Research Briefing
22 August 2024
Number 9828

Saudi Arabia: Introductory country
profileBy Philip Loft,
Antonia Garraway(contributor)

1

Economy3

2

Leadership and politics

4

3

Political rights

5

4

Human rights

6

5

Relations with the UK

86Foreign relations

11

7

Further reading

15

Summary
Unless otherwise
stated, sourceswere accessed inAugust 2024

The UK has strong diplomatic, military, and economic ties with the Kingdomof Saudi Arabia. It is currently negotiating a trade agreement with the Gulf
Cooperation Council, whose six members include the kingdom.
Recent diplomacy between Saudi Arabia and the United States has centred onnegotiating a three-part agreement in which the kingdom would establish
diplomatic relations with Israel, the US sign a defence agreement with Saudi
Arabia, and progress made on a two-state solution to the Israeli-Palestinian
conflict. The agreement is unlikely during the 2023/24 Israel-Hamas conflict.
This briefing introduces Saudi politics, human rights, trade, and international
relations. It also signposts further reading. Please visit the Commons Library’s
Middle East pages for detailed analysis on the region’s politics.

commonslibrary.parliament.uk

Saudi Arabia: Introductory country profile

Saudi Arabia in the Middle East

Attribution: Adobe Stock image 97651099. Saudi Arabia political map with capital Riyadh by Peter Hermes Furian.
Adobe Stock License/image cropped

Headline statistics on Saudi Arabia in 2023

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Population: 36.9 million (UK: 68.4 million). 42% are foreign nationals.

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Religion: Most of the population are Muslim (85-95% are Sunni, 10-12%
are Shia), followed by Christians (up to 5%), Hindus, and Buddhists.

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Gross domestic product (GDP): US$1.1 trillion (UK: US$3.3 trillion).

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GDP per person: US$28,895 (UK: US$48,900).

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2023 GDP growth: -0.8% (UK: 0.1%). 2024 projection: 2.6% (UK: 0.5%). 1

Data from World Bank, International Monetary Fund (IMF), World economic outlook, April 2024,
pp10, 38 and US State Department, 2023 report on international religious freedom, June 2024

Commons Library Research Briefing, 22 August 2024

Saudi Arabia: Introductory country profile

1

EconomySaudi Arabia is a high-income economy, heavily reliant on migrant labour.
Saudi Arabia holds the world’s second largest amount of proven crude oil
reserves (at 17%, behind Venezuela). Oil constitutes 38% of Saudi GDP and
64% of government revenues. Around 78% of total Saudi exports are also
based on crude petroleum and natural gas (2019 data).
Changes in oil prices have a significant impact on Saudi Arabia, and whose
government has resultingly sought to prioritise diversifying the economy.
Vision 2030 (see below) sets out an aim to increase the private sector's
contribution from 40% to 65% of GDP and raise the share of non-oil exports in
non-oil GDP from 16% to 50%. The Saudi Public Investment Fund plans to
support this by investing US$40 billion annually into the domestic economy.
In addition to oil, other significant sectors are manufacturing (12% of GDP)and services (42%). Service industries include finance, retail, and transport. 2
The World Bank expects growth in 2024 due to an expansion in the non-oil
private sector and again in 2025, following an increase in oil output. 3
As a member of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC), which includes Oman,
Kuwait, Bahrain, Qatar and the UAE, Saudi Arabia applies low external tariffs
with its neighbours and is working towards a common market. It will provide
for freedom of movement, residence, and access to social services for GCC
citizens. The GCC has also entered negotiations for free trade agreementswith the EU, India, Japan, and the UK (see below, page 8, for the UK). 4
The kingdom is also the sole bidder for the 2034 men’s football world cup.

Saudi Arabia’s Vision 2030
Vision 2030 was launched in 2016 and sets out the kingdom’s objectives to beat the heart of the Islamic and Arab worlds, to diversify its economy awayfrom oil, and to increase its trade across Africa, Asia, and Europe. It commits
to increase women’s participation in the workforce to 30%, develop the
kingdom’s renewable energy sector, localise the manufacture of defence
equipment (currently only 2% is within the country, it wants to increase this to50%) and to advance economic integration with the GCC. 5

2

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4
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3

World Bank, Saudi Arabia’s economic update, April 2022; WTO, Trade policy review: Saudi Arabia,
March 2021, paras 1.1, 1.3, 1.9, 2, 4.41, 16
World Bank, New GCC economic update, 29 May 2024
World Trade Organization, Trade policy review: Saudi Arabia, March 2021, paras 2.37, 2.43
Government of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, Saudi Vision 2030

Commons Library Research Briefing, 22 August 2024

Saudi Arabia: Introductory country profile

2

Leadership and politics
In 1932, the Kingdom of Hejaz and Sultanate of Nejd on the Arabian Peninsula
were unified under the name of Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. This followed thecollapse of the Ottoman Empire after the First World War and British support
for some Arab armies, including that of the House of Saud (which remains the
kingdom’s monarchy).

Absolute monarchy
Saudi Arabia is an absolute monarchy. Constitutionally, the King rules inaccordance with Sharia (Islamic law).6
The Head of State is King Salman bin Abdulaziz Al Saud, who has reigned
since 2015. His son, Mohammed bin Salman Al Saud (sometimes known asMBS) is Crown Prince and, since 2022, Prime Minister. He is seen as the defacto ruler and played an important role in the development of Vision 2030
and the decisions to intervene in Yemen’s civil war in 2015 and the boycott of
Qatar from 2017 to 2021 (see page 11 onwards for foreign policy). 7

Council of Ministers
The King appoints and leads a Council of Ministers. While they reach decisions
by majority vote, royal sanctions are needed for them to come into force.

Majlis al-Shura (consultative council)
A 150-strong advisory council, the Majlis al-Shura, has existed since 1993. Its
members are chosen by the King. Royal decrees state at least 20% of seats inthe council must be allocated to women. Currently, 30 women sit in the
council (20% of members). Although the council may propose and amend
draft laws and hold sessions with ministers who are not members of the royalfamily, it has no legislative or other power. 8

Municipal elections
Since 2005, irregularly spaced elections have been held to select half themembership of municipal councils. Women were permitted to vote and seek
election from 2015 (the last time such elections were held). An estimated

6
7
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4

This section sourced from Europa World Plus, Saudi Arabia: constitution and government
Saudi Crown Prince, Mohammed bin Salman, power behind the throne, BBC News, 6 October 2020
Chatham House, Civil society in Saudi Arabia (PDF), 2015, pp7-12

Commons Library Research Briefing, 22 August 2024

Saudi Arabia: Introductory country profile

131,000 women registered to vote (out of a potential five million). 20 of the
2,100 seats were won by women.9

3

Political rights
The US State Department’s 2023 report on human rights in Saudi Arabia cites
ongoing restrictions on political participation:•

Free expression: the law does not protect freedom of expression. The
government monitors public expressions. It uses legal controls to restrict
free expression and public criticism of it and the ruling Al Saud family.
Such statements can result in criminal charges.

•

Free media: most print and broadcast media are owned by thegovernment. The Ministry of Media can close any means ofcommunication that it deems is engaged in a prohibited activity. All
newspapers and websites must be government-licensed, senior editors
must be approved, and material has been subject to censure on groundsof blasphemy, sectarianism, a threat to public order, and critical of the
Saudi royal family or the Gulf allies of Saudi Arabia. Authorities subjectedjournalists and bloggers to “violence, harassment and intimidation”.

•

Freedom of assembly/association: permits must be issued fororganised public assemblies, and no political assemblies can take place.
Political parties are banned, while other organisations must be licenced.

•

Dissidents: there were reports of authorities attempting to intimidate
critics living abroad, abducting them, and pressuring their relatives in
Saudi Arabia and overseas.
The US Director of National Intelligence judges that the Crown Prince“approved an operation in Istanbul, Turkey to capture or kill Saudi
journalist Jamal Khashoggi”, who was killed in 2018. The UK and US haveintroduced sanctions against some associated with the killing, but notagainst Mohammed bin Salman, who says he takes “full responsibility”
as a leader for a crime committed by Saudi officials. Several people havebeen tried and found guilty in Saudi Arabia for their involvement. 10

10Human Rights Watch, Saudi Arabia: Landmark elections for women, 11 December 2015; UN Women,
Statement on the municipal elections in Saudi Arabia, 18 December 2015
US Director of National Intelligence, Assessing the Saudi Government’s role in the killing of Jamal
Khashoggi, February 2021; Mohammed bin Salman denies ordering Khashoggi murder […], CBS, 29
September 2019; Commons Library, The Gulf in 2021, section 3.3

5

Commons Library Research Briefing, 22 August 2024

9

Saudi Arabia: Introductory country profile

4

Human rights
The Saudi Human Rights Commission was created in 2005, with responsibility
for monitoring human rights in the kingdom. MENA Rights, a Swiss-based
human rights group, argues that the Commission is insufficiently independentof the government. 11 The Commission’s president has said the kingdom iscommitted to “highest standards” in human rights protection. 12 Ongoing
concerns include:•

Death sentences continuing to be imposed: in 2022, 196 executions
were recorded by Amnesty International—the highest level in 30 years.
This fell to 172 in 2023. Offences liable for the death penalty include
drugs-related offences, terrorism, murder, rape, and robbery.13•

Gender equality: as part of Vision 2030, Saudi Arabia is seeking toincrease female participation in the workforce. New rights include
women being able to obtain a driver’s licence (2018), leave the country
without the permission of male guardian (2019), open businesses without
the consent of a male guardian (2018) and equal pay (2018). 14 The Crown
Prince has signalled that women no longer need to wear headscarves orfull-length robes in public places, though all must dress “modestly”.15
Under the 2022 Personal Status Law, women require the permission of amale guardian to marry, and only men have the unconditional right toinitiate a divorce. Some women’s rights activists have been arrested forseeking reforms and been subject to travel bans. 16
In 2024, Saudi Arabia was elected chair of the UN Commission on the
Status of Women for 2025. Saudi Arabia said the decision reflected its
progress made on gender equality in recent years. The UK did notparticipate in the decision as it is not a member of the Commission. 17

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Freedom of religion is not allowed under the law: the law bansproselytizing by non-Muslims, the promotion of atheism, and non-Islamic
public worship. Shia Muslims are imprisoned and discriminated against“at a rate disproportionate” with their share of the population, according
to the US State Department. Limited celebration of some Shia traditions

MENA Rights Group, Saudi human rights commission, November 2023
Saudi Arabia seeks to achieve highest global standards […], Saudi Press Agency, 10 July 2024
Amnesty International, Death sentences and executions 2023, May 2024, p30
Saudi Arabia Embassy in the US, Reforms and programs to empower women (PDF), August 2019
Saudi crown prince says abaya not necessary, Gulf News, 19 March 2018
Amnesty International, Saudi Arabia: Personal status law codifies discrimination against women,
and Human Rights Watch, Saudi Arabia: Law enshrines male guardianship, both 8 March 2023
UN picks Saudi Arabia to lead women’s rights forum […], The Guardian, 27 March 2024

Commons Library Research Briefing, 22 August 2024

Saudi Arabia: Introductory country profileis allowed and the government has reportedly removed “almost all
problematic references” to Jews and Christians in school textbooks. 18•

Worker rights. There are an estimated 10 million migrant workers in
Saudi Arabia. Like other Gulf states, Saudi Arabia operates the kafala(“sponsorship”) system. This means workers enter the country only aftergaining sponsorship by an employer.
Reforms introduced include banning employers from confiscating
migrant workers’ passports (but not for domestic workers), rest days forboth domestic and other migrant workers, and the right to change
employer without the first employer’s permission (but some conditions
remain, including a minimum employment period of two years fordomestic workers). Migrant and domestic workers must apply for a visa
to exit the kingdom. Only Saudi workers can join a worker’s committee.19
Migrants and asylum seekers attempting to reach the country from
Yemen faced significant dangers. In 2022 and 2023, several rights groups
alleged that Saudi security forces killed several hundred migrants
attempting to cross the border. 20 The Saudi Government rejected thesereports as “unfounded”. 21 The UK raised the issue with Saudi Arabia.22•

Same-sex relationships are illegal and can carry the death penalty.
Films referring to sexual and gender diversity have been banned. 23

UK Government assessment
The Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Office (FCDO) identifies Saudi
Arabia as one its 32 human rights priority countries. Its latest report covers
2022. Concerns and actions included:•

Continuing restrictions on freedom of expression and a “notable increasein the frequency and severity of punishment for online activity”.

•

The prohibition on the open practice of non-Muslim faiths, though the UK
Government said the language of Saudi authorities was more “inclusive”.

•

An increased representation for Saudi women in the workforce anddismantling of much of the guardianship system. However, the UK said
that “patriarchal authority remained engrained” in Saudi society and

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22
23

7

US State Department, 2023 report on international religious freedom: Saudi Arabia, May 2024
International Labour Organization, Saudi Arabia: Regulatory framework, 14 December 2023
US State Department, 2023 country reports on human rights practice: Saudi Arabia, May 2024
Hundreds of migrants killed by Saudi border guards—report, BBC News 21 August 2023
PQ 197866 [Saudi Arabia: Migrants], 12 September 2023
Human Dignity Trust, Saudi Arabia; International Lesbian, Gay and Bisexual, Trans and Intersex
Association, Laws on us: global overview, May 2024, p85

Commons Library Research Briefing, 22 August 2024

Saudi Arabia: Introductory country profile“prominent women’s rights defenders remained banned from travel” andwere under suspended prison sentences.
Rising executions, from an annual average of 70 (2011 to 2015) to 130(2015 to 2022).

•

The UK Government said it raised the use of the death penalty and restrictions
on freedom of expression with Saudi officials. Saudi officials have also visited
the UK to discuss justice and human rights reforms. The UK Government said
it would continue to engage in order to advance Vision 2030 and ensure the
Vision “benefits Saudis and non-Saudis in the kingdom”. 24
The sale of arms to Saudi Arabia and their use in the Yemen conflict has been
controversial, as set out in the Commons Library research briefing UK arms
exports to Saudi Arabia: Q&A, January 2021.

5

Relations with the UK
UK-Saudi trade in 2023•

Trade with the UK: was the UK’s 24th largest trading partner.

•

Total UK-Saudi trade (exports and imports): £17.3 billion in 2023, thehighest since at least 2014. The previous peak was £13.4 billion in 2015.

•

Top five UK goods exported: power generators, cars,
medical/pharmaceutical products, industrial machinery, jewellery.

•

Top five UK goods imported: oil, power generators, capital scientificinstruments, telecoms, and intermediate scientific instruments. 25

Notes: Data on the top five services traded is not available.

Plans for a trade agreement
While having an active trade and investment relationship, the UK and Saudi
Arabia do not have a free trade agreement. Their trade takes place on theWorld Trade Organisation (WTO) terms, meaning that they must treat eachother’s goods and services the same as those from other WTO members. 26 A
preferential trade agreement would allow for more favourable terms.

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25

26

8

FCDO, Human rights and democracy: the 2022 FCDO report, July 2023
Department for International Trade (DIT), Trade and investment factsheets: Saudi Arabia, June
2024 edition (updated monthly)
DIT, Trading under WTO terms, 31 December 2020

Commons Library Research Briefing, 22 August 2024

Saudi Arabia: Introductory country profile

Following a consultation, in June 2022 the government launched free tradenegotiations with the GCC, which includes Saudi Arabia. Total trade in goods
and services between the GCC and the UK reached £41.4 billion in 2019. This
would make the bloc, as a whole, the UK’s tenth largest trading partner.
However, trade fell to £30.4 billion in 2020. 27
The International Trade Committee has called for the UK Government topublish the likely impact of any agreement on human rights within the GCC. 28
Talks are ongoing. 29

Gulf Strategy Fund (GSF)
The UK’s GSF works in several Gulf countries, including Saudi Arabia. Throughit, the UK supports Saudi Arabia’s Vision 2030 (see box, page 4). This includes
commitments to develop cultural, sport and tourism sectors in the Kingdom
to enable economic diversification. The GSF also supports strengthening of
UK-Saudi education partnerships, climate resilience, and healthcare. 30
In 2021, the All-Party Parliamentary Group on Democracy and Human Rights
in the Gulf argued the fund should be suspended as it failed to contribute toprogress on human rights in the region. The government disagreed, arguing
all funding is subject to checks to ensure it does not impact negatively onhuman rights and said it will continue to raise human rights concerns with
Gulf countries. 31

Other UK-Saudi engagement•

High-level UK-Saudi meetings: in 2022 and 2023 then-Prime Ministers
Boris Johnson and Rishi Sunak met the Crown Prince to discuss regional
security threats, stability in oil markets following Russia’s invasion of
Ukraine, and UK-Saudi cooperation. In July 2024, Prime Minister Keir
Starmer discussed regional de-escalation in the context of the 2023/24
Israel-Hamas conflict with the Crown Prince. 32•

Strategic Partnership Council: established in 2018, the partnershipconfirms the UK as a strategic partner to Vision 2030’s aims to improve
Saudi Arabia’s economy and inclusivity. Areas of engagement include
education, healthcare, financial services, life sciences, energy, anddefence.33 A third meeting in the economic and social strand of the27

DIT, Information note on […] future trade negotiations between the UK and GCC, October 2021, p9
and UK approach to negotiating a free trade agreement with the GCC, 22 June 2022
International Trade Committee, FTA negotiations with the GCC, HC 79, April 2023, para 86
DIT, Trade update: UK-GCC FTA, 22 March 2023
FCDO, GSF [for 2022 to 2023], 30 March 2023
Commons Library, The Gulf in 2021, 2021, section 2
Prime Minister’s Office, PM meeting with Crown Prince, 19 October 2023; PM meeting with Crown
Prince [...], 15 November 2022; PM meeting with the Crown Prince of the kingdom of Saudi Arabia[…], 16 March 2022; PM call with Crown Prince [..], 15 July 2024
Foreign and Commonwealth Office, UK-Saudi Arabia joint communiqué, 10 March 2018

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33

9

Commons Library Research Briefing, 22 August 2024

Saudi Arabia: Introductory country profile

partnership was held in June 2023 (the other strand concentrates onpolitical and security issues). 34•

UK military forces are based in the Gulf to protect shipping and conduct
operations against groups such as Islamic State/Daesh. 35 In 2020 the UK
deployed air defences to Saudi Arabia to defend against attacks from
Yemen and Iraq by Iran-aligned armed groups. 36 Since 2016, the UK has
provided a training programme for the Royal Saudi Air Force, including
on compliance with international humanitarian law. 37 Recent joint
military exercises include those in 2023 and 2024. 38•

Defence cooperation agreement: Signed in 2022, the agreement aims toenhance bilateral defence and security cooperation, and will include
training, capability-building and regular dialogue. 39 Specific areas ofcollaboration include air defence, armoured vehicles, and uncrewed
aerial systems, such as drones. 40•

Defence cooperation programme: the UK has exported Typhoon,
Tornado and Hawk aircraft, mine countermeasure vessels andassociated munitions, infrastructure, logistics and manpower support
packages. This is long-standing, and is fulfilled by BAE Systems. 41•

Education: a 2024 memorandum of understanding includes
commitments to improve research and science links, with a focus on
health, clean energy, and space. 42•

Universities: in academic year 2021/22, there were 8,750 Saudi students
studying at UK higher education institutions. Highest numbers were in
Manchester, Cardiff, Leeds, Nottingham, and Sheffield. 43
In 2024, Strathclyde University partnered with Princess Nourah University
to deliver science, technology, engineering, mathematics, and otherteaching in Saudi Arabia (the university is an all-woman institution). 44
A UK-Saudi university pathway was also launched in 2024, to encourage
Saudi entrants after completing an initial year of study in Saudi Arabia. 45

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Department for Energy Security and Net Zero, UK and Saudi Arabia strategic partnership council:
Economic and social pillar-joint statement, 7 June 2023
Commons Library, UK forces in the Middle East region, 2020, p3
HCWS100 [UK air defence support to the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia], 16 June 2022
PQ 191182 [Saudi Arabia: air force], 3 July 2023
RAF, RAF typhoons arrive in Saudi Arabia, 6 February 2024; RAF typhoons exercise, 21 January 2023
Ministry of Defence, UK signs plan for defence cooperation with Saudi Arabia, 13 December 2022
Ministry of Defence, Key step for UK-Saudi defence relationship, 5 February 2024
DIT, Strategic Export Controls annual report 2019, HC1003, 1 December 2020, para 6.3
Department of Science, Innovation and Technology, UK and Saudi Arabi unveil plan, 4 March 2024
HESA, Table 28- non-UK domiciled HE students by HE provider and country of domicile.
Strathclyde, Strathclyde partners with Princess Nourah university, 15 May 2024
British Embassy Riyadh, New NCUK university pathway provision, 3 March 2024

Commons Library Research Briefing, 22 August 2024

Saudi Arabia: Introductory country profile•

6

Collaboration on critical minerals (such as lithium and graphite): In
2023 the two countries pledged to increase investment in criticalminerals to safeguard the UK’s supply chains. 46

Foreign relations
United States
The United States has significant military ties with Saudi Arabia and views its
relationship as a means to ensure regional stability and security in the Gulf
against Iran and Iran-backed armed and terrorist groups in the Middle East. 47
In 1951, the US and Saudi Arabia signed a mutual defence agreement,
establishing a military training programme and furthering the sale of US
arms. During the First Gulf War (1990-1991), the United States helped defend
Saudi Arabia from Iraq, and was also from where the US launched aninternational coalition to recover Kuwait from Iraqi control under Saddam
Hussein. In 2023, around 2,700 US troops and air and missile defences were
deployed to Saudi Arabia to promote regional stability and combat potential
missile and drone attacks by Iran-backed groups.
There have been strains in the relationship, however, including historically the
1973/74 Arab oil embargo in response to the Fourth Arab Israeli War. Since
the end of the Cold War, Saudi Arabia has established relations with China
and Russia and increasingly sought to further its own strategic autonomy.
Since the Obama administration (from 2009), disagreements have included
over US diplomatic engagement with Iran to limit its nuclear programme(Saudi Arabia wanted the 2015 nuclear agreement to also include limits on
Iran’s regional activities), the nature of the Saudi offensive in Yemen against
the Houthis from 2015, which led to President Biden ending offensive arms
sales to Saudi Arabia in 2021, and the death of journalist Jamal Khashoggi in
2018. The United States is also now less reliant on petroleum imports from
Saudi Arabia due to the growth in domestic US shale production.
Since President Biden’s visit to the kingdom in 2022, public statements havestressed cooperation. In particular, the US administration has prioritised
Saudi Arabia normalising its diplomatic relations with Israel, as some Arabstates have done (see “Israel and the Occupied Palestinian Territories”
section below). This agreement reportedly may include a commitment fromthe US to defend Saudi Arabia from external attack.

46

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Department for Business, Energy & Industrial Strategy, UK and Saudi Arabia pledge to deliver closer
cooperation on critical minerals, 11 January 2023
This section from Congressional Research Service, Saudi Arabia: Issues for US policy, October 2023

Commons Library Research Briefing, 22 August 2024

Saudi Arabia: Introductory country profile

In August 2024, the US administration also said it would resume the sale ofoffensive weapons to Saudi Arabia. It said the kingdom had “met their end of
the deal” through improving civilian harm mitigation measures in Yemen. 48
While China is the largest economic partner of Saudi Arabia, the US remains
dominant for Saudi security and defence. From 2019 to 2023, the United States
supplied 75% of the arms that Saudi Arabia imported, followed by France andSpain (8% and 7% each). 49

RussiaSaudi Arabia has adopted a more neutral position on Russia’s invasion of
Ukraine and sought to act as a mediator. At the UN, it has voted in favour ofGeneral Assembly resolutions calling for Russian withdrawal from Ukraine in
March 2022 and March 2023 (these are non-binding). 50
In 2023, Saudi Arabia hosted the Ukrainian President and the sanctioned
Russian interior minister as part of this diplomatic balancing. 51
In recent years, Saudi-Russian ties have been strengthening more generally,
with the two signing a military cooperation agreement in 2021. 52 Since 2016,
Russia and Saudi Arabia have coordinated their oil production through OPEC+
to maintain high global oil prices (though their coordination pre-dates 2016).
The two have participated in “price wars” when their strategies have diverged
to combat the growth of US shale production, however. 53 Russian oil and gas
is subject to US and European sanctions following the invasion of Ukraine.

Saudi Arabia and the BRICS
In 2006, Brazil, Russia, India, and China created the BRIC group, and werejoined by South Africa in 2010 (forming the “BRICS”). Russia views the group asa means to address the sanctions imposed against it in response to its actions
in Ukraine and challenge the global influence of the United States. In 2023,
Saudi Arabia was invited to join the bloc and participated in its June 2024
meeting as an “invited member”. The kingdom has not formally confirmed it isa full BRICS member. In 2024, Iran, Egypt, and the UAE, among others, joined.
The expanded group represents around 28% of the global economy. 54

48
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51
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US will resume offensive weapons sales to Saudi Arabia, CNN, 12 August 2024
Stockholm International Peace Institute, Trends in arms transfers 2023, March 2024, p6
Saudi Embassy in the US, Saudi Arabia votes in favour of UNGA resolution […], 23 February 2023
Russia’s sanctioned interior minister visits Saudi Arabia […], AP, 23 May 2023
Arab Gulf States Institute in Washington, Saudi-Russia military cooperation: signalling or strategy?,
3 September 2021
No end in sight to the oil price war […], Foreign Policy, 14 March 2020; The OPEC+ puzzle, Wilson
Center, 19 January 2023
Saudi Arabia media offer guarded reporting of BRICS meeting, BBC Monitoring, 11 June 2024

Commons Library Research Briefing, 22 August 2024

Saudi Arabia: Introductory country profile

China
China has increasing economic ties with the Arab Gulf states, including Saudi
Arabia, though China balances these with ties to Iran (Iran and Saudi Arabia
are typically in tension). In 2021 total trade between China and Saudi Arabia
was 3.5 times higher than its trade with the US (US$87 billion versus US$25
billion). In 2023, Saudia Arabia was China’s second largest crude oil supplier,behind Russia (15% versus 19%) and had been the largest from 2019 to 2021.
In 2018, Saudi Arabia and China signed a comprehensive strategic
partnership (the highest level of diplomatic relations with China). In 2023
Saudi Arabia said it intends to become a dialogue partner to the Shanghai
Cooperation Organization (Iran is a full member). Despite deepening
economic ties, China’s role as a security guarantor and arms source for Saudi
Arabia remain limited: the value of arms sales from China stood at US$366
million from 2010 to 2023 compared to US$21.2 billion from the UnitedStates. 55

Iran
Iran-Saudi Arabia relations have been poor since the last Shah of Iran was
overthrown in 1979 and the Islamic Republic established. The tensions reflect
the long-standing monarchy-republic divide in the Middle East, politicisationof the Sunni and Shia rivalry (Sunni Muslims are the majority in Saudi Arabia
and Shia Muslims are in Iran), and Iranian support for armed groups acrossthe region, including Hezbollah in Lebanon. Saudi Arabia also accuses Iran ofbacking opposition groups in Saudi Arabia and Bahrain. 56
In 2016 Saudi-Iran diplomatic relations broke down following an attack on the
Saudi embassy in Iran and Saudi Arabia’s execution of a Shia religious leader
convicted of terrorism charges. Under Chinese-brokered talks, in March 2023
Saudi Arabia and Iran agreed to restore formal diplomatic relations, as well
as a security agreement originally made in 2001. 57
In 2015 Saudi Arabia led a military coalition to intervene against the Houthis
in Yemen, who had Iranian backing. The Houthis have used missiles anddrones to attack several sites in Saudi Arabia. The conflict has largely
stalemated, with a ceasefire in 2022 and continuing negotiations in 2023. 58
During the 2023/24 Israel-Hamas conflict, the Houthis have been launchingattacks on civilian shipping in the Red Sea, causing ships to be diverted awayfrom the Suez Canal. Saudi Arabia, like other Arab Gulf states apart from
Bahrain, is not participating in the US-led Operation Prosperity Guardian
55

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58

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Commons Library, China and the US in the Middle East: Iran and the Arab Gulf, August 2022,
sections 2.1, 2.2, 3.4, pp23; China’s largest oil supplier in 2023 was Russia, CNN, 22 January 2024;
SIPRI arms transfer database, Trend indicator values (TIV) Saudi Arabia
Louise Fawcett, International relations of the Middle East, 2016, pp225-233
Commons Library, Iran’s influence in the Middle East, July 2024, sections 3.1 and 3.3
Commons Library, Yemen in 2023: conflict and status of peace talks, November 2023, section 1

Commons Library Research Briefing, 22 August 2024

Saudi Arabia: Introductory country profile

against the Houthis. 59 This is likely to be an attempt to not jeopardise apotential settlement in Yemen and the renewed engagement with Iran. 60

Israel and the Occupied Palestinian Territories
In line with many Arab states, Saudi Arabia does not have diplomatic
relations with Israel. The kingdom backs the 2002 Arab Peace Initiative which
proposes an independent Palestinian state within the 1967 borders and only
recognising Israel after this has been achieved.61
During the 2023/24 Israel-Hamas conflict, Saudi Arabia has called for an
immediate ceasefire, criticised Israeli actions in Gaza, and said Israel must be
held accountable internationally. 62 Saudi Arabia lists Hamas as a terrorist
organisation, though a Hamas delegation visited the kingdom in April 2023
(for the first time since 2015), potentially as part of wider rapprochement with
opponents in the region. In the same month, Saudi Arabia renewed ties with
Iran and in May the Syrian President Bashar al-Assad. 63
It has been a priority of Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanya to extend theAbraham Accords—agreed between Israel and Bahrain, the UAE and Sudan
in 2020—to Saudi Arabia. 64 In 2023, an Israel-Saudi agreement wasreportedly close. Media reports suggest there are three elements: progress
on Palestinian statehood, a US-Saudi defence agreement and access to moreadvanced US weaponry in return for restricting Chinese arms purchases andtrade, and US support for a Saudi civilian nuclear programme. 65
In May 2024, the United States Government said its bilateral agreement with
Saudi Arabia was “near final”. 66 The Saudi Government reiterated its position
that “there will be no diplomatic relations with Israel unless an independent
Palestinian state is recognized on the 1967 borders with East Jerusalem as its
capital, and that the Israeli aggression on the Gaza Strip stops and all Israeli
occupation forces withdraw from the Gaza Strip”. 67 Polling in Saudi Arabia
after the 7 October Hamas assault suggests opposition to normalising ties. 68

59
60
61
62
63

64

65
66
67
68

14

Commons Library, UK and international response to the Houthis 2024, July 2024
Atlantic Council, A year ago Beijing brokered an Iran-Saudi deal, 6 March 2024
Arab Center Washington DC, Oman, Gaza and relations with the US, 5 January 2024
Saudi Arabia condemns ongoing ‘genocidal massacres’, Al Arabiya, 14 July 2024
Washington Institute, Arab critique and condemnation of Hamas […], 30 October 2023; In latest
diplomatic push, Saudi Arabia hosts Palestinian rivals, Amwaj, 26 April 2023
Saudi FM says no normalising ties with Israel before Palestinian issue resolved, Al-Monitor, 20
January 2023
US-Saudi nuclear deal and US and Saudi Arabia nearing agreement, Reuters, 2 May, 19 May 2024
US, Saudis close to deal on defence pact, White House says, Reuters, 20 May 2024
Saudi Arabia Foreign Affairs Ministry, Discussions between the kingdom […], 7 February 2024
Washington Institute, New poll sheds light on Saudi views, 21 December 2023

Commons Library Research Briefing, 22 August 2024

Saudi Arabia: Introductory country profile

Other Gulf states
Saudi Arabia is a member of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC), whose
members include the UAE, Qatar, Oman, Kuwait, and Bahrain. The GCC aims
to build political and economic ties between its members.
The largest economies and populous countries in the GCC are the UAE andSaudi Arabia. Both are significant oil producers, have close security ties with
the United States, oppose Iran’s support for armed groups and intervened in
Yemen in 2015 against the Houthis, and boycotted Qatar in 2017 (see below).
However, with both seeking to diversify their economies they are competingfor foreign investment and for influence in other countries, including Sudan
and Yemen. In Yemen, the UAE backs the separatist Southern Transitional
Council, which is seeking a new southern Yemen state, while Saudi Arabia
backs a unified Yemen. 69
In Sudan, despite a shared aim for greater stability since the overthrow of
Oman al-Bashir in 2019 (Sudanese ruler from 1989), Saudi Arabia has adopted
a more mediatory role as a means to retain influence while the UAE isreported to be backing the paramilitary Rapid Support Forces (RSF) (the UAE
Government denies this).70 The RSF have been fighting the Sudanese Armed
Forces and the Sovereign Council of Sudan, which replaced al-Bashir, and isbacked by Turkey, Egypt, and Iran. 71
Saudi Arabia is politically close to Bahrain, in 2011 sending forces alongside
the UAE to suppress protests against Bahrain’s monarchy during the ArabSpring. Bahrain joined the coalition in Yemen against the Houthis in 2015. 72
In 2017, Saudi Arabia led the UAE, Bahrain, and Egypt to cut ties with Qatar
and introduce a blockade, accusing it of supporting terrorism. Qatar rejected
the accusation and refused to meet demands to curtail its engagement with
Iran and to close down the news-channel Al Jazeera. An agreement ending
the dispute was signed in 2021. It detailed no actions for Qatar to take. 73

7Further reading
General background/profiles
•

69
70
71
72
73

15

Europa World Plus, Saudi Arabia profile. Provides economic and political
data and describes key events. Accessible via a Commons Library log-in.

Arab Center Washington, Divergent Saudi-Emirates agendas, 15 May 2024
Sudan and the UAE clash at UN Security Council over Sudan civil war, Reuters, 18 June 2024
Foreign Policy, How Sudan became a Saudi-UAE proxy war, 12 July 2023
Foreign Policy Council, Bahrain: The epicentre of the Saudi-Iranian rivalry?, 2018
Commons Library, The Gulf in 2021, CBP9284, section 5.1

Commons Library Research Briefing, 22 August 2024

Saudi Arabia: Introductory country profile•

CIA, World Factbook: Saudi Arabia. Headline statistical information on
population, economy, and energy.

•

BBC News, Saudi Arabia profile, August 2023. Events to 2018.

•

Congressional Research Service, Saudi Arabia: background and US
relations: Issues for US policy, RL33533. 36-page briefing on politics,
foreign policy, and economic issues from the perspective of US-Saudi
relations.

UK Parliament proceedings from 2018•

HC Deb, Hajj fraud, 17 May 2024, cc609-14•

HL Deb, Human Rights: Sportswashing, 21 March 2024, cc362– 92•

HL Deb, Saudi Arabia: Execution of Hussein Abo al-Kheir, 16 March 2023,
cc1471-75 and HC Deb, Saudi Arabia’s execution of Hussein Abo al-Kheir,
16 March 2023, cc972-77•

HC Deb, Saudi Arabia: Death penalty and spike in executions, 28
November 2022, cc688-74•

HL Deb, Gulf states: Human rights abuses, 24 November 2022, cc1522-50•

HL Deb, Saudi Arabia: Mass execution, 14 March 2022, cc15-18 and HC
Deb, Executions in Saudi Arabia, 14 March 2022, cc609-18•

HC Deb, Sale of arms: War in Yemen, 13 July 2020, cc1255-67 and HL Deb,
Saudi Arabia: Arms sales, 10 July 2020, cc1347-50•

HC Deb, Human rights in Saudi Arabia, 18 July 2019, cc442-476WH•

HC Deb, Saudi Arabia: Mass executions, 24 April 2019, cc749-57 and HL
Deb, Saudi Arabia [executions], 24 April 2019, cc626-8•

HL Deb, Jamal Khashoggi, 23 October 2018, cc774-78 and HC Deb, Deathof Jamal Khashoggi, 22 October 2018, cc79-95

UK Parliament committee reports•

Commons International Trade Committee, Free trade agreement
negotiations with the Gulf Cooperation Council, HC 79, April 2023•

Commons Foreign Affairs Committee, The UK’s relations with Saudi
Arabia and Bahrain, HC 88, 2012-13, November 2013. Section 3 describes
the UK’s ties.

16

Commons Library Research Briefing, 22 August 2024

Saudi Arabia: Introductory country profile

Human rights: General issues•

House of Lords Library, Human rights in the Gulf states, 17 November
2022•

Amnesty International, Human rights: Saudi Arabia 2023. Covers six
issues including freedom of expression and human rights defenders.

•Amnesty International, Ten ways that Saudi Arabia violates humanrights, March 2024•

Human Rights Watch (HRW), Saudi Arabia: events of 2023. Overview often issues, including migrants, the Yemen conflict and women’s rights•

US State Department, 2023 country reports on human rights practices:
Saudi Arabia, May 2024. Wide ranging report on political and otherrights.

•UN Human Rights Council, Universal periodic reviews: Saudi Arabia. The
Council conducts regular reviews of human rights in every country. The
most recent review was in 2024. The UK issued a statement.

•

The Gulf Centre for Human Rights. Based in Lebanon, it promotes humanrights in Gulf countries, including Saudi Arabia.

•

ALQST organisation for supporting human rights. UK-based.

•

Sanad (Standing against nefarious and arbitrary detentions). UK-based.

•

MENA rights group. Based in Geneva. Monitors human rights.

Human rights: Specific issues•

Reporters without Borders, Saudi Arabia. Work on media freedom.

•

DW, Executions rise despite pledge to human rights, July 2024•

International Labour Organization (ILO), The ILO in Saudi Arabia.
Summary of the ILO’s work in the country and efforts on worker rights.

•

Americans for Democracy and Human Rights in Bahrain, Assessing Saudi
Arabia’s new law on domestic workers, May 2024•

HRW, ILO forced labour complaint a wakeup call, June 2024•

Freedom House, Democracies must hold Saudi regime accountable forhuman rights abuses, October 2023•

Freedom House, Transnational repression origin country case study:
Saudi Arabia, 2021

17

Commons Library Research Briefing, 22 August 2024

Saudi Arabia: Introductory country profile•

Foreign Affairs, Working women are changing Saudi Arabia, June 2024•

Amnesty International, Saudi Arabia: New personal status law codified
discrimination against women, March 2023•

The Week, What women can and can’t do in Saudi Arabia, August 2021•

US State Department, 2022 report on international religious freedom:
Saudi Arabia May 2024. Describes legal and social practices on religion.

Trade and economic profiles•

Department for International Trade, Trade and investment factsheet:
Saudi Arabia, updated monthly. Provides a 19-page overview of the UK’s
trade with Saudi Arabia.

•

Department for Business and Trade, Markets: Saudi Arabia. Summary of
UK-Saudi trade, trade barriers and opportunities for UK exporters.

•

FCDO, UK science and innovation network snapshot: Saudi Arabia,
January 2023. Overview of Saudi objectives and UK engagement•

Business & Human Rights Resource Centre, Submission to theInternational Trade Committee on UK trade negotiations: Agreementwith Gulf Cooperation Council, January 2022. Describes human rights
issues raised by the potential trade agreement with the UK.

•

International Monetary Fund, Concluding statement of the Article IV
mission, June 2024. Summary of Saudi economic situation, prospects,
and IMF staff mission recommendations.

•

Washington Institute, Saudi Arabia signals delays for some vision 2030
plans, December 2023

Foreign relations•

Foreign Affairs, The limits of a US-Saudi security deal, August 2024•

Carnegie Endowment, The ratification of a Saudi-US deal looks
increasingly unlikely, June 2024•

Chatham House, A US-Saudi deal deserves its own scrutiny, regardless of
Israeli normalisation, May 2024•

European Council on Foreign Relations, Global Saudi: how Europeans
can work with an evolving kingdom, May 2024•

Wilson Center, Saudi-Iran relations restored but remain tense, March
2024

18

Commons Library Research Briefing, 22 August 2024

Saudi Arabia: Introductory country profile•

Royal United Services Institute (RUSI), Saudi Arabia: the kingdom of oil,November 2023•

Carnie Endowment, The future of the GCC amid Saudi-Emirati rivalry,
October 2023•

International Crisis Group, Understanding Saudi Arabia’s recalibrated
foreign policy, September 2023•

US Institute for peace, Is a Saudi-Israel normalisation agreement on thehorizon?, September 2023•

RUSI, Saudi Arabia’s evolving foreign policy, June 2023•

Italian Institute for International Political Studies, Saudi Arabia joins the[Shanghai Cooperation Organization], March 2023•

European Council on Foreign Relations, What a resurgent Saudi Arabia
means for Europe, February 2023•

Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, What’s driving Russia’s
opportunist inroads with Saudi Arabia and the Gulf Arabs?, October 2022•

Commons Library, Iran’s influence in the Middle East, July 2024•

Commons Library, China and the US in the Middle East: Iran and the Arab
Gulf, August 2022. Also includes information on Russia’s role.

•

Commons Library, UK arms exports to Saudi Arabia: Q&A, January 2021.
Both the US and UK continue to sell arms to the Kingdom.

19

Commons Library Research Briefing, 22 August 2024

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