04
STATUS OF SANITATION FACILITIES AND ITS IMPACTS ON HEALTH IN MAINPURI CITY
OF UTTAR PRADESH, INDIA
Salahuddin Mohd.1 and Mohini Saran2
1

Assistant Professor, 2Research Scholar
Department of Geography, School of Earth Sciences, Banasthali Vidyapith, Rajasthan, India
Email: salahuddingeog@gmail.com

How to cite this paper:
Salahuddin Mohd. and Saran
Mohini (2022) Status of
Sanitation Facilities and Its
Impacts on Health in Mainpuri
City of Uttar Pradesh, India,
Journal of Global Resources,
Vol. 08 (01)DOI:
10.46587/JGR.2022.v08i01.004

Received: 11 Oct. 2021
Reviewed: 06 Nov. 2021
Revised: 14 Nov. 2021
Final Accepted: 24 Nov. 2021

Abstract: Nearly 60 million people in urban areas lack accessto improved sanitation arrangements, and more than two-thirdsof wastewater is let out untreated into the environment, polluting
land and water bodies. Urban sanitation in India faces many
challenges. To respond to these environmental and publichealth challenges, urban India will need to address the full cycleof sanitation, i.e., universal access to toilets, with safe
collection, conveyance and treatment of human excreta. There
has been a significant increase in waste generation because of
rapid population growth and economic development. Thus,
waste management and sanitation became major
environmental and health problem. In rainy season condition
gets worse. This paper outlines these concerns, and highlights
the need for focusing on access to water and the full cycle ofsanitation for the urban poor, as fundamental to addressing thesanitation challenge. In this paper an attempt has been madeto identify the sanitation related risk factors and its relationshipwith associated diseases in Mainpuri city. The study is basedon primary sources of data collected through household
surveys in Mainpuri city. Households belong to different income
groups. The total sample size consists of 1836 households. The
result showed that the sanitation condition and associateddiseases or living standards and health conditions are related
to each other. In this paper typhoid fever, cholera, malaria, etc.
diseases were observed. The lower income group households
are most vulnerable. They suffer most because of their poor
sanitation conditions.
Key word: Diseases, Disposal, Health, Household, Income
Groups, Sanitation, Vulnerability, Waste.

Journal of Global Resources, January 2022, Volume 08 (01) Salahuddin Mohd. and Mohini Saran Page | 33

Introduction
According to the father of our nation M.K. Gandhi – “Sanitation in a community is more important
than independence”. He said “Sanitation is based upon common spiritual effort in a community
like ours, and it is also a basic human right”. Gandhi was an environmentalist of remarkable
foresight and vision. He was aware that toilets are the link between good and bad environment.
Sanitation is one of the most neglected sectors in India even today. More people have access tomobile phones than to a toilet according to a UN Study on how to improve sanitation globally. The
goal of UNICEF is to halve, by 2015, the proportion of people without sustainable access to safe
water - has been achieved globally, but the same target for sanitation is so far off track that it isunlikely to be met by 2015. The WHO/UNICEF joint monitoring programme for water supply andsanitation has said that at its present pace, India would take time till 2054 to meet its millennium
development goals 2015 on sanitation.
In our daily life, sanitation and hygiene play an important role. “Sanitation refers to theprovision of facilities and services for the safe management of human excreta from the toilet tocontainment and storage and treatment on site or conveyance, treatment and eventual safe end
use or disposal. More broadly sanitation also included the safe management of solid waste andanimal waste” (WHO, 2002). Generally, one to two thirds of the municipal solid wastes generated
in the cities of the developing countries are not collected (World Resources Institute et al., 1996).
As a result, the uncollected waste, which is often also mixed with human and animal excreta, isdumped indiscriminately along the streets and in drains, so contributing to flooding, breeding ofinsect and rodent vectors and the spread of diseases (Cointreau, 1982). In 2017, 45 percent of
the global population (3.4 billion people) used a safely managed sanitation service. 31 percent of
the global population (2.4 billion people) used private sanitation facilities connected to sewers
from which wastewater was treated. 14 percent of the global population (1.0 billion people) used
toilets or latrines where excreta were disposed of in site. 74 percent of the world’s population (5.5billion people) used at least a basic sanitation service. 2.0 billion People still do not have basic
sanitation facilities such as toilets or latrines. Of these, 673 million still defecate in the open, forexample in street gutters, behind bushes or into open bodies of water. At least 10 percent of theworld’s population is thought to consume food irrigated by wastewater (WHO, 2002).
The World Health Organization and UNICEF are advocating a target of water andsanitation for all by the end of 2025; to meet this target, some 2.9 billion people will need
improved water supplies, and an almost unbelievable 4.2 billion people will need improved
sanitation. However, in India sanitation is most neglected sector where any kind of waste
disposal anywhere without any treatment. Every river that passes through a city or a town today
becomes a stinking sewer. These unhygienic habits create lots of problems. These waste blocks
the drain and water logging problem arises. Origin of leached that a toxic pollutant. It’s a liquid
pollutant caused by breaking down contain of waste and it have heavy metals and chemical, etc.
which affect ground water, plants and underground animals. The chemicals present in the waste
may convey back to men, though flies, water and plants. These waste water help in the breedingof flies and insects; they help in spreading diseases.
In India sanitation remain the most neglected sectors, whereas human sewage poses thebiggest threat to our rivers, lakes, ponds and the ground water table. Every river that passes
through a city or a town today becomes a stinking sewer; Proper sanitation doesn’t mean to maketoilets or clean street but it means a healthier environment for all citizens. There is a proper systemof treatment and disposal of waste. That’s help not to separating microbiological agents causing
diseases (Hazarika, M. P., 2015). Sanitation, along with clean water and food security is a primary
driver for improving public health. It is hygienic means of promoting health by prevention of human
Journal of Global Resources, January 2022, Volume 08 (01) Salahuddin Mohd. and Mohini Saran Page | 34

contact with hazards of waste through services such as excreta management, garbage collection,
storm water management, treatment and proper disposal of sewage waste water, etc. apart fromthis eliminating open defecation, a practice strongly associated with poverty and exclusion is
critical to achieving sanitation (National Urban Health Mission, 2013-14). Sanitation also
connected with social and economic environment of the area. Lack of adequate sanitation
remains a major cause of diseases in small cities due to lack of proper planning, funding, labours,
equipment and awareness. About 72.6 percent in urban areas have availability of water closets,
7.1 percent household have pit latrines, 1.7 percent household have other latrine (disposed into
open drain, Night soil removed by human) and 18.6 percent do not have latrine facility. Whereas
49.8 percent household in India defecate in open. 44.5 percent households in urban India haveconnection to closed drainage and 37.3 percent open drainage facility and 18.2 percent have no
drainage facility (Census of India, 2011). Large proportions of households in India are notconnected to the waste management system and discharge their waste at unauthorized sites.
These untreated waste causes pollution and also effects human health. In this paper an attempt
has been made to assess the overall sanitation conditions of the study area, to identify thesanitation related risk factors and associated health problems, to analyze relationship between
sanitation related risk factors and associated diseases and finally suggest some suitablemeasures for the problem of sanitation.
Materials and Methods
The beautiful city of Mainpuri (27˚ 12' 8'' N to27˚ 15' 53.98'' N latitudes and 78˚ 58' 42'' E to 79˚
04' 52.11'' E longitudes) is the administrative headquarters of the district Mainpuri in Uttar
Pradesh. The city is a municipal board and sited to the northeast of Agra; city falls under Agra
division. The city is elevated about 153 m that is 502 feet above sea level. Sultanganj is situatednorth of Mainpuri city, Ghiror in west, Jagri in south and Kuravali development block in east. The
district generally presents the appearance of an extensive level plain broken only by the sandridges on the western border, the rolling sand hills and undulant of the Kali and Isan River andthe ravines along the Yamuna to the southwest. The Kali Nadi forms the boundary of this plainon the north and north-east and the Yamuna encloses it on the south-west.
Mainpuri railway station at Lane no 12 was started in 1905. Located in Mainpuri district,the city railway station provides quality train transport facility. The national highway NH 91 runs
through the Mainpuri district through Etah and Kannauj passing through Kurawali, Sultanganj,
Nabiganj and Bewer cities of the district. Though NH 91 doesn’t pass through the district
headquarters Mainpuri the major roads from the city connects the national highway. Two mainstate highways run through the city UP SH 83 Etawah - Mainpuri route and UP SH 84 FirozabadShikohabad- Mainpuri. Both the state highways connect city with the NH 91. Cotton ginning,oilseed milling, and lamp and glass manufacture construe the prominent industries. The town isalso renowned for its tobacco and wooden sculptures.
The study is based on both primary and secondary sources of data. A primary source of data
has been collected through household survey of Mainpuri city with the help of questionnaireinterviews. The following methods were used in this study:
For sample selection multistage stratified sampling method was adopted. 16 wards wereselected from 32 wards of the city (50 percent wards). From these selected wards 10 per centhouseholds from each ward were selected from different income groups. The total sample size
consists of 1836 households (417 households from high income group (>35,000 per month), 631
households from medium income group (35,000- 10,000 per month), and 788 households from
low-income group (<10,000 per month).
Journal of Global Resources, January 2022, Volume 08 (01) Salahuddin Mohd. and Mohini Saran Page | 35

MAINPURI CITY: LOCTION MAP

Source: Census of India, 2011 and Municipal Council Mainpuri City, 2019.

Secondary data has been collected from various sources i.e., Mainpuri municipal council(2019), district census handbook of Mainpuri (2011) and Sankhiyaki patrika (2018), Census ofIndia (2001 and 2011), Nation Urban Health Mission (2013-14), Uttar Pradesh Jal Nigam (2015),
WHO reports etc.
Karl Pearson’s correlation co-efficient (r) method was used to examine the relationshipbetween sanitation related risk factors and associated diseases-Here,
r = coefficient of correlation
x, y = the two given variables (sanitation related risk factors and associated diseases)
n= number of observations
Results and Discussion
Sanitation in India is a State subject. Urban local bodies are responsible for planning, design,
implementation, operation and maintenance of water supply and as well as sanitation services incities and towns. The Mainpuri Municipal Council is responsible for water supply and sanitation
services in Mainpuri city. The sanitation condition varies according to location, standard of living,
Journal of Global Resources, January 2022, Volume 08 (01) Salahuddin Mohd. and Mohini Saran Page | 36

and weather/season. In rainy season condition gets worse in some wards e.g., Agrawal (wardno.4), Sansarpur (ward no.5), Sheetala Dhaam (ward no.6), Dhaarau (ward no.8), DaribaMahmud nagar (ward no.11), Nagla Niranjan (ward no.23), Nagariya ward no. (Ward no. 28),
Ram Lila Maidaan (ward no. 31), Nagla Rate (ward no. 32). The situation in these wards is muchworse because these are located in the low-lying areas of the city, near the pond (Raja ka taal)
and near Insan river. Waterlogging is permanent feature in these areas. According to Jal Nigam
and on the basis of estimation about 15 MLD of water is supplied to the city people out of whom
75 to 80 percent goes out as waste water (10 to 12 MLD). Mainpuri city has defective and faulty
natural drainage which is responsible for the peculiar drainage and sewerage problems faced by
the city. The general slope of the district is from north–west to south–east and this is the directionin which the rivers run. The general disposition of the drainage differs somewhat in different
portions of the district. According to municipal council presently Mainpuri city generates about 40
million tons of solid waste per day but when the city surveyed it was found that approximately 80
million tons of solid waste per day generated in the city and recycling plant capacity to treat only
about 40 million tons per day of solid waste. City survey and data reveals that 50 percent solid
waste dumped in low lying areas of city, mainly near Isan River and around recycling plant. Indian
rivers will remain filthy because cities plan for water and not for sewage. That is why most of ourrivers are today dead, because of domestic sewage load from cities. There is no consensus on
how much waste water is generated in the city. The waste management systems of Manipuri cityin are very critical situation and dumping of waste on unauthorized site block the drain and drainwater flow on road and leached produce.
That does pollute the environment and effect human health. In Mainpuri city only 27.3
percent household using improved sanitation facility. In 2012, a total of Malaria 423 patients,
Dengue 0 patient, Infectious fever 0 patient, Diarrhoea and gastroenteritis 432 patients came tothe city hospital (National Urban Health Mission, 2013-14). On the basis of water supply report
76.46 percent households in Mainpuri city have water facility in the premises and out of this 45.10
percent households use treated source of water. 17.61 percent households have water facility inthe near premises. 41.39 percent of total households use treated source of water (Jal Nigam,
Mainpuri, Uttar Pradesh, 2015). 6.8 percent households have pipe sewer system, 66.56 percent
households have septic tank latrines, 1.75 percent households have pit latrines, 5.23 households
have other type of latrine facility (disposed into open drain, night soil removed by human) and19.66 percent households don’t have latrine facility. 18.35 percent households have closed
drainage, 75.78 percent households have open drainage, and 5.87 percent households don’t
have drainage system (District Census Handbook of Mainpuri, 2011).
1. Sanitation Facilities
Proper and safe disposal of waste water is essential for keeping the household environment
clean. In poor neighborhoods, inadequate sullage or grey water disposal leads to health problems
giving rise to waterlogging and stagnant pools of water on roads, in low lying areas etc. The
disposal of sullage through open drains causes severe waterlogging problem, which provides
ideal breeding ground for mosquitoes and other pests.
(a) Bathroom and latrine facility
Perusal of the table 1 shows income wise sanitation facilities in Mainpuri city. As shown in thetable 1 out of total sampled households 88.73 per cent has bathroom and latrine facility in theirhouse. Income wise distribution shows that the about 23.23 percent per cent low-income grouphousehold does not have bathroom and latrine facilities in their house.

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(b) Disposal of household garbage
Unauthorized dumping of waste is very common in low-income group (91.59 per cent), 76.52 percent medium income group and only 34.18 per cent high income dump their waste on
unauthorized sites. The improper methods of disposal lead to the accumulation of waste, since
the waste has more of organic components, high densities and moisture causes decaying ofwaste, increases the risk of attracting disease causing pests such as flies, cockroaches, rats etc.
Low-income households are more prone to these problems because of their low standard of living.
It is the duty of municipality to collect waste from public bin but it was found during survey that in
86 per cent of low, 35.55 per cent medium, 25.63 per cent high income group areas public bins
are not cleaned in 15 days or so.
(c) Disposal of household wastewater
The drainage facilities are not proper in city and most of the low- and medium-income households
have the problem of wastewater disposal. Sewerage not cleaned on time, and most affectedgroup is lower income (28.94 per cent). In every city it is the responsibility of municipality to clean
city drains regularly about 50.22 per cent of total sampled households reported that drains are
not cleaned for more than 15 days and so. Silt from drains is not cleaned properly, mostly thrownroadside and near the houses. When municipal workers clean drains they left silt roadside andaround the houses. After that, all silt goes back into the drains. About 36.23 per cent high, 63.20
per cent medium and 82.2 per cent low income sampled households are struggling with thisproblem. City municipality does not give their services on time. 60.63 Per cent total sampled
household, 30.16 per cent high, 71.70 per cent medium and 80.02 per cent low-income groupface water logging problem in their areas. It is very clear by the table 1 that the sanitation facilities
are not appropriate in city, and the most affected group is low-income group. Due to improperhousehold wastewater disposal practices waterlogging occurs in low lying areas and on roads.
The disposal of waste water in the open drains which lacks proper gradient, adequate carrying
capacity, it is blocked with garbage and most of the time it is overflowing, this results in stagnant
pools of waste water in residential areas, on streets and in low lying areas, and increases the riskof mosquitoes and other insects.
2. Identification of Waste Related Risk Factors and Associate Diseases
If there was sufficient information available to construct a map of Mainpuri city, showing the levelof risk from solid waste and wastewater, the area with the highest risk would coincide with theareas with predominance of low-income households. It is generally the lower income households
who are exposed to all the waste related risks and bear most of the ill health or premature deathand other costs of environmental problems. While the condition in the higher income households
was far better. In this paper we examine 8 diseases (scabies (35.77 per cent), malaria (57.03 percent), typhoid (50.96 per cent), viral fever (70.56 per cent), diarrhea (48.78 per cent), cholera(32.28 per cent), Conjunctivitis (41.11 per cent), and hookworm infection (28.96 per cent)) whose
data collected through city/household survey and the city hospital (Maharaj Tej Singh District
Hospital Mainpuri) and some private clinics of the Mainpuri city. We try to find the relation between
sanitation related risk factors and associated diseases and identified following risk factors by cityand household survey of Mainpuri city• No latrine and bathroom facility.
• Dispose of garbage around the house.
• Dispose of household waste water around the house.
• Drain was not cleaned more than 15 days.
• Silt from drain thrown on road / around house.
• Public bin not clean by municipality in more than 15 days.
• Wastewater thrown on the road.
• Water logging problem in the neighborhood.
Journal of Global Resources, January 2022, Volume 08 (01) Salahuddin Mohd. and Mohini Saran Page | 38

Table 01: Income wise Sanitation Facilities in Mainpuri City, 2019
Incomegroup
High
MediumLow
Total

Incomegroup
High
MediumLow
Total

Bathroom & latrine facility in the house
Yes
100
94.25
76.77
90.34

No
0
5.75
23.23
9.66

Disposal ofhouseholdwastewater aroundthe house
Yes
No
14.34
85.66
20.44
79.56
28.94
71.06
21.4
78.6

Flush
100
100
100
100

Manual0000Alternative
20.57
4.8
0
8.46

Municipal
waste bins
33.76
14.38
6.79
16.34

Disposal of waste by households
Municipal
open
waste vanspace
In dumps
25.74
10.13
22.57
8.31
38.82
32.43
0.81
43.88
32.88
9.8
33.44
30.06

Drains cleaned by municipality
Weekly
61.5
45.05
17.4
41.32

Public bin cleans by municipality
Alternativ 2 time inDailyea week
WeeklyFortnightly
High
9.37
11.88
27.5
25.62
25
Medium
0
0
47.78
16.67
33.33
Low
0
0
0
14
80
Total
5
6.33
29
21
36.67
Source: City and Household Survey of Mainpuri, 2019
Incomegroup

Monthly
0.63
2.22
6
2

In owncourtyard
6.32
0.79
0.81
2.24

Into the
drain
1.48
5.27
14.83
8.12

More than 15 days
17.93
50.15
82.6
50.22

Silt from drains thrown onrode / around house
Yes
No
36.28
63.72
63.2
36.8
82.2
17.8
60.56
39.44

Waste water thrownon the rode

Water logging

Yes
13.34
20.44
33.94
21.4

No
86.66
79.56
66.06
78.6

Journal of Global Resources, January 2022, Volume 08 (01) Salahuddin Mohd. and Mohini Saran Page | 39

Yes
30.16
71.7
80.02
60.63

No
69.84
28.3
19.98
39.37

3. Vulnerability Assessment
The lower income households are at greatest risk and they are most vulnerable, followed by themedium income households. The reason for this is simply that the lower income households are
priced out of safe, well located, well serviced housing and land sites. They are least able to afford
homes that provide them with adequate provision of municipal facilities like waste bins, waste
collection/disposal systems, sanitation and drainage system etc. they live where housing or landfor housing is cheaper e.g., in slums, unauthorized colonies and in squatter settlements usuallyin the city outskirts or in fringe areas of the city. Due to shortage of funds, they live in illegal or
unplanned and un-serviced settlements with unhealthy living conditions and extreme crowding.
The number of people living in these settlements is expanding so rapidly that municipal bodies
are unable to keep up with the necessary infrastructure development. During field survey it was
not unusual to see that their houses were surrounded by waste dumps. There was presence ofhouse flies, cockroaches, rodents, and mosquitoes not only inside their homes but also inneighborhoods resulting in residents being severely affected by waste related diseases.
In this paper an attempt has been made to find out the relationship between 8 identified
sanitation related risk factors and the occurrence of associated diseases (scabies, malarial,
typhoid, viral fever, diarrhea, cholera, Conjunctivitis, and hookworm infection). To test therelationship Karl Pearson’s correlation co-efficient (r) method was applied.
•

Scabies is a skin infestation caused by a mite known as the Sarcoptes scabiei. Untreated,these microscopic mites can live on your skin for months. This causes an itchy,
red rash on skin. These mites are easily passed between people. Direct skin-to-skincontact is the most common way to share the infestation. It can prevent by proper
sanitation condition. A perusal of the table 1 shows that of the total sampled households
35.77 per cent reported of occurrence of Scabies diseases. Most of the sufferers of
Scabies belong to lower income households were 76.63 per cent. While 21.41 percent
from medium and 9.28 per cent very high-income households has reported of this disease.
Table.2 is showing that there is strong positive correlation between 8 sanitation related
risk factors and occurrence of scabies disease, r = +0.94.

•

Malaria is a life-threatening disease caused by parasites that are transmitted to people
through the bites of infected female Anopheles mosquitoes. Rain provides more
opportunities for the breeding of mosquitoes and may give rise to epidemics of malaria. A
perusal of the table 2 shows that of the total sampled households 57.03 per cent reportedof occurrence of Malaria. Most of the sufferers of malaria were belong to lower income
households 83.42 per cent. While 58.78 percent were from medium and 28.9 per centvery high-income group of households are reported of this disease. Table.2 is showingthat there is strong positive correlation between 8 sanitation related risk factors andoccurrence of Malaria disease, r = +0.99.

•

Typhoid fever is a systemic infection caused by Salmonella Typhi, usually throughingestion of contaminated food or water. Symptoms include prolonged fever, fatigue,headache, nausea, abdominal pain, and constipation. It occurs predominantly inassociation with poor sanitation and lack of clean drinking water. A perusal of the table 2
shows that of the total sampled households 50.96 per cent reported of occurrence ofTyphoid diseases. Most of the sufferers of typhoid were from lower income households
71.6 per cent. While 56.39 percent were from medium and 24.89 per cent very highincome of households has reported of this disease. Table.2 is showing that there is strong
positive correlation between 6 sanitation related risk factors and occurrence of Typhoiddisease, r = +0.97.

Journal of Global Resources, January 2022, Volume 08 (01) Salahuddin Mohd. and Mohini Saran Page | 40

Table 02: Household Sanitation Related Risk Factors and Associated Diseases in Mainpuri City (2019)
Incomegroup

No latrineandbathroomfacility

Disposal of
garbagearound the
house

-

13.34

Medium

5.75

Low
Total
averageHigh

Silt form
drainsthrown onrode /
aroundhouse
36.28

Public bin notclean bymunicipality inmore than 15
days

Waste
water
thrownon theroad

14.34

Drainswere notcleanedmorethan 15
days
17.93

25.63

13.34

30.16

20.70

19.44

20.44

50.15

63.20

35.55

20.44

71.70

41.13

23.23

35.94

28.94

82.60

82.20

86

33.94

80.02

63.83

9.66

21.4

21.4

50.22

60.56

48.06

21.4

60.63

41.88

Hookworm
infection
5.69
16.35
52.85
29.96
+0.96

Associated Diseases
IncomeScabies
group
High
9.28
Medium
21.41
Low
76.63
Total average
35.77
Correlation co- +0.94
efficient

Disposal ofhouseholdwaste wateraround thehouse

Malaria

Typhoid

28.9
58.78
83.42
57.03
+0.99

24.89
56.39
71.6
50.96
+0.97

Viral
fever
48.73
73.16
89.80
70.56
+0.99

Diarrhoea

CholeraConjunctivitis

14.34
43.55
88.45
48.78
+0.99

3.58
36.63
56.65
32.28
+0.98

11.18
37.42
74.72
41.11
+0.99

Source: City and Household Survey of Mainpuri, 2019

Journal of Global Resources, January 2022, Volume 08 (01) Salahuddin Mohd. and Mohini Saran Page | 41

Water logging Total
problem in the averageneighborhood of 8 risks
factors

Total average
8 diseases
18.32
42.96
74.26
45.80
+0.97

•

•

•

•

•

Most people have a body temperature of about 98.6°F (37°C). Anything a degree above
is considered as fever. Fevers are often a sign that your body is fighting off some type ofbacterial or viral infection and it’s called viral fever. Viral fever is transmitted from one
person to another through, when the infected person yawns, sneezes, coughs, or eventalks, tiny sprays of fluids are ejected from their bodies which may enter into other persons
system. A perusal of the table 2 shows that of the total sampled households 70.56 percent reported of occurrence of viral fever. Most of the sufferers of viral fever is the lower
income households 89.80 per cent. While 73.16 percent were from medium and 48.73 percent very high-income households reported of this disease. Table.1is showing that there
is strong positive correlation between 8 sanitation related risk factors and occurrence ofviral fever, r = +0.99
The term diarrheal diseases are used for a group of diseases (diarrhea, dysentery,gastroenteritis) in which the predominant symptom is diarrhea which is passage of loose
liquid or watery stool. Diarrheal disease is the second leading cause of death in children
under five years old, and is responsible for killing around 525 000 children every year. A
perusal of the table 2 shows that of the total sampled households 48.78 per cent reportedof occurrence of diarrheal disease. Most of the sufferers of diarrheal belong to lower
income households 88.45 per cent. While 43.55 percent were from medium and 14.34 percent very high-income households has reported of this disease. Table.2 is showing that
there is strong positive correlation between 8 sanitation related risk factors and occurrenceof diarrheal, disease, r = +0.99
Cholera is an acute diarrheal infection caused by ingestion of food or water contaminatedwith the bacterium Vibrio cholerae. Cholera remains a global threat to public health andan indicator of inequity and lack of social development. A perusal of the table 2 shows thatof the total sampled households 32.28 per cent reported of occurrence of Cholera. Mostof the sufferers of Cholera were from the lower income households are 56.65 per cent.
While 63.63 percent were from medium and 3.58 per cent very high-income households
has reported of this disease. Table.2 is showing that there is strong positive correlation
between 8 sanitation related risk factors and occurrence of Cholera disease, r = +0.98
Conjunctivitis, also known as pinkeye, is an inflammation of the conjunctiva. The conjunctiva is
the thin clear tissue that lies over the white part of the eye and lines the inside of the eyelid.
Conjunctivitis is associated with poor quality of life. It may occur by direct or indirect eyes
contact. A perusal of the table 2 shows that of the total sampled households 41.11 percent reported of occurrence of Conjunctivitis. Most of the sufferers of Conjunctivitis belong
to the lower income group households are 74.72 per cent. While 37.42 percent were frommedium and 11.18 per cent very high-income households has reported of this disease.
Table.2 is showing that there is strong positive correlation between 8 sanitation related
risk factors and occurrence of Conjunctivitis disease, r = +0.99
Hookworm is a parasite that causes infection in people of all ages. It enters the bodythrough the skin Hookworm is most likely to occur in a moist, hot climate. Infection
defecates in the soil, when a person comes into contact with this soil, hookworm larvae
can pass through their skin. People who spend time in areas where there is poor sanitation
management and hygiene, especially if walking barefoot or with skin-to-soil contact they
get infected. A perusal of the table 2 shows that of the total sampled households 29.96
per cent reported of occurrence of Hookworm infection. Most of the sufferers of Hookworm
infection belong to lower income households 52.85 per cent. While 16.35 percent werefrom medium and 5.69 per cent very high-income households are reported of this disease.
Table.2 is showing that there is strong positive correlation between 8 sanitation related
risk factors and occurrence of Hookworm infection, r = +0.96.

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Conclusions
More than 60 years after Independence, urban India still lacks adequate sanitation because of
the continuance of the colonial city legacy of segmented cities, poorly ﬁnanced and resourced
municipal corporations and the lack of capacity within governments to manage rapid growth. In
the era of neo-liberalism, the state has been actively reducing its role in the provision of basic
services and has failed to address the widening gap between demand and supply. The
consequence today is that the Indian state is still relying on crisis intervention to cope with theenvironmental and public health problems caused by a failure to provide adequate
sanitation to all residents in cities. This situation continues to exist because the middle
class, who now make up a substantial proportion of any metropolitan population, havebeen able to monopolize what sanitation and other basic services the state has provided.
In the era of neo-liberalism, the state has been actively reducing its role in the provisionof basic services and has failed to address the widening gap between demand and supply. The
consequence today is that the Indian state is still relying on crisis intervention to cope with theenvironmental and public health problems caused by a failure to provide adequate sanitation to
all residents in cities. More than 70 years after Independence, urban India still lacks adequate
sanitation because of the continuance of the colonial city legacy of segmented cities, poorly
financed and resourced municipal corporations and the lack of capacity within governments tomanage rapid growth.
After far going discussion, it can be concluded that the lower income group is affected themost by sanitation related risk factor and of associated diseases. 63.83 per cent of total risk factor
found in lower income group. They live in unhealthy conditions where the basic necessary
infrastructure is not developed. Environmental problems created due to the poor sanitation, water
logging, pest/ mosquitoes, due to which bad health and diseases are immediate and most visible
in poor households. 74.26 per cent of lower, medium 42.96 per cent and higher income
households 18.32 per cent affected by total averages of 8 associated diseases. Condition is betterin higher income households and worst in lower income. This is clear from the observations thatdiseases were directly influenced by sanitation conditions (water logging, latrine and bathroom
facility, drainage facility) promoted transmission of the diseases but also helps in breeding ofpests, houseflies, cockroaches and other vectors, which are responsible in spreading diseases.
The study reveals that areas with poor sanitation conditions are more prone to above discussed
diseases.
The sanitation condition and healthy environmental conditions depends on people andmunicipality. While some sanitation practices make our environment clean and control tospreading diseases.
• We should use close type of container or bin for solid waste collection. We should haveseparate bins for bio- degradable and non–bio–degradable waste. Thus, the possibility of
spreading diseases through flies and mosquitoes are minimized.
• Collection system of solid waste from households and public bins should be quick andregular. So that there should not be any pilferage of waste in to drains and bacteria andfungi cannot grow in it.
• Municipality have to place bins at main disposal sites of city; thus, the unauthorized
dumping should stop.
• Municipalities don’t leave waste in low lying areas and drains. It should reach to finaldestination (recycling plant or landfill sites).
• Disposal site should have soil cover. The cover will prevent breeding of disease vectors.
• Drain and sewer should be well maintained and cleaned regularly. With which the problemof water logging will eliminate.
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•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

Leachate collection and treatment should be provided.
Untreated wastewater doesn’t discharge in to river, storm water drains and open channels,
and their downstream.
Sewer line should be clean regularly and in rainy season proper management of drainage
system.
After cleaning drains silt should not be left on the road side /around house, it should betaken to the disposal sites.
Municipality should have covered broad and deep drains along with proper drainage
system.
Households should dispose their wastewater into covered municipal drains, which should
be connected to the main sanitation line of city.
Provide toilets and latrines that flush into a sewer or safe enclosure.
The city should have a well-connected network of sewer lines with households and bothgrey and black water do not mix up.

But the question remains of how all the above-mentioned measures can be achieved for allurban communities in India, in an equitable manner. Based on the poor implementation records
of previous schemes, it is difficult to be optimistic that new schemes will be more effectively
implemented than previous efforts. This unfortunately leads to the conclusion that urban India’s
lack of sanitation will only be solved when the poor have sufficient political capacity to demandthat such services are supplied by the state, either through its institutions and agencies or by
partnerships and private providers. These health hazards can be reduced to minimal levels
through public education, re-framing policies according to city, improvement of funding,monitoring and supervision of waste by legal authorities.
References
1. Census of India (2011), Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India.
2. Cointreau, S. J. (1982). Environmental management of urban solid wastes in developing
countries: a project guide (No. PB-83-264689). International Bank for Reconstruction andDevelopment, Washington, DC (USA). Urban Development Department.
3. District Census Handbook of Mainpuri (2011), published by Directorate of Census
operation, Lucknow, U.P.
4. Hazarika, M. P. (2015). Sanitation and its impact on health: A Study in Jorhat,
Assam. International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, 5(10).
5. Medina, M. (2010). Solid wastes, poverty and the environment in developing country
cities: Challenges and opportunities (No. 2010/23). WIDER Working Paper.
6. National Urban Health Mission (2013-14). Project Implementation Plan, District HealthSociety, Mainpuri
7. Urban sanitation (2015). Nation Instituted of Urban Affair , New Delhi
8. World Health Organization, Global Water Supply and Sanitation Assessment 2000 Report.
Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization
9. World Health Organization. (2018). Guidelines on sanitation and health.
10. Zurbrugg, C. (2003). Solid Waste Management in Developing Countries. SWM
introductory text on www.sanicon.net
11. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/cholera.
12. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/diarrhoeal-disea
13. https://www.who.int/immunization/diseases/typhoid/en/
14. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/malaria

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