-d

United Nations Scientific Committee
on the Effects of Atomic Radiation

1977 report to the General Assembly, with annexes

NOTE
The report of the Committee without its annexes appears as Official Records of the General
Assembly, Thirty-second Session, Supplement No. 40 (A/32/40).
In the text of each annex, Arabic numbers in parentheses are references listed at the end.
The designations employed and the presentation of material in this publication do not imply theexpression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Secretariat of the United Nations concerning
the legal status of any country, territory, city or area, or of its authorities, or concerning thedelimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.

UNITED NATIONS PUBLICATION
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Produced by UNIDO, Vienna

ANNEXCRadioactive contamination due to nuclear explosions

CONTENTSParagraphs

Paragraphs

INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1·3

I. TRANSPORT OF RADIOACTIVE DEBRISWITHIN THE ATMOSPHERE • . . . . . . .

4-14

II.

INTERNAL IRRADIATION . . . . . . . . .
A. Tritium . . . . . . . . . . • . • . . . . .
1. Tritium inventory • . . . . . . . .
2.
Dose commitment from tritium
B. Carbon-14 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C. Manganese-54 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
D. lron·SS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E. Krypton.SS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
F. Strontium-90 . . . . . . . . • . . . . . .
1.
Inventory and deposition . . . . .
2.
Strontium-90 in the environment
3.
Levels in food . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.
Transfer of • 0 Sr from fallout todiet . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . , .
5. Strontium-90 levels in bone . . . .
6.
Transfer from diet to bone . . . .
7.
Transfer factor relating bone acti·
vity level and dose . . . . . . . . .
8.
Dose commitment from stron·
tium-90 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
G. Strontium-89 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
H. Ruthenium-106 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

15-142
15-27
16-17
18-27
28-36
37-38
3940
41-42
43-87
43-47
48-51
52-54
55-69
70
71-77
78-79
80-83
84-87
88-91

illtroduction1.
During the period reviewed in this report (January
1972 to December 1976) a number of nuclear tests havebeen reported, including 20 atmospheric tests. 6 ofwhich were in the northern hemisphere and 14 in thesouthern hemisphere. In this Annex, therefore. the total
inventory of radionuclides from nuclear tests has been

I.
J.

K.
L
:0.1.
N.

Iodine-131............... .
Caesium-137 • . . . • . . . . . . . . . .
1. Caesium-137 in the environment
2.
Levels in diet . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.
Caesium-137 in the human body4.
Dosecommitment
fromcaesium-137 . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Caesium-136 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Barium-140 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Cerium-144 . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . .
Plutonium . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1. Plutonium in the environment •.
2.
Levels in the environment . . . . .
3.
Pathways to man and dose commitments

III. EXTERNAL IRRADIATION . . . . . . . . .
A. Short-lived radionuclides . . • . . • . .
B. Caesium-137 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C. Total dose commitment from external
irradiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

92-96
97-116
98-101
I 02-106
107-110111-116
117
118
119-122123-142123·126
127-130131-142
143-158
147-156
157
158

IV. SUMMARY

OF DOSE COMMITMENTS
FROM NUCLEAR EXPLOSIONS . . . . . .

159-165
Page

References ••.•.••••••••••••••.••.

155

reassessed and the consequential changes in the dose
commitments have been evaluated.
2.
This Annex also discusses improvements in theknowledge of the parameters involved in the assessmentof dose commitments, particularly those factors related
to the transfer of radioactivity between compartments
115

used by the Committee in its assessments can be
represented schematically as follows:of the environment linking the input of tadionuclides tothe subsequent dose in man. The compartment model

Inhalation
Input -+ Atmosphere -+ Earth's surface -+ Diet -+ Tissue (2)
(3)
(4)
(1)
(0)

I
This model does not include all possible pathways ofhuman exposure, but only those relevant to theassessments presented in this Annex. Procedures for theuse of the model are described in Annex A.
3.
Where sufficient information is available. assessments of collective dose commitments per unit activity
release are presented. It should be noted that the bulk of
the radionuclides from atmospheric nuclear explosions
was injected into the atmosphere at high altitude. For
this reason many of these commitments per unit activity
do not apply to other situations of environmental
releases of radioactive materials.

I. TRANSPORT OF RADIOACTIVE
DEBRIS WITHIN THE ATMOSPHERE
4.
During a nuclear explosion, the fission products,
residual fissile material and structural materials associated with the device are raised to sufficiently hightemperatures to be present in gaseous form. For
explosions detonated in the atmosphere near the surfaceof the earth. a considerable amount of volatilized soil orrock material may also be entrained in the fireball.
5.
After the explosion in the atmosphere, the fireballexpands rapidly and rises due to buoyancy. As it rises,
cooling causes the volatilized debris to condense,
forming an aerosol with a wide distribution in particle
size (245).
6.
The height to which the aerosol cloud rises
increases with explosion yield. Since the height of thetropopause is lower in polar regions than near theequator, the extent to which the cloud enters thestratosphere wHI depend on both latitude and yield(201).
7.
During the initial expansion of the fireball, sometens of seconds after detonation, particles composed ofiron and aluminium oxides and of other refractorymaterials are formed, with diameters in the range
0.4-4.0 µm (81, 223). The radionuclides having the morerefractory oxides (i.e., oxides with high boiling points),
tend to be incorporated into these particles. while thosethat have low boiling point oxides tend to be excluded.
When the refractory material has condensed out, thegaseous remainder. enriched in the more volatile
radionuclides and in radionuclides with volatile precursors, condenses into small particles (diameter< 0.4 µm).
116

External irradiation

Dose
(5)

j

This separation of the radionuclides between aerosol
particles in the two size ranges is usually known as
fractionation. Because the larger aerosol particles are
subjected to significant gravitational settling, they are
more likely to be deposited upon the earth near the
explosion site, whereas the smaller aerosol particles
remain at greater altitudes for a longer time and are
distributed over a wider area (95).
8.
When nuclear explosions are detonated on or near
the ground, large amounts of soil .)r' rock materials are
drawn into the fireball. On cooling, these tend to form
large aerosol particles; so for surface detonations muchof the radioactive material is present in relatively large
aerosol particles.
9.
Radioactivity present in large aerosol particles will
fall out within a few hundred kilometres, constituting
the "local fallout"; smaller aerosol particles injected into
the lower troposphere can be transported around theearth in the same hemisphere. and will be depositedfrom hundreds to many thousands of kilometres fromthe detonation site. constituting the "troposphericfallout". Aerosol particles carried up into the stratosphere give rise to fallout with a world-wide distribution.
the major part of which is in the hemisphere of
injection. This fallout is known as global or '·stratospheric" fallout.
10. Most of the world-wide contamination of longlived fission products has been from the stratosphericfallout resulting from large thermonuclear tests. On theother hand. tropospheric fallout accounts for much of
the contamination from short-lived radionuclides, during
the first few months after a test.
11. Our knowledge of mixing processes and air
movements in the stratosphere is still incomplete,
although many of the gross features are now known
from studies of radionuclide concentrations. Detailed
descriptions of the atmospheric movement of radionuclides were given in the Committee ·s 1964 and 1972
reports (242. 245). Mixing processes in the stratosphere
are generally slower than in the troposphere. most of the
movement being due to horizontal diffusion withconsiderable downward motion at higher latitudes in thewinter hemisphere (153).
12. Several mechanisms account for the transfer ofparticulate radioactivity from the stratosphere to thetroposphere. Prominent among these is the horizontaltransfer through the subtropical tropopause gap. This

--transfer process reaches a maximum in late winter andgives rise to the well known spring maximum in thefallout rate (141).

13. The mean residence time of a radionuclide in thestratosphere, defined as the average time spent by atomsof that radionuclide in the stratosphere before transfer
to the troposphere, depends on the latitude and altitudeof injection and also on the time of the year at which
the injection is made. Between 15 and 25 km altitude,
the mean residence time can vary from 0.3 to 2 y,depending upon altitude and latitude (212). For 9 0 Sr,
the mean residence time in the stratosphere is typicallyof the order of 1 y (242). The long effective mean
residence time in the stratosphere observed for someradionuclides such as 14 C is due to the fact that theseradionuclides are not removed rapidly from thetroposphere and are recycled back into the stratosphere(211).

14. After the radioactive debris has entered thetroposphere, it is rapidly dispersed throughout thehemisphere. For particulate radioactivity, the troposphere is rapidly depleted by essentially three processes:(a) rain-out caused by droplet formation within clouds,(b) wash-out by falling raindrops picking up radioactivity, and (c) dry deposition on land surfaces or plant
cover, this last process being of more importance in dry
regions (85, 140). The resulting residence time forparticulate radioactivity in the troposphere is about 30 d(98, 154, 176). Because of this rapid removal, very little
particulate activity moves from the troposphere of one
hemisphere to the troposphere of the other. On theother hand, gaseous radionuclides in the troposphere,
such as 85 Kr, mix between hemispheres with a mean
exchange time of 1.5 y (242).

II. INTERNAL IRRADIATION

corrected for decay using the annual deposition of 9 0 Sr
as a guide, gives a total injection of 3 H of 4500 MCi.
According to Michel's estimates, about 20 per cent of
this is in the southern hemisphere, so it is estimated that
3600 MCi and 900 MCi of 3 H were released into thenorthern and southern hemisphere, respectively. It isalso possible to estimate the 3 H inventory frommeasured 3 H and 90 Sr activities in ocean waters. Bowen
and Roether ( 46) have reported total 3 H and 9 0 Sr
inventories in the profiles at five sites in the Atlantic
Ocean between latitude 35° and 45°. The average
3
H-to- 9 0 Sr activity ratio at these five sites was 325.6.
The cumulative deposit of 90 Sr in the northernhemisphere in 1970 was 9.37 MCi, and since the ocean
makes up 56 per cent of the area of the northernhemisphere, 5.25 MCi of 90 Sr will be in the northernhemisJ:?here oceans. Using the above value for the3
H/9°Sr ratio,
itisestimatedthat
5.25 X 325.6 = 1708 MCi of 3 H were present in oceansof the northern hemisphere in 1970. Correcting forradioactive decay it is estimated that some 2740 MCi of3
H were released in the northern hemisphere, since it canbe assumed that most fallout tritium on land has been
washed into the oceans. Using the partitioning of 9 0 Sr
between hemispheres as a guide, the inventory of 3 H in
the southern hemisphere is estimated to be 820 MCL

17. Both the above estimates are larger than that of
Eriksson (1900 MCi) reported in the Committee's 1972
report, but much lower than the 8000 MCi reported by
Miske! (84, 173). the latitudinal distribution of tritiumin surface waters of the Pacific between 1965 and 1972
is shown in figure I (167). From concentrations inprecipitation at stations in the IAEA network, Schell etal. (20) estimated the deposition between 1963 and1969 to be 1780 MCi in the northern hemisphere andabout 400 MCi in the southern hemisphere. Using theannual global deposition of 90 Sr as a guide, these results
indicate that the total injection of 3 H up to 1970 was
about 4500 MCi, in agreement with the estimate fromMichel's data.

A. TRITIUM
15. Tritium. a radioactive isotope of hydrogen, is apure beta emitter with maximum energy of 0.018 MeV
and a half.life of 12.3 y. It occurs naturally on theearth's surface, being produced in the stratosphere byreactions induced by cosmic rays (Annex B). Man-madetritium, in amounts substantially larger than the natural
inventory, has been injected into the stratosphere bythermonuclear explosions. Most of this tritium is in theform of water (as HTO) and, after a mean residence timeof about a year. enters the troposphere, and then thehydrological cycle. Tritium has been extensively
monitored in precipitation and natural waters. In 1961,
IAEA established a world-wide network for monitoring
the 3 H concentration in precipitation ( 133).

33

>

~ 21

~ 18
>
:!:
~ 15

;:
ii:

..

12
9

1. Tritium inventory
O

From a study of 3 H concentrations in profiles in
the Pacific Ocean at stations from latitude 60° S to
51° N, Michel (167) has estimated the world's 3 H
inventory in 1970 to be 2900 MCL which when

16.

10°

eo:,

South

50°

40°

30°

20~

10°

'

0°

'

to:.

LATITUDE

20°

30'0

40°

501:1

f!IJ 0North

Figure I. Latitudinal distribution of the tritium inventory perunit area in the top 500 m of the Pacific Ocean, 1965-1972
{167)

117

tissue dose rate at equilibrium for a continuous intake oftritium in water. This model considers the dose rate intissue due to tritium in tissue water as well as that which
is organically bound in tissue. For a chronic intake ofwater with a concentration of l µCi 1- 1 , the tissue dose
rate at equilibrium is 95 mrad y- 1 • Of this, 84 per centis due to tritium in water and 16 per cent to tritium
combined in tissue.

2. Dose commitment from tritium
18. In the 1972 report, the dose commitments fromfallout tritium were estimated in an indirect way on i:hebasis of a comparison with the production rate ofnatural tritium and the measured concentrations inwaters prior to the commencement of thermonuclear
tests. More recent papers dealing with fallout tritium
make it possible to estimate the dose commitments
directly from fallout measurements. It should be realized
that, due to insufficient information relating to some ofthe quantities involved in the calculations, estimates byboth methods are uncertain.

20. The tritium activity concentration of surface
waters in the United States of America is shown infigure II. From the tritium concentrations in 18 UnitedStates rivers and in the Ottawa river, Bennett (25. 37)
estimated the whole body dose commitments to the
populations of the United States and the Ottawa Valiey
to be 1.5 and 2.8 mrad, respectively.

19. Bennett (25, 37) used a three-compartment model
suggested by Sanders and Reinig (219) to determine the
10000

:'
J
1000

-

r..l'\l\ _;·-·

u

,e
z

rJ\}J .

0

!

j::

<

a:
I-

z

w
u

z

0

u

100

\i

i

f

I

1---········~

j

10 '----,--..----,--,--,---,---r--.------,---r--,.-----r--r----r--,---r-----r--,--..------,---r--,.------r--r---i
1951
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75

Figure 11. Variation of tritium activity concentration of surface waters in the United States of America over the period 1951-1975(25, 27)

21. Schell et al. (220) have evaluated the 1961 to1967 data provided by the IAEA and WMO world surveyof tritium concentration in precipitation. They observedthat the latitudinal distribution of the tritium
concentration in precipitation at marine stations
increased exponentially from the equator to the polar
regions. In the northern hemisphere, the concentration
doubled about every 13° of latitude, and in the southernhemisphere. about every 16° of latitude. The concentrations observed at the continental stations were on the
average higher than at the marine stations by a factor of
3.6, this effect being due partly to re-evaporation andevapotranspiration over the land mass and partly togreater injection.
22. Assuming that the dose commitment to a
population living in a given latitude band is proportional
to the concentration in the corresponding precipitationand that the average concentration doubles every 13° oflatitude from the equator to the North Pole, a dose
I 18

commitment of 2.8 mrad to the Ottawa Valley
population corresponds to a dose commitment to the
population of the northern hemisphere of 2.0 mrad.
23. From the extensive measurements of the tritium
concentration in rainwater in both hemispheres between
1964 and 1967 carried out by IAEA (220), it appears
that on the average the concentrations in the southernhemisphere were about one tenth of those in thenorthern hemisphere. Assuming that this ratio applies
over the whole period of atmospheric tests, the dose
commitment to the population of the southernhemisphere is estimated to be 0.2 mrad.
24. The dose commitment from fallout tritium canalso be assessed, as in the 1972 report, using the relationnc = 'Yo W/B, where nc is the dose commitment. 'Yo isthe tissue dose rate from natural tritium. W is theactivity of tritium released by nuclear explosions. and B
is the activity of natural tritium produced annually.

25. The annual dose from natural tritium is estimatedto be 1.0 µrad (Annex B). Assuming a total release in thenorthern hemisphere of 3600 MCi of tritium from
nuclear explosions, as discussed in previous paragraphs,
and an annual natural production per hemisphere ofabout 1.9 MCi (Annex B). the dose commitment in thenorthern hemisphere from fallout tritium is estimated tobe 1.9 mrad. In the southern hemisphere the dose
commitment estimated by the same procedure is
0.47 mrad.
26. These values are in reasonable agreement withthose given in paragraphs 22 and 23, namely 2 mrad and
0.2 mrad, which are taken in this report as the dose
commitments from tritium in the northern and southernhemisphere, respectively. These estimates are lower thanthose presented in the 1972 report ( 4 mrad for thenorthern hemisphere and I mrad for the southernhemisphere).
27. The collective dose commitment from tritium isdominated by the contribution from the northernhemisphere, because of the higher individual doses inthat hemisphere and also because of population
distribution. Using the procedures outlined in
Annex A and assuming a population growth of 2 percent per year, the collective dose commitment due totritium from nuclear explosions is estimated to be about
8 106 man rad, corresponding to about 3 10- 3 man rad

per curie of released activity. It should be noted that thisestimate applies to the injection of tritium by nuclear
explosions carried out in the northern hemisphere.

B. CARBON-14
28. Carbon-14 is a pure beta emitter with a maximum
energy of 0.156 MeV and a half.life of 5730 y. It is
formed in atmospheric nuclear explosions from thecapture of excess neutrons by nitrogen. After large
atmospheric nuclear explosions, most of the 14 C istransported into the stratosphere, from where it
equilibrates with the troposphere with a half-time of
1-2 y.
29. Present in the troposphere as carbon dioxide, theactivity of 1 4 C reached a peak in 1965 as a result of thenuclear explosions in the late 1950s and early 1960s.
Although there have been additions to the troposphereof 14 C from explosions since that time, these inputs
have been smaller than uptake by the oceans and thebiosphere, and thus the levels in the troposphere havecontinued to decrease.
30. Measured values of excess specific activity of 1 4 C
in the troposphere and in the surface ocean are shown infigure III. In order to estimate the inventory of 1 4 C from
nuclear explosions and to predict future atmosphericlevels, some model to represent the exchange of 14 C
between the atmosphere, biosphere and ocean is needed.
Troposphereper cent
above normal

o Gulliksen ( 103)
D Zimen 1255)

70

x Munnlch (184)Surface ocean
O Fairhall (~7)

60

o Gulliksen (1031+ Raher (209)x Bien (41)

50

D

f

Bien (411

40

~
w

0

~ 30

•

20

0

Surface ocean
10

1955

1960

1965

1970

1975

1980

Figure Ill. Variation of excess 1 4 C in the troposphere and surface ocean. (The continuous line ,has been obtained by regression, assuming no injections after 1972)

31. Figure IV is a schematic representation of themodel used in this report to predict the circulation of
14
C and of the excess stable carbon injected by the useof fossil fuels {196). This model is similar to previous
models used. by the Committee except that thethermocline region of the ocean is represented as adiffusive layer (194, 208. 242). The values of therelevant parameters are also shown in this figure. The
parameters Ka, k and W1 were adjusted to fit the excess
14
C in the atmosphere and surface ocean. Since thetransfer time between the atmosphere and theshort-term biosphere (i.e., annual plants, leaves, andshort-term detritus) is short, being about 2.5 y, for the
purposes of these calculations the short-term biosphere119wb =2.5

Terrestrial
biosphere

w. = 1.12

Atmosphereandshort-term
biosphere

K0 =0.04 v· 1
• I
I •ExcessC input

K0 = 0.11 y· 1•

W,= 1.2

Surface oceanw, =11

Thermocline
layer in ocean

wd = 50

Deep ocean+-I- 14

36. Assuming an upper limit of 101 0 for the world
population, the collective dose commitment per unit
activity of 1 4 C released in the stratosphere is estimatedto be about 200 man rad Ci- 1 for soft tissues and abou:
700 man rad Ci- 1 for bone lining cells and for red bonemarrow.

I

I•(

Diffusion)k = 2000 m 1 y- 1

Figure IV. Model representing tl1e exchange of excess 1 4 C
between the atmosphere, the biosphere and tl1e ocean. The
factors W are the capacity of each reservoir in units of theatmospheric capacity. The parameters Kb and K 8 are transfer
rates and k is a diffusion coefficient.

is combined with the atmosphftiC compartment (13).
The mean residence time of I ne excess 1 4 C in theatmospheric and short-term biospheric compartments,
before movement to the long-term biospheric compartment or to the oceans, is Waf(Ka +Kb)= 7.5 y.

32. The pre dieted values of the excess 1 4 C in theatmosphere and surface ocean are included in figure ill.
The parameters of the model, obtained by regression
from the actual data on excess of 1 4 C, indicate that the
input of man-made 1 4 C into the atmosphere up to 1972
was 5.8 MCi, and that the time-integrals of the
man-made 14 Ccontent in the atmosphere up to 2000,
2020 and 2050 are equivalent to the natural content
multiplied by 14.4, 17 .1 and 20.5 y, respectively.
Fairhall et al (87), using .a quite different approach,estimated the excess 14 C inventory up to 1971 to be
6.2 MCi.
33. Carbon-14 is taken up by plants during photosynthesis and is subsequently incorporated into thehuman body. Several investigators have measured excess
14
C levels in human tissue (81, 150). Nydal et al. (194),from the measurement of 1 4 C/ 1 2 C ratios in human hairand blood between 1962 and 1969, concluded that the
specific activity in human tissue comes into equilibriumwith that in atmospheric C0 2 with a delay time of about
l.4y.
34. The dose commitment from man-made 14 C can beassessed, as shown for the case of tritium, by acomparison with natural 14 C. Taking the natural
production rate to be 28 kCi y- 1 , as derived from thenatural 14 C inventory, and the tissue dose rates fromnatural 14 C (Annex B), the dose commitments shown intable 1 have been calculated.
TABLE 1. DOSE COMMID!ENTS FROM THE
DUCED IN NUCLEAR EXPLOSIONS(mrad)

Dose
commitment
Part accurnulated up to:
2 OOO
2 020
2 050

120

GonadsLung

B9ne
lining
cells

103

124

414

35. The parts of the dose commitment to the world
population from 14 C delivered up to 2000, 2020 and
2050 were estimated from the corresponding integrated
atmospheric levels given in paragraph 32. They are also
shown in table 1.

14

C PRO-

Redbone
marrow

Whole·
body
average455

269

C. MANGANESE-54
37. Manganese-54 was a significant component of
fallout activity for several years after the test series in
1961-1962. It is not a fission product and waspresumably produced by neutron capture reactions inthe structural material used in the nuclear devices. It has
a half-life of 310 d, decaying by electron capture withthe emission of gamma and x rays. Little activity has
been measured in air since 1966. The time-integrated
activity concentration in air measured at Sterling,
Virginia (United States), between 1963 and 1966 was
1.13 pCi y m - 3 (I 17, 249), and is typical of theintegrated values measured in temperate latitudes of thenorthern hemisphere. In the southern hemisphere, thevalues were 100 times lower. Measurements of thedeposition density (the activity deposited per unit area)
made at Westwood, New Jersey (United States), indicate
indirectly that the integrated air concentrations in 1962
were about 10 per cent of those in 1963 (110). Using
this information; the integrated activity concentration in
air at Sterling, Virginia, for 1962-1974 is estimated to be
1.2 pCi y m- 3 •38. Voilleque and Pelletier (248) have considered thedifferent pathways of 5 4 Mn to man and have estimatedtransfer factors for the pathway air-+ deposition on the
ground ~ cow's milk -+ man. In man, the organ receiving
the highest dose from ingestion is the lower large
intestine. For adults, the transfer factor P 1 2345
pertaining to the atmosphere-to-dose pathway via
ingestion (see paragraph 2), is estimated to be
7 10-3 mrad per pCi y m- 3 • For children less than one
year old, the population group receiving the highestdose, these authors estimated P 1234 5 to be 0.11 mrad
per pCi y m - 3 • The main dose is in the lung due to
direct inhalation. Using the ICRP lung model (134, 135,
136) with the set of pa~ameters for compounds class W,
and a value of 20 per cent retention in the pulmonary
region, the value of P145 for adults is 0.91 mrad per
pCi y m - 3 • The dose commitments from 5 4 Mn, assessedfrom the factors mentioned above, are 8 10-3 mrad tothe lower large intestine (LLI) of adults, 0.16 mrad to
the LLI of infants, and 1.0 mrad to the adult lung.

D. IRON-55
7.2
8.6
10.2

8.6
10.3
12.2

29
34
41

32
38
45

19
22
27

39. Iron-55 has a half-life of 2.7 y and decays byelectron capture with the emission of x rays andbremsstrahlung with 0.23 MeV maximum energy.

rIron-SS was produced as an activation product in the
nuclear tests carried out in 1961-1962 and it is estimatedthat a total of about SO MCi was produced ( 126). The
concentration of 5 5 Fe in air fell rapidly after 1962-1963
and has been essentially zero since 1970. Time-integrated concentrations in the atmosphere of the southernhemisphere were considerably below those of thenorthern hemisphere.
40. The uptake of 5 5 Fe by man was discussed in the1972 report of the Committee (245), and it appears thatboth the terrestrial food chain and the marine foodchain leading to man are important in contributing to
the activity in man (137, 197). Body activities measured
in a large number of people in different parts of theworld in 1966 were in the range 20-30 nCi, and they
dropped to 1-10 nCi in 1969 (148, 197). In Japan and in
Alaska (United States) in 1966, body activities greaterthan 1OOU nCi were observed in persons consuming large
quantities of fish (197). The dose commitments in thenorthern hemisphere from testing in the period
1954-1962 was estimated by Persson (199), assuming amaximum body activity of 30 nCi in the temperate
latitudes. The estimates are 1 mrad to the gonads andbone lining cells and 0.6 mrad to the bone marrow. A
reduction by a factor of four is assumed for the southernhemisphere. The collective dose commitment per unit
activity released in the northern stratosphere is estimatedto be about 6 10-2 man rad Ci- 1 for the gonads andbone lining cells and 4 10- 2 man rad Ci- 1 for the bonemarrow.

is estimated to be about 3 MCi. Krypton-85 is an inert
gas and most of it remains in the atmosphere, itsconcentration becoming fairly uniform throughout theearth's atmosphere within a few years (88). Most of the85
Kr present in the earth's atmosphere originates inreleases from nuclear-fuel reprocessing plants and notfrom nuclear explosions (Annex D).
42. Krypton-85 has a I 0.7-y half-life, is a beta emitterwith a maximum energy of 670 keV, and emits a
514-keV photon in 0.4 per cent of the disintegrations_
The dose to the skin, lung and gonads from atime-integrated concentration in air of I pCi y m - 3 havebeen estimated (185) to be 1.8 µrad, 3.1 10-2 µrad and1.6 10- 2 µrad, respectively. Assuming that 3 MCi areuniformly mixed in the earth's troposphere (5 102 1 gair), the resulting dose commitments are estimated to be
21 µrad,035 µrad and 02µrad for the skin,lung and gonads.
respectively. Assuming an annual increase in the world
population of 2 per cent, the collective dose commit·
ments. per curie of 8 5 Kr released in the stratosphere. are
estimated to be about 4 10-3 man rad for skin,
7 10-4 man rad for Jung and 4 JO""" man rad for gonads.

F. STRONTIUM-90
1. Inventory and deposition

E. KRYPTON-85

43. Strontium-90, a pure beta emitti:r with a maximum
energy of 0.54 MeV, decays with a half-life of 28 y to90
Y, which has a half-life of 65 hand is a beta-emitterwith a maximum energy of2.27 MeV.

41. The production of 85 Kr by nuclear explosions canbe estimated from 90 Sr production values, using a85
K.r/ 90 Sr fission-yield ratio of0.07 (164. 190). By thisprocedure the production of 8 5 Kr by nuclear explosions

The total stratospheric inventory of 9 0 Sr is shownin figure V, together with that for each hemisphere forthe period 1963-1975 ( 149). The period between 1963
and 1966 was marked by an exponential decrease of the

44.

kCi

111"

- - Total rtl'iltosphere
- -

- -

Northern hemisphere- · - · - Southern hemisphere

\

\,

'\
1ol

.i

'\

/-\

f

f

\

I.Mge atmosphecic tests
in northefn hemisphere~rge 1tmospheric tests

1n southern henusphere'"""'-..... ..... ' \'·' ·.-·,.' ' ',
'.

\

''

\.-·,'

'\.

\_I

I

·-,\

...... -....J

10 ..._---.----.---~-~-....._-.-_..,.rr_.,,._--'..~....L.L.-'-,-.........- , - - - ~.........- . - - - . - - 1974
1975
1963
1964
1965
1966
1971
1967
1970
1972
1973
1968
1969

Figure V. Variation of the stratospheric inv!,lntory of 90 Srover the period 1963-1975 (149)121

45. The annual deposition of 9 0 Sr in the northern andsouthern hemispheres is shown in table 2 for -the period
1958-1975. in addition to the cumulative deposit in eachhemisphere (89). (Deposition is the activity deposited ona specified area. The cumulative deposit is the activity
present in a specified area at a given time; it is the resultof past depositions and radioactive decay.) Between
1970 and 1973, deposition in both hemispheres fell off
sharply, and the 1973 values were the ~mallest recorded
since these measurements began. In 1974. however,there was an increase in the annual deposition in thenorthern hemisphere.

stratospheric inventory from the peak value resulting
from the atmospheric tests conducted in the early
1960s. Between 1966 and mid-1971, the inventory ineach hemisphere remained fairly constant at about
20 per cent of the 1963 peak values. During this period,
the norther.n and southern hemisphere stratospheres
were replenished with 9 0 Sr from a series of tests carriedout in central Asia and in the south Pacific. During 1972
and early 1973, the stratospheric inventory in eachhemisphere again decreased. After mid-1973 theinventory rose after an atmospheric test in the northernhemisphere.

TABLE 2. ANNUAL DEPOSITION AND CUMULATIVE DEPOSIT OF 90 Sr{AfCi)

Cumulative deposit

Deposition
GlobalNorthernhemisphere

Southernhemisphere

Global

0.25
0.18
0.17
0.17
0.26
0.31
0.42
0.36
0.21
0.11
0.10
0.14
0.13
0.15
0.10
0.03
0.04
0.03

2.45a
0.88
1.23
0.43
0.52
1.70
2.93
2.08
1.13
0.54
0.28
0.30
0.29
0.34
0.34
0.19
0.06
0.16
0.09

1.70
2.28
3.26
3.44
3.70
5.04
7.51
8.96
9.50
9.59
9.52
9.48
9.40
9.37
9.33
9.18
8.98
8.89
8.73

0.60
0.84
1.00
1.14
1.29
1.51
1.78
2.16
2.46
2.60
2.65
2.68
2.76
2.82
2.90
2.92
2.88
2.11:
2.81

2.30
3.12
4.26
4.58
4.99
6.55
9.29
11.12
11.96
12.19
12.17
12.16
12.16
12.19
12.23
12.10
11.86
11.74
11.54

12.13

3.81

15.94

0.03

o.o3b

0.06

12.16

3.84

16.00

Northernhemisphere

Southernhemisphere

Pre-1958
1958
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1961
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975

1.soa
0.63
1.05
0.26
0.35
1.44
2.62
1.66
0.77
0.33
0.17
0.20
0.15
0.21
0.19
0.09
0.03
0.12
0.06

0.65a

Integrated
deposition

Year

Stratosphericinventory
Total injection
to January 1976

Sources: References 89, 149.
aEstimated from the cumulative deposit, assuming a two-year decay.
b Assumed to be the same as for the northern hemisphere.

46. The deposition density of 90 Sr is measured
monthly at a considerable number of monitoring
stations in both hemispheres. (Deposition density is theactivity deposited per unit area.) Estimates of theaverage integrated deposition density (the addition of
all previous deposition densities in a location. without
taking account of radioactive decay) of 9 0 Sr in each
latitude band are shown in table 3 (89), together withthe zonal populations and areas. This latitudinal
distribution is useful for determining the dose
commitment to the world population and in addition
serves indirectly as a guide to the geographicaldistribution of other radionuclides released by atmospheric tests. It can be seen from table 3 that the
integrated deposition . density is maximum in the
mid-latitude regions of each hemisphere.
47. The population-weighted deposition density isdetermined as follows: If Ni is the population of latitude
band i and Fi is the average integrated deposition densityof 9 0 Sr in that band. then the population-weighted
122

TABLE 3. LATITUDINAL
DISTRIBUTIONOF
INTEGRATED DEPOSITION DENSITY

Latitudeband

Area of band

70°-80°N
60°-70°N
S0°-60°N
40° -50°N
30°-40°N
20'-30°N
10' -20°N
0° -10° N
0°-lO'S
10° -20° s
20° -30' s
30' -40° s
40° -50° s
50' -60° s

11.6
18.9
25.6
31.5
36.4
40.2
42.8
44.1
44.1
42.8
40.2
36.4
31.5
25.6

(10 6 km 2)

Relative
populationof band

0.0
0.4
12.2
13.8
18.2
29.2
9.8
5.6
5.8
1.8

1.6
1.4

0.1
0.05

Sr

Integrated
deposition .
density of ' 0Sr(mCi km" 2)(%)

Sources: References 89, I SS.

90

19.1
45.7
79.2
85.1
62.4
45.7
30.0
20.7
18.9
10.1
18.0
20.7
24.5
14.7

-------1
TABLE 4. STRONTIUM-90 AND CAESIUM-137 IN MILK'

0Countr)' or area

/966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971

Austria
Belgium
CanadaColombia
Czechoslovakia
Denmark
Egypt
Faroe Islands
FinlandFrance (I)France (2)French Guiana
Germany, Fed. Rep. of
Guadeloupe
India (Bombay)
IsraelItaly
JamaicaJapan
Martinique
Netherlands
Norway

23
13
13
2
12
9
13
73
13

19
18

14

15

2
3
2
10
7
I!
7
9

30

18

Panama4

PolandPuerto Rico
Republic of Korea
SenegalSwedenSwitzerland
USSR
United Kingdom
United States
AlaskaChicagoHawaii
New York City
Tampa
Venezuela

13
6
22
13
15
15
12
12
12
12
9
4
12

JO

8

9
10
9
9
6
8
3
10

7
9
8

II

II

Argentina
Australia
Uolivia
Chile

5
7

5
5

4

I

1

2
5
2
3
8
2

2
2
2
2
6

1

2

2

I
I

I

13
16
5
2
13
9
II

14
9
10
2

13
8
8

8

7
6

51

45

10

9
12
12

15
17
II

14

4
11
9

12
9
9

8

7

1

I

6

8

7

5

4

4

4

22

37
8
9
12

37
7
8
12
8
8
3
3

34
7
9

25
6

20
5

19

800
134

II

JO

7
8

II

23
5
6
7
6
6
3

9
2
2

8

8
4
5
5
7

10
4
15

11

9
4

6

7
7
8
7

6

5

8

6
2
9
5

4

9
7

Northern hemisphere
70
3
36
I';'
51
33

5

4

8
7
4

6

6

6

6

6

5

28
20
25

27
15
20

14

12

586
92
21
34

12
35

62
61
61

JO

21

13

10

11

7

4

4

4

507
70
20
24

463
54
19
24

251
30
8
13

254

JO

198
25
8
12

25

352
44
22
28
67
29
17
4

268
36
15
20
68

27

357
49
21
26
72
31
14

25

18
7

20

15

5
6

4
5

II

9

6
3
7

8
7
6

9
5

8
6
7
9
7
6

9

4

3
4
7

4
4

4

9

7

3

80

12

10

9

65

5
8

72

59

49

25
81
16
61
17
117

59
16
84

45
19
98
10
80

31

31

32

26

I8

22

22

20
14
20
14

23
15
23
17

26
16
27
18

18
12
21
13

II

II

JO

7
18
8

11

14

16

14

14

7

5

66

55

51

43

35

27

19
15

20
18

20
19

19

21

17
18

8

9

12
35

6
32

16
134

'14
144

200
52

184
30

109
28
41
28
146

23
128

11

11

6

6

6

5

37

30
15
30

37
181
22
42

63
29
56
46
29
34

38

12

28
6

34
95
18

5

43
244
21
58
21

16

4

6

41

10

5

11

7
4
6

1972 1973 1974 1975

13
22

14

2

4
5

Cs co11ce11tra tion (pCi r 1)

1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971

6

9
2
3

7
8
8
13

1972 1973 1974 1975

6
9
1

I

4

137

Sr/Ca q1,otie11t (pCI (gCar')

15

14

4
6
7
6

5
5
5

5
5

5

4

3

6
4

5

5

3

16
38
20
16
20

25

9

139

102
9

16

9

7

II

12
7

5
6

27

2
18

14

14
138

114

13

5

4

14

Reference

57, 58, 59
72, 7378, 79,162,205, 237, 253
206, 207183
2157, 158
3
64,21896,198,222
76
206,20752, 56
222, 253
146,147,170,171
90
74, 75253
7, 253222. 253
72, 161, 168, 169
131
247
138
247
143
206
106-108, 109, 228-230
129,130
144,257,258,261,263,264
5,50,51, 178
247
247
47,125,247
247
36, 112247, 253
247

Southern hemisphere

EcuadorN\J,,)

Madagascar
New Caledonia
New ZealandPeru
ReunionSociely !$lands (Tahiti)

6

I

4
4

4

.3
5
2
3
2

4
5

7
3

4
5
1

3
4
I

I

3

2

1

2
3
7

I
I
I

3
7

3
6

2
4

2

5
4

5
6

5
5

3
4

3
4

3
6

4
7

2
4

2

4

24
28

21
20

13

I
I
8

7

5

55

43

32

40

17

15

18

18

96

35

3

10
106

21, 70, 71
9-11, 44, 91, 92, 99
76,20676, 69, 206, 207
76,206,207
76,206,207
76,206,207
187-188206
207,222
76,206,207

sediments. In the open ocean, activity concentrations areabout 0.2 pCi 1- 1 in the surface layer and smaller by afactor of at least 30 below the thermocline. In coastal
areas and estuaries concentrations may be a factor of 5
higher.

deposition density F is given by F = "E1FtN;/''f,tP/1- The
gopulation-weighted integrated deposition densities of0
Sr from all tests for the northern hemisphere, for thesouthern hemisphere and for the whole world are 56.5,
17.6 and 52.3 mCi km- 2 , respectively.

51. Strontium-90 is taken up by marine biota, andbecomes incorporated into the marine food chain. A
number of determinations of the concentration factors
have been performed in recent years for various marine::.,iota by measurements of stable and radioactive
strontium under laboratory and field conditions (63, 93.
191, 214, 240). Typical values are 100 for algae, 2-10
for crabs and lobster and about 1 for the muscle meat offish. The amount in fish does not contribute greatly tothe intake of 90 Sr by man. It is estimated that only
about 3 per cent of the 9 0 Sr intake by man in Japanbetween 1966 and 1971 came from fish (240).

2. Strontium-90 in the environment
48. The deposition of 9 0 Sr occurs over land andwater, but that over land is the more important pathway
for human exposure. The quantitative aspects of thetransfer of 9 0 Sr along terrestrial pathways are treated indetail in the following sections of this Annex.
49. Previous reports of the Committee have discussed
the behaviour of 9 0 Sr in soils (244, 245). Recent
measurements of the soil profile (114) have shown that90
Sr is still present mostly in the upper layers, with
50 per cent in the first 4 cm and ~ractically all in the top
30 cm. Only small amounts of O Sr are leached out of
the soil and conveyed into fresh-water rivers and lakes.
Concentrations in drinking waters are normally at least
an order of magnitude lower than those found in otherfoodstuffs. Plants take up 9 0 Sr from soil through theirroot system. This root uptake and the time constants
describing how 9 0 Sr becomes unavailable for plants are
discussed in paragraphs 55 to 66.

3. Levels in food52.

The annual average 90 Sr/Ca quotients in milk andin the whole diet from 1966 onwards are shown intables 4 and 6. Values for earlier years are given in earlier
reports of the Committee. Typically, levels in milk fellby about 30 per cent between 1970 and 1974. Data so
far available indicate that levels in 1975 are about thesame as those reported in 1974. Table 5 gives the annual
average 9 0 Sr/Ca quotients in milk of some countries of
the north temperate zone for the period 1955-1975. The
numbers in the right-hand column of table 5 are theaverages of the available data for each year. It can beseen that this a-.:erage in 1975 is about 20 per cent ofthat prevailing during the peak years of 1963 and 1964.

50. Most of the 9 0 Sr fallout into the oceans is stillpresent in the well mixed layer above the thermocline.
Noshkin and Bowen (193), from measurements in thenorth and south Atlantic oceans, estimated that o·niy
about I per cent of the 9 0 Sr has reached the bottom

TABLE 5. ANNUAL AVERAGE ' 0 Sr/Ca QUOTIENT IN MILK BY COUNTRY OR AREA

North temperate zone, 1955-1975(pCi (gCa) -I)
United States

E
Year

1955
1956
1957
1958
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975

124

.,

·==
,!:!>
'l:i

,§

a"
i::

t:
~
i::

.,

Cl

'2
.§

~

C

t

~

.::

E

6

Lt;

3

5

7
6
13
22
23
18
13
10
9
8
7
7
6

4
4

5
5

4
10

26
28
19
13

13

9
8
9
6
6

10
8
9
9
8
7

5

24
25
17
9
8
7
6
8
7

4

6

8
6
8

9

24
19
14
12
9
8
9
8
6
6

11
9
9
8
8
7
6
6

5

"

t;Jtj
~a ~o

Mean

4
4
6
6

3.5
5.0
5.3
6.2
8.6
6.6

~;,.,

5

7

6
6

10
27
28
21
16

.:.:

...;i

4
6

4

5

.,

.:.:
...

~

15

9
8
7
6
5
5

10
6

4
13

6

27
27
23
15

23
18
14
15

12
26
28
19
12

9
7
7

8

9

5
5
7

8
7

9

25
22
17

8
6

8

6

7
11
19
19
14
II

9

7
7
8
6
9
17
16
12
9
8
8

6

8
11

8
7
12
26
23
19
12
10
9
9
8
8
6

9

7

7
5
5

6

6
5

5

4

5

3

5

3

5

4

5.6

8
19
23
17
10

10.8
23.3
23.3
18.2
13.0
9.2
8.5
7.8
7.2
7.2
6.2
5.2
5.0
4.3

5

.

··---·-,TABLE 6. STRONTIUM-90 AND CAESIUM-137 IN TOTAL DIET
00

131

Sr/Ca quotient (pCi (gCar'J

Country or area

1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975

Austria
Denmark
Egypt
Faroe Islands
FinlandFrance (I)France (2)Germany, Fed. Rep. ofGreenland
India
Japan (urban)
Netherlands
NorwaySwedenUSSR (urban)
United States
Country average
AlaskaHawaii
New York CitySan Francisco

25
14
45
33
21
22

Cs daily intake (pCi)

1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975

Reference

Northern hemisphere
15
JO
22
19

15
8
13
23

14

8

7

8

8

6

7

6

17

20

15

13

12

10

10

15
20
14
8

15
18

14

13
16
11
9

10
13
9
6

11
12
II

6

18
13
8

5

9
12
8
6

21
11

15
9

12
8

12

9

9

8

21

23

23

21

26
15
12
24
20
38
22
41

18
9
28
18
14

17
21
15
7
10
19
12

30

27

16
29
10
17

14
4

12
4

12

6

12
26
6
16
6

7
7

7
6

5
5

6
5

11

11

4

13
4

5

5

6

7

5
6

4

19

10
3

9
3

4

3
4

135
79

53
44

60
39

51
38

32

38

31

15

18

18

496
260

480

502

403

384

202

191

316

239

281

123
89
6
20
90
420
132
145

77
297

38
40
346

34
36
61

15
18

55

71

16
17
54

14
16
29

13
32

14
28

37
53
51
20
8
22

31
27 .

so

37
28
137
3
9
24

7

10

7

88
93

71
56

65
38

58
38

50
47

34

29

55

30

34

28

25

24

17

11

65

35

19

18

17

17

15

13

14

14

59
2
157,158
3
132
76
96,198,222
52,54
4
145,172
8,174
168, 169
132
132,156,233
45,257,261,262,263
47, 104, 125, 247
247
247
30,36
30,36

8
3

Southern hemisphereArgentina
Australia

N

V,

5

3
4

24

11

4

21, 70, 71
9, 11, 91, 92, 99,l~O

53. The annual values of the ratio of the 90 Sr/Ca
quotient m the total diet to that in milk are shown mtable 7. Bennett (30, 36) has investigated the relative
contributions that different foods make to the 90 Sr
intake in New York and San Francisco. The results for
New York are shown in figure VL which presents the90
Sr/Ca quotient in various components of the diet.
Aarkrog and Lippert (2) have report~d similar results forthe Danish diet, some of which are plotted in figure VII.
When expressed as 9 0 Sr/Ca quotients, the peak values

recorded for fruit, vegetables and grain products areabout 50 pCi (gCa)- 1 , for milk products they are about
50 per cent of that, for meat. fish and eggs. only about
20 per cent. It is also notable that the 9 0 Sr/Ca quotientin milk products and meat reaches a peak during periodsof high fallout rate and then decreases rapidly over the
next 5-8 y, while for fruit and vegetables it remains
higher for longer periods of time. It is expected,
therefore, that the long-term variation of the 9 0 Sr intake
with _time would depend on the composition of the diet.

TABLE 7. RATIO OF THE 9 0 Sr/Ca QUOTIENT IN THE TOT AL DIET TO THAT IN MILK

Mean forCountry

1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975

Argentina
Australia
Denmark
FinlandFranceGermany, Federal Republic ofIndia (Bombay)"
Japan
NorwaySwedenUSSR
United Kingdom
United States
Hawaii
New York City

1.8

0

1.1

1.3
1.8

1.5
1.0
2.0

1.3

0.9
1.6
1.8

2.1

1.6
1.7
2.2

2.3
0.9

3.1
0.9

1.6
2.9
2.3
1.3
1.4
3.7
1.0

1.6

2.2
1.3

3.5
1.2

1.1

1.4
1.0
1.5
1.6
1.2
1.7
2.1
2.2
1.4
1.5
3.4

1.4

1.3

1.2
1.3

1.3
1.2

1.3
1.6
6.9
2.3

1.4
1.6
2.7
2.7

3.0

3.0

u

1.3

1.1

1.1

1.2

1.3
1.5

1.3

4.2

3.0

3.1

2.6

3.3

1.5
1.0
1.4

1.3
1.0
0.9

1.3

1.5

1.8

1.5

1.3

1.1

1.1

1.6

1.3
1.1
1.7

1.3
1.7

1.6
1.6

1.8
1.8

LS
1.7

3.2

2.6

3.0

1.8

1963-1975

1.4
1.1
1.5
1.7
1.4
1.7
3.3
2.7
1.3
1.4
3.1

0.9
2.5
1.4

2.0
1.6

1.6

1.3

1.5

1.6

1.9

1.8

1.9

1.6

2.4
1.5

Since most of the wheat and rice is imported, the diet data do not reflect the local fallout levels.

54. Aarkrog and Lippert (2) have reported that the90
Sr/Ca quotients in potatoes, cabbage and carrots
grown in Denmark have not diminished greatly since1963, whereas in milk it has fallen by a factor of five.
On the other hand, M.ukhin (182) has reported results on
the 90 Sr concentrations of potatoes and cabbage grownin the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, which havefallen by a factor of about five between 1963 and 1969.
Borisov ei al (45) have reported that cereals haveconsistently been the major contributor of 9 0 Sr in the
USSR diet; this would account for the fact that the90
Sr/Ca quotient in total diet and also the ratio of total
diet 9 0 Sr/Ca to that of milk is higher in the USSR thanin other countries having high-milk diets.

56. If the values of qt) and f(t) are assessed as
averages for discrete intervals of time h, equation I
becomes

4. Transfer of 9 0 Sr from fallout to diet

L CJ (i)

<Xl

P23

=

<Xl

I
i=

hC (i)

-cci

=

<Xl

I

hf (i)I C (i)
i= 00

<Xl

(2)

I J (i)i= -Cl)i= - coEquation 2 can be reformulated to take account of thedeterminations of the 90 Sr/Ca quotient in individualcomponents of the diet. If the fractional contribution ofcomponent j of the diet to the total dietary calcium is
90
Wj, and the Sr/Ca quotient in that component is C,{i),
then
cc

55.

Transfers between two successive steps in thesequence linking input into the environment to theresulting dose commitment can be described by transfer
factors, defmed as the quotient of the infinite
time-integrals of the quantities considered for each step(see Annex A). In the transfer model used by theCommittee in the 1969 and 1972 reports (244, 245),
which is outlined in paragraph 2 of this· Annex, thetransfer factor from fallout to diet is given byP, 3 =

f~"'

.f

~

i=-CX)
P 23 = '\'£.. wj _00_ _ _ = "'£..
j

I J OJ(3)ji= - a,where Pf3 is the transfer factor from fallout to dietcomponent j.

57. In the 1969 and 1972 reports of the Committee(244, 245), the 9 0 Sr/Ca quotient in a diet component
was related to the past and present deposition density
rate /(r ), by the expression

C (t) de(I)~<X)f (t) dt

cj (t) =I""KJ(t-r) f (r) dr

(4)

90

where qt) is the
Sr/Ca quotient in the diet at time t,
and ff t) is the deposition density rate of 90 Sr attime t.
126

where K; is a transfer function defined by this equation.

If both C;(t) and f(r) are given as averages over discreteintervals of time of duration h. the time becomes t = nh.
and equation 4 is equivalent ton

cj (nh) = L hK1 (nh-mh) f (mh) =
m=-oc
co

(5)

=I hKj(lh)f(11h-/11)
The transfer factor P/ can be obtained from thecarried out over the deposition of all preceding years,
each weighted by an exponential term describing the
combined physical decay of 9 0 Sr and any decrease i.ntJ?e availability to plants of 9 0 Sr in soil. The factors bt
b~ and bt and the effective mean life of available 90 Sr,µ- 1 , can be derived from reported data by regression
analysis.

l=O3transfer function K; by the relationcoP{3 = L hKj (lit)

(6)

l=O

where, in practice. the time interval II is 1 y, because
most of the determinations .of ~0 Sr in food have beenreported on a calendar-year basis.
58. Several transfer functions between fallout and dietcomponents have been tried in regression analyse~ ofreported data. In the 1972 report of the Committee(245) the following function was used:00

C1 (i)=hf.r(i)+h{/"{i-l)+h1 L e-=J(i-m)

(7)

m=l

In this equation, f(i) is the annual deposition density inthe year considered, /(i-1) is the annual deposition
density in the previous year. and the summation is

59. In the past, this transfer function was found to beadequate for predicting 9 0 Sr/Ca quotients in milk. By
allowing each of the parameters b 1 , b 2 , b 3 andµ to vary
in a regression analysis, Bennett (30, 36) has fitted
equation 7 to five New York City diet compone.nts(milk products: cereals; meat, fish and eggs; fruit; andvegetables) and also to the same five components of theDanish diet (22). The results are shown in thecontinuous curves in· figures VI and VII for New Yorkand Denmark respectively. The factors obtained fromthis regression analysis are shown in tables 8 and 9 (22).
The estimated transfer coefficients for each individual
diet component 3 in the two S!!ts of Danish data are in
reasonably good agreement with each other, especiallytaking into account that the definitions of thecomponents are not the same in the two cases. Also
shown in these two tables are values of P2 3 for the total
diet, estimated from a regression analysis with the totalcomposite diet data. The 95% confidence limits on P2 3
are 4.3 and 6.4 pCi y (gCa)- 1 per mCi km - 2 •P/

TABLES. PARAMETERS OF THE TRANSFER FUNCTION BETWEEN 90 Sr FALLOUT AND
DIET
Obtained by regression analysis from New York City data

eggs

Vegetables

Fruit

Total
composite
diet

0.004
0.17
0.31
0.28
1.13
0.111
0.13

0.96
0.37
1.03
0.07
15.45
0.089
1.38

1.36
0.00
0.90
0.03
30.46
0.039
1.19

0.90
0.54
0.36
0.10
4.87
1.0
4.87

Meat,
fish,

products

Grainproducts

0.69
0.21
0.20
0.14
2.23
0.582
1.30

0.86
1.91
0.30
0.13
4.92
0.179
0.88

Milk

Parametell

b,
b2
b,
µ

P/,
WJ

W;P/,

4.87

4.88

Total diet P23

aThe unit for parameters b., b 2 , b,. is pCi (gear• per mCi km • 2 • The unit for parameterµ isy·•. The unit for the transfer factor P/3 is pCi y (gCa)" 1 per mCikm" 2 • W; is the fractional
contribution of component/ to the total Ca diet.

TABLE 9. PARAMETERS OF THE TRA.!'ISFER FUNCTION BETWEEN 90 Sr FALLOUT AND
DIET
Obtained by regression analysis from Danish data
Meat,
Milk

Parametell

b,
b2
b,
µI
P23

W;
W;P/3

eggs

Vegetables

Fruit

Total
composite
diet

l.90
0.45
0.28
0.12
4.61
0.02
0.09

2.37
0.00
0.90
0.06
16.50
0.05
0.83

10.04
0.50
0.45
0.02
32.59
0.01
0.33

1.07
1.22
0.19
0.10
4.01
1.00
4.01

fish,

products

Grainproducts

0.98
0.46
0.23
0.13
3.12
0.44
1.37

0.98
2.49
0.02
0.02
4.34
0.48
2.08

Total diet P23

4.70

4.01

aThe unit for parameters b., b 2 , b,.is pCi (gear• per mCi km • 2 • The unit for parameterµ is
2
3 is pCi y (gear' per mCi km · • W; is the fractional
contribution of component/ to the total Ca diet.
y ·•. The unit for the transfer factor

P/

127

.
O Mt1$ureddau- - Fitted curve30

Milk products
~

0.69

20

b,
b2
b,

10

/J

• 0.20• 0.14

P23

• 223

= 021

0
70

0

60
50

40
Vegetables

30
20
10

0.96

b1
b2
b3

=

/J

= 0.07P23=15.5= 0.27
1.03

0

0
70
60

~

50

ii

40

~

30

Iii

20

i

·~
:,
a

Fruit

0
0
0
0

1.36
0.00
0.90
0.03
/J
P23 =30.5

b1
b,
b3

0

0

0
0
0

(/)

10
0
60
50

0

40
Grain produeu
30

b1

bi
b3

20

/J
P21

0.86
1.90
0.30
0.13
4.92

10
0
Melt, fish.eggs

15

0

10
5

= 0.004b,b,b3= 0.17/JP23= 1.13= 0.31= 0.28

0
0
1959

60

61

62

63

64

65

66

67

68

69

70

71

72

73

74

75

Figure VI. Variation of 90 Sr in various diet components in New York City, 1959-1975. The unit for the parameters b 1 , b2,
b 3 is pCi (gCa) • 1 per mCi km-•. The unit for parameter µ is y • 1 • The unit for the transfer factor P13 ispCi y (gCa) ·• per km • 2 •128

0 Measured data

- - Fitted curv.,

Milk
20

b,
b,
b,
µ

Pu

10

0.98
• 0.46• 0.23= 0.13• 3.12a0Vegetabla

60

b,
b,
b,
µ

50
0
40

0

Pu

.

2.37
0
0.9
0.06
= 16.50

..

0
0

31

20
10
0
180
160
140

i

~ 120
g

Fruit

c 100
g

b,
b,

.!!

C'

80

b3
µ

t'l
~

i

P,,

60

.

= 10.Q4
0.50= 0.45= 0.02• 32.6

0
40

0

0

20

0
0

0

50

40

Grain products

31

b,
b,
b,
µ

20

Pu

10

0

• 0.98• 2.49= 0.02- om• 4.34

0

Meat

40

b,
b,
b,
µ

31

P,,

20

• 1.9
= 0.45• 0.28= 0.12= 4.61

0
10
0

0

0

70

71

n

0

0

73

74

0

1960

61

62

63

64

65

66

67

68

69.

FigureVTI. Variation of 9 0 Sr in various diet components in Denmark, 1960-1974. The unit for the parameters b 1 ,b,, b 3 is pCi (gCa) ·• per mCi km·•. The unit for parameterµ is y-•. The unit for the transfer factor P,, ispCi y (gCa) -• per mCi km·•.

129

,..
60 .. The total diet transfer coefficient P2 3 is given interms of the transfer factor for each component inequation 3. The contribution from component i isWf'/3 , where w1 is the fractional contribution ofcomponent f to the total dietary calcium intake. To
compare the relative contribution of different dietcomponents to the 90 Sr intake, it is necessary tocompare the products Wf'/3 , which are also given intables 8 and 9. The values of the total diet transfer
factor P2 3 estimated from the different dietarycomponents using equation 3 agree with those estimatedfrom the composite total diet. both for New York andfor Denmark. Mille products appear to contribute about
30 per cent P2 3 in both places. Meat, fish and eggs
contribute only to a small extent. In Denmark grain
products contribute about 45 per cent of the intake, in
New York, only about 17 per cent. Fruit and vegetables
contribute about 54 per cent of 90 Sr intake in New
York, but only 24 per cent in Denmark.
61. These differences reflect not only different annual
intakes for each foodstuff, but also different agricultural
practices and soil conditions. In general, it may be said
that 9 0 Sr in the diet comes mainly from millc products,
grain products, fruit and vegetables. Most of the 9 0 Sr
from grain products is received during the years ofheavier fallout; in the case of milk about 40 per cent isreceived during the years of fallout and the rest oversome 8 y afterwards. For fruit and vegetables, most of
the contribution seems to be delivered over a period of
12-14 y after deposition. This pattern is consistent withobservations in the Federal Republic of Germany, wherelettuce, cabbage, citrus fruits and potatoes showed littlechange in activity concentration between 1963 and 1967

(53).
62. A similar analysis of the reported 9 0 Sr data for theindividual components of the Ar!len;ine and Australian
diets has been carried out (22). Since the deposition
density rate of 9 0 Sr did not peak so sharply in thesouthern hemisphere, the estimates of parameters

obtained by fitting the dietary 9 0 Sr data are probably
less precise. However, differences are evident when thesevalues are compared with the comparable ones derived
from the New York and Danish data. For Argentina, thevalues obtained for P2 3 were (unit: pCi y (gCa)- 1 per
mCi km - 2 ): 6.49 for the composite diet, 6.00 fromanalysis of separate dietary components. The greatest
contribution came from cereals and milk products. For
Australia, a value of 7.47 was obtained from thecomposite diet and 10.7 from an analysis of individual
dietary components. The greatest contribution also camefrom cereals and milk products.
63. From the above analysis of diets in two countries
in the southern hemisphere it appears that the transfer
factors between fallout and diet are about twice as great
as those for countries in the northern hemisphere withsimilar diets. That is consistent with the observation thatconcentrations of 90 Sr in human bone from thesesouthern latitudes are not substantially lower than thoseat similar latitudes in the northern hemisphere, eventhough the integrated deposition density of 9 0 Sr has
been only about one fourth of that in the northernhemisphere.
64. There are as yet insufficient data to predict what
contribution fruit and vegetables will make to thetransfer factors for diets with little or no milk products.
There is also the possibility, as suggested by Borisov etal (45), that the strontium and calcium present indifferent components of the diet are not equallyavailable.
65. Equation 7 has been fitted by regression analysis
to the milk and fallout 9 0 Sr data from several regions in
the world. The resulting parameters are shown intable 10. and the fitted and measured 9 0 Sr levels in milk
are shown in figure vm for the Faroe Islands. Norway
and San Francisco (22). The fallout-to-milk transfer
factor, PJ1Pk, for the Faroe Islands is about twice aslarge as in other countries.

TABLE 10. PARAMETERS OF THE TRANSFER FUNCTION FROM 9 0 Sr FALLOUT TO MILK
Obtained by regression analysis of data for various countries and areas

Argentina

Australia

Denmark

Faroe
Islands

NorwaySan
Francisco

UnitedKingdom

UnitedStatesNonhemhemisphere

1.36
0.85
0.22
0.16
3.43

1.69
1.18
0.43
0.09
7.44

0.98
0.46
0.23
0.13
3.12

2.72
1.28
0.90
0.23
7.48

0.70
0.44
1.02
0.33
3.74

0.61
0.61
0.19
0.19
2.13

0.89
0.47
0.15
0.13
2.44

0.87
0.23
0.31
0.20
2.50

0.87
0.45
0.23
0.12
3.13

Para-

metera

b,
b2
b,
/J

pmilk
2]

ilk aThe unit foi: parameters b 1 , b 2 , b 3 is pei (gear' per mei km · 2 • The unit for parameter /J is y ·•. The unit for the transfer factor~'

is pei y (gear' per mei km·'l.

66. A representative value of P2 3 for dose commitment calculations can be derived from regression analysis
of fallout and total diet data. However, only for a few
localities is this combined information available forsufficiently long periods. The average of the values of
P2 3 found with this procedure with the data from
Argentina, Australia, Denmark and New York. is 5.7 pCi
130

y (gCa)- 1 per mCi km- 2 • As alreadydiscuss~d. P23 canalso be assessed by estimating first the P/3 and thenapplying equation 3. The average of the values for
Denmark and New York, estimated by this procedure. is
4.8 pCi y (gCa)- 1 per mCi km- 2 • It should be notedthat both estimated values of P2 3 apply to areas ofhigh-milk diets.

160

O Measured data

- - Fitted curve

140

120

7100

~

g
E

.!!

0

80

0:,
O'

~
in

j

60

40

20
0

1954

55

56

57

58

59

60

61

62

63

64

65

66

67

68

69

70

71

72

73

74

Figure VIII. Variation of•• Sr in milk in the Faroe Islands, Norway and San Francisco, 1954-1974 (22)67. A less direct P!"Ocedure for estimating the value ofP2 3 is to assess .P'f/k by regression analysis and thenmultiply this value by the ratio of the 9 0 Sr/Ca quotient
in total diet to that in milk. This procedure is more
uncertain because it requires the assumption that the
diet-to-milk ratio would remain unchanged at the value
observed in the past. On the other hand, the proceduremakes it possible to estimate P2 3 for more regions,because of the availability of long serie~ of milk
1
k given inmeasurements. The range of the values of1
2
table 10, in pCi y (gCa)- per mCikm- , is 2.1-7.4.
with an average of 3.3. This value, multiplied by an
estimated average diet-to-milk ratio of 1.4, gives a valueof 4.6 for the P2 3 factor in areas of high-milk diet.

.PT;

68. Estimates of P2 3 are strongly dependent on thevalue of µ, the inverse of the effective mean life ofavailable 9 0 Sr. The effect of this parameter is
exemplified by calculations of P2 3 using the averagevalues of b 1 , b 2 and b 3 of table 10 and a diet-to-milkratio of 1.4, and withµ v.uying over the range definedby the highest value of table I O (0.33 y- 1 ) and the value
used in the 1966 and 1969 reports of the Committee(243, 244), which most probably is an underestimate(0.05 y- 1 ). These calculations give values of P23 in therange of 3-10 pCi y (gCa)- 1 per mCi km - 2 • As noted inparagraph 59, the 95% confidence limits on theestimated value of P23 for the New York diet are 4.3
and 6.4 pCi y (gCa)- 1 per mCi km - 2 •69. For the purpose of assessing dose commitmentsfrom 90 Sr for the world population a value for P 2 3 of
5 pCi y (gCa)- 1 per mCi km - 2 is used in this report.
Th.is value gives adequate representation of areas ofhigh-milk diet in the northern hemisphere; but it
underestimates P2 3 for at least some areas of high-milk
diet in the southern hemisphere. It could also
underestimate P2 3 for other diets, including those forwhich there are no direct assessments. From thediet-to-milk ratios of table 7, weighted by the sizes ofthe populations with high-milk diets and low-milk diets,
it can be shown that the above value for P2 3 could leadto underestimates of the dose commitment by a factor
not exceeding two for populations with low-milk diets.

S. Strontium-90 levels in bone
70. New data on the 9 0 Sr/Ca quotient in bone areshown in table 11. Only a few data are available for1974 and 1975, but in general they are slightly less thanthose observed in 1971-1972. Table 12 gives the90
Sr/Ca quotients in adult vertebrae for some countries
in the northern hemisphere from 1962 to 1974. For themost part the differences in the results are small, thevalues for adult vertebrae lying between I and 2 pCi(gCa)· 1 • The values for Nepal and Norway seem to besignificantly higher than the others.

131

TABLE 11. STRONTIUM-90/Ca QUOTIENT IN HUMAN BONE BY COUNTRY AND AGE(The number in parentheses is the number of samples)
fpc;

rrear• J
Age (y)CountryYear

Canada1968

Newborn or
stillborn

<I

I

3.2
(8)
2.5
(6)

4.1
(86)
4.0
(47)

4.8
(17)
5.0
(5)

4.3
(16)
5.1
(5)

2.2
(30)
1.6
(31)

3.3
(63)
2.8
(91)

3.5
(9)
4.1
(20)

3.3
(8)
3.8
(12)

3

4

5-19

> 19

4.4
(12)
4.4
(4)

5.8
(4)
4.2
(8)

3.8
(59)
3.3
(48)

2.7
(38)
2.2

3.8

3.0
(5)
2.9
(9)

2.9
(59)
2.8
(63)

2

Adult
bone
rypea

Ref·
erenceNorthern hemisphere

1969
Czechoslovakia

1966
1967

(11)

2.9
(12)

1968
1969
1970
1971

1.2
(12)
1.0
(22)

2.2
(14)
1.9
(16)

3.2
(23)
2.7
(11)

2.3
(9)
3.8
(9)

2.8
(10)
3.1
(4)
1.7
(6)

2.2
(7)

3.0
(10)
2.8
(5)
1.3
(22)

2.4
(59)
2.6
(32)
2.0
(53)

1972
1973
Denmark

1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975

1.2
(19)
0.9
(18)
1.1
(5)
l.'9
(16)
1.9
(5)
1.3
(3)
1.3

1.7
(33)
1.9
(26)
2.7
(14)
2.4
(16)
2.0
(3)

2.4
(3)
1.9
(4)
4.5
(1)
2.2

1.9
(4)
3.3
(2)

(1)

3.1
(3)
3.2
(6)

(1)

0.8
(5)

(1)

Egypt

2.1
(1)
1.7
(4)
3.3

1.4
(5)
1.8
(38)
2.0
(13)

1.8
(3)
0.8
(1)
2.0
(6)
1.. 4
(1)

Fiji

1974

France (I)

1967
1968
1969
1970
1971

France (2)

1972

1.2

1973

(19)
1.08
(23)

1967
1968
1969
1970

132

1.9
(5)
1.6
(60)
1.6
(25)
1.6
(37)
1.6
(54)

3.7
(53)
3.2
(102)
3.2
(87)
2.7
(73)
2.4
(67)
2.1
(33)
1.7
(36)

5.3
(10)
4.4
(13)
3.7
(15)
2.9
(15)
2.9
(16)

5.0
(5)
3.7
(9)
3.1
(12)
2.6

4.0
(1)

3.9
(4)
3.6
(5)
3.2
(6)
2.6
(3)

(11)
2.1
(9)
2.1
(11)

1.8
(18)

3.8
(6)
3.0
(6)
2.3
(15)
3.8
(3)

V

(37)

1.8
(103)
1.9
(122)
1.7
(54)
1.8
(62)
1.8
(106)
1.5
(86)
1.6
{54)
1.4
(43)

V

V
V
V

V

49

V
V

V

0.1
• (8)

0.4
(7)
0.2
(14)
1.0
(12)

V

2.2

V

3.5
(41)
2.8
(38)

l.8
(54)
2.1
(42)
2.3
(32)
2.0
(31)
1.6
(10)

V

1.7

}

245

V
V
V

2

V
V

V

(SS)

2.3
(88)
2.0
(105)
1.9
(132)
1.8
(153)
1.6
(93)
1.5
(109)

}
}

48

V

(27)
1.3
(49)
1.7
(36)
1.6
(14)
1.5
(71)
1.4
(104)
1.5
(85)

1.3

245

V

1.9
(36)
1.5
(31)
2.2
(40)
1.8
(30)
1.6
(38)
1.4
(39)
1.5
(32)

1968
1969

V

V
V
V
V

V

}

245

121

l
}

245

139
76

V

R

(SS)

1.0
(45)
1.3
(61)
1.2
(18)

R
R
R

245

Age (y)CountryYear

Federal Republicof Germany

1968
1969
1970
1971

India

Newborn or
stillborn

1.2
(159)
1.1
(98)
1.0
(94)
1.0
(30)

<1

I

2

2.4
(25)
1.9
(14)
1.6
(112)
1.3
(4)

3

4

2.8
(17)
2.3
(10)
2.0
(12)
2.1
(4)

1973

5-19

> 19

2.5
(34)
2.0
(21)
1.8
(21)
1.9
(6)

1.8
(64)

0.9
(1)

1970

Japan

1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972

2.5

2.1

(1)

(1)

1.5

2.3
(4)
2.6

(15)

(5)

(7)

2.3
(3)
1.5
(7)

1.8
(3)
0.6
(1)
2.0
(3)

2.5
(1)

1.8
(4)

2.1
(9)
1.3
(4)

2.9
(2)
1.5

2.0
(1)

1.1
(1)

(40)
1.7
(36)
1.6

V

0.4
(1)
0.6
(13)
0.7
(12)

C

1.7

1.2

C

(14)
1.2
(20)

(6)
1.3
(2)

C

234

1.3

1.2

V

235

(14)
1.3

2.5
(21)
2.1
(47)
1.4
(26)

1975

4.0
(8)

3.0
(12)
3.5
(30)

1974

New Guinea

1974

Norway

1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975

1.9
(2)

2.8
(1)

2.6
(38)
2.7
(48)
2.9
(43)
2.8
(44)
1.6
(55)
1.7
(44)
1.5

3.5
(13)
3.8
(15)
3.4
(26)
3.1
(15)
2.9
(17)
2.8
(9)
2.6

(31)

(21)

4.5
(6)
4.1
(7)
3.7
(7)
4.0
(7)
3.7
(14)
3.2
(11)

2.1
(10)

4.7
(9)
4.2
(19)
3.6
(20)
3.5
(20)
2.5
(20)
2.9
(22)
2.4
(22)

1969

120

C

V
V

V

V
V

3.4
(90)
3.7
(84)
3.3
(46)
3.5
(77)
2.7
(33)
2.4
(54)
2.8
(100)

V

2.5
(47)
2.2
(26)
2.4
(45)

1971
1972
Thailand

1970
1971
1973

0.9
(1)
0.7

0.7
(6)
0.5

(1)

(5)

0.7

0.5
(10)

(1)

} 236

V

V
V
V

}121

)"

V
V

}67

V

100

V

V

(24)

1970

245

C

0.5
(12)

1.0
(12)
1.3

1970
Switzerland

122

0.9
(21)

(10)
1.4
(5)

0.6
(29)

J55
V

1974

(1)

R,S, V

(12)

(10)
1.5

1975

Senegal

3.3
(2)

} 245

1.7

(10)
1.2
(10)
1.1
(24)
1.0
(22)

1973

Nepal

1.1
(12)
0.7
(30)
0.7
(23)
0.8
(37)
0.8
(30)
0.7
(19)

3.8
(2)
3.2
(10)
2.1

3.9
(2)
2.0
(31)

Ref·
erence

0.9
(10)
2.3
(12)

1975
Jamaica

Adult
bone
typea

245
V
V

V

129

V
V
V

}245
122

133

...
TABLE 11 {continued}
Age (y)CountryYear

Uganda

1970

USSRb

1968
1969
1970
1971

United Kingdom

United States
New York

1968

Newborn or
stillborn

1.7
(81)
1.5
(103)
1.4
(81)
1.0
(55)

2.4
(19)
2.1
(30)
2.4
(32)
2.3
(7)

1.3
(101)

2.9
(27)
2.6
(46)
2.1
(56)

1969

1.2

1970

(16)
1.2
(21)

1969

2.6
(23)
2.5
(12)
2.2
(8)
1.6
(8)
1.6
(15)
1.7
(7)
1.4
(7)

1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
San Francisco

1969

1.4
(80)
0.9
(74)
0.7
(70)
0.7
(83)
0.7
(50)
0.6
(40)
0.5
(36)

1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
Venezuela

<l

3

2

1

4

3.0
(13)
3.1
(12)
2.9
(35)
2.5
(8)

Adult
bone
typea

Reference

1.1
(23)

V

245

2.2
(224)
2.0
(288)
3.1
(329)
2.7
(162)

1.2
(694)
1.2
(1142)
1.4(1 249)
1.3
(867)

N

259

1.6
(34)

V

1.5

C

5-19

> 19

3.2
(9)
2.2
(4)
2.4
(6)

2.7
(7)
2.0
(6)
2.4
(9)

3.4
(4)
2.3
(10)
2.2
(4)

2.7
(5)
2.5
(3)
1.9
(10)

1.9
(73)
1.8
(45)
1.6
(38)

(32)
1.3
(18)

2.7

3.2
(2)

2.8
(2)

3.4
(2)
3.3

1.7
(2)
2.9

3.6
(1)
2.4
(1)
2.7
(2)
2.7

(1)

(1)

1.4

(1)

(1)

1.6
(2)

1.6

1.9
(1)
1.2

(1)

(1)

2.5
(29)
2.1
(20)
2.1
(36)
1.8
(33)
1.5
(23)
1.7
(11)
1.4
(15)

1.7
(25)
1.6
(52)
1.4
(56)
1.4
(107)
1.3
(54)
1.2
(72)
1.1
(42)

1.3
(21)
I.I
(14)

0.9
(80)
0.9
(46)
0.8
(132)
0.8
(119)
0.8
(69)
0.7
(55)

(1)

2.8
(1)
3.3
(1)

1.6
(1)
1.2
(5)
0.9
(1)
1.2

1.6
(5)
1.7
(5)
1.8
(3)
0.8
(1)
0.8
(1)
1.1
(1)
0.6
(2)

(1)

0.5
(1)

2.0
(3)
2.6
(3)

1.7
(2)
1.5
(4)
1.1
(3)
1.5
(3)
0.8
(2)

1.3
(1)
0.8
(1)

1.2
(1)

1.0
(2)
0.9
(1)
1.4
(3)
0.9
(1)

1.1

(11)
1.0
(9)
0.8
(1)

0.7
(1)
0.7
(6)

0.7
(8)
0.8
(50)

1969

0.8
(22)
0.8
(23)

1970

N
N
N

V

V
V

l

260

245

}

163

}

245

V

24

V

26

V

31

V

33

V

37

V
V

}

245

V

24

V

26

V

31

V

33

V

37

V
V

~

}

245

}

245

)

21

}

71

}

245

Southern hemisphereArgentina

1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976

Australia

1968
1969
1970

134

1.3
(19)
1.4
(9)
1.4
(10)
1.4
(8)

1.4
(29)
1.4
(21)

1.3
(20)
1.3
(21)

1.2
(9)
1.3
(12)
1.3
(15)
1.3
(12)

0.9
(8)
1.0

1.0
(12)
0.8

0.9
(7)
1.0

0.8
(79)
0.9
(108)
0.7
(448)

1.5
(98)
1.4
(98)
1.4
(182)

2.0
(26)
1.6
(27)
1.6
(42)

--1.3-(9)--1.4-(11)--1.3-(12)--1.3-(13)
0.97
0.95
1.0
1.0
1.0
(4)
(6)
(7)
1.0
0.9
1.0
2.0
1.9
2.2
(14)
(8)
(14)
1.5
1.6
1.4
(11)
(7)
(13)
1.5
1.2
1.2
(34)
(20)
(13)
l.3
(6)
1.5
(10)
1.6
(17)
1.5
(15)

--1.3-(75)--1.3-(69)--1.2-(75)--1.2-(71)
1.0
(12)
0.9

1.0
(18)
1.0

1.4
(75)
1.2
(136)
1.1
(180)

0.9
(75)
0.9
(112)
0.9
(246)

v·
V
V

V
V
V
V
V
V
V
V

10

Age (y)CountryYear

Australia

1971

Newborn or
stillborn

<J

0.8
(413)
0.8
(398)
0.7
(264)
0.6
(348)
0.6
(98)

{continued)

1972
1973
1974
1975

1.6
{192)
1.6
(143)
1.1
(172)
1.0
(178)
1.0
(55)

1969

BrazilChile

1969

Indonesia

1970

2

3

1.8

1.6
(27)
1.8
(19)
1.7
(18)

1.3
(21)
1.9
(18)
1.4
(21)
1.0
(19)
2.2
(5)

(32)

1.7
(45)
1.5
(27)
1.3
(25)

1.3
(16)

1.5

(16)
1.2
(9)

1.6

1.2

(1)

(1)

5-19

> 19

1.2

1.1

(11)

(162)
1.2
(128)
1.0
(129)
1.0
(83)
1.0
(25)

0.8
(231)
1.0
(143)
0.8
(150)
1.0
(107)
1.0
(21)

1.9
(5)

1.3
(39)

V

1.7
(20)

V

V

(1)

0.7
(4)
0.4
(3)
0.4
(6)

2.0

0.5

R

4

1

1.8
(13)

1.3
(16)
1.2
(4)
1.4
(2)

1.5
(2)
0.3

1971

(1)

1973

0.4

1966 to1969

South Africa

1.3

1.1

Adulr
bone
rypea

V

Reference

}

11

V

V

}

V
V

13

}

245

}

V
V

119

122
245

ay = vertebra, R = rib, S = sternum, C = composite, N = normalized to whole skeleton.
bThe data up to age of 4 years refer to Moscow only,cMainly V.

TABLE 12. STRONTIUM-90/Ca QUOTIENT IN ADULT VERTEBRAE BY COUNTRY
Northern hemisphere, 1962-1975(pCi (gCa) • 1 )Year

Canada

1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975

1.2
1.7
3.1
3.1
2.6
2.5
2.7
2.2

Czechoslovak/aDenmark

PolandFrance

1.4
1.6
2.5
2.5
2.9

0.8
1.2

1.8
2.2
1.8
1.9
I. 7
1.8
1.8
1.5

2.4
2.7
2.6
2.1
1.9

1.3

2.2
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.0

1.9
1.7
1.6

1.8
1.6

1.5
1.4

Un/redKingdom

USSR(Moscow)

1.7
2.4
3.1
2.7
2.3
1.7
1.7
1.4

1.9
2.2
1.6
1.6
1.5

1.3

1.2

1.5

UnitedStates(New York)

1.0
1.6
2.0
2.1
2.1
1.9
1.9
1.7
1.6
1.4
1.4

Mean

1.10
1.56
2.37
2.47
2.37
2.07
1.97
1.74
1.53
1.52
1.55
1.43
1.30

1.3

1.2
1.1

6. Transfer from diet to bone
71. The transfer factor linking diet and human bone
P 34 is defined by

72. In the 1969 report of the Committee (244) it was
shown that if the values of Q(t) and C(t) are evaluatedfor discrete intervals of time of duration h, they areinterrelated by the equation
a)

f:a:
f~"'

Q (i) =

Q (l) dt
p 34 = ~--'----I hC (ih-mh) K (mh)

(9)

m=O

(8)

C (t) dt

where K(mh) is the transfer function discussed in thefollowing paragraph. It is usual for Q( t) and C( t) to be
determined for each calendar year, so in practice h has
the value of 1 y. Equation 8 can be reformulated as00

where Q(t) is the 90 Sr/Ca quotient in bone at time t,
averaged over the population, and C(t) is thecorresponding quotient in the diet at time t, also
averaged over the population.

""

L h I hC (ih-mh) K (mh)p ~=i=-oo
3

m=0
00

I hC (ih)a,

I hK(mh)m=O(lQ)

i= - cc,135

73. In the 1972 report (245) several types of transfer
function were tried in regression analyses of bone anddiet data. The best fits were obtained with a function
consisting of a rate term plus an exponential function
tenn, first proposed by Coulon and Madelmont (77),with h = I y:
K(m)=cc5m+gexp(-µm)(11)
where the first term is the rate term, accounting for thatstrontium in bone which is in rapid exchange with theplasma, the second term is the exponential term
postulated to represent the values in bone after m years
following a single intake, and Om is a function such that
Om = 1 whenm =O, and Om = 0 whenm :I: 0.
74. The bone 90 Sr/Ca quotients were fitted to thecorresponding diet quotients for data taken from
Australia, Denmark, New York, San Francisco and also

to the average northern hemisphere data, using
equation 9 and the transfer function of equation 11(22). The 9 0 Sr/Ca quotient in the diet for the northernhemisphere was estimated by multiplying the corresponding values for milk (table 7) by 1.4.
75. The values of the parameters obtained byregression analysis are given in table 13, together withestimates of P34 obtained by the use of equation 10.
Only the parameters for the Danish data have changed
substantially since the 1972 report. and they are now
more in line with those for other countries. Somecomparisons of measured and predicted 9 0 Sr/Ca
quotients in bone are shown in figure IX. The estimatesof the transfer factor P 34 vary little from one locality toanother. The range of values shown in table 13 is
0.10-0.16, the average being 0.14.

TABLE 13. PARAMETERS OF THE TRANSFER FUNCTION OF 90 Sr BETWEEN DIET AND BONE
Obtained by regression analysis from data for various countries and areas
Parameter
C (y·')g (y "')µ (y"')P,,.

Australia

Denmark

UnitedKingdom

0.001
0.026
0.22
0.13

0.037
0.018
0.20
0.14

0.035
0.28
0.15

City

San
Francisco

0.017
0.021
0.28
0.10

0.021
0.024
0.20
0.15

0.023
0.031
0.25
0.16

0

eo MMwreddo~
2

New York- - Fined curve

~

g
E

.!!

0:,
C,

~
,i;

g

1955

1965

1960

Figure IX. Variation of

90

0 (n. i) = (ci+g.) C (n, i)+. (12)+ [Q ( 11 - 1.i - 1 ) - ci _ 1 C ( 11 - 1, i - 1 )] e - ..,where C(n, i) is the 9 0 Sr/Ca quotient in the diet of
persons of age i in year n, andand g; areage-dependent model parameters. Bennet (36) has fitted
equation 12 to the New York and San Francisco bone
data for all age groups. For children under nine years ofage the parameter c; was found to be zero, consistent
with a single exponential transfer model as originallyproposed by Rivera (215). The best fit was obtained
136

1975

Sr in bone in Australia and New York, 1955-1975

76. To account for the bone 9 0 Sr/Ca quotients inpersons of all age groups, Bennett (36) has used anage-dependent transfer function. The 9 0 Sr/Ca quotientin bone at age i and yearn, Q(n. i}, is postulated to be

c,

1970

with a turnover rate of 9 0 Sr varying from about I 00 per
cent per year down to about 40 per cent per year in the
pre-teenage years and then falling with age to about
20 per cent per year for adults. Beninson (18) had
reported a similar variation in turnover rate with age
from studies in Argentina. The fractional retention ofstrontium, i.e.. the fraction of dietary intake incorporated into the skeleton, was also found by Bennett(37) to vary with age, being five to seven times higher
for infants than for adults.
77. As shown in Annex A, the transfer factor of asequence of steps in series in the compartment model isthe product of the transfer factors of each step. The
transfer factor of 9 0 Sr between fallout and bone P 2 3 4
can therefore be calculated as P 2 3 4 = P23 P34 • Using theaverage values estimated for both factors, the P234 is
calculated to be 0.7 pCi y (gCa)- 1 per mCi km- 2 • Thisvalue is about 30 per cent higher than the one used in
the 1972 report of the Committee, but due to theuncertainties involved in the calculations, this difference
is not regarded as significant.

The transfer factors P45 are therefore estimated to be:

P4s (marrow) =(Dm/D 0 ')D 0 = 1.4 mrad per pCi y (gCa)· 1
P45 (bone lining cells) =(DJboWo = 1.9 mrad per pCi y (gcar 1 •7. Transfer factor relating bone activity level and dose
78. In the compartment model described in paragraph 2, the transfer factor linking tissue radioactivity totissue dose is P4 5 • The value of this factor for 9 0 Sr canbe deduced from the following dosimetric considerations: The dose rate per unit beta activity in a small
tissue-filled cavity in bone, Do, has been formulated by
Spiers (225) as:

Do= Nm E (Sr/SB)m (KB/Kr)
where Nm= 1.17 106 M- 1 y· 1 per pCi (gCa)· 1 is thenumber of beta particles emitted per year and unit massof bone for each unit of the 9 0 Sr/Ca quotient. M being
the mass of bone per unit mass of calcium (M""' 5) ( 160,
252); E is the effective energy of the beta rays emitted{for 90 Sr+ 90 Y, E= 1.13 MeV); (ST/Ss)m is the ratioof mass stopping powers in tissue and in bone = 1.07
( 41 ), and K sand KT are the ratios of the effective range
to total track length of beta particles in bone and soft
tissue. respectively. They are assumed in this case to beunity (83). The dose-rate factor is therefore
Do = 4.5 mrad y· 1 per pCi (gCa)· 1 •79. In order to obtain corresponding values for Dm
and D5 , the dose rate factors for bone marrow and forbone lining cells, which are the desired P4 s transfer
factors, use can be made of the Dm/D 0 and DJb 0 ratios
estimated for cortical and trabecular bone by Spiers (226).
These values are:Cortical contribution
Trabecular contribution
Total

Dm/D 0

i>Jb0

0.055
0.260

0.082
0.352

0.32

0.43

8. Dose commitment from strontium-90
80. The dose commitment from 90 Sr released by
nuclear explosions can be assessed using the environmental compartment model described in paragraph 2.
The dominant exposure pathway is dietary intake,inhalation being completely negligible in comparison.
The dose commitment De is related to the integrated
deposition density F of 9 0 Sr by the following
expression:

where P2 34 is the transfer factor linking integrated
deposition density and the time-integral of the 9 0 Sr/Ca
quotient in bone (para. 77) and P4 5 is the transfer factor
linking the 9 0 Sr/Ca quotient in bone to the dose rate in
the bone marrow or in the bone lining cells (para. 79).
81. The integrated deposition density in each hemisphere from all nuclear explosions to the end of 1975
can be calculated by applying the population weighting
procedure described in paragraph 47 to · the data
presented in table 3. The results are (mCi km- 2 ):Entire hemisphere
Temperate zone

Northernhemisphere

Southernhemisphere

56.5
85.1

17.6
24.5

82. Table 14 presents the dose commitment from 90 Sr
to the populations of .each hemisphere and to the
populations of the temperate latitudes of eachhemisphere.

TABLE 14. DOSE COMMITMENTS TO BONE TISSUES FROM 9 0 Sr PRODUCED L~
ALL NUCLEAR EXPLOSIONS UP TO THE END OF 1975
(mrad)

Northern hemisphere

TissueBone marrow
Endosteal cells

Temperate
zone

85
116

83. The dose commitments to the world population,
calculated from the global mean integrated deposition
density given in paragraph 47, are 52 mrad for bonemarrow and 71 mrad for bone lining cells. As the total
activity of 90 Sr released to the environment by nuclear
tests is approximately 16 MCi ( table 2), the collective
dose commitments per unit activity of 9 0 Sr released,assessed by the procedures outlined in Annex A. are

Populationweighted
averageSouthern hemisphere
Temperatezone

Populationweighted
average

56

24

17

77

33

24

approximately 13 man rad Ci- 1 for bone marrow and18 man rad Ci- 1 for bone lining cells, for the geographic
pattern of past nuclear tests.
G. STRONTI~-89
84. Strontium-89 has a half-life of 50.5 d and decays
with the emission of a beta particle with maximum
137

energy of 1.46 MeV. It is one of the main components
of fallout activity in the first few months after a nuclear
test. It has been extensively measured in fallout since
1961 (111); the latitudinal distribution of the integrated
deposition density is shown in table 15.
TABLE 15. LATITUDINAL
DISTRIBUTION OF ' 9 Sr
INTEGRATED DEPOSITION DENSITY, 1961-1963

Latitudeband

70°-80°N
60°-70°N
50°·60°N
40°-50°N
30°-40"N
20° -30"N
HI" -20"N
0°-lO"N0°-10" S
10° -20° s
20° -30" s
30°-40° S
40"-50" S
50"-60" SArea
of band
(10

6

2

km )

11.6
18.9
25.6
31.5
36.4
40.2
42.8
44.1
44.1
42.8
40.2
36.4
31.5
25.6

Relative
populationof band
(%)

-o

0.4
12.2
13.8
18.2
29.2
9.8
5.6
5.8
1.8
1.6
1.4
0.1
0.05

Integrated
deposition densityof 19 Sr (mCi km" 2)

34
210
250
326
288
218
121
I 04
88
9
19
II
II

Source: Reference 111.

85. Strontium-89 was measured in milk at some 63
cities in the United States between 1962 and 1966(204). The time-integral of the concentration for thisperiod was 95.5 pCi y 1- 1 • O'Brien (195) has estimatedthe transfer factor P34 linking the time-integrals of the89
Sr/Ca quotient in milk and in human bone. Using theinfinite time-integrals of the retention functions, forcancellous bone for 8 9 Sr and 9 0 Sr presented in the
ICRP alkaline earth metabolic model ( 160), it wasestimated that the transfer factor Prl'k for 89 Sr is
0.022 of the total diet P 23 for 90 Sr. O'Brien (195)
estimated the factor P45 for 89 Sr to be 0.71 mrad per
pCi y (gCa)- 1 , which, using a value of0.14Jor~eP34
of 9 0 Sr. leads to a combined factor Pr41~k of
0.0022 mrad per pCi y (gCa)- 1 • With the above
time-integral of the 8 9 Sr/Ca quotient in milk, the percaput bone-marrow dose in the United States between
I 961 and 1966 is estimated t.o be 0.21 mrad.
86. Relating this value to the relevant integrated
deposition density of 8 9 Sr. it is estimated that the bonemarrow dose commitment to the population in thetemperate zone of the northern hemisphere from all
tests up to 1970 is approximately 0.4 mrad.
87. As the ratio of activities 8 9 Sr/9 0 Sr at the time offission is aprroximately J85 (62). the total atmospheric
input of 9 Sr is estimated to have been about
2.8 10 9 Ci. The collective dose commitment to the bonemarrow per unit activity release of 8 9 Sr, calculated by
the procedures outlined in Annex A is approximately
4 10-4 man rad Ci- 1 for the past pattern of nuclear
explosions.
H. RUTHENIUM-106
88. Ruthenium-106 has a half-life of 365 days anddecays to 1 0 6 Rh by pure beta decay with a maximum
energy of 0.039 MeV. The 30-s half-life 106 Rh decays
with a maximum beta energy of 3.45 MeV and alsoemits several gamma rays.
138

89. The time-integral of the concentration of 106 Ru
in air can be estimated from that for 14 4 Ce given intable 20. Cerium-144 has a half-life of 285 d, so thatthe 106 Ru/ 144 Ce activity ratio will only changewith a half-time of about 3.5 y. The ratio of theintegrated deposition densities of 106 Ru and 1 44 Ce was
0.51 for Chilton, United Kingdom, 1967-1970 (61) and
0.53 for Pittsburgh, United States, 1961-1963 (110),and at Bombay, India, 1966-1969 (102), the ratio of thetime-integrals of the activity concentrations in air was
0.38. Assuming a value of 0.50 for the ratio of thetime-integrals of the activity concentrations in air of106
Ru and 144 Ce, and using the estimates for the latter.
time-integral for 106 Ru is estimated to be 1.5 pCi y m - 3
in the northern hemisphere and 0.35 pCi y m - 3 in thesouthern.
90. Assuming that the activity is present as an aerosolof about 0.5-µm particle size and using the lCRP lungmodel ( 135, 136) with class Y parameters, the transfer
factor between activity in air and Jung dose P, 4 5 isestimated to be 27 .2 mrad per pCi y m - 3 for the dose to
the pulmonary region of the lung. The resulting dose
commitments to the pulmonary region from all tests tothe end of 1975 are respectively 41 and 10 mrad in thenorthern and southern hemispheres.
91. The total injection of 106 Ru. assessed from thatof 9 0 Sr using the corresponding activity ratio at the timeof fission, has been about 3.3 108 Ci. Using theprocedures described in Annex A, the collective dose
commitment to the lung per unit activity of 10 6 Ru
released is estimated to be about 0.4 man rad Ci- 1 forthe past pattern of nuclear explosions.

I. IODINE-131
92. lodine-131 is a beta emitter with a half-life of 8 d,
and a maximum beta energy of 0.81 MeV. with theemission of gamma rays of 0.72 and 0.36 MeV and otherenergies. Due to its short half-life, 1 31 I is present in thelong-range tropospheric fallout only shortly after
atmospheric detonations. It is unlikely that the clouds ofradioactive debris become well mixed during periods
comparable to the mean residence time of an aerosol in
the troposphere. The concentration of 1 3 1 l in surface
air at a particular location, therefore, will depend
strongly on meteorological conditions and will notnecessarily be representative of a latitude band or evenof a large region.
93. Fresh milk dominates as a source of 13 1 I intake inareas where it is a major diet component, because of thelarge areas scavenged by the grazing animal and also
because of the short storage period of milk. The transferof 1 3 1 I from deposition on grass to milk has been
estimated from laboratory experiments (97) and fromfallout field measurements (17), and varies widely,depending mainly on the density of the herbage and on
cattle-feeding practices. Table 16 gives the reported
time-integrated concentrations in milk over the period
1966-1974 in a number of countries, mainly in thesouthern hemisphere, and some 1976 data from France
and Japan. The values reported for the southernhemisphere in 1974 were higher than those in 1972 and1973 and approached the levels observed in the years
1967-1971.

-~~

TABLE 16. CONCENTRATION OF' 31 I IN MILK AND THYROID DOSE TO INFANTS AT VARIOUS LOCATIONS, 1966-J 974a
Integrated milk concentration (nCI d 1- 1)
Location

1966

1967

1968

1969

1970

1971

1972

Calculated thyroid dose to i11fa11ts (mrad)
1973

1974

1966

1967

5

32

1968

1969

1970

1971

1972

1973

1974

Northem hemisphere

Japanb, c
Chiba
Miyagi

0.42

United Kingdomb, c
United States
Sebastian Cityc
Houstonc
Nashvilleb, c

2.75

0.37

0.9
1.2

4

10

14

0.60

7

9.3

107
3.7

43
JO

0.90

Southern hemisphereArgentina
Barilochc
Buenos Aires
Salta
Australiac
Malanda(highest)dHobartLauncestoneCountry average

7.6
27
15

1.4
4.3
1.8

2.5

4.6

4.17

7.0

1.7

4.9
8.5
6.9

88
310
174

16
50
21

28

52

48

81

20

56
97
79

II

10.4

4.5

5.8

5.4

0.17

0.05

2.47

127

120

52

67

62

2

0.6

28

1.5

0.38

0.79

0.86

0.35

0.04
0.02

0.04
0.07

0.34
0.78

17
43

4
10

9

10
15

4
13

0.4

16

0.4
0.8

3.9
9.0

5

3.0

120

30

44

60

35

22

3

24

Bolivia
La Paz11

BrazilGuanabara

3.6

Chile
Santiago

4.0

Colombia
Bogota0.4

Ecuador
Quito

2.5

Piji
Suvac

18!

2.9

4.4

Madagascar
Diego-Suarez

13

1.8

6.5

New Caledonia
Noumeaw\0

New Zcalandc

0.4

0.4

42

3.0

5.2

0.9

0.7

1.9

0.3

2.1

50

9

10

30

60

1.5

0.1

5

5

10

10

8

1.3

30

2.4

210

33

51

160

22

80

0.3

0.4
1.5

2.4

0.4

0.7

3.7

1.3

2.9

0.4

0.4

6.4
3.5

2.6

0.7

0.4

16
0.4

0.4

0.4

15

10

5
17

18

5

8

43

33

5

5

28

75
40

30

8

5

184

5

5

5

-

TABLE 16 (continued)

,ll>

0

Integrated milk concentration (nCi d r')
Location

1966

1967

1968

1969

1970

1971

1972

Calcula tcd thyroid dose to in/ants (mrad)
1973

1974

1966

1967

1968

23

70
50

1969

1970

1971

90
10

35

1972

1973

1974

Southcm hemisphere (continued)
l'cru
Arequipa

Lima

6

7.5

2.9

4

6

Tacna

10

16
2.1
1.2

70
170

13

120

Samoa
Apia

15!

8.4

3.3

6.2

7.3

0.4

l.1

4.4

4.7

4.9

11

18

1.0

11

59

1.5
8.0

11.1

97

38

71

84

5

13

51

55

60

130

210

12

130

680

Society Islands
TahitiSouth Africa

Cape Town

Pretoria

17
92

127

a There are 1976 data: France (0.91, JO); Japan: Fukushuma (0.95, 11 ), Chiba (0.36, 4), Fukoku (0.33, 4 ). The first figure in the parentheses is the integrated milk co11ce11tration and the second is the
thyroid dose, in the same units as in the table.
bThe integrat"d concentration Iias been taken to be numerically equal to 10 times I.he highest observed concentration in nCi 1-•.
cThe dose Is assumed to be the time-integrated concentration multiplied by 11.5 mrad pCi- 1 d- 1 1.
din 1973, the highest integrated milk concentration was measured at Perth (0.27 nCi d 1-• ).
eLowcst.
!value based <>nan extrapolation.

~

94. As 131 I concentrates in bovine thyroid. this organ
is a suitable biological indicator of the presence of 131 I
in the local environment. Beninson {19) measured theconcentration of 131 I in bovine milk and thyroid in
Argentina during the period 1966-1970. The ratio
between the time-integral of the 131 I concentration inthyroid and that in milk was fairly constant for thedifferent years and had a value of about 500. Monitoringof 1 31 I in bovine thyroid carried out in Czechoslovakia( 66) confirms the very high sensitivity of this method ofsurveillance for 1 3 1 I in the environment.
95. Infants receive higher doses in their thyroids thando adults for a given intake of 131 I, the main reason
being the smaller thyroid mass. A mass of 2 g was used
for estimating doses to infant thyroids. Estimates of thedose in infant thyroids per unit activity of 13 1 I reaching
the organ range from 15.5 to 18.5 mrad nCi- 1 (179,189), and a value of 16.5 was used in the 1972 report of
the Committee. Assuming that infants consum~ 0.7 I of
fresh milk per day and that all the 1 3 1 I ingested is taken
up by the thyroid. the P345 transfer factor (relating
thyroid dose in infants to the time-integrated iodine-131
concentration in milk) can be estimated to be about
11.5 mrad per nCi d 1- 1 •96. Table 16 presents estimates of the dose in infant
thyroids, as calculated with the assumptions mentioned
above. They should be regarded as the highest individual
doses in the areas for which the assumed consumption isrealistic, and as clear overestimates in areas such as theSociety Islands where fresh cow's milk is only a small
fraction of the total milk consumed by infants. The doseto adults should be at least an order of magnitude lower,
because the mass of their thyroids is about ten times
larger, and their milk consumption is smaller.

leaves. Caesium-137 seems to become more strongly
fixed in the soil than 90 Sr does (14, 114, 159,267), but
its availability to plants depends markedly on the soil
type and has been found to decrease in time (256). In asandy soil in Massachussetts (United States), Hardy{114) found that 84 per cent of the fallout 1 37 Cs was in
the top 4 cm of soil. and 97 per cent was in the top
31 cm. Marei et al ( 159) have identified regions in the
USSR where the soil is wet, peaty and podzolic, fromwhich the transfer of 1 37 Cs into the food chain is 10
times higher than for other regions. Other regions of theworld where there are soils giving rise to high 1 3 7 Cstransfer into diet have also been identified, for example.
in the Faroe Islands (3), New Zealand (188) and Sweden( 151 ). The mechanism of such enhanced transfer has
also been studied (94). Much smaller amounts of 137 Cs
than of 90 Sr are leached out of the soil to enter rivers
and lakes.
100. Regarding deposition of 13 7 Cs on the oceans,measurements made on sediments of the Atlantic Ocean
137
indicate that only about 3 per cent of the falloutCs
has reached the bottom ( 193). Activity concentrations
in surface waters of the open ocean are about
0.2 pCi 1- 1 (46). and in the deep ocean they are lower
by a factor of about 30. Hodge et al (127), frommeasurements of 1 3 7 Cs concentrations in Pacific tuna,3
estimated the half residence-time of 1 7 Cs in surface
waters to be about 17 y.
101. Marine food chains seem to be of secondary
importance in relation to human intakes. The reported
concentration factors between sea water and mose biota
are about 50 (93, 191, 214, 240). It has been estimatedthat in Japan, between 1966 and 1971. only about 8 percent of the dietary intake of 137 Cs came from theconsumption of fish products (240).

J. CAESIUM-137
97. Caesium-137 is a beta emitter with a maximum
beta energy of 1.17 MeV, which decays with theemission of gamma rays of0.66 MeV. It has a half-life of
30 y, very close to that of 90 Sr, and since the measured
activity ratio of 1 37 Cs/9 Sr in deposition at many sites
and over a long time has been fairly constant at about
1.6 (245), it is useful to use the more complete data on
90
Sr to estimate the deposition of 1 3 7 Cs. In this way
also the latitudinal distribution of 137 Cs integrated
deposition density can be estimated from the 9 0 Sr dataof table 3.

°

1. Caesium-137 in the environment
98. Since the half-life of 1 3 7 Cs is relatively long, theassessment of dose commitments requires the understanding of the behaviour of this radionuclide in theenvironment. A recent review of the literature on thissubject has been publi,<;hed by Moiseev et al (262). The
deposition of 1 3 7 Cs occurs over land and over theoceans. As in the case of 9 0 Sr, it has been found that
fallout over land is the more important pathway as far as
dose commitments to man are concerned.
99. After deposition over land, caesium-137 enters the
dietary pathway, being taken up by plants either
through the root system or by direct uptake by the

2. Levels in diet102. Since 137 Cs is an alkali metal like potassium. andsince the concentration of potassium in lean body mass isconstant (225), it is convenient to express the 1 37 Cs
activity in food and in the human body as the 1 3 7 Cs/K
quotient, usually in picocuries per gram. Data on the
13 7
Cs concentration in milk and on its daily intake fromthe total diet are shown in tables 4 and 6. Data available
for 1973 and 1974 indicate that, generally speaking,levels are still falling. The transfer of 1 3 7 Cs from
deposition to diet is normally high during the first year
after deposition and relatively small subsequently.
Concentrations in milk are strongly dependent on
deposition in the same year. That explains why in thenorthern hemisphere the milk concentrations on the
average decreased from 1966 to 1969, were relatively
stable from 1969 to 1971, and decreased again from1971 to 1973.
103. The transfer of 1 37 Cs from deposition to diet canbe studied quantitatively using an approach similar tothat for 9 0 Sr (paras. 55-69). The measured 1 37 Cs/K
quotients in the various components of the Danish dietare plotted against time in figure X (2). Evans and141•O Measured data
- - - Fitted curve
7
60
50

Milk
b,
b1
b1
µ
Pu
W;

40

30
20
0

10

• 2.17• 1.48• 0.05= 0.07• 4.30= 020

0oVegetables

20

0

b,
b,
b1
µ

Pn
Wi

10

• 0.63=O= 0.006• 0.02= 0.92= 0.37

ol
Fruit

30J

b,

I

b,
b,

20

J

µ

P,,

I

T

ol

2

j

~

I

;;:

u
.e

"

0

~

c:,

"'
~
!:!

WJ

0

• 0.81• 0.55• 0.08= 0.3= 1.59= 0.09

4001
J
300

I
Grain products

b,
b1
b,

200

µ

P,,
Wi

= 2.36• 17.02
0
0
19.4
0.09

100

160
140
120
100

Meat

60

b,
b1
b,
µ

40

w,

80

P:1

0

0

20

4.45
0
= 17.3
1.6
8.8
0.17

I

1955

56

57

58

59

60

61

62

63

64

65

66

67

68

69

70

71

Figure X. Variation of 1 ' 1 Cs in various diet components in Denmark, 1955-1974. The unit for parameters b,, b 1 , b 3 ispCi (gK) • 1 per mCi km - 2 • The unit for parameter µ is y · 1 • The unit for the transfer factor P1 3 is pCi y (gK)"' permCikm· 2 •142

TABLE 17. PARAMETERS OF THE TRANSFER FUNCTION BETWEEN '31Cs
FALLOUT AND DIET
Obtained by regression analysis from Danish data
Vegetables

Fruit

Total
composite
diet

0.63
0.0
0.006
0.02
0.92
0.37
0.34

0.81
0.55
0.08
0.30
1.59
0.09
0.14

1.56
2.21
0.04
0.12
4.08
1.00
4.08

Meat,
Paramete,a,Wilk
products

Grainproducts

rish,

2.17
1.48
0.05
0.07
4.32
0.20
0.86

2.36
17.02
0.02
0.0
19.38
0.09
1.74

4.45
0.0
17.24
1.60
8.80
0.17

b,
b,
b,
µ

P/,
J~

.

WjPf,

eggs

I.SO

Total diet P23

4.08

4.58

a The unit for parameters b,, b 1 , b 3 i~ pCi (gK) -• per mCi km - l . The unit for parameterµ is2y-•. The unit for the transfer factor P/3 is pCi y (gKr' per mCi km - •is the fractional
contribution of component j to the total K diet.

W;

Bennett (86) have carried out a regression analysis using
these data and the annual deposition data, with atransfer function of the same form as that shown inparagraph 58 for 90 Sr. The figure also shows the curves
fitted to the data with the parameters given in table 17.
In Denmark the main contribution to the intake of137
Cs has been from meat and grain products, with asizeable contnlmtion from milk. Fruit and vegetables
contribute much smaller amounts. The same is true ofChicago (United States). In Japan. however, the main
contribution has been from cereals (240). For ail foods
the transfer seems to be rapid, being essentiallycompleted within the first two years after deposition.
I 04. The same transfer function was also fitted to theCs/K quotients in fresh milk in several countries. andthe resulting par~eters are shown in table 18. The
transfer factors />T;l 1k linking deposition density and thetime-integrated 137 Cs/K quotient in rru1k for Argentina.
Australia, Faroe Islands, New Zealand, Norway and
USSR are significantly greater than those for Denmarkand the United States. The value reported for Finland,
15.8 pCi y (gK)- 1 per mCi km- 2 (65), is also in thishigher range. It should be noted that parameters
relating to Denmark in table 18 are for fresh milk. while
those in the first column table 17 refer to milk
products.

105. The results of the regression analysis for theestimation of P2 3 , or its components such as J>Tlk. areconsistent with the assessments carried out by theCommittee for its 1969 and 1972 reports (244,245). A
value of 4.1 pCi y (gK)- 1 per mCi km- 2 was estimatedin these reports for the factor P2 3 • identical with thatshown in table 17, which was derived by regression
analysis. The. same value, rounded to 4 pCi (gK)- 1 per
mCi km - 2 , will be used in this report for the purpose of
assessing dose commitments from 137 Cs for the world
population. This value of the transfer factor adequately
represents some areas in the northern hemisphere, buton the available evidence discussed above, it would
appear to underestimate P2 3 for other areas. especiallyin the southern hemisphere.

13 7106. The latitudinal distribution of 1 37 Cs deposition
density in 1972 ( assessed from the 9 0 Sr data assuming a
constant 137 Cs/ 90 Sr activity ratio) is shown as thecurve in figure XI. Also shown in figure XI are the 1 37 Cs
concentrations in milk in 1972 at various localities. The
13 7
Cs milk concentrations for a number of them departmarkedly from a general correlation with the deposition
data. Since data on 1 3 7 Cs concentration in foods are notavailable for many areas of the world, particularly in thetropical regions, it is not possible to assess what theimportance of this effect might be on the global scale.

TABLE 18. PARAMETERS OF THE TRANSFER FUNCTION FROM' "Cs FALLOUT TO MILK
Obtained by regression analysis of data for various countries and areas
Paramete,a

b,
b,
b,
µ
pmilk
23

Argentina

Australia

Denmark

Faroe
Islands

New
Zealand

NorwayUSSR

UnitedKingdom

UnitedStates

2.21
0.00
1.80
0.27
8.02

7.24
4.78
0.30
0.18
13.59

2.37
0.69
0.06
0.30
3.23

6.80
5.44
2.83
0.17
27.51

6.79
0.68
3.62
0.51
12.91

3.52
2.26
2.63
0.24
15.48

4.43
0.22
0.31
0.18
6.22

1.75
1.61
0.03
0.023
4.75

2.28
1.34
0.00
0.05
3.63

·tk aThe unit for parameters b 1 , b 2 , b 3 , is pCi (gK)- 1 per mCi km-,. The unit for parameterµ is y-•. The unit for the transfer factor
is pCi y (gK)- 1 per mCi km - l .

~~

143

•

Fa roe Islands• Society Islands

100

e Maninlque

90

80
70

• French Guiana

60
50• Jamaica

'

r:;

40

-=
"'

• Florida (USA)

I'
E

..J

i

!':

JO

,.
u

Federal Republicof Germany

u

.§.

...

>.;;

:l

0 20

zw

Japan

z
;::
<
z"'
w
0

Australia...

Argentina

1.0 0

z

•

0

;::

.;;
0
~
w

c.,

z

0

0

u

u

;
10
9

0.1

ro•s

60"S

50'5

-S

JO<S

20'S

IO'S

Equ,to< 10''1

20"'1

30"'1

40''1

50'N

IIO"N

'IO'N

LATITclDE

Figure XI. Latitudinal distribution of 1 3 7 Cs deposition density (curve) and the concentrationof' "Cs in milk at nrious locations (dots and segments), 1972

3. Caesium-137 in the human body
I07. Caesium-137 ingested by man is distributed in thebody, with about 80 per cent being deposited in muscle
and 8 per cent in bone (225). About 10 per cent of theactivity taken in is eliminated rapidly, with a biologicalhalf-life of about 1 d. while the remaining 90 per cent is
excreted at a lower rate (225). The biological half-life of
this main fraction varies between less than 50 d to morethan 200 d in adults (43, 124, 245) and is shorter inchildren than in adults ( 124). Owing to this relatively
short biological half-life, the activity of 1 3 7 Cs in the
body tends to follow the fluctuations of theconcentration of 1 3 7 Cs in the diet.
108. Table 19 summarizes the information on 137 Cs/K
quotients in the human body in the period 1964-1974.
For all localities. the values have continued to decrease

144

since the 1972 report of the Committee. The 1 3 7 Cs/K
quotients in subarctic populations are between two andthree orders of magnitude higher than those in the
middle latitudes, as shown by data from Finland,
Norway and Sweden and from the northern USSR andUnited States (Alaska) (123. 200. 210, 238, 250). Thesehigh values are due to the lichen-reindeer (or caribou)
food chain (245).
109. The short biological half-life of caesium in the
body makes it possible to assess the transfer factor
between diet and body P 3 4 from the 1 37 Cs/k quotients
integrated over a few years. Using this procedure, anaverage value of 3 is derived from the data of tables 6
and 19 converted into 137 Cs/K quotients. which ispractically identical to the value used in the 1969 and1972 reports, namely 2.9.

·-~-- _____...,..____TABLE 19. CAESIUM-137/POTASSIUM QUOTIENT JN THE HUMAN DODY
(pCi (gKJ • 1 )Locat/011

Apg,roximate/at tilde(degrees Nor S)

Ref-

Sex

1964

1965

1966

1967

1968

1969

1970

1971

1972

1973

1974

1975

ere11ce

Northern hemisphere

Belgium
Canada (Ottawa)
Denmark
Egypt
FinlandFranceGermany, Fed. Rep. ofKarlsruhe
Diisseldorf
IsraelJapan
NorwayPolandSweden (Stockholm)
Switzerland (Geneva)
USSR
Moscow
Leningrad
United Kin~dom
London area
West Cumberland
United States
Country average
FloridaWest Berlin
CanadaEastern (Eskimos)
Central (Eskimos)
Finlandlnari (reindeer
herders)
USSR
Murmansk
United States
Alaska

50
45

55-60
30
60

50
49

51
35
30-45
60

50-55
60
45

55
60

so
55

M,F
M,F
M,F
M,F
M,F
M,F
M,F
M
M
M
M,F
M,F

M, r

M
F
M
F
M,F
M
F
M

158

185

135
170
168

87

50

29

106

65

46
14
72
36

40

23
107
64

227

182
194

150
93

151
243

111
186

81
128

49

93

77
430

54
290

33

164
205
206
139

185
187
179
121

139
103
66

76

71
107

54
41

258

50

174

142

92

42
68

148
109
190

89
60
110

45

149
257

109
149

60
132

35
120
68

33
52

13

16

11

10

11

53
32

23
12
44
26

34
28

38
28

37
21

28

lR

29
17

27
41
48
20

16
32

15
31

15
22

17
30

11
23

9
19

15

52

14

13

16

12

10

9

8

74
30
26

54
24
19

47
21
18

46

38
19
19

31

22

186, 239
132
152
233

34
27
70

29
22

38
36

23
22

129

101
30

M,F
M,F

60-70
60-70

M
M

70

M
F

7 800
8 800

9 OOO
11 200

7 800
7900

S 500
3 800

5 200
4 200

3 400
3 600

3 100
2 800

4 100
3 300

65-70

M

14 OOO

18 OOO

25 SOO

17 50016 50015 50012 500

11 SOO

65-70

M

9 100

6 600

4 900

4 300

2400

M,fo

12

266
265

25-50
25-30
52

141

244
175
2
181
231,232
198

17
49

47

36

29

25

19

JO

11

104
216
52

S11barctic region

5 800

42
11 OOO

123

9 OOO

238
210

So11thcrn hemisphere

-"'"
v,

Argentina
Australia

35-40
30-40

65

31
42

20
37

16
18

13

15
16

14
30

12
25

10
17

9

4

21, 7111

110. An alternative approach for the derivation of P34
is the assessment by regression analysis o( the parametersof a postulated transfer function relating diet to body.
Applying this procedure to the data from Denmark andthe United States. and assuming a single exponential
transfer function. the estimated values of P34 are 2.6 forDenmark and 3.0 for the United States (86), in good
agreement with the value of 3 mentioned in paragraph109.
4. Dose commitment from caesium-137
111. The combined transfer factor P234 . linking
deposition to the 1 37 Cs/K quotient in the body, is the
product of P2 3 and P34 • From the estimated averagevalues for these two factors (paras. I 05 and 109), a valueof 12 pCi y (gKf 1 per mCi km - 2 is calculated for the
combined factor P2 34 •112. An alternative procedure for the assessment ofis the direct use of the time-integrated 137 Cs/K
quotient in the body fQdt and the integrated deposition
density F, both over the same period of several years,
the factor being P234 = (fQdt)/F This procedure.
applied to data from Argentina in the period 1966-1974(16, 21), estimates the factor P234 to be 11 pCi (gK)- 1
r;r mCi km- 2• For Stockholm the time-integrated
37
Cs/K quotient in the body in the period 1962-1972,
is 1053 pCi y (gK)- 1 (244, 245), while for the same
period the integrated deposition density of 1 3 7 Cs in theregion (at Tumba. near Stockholm) is 58 mCi km -l.
This gives a value of P234 of 18pCiy(gK)- 1 per
mCi km - 2 , about 50 per cent higher than the average
estimate given above. Aarkrog estimated P2 3 4 inDenmark by regression analysis from the body 1 3 7 Cs/K
quotients and the annual deposition densities, obtaining
a value of about 11 pCi y (gK)- 1 per mCi km - 2 (2).

P234

113. The transfer factor P2 3 4 could vary mainly as aresult of variations of P2 3 with the local conditions,particularly soil characteristics (para. 99) and the natureof the diet. In the 1972 report (245), the Committee
assessed the possible range of P2 3 values. based on USSR
data and the conservative assumption that available
1 37
Cs decreased only by radioactive decay. This range,
multiplied by the value of P34 given in paragraph 109,
impliesthat P 2 34
would be smaller than
22 pCi y (gK)- 1 per mCi km - 2 • The use of a value of
12 pCi (gI()- 1 per mCi km - 2 for P2 34 (para. 112), forthe purpose of assessing dos~ commitments, could
therefore not underestimate these commitments by afactor of more than two.
114. As was shown in the 1969 report of theCommittee (244 ), the transfer factor P4 5 , linking tissue
activity and tissue dose, is approximately independent ofa~e if expressed as dose per unit of the time-integrated
1 7
Cs/K quotient. The value of P4 5 = 1.8 10-2 mrad
per pCi y (gK)- 1 , combined with the estimate of
P2 34 = 12 pCi y (gK)- 1 per mCi km- 2 , gives a value forthe overall transfer factor P2 3 4 5 of about 0.2 mrad per
mCi km- 2 •115. The integrated deposition density of 1 3 7 Cs can beassessed from that of 90 Sr (paras. 47 and 81), using anactivity ~atio of 1.6 (para. 97). The values are
146(mCi km -:i ): temperate latitudes of the northernhemisphere. 136; temperate latitudes of the southernhemisphere. 39: global value weighted by the population
distribution. 84. The resulting dose commitments arerespectively 27 and 8 mrad for the populations in thetemperate latitudes of the northern and southernhemisphere and 17 mrad for the world population.
I 16. It is to be noted that the above dose commitments
are based upon information obtained in areas where
13 7
Cs in the soil becomes unavailable to plants fairly
rapidly. For populations consuming food from othertypes of soil, the dose commitments could be higher(para. 113), and for people in the subarctic regions
eating reindeer and caribou meat. the dose commitments .
are indeed much larger. Assuming, however, that thecontribution of such different situations to the totalcollective dose is not large, it can be estimated that thecollective dose commitment from internal exposure, perunit activity of 1 3 7 Cs released, is of the order of 3 man
rad Ci- 1 for the past pattern of nuclear explosions.

K. CAESIUM-136

117. Caesium-136 is a beta emitter with a half-life of
13.5 d. The maximum beta energy is 0.66 MeV, andseveral gamma rays with energies up to 1.25 Mev are
emitted. Since it must be produced directly by fission
and not by beta decay, because 136 Xe is stable, theactivity produced in nuclear tests is fairly small. By using
the 1 3 6 Cs/ 14 0 Ba fission yield ratio and the depositionto-milk transfer factors of 137 Cs and 140 Ba, O'Brien(195) has estimated the integrated deposition density of136
Cs and the time-integrated concentration in milk in
the United States between 1961 and 1965. These
calculated values agree roughly with the few measurements which have been made of 136 Cs (177). The
time-integrated concentration in milk in the UnitedStates between 1961 and 1965 was estimated to be
4.2 pCi y 1- 1 • Using data on trasfer factors for 1 37 Cs
and 140 Ba as a guide, O'Brien estimated P 345(milk-to-dose) for 136 Cs to be 13 10-3 mrad per
pCi y 1-1 • The estimated dose commitment for the
population of the temperate regions of the northernhemisphere from all tests to 1970 is 0.01 mrad.

L. BARIUM-140

118. Barium-140 is a beta emitter with a half-life of
12.8 d and a maximum beta energy of 1.02 MeV. It
emits several gamma rays. Its daughter product, the40.2-h half-life 140 La, decays with a 2.18-MeV
maximum-energy beta emission and several gamma rays,
with energies up to 1.6 MeV. Barium-140 is measurable
in fallout only for a few weeks after a nuclear explosion.
This radionuclide was measured in the pasteurized milk
supply networks of the United States by the Public
Health Service between 1961 and 1966 (204). The
time-integrated concentration in milk was 16.2 pCi y 1- 1
for this period. O'Brien (195) estimated the factor P45
for 140 Ba to be about 3.0mrad per pCiy(gCa)- 1 inbone. In addition, using the P 3 4 value for 9 0 Sr together
with the ICRP model for alkaline-earth metabolism(160). the factor }11/k for 140 Ba was estimated to be5.5 10- 5 • With these values, in the United States themean dose to bone marrow for the period 1961-1965 isestimated to be 2.6 10- 3 mrad. The dose commitmentin the temperate zone of the northern hemisphere isestimated to be 6 10- 3 mrad, assuming an average
consumption of 0.6 I of milk per day.

M. CERIUM-144
119. Cerium-144 has been widely measured in air and in
fallout (61, 249). It has a half-life of285 d and together
with its daughter decay product, the 1.7-min 14 4 Pr,emits beta particles of 2.99-MeV maximum energy andseveral gamma rays. Table 20 shows. for a number ofsites in each hemisphere, the ratio of the integrated
deposition density of 144 Ce to that of 9 0 Sr, together
with similar ratios of the time-integrated activity
concentrations in air {obtained by the sum of theaverage monthly activity concentrations over the
specified period of time). These ratios are indicated in thetable as :E 144 Ce/:E 90 Sr. Using a value of 15 asrepresentative for the ratio for all tests up to 1974, themean integrated deposition density of 144 Ce isestimated to be (mCi km -l ): northern temperate zone,
1257: southern temperate zone, 360: world (population-weighted), 765, based on data of table 2 andparagraph 47.

TABLE 20. RATIO OF THE INTEGRATED DEPOSITION DENSITIES OR OF THE Tl~IEINTEGRATED AIR CONCENTRATIONS OF ' 44 Ce and 90 Sr AT VARIOUS LOCATIONS
I: '"'Cef'~ 90 Sr

Location

PeriodType of ratio

Buenos Aires, Argentina
Moosonee, Canada
Antofagasta, Chile
Santiago, Chile
Puerto Mont, Chile
Lower Hutt, New Zealand
Chilton, United Kingdom
Chilton, United Kingdom
Sterling, United States
Miami, United States

1966-1974
1963-1974
1963-1974
1963-1974
1963-1974
1968-1972
1961-1965
1967-1970
1963-1974
1963-1974

Deposition density
Air concentration
Air concentration
Air concentration
Air concentration
Deposition density
Deposition density
Deposition density
Air concentration
Air concentration

120. The inhalation of 144 Ce gives rise to lung
irradiation. At Moosonee (Canada) and Sterling andMiami (United States), the time-integrated concentrations of 14 4 Ce in air from 1963 to 1974 were 1.33. 1.78
and 1.66 pCi y m - 3 , respectively, giving a mean of 1.6
pCi y m - 3 (I 17). The time-integrated activity concentrations in air at Antofagasta and Santiago (Chile) for
the same period were 0.36 and 0.39 pCi y m - 3 ,respectively, giving a mean of 0.38 pCi y m - 3 • Assumingthat these two means are representative of the northernand southern hemisphere, and using the 9 0 Sr integrated
deposition data of table 2 to extrapolate the integrated
air concentrations to cover the period 1954-1974, theresulting estimates for that period are respectively 3.0
and 0. 7 pCi y m -J for the northern and southernhemispheres.
121. Using the ICRP lung model (135. 136) withparameters of class Y. and assuming a mean particle sizeof 0.5 µm, which results in a 20-per-cent deposition in
the pulmonary region of the lung, the transfer factor
P 15 (time-integrated air concentration-to-dose) is estimated to be 22 mrad per pCi y m - 3 •122. Applying this value of P 1 5 to the time-integrated
air concentrations given in paragraph 120 results in dose
commitments to the lung of 65 and 15 mrad for the
populations of the northern and southern temperateregions, respectively. The Jung dose commitment to theworld population is estimated to be about 38 mrad.
Assuming a 144 Ce/9°Sr activity ratio of 48 at the timeof fission, it can be estimated that the collective dose
commitment to the lung per unit activity released is of
the order of 0.3 man rad Ci- 1 , for the past pattern of
nuclear testing.

18.9
13.5
12.8
15.0
12.3
16.0
20.2
14.7
13.5
14.2

N. PLUTONIUM
I. Plutonium in the environment
123. Several isotopes of plutonium have been released
into the environment by nuclear tests carried out in theatmosphere between 1945 and 1976. The mostimportant, with half-lives shown in rarentheses, are239
Pu (24 OOO y), 240 Pu (6600 y). 2 8 Pu (87 y) and241
Pu (14 y). The last radionuclide is mainly a beta
emitter and decays to the alpha emitter 24 1 Am (430 y).
Since 2 3 9 Pu and 2 4 0 Pu are not usually distinguished inenvironmental activity measurements. reported 2 3 9 Pu
activities should be assumed to apply to a mixture of239
Pu and 240 Pu (I 16). Measurements have indicatedthat this mixture contains approximately 60 per cent of
239
Pu on an activity basis.
124. Plutonium released to the atmosphere during
atmospheric tests is subsequently deposited on land andon the oceans as insoluble aerosol particles of the oxide.
Profile measurements in sandy soil have shown thatabout 70 per cent is in the first 4-cm layer and virtually
all in the top 30 cm ( 114). The profile depends on local
climate and the physico-chemical properties of the soil.
Other measurements (38) indicate that about 40 per
cent of the plutonium is in the top 5 cm of soil.
125. The uptake of plutonium from soil by plants canbe expressed as a concentration factor, usually definedas the ratio of the activity concentration in fresh plants
to that in dry soil. Reported values for the plutonium
concentration factor vary widely over the range 4 10-s
to 3 10-2 • but representative values are on the average147

of the order of 10-4 (38). From measurements of the239
Pu intake and of the activity in the bone. muscle andliver 6f cows that had grazed on a contaminated range of
the Nevada test site, a gastro-intestinal uptake factor of
3.4 10-s was obtained (224). In similar study on the
uptake of plutonium by reindeer that had fed on lichen,
the uptake factor was found to be about 2.4 10- 5 (128).
126. In the ocean, plutonium has moved to greater
depths than has 90 Sr and 137 Cs. Noshkin et al (193)
found that 2-36 per cent of oceanic plutonium in the
Atlantic Ocean was in the sediments. In the water, theyfound that about 50 per cent of the activity was below
the thermocline. In 1964 the activity concentration of
plutonium in the Pacific Ocean was about 10-4 pCi 1-1(202). Plutonium is taken up by marine biota, and theconcentration factors for algae. plankton, crustacea are
1000-3000; for fish (muscle), 1-10 (192).

2. Levels in the environment
127. Most of the plutonium now dispersed around theworld came from tests carried out prior to 1963;
subsequent tests have contributed an additional 10 per
cent to the global inventory (118). The deposition
density rate and the integrated deposition density of239
Pu- 2 4 0 Pu can be inferred from the corresponding
values for 9 0 Sr, as it has been observed that the Pu/ 9 0 Sr
activity ratio in stratospheric- and surface-air samples hasremained fairly constant in time with a value of about
0.017 (28, 116). A comparison of the cumulative
deposit of Pu in fOil with that of 90Sr can also be used
to estimate the global deposition of plutonium. Fromsuchmeasurements
the global deposition of239
Pu- 240 Pu up to the end of 1973 is estimated to be
320 kCi, of which 250 kCi were in the northernhemisphere and 70 kCi in the southern hemisphere(116). This global deposition amounts to about 3 t of
the 239 Pu isotope. In 1975 the stratospheric inventory
in the northern hemisphere was less than l kCi (149).
128. Nuclear tests have contributed 9 kCi of 2 38 Pu to
global fallout (116), while the re-entry of a satelite into
the earth's atmosphere in 1964 contributed some
17 kCi, 70 per cent of which has deposited in thesouthern hemisphere, as discussed in the 1972 report of
the Committee (245).
129. Although 239 Pu-240 Pu concentrations in groundlevel air have been measured on a wide scale only since
1965, previous 2 3 9 Pu- 2 4 0 Pu activity concentrations in

air can be estimated from ~ 0 Sr concentrations in air.
assuming that the 239 Pu-2 40 Pu/9°Sr ratio has remained
constant and that both nuclides have the samedeposition velocity (149). Using this approach, Bennett
found that the air activity concentration in New Yorkreached a peak of about 1.7 fCi m - 3 in 1963 and by
I 972 had decreased to 0.031 fCi m - 3 (22). The averagedeposition density rate of 239 Pu- 240 Pu in New York for
1972-74 was 0.017 mCi km- 2 y- 1 , while the cumulative
deposit density in 1974 was 2.68 mCi km -l (38).
130. Bennett (32, 35) has reported results from acomplete-diet sampling programme conducted in New
York during 1972 and 1974, which showed an averageannual dietary intake of 1.6 pCi of 2 3 9 Pu-2 4 0 Pu. Of thefood groups analysed, grain products, and fruit andvegetables had the highest activity concentrations, bothbeing about 5 10 3 pCi kg- 1 • It was also apparent fromthis study that external contamination of food is an
important contributor to intake.

3. Pathways to man and dose commitments
131. Plutonium uptake and deposition in human tissues
can follow the inhalation of airborne plutonium or theingestion of contaminated food. The available data
indicate that for plutonium released by atmospherictests. the most important pathway to man is theinhalation of contaminated air. Dose commitments havebeen estimated for each pathway.
132. Bennett (28) has estimated that the cumulative
intake by inhalation in New York from 1954 through1975 was 43 pCi. As a single intake, this would havegiven rise to a body activity of 8.5 pCi, assuming a
20-per-cent retention factor as is indicated in the ICRP
lung model (135, 136). But since the intake occurred
over several years, allowing for loss of activity from thelung, the activity in the body was about 4 pCi at
maximum in 1964, and for 1974 it was estimated to be
2.4 pCi (38).
133. The 239 Pu contents of various human organs
measured at several areas of the United States in 1972
and 1973 in occupationally unexposed persons haverecently been reported (12, 213). In this study,
particular care was exercised in separating thelymph-node tissue. so that as little as possible ofnon-lymphatic tissue was included. These results areshown in table 21, together with the estimated values of

TABLE 21. CONCENTRATIONOF PLUTONIUM IN
BODY
TISSUES OF
OCCUPATIONALLY EXPOSED PERSONS IN THE UNITED STATES, 1972-1973(The number in parentheses is the number of samples)

NON-(pCi kg- 1)
Lung

Liver

Lymph node

KidneyVertebrae

Los Alamos
Non-residents of
Los Alamos
Colorado
Savannah River

0.36 (8)0.72 (5)16.0 (4)0.09 (5)0.72 (5)0.18(17)0.31 (29)0.18 (20)0.31 (10)0.81 (25)0.54 (14)9.0 (15)
6.8 (22)18.0 (6)0.54 (10)
1.4 (25)
1.0 (11)0.19 (16)0.50 (25)0.31 (12)Mean

0.27 (74)0.68 (54)11.0 (47)0.68 (51)0.31 (58)

0.52

32.0

O.Q7

0.19

Computed from fallout
plutonium (1972)a 0.19

0.>\ssuming organ weights for the lung, liver, lymph node ·and bone of 1.0, 1.7, 0.015 and 5.0 kg,
respectively.

148

•:

;I

!\
I \

10.0

!

\/

i \\
II \
I

~
IJJ

:,

tl

i=
!:
....z
w

....

/
•••••••••

•••

/

/'I\

ANNUAL INTAKEBY INHALATIONNew York data

COMPUTED ACTIVITY CONTENT

I

\

l
il

Total body

/ Bone

....z

8

...>

>

~

C:

0
w

"'

~
!:
..J
<
:,
z

~

1955

1960

1965

1970

1975

1980

1985

Figure XII. Annual 2 39 Pu inhalation intake (dotted curve) and computed activity con~ent
in human body fo;sues (solid curves)

Bennett based upon the New York data (28). The
agreement is quite reasonable, considering the difficulties involved. It should be noted that, to get theseresults, Bennett used the ICRP lung model with class Y
parameters (appropriate for insoluble aerosol particles).
while the results with other classes of parameters were atvariance with the measured values (28).
134. Inhalation of radioactivity resuspended from thesoil surface by winds could add to the long-term intake
due to airborne plutonium. Bennett (32). on the basis ofnatural 2 3 8 U concentrations in air and soil, consideredthat 10 -9 m -i would be a realistic estimate for theresuspension factor, applicable to activity in the top
1 cm of soil. This is in agreement with that estimatedfrom normal dust loading of the atmosphere (6). Thisestimate · is also in agreement with values determinedusing an artificial tracer in a lightly vegetated area (221).
Using such a factor, resuspension would only contribute
0.5 per cent to the total integral activity crf
239
Pu- 240 Pu in air between 1954 and 2000 (29, 34).
Since plutonium penetrates into the soil and thus
becomes unavailable for resuspension, this effect is notexpected therefore to contribute significantly to thedose commitment from plutonium.
135. By using estimates for the 2 3 9 Pu concentration in
New York air between 1954 and 1972, assessed from90
Sr deposition density data together with 90 Sr and239

Pu concentration in air measured between 1965 and1972, and utilizing the ICRP lung model (135, 136),
Bennett has estimated the dose to man from inhalationof fallout 2 3 9 Pu through 2000 (28). The estimated239
Pu annual intake and activity content in body tissues
are shown in figure XII. The cumulative doses to 2000
are (mrad): lungs, 1.6; liver, 1.7: bone lining cells, 1.5.
As the atmospheric inventory of 2 3 9 Pu decreases
rapidly, the contribution from inhalation after 2000 isvery small, and these cumulative doses are therefore
good approximations of the dose commitments. The
present estimate for the dose commitment to bonediffers significantly from that given by the Committee in
its 19_72 report. which was based upon concentrations insurface air at Ispra, Italy, and on earlier values ofparameters for the ICRP lung model (135, 136). It isalso to be noted that the lung doses have been calculatedon the basis of a uniform distribution of 2 3 9 Pu over thewhole organ (28. 245). As plutonium particles are
assumed to be insoluble. the actual distribution of dosesin the lung is probably non-homogeneous, but thecalculated value can be taken to represent the mean doseto the lung.
136. Assuming that the 239 Pu concentrations in New
York air are representative of the whole 40° -50° latitude
band, that the global distribution of 2 3 9 Pu deposition is
the same as that for 9 0 Sr, and that the latitudinal
distribution of the population remains unchanged. the149population-weighted dose through 2000 to the bonelining cells would be 1.0 mrad in the northernhemisphere and 0.3 mrad in the southern hemisphere.
137. For the purpose of estimating dose commitmentsfrom the ingestion of the plutonium mixture, two
extreme cases will be considered, assuming in the firstthat the amount of plutonium transferred to fooddepends on the deposition density rate and in thesecond, that it depenqs on the cumulative deposit
density.
138. Under the first assumption, P2 3 is estimated fromthe quotient 1.6 pCi y- 1 /0.017 mCi km- 2 y-• to be
94 pCi per mCi 1an- 2 • The total individual intake fromplutonium deposited from all tests up to 1974 would be
94 pCi per mCi km- 2 X 2.68 mCi 1un- 2 = 252 pCi.
Under ·the second assumption. on the other hand, thelifetime
intakeisestimatedtobe
1.6 pCi y- 1 X 70 y = 112 pCi.
139. Of the ingested plutonium it is assumed that afraction 3 10-5 is absorbed through the GI tract andthat 45 per cent of this goes to the bone ( 136). For thetwo assumed cases of intake of 252 pCi and 112 pCi, theactivity deposited in bone is 3.4 10- 3 and 1.5 10-3 pCi.
respectively.
140. The dose rate in bone per unit activity ofplutonium is 0.098 mrad y-• pCi- (28). Under the first
assumed case, the activity in bone is 3.4 10-3 pCi, andthe average exposure period in the population is 35 )l.
The dose commitment is therefore assessed to be
1.2 10-2 mrad.

141. Under the second assumed case the bone activity
increases linearly with age with an average in the
population of 1.5 10- 3 pCi X 0.5 = 0.75 10- 3 pCi. The
factor of 0.5 takes account of the fact that the
per caput bone activity is approximately 0.5 times thatat death. The annual dose, averaged over all ages, istherefore 7.5 X 10- 5 mrad. If it is assumed that the
2 39
Pu in the soil becomes unavailable only by decay,
the dose commitment is estimated to be 2.6 mrad.
142. Taking into account population distribution andusing the procedures outlined in Annex A. the collective
dose commitments to the lung and to bone lining cells,
per unit activity released by past nuclear explosions, areof the order of 10 man rad Ci- 1 •III .. EXTERNAL IRRADIATION
143. Many radionuclides present in fallout emit gamma
rays and contribute to the dose from external
irradiation. The most important from this point of vieware a number of short-lived radionuclides, the mostsignificant of which are 9 5 Zr and its daughter 95 Nb, andthe long-lived 1 3 7 Cs.
144. In principle, it is possible to calculate the external
doses from the integrated deposition density of eachradionuclide. Table 22 shows the conversion factors for
estimating absorbed dose in air, 1 m above ground.
that were used in the 1972 report and which are basedlargely on the work of Beck et al. ( 15). For short-lived
radionuclides, a plane source on the surface of theground is postulated, but for 1 37 Cs an exponential
profile is assumed with a mean depth of 3 cm.

TABLE 22. CONVERSION FACTORS FOR THE ASSESSMENT OF ABSORBED DOSES IN AIR
1 m ABOVE GROUND

9Szr

1o•Ru

'

06

Ru

137

Cs

140Ba

•••ce

144

Ce

Dose-rate conversion factor(mrad y·• per mCi km·2)

0.341 a0.072

0.042a0.033

0.316a0.011

0.004°

Mean life (y)

0.257

0.157

1.44

43.7

0.051

0.129

1.13

Dose conversion factor(mrad per mCi km·2)

0.087

0.011

0.060

1.44

0.016

0.00140.0045

Note: A plane source on the ground surface is assumed except for 1 3 ' Cs, for which the source
is assumed to be exponentially distributed with a mean depth of 3 cm.

alncluding contributions from the daughter radionuclides, assumed in transient equilibrium.

145. The assessment of organ doses from absorbed
doses in air is discussed in Annex A. A combined factorof 0.8 is used in this report to account for the change ofmaterial (air to tissue) and for back-scatter and shielding
afforded by other tissues of the body. The estimation of
the organ doses from external radiation due to fallout
require the use of a further factor representing theshielding effect of buildings. This shielding is taken to
reduce the absorbed dose rate in air in the building, on
average, to 20 per cent of its outdoor value. Assumingthat on the average 80 per cent of the time is spentindoors, the effective shielding factor of the building is
0.4 (241, 245).
146. The overall factor used in this report to convert air
absorbed doses to organ doses is therefore
0.8 X 0.4 = 0.32. Transfer factors P2 5 relating integrated
150

depositions of selected gamma-emitting nuclides to theresulting doses in the tissues of interest to theCommittee can be calculated by multiplying theconversion factors shown in table 22 by 0.32.

A. SHORT-LIVED RADIONUCLIDES
147. Although the deposition of short-lived radionuclides has not been measured over the whole period
during which nuclear tests were conducted, there aresufficient data available to ·estimate approximately themean integrated deposition density. This estimation isbased on the use of ratios of the time-integrated air
concentrations and of integrated deposition densities of
the relevant nuclides, assessed from measurements at a~Iband in the period 1966-1973 was estimated from thecorresponding data for 9 0 Sr for the same period. using
ratios taken from figure XIII. The results are shown intable 23 ( 117).

number of sites, and the known latitudinal distributionof the integrated deposition densities of some nuclides.
such as 9 0 Sr.
148. The integrated deposition density of 144 Ce has
been estimated by this procedure in previous sections of
this Annex and is shown in table 20. In paragraph 89 it
was noted that the 106 Ru/ 144 Ce activity ratio changes
slowly with time and was estimated to be 0.5 during theperiod of deposition.

TABLE 23. LATITUDINAL DISTRIBUTION OF • 'Zr
INTEGRATED DEPOSITION DENSITY, 1966-1973
Relative
Latitudeband

149. From the estimated values of the integrated
deposition density of 144 Ce and 106 Ru and theconversion factors of table 22 multiplied by 0.32
(para. 146) it is possible to assess the dose commitment
from these nuclides (see table 25).

70° -80°N
60" -70° N
50° -60"N40"-5Cl°N
30"-4a°N
20° -3Cl° N
10° -20°N
0°-I0°N
0°-I0°S
10° -2Cl°S
20°-3Cl°S
3()° -4()° S
40° -Sa° S
50°-6Cl°S

150. The activity of a number of fission products in air
has been monitored at sites varying in latitude in thevicinity of the meridian 80°W since 1963 {l 17). The
ratio of the time-integrated air activity of 9 5 Zr to thatof 9 0 Sr for the period 1966-1974 is plotted as afunction of latitude in figure XIII. By 1966 there wasprobably very little 9 5 Zr activity left from tests prior to1963. The deposition density of 95 Zr in each latitude

Areaof band
(10

6

2

km )

population

Integratedof banddeposition densityof 95 Zr (mCi km- 2 )

(%)

11.6
18.9
25.6
31.5
36.4
40.2
42.8
44.1
44.1
42.8
40.2
36.4
31.5
25.6

0.0
0.4
12.2
13.8
18.2
29.2
9.8
5.6
5.8
1.8
1.6
1.4
0.1
0.05

8
28
61
64
59
49
27
32
98
137
195
147
105
23

Source: Reference I SS.

X

100

so

40

20

0<-----::':;;---~----.l.,:--...J...,.-----1.,..----L:----J..,..--~--...L---~
North

~

~

~

t

~

LATllUOE

~

~

~
Soulh

Figure XIIL Latitudinal variation of the ratio of time-integrated au concentrations of • 5 Zr and• 0 Sr for theperiod 1966-1974

15 I. There are fe.w data on the global deposition of
Zr prior to 1963, and it is probably in this period thatthe greatest deposition occurred in the northernhemisphere. It is possible to estimate the 9 5 Zr integrated
deposition density from that of 8 9 Sr if some reliable
estimate for their ratio could be made. The 9 5 Zr/8 9 Srratio only changes with a half-time of about 200. d owing
to radioactive decay. The ratio of the time-integrated air
concentrations "f. 95 Zr/"f. 89 Sr in 1963 at Thule (Greenland), Moosoriee (Canada). Sterling and Miami (UnitedStates) were 2.3. 2.7, 2.9 and 3.0, respectively, with amean of 2. 7 ( 117). The mean ratio at seven northernhemisphere sites in 1962 was 1.5 ( 60. 115, 242 ). The
northern hemisphere deposition of 89 Sr in 1962 and1963 of 27 and 15 MCi respectively, reported by Hardy{111), leads to a weighted mean of 1.93 for the
integrated concentration ratio "f, 9 5 Zr/"f, 8 9 Sr.
95

152. Between 1961 and 1969 the deposition density of
Sr in the 40° -50°N latitude band was 346 mCi km - 2(111). Using the 9 0 Sr deposition data given in table 2 asa guide, the 8 9 Sr deposition density in this zone up to1966 is estimated to be 477 mCi km- 2 in the northernhemisphere and 57 mCi km - 2 for the same zone in thesouthern hemisphere. The 9 5 Zr deposition densities in
the northern and southern 40°-50° zones up to 1966 are
estimated as 920 and 110 mCi km- 2 respectively, using
the "f, 95 Zr/"f. 89 Sr ratio of 1.93 given in paragraph 151.
Adding to these numbers the corresponding values forthe period 1966-1974 from table 3. the estimated 95 Zr
deposition densities up to the end of 1973 are 984 and214 mCi km - 2 for the northern and southern 40°-50°
zones, respectively. The population-weighted global
average 9 5 Zr deposition density is estimated, using the
9 0 Sr data as a guide, to be 650 mCi km - 2 •89

151

TABLE 24.

RATIO OF THE INTEGRATED DEPOSITION DENSITIES OR OF THE TIME-INTEGRATEDCONCENTRATIONS OF 1 03 Ru, 141 Ce, 140 Ba and 95 Zr AT VARIOUS LOCATIONS AND TIMES~103RuLocation

Buenos Aires, Argentina
Pretoria, South Africa
Stockholm, Sweden
Chilton, United Kingdom
Chilton, United Kingdom
Pittsburg, United States

PeriodType of ratiol: 95 Zr

1966-1974
1966-1973
1969-1972
1961-1964
1967-1970
1961-1963

Deposition density
Air concentration
Air concentration
Deposition density
Deposition density
Deposition density

0.72
0.88
0.19
0.66
Average153. It is possible to estimate the dose commitment
from 103 Ru. 14 1 Ce and 14 0 Ba from the calculated
95
Zr integrated deposition density. Table 24 gives theratios of the integrated air concentrations or integrated
depositions of these radionuclides to that for 9 5 Zr forseveral sites and periods of time. If F; is the integrated
deposition density of radionuclide j and Ki is theconversion factor of table 22 multiplied by 0.32
(para. 146). the total external dose commitment canbe expressed as

Dc=L KjFj=K 0 F0 +F0 L K 1
)'fa

j

;j

(13)

a

and therefore(14)
where K!, the effective P2 5 factor for nuclide a, isdefined byf.
(15)
K*=K + L K--1
a

a

j,pa

J Fa

154. In this way the dose commitment from a-group ofradionuclides can be estimated from the integrated
deposition density of a given radionuclide a. The
effective P2 5 factor for computing the dose commitment due to 95 Zr. 103 Ru. 141 Ce and 140 Ba from the95
Zr deposition · density was determined using
equation 15 together with the integrated activity ratiosof table 24 and the conversion factors of table 22
multiplied by 0.32 (para. 146). The estimated value of
this effective conversion factor is 0.034 mrad per
mCi km - 2 • with upper and lower limits of 0.04 and0.03 mrad per mCi km-2 , respectively, obtained byusing the largest and smallest ratios shown in table 24.
155. The combined dose commitments from 9 5 Zr,
Ru, 14 1 Ce and 140 Ba, calculated using this effective95
P.2 5 factor and the estimatedZr integrated deposition
density given in paragraph 152. is shown in table 25,
which also shows the total dose commitment fromshort-lived radionuclides.
103

E141CeI: 95 Zr

0.75

0.53
0.93
0.55

AIR

:i:;•4oBa

I: 95 Zr

0.92
0.89
0.52
0.63
0.46
0.26
0.62

156. It is interesting to compare the estimated values oftable 25 with actual determinations of the external dosein both hemispheres. At Chilton in the United Kingdom
the total gamma absorbed dose in air from fallout has
been determined by a combined procedure including
direct measurements and computation from measured
depositions (61). The estimate, for the period 1951 to
1973. is 137.7 mrad: the contribution from 137 Cs isestimated as 33.3 mrad. so that the contribution fromshort-lived radionuclides is 104.4 mrad. The corresponding tissue dose (applying the factor 032) is
33 mrad. In the southern hemisphere, for Buenos Aires
up to 1975, a tissue dose of 15 mrad has been estimated(19. 20, 166, 167), based upon direct calculation frommeasured deposition densities of individual short-lived
fission products.
B. CAESIUM-137
157. The integrated deposition density of 137 Cs fromall tests was given in paragraph 115. Using thisinformation and the conversion factor for caesium fromtable 22, multiplied by 0.32 (para. 146), the dose
commitment to body tissue is estimated to be (mrad):northern temperate zone, 62; southern temperate zone,
18; world population. 38.

C. TOTAL DOSE COMMITMENT FROMEXTERNAL IRRADIATION
158. The global dose commitment from external
irradiation is estimated to be 68 mrad, the combined
short-lived nuclides and 1 3 7 Cs contributing each about
half of this value. As 1 3 7 Cs released in nuclear
detonations is accompanied by a given proportion ofshort-lived products, it is possible to assess the collective
dose commitment from external exposure normalized tounit activity of 1 3 7 Cs released. The value calculated by
the procedures indicated in Annex A is of the order of
10 man rad Ci- 1•

TABLE 25. DOSE COMMITMENT DUE TO EXTERNALRADLI\TION FROM SHORT-LIVED RADIONUCLIDES(mrad)
Nortllem Southern Global
temperate temperate (populatio11zone
zo11e
weighted)

Radionuclide
144

Ce
Ru
Zr+ ' 03 Ru+ 141 Ce+ 140 Ba

106
95

Total

1.8
12
34

0.5
3.5
7.4

1.0
7.3
22

48

11

30

Nore: These estimates include a factor of 0.32 to allow forbody screening and average shielding from buildings.

152

IV. SUMMARY OF DOSES AND DOSE COMMITMENTS FROM NUCLEAR EXPLOSIONS
159. It is difficult to summarize the doses for the wholeworld population from nuclear test explosions because
they arise from a variety of radionuclides which differ
widely in their behaviour in the environment and in their
dosimetric characteristics. To state current annual doses
would reveal only a small part of an exposure situation.

pwhich is known to vary not only with time, but alsowith geographical location, living conditions and age.
For a given group of individuals. for whom these factors
are known, the annual doses from external and internal
exposures may be presented as a function of age forsome selected organs and tissues of interest; that would
give a full picture of the annual doses for the particulargroups. For some long-lived radionuclides that are
globally distributed, such as 137 Cs, this information
may be derived for the whole world populatipn as per
caput annual doses which would be representative of
individuals irrespective of age and location. For otherradionuclides, however, the individual annual doses willvary substantially with location and age. That is the casewith short-lived radionuclides, such as 131 I, 131 I, as regards
location, and with bone-seeking radionuclides, such as
90
Sr, as regards age. Even for these radionuclides.
however, once the population group of interest has been
identified. it is possible to describe the current andexpected exposure situations for the individuals
involved. drawing on the information given in thevarious sections of this Annex.
160. If the variation of individual organ dose rates withtime were known for all locations, living conditions andages. a world population per caput dose rate could be
calculated. Its integral over infinite time would be theglobal dose commitment from the nuclear explosions to date. Using the methods described in thisAnnex, however, this integral can be evaluated eventhough the per caput dose rate as a function of time is
not known or is difficult to derive. Because the global
dose commitment, as described in Annex A, can be used
as a relative measure of the detriment, the Committee, asin previous reports, has found this quantity to be auseful single measure of the irradiation consequences forthe whole world population. It is therefore summarizedin table 26.

TABLE 26. SUMMARY OF DOSE COMMITMENT FROM RADIO~UCLIDES PRODUCED IN ALL NUCLEAR TESTS CARRIEDOUT BEFORE 1976

(mrad)
Northern temperate zone
Source ofradiation
External
Short-lived
nuclides37'
Cs
Internal'H

uca

GonadsBonemarrowBoneliningcells

Lung

Gonads

Bone
mc"ow

48
62

48
62

48
62

48
62

11

18

2
7

2
32

2
29

0.2
7

0.6
84
0.4

1
120

2
9
1
1

27

27

54
Mn
S5Fe

P05r
89

Sr
t06Ru
131
Cs
t44Ce

27

23PpUb

Totalc

150

260

290

World population

Southern temperate zone

0.3

41
27
65
1

8

260

45

GonadsBonemarrowBonelining
cells

Lung

18

30
38

30
38

30
38

30
38

0.2
29

0.2
9

2
7

2
32

2
29

0.3

0.7

24

0.3
33

0.4
52
0.3

2
9
1
0.7

71

8

8

17

17

Bone
lining
cells

Lung

11

11

11

18

18

0,2
32
0.2

0.7

0.9

24
17
38
0.9

190

160

10

0.3
93

100

8
15
0.3

17

72

94

170

Notes: 1. The dose commitments for 15 Kr, 136Cs and 140 Ba, although discussed in the text, are not shown in this table because they are
negligible compared with the values included.
2.
For internal irradiation, where body activities have been measured, uncertainties are probably within a factor of 2. For
external irradiation and for lung-dose estimates, where the models used were not checked by direct measurement. the uncertainties areprobably within a factor of 5.
aDo'se accumulated up to the year 2000. The total dose commitment to gonads and lung is about 120 mrad, to bone lining cells
414 mrad and to bone marrow 455 mrad, delivered over some 8300 y.
.
bThese dose commitments appear to be the same in different organs because of rounding. Only inhalation contributions areshown; for discussion on the ingestion pathway see chapter II, section N.
cRounded to two significant figures.

161. The values shown in table 26, taken from therelevant paragraphs in the preceding sections, have beenrounded off. For this reason, when the differences
between the estimated organ dose commitments are
small. the table gives the appearance of a uniform doseover several organs. In the case of doses from external
gamma radiation, or from internal emitters that arehomogeneously distributed in the body, such as 3 H and137
Cs, the dose commitment is essentially the same forall the relevant organs of the body.

162. The methods for calculating the values of thedose commitments given in table 26 have beenreassessed since the 1972 report of the Committee. In
some cases, particularly for short-lived nuclides and9o-sr, this reassessment has produced dose commitment
estimates that differ significantly from those given in the1972 report.
163. For the radionuclides listed in table 26. theirradiation to which the world population wascommitted by nuclear tests up to 1975 is already iargely
completed for all ex~ept 1 37 Cs (external and internal),
3
H, 14 C, 9 0 Sr and 2 3 9 Pu. Therefore, in terms of current
annual doses, only these five nuclides need to beconsidered. Caesium-137 makes major contributions for153all body tissues which are essentially independent of age;whereas the further substantial contribution from 9 0 Sr
in bone marrow and bone lining cells is strongly
dependent on ~e. In comparison. the contributions of3
H. 14 C and 2 9 Pu to current annual doses are verysmall.

deposition in soil would have added less than 0.2 mradto these doses. Because of the long half-life of 1 3 7 Cs,
the world population is committed to continued
exposure from this radionuclide for many years. Thisaccounts for the substantial contribution of 1 3 7 Cs to
the dose commitment.

164. Although 1 3 7 Cs and 9 0 Sr are the only substantial
contributors to current annual doses to the body organs
and tissues included in table 26, it is not possible tosummarize this annual dose situation in a simple
description for the whole world population. It may be
helpful, however, to indicate the magnitude of theannual doses in 1975 using 1 37 Cs as an illustrative
example. Whole-body contents of 137 Cs in 1975(table 19) ranged from 8 to 29 pCi (gl()- 1 , which would
have caused annual doses to body tissues in the range
0.1-0.5 rnrad. The external exposure from 137 Cs

165. For nuclear tests carried out in the atmosphere in
the northern and southern hemispheres since theCommittee's 1972 report, 1 31 I in milk supplies has led
to irradiation of the thyroid glands of exposed
populations in the periods immediately following thetests. Doses due to 1 31 1 in infant thyroids-the mosthighly exposed organ-ranged up to 15 rnrad in thenorthern hemisphere in 1974 and 1976, whereas. in thesouthern hemisphere, doses to infant thyroid ranged up
to about 100 mrad in 1973 and up to some hundreds ofmrad in 1974.

154

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