Cyberfeminism
Cyberfeminism is a term coined in 1994 by Sadie Plant, director of the Cybernetic Culture Research Unit at theUniversity of Warwick in Britain, to describe the work of feminists interested in theorizing, critiquing, andexploiting the Internet, cyberspace, and new-media technologies in general. The term and movement grew outof “third-wave” feminism, the contemporary feminist movement that follows the “second-wave” feminism of the1970s, which focused on equal rights for women, and which itself followed the “first-wave” feminism of the early
20th century, which concentrated on woman suffrage. Cyberfeminism has tended to include mostly younger,
technologically savvy women, and those from Western, white, middle-class backgrounds. The ranks ofcyberfeminists are growing, however, and along with this increase is a growing divergence of ideas about what
constitutes cyberfeminist thought and action.
Prior to the advent of cyberfeminism, feminist study of technology tended to examine technologicaldevelopments as socially and culturally constructed. One major argument was that technology has been
positioned as part of masculine culture—something that men are interested in, good at, and therefore engage inmore than women. Even though women throughout history have been active in developing new technologies,
feminists have argued that technology has still been looked upon as a masculine creation. For example,
although women had been involved in the creation and development of the computer, their contributions werelargely marginalized, and their participation often ignored or written out of history. Therefore, feminists such as
Judy Wacjman, a professor of sociology at the Australian National University in Canberra, and Cynthia
Cockburn, an independent scholar and activist in London, argued that technology needed to be continuallyinterrogated and re-conceptualized, and that women needed to become more active in technological areas aswell.
Also pointing the way for cyberfeminism was the work of Donna Haraway, a professor in the History ofConsciousness program at the University of California at Santa Cruz. In her groundbreaking essay “A Manifesto
for Cyborgs,” she argues for a socialist, feminist cyborg that challenges the singular identities and “grids ofcontrol” that work to contain women and other marginalized groups. Haraway agreed that women needed tobecome more technologically proficient, better able to engage with the “informatics of domination” andchallenge these systems. But Haraway also and importantly argued that women would need to be savvy andpolitically aware users of these technological systems; simply using them was not enough.
From these beginnings, cyberfeminism began to develop. Plant, an important early proponent, has argued
that women are naturally suited to using the Internet, because women and the Internet are similar in nature—both, according to Plant, are non-linear, self-replicating systems concerned with making connections. She hasargued that although previous feminists have believed computers to be essentially male, we should instead see
computers and the Internet as places for women to engage in new forms of work and play—where women are
freed from traditional constraints and are able to experiment with identity and gain new avenues for claiming
power and authority. Her view of cyberspace is as a welcoming, familiar space for women, where they can andmust seize opportunities to advance themselves and to challenge male authority.
Some younger feminists active on the Internet, while they do not identify with theoretical arguments aboutmasculinity or the similarities between women and computers, also see the Internet as a vital space for women1

to “claim their territory,” and use the technology to gain power and authority in contemporary society. Some
women in this group would reject the label “feminist” altogether, but would still see the Internet as a vital toolor space for women to learn about and engage with. To advance these ends, individuals and groups havecreated Web sites, discussion groups, and other online resources for women interested in learning more about
Internet technologies, and also for women already employed in information technology areas. These groups
believe that empowerment for women can be achieved through women's greater knowledge of new-media
technologies, and through the creation of more opportunities to advance in these lines of work.
Another branch of cyberfeminism argues that the idea of women gaining power and authority merely throughgreater use of new-media technologies is overly simplistic or reductive. Australian feminist scholars, such as
Susan Luckman of the University of Queensland and Anna Munster of the University of New South Wales,
believe that this approach reduces complex technological systems into mere tools and ignores their historicalcontexts of production and use. They believe that technologies are embedded in structures of power, which are
not always positive. In their opinion, calls for women and girls to uncritically take up and advance the use of
these new technologies does nothing to critically assess technology's larger role in culture, and how we wish tosee technology develop—or not. Women must be part of this future, not by simply advocating for more women
to engage in using technology, but by becoming more critically aware of the perils as well as promises that newtechnologies offer.
Other critiques of earlier cyberfeminist work suggest that the call for more women to engage with newtechnologies is based on mistaken assumptions about real living conditions. Simply put, all women do not haveaccess to computers and the Internet, and likely will not in the foreseeable future; cyberfeminists who make thesimple declaration that “all girls need modems” are ignoring the conditions of those who do not share theirprivileged middle-class, Western (and often white) background. Women's material conditions must be taken into
account when considering how best to advance feminist ideas, online or otherwise.
Beyond the root idea that gender equity, particularly in new-media technologies, is a desired goal,cyberfeminism itself, a growing area of thought and study, is not a unified set of ideas concerning women andnew technologies. Cyberfeminists explore many areas of theory: that women are naturally suited to using theInternet, as both share important commonalities; that women can best empower themselves by becoming
fluent in online communication and acquiring technological expertise; and that women would do best to study
how power and knowledge are constructed in technological systems, and how and where feminists can disrupt
and change these practices for the betterment of all members of society.
—Mia Consalvo

Bibliography
Haraway, Donna. Modest_Witness@Second_Millennium. FemaleMan©_Meets_OncoMouse™: Feminism andTechnoscience. New York: Routledge, 1997.
Luckman, Susan “(En) gendering the Digital Body: Feminism and the Internet.” Hecate vol. 25 pp. 2 (1999) pp.
36–48Munster, Anna “Is There Postlife After Postfeminism? Tropes of Technics and Life in Cyberfeminism.”
Australian Feminist Studies vol. 14 29 (April 1999), pp. 119–131.
Plant, Sadie. “Babes in the Net.” New Statesman & Society January 27, 1997, p. 28.
Spender, Dale. Nattering on the Net: Women, Power and Cyberspace. North Melbourne, Victoria: Spinifex Press,1995.
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Further Reading
Haraway, Donna. Modest_Witness@Second_Millennium.FemaleMan©_Meets_OncoMouse™: Feminism andTechnoscience. New York: Routledge, 1997.
Millar, Melanie Stewart. Cracking the Gender Code: Who Rules the Wired World? Toronto: Second Story Press,
1998.
Plant, Sadie. Zeros + Ones: Digital Women + the New Technoculture. London: Fourth Estate, 1997.
Entry Citation:Consalvo, Mia. "Cyberfeminism." Encyclopedia of New Media. Ed. . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE, 2002. 109-10. SAGE Reference
Online. Web. 4 Apr. 2012.

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