POLICY BRIEF

ROHINGYA CRISISCURRENT CHALLENGES AND THE WAY FORWARD
SULTAN MOHAMMED ZAKARIA

The
AmericanInstituteofBangladesh Studies (AIBS) is a
consortium of institutions of higher
learning in the United States aimed
atpromotingscholarly
understanding between Bangladesh
andtheUnitedStates(https://aibs.net/). This is the only
umbrella organization in the UnitedStatesthatbringstogether
universities working on Bangladesh.
Currently, 28 universities are
members of the AIBS. It has also
signed memoranda of understandingfor cooperation with 25 Bangladeshi
universities. AIBS is a member of theCouncil of American Overseas
Research Centers (CAORC). CAORC
is a private, not-for-profit federationof twenty-two independent overseas
research centers that promoteadvanced research, particularly inthe humanities and social sciences,with a focus on the conservation andrecording of cultural heritage and theunderstanding and interpretation ofmodern societies.

August 2023 marks the sixth year of the most recent Rohingya refugee
crisis, in which more than a million people have fled their homeland in
the face of a genocide perpetrated by the Myanmar Army. Membersof the ethnic Muslim minority group, forced out of their ancestral lands in
Myanmar’s Arakan province, have taken shelter in neighboring Bangladesh(UNHCR, 2022). While the Bangladeshi government and the international
community have responded to the crisis with generous financial, material, andlegal assistance, attention to this global crisis appears to be waning as newcrises emerge elsewhere (Norwegian Refugee Council, 2022). The flow ofinternational aid is dwindling1; refugees are increasingly frustrated and taking
desperate measures2; and there is little progress on voluntary, safe, anddignified repatriation (Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for
Human Rights [OHCHR], 2023). Despite shifting global priorities, the plight ofRohingya refugees must not be forgotten or overlooked. It is essential that theinternational community recommit itself to finding a just and durable solution
to the crisis.
This policy paper examines the current state and evolving challenges of theRohingya crisis. Drawing on literature and expert input from a two-day
symposium organized by the American Institute of Bangladesh Studies (AIBS)
in conjunction with Georgetown University’s Berkley Center for Religion,
Peace, and World Affairs in May 2023, it sheds light on potential paths
forward for a durable solution to the crisis.

1

For example, the World Food Programme has to cut food rations twice since March 2023 for the refugees—from US$ 12 per refugee per month to only US$
8—due to a funding shortfall, resulting in aggravating humanitarian situations in the refugee camps (OHCHR, 2023a).

2

Only in 2022, at least 348 Rohingya died while attempting sea crossings (OHCHR, 2023b)

ROHINGYA CRISIS

01

THE BACKGROUND
Though the plight of the Rohingya first received
international attention in 2017, the Rohingya people
have experienced a long history of persecution in
Myanmar. The 1982 Citizenship Law (Parashar & Alam,2018) nullified the Rohingya’s citizenship status,
effectively rendering them stateless and laying the
groundwork for further mistreatment and persecution.
Since then, the Rohingya community has been deprivedof healthcare, economic opportunity, education, andfreedom of movement (Mahmood et al., 2017).
In August 2017, Myanmar’s security forces launched abrutal crackdown in Rakhine State under the pretext offighting an insurgency. The military campaign featured
widespreadhumanrightsabuses,including
extrajudicial killings, sexual violence, arson, and forced
displacement (Human Rights Watch, 2016). At least 24
thousand of Rohingya were killed, more than 18,000
women and girls were reportedly raped, and 36,000
Rohingyans were allegedly thrown into fires (Mohsin etal., 2018). An estimated 740,000 Rohingya fled acrossthe border into Bangladesh, seeking refuge from theviolence (United Nations, 2018).
This influx of Rohingya refugees into Bangladesh
created a humanitarian crisis of monumental
proportions. Bangladesh is the most densely populated
country in the world and already struggles with scantresources; as such, the country faced enormous
challenges in providing adequate shelter, healthcare,and humanitarian assistance to displaced Rohingya.
Cox's Bazar, a city in southeast Bangladesh, became
home to one of the largest and most densely populated
refugee settlements in the world, stretching theresources and capacities of both the Bangladeshi
government and international aid organizations(UNHCR, 2022).

2021 MYANMAR COUP AND ITSIMPACTSOn February 1, 2021, a military coup ousted the civilian
government in Myanmar, sparking significant changes
in the political landscape of the country. The military,
known as the Tatmadaw, detained key political leadersand declared a state of emergency. The subsequent
military crackdown on pro-democracy forces has mired

ROHINGYA CRISIS

the country in a fratricidal civil war, with profound
implications for the Rohingya crisis.
If there was a lack of political will from the civilian
authorities to repatriate Rohingya refugees, the military
coup effectively halted any progress. This is primarily
due to the Tatmadaw's historical denial and justificationof human rights abuses against the Rohingya, whichraise doubts about their commitment to addressing thecrisis in a just and sustainable manner (MacLean, 2019).
An immediate consequence of the coup was the
disruption of humanitarian efforts and aid to the
Rohingya still living in Myanmar. Political instability andnew restrictions imposed by the military government
hindered the work of international organizations,non-governmentalorganizations(NGOs),
andhumanitarian actors in providing vital assistance(Human Rights Watch, 2021).
Furthermore, the coup raised concerns about the safetyof the Rohingya population, both within Myanmar andbeyond. The volatile political situation and heightened
tensions among ethno-religious groups exacerbated
the Rohingya’s vulnerability to further persecution andforced displacement, making it ever more challenging
to ensure their protection and well-being (Hossain et al.,2021).
The impact of the coup on diplomatic efforts andinternational engagement in the Rohingya crisis is
another area of concern. As the international
community grapples with the fallout from the coup andits implications for Myanmar's democratic transition,
global attention has shifted away from the Rohingya.
This change of focus may impede efforts to maintainpressure on Myanmar’s authorities and sustain
momentum in pursuing justice, accountability, and a
durable long-term solution to the issue (Refugees
International, 2021).

CURRENT STATE AND EVOLVING
CHALLENGES
The military coup in Myanmar, the gradual decline ininternational aid for the Rohingya refugees in
Bangladesh, and the lack of progress on repatriation
talks have created new and complicated realities on the
ground. In this section, we examine these02

developments and highlight the evolving challenges
that require immediate attention.

Humanitarian Situation
The 2017 influx of Rohingya refugees into Bangladesh
has created immense pressure on host communities
and strained existing resources (Ansar & Khaled, 2021;
UNHCR, 2022). The provision of adequate and timely
humanitarian assistance is essential to address theimmediate needs of the Rohingya population andprevent further suffering.
International organizations, NGOs, and humanitarian
actors have worked to offer essential services andsupport in refugee camps. However, significant gaps
persist in refugees’ access to healthcare, clean water,
sanitation facilities, and education (Hossain, Ullah, &Mohiuddin, 2022). The most severe challenge isinadequate funding. Following funding cuts in March
2023, the World Food Programme reduced its foodrations in Bangladeshi refugee camps from US$12 to
US$8 per refugee per month (OHCHR, 2023a). There isalso a lack of access to education in the camps, whichperpetuates cycles of poverty and marginalization for
future generations (M. Mahruf, 2022; Robin, Kendra, &Saleh, 2022). Rohingya women and girls face additional
challenges,
includinggender-based
violence,
trafficking, exploitation, and limited access tohealthcare and reproductive services (UN Women,2022).

Security, Factional Politics, and Gender
As in other refugee settlements, Rohingya refugee
camps face security challenges, including armed
groups and criminal elements. In addition, the Arakan
Rohingya Salvation Army (ARSA), a Rohingya insurgent
group active in northern Rakhine State fighting for theliberation of the persecuted Rohingya people, andother insurgent groups have frequently clashed with
Myanmar’s military across the Bangladesh-Myanmar
border, leading to a significant deterioration in security(Hossain et al., 2022). Maintaining a secureenvironment is crucial for safeguarding the well-beingof the Rohingya population and preventing further
violence and instability.
Factional politics within camps also pose challenges to

ROHINGYA CRISIS

effective governance and coordination. The alleged
presence of different Rohingya factions, each withconflicting positions regarding how to respond to thecrisis and deal with the Myanmar authorities,
complicates decision-making processes and hinders
the implementation of cohesive strategies (A.S.M. Ali,
2021).
As in other conflicts, the Rohingya crisis has
disproportionately affected women, girls, and othervulnerable groups. According to UN Women
Bangladesh (2018), sexual and gender-based violence(SGBV) has been used as a weapon against men,
women, and children in Myanmar as part of asystematic genocide against the Rohingya population.
These problems persist in refugee camps; a leading
Rohingya feminist activist noted that trafficking, abuse,and violence against women are rampant (AIBS
Symposium, 2023). She also highlighted how
Rohingyas in general and women in particular are
excluded from decision-making processes that affectthem. A young Rohingya activist who lived in the camp
exposed the subhuman treatment of women and girls,
describing how camp conditions often force womenand girls to take dangerous and sometimes lethal
journeys at sea (AIBS Symposium, 2023).

Repatriation: The Agreement, its Failures, andChina's Interventions
The repatriation of Rohingya refugees to Myanmar isseen as a key component of a durable solution to thecrisis. In November 2017, Myanmar and Bangladesh
reached a bilateral agreement for the voluntary andsafe return of Rohingya refugees to their homeland(Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Bangladesh, 2022).
However, there have been numerous difficulties in
implementing this agreement. Experts affiliated withinternational governments and non-governmentalorganizations have raised concerns about international
standards of engagement and the legitimacy of certain
partners involved in repatriation efforts (AIBS
Symposium, 2023). Moreover, the military coup in
Myanmar effectively stalled any progress made by the
erstwhile civilian authorities.
The lack of progress in creating conducive conditions
for repatriation, including a guarantee of safety for the
Rohingya, the restoration of equal citizenship rights,

03and a concerted effort to address the root causes ofdisplacement, has undermined the viability of theprocess (Human Rights Watch, 2023). Moreover, theinvolvement of China, a key regional actor, in
influencing repatriation dynamics has further
complicated this situation (Mahmud & Rai, 2022);
China's economic and political interests in Myanmar
support the Burmese government. Under Chinese
mediation, the junta and Bangladeshi authorities
recently renewed repatriation talks and agreed torepatriate six thousand refugees by 2023, although the
UN and human rights groups have raised concerns
about unfavorable and unsafe conditions in Myanmar’s
Rakhine State (OHCHR, 2023; Amnesty International,2023).
Scholars have called for a nuanced geopoliticalunderstanding of the situation. An acclaimed academic
shed light on the Chinese and Russian roles in thecrisis, noting that China’s backing and Russia’s supplyof arms to the Myanmar junta have aggravated thecrisis and undermined justice and accountability in the
Rohingya crisis. Both countries have also repeatedly
shielded Myanmar from legal and security measures in
the United Nations Security Council (AIBS Symposium,2023).

Justice and Accountability
Several efforts have been made to hold the Myanmar
authorities accountable for human rights violations
against the Rohingya, including via the International
Court of Justice (ICJ) and the International Criminal
Court (ICC).
In 2019, the Republic of the Gambia filed a case against
the Republic of the Union of Myanmar at theInternational Court of Justice under Article IX, accusing
it of breaching its obligations under the Genocide
Convention “through acts against the Rohingya group,”
marking a significant step toward justice for the
Rohingya persecution (International Court of Justice,2022). The ongoing legal proceedings provide an
opportunity to shed light on the crimes committed
against the Rohingya population and hold perpetrators
accountable. However, numerous challenges must be
addressed in order to ensure a fair and effective legal
process, not least Myanmar's lack of cooperation andjurisdictional complexities (AIBS Symposium, 2023).

ROHINGYA CRISISA noted legal expert familiar with the Rohingya
genocide case acknowledged that although Myanmar
has the option to withdraw from the ICJ, theirappearance before the court has provided them with acertain level of legitimacy. However, according to theexpert, the consequences are yet to be known if
Myanmar fails to file its response within the designatedperiod provided by the court (AIBS Symposium, 2023).
In addition to legal avenues, other measures, such as
targeted sanctions, diplomatic pressure, andaccountability mechanisms, should be explored toachieve justice and deter future human rights abuses(Islam,2021).
Collaborative
efforts
betweeninternational actors, including governments, NGOs, andcivil society organizations, are crucial to ensuringaccountability for crimes and protecting the humanrights of the Rohingya. A noted international
human-rights expert called for the application of amechanism similar to that used in Syria for addressing
human rights abuses in Myanmar, leveraging lessons
learned from the Independent Investigative Mechanism
for Myanmar (IIMM) (AIBS Symposium, 2023).

FUTURE DIRECTIONS
The intricacies of the Rohingya crisis demand athorough and forward-looking approach that focuseson sustainable solutions, long-term planning, and theempowerment of the Rohingya community. Experts
have highlighted three scenarios that may emerge inthe future. The first, the best-case scenario, is a changeof political regime in Myanmar that works with theinternational community to put an end to the Rohingya
crisis. A political regime with a strong commitment tobringing justice and accountability to the perpetratorsof the Rohingya genocide and that commits itself torepatriation would be an ideal outcome. However, suchchange would depend on domestic political dynamics
in Myanmar and would require significant commitments
and support from the international community tomaterialize.
The second, the worst-case scenario, is the prolonging
of the current status quo at best, and the worsening of
the current situation at worst. Experts noted that the
Rohingya crisis has already resulted in a lost
generation. They cautioned that a million refugees
without any hope of ending the crisis in sight, without04

right to education and livelihoods, among others, might
create significant humanitarian and security challenges
for Bangladesh and the entire region. The third possible
scenario is integration and resettlement of theRohingya in Bangladesh and in any third country willingto accommodate them, with the support of theinternational community (AIBS Symposium, 2023).
International legal and humanitarian experts andacademics who participated in two-day-longdeliberations on the Rohingya crisis in a recently heldinternational symposium have put forward a set ofpolicy recommendations to address the Rohingya crisis(AIBS Symposium, 2023):
First, addressing the Rohingya crisis requires acomprehensive and coordinated approach involving all
relevant
stakeholders,
includinggovernments,
international organizations, NGOs, civil society, andfaith-based organizations. This approach should
comprise immediate humanitarian relief as well as
long-term strategies to address the root causes of thecrisis. Such efforts would include advocating for the
restoration of equal citizenship rights for the Rohingya
in Myanmar, addressing systemic discrimination andpersecution, and promoting social cohesion andreconciliation. The inclusion of the Rohingya community
in decision-making is critical. A civil society leader
recommended devising a legal national framework in
Bangladesh to manage refugees and creating a job
compact arrangement, such as the Jordan Compact3,
so that host communities can better support refugees(AIBS Symposium, 2023). Some experts have also
called for diversifying the existing funding base andpooling more resources.
Second, the safe, voluntary, and dignified repatriationof Rohingya refugees to Myanmar should be prioritized.
As the United Nations and human rights groups
express concern about token or hasty repatriation,
there is a need for caution and a thorough assessment
before repatriation occurs. It is essential to ensure thatthe necessary conditions for a sustainable return aremet, which include restoring rights, guaranteeing
security and safety, and addressing the underlying
causes of displacement. In order for such efforts to be
successful, it is critical to engage regional and3international partners in negotiations. A noted civilsociety leader called for the involvement of ASEAN inarranging repatriation and resolving the crisis (AIBS
Symposium, 2023). He also noted the importance ofengaging non-state actors in Arakan Province. An
expert leading the international humanitarian effort for
refugees raised the potential for a third-country solution
and highlighted the role of UNHCR and the global
compact on refugees.
Third, empowering the Rohingya community is crucial
to their long-term well-being and self-reliance.
Providing education and skill-building opportunities for
Rohingya children and youth must be prioritized, as
quality education can equip them with the knowledge
and skills necessary to rebuild their lives and contributeto the development of their communities. Vocational
training programs and livelihood opportunities canenable Rohingya individuals to become economicallyindependent and contribute to a better future.
Fourth, the pursuit of justice and accountability forcrimes committed against the Rohingya population is a
key aspect of resolving the crisis. Continuing ongoinglegal processes, including the ICJ case and ICC
investigations, are important steps toward achieving
justice. If needed, the legal jurisdiction in international
legal frameworks to address genocide cases should be
expanded, even in the absence of the jurisdiction of theRome Statute over Myanmar. Doing so would allow for
the prosecution of Myanmar and accountability for thenations involved in the Rohingya crisis, such as
Bangladesh. Additionally, universal jurisdiction can beapplied as a means of holding Myanmar accountable.
Fifth, the international community should strongly
support ongoing pro-democracy movements in
Myanmar and work towards favorable political change.
This would create a conducive environment for the safeand voluntary repatriation of Rohingya refugees as wellas greater long-term stability. In addition, international
actors should strengthen their commitments tointegrating refugees and exploring resettlement
opportunities in other countries.
Sixth, members of the Rohingya community should be
included in decision-making processes and efforts to

The Jordan Compact has provided the Syrian refugees living in Jordan with a route to legal work, pledged the refugees jobs in Special Economic Zones (SEZs),
and given them the right to work in specific sectors through work permits (Barbelet et al., 2018).

ROHINGYA CRISIS

05

find solutions. The engagement of refugees is
especially crucial for addressing challenges effectively.
Religious networks and organizations can use theirplatforms to elevate the voices of Rohingya andpromote understanding and collaboration across faithlines. Dialogue and cooperation between the Rohingya
refugees and host communities should also be
promoted to ensure peaceful coexistence in theimmediate and long term.
Seventh, the experiences of victims and refugees of
the conflict should be documented in order to preserve
collective memory and provide a foundation for healing,reconciliation, and the prevention of future conflicts.
Governments and NGOs should allocate resources tosuch efforts.

CONCLUSION
Addressing the Rohingya crisis requires acomprehensive and forward-looking approach focusedon sustainable solutions, the rehabilitation of theRohingya community, and the pursuit of justice andaccountability. Such an approach would involve asustainable repatriation, empowering the refugees
through education and livelihood opportunities, andholding the perpetrators to account, which would pave
the way for a more safe, inclusive, and dignified future
for the Rohingya population.

REFERENCES
AIBS Symposium. (2023). International Symposium on Mitigating the Rohingya Crisis: Roles of the International
Community, May 4-5, 2023, Washington DC: American Institute of Bangladesh Studies.
Amnesty International. (2023). Myanmar military authorities exacerbate the suffering caused by cyclone mocha.
Amnesty International Public Statement, June 14, 2023, ASA 16/6875/2023. Retrieved from:https://www.amnesty.org/en/wp-content/uploads/2023/06/ASA1668752023ENGLISH.pdf
Ansar, A., Md. Khaled, A.F. (2021). From solidarity to resistance: host communities’ evolving response to the
Rohingya refugees in Bangladesh. Int J Humanitarian Action 6(16). https://doi.org/10.1186/s41018-021-00104-9
A.S.M. Ali Ashraf. (2021): Humanitarianism, National Security, and the Rohingya Refugee Policy of Bangladesh.
Strategic Analysis, DOI: 10.1080/09700161.2021.1918953
Barbelet, V., Hagen-Zanker, J., & Dina Mansour-Ille. (2018). The Jordan Compact: Lessons learnt and implications for
future refugee compacts. Overseas Development Institute, United Kingdom. Retrieved from:https://data2.unhcr.org/en/documents/download/61932#:~:text=The%20Compact%20has%20opened%20up,sp
ecific%20sectors%20through%20work%20permits.
Fortify Rights. (2017). “They Tried to Kill Us All”: Atrocity Crimes against Rohingya Muslims in Rakhine State,
Myanmar. Retrieved from https://www.fortifyrights.org/mya-inv-rep-2017-11-15/
Gorlick, Brian. (2019). The Rohingya Refugee Crisis: Rethinking Solutions and Accountability. Working Paper SeriesNo. 131, Refugee Studies Centre, University of Oxford. Retrieved from:https://teachers.gov.bd/shared/contents/2020/December/19/blogs/file_158623_1608382848.pdf
Hossain et al. (2020. Rohingya Refugee Crisis: Security Concerns for Bangladesh. South Asian Journal of Social
Studies and Economics, 8(2), 24-34.

ROHINGYA CRISIS

06

Hossain, M. M., Khan, M. R. R., & Ali, A. R. (2021). Health and Humanitarian Situation of Rohingya Refugees in
Bangladesh During COVID-19: Challenges and Recommendations. Journal of Migration and Health, 4, 100051
Hossain, M.A., Ullah, A.K.M.A., & Md. Mohiuddin. (2022). Rohingya refugees in the pandemic: Crisis and policy
responses. Global Policy, 14, 183-191.
Human Rights Watch. (2023). Bangladesh: New Risks for Rohingya Refugees. Retrieved from:https://www.hrw.org/news/2023/05/18/bangladesh-new-risks-rohingya-refugees
Human Rights Watch. (2021). Myanmar's Military Junta Targets Free Expression. Retrieved from:https://www.hrw.org/news/2021/04/12/myanmar-military-junta-targets-free-expression
Human Rights Watch. (2018). Burma: The Military Commits Crimes Against Humanity. Retrieved from:https://www.hrw.org/news/2018/09/19/burma-military-commits-crimes-against-humanity
Human Rights Watch. (2017). “All of My Body Was Pain”: Sexual Violence against Rohingya Women and Girls in
Burma. Retrieved from https://www.hrw.org/report/2017/11/16/all-my-body-was-pain/sexual-violence-againstrohingya-women-and-girls-burma
Human Rights Watch. (2016). Burma: Military Burned Villages in Rakhine State. Retrieved from:https://www.hrw.org/news/2016/12/14/burma-military-burned-villages-rakhine-state
International Court of Justice. (2020). The Gambia v. Myanmar: Application of the Convention on the Prevention
and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (ICJ Case No. 178) Retrieved from:https://www.icj-cij.org/files/case-related/178/178-20200123-PRE-01-00-EN.pdf
Islam, Nurul. (2021). Rohingya: A people Under Endless Tyranny. Asian Affairs: An American Review, 48(1), 14-40,
DOI: 10.1080/00927678.2020.1793631
MacLean, Ken. (2019). The Rohingya Crisis and the Practices of Erasure. Journal of Genocide Research, 21(1), 83-95,
DOI: 10.1080/14623528.2018.1506628
Mahmud, S. & Rai, K. (2023). China’s Role in Conflict Mediation: A Case Study of the Rohingya Refugee Crisis in
Bangladesh. In Xavier, C. & Jacob, J. T. (Eds). How China Engages South Asia: Themes, Partners, and Tools (pp.
27-43). Centre for Social and Economic Progress. Retrieved from https://csep.org/rlagwwy
M. Mahruf C. Shohel. (2022). Education in emergencies: challenges of providing education for Rohingya children
living in refugee camps in Bangladesh. Education Inquiry, 13(1), 104-126, DOI: 10.1080/20004508.2020.1823121
Mahmood, S. S., Wroe, E., Fuller, A., & Leaning, J. (2017). The Rohingya people of Myanmar: health, human rights, andidentity. The Lancet, 389(10081), 1841–1850. doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(16)00646-2
Mohshin, H., Christine, J., Salahuddin, A., Masudur, R., & Henri Pallard. (2018, July 18). Forced migration of Rohingya:
The untold experience. Ontario International Development Agency, Canada. ISBN 9780986681516
Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Bangladesh (2017, November 23). Joint statement on the repatriation of forcibly
displaced persons from Rakhine State, Myanmar, to Bangladesh Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Bangladesh
Norwegian Refugee Council. (2022, August 24). One million Rohingya refugees are at point of no return, as crisis
marks five years. Retrieved from: https://www.nrc.no/news/2022/august/one-million-rohingya-refugees-areat-point-of-no-return-as-crisis-marks-five-years/

ROHINGYA CRISIS

07

OHCHR. (2023). Myanmar Authorities Must Ensure Full Legal Recognition of the Right to Citizenship of All Rohingya
People, Deputy High Commissioner tells Human Rights Council - Council Concludes Interactive Dialogue with
the High Commissioner on his Annual Report. Geneva: Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for
Human Rights. Retrieved from:https://www.ohchr.org/en/news/2023/06/myanmar-authorities-must-ensure-full-legal-recognition-right-citizensh
ip-all-rohingya
Parashar, A., & Alam, J. (2018). The National Laws of Myanmar: Making of Statelessness for the Rohingya.
International Migration. doi:10.1111/imig.12532
Rahman, M. (2022). The Rohingya refugee crisis: Challenges and opportunities for durable solutions. The Journal of
the International Institute, 29(1).
Refugees International. (2021). The Rohingya crisis: The shadow of Myanmar’s coup. Retrieved from:https://www.refugeesinternational.org/reports/2021/rohingya-crisis-shadow-myanmars-coupRobin E. Al-Haddad, Kendra L. Duran & Saleh Ahmed. (2022). A lost generation: perpetual education insecurity
among the Rohingya. Race Ethnicity and Education, 25(6), 874-900, DOI: 10.1080/13613324.2022.2069738
OHCHR. (2023a, June 1). Bangladesh: UN experts decry devastating second round of rations cuts for Rohingya
refugees. Retrieved from: https://www.ohchr.org/en/press-releases/2023/06/bangladesh-un-experts-decrydevastating-second-round-rations-cuts-rohingya
OHCHR. (2023b, June 8). Bangladesh must suspend pilot project to return Rohingya refugees to Myanmar: UN
expert. Retrieved from: https://www.ohchr.org/en/press-releases/2023/06/bangladesh-must-suspend-pilotproject-return-rohingya-refugees-myanmar-un
UNHCR.
(2022).
RohingyaRefugee
CrisisExplained.
Geneva:https://www.unrefugees.org/news/rohingya-refugee-crisis-explained/

UNHCR.

Retrievedfrom:United Nations. (2018). Report of the Independent International Fact-Finding on Myanmar. Retrieved from:https://www.ohchr.org/en/hr-bodies/hrc/myanmar-ffm/index
UN Women. (2022). Rohingya women and girls: Advancing gender equality and the empowerment of women in the
Rohingya refugee crisis. New York: UN Women.
UN Women Bangladesh. (2018). Gender Brief on Rohingya Refugee Crisis Response in Bangladesh. Bangladesh:
UN Women.

ROHINGYA CRISIS

08

ABOUT THE AUTHOR
Sultan Mohammed Zakaria is a Fellow with the American Institute of Bangladesh Studies. He is currently a doctoral
student at the University of Wisconsin-Madison with a concentration on comparative international education andglobal studies. Zakaria’s research interest lies in the intersection of education, democracy, and human rights. He
worked for Boston University, University of Amsterdam, Brandeis University, and BRAC University in both teaching
and research capacities. Zakaria taught modules on comparative politics, government systems, globalization,
human rights, and education. His industry roles include the sta position of South Asia Researcher for Amnesty
International’s International Secretariat and a Fellow at Robert F. Kennedy Human Rights in Washington D.C.
Zakaria is currently advising Amnesty International USA as Bangladesh and Pakistan Country Specialist and serving
as an Advisor to the Global Human Rights Program at the Institute for Regional and International Studies, Universityof Wisconsin-Madison. Zakaria has consulted for the World Bank, Asian Development Bank, Government of
Bangladesh, Swiss Development Agency, among others.

DISCLAIMER: The views and opinions expressed in this policy brief are those of the speakers and the author anddo not reflect the views and positions of any entities they represent including the American Institute of Bangladesh
Studies (AIBS) and the Council of American Overseas Research Centers.

AIBS US O ce:
2002 Prichard Road, Silver Spring,
Maryland, United States 20902
Email: sudiptaroy.aibs@gmail.com
AIBS Dhaka Center:
52/1, Hasan Holdings (7th Floor), New Eskaton Road,
Ramna, Dhaka- 1000, Bangladesh
Email: rabiuledubd@gmail.com