Journal of Global Resources
Biannual International Peer-Reviewed Journal
ISSN: 2395-3160 (Print)/2455-2445 (Online)

January 2021
Volume 07 (01)
Crossref DOI 10.46587

DOI: 10.46587/JGR.2021.v07i01.010

10
WATERSHED DEVELOPMENT AND MANAGEMENT IN ARID WESTERN RAJASTHAN
Balak Ram
Former Principal Scientist, Central Arid Zone Research Institute, Jodhpur (Raj.) India
Email: dr.brmayank@gmail.com
Abstract: Watershed development programme in India was launched in 1983-84 in a big way
to conserve and utilise natural resources for higher productivity, employment generation andbetter livelihood. Arid western Rajasthan has 30398 micro-watersheds out of which 7771 aresanctioned, 3064 are completed and 4707 are in progress. However, due to physico-climaticconstraints expected results/impacts are not obtained. In recent past several studies areundertaken to assess the impacts and outcome of watershed development and management
programme but could not came up with appropriate solution to major challenges. The present
study tries to focus district wise present status of watershed programme in arid western
Rajasthan. The status and characteristics of surface and ground water resources as well asof various climatic parameters are discussed. Both positive and negative impacts are worked
out. Major constraints of the region are highlighted and important challenges are pin pointed.
Based on watershed development work carried out by different organizations/institutions aswell as research outcome on management of natural and agricultural resources, technologies
and management practices are suggested for efficient watershed development andmanagement.
Key words: Arid Region, Water Conservation, Agriculture, Crops, Impact Assessment
Introduction
Water is most vibrant form of the natural resources. The need of water is obvious for every
living organism for its very existence. This unique commodity can never have an alternative.
A watershed is a geo-hydrological unit from which all water drains into a common point making
it an attractive unit for technical efforts to manage water and soil resources for production andconservation (Kerr, 2002). Watershed development refers to the conservation; regenerationand the judicious use of all the natural resources particularly land, water, vegetation andanimals and human development within the watershed (Teri, 2018). Main aim of watershedmanagement is to conserve the soil, plant and water resources of a catchment while
benefitting humanity. All environmental, social, economic concerns are combined to treat
watershed in an integrated manner (Mander, 2008). Arid Rajasthan is characterized by low
and high erratic rainfall, poor river basin system (covering 43143.25 Km2 or 20.67 percent
area) with ephemeral rivers/streams. The drainage density is as low as 0.3 km/ km -2. Under
such hostile condition the conservation, rational use and management of water resources
becomes most challenging task. The present study aims to bring out district level status ofwatersheds taken up under different projects/programme and their performance and impacts.
Climatic parameters and characteristics of natural resources which have direct impact on
performance of watershed, are described. Historical outline of Watershed Development andManagement Programme in India, has been given and government initiatives and policies arehighlighted. Findings of impact assessment studies carried out by several organizations/institutions, are al discussed. Constraints and challenges emerged out from the watershedmanagement activities over the time, are worked out. Proven technologies and management
practices are suggested for efficient management and sustainable development of watersheds
in arid Rajasthan.
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Arid Western Rajasthan: Environment and Resources
Location: Hot arid zone in India occupy about 31.7 mha areas of which 61.9 percent isconcentrated in 12 western districts of Rajasthan with a total geographical area of 208,751
km2. The region extends from 24 37 00 to 30 10 48 north latitudes and between 69 29
00 and 76 05 33 east longitudes (Fig. 1).
Climate: The region is characterized by low and high erratic rainfall, high evaporation loss
and extremes of diurnal and seasonal temperatures. The average annual rainfall varies from456 mm in north east to less than 100 mm in western most part of Jaisalmer district. The
coefficient of variability of annual rainfall varies from 36 percent to 65 percent. Temperatureduring long hot summer days goes as high as 50 C while in cold winter it falls below – 6 C.
Mean maximum temperature is 33.35 C and mean minimum 18.53 C. Mean aridity index is
78 percent. Probability of occurrence of drought varies from 50-60 percent. Mean moistureindex varies from -59.5 in Sikar to -88.9 in Jaisalmer. The length of crop growing period varies
from 8-15 weeks. Mean relative humidity during July and August ranges between 75-80
percent and during winter from 46-56 percent. Frequency of drought comes to once in 2-3
years in Barmer, Jaisalmer, Jodhpur and Pali districts; once in 3-4 years in Jalor, Nagaur,
Bikaner, Sikar, Ganganagar and Hanumangarh districts and once in 4-5 years in Churu andJhunjhunun districts (Narain et al, 2006).
Land Resources: Dominant landforms of the region are sandy plains with varying degree of
hummocks and sand dunes. These are encountered with hills and outcrops, saline
depressions and buried channels. Light textured sandy soils cover major part of this region.
Desert soils are lower in fertility status, water holding capacity, very low in organic matter andhigh in pH values. The soils have high infiltration rate. Vegetation is quite sparse with limited
number of xerophytic plants and thorny bushes. The drainage, except the ephemeral rivers of
the Luni, Sekhawati, and Sabi basins, is mostly internal.
Surface Water: Central Arid Zone Research Institute (CAZRI 1990, 2000) worked out
1361.21 MCM as total surface water resources and identified 550 storage tanks (ranging fromless than 1.51 to 208 x 106 m3 capacity) in 12 districts in western Rajasthan. Mean surface
water resources in the region are estimated to 2846.32 Mm3/year (Beg and Ahmad, 2015).
Western Rajasthan has 2 major dams (Jawai and Sardar Samand), 33 medium bunds and 62
small bunds with total capacity of 811.963 MCM. (Water Resources Rajasthan Portal, 2019).
Water to these reservoirs is drains through a number of rivers and streams (mainly Luni andits tributaries). However, the water storage varies from year to year depending on rainfall.
District wise details is given in table 1. Imported water (through irrigation canals) accounts
14765.65 Mm3/year.
Ground Water: Ground water is deep, scares and over exploited. Ground water in 45 percent
area is saline to very saline and in 40 percent moderately brackish. Estimated total Ground
Water Resources in the region are 62171.12 Mm3/year (Fresh 31228.65 and saline 30942.4
Mm3/year) while availability of total ground water resources comes to 23880.64 Mm3/year andtotal GW requirement 37395.0 Mm3/year (Beg and Ahmad, 2015). As per CGWB (2019)assessment the total annual GW recharge comes to 4.01 BCM, total annual extractable GW
resources 3.63 BCM and current annual GW extraction 5.59 BCM respectively. The stage of
GW extraction comes to 161.6 percent. Per capita water availability in Rajasthan was 857 M3/year in 2010 which will come down to 457 M3 /year in 2045.
Human and Livestock Resources: As per 2011 census the region has 27.12 million humanpopulations. The density of population varies from 17 in Jaisalmer to 361 in Jhunjhunun
district. Total livestock population as per 2012 census, was 30,177,959. Of this cattle
constitute 20.48 percent, buffaloes 13.08 percent, sheep 22.79 percent, goat 42.38 percent
camel 0.92 percent, horse & ponies 0.06 percent and others 0.29 percent respectively.
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Method and Materials
District wise information and data on micro watersheds, their implementation andmanagement through various agencies, expenditure incurred and their present status aregathered from reports of Min. of Rural Dev. (2019, 2020), Watershed Atlas of India (2114),
Central Water Commission, Water Resources Dept. Government of Rajasthan (2019b),
Ground Water Dept. and CGWB etc. Data are analysed and maps are prepared. Information
on natural resources are based on the research work done at CAZRI. Climatic parameters areanalysed from the studies conducted by Gupta et al. (2016), Poonia and Rao (2018) andYadav et al. (2018). Achievements and impact of watershed development and management
projects, are squeezed from the studies of Kerr (2002), LNRMI (2010), Shah (2010), Singh etal. (2011), Reddy et al. (2012), Painuli et al. (2014), Grey and Srinidhi (2014), Smyle et al.
(2014), NDC, (2016), Dagar and Meena, (2016), James. 2017), TERI, (2018) and Rao, 2020.
Technologies and strategies for watershed development and management are taken out fromthe work of Sharma, (2005), Eldheo et al. (2011), Goyal et al. (2013), Wang et al. (2016), Bhati
et al. (2017) and TERI (2018) respectively.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Review of Watershed Development Programme
Watershed development activity in our country was first taken up in 1942 in State ofMaharashtra (then Bombay State) as a scarcity relief work during drought year throughcontour bunding for conservation of moisture and control of soil erosion. After independence,“Soil Conservation Work in the catchments of River Valley Projects (RVP)” was launched in
1962-63. This was followed by Drought Prone Area Programme (DPAP) in 1972-73 andDrought Development Programme (DDP) in 1977-78. During the 1980s, several successful
experiences of fully treated watersheds, such as Sukhomajri in Haryana and Ralegaon Siddhi
in western Maharashtra, were reported. In 1980-81, Ministry of Agriculture started a schemeof Integrated Watershed Management in the Catchments of Flood Prone Rivers (FPR). In
1982-83 a scheme for propagation of water harvesting/conservation technology in rainfed

90

areas was launched in 19 identified locations. This approach was further adopted in 22 otherlocations in rainfed areas in October 1984.
With experience gained from all these and realising 1987 worst drought situation inIndia, the concept of Integrated Watershed Development was first institutionalised with thelaunching of the National Watershed Development Programme of Rainfed Areas (NWDPRA)
in 1990, covering 99 districts in 16 States. In 1994 Hanumantha Rao Committee wasappointed. It has formulated a set of “Common Guidelines”, bringing five different programmes
under the MoRD, viz. DPAP, DDP and Integrated Wastelands Development Programme(IWDP), as also the Innovative- Jawahar Rozgar Yojana (I-JRY) and Employment Assurance
Scheme (EAS). In April 1999 Dept. of Wasteland Development was renamed as Deptt. ofLand Resources (MoRD) to act as Nodal Agency for all land based development programme
and land reforms. Later DPAP, DDP and IWDP were consolidated as the Watershed
Development Component of Prime Minister Krishi Sinchayee Yojna (WDC-PMKSY). In 2000,
the Ministry of Agriculture revised its guidelines for NWDPRA, making them “moreparticipatory, sustainable and equitable”. These were called WARASA – JAN SAHABHAGITA
Guidelines. The Common Guidelines of 1994 were revised by MoRD in 2001 and then again
modified and reissued as “Guidelines for Hariyali” in April 2003. ‘Neeranchal’ is a World Bank
assisted National Watershed Management Project designed to further strengthen and provide
technical support to watershed component of PMKSY. In Rajasthan State, the Watershed
Development and Soil Conservation Dept. is implementing the watershed projects sanctioned
by MoRD and Min. of Agriculture and Cooperation since 1991.
STATUS OF WATERSHED DEVELOPMENT PROJECT
Government Documents: Integrated Watershed Management Programme (IWMP) is
implemented by Department of Land resources, Min. of Rural Development, Govt. of India.
The main objectives of IWMP is to restore ecological balance by harnessing, conserving anddeveloping degraded natural resources such as soil, vegetative cover and water. In total there
are 30,398 micro watersheds in western Rajasthan as per DoLR document on ‘’Watershed
Status of Rajasthan, 2009-10”. Out of them 6459 watershed projects covering an area of
33694.83 Km2 have been taken up. This includes 4852 watersheds under Pre-IWBP Project(DPAP+DDP+IWDP), 1028 watersheds by other Ministries and institutions and 579 ongoingwatershed projects under IWMP. 824 watersheds are proposed to be taken up. District wise
details are given in table 1. As per document on Perspective and Strategic Plan for
Development of Rainfed and Watershed Areas in Rajasthan for 18 years’ period (Anon. 2018),
total 7771 watershed projects are sanctioned. Of them 3064 are completed and 4707 projects
are going on. District wise position is shown in fig. 2. Out of these total projects 3938 are under
DDP, 3098 under Command Area Development (CDP), 5 under IWDP, 450 under NWDPRA
and 280 under EAP/others.
External Funding Agencies: Externally aided watershed projects are being done throughagencies like World Bank, European Economic Committee (EEC), German Bank for
Reconstruction and Development (GBRD), Danish International Development Agency(DANIDA), Swiss Development Corporation (SDC), Official Development Assistance (ODA) in
16.5 mha area. From 2009-10 to 2013-14, total 447 watershed projects were sanctioned
under IWMP covering an area of 28010.67 Km2 as per report of Watershed Development andSoil Conservation Dept., Rajasthan. Under European Union State Partnership Programme, a
total of 5883 watersheds under DDP, are taken up in western Rajasthan. District wise statusof watersheds is given table 1. No project has been sanctioned from 2015-16 onward. At
present the main emphasis on qualitative and timely completion of the ongoing watershedprojects. Instead, some projects are entirely given to State Govt. and Central Govt. stopped
funding.
Neeranchal Project: Under this programme 10 watersheds are sanctioned in RajasthanState. Of them 5 are located in Jodhpur district each one in Balesar, Bhopalgarh, Bilara,
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Bawari and Osian CD Blocks and covering a total area of 32804 ha (Annual Report 2019-20,
WDSCD).
Table 01: District wise Surface Water Resources and Status of Watershed Projects in
Western RajasthanDistrict

BarmerBikaner
Churu
Ganganagar
Hanumangarh
Jaisalmer
Jalor
Jhunjhunu
Jodhpur
NagaurPali
Sikar
Total W. Raj.

Mean
surfacewater
resources
Mm3/year
351.2
99.06
99.06
108.8
108.8
351.2
277.9
192.8
351.2
445.2
252.2
208.9
2846.32

Number oflarge,
medium andsmalltanks/bunds
0+1+0
0+0+2
0+0+0
0+0+0
0+0+0
0+0+0
0+5+6
0+2+0
0+4+1
0+1+8
2+18+33
0+2+122+33+62 =97

Total nos.
of Microwatersheds

No. ofwatershedsanctioned

Percent
total
watersheds
taken up

5635
5007
2238
00
250
5334
1731
1130
4011
2653
1086
1323
30398

989
575
725
00
178
945
1046
499
949
970
424
571
7771

15.1
9.6
38.3
00.0
85.6
9.9
24.0
30.8
20.0
23.5
47.7
55.1
21.2

IWMP
Projects
2009-10to2013-14
75
55
42
5
6
57
29
20
76
48
35
29
477

Source: 1. Dept. of Land Resources, Min. of Rural Dev. GOI
2. Watershed and Soil Conservation Dept. Rajasthan 3. Beg and Ahmad, 2015

Contribution of CAZRI: CAZRI has taken up development work in 1200 ha Jhanwar
Watershed (Jodhpur) during 1885-86 and 870 ha Baorli-Bambore watershed (2000). Under
National Agricultural Technology Project (NATP) in Arid Agro-ecosystem, agriculturalinterventions were undertaken in 8 watersheds covering an area of 3195.5 ha in arid zone ofRajasthan, Punjab, Haryana, Gujarat and Tamil Nadu, during 2001-2004. These include Salori
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(Jodhpur), Shishoo (Sikar), Changeri (Udaipur), Kukma (Bhuj), Gangadara (Banaskantha),
Sirrapur Theri (Thoothukudi), Ludas (Hissar), Ghari Bhagi (Bathinda). Based on 230 field
experiments soil site suitability criteria was developed for 28 crops (Balak Ram et al. 2004a,
2004b, Patidar et al. 2005).
Involvement of NGO: Non-Government Organizations contributed in watershed development
programme in western Rajasthan are URMUL in Bikaner; GRAVIS, Arpan Sewa Sansthan
and Jal Bhagirathi Foundation in Jodhpur; Bhoruka Charitable Trust in Churu; Watershed
Trust Organization (WOTR), CAIRN India Limited (2018) and BAIF Development Research
Foundation in Barmer; WASCO in Jalor; Indo-German Watershed Development Programme(IGWDP) implemented by NABARD. Indo-German Watershed Development Programme isimplemented by NABARD, and European Union State Partnership Programme.
Funds Released: Total funds released by Centre from 1995-96 to 2007-08 to DPAP, DDP
and IWDP was 7738.6 crores. An amount of Rs. 6688.16 crores were released from 2014-15
to 2017-18 under IWMP. Up to May 2018, watersheds covering an area of 166667 ha has
been treated. From 2009-10 to 2014-15, 1025 watersheds covering 5.764 Mha area with costof Rs.7808.86, are sanctioned and funds of 1673.3 crores are released. The total cost of 477
watershed projects of western Rajasthan under IWMP from 2009-10 to 2013-14 comes to420159.99 lacs.
Impacts of Watershed Management Programme
Organizations/Institutions Involved in Impact Studies on Watershed:
1. 56 watersheds by Taylor Nelson Sofres Mode Pvt. Ltd. (2002)
2. Agro-economic Research Centre, Sardar Patel University (V.D. Shah, 2010)
3. 30 watersheds in Barmer, Bikaner, Jaisalmer and Jalor districts Livelihood and Natural
Resources Management Institute (LNRMI, 2010)
4. 4 watersheds by Centre for Rural Studies, Lal Bahadur Shastri National Academy of
Administration (Singh, P. Behera, H.C. and Singh, A., 2011).
5. 30 watersheds in Jaisalmer district by Central Arid Zone Research Institute (Painuli etal. 2014).
Besides, Kerr (2002) from International Food Policy Research Institute, Sharma (2005), Dagar
and Meena (2016), Grey and Srinidhi (2014), Guangyu Wang et al. (2016), Smyle et al. (2014)
and Rao (2020) also assessed the performance of watershed projects and came out withvaluable suggestions. Govt. has now entrusted the monitoring and evaluation of watershedprojects in arid districts of Rajasthan to Water and Power Consultancy Service (India)
WAPCOS and NABARD Consultancy Services (NABCONS).
Positive Impacts: Important positive impacts emerged from the watershed management
programme are reduction in soil erosion, improvement in ground water level and soil moisture,
increase in net sown area, crop production/productivity, crop diversification, availability offodder & fuel and number of livestock. Income of community members has increased and out
migration declined. At some watersheds good quality watershed structures are created.
Creation of additional employment, reduction of workload for women in fetching drinking water,
and increase in awareness about such development projects as well as improved technologies
among the inhabitants are other positive impacts.
Negative Impacts:
1. Unevenly distribution of benefits from poor residents in upstream to wealthiest farmers
in irrigated downstream part.
2. Offer more benefits to landowners while landless get benefits from peripheral activities.
This class is denied access to resources that contribute to their livelihood.
3. Improper and ineffective implementation of guidelines
4. Absence of external evaluation and monitoring
5. Improper equipped extension machinery936. Lack of equity in benefits
7. Lack of sustainability in maintenance of project after cessation
8. Lack of community participation and scaling up methods and models
9. Improper and less utilization of funds
10. Less involvement of poor in planning and decision making process as compared tolarge and medium farmers
11. Most of the watersheds got below average score in environment, economic andinstitutional/social indicators.
12. Over all, the performance of WSD does seems to be constrained due to adverse
climatic conditions.
Constraints and Challenges
Major environmental constraints of highly fragile arid ecosystem are scarce and poor natural
resources and inhospitable climate; scarce, deep, saline and highly depleted ground water;
and light textured soils with high infiltration rate and limited crop growing period. Striking
challenges are low agricultural productivity; degradation of land and water resources; frequent
drought; desertification, burgeoning human population and climate change. Situation of
surface water availability is worsening because of increasing trend of population. There exists
a declining trend of inflow to surface water resources in spite of an increasing trend of rainfall(Gupta et al 2016). Catchments are deteriorated due to constant increase in population andhuman activities specially housing clusters, industries and mines. Natural regeneration ofvegetation covers and soils in arid areas take 5-10 times longer than in favourable area.
Further, if there is no water to conserve, harvest and use, all development technologies fail.
Thus arid region requires special management plan and interventions to succeed under suchadverse environmental conditions.
According to Parliamentary Standing Committee, watershed development project islagging behind. Not a single out of the 8214 projects sanctioned between 2009 and 2015 at
the cost of 50740 crores had been completed (Hindu July, 22, 2018). According to DoLR, 1257
projects have not even completed the initial stage. No new projects were sanctioned after
2015-16. Visible success and impact are not there. It is all about “making running to waterstop and standing water to sink inside” said Dr. Ch. Radhika Rani. Delay in coordination isanother problem. Govt. Can implement the project through govt. agencies and NGO but once
they finish who remain to sustain it. If local Panchayti Raj leadership and watershed user
associations are not strengthen and improved, any benefits will be cyclical and short term only.
Technologies and Options
Over the last 50 years in our country a lot of research based technologies and management
options are developed at different levels for watershed management. For WS management in
hot arid region CAZRI (Goyal et al. 2013) has developed proven and effective technologies.
These include Ex-situ water conservation through farm pond, tanka, nadi and khadin; in-situ
water conservation through contour bunding & trenching, contour furrow, mocro-catchment,
sub-surface barrier and mulching. Contour bunding for arable land may be in form ofvegetative barriers, graded bunds, grass water ways and shelter belt. In short, water
budgeting, increase in water use efficiency and water productivity and increase infiltration ofrain water are very important. In case of non-arable lands, the options are contour furrow,contour trenches, gully control and anicut/check dam. For rational resource utilization,
improved agronomic practices are: tillage, improved seed variety, crop geometry & plant
population, crop rotation and inter-cropping/mix cropping. Contingency planning is anotheroption in the event of failure of monsoon and drought situation. These are life-saving irrigation,
insect pest management, and differential fertilizer application. Important farming practices ofalternative land use system are agro-horticulture, agro-forestry, silvi-pasture and dairying.

94

Conclusion
Since the onset of watershed development and management programme in 1983-84,
government has continuously done all efforts and improved various components of the project
for effective implementation. New guidelines provide a paradigm where role of govt. changed
from governance to facilitation. In Arid western Rajasthan there are 30398 micro-watersheds.
Of them 25.6 percent are sanctioned so far and from them 39.5 percent are completed. At
present 4707 are ongoing projects. However, in spite of better planning of technological andmanagement components and spending millions of rupees, the desired results are notobtained. Important impacts came up so far are, construction of water conservation/storage
structures; increase in soil moisture, crop production/productivity, biomass and income ofhouseholds. There is positive impact on reduction in soil erosion and runoff. Creation of
employment to local people and awareness are other achievements. Lack of equity in benefits,lack of sustainability in maintenance of project after cessation, lack of community participation,
improper and less utilization of funds, and lack of equal sharing of benefits to farmers aresome negative impacts. Watershed in extreme arid region have shown comparatively lesser
degree of positive impacts than the watershed in favourable rainfall regions. Every year accessto water is highly uncertain and risky which fails all the planning efforts. Therefore, area
specific and situation and need based priorities and adoption of updated/refined technologies
are needed. Better linkage and cooperation from top to bottom, timely action and developing
sense of liability/responsibility will yield positive results for long term sustainability ofwatershed.
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