2. Volcanism
2.1. Volcanoes and plate tectonics
Volcanism is the eruption of magma at the surface of a planet. Rocks produced by volcanic
processes are called volcanic rocks. The most prominent feature of volcanism is the volcano, an
accumulation of volcanic material (e.g. molten rock, rock fragments, and gas) ejected from acentral chimney or vent.
First let’s have a look at the distribution of volcanoes around the world and their relationship withplate tectonics (Fig. 15).

Figure 15: Global distribution of volcanoes and tectonic plates. Note that this map does not show underwater
volcanoes.

The map above tells us that there is a close link between the distribution of volcanoes and plate
tectonics. The great majority of volcanoes are located along plate boundaries. Most volcanoes
displayed on the map are related to subduction zones. But volcanoes are also found along
divergent boundaries (see the East African Rift in Fig. 15). Since the map above does not show
volcanoes located below sea surface, those related to mid-ocean ridges are not displayed.
However, one should keep in mind that underwater volcanoes may account for as much as 80%
of Earth’s volcanoes!
Volcanism occurs wherever magma reaches Earth’s surface. This happens along tectonic plateboundaries: mid-ocean ridges, continental rifts and subduction zones. But there is a third
geologic setting related to volcanism that is not located along a plate boundary: hot spots.
Examples of hot spots are Hawaii (see red dots in the middle of the Pacific Plate in Fig. 15, seealso Fig. 16), Yellowstone (continental hot spot in western USA), and Iceland (which happens tobe also on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge). The mechanism of formation of these hot spots is not very wellunderstood. A commonly accepted hypothesis suggests that the source of hot spots comes fromdeep within the mantle, perhaps even from the mantle-core boundary, and that a hot spot forms
when a narrow jet of mantle rock called mantle plume reaches the surface.

Figure 16: Relief map showing Hawaii and the Emperor Seamount Chain (left) and sketch of a seamount chain
related to the presence of a hot spot beneath a moving oceanic plate (right). As the plate moves toward thesubduction zone, a succession of volcanoes is formed above the fixed hot spot. Volcanoes are carried away by theplate (much like a conveyor belt) and progressively sink as they (and the plate underneath) cool down andcontract. At the same time, ocean waves and currents erode and carry away some of the volcanic material.



Not in regions of continental collision (e.g. Himalayas) because the magma solidifies before reaching the surface.

8Knowing how the temperature of Earth’s interior evolves with increasing depth (geothermal
gradient) is crucial to understand why volcanic activity occurs in a particular geologic setting. The
geothermal gradient in the Earth’s crust is on average 30°C/km. Its value greatly depends on thetectonic setting. For example, it increases sharply beneath mid-ocean ridges where the crust isthin and magma is formed near the surface. When the geothermal gradient intersects the rocksolidus, the rock begins to melt and a magma is produced (Fig. 17, see figure caption for further
explanations).

Figure 17: Cross section of the oceanic crust and mantle showing three geologic settings associated withvolcanism: mid-ocean ridge, hot spot, and subduction zone. The red curve delineates the geothermal gradient(temperature vs. depth) and the green curve delineates the solidus of mantle rock. Note that the melting
temperature (solidus) decreases with decreasing depth/pressure. The first graph to the left shows the geotherm of
a portion of the oceanic crust that is not related to volcanic activity (“normal” situation). The geotherm and thesolidus do not intersect and rock does not melt. In the three geologic settings where volcanic activity occurs, thegeotherm and the solidus intersect and rock begins to melt once temperature reaches the solidus. Source:
modified from Wikipedia (author: Woodloper).

2.2. The volcanic “plumbing” system
Magma usually originates in the asthenosphere by the processes described in figure 17. The
magma, less dense (hotter) than surrounding rocks, makes its way up through the lithosphericmantle and crust by moving along fractures and by melting surrounding rocks. Once magma
reaches the surface, it is called lava. A volcano is made of successive layers of lava and/or
pyroclasts (see section 5.6.). The path taken by the magma from its source to the surface
delineates different geologic structures described in the figure below (Fig. 18).

2.3. Interactions between volcanoes and other geosystems
Volcanoes interact with other geosystems (e.g. atmosphere, hydrosphere; Fig. 19). As we will see
later, volcanic gases (mainly water vapor, but also CO2, SO2, and lesser N2, H2, CO, S, and Cl)
released in the atmosphere may influence the climate. Volcanic activity also influences thebiosphere. Catastrophic volcanic eruptions have been a plausible cause of mass extinctions in thegeological past. Very large volcanic eruptions may cause short-term global cooling due to volcanic
aerosols remaining in the upper atmosphere and blocking the sunlight, and may be responsible
for acid rains and long-term global warming due to massive release of water vapor and CO2 in theatmosphere. Volcanic activity is also closely related to the circulation of groundwater heated in thevicinity of a magma (hydrothermal circulation), and therefore has an impact on the hydrospheretoo. Hydrothermal water returns to the surface as hot springs. Hot springs are sometimes
The solidus of a rock is its melting temperature. Below the solidus the rock is completely solid. Melting begins when thetemperature reaches the rock solidus.
Tiny solid particles and liquid droplets (e.g. sulfuric acid and water)

9

characterized by violent, intermittent eruptions of hot water called geysers.

Figure 18: Cross section of a portion of the lithosphere through which magma is rising toward the surface. Magmatypically accumulates in the crust in large magma chambers (1). Pieces of surrounding rocks can be incorporated
in the magma and change its chemical composition (2). The magma starts to crystallize as it cools, which changes
the composition of the remaining melt (3). Some of the magma leaves the chamber through fractures and forms
large sheets, either parallel to rock layers －sill－ (4) or intersecting rock layers －dyke－ (5). A volcano iscomposed of a central vent (6) which may branch off and form a side vent (7). Lava is ejected from the vents andform lava flows (8). Other materials which are ejected from vents are pyroclasts (ash, volcanic bombs) andgases (9).

Figure 19: Interactions between volcanoes and other geosystems: atmosphere, biosphere and hydrosphere (seetext for explanations).

2.4. Types of lavas and volcanic explosivity
Magmas/lavas may have different chemical compositions. Obviously, the composition of the rockfrom which the magma is initially derived (parent rock) is important in determining thecomposition of the resulting melt. Temperature is also crucial in controlling magma composition
because different minerals begin to melt at different temperatures (Fig. 20).
Magmas produced at mid-ocean ridges and oceanic hot spots are derived from the partial meltingof asthenospheric mantle rock. They are enriched in Fe and Mg. Their composition is referred toas mafic (from magnesium and ferric, Fig. 20). If such magma cools down slowly within theoceanic crust, the resulting intrusive igneous rock is called a gabbro. On the other hand, if itreaches the surface and cools down quickly, the resulting extrusive igneous rock is called basalt.
Gabbro and basalt have similar compositions but differ by their texture. The former iscoarse-grained whereas the latter is fine-grained. Gabbro and basalt are the two most common
rocks of the oceanic crust. Basaltic magma has a very low content of silica and is very hot. The
viscosity of magma is proportional to its silica content and inversely proportional to its
temperature. Therefore the viscosity of basaltic magma is relatively low, i.e. relatively fluid (Fig.
20). Hawaii is an oceanic hot spot and its volcanoes are characterized by fast-flowing,
low-viscosity lavas and non-explosive eruptions. Magma viscosity determines whether a volcanic
eruption is potentially more or less explosive. Highly viscous magmas tend to remain stuck in the
volcanic vent and act like a cork.
Another important factor determining the nature of volcanic eruptions is the concentration ofvolatile compounds (e.g. HO2, CO2) present in the magma. A volatile-rich, highly viscousmagma is much more likely to give rise to an explosive eruption. A magma nearing the surface
Silica molecules (SiO2) tend to form chains which greatly increase the viscosity of the magma.

10behaves like a soda drink when you unscrew the bottle cap. The volatiles contained in the magma
form gas bubbles which expand due to the pressure drop. Decreasing the amount of volatiles
dissolved in the magma make it also more viscous. A volatile-rich, highly viscous magma is likely
to give rise to an explosive eruption due to the pressure that progressively builds up in thechimney and is suddenly released in the form of a violent explosion.
Magma may gain components by melting the surrounding lithospheric rocks during its ascension
toward Earth’s surface (crustal contamination). If a basaltic magma initially derived from thepartial melting of asthenospheric mantle penetrates the continental crust, it can melt thesurrounding rocks and absorb elements from continental crustal rocks. Typical igneous rocks ofthe continental crust are granite and its extrusive equivalent, rhyolite. Their composition isreferred to as felsic (from feldspar and silica). Their color is lighter than mafic igneous rocks
because felsic minerals are lighter in color than mafic minerals (Fig. 20). Mafic and felsic rocks are
the two end-members of a continuum of rock/magma compositions. A basaltic magma travelinginside the continental crust can therefore become relatively more felsic as it melts surroundingrocks. Felsic lavas are highly viscous because there are not as hot as mafic lavas and contains a
lot more silica (Fig. 20). Related volcanic activity will therefore be more explosive. Magmas withfelsic or intermediate compositions may be produced in the following geologic settings:
continental hot spots (e.g. Yellowstone), continental rifts (e.g. East African Rift), and subduction
zones (e.g. Japan). In continental hot spots and continental rifts, the magma initially derives from
asthenospheric mantle rock but becomes more felsic as it penetrates the continental crust andmelts the surrounding rocks. In subduction zones, the initial melt is derived from asthenosphericmantle rock, oceanic crust and sedimentary rocks of various compositions (more or lesssilica-rich). In the case of an ocean-continent subduction, the magma can potentially become
more felsic as it penetrates the continental crust. Note that in all these geologic settings(continental hot spots, continental rifts, and subduction zones) basaltic (mafic) volcanism can also
take place.
In subduction zones (continent-ocean, ocean-ocean), the magma is often enriched in volatiles
such as water (filling the space between sediment grains or in hydrated minerals, e.g. clay
minerals) and CO2 (from marine carbonate sediments). If the magma is also rich in silica, then therisk of explosive eruption is high. On the contrary, the magma produced at oceanic hot spots ischaracterized by a low volatile content, a high temperature, and a basaltic composition (low silica
content), and therefore the risk of violent explosion is low.
We already mentioned (see caption of Fig. 18) that crystallization in a magma chamber influences
the chemical composition of the residual melt. The process by which magma compositionchanges during crystallization is called Crystal fractionation. The order in which minerals
crystallize in a cooling magma has been determined experimentally. The idealized succession ofminerals formed when magma cools is referred to as the Bowen series (see related slide). As
11

magma crystallizes, the residual melt becomes progressively more felsic. Therefore the nature of
volcanism (i.e. more or less felsic, more or less explosive) also depends on the timing ofextraction of the residual magma.
Mixing of different magmas is another way to change magma composition (magma mixing) andinfluence magma composition, hence the nature of volcanism.
From the text above, you can easily see why it is so important to understand the process ofmagma formation. Magma composition has a huge influence on the type of volcanic eruption it
triggers and the nature of the risk it involves for human populations.

Figure 20: Classification model of igneous rocks. Igneous rocks are classified according to their mineralogical andchemical compositions, here expressed by the proportion of selected minerals (expressed as a % of rock volume)
as a function of the silica content (expressed as a % of rock weight). The upper part of the figure shows images ofrock samples. Note the difference of color between felsic (lighter) and mafic (darker) rocks. Source: modified fromthUnderstanding Earth 6 edition (rock images: Imperial College Rock Library, except granodiorite: US National
Park Service website, and peridotite: Wikipedia).

2.5. Types of eruptions and volcanoes
Two categories of eruptions can be distinguished: central eruptions and fissure eruptions. The
former are associated with volcanoes in which lava and other volcanic material are ejected from acentral vent. The latter are eruptions during which lava erupts from fissures, cracks in the Earth’s
crust.
The type of lava influences the type of volcano. For example, shield volcanoes like Hawaii areformed by basaltic lavas related to an oceanic hot spot (Fig. 21A). In this setting low-viscosity lava
easily flows out of the vent and spreads over an extensive area to form a large volcano with
low-angle slopes. In contrast, volcanic domes are formed by highly viscous rhyolitic lavas which
tend to remain in the vent and produce a dome-shaped cap on top of the volcano (Fig. 21B).
Volcanoes composed primarily of pyroclastic layers (ashes and other larger fragments of volcanic
rocks) are called cinder-cone volcanoes (Fig. 21C). These volcanoes are typically related tobasaltic volcanism because a large fountain of magma (low-viscosity magma) is needed todeposit abundant fine-grained pyroclasts which form a cone. Successions of lava flows andpyroclastic layers are characteristic of stratovolcanoes (Fig. 21D). When the roof of a magma
chamber that has been partially emptied collapses, it forms a large depression called a caldera(Fig. 21E). Another geologic structure related to central eruptions is called a diatreme (Fig. 21F).
Diatremes are only known from the geologic record. No active diatreme system exists today. They

Note that magma viscosity is also influenced by the crystals it contains. A magma that has begun to crystallize before reaching
the surface and yields a high crystal content is more viscous than magma with a low crystal content.

12

consist of broad vents filled with fragments of rocks and solidified magma, and result from large
explosive eruptions of material initially found at great depths in the mantle. Diamonds originatingfrom the mantle may be found in some diatremes (e.g. the Kimberley diamond mine in Australia).
Fissure eruptions (Fig. 21G) are mainly associated to rifting along divergent boundaries (e.g.
Iceland). Large amounts of basaltic lava can be produced during these eruptions (flood basalts).
Gigantic flood basalts are found in the geologic record and are evidence of past volcanic eruptions
whose intensities were much greater than those of modern eruptions (e.g. Columbia River Basalts
in USA, Deccan Plateau in India). It is probable that these large eruptions have had a huge impact
on the biosphere and may even have caused mass extinctions (e.g. end-Permian mass extinction
related to Siberian Flood Basalts or Siberian Traps). Large amounts of volcanic ashes may also
accumulate during fissure eruptions and form thick layers of ash-flow deposits, anotherprominent feature of fissure eruptions.

Figure 21: Types of eruptions and volcanoes, the magma compositions to which they are related, and typicalexamples of volcanic edifices. Examples cited are those of active volcanic systems except the Kimberley diatremeth(approx. 80 million years old). Source: modified from Understanding Earth 6 edition.

2.6. Volcanic rocks
Volcanic rocks comprise two types of rocks: extrusive igneous rocks (EIRs) and pyroclastic
deposits (accumulations of pyroclasts). EIRs form by rapid cooling of magma/lava near or at
Earth’s surface. Pyroclastic deposits are pieces of EIR of various sizes, shapes, and textures
ejected during volcanic eruptions.
The texture of EIRs depends on the cooling rate of magma/lava. Slow cooling produces larger
crystals. A common texture seen in EIR is characterized by larger crystals “floating” in a matrix
made of tiny crystals (porphyritic texture, Fig. 22A). This texture is formed when a magma starts
cooling slowly in the crust －forming large crystals－ and the remaining melt cools faster as themagma approaches Earth’s surface －forming tiny crystals－. A uniformly fine-grained texture
indicates a uniformly rapid cooling very near or at Earth’s surface (Fig. 22B). Cooling may be so
rapid that crystals have no time to form. In this case, the resulting rock is an amorphous(non-crystalline) volcanic glass (obsidian, Fig. 22C).
Fast-cooling EIRs often display a vesicular texture (spherical cavities in the rock, Fig. 22E). This
texture results from the formation of gas bubbles in the magma when the pressure drops during
volcanic eruptions and gas is released and expands (think about what happens when you open abottle of soda). Pumice is an extremely vesicular volcanic glass typically formed during violent
explosive volcanic eruptions (Fig. 22E). The density of pumice is so low that it can float on water.

13

Pyroclasts are produced either by rock fragmentation during volcanic explosions or by thesolidification of pieces of lava ejected in the air. They are classified according to their size. The
finest pyroclasts are volcanic ashes (<2 mm, Fig. 23A). When they accumulate and become
solid, the resulting rock is called a volcanic tuff (Fig. 23B). The accumulation of larger, angularrock fragments is called a volcanic breccia (Fig. 23C). Pieces of lava ejected in the air that are
2-64 mm in diameter are called lapilli. Pyroclasts larger than 64 mm are called volcanic bombs(Fig. 23D). They typically have the shape of a rugby ball and can reach several meters across!
Another volcanic hazard is the pyroclastic flow. A pyroclastic flow is a mixture of hot ashes andgases moving down the slope of a volcano at very high speed (Fig. 24).

Figure 22: Examples of extrusive igneous rocks: (A) porphyritic andesite with large, light-colored crystals “floating”
in a dark-colored matrix made of tiny crystals (scale bar = 2 cm, source: Imperial College Rock Library), (B) basalt
composed uniformly of tiny crystals invisible to the naked eye (scale bar = 2 cm, source: Imperial College Rock
Library), (C) obsidian －note the shiny, glassy surface of the sample－(source: USGS), (D) vesicular basalt(source: Geological Survey of Ireland), and (E) pumice －usually light in color－(scale bar = 1 cm, source: Ersoy
et al., 2010).

Figure 23: Examples of pyroclasts and pyroclastic deposits: (A) volcanic ashes and SEM image of one single ash
particle (scale bar = 30 µm, source: USGS), (B) outcrop of volcanic tuff (source: USGS), (C) volcanic breccia
composed of fragments of diverse volcanic rocks (source: Colorado Geological Survey), (D) small volcanic bombs(scale bar = 2 cm, source: USGS).

2.7. Hazards vs. benefits
The danger of volcanic eruptions comes less from lava flows －you see them coming from far
away－ or volcanic bombs －unlikely to hit you unless you are very unlucky or very close to thecrater－ than from pyroclastic flows, lahars and lanslides (Fig. 24). Pyroclastic flows (definedin the previous paragraph) are rapid and sudden events which can quickly engulf inhabited valleys
in an extremely hot cloud of dust and gas. Lahars are torrential mud flows made of a mixture of
pyroclasts and water flowing down the slopes of volcanoes. They can form in various situations:lava melting glacier ice, pyroclastic flow melting snow or mixing with a river, or rain falling on
volcanic ashes. Another deadly volcanic hazard is landslide. The flanks of a volcano can become
unstable during an eruption and a portion may collapse and slide downhill. A large landslide
occurring underwater or a large chunk of volcano sliding into the sea or into a lake can trigger atsunami, which is another possible cause of fatalities related to volcanic eruptions.

Figure 24: Illustration of volcanic hazards. Photographs: lahar (left) and pyroclastic flow (right). Source: USGS.

14

Unlike earthquakes, it is sometimes possible to tell whether a volcano is likely to erupt soon.
Examples of indicators of an upcoming eruption are seismic activity (changes in the intensity andfrequency of earthquakes), ground deformation (swelling of the volcano), and gas emissions (gasreleased due to pressure drop within a magma approaching the surface). In ideal cases, thesesignals allow to predict eruptions several days before they actually occur (although eruptions canoccur without obvious detectable precursory signs!).
Volcanic activity has also qualities that are advantageous for human populations. Nutrient-richvolcanic soils are fertile and good for agriculture (Fig. 25A). Therefore many people’s lives
depend on volcanoes. Volcanic rocks, gases and mineral deposits related to volcanic activity may
be of great economic value. Volcanic rocks may be used as building stones. Minerals andchemicals produced by volcanoes can be used by the industry. For example, perlite (a kind of
volcanic glass) can be used for insulating buildings or filtering beer; boric acid can be used as
antiseptic and insecticide; sulfur can be used as a component of fertilizers, cellophane, bleaching
agent… Another important resource related to volcanic activity is geothermal energy. The heatfrom geothermal fields can be harvested to warm buildings and to produce steam that can beused to generate electricity (Fig. 25B). The production of electricity from geothermal energy isparticularly relevant today given the necessity to reduce our dependence on fossil fuels andnuclear energy.

Figure 25: Illustrations of the relationship between volcanoes and human populations. (A) Satellite view of the
Sakurajima near Kagoshima city －note the green flanks of the volcano with cultivated fields at the foot and adensely populated area nearby－(source: Google Earth), and (B) geothermal power plant (background) with hot
springs (foreground) in Iceland (source: Wikipedia).

15