I fJ 7 ") ~ -: /;_;I(~r-~~~/h-1()N1Zl~G RADIATION:'lJi~;r~,~~rN/ (,J_,.} /~ /:·'/'~~!'----===·~D EFFECTS.

A report of the United Nations Scientific Committee
on the Effects of Atomic Radiation
to the Genera/ Assembly,
with annexes

..
...
;

. ,~

i1·

VOLUME I: LEVELS

.,,'
\

NOTE

The report of the Committee without its appendices and annexes appears as
Official Records of the General Assembly, Twenty-seventh Session, Supplement
No. 25 (A/8725).
In the text of each annex, Arabic numbers in parenthesis refer to sources
listed at the end.
The designations employed and the presentation of the material in this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of theSecretariat of the United Nations concerning the legal status of any country or
territory or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers.
Symbols of United Nations documents are composed of capital letters combined with figures. Mention of such a symbol indicates a reference to a United
Nations document.

UNITED NATIONS PUBLICATION
Sales No.: E.72.IX.17

Price: $7.00(or equivalent in other currencies)

Annex D

MISCELLANEOUS SOURCES OF IONIZL~G RIDL-l110N
CONTENTSParagraphs
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Paragraphs

1e. Radio-active ceramic glazes ....
f. Thoriated electrodes in welding
rods ....................... .

l. RADIATION SOURCES NOT NORMALLY AVAILABLE TO THE GENERAL PUBLIC . . . . . . . . . . . .

II.

PRODUCTS AVAILABLE TO THE GENERAL PUBLIC

A. Radio-active nuclides added to consumer
products .......................... .
1. Radio-luminous timepieces ....... .
2. Self-luminous devices other than
timepieces ..................... .
3. Other products ................. .
a. Radio-active gold rings ....... .
b. Heart devices ............... .
c. Radio-active substances in patientsreleased from hospitals ...... .
d. Radio-active materials used inschools .................... .

2-4

B. Products that are naturally radio-active
1. Building materials .............. .
2. Natural gas ................... .
C. Electronic products ................ .
I. Colour television receivers ...... .
2. Electronic products used for educational purposes ................ .
3. Shoe-fitting fluoroscopes ......... .

5-46

5-23
6-14

15-16
17-23
17
18-19

Ul. CONCLUSION

31

32-46
34-41

42-45
46
47-49

....•..........................

192

REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

195

TABLES

21

Introduction

1. The general population may be exposed to awide variety of miscellaneous sources of ionizing radiation. These sources can be classified in two categories.
The first category includes sources intended for industrial, medical, military or research purposes which. asa result of transportation accident, loss, theft, incorrect
use or disposal may escape control and find their
way to the public at large, or contaminate the environment. The second category consists of products containing natural or man-made radio-nuclides nominallysealed and which can be acquired by the generalpublic. referred to in this annex as consumer products.

2. About 100 transportation incidents involving
radio-active material have been reported throughout
the world from 1954 to 1968 (58, 60). Fourteen accidents involved aircraft carrying nuclear weapons orcomponents of nuclear weapons (58). Two of those
accidents, which resulted in appreciable contaminationof the environment, are discussed in annex A (paragraphs 243-244). Other publicized accidents include
the disappearance of two nuclear submarines and theburn-up in the upper atmosphere of a 238Pu isotopic
generator. More common incidents involve loss ortheft of radio-active material during ground transportation. A number of such incidents have been reported
in which injuries of varying degrees of severity haveresulted for members of the public coming in contact
with lost or stolen radio-active sources (3, 19. 33).
3. Among the sources commonly used for industrial.
medical, or research purposes, radium deserves special

23
24-31
24-30

Page

20

I. Radiation sources not normally available to thegeneral public

22

attention as it has been widely utilized since the turnof the century and is one of the most hazardous radionuclides. In the United States alone, about 2,000 curiesof 226 Ra have been processed and imported for use
in medical and industrial sources ( 50). Manufacturer
sales data indicate over 1,300 curies of 226 Ra (including 550 curies of luminous compounds) has been soldor leased. Estimates based on state licensing andregistration programme data can account for about
4 75 curies of industrial and medical radium at thistime. (This estimate does not include Federal use,
devices not subject to licensure or registration, andluminous compounds.) Most of the remaining radium
not accounted for can be attributed to the disposal of
luminous compounds and devices and radium returnedto the manufacturer ( 45). In the medical field, reportsof 442 radium incidents occurring since 1905 had beencollected by 1 January 1970 in the United States ( 8).
Detailed analysis of 115 radium incidents which
occurred during 1966 through 1969 show that 55 percent of all radium incidents are losses (72 per centof medical incidents) and that 75 per cent of theselosses occur during patient treatment and source
removal. However. for 299 incidents involving lost or
stolen radium, 66 per cent of the sources wererecovered ( 49).
4. In the case of major transportation accidents.
extensive decontamination. when feasible. was carriedout and the doses were kept to a minimum (paragraphs 243-246 of annex A). With other incidents.
even if the dose to some individuals was high. thenumber of ·exposed persons has been very small. The
population dose from these sources is certainly negligible when compared to natural background.

187.

dose to the lung after inhalation of 2! 2 Rn and its
decay products depends on the size and ventilation
rate of the room in which the watch is used but canbe estimated to be in most cases a small fraction of
the contribution of natural background.
11. It was already clear in the early 1960s that,probably because of radiation regulations, the averagecontent of 226Ra in self-luminous wrist watches, aswell as the annual production of such watches, wasdecreasing (52). At the same time, efforts were also
made to use beta-active sources of low energy, whichemit a small amount of gamma radiation or none atall, such as 3 H or 14.Pm, to eliminate the externalradiation exposure. For a period 00 Sr was used but
has now been discontinued on account of the beta
radiation and Bremsstrahlung escaping from the watch
and the hazard for the workers involved. In 1967,
the ENEA and the IAEA jointly recommended that
only 3H, 147Pm and 226Ra should be used as activating
radio-nuclides in luminous paint for dials and handsof timepieces and that 3H or 147Pm should be preferred
as far as possible (18). Average and maximum recommended values of the radio-nuclide content to be used
per timepiece were also indicated.
12. In recent years, 226 Ra in watches has tended
to be replaced by 3 H and, to a lesser extent, 147Pm.
In 1968, the annual United States production andimportation of timepieces activated by 226Ra wasestimated to be about 3 million whereas 6 to 7 million
timepieces contained 3H or 147Pm ( 45).
13. Although the use of 3H eliminates the risk ofexternal irradiation, experience has shown that tritiatedwater, or a simple tritiated organic molecule, evolves
from the self-luminous compound (26, 63) and leakageof 3H from watches has been found to result in annual
doses to wearers of the order of one millirad ( 65).
14. The Committee is not aware of any recentlypublished survey on radiation doses resulting fromthe use of self-luminous timepieces. However, taking
into account the increased use of nuclides giving rise
to smaller exposure and the development of performance standards, it seems very likely that the geneticallysignificant dose has considerably decreased since I 960.

II. Products available to the general public
A. RADIO-ACTIVE NUCLIDES ADDED TO CONSUMERPRODUCTS

5. Radio-active materials, either natural or manmade, are often incorporated into consumer products.
A list of such products, which does not pretend to becomprehensive, is presented in table 1 ( 13). The useof radio-nuclides to produce luminosity appears atpresent to be the largest single application of radionuclides in products available to the general public.
Quantitative data on the doses resulting from the
distribution of such products are scarce but it isestimated that the contribution of radi0-luminous timepieces, which is relatively well documented, amounts
to more than half of the average gonad dose fromall consumer products containing radio-active materials (45).

1. Radio-luminous timepieces
6. Several studies on doses arising from radioluminous timepieces were conducted around 1960,
when 226 Ra predominated as the activating material(12, 25, 31, 34, 51, 52). The alpha activity of sucha source is the main means of producing fluorescence,
while the beta activity and accompanying gamma rays
give rise to the external radiation exposure of thewearer. The radium content of self-luminous timepieces was found to vary considerably, depending upon
many factors such as size of hands and dials, andradium concentration in the luminous paint. In a summary of the investigations, Seelentag and Schmier (52)reported that the average radium content of men's
wrist watches containing radium as a luminizing material varied from 0.014 to 0.36 microcurie, with amaximum observed value of 4.5 microcurie.
7. The actual dose received by a wearer will depend
on a number of factors such as the amount of radiumin the watch, the length of time that the watch isworn during the day, and the habits of the wearer.
It has been estimated ( 52) that the annual gonaddose to males wearing a watch only during waking
hours (16 hours per day) might be about one fifth of
the 24-hour dose. and might be about 15-30 millirads
per year, normalized to a watch activity of one microcurie.
8. Radium-dial pocket watches, which are worn in
relatively close proximity to the gonads, are potentiallya greater genetic hazard than wrist watches with equalamounts of 2 ~6Ra (43). However, they are not worn
overnight, and measurements on a phantom indicatedthat the annual dose to the testes is about 60 mrad
µCi-1 , which is lower than the average annual dosefrom a wrist watch of the same activity worn 24 hours
a day (27). As regards self-luminous alarm clocks.
Joyet and Miller (25) estimated the average gonaddose from that source to be on!y one tenth of the
gonad dose from luminous wrist watches.
9. Estimates of the genetically-significant dose fromradium in watches around the year 1960 are shownin table 2. On average. the genetically-significant dosewas 2 mrad y-1 and, in all cases, less than 4 mrad y-1 •10. The fraction of ~~ 2Rn leaking out of the watches
was reported to vary widely (12).-Tbe radon content
measured after a build-up of 10 hours in an airtightbox was found to varv from around 0.1 to 30 nanocuries per microcurie 2:Z 0Ra for new. watertight watches
and for loosely sealed, old watches, respectively. The

2. Self-luminous devices other than timepieces
15. Although nowadays radio-luminous phosphors
are usually activated by 3H, radium bas been extensively
used, primarily by the aircraft industry and the military.
During World War II, the major United States manufacturer of luminous markers used several hundredcuries of radium in production for the armed forces.
Some of those products find their way into consumer
outlets as government surplus ( 48).
16. The dose resulting from the normal use of the
majority of self-luminous devices is probably very low
but the possibility always exists that persons receive
greater exposure than expected because of the releaseof the radio-nuclide during accidents, fire or unconventional use of the product. However, the probabilityof such circumstances occurring will normally besmall (13).

3. Other productsa. Radio-active gold rings
17. It has been reported that spent gold-encasedradon seeds, originally intended to be implanted into188

tumours, have occasionally been used in the manufacture of gold rings ( 4, 56). In one instance irradiation from long-lived daughter products of radon that
became incorporated in the gold caused sufficientdamage to adjacent skin to necessitate amputation of
the affected finger.

B. PRODUCTS THAT ARE NATURALLY RADIO-ACTIVE

1. Building materials

24. The relative content of natural radio-nuclides inbuilding materials may lead to a significant difference
between the external radiation dose rates received
indoors and outdoors. The walls of buildinos act asa shield against outside radiation but this;, effect isoften offset by radiation resulting from the radioactivity of the building materials (annex A, paragraphs 132-136).

b. Heart devices
18. Owing to its high ratio of power output toweight and volume, and to its long half-life, 238Pu isused as a power source for isotopic generators. In the
medical field, about 10 ~38Pu sources were in use inpatients in March 1972 as batteries for heart pacers.
This practice has been introduced to avoid the surgicalreplacement of the conventional electrical batteries
in heart pacers each 18 months. 238 Pu is also envisaged
as a power supply for a mechanical pump which would
totally replace the human heart. If all the technologicalproblems can be overcome, there might be as muchas 100 megacuries of ~38 Pu committed to this use by
the tum of the century (29).
19. In the present state of technology, the dose
equivalent received by someone staying continuously
near the patient would be of the order of one rem
per year for an artificial heart and of one millirem per
year for a heart pacer (15). The dose to the adjacenttissue in a person wearing a pacemaker would be verymuch higher but is essentially a matter of medical
concern only.

~5. Increase~ in expos?I'e occur when highly-radioactive construction matenals are used. For instancephosphate rocks often have a high content of radiu~p7). In tI!e United States, the growth_ ?f the phosphatemdustry. linked to the use of the tailings as building
material, bas possibly led to a significant increase in
the exposure of local populations (32). In a United
Kingdom survey, gypsum which is also a waste productfrom fertilizer from imported phosphate rock wasfound to be at least twice as active (in terms of gammaray emission rate per gramme) as any other building
material ( 14). In Sweden, light-weight concrete fromuranium-rich shales has been reported to give indoor
dose rates two to three times the normal outdoor dose
rate (59).
26. A special situation arose in Grand Junction,
Colorado, in the United States, where approximately
200,000 tonnes of uranium-mill tailings were usedduring the period 1952-1966 as fill material understreets, driveways, swimming pools, water pipes andsewer mains, but also in habitable structures where
they resulted in potential exposures from external
gamma radiation and inhalation of 222Rn decay products. By August 1971, gamma levels had beenassessed in approximately 10,600 structures out of
18,000. About 3,000 of these were actually foundto have tailings under, or adjacent to, the building(11, 55). It is estimated that the total number ofstructures with tailings located under or against themin the Grand Junction area is about 3,600 (55).

c. Radio-active substances in patients released from
hospitals
20. Members of the families of patients who havebeen released from hospitals after having been treatedwith radio-active substances may receive some exposure
from radio-active nuclides still retained in the patients.
The practices concerning the amount of activity permitted in patients leaving hospitals vary from country
to country but often reflect current international recommendations (22) intended to limit the dose received
by other persons than the patient to less than 0.5 rad
per year.

27. Analyses of gamma maps of about 1,000
habitable structures, including residences, schools,
business and public buildings. were completed by
October 1971. Data for 670 residences show that, in
80 per cent of these, the average levels above background ( taken as 9 µ.R b-1 ) are less than 10 µ.R h-1 ;in about 18 per cent they are in the range 10-50 µ.R
b-1 , and in only 0.3 per cent above 100 µ.R b-1 (11).
Assuming that the average time spent indoors is 17
hours per day (paragraph 263 of annex A), doses to
the gonads corresponding to levels of 10, 50 and
100 µ.R h-1 are approximately 50, 250 and 500 mrad
y-1, respectively.

d. Radio-active materials used in schools
21. Pupils in schools sometimes use radio-active
materials in science classes. Recommendations for theprotection of pupils exposed to radiations used inschools have been given by the ICRP (21).

e. Radio-active ceramic glazes
22. The use of uranium compounds to produce
certain brightly colored pigmented glazes for ceramicware such as platters, pitchers, vases, water mugs andcoffee cups was reported as early as 1906. For a setof tableware widely available in the United States, it
is estimated that the beta-radiation dose to the hands,
assuming a continuous contact with the tableware for
90 minutes per day, ranges from 2 to 10 rads per
year (36).

28. The concentration of 222Rn decay products instructures built with tailings are not readily correlatedwith the gamma levels. Preliminary measurements
indicated levels of radon daughters ranging up to
0.4 WL1 which is 100 times the background level ( 11).

f. Thoriated electrodes in welding rods
23. When thoriated tungsten electrodes are used togenerate an arc, thorium it released from the arc andbecomes airborne as a fume. The activity released issufficiently diluted by normal convection currents forthe concentration in the air breathed by the operator
to be very low. Significant concentrations might result
only if the equipment is used in a small, totallyenclosed, space (5).

1 A working level (WL) is the term used in uranium mines
to describe radon-daughter product activities in air. This termis defined as any combination of short-lived radon-daught~r
products in one litre of air that will result in the ultimate eq-ussion of 1.3 105 MeV of potential alpha energy. The numericalvalue of the working level is derived from the alpha energy
released by the total decay through 2HPo of the short-lived
radon decay products 21spo, 2HPb and 214Bi at radio-active
equilibrium with 100 pCi of 222Rn per litre of air.

189

29. So far the area of Grand Junction is the only
one where it has been determined that tailings havebeen used extensively in construction. However, sometailings have been found under structures in other
cities in Colorado and surveys are being carried out
in the United States to investigate the extent of use
of tailings in all areas surrounding present and former
mill operations ( 11 ) . It is not known if similar situations occur in other countries.
30. By contrast it is clear that an appropriate choiceof low radio-activity raw materials would cause asignificant reduction in the population dose fromexternal radiation, as several studies have shown that,on a national basis, the radio-activity of a building
material varies considerably (30, 64).
2. Natural gas
22 ~Rn31. Averagelevels in natural gas samples
collected from different geological formations of theUnited States were found to range from 3 to 67 pCi 1-1,
with a maximum observed value of 160 pCi 1-1 ( 6).
When natural gas is used. 222 Rn is released. Its maximum build-up is expected to occur in a closed area
containing unvented gas appliances. In a typical dwelling. its concentration in air would be about 500 times
less than its concentration in gas (24). Taking an
average 2 ~2 Rn level in ~as of 35 pCi 1-1 • the concentration in air would be about 0.07 pCi 1-1 , which,assuming average conditions of radio-active equilibrium
between 222 Rn and its daughters, corresponds to a doseof about 20 rnrad y- 1 to the basal cell nuclei of thebronchial epithelium (annex A, paragraph 117). However. actual doses are expected to be much lower
because most appliances are vented and also because
any appreciable transmission time from well to consumer would decrease the 222 Rn content by radioactive decay.
C. ELECTRONIC PRODUCTS

32. Electronic products may be sources of ionizing
radiation when electrons are accelerated at potentials
in excess of about 10 kilovolts. Potential emitters of
x rays are high-voltage rectifiers. radio-transmitter tubes.
klystrons. electron microscopes, etc. A large variety of
those devices are used for medical, industrial. or
research purposes and are outside the scope of thisannex. However. it may be recalled here that the
problem of stray x rays around high-voltage tubes was
exemplified in 1960 when two technicians exposed topulsed x rays from an unshielded klystron tube wereseriously injured in Lockport, USA ( 17).
33. Household colour television receivers are themost common electronic products with the potential
of exposing the general public to x radiation.

small b_e~ current of s~~e 0.1 milliampere. X-ray
production m colour telev1S1on sets is enhanced becauseof an increase of the accelerating voltage to 25 kilovoltsor more and of the beam current to about one milliampere resulting in a greater production of morepenetrating radiation. High-voltage rectifiers and shunt
regul_a~or tubes. are the o!her sources of x rays in a
telev1s1on receiver. Certam models are designed tooper~te ,~ithout shunt regulator tube a~d some are fully!ra~s1stonzed. ~he trend. tov.:ards sohd-state circuitry
1s likely to contmue and 1mpltes that the only vacuum
device remaining in a television receiver within a few
years will be the picture tube (7).
35. The public-health significance of the problem ispotentially greatest in the United States. where 25
million colour sets were in use in January 1970 (53)and where it is estimated. from the present rate ofincrease of colour television sets, that approximately
70 per cent of all homes will have them by 19 7 5 (16).
In 1967, approximately 110,000 large-screen colour
television receivers were modified by replacing the highvoltage shunt regulators which produced an excessive
downward emission of x rays (47). A field survey
conducted in the state of Florida in November 1967
on 148 sets showed that the modification programme
had been effective but discovered that 43 sets had x-ray
emissions from sources other than the shunt regulator
tube in excess of the ICRP limit. These x rays originated from component sources that could be associatedwith the sets of all manufacturers. thus indicating a
potential industry-wide problem (38). To obtain
additional information. a home survey was conductedin the Washington (D.C.) metropolitan area in December 1967 and January 1968. It was found that 76 percent of the 1.124 colour television receivers examined
did not emit any measurable levels of x rays but that
6 per cent exhibited exposure rates above the ICRP
limit, in most cases because of excessively-high voltage(39). X rays were detected regardless of the age ofthe sets but there was evidence of a downward trend
for receivers sold from 1964 to I 967.
36. Table 3 presents the estimates of the averageannual doses for both children and adults. based on
average viewing habits and on the average front
face exposure rate of 43 ,uR h-1 at five centimetres thatwere observed in the Washington survey. The average
dose to the gonads of male children is estimated at I .5
mrad y-1 but the distribution of x-ray emission would
suggest that about 1 per cent of the viewing population
might receive doses larger than those presented intable 3 by a factor of about 60 ( 40). The annual
genetically-significant dose to the United States population was estimated to be 0.5 millirad based on theassumptions that. over the country. the distribution of
x rays from television sets and the viewing habits ofthe population are sLmilar to those observed in the
Washington metropolitan area (66). However, it waspointed out that the ener!!J dependence of the detectors
used in the Florida and Washington survevs led tooverestimates of up to a factor of three of the- exposure
rate of cathode-ray tube and rectifier tube emissions

I. Colour television receivers
34. Since the advent of commercial television
broadcasting. it has been recognized that cathode-ray
tubes of television receivers produce x rays, the output
of which depends sharply on tube voltage and isdirectly proportional to tube current.~ In monochrome
sets. the x rays are produced in small amount andhave a poor penetrating power. because of the relatively
low accelerating voltage of about 20 kilovolts 2nd the(66).
37. Other home surveys were more recently conducted in the United States in order to check if the
x-ray emissions complied with the guidelines. In Pennsylvania and in Puerto Rico, Jess than I O per cent of
the colour televisions surveyed were found to emit radiation in excess of the ICRP limit and none exceeded

1 The ICRP recommends that the x-ray exposure rate 5 cm
from the surface of any television set should not exceed
0.5 mR h-1, which is equivalent to an air dose rate of
0.435 mrad h-1 (20).

190

3.0 mR h-1 (9, 28). In Suffolk County, New York. over
6,000 sets were inspected in 1968-1969; about 16 percent emitted radiation in excess of 0.5 mR h-1, themaximum observed being 150 mR h-1 ( 1). The outstanding causes of x-ray emissions were improper adjustment of the high-voltage control and faulty shuntregulator tubes. A follow-up of this survey showedthat approximately 11 per cent of the sets that were
re-surveyed were emitting x rays above the ICRP limit
because of improper servicing ( 2).
38. The first phase of the United States performancestandard for television receivers became effective forsets manufactured after 15 January 1970, and thefinal and most stringent aspect was effective after June
1971. Television receivers must meet the 0.5 mR h-1
limit under conditions of extreme misadjustment andwith the component and/or circuit failure thatmaximizes emission ( 44). This means that undertypical operating conditions. the emission from recently-built colour television receivers is expected to beindistinguishable from background ( 54).
39. Smaller-scale surveys have been conducted outside the United States. In the United Kingdom, the only
source of x rays in currently-produced sets is the
picture tube and the maximum dose rate occurs at thefront screen. A survey completed by April 1970 concluded that the average male-gonad dose from normal
viewing of receivers whose picture tube is set at a
typical high voltage is about 0.8 !-'rad y- 1 ( 41). Allowing for high voltage regulation. variability of x-ray
output and the effect of line voltage fluctuations, thedose rate in air five centimetres from any receiverleaving a factory is unlikely to exceed 15 !-'rad h-1 ,corresponding to an average male-gonad dose of about
0.2 mrad y-1 • It was observed that under test conditions of service misadjustment or circuit failure tending to maximize x-ray emission or both conditions
combined, some manufacturers' receivers could be madeto exceed slightly the ICRP limit ( 4 2).
40. In Canada, in contrast to the other surveys, thefront face of the sets was not monitored as it was assumed that the glass safety plate of the picture tube
provided an effective shielding. About 11 per cent of
the receivers tested gave dose rates above the ICRP
limit but the proportion was found to decline in successive years since 1966 (10).
41. The foregoing surveys, as well as the results
reported from other countries (23), tend to show that.
under conditions of normal operation and proper servicing, the x-ray emission from recently-built colour
television receivers is negligiole.

the beat effect, the magnetic effect, and the fluorescenceeffect of cathode rays, had been distributed by theUnited States producer from about 1910 to 1968. The
x-ray exposure rate at a distance of 30 centimetres
was greater than 0.1 R h- 1 for 25 per cent of the 175
t~bes tested. and greater than 1 R h-1 in the proportion of 6 per cent. The number of students who might
have been exposed and the average exposure were notdetermined. As a consequence oCthe survey, the company currently manufacturing the tubes in the UnitedStates ceased the production of the faulty tubes andredesigned them. The fluorescence-effect and themagnetic-effect tubes were then found to meet the
newly-promulgated requirements of 10 mR h-1 at 30
centimetres from any surface or enclosure of the tube,
and were allowed to be sold. The heat-effect tube
failed to meet requirements and its production was
terminated ( 62).
44. In the same survey, 103 x-ray tubes were found,of which 97 were unshielded and many were reported
as not in use. Measurements were made on 21 of theunshielded tubes. Eleven emitted at rates of roentgens
per hour 60 centimetres from the anode, the maximum
calculated value being 108 R h-1. Some of the tubes
could emit X rays in all directions at rates many times
the recommended maximum. Under the new regulation. the divergence of the x-ray exit beam should
not exceed 1r steradians and the enclosure must be
equipped with a beam-blocking device (46).
45. In a preliminary survey conducted in Kansas
schools in 1968, measurable exposure rates wererecorded in the vicinity of the x-ray tubes and of somecold-cathode gas discharge tubes (57). The maximum
exposure which resulted from the use of hand fluoroscopes was to the bands of 10 high school students
over a school year and amounted to about 700 millirads. Other exposure rates were lower by at least anorder of magnitude. Most of the x-ray-producing
devices available in the schools were not in use. Subsequently, discontinuance of hand fluoroscopy was recommended.
3. Shoe-fitting fiuoroscopes
46. In its 1962 report, the Committee referred tothe irradiation of individuals by shoe-fitting fluoroscopes.
Information available to the Committee indicates thatthose devices are much less frequently used than formerly. When in use, they will cause exposure rates tothe feet of about 5 rads per minute or more.

m. Conclusion
47. The widespread use of self-luminous wrist
watches activated by 2 ~ 0Ra led to a genetically-significant dose of about 2 mrad y-1 around 1960. As aconsequence of international recommendations andnational regulations in some countries. the use of 226 Ra
is being gradually discontinued and is being replacedby 3H and, to a lesser extent, 147Pm. which give rise
to much lower doses to the users. There is no recent
estimate of the present contribution of self-luminous
wrist watches to the genetically-significant dose but it
is expected to be considerably reduced from the 1960
value. However. significant individual doses are likely
to be received in case of accidental ingestion of theradio-luminous paint.
48. The radiation exposure from colour television
receivers seems to follow the same trend. In the United

2. Electronic products used for educational
purposes
42. Many schools in their science class demonstrations use equipment which produces ionizing radiation.
During April 1969. a survey was performed in 181
high schools throughout the United States to determine
the magnitude of possible radiation hazards fromdemonstration devices designed to emit x rays or
which may emit x rays as a result of their intendeduse (61).
43. Survey findings showed that three types of cold
cathode gas discharge tubes produced outside the tube
significant levels of x rays which were not essential tothe effect demonstrated. An estimate of 15.000 to
30,000 of those tubes, which were used to demonstrate
191

States, the genetically-significant dose from that source
was estimated to be 0.5 mrad y-1 in 1967. Since then,federal performance standards for television receivers
have gone into effect so that the genetically-significant
dose should now be very small. In the other countries,
because the proportion of colour television sets is much
lower than in the United States, the geneticallysignificant dose is also certainly very small.
49. The external radiation is influenced to a large
extent by the radio-active content of the building maTABLE 1.

terials. Analysis of table 18 of annex A indicates thatthe average external dose rate indoors may be lower
or higher than the outside dose rate depending upon
local circumstances such as geology, choice and originof building material, etc. It is evident that the influenceof the building material on the external dose rate isvery high, and that the choice of material therefore
should be given proper attention. Building materials
with unusually high radio-active contents should be
avoided.

PRODUCTS CURRENTLY .WAILABLE CONTAJN'ING RADIO-NUCLIDES (13)Product•

Activity or mas• per productNwclid,(ror.ge of oppro.rimote :•aluts)

3H

147J>m5 to25 mCi
65 to 200 14Ci
0.1 to 3 µCi
up to 10 Ci
up to 0.3 Ci
up to 20 µCi
5 to 50 rnCi
lOµCi

3H

25mCi

A. Radio-luminous products(a) Paints and plastics
147Pm

1. Timepieces ............. .

226Ra

3H
1-t,pm

2. Aircraft instruments

226Ra

3H

3. Compasses ............. .

4. Instrument dials and markers ................. .
5. Instruments, signs and indicators ............... .
6. Thermostat dials and pointers ................. .
7. Automobile lock illuminators ................. ·{8. Automobile shift quadrants
9. Bell pushes ............ .
10. Speedometers .......... .
11. Rims
forunderwater
watches ............. .
12. Fishing lights .......... .
13. Spirit levels ............ .

0.75Ci3H

25 rnCi

3H

2 to 15 rnCi
2mCi
25mCi
0.3 mCi
0.1 mCi

H7pm

att
3H
147J>m

3H
3H

0.3mCi3 to4 mCi
5 to25 mCiSH

0.2 to 2 Ci

3H
3H

0.25 Ci
4Ci
0.3Ci

HC

(b) Sealed 111bes

1. Marine compasses ...... .
2. l\farine navigational instruments
3. Markers............... {85Kr

4. Instruments, signs and indicators .............. {3H

5. Exit signs for commercial
buildings ............ .
6. Large signs ............ .
7. Small exit signs ......... .
8. Step markers ........... .
9. Mooring buoys and lights
10. Public telephone dials ... .
11. Light switch markers .... .
12. Bell pushes ............ .
13. Miniature light sources
B. Electronic and electrical devices

1. Electronic tubes ........ .

8.5Kr

2Ci
0.25 Ci

3H
3H
3H
3H
3H
3H
3H
3H
3H

15 Ci
30 Ci
2 Ci
2Ci
2 Ci
0.5 Ci
0.2Ci
lOmCi
20mCi

3H

1 to 104 µCi
1 to 5 µCi
1 µCi
1 to 5 µCi
0.15 to 5 14Ci
0.1 µCi
5 µ.Ci

63Ni
H7Pm
8.5Kr

SOCo
~26Ra
137Cs

192

TABLE

1. PRODUCTS CURRE.'ITLY AVAILABLE CONTAINING RADIO-NUCLIDES (13) (continued)
Prod:1ds

2. Glow discharge tubes
3. Voltage discharge tubes ..
4. Cold cathode tubes ..... .
5. Fluorescent lamp starters ..
6. Gas discharge lamps (highpressure mercury-vapour
lamps) ................ .
7. Vacuum tubes ......... .
8. Electric lamps ......... .
9. Germicidal
lamps.
sunlamps, lamps for outdoor
and industrial lighting ... .
10. Glow lamps ............ .

Xue/id,A cti-:,-i!:,, or mass f>tr prcdioct(range o; appro.rima:e :•a/uts)

22GRa

0.01 to 10 ,u.Ci
3 ,u.Ci
90,u.Ci
1 ,u.Ci

Natural thorium
Natural thorium
Natural thorium

6 lQ-3 µCi
0.8 to 1.2 per cent by weight
50mg

Natural thorium
3H

2g
0.01 mCi
30,u.Ci
5,u.Ci
5 µCi
5 ,u.Ci

HiPm

ooco
11. Spa<k gap '""'' ........ ·{

63Ni

1arcs
12. High voltage protection devices .................. .
13. Low voltage fuses ....... .

147Pm

147Pm

3 ,u.Ci
3,u.CiC. Antistatic devices
22BRa

1. Lightning rods .......... {241Am

2. Antistatic devices contained
in instruments ......... .

226Ra

3. Antistatic bmshes ........ {

210po
241Am

4. Antistatic devices containedin precision balances .....
D. Gas and aerosol (smoke) detectors

10,u.Ci
0.05 to 0.5 mCi
2 to 25 ,.ci
1 mCi

;li:

0.06 to 0.1 mCi
0.01 to 15 ,u.Ci
7mCi

Natural or depleted
uranium

7.5 mg2

1. Smoke and fire detectors .. {0.2 to 1 mCi
0.06 to 0.7 mCi

E. Ceramic, glassware, alloys, etc. containing uranium or thorium
1. Chinaware . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Natural uranium
Natural thorium
2. Ceramic tableware glaze . . Natural or. depleted{
uraruum

3. Glassware. glass enamel,{ Natural thorium
glass enamel frit . . . . . . . . . Natural o~ depleted
uran:um
4. Optical lenses . . . . . . . . . . .
Natural thorium
5. Incandescent gas mantles . . Natural thorium
6. Magnesium-thorium alloys Natural thorium
7. Products containing rareearths i.e.: arc carbons.
lighter flints, metallurgicaladditives, precision lenses,
television tubes. electronic
ceramics, microwave de-{ Natural thorium
vices, etc. . . . . . . . . . . • . . • Natural o~ depleted
uraruum
8. Welding rods . . . . . . . . . . . . Natural thorium

10-2 µ.Ci cm-2 surface
20 per cent by weight (glaze)
20 per cent by weight (glaze)
10 per cent by weight

10 per cent by weight
Up to 30 per cent by weight
Upto0.5g
Up to 4 per cent by weight0.25 per cent by weight0.25 per cent by weight
1 to 2 per cent by weight

F. Other devices, including scientific instruments
1. Gas chroma to graphs ..... {2. Static meters ........... .
3. Vending machine coins ..
4. Bank cheques .......... .

241Am

uc
193

250 mCi
12mCi
0.5 to 50 µCi
2,u.Ci0.01 ,u.Ci

TABLE

2. ESTIMATED ANNUAL GENETICALLY-SIGNIFICANT DOSES (GSD) FROM RADIUM IN
SELF-LUMIKOUS WATCHES

Denmark
Switzerland ........... .
Federal Republic of Germany ......... .
Federal Republic of Germany .......... .
United Kingdom ..................... .
Sweden ............................. .

TABLE

3.

Estimatedannual GSD

Year

Cou11try

1961
1960
1959
1961
1960
1960

(,r.r<>d)Reference

1.2
3.3
2.6
1.5
0.5-1.0
1-3

34
25
51
52
35
31

EsTlMATED AVERAGE ANNUAL DOSE FROM COLOUR TELEVISION SETS, BASED UPOK
THE WASHINGTON, D.C., SURVEY (40)

Organ

Skin
Thyroid ......................... · · ·. · · · · · ·Male gonads .............................. .
Female gonads ............................ .
Lens of eye .............................. .

194

C/,ildrcn lessthan 15 years of agt(mrad)

People 15 yea,, ofage and older(mrad)

3.6
2.6
1.5
0.4
3.0

1.6
0.9
0.7
0.2

1.3

REFERENCES
1. Becker, S. An investigation of x radiation fromcolor television receivers in Suffolk County, New
York. Rad. Health Data and Reports 11: 179-182(1970).
2. Becker. S. Results of a follow-up radiation survey
on color television sets, Suffolk County, New York.
Rad. Health Data and Reports 12: 457-458(1971 ).
3. Beninson, D., A. Placer and E. Vander Elst.
Estudio de un caso de irradiaci6n humana accidental, p. 415-429 in Handling of Radiation
Accidents. IAEA publication STI/PUB/229.
Vienna, 1969.
4. Boggs, R. R.. G. D. Schmidt and R. D. Williams.
Radiological health aspects of spent radon seeds.
Rad. Health Data and Reports 10: 185-190(1969).
5. Breslin, A. J. and W. B. Harris. Use of thoriatedtungsten electrodes in inert gas shielded arc welding. Investigation of potential hazard. Amer. Ind.
Hyg. Ann. Quart. 13: 4 (1952).
6. Bunce, L. A. and F. W. Sattler. Radon-222 innatural gas. Rad. Health Data and Reports 7:
441-444 (1966).
7. Ciuciura, A. An engineer's view of x radiationfrom television receivers. Paper No. 12 presented
at the International symposium on radiologicalprotection problems associated with parasitic
x-ray emission from electronic products. Toulouse,
November 3-6, 1970.
8. Conlon, F. B. Radium incident report. Reported
during 7/01/1968-12/31/1969, United States
Department of Health, Education, and Welfare(Unpublished).
9. Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, Department of
Health. Results of a survey of x radiation fromcolor television receivers in the metropolitan areaof San Juan, Puerto Rico, 1969-1970. Rad. Health
Data and Reports 12: 547-551 (1971).
10. Das Gupta, A. M. and K. R. Fujimoto. Radiation
hazard assessment of privately owned colour television receivers in Canada, p. 221-230 in Electronic product radiation and the health physicist.
United States Department of Health, Education,and Welfare report BRH/DEP 70-26. Rockville,Md., 1970.
11. Dominick, D. D. Statement before the Joint Committee on Atomic Energy, United States Congress,
October 28, 1971, in Use of Uranium Mill Tailings for Construction Purposes. Washington, 1971.
12. Eikodd. A., A. Reistad, A. Storruste et al. Radioactivity of luminous watches and estimation ofdose to the wrist and the gonads. Physics in Medicine and Biology 6: 25-31 (1961).
13. European Nuclear Energy Agency-Basic approach for safety analysis and control of products
containing radionuclides and available to thegeneral public. A guide prepared by an ENEA
expert group (1970).

14. Hamilton, E. I. The relative radioactivity of building materials. Amer. Ind. Hyg. Ass. J. 32: 398403 (1971).
15. Hamilton, L. D. The medical use of isotopes:
patient's point of view. Presented at the Radioisotope systems of heart devices symposium of theAmerican Nuclear Society (1971).
16. Harris, J. Y. Electronic product inventory study.
United States Department of Health. Education,and Welfare report BRH/DEP 70-29. Rockville,Md., 1970.
17. Howland, J. W.. M. Ingram, H. Mermagen et al.
The Lockport incident: Accidental partial body
exposure of humans to large doses of x-irradiation, p. 11-26 in Diagnosis and Treatment of
Acute Radiation Injury, WHO, Geneva, 1961.

18. International Atomic Energy Agency-Radiation
protection standards for radioluminous timepieces.
Recommendations of the European Nuclear Energy Agency and the International Atomic Energy
Agency. IAEA publication STI/PVB/167, IAEA,
Vienna, 1967.
19. International Atomic Energy Agency-Handlingof radiation accidents. IAEA publication STI/
PUB/229, Vienna, 1969.
20. International Commission on Radiological Protection. Recommendations of the International
Commission on Radiological Protection. Reportof Committee III. ICRP publication 3, Pergamon
Press, 1960.
21. International Commission on Radiological Protection. Radiation protection in schools for pupils
up to the age of 18 years. A report by Committee Ill of the International Commission on
Radiological Protection adopted by the Commission in May 1968. ICRP publication 13, Pergamon Press, 1970.
22. International Commission on Radiological Protection. Protection against ionizing radiation fromexternal sources. A report of ICRP Committee
Ill. Adopted by the Commission in November
1969. ICRP publication 15, Pergamon Press,
1970.

23. International symposium on radiological protection problems associated with parasitic x-ray
emission from electronic products. Toulouse,
November 3-6, 1970.
24. Jacobs, D. G., C. J. Barton. C. R Bowman et al.
Theoretical evaluation of consumer products fromproject Gasbuggy. Final report. phase I: Impact
of hypothetical releases of contaminated gas in
the San Juan basin. Oak Ridge National Laboratory report ORNL-4646 (1971).
25. Joyet, G. and M. Miller. The radiation dose fromluminous dials in Switzerland. Experientia 16:
342-346 (1960).
19526. Kaufman, S. L.. M. C. Colvin, R. Liebennann
et al. Investigation of tritiated luminous compounds. Environmental Protection Agency report
EERL 71-2. Rockville. !\1d.. 1971.
27. Klein, H. F., E.W. Robinson, R. L. Gragg et al.
Evaluation of emissions from radium dial watches.
Rad. Health Data and Reports 11: 7-9 (1970).
28. Lane, R. A. Color television survey in Pennsylvania. Rad. Health Data and Reports 12: 137138 (1971).
29. Langham, W. H. Plutonium distribution as aproblem in environmental science, p. 3-11 inProceedings of Environmental Plutonium Symposium held at LASL; August 4-5, 1971. Los
Alamos Scientific Laboratory report LA-4756(1971).
30. Lindell, B. and P. Reizenstein. A Swedish building
material for low-radioactivity laboratories. Ark.
Fysik 26: 65-74 (1964).
31. Lindell, B. and P. A. Wiberg. The radioactivityof watches (I 964): v. United Nations document
A/AC.82/G/L.940.
32. Lowder, W. M., A. C. George, C. V. Gogolak
et al. Indoor radon daughter and radiation measurements in East Tennessee and Central Florida.
Unpublished.
33. Martinez, G. R., H. G. Cassab, G. G. Ganem
et al. Observaciones sobre la exposici6n accidental
de una familia a una fuente de cobalt-60. Revista
Medical del I.M.S.S., Vol. 3, Sup. 1 (1964).
34. McCarthy, R. and V. Mejdahl. The geneticallysignificant dose from luminous wrist watches.
Physics in Medicine and Biology 8: 279-285(1963).
35. Medical Research Council. The hazards to manof nuclear and allied radiation. Her Majesty's
Stationary Office, London, 1960.
36. Menczer, L. F. Radioactive ceramic glazes. Rad.
Health Data 6: 656-658 (1965).
37. Menzel, R. G. Uranium, radium and thorium
content in phosphate rocks and their possibl~
radiation hazard. J. Agr. Food Chem. 16: 231234 (1968).
38. National Center for Radiological Health. A pilot
survey of x-radiation emissions from color television receivers in Pinellas County, Florida. Rad.
Health Data and Reports 9: 525-530 (1968).
39. National Center for Radiolo!rlcal Health. A summary of the Washington, D.C., metropolitan area
survey of colour television receivers. Rad. Health
Data and Reports 9: 531-538 (1968).
40. Neill. R. H .. H. D. Youmans and J. L. Wyatt.
Estimates of potential doses to various organs
from x-radiation emissions from color television
picture tubes. Rad. Health Data and Reports 12:
1-6 (1971).
41. O'Riordan, M. C. and P. N. Casbolt. X-rays fromdomestic colour television receivers in Britain.
Nature 228: 420-421 (1970).
42. O'Riordan, M. C. and P. N. Casbolt. X-ray
emission from colour television receivers: British
exp_erience. Paper No. 19 presented at the International symposium on radiological protection
problems associated with parasitic x-ray emission
from electronic products. Toulouse, November 3-6.
1970.
.
196

43. Paul. I. R. Control of luminous dial watches in
New York City. Rad. Health Data 4: 263-267(1963).
44. Performance standards for electronic products.
Federal Register 34: 20271-20275 (1969).
45. Pettigrew. G. L.. E. W. Robinson and G. D.
Schmidt. State and federal control of healthhazards from radioactive materials other thanmaterials regulated under the Atomic Energy Act
of 1954 (As of October 1, 1969). United States
Department of Health. Education. and Welfare
report BRH/DMRE 71-4. Rochille. Md .. 1971.
46. Properzio. W. S. Radiation emissions from demonstration type cold-cathode gas discharge tubes,
p. 197-213 in Electronic product radiation and thehealth physicist. United States Department of
Health, Education, and Welfare report BRH/
DEP 70-26. Rocb,ilJe, Md., 1971.
47. Rechen, H.J. L., T. R. Lee, R.H. Schneider et al.
Measurements of X-ray exposure from a homecolor television receiver. Rad. Health Data andReports 8: 687-697 (1967).
48. Robinson, E. W. The use of radium in consumer
products. United States Department of Health,
Education, and Welfare report MORP 68-5, Rockville, Md., 1968.
49. Schmidt. G. D. Registry of radiation incidents:
radioactive materials. The 2nd annual conference
on radiation control. United States Department of
Health, Education, and Welfare report BRH/
ORO 70-5. Rockville, Md., 1970.
50. Scott, W. G. and J. C. Villforth. Radium usage,
control. still medical problem. Your Radiologist,
Vol. 8, No. 2 (1965).
51. Seelentag, W. and E. Klatz. Radiation exposure of
the public from luminous dials of time pieces.
Strahlentberapie llO: 605-621 (1959).
52. Seelentag, W. and H. Schmier. Radiation exposure
from luminous watch dials. Rad. Health Data 4:
209-213 (1963).
53. Sheldon, J. L. Progress in the development of
x-ray absorbing glasses for television picture tubes.
Paper No. 24 presented at the International symposium on radiological protection problems
associated with parasitic x-ray emission from electronic products. Toulouse. November 3-6. 1970.
54. Sheldon, J. L.. H. 0. Wood and H. H. Harris.
The role of industry in electronic product radiation
control. Paper No. 46 presented at the International symposium on radiological protection problems associated with parasitic x-ray emission fromelectronic products. Toulouse, November 3-6,
1970.
55. Siek, R. D. Statement before the Joint Committee
on Atomic Energy. United States Comrress. October 28. 1971. Y;i Use of Uranium Mill Tailings
for Construction Purposes. Washington. 1971.
56. Simon, N. and J. Harley. Skin reactions from gold
jewelry contaminated with radon deposit. JAMA
200: 245-255 (1967).
57. Spencer, L. W., Jr. Preliminary survey of x-ray
producing devices in Kansas schools. 1968. Rad.
Health Data and Reports 11: 613-615 (1970).
58. Sutra-Fourcade. Y. L'enercie nucleaire-Accidents
et incidents. Rapport du Commissariat a renergie
atomique CEA-BIB-164. Saclay. 1969.

59. United Nations. Report of the United Nations
Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic
Radiation. 1962. Official Records of the General
Assembly, Seventeenth Session, Supplement No. 16(A/5216).
60. United States Atomic Energy Commission. A summary of incidents involving USAEC shipments ofradioactive material, 1963-64. USAEC Report
TID-16764 (Suppl. 2). Washington, 1966.
61. United States Department of Health, Education,and Welfare. Radiation sources in secondary
schools. Report of a limited survey. USDHEW
report ORO 69-5. Rockville, Md., 1969.
62. United States Department of Health, Education,and Welfare. 1970 Annual Report: Administration of the Radiation Control for Health and
Safety Act of 1968, Public Law 90-602 (1971).

63. Vennart, J. The usage of radioactive luminous
compound and the need for biological monitorin2
of workers. Health Phys. 13: 959-964 (1967). 64. Wollenberg. H. A. and A. R. Smith. Radioactivityof cement raw materials. University of California
report UCRL-16878 (1966).
65. Wruble. D. T., V. E. Andrews and G. A. Bovsen.
Environmental tritium surveillance for pr.oject
Rulison. Paper presented at the Tritium Symposium. Las Vegas, Nevada, August 30-September
2, 1971.
66. X-Radiation Ad Hoe Committee. Electronic Industries Association, Evaluation of TV contribution to the annual genetically significant radiationdose of the population. IEEE Transactions on
Broadcast and Television Receivers, BTR-16:
157-164 (1970).

197

HOW TO OBTAIN UNITED NATIONS PUBLICAllONS
United Nation, publications may be obtained from bookstores and distributors throughout
the world, Consult your bookstore or write to, United Nations, Soles Section, New Yorkor Geneva.

COMMENT SE PROCURER LES PUBLICATIONS DES NATIONS UNIESLes publications des Nations Unies son! en vente dons les librciries et les agences
depositoires du monde enlier. lnformez-vous ouprcs de volre librcirie ou cdreuu-vous a:
Nations Unies, Section des vcnles, New York ou Genova.

KAK noJIY 1H1Tb l-13AAHl-1R OPfAHl-13AUl-11-1 06bEM1HEHHblX HAUl-1'1

lla"anna Oprannaa-qnn 06'Le"nne11nL1I Ha11nit llO:tmo NJUIITI, D 1<1111:Ji1tL1I l1ara3m1ax n
arcurcTDax no nccx pa1iomu )!Hpa. Hano~nre cupa111m 06 na,11.a111rn:r n IJamcll 1mnm110M
l!araa11ne nJn mllllnre DO 11,11.pecy: Opraunan~ll 06'Le,1,11nenuLU Hau.ui,, Cei.1111H no
npo,1,aa.e na"aunii, HLto-IlopK BJn 3\enena.
COMO CONSEGUIR PUBLICACIONES DE LAS NACIONES UNIDAS
Los publlcocioncs de las Ncciones Unidcs eslcin en ventc en librerlcs y ccsas distribuidorcs
en lodos pcrlu del mundo, Contulte a su librero o dirljcse c: Ncciones Unidcs, Section de
Ventas, Nuevc York o Ginebrc,

Printed in U.S.A.
11235-August 1972-3,600

Price: SU.S. 7.00 (or equivalent in other currencies)($U.S. 12.50 for volumes I and II)

United Nations publication
Sales No. E.72.IX. l 7