Journal of Global Resources
Biannual International Peer-Reviewed Journal
ISSN: 2395-3160 (Print)/2455-2445 (Online)

January 2021
Volume 07 (01)
Crossref DOI 10.46587

DOI: 10.46587/JGR.2021.v07i01.011

11VISIBLISING LOCAL FEMINISM-A CASE STUDY OF KASHMIR VALLEY

Haseena Hashia
ICSSR Senior Research Fellow, Department of Geography
Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi, India
Email: pro_haseena@yahoo.co.in
Abstract: Since the early days until the 13th century A.D, Kashmiri women enjoyedexceptional independence, exerted enough influence and transparency, which earned
them a high place in society. But it was during the medieval period when their ill-fate anddownfall started during the reign of foreign rulers with humiliation reaching farthest limits.
Under the reign of foreign barbaric rulers, the Valley witnessed the darkest period andwomen became special targets of the licentious behavior of these rulers. Kashmiri women
were physically and mentally broken and their existence was completely eclipsed in every
sphere of social life. With the dawn of Modernism in Kashmir at the end of 19th century, theBritishers took over the charge and introduced vast administrative, educational andeconomic reforms. It ushered the dawn of modernism in the State, the slumbering
Kashmiris reawakened and women too began to open their eyes, recovered lost groundand regained their innate virtues. Thus women have slowly started re-emerging in social
life to contribute towards the reconstruction of their homeland. The present paper tries tohighlight the situation of women in the past, their awakening and regaining due to the impactof modern social and administrative reforms.
Key words: Women, Downfall, Barbaric, Modernism, Innate Virtues, Social Life
Introduction
Feminism in India is a catalogue of activities designed to identify, create and protect
equitable political, economic and social rights and equal opportunity for women in India. It
is the promotion of the rights of women within India's culture. Feminists in India, like theirfeminist counterparts around the globe, are demanding gender equality, i.e. the right towork for equal pay, the right to fair access to health and education, and equal political
freedom. In Indian patriarchal culture, Indian women have also struggled against culturalproblems, such as succession rules and the ritual of widow immolation known as Sati. The
history of feminism in India can be divided into three stages: the first stage, which started
in the mid19th century, when the Male European Colonists started to talk against Sati'ssocial problems. The 2nd stage, from 1915 to Indian independence, started to emerge
when Gandhi integrated women's movements into the Quit India Movement andindependent Women's Organizations, and finally the 3rd stage, the post-independence
stage, which centered on equal treatment of females at home before and after marriage, inthe workforce and the right to political equity (Chaudhuri, M. 2005).
Despite the gains achieved by feminist movements of India, there are still many
problems of injustice facing women living in modern India. The patriarchal community ofIndia has made the task of acquiring land-ownership rights and access to educationaldifficulties challenging. An alarming pattern of sex-selective abortions for Indian feminists
has also arisen in recent decades. Jammu & Kashmir lies to the north of mainland India. It
consists of two divisions- Jammu & Kashmir. The Kashmir Valley is mostly inhabited by97

Muslim population. According to Census of India (2011), 97% of the population is Muslims
and the remaining 3% are Hindus, Sikhs, Christians etc.
Figure 01: Map of Jammu and Kashmir

Kashmiri women have witnessed varying fortunes. At times they have acquired
tremendous glory, identified themselves as rulers in their own terms. In fact, there was nofield of social activity in which they had not participated with their male counterparts. But
progress did not have a continuous flow, glory didn’t prove everlasting. Times came when
they were gradually deprived of the rights previously enjoyed by them. In such times, theystruggled against injustice. With the dawn of Modernism in Kashmir at the end of 19thcentury, women had slowly started re-emerging in social life to contribute their share to thefreedom struggle and to the reconstruction of their homeland.
Broadly speaking, since the early days until the 13th century A.D, Kashmiri womenenjoyed exceptional independence, exerted enough influence and transparency, whichearned them a high place in society. But it was during the medieval period when their illfate and downfall started during the reign of foreign rulers. The process of humiliation
reached farthest limits. It is under the foreign barbaric rulers (1752-1819 A.D.) that theValley witnessed the darkest period of national depression. Though men and women were,
without any distinction, subject to these hardships but women became special targets of
the licentious behavior of these rulers. No wonder that within a score of years of this rule,Kashmiri women were physically and mentally broken and their existence was completely
eclipsed in every sphere of social life (Bazaz, P. N. 1959).
The Sikhs succeeded the Afghans as the rulers of the Valley for a brief period of 27years (1819-1846 A.D.), they also could not prove better masters. Then the Valley was soldfor 75 lack rupees by Lord Hardinge, the Governor General of East India Company to Raja
Gulab Singh Dogra, as a reward for his perfidy against his Sikh Master and the people ofPunjab. The new masters proved harsher for several decades after the occupation of theValley. At the advent of the Maharaja Ranbir Singh’s rule in 1858 A.D., Kashmiri women
had lost everything for which they were admirable in the past. For centuries, continuing
injustice and wicked rulers, tyranny had robbed them of their physical beauty and moral
98refinement, practically degraded them to a sub-human state and existed solely by misery(Walikhanna, C. 2004). In the long and unrelieved period of slavery, Kashmiris forgot allabout the past and heights that women had scaled in some periods of their history. A time
had come when through force of habit, the people began to believe that degraded status
which hard days had forced upon the women was natural to them. It was taken for granted
that women were fit only to be domestic slaves, objects of carnal enjoyment or a bestmeans for procreation of children. Even cleanliness among women, unless it be for religious
purpose was by and large discouraged and was never rewarded or highly spoken of (Sufi,G. M. D. D. 1974).
At the end of the 19th century, Kashmiri women had sunk to a low level of destitution
and ignorance. They had lost charms of body and refinements of mind; they lacked selfconfidence, spirit of revolt and even a sense of righteous indignation. The sale of young
girls in Kashmir to established houses of ill-fame in Srinagar and India was both protected
and encouraged by the Dogra rulers. According to Robert Thorpe (1868), the license
granting purchase of a girl for this purpose, cost about 100 rupees in Ranbir Singh’s time.
In 1880, the Maharaja received 15 to 25 % of the whole revenue of his State from the gainsof his licensed prostitutes. It is also said that there were 18,715 State prostitutes in Kashmirin 1880. No attention was paid towards the prostitute’s health which was clear from the factthat there were 2500 prostitutes admitted in Mission Hospital who were suffering from
Sexually Transmitted Diseases(STD’s). After the death of a prostitute, her property wastaken by the Government.
At Tashwan & Maisuma (Srinagar), the two main centers of prostitution, girls used
to stay at windows, well decorated to invite the people. Call-girls were not allowed to stop
their trade, marry or change residence. Though the Maharaja derived a lot of income fromthe prostitutes, no amount of money was spent on their benefit. Another misery to whichthese prostitutes were subjected was that they could not marry and settle down as
respectable women. Child marriage was prevalent among the Pandit’s and Muslims, whilewidow remarriage was practiced by the Muslims only as it was not allowed in Hindus. The
condition of these widows was very miserable. Mr. Biscoe remarks, ‘‘as there was norestriction on early marriage, there were number of child widows who were obliged to livein their in-law’s house. I came to know about the cruelties practiced on these girls especiallyby the Brahman priests, who were the fathers of the drowned babies’’. The infants werethrown either in the river or to the pariah dogs at night to maintain the sanctity of Hindu
religion (Pundit, R.S).
But the wave of the Western ideas which had slowly but steadily advanced in thewake of British domination to every corner of the sub-continent began to have its impact on
the politics and culture of God-forsaken Kashmir as well. The British Residency took overthe charge of the entire administration and introduced vast administrative, educational andeconomic reforms. It ushered the dawn of modernism in the State, the slumbering
Kashmiris reawakened and women too began to open their eyes, recover lost ground andregain their innate virtues. The social evils that had changed the Srinagar society did not
escape the notice of Christian Missionaries. In 1912, Miss Fitze started a girl’s school inSrinagar. In 1914, the number of girl’s school rose to 3 in the city. By 1916, the number ofSchool going girls increased. In 1918, the School in FatehKadal (Srinagar) was raised tomiddle standard and it received a grant of 700 rupees from the State. This Girls School
underwent a radical change during the period when Miss Mallinson was its principal (192261) (Biscoe, C. E. T, 1922). It can be said it was Miss Mallinson who was instrumental inbringing about enough educational and cultural advancement among the women ofSrinagar.
The Mirwaiz Dynasty of Srinagar also took a keen interest in the welfare ofKashmiris, especially the great role of Molvi Rasul Shah popularly known as ‘Sir Syed of99Kashmir’ in the educational, social and political arenas of Kashmir cannot be ignored. Heinitiated a vibrant Muslim Educational Movement in the last decade of the 19th century. Hewas the first who like Sir Syed Ahmad Khan realized that without modern education, theMuslims will be rendered backward. He believed that good education on western lines,
supported by wise religious teachings of the Holy Quran would produce young Muslims ofcapacity and character. He initially carried this movement for the male folk of the society
only. His mission was further carried out by his successors as well (Yasin, M, et al.,1980).
Kashmiri women have faced many challenges with a great courage. They haveplayed a very important role in the development of political, social, economic and cultural
aspects of the State of Jammu & Kashmir. They have been the companions of men during
the Freedom struggle and have sacrificed a lot for the given cause (Yasin, M, et al.,1980).
It was the National Conference under the dynamic leadership of Sheikh Mohammad
Abdullah that tried not only to address the women concerns but also provided them space
to represent themselves. It was this party that enabled women to come out of the pits ofdarkness and ignorance, which led them to the growth of society, by creating a lively
platform for them. It got women interested in the participation of ongoing freedom struggle
and educated them in the decision-making processes. It was through the support from theleadership of the National Conference that women in the society eventually became
conscious of their social rights and status. It was this party that helped women to come outof the darkness of ignorance and contributed to the development of the society by providing
a vibrant platform to the women. It got women involved in the ongoing Freedom Struggle
and trained them for participation in the decision making processes. It was through theencouragement which women received from the National Conference leadership that they
gradually became aware of their rights & status in the society.
With the passing time, they progressed with their march towards empowerment and theNational Conference played an important role in this direction. Throughout its functioning
the National Conference passed several resolutions and legislations and formulated many
schemes to ensure the overall development of women, and first movement in this direction
was National Conference’s – “Naya Kashmir Manifesto’’ adopted in 1944. This manifesto
included a special Charter for empowerment of women sub-titled as Women’s Charter. This
Programme was one of the earliest and important political documents in the whole subcontinent which upheld equal rights of women. In fact, the Directive Principles of the State
Policy with regard to the rights of women in the Constitution of Jammu & Kashmir werebased on Naya Kashmir’s Women Charter (Bazaz, P. N. 1959). It had several parts:
A. Political Participation
In 1934 for the first time, the people of Kashmir were enfranchised that too on a very
limited scale. The right to vote was restricted to those who passed the middle standardor an equal test, so far as women are concerned. The excuse for its limited scale asgiven by the Franchise Commission was, “the inclusion of Women Voters would
increase the administrative difficulties of the election. But with the formation of thesuccessful government led by Sheikh Mohammad Abdullah, the Universal Franchise
was the basis of the State Elections to the Constituent Assembly in 1951. It advocatedthe right of women to nominate and be elected in all institutions on the grounds ofequality between men and women, as well as the right to extend equal rights to womenin all spheres of national life, including services within the State. Furthermore, theProvision Section (47) provided that, if the Governor of the State believes that women
don't have an adequate representation in the legislature, he may nominate two womenas members of that legislature assembly.
B. Women’s Wing
It was in 1950’s when National Conference again started working for the upliftment of
women folk and established the J&K National Conference Women’s Wing. Since then100

the Women’s Wing have been working to bring women at par with men in the maledominated society (Manchanda, R. 2001), (Walikhanna, C. 2004). The efforts also
included the upliftment of rural women. The Political Women’s Wing created afavourable environment for women of Jammu & Kashmir by which they were entitled tovote in all elections i.e. Panchayat/ Municipality, Assembly and Parliament elections onequal terms with men without any discrimination.
The aims and objectives of the National Conference Women’s Wing which would help
the women of Jammu & Kashmir to improve their status and also protect their rights
were as under:i.
The level of education among women in both rural and urban areas is low. Adult
education should therefore be given to women with the assistance of local
leaders, especially women leaders.
ii.
To remove the cultural constraints which bind women to the four walls of thehouse.
iii.
To aware women about the ways by which they can protect their rights.
iv.
To involve more and more women in Political processes. This will help raisingand addressing women’s issues.
v.
To motivate Government for initiating maximum schemes for the welfare andempowerment of women.
Important Steps Takeni.
After assuming power in 1947, the National Conference in 1950’s took arevolutionary step which changed the whole society, in general, and women, in particular.
This revolutionary Step was ‘Big Landed Estates Abolition Act’, passed on October 17,
1950. This act transferred all land to the peasants and abolished the practice of landlordsin the State. The implementation of this Act and the subsequent grant of property rights
changed the socio-economic scenario of the State. The landless workers who had lived at
the mercy of landlords began working in the fields as owners under the ‘Land to Tiller’scheme. The peasants became the real owners of the land and consequently women
began to live a dignified life. Women were the most vulnerable group as they were exploitedphysically and psychologically by the feudal landlords. The moment, the Act was passed
and put to practice, the women achieved a freedom from the shackles of landlords forever.
ii.
Education
The then Jammu & Kashmir Government did a tremendous job in spreading education inthe State, in general, and among women in particular. The orthodox Society didn’t allow
girls to receive education. In fact, the Muslim community was highly illiterate. To end thismenace, Sheikh Mohammad Abdullah started a system of compulsory education known as‘‘Jabria Taleem” (forced education) at a place where Women’s College, Srinagar ispresently situated. The Government established the Women’s Colleges both in Srinagarand Anantnag and established a wide net of Schools at primary, secondary & seniorsecondary levels in every corner of the State to disseminate knowledge and lead people
from darkness to light.
iii. Legislations
Being an orthodox society, women were denied their rights at all levels. Women were highly
backward and underdeveloped. It gave rise to the need of framing laws for theirdevelopment. The laws and schemes were particularly for women and greatly influenced
their lives (Baba, NA, 2002). In 1975, a voluntary organization known as, The J&K Markazi
Behboodi Khawateen” or ‘‘Women/Children Welfare Trust” was established. This trust wasmeant for the welfare and upliftment of women which aimed at providing education, training
in the arts and crafts, proper health care and social security to the downtrodden sectionsof the society (Report, 1985).

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After Independence Indian Government tried to change the plight of Indians ingeneral and those of marginalized sections of the society in particular, J&K State got
maximum benefits from the various women friendly schemes and women were benefited
socially, educationally, economically and politically.
References
1. Baba, N A, (2002). ‘‘Political Empowerment of Women”, in Report on two seminars on
Women Empowerment; Centre for Adult and Continuing Education, University ofKashmir, p-34.
2. Bazaz, P. N. (1959). Daughters of the Vitasta: A History of Kashmiri Women from EarlyTimes to the Present Day. Pamposh Publications.
3. Biscoe, C. E. T. (1922). Kashmir in Sunlight & Shade: A Description of the Beauties ofthe Country, the Life, Habits, and Humour of Its Inhabitants and an Account of theGradual but Steady Rebuilding of a Once Down-trodden People. Seeley, Service &Company limited.
4. Chaudhuri, M. (Ed.). (2005). Feminism in India. Zed books.
5. Desai, A. A. (1995). THE CONSTITUTION OF JAMMU AND KASHMIR: ITS
DEVELOPMENT AND COMMENTS, (4th edition), Universal Law Publishing House,New Delhi, 2004, p-211.
6. Manchanda, R. (2001). Guns and burqa: Women in the Kashmir conflict. Women, warand peace in South Asia: Beyond victimhood to agency, 42-101.
7. Prospectus, Madri-Meherban, Women and Child Welfare Institute, Miskeen Bagh,Srinagar.
8. Pundit, R.S., River of Kings, {English Translation of Rajtarangini of Kalhana}, IndianExpress, Allahabad, 1935 XXXIII.
9. Report, (1985), The J&K Markazi Behboodi Khawateen, Miskeen Bagh, Srinagar.
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11. Thorp, R. (1868). Cashmere Misgovernment, London: Longmans, Green, and Co.
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