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ORIGINAL RESEARCH

The Physiological Responses to Bikram Yoga in
Novice and Experienced Practitioners
Jessica L. Pate, MS; Michael J. Buono, PhD

ABSTRACT
Context • Bikram yoga has gained a large following,
possibly because of widespread claims boasting energy
expenditure of up to 1000 calories per session. However,these claims are unfounded because no scientific study
has investigated the metabolic response to a complete,standardized Bikram yoga class.
Objectives • This study intends to determine energy
expenditure, heart rate, and sweat rate in novice andexperienced practitioners from a standardized Bikram
yoga class.
Setting • Data were collected in the environmental
chamber of the Exercise Physiology Laboratory at San
Diego State University in California, USA.
Participants • Male (n = 5) and female (n = 19) participants
between the ages of 18 and 57 y were recruited throughflyers in yoga studios throughout San Diego. Participants
were classified as experienced or novice practitioners,
having completed ≥20 or <20 sessions, respectively.
Interventions • Participants were guided through astandardized 90-min yoga class performed in a hotenvironment using Bikram’s Standard Beginning Dialogue,
while expired gas was collected and heart rate was recorded.
Outcome Measures • Energy expenditure, calculated via

Jessica L. Pate, MS, is a graduate student, and Michael J.
Buono, PhD, is a professor at the School of Exercise andNutritional Sciences of San Diego State University in
California.
Corresponding author: Michael J. Buono, PhD
E-mail address: mbuono@mail.sdsu.edu

O

ne of the most profound health issues in the UnitedStates is the increasing obesity rate.1 Research has
demonstrated that obesity leads to many healthcomplications, such as heart disease,2 diabetes,3,4 cancer,3,4,5,612

oxygen uptake, and heart rate were determined for eachposture and transition period. In addition, sweat rate andcore temperature were recorded for each participant.
Results • Mean (±SD) relative VO2 for the entire 90-min
session was 9.5 ± 1.9 mL × kg-1 × min-1, ranging from 6.0 to
12.9 mL × kg-1 × min-1. Mean absolute energy expenditurewas 286 ± 72 kcals, ranging from 179 to 478 kcals.
Independent sample t tests revealed significant differences(P < .05) in relative energy expenditure, heart rate, ending
core temperature, and sweat rate between experience levels.
Mean relative energy expenditure was 3.7 ± 0.5 kcal/kg in
novice practitioners and 4.7 ± 0.8 kcal/kg in experienced
practitioners. Percentage of predicted maximum heart rateand sweat rate were 72.3% ± 10.6% and 0.6 ± 0.2 kg/h innovice practitioners and 86.4% ± 5.2% and 1.1 ± 0.5 kg/h inexperienced participants. All postures were classified aslight-to-moderate intensity according to the American
College of Sports Medicine (ACSM) standards.
Conclusions • Bikram yoga meets requirements forexercise of light-to-moderate intensity and, theoretically,
could be used for weight maintenance or weight loss ifpracticed several times per week. (Altern Ther HealthMed. 2014;20(4):12-18.)

hyperlipidemia,7,8 and hypertension.9 In an attempt to abate
these health issues, the American College of Sports Medicine(ACSM) has established minimum standards that exercise
programs must meet to satisfy the current recommendations
for the promotion of weight maintenance and loss.10
Energy expenditure is a direct predictor of weight loss or
gain.11 Although the origins of yoga date back 5000 years,
several forms of yoga have recently gained popularity incontemporary society,12,13 which has sparked an interest in
research focusing on various health outcomes associatedwith yoga practice.
Meta-analysis of 18 studies investigating the healthbenefits of yoga demonstrated the superiority of yoga overother forms of exercise for improving self-reported healthstatus, aerobic fitness, and muscular strength in elderly

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Pate—Energy Cost of Bikram Yoga

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populations.14 However, effect sizes and precision acrossstudies were low and further research is needed to investigate
other health-related measures. In addition, several intervention
studies have demonstrated the positive effect of yoga on the
blood-lipid profile of individuals presenting conditions such as
hypertension, coronary artery disease, obesity, and diabetes
mellitus.15,16 Although these studies provide insight into somebenefits of yoga, they do not evaluate the exercise intensity
and/or caloric cost of yoga as a mode of physical activity or its
effectiveness as a weight loss tool.
Therefore, a more useful measure of the effectiveness ofyoga as an exercise mode is measurement of energy
expenditure and/or caloric cost. Several studies haveattempted to quantify the caloric expenditure associated withyoga. One such study measured the energy expenditure of a
30-minute hatha yoga session.17 Twenty-six womenparticipated in a taped, hatha yoga routine, during whichenergy expenditure data were collected each minute andthen averaged to determine the response for the entire
session. Results indicated that the hatha yoga routine eliciteda caloric expenditure of 2.2 kcal/min or 66.9 kcal per
30-minute session. A similar study was conducted in which
40 men familiar with yoga practice for at least 6 years
performed a 1-hour yoga class in a laboratory.18 Between
each asana, oxygen consumption was measured for eachparticipant while in the supine position. Although certain
yoga asanas required higher energy expenditure incomparison with others, results indicated that the average,
total energy expenditure for the session was 55 kcal or 18%
lower than the results from the previous study.
However, various studios and media sources haveseparated a specific style, known as Bikram, from othertraditional forms of yoga. Drawing foundations from hatha
yoga, Bikram Choudhury developed this style in the 1970s.
A standard Bikram yoga practice is a 90-minute session in aroom set to a temperature of 105°F and 40% relative
humidity, during which a set of 26 specific postures, repeated
twice, and 2 breathing exercises are performed.12,19 This style
has gained a large following, as evidenced by the $5.7 billion
revenue from class purchases in 2009 alone,20 possibly
because of widespread claims from Web sites and studios
boasting caloric expenditures of up to 1000 calories persession.12,21 However, these claims are unfounded because no
scientific study has investigated the metabolic response to acomplete, standardized Bikram yoga practice.
Therefore, the current study investigated energy
expenditure, heart rate, sweat rate, and core body temperaturethat was associated with a full-length, standardized, Bikram
yoga class. The research team also classified the intensity
level, according to ACSM standards,22 of each classcomponent. The team hypothesized that a Bikram session
would elicit greater energy expenditure than demonstrated
in previous studies and that novice and experienced
practitioners would differ in their physiological responses
because of adaptations that would occur with increased
practice.
Pate—Energy Cost of Bikram Yoga

MATERIALS AND METHODS
Participants
Twenty-six healthy male and female volunteers, aged 18
to 57, were recruited through flyers posted in San Diego’s
yoga studios. In addition, some participants were informedof the study by previous participants. Participants contacted
the primary investigator, either by e-mail or a phone number
posted on the recruitment flyer. When a potential participant
contacted the investigator, the recruitment script was read orsent electronically to inform the individual of the study’s
details. Participation was voluntary, which was expressly
stated to the participant. If the individual both qualified andwished to participate after receiving all details of the study, heor she was scheduled for a session in the laboratory.
Upon arrival at San Diego State University’s exercise
physiology laboratory, participants completed the Physical
Activity Recall Questionnaire (PAR-Q) to screen for
cardiovascular risks in performing moderate-intensity
exercise.23 Any positive responses to questions from the
PAR-Q eliminated the individual from selection. The
participants then signed an informed consent form, which
was approved by San Diego State University’s Institutional
Review Board.
In addition, all women provided a urine sample, which
was tested for pregnancy. Any positive responses resulted in
exclusion from the study. All participants had completed atleast 2 Bikram yoga classes to ensure that participants werefamiliar with the basic principles. Participants reported theiryoga experience level by providing the total time they hadpracticed yoga and the average number of times per week
they attended classes. Participants were classified as novice ifthey had completed <20 Bikram yoga sessions andexperienced if they had completed ≥20 sessions.
Intervention
The intervention was a 90-minute session of Bikram
yoga. Before beginning the session, each participant wasgiven the chance to practice and review each posture. When
ready to begin, participants were guided through the session
using an audio recording, “Bikram’s Beginning Yoga Class,”24
which was played on speakers in the environmental chamberwhere the session took place. During the class, 26 postures,
repeated twice; 2 breathing exercises; and 2 savasanas were
performed. A full-length mirror was provided to enable theparticipants to view themselves while doing the postures.
Standard water breaks occurred, with the first break taking
place after the Eagle Pose,19 and then water was allowed asneeded by the participant.
Procedures
Participants’ baseline measures were taken prior to theirentering the environmental chamber. To determine sweat
rate, the weight of each participant was measured on abalance-beam scale to the nearest 0.1 kg in dry clothes before
starting the yoga session. After being weighed, the participantchanged into a separate set of clothes for the session. At the

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Table 1. Relative Oxygen Consumption, METS, and Intensity Level for Each Posturea
conclusion of the class, theparticipant dried off and wasMean VO2
Intensity Mean HR
reweighed in the original set of dry
-1
-1
Pose
(mL
×
kg
×
min
)
METS
Level
(BPM)
clothes. In addition, fluid
consumption was recorded during
Standing Deep Breathing 5.85
1.67
Light
95
the session. Participants were
Half-Moon
7.79
2.23
Light
141
allowed to drink water without
Awkward
9.39
2.68
Light
153
restriction, and the consumed fluid
Eagle
13.00
3.71
Moderate 147
weight was then subtracted fromthe participant’s final weight. Oral
Standing Head to Knee
13.15
3.76
Moderate 160
temperature was also measured
Standing Bow
13.93
3.98
Moderate 162
prior to the participant entering
Balancing
Stick
13.24
3.78
Moderate 165
the environmental chamber.
St. Sep. Leg Stretching
11.52
3.29
Moderate 130
Upon entering the chamber,the participant was outfitted with a
Triangle
12.23
3.49
Moderate 168
nose clip and 1-way valve (HansSt. Sep. Leg Head to Knee 11.15
3.19
Moderate 143
Rudolph, Shawnee, KS, USA) that
Tree
9.43
2.69
Light
150
was attached to a mouthpiece andToe Stand
7.18
2.05
Light
137
secured with headgear. The
headgear also allowed theSavasana
6.55
1.87
Light
105
participant to exert minimal effort
Dead Body
7.65
2.18
Light
118
to hold the apparatus in his or her
Cobra
8.47
2.42
Light
142
mouth during the session. In
Locust
9.43
2.69
Light
148
addition, each participant wore a
Polar heart rate monitor strapped
Full Locust
9.59
2.74
Light
153
across the torso that was linked to
Bow
10.10
2.89
Light
150
2 watches, 1 worn by the participant
Fixed Firm
9.42
2.69
Light
124
and the other by an investigator.
Oxygen uptake was measured
Half Tortoise
9.18
2.62
Light
119
with a metabolic measurement
Camel
8.95
2.56
Light
152
cart (TrueOne, Parvomedics,
Rabbit
9.70
2.77
Light
145
Sandy, UT, USA). The metabolic
Head to Knee
8.97
2.56
Light
139
system was calibrated with a
2-point calibration method, using
Spine Twisting
8.28
2.37
Light
145
both ambient air and standardized
Blowing in Firm
8.60
2.46
Light
141
gas (16% O2 and 4% CO2). In
Savasana
5.71
1.63
Light
108
addition, the system was also
Full Practice Average
9.56
2.73
Light
140
physiologically calibrated bymeasuring a participant’s VO2
Abbreviations: VO2 = oxygen uptake; BPM = beats per minute; St = standing;response to walking at 4.8 km/h on
Sep = separate; METS = metabolic equivalent values.
a treadmill. Values elicited fromthis test were referenced againstaValues are expressed as means.
predicted values to ensure that25
reasonable values were observed.
Heart rate data were recorded for the entire class, with RESULTS
measurements taken while a participant was holding eachTwenty-four participants between the ages of 18 and 57
posture and during the break following each posture. years (32.7 ± 13.3) were recruited for the study. The sample
Participants were allowed to lie down and rest as needed, as included 5 men with a mean body mass index (BMI) of
well as leave the environmental chamber if they needed to 21.6 ± 2.0 kg/m2 and 19 women with mean BMI ofcool down, as is typical in a Bikram yoga class.19
24.7 ± 4.3 kg/m2. Mean relative VO2 for the entire Bikram
session for all participants was 9.5 ± 1.9 mL × kg-1 × min-1,
Data Analysis
ranging from 6.0 to 12.9 mL × kg-1 × min-1. According to the
Data were analyzed using SPSS software (IBM ACSM classification system, the intensity of postures ranged
Corporation, Armonk, NY, USA). Independent sample t from light, <3.0 METS, to moderate, 3.0 to 6.0 METS, withtests were used to compare means of novice and experienced the majority classified as light intensity. Intensity level of allpractitioners. Significance was set at P ≤ .05.
postures can be found in Table 1.
14

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Figure 1. Oxygen Uptake (VO2) for a Representative Participant During the Standing Series of Postures

Figure 2. Oxygen Uptake (VO2) for a Representative Participant During the Floor Series of Postures

Pate—Energy Cost of Bikram Yoga

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Figure 3. Heart Rate for a Representative Participant During the Standing Series of Postures

Figure 4. Heart Rate for a Representative Participant During the Floor Series of Postures

16

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Mean absolute energy expenditure per session was
286 ± 72 kcal, ranging from 179 to 478 kcals. The Pearson
correlation coefficient revealed a relationship of r = 0.601
between body weight and energy expenditure; total
expenditure was divided by body weight to standardize
values. Relative mean kcals/kg were 3.7 ± 0.5 kcal/kg in
novice practitioners and 4.7 ± 0.8 kcal/kg in experienced
practitioners. A representative, oxygen-uptake response forboth standing- and floor-series postures is depicted in
Figures 1 and 2.
Sweat rate for the class was calculated via the following
formula: sweat rate (kg/h) = (BWi – [BWp – (Fi – Fp )])/time,
where BWi was body weight prior to the session, BWp wasbody weight following the session, Fi was fluid weight prior
to the session, Fp was fluid weight following the session, andtime was equal to 1.5 hours.
Mean heart rate was highly variable across postures. In
general, higher heart rate responses were observed during
standing postures. A representative heart rate response forboth standing- and floor-series postures is depicted in
Figures 3 and 4. Mean postural heart rates are found in Table
1. Percentage of predicted maximum heart rate (%PMHR)
was calculated using the formula PMHR = 220 – theparticipant’s age. Maximum heart rate for the session wasthen divided by this value to obtain the %PMHR.
The independent samples t test (α = .05) revealed
significant differences in relative energy expenditure(P < .002), %PMHR (P < .001), and sweat rate (P < .006)
between experience levels. Means and standard deviations
can be found in Table 2. All parameters met Levene’s
assumption for the homogeneity of variance.
DISCUSSION
The major finding of the current study was that theenergy cost of a complete, standardized Bikram class wasfound to be substantially lower than commonly advertisedvalues.12,21 The majority of postures only met requirements
for light-intensity exercise as established by ACSM.22 Postures
meeting moderate-intensity requirements were standing,balancing postures—eagle, standing head to knee, standing
bow, balancing stick, standing separate leg stretching,triangle, and standing separate head to knee. This finding islikely because of the increased number of muscle groups
required to perform the poses correctly. Average intensity ofthe entire session was 2.9 METS, categorizing Bikram yoga asa light-intensity exercise modality.
Oxygen consumption, or energy expenditure, is directly
dependent on the work required to perform an activity. Work
has been defined as the product of force and the distancethrough which the force is moved.26 Force in the session wasdependent upon both body weight and the force ofcontraction of the engaged musculature. Absolute expenditurevalues were divided by body weight to standardize energy
expenditure as a relative value, removing any effect of bodyweight. The remaining variability depended on how forcefully
participants contracted their muscles and the total number
Pate—Energy Cost of Bikram Yoga

of muscles engaged. In yoga terms, full expression of a
posture requires maximum contraction of several different
muscle groups, depending on the pose.
For example, the balancing stick posture requires
engagement of both the standing and the airborne leg, theabdominal muscles, the spinal muscles, and the arms. The
significant differences found between novice and experienced
practitioners likely depended on the degree to which full
expression was reached. Experienced individuals likely had ahigher level of muscle engagement than novice practitioners,
who were not as proficient in the poses. Future researchshould measure the exact engagement of the musculature toprovide further insight into these differences.
The distance component of the work performed also
depended on how far the participant moved in each postureor what their ability to reach full expression was (ie, themaximum range of motion within the posture). Experienced
participants were able to lift their limbs higher in many of the
postures, thus increasing the workload of the session.
The significant differences found in energy expenditure
between experience levels were substantiated by the
concurrent significant differences found between experiencelevels in sweat rate, %PMHR, and change in oral temperature,
because increases in all of these variables indicated increased
exercise intensity.
Scientific literature has demonstrated the possible effectof body composition on energy expenditure27; however, nosignificant differences in BMI were found between the novice
and experienced practitioners, suggesting that the differenceswere not because of discrepancies in body composition but
rather because of discrepancies in the participant’s ability toperform the postures. BMI data can be found in Table 2.
However, the literature has demonstrated the inability of
BMI to accurately predict body composition in highly
trained individuals.28 Therefore, future research shouldmeasure body composition via a method with higher validity,
such as skin folds or hydrostatic weighing, to provide greater
insight on the possible effect of body composition on energy
expenditure in Bikram yoga.
Heart rate was variable across postures and individuals;
however, for many participants, observed heart rates werehigher than expected when compared with the correspondingVO2 values.29 This finding is consistent with previous findingsthat have demonstrated the relationship between an increased
heart rate and elevated body temperature.30 Elevated heart
rates in environments with high ambient temperatures havebeen explained as a reactionary mechanism to the shift inblood flow toward the cutaneous vessels, which occurs tomaintain thermal homeostasis.31 This shift in blood flow
results in reduced stroke volume and, therefore, an increased
heart rate to maintain cardiac output during exercise.
Therefore, both heart rate and the %PMHR that wasreached are poor indicators of exercise intensity in Bikram
yoga. This conclusion is also consistent with studies
investigating other forms of yoga that are not practiced in theheat.32 This disparity suggests that additional factors may be

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Table 2. Physiological Responses in Novice and Experienced Practitioners

Response

Novice Mean (SD)Experienced Mean (SD)

Relative energy expenditure (kcal/kg)

3.7 ± 0.5

4.7 ± 0.8a

%PMHR (%)

72.3 ± 10.6

86.4 ± 5.2aSweat rate (kg/h)

0.6 ± 0.2

1.1 ± 0.5a

Oral temperature increase (°F)

1.0 ± 1.2

1.8 ± 1.4a

BMI (kg/m2)

25.4 ± 4.1

23.1 ± 3.9

Abbreviations: PMHR = percentage of predicted maximum heart rate.
aIndicates a significant difference between groups.

involved in heart rate control during yoga. One possible
explanation demonstrated in the literature is the elevatedheart-rate responses associated with isometric contraction.33
This finding would also explain the significantly higher heart
rates found in experienced practitioners because they werelikely contracting more musculature than novice practitioners.
Future research should investigate additional mechanismsthat might be involved in chronotropic responses (ie, thosethat change the heart rate because of yoga).
The major limitation of the current study is that it only
measured the energy expenditure of a single Bikram yoga
class. Other potential health benefits of regular participationin Bikram yoga should be investigated by future research.
CONCLUSION
In comparison with other exercise modalities, themetabolic cost and intensity level of Bikram yoga is relatively
low and appears to be related to the practitioner’s experiencelevel, because increased experience elicits higher energy
expenditure and physiological responses. Furthermore, thelow effect and intensity associated with Bikram postures
makes Bikram a potential alternative for individuals withjoint problems who cannot engage in many traditional formsof exercise or individuals who prefer light over moderate- orvigorous-intensity exercise. Clearly further studies thatexamine the health benefits of yoga and involve larger
populations for longer periods of time are warranted.

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symptoms.” - Donald Dennis, M.D., F.A.C.S., Medical
Director, Atlanta Center for ENT, Atlanta, GA“I have found thatwith the eliminationof food sensitivities
through the Alcat
test, I am able toobtain better andmore dramatic
results.” - Juan
Remos, M.D., M.B.A.,
Wellness Director,
Wellness Instituteof the Americas,
Miami, FL"In my opinion, the Alcat is the most clinically relevant test in all offunctional medicine. I am consistently shocked by the results achieved
for my most complicated patients." - Jamie Wright DO, FACOOG, FAARM,
ABAARM, Practicing Physician, The Centers for Balanced Living, Ann Arbor, MI• Enjoy the additional benefits of belonging to our Physician
Referral Network at no cost to you• Results are available online within 5 business days of testing• No cost to get started• FDA inspected and registered/CLIA licensed and inspected• 98% success with improvement of scale weight and/or
body composition

Cell Science Systems, Corp.
852 South Military Trl.
Deerfield Beach, FL 33442
1(800)US-ALCAT (872-5228) 1-954-426-2304
www.ALCAT.com

ALCAT Europe GmbH
August-Bebel Str. 68, 14482 Potsdam
t. +49 (0)331 74 00 88-0
f. +49 (0)331 74 00 88-29
www.ALCAT-Europe.com