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Journal of Ethnopharmacology 115 (2008) 361–380

Review

Dragon’s blood: Botany, chemistry and therapeutic uses
Deepika Gupta a , Bruce Bleakley b , Rajinder K. Gupta a,∗a University School of Biotechnology, GGS Indraprastha University, K. Gate, Delhi 110006, Indiab Department of Biology & Microbiology, South Dakota State University, Brookings, South Dakota 57007, USA

Received 25 May 2007; received in revised form 10 October 2007; accepted 11 October 2007
Available online 22 October 2007

Abstract
Dragon’s blood is one of the renowned traditional medicines used in different cultures of world. It has got several therapeutic uses: haemostatic,
antidiarrhetic, antiulcer, antimicrobial, antiviral, wound healing, antitumor, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, etc. Besides these medicinal applications, it is used as a coloring material, varnish and also has got applications in folk magic. These red saps and resins are derived from a number of
disparate taxa. Despite its wide uses, little research has been done to know about its true source, quality control and clinical applications. In thisreview, we have tried to overview different sources of Dragon’s blood, its source wise chemical constituents and therapeutic uses. As well as, alittle attempt has been done to review the techniques used for its quality control and safety.
© 2007 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Dragon’s blood; Croton; Dracaena; Daemonorops; Pterocarpus; Therapeutic uses

Contents
1.

2.

3.
4.
5.

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1. Mythology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2. Historical uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3. Ethnomedicinal uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Sources of Dragon’s blood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1. Croton spp. (Euphorbiaceae) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.1. Chemical constituents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.2. Bioactivities and therapeutic uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2. Daemonorops spp. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.1. Chemical constituents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.2. Bioactivities and therapeutic uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3. Dracaena spp. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.1. Chemical constituents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.2. Bioactivities and therapeutic uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4. Pterocarpus spp. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Quality control and safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Conservation needs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

∗ Corresponding author. Mobile: +91 9871263252; fax: +91 11 23865941/2.

E-mail address: rkg67ap@yahoo.com (R.K. Gupta).
0378-8741/$ – see front matter © 2007 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jep.2007.10.018

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1. Introduction
Plants are used worldwide for the treatment of diseases andnovel drugs continue to be developed through research fromthese plants. There are more than 20,000 species of higher plant,
used in traditional medicines and are reservoirs of potential new
drugs. As the modern medicine and drug research advanced,
chemically synthesized drugs replaced plants as the source ofmost medicinal agents in industrialized countries. Neverthelessplants are an important source of lead compounds. However, indeveloping countries, the majority of the world’s population cannot afford pharmaceutical drugs and use their own plant based
indigenous medicines.
Dragon’s blood is a deep red resin, which has been used
as a famous traditional medicine since ancient times by many
cultures. The term “Dragon’s blood” refers to reddish resinous
products, usually encountered as granules, powder, lumps or
sticks used in folk medicine. Dragon’s blood has been used fordiverse medical and artistic applications. It has astringent effectand has been used as a hemostatic and antidiarrhetic drug.
The origin of Dragon’s blood is believed to be from Indian
Ocean island of Socotra, now part of Yemen (Angiosperm
Phylogeny Group, 1974). However, there exists a great degreeof confusion regarding the source and identity of Dragon’s
blood. Several alternative sources of Dragon’s blood from
Canary Islands, Madeira, and South East Asia and also from
East and West Africa have been identified (Alexander andMiller, 1995). Dragon’s blood was a name applied to many
red resins described in the medical literature, e.g. East Indian
Dragon’s blood (from the fruit of Daemonorops draco (Willd.)
Blume), Socotran or Zanzibar Dragon’s blood (exudates ofDracaena cinnabari Balf. f.), Canary Dragon’s blood (exudates
formed from incisions of the trunk of Dracaena draco (L.) L.),West Indian Dragon’s blood (exudates of Pterocarpus dracoL.), Mexican Dragon’s blood (resin of Croton lechleri Müll.
Arg.) and the Venezuelan Dragon’s blood (resin of Croton
gossypifolium Vahl) (Sollman, 1920).
Mabberley (1998) suggests that Dragon’s blood was produced originally from Dracaena cinnabari, later from Dracaena
draco and more recently from Daemonorops spp. Zheng etal. (2004a,b,c) confirms this view and suggests Pterocarpus spp., Daemonorops draco and Croton spp. as substitutes
for Dracaena spp. Thus, the term “Dragon’s blood” in general is used for all kinds of resins and saps obtained fromfour distinct plant genera; Croton (Euphorbiaceae), Dracaena(Dracaenaceae), Daemonorops (Palmaceae), and Pterocarpus(Fabaceae).
1.1. Mythology
According to a Greek myth, Landon, the hundred-headed
dragon, guardian of the Garden of the Hesperides (the nymph
daughters of Atlas, the titan who holds up earth and heaven)
was killed by either Hercules (in his quest) or Atlas (as punishment) while bringing back three golden apples from the garden,
depending upon the version of the myth. Landon’s red blood
flowed out upon the land and from it sprung up the trees known

as “Dragon Trees” (The Eleventh Labor of Hercules: The Applesof The Hesperides).
Dragon’s blood was also called “Indian cinnabar” by Greeks
writers. The name “Dragon’s blood” dates back to the 1st century AD when a Greek sailor wrote, about an island called
Dioscorida where the trees yielded drops of cinnabar, in a shipping manual “Periplus of the Erythrean Sea”. Plinius (1601) also
described that the resin got its name from an Indian legend basedon Brahma and Shiva. Emboden (1974) and Lyons (1974) had
also summarized the history and mythology of Dragon’s blood.
According to Lyons, the struggle between a dragon and an elephant that, at its climax, led to the mixing of the blood of thetwo creatures resulted in a magical substance, “Dragon’s blood”
imbued with medicinal properties.
1.2. Historical uses
The crimson red resin was highly prized in the ancient world.
Dragon’s blood (Dracaena cinnabari) was used as a dye andmedicine in the Mediterranean basin. Miller and Morris (1988)
mention use of Dracaena resin as a coloring matter for varnishes,tinctures, toothpastes, plaster, and for dying horn to make it look
like tortoiseshell. Mabberley (1998) also notes that resinous sap
produced via incisions in the bark or stem of the Dracaena
cinnabari was used by the Ancients to stain horn to resemble tortoiseshell. People in Socotra used resin from Dracaena
cinnabari for dying wool, glue pottery, breath freshener, to decorate pottery and houses and even as lipstick (Alexander andMiller, 1996). Due to the belief that it is the blood of the mythical animal, the dragon, it is also used in alchemy and for ritualmagic.
Dragon’s blood from both Dracaena and Daemonorops werealso used for ceremonies in India. Sometimes Dracaena resin,but more often Daemonorops resin, was used in China as red
varnish for wooden furniture. These resins were used to color
the surface of writing paper for banners and posters, used especially for weddings and for Chinese New Year. These red resins
were also used as pigment in paint, enhancing the color of
precious stones and staining glass, marble and the wood for
Italian violins. Fulling (1953) reported that Daemonorops resin
was used in the preparation of drawings. Powdered forms of
Daemonorops resin were used extensively as an acid resist by
photoengravers during the 1930s (Pankow, 1988). In modern
times Daemonorops resin is still used as a varnish for violins,in photoengraving, as an incense resin, and as body oil. Daemonorops resin is also added to red ink to make “Dragon’s
Blood Ink,” which is used to inscribe magical seals andtalismans.
Spanish naturalist and explorer P. Bernabé Cobo (1956)
recorded for the first time that Croton’s sap was used widely
throughout the indigenous tribes of Mexico, Peru, and Ecuador
in 1600s. In African-American folk magic or voodoo thisresin is used in mojo hands for money-drawing or lovedrawing, and is used as incense to cleanse a space of negative
entities or influences. In neopagan witchcraft, it is used toincrease the potency of spells for protection, love, banishing andsexuality.

D. Gupta et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 115 (2008) 361–380

1.3. Ethnomedicinal uses
Dragon’s blood was used by early Greeks, Romans, andArabs for its medicinal properties. Locals of Moomy city on
Socotra island used the Dragon’s blood (Dracaena) as a sortof cure-all, using it for things such as general wound healing,a coagulant, curing diarrhoea, lowering fevers, dysentery diseases, internal ulcers of mouth, throat, intestines and stomach,as an antiviral for respiratory and stomach viruses and for skindisorders such as eczema. Dioscorides and other early Greek
writers described its medicinal uses. Dragon’s blood (Dracaena)
is used for treating dysentery, diarrhoea, hemorrhage and external ulcers in Yemeni folk medicine (Milburn, 1984). Dracaena
resin has strong astringent properties and is used as a muscle
relaxant (Milner, 1992). Gerarde and Johnson (1633) stated that
Dragon’s blood (Dracaena) was used for over flow of courses(menses), in fluxes, dysenteries, spitting of blood and fasteningof loose teeth. It was also used to treat gonorrhea, stoppage ofurine, watery eyes and minor burns (Parkinson, 1640). In China,
the red resin of Dracaena cochinchinensis was used by local
people for treatment of wounds, leucorrhea, fractures, diarrhoea
and piles as well as for intestinal and stomach ulcers (Cai andXu, 1979).
Daemonorops resin is also used in traditional Chinese
medicine to stimulate circulation, promote tissue regeneration
by aiding the healing of fractures, sprains and ulcers and to control bleeding and pain (Bensky and Gamble, 1993). The medical
applications of Dragon’s blood resins, mainly the Daemonorops
resin have been attributed to the presence of benzoic acid, whichshow antiseptic properties (Piozzi et al., 1974; Badib, 1991).
Croton’s sap is a common household remedy used in Peru, other
Latin American countries, and among the Latin American population of the United States. Croton’s sap is taken orally to curedifferent types of diarrhoea and cholera by the indigenous peopleof Amazon basin (Carlson and King, 2000). Other ethnomedical uses of the sap of Croton lechleri in Peru are found in thetreatment of bone fractures, leucorrhea, piles and hemorrhoids(Soukup, 1970). Sap of Croton lechleri was also used to speed
up internal healing after an abortion (Castner et al., 1998) and invaginal baths taken before childbirth (Duke and Vasquez, 1994).
Croton’s sap has been reviewed by many researchers for its
therapeutic uses (Jones, 2003; Gonzales and Valerio, 2006).
Various therapeutic properties of Dragon’s blood (Crotonspp.) have been described such as wound and ulcer healing,
antidiarrhoeic, anticancer, anti-inflammatory and antirheumatic
properties (Bettolo and Scarpati, 1979; Perdue et al., 1979; Chenet al., 1994; Pieters et al., 1995; Phillipson, 1995; Gabriel et al.,
1999; Holodniy et al., 1999; Miller et al., 2000).
2. Sources of Dragon’s blood
Dragon’s blood is a bright red resin that is obtained from different species of four distinct plant genera; Croton, Dracaena,
Daemonorops, and Pterocarpus. Table 1 summarizes the different botanical sources and common names of Dragon’s blood.
Pearson and Prendergast (2001) have reviewed Dragon’s blood
samples from different sources kept at Royal Botanic Gardens

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Kew. The Economic Botany Collections at the Royal Botanic
Gardens Kew (curated by the Centre for Economic Botany)
contains perhaps the largest (80 accessions comprising of 34
Dracaena accessions, 40 Daemonorops and 6 Croton) and mostreliably identified assembly of Dragon’s blood resins.
In this review, we discuss chemistry and therapeutic uses ofvarieties of Dragon’s blood differentiated according to the planttaxa from which they are obtained. Structures of some of thecompounds reported from these sources are given in Fig. 1.
2.1. Croton spp. (Euphorbiaceae)
Croton lechleri Müll. Arg., the tree growing in Mexico,
Venezuela, Ecuador, Peru and Brazil, is possibly the best-known
source for Dragon’s blood. Other species are Croton draconoides
Müll. Arg., Croton draco Schlect & Cham., Croton urucurana
Baill., C. xalapensis Kunth, Croton gossypifolium Vahl, Croton erythrochilus Müll. Arg. and Croton palanostigma Klotzsch.
When the trunk of the tree is cut or wounded, dark red, sappy
resin oozes out, known as Sangre de Drago (Dragon’s blood).
2.1.1. Chemical constituents
Table 2 summarizes the compounds reported from Dragon’s
blood of Croton spp.
2.1.2. Bioactivities and therapeutic uses
2.1.2.1. Antimicrobial and antiviral activity. Sangre de Drago(Croton) has been evaluated as a source of potential chemotherapeutic agents based on its ethnomedicinal uses. Chen et al.
(1994) had studied the antibacterial properties of blood-red sapof Croton lechleri from Ecuador and reported compounds 2, 4, 6trimethoxyphenol, 1, 3, 5-trimethoxybenzene, crolechinic acidand korberins A and B present in the sap to exhibit antibacterial
activity individually.
The aqueous ethanol extract, some fractions of the methanol
extract, catechin and acetyl aleuritolic acid of Sangre de Drago
obtained from Croton urucurana are reported to show inhibitionof Staphylococcus aureus and Salmonella typhimurium (Pereset al., 1997). Later, Gurgel et al. (2005) reported in vitro antifungal activity of Sangre de Drago from Croton urucurana, which
could be due to the presence of catechins like gallocatechin andepigallocatechin. Antiviral properties of Croton’s sap have also
been evaluated. Extracts of Sangre de Drago have been reported
to have antiviral activity against influenza, parainfluenza, Herpes simplex viruses I and II, and Hepatitis A and B (Chen etal., 1994; Ubillas et al., 1994; Sidwell et al., 1994; Meza, 1999).
SP-303 from Croton’s sap is the most studied constituent for its
antiviral activity (Wyde et al., 1991, 1993; Barnard et al., 1992;
Soike et al., 1992; Gilbert et al., 1993). SP-303 has shown invitro activity against Herpes simplex viruses (HSV-1 and HSV2), inhibition of thymidine kinase mutants of the viruses, andpronounced activity against acyclovir-resistant strains (Barnard
et al., 1993; Safrin et al., 1993; Ubillas et al., 1994). Clinical studies of SP-303 have also been done on AIDS patients(Orozco-Topete et al., 1997). Sethi (1977) reported taspine to
inhibit reverse transcriptase enzyme in cultures of several tumor
viruses.

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D. Gupta et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 115 (2008) 361–380

Table 1
Botanical sources and common names of Dragon’s blood
Species

Plant family

Geographical origin

Vernacular names

Croton spp.

Euphorbiaceae

Tropics and subtropics
worldwide

Sangre de draco (Venezuela), Dragon’s blood
Croton, Arleiia, Ian huiqui (Ecuador), Yawar
gradwascca (Peru), Sangre de Drago/Grado

Palmaceae

South East Asia

Jerang or Djerang (Indonesia), Longxuejie(China), Draconis Resina and Sanguis
draconis (Sumatra), Kirin-kakketsu (Japan)

Dracaenaceae

Socotra, Canary Islands,
Madeira, East Africa

Zanzibar drop

Fabaceae

West Indies and SouthAmerica

East India kino, Malabar kino, Kino gum,
Guadaloupe Dragon’s blood, Padauk

Croton draco Schltdl. & Cham.
Croton lechleri Müll. Arg.
Croton draconoides Müll. Arg.
Croton urucurana Baill.
C. xalapensis Kunth
Croton gossypifolium Vahl
Croton erythrochilus Müll. Arg.
Croton palanostigma Klotzsch
Daemonorops spp.

Daemonorops draco (Willd) Blume
D. didymophylla Becc.
D. micracantha (Griff.) Becc.
D. motleyi Becc.
D. rubra (Reinw. ex Blume) BlumeD. propinqua Becc.
Dracaena spp.
D. cinnabari Balf. f.
D. cochinchinensis (Lour.) S.C. Chen
Dracaena draco (L.) L.
Pterocarpus spp.
P. ofﬁcinalis Jacq.

2.1.2.2. Antitumor and cytotoxic activity. There are various
reports showing Sangre de Drago (Croton) to exhibit cytotoxicity. Guerrero and Guzmán (2004) carried out brine shrimp
lethality test (BSLT) to check the cytotoxicity of Croton lechleri.
Croton lechleri sap has been reported to be used for treatment ofcancer by many researchers (Hartwell, 1969; Pieters et al., 1992;
Cai et al., 1993a,b). Recently, Gonzales and Valerio (2006) havereviewed Croton lechleri for its anticancer activity.
A number of compounds isolated from Sangre de Drago(Croton) are found to show cytotoxicity. Taspine from Croton
lechleri sap has shown potent activity against KB and V-79 cells,
while flavan-3-ols and proanthocyanidins, which are the major
components of the sap, are not cytotoxic (Itokawa et al., 1991;
Chen et al., 1994). Compound 3 , 4-O-dirnethylcedrusin from
Croton spp. was found not to stimulate cell proliferation, butrather protected cells against degradation in a starvation medium(Pieters et al., 1993). Chen et al. (1994) proposed that antitumor activity of Croton’s sap might be because of mechanisms
other than cytotoxicity such as immunostimulation. Antiproliferative effect of latex of Croton lechleri was also determinedin vitro on the human myelogenous leukemia K562 cells line
(Rossi et al., 2003). Peres et al. (1997) have reported use of
Croton urucurana against cancer. Croton draco is also used totreat cancer (Gupta et al., 1996). Latex of Croton draconoides
and Croton erythrochilus are also reported to be used against
cancer (Piacente et al., 1998). Sandoval et al. (2002) evalu-

ated the effects of Sangre de Drago (Croton palanostigma) on
human cancer cells, AGS (stomach), HT29 and T84 (colon) andreported induction of apoptosis, and microtubular damages inthese cell lines.
2.1.2.3. Antihemorrhagic activity. Castro et al. (1999) investigated the activity of organic extracts of Croton draco against
hemorrhagic activity induced by the venom of the snake Bothrops asper. Total inhibition of hemorrhage was observed,
probably owing to the chelation of zinc required for the catalytic
activity of venom’s hemorrhagic metalloproteinases. Aqueous
extracts of Croton urucurana antagonized the hemorrhagic
activity of the venom of Bothrops jararaca and proanthocyanidins were involved in this activity (Esmeraldino et al.,2005).
2.1.2.4. Immunomodulatory activity. The human immune
response is a highly complex system involving both innate andadaptive mechanisms. A biological or pharmacological effectof compounds on humoral or cellular aspects of the immune
response is referred as immunomodulating activity. Risco etal. (2003) determined immunomodulatory activity of Sangre deDrago from Croton lechleri in vitro and found that it exhibited apotent inhibitory activity on classical (CP) and alternative (AP)pathways of complement system and inhibited the proliferationof activated T-cells.

D. Gupta et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 115 (2008) 361–380

Tsacheva et al. (2004) evaluated latex of Croton draco, its
extracts and several latex components (flavonoid myricitrin, thealkaloid taspine and the cyclopeptides P1 and P2) for their influence on both CP and AP activation pathways of the complement
system using a hemolytic assay and the best inhibition was found
for the classical pathway.
2.1.2.5. Antiulcer and antidiarrhoeal activity. There arereports showing potent antiulcer and antidiarrhoeal activity of
Sangre de Drago (Croton). The extracts from Croton species
have been shown to impair the capsaicin-stimulated ion trans-365

port across guinea pig ileum when added to the serosal bathin Ussing chambers and thus may prove to be a cost-effective
treatment for gastrointestinal ulcers (Miller et al., 2000). Use oflatex of Croton lechleri has also been reported in the treatment
of different types of diarrhoea (Ubillas et al., 1994; Carlson
and King, 2000). SP-303, a heterogeneous proanthocyanidin
oligomer of Croton lechleri was found to inhibit in vivo cholera
toxin-induced fluid secretion and in vitro cAMP-mediated Cl−
secretion and thus may provide a useful broad-spectrum antidiarrhoeal agent (Gabriel et al., 1999). Evaluation of safety andefficacy of orally administered SP-303 was done for the symp-

Fig. 1. Structure of some of the compounds reported from different sources of Dragon’s bloods.

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D. Gupta et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 115 (2008) 361–380

Fig. 1. (Continued )tomatic treatment of diarrhoea in travelers (DiCesare et al.,2002) and in AIDS patients (Holodniy et al., 1999; Koch et al.,
1999; Koch, 2000). Fischer et al. (2004) derived a novel extract
SB-300 from Croton lechleri that inhibited cAMP-regulated
chloride secretion, mediated by the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator Cl− channel (CFTR) in humancolonic T84 cells and may prove to be a potent antidiarrhoeal
agent. Rozhon et al. (1998) have a patent on the use of proanthocyanidin polymer from Croton species as an antidiarrhoeal,
which was issued to Shaman Pharmaceuticals, Inc. USA. The
company has products based on extract from Croton lechleri sap in the market, named as NSF and NSF-1B, claiming“clinically demonstrated relief from diarrhoea that won’t cause
constipation.”
Gurgel et al. (2001) evaluated antidiarrhoeal activity of
red sap obtained from Croton urucurana on castor oilinduced diarrhoea in rats, cholera toxin-induced intestinal
secretion in mice and on small intestinal transit in miceand suggested potential utility of the red sap from Croton urucurana in controlling secretory diarrhoea associateddiseases.

2.1.2.6. Analgesic activity. Peres et al. (1998a) isolated several
compounds showing analgesic activity, namely campesterol,sitosterol, stigmasterol, acetyl aleuritolic acid, catechin, gallocatechin and sitosterol glucoside from Croton urucurana andsuggested existence of more potent analgesic compounds orexistence of a synergistic effect.
2.1.2.7. Antioxidative activity. Desmarchelier et al. (1997) suggested that Sangre de Drago (Croton lechleri) is highly effectivein scavenging peroxyl and hydroxyl radicals at high concentrations. However, prooxidant activity was observed at lower
concentrations. When administered to mice subcutaneously,
latex of Peruvian Croton lechleri inhibited hepatic lipid peroxidation but only at concentration of 200 mg/kg in the livers of theanimals; higher concentrations showed toxicity (Desmarchelier
and de Moraes Barros, 2003).
Later, Risco et al. (2003) reported that depending upon
the concentration, latex of Croton lechleri showed antioxidant or prooxidant properties, and stimulated or inhibited thephagocytosis. Lopes et al. (2004) also evaluated antioxidant
activity of Croton lechleri sap against the yeast Saccha-

D. Gupta et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 115 (2008) 361–380

367

Fig. 1. (Continued )romyces cerevisiae and against maize plantlets treated withthe oxidative agents, apomorphine and hydrogen peroxide andfound that sap inhibited the cytotoxic effect of the alkaloid
apomorphine in haploid yeast cultures as well as in maize
plantlets.

2.1.2.8. Anti-inﬂammatory activity. In a study on edema in rats,
Perdue et al. (1979) reported, for the first time, anti-inflammatory
activity of alkaloid taspine isolated from Croton latex. Later,
Miller et al. (2001) concluded from a series of studies that the
Croton sap inhibits neurogenic inflammation by directly block-368

D. Gupta et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 115 (2008) 361–380

Fig. 1. (Continued )D. Gupta et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 115 (2008) 361–380

369

Fig. 1. (Continued ).

ing sensory afferent nerve activation at both the prejunctional
and postjunctional level. The latex from Croton lechleri has
strong anti-inflammatory activity when administered i.p. (Risco
et al., 2003).
2.1.2.9. Mutagenic and antimutagenic activity. The mutagenic
and antimutagenic activity of Croton lechieri sap was examined through the Ames/Salmonella test and no mutagenicity of
2-aminoanthracene was found in the Salmonella typhimurium
strains T98 and T100 (Rossi et al., 2003). Later, Lopes et al.

(2004) reported mutagenic activity of Croton lechieri sap forstrain TA1535 of Salmonella typhimurium in the presence of
metabolic activation, a weak mutagenic activity for strain TA98
and in a haploid Saccharomyces cerevisiae strain XV185-14c
for the lys1-1, his1-7 locus-specific reversion and hom3-10
frameshift mutations.
2.1.2.10. Wound healing activity. Sangre de Drago (Croton) is
commonly used as liquid bandage in the Amazon (Jones, 1995,
2003). Vaisberg et al. (1989) reported a significant increase

370

D. Gupta et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 115 (2008) 361–380

Table 2
Chemical constituents reported from Croton spp.
Compound name
Croton draco Schltdl. & Cham.
1-Hydroxyjunenol; 2,3-dihydrovomifoliol; 3,4,5-tri
methoxycinnamyl alcohol; 9(11)-dehydrokaurenicacid; 9-dehydrovomifoliol; hardwikiic acid;p-hydroxybenzal-dehyde; p-methoxybenzoic acid;scopoletin; taspine (1)Croton urucurana Baill.
Sonderianin (2)Acetyl aleuritolic acid␤-Sitosterol; ␤-sitosterol-O-glucoside; campesterol;
catechin; gallocatechin; stigmasterol
12-Epi-methyl-barabascoate (3);15,16-epoxy-3,13(16)-clerodatriene-2-one (4)Fucoarabinogalactan (CU-1)
Croton lechleri Müll. Arg.
Taspine (1)3 ,4-O-Dimethylcedrusin (7)Procyanidin B-1 and B-4 (27)
Catechin; epigallocatechin; epicatechin; gallocatechin
Catechin (4-␣-8)-gallocatechin (4-␣-6) gallocatechin;catechin (4-␣-8)-gallocatechin (4-␣-8)-gallocatechin;gallocatechin (4-␣-6)-epigallocatechin; gallocatechin(4-␣-8)-epi-catechin; gallocatechin(4-␣-8)-gallocatechin (4-␣-8)-epi-gallocatechin
Benzofuran-5-yl,2-3-dihydro:2-(3-dimethoxy-phenyl)
7-methoxy-3-methoxy-carbonyl-propan-1-oic acidmethyl ester; benzofuran-5-yl,2-3-dihydro:2-(4hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl)-7-methoxy-3-methoxycarbonyl-propen-1-oic acid methylester␤-Sitosterol; bincatriol; crolechinol (10); crolechinic acid(11); daucosterol; hardwickiic acid
1,3,5-Trimethoxybenzene
2,4,6-Trimethoxyphenol
3,4-Dimethoxybenzyl alcohol; 3,4-dimethoxy phenol;
4-hydroxyphenethyl alcohol and its acetate;␤-sitostenone; sitosterol-␤-d-glucopyranoside
Korberin A (5); korberin B (6)4-O-Methylcedrusin (8)SP-303 (MW = 2200 Da)
Catechin-(4-␣-8)-epigallocatechin
Ethyl acetate; ethyl propionate; 2-methyl butanol;
2-methylbutyl acetate; propyl acetate; 3-methybutyl
acetate; eucalyptol; 1-butyl acetate;
3-methyl-2-pentanol
Isoboldine (13); norisoboldine (12); magnoflorine (14)SB-300 (MW = 3000 Da)

Bioactivity

References
Murillo et al. (2001)

Antibacterial activity
Antibacterial activity, Analgesic
activity
Analgesic activity

Craveiro and Silveira (1982), Peres et al. (1997,
1998b)
Peres et al. (1997, 1998a)

Peres et al. (1998b)
Milo et al. (2002)
Anti-inflammatory activity, woundhealing activity, cytotoxic activity

Wound healing activity, inhibition ofcell proliferation

Perdue et al. (1979), Vaisberg et al. (1989),
Itokawa et al. (1991), Pieters et al. (1993),
Porras-Reyes et al. (1993), Chen et al. (1994),
Milanowski et al. (2002)
Pieters et al. (1990, 1992, 1993, 1995)
Cai et al. (1991)
Cai et al. (1991), Chen et al. (1994)
Cai et al. (1991), Phillipson (1995)

Pieters et al. (1992)

Cai et al. (1993a), Chen et al. (1994)
Cytotoxic activity, antibacterial
activity
Antibacterial activity
Cai et al. (1993a)

Antibacterial activity
Antiviral activity

Antidiarrhoeal activity

in the rate of wound repair on topical application of the Croton lechleri sap to skin wounds of mice and found taspine as
the cicatrizant (wound healing) principle. A significant increasein numbers of migrating cells in an in vitro test for wounding of human fibroblasts also suggested role of taspine forwound healing (Vaisberg et al., 1989). From the sap of Peru-

Cai et al. (1993b), Chen et al. (1994)
Pieters et al. (1993)
Ubillas et al. (1994), Sidwell et al. (1994)
Phillipson (1995)
Bellesia et al. (1996)

Milanowski et al. (2002)
Fischer et al. (2004)

vian Sangre de Drago (Croton sp.), a lignan known as 3 ,4-O-dimethylcedrusin was isolated which protected endothelial cells from undergoing degradation in a starvation medium
and stimulated endothelial cells, however at high concentrations it inhibited the cell proliferation (Pieters et al., 1992,
1993). Porras-Reyes et al. (1993) performed a number of tests

D. Gupta et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 115 (2008) 361–380

to determine how taspine accelerated wound healing and foundthat taspine enhanced wound healing via increased fibroblast
migration.
Chen et al. (1994) studied the wound healing activity of Croton lechieri sap and concluded that several factors—the ability toform a film that protects against microbial invasion of wounds;
free radical scavenging activity of procyanidins; the high content
of polyphenolics capable of binding proteins and enzymes; andthe anti-inflammatory and strong antibacterial action of polyphenols, together facilitating improved healing of damaged tissue,
may contribute to the wound repairing properties of sap. They
tested individual constituents of the sap and found endothelial
cell proliferation was increased by Procyanidin B-4 and mostpotently by (−)-epigallocatechin and (+)-gallocatechin. Lewis
et al. (1992) has patented for taspine in DMSO (solvent), which
healed wounds faster than DMSO alone.

371(2004), M.Y. Xia et al. (2004), also studied the mechanismof Dracorhodin perchlorate induced apoptosis and concluded
that Dracorhodin perchlorate induced cell death via alterationof Bax/Bcl-XL ratio and activation of caspases.
2.2.2.3. Hemostatic and antithrombotic activity. Daemonorops
draco has been studied for its ‘hemostatic’ and ‘vasoactive–
antithrombotic’ activity in Chinese medicinal system (Kiangsu
Institute of Modern Medicine, 1977). Studies have provided
evidences that (2S)-5-methoxy-6-methyl-flavan-7-ol (MMF)
possess antiplatelet activity (Tsai et al., 1995). Later, underlying mechanism for antiplatelet activity of MMF was related
to inhibition of thromboxane formation via the inhibition of
cyclooxygenase and suppression of [Ca2+ ]i (intraplatelet Ca2+ )increase (Tsai et al., 1998).
2.3. Dracaena spp.

2.2. Daemonorops spp.
Dragon’s blood resin is also obtained as deep red teardropshaped lumps, separated physically from the immature fruit of
the South-East Asian rattan- or cane-palm, Daemonorops of
the Indonesian islands. The botanical source was previously
identified as Calamus draco Willd. (Daemonorops draco Willd.
Blume) by Barry et al. (1926), who also described the resinous
layer as being isolated by placing the fruits in sacks and pounding
them and the pulp being treated with boiling water. Subsequently
the resin was kneaded into balls or long sticks. Various grades
have been identified by Howes (1949). Other species as source ofresin are D. didymophylla Becc., D. micracantha (Griff.) Becc.,
D. motleyi Becc., D. rubra (Reinw. ex Blume) Blume and D.
propinqua Becc.
2.2.1. Chemical constituents
Table 3 summarizes the compounds reported from resin of
Daemonorops draco (Willd.) Blume.
2.2.2. Bioactivities and therapeutic uses
2.2.2.1. Antimicrobial and antiviral activity. Previously,
Mitscher et al. (1972) reported in vitro activity of commercial
resin obtained from Daemonorops draco against Staphylococcus aureus and Mycobacterium smegmatis. This led to further
evaluation of resin’s components exhibiting antimicrobialactivity. Rao et al. (1982) reported that the antimicrobialactivity of the resin from Daemonorops draco was due to thepresence of compounds Dracorhodin and Dracorubin. These
compounds were found to be active against Staphylococcus
aureus (ATCC 13709), Klebsiella pneumoniae (ATCC 10031),
Mycobacterium smegmaﬁs (ATCC 607) and Candida albicans(ATCC 10231).
2.2.2.2. Antitumor and cytotoxic activity. Dracorhodin perchlorate, a synthetic analogue of Dracorhodin, red pigmentisolated from exudates of the fruit of Daemonorops draco,has been reported to induce human melanoma A375-S2 celland human premyelocytic leukemia HL-60 cell death throughthe apoptotic pathway (Xia et al., 2005, 2006). M. Xia et al.

The name Dracaena is derived from the Greek word
‘drakainia’ meaning a female dragon (Stern, 1992). The moststriking source is the Dracaena cinnabari Balf. f. which isendemic to the island of Socotra (Yemen) west of Somalia. Palinurus, a survey ship of Leut. J.R. Wellsted of the East India
Company gave first description of the Dragon’s blood tree, Dracaena cinnabari, calling it Pterocarpus draco (http://www.rbgweb2.rbge.org.uk/soqotra/history/page07.html) while undertaking a survey of Socotra for the Indian Government in 1835.
However, the species was first named and described by the Scottish botanist Sir lsaac Bailey Balfour when he visited the islandin 1880 (Balfour, 1888). Three grades of Dracaena resin wereidentified by Balfour (1883), the most valuable being tear-likein appearance, followed by one made of small chips and fragments, and the cheapest being a molten mixture of fragments
and refuse.
Voyagers to the Canary Islands in the 15th century obtained
Dragon’s blood as dried garnet colored drops from anotherspecies Dracaena draco (L.) L., a native to the Canary Islands
and Morocco. The canarian dragon tree Dracaena draco was
first described in 1402 (Boutier and Le Verrier, 1872). The resin
is exuded from the wounded trunk or branches of the tree. Dracaena cochinchinensis (Lour.) S.C. Chen is another species usedin China as source of Dragon’s blood.
2.3.1. Chemical constituents
Table 4 summarizes the compounds reported from Dracaenaspp., used as source of Dragon’s blood.
2.3.2. Bioactivities and therapeutic uses
2.3.2.1. Antimicrobial and antiviral activity. Mothana and
Lindequist (2005) reported antimicrobial activity of chloroform and methanol extract of Dracaena cinnabari resin fromisland Soqotra against Staphylococcus aureus (ATCC 6538),
Bacillus subtilis (ATCC 6059), Micrococcus ﬂavus (SBUG
16) and Escherichia coli (ATCC 11229). Kumar et al. (2006)
also reported antimicrobial activity of exudes of red resinof Dracaena cinnabari collected from India against Bacillus cereus var mycoides (ATCC 11778), Bacillus pumilus

372

D. Gupta et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 115 (2008) 361–380

Table 3Chemical constituents reported from Daemonorops draco (Willd.) Blume
Compound name

Bioactivity

References

Dracorhodin (17)Apoptic activity

Brockmann and Junge (1943), Robertson and
Whalley (1950), Rao et al. (1982), Gao et al. (1989),
Xia et al. (2005)
Cardillo et al. (1971)

2,4-Dihydroxy-5-methyl-6-methoxychalcone;
2,4-dihydroxy-6-methoxychalcone;
5-methoxy-7-hydroxyflavan (15)
Nordracorhodin (16); nordracorubin (18)(2S) 5-Methoxy-6-methylflavan-7-ol (21)(2S)-5-Methoxyflavan-7-ol (22);5,7-dimethoxy-6-methylflavan
Abietic acid; dehydroabietic acid; isopimaric acid; pimaricacid; sandaracopimaric acid
Secobiflavanoid
Dracorubin (19)Polysaccharide (MW = 25,000)
Dracoalban; dracoresene; dracoresinotannol
Dammaradienol
Dracooxepine
Dracoflavan A
2,4-Dimethoxy-3-methylphenol; dracoflavan B1; B2; C1;
C2; D1; D2
1,6-Germacradien-5-ol; benzoic acid; bicyclogermacrene;
cis-9,10-dihydrocapsenone; germacrene-d; ␣-copaene;␣-cubebene; ␣-humulene; ␤-caryophyllene; ␤-cubebene;␤-elemene; ␦-cadinene
4,6-Dihydroxy-2-methoxy-3-methyldihydrochalcone

Cardillo et al. (1971), Rao et al. (1982)
Cardillo et al. (1971), Tsai et al. (1995, 1998)
Cardillo et al. (1971), Arnone et al. (1997)

Antiplatelet effects

Piozzi et al. (1974), Trease and Evans (1978)

Anticoagulant activity
Antiviral activity, Anti-inflammatory
activity, cytotoxic activity

Anti-inflammatory activity(ATCC 14884), Bacillus subtilis (ATCC 6633), Bordetella bronchiseptica (ATCC 4617), Micrococcus luteus (ATCC 9341),
Staphylococcus aureus (ATCC 29737), Staphylococcus epidermidis (ATCC 12228), Klebsiella pneumoniae (ATCC 10031),
Pseudomonas aeruginosa (ATCC 9027), Streptococcus faecalis(MTCC 8043), and Aspergillus niger (MTCC 1344). Recently,
Mothana et al. (2006) also reported antiviral activity of methanol
extract of resin of Dracaena cinnabari against Herpes simplex
virus and Human influenza virus.
Thus, Dracaena resin could be a rich source of antimicrobial
agents with possibly novel mechanisms of action. Interestingly,
resin from Dracaena cochinchinensis has been produced by
infection with Fusarium and Cladosporium spp. (Wang et al.,1999). In another study done by Jiang et al. (2003), inoculationof fungi Fusarium 9568D in abiotic branch and wood of Dracaena cochinchinensis resulted in emergence of red resin fromthe inoculation points after 4–5 months incubation. The emerged
resin was found to resemble the natural resin by UV-IR spectra
analysis.
2.3.2.2. Antitumor and cytotoxic activity. Vachalkova et al.
(1995) studied carcinogenicity of three homoisoflavanoids andfour flavanoids isolated from the resin of Dracaena cinnabari.
Al-Fatimi et al. (2005) reported cytotoxic activity of resin of
Dracaena cinnabari from Yemen against human ECV-304
cells. Dracaena draco has been found to be a rich source of
cytotoxic steroidal saponins. Darias et al. (1989) reported,
for the first time, the use of sap of Dracaena draco as an
anticarcinogen. Steroidal saponins, (25R)-spirost-5-en-3␤-ol

Merlini and Nasini (1976)
Rao et al. (1982)
Gibbs et al. (1983)
Hsu (1986)
Poehland et al. (1987), Bianchini et al. (1988),
Akihisa et al. (1996), Shen et al. (2007)
Arnone and Nasini (1989)
Arnone and Nasini (1990)
Arnone et al. (1997)
Ford et al. (2001)

Shen et al. (2007)3-O-{O-␣-l-rhamnopyranosyl-(1 → 2)-␤-d-glucopyranoside}
and(23S,24S)-spirosta-5,25(27)-diene-1␤,3␤,23,24-tetrol
1-O-{O-2,3,4-tri-O-acetyl-␣-l-rhamnopyranosyl-(1 → 2)-␣l-arabinopyranosyl}24-O-␤-d-fucopyranoside, isolated fromthe aerial parts of Dracaena draco are reported to show potent
cytostatic activity against HL-60 cells with IC50 value being
1.3 and 2.6 ␮g/ml, respectively compared with etoposide (IC50
0.3 ␮g/ml) used as a positive control (Mimaki et al., 1999).
González et al. (2003) also reported new steroidal saponins,
Draconin A and Draconin B with cytotoxic activities against
HL-60 cells from bark of Dracaena draco. The mechanism ofthese compounds’ cytotoxicity was also evaluated and foundto be via activation of apoptotic process. Recently a newcytotoxic steroidal saponin, Icogenin, has been isolated from
Dracaena draco. Icogenin also inhibited growth of HL-60 cells
by induction of apoptosis (Hernández et al., 2004). Dioscin,from Dracaena draco also displayed cytotoxic activity similar
to Icogenin.
2.3.2.3. Analgesic activity. Liu et al. (2004) observed that both
Dragon’s blood resin (D. cochichinensis) and loureirin B could
suppress TTX-S voltage-gated sodium currents depending upondose, which could be reason for its analgesic effect. Later,
Liu et al. (2005) studied the effects of Dragon’s blood andits component loureirin B on tetrodotoxin-sensitive (TTX-S)
and tetrodotoxin-resistant (TTX-R) sodium currents in trigeminal ganglion (TG) neurons using the whole-cell patch-clamp
technique and found that both Dragon’s blood and loureirin
B suppressed two types of peak sodium currents dependingD. Gupta et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 115 (2008) 361–380

373

Table 4
Chemical constituents reported from Dracaena spp.
Compound name

Bioactivity

Dracaena cinnabari Balf. f.
(±)-7,4 -Dihydroxy-3 -methoxyflavan

Braz et al. (1980), Achenbach et al. (1988),
Masaoud et al. (1995c)
Meksuriyen and Cordell (1988), Masaoud et al.
(1995c)Meksuriyen and Cordell (1988), Maxwel1 et al.
(1989), Masaoud et al. (1995c)
Suchý et al. (1991), Masaoud et al. (1995c)

4,4 -Dihydroxy-2 -methoxychalcone (9)7,4 -Dihydroxyflavone (23)(2S)-7-Hydroxyflavan; (2S)-7-hydroxyflavan-4-one (20);7-hydroxy-3-(4-hydroxybenzyl)-8-methoxychroman;
7-hydroxy-3-(4-hydroxy benzyl) chroman; loureirin C(24)
3-(4-Hydroxybenzyl)-7,8-methylendioxychroman2 -Methoxysocotrin-5 -ol, socotrin-4 -ol;homoisosocotrin-4 -ol
Cinnabarone (29)(2S)-7,3 -Dihydroxy-4 -methoxyflavan;
4-hydroxy-2-methoxydihydrochalcone;
7-hydroxy-3-(3-hydroxy-4-methoxybenzyl)chroman
24-Methylenecycloartanol; 31-norcycloartanol; 4␣,
14␣-dimethylcholest-8-en-3␤-ol;
4␣-methylcholest-7-en-3␤-ol; betulin; campesterol;cholest-4-en-3-one; cholesterol; cycloartanol;
lanost-7-en-3␤-ol; lupeol; sitosterol;stigmast-22-en-3␤-ol; stigmastanol; stigmasterol
Damalachawin (30)
2,4,4 -Trihydroxydihydrochalcone
Dracophane (27)2,4 -Dihydroxy-4,6-dimethoxydihydrochalcone; 3-(4hydroxy-2-methoxyphenyl)-1-phenyl-1-propanone;
3 ,7-dihydroxy-4 -methoxyflavan;
3 ,7-dihydroxy-4 -methoxy homoisoflavan;
4 ,6-dihydroxy-7-methoxyhomoisoflavan;
4 ,6-dihydroxy-7-methoxyhomoisoflavan;
4 ,7-dihydroxy-5-methoxyhomoisoflavan;
4 ,7-dihydroxy-3 -methoxy flavan;
4 ,7-dihydroxyhomoisoflavan;
4 ,7-dihydroxy-8-methylflavan;
4 ,7,8-trihydroxyhomoisoflavan;
7-hydroxy-5-methoxy-6-methylflavan;
7-hydroxy-3-(4-hydroxy benzyl)-4-chromanone;
7,10-dihydroxy-11-methoxydracae none;
10-hydroxy-11-methoxydracaenone; loureirin A
Dracaena cochinchinensis (Lour.) S.C. Chen
Loureirin A; loureirin c (24); loureirin B
7,4 -Dihydroxyflavane
7-Hydroxy-4 -methoxyflavan;
6-hydroxy-7-methoxy-3-(4 -hydroxybenzyl)chromane;
2,3,5,6-tetrachloro-1,4-dimethoxybenzene;4 -hydroxy-3,5-dimethoxystilbene
2, 4, 4 -Trihydroxydihydrochalcone; 2, 4,
4 -trihydroxy-6-methoxydihydrochalcone
2 -Methoxysocotrin-5 -ol; socotrin-4 -ol; 2 , 4 ,4-trihydroxychalcone; 2-methoxy-4,
4 -dihydroxychalcone; cochinchinenins2 -Methoxy-4 ,4-dihydroxychalcone (9)Dracaenoside A; B; C; D

References

Antioxidant activity

Suchý et al. (1991), Masaoud et al. (1995c),
Machala et al. (2001), Deepika and Gupta (2007)
Masaoud et al. (1995a)
Masaoud et al. (1995b), Deepika and Gupta (2007)
Masaoud et al. (1995c)

Masaoud et al. (1995d)

Antitumor activity, chemoprotective
effects

Himmelreich et al. (1995)
González et al. (2000), Forejtnı́ková et al. (2005)
Veselá et al. (2002)
Deepika and Gupta (2007) (unpublished report)

Analgesic activity

Antifungal activity

Meksuriyen and Cordell (1988), Lu et al. (1998),
Zhou et al. (2001a,b), Liu et al. (2004, 2005, 2006),
Chen and Liu (2006), Zheng et al. (2006a,b)Wang et al. (1995), Zhou et al. (2001a,b), Zheng etal. (2006a,b)
Lu et al. (1998)

Lu et al. (1998), Zhou et al. (2001a,b)
Analgesic activity

Zhou et al. (2001a,b), Liu et al. (2006)

Zhou et al. (2001a,b), Zheng et al. (2006a,b)
Zheng and Yang (2003a,b)374

D. Gupta et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 115 (2008) 361–380

Table 4 (Continued )Compound name25(R,S)-Dracaenosides E–H; M; O–Q; dracaenosides
I–L; R; 25(S)-dracaenoside N;
25(R,S)-spirost-5-en-3-ol
3-O-␣-l-rhamnopyranosyl-(1,2)-[␣-l-rhamno
pyranosyl-(1,4)]-␤-d-glucopyranoside;
25(R,S)-spirost-5-en-3-ol 3-O-␣-l-rhamnopyranosyl(1,2)-␤-l-glucopyranosyl-(1,3)]-␤-d-glucopyranoside;
26-O-␤-d-glucopyranosyl
25(R,S)-furost-5-en-3,22␰,26-triol
3-O-␣-l-rhamnopyranosyl-(1,2)-[␤-d-glucopyranosyl(1,3)]-␤-d-glucopyranoside; 26-O-␤-d-glucopyranosyl
25(R,S)-spirost-5-en-3,22␰,26-triol
3-O-␣-l-rhamnopyranosyl-(1,2)-[␣-lrhamnopyranosyl-(1,4)]-␤-d-glucopyranoside
7,4 -Dihydroxyflavone (23);7,4 -dihydrohomoisoflavanone (26);7,4 -homoisoflavane (25); 10,11-dihydroxydracaenone
C; dracaenogenin A and B
1-(4 -O-␤-d-Glucopyranosyl)benzyl-ethan-2-ol;
3,4-dihydoxy-1-allylbenezene-4-O-␣-lrhamnopyranosyl-(1 → 6)-O-␤-d-glucopyranoside;
1-hydroxy-3,4,5-trimethoxy benzene-1-O-␣-lapiopyranosyl-(1 → 6)-O-␤-d-glucopyranoside;
lophenol; ␤-sitosterol; stigma-5, 22-diene-3-ol;
tachioside
Dracaena draco (L.) L.
7,4 -Dihydrohomoisoflavanone (26);7,4 -homoisoflavane (25)7-Hydroxy-3-(4-hydroxybenzyl)chroman-4-one
7-Hydroxy-3-(4-hydroxybenzyl)chroman(2S)-4 ,7-Dihydroxy-3 -methoxy-8-methylflavan;(2S)-4 ,5-dihydroxy-7-methoxy-8-methylflavan
10-Hydroxy-11-methoxydracaenone
3,4,5-Trimethoxycinnamyl alcohol
4,4 -Dihydroxy-2 -methoxychalcone (9)(23S)-Spirost-5,25(27)-diene-1␤,3␤,23-triol
1-O-{4-O-acetyl-␣-l-rhamnopyranosyl-(1 → 2)-␣-larabinopyranoside}(45);(23S)-spirost-5,25(27)-diene-1␤,3␤,23-triol
1-O-{O-␣-l-rhamnopyranosyl-(1 → 2)-␣-larabinopyranoside}(46);(23S,24S)-spirosta-5,25(27)-diene-1␤,3␤,23,24tetrol
1-O-{O-(4-O-acetyl-␣-l-rhamnopyranosyl)-(1 → 2)␣-l-arabinopyranoside} (47);(23S,24S)-spirosta-5,25(27)-diene-1␤,3␤,23,24-tetrol
1-O-{O-2,3,4-tri-O-acetyl-␣-l-rhamnopyranosyl(1 → 2)-␣-l-arabinopyranosyl}24-O-␤-dfucopyranoside (48); (25R)-spirost-5-en-3␤-ol
3-O-{O-␣-l-rhamnopyranosyl-(1 → 2)-␤-dglucopyranoside} (33);spirost-5,25(27)-diene-1␤,3␤-diol
1-O-{O-␣-l-rhamnopyranosyl-(1 → 2)-␣-larabinopyranoside}(34);(23S)-spirost-5,25(27)-diene-1␤,3␤,23-triol
1-O-{O-␣-l-rhamnopyranosyl-(1 → 2)-O-[␤-dxylopyranosyl-(l → 3)]-␣-l-arabinopyranoside}(35);26-O-␤-d-glucopyranosyl-22-O-methylfurosta5,25(27)-diene-l␤,3␤,22␰,26-tetrol
1-O-{O-␣-l-rhamnopyranosyl-(l → 2)-O-␣-larabinopyranoside}(36)(23S,24S)-Spirosta-5,25(27)-diene-1␤,3␤,23,24-tetrol
1-O-{O-␣-l-rhamnopyranosyl}-(1 → 2)-␣-larabinopyranoside}(43)

Bioactivity

References
Zheng et al. (2004a,b,c)

Zheng et al. (2006a,b)

Zheng et al. (2006a,b)

Camarda et al. (1983)
Camarda et al. (1983), González et al. (2000)
Camarda et al. (1983), González et al. (2000, 2003)
Camarda et al. (1983), González et al. (2000, 2004)

Cytostatic activity

Meksuriyen et al. (1987), González et al. (2000)
Ponpipom et al. (1987), González et al. (2000)
Achenbach et al. (1988), González et al. (2000)
Mimaki et al. (1999)

Mimaki et al. (1999), Hernández et al. (2004)

D. Gupta et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 115 (2008) 361–380

375

Table 4 (Continued )Compound name(2S)-4 ,7-Dihydroxy-8-methylflavan; 3-(4-hydroxy
benzyl)-5,7-dimethoxychroman;
5,7-dihydroxy-3-(4-hydroxybenzyl)-chromone;
5,7-dihydroxy-3-(4-hydroxy benzyl)-chroman-4-one;
7-hydroxy-3-(4-hydroxybenzyl) chromone;isoliquiritigenin; liquiritigenin; xenognosin
Loureirin C (24)(2S)-3 ,7-Dihydroxy-4 -methoxy-8-methylflavan
7-Hydroxy-3-(4-hydroxybenzyl)-8-methoxychroman;
3-(4-hydroxybenzyl)-7,8-methylendioxychroman(±)-7,4 -Dihydroxy-3 -methoxyflavan
2,4,4 -Trihydroxydihydrochalcone
Methyl protodioscin (39); draconin C (42); draconin A(40); draconin B (41)(−)-3 -Hydroxy-4 -methoxy-7-hydroxy-8-methylflavan;
3-O-[␣-l-rhamnopyranosyl(1 → 4)-␤dglucopyranosyl] diosgenin (38); 4-allylcatecol;
␤-sitosterol; diosgenin (31); isoliquiritigenin;
sitoindoside i; trans-␤-apo-8 -carotenal; dioscin (37)(2S)-4 ,7-Dihydroxy-3 -methoxyflavan;(2S)-4 ,7-dihydroxy-3 -methoxyflavan; diosgenone(32); shonanin; syringaresinol; icogenin (44)Dracoflavylium
Dracol; icodeside

Bioactivity

References
González et al. (2000)

González et al. (2000, 2003)
González et al. (2000, 2004)
González et al. (2000), Hernández et al. (2004)

Chemoprotective effects
Apoptic activity

González et al. (2000, 2003, 2004)
González et al. (2000), Forejtnı́ková et al. (2005)
González et al. (2003)

Cytotoxic activity

González et al. (2003), Hernández et al. (2004)

Cytotoxic activity

Hernández et al. (2004)

Cytotoxic activity

Melo et al. (2006)
Hernández et al. (2006)

Number given in parentheses corresponds to the structure of that compound given in Fig. 1.

upon dose. Further, Liu et al. (2006) explored the material
basis for efficacy of modulation of Dragon’s blood on the
tetrodotoxin-resistant (TTX-R) sodium currents in dorsal root
ganglion (DRG) neurons. They suggested that analgesic effectof Dragon’s blood may be explained on the basis of interference with pain messages caused by the modulation of Dragon’s
blood on TTX-R sodium currents in DRG neurons and could be
due to the synergistic effect of three components cochinchineninA, cochinchinenin B, and loureirin B. Recently, Chen and Liu(2006) carried out a computer simulation research for the effects
of Dragon’s blood and its component loureirin B on sodium
channel in dorsal root ganglion cells.
2.3.2.4. Antioxidative activity. Juránek et al. (1993) havereported antioxidant activity of three homoisoflavans isolated
from resin of Dracaena cinnabari. Machala et al. (2001) studied
homoisoflavonoids and chalcones, isolated from the Dracaena
cinnabari, for their potential to inhibit cytochrome P4501A(CYP1A) enzymes and Fe (II)/NADPH dependent in vitro
peroxidation of microsomal lipids isolated from C57B1/10
mouse liver and found chalcones were poor antioxidants
while 7,8-methylenedioxy-3 (4-hydroxybenzyl) chromane, ahomoisoflavonoid, exhibited a strong antioxidant activity.
2.4. Pterocarpus spp.
Pterocarpus ofﬁcinalis Jacq., previously known as Pterocarpus draco L., is the only species known as a source of Dragon’s
blood. According to a description in the Bulletin of the Botanical Department, Jamaica, No. 45, July, 1893, when an incision
is made in the bark, drops of red sap ooze out, flow slowly down

the bark and gradually harden. No major studies have been doneon this source of Dragon’s blood. Trimble (1895), studied resin
from Pterocarpus draco L. and obtained 34.85% tannins fromthis resin.

3. Quality control and safety
Since Dragon’s blood, as a name, has been applied to resins
obtained from different species from different continents; there
is a great need to identify them apart. There are other substitutes as well, which are available in the market for Dragon’s
blood such as Eucalyptus resinifera Sm. (Edwards et al., 2001).
A powdered dark red coral from the Indian Ocean is also sold in
Yemeni markets as “Dragon’s blood”. Glasgow’s Professor ofChemistry, J. Dobbie and G. Henderson first tackled the issueof chemical identification of the various resins under the nameof Dragon’s blood in 1883, on request of Prof. Bayley Balfour(Pearson, 2002). They reported, “the resins known as Dragon’s
blood differ widely from one another, not only in their degree ofpurity, but also in their appearance” and that “specimens labeled
as having come from the same locality must, in reality, in somecases, have been derived from very different sources” (Dobbie
and Henderson, 1883). Dobbie and Henderson (1884) arranged
red resins in four distinct groups: 1. Those soluble in chloroform,
carbon disulphide, and benzene completely; 2. Those soluble inchloroform, but insoluble in carbon disulphide and benzene;
3. Those soluble in chloroform and benzene and partly in carbon disulphide; and 4. Those, which are insoluble in all three
reagents.
Edwards et al. (1997) described Dragon’s blood resin (Dracaena spp.) found on Socotra Island as the probable genuine

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source in antiquity, on the basis of Fourier transform Raman
spectroscopic studies of several resins generically known as
Dragon’s blood from different botanical and geographicalsources. They have since described a Raman spectroscopic
method to identify fake and unknown Dragon’s blood resinsfrom different botanical origins (Edwards et al., 2001, 2004).
All Dracaena spectra show the strong bands in the wave number region 1605–1500 cm−1 and can be generally identified by
the strongest band at 1605 cm−1 , the shoulder at ca. 1560 cm−1 .
However, specimen degradation can be recognized by the lossof this shoulder at 1560 cm−1 . Also, vibrational bands near
1170 cm−1 seen in the Dracaena draco spectra could be used as
biomarkers for Dracaena species. The main feature distinguishing Daemonorops Dragon’s blood resins from those of Dracaenais the presence of the narrow and intense band at 1600 cm−1 , thedoublets at 1510–1540 cm−1 and 1420–1450 cm−1 region andalso the medium intensity band at 1001 cm−1 . Croton specimen is distinguished by a broad band at 1612 cm−1 , and also by
the medium intensity band at 784 cm−1 . Later, Edwards et al.
(2004) identified the key molecular biomarker bands of Dragon’s
blood in the region 1400–1700 cm−1 , which could be adopted
as a protocol for the identification of the botanical and possible
geographical sources of modern Dragon’s blood resins.
No major toxicity has been reported from Dragon’s blood.
The American Herbal Products Association (1997) lists Sangre de Drago (Croton) as Class I, meaning it can be consumed
safely when used appropriately. There are some instances when
Dragon’s blood has been misrepresented as ‘opium’ and distributed for use as a ‘drug’. Ford et al. (2001) had identified ared substance as Dragon’s blood incense from Daemonorops
draco that was being mixed with marijuana and smoked as
an alternative to opium in Virginia. They also screened thesubstance for toxicity in various in vitro tests and suggested
that that the abuse potential for Dragon’s blood incenses isminimal.

4. Conservation needs
Dragon’s blood is used in traditional medicine for diverse
applications. Overexploitation of sources of Dragon’s blood
is a matter of concern as is the case of Croton lechleri, in
Peru and Ecuador. Because of the overexploitation and trade,it was identified as potentially threatened amongst the 22
species in the Workshop of Specialists in Ethnobotany andEconomic Botany held in 1997 (http://www.traffic.org/ecuador/
executivesummary.html). Dracaena cinnabari was also listed
as vulnerable in the IUCN red list of threatened species (Miller,
2004). Dracaena draco was reported as vulnerable species on the
Canary Islands due to overexploitation of the trees for Dragon’s
Blood in the middle ages (Lucas and Synge, 1978). It was also
cited in IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (2006). Predominantly, resin of Daemonorops draco is the principal source ofcommercially harvested Dragon’s blood. Plant cell, tissue andorgan culture could be an alternative approach for economic production of Dragon’s blood plants and the secondary metabolites
they produce.

5. Conclusion
Although Dragon’s blood has proved to be popular alternative or complementary medicine used in the treatmentof many diseases, clinical trial evaluation of these claims
using currently accepted protocols is needed. One suchpotential new drug for AIDS-related diarrhoea is, “Crofelemer” developed originally by Shaman Pharmaceuticals
from Croton lechleri. Since 2001, “Crofelemer” has beenpurchased by the American pharmaceutical company, Napo
Pharmaceuticals and is currently undergoing clinical trials(http://www.aumag.org/lifeguide/WWSeptember05.html,
http://www.botanical.com/botanical/mgmh/d/dragon20.html,
http://www.drugs.com/npp/dragon-s-blood.html#ref3).
This resin offers huge potential and we need to investigate whether purified compounds isolated from Dragon’s blood
may have better therapeutic potential as compared to crude
extract. Since there is considerable variation in the chemicalcomposition among various samples of Dragon’s Blood, quality
control/assurance needs to be established for the traditional medical trade. This review is an effort to highlight the potential andproblems related to the sources and possibilities of isolating new
pharmaceutically active molecules, using traditional knowledge
in our search, for new and effective dugs molecules.
Acknowledgements
We are grateful to Prof. Ulrike Lindequist, Institute ofPharmacy, Ernst-Moritz-Arndt-University, Germany for her
thorough revision of this review and providing us with her invaluable suggestions. We acknowledge the financial support fromAICTE (8023/RID/NPROJ/RPS-38/2004-05).
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