MINKE WHALES OFF BRAZILGORDON R. WILLIAMSONHeather Cottage, Kessock, Inverness, Scotland, Britain

ABSTRACT

Minke whales are the main catch off Costinha 7°8 at the NE tip of Brazil.
The whales congregate each September-October-November over the continental slope in water 27°C. About 700 whales are caught per year. All are of
the southern hemisphere subspecies Balaerwptera acutorostrata bonaerensis.
Caught whales are lengths 7.5-10.7 metres (average 8.5 m) which correspond to ages 7-50 (average 15 years old). All the males and about 90%of the females are mature. In the catch females outnumber males 2 ~~: 1 (j'.
No foetuses of visible size occur. Lactating females with calf are seldom seen.
Available data do not permit a firm conclusion regarding the length of
the reproductive cycle. Some data suggest a one-year cycle, some data suggest a two-year cycle. Calves appear to be born in waters of intermediate
temperature and intermediate latitude.
Minke whales are common off Brazil and Durban yet rare off west south
Africa. Perhaps they migrate north mainly up the western side of the South
Atlantic, unlike sei whales which migrate up both sides.
Suggestions for future research are made.

INTRODUCTION

Tropical whaling station winter catches are of special interest to biologists because
they reveal what whales are doing during the reason in which mating and birthoccur.
7°S from the equator is the whaling station of Costinha, at the NE tip ofBrazil, near Joao Pessoa and 140 km north of Recife (Fig. 1). Brazil has been amember of the International Whaling Commission during 1951-66 and since 1973
and biological data on each whale killed have been supplied to the Bureau of International Whaling Statistics at Sandefjord since 1953 Some basic statistics on
Costinha whale catches are given by Paiva (1961) and Paiva and Grangeiro (1965,1970).
This report gives a general account of the Costinha whaling station and describes the catch of minke whales, which is now the main species caught. The
data from Costinha are of exceptional interest because• the season is the tropical winter• catching occurs during six months unbroken period• the effort is constant; one catcher all the time
• the catching area is the same all season long
• the minke whale stock is in virgin condition.
Sci. Rep. Whales Res. Inst.,

No. 27, 1975, 37-59.

G. R. WILLIAMSON

38

Minke whales are caught in great numbers in the Antarctic and about 32,000
have been caught in the southern hemisphere since minke whale hunting began inearnest about ten years ago (Table 1).

75"w

60"w

45"w

30"w

15"w

o·

15"E

30"E

Fig. 1. Atlantic Ocean showing currents (arrows) and October water temperatures.

MATERIAL USEDThis paper is based on data on whaling operations and whale catches off Costinha
supplied through the kindness of the owners of the station, Compania de Pesca
Norte do Brasil, Mr. Kiyohisa Kanda president and Mr. Issao Ishigami manager.
The catcher gunner Captain Sato and station foreman Mr. Masahiro Saito supplied much information. Mr. Kanda visited Britain to discuss details with me
and two British scientist friends of mine visited the whaling station briefly.
Each whale landed at Costinha has the following particulars recorded• date killed• position killed• length in feet in straight line from snout tip to tail notch·sex• whether foetus of noticeable size is present• stomach contents (in some seasons).
Blubber. The thickness of the blubber on the back of the body just below
Sci. Rep. Whales Res. Inst.,
No. 27, 1975.

39

MINKE WHALES OFF BRAZILTABLE 1. CATCHES OF MINKE WHALES IN THE SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE 1950APRIL 1975 (DATA FROM BUREAU INTERNATIONAL WHALING STATISTICS)
Year

BrazilAntarctic*

1950
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
1960
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
1970
71
72
73
74
75
Total

Total

Durban

9

9

3

3

42
46
493
103
205
162
2
21
101
7
10
18
605
59
30
44
3054
5745
8000
7000
25759

42
46
493
105
205
162
2
24
146
76
367
512
1158

2

2
44
67
352
488
456
617
701
900
702
650
765

2
5
6
97
112
171
204
135
173
117

5747

1024

788
902
1148
3891
6568
8882
7000
32530

* Antarctic catches are listed as follows : 1961/62 catch is listed under 1962 etc.

DISTANCE FROM COAST
(")

0

)>

en
--{

35km

I

I

50km

I

70{m

lOOkm

I

SURFACECONTINENTAL SHELF

Fig. 2. Distribution of minke whales off Costinha. Dots represent whales. This
diagram shows relative abundance of whales, not actual numbers. (Data from
whaling company.)
Sci. Rep. Whales Res. Inst.,
No. 27, 1975.

40

G. R. WILLIAMSON

the dorsal fin was measured to the nearest 0.5 cm on all whales caught between
August 16th-December 20th, 1974 (see Fig 7).
Testis samples. To determine the degree of spermatogenesis in the testes,samples of testis tissue were preserved from three male whales during each monthJune-December of the 1974 season. The samples were airmailed for histologicalexamination to Dr. R. F. Macadam of Raigmore Hospital Pathology Department,
Inverness, Scotland.
Vagina smear samples. To determine the nature of the "white mucus" inthe vagina of female whales, smear slides were made of the contents of the vaginasof three female whales of mature size during each month June-December of the1974 season. The smears were airmailed to Dr. R. F. Macadam for histologicalexamination.
The Bureau of International Whaling Statistics, Sandefjord, Einar Vangstein
director, has supplied data where needed.
Data on minke whales off west south Africa and off Durban have been supplied respectively by the Sierra Fishing Agency manager Mr. RH Shepperd and
Dr. Peter Best.
HYDROGRAPHY
Costinha whaling station is located 750 km (4 70 miles) south of the equator at latitude 7°S on the NE corner of Brazil. The continental shelf is narrow about 30 km
wide, and drops steeply into the abyss (Figs. 1 and 2).
A warm equatorial current approaches the coast from the east and becomes
divided by the land into north-flowing and south-flowing branches.
During the main whaling season September-October-November, sea surface
temperatures over a wide area off Costinha are about 27°C.
Frech bite wounds of the type made by the 40-cm-long whale-biter shark
Isistius are common on whale off Costinha, suggesting this tiny pelagic shark must
be common in the area. (The discovery of the causal agency of these wounds wasmade by Jones (1971).) Large sharks 1.5-2.5 m long are plentiful over the continental shelf within 30 km of the coast and cause much trouble biting chunks outof the dead buoyed whales, but in oceanic water further out from the coast deadwhales are not attacked by large sharks.
HISTORY AND DAILY OPERATIONS AT COSTINHA
Whaling at Costinha started in 1910. Since 1951 inclusive the station has been
operated by Compania de Pesca Norte do Brasil (COPESBRA) with head officein Recife. This is a subsidiary of Nippon Reizo K.K. (Japan Ice Storage Co.)of Tokyo and the key personnel are Japanese.
One antarctic-type catcher Seiho Maru No. 2 (306 tons) is used. It leaves
port about 0400 hours each day, hunts all day at distance of 30-140 km from thecoast, and returns with its catch to port after dark about 2000 hours-midnight. The
Sci. Rep. Whales Res. Inst.,
No. 27, 1975.

MINKE WHALES OFF BRAZIL

41

whales are cut up during the night. The meat is salted and dried and is soldlocally in Paraiba state and the oil is sold for leather tanning in south Brazil. The
whaling season is from June to December.
The virgin relative abundance of whale species off Costinha appears from thecatches (Table 2) to have been:minke, sei, humpback and sperm-common
bryde-occasional
fin and blue-very rare
At Costinha, whalers killed the easy-to-kill and large species first and catches
have been dominated in turn by humpback, sei and now finally minke and sperm
whales (Table 3). Sei and bryde's whales were not recorded separately in the catchrecords prior to 1967, but have been separated since then. During 1967-74 thecatch of sei and bryde's totalled 251 and 25 whales respectively, that is, sei were
90 % of the catch of the combined species. The percentage of sei was presumably
higher prior to 1960 before antarctic hunting reduced the sei stocks.
Paiva (1961) and Paiva and Grangeiro (1965, 1970) give data on the 1960/67
whale catches of all the species, mainly recording numbers caught each month,mean lengths each month, sex ratios, sexual condition and stomach contents.
Off Cabo Frio whaling station further south in 23°S more fin whales occur
than off Costinha but otherwise the relative abundance of whale species is similar
at the two places (Table 4 ).
The once-large stock of humpback whales features little in the catch of either
station in recent years due to the fact that it was greatly reduced by hunting in the
1904-1920 period.
TABLE 2.

NUMBER OF WHALES KILLED OFF COSTINHA, BRAZIL 7°S
DURING 1910-74. (DATA FROM TABLE 3)

English Name

Brazilian Name

No Killed
1910-74

Present Status

Blue
Fin
Sei
Bryde
Minke
Humpback
Spermbaleia azul
baleia fin
baleia espardate
baleia cabeca de suenga
baleia minkebaleia preta
cachalote1
3
about 3,600
about
350
5,747
1,542
517

rare
rare
rare
rare
very common
rarecommonMINKE WHALES

Existing knowledge on minke whales· Minke whales are the commonest remaining species of baleen whale in thesouthern hemisphere and are also common in the northern hemisphere. In thesouthern hemisphere the latest estimate of the population is 300,000 minke whales(Ohsumi and Masaki, 1974a).
The taxonomy of minke whales became complicated by the discovery that
Sci. Rep. Whales Res. Inst.,
No. 27, 1975.

42

G. R. WILLIAMSONTABLE 3. WHALE CATCHES OFF COSTINHA 1910-74 (1924-49 DATA FROMPAIVA 1961, OTHER YEARS DATA FROM BUREAU INTERNATIONAL WHALING STATISTICS)

Year

1910
11
12
13
14
1915-23
1924
25
26
27
28
1929-46
1947
48
49
1950
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
1960
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
1970

Humpback

Bryde*

Minke

Blue

Fin

Sperm

Total

Catch taken but no record kept

102
342
352
317

102
342
352
317
No catch taken, station closed

62
42
32
47
40

62
42
32
47
40
Catches taken but no records kept

11
21
15
24
28
9

8
18
6
14
5
8
10

11
8
10

71

72
73
74
Total

Sei*

1,542

14
10
18
98
151
153
161
183
198
196
115
118
294
500
504
272
253
256
149
72
49
6
58
6
6
56
3
23
2
18
5
6
2
about 3,600 about 350

2

3
2
4
11

2
44
67
352
488
456
617
701
900
702
650
765+
5,747

5
4
7
4
13
24
20
39
75
76
55
66
75
29
517

3

25
32
34
122
179
163
170
202
205
214
117
128
315
511
521
284
272
304
229
448
563
559
754
803
975
774
732
797
11,768* Sei and Bryde's whales were not distinguished prior to 1957, but Sei probably composed 90% of
the catches : see text.
+ Includes 3 minke killed but lost at sea. Anomalous differences in whale totals in many seasonsare caused by circumstances like this: the total killed exceeds the total measured.

Sci. Rep. Whales Res. Inst.,
No. 27, 1975.

MINKE WHALES OFF BRAZIL

43

southern hemisphere whales have a different colour pattern from northern hemisphere whales (Williamson, 1959; Ohsumi et al., 1970). In nearly all other respects
the minke whales of the two hemisphere are identical and it is probably reasonable
to consider the whales of the two hemispheres as being no more than separate subspecies with the following names:
Southern Minke Whale Balaenoptera acutorostrata bonaerensis Burmeister, 1867.
Northern Minke Whale Balaenoptera acutorostrata acutorostrata Lacepede, 1804.
Knowledge of the biology of southern minke whales advanced greatly
with the publication of the reports of Ohsumi et al. (1970) and Ohsumi and Masaki(1974a and 1974b). The following summary is based on these reports augmented
by information from the studies of northern minke whales by Omura and Sakiura(1956) andJonsgard (1951).
Southern minke whales are born about 2.8 m long after a gestation period of
about ten months. Calves are suckled on milk for about four months and areweaned when about 4.5 m long. They become sexually mature at about six yearsof age when males are about 7.2 m long and females 8.0 m long. Males in which
the larger of the two testes weighs more than 0.4 g are usually sexually mature.
Minke whales grow to about fifty years maximum age and to maximum lengths of
9.8 m in males and 10. 7 m in females (Table 5).
In the Antarctic, most of the whales are large. Of whales caught 54 % arefemales. About 55 % of the females and 86 % of the males are mature. Of maTABLE 4. WHALES CAUGHT AT CABO FRIO WHALING STATION 23°S NEARRIO DE JANEIRO 1960-63 BY SOCIEDADE DE PESCA TAIYO LIMITADA.
(DATA FROM BUREAU INTERNATIONAL WHALING STATISTICS)
Year

Hum back

Sei and
Bryde

Minke

1960
61
62
63
Total

3
2
3
2
lOt

250
453
338
93
1134tt

.s-5

Blue

"C)

~

Oi 0.

(.) 8

zo~Oi

Fin

Sperm

Total

21
10
49
4
84

28
97
81
35
241

302
562
472
134
1470

t Humpbacks had already been greatly reduced in numbers.
tt Proportion of Sei and Bryde in the combined species catch are not known.

TABLE 5. AVERAGE LENGTH AT SEXUAL MATURITY AND MAXIMUM LENGTH
OF MINKE WHALES. SEXUAL MATURITY OCCURS AT ABOUT 6 YEARS OF AGE.

Hemisphere

Area

Mean Length
at sexual
maturity (m)Maximumlength (m)Author~3Southern Hemisphere

Antarctic""
Northern
HemisphereBrazilNewfoundland
Norway
Japan

"
"

"

Sci. Rep. Whales Res. Inst.,
No. 27, 1975.

7.2

6.9
6.9

~
8.0

3

~

9.8

10.0

7.3
7.3

9.8
9.1
8.5
8.8

10. 7
9.1
9.1
9.1

Ohsumi et al. (1970) and
Ohsumi and Masaki (1974a)
Whaling company
Sergeant (1963)
Jonsgard (1951)
Omura and Sakiura (1956)

44

G. R. WILLIAMSON

ture females about 90 % are pregnant, and resting mature females are seldom foundin the Antarctic. Immature whales are most numerous in the Antarctic in theearly summer (November-December).
Ovulation rate is estimated to be 0.89 per year (Ohsumi and Masaki 1974b).
88 % of mature females ovulate in spring August-Deptember when they arestill lactating (P. Best, pers. comm. based on examination of 16 lactating females
killed off Durban by special permit).
Minke whales are believed to bear one calf per year. A wide range of foetus
sizes amongst pregnant females in the Antarctic indicates a long mating season.
The migrations of minke whales are probably an annual oscillation about acentral latitude of perhaps 40°S, in which the magnitude of oscillation increases
steadily as a whale gets older and larger. Calves, most immature whales, and mature females in resting condition keep to the 20°S-50°S latitudes of mild water temperatures. It is the pregnant females, the larger of the immature females and themature males which go far south. Whales caught south of 60°S are of average age
15 years and average length 8.5 m (age range 7-50 years, length range 6-10 m).
Mature whales probably make an annual migration from close on the equatorto the high Antarctic and back, a distance of about 14,500 km (8,000 nautical
miles) round trip. At the southern end of their migration they feed on krill andconcentrate right at the edge of the pack ice in 60°S-70°S latitude. They are soaboundant and concentrated that Japanese catchers could kill more than 20 minke
whales per day if they wished (Ohsumi, pers. comm.).
Minke whales characteristically divide themvelves into groups dominated bya certain sex or age of whale, more so than in other baleen whale species. This
habit makes it very difficult for scientists to obtain the random samples which arerequired in order to make accurate calculations of the population size etc.

Costinha catches of minke whales
All minke whales caught are of the southern hemisphere type of minke whale
Balaenoptera acutorostrata bonaerensis as described by Burmeister (1867), Williamson(1959) and Ohsumi et al. (1970). See Plate I.
Each year the first minke whales arrive from the south in late June and July.
They appear singly about 100 km off the coast over deep ocean water and moveslowly north. Later groups appear. Groups of whales usually contain 4 or 5
individuals, which are sometimes of one sex, sometimes mixed sexes. Less frequentpairs of whales are usually one male with one female. The whales mostly swim
over 2,500-meter-deep water about 10-30 km beyond the steep edge of the continental shelf, about 40-60 km from the coast (Fig. 2).
Maximum numbers of minke whales are present during September-OctoberNovember (Table 6, Fig. 4) and highest catches and highest catches per day are
obtained in October. Whales of progressively larger sizes enter the area eachsuccessive month and they depart in the same sequence (Fig. 4 and Table 7). In
November numbers of whales decrease, groups are no longer seen, only pairs andsingle whales, and the last individuals leave in December.
Sci. Rep. Whales Res. Inst.,
No. 27, 1975.

45

MINKE WHALES OFF BRAZIL

The sex ratio among caught whales is 2 ~ ~ 1 : ~ (67 %~ ). The largest individuals caught were several 9.8 m males and several 10. 7 m females.
(Sei whales off Costinha, by contrast, during the years 1950-65 when big
catches were taken, were caught in greatest numbers during August and September
and 40-50 % were females in typical years).
Water temperatures are about 27°C during the September-October-November season of abundance (Fig. 1).
Some minke whales can be seen as far north as the extreme NE tip of Brazil(5°S latitude, 250 km north of Costinha) but the whaling company state that none
turn left along the north coast of South America.

°"'°"'0

100

U1

90
(f)
UJ 80
-'
<i::
:i:: 70
3::
u. 60
0
50
0::
UJ
en 40
:2:
::> 30
z
20
10

~

CJ)

rn

x

c

)>

rr-

-<

/

s:
)>

I

\
\

c

\\

;:o

rn

II
I
I
I

\

\

\

d'J", ,,

+
7

\
\

-l

0

/'\

',________

8

9

j

10

LENGTH (METERS)

Fig. 3. Lengths of minke whales in a typical season's catch at Costinha (650 whalescaught in 1973). The arrows show the mean lengths at which sexual maturity is
attained. The males are probably all mature and the females 90% mature.
(Data from Bureau International Whaling Statistics.)

Minke whale catches by year, month and sex are given in Table 6 and length
frequencies of catches in typical seasons are given in Figs. 3 and 4 and Table 7.
Correlation of the length frequencies with the results of Ohsumi et al. (1970) and
Ohsumi and Masaki (1974b) allows the ages and maturity of the catches to be deduced and the following conclusions reached:• at the beginning of the season, small numbers of immature females anda very few immature males are present. Most of these are not shot because
they are too small to the worth shooting. They leave the area by midspring; mid-September.
•mature whales start to arrive in the area in July, and from mid-September
onwards nearly all minke whales in the area are mature.
·of the total catch offemales about 90 %are mature, of the total catch of males
about 100 % are mature.
·the ages of whales in the catch range 7-50 years old with average age 15
Sci. Rep. Whales Res. Inst.,
No. 27, 1975.

G. R. WILLIAMSON

46

~

0,.

0
5

~

JULY

~

CJ)

0

f'TI

><
c

)>

r
r

-<

10

-;

5
0

s:
)>

c

:::0
fTI

I

I
I

SEPTEMBER

15

I

10

I
I

5

I

g
<(

I

3

u...
0

I
I

Cf)

0::
IJ.J

15 ~
10 ~

I

OCTOBER
I

I

5
0

I

I
I
I

.

I
I

15

NOVEMBER

I

10
5
0

10
5

DECEMBER

0

8

9

10
8
LENGTH (FEET AND METERS)

9Fig. 4. Length frequencies of each month's catch of minke whales in a typical
Whales of progressively larger
season at Costinha (762 whales caught in 1974).
sizes enter the area each successive month and depart in the same sequence. (Datafrom Bureau International Whaling Statistics.)
Sci. Rep. Whales Res. Inst.,
No. 27, 1975.

47

MINKE WHALES OFF BRAZILTABLE 6.

MINKE WHALES KILLED IN EACH MONTH OFF COSTINHA,
BRAZIL 1969-74. (DATA FROM WHALING COMPANY)
No. minke whales killed

June

July

Aug

Sept

Oct

Nov

Dec

year

%Q

Q
Total

5
6

21
28
49

34
54
88

49
88
137

48
102
150

48
105
153

6
28
34

207
410
617

67%Q

3

2
6
8

47
52
99

49
86
135

44
110
154

44
104
148

32
104
136

6
15
21

224
477
701

68%Q

3

6

Q
Total

'O

38
62
100

92
159
251

114
199
313

43*
110*
153*

*
*
*

325
575
900

64%Q

6

32
45
77

3

3
2
5

10
12
22

33
51
84

57
108
165

49
138
187

61
117
178

18
43
61

231
471
702

67%Q

4
2
6

26
62
88

45
99
144

64
146
210

60
108
168

11
23
34

210
440
650

68%Q

4
3
7

31
38
69

42
89
131

53
137
190

55
127
182

44
84
128

17
38
55

246
516
762

68%Q

16
16
32

145
177
322

222
404
626

340
701
1041

374
816
1190

288
628
916

58
147
205

1443
2889
4332

67%Q

3
1969

1970

Q

Total
1971

1972

Q
Total

3
1973

Q
Total

3
1974

Q
Total

6-year
total

3
Q
Total

* Catch stopped due to Brazilian local quota having been reached,
TABLE 7. MEAN LENGTHS OF MINKE WHALES IN EACH MONTH CAUGHT AT
COSTINHA DURING 1966-67. (FROM PAIVA AND GRANGEIRO 1970)

Month
July
AugustSeptember
OctoberNovemberMalesmean length m (no. measured)

Femalesmean length m (no. measured)

1966

1967

1966

1967

7.8 (13)7.9 (11)
8. 2 (25)
8.6 (33)
8. 7 (25)

7 .9 (14)8.0 (21)
8.4 (27)
8.3 (46)
8.4 (40)

8.1 (12)8.3 (17)
8. 3 (64)9.0 (98)
9 .1 (52)

7 .9 (22)
8.5 (39)8.8 (83)
8.8 (133)
8.9 (67)

years old, the same as typical Antarctic catches.
During September-October-November a whitish mucus is found in the vagina
of all female whales, also occasionally in late August and early December. The
lips of the vagina of these females are a reddish colour. None of the female whales
contain a visible embryo in the uterus.
About twelve mothers with calf are seen each year.
The stomachs of nearly all the whales are empty. A little krill is found in thestomachs of about 3 % of the whales.
Sci. Rep. Whales Res. Inst.,
No. 27, 1975.

48

G. R. WILLIAMSON

5,747 minke whales have been killed off Costinha so far plus a further 200
whales have been taken by factory ships in the Antarctic region l5°W-70°W which
presumably are from the same stock. So far there are no signs of depletion of theminke whales off Costinha: average lengths of whales and catch per day's hunting
are not decreasing (Table 8).
In August 1972 the catcher made a single voyage 400 km eastward out into
the open ocean. Although the main concentration of minke whales was locatedclose beyond the continental shelf edge, a few minke whales were seen all the way
out as far as the catcher went.
TABLE 8. CATCH OF MINKE WHALES PER DAY'S HUNTING IN PEAKMONTH OF SEASON (i.e. October) AND AVERAGE LENGTH OF SEASONSCATCH OFF COSTINHA 1966-74. (DATA FROM WHALING COMPANY).
average length mYear

No. caught per
day's hunting
in Octobermales

females

1966
67
68
69
1970
71
72
73
74

4.2
5.1
4.3
4.8
4.8
5.0
6.0
6.8
5.9

8.3
8.3
8.3
8.3
8.3
8.2
8.7
8.3
8.2

8.8
8.7
8.7
8.6
8,8
8,8
9.2
8.9
8.6

Blubber thickness results. The method of measuring the blubber thickness
was the same as used by Ohsumi et al. (1970), in order to obtain comparable
results. Due to the fact that off Costinha whales of progressively larger size occur
in successive months, simple averaging of blubber thickness measurements does notproduce a useful result. Therefore I selected for analysis only whales of a certain
length range, and selected the range 8.4-9.3 m (27.5-30.5 feet), as plenty whales ofthis size occurred in all months. About one half of all the whales caught were inthis length range. The blubber thickness of males and females in this length range
are shown in Figs. 5 and 6.
The results allow the following conclusions to be made:• females have slightly thicker blubber than males. This is the opposite to
Ohsumi et al's (1970) findings in the Antarctic, where males had thicker blubber than females .
• the blubber offemales is thicker than the blubber of males by about 0.5 cm.
among whales killed in August and increases steadily to 1.1 cm thicker
among whales killed in December .
• although male whales after September become thinner in successive months,
among females the blubber is thicker in whales killed in successive months.
The whales are not feeding, therefore cannot be getting fatter due to feeding.
The increase in blubber thickness among females is presumably due toSci. Rep. Whales Res. Inst.,
No. 27, 1975.

MINKE WHALES OFF BRAZIL

49

5.0
4.5
-'4.0

'E
~

(/)
(/)

3.5
3.0

w

z
:.::
S2

SEPT

AUG

DEC

NOV

OCT

:r:

I-

a::

w

5.5

::::>

5.0

co
co

....J

co

4.5
-4.0

0

10

NUMBER OF WHALES

Fig. 5. Blubber thickness of whales m length range 8.4-9.3 m (27.5-30.5 feet)caught off Costinha during August 16-December 20th 1974. 118 males and 215
females were in this length range, which is about half of all whales killed during
this period.

5.0

E'

.o----o~.

If)fi] 4.5
z
:.::
(.)
::c

,,.P'......

females off Brazil ,,,,
a" ...

,..df-

ffi 4.0
CJ
CJ

::::>

...J

CJ

3.5

J

M

A

M

J

J

A

s

0

N

D

MONTH

Fig. 6. Mean blubber thickness of southern minke whales in length range 8.4-9.3 m
in different months of the year. August-December data from off Brazil calculated
from Fig. 5, December data from Antarctic (Ohsumi et al 1970, Fig. 4).
Sci. Rep. Whales Res. Inst.,
No. 27, 1975.

50

G. R. WILLIAMSON

greater fatness among the new whales which enter the area each month.
•female minke whales caught during August-December off Brazil appear tobe fatter than those caught in the Antarctic during December (Fig. 6.) andmales are of similar fatness. This contrasts with other rorqual species.
However this may be due to accidented differences between my and Ohsumi's technique for measuring the blubber.
Testis results. Dr. R. F. Macadam reports "Testis specimens" from only
seven mature whales caught off Brazil were well preserved and these included
specimens from August, September, October and Novembers. These specimens,
plus testis specimens from five mature whales caught in the Antarctic during
November-December 1971 (kindly supplied by Dr. S. Ohsumi) were examined.
The specimens were fixed in 10% formol saline at the whaling station, andlater embedded in paraffin wax, sectioned 5 microns thick and stained with Haematoxylin and Eosin and also by the Masson trichrome technique. Plate 4 shows
photographs of testis specimens representative of whales caught in Brazil and in the
Antarctic.
Testes from the seven whales caught off Brazil during August-November all
showed many sperm in the tubules and active spermatogenesis in progress. These
whales must have been capable of fertilizing femals. Plate 5 shows a single tubuleand the numerous sperm in it magnified XlOOO.
Testes from the five whales caught in the Antarctic during November-December were not so well preserved as the Brazil specimens. All five whale,s showed alow degree of spermatogenetic activity and only a few sperm."
Vagina smear results. Dr. R. F. Macadam reports "the smears were wellpreserved and consisted of mucus containing many vaginal epithelial cells, many
micro-organisms and no sperm. In humans, sperm in the female vagina disintegrate 2-3 days after copulation. Therefore the absence of sperm in the vaginas ofthese 18 females only indicates that none of them had mated within three days prior
to being caught. They may nonetheless have mated during other days of themonth."

Fig. 7. Position on body at which blubber thickness was measured. The position
fulfils the requirements of being accessible on a hauled-up carcase, on the line of
one of the main flensing cuts and identifiable with accuracy.

West South Africa and Durban catches of minke whales
Off west south Africa, minke whales are uncommon. Gunners operating out
of Saldanha reported that they never saw minke whales there (Williamson, 1959).
Sci. Rep. Whales Res. Inst.,
No. 27, 1975.

51

MINKE WHALES OFF BRAZILTABLE 9. LIST OF ALL MINKE WHALES SEEN IN AREA 0°-30°S 0°-17°E OFF
SW AFRICA DURING 2! YEARS ALMOST CONTINUOUS WHALING BY
FACTORY SHIP "SIERRA" NOV 1972-MAY 1975. (ALL MINKEWHALES SEEN WERE KILLED. DATA FROME SIERRAFISHING AGENCY)
LengthSex Sexual Condition
m

Date

Lat

Long

Temp
Sea Surface

March 17, 74
June 11, 73
Nov
8, 73

13°33'S
5°46'S
7°02'S

11°2l'E
10°36'E
11°23'E

23°C
24°C
26°C

9.4
7.3
8.2

M
F
M

Nov

20, 7414°27'S

11°27'E

21°C

8.8

F

Nov

21, 72l6°lO'S

l0°55'E

22°C

9. 7

F

mature?

maturemature, novisible foetus
mature, novisible foetus

StomachContents
empty
empty
empty
empty
some krill

TABLE 10. COMPARISON OF CONDITION OF MINKE WHALES OFF COSTINHA
7°S, DURBAN 30°S AND ANTARCTIC OCEAN 55°-65°S. (COSTINHA DATA FROMWHALING COMPANY, DURBAN DATA FROM P. BEST PERS. COMM.,
AND ANTARCTIC DATA FROM OHSUMI ET AL 1970,
AND OHSUMI AND MASAKI 1974b).
Durban S Africa
30°S

Antarctic Ocean
55°S-65°S

all months somepresent
20-25°C

Dec-Jan-Feb

70

97

mature and immature present (seetext)
small numbers during August-September
?

0

0

90

about 60%

unknown

67% Q

30% Q

3

?

0.27 m (December)Great variations indifferent areas
54% Q
but great variations indifferent areas
55

Many small groups
and a few single
whales. Most groups
are of 4-5 whales.

Small groups and a
few single whales.
Some lactating mothers with young
calf during AugustSeptember.

Many groups of 2-6
whales, a few single
whales and a few
groups of up to 100
whales. Groups usually
dominated by one sex.

Costinha, Brazil

1°sMonths in which minke
are most abundant
Temperature of sea surface
during season of abundance% of all whales caughtthat are sexually mature

Sept-Oct-Nov% of mature females that3

are accompanied bycalves% of mature females thathave no calf and novisible foetus% of mature females thatare pregnant with visible
foetus and have no calf
Mean length of foetuses% female among whales
at sea% female among killed
whales% stomachs

containing
foodGrouping of whales at sea

Sci. Rep. Whales Res. Inst.,
No. 27, 1975.

27°S
95

0°C

0

7

52

G. R. WILLIAMSON

Mr. R.H. Shepperd reports that the factory ship "Sierra" during 2! years almost
continuous whaling Nov 1972-May 1975 in the area 0°S-30°S, 0°-l 7°E off west
south Africa has only sighted five minke whales (Table 9). They were all shot andproved to be mature animals.
During the same period the " Sierra " sighted several thousand sei whales.
Off Durban 30°S (Table 10) Dr. Peter Best reports that minke whales arepresent in moderate numbers all year round in waters which range 20°-25°C annually. They appear to be most numerous during winter and spring (JuneNovember). The annual catch of about 150 minke is a mixture of sexually matureand immature animals. During August-September in sea of temperature about
20°C some lactating mothers with young calves are seen each year.
DISCUSSION

Separation of north and south atlantic stocks.

South Atlantic minke whales migrate as
far north as NE Brazil 5°S and on the African side odd individuals migrate to off
Angola with 5°S the extreme northernmost record to date (Table 9). The nearest
localities from which north atlantic minke whales have been recorded are Florida
and the Mediterranean (Moore and Palmer, 1955; Scattergood, 1949). About
5,000 km separates the nearest records, thus it seems unlikely that members of thenorth and south hemisphere stocks ever meet.
Route of northward migration. By what routes do whales travel from the Antarctic
to NE Brazil? After the feeding season, most whales all round the Antarctic headnorth. In wide areas of the Indian and Pacific Oceans there is no land and thewhales must meet and mate successfully in mid ocean. In the western South
Atlantic most whales, after a northward swim of varying length seem likely to strikethe sloping coast of South America at some point. The slope of the coast "funnels"
the whales together and causes them to become concentrated as they proceed northwards. For those whales which continue furthest into warm waters, the NE
corner of Brazil is the focal point where maximum concentration occurs.
It seems probable that most minke and sei whales which arrive off Costinha
have followed the continental shelf edge from varying distances further south, whilea smaller number have arrived direct from the open ocean. The minke whales off
Costinha concentrate about 20 km beyond the edge of the continental shelf (Fig.
2). Further out to sea and on the shallow continental shelf there are only a few
minke whales.
The low-frequency noises made by rorquals can be heard at distances of atleast 180 km (Cummings and Thompson, 1971, p. 1197) and thus minke whaleson the open ocean, when they get within this range of the continental slope, probably
hear and are attracted to the concentration of whales.
The virtual absence of minke whales off west south Africa, and yet their presence off the eastern southern Africa (Durban) and eastern south America,
suggests an assymmetry in the autumn northward migration from the Antarctic.
It appears that minke whales migrate chiefly up the western side of the southern
Sci. Rep. Whales Res. Inst.,
No. 27, 1975.

MINKE WHALES OFF BRAZIL

53

atlantic, heading into the south-flowing Brazil current, but keep clear of the northftowing Benguela current.
If this is the case, the coast of Brazil may be the mating ground of minke
whales from a wide sector of the Antarctic.
Sei whales in contrast migrate up both sides of the South Atlantic.
Length of the reproductive cycle. Studies to date conclude that minke whales bear one
calf each year and have a one-year reproductive cycle; thus reproduce twice as fast
as all the larger rorqual species.
In truth, available data are not conclusive on this matter. Some facts suggest
a one-year cycle, some facts suggest a two-year cycle.
Evidence which suggests a one-year cycle:• about 88 % of mature female minke whales ovulate during the latter partof the lactation period, in August-September (see section ' Existing knowledge on minke whales'). This makes it possible for minke whales to become pregnant during late lactation, thus producing one calf per year.
Overlapping of lactation with pregnancy does not occur in the larger
rorquals, all of which have a resting period of several months between theend of lactation and mating (Fig. 5 ).
Evidence which suggests a two-year cycle:• The 27 cm average length of foetuses in December Antarctic catches (Table10) indicates that mating must occur in about September (compare Omura
and Sakiura, 1956, Fig. 23). A ten-month pregnancy would result incalves being born in July and the four month lactation would last till
November. However, during September-October-November, hundreds ofcalf-less mature females arrive off Costinha. These females cannot haveborn a calf recently, therefore it seems impossible that they are producing
one calf per year.
• The 0.89 per year ovulation rate of minke whales is basically similar to,although somewhat higher than, the ovulation rates of the other rorqual
species (Table 12). (It must be remembered that all these rates are estimates
only). If minke whales really reproduced twice as fast as other rorquals,
their ovulation rate should be double that of other species-about 1.4
ovulations per year. But it is not near this value.
The 0.89 per year ovulation rate of minke whales could not allow all thefemales of the population to bear a calf every year but it is nonetheless compatible with the existence of a basic one-year cycle. An individual female
during a ten year period could have 8 calves at one year intervals and one
calf after a two year interval (assuming all ovulations produce calves).
As pregnancy and lactation total 14 months duration, a one-year cycle
can only exist if new pregnancy occurs two months before the end of lactation, that is; the cycles overlap by two months.
The fact that in the Antarctic 90% of mature female minke whales
are pregnant, compared with 66% among blues, 80% among fine and
69% among sei (Table 11) does not clarify the reproduction rate. It is
Sci. Rep. Whales Res. Inst.,
No. 27, 1975.

54

G. R. WILLIAMSON

compatible either with minke whales having a higher reproductive rate
than the other species (though hardly double the rate of the other species)
or with minke whales having a two-year cycle in which resting mature
females have the habit of seldom entering the Antarctic.
By examination of the ovaries of mature females caught off Costinha itshould be possible to obtain the vital missing evidence.
If these calf-less whales are only just ovulating or have not yet ovulated,
they must have passed a true resting stage since parting from their calf andthus must have a two-year reproductive cycle.
If the whales have already ovulated (and in this case they will presumably be in early pregnancy) then it is likely that they ovulated and matedpuring lactation, and this overlap would allow a one-year reproductive cycle.
Further data are needed to clarify the reproductive cycle of minke
whales.
TABLE 11. COMPARATIVE DATA ON SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE RORQUAL
SPECIES DURING THE COOL-WATER SUMMER FEEDING SEASON
Species

greatest numbersof adults
furthest south% femalesin catch% mature in catch % of mature...-----r----..

66

22

females thatare pregnant

timing of migrationof immatures

Blue
December1
47 1
66 1
later than matures2
Finlater than matures 2
January 1
50 1
80 1
Sei
February 3
94 4
92 4
69 3
54 5
866
55 6
905
Minke
?
earlier than matures 5
Sources of data. 1 =Mackintosh 1942, p 270, Table 25 and Fig. 27.
2=Laws 1961, p 341.
3=Gambell 1968 p 39-40 and Table 5.
4=Doi et al 1967, table 14.
5=0hsumi and Masaki 1974b.
6=0hsumi et al 1970 p 107.
TABLE 12.
SpeciesOVULATION RATES PER YEAR OF RORQUAL WHALES

average numberof ovulations
per year

evidence used to calculate th valueauthorAverage of the average number of recent
Laurie in Purves and Mountovulations in several hundred antarctic
ford 1959 p 139
whales of three sexual classes (pregnant,based on Laurie 1937, p 250
resting and recently-ovulated non-pregnant).
Average of ovulation rates from threeFin
0. 72tLaws 1961, p 463
types of 2-year breeding cycles, found bycounting corpora albicantia in several
hundred antarctic whales.
Average rate in 6 marked antarctic
0. 77
Ohsumi 1964, p 66
whales captured 19 or more years later,
found by counting corpora albicantia.
No of oestrous cycles in 2-year breeding
Sei
0.69
Gambell 1968, p 123
cycle x average number of ovulations per
oestrous, found by counting corpora
albicantia in 644 whales caught off
Durban.
Minke
0.87
No of corpora albicantia in 1359 antarcOhsumi and Masaki 1974,
tic whales of known age
p9
t value halved from original 1.43 consequent to Roe's (1967) discovery that ear plugs of southernhemisphere fin whales accumulate only one (not two) growth layers per year-see Gambell(1968) p 124.
Blue

0.69

Sci. Rep. Whales Res. Inst.,
No. 27, 1975.

MINKE WHALES OFF BRAZIL

55

FIN
SEI

MJJASONDJFMAMJJASONDJFMAM
MONTH

Fig. 8. Reproductive cycles of rorqual whales: comparison of timing of events.
(Blue and Fin data from Mackintosh and Wheeler 1929 and Laws 1959, Sei datafrom Gambell 1968, Minke data from Omura and Sakiura 1956 and present report).

Location, season and temperature ofgiving birth. The presence of calves with their mothers
in 20°C water off Durban 30°S, but seldom in 27°C water off Costinha 7°S suggeststhat minke whales give birth in relatively cool and southerly waters and do not
usually, bring their calves into the warmest waters. This is interesting because
scientists traditionally believe that all whales bear their calves in the warmest partof their range. In minke whales it is chiefly the mature adults which enter the truly
hot tropical waters. What is the purpose of this?
Newly weaned minke calves offJapan are not found in water colder than about
l5°C (author's data) thus presumably suckling occurs in waters of about 20°-15°C
and females do not enter waters cooler than l5°C until after parting from theircalf.
What catch of minke whales can be sustained indefi,nitely off Costinha? If the southern hemisphere population estimate of300,000 minke whales is correct, and if they are equallydistributed around the longitudes, then about 45,000 are living in the l5°W700W western part of the South Atlantic and about 75,000 in the whole South
Atlantic.
The annual yield that this population could sustain cannot be determined atpresent but it will have to be shared between Costinha and the factory ships whichhunt the same stock in the Antarctic.
Future research
1 At Costinha a biologist should spend a season and:• examine the uteri of all females to check whether tiny embryos are present
or absent• examine ovaries of all females to determine presence or absence of corpora
lutea• take samples of testes in each month to determine state of spermatogenic
activity• take samples from every female of the vagina contents, examine them for
Sci. Rep. Whales Res. Inst.,
No. 27, 1975.

56

2

3

G. R. WILLIAMSON

sperm and thus discover whether any of the whales are actually mating.
Whale-searching cruises and tagging should be used to investigate:• is there a belt of minke whales stretching between Brazil and Africa during
the winter season?
• what numbers of minke whales are present in winter in mid-ocean areas,
off the west coast of S. America and off the east and west coasts of Australia?
Do northward migrating minke keep to the west warm-current sides of thesouthern oceans?
• in what temperature and latitudes does mating occur?
• in what temperatures and latiudes are calves born?
A factory-ship should be asked to catch samples of minke whales at all latitudes
on its way to and from the Antarctic.
SUMMARY OF NEW KNOWLEDGE ABOUT MINKE WHALESThe data from Costinha reveal the following new facts• immature whales precede mature whales in the migration to the north(Fig. 4).
• as whales get older and larger they migrate north later in the season (Fig. 4,
Table 7). The main concentration occurs during September-OctoberNovember.
• the 2 ~~: 1 ()' sex ratio among caught whales at Costinha, even making allowance for gunners selecting large and therefore female whales preferentially,suggests that there is a real imbalance of the sex ratio off Costinha and thatmany of the smaller mature males do not migrate so far north• mature whales go much further north to 7°S and into warmer water 27°C
than do immature whales• calves are born and suckled somewhere to the south of and in less warm
temperatures than the waters in which the adults congregate off Costinha• immature whales precede mature whales in the migration to the feeding
grounds (whereas in blue and fin whales the mature animals move south
before the immatures; see Table 11 ).
• the simultaneous presence during November-December of considerable
numbers of minke whales both off Brazil and in the Antarctic 7,000 km to
the south indicates either or both of the following: that there is great variation in timing of migration between different individual adult whales and/or
separate high latitude and low latitude stocks of minke whales exist. The
results of analysis of blubber thickness in different months also support thisconclusion.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The bulk of the new data presented in this paper was supplied by the Companiade Pesca Norte do Brasil, operators of the Costinha Whaling Station: Senor KiyoSci. Rep. Whales Res. Inst.,
No. 27, 1975.

MINKE WHALES OFF BRAZIL

57

hisa Kanda, President, Senor Issao lshigami, Manager, Senor Masahiro Saito, Factory Manager and catcher boat Captain A. Sato. Visits to the whaling station weremade by my friends Dr. Barry Cox, Dr. William Ledingham Dr. Jim Owen and
Mr. Tony Hall, helped by the British Council.
Data on minke whale catches in other areas and valuable criticisms of mypaper were given by Dr. Seiji Ohsumi of Japan (Antarctic catches), Dr. Peter Bestof S. Africa (Durban catches) and Mr. R.H. Shepperd of Sierra Fishing Agency(West South Africa catches).
Mr. Sidney Brown, Mr. Einar Vangstein, Dr. Melquiades Paiva, Dr. Soloncy
de Moura and Dr. David Sergeant helped me with data and criticism.
Dr. R. F. Macadam of Raigmore Hospital Pathology Department, Inverness,
Scotland carried out the histological examinations of the vagina smear and testis
samples.
Larry Foster of General Whale, California made the beautiful drawing of thewhale (Plate I).
REFFERENCES
BURMEISTER, H., 1867. Preliminary description of a new species of Finner whale (Balaenoptera bonaerensis).
Proc. zoo!. Soc. Lond., 1867: 707-713.
CUMMINGS, W. C. and P. 0. THOMPSON, 1971. Underwater sounds from the blue whale Balaenoptera
musculus. J. Acoustical Soc. America, 50 (4, part 2): 1193-1198.
Dm, T., S. 0HSUMI and T. NEMOTO, 1967. Population assessment of Sei whales in the Antarctic. Norsk
Hvalfangst-Tid., 56(2): 25-41.
GAMBELL, R., 1968. Seasonal cycles and reproduction in sei whales of the southern hemisphere. Discovery
Rep., 35: 31-134.
HARRISON, R. G., 1969. Reproduction and reproductive organs in Andersen; H. T. (editor), The biology ef
marine mammals. Academic press, New Tork and London, 511 pp.
]ONES, E. C., 1971. Isistius brasiliensis, a squaloid shark the probable cause of crater wounds on fishes andcetaceans. US Nat. Mar. Fish. Serv. Fish. Bull. 69(4): 791-798.
]ONSGARD, A., 1951. Studies on the little piked whale or minke whale, Balaenoptera acutorostrata Lacepede.
Norsk Hvalfangst-Tid., 40(5): 209-232.
LAURIE, A. H., 1937. The age offemale blue whales and the effect of whaling on the stock. Discovery Rep.
15: 223-284.
LAws, R. M., 1959. The foetal growth rates of whales with special reference to the fin whale Balaenoptera
physalus Linn. Ibid., 29: 281-308.
LAws, R. M., 1961. Reproduction, growth and age of southern fin whales. Ibid., 31: 327-486.
MACKINTOSH, N. A., 1942. The southern stocks of whalebone whales. Ibid., 22: 197-300.
MACKINTOSH, N. A., andJ.F.G. WHEELER, 1929. Southern blue and fin whales. Ibid., 1: 257-540.
MooRE, J.C. and R. S. PALMER, 1955. More piked whales from southern North Atlantic. J. Mamm.,
36(3): 429-433.
0HSUMI, S., 1964. Examination on age determination of the fin whales. Sci. Rep. Whales Res. Inst., 18: 4988.
0HSUMI, S., and Y. MASAKI, 1974a. Status of whale stocks in the Antarctic, 1972-73. 24th Rep. Intern.
Whaling Comm.: 102-113.
0HSUMI, S., and Y. MASAKI, 1974b. Biological parameters of the antarctic minke whale in virginal population level. IWC Small Cetacean Meeting at Montreal, report Ml 7 pp 1-12 (mimeo ).
0HSUMI, S., Y., MASAKI and A. KAWAMURA, 1970. Stock of the antarctic minke whale. Sci. Rep. Whales
Res. Inst., 22: 75-125.
Sci. Rep. Whales Res. Inst.,
No. 27, 1975.

58

G. R. WILLIAMSON

Omura, H., and H. SAKIURA, 1956. Studies on the little piked whale from the coast of Japan. Ibid., 11:
1-39.
PAIVA, M. P., 1961. Recursos basicos da pesca maritima no nordeste Brasiliero. Bol. Est. Biol. Mar. Univ.
Cceara, 3: !Opp (in Portuguese).
PAIVA, M. P., and B. F. GRANGEIRO, 1965, Biological investigations on the whaling seasons 1960/63 off northeastern coast of Brazil. Arq. Est. Biol. Mar. Univ. Ceara, 5(1): 29-64.
PAIVA, M. P., and B. F. GRANGEIRO, 1970. Investigations on the whaling seasons 1964/67 off north eastern
coast of Brazil. Arq. Cien. Mar. Univ. Ceara 10(2): 111-126.
PURVES, P. E., and M. D. MOUNTFORD, 1959. Ear plug laminations in relation to the age composition of
a population of fin whales (Balaenoptera physalus). Bull. Br. Mus. Nat. Hist., Zoo/., 5(6): 123-161.
RoE, H.S.J., 1969. Seasonal form~tion of!aminae in the ear plug of the fin whale. Discovery Rep. 35: 1-30.
SCATTERGOOD, L. W., 1949. Notes on the Little Piked Whale. The Murrelet, 30(1): 3-16.
SERGEANT, D. E., 1963. Minke Whales Balaenoptera acutorostrata Lacepede off the western North Atlantic.
J. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada, 20(6): 1489-1504.
TAYLOR, R.H.F., 1957. An unusual record of three species of whale being restricted to pools in the Antarctic sea ice. Proc. :(ool. Soc. Lond., 129: 325-331.
WILLIAMSON, G. R., 1959. Three unusual rorqual whales from the Antarctic. Ibid., 133(1): 135-144.

Sci. Rep. Whales Res. Inst.,
No. 27, 1975.

MINKE WHALES OFF BRAZIL

EXPLANATION OF PLATESPLATE I
Southern Minke Whale Balaenoptera acutorostrata bonerensis Burmeister 1867.
Drawn
by Larry Foster of General Whale, California from photographs of alive and deadspecimens.
PLATE II
Baleen plates of a typical Southern Minke Whale caught off Brazil. Note the assymetry of the pigmentation; the pale plates extend further back on the right sidethan on the left side, as also occurs in the fin whale.
PLATE III
Unusual case of minke whales trapped over-winter in pack ice in a coastal fjord of
Graham Land, Antarctica. In normal winters these individuals might be off
Brazil. (From Taylor 1957, photos copyright of British Antarctic Survey.)
Plate IV
Comparison of teJtis of two mature whales caught off Brazil with testis of two mature
whales caught in the Antarctic. In the Brazil whales, active spermatogenesis isoccurring; in the Antarctic whales very little spermatogenes is is occurring. Spermare visible only in the Brazil specimens and are the tiny black dots in the tubles.
Magnification Xl50. Photographs by Dr. R. F. Macadam.
Plate V
Testis tubule showing many sperm (the tiny black dots are the nuclei of the sperm
heads). From 9.1 m whale caught off Brazil, November 7 1974. MagnificationXlOOO. Photograph by Dr. R. F. Macadam.

Sci. Rep. Whales Res. Inst.,
No. 27, 1975.

59

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