964
to a few femtocuries per cubic metre in 1970 ( 633).

( d) Krypton-85

175. The amount of 8 ~Kr produced by atmosphericnuclear explosions can be estimated at about three42

r----

iI

megacuries from the 00 Sr production ( discussed inparagraphs 178-182) and the s;;Kr/ 00 Sr fission-yieldratio of about 0.06. Since the greatest production
occurred in 1961-1962, radio-active decay has resulted
in about half the total production remaining in theatmosphere in 1970.

the greater solubility of krypton in fat than in water(610, 648). From the biological viewpoint, the doseto the ~on~f s _from externa~ ir:adiation ( 17 nrad y-1
per pC1 nr ) 1s the most s1gmficant and the internal
doses are comparatively negligible.
177. The distribution of 85 Kr bein" almost homogeneous over the surface of the globe "'and throughout
the troposphere ( paragraph 396), the estimated threemegacuries produced by atmospheric tests correspondto a close commitment to the gonads of about 0.2
microrad.

176. Krypton-85 is a beta emitter ( maximum energy
670 ke V). In 0.4 per cent of the disintegrations, italso emits a gamma photon whose energy is 514 ke V.
Table 22 indicates the annual closes received by an
incliviclual inunersed in a cloud of 85 Kr with an activity
concentration of I pCi ni-3. By external irradiation,
beta rays deliver a dose to the skin and to the subcutaneous tissues only, while the gamma radiation is
responsible for whole-body and gonad doses (149. 241).
Internal irradiation also occurs as a result of inhalation;
lung is then the most exposed organ, and fatty tissues
receive higher doses than blood and muscle because of( e) Radio-stro11ti11m(i) Inventory

178. The stratospheric inventory of 00Sr in bothhemispheres increased temporarily after the test~ in
1967, 1968, 1969 and 1970 (figure XV) (340). Apart

10~

Totill S!rato,sphere•Northern Hemisphe'eOSouthern HemispherefY Large Atmospheric Te:Hs in
Ij

Respective Hemisphere0.1

0.01--t---""T""----r----r---~-'--~----'-'--+-----'--r----'-L......i~--~--~
1963

1904

196~

1966

1907

1961

1969

1971

Figure XV. Stratospheric inventory of oosr in the northern and southern hemispheres (341)

hemispheres is shown in figure XVI and the cumulative
deposit for both the northern and southern hemispheres
for the years 1958 through 1970 are shown in figure
XVII . .Measurements of the 89Sr/ 00 Sr ratio in precipitation in the northern hemisphere gave values between
one and nine for most of 1969, indicating that muchof the radio-strontium was due to recent tests (99, 100,228). In 1969 the 00 Sr deposition was about equallydivided between the hemispheres. This is the first timethat the annual fall-out in the southern hemisphere
has been equal to or greater than that in the northernhemisphere ( 631). However, the southern hemisphere
deposition in 1969-1970 was only about half thatrecorded in the years 1962-1965 in spite of the recent
tests there ( 634). It can be seen from tables 23 and 24
that the global cumulative deposit of 00Sr has changed
little over the last few years, the annual deposition

from those peaks, however, there has not been muchchange in the stratospheric inventory of 00 Sr since 1967
( table 23), the level being maintained relatively steadyby the atmospheric nuclear tests carried out during thelast three years. In February 1971 the inventories inthe stratospheres of the northern and southern hemispheres were estimated to be 0.29 and 0.16 megacurie,
respectively, most of this being due to recent tests(340).
179. The annual and cumulative deposition of 00Srin the northern and southern hemispheres are shownin table 24 for the years 1958 through 1970 (634).
The global deposition in 1970 was not much greaterthan in 1967, 1968 and 1969, reflecting a relatively
constant stratospheric inventory. The monthly deposition of 90 Sr in both the northern and the southern43

1

195819591960196119621963 1964 1965 1966 19671968 19691970

Figure XVI. Monthly 90Sr deposition ( 634)

CUMULATIVE90

The annual deposits at each weather station were
estimated by dividing the measured deposit by thefraction of the year for which collections were made.
Neither the annual deposits nor the average annual
concentrations of 90 Sr appear to be significantly different on the weather ships and small islands than on
the land-based stations. As in previous reports of theCommittee, it is assumed that there is no difference
between deposition over the oceans and over land.

s, DEPOSIT

10

o.s

1958

1959

1960

1961 I 1962

1963

196,1 I 196S

1966

1967

1968

1969

182. In table 26 are shown the latitudinal distribution of the world's population and of the fall-out of90
Sr and of 89Sr. In order to compute doses to populations it is convenient to know the population-weighted
deposition. These have been computed from the data
in table 26 and are shown in table 27 for the northernand southern hemispheres.

1970

Figure XVII. Cumulative oosr deposits (634)being just sufficient to compensate for 90 Sr that has
decayed on the ground.

183. Strontium-89. Since 8 9Sr fall-out is a good
indicator of the activity of other short-lived fission
products, some deposition data are included in order
to extrapolate external doses from the short-lived fission
products. The latitudinal distribution of the integrated
deposit of 89Sr from 1961 to 1969 given in table 26
indicates that the general shape of the distribution in
the northern hemisphere is much the same as that of90
Sr (228). In table 27 are shown the global and theno';ihern and southern hemispheric population-weighted
esttmates of deposition of 89 Sr. The annual depositionin each hemisphere from 1961 to 1969 is shown intable 28.

180. It has been estimated that by mid-1969 about
70 per cent of the 00 sr in the surface air of the northernhemisphere was contributed by the tests in central Asia
carried out on 27 December 1968. In the southernhemisphere in mid-1969, 75 per cent of the 00Sr activity
in surface air is ascribed to the September tests in thesouth Pacific (99). The global deposition of 90 Sr as
deduced from the measurements of the United Kingdom
network showed that at the end of 1970 the cumulative
deposit was 12.4 megacuries and the annual deposit
for 1970, 0.21 megacurie (101). The deposition over
the world was calculated by integrating the latitudinal
distribution of 9 osr concentration in rain weighted by
the distribution of rainfall. Much of the United Kingdom
data for 1968 was derived from 137 Cs measurements
using a mean mcs/ 90 Sr ratio of 1.56. These results
agree with those reported from the United States network based on 90 Sr measurements ( table 24). Tracesof debris from the 1968 south Pacific tests have been
detected ( 488) as far north as Bombay (India),
Hongkong. Chilton (United Kingdom) and International Falls, Minnesota (United States).

(ii) Levels in food184. The annual 90Sr activities of milk during 1966
through 1971 are shown in table 29. Average 90Sr /Ca
ratios in milk of the north temperate latitudes are
given in table 30, The rapid reduction in activity
observed between 1964 and 1967 has now ceased. there
being only a small change in activity between 1968
and 1971. This probably reflects the fact that during
the last few years the 90 Sr in milk is attributed largely
to the cumulative deposit in soils which at present ischanging only slowly with time (32, 51).

181. In table 25 the annual deposition and average
concentration of 90 Sr in rain is shown for four UnitedStates weather stations in the north Atlantic and also
for five continental stations and for four island stations.

185. The 00 Sr/Ca ratios in total diet are shown intable 31 for the years 1966 through 1971. As with44

Thus the transfer coefficient P2a is given by

milk there has been little change in the levels between
1968 and 1971. The ratios of 90Sr/Ca in total diet tothat in milk are shown in table 32. Variations within
individual countries are appar~nt, and even. greater
variations are noted between different countries, particularly between those with different diet types. As
shown by Aarkrog (2) and Bennett ( 51), the relative
contribution of 90 Sr from different components of thediet milk. grain products, vegetables. meat, etc., hasbee~ changing with time. Changes in the diet-milkratio are thus expected, particularly following changes
in 90Sr deposition, but the ratio should stabilize atlater times. From the ratios given in table 32, it appears
that an approximate mean constant diet-milk ratio of
1.4 will be an appropriate, useful relationship.

co

P2a

=m=O
I K(m).

(11)

188. In the 1962, 1964 and 1966 reports of theCommittee, the following form of transfer function
K(m) was used,= p,. Sm + Pd exp(-,\m)

K(m)

(12)

where
Sm= 1, m=O8m= 0, m'FO

Thus the level in diet during year n is(iii) Transfer from deposit to food186. A mathematical formalism to account for thetransfer of deposited radio-activity to diet and thetransfer from diet to the human body was developedin the Committee's 1969 report. The transfer coefficientfrom fall-out to diet is defined as
P23

IC= IF,!

where ,\ is the physical decay constant of 00 Sr andF,dn) the cumulative deposition up to yearn. This typeof transfer function has been widely used to relate the00
Sr activity in national milk supplies to deposition inprevious years. Bartlett (32) found that equation 13
did not adequately fit the United Kingdom data andtherefore proposed a relationship of the type(5)

where JC is the integrated level of the radio-nuclide
in diet,

JC=

1_:

C(n)

(6)

C(t)dt,= I p,.8mFr(n-m) +PaFr(n-m)exp(-,\m)m=O= p,.Fr(n) + PdFd(n)
(13)
CX)

C(n)

= P1 Fr(n) + Pe Fo(n-1)+ Ps [Fa(n-]) exp(-l.25p.)+ I Fr(n-m)exp(-p.m)] (14)00

and IFr is the integrated deposition of that radionuclide,
IF,=

J_:

m=2

where Fa(n) and Fb(n) are the deposition in the firstand second half of year n, respectively, and p. is a decay
constant which combines the physical decay of 90Sr
and any increasing unavailability of 00Sr in the soil toplants, which is assumed to be exponential.

(7)

F,(t)dt.

187. The activity in diet at time t, C(t) can be
related to the deposition at time r, F ,( r) by the
relationC(t)f= ~ K(t,r)F,(r)dr,

189. Since most of the food levels in the world
have been reported on a calendar-year basis a relationship of the form

(8)

which serves to define the deposit-to-diet transfer
function K ( t, r). In practice data are available on amonthly or annual basis so that the integral in ( 8) is
replaced by a sum, so the activity in diet in year n
is given by
i

C(n)

=n

=i=-eoI K(n,i)FrU)

C(n)

+p

"'

C(n)

n= -o,

= I

"'

j

= I"'
11=-«>

K(n-i)Fr(i)

i=-eo

00

I K(n-i)F,(i)=-:.:, 11 = i"'"'= I K(m) I
m=O

Fr(i)

i=-"'

co

IFr I

K(m).
m=O

Fr(n-m)exp(-p.m)

(15)

m=2

190. In fitting by least squares the transfer functionsof equations 14 and 15 to milk and deposit data, all
the parameters P1, Ps, p3, and ,_,. are allowed to vary.
Bartlett (32) found that equation 14 gave an excellent
fit to the United Kingdom data and obtained a shortermean residence time in soil of 6. 7 years. On the other
hand, when both equations are fitted to the data of
New York and Denmark, equation 15 gives a better
fit. The average 90Sr/Ca ratios in milk for the northernhemisphere have also been fitted to the fall-out data
for the 30°-50° N latitude band using equation 15.
The estimates of the parameters thus obtained, together
with the value of P 2 :i computed from equation 11. areshown in table 33. The values of ,_,. obtained indicatethat the effective mean life of 90Sr in soil is between
7 and 10 years which is smaller than reported in earlier
Committee reports; however, several more years of

i=n

k

I

(9)

=

I

co

3

can be used in an attempt to accommodate the effectof food storage from one year to the next.

where Fr(i) is the deposition in year i. If it is assumed
that the weighting function K(n, i) only depends upon
the elapsed time (mn-i) since deposition, the integrated dietary level over infinite time is then,IC== P1 Fr(n) + Ps F,(n-1)

(10)

45

areas and with the pooled data from the northernhemisphere are shown in figure XVIII.

data will be required to determine p. with greater confidence. The fits obtained with data from a number of• The dot~ are mus.urtd annual a·,·i:ragc ~·11lues

50_

Tht! 1ine1 con.nect poiriu ,~prtu!'lting the c..lcuL,rtd ,,aJu:sfor ttth year

40

,....
I

ro
(.)

~

...9
....
Cl)

g 30
~

20

10

UNITED KINGDOM

1954

1956

1958

1960

1962

1964

1966

1968

1970

Year
Figure XVIJI. Measured and calculated annual average oosr/Ca ratios in milk. The calcu-

lated results are based upon deposition data. Equation 15 was used for all results except
for those of the United Kingdom for which equation 14 was applied. The curves for New York
(USA), Denmark and the northern hemisphere are displaced upwards by 10, 20 and 30
divisions, respectively, for clarity

for the purposes of computing dose commitments. The
deposit-to-diet transfer coefficient is obtained from thecorresponding value for milk by multiplying by 1.4,
resulting in P 23 (diet)
4.5 pCi y (gCa)-1 per mCi
2
km- • The value of this factor is based upon datafrom countries in northern temperate latitudes whichhave a western type diet. It may be different for othertypes of diet or in other geographical regions. However,since there are few data from other regions. the valueof 4.5 will be assumed to apply globally, for the purposes of computing doses.

191. In 1970 the 00 Sr/Ca level in milk in thenorthern hemisphere was 7.4 pCi (gCa)- 1 and thecorresponding integrated level 161 pCi y (gCa)-1( table 30). Assuming an effective mean life in the soilof 10 years (table 33, northern hemisphere) the estimated future integrated level in milk is 74 pCi y(g<;a)-1 giving a total integrated level in milk of 235
pC1 y (gCa)-1 . With an integrated deposition (40600 N) up to 1970 inclusive of 80 mCi km-2 (table 26)
a value of 2.9 is obtained for the deposit-to-milk transfer
coefficient P~a (milk). From table 33 we can assign
a lower limit to the mean life in the soil of 5.5 years,
while the upper limit is 40 years. Using these values
one obtains lower and upper limits to P 23 of 2.5 and 5.7.
A value of 5 was used in the 1969 report of the Committee. In this report a value of 3.2 is taken (table 33)=(iv) Levels in bone
192. New data on 90 Sr in bone are shown in table
34, including results from the limited bone-sampling
programme undertaken by the World Health Organiza46

tion. A definite variation with age in the 00Sr levels. inbone appears up to the age of 20 years, valu~s bem_ghigher between one and four years. The relative uruformity of levels in adult bone compared to the_variability in deposition of 90Sr must be noted and will
be worth detailed consideration when samples from a
few further areas are received by the WHO. Table 35
and figure XIX show the time trends of 00 Sr levels in

Th'-' lint.-1 connect point~ ,~prcs~nti~ tht calculated~·alues
fer each y,:-~r

NORTHERN HEMISPHERE,.... 3

I

ro

(.)

Ol

t

0a.
2

1954

1956

1958

1960

1962

1964

1966

1968

1970

Year
Figure XIX. Measured and calculated. annua~ average .oosr/Ca ratios in human adult vertebr.c. The calculated values were obtained usmg equations 26 and 30. For Denmark, NewYork and San Francisco, the activity of oosr in bone was computed from that in total dietbut for the northern hemisphere it was computed from the activity of oosr in milk. For thesake of clarity the Danish and northern hemisphere results have been displaced upwards by
1 and 2.5 divisions, respectively

194. The ratio of 00 Sr in vertebrre to that in femoral
diaphyses has been determined for adults in Czechoslovalda, where the average value for 51 samples was
2.28 -+- 0.22 in 1969 (77) compared with 2.68 ± 0.31
in 1968 (76). In Moscow the corresponding figures
were 2.30 ± 0.06 and 2.38 + 0.04 for 1968 and 1969.
respectively ( 67 4) . When these figures are comparedwith those reported in the 1969 report it is evident thatthe ratio has decreased considerably since 1965. In
Czechoslovakia the 1969 ratio in males (2.36) appears
to be significantly greater than in females (2.06) as
was also the case in 1968.

adult vertebrre in the northern hemisphere. In generallevels have continued to decrease since 1965.
193. Beninson ( 46) has reported both stable strontium and o0sr measurements on the bones of a large
number of persons whose age at death varied from O to
30 years. He found the ratio of stable strontium tocalcium in bone to be fairly constant from 1 to 30
years. Much of the variation with age of the 00Sr/Ca
ratio in bone can be attributed to differences in turnover rate which, as has been shown by Beninson ( 46)
and Bennett ( 50), varies significantly with age. This
turnover rate is highest in infants under 1 year of age,
falls to a minimum about age 4 years, then rises to a
maximum at 8-10 years and then falls again, remaining
constant above the age of 20 years.

(v) Transfer from food to bone

195. The transfer coefficient Pa-1 is defined as
47

IQ

[70

IC

J~

IQ=

where

Q(t)dt and IC=

N

(16)

Ps4=-

i:

the activity in bone averaged over all age groups is

C(t)dtQ(t)where C(t) is the average 00Sr/Ca ratio in diet andQ(t) is the population-weighted 00Sr ratio in bone attime t.

= N1 170du= lace C(t-v)K(v)dv

(18)

G1

= ft Jo

f10-«>

S(t', u)du dt'

J"'Q(t) dt

--eo

00

00

so that(25)= 701 ) [10S(t,u") W(u")du"0

198. In practice, because the dietary and bone data
are available on an annual basis, the integrals in equations 23 and 25 are replaced by sums
Q(n)

(20)

111

Ps4

1

B(u") exp[-ki(u-u")]du
B(u)

(21)

(27)

(a) exponential(b) double exponentiali:C(T)m (t, T, u)dT,(29)

cam +cexp(-µm)

(30)
(31)

The simple exponential function is equivalent to themodel used by Rivera and Harley (530) for adultbone. The rate term
exponential is equivalent to
the model used by Coulon and Madelmont (124) whenapplied to adult bone. According to Coulon and Madelmont, the rate term in their model accounts for thatpart of strontium in bone which is in rapid exchangewith that in plasma. The power function exponential
model has been found by Marshall et al. ( 401) to give
good fits to bone 00Sr levels after a single exposure.

. (22)+=

C(,)m (t. ;, u)d,.

(28)(d) powerfunctionexponentialg(m+J)-&exp(-µm)

this equation defines the transfer function m(t. -;-, u)( 616). If the transfer function depends only on thetime (vt-,) elapsed since dietary intake, thenIg exp(-µm)

cexp(-vm) +cexp(-µm)(c) rate term+ exponential

197. If Q(t, u) is the activity in bone in a cohortof the population whose age at time t is u, thenf-,,,

= ~"' K(m)199. In attempting to fit the adult bone data witha simple equation, the following types of transfer functions were tested on the New York bone-diet strontium data:

where B(u) is the mass of calcium in the skeleton atage u, k1 is the turnover rate of 00 Sr in bone. W ( u")is called the integral weighting function. In 1969 about
40 per cent of Pa.1 was due to the H, term. A value of
0.1 y·1 was used for k 1 in the 1969 report. Any uncertainty in k1 will give rise to errors in the estimateof Ps4,=(26)

where Q ( n) is the 00 Sr level in bone in year n andC(m) is the dietary level in year m.

u''

Q(t, u)f C(n-m)K(m),

=0

m=O

70

=

dt {"' C(t-v)K(v)dv

(19)

where
W(u")

=1"' lo_,,fwhere S( t', u) is the level in bone at time t' for a person of age u and 70 is the average life span expressedin years. The quantity H, is the integrated future levelin bone due to 00 Sr already deposited there, also averaged over all age groups, orH,== lo{"'K(v)dv _.,, C(t)dt = IC lof K(v)dv (24)and G 1 is the integrated level in human bone up to
time t averaged over all age groups

l
70

(23)

Therefore K ( v) represents a population-weighted
transfer function. Now,

IQ
C(t')dt',

O

O

where C 1 is the integrated dietary level of 00Sr up to
time t,i:

N(u)C(t-v)m(v, u)d,-co

= J{"'C(t-v)dv N1 170N(u)m(v, u)du

(17)

=

Jt

0

196. In the Committee's earlier reports Ps,t wasdetermined using a model developed by Lindell ( 3 63).
In the 1969 report, P 34 was estimated from observed
levels in bone through the relation

Ct= Jo N(u)du,= {"' C(t-v)m(v, u)dvloAssuming a steady population with N(u) people ofage u and

200. All parameters c. g, b. i, and µ. were allowed
to vary in the least squares fit. The best fit was obtained48

cesses, then it might be expected that the integrated
level in bone would be fairly independent of the turnover rate.
201. The least-square fit is not verv sensitive tochanges in µ., so the differences in µ. sho\vn in table 36
may not be significant. Marshall et al. ( 401), from astudy of the retention by cancellous bone after a single
injection of strontium, estimate µ. to be 0.10 y-1.
202. It is also possible to estimate P3 4 from thebone and diet data directly, using equations 17 through21, as was done in the 1969 report of the Committee.
The limitation here is that the turnover rate k1 in bonemust be pre-specified. Estimates of Pai were calculated
for the years 1965 through 1970 assuming three different values of k1, notably 0.1, 0.3 and 'l.l. The data
were taken from table XIII of annex A of the 1969
report and tables 30 and 35 of the present report. The
milk levels were multiplied by 1.4 to estimate the total
diet levels. The three estimates of P 34 are plottedagainst C(t)/Ct in figure XX. The estimates of P84
are approximately constant for a turnover rate ofwith the rate term plus exponential function and in fact
the double-exponential reverted to this latter model
since the value of v obtained was greater than 12 y-1
and all the other parameters were the same. The parameters obtained by a Jeast-s_quare fit of the rate term
exponential model to the diet-bone data of New. York,San Francisco, Denmark and the nort~ern hemisphere
are shown in table 36. Also shoyt.n m table ~6 areparameters obtained from the Bn~1sh data, usmg an
exponential model. to fit th~ 00Sr m vertebra!. ( 4 78).
The northern hen:1sphere die~ dat~ were obtamed bymultiplying the milk levels given m table 30 by 1.4.
The fits obtained for these three sets of data are shownin figure XIX. Since th~ data for ~e. northern h~1;1iphere are of a composite nature, 1t 1s not surpnsmg~hat the fit is not quite as good as for the New Yorkand Danish data. It should be noted from table 36 that,
although the estimates of the mean turnover rate inbone are different for the three sets of data, the valuesof P 34 obtained are fairly c~nstant. In gene:al, if theuptake of strontium by bone 1s governed by linear pro-

+

•
0.2

0.1

0

0.010

0.005

0.015

C(t)/Ct

Figure XX. Values of P34 calculated from equation 17 assuming three different values _of
the turnover rate k1 of strontium in bone. The OOSr/Ca ratios in human vertebra: and dietare for the northern hemisphere, 1965 to 1970

49

=

k1
0.3 y-1, indicating that this turnover rate is about
correct for the data. If straight lines are drawn throughthe three sets of points, they intersect the C ( t) IC,
0axis at about P34
0.12.

=

=

203. Thus these estimates of both the turnover rateand P3 .1 are in agreement with those in table 36 for thenorthern hemisphere data. A value of 0.12 will betaken for P34 to compute the dose commitment fromgosr.

204. A transfer function P:; 4 for stable strontium canalso be determined by the same rate term
exponential model (equation 30) as used for 90Sr. Since there
is no radio-active decay, µ. must be reduced by 0.025.
If this is done for the parameters of the New Yorkand San Francisco data shown in table 36, stablestrontium values of P34 for New York and San Francisco of 0.14 and 0.18, respectively, are obtained.
Rivera (529) reported values of 0.16 and 0.16, respectively, based upon stable strontium measurements
in bone and diet.

+(vi) Dose commitment from 90Sr
205. For the purpose of dose estimation, it waspreviously assumed by the Committee that 90 Sr is uniformly distributed in the seven kilogrammes skeleton ofstandard man (616). Committee II of the ICRP has
recently qualified the skeletal mass to include five kilogrammes of bone mineral in addition to cartilage andperi-articular tissue ( 401). Assuming the 90Sr to beuniformly distributed only in bone mineral has theeffect of increasing D0 , the dose rate per unit activity
to a small tissue-filled cavity in bone. D 0 is given by
Spiers (577)D0= Nm E (ST/SB)m (KB/KT)'·.

=

where Nm= 1.17 10° M- 1 y-1 per pCi (gCa)-1
number of beta particles emitted per picocurie of 90 Sr pergramme of calcium; M
5, being the mass, ingrammes. of mineral bone per gramme of calcium ( 401,650); E the effective energy of beta-rays emitted90Y); (S.T/Sn)mthe ratio of(1.13 MeV for 90 Sr
the mass stopping powers in tissue and bone
1.07(52); Kn and KT
factors allowing for the effect of
scattering on the effective particle range, assumed to(1.17 10 6 1.13 1.6
be unity here (163). So that D 0
4.5 mrad y-1 per pCi (gCa)-1.
10-5 1.07)/5

=

=

+
=

=

=

206. Spiers ( 5 80) has re-estimated the values ofunit activity in bone. The new values are:
DID

Cortical contribution ............. .
Trabecular contribution

0.055
0.260

0.082
0.352

TOTAL

0.315

0.434

Using these values we obtain:?45 (marrow)
4.5 0.315(gCa)-1====

The deposition from 00sr from all tests to 1970 in thetemperate zones is taken to be (tables 26 and 27)
Northern hemisphere . . . . . . . . 80.3 (58.4)5 mCi km-2
Southern hemisphere . . . . . . . . . 22.1 (13.9) rnCi km-2

The resulting estimates of dose commitment are shownin table 37.
(f) Jodine-131

208. Eleven radio-active isotopes of iodine, most ofthem short-lived, originate in nuclear fission. Only 1311,
because of its half-life of eight days, is present in significant amount in the long-range tropospheric fall-out
shortly after atmospheric nuclear detonations. Iodine129 (half-life 1.6 107 years) is a negligible radiation
hazard in fall-out as its activity is very low.
209. Iodine present in diet in soluble form is probably completely absorbed from the gastro-intestinal
tract into the blood and is selectively concentrated in
the thyroid gland. The stable iodine concentration in
the thyroid tissue is of the order of 400 to 500 microgrammes per gramme of tissue while in the rest of the
body it is much less than one microgramme per gramme( 5 77). The mass of the thyroid is of the order of
20 grammes in the adults and about 10 times less in
0-1-year-old babies (144, 430). Consequently, young
children receive a higher dose than adults from a given
intake of radio-iodine. The dose to the whole body isof the order of a thousandth of that to the thyroid(36).

210. Ingestion and inhalation are the two principal
modes of entry of 131! into the body. The transfer toman by ingestion is complex as it depends on a variety
of factors including meteorological conditions, agricultural practices and biological variability.
211. Radio-active fall-out is observed to circle theearth in 20-30 days on average (527) which is approximately the mean residence time of an aerosol in
the troposphere. It is unlikely that during such a shortperiod the clouds of debris become well mixed. The
surface-air concentration of 1311 at a particular station
will fluctuate according to meteorological conditions
and will not necessarily be representative of a larger
region nor of a latitude band ( 48 6).
212. Information on the physical and chemical nature of fall-out 1311 is very limited. In the United Kingdom, late 1961, an average 75 per cent of the activity
was in particulate form. the rest being in the gaseousstate (152), but in the United States in 1962 the particulate fraction \Vas found to vary from 10 to 90 per
cent ( 500). These large variations are thought to be

D,,JDa and D,/D 0 where D111 and D8 are the dose rates
in bone marrow and endosteal cells, respectively, per
D m ID ,=(i) Transfer to man==

207. The following values of the transfer coefficientsare used:
P23 (fall-out/diet)
4.5 pCi y (gCa)-1 per mCi
km· 2 (paragraph 191),
P:H (diet/vertebrre)0.12 pCi y (gCa)·1 per pCiy (gCa)·l (paragraph 203),
P4a (bone marrow)
1.42 mrad per pCi y (gCa)·1(paragraph 206),
P~:-, (endosteal cells)
1.95 mrad per pCi v (gCa)·1(paragraph 206).
·· ·
' -~

= 1.42 mrad per pCi y(endosteal cells) = 4.5 0.434 = 1.95 mrad per
pCi y (gCa)-1?45

The values used in the Committee's 1969 report were0.55 for doses to marrow and 1.1 for doses to endosteal cells.

5 Figures in brackets refer to the whole hemispheres. theothers to the northern and southern temperate zones (40'-60').

50

due both to the origin of the fall-out and to the historyof the air masses undergoing physical and chemicaltransformations during the travel.
213. Radio-iodine is deposited on the ground andon vegetation by dry and wet processes. The rate of dry
deposition is characterized by the deposition velocity
which, for rn1 fall-out. is of the order of 5 10--~m s- 1
( 107). When precipitation occurs, 131 I is deposited ata much faster rate than in dry weather, essentially byrain-out. or in-cloud, mechanisms rather thanby wash-out, or below-the-cloud, processes ( 614). For
instance, during the period June-September 1970,
owing to the frequent occurrence of rain in Cape Town,
South Africa. the deposition-to-surface-air concentration ratio was an order of magnitude higher in that city
than in Pretoria, where it rained only four days ( 624).
On the other hand, rain will wash the surfaces of theleaves and thus remove some of the radio-iodine( 156). Chamberlain and Chadwick (107) calculated
that, from September to December 1961, only about
half of the 131 I falling out in rain was retained on
herbage. Other processes, such as mechanical disturbance and re-volatilization, enhance the decrease of grass
contamination. Evidence from laboratory experiments
and nuclear industry releases shows that the effective
half-time of 131 I on herbage is 3-6 days, most estimates
lying around 5 days ( 53). Unfortunately, the results ofmeasurements of 131 I in world-wide fall-out cannot be
used to test the foregoing estimates as quantitative observations are usually obscured by the rapidly changing
pattern of fall-out ( 189).
214. Fresh milk is usually the main source of 131 I
in food because of the concentration achieved by thegrazing animal and the short storage period of milk.
The extent to which 131 I is transferred from vegetation
to milk varies widely depending mainly upon densityof the herbage and on feeding ·practices. The animal
may feed partly only, or not at all, on contaminatedgrass and the milk produced may be diluted withuncontaminated milk at a dairy. Garner and Russell( 189) suggested that from laboratory experiments the
maximum level in cow's milk from continuous grazing
after a single deposition of 1 pCi m-2 might be 0.15
pCi I-1, corresponding to an integrated level of 1.5
pCi d 1-1 and mentioned that 131 1 in tropospheric fallout might be reduced in availability because of its
physical form. This hypothesis seems to be confirmed
by fall-out results from Argentina, where the relationship between integrated milk level and deposition is
0.23 pCi d 1-1 per pCi m-2 and shows little variationfrom year to year (47). On the other hand, the transfer
coefficient from deposition to diet for ewes and goatsis probably much higher as a considerable fraction of
their 1 311 intake is secreted in milk (189).
215. Milk dominates as a source of 1311 ingestion inareas where it is a major dietary component, but vegetables are probably the main source of intake where
little milk is consumed (657). However. only milk will
be considered here because of its important world-wide
contribution in the diet of infants. It should be notedthat there are three sources of milk in infants' diet:human milk. fresh milk from animals such as goats andcows, and dried or evaporated milk. Only fresh milkof animal origin contributes 131 I to their diet to asignificant extent. In the United States. infants of morethan six months of age consume mainly this kind of
milk and their daily milk intake from six months to
two years is about 0. 7 litre ( 150). This figure has

been assumed to be representative of many areas of
the world.
(ii) Doses

216. The Committee, in its 1964 report, estimatedi:t 16.5 rads the dose to the thyroid of a baby of lessthan two years of age resulting from the inoestion of
one microcurie of 131I. Similar results can ''be foundin recent publications. Morley and Bryant ( 435), using
values of parameters revised by the United Kin2dom
Medical Research Council in 1968. obtained a valueof 15.5 rads per microcurie for a six-month-old baby
while, according to Neil and Robinson·s data ( 457)
the corresponding figure for a 6-11-month-old baby is18.5 rads.
217. Adopting average values for the parameters
discussed above (table 38), the dose from 131 I fall-out
to the thyroid of infants can be estimated at 4.0 mrad
per pCi d m-a. The corresponding dose to adults should
be at least an order of magnitude lower because theiraverage milk consumption is much less ( 620) and themass of their thyroid is approximately 10 times larger.
218. Inhalation is another possible mode of exposure which can only be predominant when depositionof 131 1 does not result in the contamination of the diet.
Assuming that the blood uptake after inhalation is 0.75
of the uptake from ingestion and that six cubic metresof air are inspired daily by an infant ( 86), an integrated
air concentration of 1 pCi d m- 3 would lead to athyroid dose of about 0.07 millirad.
219. Because 131 1 deposition patterns are unpredictable, doses can only be calculated if the local deposit
and transfer coefficients are known or if milk levels aremeasured. Since these are often not available fromlarge areas of the world, it is not possible to estimate
dose commitments on the global scale but only thoseto local groups whose milk supply has been adequately
monitored.
220. During the period from 1951-1958, the patternof weapons testing was such that copious troposphericfall-out was produced, but neither interest in 131 I nor
the proper tools for measuring it existed at that time(156). Integrated milk levels, crudely derived frombeta air concentrations, were estimated to be of theorder of one microcurie day per litre in certain areasof Utah, United States in 1952, 1953 and 1957 (491).
Milk contamination from atmospheric tests during theperiod 1961-1968 was examined by the Committee
in its 1964, 1966 and 1969 reports. In the northernhemisphere, the highest levels in milk were observedin Alaska in 1962 (37.800 pCi d 1-1 ). while in thesouthern hemisphere, the highest values were reported
in Argentina in 1966 (27,000 pCi d 1-1 ).
221. Integrated milk levels resulting from the atmospheric tests conducted in 1970 and 1971 in thesouthern hemisphere are presented in table 39. The
milk contamination pattern was clearly different in ~e
two years but the values obtained in the same location
are in general smaller than in 1966. There has been noreport of significant milk contamination arising froi:n
the atmospheric tests performed in the northern hemisphere from 1969 to 1971.
(g) Caesium-137

222. Caesium-137 produced by nuclear ~xplosions

in the atmosphere is transported to the earth s surface
51

fresh-water fish (166, 213). In 1968, fish accounted
for 7 per cent of the 137es dietary intake in Denmark.
Mushrooms were shown to concentrate very effectively
137
Cs from soils with a high organic content (211,296). Typical levels are several tens of nanocuries per
kilogramme so that a single meal of mushrooms may
increase the normally incorporated 137Cs content to aconsiderable degree. As a result of these factors, therelative contribution of the individual food-stuffs varies
from year to year and levels in diet have decreased
between 1968 and 1970.

without fractionation with respect to 90 Sr, as shown by
the relative uniformity of the observed 137Cs/ 90 Sr ratios
in air and deposit, which lie around 1.6. Caesium-137
enters plants mainly through surface contamination andis absorbed readily in the human body where its biological half-life is about 100 days.
(i) Transfer from deposit to diet223. The transfer from deposit to diet is normallycharacterized by high uptake during the first years
after deposition and by a relatively small uptake subsequently. The main dietary sources of 137 Cs are milk,
meat, vegetables and cereals. A large number of milk
analyses from different countries have been reported(table 29). Milk levels show a pronounced yearly
cycle depending on deposition rates and agricultural
practice, but the yearly mean level is representative ofthe dietary intake in that year. Milk being locally
produced in most areas of the world, its levels are
representative of the contamination of the regional agricultural production.
224. In a given country, variations of an order ofmagnitude from one region to another are common.
Low concentrations predominate in the temperate regions where caesium is :fixed in the solid phases of thesoil and milk levels are strongly dependent on thedeposition rate of the same year and of the preceding
year. In those regions, the annual 137 Cs concentrations
were fairly stable from 1968 to 1971. On the other
hand, high concentrations, explained by a significant
uptake from soils low in potassium and high in organic
content, are mainly dependent on the 137Cs cumulative
deposit (2. 655, 673). From 1968 to 1970. the milklevels in those regions decreased with a half-time ofabout five years. The highest reported levels in 1970
( 620 pCi 1-1 with a range 70-1,600 pCi 1-1 ) were
found in some forest areas of the Byelorussian SSR,
where an increased uptake of 137Cs from the soil intoplants was most common in areas of peaty bog andclayed podzolic sandy soils with a high water-table,high moisture content and low pH ( 673).
225. On a world-wide scale, high milk levels are
predominantly found in the high latitudes of the northern hemisphere but tracer experiments indicate that
uptake of 137Cs from red, lateritic and alluvial soils
common in the tropics and subtropics might also be
considerably higher than uptake from the clay soils oftemperate regions ( 182). Unfortunately, measurements
in local food products or people in the tropics are
scarce.
226. Yearly averages of 137Cs dietary intakes invarious countries, summarized in table 31, are notclosely related to milk levels for various reasons.
Widespread distribution of grain products and meat,
which provide about half of the 137Cs intake, tend tosmooth out the local variations observed in milk contamination. Furthermore, the grain products are often
stored and may thus be representative of an earlier
fall-out situation. This also applies to meat when livestock is fed with grain products prior to marketing.
227. Levels in such dietary items as fish or mushrooms depend strongly upon cumulative deposition. In
the :ase of fresh-water fish, the activity concentrations
are mversely related to the potassium content of thewater (334). so that the activity of fresh-water fish
can be one hundred times that of ocean fish. with amaximum value of a few nanocuries per kilogramme in228. In its 1969 report, the Committee estimated at
4.1 pCi y (gK)- 1 per mCi km-? the transfer coefficientP2a from deposition to diet This value has been confirmed by studies conducted in Denmark and in theSoviet Union. In Denmark (2), the influence of thesoil uptake on the levels in diet was so small that reliable
determinations of the soil factor have been impossible
and the dietary intake was related to the annual deposition in the same year and in the two preceding years,
yielding 4.1 pCi y (gK)-1 per mCi km-2 as P 23 •229. In the Soviet Union, the territory has been
divided in two zones according to the importance ofthe soil factor which, although much greater than in
Denmark, has not been calculated precisely ( 684).
Assuming that the daily intake of potassium is 3.8
grammes and that the half-residence time of 137 Cs in
the soil is equal to its physical half-life, the coefficient P~11 lies in the range 3.8-7.3 and the contributionof the soil uptake is from 40 to 180 per cent of that of
the surface uptake. If no major series of atmospherictests takes place in the next few years. the contributionof the soil uptake will probably be more precisely
determined.
230. Exceptionally high values have been observedin caribou and reindeer meat which is the staple foodof the populations living in arctic regions. Levels of137_ Cs in caribou and reindeer are high because thelichens, which are an important food for these animals
during winter, effectively entrap a substantial proportion of the deposit falling on to them, and retain itwith an apparent half-life of a few years due to grazing
and leaching. Two other food chains participate in theaccumulation of 137Cs in man more effectively in thoseregions than in the middle latitudes: fresh water-fishman and fresh water-plants-milk-man (519).
(ii) Transfer from diet to body231. Caesium-13 7 ingested by man is rapidly distributed in the body, about 80 per cent being depositedin muscle and 8 per cent in bone. About 10 per centis eliminated with a biological half-time of about
one day, and the remainder is excreted at a slower
constant rate (577). The observed half-life in adults
varies between less than 50 and more than 200 days.
Even within a relatively homogeneous group, the variability in half-life is considerable. The half-life inchildren is shorter than in adults and is of the orderof ten days for new-born infants. Based on publisheddata. McCraw ( 410) gave the empirical equation
T 1/.2 (days)
12.8 (11¥..
exp (-u)) where u isage in years.

=+

232. Table 40 and figure XXI present 187 es levels
in man in several countries. The average body content
of 13 ;Cs in a population at a given time varies withindividual values of the biological half-life and with
52

r

I

rI
(gK)-1 yield an average of 2.9 which is the value
adopted by the Committee in its 1969 report. As recent values of P23 and P 3 4 are consistent with thefigures given in the 1969 report, there is no need tochange the value of P2a4 which will be taken as 11 pCiy (gK)-1 per mCi km-2 •-g235. However, there has been some indication thata small part of caesium might be fixed in bone withlong residence time and this would increase the valueof P 34. Both in Denmark and in the Soviet Union, thelong-term component is much higher in the equation oftransfer from deposit to man than from deposit to dietsuggesting that a fraction of the body burden has along residence time (2, 684). However, the Danish
data from 1969 to 1971 seem to be less in agreementwith the model and a significant trend is not apparent
in the relative variations of 137Cs in diet and man in
the other countries during the period 1968-1970. If
in the future the studies from Denmark and the Soviet
Union prove to be representative of the situation in
the other countries as well, then the upper limit forP234 would be about 25 pCi y (gK)-1 per mCi km-2 •

1a3

.;

u

~

-85

.:,

X

>

""
...u
0

..c

!:?

102

(iii) Dose commitments

236. If the 137es body content is expressed aspCi (gK)-1 , the dose-rate factor is approximately independent of age. It will be assu~ed as in the 1~69
report that P 45 = 18 p.rad per pC1 y (gK)-1 which,combined with the estimate of P234
11 pCi y (gK)-1
per mCi km-~, gives P 2 :w-.
0.20 mrad per mCi km-2 •101 '--,-96-4--'--,96-5-'--,-96-6-----1-96_7....:...._196-8-.1..-,-96-9--'--,-97-0--'--,g-7__.1=

Figure XXI. 137Cs body burdens (pCi (gK)-1)
Upper curve: lnari male reindeer(519-521)
Lower curve: Denmark ( •) (5)France(x) (490)

herders=237. The average integrated deposits of 137es in
the north and south temperate latitudes, obtained b~
multiplying the 9°Sr values by 1.6, ar.e 128 and 35 m~1
km-2 , respectively. The correspondrng dose commitments are 26 and 7 millirads. The upper limits, calculated from the studies conducted in Denmark (2)and in the Soviet Union ( 684) are about twice thosevalues. An extensive study taking into account the vaij.ations in the demographic structure of the populationand in the dose-rate factor as a function of age yieldeda dose commitment for the Soviet Union of 19 millirads for all atmospheric tests before 1963 ( 687). This
result is in good agreement with the above estimate
for the north temperate latitudes from all tests before
1970. If the dose commitments are calculated fromthe population-weighted deposition of _90_Sr over thewhole helnispheres, the results are 19 millrrads for thenorthern helnisphere and 4 millirads in the southernhemisphere.

(Finland)dietary habits. The variation with time of the average
body burden of reference groups located in three citiesof the Federal Republic of Germany shows three different slopes which probably reflect variations in ~ecomposition of the diet (92). The observed 13 '<;::slevels (in pCi (gK)-1 ) are 20-30 per cent lower rn
women than in men. Levels in children are, in general,lower than in adults. However, in the areas of the Byelorussian SSR where hi!!h levels in milk were reported.
the concentrations in children under 10 years of age
were about the same as in adults (about 800 pCi(gK)-1) as a result of their higher consumption ofmilk ( 673). For estimating the dose commitment, it
will be assumed that the 137Cs level (in pCi (gK)-1 )in children is the same as in adults, an assumption
which probably leads to a small over-estimate of the
population average.

238. In the arctic and subarctic regions where
people include reindeer a~d cariboi: meat in. th_eir
diets the dose commitment 1s much higher. In Fmmsh
Lapl~nd, the body burdens were estimated to decrease
with an effective half-time of about four years from1967 to 1969 leading to a dose. commitme.nt of. approximately one rad (521). In different arctic regi~nsof the USSR the dose commitment for the native
population varies from 0.45 to 1.7 rads (677). A val~eof one rad is probably representative of other arctic
re2:ions. As those populations constitute a small fraction of the world's population, the enhanced dosesthat they receive do not contribute significantly to theworld-wide dose commitment.
.
f
1a-es
239. The external dose comillltment_s rom'
deposited on the ground are discussed m paragraphs
261-264.

233. Levels in subarctic populations are two ordersof magnitude higher than in the Iniddle latitudes. The
hi!!hest values have been found in a small group of
Lapps in the Murmansk recrion of the Soviet Union::;,·(679). For reindeer herders in Finnish Lapland, about
70-90 per cent of the total amount in the body comesfrom reindeer meat, about 5-15 per cent from cow's
milk, and about 5-20 per cent from fish (519).
234. The short residence time of caesium in thehuman body implies that the ratio between integrated
body content and total dietary intake over a few years
will be a oood estimate of the transfer coefficient P 34 •The availtble data ( tables 31 and 40) for the period
1968-1970 for diet and body content expressed in pCi
53areas with alpha-emitting levels above 320 pCi m- 2
(about 8 per cent of the total contaminated area) were
removed and stored as radio-active wastes. The rest of
the area was plowed over down to a depth of about
25 centimetres, so as to dilute the concentration ofradio-active elements in the soil. However, the combined action of dry climate, high wind velocities andfarming of the soil have resulted on a few occasions ina significant resuspension of particles of plutoniumoxides. A station located in a farming area recorded
in 1967 a yearly average air concentration of 12 fCi
m-3, that is two orders of magnitude higher than thefall-out level (273).
244. Near Thule, the high-explosive components offour weapons detonated and resulted in contaminationof about 0.2 square kilometre. An amount of about
200 curies was recovered in the surface layer of thesnow pack and about 20 curies were estimated to be
trapped in the ice ( 353). A radio-ecological investigation conducted during the summer of 1968. when theice had broken up, showed that the plutonium levelsin the collected samples in no instances were such thatthey could be considered harmful to man or to higher
animals in the Thule district or in any other part ofGreenland. Nevertheless, the accident measurably
raised the plutonium level in the marine environment
as far out as approximately 20 kilometres from thepoint of impact. The highest concentrations were foundin bottom sediments. in bivalves and in crustacea.
Larger animals such as birds. seals and walruses
showed plutonium levels hardly different from the fallout background (1. 3).
245. The amount of 238Pu produced by nuclear
tests can be estimated at about 10 kilocuries, if the
23 BPuf23 9 Pu and the 239Pu/ 90 Sr ratios are assumed tobe 0.03 and 0.02, respectively. An additional quantityof 17 kilocuries was injected into the stratosphere as aresult of the burning on re-entry of a satellite that used
this nuclide as a power source (233). Figure XXIII
shows the changes of the 236 Pu/239Pu activity ratio in
surface air that followed that event (636). In November
1970. about 0.9 kilocurie. that is only 5 per cent of
the original burden, remained in the stratosphere; theresidence half-time of the total stratospheric inventory was 14 months during the period 1967-1970(329).
246. A similar device re-entered the atmosphereand fell into the Pacific Ocean in April 1970. Anothergenerator fell into the waters off the coast of California
in May 1968 when a weather satellite exploded during
launching. It was recovered in October 1968 (236).

(h) Plutonium(i) Levels in the environment

240. Plutonium is a fissile element that has received
the greatest attention as a possible source of biologicalhazard mainly in occupational work. It enters plantsfrom the soil only to a very small extent ( 539) andless than one thousandth of that ingested in diet isabsorbed through the gastro-intestinal tract, but when
inhaled it is one of the most toxic of radio-active
materials (145, 408). In recent years, the plutonium
content of surface air has therefore been carefully
monitored.
241. Plutonium-239, an alpha emitter with a physical half-life of 24,000 years, is a man-made radionuclide produced by neutron irradiation of 236U. As acomponent of global fall-out, it is found in surface
air ( 138, 140, 342, 471, 633, 686) (figure XXII)

1962

Figure XXII.

l96J

1964

1965

1966

1967

1960

1969

1970

~opu concentration in surface air at lspra,
Italy (120, 133, 140)

where it is accompanied by smaller quantities of 240 Pu,
from which it cannot be distinguished by alpha spectrometry (558), of 23 8Pu in the ratio of 0.02 to 0.04
(1, 140, 344, 428) and of 241 Pu.
242. The total amount of 239 Pu produced in nuclear
tests can be inferred from the 00 Sr corresponding value,
since the 2a 9pu;oosr activity ratio is about 0.02 both instratospheric and in surface air (3, 235, 428, 429,
630). If the local fall-out is not taken into account,the production of 90 Sr by nuclear tests amounted to15.5 megacuries in January 1971 (table 24) and thecorresponding value for 239Pu was 0.3 megacurie.
243. Appreciable amounts of ~39Pu were released
locally to the environment when airplanes carrying
nuclear bombs crashed in the vicinity of Palomares,
Spain, in January 1966 and of Thule, Greenland, inJanuary 1968 (3. 272). Near Palomares, the nuclear
fuel of two thermonuclear weapons was burned out andan area of about two square kilometres was contaminated with plutonium and uranium particles. Contaminated vegetation and the top five centimetres of soils in(ii) Doses

247. The report of the Task Group on lung dynamics (268) of Committee II of the ICRP presents
models of the deposition of particulate material in.
and clearance of this material from, the respiratory
tract. For a highly retained dust, such as plutonium
dioxide, slow removal processes from the pulmonary
region by direct translocation to the blood or byciliary-mucous transport to the gastro-intestinal tract
take place with a half-time of 360 days. Of this. 10
per cent is introduced into the systemic blood (half-time
360 days) and 90 per cent is presumed to be permanently retained in the lymph nodes.
248. Using these values, Voilleque (628) computed
the doses to various tissues resulting from the inhala54

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Figure XXIII.

!!38Pu/!!39Pu ratio in surface air (631)tion of one microcurie of PuO., for the three mean
particle sizes shown in table 41, which cover the range
found experimentally. According to his calculations,the integrated doses over 50 years, corresponding to
the inhalation for one year of air containing 1 fCi m· 3of 230Pu02 distributed on aerosols of 0.5 micrometre
AMAD, 6 are 0.43, 96, 0.20 and 0.04 millirad to thepulmonary region, the lymph nodes, the liver and bone,
respectively.

(137) established in the United States will contributeto the verification of the values of the parameters givenby the Task Group on lung dynamics.
3. External irradiation

251. Several of the artificial radio-nuclides thatare present in fall-out emit gamma rays and thereby
give rise to an external radiation dose. In addition tovarious short-lived radio-nuclides, the most importantof which are 95 Zr-0 GNb, the main contributor toexternal gamma radiation is 137Cs which has a mean
life of 43 years.

249. Integrating the curve shown in figure XXII
by adding the average annual concentrations for theperiod 1962-1970 gives an integrated level 2.6 rei y m-3.
From the 90 Sr annual deposition values ( table 24), theintegrated level prior to 1962 can be estimated at 1.5
fCi y m-a. The total integrated level from the beginningof the nuclear tests through 1970 would thus be of theorder of 4 fei y m-s, which corresponds to integrated
doses over 50 years of about 2. 400, 0.8 and 0.2 millirads to the organs and tissues cited above. It should be
noted that the ICRP does not consider the lymphoidtissues to be critical in irradiation resulting from inhalation because experimental evidence has shown pulmonary rather than lymphatic tissue to be at risk (575).

252. In principle it should be possible to calculate
the external doses from the short-lived radio-nuclides
using the deposition data for each nuclide and appropriate dose-rate conversion factors. Gustafson and Brar
(215) determined dose-rate conversion factors for aplane distribution of fission products on the ground.
More recently, Beck (37) and Beck and de Planque(38) have calculated dose-rate conversion factors. bothfor natural emitters and for fission products, using
gamma-ray transport theory. These were computed
both for plane and exponentially-distributed sources.
Dose-rate factors based upon these calculations areshown in table 43. For 137es the distribution is assumed
to be exponential with a mean depth in the soil of
faree centimetres. For the short-lived fission productsa plane distribution is assumed.

250. The few measurements of 239 Pu in man (table42) confirm the accumulation in respiratory lymph
nodes, lung. liver and bone but seem to show that theconcentrations in lymph nodes are probably overestimated whereas those in liver are underestimated.
Results of analyses of tissue aliquots from a plutonium
process operator who had been exposed for six years
to 239Pu largely via chronic low-level inhalation in an
approximately known way have been published (180).
The assumption that 90 per cent of the plutonium
which reaches the lymph nodes is retained permanently leads in that case to an over-estimation by afactor of 13 of the concentration in those tissues relatively to that in the lungs. The correct value is obtained
assuming a residence half-time of about two years.
However, this result is based on only one individual. It
is to be hoped that the National Plutonium Registry253. For the short-lived fission products, there islittle leaching into the soil before they decay, but form·cs. Gale et al. (187) found there was a rapid movement into the soil during the first few years and henceforth the distribution remained fairly static. The amountof penetration depended upon the soil type, but in ajl
cases most of the 1 3 7 Cs remained in the top 10 centlmetres of soil. The dose rate in air from 137es wa·s
found to fit the following expression. where D(t) is thedose rate in air in mrad y-1 per mCi km-:i of 137es
deposited:D(t)0.12 [0.63 exp (-1.15t)
0.37 exp (-0.03t) J
(32)

=

=

6 Al\lAD
Activity Median Aerodynamic Diameter. The
aerodynamic diameter is the diameter of a unit density spherewith the same settling velocity as the particle in question (268).

55+254. It is debatable whether, to allow for weathering, it is preferable to use a fixed exponential distribution in the soil or a dose rate that changes exponentiallywith time. There may also be some reduction in the
gamma dose rate due to roughness of the terrain. In
any case. large sections of the population live withinpaved cities, where a large fraction of the fission products would run off into the drainage system. Therefore,
dose commitments calculated using the above models
would probably give an upper limit.

258. At Grove, United Kingdom, the dose delivered between 1951 and 1967 from short-lived fission
products deposited in the same period was 131 - 16
115 millirads, and if the small contribution to bedelivered after this time is neglected, we can consider
115 millirads as the dose commitment.

=

259. In order to compute the population-weighted
dose commitment for the northern hemisphere, we
use the 90 Sr deposition up to 1967 at Abingdon(near Grove) of 43.2 mei km-:: compared with the
population-weighted mean for the northern hemisphere
for the same period, 54.2 mCi km-::. The dose commitment for deposition up to the end of 1967 is 115(54.2/43.2)
144 millirads. From table 28, it can beseen that in the northern hemisphere 1.3 megacuriesof 89 Sr deposited in 1968-1969 compared with 51.7
megacuries in the period 1961-1967. Using this as a
guide, the contribution to the dose commitment from
deposition in 1968-1969 is at most 2.5 per cent. Adding this to 144 millirads, we obtain 148 millirads forthe population-weighted dose commitment in thenorthern hemisphere for all deposition up to 1969. In
the same manner, the dose commitment in the northerntemperate latitudes ( 40°-60°) is estimated to be 203
millirads.

(a) Dose commitment from short-lived fission products

255. In order to compute the dose commitment
from the short-lived fission products it would be necessary to know the integrated deposition of each from1950 until 1970. Although some data are available on
the deposition of these fission products, they do notcover a long enough period to make an accurate
estimate of the dose commitment possible. As in theprevious Committee reports, we will rely on direct
measurements.

=

256. The external dose in air from fission productsin Tol-yo, measured at one metre above a paved surface between 1958 and 1967 was 121 millirads (445,446, 658). Between 1962 and 1967, the dose one
metre above a grassed plot in Chiba City, Japan, was
122 millirads (445, 446).

260. To estimate the dose commitment for thesouthern hemisphere, we use the deposition of 89 Sr in
the northern and southern hemispheres for the period
1961-1969 (table 27), 260 and 71 mCi km-2 , respectively, as a guide, and assume the dose commitment tobe proportional to these. The dose commitment in thesouthern hemisphere from short-lived fission products
is thus 148 (71/260)
40 millirads. In the temperateregions it is 60 millirads.

257. Gibson et al. (195) have reported results on
the gamma radiation from deposited fall-out at Grove,
United Kingdom, for the period 1951-1967. These
results, which are shown in figure XXIV, are based=(b) Dose commitment from 131 Cs

261. Using 93.4 and 22.2 mCi km-2 as the total
population-weighted deposition of 137es in the northernand southern hemispheres. respectively. together withthe dose-commitment conversion factor of 1.44 mrad
per mCi km-2 from table 43, the dose commitmentsin the northern and southern hemispheres are 134 and32 millirads, respectively.
262. It is possible to estimate the dose commitment
from 137es by another method. At Grove, United
Kingdom, the dose from 137Cs up to 1967 was 16
millirads and in 1967 the annual dose was 2.5 millirads(see paragraph 257). Assuming that the 137es was
already permanently distributed in depth within thesoil, only the second term of equation 32, which has
an effective mean life of 33 years, applies. Thus, thedose commitment at Grove for 137Cs deposited up to1967 is 16(2.5 X 33)
99 millirads. Using theoosr deposition at Abingdon up to 1967 of 43.2 mei
Jan-2 and the population-weighted deposition in thenorthern hemisphere of 58.4 mCi 1cm-2 from all tests
to 1970, the dose commitment for the northern hemisphere is 134 millirads. in agreement with the estimate
made in the last paragraph.

+

Figure XXIV. Gamma-radiation from deposited fall-out at
Grove, UK, from 1951 to 1968 (195)

upon direct measurement and on calculation from
deposition data. There was excellent agreement between
the computed and measured dose rate. In 1967, thedose rate had fallen to about 15 per cent of that prevailing in 1962-1964. The annual dose from fissionproduct gamma rays reached a peak of 22. 7 millirads
in 1963, and for the period 1951-1967 the integrated
dose was 131 millirads. of which 16 millirads were
estimated to be from 137Cs. Of the 1967 annual doseof 3.5 millirads, about 2.5 millirads were from 13 •Cs.

=

263. To estimate average doses to the population
it is necessary to consider the shielding afforded bybuildings. A reduction factor of 0.2 will be taken as aworld average for shielding by buildings ( 613). Also
assuming an average time of 17 hours is spent indoors,
the over-all reduction of dose due to shielding is 0.4.
56

264. In addition, in order to obtain the gonad andbone-marrow tissue doses, we must multiply by the(tissue/air) conversion factor of 0.8 discussed in paragraph 143. This factor allows for conversion from air
dose to tissue dose in addition to screening by intervening body tissues. The combined factor to convert
air doses to gonad and bone doses is thus 0.32. The
dose commitments resulting from short-lived radionuclides and from 137 Cs for all tests up to the end of1970 are shown in table 44.

potentially useful ~s an ear~-breaking and moving tool
for, ~-g.. uncovenn~ of mmeral deposits, canal construct10_n. construc_uon of ~arth and rock-fill dams.
reserv01r construction, creation of cuts and embank.:.
ments for railways and roads. harbour construction
creatio~ of craters for the disposal of minino andpro~essmg wastes;. contained explosions in whi;h thedevices are potentially useful to break up or increase
the permeability of the underground resource strata sothat the resource can be recovered and used by man
or to provide storage cavities. Examples are intensified
exploitation of oil and natural gas deposits, stimulation of geothermal heat, creation of underground caviti~s for the storage of natural gas, gas condensates andoil products, creation of underground cavities for theburial of biologically dangerous industrial wastes.
underground working of ore deposits, and stopping oil
and gas blow-outs.

4. Summary of dose commitments
265. Estimates of dose commitments from nuclear
tests carried out before 1971 are summarized in table
45. For comparison, the estimates given in the 1969
report for tests conducted before 1968 are also included.
Although no major series of tests occurred during theperiod 1968-1970, there are significant differences between the two sets of estimates for the internal dose
commitments from 90Sr to the bone-lining cells and forthe external dose commitments to all tissues. As a result, the ratios of the external to the internal dose
commitments for all tissues are found to be markedly
higher in this report than in the 1969 report. Most of
the changes are a consequence of improved information
becoming available.

271. Both types of explosions present certain hazards. This report is only concerned with those arisincrfrom radiation exposure which may occur throucrh(a) release of radio-activity to the environment. Thisis a primary concern with cratering exposions wheresome radio-activity is unavoidably released but it isa~s? relevant. to containe_d expl_osions where the probabili~ of accidental venting exists and where contamination of ground-water may occur. Of special concern
are such nuclides as 3H, 14C, and 85Kr because of theirlong half-life and high mobility in the environment;and (b) the use of products recovered from "contained~ype" of explosions. When nuclear energy is used tomcrease the availability of oil, natural gas, etc., theresulting products will be contaminated to some extent
with .radio-nuclides. These products could be used at
locations far removed from the explosion.

266. In the case of 90Sr, the transfer coefficient from
deposit to diet has been estimated as 4.5 pCi y (gCa)-1
per mCi km-2 instead of 9 pCi y (gCa)-1 per mCi km-2 ,and the transfer coefficient from diet to vertebrre has
been taken as 0.12 instead of 0.2. A reassessment of
the dose-rate factors (P45 ) resulted in changes from
1.1 to 1.95 mrad per pCi y (gCa)-1 for bone-lining
cells and from 0.55 to 1.42 mrad per pCi y (gCa)-1
for bone marrow.

1. Sources of radio-activity

267. Estimates of doses from external radiation are
higher, mainly because the ratio of the tissue dose to
outdoor air dose is now taken as 0.32 instead of 0.2.
However, the 187 Cs dose-rate factor used in this report
is 0.033 mrad y-1 per mCi km-2 compared with 0.04
mrad y-1 per mCi knr2 used in the 1969 report. In
addition, a small difference results from an incorrect
use in the 1969 report of the cumulative rather than
the integrated 90Sr deposit to estimate the 187Cs deposit.
Doses from short-lived radio-nuclides have been estimated from actual measurements and the new tissue/air
dose conversion factor was applied.

2 72. There are two sources of radio-activity froma nuclear explosion, the direct products of the nuclear
reactions ( the :fission fragments and tritium) and theradio-active products which result from activation of
the surrounding medium (both inside and outside theexplosive device).
273. The two design extremes are the pure fission
device producing about 2.9 1023 fission fragments per
kiloton and the pure fusion device which would produce no :fission products but approximately from 1023
to 1024 atoms of 8H per kiloton ( depending on theefficiency and kind of thermonuclear fuel) ( 606). The
excess neutrons produced (about 2 1023 neutrons
per kiloton escape both from an unshielded fission
explosive and from a fusion explosive) are captured
either in the device or in its immediate environment(358). In this way, a variety of induced radio-active
products are formed.

268. As a result of the combination of higher dose
commitments from external radiation and lower dose
commitments from 90 Sr. the relative importance of 00 Sr
has decreased and is,cs appears to be the main contributor to the total dose commitment.
B. UNDERGROUND AND CRATERING EXPLOSIONS

274. A fully contained one-megaton explosion (10kt fission) surrounded by borated material would, if
exploded in a medium with the average chemical composition of the earth's crust, produce radio-nuclides in
the amounts shown in table 46 (583). The relative
activities of the total fission products and the induced
activities at various times after the explosion are shownin figure XXV. After one year the activity is entirely
dominated by aH, ooco, 90Sr and 1 3 ,cs, tritium being
the most abundant nuclide. After 10 years, tritium isstill the most abundant nuclide and its activity is threeorders of magnitude greater than that of 6°Co or 90Sr.

269. During the last decades. in addition to the
I · . : development of nuclear devices for military purposes,: . i there has been an increasing interest in the peaceful!
• applications of nuclear explosions. The inherent ad! - vantage of using nuclear explosives for peaceful applications lies in the huge energy source available in a•small package at a relatively low cost per unit of! energy released.
r-;-i'. '~Il('._l27~. There are two basic types of explosions:cratering explosions in which nuclear explosives are57

volume to the cavity formed. In contained explosions
the cavity reaches its peak size in a few hundredths(or tenths) of a second (667). At this time thepressure is approximately balanced by the lithostaticpressure and the shock wave breaks away from thecavity. While still in the neighborhood of the cavity
the shock wave crushes the rock. Further out, fractures
are produced whereas, at greater distances, the medium
behaves elastically in response to the pressure wave.
The resulting cavity stands for a period of time which
depends upon the type of rock, the depth of burial
and the explosion yield. When and if collapse occurs,
it generally progresses upward at about the same
diameter as the cavity until the limit of the fracturezone is reached. The resulting roughly cylindricalvolume of broken rock and rubble is called thechimney. The time history of an underground explosion
is shown in figure XXVI.

1010

1a9

108

,o7

'v FISSION PRODUCTS

''

''

'

'

TRITIUM"'w

a: 1o6
::,
l)

105

1a4

1<>2 L...-~...J.._~-1--~-L,---"-~---'-~--"'----'
10

,o2

1a3

104 - HOURS Time after explosion

YEARS - t

10

102

ta3

Figure XXV. Activities of radio-nuc!ides at various times
after a nominal one-megaton explosion (10 kton fission) inaverage crustal material (583)

3 MICROSECONDS

For peaceful applications, the explosive can be selectedso as to minimize the potential hazard of the associatedradio-activity.
275. For cratering explosions, Kelly (322), basedon past experience, assumes that largely because of(a) the amount of scavenging during the venting process: (b) the effect of special emplacement techniques:and ( c) the use of low fission explosives, the sum offission products airborne in the radio-active cloud andin the fall-out for each nuclear explosive detonatedmay be expected to be as low as the equivalent of 20
tons. Further, the tritium release may be less than 20
kilocuries per kiloton of total yield. The inventoryof selected products expected in the radio-active cloudand in the fall-out are shown in table 47.
276. For underground engineering. fission products(except S5Kr) do not generally appear to be troublesome, but tritium, either from the explosive or fromneutron reactions with trace lithium in the soil, gives
rise to potential difficulties. Where hydrocarbons are
involved, approximately 3 per cent of all neutrons thatescape into the soil will produce tritium in typicalshales ( 209). In addition, tritium might be produced
in second-order reactions if boron is used as shielding
material. Thus, a fission explosive with no neutrons
allowed to leak to the soil should be used for hydrocarbon applications (209).

A FEW SECONDS
TO A FEW HOURSFINALCONFIGURATION

Figure XXVI. A typical sequence of events after a nuclear
explosion is detonated underground (538)278. If the explosion occurs at great depths,• all
the radio-active products will remain underground.
However, the crushing of rock and the formation offissure systems may create channels from the cavity
through the overlying layers to the surface and radioactivity may be released into the atmosphere. This
process would usually require considerable time ( ofthe order of an hour or more). This means that only
the isotopes of inert gases or volatile elements ( e.g.,
halogens) could escape into the atmosphere. The
isotopes ssmKr, 87 Kr, 88 Kr, 133Xe, 135Xe. and 138Xe
would be the ones most efficiently released (278). If,
however, the release were to begin a few minutes after

2. Contained experiments
277. The initial result of an underground nuclear
explosion is the release of all its energy and of a large
number of neutrons within less than a microsecond( 463). The neutrons are thermalized and captured in
the surrounding material, producing a variety of induced nuclides. The extreme pressures and temperatures ( > 106 atmospheres and > 107 degrees) that are
generated vaporize some of the surrounding material
and give rise to a strong shock wave that propagates
outwards. Initially this shock wave is sufficiently intense
to vaporize additional rock and add its mass and• The minimum depth for total containment depends on explosion yield and is approximately 140 m kt-1/3.

58

...

the explosion, the short-lived 89 Kr, 90 Kr and 137Xe
miaht escape (278) and their decay products would
settle on atmospheric dust particles, forming so-called
secondary aerosols. It should be noted that this typeof release is nm likely to occur if LlJe site of the
explosions is determined after a careful study of its
aeology. It has not been observed after any UnitedStates contained explosion for peaceful purposes.
279. Gas stimulation. One of the most importantpossible applications of contained underground explosions is for recovering gas from known reservoirs
from which gas may not be produced as efficiently by
conventional methods. In these attempts to stimulate
gas reservoirs. the chimney and fracture regions serve
as a gathering system for the natural gas (251). In thePlowshare programme two gas stimulation experiments.
Gasbuggy and Rulison, were performed. Data on theseexperiments are shown in table 48. These experiments
demonstrated that the principal radio-nuclides remaining in the gas several months after the initial explosions
were 3 H and 8"Kr (568, 569). From table 48 it isevident that the concentration of tritium in the Rulison
gas is down by a factor of four compared with Gasbuggy, and that its total amount in the gas is alsoless by a factor of about two. However, neither ofthe devices used in those tests are specially designed
for gas stimulation (209). The amount of residual 3H
per kiloton of yield will be considerably less in future
United States gas stimulation experiments owing to theuse of an explosive specially developed for that purpose (358). The only other activities observed in the
Gasbuggy gas were due to 133Xe, 37Ar, 39Ar and HC(252). The concentrations of the long-lived 39Ar and
14 C in the early samples were about 0.1 and 1 pCi
cm-s, respectively.

T_,_I ---'--------......---------&....
Surface zeroradius of base-surge cloud -I
Base-surge cloudr

Figure XXVII. Definition of cloud dimensions (333)282. At greater explosion depths, the ground between the cavity and the surface is lifted by the shock
wave but falls back again so that no real crater isformed. A certain amount of dynamic venting may
occur and release a small part of the still volatile
products as well as some of the smallest particle
fraction. Later on a slow seeping out of gaseous
products (mainly noble gases and tritium) may occur
through fissures in the ground material.
283. Probably the most widely known potential
application of nuclear cratering is the constructionof canals and specifically that of a sea-level canalacross the American Isthmus. Of the four consideredroutes involving nuclear excavation techniques, a route
through Colombia appears to be the least expensive by
a considerable margin (210). It would require a totalof 148 devices, amounting to a yield of approximately
120 megatons. The channel would be excavated in
sections by about 20 separate rows of explosions, eachconsisting of from 5 to 16 nuclear devices which would
be exploded simultaneously (271). According to an
early estimate, about 115 million tons of dust would
be airborne at one time or another as a result of the
explosions ( 606).
284. In the Soviet Union, plans have been developed for the transport of additional water to the
Caspian Sea which has been drying up in the past
15 years (668). The proposal is for the northwardflowing Pechora River to be intercepted by a seriesof dams and canals. the water being diverted into thesouthward-flowing Karna River. One canal would be
112 kilometres long and would be built over 65 kilometres by nuclear means (250 charges). Up to 20
charges would be detonated simultaneously with amaximum explosive yield of three megatons.

3. Cratering experiments(a) Formation of crater

280. When the explosion takes place at a relatively
shallow depth, s there is a breakthrough of the cavity
to the surface and ejection of radio-active products
into the atmosphere (667). The size of the resulting
crater, the shape of the explosion cloud and the particle properties of the airborne debris depend not only
on the depth of burial and the explosion yield but
also on the strength and water content of the groundmaterial.
281. Explosions in dry hard rock result in a fast
drop of the cavity pressure and the cratering will becaused mainly by the shock wave. The material
overlying the expanding cavity will act as a filterbed
through which the radio-active material must pass.
As a result only a base-surge cloud (see figure XXVII)
is formed which contains small particles mixed withfinely-distributed ground material and enriched involatile radio-active products. When the water content
of the ground is high, the cavity pressure will drop
more slowly and overpressure will contribute to thecrater formation (330) causing a ';dynamic venting"of gases and of primarily-formed particles. Besides abase-surge cloud this dynamic venting results in theformation of a main cloud ( see figure ~VII) whichreaches substantially higher into the atmosphere.
Although at very early times the airborne activity is
not grossly fractionated. the smallest particles arestrongly enriched in volatile products.

(b) Release and transport of debris(i) Cloud geometry

285. At the time of stabilization, the geometry of
the cloud from a nuclear cratering explosion depends
on explosion yield, explosion environment, depth . ofburial of the device and meteorological conditions during
cloud formation (331). Figure XXVII shows the formof the main cloud and base surge cloud at the time. ofstabilization (333). Figures XXVIII and 'XXp{ givethe radius of the base-surge cloud and the main-cloudheight, respectively. On increasing the water content
of the medium surrounding the explosive, one cans The minimum depth for cratering depends on explosion
yield and is approximately 60 m kt-1/3.4.

59

104

1ol

,o2

-:.:
!:S

10

.a
"I!

10-3

...8."

10°

Yield (kllorom)

Figure XXV/II. Radius of base-surge cloud versus yield atscaled depth of burial of 3 to I 5 m kt-1/3 in alluvium (333)1o-lTime{hounl

Figure XXX. Time variation of the exposure rate in thecrater and lip area from 3 kt-fission explosions of different
total yields detonated at a scaled depth of burst of
44 m kt-1/3.4 (600)which contains the radio-activity. The shapes of thecurves change with yield because, as the yield increases,
so does the relative contribution from the induced
radio-nuclides ( 600).

Yield lkilotonl)

Figure XXIX. Height of main cloud versus yield at scaled
depths of burial of O to 85 m kt-1/3 in alluvium (333)288. Local fall-out. The large particles in the base
surge and the main cloud descend within the first day
and form the local or close-in fall-out. Ffo:ure XXXI
shows, for explosions at different scaled depths, thepercentage of the radio-active products deposited as

expect that the stabilized base-surge cloud would belarger ( 661 ) and that the main cloud and the vented
fraction of refractory radio-nuclides would increase(333 ).
286. Lack of experimental data makes it difficult
to predict the sizes of the resulting clouds from the
explosions of nuclear row charges. However, the individual main clouds may be treated separately and theirheights may be obtained from figure XXIX (333).
At any rate, it is essential to follow up the evolutionof the cloud. The radius of the resulting base-surge
cloud would be about the same as that of a base-surge
cloud formed in a single explosion with the same total
yield and the same scaled depth.
(ii) Deposition

287. Crater and lip. A large part of the radioactivity produced in a nuclear cratering explosion iscarried down by the fall-back which descends into
the initial crater and its immediate vicinity. Figure XXX
shows the exposure rate as a function of time forfive different explosion yields ( 600). The exposure ratein the crater and lip area decreases as the explosion
yield increases. This decrease is due to lower concentrations of radio-nuclides in the fall-back and ejecta.
This in turn results from (a) a decrease with increasing
yield ( constant fission trigger) in the amount of radioactivity produced per unit yield: and ( b) the increasein direct proportion to yield of the amount of material

SCALED DEPTH OF BURIAL (m)Figure XXXI. Percentage of radio-activity deposited as local
fall-out in cratering tests (198)60

local fall-out ( 198). The medium surrounding the explosive, and especially its water content, plays animportant role which is reflected in the breadth of theband that describes the relationship in figure XXXI.
Once the fraction of radio-active products present in
the local fall-out is predicted, it is possible to calculate
a fall-out pattern which can be used in planning safetymeasures. This is accomplished by using appropriate
meteorological data ( turbulence and wind speed as afunction of altitude), distribution of debris of different
particle sizes and initial cloud configuration (333).
289. Long-range fall-out. The very small particles
may remain suspended in the air for considerable times
before they reach the ground as long-range fall-out.
The cloud dimensions continually increase as a resultof turbulent diffusion. The cloud can thus be very large
and the particles be brought to great distances by thewind before they descend to earth either by impact
or by precipitation. With regard to the radio-activity
present in the long range cloud, Crawford ( 3 3 3) has
developed a diffusion model which enables the cloud
concentrations to be estimated as a function of time
and which also provides a means for determining thedeposition of material from the cloud over considerable
distances from the epicentre. Experimental findings
indicate that the basic constituents of the long-range
fall-out from cratering explosions are 89 Sr, 140Ba and01y which after about 10 days account for more than
80 per cent of the total activity (279). This distribution of fission products is due to the fact that among
the precursors of these products in the mass chains areisotopes of krypton and xenon with half-lives ranging
from 10 seconds to several minutes. Similar isotopic
composition of long-range fall-out has been reported
elsewhere (319, 336, 501). Devices of different designs
may result in different distributions of radio-nuclides
in long-range fall-out. Thus, 181 W and 185 W werereported to predominate in the long-range fall-out fromthe Schooner cratering explosion (table 49) (62, 99,
126,141,502).

insignµicant when distributed in the large volume ofmatenal around an underground explosion. mes tends
to be even more firmly held by sorption than is 90Sr
(583), while 6 °Co is insignificant in comparison withthe longer-lived 9osr.

4. Doses291. Nuclear explosives for peaceful applications
are still in the experimental stage. Cratering events
have been conducted in isolated areas on a scale small
by comparison to that of the projects to which theymight be applied. A few practical applications ofcontained explosions have so far been made, all ofth.em in the Soviet Union (table 49). Up till now, thedoses received by the public have been extremely small.
This section will review the doses received so far. andalso indicate those that might be expected if somekrge-scale applications were carried out with the helpof nuclear devices of current design.
(a) Contained explosions

292. An underground explosion successfully contained does not lead to any release to the environment,
but if its purpose is to enhance the availability of oil
or natural gas, the resulting products are likely to becontaminated to some extent. Four such experiments
have been reported so far, two in the Soviet Union(321) and two in the United States (table 48).
293. In the Soviet Union, three charges were
detonated several years ago in an oil deposit to increase
the extraction of petroleum. The explosions produced
no general radio-active contamination of the atmosphere or ground site. and the outputs of the wells
which were increased over the entire field by 27-60 per
cent over its normally-expected yield, showed no tracesof non-gaseous radio-active contamination. The data
regarding the second explosion, which was set off in agas field, have not yet been reported (321).
294. The two United States experiments (Gasbuggy
and Rulison) were conducted in natural gas formations.
The only significant long-lived radio-nuclides found in
the dry gas product were 3H. BC and 85 Kr (568, 569).
The contaminated gas was burned at the surface, insteadof being marketed. The results of the off-site radiological surveillance for project Gasbuggy indicated thatthe project did not result in the introduction of any
device-related radio-activity into the existing natural-gas
distribution system ( 409). Future contamination ofwater supplies following hydrological transport of radionuclides is also very unlikely (573).

(iii) Ground-water contamination

290. For contained underground explosions, theconcentrations of radio-active products in ground water
are dependent on several factors such as radio-nuclide
production and initial distribution, radio-active decay.
sorption on geologic material, and dispersion duringhydrologic transport. For cratering explosions otheraspects of the hydrologic cycle, particularly rainfall
and the characteristics of the water table. must be
considered ( 646). For contained explosions, where thecavity may collapse either completely to form a subsidence crater or partially to form a chimney, there areindications that the ground water close to the explosion
point will flow inward toward the cavity for a considerable time, possibly years (583). After the restoration of the pre-explosion ground-water flow, the radionuclides will be transported away from their initialdeposition by ground water along the regional hydraulicgradient. Tritium, which is readily available fortransport and whose exchange with the rock matri't~ negligible, is the only radio'..nuclide in ground water~ely to appear in significant concentrations at somedIStance from the explosion point. 90 Sr will be significantly retarded in its ground-water transport inpractically all geologic environments; the rate of movement of 90 Sr will rarely be more than a few per centof the average rate of ground-water flow (583). The
small amount of 14 C produced may be considered

295. Although none of the gas from the Gasbuggy
well had been introduced into the distribution system,
theoretical evaluation of the potential radiation exposure
from hypothetical domestic and commercial utilizationof the contaminated gas have been reported (33. 285).
The most important radiation exposures from 3 H and
14
C are likely to occur after combustion transforms
CH3 T and 14 CH4 into HTO and HCO~. whereas 85 Kr
is merely carried along with the natural gas. Table 50
presents the whole-body doses resulting from hypothetical distribution of all the Gasbuggy gas in theLos Angeles basin, where natural gas is used for
fueling steam plants to generate electricity and for awide variety of industrial and commercial applications,as well as for domestic consumption (33). Tritium
would practically be the only contributor to the dose
despite the fact that most of the amount produced

61299. The lower limit of tritium production in a
gas-stimulation explosion is estimated at 2 Ci kr-1
(209). If that limit were reached. the radiation exposures from 3 H and s;;Kr would be about equal.

by the explosion was bound with water in the cavity
where it did not seem to exchange appreciably tomethane (252). The most critical pathway would bedomestic consumption for space heating and cooking.
For a given consumption rate of contaminated gas ina conventional dwelling. the dose from domestic use
depends upon the fraction of combustion products
vented inside the home. i.e. upon the relative amountsof gas used in nonvented and vented appliances andupon the efficiency of the venting system. The weighted
average dose assumes that. in 10 per cent of thehouses, the heating and other appliances making useof gas are unvented and that, in the other 90 per cent,
only the kitchen range is unvented (33, 647). The dose
resulting from ingestion of food and water that havebeen exposed to the combustion products has not been
included, but experimental results indicate that it would
only amount to 2 to 7 per cent of the total (285).

(b) Cratering explosions

300. The nuclear clouds formed by the few cratering explosions which have been detonated did not reachthe stratosphere (figure XXIX) and, as a consequence,
the radio-activity produced. with the exception of longlived gases. was deposited in a matter of weeks ininhomogeneous patterns particularly sensitive to scavenging by precipitation.
30 I. The doses to the public could best be derived
from the knowledge of the deposition pattern of theradio-active debris following each cratering experiment.
The United States and the Soviet Union have independently developed prediction methods to that purpose (332). Unfortunately, the published data on
actual explosions do not indicate if the nuclear clouds
crossed densely populated areas a few days after the
explosion and are not sufficient to calculate the population doses.

296. As the consumption of gas in the Los Angeles
basin is much larger than the production of the Gasbuggy well. the contaminated gas was assumed to bediluted before distribution in that region. The hypothetical dose commitment resulting from the exclusive
domestic use of undiluted Gasbuggy gas. in an area
where the annual heating requirement is 2,800-degree
Celsius-days (average value for the United States)(286) is 40 millirads. Assuming a production rate of 28
103 m 3 d-1 (285). more than 99 per cent of the dosewould be received in the first year.

(i) Dose contribution from short-range fall-out

302. In certain circumstances. milk contaminatedwith 131 I appears to be at least a rough indicator of
the whole-body doses which might have resulted from
cratering experiments. Table 51 presents levels observed
around the Nevada test site where the sL~ United Statescratering events took place. Five tests gave rise todetectable levels in the local milk network surrounding
the test site. This network samples mostly farms or
dairies located in eleven western states of the UnitedStates. Only Sedan and Palanquin gave rise to detectablelevels in the national network which analyses weekly
composite samples pooled from farms dispersed overhundreds to thousands of square kilometres.
303. Study of milk contamination around the detonation site provides some information on the population
doses resulting from the intermediate fall-out. Analysisof the potential radiation exposures to a child from nuclear excavation projects shows that, for deposition at
one day after detonation, the thyroid dose from 13 ll ingested via the forage-cow-milk pathway would be themost important (127, 175). However. since 1963. thecratering experiments were intentionally conducted during the colder half of the year with wind blowing towards the north to take advantage of the fact that dairy
cattle were on dry food (384). As a crude approximation. the total external whole-body dose to man can be
expected to be equal to the 131 I thyroid dose to infants.
304. Using the pessimistic assumptions that the milk
contaminated at the maximum concentration level
observed in the local network would be distributed
to 5.000 people and that the concentrations reportedby the national network would be representative of
the milk levels in the whole state. the population doseto the thyroids of infants six months to two years old
were roughly estimated from population and birth-rate
data (541, 617). The population whole-body dose
commitment. then calculated as the product of the total
population thyroid dose to infants ( 1.200 man-rads)by the ratio of the total population to the infant population ( about 40 in the United States) is estimated at
4.6 1()4 man-rads. Dividing by the world population(3.5 109 ) yields an average whole-body dose of 14297. The population dose commitment would be
about 200 man-rads if the contaminated gas were
distributed in the Los Angeles basin and thus. to acertain extent. used for industrial purposes. The maximum population dose commitment would occur if all
the gas were used for domestic consumption; in thatcase, it would be 700 man-rads if the gas were distributed in the Los Angeles basin (population 7 million)
and 550 man-rads if the gas were distributed in anarea where the annual heating requirement is 2.800degree Celsius-days. After use, the tritium would be
released to the atmosphere and would give rise to an
additional dose commitment to the world population.
This, however, would be quite small. as it corresponds
to a population dose of the order of 10 man-rads.
298. From the radiation protection point of view,
the analysis of the Gasbuggy experiment led to theconclusion that efforts should be directed to the reduction of production of 3 H by the explosion. From
1,400 Ci kr-1 in the Gasbuggy event, the 3 H production
decreased to 250 Ci kr- 1 in the Rulison event and is
expected to be less than 20 Ci kt-1 in future gasstimulation applications which would use a new explosive design (358). For the purpose of comparison,table 50 presents the whole-body doses which would
be expected if the Gasbuggy experiment had been shotwith the specially developed explosive and if thecontaminated gas had been marketed in the Los Angeles basin. Those explosives have been envisioned todevelop a field of 28 wells in Wyoming in the UnitedStates (647). Four 100-kiloton explosions would be
used per well and the 28 wells would be drilled overa six-year period. The gas from this field would supply
about I O per cent of the demand in the Los Angeles
basin, where the average whole-body dose commitments
to the population of users would be 0.6 millirad from3
65
H
Kr, the dose from a:;Kr being about 10 times
less than that from sH.

+

62

rnicrorads. Owing to lack of data. the dose arising fromthe intermediate fall-out of the Soviet Union cratering
tests has not been taken into account.

fission yield of the explosive device, assumed constantregardless of the total yield. is taken as 90 tons(smallest fission yield rep?rted. in t~e nuclear experiments), then the total fission yield 1s 13 kilotons: theproduction of 85 Kr would then be in the range 150-300
curies and the corresponding whole-body -dose commitment would be of the order of 10 picorads.

(ii) Dose contribution from long-range fall-out

305. In order to estimate the doses from long-range
fall-out, the inventories of selected isotopes present in
the main cloud and the base surge in the Schooner
experiment (332) were assumed to be homogeneously
diluted in the 40-50° N latitude band. The dose commitments were then estimated from the transfer coefficients and other data given in the section on atmospheric and surface explosions. Results are summarizedin table 52. Besides 3H, only 00Sr and 13·Cs have been
considered for internal irradiation because the transfer
coefficients from deposit to diet are not sufficiently
known for the other radio-nuclides listed in table 52.
306. Although it is realized that, as a result ofcontinuous improvement in explosive design and differences in fission yield and conditions of explosion,
the activities released by the tests varied widely, if it
is tentatively assumed that the Schooner event is representative of the nine nuclear cratering experiments
conducted so far, then the total dose commitmentsfrom long-range fall-out may be estimated by multiplying the results of table 52 by nine. The total population integrated external dose commitment is thus foundto be of the order of 104 man-rads. Dividing by theworld population yields a world average dose of three
microrads.
307. Regarding the internal doses, the major contribution is furnished by 3H. For a 170-kiloton explosion, the amount of 3 H expected to be released
to the environment is estimated at two megacuries(table 47). Assuming that the amount of 3 H released
is proportional to the total yield, the cratering experiments gave rise to a world-wide distribution of about
three megacuries, which corresponds to an average
dose commitment of six microrads, much greater thanthe contribution of oosr and 137Cs.
308. There is a significant potential for using nuclear
explosives to accomplish large-scale construction
projects at considerable savings in cost and time
as compared to use of conventional construction
techniques. The most documented project is the construction of a new Atlantic-Pacific interoceanic canal(paragraph 283). If the route through Colombia w~reto be adopted. an area of about 8,000 square kilometres would have to be evacuated mainly to guard
against short- and intermediate-range fall-out. Recent
estimates show that approximately 10.000 persons live
within this area (271). If those people were notevacuated. they would receive estimated lifetime doses
ranging up to 300 rads from external radiation alone.
309. Concerning the long-range fall-out, the trajectories of the clouds are expected to be such thatmost of the radio-activity would be deposited over the
Pacific Ocean and that only a small fraction of the base
surge would branch towards the Colombian mainland(127). However. 3H and s:;Kr would eventually be
distributed world-wide. The amount of 3 H released
would be 1,400 megacuries-slightly less than thequantity produced by atmospheric testing (paragraph166). The dose commitment to the world's population
would be of the order of three millirads. The production of 85Kr has been assumed from table 48 to bein the range 12-23 curies per kiloton of fission. If the

5. Conclusion
310. There is a wide spectrum of potential peacefulapplications for nuclear explosives. In any nuclear
cratering explosion, some radio-activity is inevitably
released into the environment. Nuclear cratering techniques have been developed to the point where they
can be used for relatively small projects, such asformation of water reservoirs, as demonstrated in theSoviet Union. Dose commitments from past events
have been tentatively estimated and should be considered as merely indicative. They would probably
have been lower if current explosive designs had been
employed. For large scale projects, problems involving
safety of the population living in the proximity of the
explosion site seem to be strong limiting factors.
311. The future of contained explosions looks more
promising as some applications would not result ina release of radio-activity to the biosphere. For example, elimination of a runaway gas well was safely conducted in the Soviet Union and the prospect of storing
industrial radio-active wastes in cavities formed bycontained explosives has attracted interest. In otherapplications, the release of radio-activity would be small
and could be controlled to a large extent. The only
significant contamination of the natural gas recovered
after the gas stimulation experiments carried out inthe United States was that due to 3 H and 85 Kr.
II. Power production by nuclear fission

A.

INTRODUCTION

312. The increasing use of nuclear fission in power
production calls for assessment of potential environmental contamination at present and in the future.
Estimates of the growth of nuclear power vary but
the highest given in table 53 indicate that the world
generating capacity. which was about 20 GW(e) in1970 (264), may increase to about 1,600 GW ( e) by
1990 and to about 4,300 GW(e) by the year 2000
( 581). This increase is partly due to the predicted
rise in power demand and partly to the higher percentage (just over 60 per cent in 2000) of electrical
power expected to be produced by nuclear fission.
313. An IAEA survey (264) lists 361 research
reactors and 127 power reactors as being in operationin 1971. About half of the power reactors are either
experimental with output below 20 MW ( e) or haverelatively low outputs of 20-100 MW(e). The remainder of the power reactors. which account<:d f';'rmore than 90 per cent of the installed capacity m1970, have outputs in the range 100-800 MW(e) andare in operation in a total of 12 countries.9 There aremany power reactors under construction with outpu.ts
up to 1.200 MW(e) and 319 are expected to be moperation by 1977.
9 These are Canada, France, ~he Federal Rep!Jblic of Germany, India, Italy, Japan, Spam, Sweden, _Switzerland, theSoviet Union, the United Kingdom and the United States.

63

evolved (e.g. 85, 481, 482, 565). The basic methods
apply to level ground in open country during meteorological conditions ranging from substantial solar
heating of the ground, resulting in considerable turbulence, to inversion conditions when temperaturerises with height above ground and turbulence is suppressed. Modifications of the basic methods may benecessary to take account of the presence of obstacles,
e.g. buildings or trees. or of discharge from a stack.
319. Airborne radio-nuclides may be deposited bydry deposition resulting from very small-scale turbulent
diffusion processes which lead to impaction and/ or
adsorption of radio-nuclides on surfaces (106). The
dry-deposition velocity varies with the physical andchemical form of the radio-nuclide; an outstanding
example of this variation occurs with iodine which
may be discharged from the nuclear power industry
in several different forms (22, 30, 107, 196). Radionuclides may also be deposited by means of wash-out
by rain falling through contaminated air at a rate which
depends on the rainfall rate and on the form of theairborne material (160, 161).
320. If iodine is deposited on pasture grazed bydairy cows. a proportion is transmitted to milk (paragraphs 214-215) which mav subsequently be consumed
by infants. This pathway is not important, however,for heavy elements such as uranium and plutonium,
which are not absorbed significantly from the gut into
the cow's bloodstream (116) and, hence. are nottransmitted to milk. Nor is the pathway important in
the many countries where milk is either not producednear nuclear power sites or does not contribute significantly to diet. Other pathways which may lead tointernal radiation exposure of man involve deposition
on growing crops and soil, and on pastures used foranimals providing meat for human consumption. An
additional pathway leading to internal irradiation isinhalation of radio-nuclides in the plume of airborne
wastes from the stack; in the special case of tritiatedwater. intake also occurs by absorption through skin(472) (paragraphs 362 and 395).
321. Beta and/or gamma emitting radio-nuclides
in the plume or deposited on the ground may giverise to external radiation exposure of man. Many of
the fission-product noble gases emit both types ofradiation. the beta component usually irradiating only
the skin. The shorter-lived kryptons and xenons mainly
irradiate populations which may be described as local(paragraph 359) in contrast to the longer-lived 85 Kr
which irradiates local populations as the plume isdispersed downwind. and subsequently irradiates theworld population when the 85 Kr is dispersed in the
global atmosphere (652) (paragraphs 392 and 396).

314. The nuclear power generated in 1970, calculated from the figures published by the IAEA (263),
was 8.6 GW ( e) y to which must be added the contribution (1.1 G\V(e) y) from power stations forwhich the installed capacity is known and the loadfactor assumed to be 0.65. This load factor is anaverage value for power stations fully operational
before 1970 (263). Other reactors which were notfully operational contributed 5 GW ( e) to the total
installed capacity of 20 GW ( e). The total nuclear
power generated during 1970 was thus estimated tobe 9.7 GW(e) y corresponding to an over-all loadfactor of 0.5. This is assumed to apply also in theyear 2000, although a substantial number of nuclear
power reactors may then be operated only during
periods of high energy demand.
315. The Committee noted that the largest part ofthe information on which it bases its conclusions comesfrom a very small number of countries among those inwhich nuclear power plants are used to generate
electricity. The Committee does not discuss. in thisannex, reactors used in other applications of nuclear
power, for example, district heating, ship propulsion or
experimental projects.
316. In common with other industries. the nuclear
power industry gives rise to wastes which may occur
in airborne, liquid and solid fonns. Environmental
contamination resulting from leakage or discharge ofradio-nuclides in wastes will be discussed here step bystep. from the mining of ore to the reprocessing ofspent fuel. Dose commitments from current practice,and those expected to be incurred in the future as aresult of the industry's expansion, will be estimated.
The dose commitments considered here will be thosewhich are related to normal conditions of operationalvariability and not to accidents leading to uncontrolled
discharges to the environment.

B.

ENVIRO~MENTAL PATHWAYS INVOLVING RADIATIONEXPOSURE OF ME!\IBERS OF THE PUBLIC

317. Radio-nuclides discharged in airborne, liquidand solid wastes may be transferred along environmental pathways which depend upon the physical andchemical nature of the nuclides. These radio-nuclides
may then give rise to radiation doses which are either
external, e.g. from radio-nuclides in air, on the groundor in sediments, or internal, e.g. from radio-nuclides
deposited in tissues following intake into the body.
Estimations of doses from discharges by the nuclear
power industry are more likely to require considerationof local situations than those from weapons tests fallout because members of the public are likely to berelatively near such installations. As a result of this,short-lived nuclides, e.g. certain isotopes of krypton
and xenon, and radio-nuclides whose properties may
make them of significance to man in a particularenvironment, e.g. water-borne 106Ru. give radiation
exposures to defined population groups following pathways that are not relevant to fall-out from weapons
tests.

2. Pathways involving the aquatic environment
322. Radio-nuclides may also be discharged by the
nuclear power industry in liquid and solid wastes andenter the aquatic environment by mixing and leachingprocesses. Water-borne radio-nuclides may be further
dispersed, or be re-concentrated on sediments or inbiota ( paragraph 323). as local and general movementof surface and ground water proceeds. This pathway
leading to radiation exposure of man is more important
for the nuclear power industry than for weapons tests.
which have taken place mainly in the atmosphere.
Mixing and exchange processes in the sea with specialreference to radio-active waste disposal ·were reviewed
in 1961 (261).

I. Atmospheric pathways
318. Radio-nuclides in airborne wastes may bedischarged by the nuclear power industry in gaseous,vapour or particulate form. Dispersion of a plume ofairborne materials in the atmosphere has been describedby a gaussian distribution (593). and working methods
for quantitatively predicting dispersion have been
64

r
I

323. Re-concentration of radio-nuclides on inanimate matter or in biota depends critically on thespecific nuclide involved, its chemical fom1, which
may change with time due to reaction with otherconstituents of the water, and the presence or absenceof a stable homologue acting as a carrier. It also
depends on metabolic and/ or physical characteristicsof the biota and sediments. Whilst concentration factors
ran!!ing from just under one to about 10 5 have been
observed in particular circumstances, these should not
be applied in the course of dose estimations to situations where the conditions are unknown or different
from those in which the factors were measured ( 109,
184). Measurements of 134 Cs and 137 Cs in environmental materials provide evidence of the complex
situation involving the interdependence of contamination of biota and inanimate matter as a result of fall-out
from weapons tests and discharges of these nuclides by
the nuclear power industry (paragraphs 355-357).

D. EXPOSURES FROM l\IINL'<G A~'D MILLD<G327. The first stage in the nuclear power industry
is mining of uranium-bearing ores. As explained inPart One of this annex. the isoto::>e :?::su. which constitutes about 99.3 per cent of natural uranium, is theradio-active parent of a long chain of daughter products.
of which 2 ~0 Ra. 222 Rn and :? 10Po are the most importantfrom the radiation protection point of view ( paragraphs 74-75). The mining processes give rise to liquid
wastes which may be of local interest.
328. Most of the uranium is leached from the ore
during milling and recovered in the subsequent chemicaltreatment, but the majority of radio-active daughter
products in raw ore remain in the mill waste ( 609). A
study of ~20 Ra balances at mills employing different
processes showed that most of the :?:? 0Ra is present assuspended solids in mill tailings, which consist of about
99 per cent of the ore fed to the mill and are discharged
on to tailings piles ( 609).

324. Utilization of fresh and sea water provides
many environmental pathways for internal radiation
exposure of man. Exposure of local (i.e. not global)
populations may result from consumption of contaminated fish caught recreationally (paragraphs 356,
357, 386, 390) or commercially (paragraphs 356 and390), or of an edible seaweed marketed commercially(paragraphs 387-389). Tritiated water discharged inliquid wastes may result in radiation exposure to local
populations who ingest contaminated water or locallyproduced food-stuffs ( paragraph 391), or to the world
population when 3H is dispersed in the water of the
globe ( paragraph 397). Radio-nuclides re-concentrated
on estuarine silt may result in external radiation
exposure of a few persons using the area for fishing(paragraph 390).

C.

329. Liquids from these piles drain into tailings
ponds which allow deposition and retention of ore
solids and associated radio-activity. This represents a
basic minimum form of treatment. Evaporation fromtailings ponds in dry climates or re-use of water may
reduce substantially the quantity of radio-active
daughter products which reach surface or groundwaters ( 421). Chemical treatment of process streams
may also reduce significantly the concentration ofdissolved pollutants. including :? 26Ra, 210 Pb and various
chemical components ( 609).
330. Solids in tailings piles are estimated to havetotalled about 83 million tonnes by 1969 in the UnitedStates alone ( 562). This accumulation is the resultof the sudden demand for uranium during the increasein the nuclear weapons production experienced in the
United States after World War II. At that time. technological efforts were concentrated on the development of ore-re.fining facilities and on economical
re.fining processes, and little attention was paid to wastematerials. As a consequence, effective waste treatment
or containment was lacking for several years (562).

ASSESSMENT OF RADIATION DOSES TO MEMBERS
OF THE POPULATION

325. Doses incurred by the population can beassessed either by an adequate knowledge of thequantity discharged and of the transfer parameters
involved ( dispersion, re-concentration factors. etc.),
or by means of a programme of environmental monitoring which is usually related specifically to pathways
selected as being of greatest importance.

331. A comprehensive survey of about 30 uranium
mills in the United States was undertaken by Merritt( 421) in 1967; of these half were disused. The survey
showed that operators of mills still in use were planningand conducting current operations with the objectiveof total containment of solids and of controlling thedischarge of water-borne radio-active daughter products.
A proportion of the uranium output of these mills isused by the nuclear power industry.

326. It should be recognized that both approaches
have serious shortcomings for the dose assessments
required in this report. Calculations based on transfer
models are subject to considerable uncertainty due tothe complexities involved in field conditions. In manycases, the simplified models available are unrealistic.
Monitoring routines, on the other hand, are frequently
geared to ensure compliance with accepted limits andtherefore provide insufficient information on the very
low doses which may be incurred by members of the
public. An additional difficulty in the interpretation ofmonitoring results may be due to the presence offall-out nuclides in considerably larger amount thanthat of the same nuclides discharged from the nuclear
industry. Furthermore, in many instances the discharges
are so small that the resulting environmental levels
are too low to measure by usual techniques. In viewof the small contribution by the nuclear power industry
to total dose commitments to members of the public,
there has been no requirement to date for moresensitive methods of analysis and dose estimation.

332. Information on environmental contamination
by radio-active daughter products discharged fromuranium mills relates only to the legacy of past practices
for disposal of ore solids and contaminated liquids andis not relevant to future production of uranium for use
by the nuclear power industry. The use of tailings as
fill material in habitable structures in Grand Junction,
United States, is discussed in annex D.
E.

ExPOSURES FROM FUEL FABRICATION AND
ENRICHMENT

333. The process of fuel fabrication usually starts
with the uranium-ore concentrates produced at themills. These concentrates are further purified bychemical processing involving the use of nitric acid and65

fluorine and, if fuel enriched with the 235 U isotope isrequired. the volatile uranium hexafluoride is produced.
Subsequent to enrichment,. usually in a multi-~tage diffusion plant this product 1s converted by various processes (involving ammonia as a gas or a dilute solution,
steam and hydrogen) to uranium as dioxide or metal,
as required (199, 534). The final stage in fuel fabrication involves the addition of cladding material.
334. Fuel fabrication and enrichment give rise tovarious types of wastes. Most uranium compounds are
solid and conventional air-cleaning equipment is used
to remove particulates from airborne wastes. The quantity of uranium and other chemicals in liquid wastes isreduced by suitable treatment before discharge to theenvironment; uranium wastes and contaminated plantand other equipment are buried under controlled conditions. No data on wastes discharged from fuel fabrication plants are available to the Committee: however,these wastes are of little si!IDificance from the radiation
protection point of view ~as they consist at present
largely of uranium.
335. Thermal reactors currently employed in power
production use uranium fuel, but some advanced reactor types now under development are based on fuelconsisting of mixed uranium and plutonium oxides or
carbides. The addition of plutonium to the fuel does
not radically alter the processes required in its fabrication, but it does have an influence upon the potential
environmental effects of material discharged because of
the high radio-toxicity of plutonium. particularly when
inhaled. The plants required for producing plutonium
fuel are designed to provide more thorough containment at all stages including storage of wastes.

F.

Values are also given in table 55 for the integrated
amounts produced and the cumulative amounts of these
nuclides remaining when decay is taken into account.
In all cases a load factor of 0.5 and a thermal efficiencyof 0.3 are assumed. The values given for the year 2000
are very approximate as estimates of world nuclear
generating capacity vary by a factor of about four(table 53) and the production rate of each of 3 H. 65 Kr
and 129 1 differs by a factor of about two according to
the fissile material ( table 55). The values for 3 H include
only that produced by ternary fission in fuel.

339. Tritium is also produced by neutron activationof 2H. In light-water reactors the rate is estimated to
be about 0.004 Ci {MW(e) y)-1 • but in heavy-water
reactors it could be as high as 30 Ci (MW(e) y)-1(505). Tritium in quantities intermediate between thesevalues is also produced by activation of other reactor
components such as boron and lithium used for neutrondensity control (505) (table 56). These sources could
add appreciable amounts to the 2 H produced by ternary
fission, but the amounts vary too much depending onreactor design to be included in the estimates intable 55.
340. Besides 3 H, a large variety of activation products is formed in a nuclear reactor (table 56). Someof them, such as 134Cs and some actinide radio-nuclides,
are formed in the fuel and their activities can be calculated from data on burn-up and the neutron energy
spectrum. The most important actinide radio-nuclide
is 239 Pu which, being a fissile element, is also burnt up
as fuel. Reported activities of 239 Pu in spent fuel are
160 Ci r-1 for fuel in advanced gas-cooled reactors(AGRs) ( 54) and 330 Ci t-1 for fuel in light-water
reactors (LWRs) ( 465). 134Cs is produced by neutron
activation of 1s.1 cs, which is one of the most abundant
stable nuclides formed by fission. 184 Cs activity in AGR
fuel, after a bum-up of 18.000 MW(th) d r 1 at a
specific power of 10 MW (th) t-1, has been calculated
to be about 20 per cent of that of 137 Cs (112).

EXPOSURES FROM NUCLEAR POWER REACTORS

1. Origin and amount of radio-nuclides produced

336. The production of power in nuclear reactors
is accompanied by the formation of fission products andactivation products. Studies of slow-neutron fission of
2s~u and 23epu show that the masses of over 80 fission
products generated during fission fall largely into twogroups. a '"light"' group with mass numbers 80 to 110
and a "heavy" group with mass numbers from 125 to155. Fission yields for the various mass numbers range
up to over 6 per cent and vary with the fissile nuclide(199). Total ~35U and 239 Pu fission yields for nuclidesof particular interest for this section are given intable 54, together with their radio-active half-lives.

341. The other radio-nuclides listed in table 56
are produced by activation of reactor components otherthan fuel. The cross-sections for production of those
nuclides are given in table 56 but their activities cannot be calculated without a knowledge of the isotopic
composition of the materials used in the reactor components and of the spatial distribution of the neutron
flux and energy spectrum. Neutron irradiation of graphite or of carbon dioxide leads to the production of
14C and irradiation of 160 contained in air or water
results in the formation of 12 N and 16 N. 41 Ar is producedby activation of air which contains 40 Ar in the proportion of about 1 per cent. The presence of chromium.
cobalt, or zinc in metals gives rise to the formation of
5 8Co, 60 Co, 51 Cr and 65 Zn.

337. Production rates of fission 3 H and 85Kr areof interest because virtuallv all the activity produced is
at present discharged to the environment during reprocessing. Data on production rates of !!?OJ are included
with those for 3H and s;;Kr in table 55 because some of
the 129I produced may be discharged to the environment
and its radio-active half-life is very long (1.7 107 y).
Production rates per MW(e) y are given for thermal
and fast fission: in practice there will be a gradualtransition from ~35 U to ~39 Pu, because many thermal
reactors will burn a significant amount of 239Pu produced from z:isu in fuel.

2. Discharges to the environment
342. The emphasis in this report is on data which
specify individual radio-nuclides discharged and whichare, therefore, relevant to the estimation of radiation
doses to man. Data on discharges are not available
for some of the operating reactors and are limited inscope for others, being mainly in the form of grossactivity measurements. Comprehensive studies giving
information on individual nuclides discharged have been
carried out in the United States on a boiling-water reactor (BWR) (304) and a pressurized-water reactor(P\VR) (303). These are both light-water reactors

338. Annual production rates (table 55) of 3 H.
ssKr and 1~9 I are calculated on the basis of (a) the
power produced in 1970 (9.7 GW(e)) and (b) the
estimated world capacity of 4,300 GW(e) in the year
2000 ( table 53) consisting of 70 per cent fast-breeder
reactors, as projected for the United States ( 465).
66

J

(LWRs). In addition, a detailed study has been madeof the Hudson River (USA) to which radio-nuclides
from a P\VR are discharged (357). There is a small
amount of information for similar reactors in othercountries.

actcristics of the reactor; discharge of gases activated in
the primary coolant occurs as a result of leakage andof operational need (262).
349. In LWRs, discharges consist mainly of fission
gases which enter the coolant from fuel. The composition of noble fission gases is presented in table 62 forvarious decay times. In BWRs, eases are discharged
after a 20-30 minute hold-up of the off-gas stream toachieve removal by decay of most of the original activity (324). Table 63 shows that the measured composition of gases discharged from the Dresden-I BWR
agrees reasonably well with results computed for a 21
minute decay.

343. Limited information on individual nuclides
discharged is available for gas-cooled reactors ( GCRs)(88. 146, 499) and pressurized heavy-water reactors(PHWRs) (400). Discharges of noble gases from allof the above types of reactors are relatively well documented. Other reactor types, such as fast breeder reactors (FBRs) and oreanic moderated and cooled reactors ( OMRs). are still at the development or design
stage. and no information on discharges is available.

350. In PWRs, gases are discharged when the
coolant is depressurized after a hold-up time of up
to 120 days. Values for the discharge of radio-active
gases from PWRs, which consist mainly of 133Xc, areshown in table 61.

(a) Liquid discharges

344. Tritium is present in the coolant of watercooled reactors (paragraph 339) and some of this isdischarged with miscellaneous liquid wastes arising inconnexion with reactor operation. Quantities discharged
in each of the years 1968-1970 are given in table 57.
which also shows the quantities of 3 H discharged perunit of power generated. It is clear that PWRs and the
PHWR have discharged much more 3 H than BWRs.
Various causes contribute to the difference. The use of
dissolved boron in PWRs and of heavy water in the
PHWR gives rise to considerable quantities of activation product 3H in the coolant. Stainless-steel cladding
used on fuel elements in the first four PWRs listed intable 57 allows greater diffusion of fission product 3 H
into the coolant than the zircaloy cladding on fuelelements used in Dresden-I (BWR) and Ginna (PWR)
in the United States.

( c) Other gaseous and particulate discharges

351. Discharges of other gaseous and particulate
radio-nuclides to atmosphere are usually reported ingeneral terms, such as halogens and particulates. Information available for 3H and gaseous 131 I is summarized in table 64. The tritiated water discharges fromthe PHWR at Douglas Point in Canada resulted largely
from the high production rate of 3 H in the heavy-water
coolant and moderator (400). The discharges of 131 !
from Dresden-I, Yankee Rowe and Douglas Point
reactors were less than one curie per year, although thetotal 131 1 content of these reactors when at their fullpower of about 200 MW ( e) is of the order of 1O•
curies. Discharges of particulates from Dresden-I andYankee Rowe were also well under one curie per year
(303. 304), while airborne particulates from the
PHWR are removed by filtration and are not normallypresent in detectable quantities (400). As well as 41Ar,
14 C and the short-lived 16 N, the radio-nuclide 35S has
been reported as a constituent of GCR stack gases in
the United Kingdom ( 499).

345. Discharges of 3H in liquid wastes from gascooled reactors in 1969 and 1970 are given in table 58.
These vary considerably from station to station. but
are on averaee somewhat more than those from BWRs
and less than~ from PWRs in total quantities discharged
and quantities per MW ( e) y of power generated. The
aH is partly fission-product 3 H from cooling ponds andthe gas-coolant drying plant, and partly activationproduct 3 H (146).

3. Doses resulting from environmental contamination(a) Doses

from radio-nuclides discharged to theaquatic environment

346. Individually-measured radio-nuclides discharged
in liquid wastes are listed in tables 59 and 60 forwater- and gas-cooled reactors, respectively. They aredischarged as mixtures of fission and activ<ttion products. The nuclides are often very difficult or costly
to measure individually. and the usual practice is toestimate gross beta and gamma activity only, unless
this is abnormally high.

352. Radio-nuclides are discharged to rivers, sometimes in tidal reaches, or to large lakes from all thewater-cooled reactors listed in table 57 except Oyster
Creek and San Onofre, from which they are discharged
directly to the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, respectively.
Radio-nuclides are discharged to the coastal watersof the British Isles from all the United Kingdom gascooled reactors listed in table 58, except those at
Trawsfynydd from which they are discharged to. afresh-water lake. In the case of the reactor at Latina
in Italy, they are discharged to the Mediterranean.

(b) Discharges of noble gases

347. Discharges of noble gases constitute the main
source of external radiation around reactors. A verysmall proportion of the 85 Kr in fuel is discharged atreactor sites and all the remainder is released from fuelduring reprocessing. Discharges of 85 Kr to the environment are discussed in paragraphs 377-378. In general,
the total noble-gas activity discharged. which consists
mainly of kryptons and xenons. is highest in BWRs
and lowest in PWRs (table 61).

353. The highest measured values of tritium concentrations in environmental samples near three P~R
sites quoted by Krieger et al. ( 345) relate to discharges and not to water available for intake by members of the public. The only published estimates ~f. thevery low doses to local populations due to .tntmm
discharged are based on conservative assumptions ofdilution and intake (59, 345, 400).

348. Activation gases are discharged from somereactors, particularly some GCRs and PHWRs ( table61). Activation of subsidiary-cooling air leads to discharge of nAr at a rate which depends on the char-354. Detailed environmental studies have been
conducted near two of the water-cooled reactors in the67

exposure rates quoted for the exposed populationgroups.

United States for which data on specific radio-nuclides
in liquid discharges are given in table 59. The study
in the Illinois River near the Dresden-I reactor took
place during a nine-month period in 1968 (304) anda comprehensive research programme on the Hudson
River estuary. into which radio-nuclides from theIndian Point-I reactor are discharged. was carried out
from 1964 to 1970 (357). A comprehensive monitoring programme is also in operation on the coastal
waters of the British Isles into which four of the reactor sites listed in table 60 discharge their wastes, andon Lake T rawsfynydd to which the fifth site discharges(426, 427).

(b) Doses from noble gases discharged to atmosphere359. Noble gases in airborne wastes cause externalradiation exposure which decreases rapidly wiLl-i distance from the reactor as a result of the short half-lifeof most of the gases discharged and of dispersion of
the plume in the atmosphere. Annual doses to populations living in the vicinity of nuclear power plants area function of the population distribution, meteorological characteristics and distance from the site boundary. Average annual doses in 1969 (table 67), both at
the site boundary and for the population included
within 6.4 and 80 kilometres of these plants, havebeen calculated (188) using realistic population
distributions and wind frequencies for 11 powerreactor sites in the United States and average
meteorological conditions. Because no allowance has
been made for the time spent in buildings andthe shielding afforded by them, these doses areoverestimated. As expected, the doses vary widelyfrom one power plant to another and in thecase of BWRs are much less for new reactors than for
old ones because of technical improvements. The population dose beyond 80 kilometres will depend upon theamount of comparatively long-lived nuclides, particularly 133Xe, present in the discharge. The ratio between
the long-distance and the short-distance contributions
to the population dose will increase if the radio-active
gases are stored for a period sufficient to allow the
short-lived components to decay, thus increasing the
proportion of longer-lived components in the mixture.
The contribution from 85Kr is insignificant because
most of the 65Kr is released from the reprocessing plants(paragraph 369).

355. Monitoring results require considerable interpretation before an estimate of doses to members of
the public can be made. For example, as mes is often
the nuclide which contributes most of the dose whencontaminated fish or other aquatic food-stuffs areeaten by humans. it is desirable to distinguish 13 •Csfrom reactor operations from that in fall-out. The
presence of the shorter-lived isotope 134 Cs in the former
is of assistance here and its use is suggested in thestudies of the 134 Cs/1 37 Cs ratio in biota in the brackish
water of the Hudson River. These studies indicatedthat intake of caesium by the biota was mainly from
freshly introduced caesium isotopes from the reactor
rather than 137Cs from fall-out retained on bottom
sediments (357).
356. Mean caesium concentrations measured in fish
at Dresden-I. Indian Point-I and Trawsfynydd areshown in table 65. The mean 13•Cs concentration of
0.015 pCi g-1 wet in various species in the Illinois
River near Dresden-I is the average of upstream anddownstream values because there was no significant
difference between them. The discharges of radiocaesium into the Hudson River from Indian Point-I
produced a measurable difference between upstream
and downstream samples for both 134 Cs and 137Cs and.
in this case. it is possible to calculate doses resulting
from material discharged. The dose from both isotopes
was estimated to be 10--0 rad y-1 per g d-1 of fish consumed ( table 65). Commercial and recreational fishingtake place in the affected reaches of the Hudson but
neither the fish consumption rates nor the size of the
population involved are known. Other nuclides ( 68 Co.
6°Co and 54Mn) were also measured in fish. but they
did not add appreciably to the dose due to the radiocaesium discharged.

360. Estimates of doses at the site boundary ofsome of the reactors listed in table 61 are shown intable 68. Where annual doses at or near the boundary
have not been reported, they have been estimated using
the assumptions indicated in the table.
(c) Doses from radio-nuclides following other pathways

361. A survey in the vicinity of the Dresden-I reactor, where discharges in 1968 of a number of radionuclides to atmosphere and the aquatic environment
were up to one curie ( tables 59 and 64). showed that
few of the environmental samples contained any activity attributable to the discharges ( 304). 131I was measured in thyroids of heifers allowed to graze on pasturefor several weeks before slaughter, specifically as indicators of contamination. but was not detected in milk
from a herd at the nearest dairy. This and other negative results in a range of other environmental materials,
including cabbage. deer and rabbit. led to the conclusion that exposure to the surrounding population
through consumption of food and water from radionuclides discharged from Dresden-I was not measurable.
362. Doses may be incurred by the population atlarge living near reactors from which tritiated water isdischarged to atmosphere. If 3H intake is limited toinhalation and passage through the skin. drinking waterand food being uncontaminated. the dose at the boundary fence is calculated to be 7 10-1 rad (MW(e) y)-1
for the Douglas Point PH\VR (400). Considerably
smaller amounts of 3 H are discharged from reactorsof other types ( table 64) and the doses are correspondingly lower. The contribution of 3H discharges toglobal doses is discussed in paragraph 397.

357. Mean caesium concentrations measured introut and perch from the lake at Trawsfynydd ( 426),
where about 100 persons consume fish caught recreationally (323), are shown in table 65. Although someof the 137Cs in fish from Lake Trawsfynydd may befrom fall-out. the ratio of 137 Cs/1 34 Cs in the fish in1969 was similar to that in the discharge in that year.
The total annual whole-bodv dose due to radio-caesium
is estimated to be 2 10--4 • rad y-1 per g d-1 of fishconsumed ( table 65). Values for 1970 were somewhat lower than those for 1969 (427).
358. Population dose commitments from discharges
from three United Kine:dom reactor sites are shown intable 66 (323). The~ dose commitments have beentaken to be equal to the annual doses (thus implyingthat the various components of the food chain are in
equilibrium). In the table. individual and populationdose commitments are based on the consumption and68

I

G. EXPOSURES FRO:\! FUEL REPROCESSING AND WASTE

has been diluted with ordinary water. 3H will not be
expected to concentrate in biological material.

DISPOSAL

l. Fate of the radio-nuclides in fuel fed to a reprocessing

368. ~t~er radio-nuclidcs present in fuel ,vhosecharactenstlcs make them of interest in the present~ontext are the noble gases 85 Kr and 13axe. and two
isotopes of iodine. 1 201 and 1a11.

plant

363. At the end of its useful life in the reactor. fuelis removed and immersed in a cooling pond at thereactor site to allow substantial decay of many shortJived nuclides. This decreases potential radiation andother hazards during subsequent handling, transportand reprocessing of fuel, and simplifies the recoveryof valuable fissile materials. e.g. 2 ]~Pu ar.d uranium.

369. Almost all of the 85 Kr produced in thermal
reactors (table 55) remains in the fuel until dissolution, unless the cladding becomes defective in thereactor. The normal cooling time of about six months
does not materially affect the amount of 85Kr available
for discharge because its half-life is relativelv long
(10.7 y) but methods have been developed to ·absorb
and store the gas for a period of several half-lives (149420. 566).
'

364. The principle widely employed in reprocessing plants is to separate plutonium and uranium fromfission products by a multiple-stage extraction processthat leaves the fission and corrosion products in aqueous solution. The aqueous solution from the first extraction usually contains more than 99.9 per cent of
the fission products from the dissolved fuel ( 611 ) ;this highly radio-active solution is often concentrated
by evaporation before storage in specially constructed
and protected steel tanks, sometimes located underground. In some cases the solution is allowed to boil,
in others it is cooled, but there is always a gaseous
stream which may carry entrained fission products
from the solution. This process stream is filtered before
being discharged to the environment.

370. The fission product 133Xe has a short half-life(5.3 d) and its equilibrium level is about I MCi r- 1 at
a power level of 20 MW(th) t-1 (table 54). The activity decays to 10-1 Ci t-1 when fuel is cooled for about
six months. If fast-reactor fuel is cooled for only 30
days before reprocessing. the corresponding content
would be about 2 10~ Ci r- 1• The 131 mxe content offuel is two orders of magnitude less than 133Xe ( table54) but its longer half-life (12 d) results in a slower
rate of decay than with mxe. Several processes involving hold-up on a charcoal bed may be employed
to produce an order of magnitude reduction in theradio-xenon activity discharged ( 465).

365. Although the storage of highly radio-active
solutions has been satisfactory hitherto, potential problems associated with long-term maintenance andsupervision of containment have led to investigation of
methods of permanent disposal ( 54 7). The principlecommon to most of the methods is to convert thesolution to suitable solid material that will withstandeffects of high radiation levels, and to store or bury it
in selected man-made or natural locations. There
would be little airborne or water-borne radio-activity
released from stored solidified wastes. but clean-up
problems of gaseous process .streams might be severe
during solidification processes. The decision to apply
the principle of solidification has already been madein the United States, where liquid storage is to bepermitted only during the first five years after reprocessing ( 43).

3 71. Because of its very long half-life ( 1. 7 1Qi y),virtually all of the 129 I produced in small amounts innuclear fuel ( about 0.02 Ci r- 1 ) is present at the timeof dissolution (87, 537). 131! bas a half-life of only
eight days and after the usual cooling period forthermal-reactor fuel of about six months. the 131 I content of fuel is about 0.1 Ci r 1 • It is normal practice
to employ general-purpose scrupbers with a decontamination factor of up to 1.000 to reduce the amounts ofairborne radio-iodine discharged from the plant (90,465).
~
372. The reprocessing of short-q:,oled fast-reactor
fuels is likely to be part of a combined fast- andthermal-reactor programme because there will be astrong economic incentive to reduce to a minimum thequantity of plutonium required for the whole power
programme. Investigations into control of a.irborne 131 I
discharges during reprocessing of such fuel have shownthat process streams will require decontamination factors well beyond those currently in use ( 90, 465).
Because of this, discharges of 129I will also be muchless than the quantities in the fuel reprocessed. -366. Various aqueous solutions of fission productsof relatively low activity concentration are produced
as a result of the washing of organic solutions of plutonium and uranium separated from the bulk of thefission products during the multiple stage process. In
some cases, chemical or other treatment may be employed to reduce the quantity of many of the radionuclides in these solutions, before they are mixed withother lower-activity solutions. The latter may arise
from the decontamination of process equipment, pro. tective clothing and personnel, as well as from scrubbers or similar devices used to remove radio-activity
from gaseous streams. At present these waste solutions.
which may be of very large volume, are discharged tothe environment by way of dry wells or open pits in
the ground (618) or directly into the sea (253).

2. Discharges to the environment(a) Liquid discharges

373. The quantity of radio-nuclides discharged tothe environment from reprocessing plants depends
largely upon waste-management practices. These. inturn. depend upon the characteristics of the local environment and population and on the requirement of
ensuring compliance with accepted radiation protection
criteria. At the first commercial reprocessing plant(Nuclear Fuel Services. NFS) in the United States(393) low-activity solutions are discharged to lagoons
which provide additional decontamination throughsettling during storage. Liquids from the lagoons arethen discharged to creeks and rivers in the environment.

637. The aqueous waste currently discharged to theenvironment contains, as tritiated water, virtually allof the fission-product 3H present in fuel at dissolution( table 5 5). although advanced technology may reduce
the rate of discharge from future reprocessing plants
by factors of l O to 100 ( 465). For the same reason
that 3 H is practically unrecoverable-after tritiated water69374. Data for individual nuclides discharged from
NFS during a six-month period of special study in1969 are given in table 69. Investigation of the distribution of the various radio-nuclides between dissolved
and suspended solids showed that most of the 0°Co,
eosr. 106Ru and 125Sb were discharged in a soluble form
and almost all of the 54 Mn. 95Zr, 144Ce and 14.Pm weredischarged in an insoluble form. whereas 134Cs and13 •Cs were discharged in both soluble (70 per cent)and insoluble forms ( 393). The only nuclide discharged from NFS for which data are available overa longer period is 3 H (373). These are given in table
70 and show that quantities varying from 3 to about
100 curies of 3H were discharged per tonne of fuelprocessed.
375. Discharges of low-activity solutions from thereprocessing plant at Windscale in the United Kingdom
are made to the Irish Sea through a pipeline terminating
about 2.5 kilometres offshore. Measurements for threeof the nuclides discharged are shown in table 69; these
are required by the terms of the authorization for
discharge (323). The composition of the effluent haschanged over the operational period of 18 years. andis still changing slowly ( 323).
376. The low-activity solutions from the Eurochemic reprocessing plant at Mol, Belgium, are sent to
the waste-treatment plant of the Belgian Nuclear
Centre. Discharges from this plant are made to atributary of the main Neet River and data for 90Sr,
the only individual nuclide quoted, are given in table
69 (625).

these dissolution cycles. The use of scrubbers is estimated to reduce discharges to about 0.5 per cent of
the available radio-iodine activities ( 113). Data on
the average particulate activity discharged during dissolution of five one-tonne batches of fuel at the- NFS
plant are given in table 71 (calculated from data inreference 113). These results show that no particulatedischarges to atmosphere exceeded about 10-7 Ci(MW(e) y)-1 •381. A study of 131 1 balances at the Windscale plant,
which normally reprocesses fuel cooled for about six
months, indicates that on average about 5 10-4 Ci d-1
is discharged to the atmosphere compared with 0.4
Ci d-1 to the sea in liquid wastes out of about 0.5 Ci d-1
fed to the plant (90). Similarly, about 0.1 per cent of
129
1 in fuel would be expected to be in current discharges to the atmosphere.
382. The expected discharges of particulate 90 Sr,
137
Cs and wee from the Eurochemic plant, calculatedon the basis of design figures (13), are two orders ofmagnitude greater than measured discharges from the
NFS plant, normalized to the same rate of llllKr discharge. Predicted discharges of 239 Pu from Eurochemic
are three orders of magnitude greater than measured
discharges from NFS when normalized.
383. The development of nuclear power programmes and the increased use of fast-breeder reactors
will result ,in a large increase in the 239 Pu treated in
reprocessing plants. In the United States. the annual
production is predicted to be 20 tonnes during thedecade 1970-1980, and 80 tonnes by the year 2000,
when plutonium-fuelled reactors may account for 50
per cent of the country's total energy consumption.
Whether plutonium attains its predicted role in the
future power economy may depend entirely on attainment of economic methods of preventing its discharge
to the environment ( 354).

(b) Discharges of noble gases

3 77. The special study carried out at the NFS
reprocessing plant showed that, although essentially all
the available 85Kr was discharged during dissolutionof the fuel, up to 1 per cent was discharged during the
chopping operation prior to dissolution ( 113).

3. Doses resulting from enviroronental contamination

378. No noble gas discharge measurements areavailable for the Windscale reprocessing plant in the
United Kingdom or the Eurochemic plant at Mol in
Belgium. However. S5 Kr discharges from the Eurochemic plant have been estimated (13), and estimatesof discharges resulting from a predicted British nuclear
power programme have been published (149). The
Committee has estimated 85 Kr discharges from future
power production ( table 55) on the basis of 510 Ci(MW(e) y)- 1 for thermal reactors and 270 Ci(MW(e) y)-1 for fast reactors (assuming a thermal
efficiency of 0.3). The activity discharged to the environment may be less than that present at dissolution
if steps are taken to absorb and store the gases ( paragraphs 369 and 370).

384. Data on environmental contamination andconsequent doses to members of the population arepresented for two reprocessing plants. the Nuclear Fuel
Services plant near Buffalo in the United States andthe Windscale plant of British Nuclear Fuels Limitedin the United Kingdom. These were selected because
they are plants known to include in their throughput ahigh proportion of fuel derived from reactors producing electricity commercially. The Eurochemic plant at
Mol in Belgium should also be included but information about the amounts of radio-nuclides discharged islimited to 90 Sr and no information is available to theCommittee on the levels of contamination in food-stuffs
consumed by the population.

(c) Other gaseous and particulate discharges(a) Doses to local populations due to discharges ofradio-nuclides to the aquatic environment

379. Tritium discharged through the stack to atmosphere was measured during dissolution of the twobatches of fuel in the NFS and the amount (table 71)
was estimated to be about 1.5 per cent of the total
available ( 113). Preliminary data indicated that elemental 3 H was less than 10 per cent of the total 3 Hdischarged to atmosphere.

385. Data on environmental contamination in 1968
in the vicinity of the NFS reprocessing plant, which
discharges liquid wastes to a creek, were used to makedose calculations for that year (556). The special
study on liquid discharges was made during 1969
( data in table 69), so it is not possible to correlatemonitoring results and discharge data.

380. Discharges of 129 I from the NFS plant (table71) were approximately 5-10 per cent of the total
available; the fuel had been cooled for unusually long
periods and the scrubbers were not in operation during386. The mean concentrations of 137Cs and 106Ru
in fish caught in the creek are given in table 72: themean concentration of 90 Sr is not included in the

70.Jtable because the values were measured for whole
fish and most of the 1JOSr will be in inedible bone(556). The mean 137 Cs concentration of 0.63 pCi
g-1 in fish corresponds to an annual dose of 2 104
rad for a typical fish consumption rate of 15 g d-1
by members of the population. Similarly the mean
concentration of 106Ru of 0.85 pCi g-1 corresponds toan annual dose to the gastro-intestinal tract equal to
9 1()-4 rad. Assuming that the 1968 operations are
typical. the annual throughput of fuel irradiated toabout 20 MW ( e) y r-1 is 140 t y-1 ( table 70) and theseannual doses therefore correspond to about 1o-, and 3
10-7 rad (MW(e) y)-1 for 137 Cs and 106Ru, respectively(table 72). However, the numbers of people to whichthese doses are applicable is not stated but the numbers
are probably small since the consumption of fish in
the sampling area is the result of recreational fishingonly.
387. A comprehensive marine monitoring programme is employed in connexion with the liquid discharges from Windscale ( 426. 427, 654). The criticalpathway involves a type of edible sea-weed which isused in making laverbread in South Wales, 500 kilometres away. The sea-weed is monitored inter alia
for 05Zr/ 05Nb, 106 Ru and 1-1-1ce. and a study in
1967-1968 showed that 106Ru contributed 82 percent of the dose to the gastro-intestinal tract ( 425).
388. The 106Ru concentrations in laverbread of
15 and 7 pCi g-1 wet in 1969 and 1970. respectively(table 72). are average values for the products ofthree manufacturers (426, 427). Intensive market
surveys in South Wales have shown that the medianrate of consumption of laverbread by a small criticalgroup (about 100 persons) is 160 g d-1 . and that consumption by the whole group of 26,000 laverbreadeaters is about 10 per cent of this ( 512). Averageannual doses to the gastro-intestinal tract of the wholegroup of laverbread eaters, as result from 106Ru contamination, were 1.7 10-2 and 8.0 lQ--3 rad per 16
g d-1 consumed in 1969 and 1970, respectively (table
72).
389. If the average annual throughput of the Windscale plant is taken to be about 1.800 tonnes of fuelirradiated to a level of 3 MW ( e) y r 1 • the annual
plant throughput corresponds to the generation of
about 5,000 MW(e) y. Thus the above annual doses
are equivalent to 3.4 10-0 and 1.6 lQ-6 rad (MW(e)y)-1 to members of the whole P<:Pulation of Iav~rbr~adeaters in 1969 and 1970. respectively. The contnbution
from this pathway to the population dose commitment to the gastro-intestinal tract is therefore about
0.09 and 0.04 man-rad (MW(e) y)-1 in these years.
The contribution to the population gonad dose islower by a factor about 1,000 (88).
390. Dose commitments to small groups exposed
through other pathways are given in table 73. The
contribution to the population dose is, however, verysmall because of the small numbers of individuals
exposed as well as the generally smaller individual
dose commitments. On the other hand, plaice isfished commercially over a wide area of the Irish Sea
and radio-caesium contamination of the fish is estimated to give rise to a population whole-body dose
commitment of 3 10-2 man-rad (MW(e) y)-1 (427).
This is over three orders of magnitude greater thanthe population whole-body dose commitment resulting from consumption of fish by the much smallergroup of 100 persons (table 73).
71

391. Concentrations of 3 H have been measured
in various local food-stuffs around the NFS plant(556). Although 3H discharged to the atmosphere
may have contributed to amounts of this nuclide insuch food-stuffs as deer meat and milk. the fraction
c?ming froll: this source ( 1.5 per cent of the total
d1scha~ge~) is.probably small compared to that comingfrom hqu1d discharges. Observed levels in milk weresimilar to those to be expected from 3 H released by
the testing of nuclear weapons in the atmosphere.
Levels in fish were about 10 times greater than those
expected from fall-out alone while levels in deer wereabout 30 times greater. The latter results sugoest thatthe deer were obtaining drinking water ftom thecreek at points closer to the plant than the points
where the fish were sampled. Members of the public
eat deer meat and fish caught in the area. but Shleien(556) concluded that doses from 3 H to individuals
eating typical amounts of these local food-stuffs were
negligible.
(b) Doses to local populations from discharges ofnoble gases to atmosphere392. Assuming a 85 Kr discharge of 510 Ci (MW(e) y)-1 (table 55), the average rate of discharge ofthis nuclide from a plant processing fuel from a thermal reactor at the rate of I MW(e) y annually is
about 1.6 lQ--5 Ci s-1 • At a distance of a few kilometres the long-term mean concentration in groundlevel air is about 10-1 Ci m--a per Ci s-1 discharged(85) so that the concentration near the plant would
be about 1.6 pCi m--a and the gonad dose commitment
2.7 10-a rad (MW(e) y)-1 . The actual dose received
by members of a population near a reprocessing plant
would, of course, depend on the quantity and irradiation of fuel processed. Similarly. the dose to the
population would depend on the population distribution
around a specific plant. Taking the estimates of average concentrations per unit rate of discharge as afunction of distance given by Bryant ( 85), and a
uniform density of 100 persons per square kilometre,the population gonad dose commitment is 5.4 1o--a
man-rad (MW(e) y)-1 to the population (about 20
million) living within 250 kilometres of the site(table 74 ).
(c) Dose to local populations due to other airborne

radio-nuclides
393. The concentrations of 90Sr in milk from farms
about five kilometres from the Windscale plant are
not significantly different from those expected ( typically 15 pCi ( gCa )-1 ) from the fall-out from weapons
tests ( 654). Somewhat hi!!her levels ( about 40 pCi( gCa )-1 ) have been found at farms nearer the site butthese are believed to be due to the 90 Sr deposited asa result of discharges from the experimental reactors
aL Windscale during their early years of operation(414).
394. Levels of 90Sr and 137Cs in the diet, excluding
fish and deer caught locally, of persons living ne_ar
the NFS plant in New York State can~ot be distinguished from those observed elsewhere m the state
which arise from the fall-out from nuclear weapons
tests.
395. Doses to individuals living near the reprocessing plants resultino from discharges of 3 H to
the atmosphe;e, can be calculated using . methods
similar to those used to estimate correspondmg doses

from ssKr. Thus, taking the 3 H production rate of athermal reactor to be 21 Ci (MW(e) y)-1 (table 55),
the average from a plant handling fuel at the annual
rate equivalent to 1 MW(e) y is 6.3 10-9 Ci s-1 assuming that 1 per cent of the total 3H is discharged
to the atmosphere (paragraph 3 79). At a long-term
concentration of 10--7 Ci m-s per Ci s-1 discharged(paragraph 392), the concentration in ground-levelair within a few kilometres of the plant would be
6.3 1<>-' pCi m-s and the annual dose to the persons
exposed 6.3 10--10 rad (MW(e) y)-1 • For the population within 250 kilometres of the site as previously
described the corresponding population dose commitment is about 1()-4 man-rad (MW(e) y)-1 (table
74).

15

~
i ,.

:ii

I

(d) Doses to the world population resulting from 85Kr
and 3H discharged by the nuclear power industry

396. Since the beginning of the nuclear era theconcentration of 85Kr in the atmosphere has steadily
increased (figure XXXII) from O to about 15 pCi
m-s in 1970 in the middle latitudes of the northernhemisphere (45, 130, 142, 153, 154, 327. 476, 477,
545, 560, 561). From experimental results of the
distribution of 85Kr throughout the troposphere (figure
XXXIII) the Committee has calculated that a world-

19~

1960

1952

1966

19'8

1&10

Figure XXXll. Activity of S5Kr in northern hemisphere air

samples (45, 130, 142, 153, 154,327,476,477,545, 560, 561)

11

10
9

'7-

8

'E

7

i

6

::-

:~

5

~

4

:I::

3

>£
2

48" N

30" N

Equator

30' s

60" S

67"S

Figure XXXl/1, Activity of S5Kr in ground-level air as a function of latit,µde at the end of1964 (476)

wide average concentration at sea level of 4.6 pCi m-3
corresponds to the cumulative amount of 85Kr in theworld in 1970 due to nuclear power production (19MCi, table 55). The average concentration due to thedischarge of 510 Ci (MW(e) y)-1 , would, therefore,
be about 1.2 104 pCi m-s. But a 85Kr concentrationof 1 pCi m~ delivers 1.7 1()-8 rad y-1 to the gonads( table 22). so that the gonad dose commitment resulting from generation of one megawatt-year of electricity
by a thermal reactor is 3.1 10-11 rad (MW(e) y)-1(table 74). The gonad dose commitment per year ofgeneration of electricity at the 1970 rate is thus about
3 10--7 rad. In the year 2000, because of the large
proportion of fast reactors, the dose commitment perunit of power generated given above does not apply.
The gonad dose commitment per year of generationof electricity at the rate estimated for the year 2000
has been calculated from the ratio of the annual
production of 65Kr in the years 2000 and 1970 given
in table 55 and has been found to be 4.5 10-S rad.

_397. From the relationship that 1,900 MCi 3 H
produced in weapons tests up to 1963 gives rise toa dose commitment of 4 10-e rad (paragraph 166)and the value of 21 Ci 3 H per MW(e) y discharged(table 55), gonad dose commitments can be calculated
in the same way as for 85Kr. The results are given intable 74.
H. SUMMARY OF DOSES FROM THE NUCLEAR
POWER INDUSTRY

398. The preceding paragraphs and table 75 contain the results of the Committee·s first attempt toassess the dose commitments associated with thenuclear power industry, which, in several countries,
is now a firmly based and expanding commercial undertaking. The information available relates for themost part to special groups within populations, which,by virtue of place of residence or living habits, are expected to receive the greatest doses.
72

jiiiP
399. The population dose to defined groups has
been given in those cases where the numbers of persons receiving the estimated dose commitments are
known. In many instances, however, it has not beenpassible to calculate the additional component of thedose commitment relevant to the world population
although this has been done for the important casesof the discharge to atmosphere of 8 ~Kr and 3 H from
reprocessing plants.

dose rates of only a few millirads per year which may
be compared with the natural background dose rateof abo1:t 100 millirads per year. Increase in power
produ~tion would tend to increase the numbers of persons mvolv~d as more plants come into operation
so that while the indivictual doses mav not changemuch. the population dose commitment would risewith increasin 9 installed power. However, even by theyear 2000, this would still be extremely small.

400. In some cases, the dose commitments andassociated population dose commitments to definedgroups are overestimates because they include thedose contribution from fall-out from nuclear weapans testing. Since the fraction due to this cause isusually unknown it cannot be subtracted from theestimate of the gross dose commitment.

404. In the case of the fuel-processino plants forwhich data are available. the individual d~se rates atpresent are also similarly very small. It is difficult
to predict the trend of events as the amount of fuelprocessing is increased. It seems likely that the dosesin the vicinity of the plants will be kept to levels
similar to current levels by regulatory control andthat improved technology will be introduced so that
this situation is maintained despite increased throughput.

401. The amounts of radio-nuclides discharged
to the environment and also the dose commitments
per unit of electricity generated have, on average,
decreased during the past several years due to improvements in technology and operating practices inexisting and new reactors. Since there is reason to
suppose that these improvements will continue to be
made. extrapolating the dose commitments given inthis report to future power production is not necessarily valid.

Ill. Recapitulation of dose commitments
405. Table 76 summarizes the estimates of worldwide average dose commitments from all the considered sources of man-made environmental radiation.
For underground testing and electric power production, the population dose commitments were divided
by the world population to give the average individual
dose commitments. For atmospheric testing, theestimates are the dose commitments for all tests conducted before 1971. Although it is acknowledged thatthe estimated doses from peaceful uses of explosives
and production of electrical power are at this stage
approximate, it is clear that the radio-active contamination of the environment is mainly the result of
atmospheric testing.

402. The discharge of long-lived radio-nuclides
to the environment carries a dose commitment to theworldwide population. In the important cases of 3 H
and 8 GKr the Committee has estimated the magnitudeof the global dose commitment. The global doses
from 85 Kr and 3 H per unit of power generated are atpresent about 10-1 man-rad (MW(e) y)-1 and by
the year 2000, on the basis of an installed power of
4,300 GW(e) at a load factor of 0.5, the dose commitment incurred per year of power generation would
then represent only about 0.2 per cent of that due tonatural background, even if the methods at present
available for restriction of these releases are not bythat date widely applied.

406. The annual radiation exposures from natural
background are also presented in table 76. The periods of time during which natural radiation would
have to be doubled to give a dose increase equal to
the total doses expected by the year 2000 from thecurrent contamination of the environment are estimatedto be of the order of two years for that due to theatmospheric tests carried out before 1971 and twohours for that due to the peaceful uses of explosives
before 1972. Likewise, one year of electric power
production at the 1970 rate and at the assumed 2000
rate would involve doses corresponding to about fiveminutes and one day of natural background, respectively.

403. In the case of other long-lived radionuclides such as 137Cs and 90Sr the data available
relate specifically to the immediate environs of theplants. Table 75 gives the dose commitments to persons living there from 137 Cs an~ other nuclides per
megawatt-year of power generated. For the powergenerating plants even of substantial sizes, the dose
commitments from these nuclides and also from theshorter-lived noble gases correspond · to individual

TABLE 1.

COMPOSITION OF PRIMARY GALACTIC COSMIC RAYS AT 51 °NIN 1952 AND 1954 (197)

V n-tica/ f/:ud,n.rit:;(particles

Atomicn,-2 sr-1

numbtr

~)

1,300
2
3-5
6-9 .......................................................... .
10-19
20 or more .................................................... .

73

88
1.9
5.7
1.9

0.5

TABLE

2.

PROPERTIES OF SOME COSMIC-RAY PARTICLES PRESENT IN THE EARTH'S
ATMOSPHERE (159)

Mean

Principal
modt of
decay

lift

1,fa$S

Class

Namt

(McV)

Proton (p)Neutron (n)

938.2
939.5

Stable1.01 103

139.6
134.9
493.7
497.7
497.7

2.55 10-S
1.78 10-10
1.23 10-s
0.91 10-10
5.7 10-s

105.6
0.511
0
0

2.2 !o-6StableStableStable0Stable(s)

Hadrons
Nucleons ........
Mesons......... Pion

( ir•)(,:<>)

Kaon

(K•)

(K1)
(K2)

Stable+ e- + ve

p

µ+Vil
"'f

µ
lT

+y
+
+ ,r"11ir+ e +v.

e=+ "• +

Leptons(µ•)
Muon
Electron (e•)
Neutrino( ... )(,.,,)

Photons ........... Photon

("'()

"11

StableStableStableStableTABLE 3. ABSORBED DOSE RATES PER NEUTRON CM-2 s-1 FOR SEA-LEVEL COSMIC·R.·W NEUTRONS!NCIDE.'<T UPON A 30-CM TISSUE-EQUIVALENT SLAB, AND ASSOCIATED QUALITY FACTORS
llfonou,teral

Bilateral

qualityfactt>rJlTad 1,.1

Depth (cm)(219)µrad 1,.1

qualityfactor

6.5
6.2
6.3

8.2
6.7
7.2

5.4
4.6
4.9

7.1
4.7
6.0

Normal incidence....... -Surface
5
0-15a

9.1
8.2

10.0
7.7

.........
Isotropic incidence

Surface
50-15"
11. . . . . . . .

8.3
5.5

8.2
6.1

...................

For a 30-cm diameter cylinder. The mean is weighted proportionally to the radius.

TABLE 4.

SUMM.-.RY OF SEA-LEVEL COSMIC-RAY NEUTRON DATA

(Average dose rates in a JO-cm cylinder)
Nort/,
latitude(dtgr~u)41 ......
54 . . . . . . .. . .....................
46 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..............
46 . .. . . . . . .....................
55
46 . . . . . .
44 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ......... . .
41 . . .. . .

.

..............................
........................
.
........................

F/u.r dmsitf(n cn1..2 s·l

Dost rc:lt(mrad 1·')'

Rt/C.tNU

0.01
0.00650.00650.0180b0.01 soe
0.00840.00740.0082

0.43
0.28
0.28
0.77
0.77
0.36
0.32
0.35

615
468
64
65
642
325
659
219

• The quality factor of this radiation is 6.
by Watt (642) extrapolating higher altitude data to the sea level using 145 g
cm-~ relaxation length.
c Average value from several investigators' results, as extrapolated.
b Obtained

74

f
I

TABLE 5. DOSE RATES TO PERSONS IN CONVENTIONAL JETS AND IN SST AIRCRAFT
ASSUMED TO FLY IN POLAR REGIONS&
Dosc rates ( µrad J:..1) b
Galactic

Galactic

Galactic(km)

ioni~i,,g
componentecompo-uL~ntr:

eompo11c11td

Solarradiatiot1.
(average)•

12
20

300
600

20
30

64

4
90

Altit11dc

n.eutroustar

0 If the flight altitude is less than 20 km and the latitude is lower, the dose rates for SST
flights will also be lower.
b These radiations do not have the same quality factor. See table 3.
c Taken from figure VI. Data corresponding to solar minimum. At solar maximum thedose rates would be reduced by a factor of about 2.
d Taken from reference 185.
e Taken from reference 267.

TABLE 6. COS!\HC RAY PRODUCED R.\DIO-.... CTIVE NUCLIDES (348)Radionuclide

Calculated
atmosplurk
productwn
rat~(atomsc,n-' sJ)

Half-lifeof bllarodialion
(kcV)

0.20a
8.1 10-~
4.5 10-2
2.5
8.6 ]0-5
3.0 10-s
1.7 ]0-4
1.4 10-•4.4 ]0-4
1.6 10-•8.1 ID-*
6.8 10-*1.4 JQ-3
4.9 J0-5
2.0 10-•1.1 IQ-3
2.0 I0-3
1.4 10-3
5.6 lQ-3
1.5 10-•12.3 y53 d2.5 ]06 y
5,730 y2.6 y15.0 h21.2 h
7.4 105 y
2.6 h
700 y
14.3 d
25 d
87 d
2.9 h
32.0 min3.l I05y37.3 min55.5 min270 y
2.1 105 y

18
Electron capture555
156
545 (p+)
1,389
460
1,170
1,480
210
1,710
248
167
1,100
2,480
714
4,910
1,910
565
Electron capture

3H ...................
7Be ..................
lOBe .................
HC ..................
22Na .................
24Na .................
2SMg .................

:?GAi ..................
31Si ..................
32Si ' .. ' ..............

..................

3~p
33p

..................

ass
aas

..................
..................

34mC( ................
36Cl ..................

.................

asc1
aoc1

.................

30Ar .................
81Kr .................

Ma.rimttnt
energy• Taken from reference 604.

TABLE 7. SOME NON-SERIES PRIMORDIAL RADIO-ISOTOPES (516, 615)

Radio-nuclide

Abundance in Ilse
/ithosphert ( ppm)

40K ..............

soy ..............

.............
.............
l!IBLa .............
87Rb

ur.rn

14,Sm ............
1,6Lu .............

a Figures

3
0.2
75
0.1
0.01

I
0.01

Half-lift(ytarS)

1.3 10961015
4.8 1010
6 1014
1.1 lQll
1.1 1011
2.2 1010

Alpha or ma.nmu,11beta ra::rffltrgy(keV)•

Gamma ra?
1/flergics{kt )•p 1,314 (89)p ? (30)
p 274 (100)p 480 (100)1,460 (II)783 (30), 1,550 (70)fJ 210 (30)810 (30), 1,426 (70}

a 2,230 ( 100)
p 430 (100)88 (15), 202 (85),306 (95)

in parentheses indicate percentage yield per disintegration.

75

TABLE 8.

ANNUAL I?'1"ERNAL BETA AND GAMMA DOSES FROM NATURALLY OCClJRRING RADIONUCLIDES(mrad)

C orlical boneRadio-nuclidellH.........

Trabecular bone

GonadsOrteocytu

Haversiancanals

Surfaces•

MarrOTJ1-0.001..... 0.001-0.001-0.001-0.001

HC .........

0.7

0.8

0.8

0.8

0.7

.........
87Rb .........

19

6

6

15

15

0.3

0.4

0.4

0.6

0.6

20.0

7.2

7.2

16.4

16.3

40K

TOTAL

a Cells close to surfaces of bone trabcculre.

TABLE 9.

ANNUAL ALPIL', DOSES (mrad) FROM NATURALLY OCCURRING RADIO·NUCLIDES CALCULATED BY lliE METHOD OF SPIERS (577)Doses
Cortical boneRadio,nuclidc
23SU........ .

220Ra......••

22SRa..•.....

22:?Rnd
220Rnd..•..••

21op 0..•.•.••

Location

Normal areas (U.S.A., U.K.)
Normal areas (average)
India (Kerala State)
Brazil (Araxa-Tapira region)
Normal areas (average)
Normal areas (continents)
Normal areas (continents)
Normal areas (northerntemperate latitudes)
Arctic regionse
TOTAL FOR NORMAL AREAS

Activityin bcmra(pCi ko· 1 )Gonads

Os:eocytcs

0.03
0.02
0.2
0.1
0.03
0.07
0.003

0.8
1.6
16.0
9.5
1.9
0.04
0.02

40
100

0.6
7.2

55.9

0.7

4.5
7.6
77
46
3.8

11 The total mass of bone (defined as calcified matrix) in man
has been taken to be 5,000 grammes yielding 1,000 grammesof calcium and 2.700 grammes of ash (see reference 401 andparagraphs 80 and 205). The alpha-emitting radio-nuclides
were assumed to be uniformly distributed in mineral bone,
although that may not be the case (269).
b Cells lining surfaces of Haversian canals.

T rabecular bone

Haversi4n},!arrow

cana/sb

Surfaces<

0.5
1.0
9.8
5.8

O.Q2

0.3
0.6
6.6
3.9
0.8
0.08
0.05

0.06
0.1
1.2
0.7
0.1
0.08
0.05

4.0
10.0

2.4
6.0

1.6
4.0

0.3
0.7

8.4

5.1

3.4

0.7

1.1

0.04

c Cells close to surfaces of bone trabecul:e (averaged doseover the first 10 µm).
d Doses extrapolated from experiments in guinea-pigs. Other
assumptions are given in table 16.
e Calculated from an arctic/non-arctic nopo concentration
ratio of 2.5 in bone and 12 in soft tissue.

76,
TAUL!!

JO.

ESTIMATES OF TOTAL INTAKE OF:?:?ORA

AND

OF

228RA

CONTRIBUTIONS FROM DIFFERENT. FOOD-STUFF CATEGORll!S

Arca of hioll •~·tern alradia/1011 backoro1111d

A,·,as of 11or111al external radiation backoround"''"RaFranceArgenti•a
(48)-

-.J
-.J

Cereals and grain products ........
Meat, fish, eggs ..................
Milk and dairy products ... ' ......
Green vegetables, fruits and pulses ..
Root vegetables . . ................
.............. ' .
Water . . . . . .
Miscellaneous..............
Total (pCi d-1) . . . ' .............
Total (pCi (gCa)-1) ... ' .........
n Bread only.

"Vegetables, fruits and pulses.
• Vegetables and fruits.

Paris
(550)

0.20
0.14
0.05
0.23
0.14
0:01
0.8

1.1

I.I

1.1

"'"Ra

U11ion of Soviet
Socialist Rcfm/Jlics United Kingdom
I11diaBombay( 110)

Large town
Tarapur in central Asia
(JO'i)(676)

U11ited States

Co,mty,u-ide
study
(570)

New l'ork

Fnu,et'sco

(17J)

(17J)

0.56
0.46
0.14
0.54
0.06
0.02

0.39
0.07
0.05
0.24
0.04
0.03

1.8
1.8

0.8
0.8

0.42
·0.05
0.04
0.17h

0.39
0.08
0.01
0.05

3.6011
0.66
0.98
2.70C

0.06
0.02
0.8
1.6

0.02

8.8

0.17
0.38
0.14
0.32
0.10
0.07

0.5
1.0

17
17

1.2
I.I

Sa11

raRa

U11ited Statc.r
San}umi
(220)

0.7
1.3

:=! 11 Ra

India

Son

New York(508)

Francisco(508)

Kern/a(110)/,~trn/cJ

0.42
0.14
0,05
0.44
0.12

0.37
0.08
0.10
0.38

1.48
0.50
0.19
0.81

3.23
62.70
15.30
9.17
29.58
0.01
42.50
160
320

1.2
1.2

0.08

1.0
1.0

0.29
0.07
3.3
6.6

(42-1)TABLE 11. 226R.A IN HUMAN BONE

Number ofsamples

Mtanconcentration
in ba,u,cuh(!Ci g-')Rtfrrer<crNormal areas
Argentina:

2 ................ .

18

11

641

360

12

48

Australia .................................... .

22

10

641

Canada ...................................... .

12

6

641

Chile ....................................... .

24

4

641

Congo ...................................... .

14

22

641

Federal Republic of Germany .................. .

22

13

582

Guatemala ................................... .
India

29

5

641

......................... .

12

8

641

2 ......................... .

1

8

110

(Bombay):

IsraelJapan ....................................... .

36

641

36

4

641

South Africa ................................. .

13

11

641

United Kingdom

21

15

641

13

United States:
Boston . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

77

14

641

Houston . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

23

23

641

Illinois . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

128

37

249

New England:
New York:. .. .. . .. .. ... .. ... .... ....

18

16

57

2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . ..

218

16

256

1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . .

143

10

641

13

173

5

641

6

220

l

2 ......................... .

Puerto Rico:l......................... .

42

2

San Francisco
Wisconsin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • • . . • • . . . . . . . . . . .

75

Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (Ukraine) .....

11

173

12

403

39

440

143

110

1,340

676

Higli-level areas
India (Kerala)
Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (large town incentral Asia) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

78

282

TABLE

12. MEAN ~'.!'.!RN CONCENTRATIONS IN EQUILIBRIUM WITH SHORT-LIVED DECAY PRODUCTSJN GROUND-LEVEL AIR
2:::Rn activity(pCi /.1)

Reference

Czechoslovakia
Bratislava

0.14

662

Hungary
Budapest

0.07

564

USA
ChicagoCincinnati

0.03

0.26

60
203

USSR
Moscow

0.07

397

American Samoa

0.001

60

Boli\,ia
Chacaltaya

0.04

370

BrazilRio de Janeiro

0.05

370

Japan

0.09

442

MoroccoKenitra

0.008

60

Peru
Lima

0.04

370

Philippines
Luzon

0.004

60

USA
KodiakOahu
Washington, D.C. . ............................... .

0.003
0.001
0.12

60
370

Si:e

Continental

Coastal areas and islands............................................ .

60

Areas of negligible e:i:halarion rate

Antarctic Ocean ................................... .
Indian Ocean .......................... : ........... .
North Atlantic Ocean ............................. .
South Pacific Ocean ................................ .
South Pole ........................................ .

79

0.001
0.002

549

549

0.006

549

0.002
0.0005549

370

TABLE 13.
Numberbuil°Ji·ugs

invtstigaled

1-ocat{on.......................

Poland28~Rn conccutratiou outdoors

Type of l111ildi1111
and buildi1111 matrrial

55
87
83

Union of Soviet Socialist Republics

United Kingdom ...............
00

0

United States of America:
Boston area .................

Tennessee
FloridaNew York ................. .
11•nR11 conceutration iudoors(pCi 1-1)

l\f canRangt'

Mran

Commtuts

Rcfercnu

0.06-0.16
0.06-0.09

0.11
0.08

0.14-2.14
0.26-1.10
0.08-0.37

0.44
0.35
0.19

Measurements made under similar
conditions of ventilation

498

Houses -0.3-0.9
0.3-2.1
0.3-4.5

0.54
0.91
1.86

Four air changes per hour

255

Silicate brickRed brickConcrete
Adobe
Slag

0.12-4.3
0.19-1.10
0.4
0.3-10.0
4.0-8.0

Apartments -6.......................

(PCil- 1 )

Range

8

Sweden222RN CONCENTRATION IN DWELLINGS

Concrete
Aggregate
Brick

Wood
Brick
Concrete(including alum shale)}

680

0.06-0.31
0.2-0.7
0.005-1.2
0.06-0.35

0.16
0.4
0.3
0.17

0.005-0.23
0.1-0.94
0.01-0.19

O.o7

Offices and laboratories

0.02-0.10

0.05

Houses - most of them ofconcrete construction

0.13-4.8•

1
1
6
4

House
House
Industrial premises
Office buildings

73

One-family houses:
first floor (wood frame)
basement ( concn.:te)Apartments - Brick

4

15

0.04-0.19

0.01-0.15

0.04
0.13
0.09
0.04

0.03-3.6•
0.13

Converted from working level units by assuming that 222Rn and its daughters arc in the equilibrium ratio 1/0.9/0.6/0.4.

}

227

Number of air changes per hour:
one to three in the basement.
two to six on the first floor
Number of air changes per hour:
five to nine
Number of air changes per hour:
five to twelve. Air conditioned
buildings

660

The ventilation rate was probably
higher in Florida than in Tennessee as the outdoors tempera1.26 } lures were respectively, 23 ° C
and o• C

377

0.05

16

Adequately ventilated
Inadequately ventilated
Poor ventilation
Air conditioned

0.40
0.09

660
660

1.40

0.25

377

377

TABLE 14. A.nlWAY CHARACTERISTICS OF WE!BEL'S LUNG MODEL A (REGULAR DICHOTOMY)(238, 644)

RegionGeneration

Trachea ..............

Number0

Radius(cm)

Jl:,~.u
Iran.tittime

Lc11oth
(cm)

(min)

0.900012.0

820.6100

4.76

6

2
3

4
8

0.41500.2800

1.90
0.76

8
3

........

4
5
6

16
32
64

0.22500.17500.1400

1.27
1.07
0.90

14
12
10

Quarternary bronchioles .....

7
8
9

128
256
512

0.11500.09300.0770

0.76
0.64
0.54

32
27
23

Terminal bronchioles ........

10
11
12
13
14
15
16

1.024
2,048
4,096
8,192
16,38432.76865,536

0.06500.05450.04750.04100.03700.03300.0300

0.46
0.39
0.33
0.27
0.23
0.20
0.165

445
378
320
261
223
194
160

17
18
19

131,072
262,144524.2880.02700.02500.0235

0.141
0.117
0.099

Alveolar ducts ..............

20
21
22

1,048,576
2,097.152
4,194,304

0.02250.02150.0205

0.083
0.070
0.059

Alveolar sacs .......

23

8,388.608

0.02050.050

Main bronchi ..........
Secondary bronchioles
Tertiary bronchioles

Respiratory bronchioles

.....

-0.02

Alveoli .............

TABLE 15. CALCULATED ALPHA DOSE RATES FROM INHALATION OF SHORT-LIVED 222RNDAUGHTER PRODUCTS TO THE BASAL CELL NUCLEI OF SEGMENTAL BRONCHI (226)
Depth (Jt.m)

15

JO

45

60

70

550

280

100

40

1.5

Living accommodation: inadequate
ventilationb ................. 1,490

790

330

120

5

Industrial premises<' ............

840

445

190

75

3

Air-conditioned sitesd ......••••.

280

140

50

15

0.6

Living accommodation: adequate
ventilation" .................

a ~~2Rn, 21spo, 214Pb and 2HBi concentrations: 0.164, 0.148, 0.083 and 0.057 pCi 1-1
respectively. Annual dose (6,000 h) in millirads.
b z:?2Rn, 21spo, 2HPb and 2HBi concentrations: 0.37, 0.35, 0.26 and 0.21 pCi I·l respectively. Annual dose (6,000 h) in millirads.
c 2~2Rn, 21spo, 214Pb and 2HBi concentrations: 0.32, 0.31, 0.27, 0.25 pCi 1-1 respectively. Annual dose (2,000 h) in millirads.
d:?z:?Rn, 21spo, 2HPb and 2HBi concentrations: 0.17, 0.15, 0.074, 0.060 pCi 1-1 respectively. Annual dose (2,000 h) in millirads.

81

TABLE 16. ESTIMATED ANNUAL ALPHA DOSES (mrad) IN HUMAN ORGANS RESULTING FROMINHAL.\TION OF RADON DAUGHTERS WITH A MEAN ASPIRATION RATE OF 13.9 LITRES PERMINUTE (511)
2:!Rr. conc~nlratio-r.

=Pb conct'711rali0fl
3 fCi /.J("'Pb=Bi in
cq11ilibri1un)

0.3 pCi/.J
rr.•Rn and da11plttcr, in
the ratio 1/0.8/0.4/0.3)

Lungs (alveolar tissue) ........................ .
Blood ...................................... .
Liver ............ .
Kidneys ........ .
Adrenal glands ... .
MuscleBone
Bone marrow ..
Gonads ......... .

2.2
0.2
0.1
0.5
0.1
0.05
0.04
0.08
0.07

0.6
0.1
0.07
0.2
0.02
0.003
0.02
0.05
0.003

TABLE 17. DIETARY 11''TAKE OF ::10pB AND :llOpo IN SOME COUNTRIESDietary inlake (pCi d.1)"'•Pb

Country

nop0

Reference

1.3
4.6
3.0
1-10

45
200
664
247

Areas of normal dietary intake
Argentina ............................ .
Federal Republic of Germany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (Leningrad)
United Kingdom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.6
4
1-10

United States of America:
Palmer, Alaska ....................... .
Los Angeles, California ...... .
Honolulu, Hawaiian Islands ....... .
Chicago. Illinois .............. .
New Orleans, Louisiana ......... .
Boston, Massachusetts ... .
New York City, New York .................. .

1.7
1.5
1.6
1.8
1.8
1.7
1.2

391

437

Areas of high dietary intake
Finland (Lapps)

8.6

Japan

17

69

317
599

TABLE 18. MEASURED DOSE RATES IN AIR FROM TERRESTRIAL GAMMA RADIATION IN SELECTED AREAS (mrad y-1)
Indoors

Outdoor,Co1mlry

Egypt ........
Federal Republic of
Germany .......
Finland ...........
German Democratic
Republic .......

Italy ............
Japana ...........
New Zealand
Poland ..
Sweden ..........
Union of Soviet
Socialist Republics
United Kingdom
United States .....

No. of silts

Area

Range

Mean

No. of sitts

Rangt

52
27,000 km of roads
11

Country-wide
Rome

1,097

78
225

DunedinCountry-wide
Lapp communities

Aberdeenshire
Country-wide

n These figures obtained

15-40091-2500-83

52()..113
43-69

217
>200

34-10325-10016

Rt!/crtnu

49

483

34
86

2,000
11

59-142

70
82

193
281

82

607
15

30-23090-230

64
162

42
37
51
53

9

49-76
50-60

37
60
53

470
102
8, 9, 10
287
497
217

70

33
172

25-16851-118

66
82
38

680
579
37

181

55

by subtracting 30 mrad y-1 as estimated cosmic-my contribution

82

Mcar.

19. DOSE CONVERSION FACTORS; GONADS/AIR (49, 297)

TABLE

Residts of Btnn~t:
Distribution
in sailRadio-,rnclide!?3SU series

Uniform:?3:?Th series

Uniform~OK.........
' .... - ..
13,Cs ................

Uniform

1s,cs

Plane

TABLE

Re~ul:~ of Jones

TestesOr1a,its

M,a,.

Tutu

Ovari~,.,.,1 can

0.85
0.86
0.87
0.88
0.87

0.75
0.76
0.79
0.80
0.77

0.80
0.81
0.83
0.84
0.82

0.87
0.87
0.85
0.83
0.84

0.74
0.75
0.73
0.69
0.71

0.80
0.81
0.79
0.76
0.77

Exponential

20. DOSE RATES DUE TO INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL IRRADIATION FROM NATURAL SOURCES IN "NORMAL" AREAS. ESTIMATES
OF THE 1966 REPORT ARE GIVEN IN PARENTHESES.
Dou rates (mrad ~)Source of irradiatio,sBone•li"ingcells

GonadsBone marrO"'..v

Paragraph

External irradiation
Cosmic rays: ionizing component...

neutron component
Terrestrial radiation (including) air.. ' .....

...... -Internal irradiation
3H .................................

..................... - ...........
40K ............ - ........ - ......... -8iRb ................................
HC!?tOPo............................... -................................
................................
ZZ6Ra ................................
2~8Ra ................................
2:1su .................................
220Rn

222Rn

RotJNDED TOT.U.
Percentage from alpha particles plus neutrons.

TABLE

28
0.35
44
0.001
0.7
19
0.3
0.6
0.003
0.07
0.02
0.03
0.03
93
1.2

(28)
(0.7)
(50)

28
0.35
44

28
0.35
44

(-)

(-)

0.001
0.8
15
0.6
1.6
0.05
0.08
0.6
0.8
0.3

0.001
0.7
15
0.6
0.3
0.05
0.08
0.1
0.1
0.06

(100)

92

( 1.3)

4.1

89
1.2

(0.7)
(20)
(0.3)
(0.3)
(-)

(0.3)
(-)
(-)

41
46
145

(-)

62
67

( 1.6)(15)(<0.3)
(0.3)
(-)

(0.3)
(0.03)(0.03)
(-)

(96)
(1.4)

21. INmAL VERTICAL DISTRIBUTION OF RADIO-A~ ASSUMED WITlllN"MUSHROOM CAP" OF THE CLOUD FROM A NUCLEJJt EXPLOSION (506)Percentage ofa.tivity

La:,er, fractiott of· mushroom cap''

u-it/ti,s lay«

(from base to top)

0

(28)
(0.7)
(50)

1
7

1

2

7

7

2

3

7

7

3

4

7

7

4

5

7

7

5

6

7

7

6

7

7

7

.......................................................... 14.......................................................... 25........................................................... 25........................................................... 15.......................................................... 15

5

83

72

73
131
119
118
92
92
80

TABLE 22. ANNUAL DOSES RECEIVED BY AN U,.'UIVIDUAL EXPOSED TO "'" ACTIVITY CONCENTRATION
OF 1 pCJ 1,1-3 OF S5.KR
Organs end tissues

Lung ...... .
Tracheal mucosa
Fatty tissue ....
Blood ...
11uscle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. ............. .
Skin .............................................. .
Subcutaneous tissue
Gonads . . . . . .
. .................................. .
Entire body . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........................ .

An,:waJ dose(r.rod)Rciercr.ce

32
52
2
0.2
0.2
2,100
51
17
14

648
648
610
610
610
149
610
149
149

TABLE 23. 90SR INVEJ\'TORY IN MEGKURIES (340, 343, 344. 385, 616. 632, 635)
1967

Stratosphere

...

...
Local fall-out ..

Troposphere

Global fall-out
TOTAL

1968

1969

Apr.

July

Oct.

Jar..

Apr.

June

Orl.

Feb.

Apr.

July

Jan.

May

0.3

0.3

0.3

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.2

0.4

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.4

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

2.1

2.1

2.1

2.1

2.1

2.1

2.1

2.0

2.0

2.0

2.0

12.2

12.2

12.2

12.2

12.2

12.2

12.2

12.2

12.2

12.1

14.6

14.6

14.6

14.7

14.6

14.5

14.$

14.6

14.6

14.4

----

-- - -

1971

1970

Jon.

A1tg.

NM!.

Feb.

0.3

0.3

0.4

0.5

0

0

0

0

1.9

1.9

1.9

1.8

1.8

12.2

12.1

12.1

12.2

12.2

12.2

14.4

14.4

14.3

14.4

14.4

14.5

TABLE 24 .. .ANNuAL AND CUMULATIVE WORLD-WIDE OOSR DEPOSIDON (MCi) (634)Annual deposition

Cumulative deposit
Northern

Northernhemisphere

Southern/1cmisphere

Globallatmi.rphcrc

Sowtl:rrn
hemisphere

GlobalPre-1958 .................................
1958 ...... - .............................
1959 ..... --- ............................
1960 ....... - ............................
1961 ....................................
1962 ....................................
1963 .......................
................................
1964
1965 ....................................
1966 ....................................
1967 ....................................
1968... - . - . - -· ........................
1969 ....................................
1970 .................... - ...............

1.808
0.63
1.05
0.26
0.35
1.44
2.62
1.65
0.77
0.32
0.17
0.19
0.15
0.21

0.65 11
0.25
0.18
0.17
0.17
0.26
0.31
0.42
0.36
0.21
0.11
0.10
0.14
0.13

2.45•
0.88
1.23
0.43
0.52
1.70
2.93
2.07
1.13
0.53
0.28
0.29
0.29
0.34

1.7
2.28
3.26
3.44
3.70
5.84
7.51
8.96
9.50
9.59
9.52
9.48
9.40
9.37

0.6
6.84
1.00
1.14
1.29
1.51
1.78
2.16
2.46
2.68
2.65
2.69
2.76
2.82

2.3
3.12
4.26
4.58
4.99
7.35
9.29
11.12
11.96
12.27
12.17
12.17
12.16
12.19

TOTAL
Stratospheric inventory .....................
All injections to 1970 ......................

11.61
0.29
11.90

3.46
0.16
3.62

15.07
0.45
15.52

a Estimatedfrom the cumulative deposition, assuming there had been a two-year decay.

84

TAIILB 25.

ACTIVITYOF OOSR IN RAIN (pCi 1-1) AND WBT DEPOSITION (mCi km-2) (101, 230, 231)
1966

1965

00

VI

1968

1967

1969

1970

pCil- 1mCikm- 1

pCi I-'

mCi km·'pCil·'

mCikm-'

pCil-•

mCi km-i

pCil·'

mCi km• 2

pCil·'

mCi l:m-l

I. Co11ti11e11ts
51 ° N Milford Haven ..........
51° N Abingdon ' ' ............
40° N New York .............
25° N Miami ................
40° N Misawa ................

5.06
5.49
8.35
2.41
2.91

4.82
3.09
5.53
3.58
3.17

2.63
2.40
2.40
1.07
1.05

3.08
1.78
2.43
2.25
1.41

1.17
1.30
1.31
0.37
0.67

1.22
0.78
1.64
0.62
0.77

1.25
1.20
1.14
0.42
0.65

1.24
0.91
1.32
0.88
0.99

0.82
1.34
1.16
0.50
0.71

0.85
0.81
1.43
0.91
0.99

1.18
0.96
l.65
0.77
1.07

1.19
0.57
1.48
0.88
0.73

4.04

1.91

2.19

0.96

l.01

0.93

1.07

0.90

1.00

1.13

0.97

3.42
0.33
1.04
0.20

1.06
0.50
0.60
0.08

1.15
0.53
0.73
0.15

1.14
0.96
0.76
0.09

1.13
1.30
1.04
0.18

Mean

4.84

2. Islands
21 ° N Honolulu ..............
38°N Azores ................
32° N Bermuda ..............
22° N Taiwan ................

1.84

2.77

1.75

1.68

1.22

1.91

2.08

2.84

1.35

2.14

0.43

0.54

2.59
0.99

3.02
1.18

1.23
1.68

1.84
0.29

0.62
0.10

0.83
0.17

2.51
0.27
0.99
0.07

Mean

1.87

2.45

1.50

1.49

0.59

0.86

0.96

1.25

0.56

0.64

0.74

1.22

3. Ships
56° N Bravo .................
52° N Charlie ..... . . . . . . . .
44° N Delta ............
35" N Echo ..................

2.58
5.44
2.80
3.24

1.33
3.18
2.25
2.45

2.00
3.08
2.42
3.59

0.74
1.42
1.59
1.50

0.89
0.91
0.80
0.61

0.34
0.49
0.66
0.57

1.19
1.09
1.01
1.14

0.53
0.60
0.81
0.62

1.19
1.16
0.83
0.88

0.48
0.55
0.63
0.56

1.46
1.73
0.87
0.74

0.51
0.69
0.71
0.43

Mean

3.51

2.30

2.77

1.31

0.80

0.52

1.11

0.64

1.01

0.55

1.20

0.58

..

TABLE 26. L.\TITUDE POPULATION ANO FALL-OUT DISTRIBUTION

Area(10• km')

LoJit1<de10•.30' N..........

It,tegrated deposit of lntegroJed deposit"'Sr (mCi km-:)"o( ..S~(mC: km-)1958-1970
From all te.rts 1961·1969
to 1970b
(635)
(228)

Population(per cent)

11.6

14.4

17.5

60°-70° N . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

18.9

0.4

37.2

45.2

217

50°-60° N..............

25.6

11.9

62.0

75.3

261

40°-50° N................

31.5

17.7

68.9

83.7

346

30°-40° N...............

36.4

23.4

49.4

60.0

302

20°-30° N..............

40.2
42.8

25.9

46.5
31.4

229

..........

25.2
8.4

38.3

10°-20' No•.10• N................
................

44.1

4.0

16.9

20.5

117

44.1

4.2

9.6

12.3

96

10·.20· S ................

42.8

1.7

8.2

10.5

36

................

40.2

1.5

13.5

17.4

71

30°--40° S ................
40"-50" S ................

36.4

1.4

14.5

18.6

43

31.5

0.1

17.2

22.1

35

50°-60° S ..... ' ..........

25.6

9.6

12.3

.

o·-10· s
20°-30' S

35

128

a The integrated deposit is sum of the activities deposited each month. There is nocorrection for radio-activity decay.
b The distribution of oosr in the northern hemisphere for all injections up to 1970 is
obtained by multiplying results in the previous column by 11.9/9.8, the ratio of thetotal deposition in the northern hemisphere for all injections to 1970 to that for the period
1958-1970 (see table 24). The data for the southern hemisphere are computed in like manner.

TABLE 27. PoPULATION•\VEIGHTED DEPosmoN OF STRONTIUM (mCi kIJl-!!)a•Sr(1961-1969)""Sr(1958-1970)""Sr( All injeetion.s
to 1970)

Northern hemisphere

260

48.1

58.4

Southern hemisphere

71
243

10.8
44.8

54.4

Global13.9

n Estimated from data of table 26.

TABLE 28. ANNUAL DEPosmoi- OF S9SR (MCi)aNorthern hemisphere
Southern hemisphere1964 1965b

1966

1967

15

0.35

0.91

0

0.67
2.6

0.49

1961

1962

196]

8.1
0.48

27
4.5

0.57

1968

1969

0.74

0.56
0.18

.,-·-',• Based upon measurements made at the United States fall-out sampling network (228).
for 1965.

b No results reported

I

I
86

I

j

TABLE 29.

90SR AND

13,Cs IS :O.ULK"°Sr to caldu m ratiou~cs conctntra::"on(pCi /-1)(pCig.1)

Region or country

Austria

1966

1967

1968

1969

.,,_.,

14

13

12

9
10

8
8

9
9

6
9

9

9
6
45

7

8

35

37

9
9
12
12

9
8
9
12

7

13
13
2

Belgium
CanadaColombia ...
Czechoslovakia

12

Denmark ..............

12
13
73

Egypt

•

+

•••••••••••••••

Faroe Islands ....... . .
Federal Republic of Germany ...............

...............

Finland.............

France: I

2 .............
Guiana ................

16
13
19
18
11

1970

19il

1967

19118

1969

28
20
25

27

51

33
17
33

20

10
21

7

22

14

14

14

10

14

34

800

586

507

463

357

352

61
134

35
92
21
34

27
70
20
24

25
54
19
24

31
49
21
26

51
11
10

14
15
14

6
11

5

14
200
52

184
30

109
28

95

81
16

43
244
21
21

37
181
22
14

28
146

23
128

II

II

63
26

38
17

30
7

20
13

12

56
46
29
34

38
20
16
20

30
16

20
14

20
17

18

13
14

16

14

14

66

55

51

19
15

20
18

20
19

70
36

9
11

!!

12
7

2

..................

13

Jamaica ...............

9

Japan

.................

11

Korea

................

...........

22
15
28
4
6

Senegal...............

10

Sweden...............

...........

Netherlands

Norway ............ ·-.
Panama ...
Puerto Rico............

15
18

Union of Soviet Socialist
Republics ............

12

United Kingdom ..

12

United States ..........

Switzerland

2
10
7
8
11
9
16

5

5

4
8

4

4

10

13

8
11

7
10

2
7
10

8
9

8
8

7
7

7
6

6
8
4
9

5

6
2
9

7

5

..............

Chicago.............

9.............

New York City ...

4
12

6
8
3
10

Tampa ..............

11

JI

5

6

9

8

5

5

Australia ..............

75..................
Ecuador ...............

2
4
2
3
8
2

1
1
2
2
6

..... '

Chile

Malagasy Republic .....
New Caledonia ........
New Zealand ...........
Peru ...............
Reunion (La) ....
Society Islands ..

5

4
4

4
5

25

9

139
14

102

15

18

1971

Southern hemisphere
24
3

28

6

~.)

9

21
20

Rt/~rcncr

2
2

2
7

7

55

43

32

40

35

17

15

18

16

1
4
3

3

93,94,95,653
120,551
136,412,515
528
441
4,5
394,395
4,6
91, 92
105
186.490,550
123528
422,423
170
119
621
19
335
120,405,460
260
621
621
528
218,591
254
671,672.
681,682
II, 12621
621
74,621
621
232
521,632621
118
23. 69, 177,
178, 194, 585
528

1

5

22
28

.,,

8

4

Venezuela

Argentina

4

11

Alaska

'

8
4
7
15
8

7
10

12
12

Hawaii62
11Israel .................

19.'0

Northern hemisphereIndia (Bombay) ........
Italy

1966

3

5

528
528
528
450
528
550

528

3

87

TABLE 30. ANNUAL AVERAGE 90SR/CA RATIOS IN MILK BY COUNTRY OR AREA IN THE NORIB TEMPERATE ZONE
(pCi (gCa)-I)
Cour.tr, or arta
United States of America
J!ea11Year

FedrralN,tlzcrUSSR
UnitedCa11adalands Ukrainfon Mosco-..u Krngdom
C::echo· De,,.
R1J'."blic(136,412, s/ovakia ,nark of ermariy F:"nland France (40!J, 460, SSR(666. 672, (11, 12,
SIS, 616)(616) (2, 4, 5)(92) (105,616) (49,J)
616)
(678)
616)
682)

1955
1956
1957
1958
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971

3
4
6

4
6
6
7
10
6
6
12
26
28
19
12
9
8
7
6
6

5

9
4

9
7
6

7
6

10

11

13

24
25
17
12
9
9
7
8
7

26
27
24
16

22
23
18
13
10
9
8

5

26
28
19
13
10
8
9
9

21
20
18
12

11

9
9
7

9
25
22
!7
15
9
8
7

24
19
14

12
9
8
9

8
6
4
13
23
18
14
15

27
20
11

9

8

6

Wlioltco1,utry

Chicago N cw Yark Salt
City
Lake
City
(232,616, 621)

5
8
11
8
7
12
26
23

7
7
8
6
9
17
16
12
9
8
8
6

7
11

19
19
14
11

9

19

12
10
9
9
8
8

4
4
6
6
4
8

19
23
17
10

5

3.5
5.0
5.3
6.2
8.6
6.6
5.6
10.8
23.2
22.5
17.4
12.7
9.3
8.9
7.9
7.4
1.5

TADLE 31. OOSR AND 137C5 IN TOTAL DIET"°Sr to calcium ratio(pCi g-')""Cs intake(pCi d-')
1967

1968

1969

1970

1971

135
79

53
44

60
39

51
38

32

34

20

496

480

502

403

384

10

9

123
260

77

43

37

30

15
20
8
21

15
18
6
15

89
20
90
420
132

297
14
50

38
346

37
137
9

32

34
61
14
28

88

71

65

58

145

93

56

38

38

55

30

34

28

25

65

35

19

18

17

Region or cou..try

1966

1967

1968

1969

Austria ..............
Denmark .............

25
14
45
33

15
10

15
8

14
8

7

22

13
23

17

17
21
22

13

11

19

17
21
7
19
12

1970

19il

1966

Refer~eNorthern hemisphereEgypt.................

Faroe Islands ..........
Federal Republic of Germany ...............
Finland .. ............
France: 1 ..........
2 .............
Greenland ....... ·-· ...
Japan (urban) .........
Netherlands ............
Norway ...............
Sweden ..............
Union of Soviet Socialist
Republics ............
'

15
24
20
38
22

9
18
14

40

28

16
29

12
16
6
16
6

14
4

12
4

7
6

s
s

6

United States average ...
Alaska ..............
Hawaii ..............
New York City ......
San Francisco ........

176.............

7··············

7

10

25

7

14
18

11

19

20

12
4

13

13
4

37

24

95
4,5
394,395
6
92
259
123
186, 490, 550
7
20
460
259
259,390.594
671,672,
681,682
74,214,621
621
621
51
51

Southern hemisphereArgentina
Australia

5

4
6

24

88

118
23, 177, 178,
194,585

TABLE 32. RATIO OF 90SR/CA IN WHOLE DIET TO THAT IN MILK•

Co,,rlfry

1963

1964

1.8

1.5

1.1

1.0

1965

196i

1968

1969

19i0

1.3

1.4

1.4

1.3

1.5

1.3

1.4

0.9

1.0

).2

1.3

1.0

1.0

1.1
1.2

Australia. ....... . .
............
........... . . . . . . . . . . . .

Denmark........................

1.3

1.7

1.3

1.2

1.1

0.9

1.1

0.9

Federal Republic of Germany ......

1.3

1.6

1.7

1.1

1.2

1.2

1.1

1.3

1.8

1.6

Argentina

FinlandFrance~. . . . . . . . . . ............
.............. . . . . . . . . . . .
. ...

1.2

India ................. . . . . . . .. . . .

...............

1.3

1.4

1.3

1.3

3.6

0.9

1.0

Union of Soviet Socialist Republics

2.3

3.1

3.7

3.3

3.5

3.1

2.7

2.9

United States, New York City ....

1.1

1.3

1.2

1.4

1.6

1.6

1.3

1.5

1.6

2.2

3.5

2.5

2.0

Hawaiia Data taken from.............

2.1

2.2

2.3

2.2

1.3

1.4

1.4

1.5

2.3

2.7

4.2

2.6
1.4
3.1
1.4
2.4

New York

Denmark

UnitedKingdom(eq.15)(eq.15)(eq.14)(eq.1S)(eq.1S)p 1 (pCi (gCa)·l per mCi km·2 y·l)

0.69

0.99

0.70

0.86

0.86

p 2 (pCi (gCa)·l per mCi knr2 y-1)

0.21

0.47

1.41

0.47

0.48

p 3 (pCi (gCa)·l per mCi k.m·2 y-1)

0.20

0.25

0.21

0.11

0.20

µ (y-1) ...............................

0.14

0.15

0.18

0.08

0.10

Pza (pCi y (gCa)·l per mCi k.m·2) ......

2.23

3.01

2.33

2.65

3.24

89

3.0

0.9

TABLE 33. PARAMETERS OBTAINED BY FITTING THE 90SR/CA RATIO IN MILK TO THE OOSRDEPOSITION

using data from table 30.

1.3

1.3

tables 29, 31 and from the 1969 report.

a Calculated

1.3

(3.6)

0.9

'

1963-1970

1.7..........
Norway ........ ·- .. . ...... - ...
Sweden ............... . . . . . . . . . . .
United Kingdom ..................

Japan

Mi!an
for

1966

UnittdNorthern
Kingdom hemisphn'e•TABLE 34. DDSR/CA RATIOS IN HUMAN BONE (pCi (gCa)-1)( Number of samples in parentheses)
Regicn or tountry. . .........

Canada

Ytar

1968
1969

Czechoslovakia .....

1966
1967

N=·bqrn,,,.
stillborn 0-1 :,,ear

3.2
(8)
2.5
(6)

4.1
(86)
4.0
(47)

2.2
(30)
1.6
(31)

3.3
(63)
2.8
(91)

1 ye,1r

J yei11s

3 years 4 ytars 5-19 year, >19 years

Northern hemisphere
4.8
4.4
4.3
5.8
(17)
(16)
(12)
(4)
5.0
5.1
4.4
4.2
(5)
(5)
(4)
(8)
3.5
(9)
4.1
(20)

3.3
(8)
3.8
(12)

3.8
(11)
2.9
(12)

3.0
(5)
2.9
(9)

3.8
(59)
3.3
(48)

2.7
(38)
2.2
(37)

2.9
(59)
2.8
(63)

1.8
(103)
1.9
( 122)
1.7
(54)
1.8
(62)
1.7
(57)

1968
3.2
(23)

1969

2.3
(9)

2.8
(10)

3.0 2.4(10) (59)1970
Denmark . ' ........

1969
1970
1971

Egypt

.......

1.2
(19)
0.9
(18)
1.2
(8)

1.7
(33)
1.9
(26)
1.7
(i5)

2.4
(3)
1.9

(4)

1.9
(4)

2.1
(1)
1.7
(4)

1.8
(3)
0.8

1969
France I'.........

1967
1968
1969
1970

France 2

1.2( 159)
(98)

2.4
(25)
1.9
( 14)

1.9
(5)
1.6
(60)
1.6
(25)
1.6
(37)

3.7
(53)
3.2
( 102)
3.2
(87)
2.7
(73)

1.1

603

V

75

V

75

V

76

V

78

V

79

V

5

V

5

V

4

V

396

V

396

2.5
(34)
2.0
(21)

1.8
(64)
1.7
(40)

V

92

V

92

3.5
(41)
3.8 2.8(6) (38)
3.0 2.8(6) (54)
2.3 2.1(15) (42)

2.2
(55)
2.3
(88)
2.0
(105)
1.9
(132)

V

292

V

292

V

292

V

292

Rib

490

Rib

490

Rib

490

Rib

490

4.0

(I)

3.9
(4)
3.6
(5)
3.2
(6)

V

0.1
(8)
2.8
(17)
2.3
(10)
5.0
(5)
3.7
(9)
3.1
(12)
2.6
(11)

603

0.4
(7)
0.2
(14)

(1)

1.4
(3)

5.3
( 10)
4.4
(13)
3.7
(15)
2.9
(15)

V

1.3
(27)
1.3
(49)
1.8
(31)

1968

1968

Rrltunce

1.9
(36)
1.5
(31)
2.0
(26)

1969
Federal Republic of
Germany......

Adult bo1<t typt•

1.7
(55)
1.0
(45)
1.3
(61)
1.2
(18)

1967
1968
1969
1970

J

Indonesia . . . . . ....

1970

1.0
(6)

V

234

Jamaica

19i0

0.9
(21)

V

234

Japan

1967

0.4

Composite

601

Composite

601

Composite

601

Composite

602

1968
1969
1970

1.1

( 12)
0.7
(30)
0.7
(23)

3.9
(2)
2.0
(31)
1.5
(15)

3.8
(2)
3.2
( 10)
2.1
(5)

3.3
(2)
2.3
(4)
2.6
(7)
2.5

2.1

2.0

!.5
(21)
2.1
(47)
1.4
(26)
1.7

(3)

(14)

2.5
(1)
2.3

(1)

(3)

(3)

1.5
(7)

(1)

(1)

90

1.8
0.6

(1)

0.6
(13)

0.7
(12)
1.2
(6)

TABLE

34. 90SR/CA RATIOS IN HUMAN BONE (pCi (gCa)-1) ( continued)(Number of samples in parenrheses)

Year

Region or coirn~rJ'."'w.e-::t--boru or.rtillborn 0·1 ytar

2 ;:ca,·s

1 )'t:f1T

J yr!lrs 4 yrars 5-19 years )19 years

Ad:tit bon~ typ1;:

Ref"~rence

1.0
(12)

V

234

1.3

V

234

N orthem hemisphere (continued)

1969

Senegal

1970(24)
Switzerland

1970

2.5
(47)

V

254

Thaiiand ......

1970

0.7
(7)
0.6
(6)

V

234

V

234

I. I

V

234

Normalized to wholeskeletonNormalized to wholeskeletonNormalized to wholeskeletonNormalized to wholeskeleton674

1971
Uganda1970

Union of Soviet Socialist Republics ..

1968
1969
1970b
197Jb

United Kingdom

1968

United States:
New York, N. Y ...

1969

(23)
1.7
(81)
1.5
(103)
1.4
(81)
1.0
(55)

2.4
(19}
2.1
(30)
2.4
(32)
2.3
(7)

1.3
(101)

2.9
(27)
2.6
(23)
2.5
(12)

1970
San Francisco,California .....

1.4
(80)
0.9
(74)

1969
1970

1.2
2.2
(224) (694)1.2
2.0(288) (1,142)
1.4
3.1(329) (1,249)
1.3
2.7. (162) (867)

3.
(13)
3.1
(12)
2.9
(35)

2.5
(8)

675
675

3.2
(9)

2.7
(7)

3.4
(4)

2.7
(5)

1.9
(73)

1.6
(34)

Mainly vertebrre

415

2.7

3.2
(2)

3.6

2.8
l2)

1.7
(25)
1.6
(52)

V

229

(I)

V

50

0.9
(80}
0.9
(46)

V

229

V

50

0.8
(22)
0.8
(23)

V

234

V

234

2.8

2.4

(1)

(I)

2.5
(29)
2.1
(20)

1.5
(4)
1.1
(3)

1.0 1.3(2) (21)0.9 1.1(1) (14)

(1)

1.2
(5)
0.9

1.6
(5)
1.7
(5)

(I)

1969

Venezuela

675

1970
Southern hemisphereArgentina

Australia. . . . . . . .

1.4
(29)
1.4
(21)

1.2
(9)
1.3
(12)

-1.3- --1.3-(9)(75)- 1 . 4 - --1.3-(11)(69)

V45,118

(6)
1.5
(10)

V

45, 1181.5
0.8(79) (98)1.4
0.9(108) (98)1.3
0.7(208) (86)

2.0
(26)
1.6
(27)
1.6
(23)

2.0
(14)
1.5
(11)
1.6
(12)

1.9
(8)
1.6
(7)
1.2
(9)

0.9
(75)
0.9
(112)
0.9
(130)

V

194

V

70

V

585

1969

1.3

1970

(19)
1.4
(9)

1968
1969
1970

1.3

2.2
(14)
1.4
(13)

1.4
(75)
(136)

1.3

1.1

(7)

(90)

1.2

Brazil

1969

1.3
(45)

V

234,417

Chile

1969

1.7
(20)

V

234

0.5

Rib

623

South Africa

1966-1969

1.1

1.3

a V represents vertebra:.

b The data up to 4 years refer to Moscow City only.

91

2.0

TABLE 35. 90SR IN ADULT VERTEBR..E OF THE NORTHERN HE.',USPHERE (pCi (gCa)-1)

CanadaYear

C:ecJw.
slovckia

Drnmark

UnitedStates(New York)

UnitedUSSR(Moscow) Kingdom

PolandFranceAvrragl!

..........

1.2

0.8

1.4

1.0

1.10

1963 ..........

1.7

1.2

1.6

J.7

1.6

1.56

1964 ..........

3.1

1.8

2.4

2.5

2.4

2.0

2.37
2.47

1962

...........

3.1

2.2

2.7

2.2

2.5

3.1

1.9

2.1

1966 ..........

2.6

1.8

2.6

2.1

2.9

2.7

2.2

2.1

2.37

1967 ..........

2.5

1.9

2.1

2.2

2.3

1.6

1.9

2.07

1.6

1965

1968 ..........

2.7

1.7

1.9

2.3

1.7

1.9

1.97

1969 ..........

2.2

1.8

1.3

2.0

1.7

1.7

1.78

1.7

1.3

1.9

1.4

1.6

1.58

1970 ..........
1971..........

1.8

1.2

TABLE 36. PARAMETERS OBTAINED BY Fl1TING THE 90SR BONE DATA (ADULT VERTEBRA!)
TO THAT IN DIET"New York,
1954-1970

DNimark,

San Francisco,
1961-1970

1960-1970

0.011

0.001

Northernhemispherl!,UnitedKingdom,b

1954-1970

1961-1969............ 0.027
g ............ 0.014µ. (y-1) ....... 0.17

0.027

0.043

0.031

0.035

0.20

0.48

0.25

0.275

.......... 0.116

0.16

0.114

0.117

0.124

C

Ps,

0.023

n The New York, San Francisco and Danish data were fitted using as the transfer function equation 30.
b In the .fit to the United Kingdom data ( 478) the parameters were determined by simultaneously fitung an exponential transfer function (equation 28) to the 90Sr in vertebr~ and adouble exponential transfer function (equation 29) to the 90Sr in femur.

TABLE 37. DOSE COMMITMENTS FROM 90SR FROM ALL TESTS UP TO 1970 (mrad)
N orll:ern /u,misphere

Soul/urn hemisphereTm,perate
latitude,

Average

Bone marrow ................. .

62

45

17

11

Endosteal cells ................ .

85

61

23

15

Tempera/I!
latitudes

Average

TABLE 38. RANGE AND ADOPTED VALUES OF THE PARAMETERS USED TO CALCULATE THE DOSE TO
nm THYROID OF ll'<"FANTS FROM INGESTION OF MILK CONTAMINATED BY 131{ FALL-OUT

Deposition velocity (m s-1) ....................... .
Transfer coefficient from deposition to milk
(pCi d 1-1 per pCi m-!?) .................. .

Adopted ,al,uRange

5 lQ--8(1-20) lQ--8

0.8

0.23-1.5

Daily intake of fresh animal milk (litre) ..... .

0.7

0-1

Dose factor (µrad per pCi) ................. .

16.5

15.5-18.5

92

j

jiP

TABLE

39. 131! IN 1\fil.K AND THYROID DOSES RESULTING FRO!',f 1970 AND 1971
AThfOSPHERIC TESTS

Integrated
millr
Region, artaor countryYear

conc1ntralion(pCi d /·')

Argentina
Buenos Aires

1970

Integrated
thyraici
doses
to 1·n.fan!s(mrad)

Reference

4,600

53

47

1970
1971

5,800
5,300

67
61

67
68

Hobart-Launceston

1970
1971

900
350

10
4

67
68

Country average . . . . . . . . . . . .

1970
1971

1,500
1,100

17
13

67
68

1970
1971

11.000
2.400

130
28

527
528

1970

3,600

42

622

1970
1971

3,000
5,200

35
60

527
528

1970

900

10

527

1970
1971

3,200
2,400

37
28

448,449
451,452

1971

6,400

74

528

1970
1971

3.000
2,600

35
30

527
528

1970
1971

700
300

8
3

448,449
451, 452

1970
1971

7,500
2,900

87
33

527
528

1970
1971

11,00018.000

130
210

527
528

1970
1970

1.500
8.000

17}
92

624

1970
1971

6,400
7,100

74
82

448,449
451,452

Australia
MalandaBolivia
La PazBrazilGuanabara
Chile
Santiago
Colombia
BogotaFiji
Suva
Malagasy Republic
Diego Suarez
New Caledonia
Noumea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
New Zealand
Peru
Arequipa
Society Islands
Tahiti . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
South Africa
Cape Town . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Pretoria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Western Samoa
Apia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

93

TABLE
La1it11deSex............. - 50°
Belgium(Ottawa)....... - 45•
Canada55°-60°Denmark ..........
Egypt . . ......... -- .. - 30°
Federal Republic of Germany ............... 47•.55•..............
BerlinKarlsruhe ....... - . - ..
Dilsseldorf ...........
Finland ................ - 60°
France ................. - so·Israel . . . ' ............. ,.., 35•
30°-45°
Japan
60°
Norway . . . ...........
...... , .. so·-ss·
PolandSweden (Stockholm) ..
- 60°
Switzerland (Geneva) ... - 45°?,.1F

Region or country•-

Union of Soviet Socialist
Republics
Mos;:ow .............

55•

Leningrad .... . . . . . . . .
60°
United Kingdom ........ 50 °-60°
London area ..........
West Cumberland .....
Uaited States average .... 25'-50°
Florida .............. 25 ° -30 °

MF
:MF
MF

40. 137Cs BODY BURDENS (pCi (gK)-1)
1964

1965

1966

Nort/iern hemisphere
135
87
170
185
168
106
158

MF
},IF

M

151
243

MF

MF
M
M
MF
l\1F

MF

227
93
164
205

M
F

206

M
F
:MF
J'vl
F

258

M
MF
MF

139

174
149
257
141

111
186
182
194

81
128
150
93

77
430
185
187
179
121

54
290

142
148
109
190
109
149

1967

1968

50

29

65
23

46
14

40

68
49
76
107
64

48
27
41

47
16

.,~.,__

36}
15
31

72

53
32

26

i4

13

47

590,592
490
170
444
259
311. 366
388,595

21}
18

254

38}
36

665, 672. 685

1969

1970

....,~.,

l9il

14

12

33

36
48
20

139
103
66

71
107
54
41

74
30
26

54
24
19

34
27
70

29

92

50
42
68

89
60
J 10
60
132

45}
33
52
35
120

.,.,

Referr:nc~

616
431
4, 5,616
157,438

92

44

28

663,684
201

30
17

242
214
533

Subarctic region
Canada ... .. . .
Eastern Arctic Eskimos
Central Arctic Eskimos
Finland: Inari reindeer
herders
Union of SoYiet Socialist
Republics
Murmansk .......
United States, Alaska

60°-70°65°-70°65°-10·65"-70°Argentina .............. 35°-40°
Australia
30°-40°TABLE 41.

M
M
J\·f
F

7,800
8,800

9.000
11,200M
M

14,0009,100

18,000
6,600

5,800

l

56

7.800
7.900

11,000 f
5,500
3,800

5,200
4,200

21,500
4,900

4,300

16,500
2,400

20
37

16
18

S0111hem hemisphere
31
65
42

3,400
3,600

3,100(
2,800}

679
108. 151,524
13

15
16

MEAN ANNUAL DOSES TO VARIOUS TISSUES (rad) RESULTING FROM THE r.lHAL-\TION
OF 1 µCi OF Pu02 (628)Time post·txfosurePulm~nar,-1
rro:onL,•mplt
nodes

Liver

Bone

0-1 .. . ' .
1-5
5-50

a -0.05 µm AMAD (pulmonary deposition fraction: 0.59)
0.246...........
184
0.8
15
510
1.0
. . . .....
0.2
530

0.04
0.14
0.20

0-1 . . .
1-5 . . . .
5-50

b-0.10 µm AMAD (pulmonary deposition fraction: 0.50)
39
156
0.2
..........
13
430
0.7
........
0.2
450
0.9
..........

0.04
0.12
0.17

0-1 ..
1-5
5-50

c - 0.50 µm AMAD (;,ulmonary deposition frac:ion: 0.30)
23
94
0.2
. .........
8
260
0.5
0.1
270
0.6
...... ·- ..

0.03
0.08
0.11

(year,

94

519,520,521

118
585,616

TABLE 42.
Location'.?30pu CONTENT I~ VARIOUS HcJMAN ORGANS AND TISSL'ES (pCi kg-1)

United States
New Jersey ....... .
Union of Soviet Socialist
Republics ............ .

United States
Massachusetts
Los Alamos
Los Alamos•

Rocky Flatsn .......... .
a Radiation

Rupirau,ry
lymph nodesN«mbcrof
samples

Y,ar

1959

Lr,na

5.0

Bo,u

0.78

342

··"}

686

1965
1965
1966
1966

12
14
12
20

1965-1966
1965-1966
1960-1971
1958
1959-1962
1959-1962
1967

12

0.45

0.78

60
1
1
1

0.5
2 160
2 835
27
95

0.7
4 455
1 215
9
145

6.85
9.6

0.11

o.o5}
56250
11430
200
630

392
439

945
225
0.45
58

}

'355
347

employees.
TABLE 43. CONVERSION FACTORS FOR THE AIR-DOSE AT ONE METRE ABOVE A PLANE SOURCE (38)
incs•

""Zr

Dose-rate
conversion
mrad
y-1
factor,per mCi km-2 ..... 0.119
Mean life, years . . . . . 1.24
Dose-commitment conversion factor, mrad
per mCi km-:? . . . . 0.147

0.341b
0.257

0.072
0.157

0.042
1.44

0.063
3.90

0.033
43.7

0.316b
0.051

0.011
0.129

0.004
1.13

0.087

0.011

0.060

0.246

1.44

0.016

0.00140.0045

4 For 13 7 Cs the source is exponentially distributed with a .r.iean depth of 3 cm.
b These factors include contributions from the daughter radio-nuclides assumed in transient equilibrium.

TABLE 44. ExTERNAL DOSE COMMITMENT FROM FALL-OUT (mrad)
Northern hemisphere

Soulheni hemisphere

Temperate
14ti111desShort-lived radio-nuclides .............. .
Caesium-137 .....................••..

65
59

Temperate
latitudes

Average

19
16

13
10

47
43

TABLE 45. DOSE COM:!-lITh!E.'sTS FROM NUCLEAR TESTS CARRIED oi:rr BEFORE 1971. (THE DOSE COMMITMENTS FROM NUCLEARTESTS CARRIED OUT BEFORE 1968, TAKEN FRO'.\-! THE 1969 REPORT. ARE INDICATED BETWEEN PARL'-'THESES)
Dose commitments (mrad)
for the nortl& temperate zone

External
Short-lived
137Cs

s:1Kr
Internal
3H ....... .
HCa

55Fe ......•
oosr ...... .
1s1cs ..... .
230Pub .... .

Dose commitments (mra.d)to the world populatfrm

Gonadscells

Bonemarrow

Gonads65 (36)59 (36)21()-l65 (36)59 (36)2 lQ-465 (36)59 (36)
2 1()-l19 (8)
16 (8)
2 lQ-419 (8)
16 (8)
2 lQ-419 (8)
16 (8)
2 1()-l4
12 (13)0.6
62 (64)26 (21)1
12 (13)0.3

1
15 (16)0.3
23 (28)12 (13)
0.2
17 (14)

12
0.7

7 (4)

7 (4)

7 (4)

18

72 (47)

120

Bon.: /ining
0

Source of radiation

Dose commitments (mrad)
for the south temperate :one

4
12 (13)1

26 (21)TOTALC 170 ( 110)4

15 (16)1
85 (130)
26 (21)0.2
260 (240)

Bone-litiing
cells

Bone
marrotu

Gonads

44
40

21Q-4
4

0.05
230 ( 170)

55 (33)81 (64)Bone-lining
cells

marrotU

Bone

44
40
2 lQ-444
40
2 1()-l

4
15
0.7
57
18
0.1

4
12
0.4
42
18

180

160

dose over 50 years to bone. A reduction by a factor of four
has been assumed for the south temperate zone. Because of
insufficient data, the dose commitments to gonads and to bonemarrow have not been estimated.
c Totals have been rounded off to two significanc figures.

a Dose accumulated up to year 2000. The total dose commitment to the gonads and bone marrow is about 140 mrad;
it is about 170 mrad to cells linin!! bone surfaces.
b The dose commitment to bone-lining cells for the northtemperate zone has been taken to be equal to the integrated

95

TABLE 46.

REACTION PRODUCTS FOR AN U1s'DERGROUND EXPLOSION, CONSISTING OF
ONE-MEGATON Ft:SION !ND TEN-KILOTON FISSION (583)

SourceFissiOflproducts(curies)

Inducedproducts(curies)•

3.0 100•
1.5 103
1.6 lOS

1Q5

Fission (10 l;:t)oosr ..........
1s1cs ........
ooco .........
HC(curiu)

Small
Small

..........

Fusion (1 Mt)

Fusionproducts..

IQS

3H ...........

6.7 106

ooco .........
HC ..........

104
15

a Induced gamma-ray activities at one hour after detonation, based on average chemicalcomposition of earth's crust.
b Fission-product gamma-ray activities at one hour after detonation. decaying at i-1.2.

TABLE 47.

SELECTED FISSION, FUSION, AND NEUTRON ACTIVATION PRODUCTS (AT DETONATION

TIME) EXPECTED TO BE RELE....SED TO THE ENVIRONMENT FOLLOWING A CRATERING EXPERIME1''T\VITI! A 170-JIT EXPLOSION (127)Amount rt/eased (kCi)
Remaining COfltent
Nuclide

HaJf.Jife

Immediatefall•out

oosr ................... .

28 y
40 d
370 d

0.00111.0
0.08

10:iRu100Ru.......•.........•........•..•..•....•

8 d

2.4

1331 . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . • . .

20 h
30 y
12 y
14 d

40
0.0015
500
1.2
16
30
60
800

1s1r

1s1cs .................. .

3H................... .

3:?p........•........••••ssc ................... .

44 h

1a1w

203Hg ................. .

140 d
75 d
24 h
47 d

!?O!?Tl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . •.

12 d

2ospb

52 h

1a:.w ..... , , , . , . , . , , ... .
1a1w .................. .

................. .

TABLE 48.

3
70
4,000

Main cloudBase surge

0.0002
0.16
0.013
0.5
7
0.0006
1,000
0.24
1.4
5
10
140
0.5
12
600

0.00005
0.014
0.00100.04
0.6
0.0002
500
0.02
0.09
0.6

I.I
14
0.06
1.2
70

COMPARISON OF PRE-PRODUCTION RADIO-!,CTIVllY IN GASBUGGY Arm RULISON GAS(176, 568, 569)

Date
Place
Yield
Depth

Gasbuggy

Ru/is""

10 December 1967

10 September 1969

San Juan Basin in
New Mexico

Piceance Basin in
Colorado

29 kt
1.3 km

48 kt
2.6km

2,100

1,300

710

180

350

1.100

120

150

.............................. .

Tritium
Total in gaseous products (Ci) ...... .
Pre-production concentration in g2.s
(pCi cm-S)
Krypton-85
Total (Ci) ........................ .
Pre-production concentration in gas(pCi cm-S) ..................... .

96

TABLE 49.

DAT•.\ ON NUCLEAR EXPLOSIONS FOR PEACEFUL USES

Yield

Dau

(•ilotor.s)

Sedan

1962

100

Sulky

1964

0.09

Palanquin

1965

4

1968

2.5

Buggy I

1968

5.5

Schooner

1968

35

E::entCo:u::ry(221, 321. 607)

Commtnt.1

Cratering explosions

CabrioletusT-1"1003"

0.2

{

USSR

"1004"

1.1>100

Explosion in alluvium. Formation of a crater 390 m indiameter and 100 m deep
Explosion in basalt. Formation of a mound (retarc)
24 m in diameter and 8 m highExplosion in rhyolite. Formation of a crater 73 m indiameter and 43 m deep
Explosion in rhyolite. Formation of a crater 220 m indiameter and 73 m deep
Explosion in basalt. First nuclear row-charge experiment (five 1.1 kt charges spaced 45.7 m apart).
Formation of a crater 260 m long, 76 m wide and20 m deep
Explosion in tuff. Formation of a crater 74 m indiameter and 21 m deep
Explosion in sandstone and argillite. Formation of acrater 74 m in diameter and 21 m deep
Explosion in siltstone. Formation of a crater 124 m
in diameter and 20 m deep
Explosion in sandstone and siltstone. Formation of
two water reservoirs, one inside explosion craterand one outside, The dimensions of the crater are
410 m in diameter and 100 m in depth

Contained explosions
Gnome
HandcarGasbuggy

USA

Rulison

1961

3.1

1964

10

1967

29

1969

48
1.1

A

25

B

USSR
C

12.6

D
E

30

97

Explosion in salt. Cavity radius: 25 m
Explosion in dolomite. The chimney dimensions are
42 m in diameter and 71 m in height
Explosion in gas-bearing formation to stimulate a low
producing gas field
Explosion in gas-bearing formation to stimulate a low
producing gas field
Investigation of the possibility of creating an underground storage space in a salt mass - volume ofthe empty space: around 10,000 ma
Investigation of the possibility of creating an underground storage space in a salt mass - volume of
the cavity: 140,000 m3
Detonation of three charges in two stages. Stimulationof the production in an oil field
Stimulation of gas production
Elimination of a runaway gas well

TABLE 50. ESTIMATES IN MILLIR.... DS OF WHOLE-BODY DOSEsn TO HYPOTHETICAL USERS IN Los
ANGELES BASIN OF GASBUGGY DILUTED GASb AND OF GAS PRODUCED !:>I TIIE SAME CONDITIO!'IS
AS GASBUGGY WITH THE NEW EXPLOSIVE DESIGN (CALCULATED FROM DATA IN REFERENCES 33
AND 285)
Nt"W dcsigucGas&un:;

ac

""Kr

•H

""Kr

Nonvented heating andappliances• ........... 0.09

4 1Q-1

2 IQ-II 10-3

I 10-1

All appliances vented
except range........ 0.01

51Q-53 ]Q-5Weighted averager ....... 0.02

9 10-s5 JQ-5

2 IQ-I
3 ]0-43 JQ-5

At point of peakconcentration ......... 0.01

610-5

3 lQ-5

2 IQ-I

2 10-5Population weighted
average .............. 2 ]0-3

8 ]Q-64 lQ-6

3 10-s

3 lQ-60.1

5 10-*

2 IQ-I

1 10-3

I IQ-I

Weighted average ....... 0.02

I 104

5 10-S

3 104

3 10-5•H

S011rce of cxt,os"rt

Domestic used

2 I0-5

Atmosphere

Total
Maximum exposuren The whole-body dose factors are taken as 1, 2.8 and 1.4 ]0-!? µrad per pCi y m-3 for
3H, HC and B"Kr, respectively.
b The Gasbuggy gas production rate being assumed lo be 28 103 m3 d-1 and the natural
gas consumption rate in the Los Angeles basin being 50 106 m3 d-1, the dilution factor isabout 1,800.
c The production rate of 3H per kiloton of yield is assumed to be 70 times less than forthe device used for Gasbuggy (358). The concentration of S5Kr is about six times more thanthat of ;;H and the dose from HC is negligible compared to that from 3H and BliKr (647).
d Assumes an occupancy factor of 0.7. a 90 m!? residence of normal construction and an
air infiltration rate of 220 ma h-1.
"Assumes 900° C-days of heating per year.
t Assumes nonvenled heating for 10 per cent of the houses.

TABLE 51.

1311 CONTAMINATION OF MILK RESULTING FROM UNITED STATES NUCLEAR CRATERING EXPERIMENTS
Population
thyruid dose

ce1s.traliona(pCi d l-1)

Thyroid doseto infants(mrad)

Lake City, Utah
{ SaltLaramie, Wyoming

20,000
8,900

230
100

860
140

Montana{ Helena,
Martin Ranch, Eureka, Nevadac

800
11,000

9
130

160
20

Cabriolet {January 26, 1968)

Mountab View Ranch, Deeth,
Nevadac

6,300

70

10

Buggy I (March 12, 1968)

Poh!sander Ranch, Wells,
Nevadac

5,50J

60

10

Schooner {December 8, 1968)

Boyd Schena Ranch, Abraham,
Ulahc

1,000

11

2

C rat ,ri,, g r.Jcnt

Sedan (July 6, 1962)b

lntrgratrd ror:-

Location recri-:..'1ng
significant concentn;1io-n.r
of uJ J ill niill:ta infa,its(man,rads)

Reference}

383

Sulky (December 18, 1964)*
Palanquin (April 14. 1965)• Not detected.
The integrated concentration has been taken to be equal to
10 times the peak level concentration expressed in pCi 1-1(86).
b Five events may have contributed to the milk contamination attributed in this table to Sedan. When calculating the
population dose, Sedan was assumed to account for only 16384

per cent (average value of the range 2-30 per cent given by
Mays (407) for Utah) of the milk contamination of Utah andWyoming.
c Since the milk was taken from the ranch for the radiological monitoring. it was not available for consumption bymembers of the public and the corresponding dose given aboveis hypothetical.

098TABLE 52. ACTMTY OF SELECTED LONG-LIVED ISOTOPES (T>8 d) IN THE CLOUD FROM THE SCHOONER E.XPERD!ENT AND ESTIMATEDDOSE COll!MITMENTS TO THE POPULATION OF THE 40-50°N LATITUDE BA:Sl>"
Dost

commitment

from theTransfer

Tissue a: risJ:

Activity {Ci)

Source oj irradiation

long-rcnge

coeffici,,:t(mrad per mCi km·')fall-out(µrad)

Pop11/aticn
dose
co,r.mitmcnt{,na11•rads)

External irradiation
Fission products:

ssy . _

4.6 10-2
3.5 10-3
4.6 10-1

110
540
2.4
910
160
130

lOJRu
13•Cs .

HOBa
HlCe ...
H7Nd ..
Activation products:
54~fn
57Co
58Co
,4As
1s1w

99
37

5.1 lQ-3
4.5 10-1
2.3 10-4

1.6 10-1
6.0 10-2
3.5 10-2
1.5 10-1
2.3 lQ-3
9.5 IQ-4

4.7 10-2
5.8 lQ-3
1.2 10-2
2.5 10-3
1.3 10-5

2.8 10-1
1.7 10-2
2.1 10-1
6.J 10-2
7.4 10-2

170
11
130
38
46

7.7 10-1
1.1
2.0 )Q-1

8.6 10-1
3.7 10-2
5.2 10-~
1.5 10-2

3,000
23
32
9

Whole body

190
90

540
770
180,000

22
93
1.4
0.6

Internal irradiation
3H . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
90SrWhole body
Bone marrow
Endosteal cells
Whole body410.000
1.5

137Cs

2.4

a Except for 3H and 90Sr, the activities were taken from reference 332. The oosr activity was calculated assuming the 13,Cs/
90Sr ratio to be 1.6. Tritium activity was derived from the data given in table 47. The dose commitments were calculated by theCommittee. Those from 3H refer to the world population.

TABLE 53. EsTIM.-\TED NUCLEAR ELECTRIC GENERATING CAPACITY FOR THE WORLD (GW(e))a
1980

1990

2000

Reference

216

684
390
800
430
1,600

1,596
1,200
2,000
1.030
4,300

419

75

250
120

350

a In 1970 the nuclear generating capacity was 20 GW(e)TABLE 54.

(264).

DATA ON SELECTED FISSION PRODUCTS FROM ~35U FISSION IN THERMAL REACTORS(128, 567) AND FROM 239pu IN FAST REACTORS (174, 505)
Fission yield(per cent)Fission produd

3H
85Kr

114
476
284
581

...........
..........

89Sr ..........
9DSr ..........
95Zr ..........
103Ru .........
106Ru .. -· .....
1!!91 ...........
1311 ...........
13lmXe133Xe
1a1cs .........
lHCe .........

........
.........

Activity present
in th.ennal reactors 3

Radio-activ,
half-life:mp,.
(fission
spectrumneutrons)

ne,,trons)

operating at
20 MW(th)t-1 after
1,000 days of
im:diatian(Ci t-l J

12.3 y10.7 y50.4 d28 y65.5 d39.6 d369 d
1.7 107 y
8d
12 d
5.3 d
30 y
284 d

0.025
0.15
1.7
2.1
4.3
6.4
4.6
3.0
4.6
0.027
5.7
6.8
3.2

0.013
0.28
4.8
5.6
6.2
2.9
0.38
0.9
3.1
0.018
6.6
6.2
5.6

3.1 102
7.6 103
8.0 105
6.1 104
1.0 106
4.8 105
5.4 104
1.7 10-2
5.2 105
3.0 103
1.1 106
6.4 10-1
8.6 105-u(thermala The values have been calculated on the basis of fission of 235U only. In practice, a substantial fraction of the fission occurring after some time in a thermal reactor arises from fissions of 239Pu resulting from activation of 23SU (paragraph 340). The activities of somenuclides (e.g. 106Ru) are therefore significantly different from the values given in the table.

99

'
TABLE 55.

PRODUCTION OF 3H. S5KR, AND 1291 FROM WORLD NUCLEAR POVVER REACTORS-

•H

..
.....

Production rate (Ci (MW(e) y)-1): thermal fission of 2s:.ufast fission of 239Pu
Annual production (MCi): 1970 .........................
2000 .........................
Integrated amount (MCi): 1970 ......................•..
2000 ......................•..
Cumulative amount (MCi): 1970 ........................•
2000 ........................•

=1

""Kr

21
510
40
270
0.20
4.9
74
740
0.97 24550
8.11030.81 19420
5.5 103

1.0 10-S
3.4 10-S
9.7 10-6
5.8 10-S
4.6 lQ-G
3.8 10-2
4.6 10-5
3.8 10-2

0 The power produced in 1970 was 9.7 GW(e) (paragraph 314). It is assumed that thegrowth of the nuclear power industry will follow the highest estimate in table 53 (581) andthat 40 per cent of the nuclear power produced in 1990, and 70 per cent of that produced in
2000, will be from fast reactors (465). A load factor of 0.5 and a thermal efficiency of 0.3
are assumed (paragraph 338).

TABLE 56.

DATA ON SELECTED ACTIVATION PRODUCTS INDUCED BY THERMAL NEUTRO~S (516)

Raafo-active
product

Ha/f./ifc

3H .............. .
3H ............. .
3H .............. .
HC ···············
IGN . . . . . . . . • . . . . . .

~-!Na ............. .
41Ar . . . . . • . . . . . . . .
51Cr . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

ss~fn ............ .
ssco ............. .
ooco ............ ..
6-!Cu ............. .
oszn ............ '.
eszr ............. .
13-ICs ............ .
239Pu ............ .

12.3 y12.3 y12.3 y5,730 y
7.4 s
14.9h
1.8 h
28 d
2.6 h
72d
5.3 y
12.8 h250d65.5 d2.0 y24.400 y

Isotopic

Targetnuclideabu11dance(per cent)

Activation
cross•secticn(barns)

2H

0.015
7.42
19.7
1.1
99.8
100
99.6
4.3
100
67.8
100
69
48.9
17.4
100
99.3

0.0005950
3,800
0.00090.00018
0.53
0.61
17
13
0.04-0.'.!b
37
4.5
0.46
0.08
31
2.7

ou
lOB
13c
16()n

23Na
40Ar
50Cr

55Mn
58Ni

59Co
63Cu
04Zn
9·1Zr
iascs

:nsu

n 100 gives also rise to 13N according to the reaction 100 (p, a)l3N.
b Range of values reported for fission spectrum neutrons (531).

TABLE 57.

TRITIUM IN LlQUID WASTE DISCH..\RGED FROM WATER-COOLED REACTORS

A"""al quantity discharged (Ci)Reactor

1968

j969

3

Annual qum,lity discharged per 1mitof power generated•(Ci (MW(e) :,)-1)

1970

1968

1969

1970

Reference

6

5

0.03

5

22
20

0.06
0.12

155,306,372
345
345

5

O.Q7

0.05

0.03
0.05
0.09
0.06

0.19

0.13

8.3
4.3
14.9
4.7

8.7
5.3
11.1
11.9

BWR
Dresden-I, USA . . . . . . . . . . • • ...
Oyster Creek, USA . . . . . . . . • . • •Nine Mile Point, USA . . . . . . • . .
Garigliano, Italy . . . . . . . . . . . • . .
KRB Gundremmingen. Federal
Republic of Germany

200
515
500
150

8

7

250

21

18

PWR
Yankee Rowe, USAb . . . . . . . . . .
Indian Point I, USAb . . . . . . . . .
San Onofre, USAb . . . . . . . . • • . •Conn. Yankee, USAb . . . . . . . . . .
Ginna, USA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Trino Vercellese, Italy . . . . . . . . .
Ardennes, France/Belgium. .

175
265
430
575
420
250
240

1,200
790
2,300
1,700

1,200
1,100
3.500
5.200

PHWR
Douglas Point, Catlada . . . . . . . . .

210

440

I.OOO

1,500
410
4,800
7.400
110
135
340
950

20.4

117
24

10.3
9.4
13.1
17.4
0.4
1.0
2.4

155,306,372
155,306,372
155,306,372
155, 306, 372
306

8.9

400

117
158

A Power generation data taken from references 143 and 263.
b Stainless ste_el cladding }JSed on fuel elements in. these reactors allows grea~er diffusion of fission product SH into thecoolant than the zrrcaloy claddmg used on fuel elements m Dresden-I (BWR) and Gmna (PWR) in the United States.

100

TABLE 58.

TRITIUM IN LIQUID WASTE DISCHARGED FROM GAS•COOLED REACTORSAn1121alquantity discl,argcd
per unil of po-.i:er

Annual

Power
MW(e)

Reactor..............

Berkeley, UK
Bradwell, UK ..............
Hinkley Point, UK ..........
Trawsfynydd. UK ..........
Dungeness, UK ............
Sizewell, UK ...............
Oldbury. UK ..............
Hunterston, UK ............
Latina, Italy ...............
a Power generation

TABLE 59.

280
300

500
500

550
580
600
320
200

gc11erattd:i

q:<a11tity discharged (Ci)(Ci (MIV(e) y)..1J

1969

1970

1969

1970

Refcrmct

61
180
35
230
72

61

0.21
0.63
0.08
0.60
0.17
0.03
0.05
0.81
0.34

0.21
0.46
0.08
0.18

146.499
146,499
146,499
146.499
146,499
146,499
146,499
89
117

10
16
250
25

95
19
68
19
21
68
17

0.05
0.05
0.23
0.13

data taken from reference 263.

AJl<"NUAL QU.~"ITITY (IN CURIES) OF RADIO-NUCLIDES IN LIQUID WASTE DISCHARGED
FROM WATER-COOLED REACTORSKRB
G11ndremmfogen,Dresdns-I,
USA(BWR-200MW(e))(305),
1968b

Radio-nuclide

Humboldt
Ba:,, USA Indian Point I,(BWR-d8
US.4•
MW(e))(PWR-265(374 ),
MW(e)),
1970
1969

5•Mn ...........
55Fe ...........
5BCo ...........
60Co ...........
65Zn ...........

0.006
0.08
0.8

0.24

1.1

sosr ............
oosr ............

0.3
0.03
0.03
0.04
0.07
0.2
0.2
0.06

0.84
0.12
0.01
0.01

Illy
13lf

............
............

134Cs . . . . . . . . . . .

t37Cs ...........
140Ba ..........
144Ce ..........

2.9

TOTAL

Federal Repul,lkof
Germany(BWR.z5oMW(e))(24)

Do"'(llas Point,
Canada(PHWR-210.\!W(e))
(JI)

1968

1969

5

1970

0.06

5
4

0.2
0.1

0.2
0.09

0.03
0.002

0.7
0.02

1.6
0.09

0.09
0.24
0.84

3
4
6

0.5

0.7

0.7
0.2

0.2
0.2

2.4

27

2.4

3.0

0.04
4
0.04
<0.0002
<0.01
0.9
4
12

21

• Calculated from data in reference 357.
b Calculated from five trips during a 9-month period of study.
T.ulLE 60.

ANNUAL QUA."ITITY (CURIES) OF RADI0-NUCLIDES'1 IN LIQUID WASTE DISCHARGED
FROM GAS-COOLED REACTORS IN THE UNITED KINGDOM, IN 1969 (89)Radio-nuclide

Berkeley(2BO MW(e))

32p ...............•

ass ............... .

•sca

7.3

55Fe
GDCo

Hinkley
BradwellPoint
Trawsfyn:,dd(300 MW(e)) (500 !,!W(e)) (500 ll1W(1))

0.33
14

12

1.3
0.77

2.8

89Sr ............... .
11osr + ooy .......••.

2.4
4.2

13

1.9

35
130

0.039
0.43

llOAg ....•••.••••••..•••••••.••••

137Cs ••••••• , •••••••

H4Ce

21

0.56
0.0861>sszn ............... .

134Cs

Dungen,ss(550 MW(e))+ 1+1Pr ....••.

9.7
32
6.4

22
65

4.9
0.46
20
56

a The radio-nuclides for which figures are given for a station are those which are mostimportant radiologically and/or numerically at that station.
b Result taken from station's monthly returns of radio-activity discharged.

10161. Nonu,

TAIILE

Rrnctor xitc

Dresden-I, USA

BWR

Big Rock, USA ...... .
Humboldl. Bay, USA ..
La Crossc, USA ...... .
Oyster Creek, USA ... .
Nine Mile Point, USA
Garigliano, Italy ..... .
VAK, l•ederal Republicof Germany ....... .
KRil, Federal Republicof Germany ....... .
KWL, Federal Republicof Germany ....... .
Tsurnga, Japan ...... .
Yankee Rowe, USA

PWRn

N,t
011t/n1t(MH'(e))Criticality
date

1967

1961/

1969

1970

200

1959

260,000

240,000

800,000

914,000

70

264,000
900.000

232.000
897,000

50
515
500
150

1962
1963
1967
1969
1969
1963

<5

<I

29,20082,000200,000
490,000
480
7,000
55
140.000

277,000
535,000
700
112,000
9,500
275.000

15

1960

3,900

4,600

1,800

3,400

250

1966

9,000

240
330

1968
1969

200,000

175

2.3
22
23

3

Indian Point-I, USA .. .
San Onofre, USA
Connecticut Yankee,
USA ............. .
Ginna, USA ......... .
Trino Vcrccllcsc, Italy ..
Anlenncs, France .....
KWO, Federal Republicof Germany ....... .
l\lihama, Japan ...... .

265
430

1960
1962
1962
1967

575
420
250
240

1967
1969
1964
1966

300
340

1968
1970

300
500
500
750
490
200
160

1962
1964
1964
1966
1969
1962
1966

22
210

1962
1966

Bradwell, UK ....... .
Ilinklcy. UK ........ .
Trawsfynydd. UK .... .
Chinon, France ...... .
Saint-L:nirent, France ..
Latina, Italy ........ .
Tokai, .Japan ........ .

GCR

NPO, Canada
Douglas l'oinl. Canada

PHWR

REACTORS

Anw,a/ quautity di.rcl1argcd (cu,·ics}

o Saxton, USA ........ .
t-.>

GASES DISCHARGED FROM POWER

Comments

Refer111u

Fission gases whose detailed composition is given intable 63. Use of 23-min hold-up line
30-min hold-up line
18-min hold-up line
20-min hold-up line
30-min hold-up line
30-min hold-up line

121
305
374
535

117
Mainly 1:l3Xe. Storage tanks+ charcoal beds
Mainly J33Xe. 60-min hold-up line + charcoal beds
30-min hold-up line + 24-h decay tanks
Mainly J33Xe. 40-min hold-up line

130,000
68,000

l

4

600
260

1.750
1,610

0.02

3.7

190

700
9,980
19.2
3

138Xe(86%). l8~Xe(12%), 85Kr(l.4%), 41Ar(0.4%)

7,700
1,200

Mainly 133Xe

59.1
2.1
5,500

2,500
3,000

12,300
1.900
1,500
3.400

7,600
86,000}56,000
8,100
}
300
2,500
6,300

40.00016,000100,000

160.000 }23,00016,400

2,500
3,400

608

17.2

0.7
18.6
60
4.8

4
1

63

121
305
374
535
117
158
63
608

·t I Ar only. Annual quantity discharged calculated using }a load factor of 0.8
l\lainly 41Ar produced by activation of the coolant}

1 IAr is the major constiluent

Noble gases only. ·11Ar in the proportion of 50 per}cent or less

499
158
117
608
400

n All l'WRs arc equipped wilh storage tanks allowing for a delay before discharge of up to 120 days.

•

TABLE 62.

Isotope

REACTOR OFF-OAS CO!'>IPOSITION AT VARIOUS DECAY TDIES (PER CE1'<7) (61)

Half-Ii/<

JO minutes

0.3

l /lour

1 day

8 liours

3 days10 days

30 days

90 days

91.2

0.4

150 days13,Xe. - .........

' ') min-'·3.8 min

1~n11,xe..........

15 min

8.0

3.0

13SXe

...........
.. -· .......

17 min

26.7

11.8

1.3 h

15.7

18.0

1.4

S3mKr

1.9 h

2.5

3.1

0.8

S8Kr

. - .........
- ..........
1a:1xe ............

2.8 h

17.4

22.9

13.6

0.7

sr.ml(r

4.4 h

5.8

8.1

8.9

1.0

9.2 h

17.6

25.2

50.0

38.5

133mXe..........

2.3 d

0.2

0.3

0.9

1.8

2.1

0.5

1aaxe

- - ... - .....

5.3 d

5.0

7.5

24.3

57.0

95.0

98.4

13lmXe..........
...........

12.0 d

0.2

0.4

0.6

1.8

0.8

0.03

0.1

0.2

0.5

7.0

98.8

99.97

SOKr

.......

s,Kr

S5Kr

. ..

0.9

0.1

10.7 y2.3

TABLE 63. AVERAGE DISCHARGE RATE OF RADIO-ACTIVE GASES FROM DRESDE~·l, IN
1HE UNITED STATES (305)Discharge raU (µCi s~)
Compvted
for a 21-min .. tedelay

IsotopeHaff.fife

S9Kr ..........•

3.2min140

Meas11red

137Jee ......... .

3.8 min320

13N . . . . . • . . . . • •

lOmin

450

135mXe

15min

13SXe ......... .

17min

3.000

2.800

790

1,170

740

1,250

.........••

1.3 h

S3mKr .....•••••

1.9 h

8SKr

2.8 h

8.Kr

....•.•••••

Discharge/
gcnerationo

370

2 10-•
6 10-7220

7 1()-7

S5mKr

4.4 h

400

370

1 JQ-6

ia~xe

9.2h

1.250

1,310

2 lQ-6133mXe ........ .

2.3 d

14

14

610-6

t33Xe ......... .

5.3 d

510

380

1 J()-5

S5Kr .......... .

10.7 ya This0.14

0.60

5 1()--5

column gives the quantity discharged as a fraction of the quantity generated in

fuel.

TABLE 64. TRITIATED WATER AND GASEOUS IODINE DISCHARGED TO ATMOSPHERE
FROM WATER-COOLED REACTORS

An,u,al q11a11tity discl1arged ( c"ries)

Radio-n11clids

3H.. -·······

Gaseous 131I ..

Yanku Rou:e.
USA(PWR•l75
MW(e))(303),
1969-1970

Drudm-1,
USA(BWR·ZOO
MW(e))
(304"
196

13

2 10--1

2,500

9.500

1,000

< 3 1()-f3 )()-2

7.3 10-2

1.8 10-1

2.2 10-1

Dougla.r Poi..t Canada(PHWR-210 MW(e))
(400)
1968

103

1969

1970

TABLE 65. ES'nMATES OF DOSE DUE TO 1!EASURED CAESIUM CONCENTRATIONS IN FISH
Individual dase

Annualwhole-bod:,dose toilldividuals
concerned

Mean caesium
concenlralun<in fish(pCi gJ. u:d)Reactor

0.015

Fall-out I37Csb

Indian Point I, USA (1969)

0.056

Total I37Cs

0.022

Fall-out 1sres

0.026

Discharged I84Cs( calc.) 0.034

Discharged 137Cs

Trawsfynydd, UK (1969)c .

11
1.0
25
2.4

co11su1nptiou

per unit
rate of fishconsu,npticn(rad (g d-l)J.)

SD14rce of a::ivily

Dresden-I. USA (1968) ..

commitment,

per unit of fish
and unit rateof power
gtnerati(m1.

(rad kg-•(MW(eJP)

Reference304

3 10-7}

Total I37Cs in trout
Discharged IS4Cs in trout
Total I37Cs in perch
Discharged I34Cs in perch}

357

10--il1.3 10-s

2 104

1.4 10--il

323, 426"The rate of power generation in 1969 was taken from reference 263.
b Paragraph 356.
cvaiues for 1970 were somewhat lower than those for 1969 (427).

TABLE 66. POPULATION DOSE COJ\,U,IITMu"ITS DUE TO DISCHARGES FROM SELECTED NUCLEAR POWER STATIO:SS IN THE
UNITED KINGDOM CALCULATED FRO:.! DATA IN REFERENCES 263 AND 323
Whole body doseStation
andpathu-,,yCriticalmaterial

uposedpop1<lation
group

commitment to

Daily co,.sumption
rate or annual

ho11rsof
e~posure

Importont
radio-n,ulides

75 g d-1

oszn(critical)
137Cs llOmAg

individuals
concern,d p,r ,mitof pou:er generated(rnd(MW(e) :,JJ)

Population dose

commitment t,er
unit of pou1er

generated(man-rad(MW(e) y)J)

Bradwell
OysterInternal

Oyster fishermen(50 persons)

1.1 I 0--il

5.5 10-5

3:?pTrawsfynydd
Internal.....

Trout and perch
flesh

Lake anglers ( 100persons)

100 g d-1

1s;cs
134Cs

5.2 IQ-5

5.2 10-3

Fish and shrimp
flesh

Local fishermen
and families(100 persons)

90 g d-1

137Cs
134Cs

9.1 10-79.110-S

Mud/silt

Local fishermen(10 persons)880 h y-1

1arcs
l34Cs

2.3 10--il

2.3 10-5

Hinkley Point
Internal.....

External .....

104

TABLE 67, CALCULATED l>OSES TO UNSIIIELDED INDIVIDUALS AND POPULATIONS IN '1118 VICINITY OF UNITED STATES NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS
BASED ON NOBLE GASES DISCHARGED IN 1969 (188)Am1ual dos,s for 1969
Witliin circle of 6.4 k,n radi11S

Dose to,·,ulivi,lrra/.r nl

Year., ofprod11etion

prmfoce<lin 1969
f263)(M Y(e) y)lmundcrry per
uu!t of Pmucr{rat/(MW(c) y)·')(/IIW(c) y)·')3.6
7.6 10-2
2.4
3.3 10-2
1.5 10-:i
1.5 10-2
5.1 J0-3
9.4 10-3
3.6 J0-2
3.2 10-·:J
4.5 10-I

P(,.11/alio11
11t1itsJ

Pop11/atio11
dose(,nan,rad)At•craue
dose
(rad)

Pot,11/atinn(tl1011sauds)

l'ot,11/ationdose(man-rad)Averagedos~(rad)(lo Drcc111btr

Type

Dose atboundary(rad)Dresden-I ........ BWR
Big Rock ........ BWR
Humboldt Bay . . . . BWR
La Crosse . . . . . . . . BWR
Nine Mile Point . . BWR
Oyster Creek . . . . . BWR

1.8 10-2
3.2 10-3
1.5 10-1
5 10-4
5 J0-03.7 10-1

2,577
1,430
18,940
934
1,310
3,619

11
0.57
68.5
0.042
0.001
0.082

4.3 lQ--8
4.0 10-1
3.6 lQ-3
4.5 10-5
7.6 10-7
2.3 10-5

5,715
100
101
328
533
1,158

360
3.64
107
0.301
0.012
0.606

6.3 J0-5
3.6 10-n
I.I lQ-8
9.2 J0-7
2.3 J0-8
5.2 10-7

11
8
8
3
1
1

100
48
44
9
40

1,8 10-·1
6.7 10-n
3.4 10-3
5.6 ](l-li
6.2 J0-7
9.2 10-n1.110-1

1,180
38,740
5,062
5,470
5,001

0.0217
0.130
1.150
0.047
0.0011

1.8 J0-5
3.4 10-6
2.3 10-4
8.6 J0-6
2.2 10-7

1,209
13,324
2,682
2,696
953

0.70
1.94
15.56
1.02
0.0077

5.8 10-7
1.5 10-7
5.8 10-0
3.8 I0-7
8.1 10-0

10
8
3
3
1

138
206
438
314
17

8.0 10-7
2.7 10-7
1.1 10-r.
7.3 10"7
2.9 I 0-1

Years ofproduction(up to Deamber 1970)

J,roduerd t·,.
1970 (263)(MW(c) y)

Reactorsite

Yankee Rowe .... PWR
Indian Point I .... PWR
Conn. Yankee .... PWR
San Onofre ...... PWR
Ginna ........... PWR

5.5 10-11
5 JO-ll
2.3 )0-4
5 10-61970)

Pot,ulationdose wjt/tin
circle of 80 Im,

Po·w,rWitl,in circle of 80 l1tn radius

8,-mlius ficr

writ of power(mau•racl

TAHU! 68, CALCULATED DOSI!S TO UNSIIII!LDI!D INDIVIDUALS A'I' 'fllll IIOUNDARY OP NUCI.I!AR POWER PLANTS
DUE TO NOBLE GASES DISCHARGED......
0VI

Po·wcr

I.Jn.re toimlivirluals atborrn,la,-y Ptr

T:,I'•

Distancefrom stacktaken asboundary

Dose atboiitidary(rad y- 1)

Gurigliano, Italy ........... .

BWR

1,000m

6.7 10-11

Reported dose lo a group of population living at
1 km from the stack for the yenr 1970 (117)785

7.9 10-6

KWL and KRB, Federal Republic of Germany ...... .

BWR

500m

410-4

Estimated dose due lo typical noble gas emission
from a German BWR power plant (24)4174

2.3 10-0

KWO, Federal Republic of
Germany ............... .

PWR

500 m

910-5

2

289

3.1 10-7

Bradwell, UK ............. .
Hinkley, UK .............. .
Trnwsfynydd, UK ......... .
Oldbury, UK ............. .
Chinon, France ........... .
Saint-Laurent, France ...... .
Latina, Ttnly .............. .
Tokni, Japan .............. .
NPD, Canada ............. .

GCR
GCR
GCR
GCR
GCR
GCR
GCR
GCR
PHWR

8

8

207
238
388
291
411
89
136
98
16

2.9 10-0
2.9 10-r.
1.6 10-r.
Nil
1.6 10-0
2.7 J0-71,500 m6.110-1
6.9 J0-3
4.5 10-11
Nil
6.5 J0-4
2.4 10-5
2.0 J0-·1
5.1 J0-3
8 ]0--4

Estimated dose due to typical noble gas emission
from a German PWR power plant (24)Doses cnlculated from the 41Ar releases given
in table 61 assuming a dilution factor of}
4 100 ms 8-1

5.2 1()-5
5,0 1()-5

Douglas Point, Canada ..... .

PHWR

1,500 m

8 J0-84107

7.5 J0-5

Rtador silt

Cottrn16nts ou IJ1e ,lose calculaJion-

6
6

3

5
Doses calculated assuming that the releases given
in table 61 consist of •llAr only and that the}dilution factor is 4 100 m3 s-1
The ratio of the dose to the discharge is assumed
to be the same for Douglas Point and NPD
Reported dose (400)285:rnit of f,trwcr(rad (MIY(c) y)- 1 )1.5 I o-o

TABLE

69.

RADIO-NUCLIDES IN LIQUID WASTES DISCHARGED FROM REPROCESSING PLA!s'TS

Quantity discharged { curies)
SFS, USA(393),

May-October,Radio-m,clidt

1969

3H ......... .
5-IMn ....... .
eoco .. .
oosr ........ .
o~zr
100Ru

i2~sb

1a-1cs
1a1cs
lHCe
14.Pm

TADLE

1,700
0.00270.20
8.3
0.0046
52
0.59
2.0
8.0
0.16
0.092

Et<rocl,enik, Be/giu,n (625)Windscalc,
UK (654),
1969

1967

196S

1969

2,500

0.16

0. 13

0.24

23,00014,00070. TRITIUM IN LIQUID WASTE DISCHARGED FROM TIIE LAGOON SYSTEM OF
NUCLEAR FUEL SERVICES REPROCESSING PLANT IN THE UNITED STATES (373)THE

Quantity cischarged per

Quantity
discharged
{Ci)

Year

1966 (from second quarter)
1967
1968
1969
1970 (to third qu:mer) ......... .

71.

TABLE

290
4,200
2,600
6,000
3,600

tonne of

Fuel
processed{t)fuel processed(Cit- 1 )

110
120
140
120

3
35
19
50
103

35

PARTIClJLATE AND GASEOUS RAD!O-NUCLIDES DISCHARGED TO ATMOSPHERE FROM
THE NUCLEAR FUEL SERVICES REPROCESSING PLANT
Ai1cragr discl1ar-gc-:.
(Ci(MW(e) y)-1)

Radio-nuclide

ooco
sosr
100Ru

lMCs
1z1cs

lHCe
2:ispu2:iopu ........................................................... .
3H ............................................................. .
Gaseous 12011> .........•••••.••.•.•.•..••••.••.•.•..•.••..•••...•.•
S5Kr ...................................................... .
a Calculated from data inb The scrubbers were not

TABLE 72.

Reprocessingplant

5 10-93 10-s
4 10-s
2 10-s
8 10-s
1 10-7
7 10-10
1.5 10-9
5 10-22 lQ-45102

reference 113.
in operation during the dissolution cycles.

ESTIMATES OF DOSE DUE TO MEASURED lOGRu AND 137 Cs CONCE."-TRATIONS DJ AQUATIC FOOD-STUFFS.Heaneonccntration(pCigJwet)

Aun,,a/ dose to
individuals concenztd
at stated consumption(rad)Nuclide and daily
cous:,mption rateof food-st11ff

Dose to i11dividua/s
conctr11td per Hnitof pou,~r gentrated{rad{MW(e) y)J)

NFS

1968

0.63
0.85

Windscale
1969

-15

1970

-7

1a,cs in 15 g d-1 fish
( including fall-out)
1or.Ru in 15 g d-1 fishlOORu in 16 g d-1 bverbread

2.1 10-1 to whole-body

7.5 10-S

9.1 10-4 to gastro-intestinal tract

3.2 10-•- 1.7 10-~ to gastro-intestinal tract- 8.0 10-S to gastro-intestinal tract

3.4 IQ-6 a426

1.6 1()-6 b

427

556

a. b Corresponding to population dose commitments of 8.8 I o-~ and 4.2 1Q-2 man-rad (IvfW( e) y)-l, respectively, to thegastro-intestinal tract, and 8.8 I0-5 and 4.2 10-5 man-rad (MW(e) y)-1 to the gonads (paragraph 389).

106

,
TABLE 73. POPULATION DOSE COM!'-IITMENTS RESULTING FROM DISCHARGES FROM WINDSCALE TO THE IRISH SEA (UNITED KINGDOM)CALCULATED FROM DATA IN REPERENCLS 323 AND 426

Daily c011.r11mption r<,Jt: orJ?.t•(iaJUt'l'

Aq1rnllc

f'i1tlm111y

motirial

Internal-...........

Exposccl Pof>11/at/011

group

Porphyra (seaweed)

External
Internal

Estuarine siltFishlixtcrnal . . . .......

Fishing gear

Laverbread consumers inSouth Wales, 2.6 X
I O·l persons
Fishermen ( 10 persons)
(100
Local
fishermen
persons)
Fishermen ( I 00 persons)u These values are estimated from measurements madeS values for 1970 arc about half of these (427).
h This value

H.a,lio-tJft clttl i •s

co11tril,uti'nu

Ol"Ql111

to e.1·J,os1t,.c(JIIIV(c) ;v)- 1)(A IV(,·) y)·')Gastro-intestinal tract{ Gonads} Mainly lOURu

3.410-011
3.4 J0-9

8.8 1o-~ 11
8.8 1()--r, II

1.0 I o-r.
4.0 )0-7
1.0 )0-7

1.0 I 0-4
4.0 10-r.
1.0 10-r. h

4.0 10-n

4.0 10-1

350 h

500 h

in 1969; the comparable

is estimated for the critical group of 100 pcTsons; a value of 3.0 10-~llllit 1•/ /10'l(',.'r

Pop11Ittlr"o11 ,lose

T!.1·/•t1s8d

of e.~pos11re

25 g fishco111mitm1.•ut p,·r

cm1c1.•rned /•er

ruait of Potth'r
gc,wr,,/ccl (rmlaumial l,our.1

16 g laverbrcad

Do.,c emumitmcnt to
individuals{

Total body
Gastro-intestinal tract
Total bodyo5zr, 05Nb, IOOJlu
lOGRu
I37Cs

{ 1oaRu}
tHCc

Hands

IJ1'HCrtJlt~,//""'""'""'/-1

man-rad (MW(c) y)-t is applicable for 1970, if doses from consumption of pl;iicc
caught commercially in the Irish Sea arc included in the estimation. It is doubtful
whether fish in the Irish Sea in 1970 had reached equilibrium with radio-caesium in i;ca
water and therefore. this dose commitment may he im underestimate (427).

TAllLE 74. LOCAL AND GtODAL DOSP.S RESULTING PROM B~KR AND :IH DISCHARGED FROMNUCLEAR POWER INDUSTRY

TIIE

torn/ (airborne B»Kr and :IJ-1) ....................... , ..•Rlll(rGonad dose commitment to individuals concerned withina few kilometres of plan! per unit power generated ( rad(J\1W(e) y)- 1 ) • • • • • • . • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •2.7 10-s

6.3 I 0-10

Gonad population dose to population within 250 km ofplant per unit power generated (man-rad (MW(e) y)-t)

5.4 10-a

1.3 J0-4

3.1 10-11

4.4 10-11

Global (airborne BliKr and water-borne :1(1)Gonad dose commitment per unit power generated (rad(MW(e) y)-1) .................................. .

75.

TAIILESUMMARY OF ESTIMATED DOSll COMMITMENTS RESULTING FROM DISCIIARGl!S OF RADIO-NUCLIDE.5 BY Till! NUCLEAR l'OWER INDUSTRY•
Dose commltmeut to tlao •world/Jo.recommitment,,
average toPopulation dose

individuals

commitment
per rrnil of
power generated

concerned perunit of pou,erSource ofradiation

Relevant
tissueNt1111ber of
it1dit1iduals
conctrned

uenc.-alcd b:ythermal readors;.rml(Ml (e) y)J)b:y tlieruwl
reacto,·s(man-rad(MW(e) y)·')populatio,i /•er :yea,· of ucncrationof elutricit:yat tl,eestimated rate

At the 1970
generation rate(rad) (GW(c) y)/or tlic )'Car
2000 of2,150 GW) e) :y b
(radTables and parauraplis to be readin conjsincfion mitl, tlaese data

4.5 10-5
1.6 1()-lTable 74, paragraph 396
Table 74. paragraph 397

GLOBAL DOSES
I;uel reprocessing plants ....

85Kr

3H

GonadsWhole body

3.5 !Oil
3.5 J09

3.1 10-11
4.4 10-11

1.1 10-1
1.5 10-1

3.0 10-7
4.3 10-7

(9.7)
(9.7)

LOCAL DOSESc
EX'J'ERN A/, RAJ)fA TION

Five USA reactors (built
1959-1963) ........ ..
~......
000

Six USA reactors (built
1967-1969) .. . . . . . . . . .
Fuel reprocessing planls ..

Short-lived noble gases

Whole body

2.0 107

4.4 10-s

8.8 10-1

1.2 10-7(0.46)

Table 67, paragraph 359

Short-lived noble gases
Bul(rWhole body

8.4 100

2.5 J0-9

2.1 10-2

1.0 10-s( 1.7)

Table 67, paragraph 359

Gonads

2.0 1()1

2.7 10-10

5.4 10-3

1.5 JO-B(9.7)

2.2 10-0

Table 74. paragraph 392

Doses calculated from recorded
co11ce11trations
aro1111d (I particular illstallatio11
Reactor:J linkley Point, UK
Fuel reprocessing
plant:
Wimlscale, UK+ rn1cs

Whole body10

2.3 10-0

2.3 JO~

1.6 1()-12(0.24)

Table 66, paragraph 358

o5zr_05Nb,
lOORu

Whole bodyJO

1.0 10-tl

1.0 10-4

1.4 10-10(5.0)

Table 73, paragraph 389(airborne
only)

Whole body

2.0 107

6.3 10-12

1.3 I 0-4

3.5 10-10(9.7)

aa (airborne

Whole body

134Cs

IN'f'ERNAT. UAIJIA'J'/ON

Fuel reprocessing plants

Sf{

1.3 J0-7

Table 74. paragraph 395

Doses calc11fated /mm recordl'd discharges or conce11trntio11s aro1111<J 11 partic11/ar i11stallatio11
Reactors:
Douglas Point,
Canada ....

only)

7

10-7 dParagraph 362

Brndwcll, UK .....
Hinkley Point, UK
Trawsfynydd,
UK
Fuel reprocessing
plants:Nuclear Fuel Services, USA ....
Windscale. UK

onzn
13·lCs1:11cs
1:MCs
rn1cs

+
+

Whole body
Whole body
Whole body

1a1cs
lOlll{u. H·ICe
J3·1Cs, 137Cs

Whole body
GonadsWhole body

50
100
100

1.1 10-0
9.1 10-7
5.2 I Q-li

2.6 10·1

7.5 I O-B e
1.6 10-0.

"The numbers are given with two significant figures for calculational purposes andnot :is an indication of accuracy.
"The load factor for the estimated installed capacity of 4300 GW(e) in the year
2000 has been assumed to be the same as that known to apply to the installed capacityof 20 GW(e) in 1970, namely 0.5. Doses resulting from au and Hf>Kr have been
calculated for the year 2000 assuming that the quantity produced by fission ( table 55)
is discharged in its entirety. Doses which could result from other radio-nuclidcs disTABLE

5.5 10-li
9.1 10-11
5.2 10-3

3.3 10-12
6.2 ]Q-12
5.8 10-10(0.21)(0.24)(0.39)

Table 66, paragraph 358
Table 66, paragraph 358
Table 66, paragraphs 356-358

4.2 JO-II
3.0 JO-!l

5.9 J0-11
4.3 10-8

(5.0)
(5.0)

Table 72, paragraph 386
Tables 72 and 73, paragraphs 387-389
Tuble 73, paragraph 390

charged arc not shown for the year 2000, because the quantities likely to be discharged
cannot be predicted as they depend upon waste nmnagcment policy.
c This list of local doses is incomplc1c; it includes only doses related to individual
installations or to operations based on the total power generation rate for which cilhcr
adequate data exist or reasonable assumptions can be made.
t1 The calculated dose applies lo hypothetical individuals al or near the site boundary.
• The calculated dose applies to hypothetical adults eating locally caught fish.

76. EsTIMATES OF WORLD-WIDE. AVERAGE DOSE COMMITMENTS FROM MAN-MADE
ENVIRONMENTAL RADIATION AND ANNUAL DOSES FROM NATURAL BACKGROUND
Dose commitments (11,rad)lilcctrical power
J,rodHct10,itl

.....
0
\0

Auuual Josts from,wturr1J bacllgroirndd

At111osp/1,ric
tests 14

Craterfuu
cxperime11tsh

1970

2000

84
35

1.7 lQ-!l
0.6 J0-2

4.5 10-·1
4.7 10-4

0.5 J0-1
1.6 10-1

ROUNDED TOTAL

120

2

9

External
Internal .................... .

84

95

1.7 ]0-2
0.6 JO-!l

4.5 JQ-4
4.7 I (}--1

0.5 10-1
1.6 I 0-1

ROUNDED TOTAL

180

2

9

2

Bone marrow
External ................... .
Internal .................... .

84
76

1.7 J0-2
0.6 I0-2

4.5 J0-4
4.7 10-1

0.5 10-1
1.6 JO-l

72

ROUNDED TOTAi.

160

2

9

2

89

(111rml y- 1)

GonadsExternal
Internal

10-2

10-4

2

10-1

(79)
(22)

72

21

-93

(100)

72

(79)
(20)

Bone-li11i11g cells

10-2

JO-:!

11 Dose commitments resulting from atmospheric tests carriedout before 1971 (table 45). For 14C, only the doses accumulated up to year 2000 were taken into account. The total dose
commitment to the gonads and bone marrow due to HC isabout 140 millirads, and that to cells lining bone surfaces isabout 170 millirads.

I (}--1

10-1

10-1

20

-

92

17

J(l-1

-(99)

-

(79)
( 17)
(96)

b Oose commitments resulting from peaceful nuclear explosions conducted before 1972 (paragraphs 304, 306, and 307).
c Dose commitments per year of generation of electricity( 1970 or 2000); summation of data in table 75.
d Taken from table 20. Estimates of the J 966 report arc
given in parentheses.

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663. Eem1e, IO. C., 3. i\>1. Kp11c10K, 0. B. Jle6e.nen H.up. Co.!1.epiKam1e Ue3H51-l 37 H KamHJ y HaCeJieHHSI
CCCP B 1962-1966 rr., ATOMH3.ll.aT, MocKBa,
1967; .110KyMeHT OOH A/AC.82/G/L.1193.
664. Ep~10.'1aeBa-Ma1<0BCl<a51, A. n., JI. A. nepuon ll.[l. l<. DonOB, DoJIOHllfi-210 B opraHH3~1e H 0Kpy)l(3I0IUeH cpe.!le, ATOMli3.!laT, MoCKaa, 1968; .u.oKyMeHT OOH A/AC.82/G/L.1260.
665. 3ai!ueBa, A. <!>., M. n. fepacm,,ona, P. M. Eapxy.napoB H .11.p. Co.!lepiKaHHe ue3HH-l 37 r.106anbHOro
nponcXOiK.!leHIHI B opraHH3Me y B3p0CJIOro Hace.'IeHliH r. M.ocKBbl B 1968-1969 rr., ATOM·
113.llaT, 1970.
666. 3b1K0Ba, A. C., E. JI. TenywKirna, B. n. Py6neacKm1, r. n. Ecpper.toBa, r. A. Ky3HeuoBa. Co.nep}KaHHe CTpOHL.t:HH-90 11 ue3H51- l 3 7 B HeKOTOpb!X
061,eKTax BHell!He11 cpe.nbI u B opram13~1e mo.neil
B 1958-1967 rr. MocKna, 1968; .noKyMeHT OOH
A/ AC.82/G/L.1248.
667. l fapae,1, IO. A., B. H. neTpOB, A. 5L flpeotaH II.up. Pa.!JJIOaKTHBHOe 3arp.H3HeH!le np11pO.UHblX
cpe.n npH no.u3eMl!blX 51,!1.epHbIX B3pb1Bax H MeTO·
JI.bi ero rrporno311ponamrn. MocKBa, 1969.
668. Ke.upoacKm1, 0. n., B KHttre Peaceful Nuclear
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669. I<11pnL1eHK0, B. H., .[l;K, r. XaL111pon, C. A. ,Uy6·
pOBHH Ii .up. 3KcnepHMeHT8,1bHOe H3ytieHHe pacnpe.neJieHH51 KOpOTKO)KHBYIUHX .!l01!epH1lX npoJJ.yt<TOB pa.noHa B .!lbIXaTeJibHblX nyn1x, rurneHa u
caHJnap1rn: 2: 52-56 ( 1970).
670. l<HH11<H11K0B, B. A. H A. A. Mo.HceeB. Heony6n11K0BaH0.
671. l<HM)l{HHKOB, B. A., 3. B. DeTyxosa, IO. C. CTenaHoB u ,up. nocTynJieHHll CTpOHUHH-90 c nHmeBblM paun0Hm1 HaceJJeHHIO CCCP B 1959-1967
rr. B pe3y.lbTaTe CTpaToccpepHbIX Bbtna.!{eHHM,
ATOMH3.UaT, .MocKBa, 1969; .ll.OKyMeHT OOH A/AC.82/G/L.1328.
672. Mapel1, A. H. Heony6m11<0BaH0.
673. Mapeti, A. H., P. M. Eapxy.a.apon, H. ~- HoattKosa. Ue3m1-13 7 rno6aJJbHblX Bbma.ueHHH Kale
HCT01!HllK o6.'ly4eHH51 Hace.neHH51 no.7JeCb51, B ne1'!8TH.

132

674. Mapei!, A. H., E. K. EopHcoB. 0 co,uep:arnmrn
CTpOHUM.H-90 B KOCTHOH TKaHH H8CeJieHH51 ConeTCKOro Co103a B 1969 rony. Heony6;111K0BaH0.
675. Mape11. A. H., EopHcOB, E. K. ll11HaMHKa CTpOHUHH-90 B l<OCTHOH TKaHH Hace.'leHH51 CoBeTCKOro
Co103a 3a 1969-1971 rr. Heony6:1HKOB8HO.
676. MapeH, A. H., A. H. KapMaena. Het<OTOpbte rurneH1111ecKHe acneKTbl npo6neMbl pa.!urn-226, .MocKBa, 1965; ,u.oKyMeHT OOH A/AC.82/G/L.1088.
677. MottceeB, A. A. 11 .11.p. Heorryom-nrnBaHo.
678. MyxHH, H. E., JJ. H. HaroBHUHHa. Co.n.ep:>1rnH.He
CTpOHUJrn-90 B rnooaJibHblX BbIII8.!leHHllX Ha TeppHTOplU! YKpauHcK011 CCP B 1963-1966 rr.,
ATOM113.UaT, Moct<Ba, 1967; .ll.OKp1eHT OOH A/AC.82/G/L.1199 .
679. HMmHHKoB, A. H., M. A. HencrpyeBa, n. B. PaM3aen u .np. Ue3m1-137 B uerro11Ke .1Juwai1HHKOJ1eHb-'!eJ10BeK Ha KpatiHeM ceBepe CCCP ( 19621968 rr.), AToMH3.U.aT, MocKBa, 1969; .!lOKyMeHT
OOH A/AC.82/G/L.1327.
680. T1epu.oB, JI. A. HeKOTOpbie pa,n:HaUHOHHO-rnrne HH1!eCKHe acrreKTbl l',ll{l{p0K'1HMaTa CTpOeHHH,
ArnMH3.!laT, MocKBa, 1967; .!lOK)~leHT OOH A/AC.82/G/L.1181.
681. IleTyxoBa, 3. B., B. A. l<HHiKHHKOB. nocTym1e~rne CTpOHmrn-90 H ue3HH-137 c mnueBbIM paUHOHOM ttace.11eHHIO CoaercKoro Co103a B 19661967 rr. B pe3yJlbTaTe CTpaTOCq>epHblX Bbin8,ll,eH!fli, ATOMH3.!l8T, MoCKaa, 1968; .!lOKyMeHT OOH
A/ AC.82/G/L.1245.
682. IleTyxoBa, 3. B., B. A. l<H11iKHHKOB. Co..'lep,1-aHne
CTpOHUH51-90 H ue3H51-l37 B llHIUeBOM paUHOHe
Hace.11emrn CoaeTcKoro Co103a B 1967-1969 rr .
Heony6JIHI<OBaHo.
683. DpHcTep, 6. C. CTOBe.ueH11e ypaHa B 61-10.r1orn11ecKOH ueno11Ke, ATOMH3.!laT, MocKBa, 1969; ~oKyMeHT OOH A/AC.82/G/L.1298.
684. DpoKOq>ben, 0. H., M. A. HencTpyeBa, A. A. nepoaa 11 .a.p. Ue3Hi1-l 37 r:106aiibHblX BbmaAemn1 B
npo.nyKTaX nHTaHH5I B opraHH3Me '-!eJIOBeKa,
ATOMH3.llaT, MocKBa, 1969; .ll.OKyMeHT OOH A/AC.82/G/L.1326.
685. C11B11HUeB, IO. B., B. A. KaHapei'.iKHH, 0. M. ApyTHHOB. H3MeHeHHe KOHUeHTpamm Cs-137 B opraHH3Me '!eJIOBeKa. Pa.u.1106110.'IOrnH 6: 822-825(1966).
686. c~mpO.!lHHUeBa, r. H., C. H. TapacoB, A. <P. OpeWHHa H .ll.p, J;I3y11eHHe a3poreHHOro IlOCTynJieHHll
m1yTOHH51-239 B opraHl-13~! 1!eJIOBeKa, ATOMH3,!l.aT,
Moc1rna, 1968; .!lOKyMeHT OOH A/AC.82/G/L.1301.
687. Yllla1rnBa, A. n., YI. A. J111xTapeB, A. A. MoHce·
ea. OueHKa <i:CTonymruHOHHOH .ZI03hI» o6JiytJeHH51
nace,1eHHH CCCP or rno6am,Horo ue3HH-137,
AToMH3.llaT, MocKBa, 1969; ,noKyl\teHT OOH A/AC.82/G/L.1330.