Journal of Global Resources

Volume 2

January 2016
Page 68-75
ISSN: 2395-3160 (Print), 2455-2445 (Online)

9
APPRAISAL OF LAND USE AND AGRICULTURE SYSTEM IN ERSTWHILE BIKANERSTATE OF RAJPUTANA
Balak Ram1 and J.S. Chauhan2
1Principal Scientist (Retd.) Central Arid Zone Research Institute, Jodhpur, India
2
Chief Technical Officer, Central Arid Zone Research Institute, Jodhpur, India
Email: dr.brmayank@gmail.com

Abstract: Established in 1488 by Rao Bika, Bikaner the second largest Princely State in
Rajputana occupies 60585 Km2 areas and ruled by Rathore clan of Rajput. Presently it consist
the districts of Bikaner, Ganganagar, Hanumangarh and Churu. The present study focuses thesituation of land use and agriculture prevalent in those days under feudal system. The role of
crucial land tenure and land revenue systems; hot desertic condition and famine; politicalsystem of Mughals and British; and long driven wars, are discussed. Besides, the post
independence land reforms and development of land use and agriculture are also highlighted.
‘Jagir’ and ‘Khalsa’ were predominant land tenure system. Peasants were subject to so manytaxes, cess, begar and services. Of total reporting area (1898-99 to 1906-07) net cropped area
constitute just 16.4 percent, current fallow 8.8 percent and culturable waste 73 percent.
Irrigation was almost unknown. Only selected rainfed crops viz. bajra, jowar, moth, guar andsesame were produced. After independence Jagirdari and Jamindari systems were abolishedand land reforms were introduced. With the introduction of canal irrigation, the region
witnessed remarkable development in agriculture. Peoples are settled and desertification
processes are checked to a considerable level.
Keywords: Rajputana, Khalsa, Jagir, Land Use, Agriculture, Land Tenure, Land Revenue
Introduction
Rulers in erstwhile princely states of Rajputana remain mainly engaged in protecting andenlarging their territory, waging wars and pleasing the Emperor. Nobles or chieftains of theprincely state were important constituents and play a key role in State’s affairs. In view ofRandhawa (1980) many of rulers were inefficient men who strutted about on the stage ofhistory, and in due course were lost in oblivion. Their only contributions were internecine feuds
and wars and they were constantly nibbling at each other’s territory. No attention was paid
towards agriculture. Even no land record was maintained, excepting ‘khalsa’ or fiscal areas.
There was no proper systems of settlement of land, land tenure and land revenue
assessment. Entire land use and agriculture system was left over tojagirdars and pattadar.
Cultivators were subject to so many taxes, cess, begar and services. In spite more than 70
percent population was dependent on agriculture and pastures, this sector remain almost
neglected. It was only after independence and merger of princely states in greater Rajasthan,
the abolition of jagirs taken place, settlement of land made and cultivators become owner of
their land. The present study thus aims to assess land use and agriculture; land tenure, land
revenue and land settlement systems prevailed during that period in Bikaner Princely State of
Rajputana which presently includes Bikaner, Churu, Ganganagar and Hanumangarh districts.
Land reforms taken up after independence are also discussed. Status of biophysicalresources, ruling system of Maharaja, caste system and other socio-economic conditions,droughts, infrastructures and facilities available to common inhabitants are also considered totake account of the situation. Nizamat wise land use and cropping pattern data from 1898-99
68

to 1906-07 are analyzed and compared with present agricultural situation and other regional
developments.
Location and Extent
Bikaner was the northernmost and the second largest Princely State in Rajputana and holds a
secondary rank among principalities with an area of 23311 sq. miles or 60585 km2 (Fig.1). It
was established in 1488 by Rao Bika, the sixth son of Rao Jodha of Marwar (Sehgal, 1972).
The state has a length of about 416 kmand a width of 468 km and lying between the parallelsof 270 11′ 03" and 300 11′ 00" north latitude and 710 54′ 30" to 750 40′ 20" east longitude. It isbounded on the north and west by Bahawalpur (Pakistan); south west by Jaisalmer; south by
Jodhpur (or Marwar); south east by Sekhawati district of Jaipur; east by Loharu and Hisar andnorth east by Ferozepur (Fig.2). The State was administered by four Nizamats viz. Bikaner,
Renni, Sujangarh and Suratgarh; 11 tehsils and 8 sub tehsils (Erskine.1908).Presently theabove territory is occupied by four district viz. Bikaner, Churu, Ganganagar and Hanumangarh.
The southern and eastern portion of territory form part of sandy tract known as Bagar, northwest and part of north lie within Great Indian Desert while north eastern corner is the fertile
section being in favourable year flooded by the Ghaggar. Most of the area is covered by sanddunes of varying heights (up to 70 meters). The only rocky hills occur in south close to theborder of Jodhpur and Jaipur States. Highest among them (486 meters above MSL) is locatednear Gopalpura. Kantli is the only ephemeral river which rises in the hills near Khandela (in the
Jaipur State) and after travelling about 100 km through Shekhawati it loses itself in the sandjust within the border of Bikaner State in southern part of Rajgarh tehsil. In year of good
rainfall, however it flows few kilometers and benefits a couple of villages.

Method and Materials
Map of Bikaner State was taken from published map of Rajputana. The administrative centres
viz. Nizamat(district) tehsil, sub-tehsil and centres of chieftains were obtained from Gazetteersof Rajputana (Anon. 1879 and Eskine,1908) and Imperial gazetteers of India (Anon. 1907) andplotted on the map. Recent Map of Rajasthan State on 1:1000,000 was used to update
administrative unit boundaries. All the contents were digitized and final Map of Bikaner Statewas prepared on 1 million scale under GIS domain. Data on land use, cropping pattern,
69population, caste composition were obtained from administrative reports of Bikaner State,
Rajputana Gazetteers (Erskine, 1909) and Agricultural Statistics published by Govt. of India(Anon.1906). These data were converted to metric system and analyzed to show the relative
status and trend. A number of published reports were consulted to cover various aspects.
Recent data on land use, cropping pattern are obtained from Statistical Abstract of Govt. ofRajasthan (Anon. 2013) and district wise published reports and booklets from variousorganizations.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Demographic status
According to James Tod (1978) sometimes between 1398 and 1526, out of total 2670 villages
in Jangaldesh, 2200 villages were under the rule of jats. Jats were having seven territories that
Saat Patti SattavanMajh (means seven long and fifty seven small territories. In 1881 thepopulation of state was 509021, 831915 in 1891 and 584627 in 1901. In 1901 there wereabout 22.8 percent (133374) Jats in Bikaner State (Erskine, 1908). Out of total population 84
percent were hindu, 11 percent muslim, 4 percent jain and remaining others. Alakhgir was oneof the important religious sects of this region. Brahmins were about 11 percent, Mahajan andRajput 9.3 percent each and chamars 10.1 percent respectively. Rath was a peculiar caste(17700 Nos.) of this area which was not found in other parts of Rajputana. It was reported that
there were about 2700 villages including 12 towns viz. Bikaner, Nohar, Bhadra, Renni(Taranagar), Rajgarh, Churu, Mahajan, Jaitpur, Beedasar, Ratangarh, Deshnok and Senthal.
In 1901 the state was having 9 towns, 2101 villages and a population of 584627 persons(Bannerman, 1902). Jat population was dominant in most of the towns. In Bikaner they were
having 12000 houses. In Bhadra, Rajgarh, Ratangarh, Nohar, Churu, Renni, Bidasar,
Deshnokh, Jaitpur and Mahajan too they were having 1000 to 3000 houses. The population of
Bikaner town was 43283 (21409 males and 21874 females) in 1881. The population consists
31602 hindus, 7359 muslims, and 4327 others. There were 7331 houses within the city and1470 houses in suburb besides 741 shops, 13 temples and 14 mosques (Anon. 1907). The
population of Bikaner town was subsequently increased to 50513 in 1891 and 53075 in 1901.
Bikaner nizamat was having highest concentration of brahmin, mahajan, rajput and chamar
population while Renni, Sujangarh and Suratgarh nizamats have dominancy of Jats. Rathcommunity was mainly found in Suratgarh nizamat. In 1907-08 the State was having 18
hospital and dispensaries; 30 post offices and 38 schools (Erskine, 1908).

70

Land Tenure, Land Revenue, Settlement and Land Reforms
Land tenure: The land of Bikaner was divided into three groups viz. khalsa (crown land), Jagir(held by grantees) and Sasan or dharmada (carried out for religious institutions during thereign of Maharaja Ganga Singh). Khalsa land constitutes 32 percent of the total state area.
Jagir were two types (i) those held by near relatives of Maharaja on revenue free basis and (ii)those held by other jagirdars in lieu of their past services and they use to pay rekh besides
other cesses to the state. In 1894 a court of wards was established for the better
administration of Jagirs. Of the 2140 villages and towns 792 were khalsa with an area of
19160 km2 or about 32 percent of state territory. Some of the estates held by grantees wererevenue free (be-talab) while for the rest, a fixed sum is paid yearly or certain services are
performed. In the khalsa villages (except Tibi sub tehsil where tenure was jamindari) the
proprietary right of land belongs to Darbar and the cultivator’s right of occupancy depends on
his ability to meet demand of revenue. Village held revenue free by Ranis, or near relations ofchief (Rajwis) or connection by marriage (Parsangis) or by Thakurs whose estates areattached and they were given land for maintenance. Sharma (1993) reported 1984 khalsa
villages out of total 3458 villages in three districts viz. Bikaner (141), Churu (128) andGanganagar (1635) at the time of merger of the state with Rajasthan. Sasan villages; Land
granted to temple, to Brahmin and ‘Charan’, are held free and practically in perpetuity.
Bhumias who are Rajput and posses good deal of land and pay no revenue. Jagirdar or
Pattadar are mainly nobles of the state and grouped into 2 classes tazimiand non-tazimi.
Former are distinguished by their position in Darbar. At that time there were 123 tazim among
them 4 are held superior to the rest and are styled Sarayats. Pattadars formerly serve Darbar
with troops but later on they were subject to pay revenue in term of Rekh. According to final
settlement in 1884 the sum payable by each Thakur was fixed. The pattadar thus pay a fixed
military tribute called Rakam proper and Rakhwali. They also pay yearly revenue as‘Nazarana’ or ‘hukmanama’ as well as ‘neota’ cess and certain sums on royal marriages. In
khalsa villages formed since the Rathore conquest, there never exist (prior to 1886) anybody
or person asserting any claim as joint landlords of the whole village area, the village consist of
the independent cultivators. In Jagir villages the condition of farmers was becoming
intolerable.Jagirdars practiced all kinds of tyranny over them.
Settlement: In 1884 it was decided to undertake summary settlement of khalsa villages.
Regular survey was conducted only for khalsa area. This was completed and enforced in
1886. The first regular settlement was made in 1892-93 and brought into force in 1894-95 for aperiod of 10 years and subsequently extended up to 1911 (Tod,1978). Major change was toclass almost all the villages of Suratgarh Nizamat (except in Tibi) as ‘Ryotwar’ or ‘Khatawar’.
Each cultivator holding land on his own account and being personally responsible for paymentof the assessment imposed on it. Another change was made in unoccupied waste which inkhatawar villages was declared to belong to Darbar but usable by the cultivator for grazing on
payment of fee called ‘bhunga’ whereas in other villages the cultivating body was given joint
landlord claim to it. Lastly Chaudhary of both class of villages reverted to position of official
collector of revenue but under a close supervision than before. They receive 5 percent
commission on collection as well as customary dues from villagers. No settlement had takenplace in jagir areas till 1941.
Land Revenue: Before 1884 there was no uniform system of assessment of revenue. The
prevailing systems were per bigha sum paid by cultivator, division of produce (batai),apportionment (Kankut) and lump assessment (ijara). Formerly the chaudhary was in aposition to an official collector of the revenue due from various holdings. He was responsible
for the amounts payable by individual resident cultivators but not for a lump fixed for thevillage. After summary settlement each village was assessed at a lump sum for the payment of71

which Chaudhary became responsible jointly, the responsibility of each being measured by hisshare in the Chaudhar of the village. The methods to assess the land revenue were very
orthodox, oppressive and irrational. Major source of revenue were khalisa or fiscal land, doohor tax on smoke, angah (body tax on human and animal, property tax), town and transit duties,
pusdeti or plough tax, malbah (original tax per plough used in agriculture, corn tax on one
fourth of produce) and sayer or impost.
The method for assessment of rent on jagir lands was in form of Latai (standing crops
yield was estimated) and Batai (assessment of the share of jagirdar was made after the crop
harvested and grain winnowed in the thrashing floor). The assessed share of jagirdar was
delivered at his door which varies from 1/3 to 1/6 of produce. During the reign of Maharaja
Ganga Singh a regular system of payment of land revenue in cash, was introduced and therevenue rates were fixed. The levies to be paid by tenants wereMalba or Pachhotra, Nanwa,
Karad, Begar, Khutabandi or Pancharai, Shradha levy. In 1870 the fiscal revenue of State was
6.5 lakh i.e.2.5 lakh held from grants, 2 lakh from custom duty, 1.5 lakh from khalsa villages
and one lakh from misc. Misc. revenue derived from salt, opium, liquor, hemp drugs (bhang,ganja and charas) and stamps. Taxes from afeem- ka- sauda and menhh-ka-sauda collectedfrom those who gambled about the price of opium and amount of rainfall. The same was Rs.
580321 in 1883-84 during the reign of Maharaja Dungar Singh and in 1887-88 Rs.727437. In
1899-1900 the revenue increased to 24.9 lakh and subsequently increased to 32 lakh.
Resumption of jagirs and land reforms: Before independence there was no tenancy law
and one could be thrown away from the land one cultivated at the pleasure of jagirdar. Afterenactment of the Rajasthan Land Reforms and Resumption of Jagirs Act, 1952 the tenants ofjagir land become khatedar tenants of the state with transferable and inheritable rights.
‘Jamindari’ and ‘biswedari’ estates were abolished under the Rajasthan Zamindari andBiswedari Abolition Act 1959. Passing of Rajasthan Tenancy Act 1955 and Rajasthan Land
Revenue Act, 1956 kept provision of two types of tenant viz. khatedar and gair-khatedar. Thus
all the cultivators who were holding land as tenants or sub-tenants or tenants of khudkasht,
become khatedar tenants on 15 Oct. 1955. Due to resumption of Jagir, settlement operation
were again undertaken in 1959 and completed in 1963. Other measures taken up toameliorate condition of cultivators were appointment of revenue courts, preparation andmaintenance of land records, survey and settlement, consolidation of holdings, land utilization,
agricultural loans, relief of agricultural indebtedness and imposition of ceiling on land holdings.
Thereafter Rajasthan entered the era of planned development through five year plans.
Land Use, Agriculture and Irrigation
Agriculture system was simple. For kharif crops only one ploughing was given and seed sownat the same time by drill (por). Rotation of crops was unknown in area of sandy tract. Very little
attention was paid for weeding in the kharif. About 71.5 percent population was dependent on
pastoral and agriculture and the actual worker in these groups numbered 51.5 percent of maleand 38 percent of female population of the State. In 1898-99 the area of khalsa land was
19160 km2. Out of this 16995 km2 was reporting area. Area not available for cultivation
constitute 309 km2 leaving an area of 16686 km2. Net cropped area constitutes 2425 km2 or 14
percent of khalsa land in 1903-04. Analysis of land use statistics from 1989-99 to 1906-07(Erskine, 1908) reveal 16.37 percent as average net cropped area and 10 percent current
fallow out of the area for which return exist. Cultivable waste excluding fallow constitute 72.95
percent while area not available for cultivation 1.84 percent respectively (table 1). Irrigatedarea (mainly through canal) comes to 0.44 percent. Percentage of net cropped area varies
year to year from 11.94 percent to 24.43 percent depending on rainfall. Nizamat wise land use
for the year 1901-02 is given in table 2. Analysis of cropping pattern statistics from 1898-99 to
1906-07 (Erskine, 1908) reveals bajra as dominant crop constituting an average of 32.4
72

percent of total cropped area. The average of gram, barely, wheat, jowar, sesame andmustard comes to 3.1, 6.1, 1.5, 1.4, 3.5 and 0.9 percent respectively (Table 3). Other crops(mainly guar, moth, moong, taramira, cotton, tobacco etc.) contribute 51.1 percent of total
cropped area. Bajra constitute 577 km2 or 24 percent, gram 65 km2, sesame 55 km2, barley 47
km2 and jowar 29 km2. Out of total cultivated area in 1903-04 irrigated area was 395 km2 or 2
percent. It includes 381 km2 from canal and 11 km2 from wells and other sources. Up to 1897
with the exception of few fields irrigated with western Jamuna canal and Sirhind canal, artificial
irrigation was unknown in this region. Whole of Mohilla tract is a fertile oasis (Tod, 1978). The
country of mohilla was conquered by Rao Jodha and given to Bida (brother of Bika). From
Rajgarh to Nohar and Rawatsar, the region has good soil having water near the surface for
irrigation. The same situation exists between Bhatner to the bank of Ghaggar.
Table 1: Land use in Bikaner State 1898-99 to 1906-07 (Area in)
Year

Area
Area notCultivable waste Current
Net
Total
2
(Km )foravailable for
excluding otherfallow
croppedirrigatedwhich
cultivation
fallow ( percent) (percent)
area
area
return exist (percent)(percent)(percent)
1898-99 16816
1.87
71.24
2.46
24.43
0.37
1899-00 16782
1.87
71.83
5.16
21.14
0.26
1900-01 16782
1.87
73.07
5.59
19.47
1.36
1901-02 16782
1.87
65.41
20.78
11.94
0.40
1902-03 17185
1.85
75.00
9.24
13.91
0.16
1903-04 16995
1.82
74.66
9.25
14.27
0.32
1904-05 16977
1.82
75.20
10.07
12.91
0.28
1905-06 16948
1.81
75.69
10.40
12.10
0.10
1906-07 16909
1.81
74.49
6.64
17.06
0.67
Average 16908
1.84
72.95
8.84
16.37
0.44
Source: Rajputana Gazetteer, The Western Rajputana States and Bikaner Agency, Vol. III-B, 1908

Table 2: Nizamat wise Land Use in Bikaner State 1901-02 for Khalsa areas (Area in ha)
Land Use category/NizamatForestArea not available forcultivation
Culturable waste

SujangarhState Total00
1424(3.52)
15158(37.48)10709(26.48)13152(32.52)13152(32.52)
00

00
31417
(1.84)
1093650(65.40)347508(20.78)
199771(11.95)
199771(11.95)
00

39
6420
280
30
(0.02)(0.52)(0.12)(0.07)
Total area
175977122634322958240444(10.52)(73.33)(13.73)(2.42)
Source: Agricultural Statistics of India for the year1900-01 to 1904-05, Vol.II

6769(0.40)
1672346(100.00)

Current fallow
Net cropped area
Total cropped area
Area cropped morethan once
Irrigated area

Bikaner

Suratgarh

00
11161(6.34)
125458(71.29)19053(10.83)20306(11.54)20306(11.54)
00

00
13376
(1.09)
862446(70.33)264063(21.53)86458(7.05)
86458(7.05)
00

Reni(Taranagar)
00
5456(2.38)
90588(39.46)53683(23.38)79855(34.78)79855(34.78)00

73

Table 3: Cropping pattern in Bikaner State (1898-99 to 1906-07)
Crop/year

189899
44.2
0.3
0.6
0.1
0.2
N
0.7
N
N
53.9
329969189900
23.1
N
12.6
0.5
6.2
N
18.9
1.4
37.2
1459

190001
36.5
4.9
4.1
7.2
0.7
N
1.3
N
0.1
45.2
199581190102
75.1
0.2
0.2
1.6
1.2
0.1
6.2
0.1
0.1
N
15.3
199771190203
63.1
4.0
5.6
N
1.6
0.1
1.5
1.3
N
N
22.8
238297190304
23.8
2.7
1.9
0.6
1.2
N
2.3
0.7
N
N
66.8
241564190405
15.8
5.3
4.0
0.1
0.7
N
0.3
1.6
N
N
72.2
214613190506
1.2
5.4
13.2
1.0
0.3
0.1
4.1
N
N
74.7
204460190807
8.3
5.3
12.9
2.7
0.4
N
N
0.7
N
N
69.7
287463Bajra
Gram
Barley
Wheat
Jowar
Maize
Til
Mustard
CottonTobaccoOthersTotal
CroppedArea (ha)Note: Figures are in percent to total cropped area.
Source: Rajputana Gazetteer, The Western Rajputana States and Bikaner Agency, Vol. III-B, 1908

Average
32.4
3.1
6.1
1.5
1.4
N
3.5
0.9
N
0.2
50.9
100.0

Impact of Ruling System on Agriculture and Economy
During Mughal period the agriculture was ruined due to the agrarian crisis, long drawn wars,
jagirdari crisis, recurring famines etc. Mughals have awarded land revenue collection rights inreturn for military services; those who held these grants were known as ‘Mansabdars’(Agnihotri, 2010). The association of Rajput rulers with the Mughals benefitted the business
community of this region as they were involved with Rajput rajas in their administrative
functions. This weakness of Rajput states opened the way for the entry of Marathas. The
Rajput rulers paid huge sum of money to Marathas to buy peace and availed the services ofbankers to raise money for tribute to Marathas. There was also significant expansion in thesystem of revenue farming (Ijara) during this period and even ‘khalsa’ lands were put on ‘ijara’
which attracted a large number of mahajans and sahukars (Singh, 2014). The parasitic state
apparatus had an adverse effect on production incentives in agriculture which was reinforcedby the effect of ‘built-in depressants within the village (Meddison, 1971).
Present Land Use and Cropping PatternAnalysis of land use data of 2009-10 (Anon. 2013) for four districts viz. Bikaner, Churu,
Hanumangarh and Ganganagar constituting erstwhile Bikaner state reveal that out of total
64909.5 km2 area, forest constitute 2.76 percent, area not available for cultivation 7.56
percent, barren and uncultivable land 0.05 percent, permanent pasture 1.43 percent, tree
crops and groves 0.09 percent and culturable waste 12.89 percent respectively. Net area
sown constitute 59.98 percent, current fallow 8.72 percent, other fallow land 6.52 percent, anddouble cropped area 13.12 percent respectively. Net and gross irrigated area constitutes
19.26 percent and 32.04 percent of the total reporting area and 26.41 percent and 42.6
percent of the total cultivated land. Out of 1188717 ha net irrigated area 83.07 percent isserved by Gang, Indira Gandhi Nahar and Bhakhra canals, 16.91 percent by wells and 0.02
percent by other sources. So far the cropping pattern is concerned; guar, bajra and moth aremost dominant crops constituting 27.17, 15.02 and 13.46 percent of the total cropped area
during 2009-10. Other rainfed crops are moong 1.4 percent, sesame 0.31 percent. Main
irrigated crops are wheat 10.5 percent, barley 1.21 percent, rice 0.61 percent, gram 10.78
percent, groundnut 2.33 percent, mustard 7.32 percent and cotton 7.24 percent respectively.
Besides; castor, sugarcane, chilies, linseed and potato are also produced.

74

Conclusion
Bikaner, the second largest Princely State in Rajputana was established in 1488 by Rao Bika,
It was offshoot of Marwar State. The region was rightly called ‘Jangaldesh’ being a part of theThar Desert with hot arid climate, very poor biophysical resources, very poor and highly
suppressed pastoral/farming community, and virtually no development. In feudal system, thestate was ruled by Maharaja with all powers. The rulers of this State were rajputs while theruling class was mainly Jats. Caste was playing an important role in all the matters. Major
beneficiaries were kins of the royal family, thakur, chieftains, jagirdars and business
community. Rulers were mainly busy in wars and appeasing the emperor. During Mughal
period agriculture was ruined due to the agrarian crisis, long drawn wars, jagirdari crisis,
recurring famines etc. The famines of 1891-92, 1896-97 and 1899-1900 have given a big jolt
to human and livestock populations which reduced by 29.7 percent and 36 percent
respectively. There were no initiatives or planning to manage such disasters. It was Maharaja
Ganga Singh only who had done remarkable work in bringing the canal and otherdevelopments. There was no proper system of land tenure, land revenue and land settlement.
Cultivators were subject to so many taxes, cess, begar and services. Limited agricultural data
was only available for Khalsa villages which constitute only 32 percent area of entire State. Of
this reporting area was 88.7 percent. Average net sown area was about 16 percent, fallow 10
percent and culturable waste 73 percent. Bajra, gaur, moth and sesame were dominant crops.
Land reform measures and developments were taken after 1955 after merger of this princely
state to Rajasthan after the independence. Canal irrigation introduced through, Gang Canal,
Bhakhra and IGNP canal system. The region is now has 60 percent net sown area including
19 percent net irrigated area through canals and wells and 13 percent double cropped area. A
number of irrigated crops like wheat, mustard, groundnut, cotton and rice are produced. Alarge area has been afforested, population settled, drinking water made available and otherinfrastructure facilities developed.
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