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Socio-Demographic Factors Affecting Reading Comprehension Achievement Among
Secondary School Students with Learning Disabilities in Ibadan, Nigeria
Kelechi U. Lazarus
University of Ibadan
Nigeria145

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Abstract
The study examined the influence that socio-demographic factors (school social environment,
type of school and gender) have on achievement in reading comprehension of students withlearning disabilities. The study employed the correlational design. One hundred and twentythree (123) Junior Secondary Class 1 (JSS 1) students with learning disabilities from six
secondary schools (3 private and 3 public) all located in Ibadan North Local Government Area,
Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria participated in the study. Three scales namely: the Pupil Rating
Scale (Revised), the Comprehensive School Climate Inventory (adapted) and the Test of
Reading Comprehension were administered to the participants and the scores derived fromthese were subjected to Pearson Product Moment Correlation, Multiple Regression and t-test
Statistics. The results revealed that the most potent factor in the prediction of reading
comprehension achievement of students with learning disabilities is school social environment(r =0.214) followed by gender (r =0.185). The joint contribution of school social environment,
school type and gender on reading comprehension achievement of students with learning
disabilities was significant. While school social environment could considerably andindependently predict reading comprehension achievement among students with learning
disabilities, school type and gender could not. Further findings showed a significant difference
in reading comprehension achievement between male and female students with learning
disabilities (Cal.t = 2.075). Also, there was no observable significant difference in the reading
comprehension achievement of students with learning disabilities in private and public schools.
Therefore, it was suggested that teachers of students with learning disabilities should ensurethat reading comprehension lessons take place in stimulating and conducive classroom
environments devoid of unhealthy, risky and distracting stimuli.
Keywords: socio-demographic factors, learning disabilities, reading comprehension,achievement

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Attainment of academic success and social adjustment are essential learning outcomes derived
in schooling. This explains why a learner’s future success in life is often attributed to his or her
ability to learn effectively. Students’ learning is a product of several organised activities andhow well students learn at school can be linked to many factors. Among these factors are schoolsocial environment, type of school in terms of ownership and administration and gender.
School social factor reveals whether the learning environment is supportive or hostile.
According to the American Institutes for Research (2019), the school environment includes allservices, support systems, school policing policies and related structured practices for the
benefit of students and staff. The environment is compared to a hidden chain that connects all
the activities of the school in many ways and its influence is felt by all members of the school.
Considering the influence of the environment in the school, it is possible that insignificant
details could be seen affecting the ability of students to succeed in their studies. In a supportive
school environment for instance, there are healthy and supportive relationships between
teachers and students, teachers and teachers, students and students, and students and support
staff. There is also less discrimination against students who might be experiencing someemotional, social or academic difficulties such as those with special needs in this type of school.
Members of the school community benefit from warmth, security and safety. Excessive
resistance, constant student-to-adult conflict in school, and frustration with all kinds of abuse
are rare in a supportive school environment.
The Centre for Disease Control and Prevention (2009) explained that in a supportive school
environment, there are a wide range of opportunities for learner participation and shared
responsibility. Group activities are also encouraged in a socially supportive school and students
engage in fewer risk behaviours such as non-compliance with school rules and regulations,bullying and aggression, that interfere with teaching and learning. Students with specificdisabilities in learning domains, get along well with their peers and teachers in a socially
positive environment. The free bond established by the school community promotes academic
success and a healthy lifestyle. As reported by Nazir and Mattoo (2012), the formal educationalsetting and scholarly achievements are correlative and depend on each other. When schools
provide stimulating and supportive learning environments, students' academic performance
either directly or indirectly is bound to improve.
The type of school, described in terms of ownership and administration portrays whether theschool management is controlled by the government/public or private
individuals/organisations. By default, public educational institutions depend mainly on local,
state or federal government allocations as the case may be. Conversely, private educational
institutions depend on different sources of income including tuition fees borne by learners,
disbursements, and donations from non-governmental organisations. In Nigeria, it is natural tofind more classes and many students in public educational institutions compared to private
learning categories. The reason may be that private schools are fee-paying institutions; as aresult, many families may be unable to afford the fees so they send their children and wards topublic schools.
Despite the increased funds demanded by private school owners and the idea of capitalism in
the education sector projected by the private school system, it should be noted that private
educational institutions provide learners with opportunities for improved learning outcomes.
Similarly, teachers in private schools enjoy a greater sense of community than theircounterparts in public schools. These features can have an impact on all learners, especiallyamong those who have difficulty in learning academic tasks.

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A demographic factor of interest in this study is gender of learners. The impact of gender on
students’ learning success has been investigated particularly, with respect to reading
achievement among learners without disabilities (Ezeokoli & Ezenandu, 2013). There seems
to have been little focus on students with disabilities and their achievement in the aspect of text
comprehension. Cekiso (2016) explained that discussion on differences in gender with respect
to comprehension of texts is important in the light of growing low reading achievement scoresobtained by male and female students in national and international tests and examinations.
Certain studies suggest that females have better language abilities than males (Reilly, Neumann& Andrews, 2018). The veracity of this submission particularly among students, who faceacademic difficulties in Nigeria, is yet to be fully ascertained. Therefore, it would be pertinent
to investigate the relationship between the achievement of boys and girls with learning
disabilities in reading comprehension contexts.
The choice of reading comprehension as a dependent variable in this study is informed by thefact that it is the most important sub-skill in the continuum of reading skills. Every time a
student reads a text with comprehension, he or she crosses a ladder that leads to academic
success. Thus, reading comprehension helps learners to explore, explain, understand andinterpret the information contained in a text. It involves active, dynamic thinking andthoughtful interpretation of texts by proficient readers. Going by this explanation, this study
would be of immense benefit to learners who do not experience difficulties with text
comprehension as well as those who have serious challenges with understanding of texts.
Learners would also get to realise that the social environment where learning occurs has aneffect on school learning. The findings of this study would provide succinct information toteachers, school administrators and policy makers on the impact that socio-demographic factors(school social environment, type of school and gender) have on comprehension of texts among
students whose main academic challenges are in the areas of reading and language-related
skills.
Literature Review
Difficulties in the acquisition and interpretation of reading-related activities, listening
activities, mathematics, and written and spoken language tasks are the major areas of challenge
facing students with learning disabilities. Approximately, eighty per cent of these students
experience specific difficulties with reading (Cortiella & Horowitz, 2014). That is, of allacademic skills, reading is the one which poses the most difficulty for many students withlearning disabilities. Lazarus and Ige (2017) reported that some secondary school students withlearning disabilities experience poor reading comprehension sometimes due to their lack ofrich vocabulary and their inability to apply evidence-based reading strategies during reading.
In contrast to readers with academic difficulties, learners, who understand texts easily often
have good decoding skills, read with ease and understand a large amount of vocabulary. Olu
and Abiodun (2013) reiterated that activation of prior knowledge during reading enables
readers to construct meaning and understand basic concepts in texts. Also, efficient readers
seek to understand the structure of the text. They reflect on the information provided in the text
and deduce what the author does not specifically reveal. On the contrary, lack of understanding
makes reading a meaningless activity or a simple word calling exercise. Students’ inability tounderstand texts creates difficulties for grasping of information in all school subjects and leads
to poor academic results. To reduce the negative impact of academic failure on students
struggling with school work, educators are working tirelessly to deepen their scientificunderstanding of how these students can benefit from reading comprehension tasks.

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A study conducted by Shamaki (2015) involving 337 secondary school students studying in
Yobe State, Nigeria revealed a significant difference between the mathematics performance ofstudents taught in a stimulating learning environment and that of students taught in a nonstimulating learning environment. Schmitt and Kleine (2010) found that qualitative social
relationships within the immediate school community involving children, classmates andteachers led to high performance in school subjects. Schmitt and Kleine (2010) concluded thatthe quality of pupil-teacher and pupil-student interactions determine school performance.
Ayeni, Adeyemo and Olasunkanmi (2014) studied the correlation between school
environmental factors and adolescent school performance in Osun State, Nigeria, and foundthat environmental factors at school were strong indices that correlated with the academic
performance of high school learners.
Similar studies on learning environment in a school system and school success indicated that
school environment has a significant impact on student learning (Chepkonga, 2017; Chikezie& Ekott, 2019; Duruji, Azuh & Oviasogie, 2014; Ngene, Quadri, Bamigboye & Tenebe, 2018).
In addition, Michalak (2014) found that a school environment that is safe and supportive, wherestudent motivation and classroom diversity are promoted is among the factors that facilitate
literacy learning. Byamugisha (2010) found that factors such as school attendance, repeating a
grade, parent-teacher meetings, parents paying extra tuition, students taking school lunch,
private or public school categories, the school setting, the material and pedagogical resources,
and the educational qualifications of school staff, actually predicted reading and mathematics
results of sixth grade students in Uganda.
It was also reported by certain studies that students who attend privately owned schools
obtained better test and examination scores than those in public schools (Adeyemi, 2014;
Bonsu, 2016; Ehigiamusoe, 2012). In 2017, Adeniji explored how school status and genderinfluenced students' success in mathematics and found that students in private schools were
sixty-four percent more likely to achieve better results than their counterparts in public
educational institutions. Duruji, Azuh and Oviasogie (2014) revealed that students gain better
learning outcomes in private learning environments than in their public-school counterparts. A
study by Gumede (2018) involving seventy Grade 9 students from public and private schools
was conducted in Bulawayo Central District high schools in Zimbabwe. The findings showedthat the reading comprehension performance of students in public schools were significantly
lower than the reading comprehension performance of students in private schools. Gumede(2018) therefore submitted that there is need to provide intervention to students who lag behindin reading comprehension to avoid further challenges in the academic area.
The study by Nazir and Mattoo (2012), involved 80 adolescents in Srinagar enrolled in private
and public schools. The results revealed that public and private school types strongly
influenced the academic achievement of males and females. Other results showed a significant
link between the school and university context and academic achievement among women
enrolled in private educational institutions. Ocheho, Oke and Lanre-Babalola (2019) found thatwhile students in public educational institutions of higher learning experienced higher levelsof learned helplessness those in private educational institutions of higher learning experienced
higher school connectedness. The scholars therefore concluded that private educational
institutions enjoy a peaceful school environment capable of enabling students to have free andopen interactions with school staff without inhibitions.
Furthermore, results showing gender differences in learners' reading scores are inconclusive.
For example, Halpern, Straight and Stephenson (2011) reported that in terms of language and149

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communication, there are obvious gender stereotypes among boys and girls. According to
Plante, Sabbonniere, Aronson and Theoret (2013), most studies corroborate the fact thatfemales perform better than men in reading and language-related work. Reilly, Neumann, andAndrews (2018) equally found that females performed better in language-related tasks thantheir male counterparts. Although no statistical differences in participants’ reading scores basedon gender were obtained by Ezeokoli and Ezenandu (2013), scores of female participants werehigher than reading scores of their male counterparts. This implies that treatment had more apositive effect on females than on males. In contrast, Elui (2015) found that gender did not
significantly affect learner average scores in reading and Caplan and Caplan (2016) questioned
the existence of gender gaps in verbal tasks.
Based on the foregoing review, it can be deduced that investigation into the impact ofenvironment in the school on learners’ achievement mainly utilised participants without
specific disabilities in reading. These studies placed an emphasis on students’ mathematics
learning, English language learning and social skills acquisition. There appears to be few
studies that focused on the reading comprehension of learners with academic disabilities. This
study therefore, addressed the gap and provided information that will increase the awarenessof educators on learners’ academic prowess. The study examined a social factor, school social
environment, and two demographic factors which are type of school and gender and theconnections that exist between these factors and reading comprehension among students
experiencing disabilities in learning academic skills.
Methodology
The following research questions guided the study.
••••

What is the level of relationship existing between socio-demographic factors and theachievement in reading comprehension of participants in the study?
Do the socio-demographic factors jointly and relatively contribute to the prediction ofachievement in reading comprehension of participants?
Is there a difference in achievement in reading comprehension on the basis of the typeof school attended by participants?
Is there a difference in achievement in reading comprehension on the basis of theparticipants’ gender?

This study used a descriptive survey. McCombes (2019) posited that a descriptive researchstudy describes a population, situation or phenomenon. It can answer “what”, “when”, “where”
and “how” questions but not “why” questions. Participants were selected step by step througha multi-stage sampling procedure. The screening instrument was administered to a total of 951
students who were in JSS1 in the six schools. The results of the projection showed that one
hundred and twenty-three (123) JSS 1 students out of nine hundred and fifty-one (951) JSS 1
students selected from the six schools had learning differences. The age range of theparticipants was 11 to 17 years old. Several reasons account for the variability of age among
participants. Students are admitted into secondary school in Nigeria immediately after they
complete primary education which is designed for pupils aged 6-12 years. By implication,
enrolment age is estimated at 12 years (Section 2, Parts C & D, pp. 9, 12: National Policy on
Education, 2013). However, socio-cultural and economic factors could account for thepresence of younger or older students in the first year of secondary school. For instance, a
student who dropped out of school may re-enter at an older age. Some students might havecommenced schooling late or experienced delay in schooling due to stigmatisation and/or

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delays in cognitive and concept development. The distribution of participants by demographic
characteristics revealed that there were: thirty (30) students (24.39%) from private schools andninety-three (93) students (75.61%) from public schools. The gender distribution ofparticipants showed that forty-five (45) male students (35.59%) and seventy-eight (78) female
students (63.41%) participated in the study.
Instruments
To collect data, participants in this study completed three instruments namely: the Pupil Rating
Scale (Revised), the Comprehensive School Climate Inventory (adapted) and the Test of
Reading Comprehension. The researcher used Myklebust’s (1981) Pupil Rating Scale(Revised) for screening purposes. Myklebust (1981) explained that teachers can rate students
on the twenty-four items of the scale using a five-point scale (with 1 indicating poor behaviour,
3 indicating average behaviour and 5 indicating good behaviour). Lazarus and Aransiola (2016)
obtained Cronbach’s alpha of 0.89 for the Pupil Rating Scale. The second instrument was used
to collect information on school social environment. An adapted version of the instrument
developed by the National School Climate Centre (NSCC) in 2015, called Comprehensive
School Climate Inventory (CSCI) was used. This instrument has two sections. Section A
required the participants to supply demographic data on type of school (private or public) andgender. Sixteen questions in Section B focused on participants’ experiences in school with anemphasis on safety, supportive learning environment and relationships among individuals inthe school. The reliability and validity of the adapted version of the CSCI was further
determined by the researcher through a pilot test. The researcher ensured that students who
participated in the pilot test were not among the study sample. The Cronbach’s alpha statistics
was computed. The result of the coefficient of reliability obtained by the researcher was thus
0.72.
The third instrument is an achievement test of 25 items tagged “Test of Reading
Comprehension” (TRC). It comprises two reading comprehension passages (a narrative text
and an expository text) selected from an online teachers’ resource (Language arts worksheets),
designed by Teachnology, Inc. (1999-2012). These reading passages were adjudged
appropriate for JSS 1 students experiencing disabilities in academics. Each correct answer on
the TRC receives 4 marks to give a total of 100 marks. The questions were intended to elicit
responses on students’ ability to identify significant points/themes, developmental ideas, draw
interpretations, recall facts and comprehend the meaning of words in context. The coefficientalpha results from pilot testing the scale on 20 students with disabilities in academics that were
not part of the sample were as follows: Reading Passage 1 (r =0. 75), and Reading Passage 2(r =0.73). The researcher engaged three research assistants for ease of test administration in theselected schools. Pearson Moment Correlation; multiple regressions and the independent t-test
statistics were used for data analysis.
Ethical Consideration
In order to meet standard ethical consideration for the nature of this study, the researcher
applied to the Ethical and Research Committee of the Ministry of Education in Oyo State,
Nigeria. A copy of the research proposal was submitted with a parental/guardian consent form.
After three weeks, the Ethical and Research Committee approved the conduct of the research.
From this point, a letter of introduction and parental/guardian consent form were dispatchedthrough the students with learning disabilities to their parents/guardians. Since the participants
were minors, it was essential that confidentiality and fairness were maintained. In all, 123 JSS
1 students with learning disabilities whose parents agreed to their children/wards’ participationin this study participated.

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Results
Table 1: Correlation matrix showing the relationship between school social environment,
school type, gender and achievement in reading comprehension
Variable

Mean

School social
environment

57.30

Stand. Achievement in
Dev.
reading comp.
10.47 1

Achievement inreading comp.
School social
environment
School type

55.56

5.71

1

1.76

0.43

Gender

1.63

0.48

0.214*(0.018)0.065(0.472)0.185*(0.040)0.056(0.538)0.081(0.374)

Schooltype

Gender

10.080
1(0.382)

What is the level of relationship existing between socio-demographic factors and theachievement in reading comprehension of participants in the study?
Table 1 shows a positive significant relationship existing between the school social
environment (r =0.214, p (0.018) <0.05); gender (r =0.185, p (0.040) <0.05) and the students
with learning disabilities’ achievement in reading comprehension. This implies that the more
the social environment in the school is conducive, cordial and pleasant, the more students withlearning disabilities will obtain high grades in reading comprehension and vice versa. However,no significant relationship between the demographic factor-school type (r =0.065, p (0.472)>0.05) and participants’ achievement in reading comprehension was obtained. That is, thestatus of the school (whether private or public) does not have a positive link to reading
comprehension achievement of students with learning disabilities.
Table 2: ANOVA, model summary and coefficients of the multiple regression of the joint
contribution of school social environment, school type and gender to the prediction ofachievement in reading comprehension of students with learning disabilities
Multiple R= 0.275
Multiple R2= 0.076
Multiple R2 (Adjusted) = 0.052
Standard Error of Estimate =10.1949
Model
Sum of Squares
1
Regression 1013.530

df
3Mean Square
337.843103.936

Residual

12368.340

119

Total

13381.870

122

F
3.251

Sig.
0.024

Do the socio-demographic factors jointly and relatively contribute to the prediction ofachievement in reading comprehension of participants?
In Table 2, the F-ratio of 3.251 was recorded. This indicates that school social environment,
school type and gender when considered as a unit, significantly predict students with learning
disabilities’ achievement in reading comprehension. The R value of 0.275 and R2 value of
0.076 were obtained. This means that the combination of the three factors produced 7.6% of
the variance in participants’ achievement in reading comprehension. Table 3 further illustrates

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the relative contributions of each of the three predictor variables (namely: school social
environment, school type and gender) to the prediction of the dependent variable-reading
comprehension achievement among students with learning disabilities.
Table 3: Relative contribution of school social environment, school type and gender to theprediction of achievement in reading comprehension of students with learning disabilities(Constant)

Unstandardized
Coefficients
B
Std. Error
29.502
9.841

Standardized
Coefficients
Beta

T

Sig.

2.998

0.003

School social 0.363
environment

0.162

0.198

2.235

0.027

SchoolType
Gender

0.998

2.150

0.041

0.464

0.643

3.596

1.920

0.166

1.873

0.064

From table 3, while school social environment (β=0.198, t=2.235, p<0.05) could significantly
and singly predict participants’ achievement in reading comprehension, school type (β=0.041,
t=0.464, p>0.05) and gender (β=0.166, t=1.873, p>0.05) could not. This implies that schoolsocial environment can determine the reading comprehension achievement of students withlearning disabilities.
Table 4: t-test indicating the difference in achievement in reading comprehensionof students with learning disabilities in private and public schools
Achievement in Reading N
comprehension
Private school
30

Mean

Public school

57.6882 9.8698

93

Std. Dev.

Crit-tCal-t. DF

p value

1.96

0.721 121

0.472

56.1000 12.2653

Is there a difference in achievement in reading comprehension on the basis of the type ofschool attended by participants? Table 4 reveals that although students with learning
disabilities in public schools obtained 57.6882 mean score in reading comprehension and thosein private schools got 56.1000, no observable significant differences in achievement in reading
comprehension of students with learning disabilities in private and public schools (Crit-t =1.96, Cal.t = 0.721, DF = 121, p>0 .05) were obtained.
Table 5: t-test indicating the difference in achievement in reading comprehensionof male and female students with learning disabilities
Achievement in Reading N
comprehension
Male
45

Mean

Female58.7692 9.8863

78

Std. Dev.

Crit-tCal-t. DF

p value

1.96

2.075 121 0.040

54.7556 11.0744

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Is there a difference in achievement in reading comprehension on the basis of theparticipants’ gender? Table 5 reveals that female students with learning disabilities ( x =58.7692) performed better compared to their male counterparts with learning disabilities ( x =54.7556) in the study (Crit-t = 1.96, Cal.t = 2.075, DF = 121, p<0 .05).
Discussion
Regarding research question 1, a significant positive relationship between the social
environment of the school and gender (two independent variables) and the reading
comprehension scores of students with learning disabilities (dependent variable) was obtained.
However, no significant relationship was found between the type of school and the reading
comprehension scores of the participants. This finding supports the findings of Nazir and Matto(2012) and Ngene, Quadri, Bamigboye and Tenebe (2018). These researchers found that theschool social environment was directly related to academic achievement and that a positivesocial environment played an important role in developing students' academic abilities. When
students study in a stimulating and supportive environment, they feel welcome and emotionallystable, indirectly leading to better academic outcomes, including reading comprehension.
These findings also support the findings of Ezeokoli and Ezenandu (2013), who reported higher
average post-test reading scores for women than men, although these scores are not statisticallysignificant.
Research question 2 results also revealed that the social environment of the school, the type ofschool and gender of students with disabilities in academics had a significant joint contribution
to the reading comprehension scores of students with disabilities. This result is consistent withMichalak’s (2014) findings, which indicate that a safe and supportive school environment,
classroom diversity and student motivation leads to improved literacy learning among students.
Gumede (2018) found that reading comprehension performance among learners in private
schools differ significantly in favour of students in private schools. Nazir and Mattoo (2012)
found that the type of school (public and private) had a major effect on student success in theirstudies. Adeniji (2017) found that students in private educational institutions had better scoresthan students in public educational institutions in terms of academic achievement. Reilly,
Neumann and Andrews (2018) corroborated the conclusion that girls' performance in languagebased activities was greater than that of boys.
Research question 2 showed that the social environment of the school could independently
predict the reading comprehension scores of students with disabilities in academics. Thisfinding is also consistent with that of Byamugisha's (2010) in which both home and school
factors predict students' reading and mathematics scores. The present findings also support
those of Schmitt and Kleine (2010), who concluded that improved school success is a productof improved student-teacher interactions, pupil-student interactions and parental involvement.
In a safe, challenging and reassuring school environment, students learn and achieve betterschool results.
However, the results for research question 2, also revealed that school type and gender could
not predict significantly and independently the scores in reading comprehension among
students with learning disabilities. This finding is in disagreement with that of Nazir andMattoo (2012) regarding the impact that school type has on academic achievement, butcorroborates Elui's (2015) view that gender gaps do not exist in reading scores. Reading
comprehension is an essential sub-skill of reading that requires a stimulating and supportive
teaching and learning environment for optimal results. Therefore, it is not enough to enroll

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them in a private or public school. Regardless of the type of school they attend, attention mustbe paid to the nature of the school environment and the subject taught.
For research question 3, the results showed that the gender of students with learning disabilities
is connected to the success of students with learning disabilities in reading comprehension. The
female students in this study scored better than the males. This finding supports that of Reilly,
Neumann, and Andrews (2018), but contradicts the findings of Elui (2015) and Caplan andCaplan (2016), who found no gender differences in student reading scores.
Results for research question 4, also did not show any significant variance in the reading
comprehension scores of students with learning disabilities in private and public schools. Thisfinding does not support Duruji, Azuh and Oviasogie (2014) and Adeniji's (2017) because theresearchers maintained that students in private learning environments perform better than their
typical peers in public learning environments. However, the present results corroborate thefindings of Nazir and Mattoo (2012), which revealed a major impact of school type on student
achievement.
Limitations and Future Research
The study was limited to only social environment within the school. Future research could
benefit from investigating other components of the environment such as physical, emotional
and psychological environments of the school. The influence of these variables can be studied
vis-a vis reading comprehension of students with learning disabilities. In addition, participants
were only 123 year one students drawn from six secondary schools and one local governmentarea in Ibadan. Further studies can be conducted with larger numbers of students spread acrossthe eleven local government areas in the Ibadan metropolis. By so doing, a wider geographicalscope would be covered. Future studies should consider using assessment measures which
involve complex grade-level materials in identifying the study participants. It would be
advisable if multiple reading comprehension measures could be used as opposed to the use ofa single test.
Recommendations
This study has provided clear educational implications and recommendations for stakeholders
in the secondary school setting. A rich social environment promotes effective reading
comprehension among secondary school students, especially those with learning disabilities.
The English language teachers should provide a learning environment that is conducive toreading comprehension instruction. Respectful and friendly social relationships should bemaintained while teaching reading comprehension to all secondary school students, especiallythose with learning disabilities.
Other content area teachers of students with learning disabilities should ensure that classes takeplace in stimulating class environments that are free of unhealthy, risky and annoying stimuli.
They should place emphasis on a safe and healthy school environment for learning. There
should be no room for unwholesome relationships in the school community. Students withlearning disabilities who struggle in academic classes need to acquire relevant social skills
useful for regulating a person's behaviour, understanding one’s emotions and those of others,
and effectively managing interpersonal relationships for an improved school achievement.

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Policy makers and school administrators should be prepared for the challenge of educating all
learners, particularly those with learning disabilities, in a supportive and positive school
environment. They should ensure that public and private schools provide students with clearly
defined rules and regulations, maintain socio-emotional security by eliminating harassment andall forms of physical and psychological violence within the school and provide strong social
support to all students. If these measures are maintained, the socio-emotional stability that
results will certainly be metamorphosed into better academic outcomes, principally in reading
comprehension for those students who struggle to succeed in academic classes.
Parents of learners with learning difficulties must frequently communicate with the school
principal and cooperate with that individual on matters relating to the general welfare of theirchildren to ensure that learning takes place in a healthy school environment. Guidancecounsellors should conduct routine counselling sessions where all learners, including thosewith learning disabilities, may be exposed to the importance of maintaining healthy social
relationships with teachers and other students. Some students with learning disabilities havedifficulty with social skills; therefore, training students in these skills will also strengthen thesocial environment of the school and indirectly lead to improved outcomes in learning for all
students, including those with disabilities.
Conclusion
The study found that students with learning disabilities will perform better in reading
comprehension if they learn in a positive and supportive school environment. The results revealthat the positive school social environment has significantly influenced the reading
comprehension scores of students with learning disabilities. With respect to the joint andrelative contributions of socio-demographic factors (social environment in the school, the typeof school and gender) to achievement in reading comprehension of students who experiencedisabilities with academics, it should be noted that the contributions of these factors may not
be isolated but combined by at least two factors. However, only the social environment of theschool could predict significantly and independently the achievement in reading
comprehension among students with learning disabilities.

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Adeyemi, S. B. (2014). Comparative study of pupils’ academic performance between private
and public primary schools. World Journal of Education, 4(4), 55–60.
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Corresponding author: Kelechi U. Lazarus
Contact email: lazarusk67@gmail.com

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