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 /  +33ῌ,*2 ῐ ῏^

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 ^`a K_bcde_8fgh_iajk,
,**2 Y +, Z 2 [\] ,**3 Y 3 Z + [\,An Empirical Relationship between Ground-surface Temperature and Heat-discharge Rate on
Steaming Ground: Field Experiments Using IR Thermometer and Ice Box Calorimetry
, ῌ
ῌῌῌῌ
ῌῌῌ
Higashi UCHIDAῌ, Takahisa SATOῌῌ, Takatsugu YAMASHITAῌῌῌ and Akihiko TERADAῌThe heat balance model can be used to readily calculate the total heat-discharge rate through steaming groundbased on the distribution of surface temperature obtained by an infrared radiation (IR) thermometer. Thismethod is convenient ; however, the model involves some critical assumptions and large uncertainties. With theaim of developing a simple method for reliable measurements of the total heat-discharge rate, we carried out ﬁeld
experiments at the geothermal ﬁeld of Yoshioka hot springs, Aso volcano, Japan. To directly measure theheat-discharge rate at each measurement site, we used Ice Box Calorimetry (IBC), which can be used to measure
the combined conductive and convective heat-discharge rate, Q (W/m,), from the ground surface, based on thetime required to melt ice housed within an aluminum box placed on the ground. At the same time, we used an
IR thermometer to measure the ground-surface temperature, T ( ), at each site. Our observations revealed therelationship between the heat-discharge rate anomaly Q ( Q Q*) and the temperature anomaly T ( TT*), where Q* and T* were the average ground-surface temperature and the average heat-discharge rate outside thegeothermal area, respectively. Although the obtained data show a degree of scatter, the value of Q increases
almost linearly with T, consistent with the heat balance model : Q C T, where C is the proportional
coe$cient, which is estimated to be /+ , (W/m,/ ) from the least squares method. We consider that thisempirical relationship is applicable in obtaining accurate estimates of the total heat-discharge rate from steaming
ground. To assess the reliability of the linear relation and determine appropriate values of C, it would benecessary to conduct additional accurate, simultaneous observations of Q and T at sites on many di#erent
volcanoes and under various meteorological conditions. Furthermore, we carried out measurements when the
ground surface was wet due to rainfall. As a result, we obtained Q* of ,,* W/m,, larger than the value obtainedwith a dry ground surface. This experiment suggests that the presence of rainwater enhances heat convection,
including latent heat, near the ground surface.
Key words : steaming ground, Ice Box Calorimetry, IR thermometer, heat-discharge rate, ground surface temperature 32-ῌ*2.,  +ῌ-ῌ+/ 203ῌ+.*.  !" /,2*#$%&#$'()*)*+,*-./01234*-.567
Sendai District Meteorological Observatory, Japan Mete8-.9:;<
Aso Volcanological Laboratory, Kyoto University, /,2*orological Agency (JMA), +ῌ-ῌ+/ Gorin, Miyaginoku, Sendai 32-ῌ*2.,, Japan.
Kawayo, Minami-Aso, Kumamoto 203ῌ+.*., Japan.
 2+*ῌ**/, =>?@)A +ῌ,ῌ-0 BC : -11ῌ+1++ DEFGHIJHI 0.+ῌ-0#$%=>&#$
K'LM)*78NO-.9:;<
Fukuoka District Meteorological Observatory, JMA,
Present address. Volcanic Fluid Research Center,+ῌ,ῌ-0 Oohori, Chuo-ku, Fukuoka 2+*ῌ**/,, Japan.
Tokyo Institute of Technology, 0.+ῌ-0 Kusatsu, Gunma 203ῌ,03/ PQJ2 /*.ῌ+-11ῌ+1++, Japan.
#$%878RSTUVWX
Aso Local Cooperative O$ce for Volcanic Disaster
Corresponding author : Higashi Uchida
Mitigation, JMA, /*.ῌ+ Miyaji, Ichinomiya, Aso, Kumae-mail : h-uchida@met.kishou.go.jp
moto 203ῌ,03/, Japan.

) *E+FG#H,-I)J.

200+     K/L01 M N2O3

P45"# 6Q8A "# H78P4

 9RSTU: ;V)W <XY #<=?Z=8>"#$A ?P4 P'X6 @A[B C, IBC  8 9 :!"; #<= >?

DE$A IBC

I ,**1 ^  "JK_ `6 89:!cY* AH78Md'NOe

6

Pf (Matsushima,,**-)  )W 8A H78$ M h*) \FG L]H

5 La b  IBC)\  LLa^g @A

QRR

SAT S, [B *Ui< Yj t kl_ Vf U WX m \m[B nYZo ;V<4i< += U VfAp[5 U\q]r^j<XX5 A H78 5_`X Qῌ\$sabt ; c$Y (Harris and Maciejewski,,*** ; Italiano and Nuccio, +33,)

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mL
tS

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@~WAu&`X Qc ^

U ]rm +; ! [B<X "#P4Oe 6  x$
== $Y* X5&"#P4B{ |& 

+$ Qῌ vj  +_ U VfX mc  ῌ }vy

[Bij

s

Qc

#<

= D +32* ; Sekioka and Yuhara, +31.  0 5&FGA ) i$& \ &yx/
!s  I ,**- ; Sekioka, +32-+ #n ; &8d! +I

Qc cT

6 r $A Ahvwx,**.

w$$@U@A   vy z j tc kl

1F 8XX6WL ~y$nQῌ A opm!8&} qr s          8 `rP4B)  5

mc L
tc S

῍

s@~W Q A ῌ  ῍ T $n
Q

QῌQc

῎

&` &!P LA Terada et al. (,**2)  ) ! ;   !$AX
i FH

¡ X M 

XX5 U `FG

$U  7 ¡A¢w£¢0¤Ice Box Calorimetry ; ¥H IBC ¦§  8

¢0¤3¨©¡$ ¡CA Aª«¬D­® ¯! "#$%&' (Terada et al., ,**2)

L A6°

 GA r 5&FG ± 

6 $Y ¡ BA *.2 mm SAA *.+, m*.*3& #<= Benseman, +3/3 ; Hochstein and Bromley,m SATA +.*2+*, m, ¡ A *.*. m ¯,**/ Rg j$K/ $s²; cA 0/ g $Y D!$A ¡ M +**( )*+ ,-  

g  ³ ´¡¢µ$$U  ¥1F IBC $8fH £¶; ;H  U  ¢0¤3¨©¡U¤¦§A ¥!$Y o¦·§£  A  U¤@6 ° '(C\ ; A )*K¨&G©

D./0¸¹ºC »^$ª«  ^ 

¼¬$Y +$D$A 9­$@A *.,* m*.-* m B *.*- m9 ®F ` IBC

 h./01 23/0$456 7 

vj %  +&` Terada et al. (,**2) $La)W ) Qvwxy )@A[B T ®¯ k(5 n$ hvwxy

IBC%& '(CD)\ Q A ½Q As-8'9$ :;<=>?@AB$ C D'EF G;

201

Fig. +. (a) Locality and topography of Aso volcano in central Kyusyu, Japan. (b) Location of the
Yoshioka hot springs and neighboring geothermal areas of Yunotani, Jigoku and Tarutama. The
solid square indicates the Aso Volcanological Laboratory (AVL), Kyoto University.

 HI3 1J -H$I3 QG $N/' OP QR$

DJ  T  9U ! "# ! "&'R$!!V6' 1'0 
QR$  Y#+,-!

)*#  ^#Q  _/0`&a%bO'%()   *+fg_ Q $ QG





,) $ 7- C T0 "#W

IBC F $>

<#jk'
IBC ῏ῐ῍῎ῑv( IBC D'}23_/hN

c' d# e$X8'F

-ῌ+

d# 

 (Fig.

$X %Z  [\  X 8D] Y

p q-G;fg0rs#tuDP QG
QG ${(10|<

S&'D3

 Y $ X l60$m/#n( o(' IBC ,D' Q! 2 kWῌm,  $_ IBC ,DJC 6' Q 

3 K ,/  LM 3 E -* +- E 7- C  # 

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

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4

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6 ,. m 0  X

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9! * ;T60'R$%'X+  X/ $ !

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 +

C ++   Qῌ 0 +   _ + \ /  Qῌ  8 +m?

-  \# C -    X/%  ¡ ¢£w&'¥¦9§ (Fig. +)' /0 E&k

%/ Qc

   =>-ῌ ῏ῐ῍῎ῑ

1'   Y 

     Y+  Y0

/

1' Y#+,- < /t)*&'+,-

04567#0- 1' (Terada

and Sudo, submitted) ®*R 7- C

2¨$

C , 

E   R ¤

/©0! 3 ª«aH@O' rA&'(
1'  tu HI3 Q  
X 8D] Y ¬C +2  B R ­¯ . C!D# - EE °F# /8 # IBC D' Q >?@ABD'9 =>G±$#>QH²#I³ J T, 8D]´µ¶9 CD' +* cm · 9 T+*

# 1¸¹ GARMIN º»¶¼½ GPS '()*+,-.

202

Fig. ,. Aerial photograph of the Yoshioka hot springs at Aso volcano, Japan, taken on 2 October ,**2.
The lines X and Y drawn across the steaming ground C correspond to lines X and Y in Fig. -.

/$01234# (Fig. -) Q ῍$%

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X. 567#

0>5?@ ABC

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t PIT # 23 yS<#,x>8-5?<#.>>0_5[#S23!"#

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-ῌ, 
IBC ! & Q 0$%IT¨$%! 9N5

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NEC   NEC Avio 
TT*
Q Q
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Tῌ῍

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Q* .> >567# & Q* XYY!"\ !"# =GH5%¦ITT wQ Sekioka and  TH3+**PMV !"# $%&Yuhara (+31.) P%¦IT>U¡ 6G©ª*2ῌ+. mm ! «&:¬ 1234O4

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203

Fig. -. Spatial distribution of IBC (Ice Box Calorimetry) measurement sites (see Fig. , for location) andobtained geothermal heat ﬂuxes Q (W/m,) and Q* (W/m,). The ground-surface temperatures T () andT* () were measured using an IR thermometer. Q* and T* are the values observed outside of thegeothermal ﬁeld. T+* () represents the temperature at +* cm depth, as obtained from a thermistor.

* + +,-. /#$01&'  Qc *#$2 3

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3 Z3 [\9D]Y3T^_YM`-:

3ab*c.3

M $VO !d99 eTfgU:3h C $i X.ῌ ῐ ΐ ῒ ῎

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.ῌ+ ῐΐ῍ῑ῏($;<'vwxh C%j Y

 o pYMC.3 !47 qr's t 7tu47,,.. L 30ῌ ($O~7E + mῌs 7N-3* y tz4 33* y {|7 00, y}:3 Z3

qr m 7 ,, g 9D /. g 4 {|7 -0 g 4U:3 

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Fig. .. (a) Example of the placement of ice boxes at the site X.. To measure Q῎, Ice Box A was placed on
the ground surface. To estimate Qc , we placed Ice Box B on a thermal insulation mat close to the original
measurement site (A). (b) Infrared image of the area around Ice Box A. The ground-surface
temperature at X. was estimated to be ..1, which was the mean temperature under the white line
indicated in Fig. .(b).

 0 1234567 89 tc 3-2  mc  ,2 g 

BC 

Wῌm, :; /3* Wῌm, <=>?@A (Fig. -).ῌ- ῍ῐῒῌ῎

DEFGHI;AJK LBMNOP.ῌ, ῑ῏ΐQRST Fig. -  -῍, UVW XYDE

Fig. -  ?Z IBC XY>?@A  Q

FGH[\:;]^_  ?ZJK LB

M  + g >?!"`a Q !"bVW

T M N]^_Y!" sT bVW LBb]^_ [   Q (Q῎Qc) !" Q῎cd +-. :; .+1 C  JK LBM Qc >?R bNAeA + g fg

hRijJK klm C?Z=C m>?MX no!"bKVR pq

 rRsm tbVW?ZqC 

u@v < w xJ C EsJ Jy

pqu@R sT  w

xJ C EsJ

Jy?

?Z<bzR ?Z Y-  +.* Wῌm, C

Z@A *.. C  sJ Jy{ m pq|}v< ?~ Y M?~ X ?

7 XYq|}R +Z X-  ,,,** Wῌm C  |:v M

JK LB" + :; , CY JK L  6XY +ka=|}v

Bklm M^v,bV A  6:v=;n=m q+*+ m, ij

Mq|}v sT ?Z X .  1 C

@A ?Z Y- XYq +Y Fig. . b VWXa?Z{YJKn=;AvRMRa EOPX

rRsm tbV JK LB=sm tbVW

R JK bavC 

 ?Z WM
Zb§v

8¡d?

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LBb¤¥7b¦}

IBC ?Zb©§   JK ª« + cm ¬+­;Q} NAeA< ,*ῌ ¬#®

u@v x¯=°R±²=CY Xav  (Fig. -) m 7³¦g¦:v´±µLB=¶µ·v R (Fig. .b) ¸

RXY  ?Z< , ¹¬6­;Q}=

­ ?Z X- º 7 M B +»;A?ZqC  M¸­ ?Z X+  -+*, m, ij JK LB"= 3 ¼W

½?Z=kl 8§vAR=   ,/*±µ=C 

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90*:;<=$%&'(> +0-?;

205.ῌ. 

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 Q*

 

+C* T*  (Fig. -) 

D EFGHI JKG
LM

EN0

GO   8*

,-.1 $%PQRS  *   ,-.* ,-.1 TU +* cm * T+*  ,/.. )O V$%PQ

W*XYS!

M U  $%PQ +0* 8* Z
* T+* G[\! ]^ 7_" `U #a.ῌ+ 

IBC 

"# $%2bc45B   tc
 mc  Z!d! +,/0* +C +C ,2 g )O e  t   +,-2*

 m  -, g  .* g !"# 90 Q*  +0* Wῌm, +3* Wῌm, +Q*  ,,*
C -** Wῌm, GU! ! Q*   Wῌm, $%&'()*  
T 



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,-.. )O.ῌ/ 
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Fig. /

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The solid line indicates the best-ﬁt line obtainedusing the least squares method, taking into accountdata collected within the geothermal ﬁeld. The
arrow indicates the air temperature at the time
when the observations on the geothermal ﬁeld
were carried out. The horizontal and verticaldashed lines indicate Q* of ,,* W/m, and T* of,-.., respectively.

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Q T -.>,¡7& T':¤¥+,¦%w /0124­® $  ' $ §¨4y"tWX "7 H¯©0ῌ ῎ ῍ ῏µ³F6LM*C8' C 7 _! 3
 Ice Box Calorimetry ; IBC µ 4 Q
 $< !"$¶·*T /01273 ! ? $m]"< '/7!? $< DNQ * T SI! DN7&"
**Q* 8 ,,* Wῌm, ooi<¥(3 [½ ! 4vDN(¥ $<1(7Kῒ8i]!
 !]ῐ ῕ ῔ ῑBenseman, R.F. (+3/3) The calorimetry of steaming groundin thermal areas. J. Geophys. Res., 0., +,-ῌ+,0.
9 MK  (+32*) '῍J$
K  , +-ῌ,1.
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VW¦§¨`_!/©Q4 ª«cN5  ¬i F6VW¢£ +- ,ῌ1.
Harris, A. J.L. and Maciejewski, A. J.H. (,***) Thermal
surveys of the Vulcano Fossa fumarole ﬁeld +33.ῌ+333 :evidence for fumarole migration and sealing. J. Volcanol.
Geotherm. Res., +*,, ++3ῌ+.1.
ª °UC «d¥W (,**-) ῏¬J$­®*1¯5
°±±² ,**- 7³ΐ²´-ῑ r!i ´¶ CD-ROM V*//ῌ*.,.
Hochstein, M.P. and Bromley, C. J. (,**/) Measurementof heat ﬂux from steaming ground. Geothermics, -., +-+ῌ+/2.
·¥¸ ¹¸º ¹º » Hetty Triastuty 6» (,**1) ,**0 7·¼ῌqjF6 n¥ oi¼½VW[7¢ /*B -.3ῌ-/1.
Italiano, F. and Nuccio, P.M. (+33,) Volcanic steam

208

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output directly measured in fumaroles : the observed variations at Vulcano Island, Italy, between +32- and +321.
Bull. Volcanol., /., 0,-ῌ0-*.
Matsushima, N. (,**-) Mathematical simulation of magmahydrothermal activity associated with the +311 eruptionof Usu volcano. Earth Planets Space, //, //3ῌ/02.
Oppenheimer, C.M.M. and Rothery, D.A. (+33+) Infrared
monitoring of volcanoes by satellite. J. Geol. Soc., London,+.2, /0-ῌ/03.
Sekioka, M. (+32-) Proposal of a convenient version of theheat balance technique estimating heat ﬂux on geothermal and volcanic ﬁelds by means of infrared remotesensing. Memoirs of the National Defense Academy Japan,,-, 3/ῌ+*-.
Sekioka, M. and Yuhara, K. (+31.) Heat ﬂux estimation in
geothermal areas based on the heat balance of the groundsurface. J. Geophys. Res., 13, ,*/-ῌ,*/2.
 (,**.) !"#$%&'()*+ , ,* - 01ῌ3+.
Terada, A., Kagiyama, T. and Oshima, H. (,**2) Ice Box
Calorimetry : a useful method for estimating heat discharge rates through steaming ground. Earth Planets
Space, 0*, 033ῌ1*-.
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M@NOP QR!STUVWXY1Z V+/+ῌ*+3.
Terada, A. and Sudo, Y. (,**3) Geothermal activity within
the western slope geothermal zone of Aso volcano, Japan :development of a new geothermal ﬁeld in ,**0. Geothermics, submitted.
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